THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS A Comprehensive Popular Account of all the Principal Religions of Civilised and Uncivilised Peoples; DESCRIBING THEIR DOCTRINES, RITES, PRIESTHOODS, SACRED BOOKS, AND MORAL TEACHINGS, TOGETHER WITH LIVES OF THEIR FOUNDERS, GREAT TEACHERS AND REFORMERS. G. T. BETTANY, M.A., B.Sc, Author of " The World's Inhabitants" etc. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY THE REV. JOHN HALL, D.D., LL.D., ?hance//or of the University of the City of New York, and Pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church. Copioushj |IIustratcb frntrj Jnll-page ana other Ornqrabings. NEW YORK : THE CHRISTIAN LITERATURE COMPANY 1 891. Copyright, 1891, by The Christian Literature Company. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction v Preface xi Authorities Quoted xiii BOOK I. RELIGIONS OF UNCIVILISED PEOPLES. CHAPTER I. Races in Australasia, Polynesia, and without a Religion II. Religious Beliefs and Practices Melanesia . ' III. Aboriginal Religions op Africa IV. Aboriginal Religions of America V. Aboriginal Religions of India and other Parts of Asia 23 25 43 61 83 BOOK II. RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN I. Life of Confucius 102 II. The Chinese Sacred Books 115 III. The Chinese Modern State Religion, and Confucianism . . . 132 IV. Lao-tze 144 V. Development and Present Condition of Taoism 150 VI. Shin-toism (Japan) 167 BOOK III. BRAHMANISM, BUDDHISM, AND PAESEEISM. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. The Early Vedic Religion The Brahmanism of the Codes . . Modern Hinduism. I. ... Modern Hinduism. II. The Buddhist Doctrines, Order, and Sacred Books Modern Buddhism. I. Modern Buddhism. II Zoroaster and the Zend-Avesta . . • . 176 106 23 1 274 203 313 337 343 356 365 CONTENTS. BOOK IV. EUROPEAN ARYAN RELIGIONS. CHAPTER I. The Ancient Greek Religion : The Gods II. Greek Sacrifices, Priests, Temples and Festivals, and Morals III. Socrates, Plato, and other Greek Philosophers IV. The Roman Religion V. The Religion op the Teutons (including Scandinavians) VI. The Religion ok the Slavonians VII. Celtic Religion PAGE an 387 407 418 439 451 456 BOOK V EGYPTIAN AND SEMITIC RELIGIONS. I. Tnic Egyptian Religion II. The Babylonian, Assyrian, and Phoenician Religions III. Like of Mahomet. Part I. IV. Life of Mahomet. Part II. V. The Koran and its Teachings VI. Modern Islam. Part I. VII. Modern Islam. Part II. . 462 483 500 515 527 539 565 BOOK VI. THE JEWISH RELIGION. I. Early History— Moses 585 II. The Jewish Religion: Legislation, Festivals, Morals .... 601 III. The Jewish Priesthood and Temples; the Psalms and Philosophical Wisdom 621 IV. Tin: Prophets of Israel 637 V. J v da ism after the Prophets 649 VI. Modern Jewish Ritual— The Karaites and Samaritans .... 670 BOOK VII THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. I. 'I'm: Founder ok Christianity II. Tiii'; New Testament III. Tin; Apostolic Times IV. Christianity Persecuted : Second and Third Centuries V. Christianity as a State Church: Fourth Century . VI. Tin, Church in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries. VII. Christianity to the Separation between East and West (Seventh t Tenth Centuries) viii. 'i'm; ea8tern church— russian and greek . IX. Tiik Roman Church jn the Middle Ages X. Religh i - Persecutions and the Reformation XI. 'I'm; Council of Trent and Modern Romanism. XII. 'I'm; Lutheran, Reformed, and Presbyterian Churches XIII. 'I'm; Church ok England and the Nonconformists . 687 705 717 730 755 766 784 797 813 835 849 865 881 INTRODUCTION. BY REV. JOHN HALL, D.D., LL.D., CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK AND PASTOR OF THE FIFTH AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. THE influence of Paganism, in its various forms, upon struggling Chris- tianity as it made its way among the races of mankind has been noticed, of course, by thoughtful writers, but has not received the careful attention to which it is entitled. This is due, in part, to the little attention given to early Christian literature, and in still greater degree to the little exact knowledge in the average community regarding the religious beliefs and rites grouped under the general name of heathenism. But the New Testament does not ignore the manifestations of religious feeling among the nations. Paul, an educated man before he became an apostle, speaking to educated men — typical devotees of culture and philosophy at Athens — refers to men " feeling after God if haply they might find Him ;" but he pays no compliments to their enlightenment, for he describes their days as " times of ignorance ;" and when he writes to churches partly Jewish, but mainly Gentile in their constituent elements, he does not hesitate to warn them against the " philosophy and vain deceit" which sometimes accepted Christianity in part and then added to it corrupting elements that made it " of none effect." These statements might easily be verified and illustrated from ecclesiastical history, and they lead to the conclusion that even in this nineteenth century the study of the religions of human devising may throw light on the holy oracles, and on the historical modifications of our divinely revealed religion. The notion is sometimes vaguely suggested and thoughtlessly accepted that the religion associated with the prophetic name of the Son of God, our Saviour, is one of the many forms into which the natural religious faculty of man has developed, higher and better, indeed, from many causes than others, but yet the same in kind as in origin. How the acceptance of this view as a proved truth would work ; how it would weaken the force of all appeals to the conscience based on Bible truth, it is easy to calculate. It is all the more plausible, because, like many popular errors, it contains some admitted truth. There is a religious element in man's nature. Explain it as men may, there is a sense of dependence upon and accountability THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. to some other higher Power. But Christianity is the completion of a di- vine, distinct revelation to us, not an outcome and product of natural man. 'That revelation began in the dispensations reported in the Old Testament, was completed when, in these last days, men were spoken to by the Son and His apostles, and is commended to men as divine by adequate and appropriate evidence. One of the ways in which the supernatural religion can be vindicated as such is by the careful study of humanly devised sys- tem-. " If these systems be the best that men, however gifted, can devise, then the Gospel of God predicted in the Old and unfolded in the New Testament must have an origin higher than the human." So a candid student of The World's Religions will feel and say. For, to return to the grain of truth in the generalization just referred to, men everywhere have some religious feeling more or less definitely ex- pressed. It is not always displayed, say to a Captain Cook touching, for .1 day or two, an island of savages. The men who come into contact with new and barbarous tribes are not always interested in religious matters, and their new acquaintances, with bows and arrows and defective dress, are generally thinking — not so much of. their devotional, as of their material conditions; not so much of the amount of religious light they can give the strangers, as of the attractive goods they can get from them. The writer once sat at a dinner-table where a British officer, who once served in India, but -had long resided in London, was decrying the work of Christian mis- sionaries in the region of which he spoke authoritatively. He. had been there, and it had not attracted his attention. The Christian auditors were a little discouraged and silent, when the question was put to him: "By the way, do you know how the London City mission goes forward?" "I never heard of it," was his frank reply. He had lived in London, was an Englishman, spoke the vernacular, but moved on a plane not much trav- ersed by the missionary. No more was said, but it was easy to see that his testimony as to missions in Bengal or Katiawar was not very intelligent. Everywhere the religious element exists, more or less plainly expressed*. ( >ur author, while giving place to the common impression (p. 25) that the Australian natives when discovered by Europeans "had no worship, nor any idea of a Creator," yet furnishes details regarding their sorcerers, their theories of creation, their notions about ghosts, and the Tasmanian hope that in the future life they would be happy hunters (p. 27), or go to the stars, or to an island where their ancestors were, and where they would be turned into white people. So races everywhere look to a world outside their own, and believe in a being or in beings — sometimes good and some- times malevolent— who must be conciliated or guarded against.. Men some- times set aside natural laws by artificial means, and so individuals may, by intellectual opiates, deaden the religious element within them. But God has not left Himself without a witness. "The heavens declare His glory and the firmament showeth His handywork." Nor is it only by His works without that a basis is laid for natural religion. " Man was made in the IN TROD UC TION. v i i image of God, and he reveals his parentage as unmistakably as any class of inferior animals reveal the source from whence they sprung." The outward and sensible signs of religion may be obscure, vague, secret, or, to a casual observer, even conspicuous by their absence; but the religious intuition exists all over, and vindicates the inspired testimony. This truth is illus- trated in the volume which describes The World 's Religions. In examining the various types of religious thought, one finds, as might be expected from the facts just mentioned, certain elements common to many of them, or, to make the idea more definite, finds points in them which are emphasised in the divine revelation. Explanations of these coincidences are sometimes at hand. Mohammed, e.g., was in close and fre- quent contact with Hebrews and Christians, and it is easy to see to what an extent both the style, the method, and the substance of his alleged revelation in the Koran have been shaped by our Scriptures. In other cases the materials of history are not available, but there is no difficulty in accounting for the coincidences. God hath made of one blood all nations of men. The race in its beginning had certain deeply seated convictions, modified by circumstances, and becoming more obscure and indefinite as the generations came and went, but, like physical features and common habits, retaining throughout some of the original characteristics. A tribe has its deity, and it forms an alliance with another tribe, which also had its object of worship. As the tribes coalesce their deities are retained, and so " lords many and gods many " are perpetuated, while the radical ideas of dependence and the applications of the religious beliefs to the affairs of life will remain. A race with its local deities is vanquished and its territory taken by another. The new-comers, used to the notion of local deities, not unnaturally fall into the belief that now that they have come into this new region it is politic to stand well with the deities of the place, mountain or flood, and yet they will retain their conceptions of the divine, and of the course proper for them to pursue. So asceticism, monastic vows, temples, shrines, priests, offerings, and other expressions of devotion are common to religions widely different. The early Vedas had sacred fires, offerings of rice and clarified butter, which the offerer, after washing the feet of the priests, and giving them perfumes, invited them to eat, at once suggesting, arrangements made in the Hebrew ritual. But the earliest date assigned to the Rig-Veda is 1200 B.C., and many bring it down to B.C. 800. Take which you will, and you have centuries intervening between its rise and the setting up of that Mosaic ritual which the Queen of Sheba had the curiosity to in- quire about and the opportunity to see ; and if her admiration was sincere, we can well understand her spreading it among the northern countries from India and Africa, whose people, with their gold and diamonds, incense and cassia, traded with the Sabaeans, and whose Bedouin population at a later time struck out and founded kingdoms on the Euphrates, and in the Hauran Mountains.' (See Fr. W. Schultz on Arabia, in the Schaff-Herzog Encyc.) A comparison of the Latin Dcus and the Devas, or " shining ones," of the THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Vedas; of the Zeus of Greece and the Jupiter of Rome, with the Dyansh- piter, or Heaven-father, of the Sanscrit, and other like sacred names, will show how not only Greek and Latin mythologies coincide, but that there was much in common between the European and Hindoo Aryans, whether they are demonstrably of one stock or not. The human race was one at the beginning, and the religious elements of the early history, though end- lessly modified in form as tribes and kindred spread, divided, and sometimes came together again, are perpetuated in essential features and root prin- ciples. There is something suggestive of even later forms of worship than the Greek and Roman in the invocations and " adoration of the beneficent Father and that mighty inherent power of the Mother " (p. 179). On one other line of interesting inquiry the reader will be aided by the study of The World's Religions. Did the religious systems develop and rise in amount of truth as man rose from animal savagism ? or did they lose their simplicity, become varied, complicated, mixed, and the reverse of ele- vating, as man has gone down ? In other words, did God make man upright, man sinning and wandering and seeking out many inventions, or did man come into existence as a human animal in a condition of untrained barba- rism, and did he gradually work himself up religiously and otherwise, as the generations proceeded ? The evolution theory as frequently, though not always accurately expounded, raises questions like these. The study of man on the religious side of his nature furnishes aids to a definite opinion. Turning in another direction, as one looks at the latter part of The World's Religions as a book, one must expect some good to come from its careful perusal. Our country is new. We have been making, rather than reading history. George Washington's hatchet typifies the point to which some have gone back, and have gone no farther. We are a busy people, and the present gives many of us as much to do as we can accomplish. Various considerations, including our differences of opinion about religious things, have kept history, even civil history, from a prominent place in our com- mon schools. It is not wonderful, then, that Church History is confined as a study to seminaries and religious teachers. Now our author has aimed, as he tells us, at reporting facts without pronouncing opinions ; but it will be a gain to get the facts into the minds of many of our people. Human conditions and " environments " change, but human nature does not. Moral principles are the same in this century as in the nineteenth before Christ, and He who controls the universe is " without variableness or shadow of turning." There is, in a true sense, nothing new under the sun. Hence the positive gain of seeing how principles have worked themselves out and how men have been affected by their operation in the ages that are gone. The study cannot fail to throw light on the present, on duty, privilege, and prospects. The history of churches touches man on the deepest side of his life, and unfolds the working of the strongest force in the shaping of society. The examination, therefore, of the religious life of European and other na- tions, and the comparison of moral, and even civil and social conditions IN TROD UCTION. since the Reformation, as here presented, of course with necessary concise- ness, will be profitable in a high degree to the average American reader. But there are other, and in a sense, more tender and even practical in- fluences under which one may come in the reading of this book, and a rapid statement of these will fittingly close this paper. The common elements in men's religious systems, a deity or deities outside ourselves, dependence thereon, and accountability thereto — these remind us that the race is one. Then we have a basis for wide humanity of feeling. Then clime or color, station or speech, must not limit our sympathy or our regard. Let there be ignorance anywhere ; we must try to banish it. Let there be misery anywhere ; we must seek to lighten it. Let there be good anywhere ; we must rejoice over it. Let there be opportunity to do good anywhere ; then we must try to do it. To us as human beings there is to be neither Jew nor Greek, barbarian nor Scythian, bond nor free. As in God's new-creating grace all are m^de one in Christ when they trust Him, so in His original natural creation all are one. But not only will sympathy with our brother-man be developed, but on the way to make it practical and useful some light will be cast. It is not enough that we pity, and would fain help. How to do it is a practical point. The physician has to make the diagnosis before he decides on the remedies. We must understand the moral condition of our fellow-men and their formative beliefs before we can hope to do them enduring good. Now the churches throughout Christendom are moving in the direction of spread- ing Christianity. To think and feel intelligently, they must understand, in some degree, the mental and moral state, the convictions and the emotions of their fellow-men. This fact is well appreciated by the zealous pro- ducers and disseminators of our religious and missionary literature. Never was the religion of the Cross so aggressive on a large scale as at this time. What a gain it will be when they who bear the name of the Great Divine Teacher have not only a general idea of the superiority of their faith, but when they can tell the reason for their convictions, and assign cause for self- denying effort to enlighten those who are yet without its light ! What a quickening of interest in certain forms of disease the announcement of Dr. Koch's specific has produced! How eagerly it is scrutinised, and how anxiously will it be tested by actual sufferers ! Is the religion of the Cross the best remedy for the world's evils ? Then let us understand them, pity the victims, and intelligently seek the world-wide application of the remedy. For how easy it is to see that men and women may go to the believers in Confucius or to the followers of Mohammed, full of zeal and earnestness, but if they betray ignorance of the beliefs they would fain supplant by Christian truth, they will not only be disliked, but despised. " He teach us a good religion better than ours! Why, he does not know what ours is!" How natural would such a criticism be where the well-meaning toiler has never learned the nature of the errors he would dispel ! And finally, the eyes of many are on the hundreds and thousands of THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. men and women, of teachers and physicians, who are facing the masses of heathenism ; and in some instances, perhaps, there is an expectation that is not quite satisfied with the results. Let such anxious ones make themselves acquainted with the deeply rooted, long-continued, widely spread systems against which the Christian laborer has to work, and there will be sympathy with the worker ; there will be a deep sense of dependence on divine aid ; and there will be the earnest prayer that the life-giving Spirit may be with the laborer, breathing on the dead that they may live. PREFACE. THE aim of this work is to give an account of the principal religions or religious systems of mankind, past and present. Historic fact is followed as far as it can be ascertained, and theorising has little place. The author's endeavour has been to state simply and impartially what is the faith professed by various peoples or associations, what are the objects of their worship, what are their practices, their ceremonies, their institutions. Where they have religious books, some account of them is given, together with the history of and main doctrines taught by their principal founders. It has seemed unnecessary to discuss the various opinions held as to the origin of religion ; whether it arose from a divinely implanted instinct given to all mankind, or from distinct verbal revelation to particular men, or from the worship of natural forces felt to be superior to man, or from the honour paid to chiefs and ancestors, and the propitiation of their ghosts as seen in dreams. It has been the author's desire to produce a work useful and interesting to persons of all shades of opinion, and one tending to make them better acquainted with each other. A disposition to recog- nise the human nature in all man's ways and thoughts — a human nature capable of error, yet having good impulses — a human nature which, in the main, progresses, in spite of all drawbacks — a human nature which in many ways has sought, has prayed to, has worshipped the Power which created and maintains the universe — a disposition toward toleration will, it is be- lieved, be found pervading these pages. The intention has been to give such an account of various religions as their own adherents can> acquiesce in, and their critics allow to be just ; a difficult task, confessedly ; but im- perfection in the attainment of such an aim is better than a distinctively partial or prejudiced account. The author believes that others have an equal right with ourselves to respect and fair treatment as to their religious opinions, and that we may be as blameworthy or faulty in our conceptions of others as they in their conceptions of us. He promises what Keshub Chunder Sen, the founder of the Brahmo Somaj, declared as principles of his Church : " No created being or object that has been worshipped by any sect shall be ridiculed ; no book which has been acknowledged by any sect to be infallible shall be ridiculed or contemned ; no sect shall be vilified, ridiculed, or hated." On the contrary, the study of religions is here taken up with a sympathetic interest in all. With Max Miiller,* " if we will but * Introduction to the Science of Religion, iS82, p. 14. xii THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. listen attentively, we can hear in all religions a groaning of the spirit, a struggle to conceive the inconceivable, to utter the unutterable, a longing after the Infinite, a love of God." And if in many cases the struggle takes strange forms and grotesque attitudes, and the religion enforces absurd beliefs and superstitious observances, we are compelled to own that man is as much characterised by his proneness to religion as by his being a tool- using or a reasoning creature. If a man Is a reasoning creature, it is certainly to be expected that he should bring his reason to bear upon his religion; and St. Paul recognised this, and asked for a "service of the reason" (Rom. xii. i). The use of the reason in studying religion, its doctrines, its observances, its benefits, or its variations in different ages, is not to be given up or blamed because the name " Rationalism" has been attached to it. To seek to explain, to understand, is a necessary condition of the growth of that which can under- stand. Much use has been made of the invaluable "Sacred Books of the East," and the learned introductions prefixed to them. Many other works which have been consulted are mentioned throughout the book. Some of these have been named simply as the most generally accessible, but by no means as the only or the chief authorities on the subject. Many other books have been consulted ; but it has been thought undesirable to overload the text with references. In several departments living specialists have been re- ferred to ; and the author desires to acknowledge their valuable aid, while he refrains from naming those to whom he is under obligation, from a de- sire not to identify them with any opinions or representations in which they may not concur, or for which the author ought to be solely responsible. The history of Christianity has been sketched more fully than that of the other religions, partly because Christianity, as now understood, has very largely resulted from a long process of development ; and partly because the various branches into which it is now divided can be best understood by studying each in relation to the period when it originated. At best such a sketch can be but imperfect, and many things have been necessarily omitted which would throw much light on difficulties and obscurities. The author's personal opinions have been obtruded as little as possible, impartiality and fairness being aimed at. No doctrine is sought to be en- forced, no creed to be dictated. Every reader is left to draw his or her own conclusions. But it is hoped that in return the author may not have imputed to him any beliefs or opinions which he does not clearly avow. G. T. B. I)i lwk ii, November ro, iS. Schuerer : " Jewish People in the Time of Christ," Eng. trans. 1888, sqq. Schwab : English Translation of the Palestinian " Talmud," 1883, sqq. Smith, Robertson : " Old Testament in the Jewish Church," 1881. " Prophets of Israel," 1882. " Religion of the Semites," 1890. Stanley : " Jewish Church." 1863-79, 3 vols, (later edd.). Weiss : "Life of Christ," Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1883-84, 3 vols. Westcott : "Introduction to the Study of the Gospels," 6th ed. 1882. XV. MISCELLANEOUS. Gilly, W. S. : "Excursion to the Mountains of Piemont," 3d ed. 1826. " " " Waldensian Researches," 1831. Rink : "Greenland," 1877. Schaff's Works. VIEW OF THE COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS OF THE PRINCIPAL RELIGIOUS AND OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE WJELD. 1 Cologne Cathedral 2 Old St. Paul',, London 3 Great Pyramid 4 Rouen Cathedral 5 St. Martin, Landshut ... 6 St. Peter's, Rome 7 Strasburg Cathedral ... 8 2nd Pyramid (Ghizeh) 0 St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna 10 St. Stephen's Abbey, Oaou ... 11 Amiens Cathedral 12 Antwerp Cathedral ... 13 Salisbury Cathedral ... 14, 16 St. Mary's, Lubeok IB Torazzo of Cremona 17 Victoria Tower, Weitrniustor ... 180 ... 160 ... 448 Ma linos Cathedral Chartres Cathedral I 8t. Peter's. Hamburg, about ... I''l I'iLui,; I I llllHril'll The Ituomo, Florence I Hotel do Villo, llrussels I Torre Asinelli, Hologna i SI. Pauls, London I Frankfort Cathedral St. Isaac's Church, St. Petersburg I Bell Tower, SI- Mark's, Venice Si. The ibald'e, Thaun Norwich Cathedral ... Hotel dea Invalid's, Pans ... Pantheon, Paris Boll Tower, Florence 38 Chichester Cathedral S7 Central Spire, LichlloM Cathedral . 88 laj U thai, Airra •1'J Iloll Harry Tower, Canterbury- . — ' In Tower (late), Naukiu ., mroh, London ... dnf Mycorinus Transept, Crystal l',l ,eo . Foot, ,.. 2S0 ;.l Loaning Towor, Pis! Column ofjuly, Pan- ic p,„ M, •of St. Sophia. Constantinople 1.4> ho_las\ Newoastle-on-Tyno ... 'Jill 67 Peter. burg 154 71 .. Ill ?i •• 154 7,' •l» '18 York Cathedral ' Hi H nMba,; M'™""»l. Hyde Park . 2b8 1 60 The Baptistery, Tisa ... 59 Part of 00 libel, -k Late: t>l Trajan's c diuoo, K on ■ Schools, South Kensington 110 Asrifljeatam U6 llwlisk, Lnior I, SpatrVs Needle !" "! i .rob ol Oonstantine, Home... 'irtbooou. Athens '.enb ol Absalom. Jerusalem i iol 1' i el". Ravenna, i Temple 'HI, It Hill.,.,. ii. Liverpool ... sr. st Htator, Rom* ... us , Alo\an..i'in ... UH) LOrfttu, tVlhttDI M nbunt 86 I -T\ rv O o O^L i <^sV rn^i c^ BEGINNING OF ST. JOHN'S GOSPEL : WICLIF's VERSION, 1380. THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Introduction. Man a religious being— Definitions of religion— Need of impartial study— Development in all re- ligions—Facts our object— A book for all classes— A very modern study— Human interest in all religions— Relation to missionary effort— Animism— Spirits in natural forces— Spirits of deceased buman beings— Conclusions from dreams— Continued existence of the dead— Angels and demons — Ancestor-worship— Nature- worship —Anthropomorphism— Idolatry — Fetishism — Totemism— Omens — Totem ceremonies — The taboo — Demonology — Witchcraft— Divination — Shamanism— Priesthoods— Temples— Sacrifices— Gifts— Animal and human sacrifices— Substitu- tion and expiation — Sacramental mysteries — Theism — Deism— Monotheism — Pantheism- Atheism— Theology— Science of religion — Theosophy— Classification of religions — Personal founders— Universal or missionary religions— From nature religions to monotheism —Groups of religions. THAT man in his present condition is essentially a godfearing and god- worshipping creature, is certain in spite of many contradictory appear- ances. That he has been largely the same in the past is assured ; Man a re- that he will be so in the future is most highly probable. The us1™3 beins rapt devotion of the mystic, the mortification of the ascetic, the zealous benevolence of the philanthropist, the ceremonial of the ritualist, the sublime flights of the theologian, the intense cry of the penitent, and the confident trust of the most abject in a benevolent Ruler of the universe, all declare that in modern times man believes, man trusts, that somehow good shall be the final goal of ill, that there is one Almighty Ruler who also cares for His creatures. Nay, we venture to claim that the doubt of THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the sceptic, the disbelief of the atheist, the suspense of the agnostic, are in themselves noteworthy signs that the subject is one of great importance, not to be passed over with neglect, and that the human soul feels un- easy about the matter and is not content without some attitude towards the great questions : " "What am I ? Whither am I going ? Does any Providence care for me ? " The more true that it ever is, that man can- not by searching find out God, the more persistently does he inquire, saying, " Who will show me any good thing ? " And so, in the evolution of things, the human heart puts forth all the varieties of thought and feel- ing of which it is capable, "varies in every direction," to use Darwin's phrase, and beneficent forms are perpetuated. So large a space, so important an influence has the religious attitude of man, that it is safe to say that it constitutes one of the most important factors, perhaps the most important, in his progress. We may define religion broadly as man's attitude towards the unseen, and whatever consequences his belief or attitude produces on his conduct or Definitions of on ms relations to fellow-men. It has been otherwise defined as religion, ^e outer form and embodiment of an inward devotion, and as a system of doctrine and worship which its adherents regard as having divine authority ; but these are definitions too limited for our purpose. Darwin, in the " Descent of Man," Part I., chap, iii., describes the feeling of religious devotion as a highly complex one, consisting of love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior, a strong sense of dependence, fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the future, and perhaps other elements ; and he says that no being could experience so complex an emotion until con- siderably advanced in his intellectual and moral faculties. Consequently this view, including only the higher types of religion, is not sufficiently comprehensive for our purpose. We must include not only beliefs in un- seen spiritual agencies, fetishism, polytheism, monotheism, etc., but num- erous superstitions and customs and practices associated with such beliefs — human sacrifices, trials by ordeal, witchcraft and sorcery. Although it was long the fashion to condemn unsparingly all these beliefs and practices, to leave them unstudied and term them worthless and degrading, yet we would suggest that even superstitions should be tenderly handled in dis- cussion (although vigorously opposed or discouraged in practice) by a lover of his kind ; for in most cases they may be considered to be based upon some genuine experience of mankind, some fear, calamity, or uprising of soul, some correspondence with felt want, some desire or possibility of improving man's position in the present or in a future state. Of course there has been much practising upon human credulity, much quackery and humbug in connection with superstitions. But we would seek to view religions, not from the standpoint of a party or a sect, but rather from that Need of °^ friends of all mankind, who would fain find some good in impartial everything ; and if no positive good be discoverable in a particular instance, let it, if possible, be the negative good of representing an effort or a desire after better things. There is need of all the charity, INTRODUCTION. all the impartiality we can summon to our aid in this survey, for it is undoubtedly true that too much of the history of religion is a history of prejudice, of narrowness, of quarrelling, of passion, of evil in many forms. Yet, hoping all things, we would hope that even from these evils a better state arises than could have arisen otherwise. As in the general affairs of human life, so in religion, there is needed movement, circulation, some kind of change or progress, if life is to continue. Religions stereotyped, kept rigid and undeveloping by some worldly force or for some supposed con- servative Tightness, have become baneful in many of their influences, lead- ing ultimately to death by inanition or revolt. Thus at the outset we must note that development marks more or less all religions that live or have lived. Just as mankind has grown and developed in other directions, the mental and emotional faculties Development becoming developed have led to corresponding religious develop- in ail ments. It cannot be otherwise. The Christian religion is not exempt from this law, which is recognised by the greatest teachers in all ages of the Church. Granting, of course, that the documents of Christianity are the same that they have been for very many centuries, the conceptions derived from them are continually developing and expanding ; and it is this expansion and expansibility which many recognise as the peculiar glory of Christianity. That this development takes different directions in different Churches may be seen by the modern doctrines of the immaculate concep- tion of the Virgin Mary, and of the infallibility of the Pope, and by the assertion of the right of private judgment and of refusal to swear before courts of justice in Protestantism. The sooner people recognise that re- ligion develops, like everything else, the sooner improvement will be pos- sible in many backward communities. How often, like ostriches burying their heads in the sand, religious bodies have died out because they ceased to discern the march of events, and never realised that there might be other true things in religion besides their special creed. Thus, while endeavouring to stick rigidly to facts, we may be per- mitted in some measure to study them as examples of the development of ideas and practices. It is true that for a full study of religious development we should need many volumes, and must include all extinct as well as exist- ing religions. The former would be impossible, for it can hardly le doubted that there have been forms of religion which have left no records. But even those which survive in records, or in actual existence, are so numerous and include so much that only a brief review of some of them is possible. It is not the mission or aim of this book to account for the religions which it describes. Its aim is to give information — to describe what is seen or known about their external phenomena, their present influence, Facts our their doctrines, their ordinances, their ritual, with a brief summary ob^ect- of their history. It may be thought that the study of the religions of the world for the purpose of giving an account of them, should lead to some explanation of them. No doubt the explanations of some facts are so obvious that they cannot but occur to an observer. But we disclaim any obligation THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. to furnish an explanation of the manifold forms of religion, and leave the task to those who may be more confident or more in-seeing. The time during which religions have been studied in any comparative sense is too short as yet to afford grounds for sound general reasoning on the subject. The best history available is the best explanation ; and in so far as the history becomes perfect and accurate may the explanation be approximately true. But be- hind all human history, as behind the mystery of life, is that other side, that infinite unknown, which we shall none of us know in this life, which would most probably alter so many of our notions. A further remark must be addressed to those who look for their own views in these pages. This book is intended to be read by all classes of a book for readers, of all schools of religious thought. It cannot therefore an classes, fitly be the vehicle of any special school ; it cannot take up the rationalist's parable, and say every religion is a human or a natural product, or the view that one religion is exclusively divine and true, and all others are false and born of evil, or the other view, that one religion is as good as another. As far as possible we shall deal with facts, and leave them to teach their own lesson. It is only in the present century that the comparative study of religions can be said to have come into existence, it being previously considered useless to study " false religions," or forms of idolatry. These were very curious facts noticed by travellers, but they remained merely curious marks of the savage or pagan or heathen condition of the modem countries or peoples concerned. Studies of anatomy, of language, s u y" and of civilisation, and the doctrines of evolution or development as applied to mental phenomena, have all contributed to lead up to the comparative study of religions. The belief that man forms a single species, that his mental constitution is fundamentally the same everywhere, and that there may have been one original common language has suggested the study of the common elements in man's religions all over the world. Indeed, to obtain a view of man's development from a primitive condition, it is necessary to obtain a classification of his religions, and to find out what part they have played in his history. In this age we cannot rest content with Hum n knowing our own race, and its social and religious history. Our interest in sympathies have expanded, our inquisitiveness has grown, till we take in all mankind, and want to explain as we want to sym- pathise with all. And to justify such an interest, such a curiosity, it is not necessary to prove that there is good in everything and in every form of religion. The belief that there is much that is bad everywhere, and even that some forms of belief or practice are wholly bad, is not inconsistent with a keen interest in knowing what our fellow-men have thought and done in matters pertaining to religion. Rather should we say with the old Roman, " I am a man ; I consider nothing human is outside my sympathy and interest." But in a higher sense even than knowledge, classification, scientific ex- planation, we may claim that the study of religions is essential in reference to all efforts at evangelisation of non-Christian peoples. How often missionaries INTRODUCTION. have found that their efforts have been fruitless because of their not under- standing the religious state of mind already existing in the people to whom they have preached. How often they have denounced missionary a people as utterly given to barbarism, as having no religion but the grossest idolatry, when the fact was, that they never succeeded in gaining any admission to their religious rites, or in learning from the people themselves what their beliefs were. Let us imagine the attitude which many Christians would assume if a foreign missionary of some unknown religion should advance some totally different conception of the Deity from that which they and many generations of ancestors had believed in and reverenced, with which their most cherished hopes and aspirations were bound up, and which was ingrained in their moral and spiritual nature. ST. PETER S, ROME, AND CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO. We can realise this to some extent by recollecting the excitement created in modern times by the publication of the works of Strauss, Renan, Matthew Arnold, Colenso, and others. How then can we expect that unlearned, prejudiced, uncivilised savages should patiently listen to and accept what a foreigner teaches, if he proves that he knows nothing about their own belief, and does not appreciate any part of it? Especially is this important in dealing with the religious views of old and highly-civilised peoples like the Chinese, the Hindus, and others. "We believe that it is now almost universally recognised that missionaries ought to begin by learning all they can about the religious beliefs or superstitions of the peoples to whom they are sent, and showing as much tolerance as possible to their views, and every encouragement to what is correct or beneficial in them. Not less THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. important is it for English-speaking people, who are in contact with men of many religions all over the globe, to have a knowledge, tolerance, and even respect for the religions convictions of other races. Those who send out missionaries are equally bound to study the conditions under which they are expecting these devoted men to work, and to have correct views of the difficulties they may experience. Finally, it may be claimed that 'we rise in the scale of reasonable beings in proportion as we take larger and more comprehensive views of our whole species, and especially of the atti- tude of mankind towards religion ; and this can only be fully done after a rational study of the forms under which they reverence or regard the powers above and about them, seen or unseen. Before proceeding to give a rough classification of religions, there are a number of terms which it is desirable to explain or define, and which are of importance in our study. The first we will take is " animism " (Lat. anima, soul), winch has been brought into its present use by one of our greatest anthropologists, Dr. E. B. Tylor, and which represents in a convenient way the part played by the doctrine of souls and spiritual beings. No other term includes the same ideas without some other special reference : thus, " spiritualism " has acquired quite a peculiar meaning in reference to the doctrine of spirits, indicating a belief in the possibility and actual occurrence of direct communications between human beings and the spirits of the dead or other spirits. Some kind of animism is found to be almost if not quite universal, being believed to have two main sides — the idea of spirits being in natural , . . . objects or working in natural phenomena or forces, and the idea natural of a spirit or soul being in human beings when living, and forces, becoming separate from them at death. It is the most natural reflection for mankind to make when viewing the dead body of a relative or friend, that something has departed from it which was the animating principle. When, from whatever cause, unconsciousness has occurred in spirits of any individual, and after a more or less prolonged period, the human consciousness has returned, it is equally natural to conclude that beings, the spirit had for a time departed ; and if any operations have been resorted to, be they prayers, incantations, divinations, or sacrifices, during the interval, it is natural to believe that these processes have been the cause of the return of the spirit. Then, when death has really taken place, there is a tendency to repeat the same performances, in hope of bringing back the spirit ; and thus a very simple origin of worship (from the natural point of view) is given, and one not inconsistent with the view of those who see in worship the result of a Divinely implanted instinct. The phenomena of dreams must here be considered, for these must from the first have had a powerful influence. The absolute reality of c n lusi s tnmSs seen in dreams is never doubted by many savage races ; from and the fact that the figures of themselves and other human eam8, beings, and also those of animals and plants, can be seen i: dreams, taking part in natural or in extraordinary actions, strengthen; INTRODUCTION. the belief in a spirit world. The belief in a ghostly semblance of itself being separable from the body may be inferred from appearances in dreams being coincident with the absence of a person at a great distance, or taking place when the body is dead, buried, or even wholly disintegrated. Thus the ghost or spirit is imagined to be an image of the human or other being, unsubstantial but real ; and it would be very natural to imagine such a spirit for all animals ; it is even transferred to weapons and objects of luxury, or food and drink, for these are sacrificed to the dead in order that their " spirits " may be bestowed upon the dead. The bearing of this conception of spirits upon the idea of ghosts is evident, though we will here express no opinion as to the reality or nature of such phenomena as apparitions of the dead. It is obvious that if animals and plants can be conceived to have souls or spirits, it is possible to transfer the same conception to grand material objects, especially such as perform or take part in visible changes on the earth or in the sky. Thus rivers, seas, clouds, sun, moon, and stars are imagined to have, or be inhabited by, spirits ; and the basis is afforded for all kinds of religious developments. From this soul-belief has arisen a whole series of beliefs about the dead, the state of existence of the departed, their relation to the living, and a future existence. We must be understood, of course, here Continued to prejudge no question, and to imply nothing as to this having extatanceof arisen by "inspiration" of the Creator. But in this connection we may mention the ideas of the spirits of the dead remaining in the neigh- bourhood of the survivors, or being removed to a distance, to some region where they continue to live a life much like the present, or a life either much more happy or much more miserable, according to their conduct or merit here. So that much of all moral teaching has come to be connected with the doctrine of a future life. Then further, from such an idea of souls, the imagination has risen to the conception of a number of spirits of more or less power, but distinct from any being represented on earth or in the material heavens. So Angels and we get angels and demons and varied subordinate deities. Thus emons. every phenomenon could be accounted for as the work of some deity or spirit, without any belief having necessarily arisen in a supreme Deity. Storms, floods, lightning, diseases, and all calamities came to be laid to the charge of special spirits ; and the desire to expel these spirits has given rise to many forms of sorcery, divination, exorcism, etc. Many of these spirits are,— for what reason it is difficult to say,— held to be those of human beings, living or deceased : and thus the appeasing of their anger or se- curing of their propitious action has been combined with rites for or in connection with death. And here we have one of the springs, though probably not the only one, of the widely-extended ancestor-worship, es- pecially that of powerful men or leaders of tribes. These men Ancestor- were conspicuous for their qualities while alive ; and their souls worsluP- are judged to possess the same great or powerful qualities (sometimes ma- 8 THE WO ELD'S EEL1GI0NS. lignant) after death. Tims they must be revered and propitiated, or appeased, in the manner judged most desirable or successful. Nature worship in its infinite variety of forms arises from the belief in spirits animating everything, or from a reverence for the inexplicable Nature powers at work in the world. A flood bearing away with irre- worsnip. sistible force the works of man, the fire which in torrid climates burns up vegetation and devours man and beast, the lightning which kills in the twinkling of an eye, the sun which prostrates at noonday, all these were mysteries which we cannot be surprised that man in a low state of civilisation should worship. Nor is it astonishing to find that these spirits are classified into good and evil, favourable and malignant, or that the phenomena of the universe are attributed to great antagonistic powers of good and evil deities. By whatever influence it arises, we shall see how, in communities worshipping many gods, some one has gained pre-eminence, while in others, it may be, one of the tribal gods or the single god wor- shipped by the tribe has later been conceived as the universal God. Anthropomorphism (Greek, anthropos, man, morphe, form) is in religion the representation of the Deity as having the form and performing the Antnropo- actions of a man, or in a similar way to a man. And it may be morphism. extended to every case where a spirit, more than human or other than human, is represented as like a man or as acting like a man in any way. The term is in philosophy extended still more widely, but we need not concern ourselves with this further development. It is evident that man being man, it is impossible for him to conceive God except through human faculties; and even the purest and best representation of the Godhead which he can have, must be tinctured by his own human qualities. Consequently attempts to entirely do away with anthropomorphism have resulted in the idea of God being reduced to an impalpable imagining which is ill-calculated to produce reverence or worship, such as the late Mr. Matthew Arnold's " the eternal not-ourselves which makes for righteousness." Here a middle course seems pointed out. Being human, it is impossible to keep ourselves from anthropomorphism to some extent ; but we must remember, while dis- cussing or thinking about the Deity, that our best ideas must be faint shadows of the truth, and cannot reach the full truth. The term idolatry originally designated all worship such as is forbidden in the Second Commandment, " Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image ; to no visible shape in heaven above, or in the earth be- Idolatry. 1 • i neath, or m the water under the earth, shalt thou bow down or render service." Such a prohibition could have had no meaning, apart from the fact that such worship and service were frequent and prevalent in the world in which the Israelites moved. That it has existed, and does still exist, may be taken as an axiom in the study of religions. An " idol " included every object of reverence or worship among the people with whom the Israelites came in contact; and "idolatry" came to be used among the early Christians to designate all the practices connected with the forms of religion which they found existing around them, and antagonistic to to THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Christianity. Thus the term idol, according to many, includes not merely images, or representations made by human workmen, whether in the form of pictures or sculpture, of any person, Divine or otherwise, taken from actual life or derived from the imagination, and made use of in religious services ; but also any natural objects, living or dead, either worshipped or revered, though (it may be) only as signs of something not seen. It may be said with truth, that in most cases it is not the idol or image at all which is worshipped, for it is believed in merely as the representation of an absent god, or as the symbol of an idea, or as the dwelling-place, temporary or permanent, of a god, without being supposed to possess any supernatural quality itself. Nevertheless the more ignorant and degraded people have largely regarded the idol as itself embodying power of some sort, generally supernatural. We thus come by a natural transition to fetishism, which is generally understood to signify a belief in peculiar or supernatural powers residing in • . . certain ordinary material objects, which are consequently wor- shipped. This idea is specially connected in European minds with the alleged casual selection by West African negroes of any kind of object for adoration, prayer and sacrifice being made to it, while, if any calamity befall the worshipper, the fetish is accused of having brought it about, and may be deposed, and even beaten or destroyed. Now the word "fetish" was not a negro but a Portuguese word, feitigo, an amulet or charm; and the early Portuguese voyagers to Western Africa, finding small objects reverenced or worshipped by the negroes, somewhat resembling those so well known as amulets among themselves, spoke of them as the feiticos of the natives. Thus the word is properly restricted to inanimate objects, wooden figures, stones, etc., and is only improperly used to designate local nature- spirits or animals held in reverence. The fetishes of West Africa are, in fact, believed to be the ordinary abode of the deities either of village com- panies or of individuals. The local gods are believed, through the priests, to present those who require tutelary deities with certain objects (fetishes) in which they usually abide. These may be wooden figures, stones, calabashes, earthen pots, or even the most insignificant objects. The fetishes of village companies are deposited in some accessible place, and protected with branches as fences, which, when grown, constitute so-called fetish trees, which become sacred to the deity. Offerings of food, drink, and other things are regularly made to the fetishes. Families may obtain their fetishes as the result of dreams, but always through priests ; if persistent ill-luck attends the family, the fetish may be burnt ; the fact that it will burn or become injured by fire, being taken as proof that it is no longer the abode of a spirit. Individuals may also obtain, make, or select fetishes for themselves, and call upon a spirit to enter the object, which is then re- verenced if good luck follows; these fetishes may work various ills upon enemies through the intervention of other objects, as charms. " Totemism " is a term which has in recent years become important both in the study of religions and in that of tribal organisation and social life INTRODUCTION. among uncivilised peoples. A totem is defined as a class of material ob- jects which a savage regards with superstitious respect, believing that it protects him ; he in return never kills it if an animal, or injures or gathers it if a plant. The more usual form of totem is a species of animal or plant, but sometimes a kind of non-living object. Totems are either common to a whole tribe or clan, the male or female sex of a tribe, or belong especially to an individual. As regards the clan, it is found that there is a belief that all members are descended from a common ancestor, more frequently the totem itself, by whose name they designate themselves in common. All of the same totem recognise certain obligations to one another and to the totem. Sometimes, in addition to not killing or injuring the totem, it is forbidden to touch it or look at it. In consequence of these ideas we frequently find that injurious or troublesome animals are allowed to multiply to an enormous extent, and are even fed and protected. When dead, they are mourned for as if they were human beings belonging to the tribe. Various penalties are incurred by disrespect to the totem, such as diseases and death. Correspondingly, if proper respect is shown to the totem, it will protect and refrain from injuring the members of the tribe. Sometimes if the totem (for example, a snake) injures a man, he is supposed to have offended it, and is put out of the tribe. In many cases signs given by or derived from the totem are made use of as omens ; and in various ways they may be pressed to give favourable indications, or even punished for not doing so. Frequently the savage dresses himself in the skin, feathers, tusks, etc., of the totem animal, or imitates it in various ways, scarring, painting, or tattooing himself with this object. The totem sign is also used as a signature to treaties or agreements, and it is carved upon dwellings, canoes, weapons, and other possessions. Birth, marriage, and death ceremonies are largely tinctured by totemism, the different ceremonies being chiefly explicable by a desire to secure pro- tection from dangers which cannot otherwise be guarded against, Totem and are supposed to be supernatural. At death the idea is, to ceremonies, become one with the totem. Similarly, to celebrate the coming of age of a youth, he is formally and fully admitted into the totem. Sometimes attempts are made to recall a dead man to life by pronouncing his totem name ; and other ceremonies may occur in which the totem is supposed to die and be restored. In some cases this ceremony is elevated into something which suggests that the totem becomes a god, dies for his people, and is revived again. When a totem is adopted by one sex only, it is said to be still more sacred than the totem of the tribe ; for it will be ferociously defended against injury by the opposite sex, even though the same people may tolerate the killing of the clan totem. A special individual totem is frequently the first animal dreamt of during the fasts and solitudes marking the coming of age : in some tribes a man may not kill or eat his personal totem. Totemism is very widely distributed, but it is not a system ; rather, it is an indefinite growth, founded in certain natural or primitive notions of 12 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. uncivilised man. As a subject it is the creation of students who have found in practices of mankind all over the globe common features, which may possibly, in many cases, have their root in a common origin of race, and have been developed in different directions owing to the migration and intermingling of tribes. But many of its characteristics are peculiar to isolated tribes. It is certainly largely connected with terror of or reverence for natural objects, and is believed in with a superstitious fear. It is best to regard it as a subject pertaining to religions, though not to be definitely classed as a religion. The word taboo refers to the system of religious prohibitions formerly so largely in force in Polynesia ; it means primarily, " sacred," separate from ordinary use. It was an essentially religious observance, The Taboo. . J J to imposed by a priest or chief, and might be temporary or per- manent, general or special. Thus idols, temples, chiefs and priests, and their property, were " taboo," or sacred ; many things were specially tabooed to women. The penalties for disobedience were diseases or various punish- ments by the rulers. It became in practice a method by which the priests and chiefs took advantage of animistic beliefs to secure their power or their own ends. Extensive traces of similar practices have been found all over the world. Even the Nazarites' vow and the prohibitions of work or special actions on the Sabbath have been identified with taboo rules ; and the Latin word " sacer " (meaning either sacred or accursed) is regarded as having essentially the same meaning as taboo. Demonology may be separated as a subject of study in relation to religions, and has many curious facts and practices within its province. The Greek word daimon originally meant a spirit or deity, with- ' out reference to good or evil qualities. Then it was applied to the spirits of the deceased, who become guardians of the living ; next they were regarded as good and evil beings occupying a position between gods and men. It is almost special to Christianity to regard demons as exclusively evil. Among savage races it is common to regard diseases, especially of the hysterical, epileptic, and maniacal kind, as caused by the entry of some other spirit into the sufferer. Convulsions appear to be due to the possession of the body by some other spirit ; again, wasting diseases are readily accounted for by the action of some intruding or some malevo- lent spirit ; and it is a simple transition to consider such calamities as brought about by the spirits of deceased enemies, or spirits which are to punish some evil conduct of the sufferer ; and in such cases the particular spirit concerned may be identified by the conscience-stricken one. Thus many ideas of demonology are derived from beliefs about human departed spirits. In some cases this goes so far that the possessed one speaks in the character of the deceased person who is supposed to possess him. The way in which possessing demons are in many tribes talked to, threatened, cajoled, enticed, driven away by blows, etc., shows that they are regarded as spirits of human beings, still capable of being influenced by similar motives to the survivors. Consequently exorcism, or the expulsion of devils or spirits, has i4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. its place in nearly all savage systems. It is only the progress of medicine which has disclosed the real nature of many of the cases formerly attributed to demoniacal possession ; and the belief in the latter lasts to our own times not only in many foreign countries, but also among the less intelligent rural folk in our own country. As late as 1788, a solemn exorcism of seven devils out of an epileptic, by seven clergymen, was performed at the Temple Church, Bristol. Among adjuncts of demonology, sorcery and witchcraft claim a place, though we cannot here enlarge upon them. All the practices included in sorcery and these terms spring from the belief that spirits influence mortal ■witchcraft, affairs and can in turn be influenced by mortals who possess the right method. Special ceremonies at regular intervals are frequently held, to drive out all the demons from a locality. Guardian angels, on the other hand, are believed in widely, far beyond regions where the belief has been countenanced or encouraged by Christianity. The latter has also been con- nected with some of the most dreadful incidents in medieval history, witches and sorcerers having been subjected to most cruel treatment. Many of these have accounted for their performances by the influence of familiar spirits, which can be summoned by particular methods ; and very many persons class modern spiritualism under the same heading. Iu many cases savage religions are almost entirely affairs of the good and bad spirits who manage most or all human affairs, the supreme deity being not concerned directly in such matters. Among the highest forms in which we find the conception of evil spirits is the Ahriman of the Parsees, and the Miltonic Satan with his attendant demons of various grades. Often the devils of one religion represent more or less closely the good deities of their enemies. Divination signifies the obtaining of knowledge about unknown and future events or facts by means of omens or oracles, the idea being, that some divine knowledge is communicated to the diviner or soothsayer, or person who becomes the means of communication. " Signs sent by the gods," include all communications by what were called "oracles," examination of entrails of animals killed in sacrifice, the flight of birds, behaviour of animals, prodigies, lightning, dreams, palmistry, astrology, etc., each of which might be made the subject of an entire book. We can devote only incidental mention to them under the various religious beliefs of nations, or the more important subjects of religion ; but they all testify to the belief in a god or gods and in supernatural spirits. Shamanism is not the name of a religion, but of a form of religious belief and practice belonging to the old Mongolians, and which may almost be applied to the corresponding beliefs of the American Indians. A shaman is a kind of priest whose resources are chiefly wizardry and sorcery, apart from idols or fetishes. His influence (and that of the medicine-man of the Indians) rests on his assumed powers of influencing the good and evil spirits believed in (many of whom are ancestors). He has a ritual of magic and sorcery, procures oracles from the spirits, and offers sacrifices. INTR OD UCTION. 1 5 The priest has developed on the one hand out of the medicine-man, shaman, exorcist, etc., and on the other out of the head of the family, the patriarch, the leader. The elder and the cleverer men naturally r . . . Priesthoods. gained most influence, and their words were most attended to, and the rites they inculcated were performed. Gifts were given either to the gods or priests or both ; and the offering of the gift became essential to gaining the favour of gods and priests. When once priests existed, no one could gain admission to the order without some special claim or discipline, which was made severe in most cases ; but unauthorised priests have always existed in all grades, down to wizards and devil-doctors. From their ful- filling high functions and gaining high rewards, priesthoods have always attracted many of the ablest men ; and in most religions they have included genuine and sincere believers in their worship and teachings. But they have also as a rule been conservative of established ordinances and very hostile to reformers, especially of religion. The traditional knowledge was almost exclusively in their hands till comparatively modern times ; they alone knew how to appease or please the gods, or could perform the due rites, and thus their power has been enormous. On the other hand, numerous peoples have never had any powerful priesthood. The word temple includes many kinds of buildings, all agreeing in one character, that they are supposed to be the special dwelling of a god or gods. In many cases the temple has not our modern signification as a J r ... Temples, meeting-place for worshippers ; often it is only open to priests, and the altar or stone of sacrifice is set up in front of (outside) the entrance. In most religions the temple contains a statue of the god, or other sacred symbol indicating his presence ; and treasures, chiefly gifts from worship- pers, are accumulated in and around it. Hence the temple becomes peculiarly sacred ground, protecting the priests from all insult, injury, or removal for punishment, and usually acquiring in addition the power of protecting those who take refuge in it. No doubt the idea of a place sacred to a god or to spirits arose very early, as may be seen by the numerous cases in which unhewn stones, placed in certain positions, have probably served as temples in pre-historic times. We must look to a far-distant past for the beginnings of external worship around sacred trees or stones, which were only gradually fenced or covered in. The temple naturally suggests sacrifice, which originally meant any act or thing sacred to the gods, and only by specialisation came to signify gifts, or atonements to the gods. In very many religions the gods criflces or spirits worshipped are honoured by gifts of vegetable food, libations of wine and oil, and consecration of animal flesh ; and these are distinguished from gifts of treasure, garments, images, lands, temples, etc. Expiatory sacrifices, not found in all religions, form a distinct class ; and in these the life of a victim is offered to appease the anger of the gods, or to gain their favour. The sacrifices or gifts in honour of the gods signify a view of the gods which is quite sure of their friendliness if properly worshipped and sacrificed to ; and in a vast t6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. number of cases, these gifts mean an offering of banquets to the gods, from which their servants are not excluded. The appropriate gifts are like a tribute to an earthly king. Often the seasons suggest the fitting oc- casions for special offerings— harvest, vintage, the birth of young animals. We find all stages of view as to these sacrifices, from that in which the god is supposed to really need the food given, to that in which it becomes only a conventional mode of showing respect. Animism pervades sacrifice very largely, especially when the sacrificial offerings are burnt ; their spirit-essence being believed to ascend to the gods, and to satisfy them. From this, to the idea of slaughtering ADhumannd animals for sacrifice, i.e. that the god may have a meal of meat, sacrifices. -s ft natural transition. "When, in any case, the faith in the old eods declined, and the sacrifices became diminished, a revival of religion, or its new development, included a demand for animal, and finally for human sacrifices, as expiation of the sins of the people ; and the fact that human sacrifices primarily and generally consisted of enemies, is connected with the same practice in cannibalism. When a religion manifests a strong sense of sin, certain offences are deemed incapable of expiation, otherwise than by the sacrifice of life, either of the offender or of some one of his kin or tribe. When any ^dCTp? great calamity occurs, it is believed that the deity has been tion. offended, and nothing but the sacrifice of life will avail. Why, in certain cases, men sacrificed their eldest son is not clear ; but it may have been on the principle of offering first-fruits or firstlings, or in the idea that only the blood of a very near kinsman would satisfy the god. The person held guilty can or will not be sacrificed, being important to the tribe, or in his own eyes, and so the idea of substitution arises, perhaps being stimulated by the idea that an innocent victim is more worthy than a guilty one. Often the substitute, when an animal, has been dressed up to resemble the guilty person, or the appropriate animal (sometimes the totem). Sometimes these human and expiatory offerings have become regular and periodic, to avert the anger of the gods, or to expiate sin frequently committed ; often animals are regularly sacrificed as substitutes for human life ; sometimes these sacrifices have degenerated into mere puppet sacrifices. A further development consists in sacramental feasts or sacrifices, as when paste idols or slain victims are eaten by the worshippers, with the ^ idea that the sacred animal being eaten makes the worshippers mysteries, one with the deity to whom it is sacrificed. Such sacrifices often take place in connection with initiation or celebration of blood- brotherhood. " Even the highest forms of sacrificial worship," says Prof. Robertson Smith, in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," " present much that is repulsive to modern ideas; and in particular it requires an effort to reconcile our imagination to the bloody ritual which is prominent in almost every religion which has a strong sense of sin. But we must not forget that from the beginning this ritual expressed, however crudely, certain ideas INTRO D UCTION. '7 which lie at the very root of true religion, the fellowship of the wor- shippers with one another in their fellowship with the deity ; . . . and the piacular forms, though these were particularly liable to distortions disgraceful to man and dishonouring to the Godhead, yet container! the first germs of eternal truths, not only expressing the idea of divine justice, but mingling it with a feeling of divine and human pity." c THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The word and the subject " Theism " is of the highest importance in religions. The word in combination enters into pantheism, polytheism, monotheism, and atheism. By itself it has a signification which Theism. .^ ^ ^ always when in combination. In its widest ex- tension it includes the whole subject of Divine Being or Beings; but ordinarily it is restricted to much the same range as monotheism, the belief in one God. It then contradicts and is antagonistic to polytheism, pantheism, and atheism. Again, theism has been used as the contrary of deism, a form of belief in one God by the light of nature, or from natural religion. Deism is generally distinguished from pantheism in regarding God as distinct from the material world, and from theism, in imagining that the Divine Being has created the world and endowed it with certain powers and potentialities which are left to work out their results uninfluenced by the direct interference or action of God. It would detain us too long to expound the history of theism since Christianity arose. It will be to some extent referred to later. We must note here that Christianity and Mohammedanism are the only two truly theistic or monotheistic religions ; and that this title has been denied to Christianity by those who consider the doctrine of the Trinity, or Three Persons in the Godhead, as excluding it from monotheism. In past times many regarded monotheism as the primitive religion, from which mankind had fallen away by sin and degradation. Now-a-days a great proportion of students of man and religion believe that monotheism is a later growth than polytheism, or belief in more than one God. There is some ground for the belief that, in some religions at least, the idea of one supreme God arose by the exaggeration of the qualities of some particular god already worshipped, or out of the belief in a tribal God, originally peculiar to them and hostile to their enemies ; but it is questionable if we can ever arrive at the true origin of religion, for the ancient races are dead and have left no records behind them, and there are no data for saying that all those peoples who had a religion have left records of it. The traces of religion in the oldest words and the earliest remains and records left show that animals, ancestors, powers of nature, and deities were then wor- shipped ; and beyond this we cannot go. Pantheism is a mode of looking at the universe which identifies the creation with the Creator, regarding all finite things as different modifications, Pantheism or asPec^s; or manifestations of one eternal, self-existent being, from which they are derived. Within or around this conception are grouped many views which represent the universe very diversely, some approaching very near to monotheism, or even being very properly described as forms of monotheism. Atheism («, without, Theos, God) again, takes several forms. Dogmatic atheism, which has extremely few adherents, denies the existence of a Atheism -^vme Being : critical atheism says that He has not been proved to exist; while philosophical atheism says that it is impossible for finite beings to know in any real sense that the Divine exists. 19 THE WORLDS RELIGIOXS. Theology, as a technical term, needs a definition ; it is as old as Plato and Aristotle, dgnifying " a discourse or doctrine concerning divine things." Thns the term may be used to include non-Christian as well Theology. ^ Q^^an svsroms# Tts special use in Christianity will be referred to later. It is now generally understood to mean the system of doctrines which concent the person, attributes, and works of God. Theology which accepts the Bible as containing a revelation ot and from God. is distinguished from natural theology, which only includes arguments derived from human thought, observation, and reasoning apart from revelation. Some persons would define theology as the study of what mankind have thought or felt about religion or about (rod : but it is more correct, as well as more in agreement with the feelings of most intelligent people, to make the term imply belief in God. and the attainability of knowledge about Him. A mere study ot the phenomena of religion can never be as vitally interesting as one which regards it as of the utmost concern to know what is to be known on the subject. Is there then such a thing as a science of religion or religions'? Not vet. but there may be in the future ; and we are working towards it. "We science of may be told that this can never be a true science, for the ultimate religion, object of religion cannot be comprehended by mortals : but that objection would be fatal to all other sciences, for the Infinite First Cause oi all natural forces cannot be comprehended. The science of religion will be an explanation or comprehension of religion, mental, natural, or revealed; but the study which is to produce it must be free and intelligent, and its conclusions must be based on sufficient evidence, the sources of that evidence being found in the natural world, in the thoughts of men's minds, in history, and in all teachings purporting to be. or accepted as, Divine revelations. We must just briefly indicate the term '; theosophy ** as designating a '• divine wisdom." or wisdom about divine things, which is supposed to have special knowledge about the Divine nature and modes of working, either as the result of speculative philosophy or of special revela- tion : we can here have little to say of such systems. Hegel. Spinoza. Sweden- borg, Boehme, Sehelling. may be named among prominent theosophists. We may next recognise the broad distinctness of primitive or nature religions, and those which are either tribal, national, or universal in their Classification scope. It is only a certain number of the latter which are of religions, specially associated with a certain name — that of Confucius. Lao-tze. Buddha, Mohammed. Moses^ Jesus: although it cannot be shown that others were not quite as truly the product of individual minds, whose Personal names have not been preserved. The great founders of religions founders. mentioned. above have given rise to ethical religions, religions putting prominently forward certain moral teachings ; and further, preach- Unlversaloring a way of salvation, and producing an organisation for the missionary promotion and increase of the religion. Tln-ee religions now religions. remajn ^^h mav be called world-religions in their scope, Bu Id- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. hism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity ; all aiming at converting the world, and professing to be able to satisfy the needs of the world. As regards other than universal religions, we may quote the view of Prof. Tiele of Leyden (" Outlines of the History of Religion "). " It is on various Fr m n t grounds probable that the earliest religion, which, has left but religions to faint traces behind it, was followed by a period in which animism lsm' generally prevailed. This stage, which is still represented by the so-called nature religions, or rather by the polydsemonistic tribal reli- gions, early developed among civilised nations into polytheistic national religions, resting upon a traditional doctrine. Not until a later period did polytheism give place here and there to nomistic religions, or religious communities founded on a law or holy Scripture, and subduing polytheism more or less completely beneath pantheism or monotheism. These last, again, contain the roots of the universal or world-religions, which start from principles and maxims." "We give this, not as in any way indicating a doctrine that ought to be accepted, but as a speculation of an earnest student. There is much more in religion than can probably be com- prehended in any simple classification. We now proceed to give a classifi- cation of religions into families, which may be of some service in com- prehending the following pages. Animism, the primitive philosophy of spirits, has special manifestations among the Polynesians, Australians, negroes, Hottentots, Melanesians, Groups of Americans, the highest forms being readied by the Chibchas, religions. ^he ]y£avaSj the Mexicans and the Incas, and by the Finns. The Chinese and Japanese religions, Confucianism, Taoism, and Shin-toism, form a special class. The Egyptian religion stands almost apart, including much animism and magic, with features of a higher kind. The remaining principal religions may be classified into Aryan and Semitic respectively; the former, the Aryan or Indo-European group, including Brahmanism and Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Greek and Roman, Wendic, Slavonian, Celtic, Teutonic, and Scandinavian religions; the latter including Chaldean and Assyrian, Phoenician, and Canaanitish religions, besides Judaism, Christi- anity, and Mohammedanism. Where so much is unknown or controversial, we shall not attempt what is called a genealogical arrangement ; nor shall we give any further classification before proceeding to describe the several religions or religious practices. All that has hitherto been said, except the explanation of the meaning and significance of certain terms, may be taken only in so far as it may be borne out by the accounts which follow, or as interpreting the facts in a reasonable manner. No attempt is made to say what must or must not be believed. Every one should form his or her own conclusions as freely and independently as possible. For further information on the subjects dealt with in this chapter, see Tylor's " Primitive Culture" ami "Anthropology." Articles: Theism, Theology, Anthropomorphism, Animism, Totem- ism, Taboo, Demonology, Sacrifice, Priest, Temple, in " Encyclopaedia Britannica," ninth edition. Tide's " Outlines of the History of the Ancient Eeligions." J. G. Frazer's " Totemism," and his valuable paper "On Certain Burial Customs as illustrations of the Primitive Theory of the Soul" (" Journal of Anthropological Institute," vol. xv.). Max Mailer's " Science of Keligion," " Com- parative Mythology ;" Hibbert Lectures. BOOK I. RELIGIONS OF UNCIVILISED PEOPLES. I CHAPTER I. Harrs tottfoout a Rflfgfom T was long believed that no race was entirely without religion. But it is impossible to resist the weight of evidence which shows that numerous tribes and peoples have been or are without anything in the shape of distinct religious belief or observance. The evidence is that of the most distinguished and accurate travellers, the most credited scientific investi- gators, and the most enlightened missionaries. Charles Darwin says (" Descent of Man," i. 143) :— " There is ample evidence, derived, not from hasty travellers, but from men who have long resided with savages, that numerous races have existed, and still exist, who have no idea of one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express such an idea. ... If, however, we include under the term " religion " the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is wholly different ; for this belief seems to be universal with the less civilised races." Several tribes of Brazilian Indians are said, by Bates, Wallace, and Burmeister, to have no religion whatever. The Gran Chaco Indians (South America) were declared by the early missionaries to have " no American religious or idolatrous belief or worship whatever; neither do they Indians- possess any idea of God or of a Supreme Being. They make no distinction between right and wrong, and have, therefore, neither fear nor hope of an}' present or future punishment or reward, nor any mysterious terror of some supernatural power, whom they might seek to assuage by sacrifices or super- stitious rites." Central and South Africa have furnished numerous examples of the absence of religious ideas. A Zulu once said, " If any one thinks ever so little, he soon gives it up, and passes on to Zulus, what he sees with his eyes." Burchell found a tribe of Kaffirs Kaffirs, with no form of worship or religion. They thought that everything made itself, and that trees and herbage grew by their own will. The Caroline Islanders in the Pacific were without religion, having no temples, altars, offerings, nor sanguinary rites. The Queensland natives, according to Lang, had no idea of a Supreme Being, creator of the world, the witness of their actions and their judge. The Arafuras (Papuans) in the Aru islands have not the least conception of immortality. When questioned they said : " No Arafura has ever re- turned to us after death, therefore we know nothing of a future P3.ou3.ns state, and this is the first time we have heard of it." Their idea was, When you are dead, there is an end of you. " Neither have they any notion," says M. Bik, " of the creation of the world. To convince myself more fully respecting their want of knowledge of a Supreme Being, I demanded of them on whom they called for help in their need, when their 24 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. vessels were overtaken by violent tempests. The eldest among them, after having consulted the others, answered that they knew not on whom they could call for assistance ; but begged me, if I knew, to be so good as to inform them." A conversation recorded by Sir Samuel Baker, in his " Albert Nyanza," •me is an excellent exemplification of this non-religious state of mind. Latookas. jje -g interrogating Commoro, a chief of a Nile tribe, the Latookas. " Baker : Have you no belief in a future existence after death ? Commoro : Existence after death ! How can that be ? Can a dead man get out of his grave unless we dig him out ? Baker : Do you think man is like a beast, that dies and is ended ? Commoro : Certainly ; an ox is stronger than a man; but he dies, and his bones last longer ; they are bigger. A man's bones break quickly — he is weak. Baker : Is not a man superior in sense to an ox? Has he not a mind to direct his actions ? Commoro : Some men are not so clever as an ox. Men must sow corn to obtain food ; but the ox and wild animals can procure it without sowing. Baker: Do you not know that there is a spirit within you more than flesh? Do you not dream and wander in thought to distant places in your sleep ? Nevertheless, your body rests in one spot. How do you account for this ? Commoro, laughing : Well, how do you account for it ? It is a thing 1 cannot understand ; it occurs to me every night. Baker : Have you no idea of the existence of spirits superior to either man or beast ? Have you no fear of evil except from bodily causes ? Commoro : I am afraid of elephants and other animals when in the jungle at night, but of nothing else. Baker : Then you believe in nothing, neither in a good nor evil spirit ! And you believe that when you die it will be the end of body and spirit ; that you are like other animals ; and that there is no distinction between man and beast ; both disappear, and end at death ? Commoro : Of course they do. Baker : Do you see no difference between good and bad actions ? Commoro : Yes ; there are good and bad in men and beasts. Baker : If you have no belief in a future state, why should a man be good ? Why should he not be bad, if he can prosper by wickedness ? Commoro: Most people are bad ; if they are strong, the}7- take from the weak. The good people are all weak ; they are good because they are not strong enough to be bad." But while thus asserting that some tribes have been or are without belief in religion in the higher sense, it must be admitted that there are but few, if any, of whom it cannot be said that they believe in spiritual beings of some kind. This phase of the religious sense has already been referred to in our Introduction, under the term " Animism " (p. 6). . further proofs may readily be found in Sir J. Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times " and " Origin of Civilisation ; " Archdeacon Farrar's paper on " The Universality of Belief in God and in a Future State " [Anthropological Review, 18G1 : ccxvii.) ; and Tylor's " Primitive Culture " (p. 35). MOliAI OF OAMO AND OBEREA, TAHITI. CHAPTER II. fteltgtous' Beliefs anti practices in Australasia, yolmtesta, antJ ittelanesta. The Australians — Absence of worship— Sorcerers— Ideas of creation — Mode of discovering en- chanters—Idea of becoming white after death— Burial— Ghosts— The Tasmanians— The future life an unwearied chase— Burial customs— Exorcists' methods— The New Caledonians— Feasts for spirits— Prayers - Rain-making priests— Strange burial customs— The Maoris— Deified ancestors— Legend of Maui— Atuas— Mythology— The abodes of spirits of the dead— The priests' duties— Modes of burial and mourning— The Friendly Islanders- Superior and inferior gods- Spiritual chief descended from the gods- Spirits of the dead— The Samoans— Guardian and village deities — Traditions — A stone rain-god- Functions of priests— The spirit land— The Hervey Islanders— Rev. W. W. Gill in Mangaia- Ideas of the universe and spirits— The father of gods and men— No idea of a Supreme Creator —Deified men and their exploits— The gods the life of men— The king's idols— Origin of a priesthood— Death due to sins— Exploits of Maui the fire-god— The dead thrown into chasms -Ideas of spirit- world— Mourning customs— The death-talk— The Society Islanders— Various deities— The future state— The priesthood— The Sandwich Islanders— Volcanic deities - Power of the taboo— The Fijians— The two spirits of man— The Fijian heaven— Passions of the gods— Human sacrifices— Fijian gods— The chiefs' funerals— The Papuans— Papuan idols— Burial of Papuans— The Dyaks of Borneo— The Sea- Dyaks' beliefs— Medicine-men- Superstitions of Land-Dyaks— Burial of Dyaks— Sumatran deities — Priests of the Battas— The Malagasy gods— Malagasy charms— Divination ani sacrifices— Sikidy— Ideas of a future life— Burial rites. THE AUSTRALIANS. rp HE Australian natives are among the lowest in their conceptions re- -L lating to creation, nature, and religion. When discovered by Europeans they had no worship, nor any idea of a Creator ; and it is not Absence necessary here to give an account of various conceptions since of worsniP- developed, which resulted from their contact with white men. They have some belief in evil spirits who walk abroad and may be seen at night. Against the diseases caused by them, the aid of sorcerers was „ 0 . . . Sorcerers, invoked ; and they, by various peiformances and incantations, ex- tracted the disease from the patient. The sorcerers were middle-aged or elderly men, specially initiated from some supernatural source, from ances- tral ghosts, or spirits, and supposed capable of transporting themselves through the air, or rendering themselves invisible. The production of rain, wind, thunder, etc., was believed to be within their province. These men were not without some medical attainments of a rude kind. But they were believed to have the power, by various devices, of causing an enemy's 25 26 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. ruin or destruction. A valuable account of Australian medicine-men has been given by Mr. A. "W. Howitt in the " Journal of the Anthropological Institute," vol. xvi. (1887). The reality of dreams is strongly believed in by the Australians; during sleep the spirit is supposed to wander from the body and meet other spirits. Various Australian tribes are stated to have believed that: (1) Some things are self-created, and these created other things. (2) Everything was made ideas try a father, who lived among the clouds, and had three sons. of creation. (3) A huge serpent is the cause of everything. The South Australians believed that the sun, moon, and stars are living beings who once inhabited the earth. Sudden deaths are attributed to the enchantments of hostile tribes. "The method of finding out the enchanter is to clear the space round the deceased's . f grave, and smooth it so that the least traces of an animal passing discovering over it may be detected — those of a beetle will suffice. The enchanters. (jjrec^jon taken by this creature indicates the direction in which the enchanter lives ; and one of the nearest of kin to the deceased sets out on his mission, travelling some hundreds of miles. Arrived at a place where there are natives encamped, he fraternises with them, staying with them for days till an opportunity presents itself of slaying the enchanter, who is already known by having coughed when eating some of the food which the stranger has taken care to distribute all round." x The souls of those who have not been buried are supposed to haunt the earth as evil spirits. One tribe of Australians believe that their ghosts people the islands in Spencer's Gulf. A Queensland tribe had the idea that their dead became white, because they saw this to be the case when they were flayed for eating ; and when they first saw white men they actually believed they were the beaming ghosts of their own dead that had returned. Sir George Grey Whdte t^ter was thought to be a returned son formerly speared to death at Swan River. " Yes, yes ; it is he ! " cried an old woman, who leaned her head on his breast and burst into tears. The funeral rites of the Australians are simple, but very varied. The chief modes are burial, placing the body in a tree, and burning. Widows often shaved the head. White is their mourning colour, worn in the form of white clay. Eulogy of the departed in hymns and songs takes place after their death, according to their merits. Many Aus- tralians believed that at death the ghosts or souls survived, sometimes passing into some other person, or wandering about ; and they begged it to cease its wanderings and enter some person. Some believed that they ascended to an upper region of the heavens, but could still visit their earthly abodes. Many of the detailed beliefs recorded about the Australians in modern times are, in fact, due to the influence of white men's visits and missionaries' teaching. 1 Trans. Ethnological Society, New Series, vol. iii., p. 246. RELIGIONS IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 27 THE TASMANIANS. The aboriginal Tasmanians, now extinct, had very little more idea of religion than the Australians. They had an idea of a future life, where they should pursue the chase with unwearied ardour and un- The future failing success, and enjoy in vast abundance and with unsated a^^S* appetite the pleasures which they sought during life. Some chase, thought they were to go to the stars, or to an island where their ancestors were, and be turned into white people. They also believed in malevolent spirits inhabiting caves and forests. They did not like to move at night. In burial their customs varied, like those of the Australians; but Burial they sometimes built a funeral mound, or placed a spear by the CU8toms- deceased, for him " to fight with when he is asleep." In mourning, the women would plaster their shaven heads with pipe-clay and cover their faces with a mixture of charcoal and fat, weeping and lacerating their bodies with sharp stones. Flowers were thrown on the graves, as well as the shaven hair of the women. Some of the bones of the deceased were often carried about in a bag hung round the neck. They believed in the return of the spirits of their departed friends to bless or injure them. During the whole of the first night after the death of one of their tribe, they would sit round the body, uttering a low, rapid, continuous recitative, to prevent the evil spirit of an enemy from taking it away. Wise men and exorcists exercised considerable powers over them. They used charms and arts like mesmerism to expel diseases, terrified by the rattle of dead men's bones, twirled round a magic mooyumbarr, Exorcists' or oval piece of wood. They also kept sacred stones, which must methods- on no account be seen by women. They had a superstitious regard for the sun, moon, and various constellations, but could not be said to worship them. THE NEW CALEDONIANS AND SOLOMON ISLANDERS. The New Caledonians exhibited a more definite religious belief. They had a word which represented " dead men " as a sort of deity ; and their deceased chiefs were prayed to by name. The living chief Ancestor acted as high priest, praying aloud to this effect: "Compassionate worsniP- father, here is some food for you ; eat it ; be kind to us on account of it." Feasting and dancing followed this ceremony. The natives of Aneityum, New Hebrides, supposed, says the Rev. W. Turner (" Nineteen Years in Polynesia "), that the spirit at death leaves the body, goes to the west end of the island, plunges into the sea, and swims away to a place of spirits called Umatmas, where it is believed there are two divisions, one for the good and another for the bad. Their heaven consists in abundance of good food. In New Caledonia, however, the spirits of the departed are supposed to go to the Bush. Every fifth month they have a spirit night, when heaps of food are prepared. The old men and women hide in a cave, and Feasts for represent the spirits of the dead to the credulous juniors, singing spirits, in an unearthly fashion, which is followed by wild dancing outside. These 28 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Prayers. people are not without definiteuess in their prayers. They pray to one god for the eye, that they may see the spear as it. flies towards them; to another for the ear, that they may hear the approach of the enemy. Certain disease-makers are believed to produce sickness; and this was especially found to be the case in the island of Tanna, where they burn the refuse of food, the idea being that when it is all burned the person dies. " Whenever a person felt ill, a shell was blown for hours, as a call or prayer to the disease-maker, to stop burning the rubbish, and a promise of presents." SACKED IMAGE, NEW GEORGIA, SOLOMON ISLANDS. There is also a rain-making class of priests in New Caledonia. Their method is to pour water on the skeleton of a body exhumed. Almost every Rain-making family has its priest, and the chief is high-priest. In Tanna no priests. idols were found. The people used the banian-tree as a sacred grove, and they venerated some sacred stones. In Mallicolo, New Hebrides, however, there were in every village, in the sacred house, three or four images, life size, dressed as men, and painted like mummies, which appeared to be held sacred. All the deities are supposed to be malignant beings. Sorcery and witchcraft are universally believed in. They have a tradition RELIGIONS IA AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 29 that their islands were fished up by the gods, who afterwards made men and women. Captain Cook found the grave of a New Caledonian chief decorated with spears, darts, paddles, etc., stuck upright in the ground. According to Turner, the body of the deceased is decorated with a belt and _. ' •» Strange shell armlets. They raise and cut off the finger and toe nails burial whole to preserve as relics. They spread the grave with a mat, and bury all the body but the head. After ten days the friends twist off the head, extract the teeth as further relics, and preserve the skull also. In the Solomon Islands predominant reverence is shown to the spirits of dead men — practically not extending beyond grandfathers. Common men are believed to have gone to a neighbouring island where they wander about aimlessly ; the more distinguished are believed to remain in the neighbourhood of their friends, and to give them help when prayed and sacrificed to. Certain prayers, handed down from father to son, are muttered. "Witchcraft and charms are much believed in, and sharks are much reverenced. The canoe- houses often appear to be in the way to become sacred buildings, and they are ornamented by carved wooden figures, representing ghosts of various deceased people. Food is sometimes set before these, and their removal would be held to bring punishment from the dead man ; but many of the carved figures of the Solomon Islands have no religious significance. See Rev. R. H. Codrington's valuable paper, " Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," Journal of Anthropological Institute, vol. x. THE MAORIS. The Maoris of New Zealand were not much beyond the New Cale- donians. When Captain Cook visited them, he saw no appearance of religious ceremonies, except that once he observed a basket con- Deified taming fern roots hung up in a small enclosure, and said to be ancestors, an offering to the gods, to render them propitious, and obtain a good crop. Their chiefs appeared to become deified, and even the living chiefs were be- lieved to be deified, or to express the opinions of gods. Te Heu Hen, a New Zealand priest and chief, once said to a European missionary : " Think not that I am a man, that my origin is of the earth. I come from the heavens; my ancestors are all there : they are gods, and I shall return to them." Maui was said to be their great ancestor, who drew the island out Le&end 0f of the sea with a fish-hook. Spirits of the deified ancestors were Maul believed sometimes to visit the earth in the form of lizards, spiders, and birds. The Maoris applied the term afua to every kind ot supernatural beings, but also included in it all active agencies .of nature. They ex- tended the same term to Europeans and their watches. The ghost of a departed chief was an atua, and might be benevolent or male- volent in the shadow world. A certain mythology has been discovered among the New Zealanders, 3° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. strangely reminding one in some of its features of the old Greek mythology. Rangi and Papa— the Heaven and the Earth— begot six children Mythology. ^ ^^ ^ fathers respectively : (1) of men and war; (2) of food arising without cultivation ; (3) of fish and reptiles ; (4) of winds and storms; (5) of cultivated food; (6) of forests and birds. A conspiracy between these gods resulted in the separation of heaven from earth. The New Zealanders believed there were two distinct abodes for the spirits of the dead : Rangi, in the sky, and Reinga, in the sea, the entrance „,,. ,. * beine at the northern extremity of the island. They ascribed The abodes <=> . ^ , , of spirits internal diseases to sorcery or witchcraft, and they could only be ofthedea . cm>e(j ^ incantations. Evil deeds were punished in this world, and the punishments were sent from deified ancestors. CORPSE, AND CORPSE-PRAYING PRIEST, NEW ZEALAND. There was not much distinction between priests and chiefs ; sometimes the chief's brother was priest. The priests' duties were to see the laws of The priests' the tapu l enforced, to heal the sick, attend at funerals and duties, births, to tattoo people, to instruct children in songs and traditions, to advise in time of war, and to interpret omens. They were also supposed to converse with the dead.2 In Cook's time the New Zealanders did not bury their dead. At Queen i Tapu, from which we derive our " taboo," meant sacred, or separate from common use. 2 For an interesting account of the Maori Race, see Mr. Kerry-Nicholls's paper in Joum. Ant h ro]>. Inst., vol. xv. RELIGIONS IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 31 Charlotte's Sound they threw them into the sea. The dead chiefs were wrapped in mats, put into canoe-shaped boxes, along with their Modeg club, and placed on elevated stages or suspended from trees, or burial and interred in the houses where they died. Mourning by the mo g' relatives went on, with cutting of the body, for weeks. About a year after- wards the bones were cleaned and secretly deposited by priests in sepulchres on hill tops, in forests, or in caves. Food and water were placed at the graves of the dead, the spirit being believed to come at night and feed from the sacred calabashes. THE FRIENDLY ISLANDERS. Religious belief in the Tonga or Friendly Islands assumed a yet more developed aspect. The people believed in superior beings or gods, who dispensed good and evil to mankind according to their merits, Sut)erior and and inferior gods who are the souls of deceased chiefs, with inferior inferior powers. All evils were ascribed to the anger of the good gods, or the mischievous disposition of the bad gods. Mankind, they said, originally came from Bolotoo, the abode of the gods. They believed in a human soul (except for the lower classes), existing in Bolotoo in the form and likeness of the body, the moment after death. The Tongans had a spiritual chief, alleged to be descended from gods. The priest, when consulted, became emotional and " inspired," and declared the will of the god. Most of the gods had a separate temple and Spiritual a separate priest ; but there appeared to be no public or private cnief religious rites without kava drinking as a part of it. They from the believed in omens and charms, and sacrificed to the departed g spirits of chiefs, and consulted the gods before commencing any important undertaking. Among these people we meet with private and reserved burial grounds for the chief families. Like so many other races, they showed their mourning by cutting themselves with clubs, stones, knives, or sharp shells, shaving the head, and burning the cheeks. THE SAMOANS. The Samoans were conspicuous for the great number of their gods. Every one from birth had a protecting god ; every village had its god, the names borne by them being, among others, " The Swift One," Guardian " The Sacred One," " Destruction," " The God of Heaven." They and village were supposed to appear visibly as some animal, the rainbow, shooting stars, etc. Scarcity of food they ascribed to one particular god. They had traditions of a time when the heavens alone were inhabited, and the earth was covered with water. The heavens a long time ago ^ 00 Traditions. fell down. Fire was obtained from the earthquake god. In one district they had a stone rain-god. When there was too much rain, those who kept the stone put it to the fire to dry, and cause the rain to a stone stop. If there was great drought, they took the stone to the ram-£°d water and dipped it, thinking that would bring rain. 32 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. TAHITIAN BIER. The priests were either the chiefs, or the office was hereditary. The priests decided on peace or war, fixed the feast days of the gods, and received the of- ferings. Taboo Functions of W a S priests. large. ly practised. To protect pro- perty, a rude re- presentation of an animal or of some plague, by which it was hoped the de- predator might be killed, was hung up. Thus there were the white shark, the sea pike, the ulcer, and the cross- stick ta- latter representing a disease running right across the body. Samoans believed that the souls of their chiefs were immortal, and that they were conveyed by spirits to an The spirit abode of ghosts beyond their land. islands, and very much like them. There was an imagined chief ruler of this land. At night these ghosts are able to revisit their old homes, and give counsel and predict the future to members of their family ; to others they would carry disease and death. TEE EEEVEY ISLAAWERS. By far the most complete and ac- curate account we have of the religion Rev.w.w. and mythology of any Poly- am in nesian people, is that given by Mangaia. ^ Rey w Wyfttt q^ ^ " Myths and Songs from the South Pa- cific." Having lived for many years in Mangaia, one of the Hervey Islands, and gained the confidence of the last of their priests and of many others, he has been enabled to present us with an almost complete account, which is of extreme boo, the The FUNERAL-DBE88 OF THE NEAHEST RELATIVE OF THE DECEASED PERSON, TAHITI. RELIGIONS IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 33 interest, and will enable us materially to shorten the accounts given of other Polynesians. The Mangaians conceived of the universe as like the hollow of a vast cocoanut shell. The interior has a single aperture above, where the Mangaians dwell. At the bottom of the supposed cocoanut shell Ideag f the was a thick stem, tapering to a point, which was a spirit or universe demon, without human form, named " The Root of all Existence." Above this extreme point was a stouter spirit, called " Breathing or Life " ; HUMAN SACRIFICE IN FORMER TIMES, TAHITI. above again, a thicker spirit, " The Long Lived." These three were fixed sentient spirits, who together supported all the universe. In the interior of. the supposed cocoanut lived a female demon, "The very Beginning," anxious for progeny. One day she plucked off a bit of her right side, The father and it became the first man, Vdtea, the father of gods and men. of gods incl high Subsequent births from both her right and left sides by " The very Beginning," gave rise to lords of the sea, of the winds, etc., and one, named Tu-metua, " Stick-by-the-parent," living with the mother in " the mute land." Tu-metua, shortened to Tu, is a principal god in many Polynesian islands. A whole series of mythological events was assigned to these gods, almost as complex as the Greek mythology, and as in- teresting. According to Mr. Gill, the Polynesians had no idea of a Supreme Being D 34 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. creating a universe out of nothing. Co-ordinate with the spirits or demons above mentioned were deified men ; and birds, fish, reptiles, No idea of a ._,.._. 7 , ' f 7 supreme insects, and specially inspired priests were reverenced as mcar- Creator. nati0ns, mouthpieces, or messengers of the gods. There are numerous traditions about the exploits of these deified men, evidently former chiefs. Rongo, the offspring of Vatea, was the chief god Deified men . . and their of Mangaia, reigning in the night or " shades." Motoro was exploits. an ancestor g0ci termed " the living god," co-ordinately wor- shipped. Makitaka, the last priest of Motoro, embraced Christianity. The image of Motoro is in the museum of the London Missionary Society. "The word 'io,' commonly used for 'god,'" says Mr. Gill, " properly means pith or core of a tree. What the core is to the tree, the god was The gods the believed to be to the man. In other words, the gods were the life of men. ]jfe 0f mankind. Even when a worshipper of Motoro was slain in fair fight, it was supposed that the enraged divinity would, by some special misfortune or disease, put an end to the offender." On entering the The king's god-house of the king, a rude reed hut, the first idol was Bongo, idols. ^n the form 0f a trumpet shell ; next came the honoured Metoro ; then came eleven others, thirteen being the number admitted as national gods. The term applied to them, " dwellers by day," signified that they were continually busy in the affairs of mortals. These alone had carved images. Those who " dwelt in night " were, however, supposed frequently to ascend by day to take part in affairs. A strange explanation is given of the origin of a priesthood. The gods were said to have first spoken to man through small land birds ; but their origin of a utterances were too indistinct for guiding men, and consequently priesthood. priests were set apart, in whom the gods took up temporary abodes. Hence they were called god-boxes, or briefly gods. When con- sulted, an offering of the best food, and a bowl of an intoxicating liquor had to be brought. The priest, in a frenzy, gave his response in language in- telligible only to the initiated. No one being supposed to die a natural Death due to death except from old age, the people inquired of the priests sins. what sins had occasioned any one's illness. If the priest bore any one a grudge, he had only to announce that the divinity willed it, and he was put to death. The exploits of Maui, the fire-god, are some of the most famous. He first captured fire from the nether world, raised the sky, and made the sun captive. Many other arts of mankind are traced by the natives Maui, the to achievements of the gods. The intoxicating draught even is fire-god. ^erjvej from that which the mistress of the invisible world gives to her victims. Thieving is taught by Iro, coming up on moonlight nights from spirit land. Everything in earth, air, or sea is traced to a super- natural source. The dead were thrown down the deepest chasms, in which thrown Mangaia abounds, and these were supposed to be openings into into chasms. ^ yast nonOWj the repository of the dead. The Mangaians be- 7? EL IG IONS IN A US TRA LAS/A A ND POL YNESIA . 3 5 lieved the spirits occupied themselves like mankind — marrying, multi- plying, sinning, quarrelling. Birds, fish, rats, beetles, cocoanuts, yams, all abound in this Hades. The high road thither is closed. The spirits had so molested men, brought disease and death upon them, stolen Ideas of their food, etc., that to put an end to these annoyances a royal sPirit world- person rolled herself alive down the great opening, which then closed up. Since then the spirits of mortals descend by a different route, and the in- habitants of Hades no longer molest mankind. It is said that the first who ever died a natural death in Mangaia was Vectini, the only and beloved son of Tueva and Manga, who died in early manhood. The parents established those mourning customs Mourning which were ever afterwards observed. All the relatives blackened cu8toms- their faces, cut off their hair, gashed their bodies with sharks' teeth, and wore native cloth dyed red and dipped in black mud, forming a most odoriferous garment. Their heads were surrounded with fern singed with fire. These ceremonies occupied from ten to fifteen -days. Sometimes, in honour of distinguished persons deceased, grand tribal gatherings took place, to recite songs in their honour. This was called, a talk about the devouring, or a death-talk ; for when a person The death- died, it was customary to say he was eaten up by the gods. As talk- many as thirty " weeping-songs " were often prepared: each adult male relative must recite a song. Numerous most interesting specimens of these are given by Mr. Gill. We can give only a few lines from one of them. " Speed, then, on thy voyage to spiritland, Where a profusion of garlands awaits thee. There the bread-fruit tree, pet son, is ever laden with f ruit ; Yes, there the bread-fruit tree is ever in season, my child." Human sacrifices were formerly offered by the Mangaians, and various families were at different periods condemned to furnish the victims ; and horrible tales of atrocities in connection with them are preserved. THE SOCIETY ISLANDERS. The natives of the Society Islands worshipped many gods, some being gods of war and peace, others employed as heralds between gods and men, others in healing. Some were gods of localities or of professions, varied The gods even presided over games, wrestling, dancing, and deities, archery, offerings being made to them both before and after the games. Earthquakes were believed to be under the control of a special divinity. Fishes and birds were also among their divinities. The turtle was always held sacred, and dressed with sacred fire within the precincts of the temple, part of it being always offered to the idol. Spirits of deceased chiefs and relatives were also worshipped, though with certain distinctions. Each notable spirit was honoured with an image, through which his influence was believed to be exerted. These images were kept in the Maraes, in houses raised from the ground on poles. The gods were believed to watch 36 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the people jealously, to be ready to avenge any disobedience to their injunc- tions conveyed through the priests. They attributed every calamity to the anger of the gods. Every disease was supposed to be inflicted for some crime against the taboo, or some offering made by an enemy to procure their destruction. The Tahitians had a vague idea of a future state. They imagined the spirit was seized by other spirits, conducted to the state of night, and The future usually eaten gradually by the gods. Some, however, were not state. eaten, but lived with the gods as deified spirits. They imagined a most beautiful heaven near a certain mountain ; but they did not seem to assign this heaven to the good only, or to imagine that actions in this world influence the future state at all. A resemblance to other peoples far away is to be found in the fact that if, after repeated offerings for a chiefs recovery, the god still refused to exert his influence, the Tahitians execrated the idol and banished him from the temple, and chose some other who they hoped would be more favourable. The hereditary priesthood had great power in Tahiti, and the king was sometimes chief priest and personified the god. The worship of their chief The priest- g°d Oro was attended by frequent human sacrifices. Before hood. going to war these were especially offered. Religious rites were practised in connection with all the principal acts of life ; and the priests received considerable offerings for their services. The Tahitians' maraes were used for burial as well as worship. In many respects their funeral customs resembled those described by Mr. Gill. THE SANDWICH ISLANDEBS. The Sandwich Islanders did not differ very markedly from their more southern relatives in their religious ideas ; but they attached great import- Voicanic ance to certain volcanic deities, whose worship was doubtless in- deities. spired by the volcanic phenomena by which they have often suffered. These deities were asserted never to journey on errands of mercy; their only excursions being to receive offerings or to execute vengeance. Their idea of heaven was of a low order. A native remarked to Mr. Ellis, 11 If there is no eating and drinking, or wearing of clothes in heaven, wherein does its goodness consist ?" They supposed that after the death of any member of a family, the spirit of the departed hovered about the places of its former resort, appeared to the survivors sometimes in dreams, and watched over their destinies. Captain Cook was worshipped by the Sand- wich Islanders as a god, and his bones preserved as sacred. The taboo was as powerful in the Sandwich Islands as anywhere. Idols, temples, the person and name of the king, the persons of the priests, the Power of the houses and other property of the king and priests, and the heads taboo. 0f men that were devotees of any particular idol, were tapu or sacred. The flesh of hogs, fowls, turtle, cocoanuts, and almost everything offered in sacrifice was sacred, and forbidden to be eaten by women. RELIGIONS IN AUSTRALASIA AND POLYNESIA. 37 Certain seasons were kept tapu, from five to forty clays in duration. These were either before some religious ceremony or war or during sickness. During the season of strict tapu, says Mr. Ellis (" Tour through Hawaii "), every fire or light must be extinguished. No canoe must be launched on the water, no person must bathe ; and except those whose attendance was required at the temple, no individual must be seen out of doors. No dog must bark, no pig must grunt, no cock must crow. So the dogs' and pigs' mouths were tied up, and the fowls' eyes covered. The kings and priests must touch nothing, their food being put into their mouths by other persons. The priests and the chiefs united to keep up this system of taboo MARAE AND Al/TAB AT HUAHINE, SOCIETY ISLANDS. by the rigid infliction of the death-penalty for its violation. The priests also acted the part of sorcerers and doctors, receiving of course heavy fees, a cloth, mat, pig, dog, etc., usually paid beforehand. THE FIJIANS, Coming back to the islands within a large circle round Australia, we have very extensive information about the religious ideas and practices of the Fiiians before their conversion to Christianity. They be- ^ . j j The two lieved in a future existence not only for all men, but also for spirits of animals, plants, houses, canoes, tools. " Some speak of man as man' having two spirits," says the Rev. T. Williams (" Fiji and the Fijians "). " His shadow is called ' the dark spirit,' which they say goes to Hades. The Jmiu. BsaiiiiWL^ 38 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. other is his likeness reflected in water or a looking- glass, and is supposed to stay near the place in which a man dies. I once placed a good-looking native suddenly before a mirror. He stood delighted. ' Now,' he said softly, ' I can see into the world of spirits.' ': In the Fijian's heaven he expected to lead a life of activity, with sailing, fishing, sporting, etc. He did not The Fijian look for a separation between the good and heaven, the bad, although men who had slain no enemy would be compelled to beat dirt with their club, a most degrading punishment ; and women not tattooed would be pursued by other women and finally scraped with shells and made into bread for the gods. The journey to the other world was imagined as being a journey to another distant island, attended with great danger. The Fijian peopled every lonely spot with invisible spirits, who however assumed the human form at will and appeared frequently. Each island, even each locality, had its own rival gods, who were of like passions with the natives, loving and hating, proud and revenge- Passions of ful? making war, killing and eating each other. They were said the gods. i0 tumble out of canoes, pay tribute to each other, trip each other up, go gaily dressed, etc. The priests asserted strongly that the people's success in war depended on their desire to gratify the appetite of the god, who was a great lover of human flesh. In fact in no religion was cannibalism Human more strictly enjoined. Chiefs sometimes killed some of their sacrifices. wiyes in order to supply the sacrifices for the gods. Capt. Erskine ("Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific") describes canoes launched over the living bodies of slaves as rollers, .houses built on similar foundations, the immediate massacre of all shipwrecked persons, as having been strictly enjoined and enforced by the priests. Any man who could sufficiently distinguish himself by murdering his fellow-men could certainly secure deification after death. Among the Fijian gods may be mentioned Ove, the maker of all men ; Rdtumaimbulu, who caused fruitfulness, during whose month it was tapu to sail, to go to war. to plant, or build houses; U-dengeL represented as a serpent merging into a stone, and having no passion but hunger. Some of the gods were mere monsters, one having eight arms, one eight eyes, and one eighty stomachs. In fact, every object that is specially -fearful, vicious, or injurious was likely to be placed among the lower class of Fijian gods. If a Fijian chief died, one or more of his wives, his principal friend, and often many more, were strangled, to accompany him to the world of spirits. The chiefs' That he should appear there unattended was a most repugnant unera s. j(]ea etc- To these they make offerings, and ascribe the gift Balonda. 0f prophecy. Witchcraft is universally believed in, and trial by ordeal of poison frequently resorted to ; and they have the idea that books are the Europeans' _.. . „ instruments of divination. They use bits of wood, horn, knuckle- and trial bones of various animals, etc., which are thrown on the ground, y ordeal. an(^ according to the way in which they fall, the diviner answers inquiries. In some tribes, if a man is either bitten by an alligator or splashed by his tail, he is expelled from the tribe ; and they even pray to these reptiles. The Mganga or Mfumo in Eastern Africa is both doctor and priest, diviner, rain-maker or stopper, conjurer, augur, and prophet. " In elephant- hunts," says Burton, " he must throw the first spear and endure the blame if the beast escapes. He aids his tribe by magical arts in wars." He also loads guides with charms. The Masai, who are not Bantu, but more or less allied to the North Africans, call their vague supreme being Engai, whom they sometimes Beliefs of suppose to dwell on the top of Mount Kilima-njaro. With this the Masai, being they especially associate rain and grass, and they pro- pitiate him with loud shouting, singing, and dancing. They also have a weaker divinity, a kind of earth-spirit, En-naiter Kob, which they often call upon to mediate with Engai, and obtain the granting of their prayers for rain, success in war, or many male children. They venerate the summits of the great snowy mountains, both Kilima-njaro and Kenia being the residences of these gods and fit places for mediation. After death, the name of a deceased person is never mentioned, lest his spirit should obey the call and return. Yet they have very little fear of or belief in ghosts, ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 47 and they mock at the various Bantu people near them for their elaborate propitiation of the ghosts of the departed.1 THE CONGO TRIBES. Passing now to the West Coast about the Congo and the equatorial region, we find ourselves in the very home of fetishism, where the belief in a supreme deity is quite vague or absent, and where even Good and ancestor- worship is not very pronounced. The negroes believe ovn deitles- in a good and evil principle, both supposed to reside in the sky, the former sending rain, the latter withdrawing it. They do not believe in a state of retribution, though they have a vague idea of a future state. In Loango the souls of the good are said to go to God ; those of the bad appear again, and rustle in the leaves of the bushes. The fetishes are little more than charms. The ne- groes have a fetish for the wind, against thunder, for sea-fish, for river-fish, against thorns getting into the feet, against wild beasts, to protect from failing health, for good fortune, for clear eyes, for strong legs, for cheap purchases, etc. When a man is about to commit a crime, or do what he feels he ought not to do, he lays aside his fetish and covers it up, so that he may not know. It is not at all essential that a fetish should represent a human or animal figure. One common form is a red, round ball of cloth, in which the fetish priest has sewn a strong medicine, generally a vegetable Forms of extract. Tuckey describes the village fetishes, above the Yellala fetislie8- Falls, as the figure of a man, the body stuck over with bits of iron, feathers, 1 See H. H. Johnson, " The Kilima-njaro Expedition.'' Fetishism. WORSHIPPING FETISHES, CONGO. 48 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. old rags, etc., and resembling nothing so much as one of our own scare- crows. Some, however, are made even of buffalo's hair and dirty rags, or of plaited twigs. Certain things are said to be fetished, which reminds one of the tapu of the Polynesian. Children must abstain from certain foods ; if they eat of them, they are fetished. Women are fetished for eating meat the same day that it is killed. When a man applies to a Ganga or priest for a domestic fetish, he is instructed from what foods he must abstain. Witch or wizard-burning, according to Mr. Johnson, is very common among the debased tribes of the coast, and the poison-ordeal prevails witch- largely- At Pallaballa, somebody or other is suspected of having burning. caused every death by supernatural means, and the witch-doctor is called, upon to detect the guilty person, who, if unable to buy himself off, is compelled to swallow poison, which is either vomited, which means safety, or death takes place. Sometimes neither occurs, and the victim is hacked to pieces or burnt. Epileptic diseases are ascribed to the possession of spirits, and the medicine man professes to work a cure. The supposed inspiration of their priests is attended with great frenzy. In some parts the priest answers questions in the first person, as if he himself were the god. In most villages are one or two fetish-priests, generally with a group of pupils, who make the fetishes. When a person has died, the relatives will often question him for two or three hours as to why he died. In some parts the bodies of the chiefs are smoked, wrapped in a great quantity of cloth, which is increased as putrefaction goes on ; in this condition the bodies are kept for a long time. Sir R. F. Burton x has given some interesting general views of African religion. He says, " The missionary returning from Africa is often asked, vagueness "What is the religion of the people ? " If an exact man, he will of African answer, "I don't know." A missionary of twenty years' stand- ing in West Africa, an able and conscientious student, assured me that during the early part of his career he had given much time to collecting and collating negro traditions and religion. He presently found that no two men thought alike on any single subject. . . . Africans believe not in soul, nor in spirit, but in ghost. They have a material, evanescent, intelligible future ; the ghost endures only for a while and perishes. Hence the ignoble dread in East and West Africa of a death which leads to a shadowy world and eventually to utter annihilation. Dreary view Seeing nought beyond the present future, there is no hope for of the future. t]iem jn fjie graVe ; they wail and sorrow with a burden of despair. " Ame-kwisha " — he is finished — is the East African's last word concerning kinsman and friend. " All is done for ever," sing the West Africans. Any allusion to loss of life turns their black skins blue : " Yes," they explain, "it is bad to die, to leave house and home, wife and children ; no more to wear soft cloth, nor eat meat, nor ' drink ' tobacco or rum." " Never speak of that," the moribund will exclaim with a shudder. 1 " Two Trips to Gorilla Land and the Cataracts of the Congo." ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 49 THE GABOON AND OTHER WEST AFRICAN TRIBES. The Mpongwe of the Gaboon river, says Burton, have advanced a long step beyond the East Africans. " No longer contented with mere fetishes, the charms in which the dreaded ghost ' sits ' or is bound, they idols of the have invented idols. ... In Eastern Africa I know of but ^vo^gwe. one people, the Wanyika, who have certain images called ' Kisukas ' ; and they declare that this great medicine, never shown to Europeans, came from the West, and Andrew Battel (1600) found idols amongst the people whom he calls Giagas or Jagas, meaning Congoese chiefs. Moreover, the Gaboon pagans lodge their idols. Behind each larger establishment there is a dwarf hut, the miniature of a dwelling-place, carefully closed; I thought these were offices, but Hotaloga Andrews taught me otherwise. He called them in his broken English " compass houses," a literal translation of "Nago Mbwiri," and sturdily refusing me admittance, left me as wise as before. The reason afterwards proved to be, that ' Ologo, he kill man too much.' " I presently found out that he called my pocket-compass ' Mbwiri,' a very vague and comprehensive word. Men talk of the Mbwiri of a tree or a river ; it is also applied to a tutelar god ; and it means a ghost. Mbwivi In Nago Mbwiri the sense is, an idol, an object of worship, ' a wor3lllP- medicine,' in contradistinction to Munda, a talisman or charm. Every Mpongwe, woman as well as man, has some Mbwiri, to which offerings are made in times of misfortune, sickness, or danger. I afterwards managed to enter one of these rude and embrj'onal temples so carefully shub. Behind the little door of matting is a tall threshold of board ; a bench lines the far end, and in the centre stands 'Ologo,' a rude imitation of a human view of idol figure, with a gum torch p1 anted in the ground before it, ready t3mPle- for burnt-offerings. To the walls are suspended sundry mystic implements, especially basins, smeared with red and white chalk-mixture, and wooden crescents decorated with beads and ribbons." During worship certain objects are placed before the image, the supplicant at the same time jangling and shaking the Nchake, a rude beginning of the bell, the gong, the rattle, and the instruments played before idols by more advanced peoples. The beliefs of the Mpongwe as to higher powers, according to Burton, are mainly these:— 1. The First Cause they call Anyambia, a vagua 1 eing, too high and remote to interfere with human affairs, not addressed Deities of in prayer, nor represented in human form, nor lodged in temples. M.}0D£wa- 2. Subordinate to Anyambia is Mbwiri, the good god, and Onyambe, the bad spirit, whose name is never mentioned but with bated breath. " They have not only fear of, but also a higher respect for, him than for the giver of good, so difficult is it for the child-man's mind to connect the ideas of benignity and power." 3. Ovengwa is a vampire, the apparition of a dead man, tall as a tree, always winking and clearly seen, which is not the case with Ibambo and Hogo, the plurals Obambo and Ologo. There are vulgar ghosts of the departed, the causes of possession, disease and death, every- where worshipped and propitiated in private. 50 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The superstitions of the Congo country have also been well described by Burton. "Every house is stuck inside and outside with idols and fetishes, Muititudi- -each having its own jurisdiction over lightning, wind, and rain ; n°ofSCongoeSsome ac^ as scarecrows; others teach magic, avert evils, preserve tribes, health and sight, protect cattle, and command fish in the sea and river. They are in all manner of shapes, strings of mucuna and poison- beans ; carved images stuck over with feathers and tassels ; padlocks with a cowrie or a mirror set in them ; horns full of mysterious medicine ; iron- tipped poles, bones, birds' beaks and talons, skins of snakes and leopards, and so forth. No man walks abroad without his protecting charms, Nkisi or Nkizi, slung or hanging from the shoulder ; these are prophylactics against every evil to which man's frailty is heir. Like the idols, these talismans avert ill-luck, bachelorhood, childlessness, poverty, and ill-health ; they are equally powerful against the machinations of foes, natural or supernatural, against wild beasts, the crocodile, the snake and the leopard, and against wounds of lead and steel. They can produce transformation and destroy enemies, cause rain or drought, fine or foul weather, raise and humble, enrich and impoverish countries, and above all things, they are sovereign to make man brave in battle." THE GOLD-COAST TRIBES. The Bulloms and Timmanees near Sierra Leone believed in superior and inferior spirits, the former inhabiting chiefly the deepest recesses of the Bulloms and forests. Remarkable natural objects, such as very large and Timmanees. venerable trees, rocks of peculiar form rising in the midst of rivers, etc., were dedicated to these. Before they began to sow their planta-. tions they would sacrifice some animal to these spirits, to beg that their crop might abound ; for if this were neglected, they were persuaded nothing would grow there. The inferior spirits were said to reside in the outskirts or even within the villages. Every person was supposed to have one of them as his tutelary spirit, to which he never sacrificed except in case of sickness. In addition to remarkable natural objects, the Fantis regarded lakes as well as rivers with veneration. Numerous animals and serpents were con- Fanti sidered as messengers of the spirits or as incarnations of them, superstitions. jn some places the crocodile is worshipped ; in one a number of flies are carefully preserved in a small temple and honoured as fetishes. Arbitrary forms are added to the vast variety of imitations, and covered with red ochre and eggs look sufficiently appalling. The fetish priests on the Gold Coast, as in other quarters, are applied to in almost every concern of life — to detect thefts and all social misdeeds, Fetish to avert misfortune, to procure blessings, and to reveal future priests, events. As soon as a child is born the priest is sent for to bind it up, as a protection against sickness and other evils. Ventriloquism is regularly used by them as a means of maintaining their influence. Here as elsewhere the ancestor-spirits are extensively worshipped with ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 5r sacrifices and libations. Clay figures of departed chiefs are placed in groups under the village tree. The Bulloms and Timmanees, accord- „ o 'No word for ing to Winterbottom, had no fixed opinion respecting a future Bpirit or state, and did not believe that the spirits of their deceased friends appari returned to visit their former abodes, nor had they any word in their language to express "spirit" or "apparition." According to Bosnian, writing at the beginning of the last century, the Gold-Coast natives believed that immediately after death people went to another world, The other where they lived in the same character as here, and made use world- of all the offerings made by their friends and relations to them after death. They had little or no idea of future rewards and punishments. They attributed disease to the displeasure of the fetish, the malice of evil spirits, the incantation of some wizard, or the uneasiness of the spirit of some deceased relation, whose obsequies perhaps had not been properly performed. Among the Bulloms and Timmanees, when any person of con- Removal of sequence fell sick, he was immediately removed from his home to the 31ck- a town at some distance, where the witchcraft which caused his illness was supposed to be ineffectual. If recovery did not take place soon, a hut was built in a deep recess of a forest, whither he was carried, and the place of his retreat was kept a close secret. The Ashanti fetishmen before a war make a mixture of hearts of enemies, blood, and consecrated herbs. " All who have never be- Horrible fore killed an enemy," says Beecham,1 " eat of the preparation ; it "m^cine." being believed that if they did not, their energy would be secretly wasted by the haunting spirits of their deceased foes." Sometimes a dead man's body is questioned by his neighbours as to the cause of his death ; sometimes he is reproached for leaving his friends ; sometimes his spirit is besought to watch over them and protect Interroyation them from evil. Up to recent periods a chiefs death was followed of the by the slaughter of many of his slaves, and not unfrequently of his wives and friends, so that he might not be unattended in his new ex- istence. " At the end of the funeral customs," says Burton, " especially in the Old Calabar River, a small house is built upon the beach, and in it are placed the valuables possessed by the deceased, together with a bed, that the ghost may not sleep upon the floor, and a quantity of food upon the table." Major Ellis has given an admirable account of the religious ideas and practices of the Gold Coast tribes speaking the Tshi group of languages, of whom the Fantis are the chief.3 His view is, that in these tribes or £mg on religion is not connected with morals as we understand them, west African Sin to their minds means insult to or neglect of the gods ; while murder, theft, etc., are matters in which the gods take no interest, unless persuaded to do so in the interest of a faithful worshipper. The belief in the malevolent spirits of nature is strongly promoted by the priests and 1 " Ashanti and the Gold Coast." 2 " The Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast of West Africa."' By A. B. Ellis. 18&7- 5 2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. priestesses for their own gain. " They frequently talk about them and profess to have met them. They introduce their imaginary meetings with the local gods, artfully and without apparent design, into general conversa- tions. . . . Every misfortune proceeds from and can only be averted 1 y the gods ; nothing remains for man to do but to propitiate them." Till the appearance of Europeans on the Gold Coast only two general deities were worshipped, one, Bobowissi, by the southern, and the other, Bobowissi Tando, by the northern tribes. These were bslieved to have and Tando. appointed all the local deities. A yearly feast, with human sacri- fices, was held in their honour ; and their stool, or local symbol of authority, was washed in human blood. At a later date these people adopted a new Nyarkupon, g°d, with characteristics derived from intercours3 with Europeans, a new deity.' namely, Nana-nyankupon (Lord of the sky), superior to Bobo- wissi, but too distant from mortals to interfere directly in their affairs ; but he was especially considered to be the author of the dread disease, small-pox, introduced by the Europeans. He has, however, no special worship. In time of war, and when travelling, Bobowissi is still invoked, and sheep in- stead of human beings are sacrificed to him. Srahmantin and Sasabonsum are deities intermediate between the gen< ral and the local deities ; or rather, they are names for a class of deities, „ . but are believed in each locality to designate individual deities. Srahmantin J & and The former, a female deity, always lives among the huge silk- cotton trees ; the latter may also b3 found in hills or forests where ihe soil is red ; both are malignant. Indeed, Sasabonsum is the most malignant of all the gods, and waylays and eats solitary travellers. Once angered, oven unintentionally, he can never be propitiated. Red soil is his Epecial abode, the colour being caused by the blood of the victims he has destroyed. Originally human victims were offered to him, but within European influence a sheep is now the offering. He is also an earthquake god ; and in Ashanti several persons are always put to death after an earth- quake as a sacrifice to Sasabonsum and in hope of satiating his cruelty for the time. "In 1881 a slight earthquake shock threw down a portion of the wall of the king's residence in Coomassie. The king, Mensah, consulted the pri< sts as to what should be done, and the latter declared that the damage \\ aa the act of Sasalonsum, and that the ruined portion must be rebuilt of mud (sirish) moistened with the blood of virgins. Fifty young girls were accordingly slaughtered, and the wall was rebuilt with swish kneaded in i heir blood." Srahmantin also waylays solitary travellers, but does not eat ih« m : they are supposed to be kept by her for four or five months, learning the mysteries of her worship, when they are returned to mankind as fully qualified priests or priestesses of the deity. The multitude of local deities, termed Bohsum, apparently meaning "pro- duoer of calamities," is so great that we cannot mention them in any detail. Local deities. Tt is evident to residents on the Gold Coast that their malignity has diminished in proportion to the spread of European influence ; but beyond that area human sacrifices and licentious and cruel practices WITCH DOCTOR CURIXG WITCHCRAFT, COXGO. 54 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. continue in undiminished strength. Various days are sacred to local gods, and the priests are ready, for a sufficient consideration, to use their influence to gain for any. individual the objects he may desire, or to avenge any injury or wrong done to him. It is the height of sacrilege to cut down a bush or a tree, or disturb the soil where a local deity resides, and such insult is often visited with death. Each god assists the people in his own manner: a war- god by stimulating their courage and destroying the enemy ; a god of pesti- lence by sending an epidemic among the enemy; a river-god by obstructing the passage of the enemy, or overwhelming him when crossing the stream. The name Bohsum is also given to the tutelary deity of particular com- munities of people, town or market companies, or families ; and these are supposed to be appointed by The Bohsum * ne local deities through the agency of a t— N» or tutelary priest. While the local deities dwell in ' ;«*i'v -W% their own local dwelling-places, — in forest, hill, river, or sea, — they sometimes enter the images which are their symbols ; but with regard to the Bohsums, they have their ordinary dwelling-place in certain material objects assigned by the local deities through the priests. It is to these objects that the term fetish (see p. 10) is generally applied, as well as to the Suhman of p. 55. The following is, in brief, Major Ellis's account of the mode of obtaining such an object at the pre- sent time. When a new town-company is formed, its members go to the priest of a local deity with presents, and acquaint him with their wishes. If their gifts are satisfactory, he goes with them to the abode of the local deity, with which he communicates by mysterious sounds and ceremonies. On a day ap- pointed for receiving an answer, the priest performs a weird dance, foams at the mouth, rolls his eyes, and utters strange sounds, as if possessed by the local god. He lets fall certain words which are the god's instruc- tions to go to a certain place and take from it a stone or some earth, or to make a wooden figure from the wood of. a certain tree. Having carried out these instructions and poured some rum on to the ground, he takes the object, which is now believed to be the abode of a deity (Bohsum), to some spot near where the majority of the company live, and p^ces it on the ground. Branches from some neighbouring tree are planted round it, and the whole is enclosed with a palm-stick fence. These branches become what are often termed fetish-trees, and supposed to be worshipped. A\ ben such a tree falls or is blown down, the company or the market is be- lieved to have lost the protection of its deity owing to some offence given to him ; and. on application to a priest, the offence is atoned for by ceremonies, and a new dwelling-place for the god is constructed. Very similar proceed- AYF.ST AFRICAN FETISH. (Wit'i a rope round its neck, as if banged. | ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 55 ings take place in relation to the guardian deities of towns and families, although, in the latter case, a dream often furnishes guidance as to the object to be selected as the abode of the deity. If a family should be visited with persistent ill-luck, sometimes the priests put the Bohsum to the test by fire ; if it is unconsumed, it is con- sidered to be genuine, and entitled to renewed gifts ; if it is even The famiiy slightly injured by the fire, it is thrown aside, and a new one Bohsum. must be chosen. The head of the family looks after the Bohsum's wants, and its festival is held on appointed days, when all wear white, either cloth or paint, and appropriate offerings are made. But individuals also have their special deities, termed " Suhman," each of these being a subordinate spirit belonging to Sasabonsum, obtainable by the individual for himself without a priest. The chief function of these is to destroy parsons who have injured or offended the individual. To get a Suhman, a man goes into a dark forest recess where a local Sasabonsum resides, and, after pouring a little rum on the ground, he cuts a small branch from a tree and carves it into a rough; resemblance to a human figure, or he takes a stone and binds it round with fibres (vascular bundles) of bamboos, or he takes the root of a plant or some red earth and makes it into a paste Avith blood or rum, putting it into a little pan and sticking the red tail-feathers of a parrot into it. He then cadis- upon a spirit of Sasabonsum to enter it, promising to pay it due reverence. It is then said that he picks some leaves and squeezes their juice upon the object, say- ing, "Eat this, and speak." Then, if a spirit has entered it, a low hissing noise is heard. He then obtains answers in the same way to several ques- tions as to how the Suhman is to be kept and treated. But if after all this the man finds that things do not go well with him, he concludes that a spirit did not enter the object, and he throws it away, but not until he has made an offering to it in case it should be angry. It is, however, an ex- ceptional thing for natives to have these Suhmans, and those who have them are much dreaded, being supposed to be able to procure the death of those who offend them. This account supports Mr. Ellis's statement, " that the be- lief that the negroes of the Gold Coast take at random any ordinary object and invest it with the character of a god is entirely without foundation. . . . The indwelling god cannot be lost sight of, because he so frequently manifests himself by leaving the object in which he ordinarily dwells and entering the body of a priest. . . . The negroes of the Gold Coast are always conscious that their offerings and worship are not paid to the inani- mate object itself, but to the indwelling god ; and every native with whom I have conversed upon the subject has laughed at the possibility of it being supposed that he could worship or offer sacrifice to some such object as a stone." It may be thought by some that it is immaterial to distinguish be- tween worship of an idol as a material object and worship of a spirit which has taken up more or less permanent abode in such an object. But besides the paramount necessity for accuracy, it will appear to most candid students that there is all the difference in the world between worship of a material 56 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. obi. . t ana worship of a spirit, however limited or degraded or evil in its re- sults the beHef may be. There has been tco much tendency in the past to estimate uncivilised peoples by their supposed low position as worshippers of inanimate objects selected at random. Major Ellis is also satisfied that the natives of the Gold Coast never MOON DAKCE, CENTRAL AFRICA. think they can coerce their goels, nor attempt to do so. It is by propitiation Ail d and flattery, and promises of offerings and worship that the deities coercion of arc bi li< v< d to be influenced; and the natives so implicitly believe fetishes . in the superhuman power of their gods, and hold them generally in sii'h awe, that they wonld expect a terrible calamity to follow any ill— u> ;i ment even of the Bohsum or Suhman. In other respects the religion of the ( I old Coast has a ir.ark» d resemblance to the animism of otler races. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 57 THE DAHOMANS. The extreme instance of human sacrifice as connected with religion at the present clay is to be found in Dahomey. Extraordinary as it may appear, the horrible and frequent massacres which still exist in Dahomey, to the disgrace of mankind, are really manifestations of filial piety. The Dahoman sovereign must enter Dead-land with royal state, accompanied by a ghostly court of leopard wives, head wives, birthday wives, Afa wives, eunuchs, singers, drummers, king's devils, band, and soldiers. TnegTand This is the object of the " Grand Customs," when the victims may cu8toms- amount to five hundred. Every year, however, the firstfruits of war and all criminals must be sent to join the king's retinue, and this accounts for the annual customs. However trivial an action is done by the king, such as inventing a new drum, being visited by a white man, or even removing from one palace to another, it must be dutifully reported by some male or female messenger (slain) to the paternal ghost. The king of Dahomey on a certain day cut off the heads of four men, a deer, and a monkey. One man was to go to all the markets and tell all the spirits what the 0bject of king was about to make for his father ; the second was to go to the \ 1 i • 1 11 At. customs, all the waters and tell all the animals there ; the third to all the roads and tell all the spirit-travellers ; the fourth to the firmament and tell all the hosts there ; the deer was to go to the forests and tell the beasts ; the monkey to go to all the swamps and climb the trees and tell all the animals there. A man had been previously killed at the late king's tomb to carry the message to him. The supreme deity of the Dahomans is Mau, " the unknown god." Mau is also the moon, a feminine principle which, in conjunction with Lisa or Se, a male spirit, representing the sun, made man. Mau is too Deities of high to care for man, and is neither feared nor loved ; yet it is Dallomans- believed that he can be influenced by the intercession of many fetishes or worshipped objects. All kinds of natural objects are among these. A man about to undertake anything new seeks supernatural aid, and, it is said, often takes the first object, bird or beast, stock or stone, seen in the morning on leaving his house, and makes it his fetish. If he is successful, it is worshipped; if not, better help is sought. Mau is said to have an assistant who records the good or evil deeds of every person by means of a stick, the good being notched at one end, the bad at the other. "When any one dies, his body is judged by the balance between the two ends of the stick. If the good preponderates, it is permitted to join the spirit in Dead- land ; but if the evil outweighs the good, it is utterly destroyed and a new body created for the spirit.1 The source of much of the Dahoman religion has been the little kingdom of Whydah. We have a record of their religion dating Snake as far back as 17C0, when Bosman wrote. They had then three ^^g^0' orders of gods, the first the Danh-ghwe, a python, the supreme 1 J. A. Skei tchly : " Dahomey as it Is." 53 THE. WORLD'S RELIGIONS. bliss and general good, with a thousand snake-wives or priests of both sexes ; its influence cannot be meddled with by the other orders, which are subject to it. Formerly, whoever killed one of these pythons was put to death. This snake is believed to be almost omnipotent in procuring the welfare of its devotees, and no important undertaking is begun without sacrificing to it. A number of living pythons are kept in the snake-house in every considerable village. The worshipper goes to the snake-house and pays his fee to the priest, who assures him that his prayer shall be heard. The second order, the Atin-bodun, is represented by various lofty and beautiful trees, especially the silk-cotton (Bombax), and the ocean Loko or poison tree. They are believed to be able to cure and worship. averj. diseases rplie tnjr^ -m orcjer 0f t]ie g0(jg js jju, the ocean, whose priest is a great dignitary at Whydah, and at stated times repairs to the beach to b?g the sea-god not to be boisterous, and throws in rice, corn, oil, beans, cloth, etc. Sometimes the king sends as a sacrifice a man in a hammock with a special dress, stool,, and umbrella ; he is taken out to sea and thrown to the sharks. This system of deities is now established at Dahomey, with a fourth, " So," the thunder-fetish, who has a thousand •• wives ;' or priests. Burton has given a list of some of the very numerous spirits and fetishes he found powerful in Dahomey.1 Afa is the messenger of fetishes Danoman and of deceased friends. Its priests are called Bukonos. The fetishes, people say, " The priest who is most cunning takes to Afa," meaning that it pays best ; consequently Bukonos swarm. When Afa predicts evil, the following ceremony must be gone through. A mat is spread on some ground cleared near the house or in the bush, and a peg is driven through the mat. The priest taps a small cymbal with an iron rod, while the worshipper pours upon the wood first water, and then the blood of a fowl, the body of which is then handed to the priest. The leopard, the crocodile, and the hippopotamus are of course included ; but among the most interesting are Kpate, the first Whydah man who brought a ship to anchor by waving a cloth tied to a long pole, and led the captain into the town ; and Aizan, one of the street gods, which protect the market and the a cone of clay with a pipkin or a stone at the top or base, on which consecrated offerings are placed. The Dahomans also worship their own heads, in order to procure good fortune. The worshipper, after providing a fowl and other offerings, bathes, Head dresses in pure white*, and sits on a clean mat. Then an old rship. woman> witj1 tjie tjp 0f jier middle finger dipped in water, touches successively his forehead, crown, neck, and breast. She then breaks a Kola fruit into its natural divisions, throws them down like dice, chooses a lucky piece, which she causes a bystander to chew, and with his saliva retouches t he same parts as before. The fowl is then killed and boiled, its head and other parts being touched both before and after. Meanwhile rum and water are drunk by those present. 1 " A Mission to Gele'.e, King of Dahome." ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AFRICA. 59 The adoption of the fetish-priest profession is, usually attended by an ecstasy, during which the candidate rushes in distraction to the idol and falls fainting to the ground. "When he recovers, the chief priest Initiation informs him what fetish has come to him, and this is adopted for of fetish- life. He removes to the priests' quarter and by degrees learns the special passwords and the ceremonies of fetishism. After two or three years, he is brought home by his relatives, who make large offerings to the fetish priests. Many retain ordinary callings, but they have many privileges. One of the mos' peculiar ideas of the Dahomans is that the next world is their home, while this is only their plantation, and the only world in which rewards and punishments exist. It is even pretended that visiting the fetish-priests can visit it. A man, when sick, often believes J)Qa-d-lB;ad- himself summoned by some ancestral ghost. He consults certain priests, such as those of the small-pox or the poison tree, and pays a fee for him to descend to Dead-land and get him excused. The priest covers himself with a cloth, and after a trance reports that he found the ghosts eating, drinking, and merry-making. According to Skertchly, another singular belief is that of the possibility of the same spirit being in more than one place at the same time. This was exemplified in the So-Sin custom, where Gezu's ghost was in his shed, on his war-stool, and in his own fetish-priestess at the same time. Again, a ghost will sometimes remain in Dead-land and at the same time come back to earth in a new-born infant ; so nearly all the king's children are regarded as the spirits of the old kings. Their mind does not grasp the idea of a god incorporeal and omnipresent ; so the deity must be worshipped through a mediator in a tangible form. " Their religion must not be confounded with polytheism, for they only worship one Fetishes as god, Mau ; but propitiate him through the intervention of fetishes, mediators- who are not inferior deities, but only beings of an intermediate order, who have powerful influence for good or evil with Man. THE YORUBAS OF ABEOKUTA. At Abeokuta, where another large branch of the Yorubas is settled, Burton found certain points of belief settled, others very variable. Before two days' residence in the city, he says, you hear of Shango and Beliefs in Oro. The latter personifies the executive power, or public police, Abeokuta- deified, or " punishment." When a criminal is killed, he is " given to Oro." He is supposed to haunt the woods, and to appear nightly to shango strike terror. Women must fly within doors at the sound of his ajL name in the streets, under penalty of a violent death. Shango is derived doubtless from an ancestor. He went alive to heaven, where he reigns, hunts, fishes, and fights. Whole series of relations are assigned to him ; he is the deity of thunder, lightning, and fire, and favours the good, especially hunters, fishermen, and warriors. The Creator is called Olorun, meaning lord of the sky. Though his 60 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. personality is vague, the Egbas say, " Olorun bless you," " Olorun give oiorun 3'0U children, farms, cowries," " Olorun aku," salutation to God. and other They talk of seeing him after death. It is doubtful, however, whether some of these ideas may not have sprung from contact with Mussulmans. Among the subordinate deities Obatala is chief, who created the first man ; Afa is the revealer of futurity and the patron of marriage and childbirth; Ogun is the god of blacksmiths and armoureis, of hunters and warriors. The worshipper's own head is adored as "Ori"; also the foot, when proceeding on a journey. Oriskako is the patron of farms. Eshu is an evil being, meaning " the rejected," often identified with the Hebrew devil. Egugun, meaning " bones," is supposed to be a dead man risen from the grave. He is, however, an imposture, nous intended to terrify slaves, women, and children — like the Mumbo- 8' Jumbo of Bonny. To these, as being palpable impostures, we cannot devote space, nor to the infinite variety of sorceries which only furnish examples of one world-wide subject. Beginning in a simple awe of unknown powers, and a tendency to believe those who imagined or professed that they knew their secrets, they have branched into all the variety of forms of imposture and quackery ; and when we know one, we know all, though we may be perpetually astonished at the depth of human credulity. A large number of the peoples of the Soudan and of Northern Africa have been converted to Mahometanism. Little is known of their primordial religion, or of the present beliefs of those who are not Mahometans. But it appears that many of them have beliefs similar to these held on the West Coast of Africa, while others have no religious beliefs at all. The illustra- tion which heads this chapter represents a series of wooden figures, life-size, seen by Schweinfurth, erected over the grave of a Bongo chief. Roughly carved, they depict the chief followed in procession by his wives and children. Many of the races visited by Schweinfurth, west of the Upper Nile, appeared to have little or no religion. The Niam-niam always take an augury before commencing anything important, by rubbing a smooth block of wood upon a smooth stool, the surfaces being moistened with a drop or two of water. The undertaking will prosper if the wood glides easily along. Many forms of ordeal are also in vogue. The forest is supposed to be the abode of malignant spirits, which talk to one another in the rustling of the leaves. MANDAN PLACE OF SKULLS. CHAPTER IV. aboriginal ftdigions of Smrrira. Beliefs of the Eskimo— The Angakoks— Witchcraft -North American Indians— Genaral religious ideas— Gods of the Iroquois— The Creek Indians— The Haidahs— The Nootkas— Californian tribes —The Dakotas — Wakan — The Onkteri— Sacrifices— Various deities —Powers of the Wakan men — Manetos, or guardian spirits— Totems— Duality of the soul — The Happy Hunting Grounds- Sacrifices of dogs— The cold hell of the Mandans— Beliefs about the future— Festivals of the Iroquois —Creek festivals of firstfruits —Funeral customs— A circle of skulls —Funeral rites of the Creeks —Burial among the Comanches— The Central Americans — The Aztec religion — Teooallis or temples —Prayers -Burial of a king— Religion of the Mayas and Quiches— The South Americans —The Indians of Guiana— The spirit- world— Existence after death— Ideas of heaven — Powers of spirits— The Indians' worship— The Kenaima or vengeance-taker— The peaiman or medicine man— Burial customs —Belief s of Brazilian tribes —The Uaup^s— The Araucanian deities - -The future state -The gods of the Patagonians -The wanderers without —A diviner's per- formance—Funeral rites and mourning— Burying the skeletons— Fuegian good and bad spirits —The Incas children of the Sun— The gods of the Peruvians —Temples — Sacrifices— Human offerings— The priesthood— Festivals— The Virgins of the Sun— Moral inquisition— The future life.— The Chibehas. THE ESKIMO. MANY of the beliefs attributed to the Eskimo, as also to the American Indians, bear signs of having been developed since Europeans intro- duced their religious beliefs ; and it is not easy to be certain that we have ascertained the genuine aboriginal beliefs. Dr. Rink is the most satisfactory investigator of the Eskimo, especially those of Greenland. He Beliefs of the concludes that the primitive Eskimo did not speculate as to the Eskimo- origin of the world, but had an animistic religion, recognising the separate existence of the soul after death. They believed in nature-powers or owners, each having defined limits. These powers are known as inuas, and the inuas of certain mountains or lakes, of plrysical strength, and of eating, were spoken of. The earth was believed to rest upon pillars, and the under- world, warm and rich in food, was the heaven of the Eskimo, while the upper- world, beyond the blue sky, cold and deficient in food, was dreaded as a dreary residence. The only approach to a supreme ruler was in the 01 6 2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. idea of tornarsuk, the power which was appealed to by the angakoks, or wizards, to enable them to influence the invisible powers. It is remarkable how great a resemblance there is between the shamans of Siberia and the angakoks of the Eskimo. The latter are trained by The older angakoks from infancy, and subsequently disciplined by Angakoks. fasting and invoking Tornarsuk in solitary places; finall}T Tornarsuk appears and provides the novice with a tornak, or guardian spirit, whom he may rail to his aid at any time. Later, the angakok was said to gain control over many tornaks, including inuas of land and sea, the souls of the dead, or of animals. To aid their followers, they used simple medical arts, also summoned their tornaks, and pretended to do many extraordinary things, such as repairing a soul, divining and conjuring. The intercourse with the tornak was held in a dark house in the presence of auditors. " The angakok was tied with his hands behind his back, and his head between his legs, and thus placed on the floor beside a drum and a suspended skin, the rattling of which was to accompany the playing of the drum. The auditors then began a song, which, being finished, the angakok proceeded to invoke the tornak, accompanying his voice by the skin and the drum. The arrival of the tornak was known by a peculiar sound and the appearance of a light or fire. If only information or counsel were required, the question was heard, as well as the answering voice from without, the latter generally being somewhat ambiguous." Sometimes the angakok made a spirit flight through a hole which was said to appear of itself in the roof, in order to accomplish what was necessary. The angakok gave counsel in all cases involving knowledge beyond that of humanity in general, discovered the causes of disasters and the fate of missing persons, procured favourable weather and success in hunting, and consoled the dying if their death appeared inevitable. No doubt, while upholding superstition, the angakoks possessed most of the higher knowledge and intellect of the people. Witchcraft, counteracting the influence of the angakoks, and perhaps believed to depend upon an evil power opposed to Tornarsuk, was practised wit n ft as a means °f selfish gain or of procuring the injury of others, by people who for the most part kept their actions in the background, concealed from the angakoks. Magic spells, sorcery, and various parts of human or animal bodies, were made use of by these persons. The angakoks also used certain recognised spells and invocations sung with particular tunes ; these were supposed to have power of themselves, and were some- times expressly addressed to the souls of ancestors. These invocations were chiefly practised by old men. Amulets and charms were in full use; but a rather distinctive feature of the Eskimo was the art of making artificial annuals, which were secretly made and then sent out to destroy the maker's enemies. THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. The multiplicity of tribes in both North and South America is so great and the resemblances among their beliefs are so clear, that it is necessary ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 63 to a large extent to group them. The main features of their religious beliefs can be shortly stated. They had a belief in beneficent General re- divinities in all nature, but it is doubtful whether the idea of a li&ious ldeas- single personal divinity had been developed by them previous to intercourse with Europeans. The number of spirits they believed in was practically unlimited. Communication with them was in the hands of medicine-men, who, while possessing such knowledge as had been handed down from generation to generation, were also to a large extent conjurors and magicians? and professed to possess the power of bringing on rain and storms, as well as the gifts of second sight and of prophecy. The Iroquois may be taken as types. They appear to have believed in one supreme good spirit, who not only created the world, but adapted all creation to the wants of man. They also believed in an evil spirit, Gods of the brother of the good, and also eternal, and having some creative Ir°rr< >\v by laughter ; they shiver when warm, and pant and perspire when cold ; they feel perfect assurance in danger, and are terrified when safe ; falsehood to them is truth, and truth falsehood; good is their evil, and evil their good. Turning now to the powers claimed by or believed to reside in the Dakota s or wakan men, we may say, comprehensively, that they include all f that is ascribed to the gods. They are believed to pass through a the succession of inspirations with different classes of divinities till wakan-men. ^ey ^^ fully icakanized and prepared for human incarnation. They have imbibed their spirit, and learnt all the chants, rites, and dances required by the gods ; they are supposed to be taught how to inflict diseases and heal them, to manufacture weapons and impart to them the tonwan power of the gods, and to apply paints so as to protect from enemies. To establish their claims, these men and women lay hold of all that is strange and mysterious, and assume familiarity with it, often predict what will happen, and assert that they have brought it about. They are most in- genious in devising proofs of their divine inspiration. "As a priest," says Mr. Pond, " with all the assurance of an eye- witness, the wakan man bears testimony for the divinities, reveals their character and will, dictates chants and prayers, institutes dances, feasts and sacrificial rites, defines sin and its opposite. . . . Sin consists in any want of conformity to, or transgression of, the arbitrary rules imposed by the priest, or want of respect for his person ; and holiness consists in conformity to these rules, and well-expressed respect for the wakan men ; while the re- wards and punishments are of such a nature that they may be appreciated I iv the grossest senses." In reference to war the wakan man is supreme. He makes and conse- crates spears and tomahawks containing the spirit of the gods, and only bestows them on humble suppliants who go through fastings, prayers, and <>t her rites of an exhausting nature. These weapons are sacredly preserved, wrapped in a cloth cover, and laid outside of the tent every day, except in st onus. As doctors, the wakan men are believed to have in their bodies animals or gods, which give them great powers of suction and inspiration. With great ceremonies they violently suck out diseases from the affected parts of patients. It seems to be the general impression that there are wakan men who can repel any foe to health until the superior gods order otherwise ; but it is difficult to obtain their aid. They can inflict diseases ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 67 as a punishment for want of respect to themselves, and death is often be- lieved to be the result of this wakan power. Every object is believed to have an animating spirit, and in many- cases the Indians select birds and beasts as personal " manetos." Maneto is a synonym for spirit, and may have a good or bad meaning Manetos as attached to it. Among the Algonquins Manabozho was a sort of guardian terrene Jove, who, though he lived on earth, could perform all things. He survived a deluge which is spoken of in their mj^thology, hav- ing climbed to the summit of a high mountain, where he remained till the subsidence of the waters. The four cardinal points are personified, and each has its distinctive sphere. Dreams they believed to be direct communica- tions from the spirit-world. An entire army would retrace its steps in accordance with the dreams of the priest, who carried a " medicine-sack " containing carved or stuffed images of animals, charms and bones, held most sacred. The Indian youth anxiously sought dreams, often fasting in soli- tude many days, till he was impressed with the image of some animal, which he took as his maneto, and followed the occupation it indicated. The manetos are clearly often identifiable with the totems of the clan or of the individual. The totem of a North American Indian protects him, and he refrains from killing it. The whole of a clan or tribe are -,° ill Totems, believed to be descended from the common totem, and are bound to support and protect each other. They are bound to respect it, and if it is a species of animal or plant, it must not be killed, plucked, or injured. Sometimes they may not even touch or look at it. The totem is supposed to benefit the clansmen or the individual, and to give information by means of omens. The totem mark is affixed as a signature to treaties and other docu- ments, and various ceremonies at birth, marriage, death, etc., are connected with the totem. " It is an opinion of the Indians," says Schoolcraft, " I know not how universal, that there are duplicate souls, one of which remains with the body, while the other is free to depart on excursions during sleep. Duality After the death of the body, the soul departs for the Indian of the soul, elysium, or land of the dead ; at which time a fire is lighted by the Chip- pewas on the newly-made grave, and rekindled nightly for four days, the period allowed for the person to reach the Indian elysium. . . . Having requested a Chippewa Indian to explain the duality of the soul, ' It is known,' he replied, ' that during sleep, while the body is stationary, the soul roams over wide tracts of country, visiting scenes, persons and places at will. Should there not be a soul at the same time to abide with the body, it would be as dead as earth, and could never reappear in future life/ ' As to the future life, their belief in the " Happy Hunting-Grounds," so often referred to, is with the majority firm and unquenchable. Mr. W. W. Warren, himself descended from the Ojibwas on the maternal TheHappy side, expressed their beliefs thus : " The Ojibwa believes that his Hunting- a u Grounds soul or shadow, after the death of the body, follows a wide, beaten path which leads towards the west, and that it goes to a country abounding 63 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. in everything that the Indian covets on earth— game in abundance, dancing and rejoicing. The soul enters a long lodge, in which all his relatives for generations past are congregated, and they welcome him with gladness. To reach this land of joy and bliss, he crosses a deep and rapid water." This water they have to cross on a huge snake. Those who have been good are free from pain ; those who have been bad are haunted by the phantoms of the persons or things they have injured. If a man has destroyed much property, he is obstructed by the phantoms of the destroyed property; if he has been cruel to his clogs or horses, they also torment him after death. The mention of clogs reminds one of the frequency with which they are sacrificed by Indians, as being valuable offerings. Two, three or five dogs sacrifices of are customary offerings. At the mouth of the Qu'appelle Eiver, dogs. ail Indian, in June, 1858, set his net and caught a large fish which was new to him. He at once pronounced it a manitou, returned it to the water, and sacrificed five dogs to appease the supposed spirit. Catlin says that the Mandans (a tribe included by Schoolcraft among the Dakotas), who lived in a very cold climate, described their hell as barren ^ ..,..„ and hideous, covered with eternal snows and ice. Their heaven The cola hell ' of the Was warm and delightful, abounding in buffaloes and other ^ ans' luxuries. Their Great Spirit dwelt in the former, and received and punished those who had offended him. The bad spirit they believed to reside in paradise, still tempting the happy. The beliefs we have given may be contrasted with those of other tribes who believed that the good spirit will receive all, without exception, in the Beliefs about Happ}7- Huiiting-Ground, and with those tribes who had so little the future, conception of soul or immortality that missionaries found it ex- ceedingly difficult to explain them. Among the Californians were some tribes who identified death with annihilation, yet were afraid to pronounce the name of a deceased person lest he should rise from dark oblivion. " The Cahrocs," says Bancroft,1 " have a distinct conception of future reward and punishment, and suppose that the spirit, on its journey after death, comes to t wo roads, one strewn with flowers, and leading to the bright western land beyond the great waters ; the other, bristling with thorns and briars, lead- ing to a place full of deadly serpents, where the wicked must wander for ever. The Tolewahs place heaven behind the sun, and picture hell as a dark place where souls shiver for ever before the cold winds, and are harassed by fiends. The Modocs' spirit-land is situated in the air above the earthly home, where souls hover about, inciting the living to good and evil. The A I l«' Tezcuco built a nine-storied temple, with a starry roof above, in honour of a deity not represented by an image, called Tloquenhuaque, " he who is all in himself" ; or Ipalnemoan, " he by whom we live " ; in his honour only incense and flowers were offered, and no bloody sacrifices. Surely here we TEOTCAOMIQUI, MEXICAN GODDESS OF DEATH (AFTER BANCROFT). have a marked Asiatic influence. The ordinary Mexican religion was distinctly polytheistic, and we may gather that some of their gods had been worshipped for a very long period, by the great number of functions and epithets concentrated upon them. Whether Tozcatlipoca, one of the highest gods, was a deified ancestor or not, he conformed to this idea by 72 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS having prayers for all kinds of help addressed to him. Tonatiuh and Metztli, the sun and moon ; Centeotl, goddess of maize and mother of the gods ; Tlazolteotl, goddess of pleasure ; Tezcatzoncatl, god of strong drink, are specimens of Mexican gods ; but the predominant idea in their mind is shown by I heir chief god being the god of war, Huitzilopochtli. There were als- 1 many native spirits of the hills and groves, etc. The Aztecs were equally Teocams, or remarkable for the number and size of their temples, called temples, teocallis, or god's houses. They were pyramidal, and rose by suc- ire terraces to lofty platforms. The great temple of the god of war in the city of Mexico had a base 375 by 300 feet, and rising by five steep terraces to 86 feet high, with flights of steps at the angles. On the platform were two tower-like temples of three stories, containing great stone images and altars. The gods were predominantly worshipped with human sacrifices. There were many festivals, each marked by its special variety of sacrifice and celebration. Before the war-gocl there was an eternal fire and a stone of sacrifice, on which the victim, usually a captive, was laid, for the priest to cut open his breast and tear out his heart and hold it up before the god. -From the terrace were visible seventy other temples within the great square enclosure, each with images and blazing fires ; while in the Tzompantli, or skull-place, thousands of victims' skulls were built up to form towers. At Cholula was the much larger hemispherical temple of the god Quetzalcoatl, the rival to Tezcatlipoca. That the prayers of these people were genuine religious utterances, ma}T be gathered from the following extracts from a prayer to the last- Prayers mentioned god on behalf of the poor : " 0 our lord, protector, most strong and compassionate, invisible and impalpable, thou art the giver of life ; lord of all and lord of battles, I present myself here before thee to say some few words concerning the need of the poor people, the people of none estate or intelligence. Know, O lord, that thy subjects and servants suffer a sore poverty and desolateness. The men have no garments nor the women to cover themselves with. . . . When they sell nothing, they sit down sadly by some fence, or wall, or in some corner, licking their lips and gnawing their nails for the longing that is in them, . . . 0 our Lord, in whose power it is to give all content, consolation, sweetness, softness, prosperity, and riches — for thou alone art lord of all g«««l— have mercy upon them, for they are thy servants." But we cannot but take a gloomy view of a religion based so largely upon human sacrifices and cannibalism, on penances involving the drawing of blood from the body, and other cruel rites. "The funeral rites of the Mexicans," says Mr. Tylor, "are best seen in the ceremonies at the death of a king. The corpse laid out in state was Burial of provided by the priest with a jug of water for his journey and with bunches of cut papers to pass him safely through each danger of the road. They gave him garments to protect him from the cutting wind and buried a little dog by his side to carry him across the nine waters. Then the royal body was invested in the mantles of his patron ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 73 gods, especially that of the war-god." In earlier times the king was buried on a throne with his most valued possessions and his slain attendants around him. At a later period, when cremation had been adopted, the body of STATUE OR IDOL AT COPAN, HONDURAS (AFTER STEPHENS). the king was carried to the funeral pile by attendant chiefs and servants. and afterwards a great number of wives and slaves of the deceased were sacrificed and their bodies burnt, after solemn exhortation to serve him faithfully in the next world. 74 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The Mayas of Yucatan and the Quiches of Guatemala had a funda- mentally similar religion, though it is much less well-known. At Uxmal and other places are the remains of larger and more magnificent the Mayas pyramidal temples or sacrificial platforms than in Mexico. Their *" priests were more powerful even than in Mexico, and the chief priests belonged to the royal families. The festivals observed were very numerous, and the people always made a sacrifice before commencing any important undertaking. Human sacrifices with cannibalism were frequent, as well as the drawing of blood from penitents' bodies. THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS. Beginning with the tribes inhabiting Guiana, we find that the most important recent study of the religions of the Indians of British Guiana The Indians has been made by Mr. Everard Im Thurm (see his valuable of Guiana. work, " Among the Indians of Guiana"). He bases their system, if it can be called such, upon the belief that every human being has a soul or spirit distinct from the body. In dreams the spirit wanders and acts just as really as in waking life. Visions also are real, and may be produced by narcotics, stimulants, and fasting ; in the course of these a spirit may wander and hold communion with other spirits. The spirit of a man may pass into an animal and even into inanimate objects ; and the Indian also believes that animals and plants and inanimate objects have their own spirits. Rock-spirits may move and often occasion The injuries to man, by causing the rock to fall upon him ; similarly spint-worid. with many other natural phenomena, ascribed to the intention of the spirits of the objects concerned. All strange objects are looked upon with awe, as being inhabited by spirits which are likely to occasion evil even if criticised or examined. Diseases too are often believed to be occasioned by spirits, and Mr. W. H. Brett, in his " Indian Tribes of Guiana," has narrated how the Caribs on the Pomeroon river, being at- tacked by a dangerous epidemic, fled far into the forest, in their flight cutting down large trees and laying them across the path, to prevent the disease-spirits from following them. In every view which these Indians take of the spirit- world, it is regarded as composed of beings not very unlike those of the material world, and the Existence spirits differ chiefly in their degrees of strength and cunning. after death, rj^ facfc 0f continued existence of the spirit after death of the body is implied in this, and in many of their funeral customs ; but this existence is not definitely imagined to be everlasting. " As long as the memory of a dead man survives," says Mr. Im Thurm, " either in the minds of his former companions or in tradition, he is supposed to exist ; but no question as to whether this existence is or is not to be prolonged for ever, has ever been formulated in the Indian mind." There is no belief as to rewards and punishments being meted out after death. It is usually supposed that the spirits of the dead remain on earth in the places where they lived when in ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 75 the body. Several times Mr. Im Thurm was told by Indians that they hoped to become white men. They have an idea of a kind of heaven beyond the sky, but it is just a repetition of earth. From it they believe their ancestors came. Rochefort, writing of the Caribs of the West Indies, the ancestors of the ideas of Caribs of Guiana, says that they believed their brave men neaven- would live after death in happy islands, where their enemies, the Arawaks, would be their slaves ; but that the cowards of their own tribe would be slaves to the Arawaks in a barren land beyond the mountains. This con- firms the very apt expression of Im Thurm, " the Indians know of no heaven, but only of other countries." The Indians of Guiana have no notion of spirits which have always been spirits, or of spirits possessing power over others, except so far as they may have more strength or cunning. On one occasion during an powers of eclipse of the sun the Arawak men among whom Mr. Im Thurm sp"-1*3- was, rushed from their houses with loud shouts and yells. They explained that a fight was going on between the sun and the moon, and that they were shouting to frighten and so to part them. The Indians have names meaning " the ancient one," " the ancient one in the sky," " our father," and " our maker." But to these names the attributes of a god are not attached. They seem to indicate a belief that their ancestors or makers came there from some other country, " sometimes said to be that entirely natural country which is separated from Guiana by the ocean of the air." As to worship, the Indian, not troubling himself about the source of good things or regarding them as the result of his own efforts, does not worship good spirits. All evil is, however, inflicted upon him by The Indians' evil spirits, and them he propitiates. He does not mention or worshiP- look at certain rocks and other objects ; he avoids eating certain animals whose spirits are malignant, especially those which are not native to his country. Before shooting a cataract for the first time, or when a sculptured or remarkable natural object is seen, the Indian averts the ill-will of the spirits belonging to them by rubbing capsicum pods in his eyes. These he almost always carries with him. The idea connected with this practice is that by making himself temporarily blind he renders himself invisible to the object of dread. Two notable beliefs of the Guiana Indians are thus summarised. " From the kenaimas come nearly all injuries, and these the peai-man cures." A kenaima is one who uses the power of separation kenaima between body and spirit in order to inflict vengeance; he is or vengeance- bound to slay some man, in obedience to some custom or senti- ment; and, by transference, ills are regarded as being wrought by some kenaima, known or unknown, in the body or out of it. The kenaima, in addition to forms of vengeance by murder, poison, or disease, can enter any animal, and thus, when attacked by any beast of prey, the Indian regards it as a kenaima. The peai-man, or medicine-man, is the Indian's defence against the 7 6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. kenaima; he is both doctor and priest. The office used to be hereditary, but often a youth with an epileptic tendency is chosen, as frenzied The peai-man . J „ • ,1 n • a p, • -i i • or medicine contortions are oi great use m the profession. Alter isolation, man- long fasting, great draughts of tobacco-water, etc., and learning all the traditions of the tribe, the medicine-man becomes fit for his office, and pretends to drive out all kenaimas by incantations in which astonishing feats of ventriloquism are performed, and he is believed to summon and question the kenaimas and compel them to depart. He is also supposed to be able to summon and question the spirit of any sleeping Indian of his own tribe. Another function of the peai-man is to give names to children. The burial customs observed by Mr. Im Thurm do not differ remarkably from those of many other Indian tribes. The body of a dead man is Burial wrapped in his hammock and buried in his own house. A fire customs. js mac}e over the grave and a feast held in which the qualities of the deceased are set forth, and the house is then deserted. It is doubtful if the Brazilian tribes were or are more advanced than those of Guiana. The Tupis have the same word, " Tupa," for father or ancestor and for thunder ; but they do not pray to Tupa, nor do Brazilian they hope from or fear him. Bates l found no trace of a belief in a future state among Indians who had had no intercourse with Europeans. Yet they light fires by newly made graves, for the comfort of the deceased. Waitz describes the Guaranis of Brazil as bringing offerings to certain posts in order to appease the evil spirits, fear of whom sometimes caused death. They believed that the soul continued with the body in the grave, and were careful to leave room for it. The Uaupes, of whom Mr. A. R. Wallace has given an account, likewise have no definite idea of a god. If asked who made the rivers, The uau es ^ores^s> anc^ sky? they say they do not know ; or sometimes they say it was " Tupanau," a word that appears to mean god, but which they do not understand. They have, however, a bad spirit, or devil, whom they seek to propitiate. When it thunders, they say the Jurupari is angry, and their idea of natural death is that the Jurupari kills them. At an eclipse of the moon they believe that this bad spirit is killing the moon, and they make all the noise they can to frighten him away. It would be fruitless to detail at length the procedure and the beliefs about the medicine-men or payes of the Brazilians, inasmuch as they are strikingly similar to those of the Guiana Indians. 'I'll- religious system of the Araucanians of southern Chili was somewhat different from that of the more northern tribes of Indians. They acknow- The kdged a supreme being, whom they termed Pillan, the supreme ^"canian spirit. They also called him spirit of heaven, the great being, the thunderer, the creator of all things, and omnipotent. Sub- ordinate to him were Epunamun, the god of war ; Meuleu, a benevolent deity, the friend of the human race ; and Guecubu, a malignant being, the author of all evil and misfortune. If a horse tired, Guecubu had ridden him; 1 " The Naturalist on the Amazons." ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 77 if any one died, Guecubu had killed him. They paid no worship, however, to these gods beyond invoking them and asking their aid on some urgent occasions. They had neither temples nor idols, nor did they offer sacrifices WORSHIP OF THE SUN BY COROADOS OF BRAZIL. except in case of some severe calamity or on concluding a peace, when they sacrificed animals, and burnt tobacco, which they believed to be most agreeable to their deities. 7S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The Araucanians have a general belief in a future state, but differ as to its locality and condition. Some of them have no idea where their The future land of spirits is, nor how the dead are occupied. Others say that state. af,ter death they go towards the west beyond the sea to a certain place which they call "Gulchemau," that is, the dwelling of the man beyond the mountains. Some believe that this land is divided into two— one a heaven, where the good dwell with every delight; the other inhabited by the wicked, a desolate and barren place; while others believe there is no difference of lots, and all enjoy continual happiness. The dead were buried with many of their possessions, and with their face to the west, where the supposed land of spirits was. Divination and sorcery were much practised by the Araucanians, who paid much attention to the flight of birds. They avoided the burial-places of the dead, passing them by in silence and with averted faces. The spirits of dead Araucanians frequently returned and fought fiercely in the air with their enemies, thus causing storms. The Patagonians believe in a good and an evil superior being, but differ as to the name given to these. Some of these names are, " the governor of the people," " the lord of the dead," " the being who presides in 16 theS ° the land of strong drink." But they likewise believe in a multi- Patagomans. pjj^y 0f inferior deities, presiding over particular families. Each is supposed to have a distinct abode in caverns underground, under lakes or hills ; and after death the Indian believes that his soul will go to the abode of his particular family-deity, and live in continual drunkenness. They believe the world was made by their good deities, who created the Indians in their caves, and gave them the lance, bows and arrows, etc. Evil beings are termed by the Patagonians " the wanderers without." There are many of these, working all kinds of mischief, and even causing bodily fatigue and weariness after labour. These are the fami- ii The " ~ wanderers liars of their diviners, enabling them to predict future events as ■without." wejj ag £Q reveaj ^hat which is occurring at a distance. They also give them power to cure the sick by driving away or appeasing the evil beings which cause them. The diviner goes through strange antics in his communications and struggles with evil. He makes noises with a drum, a diviner's etc-> and falls into a fit, " keeps his eyes lifted up, distorts the performance features of his face, foams at the mouth, screws up his joints, and after many violent and distorting notions remains stiff and motionless. After some time he comes to himself, as having got the better of the demon; next feigns, within his tent, a faint, shrill, mournful voice, as of the evil spirit, who by this dismal cry is supposed to acknowledge himself subdued, and then, from a kind of tripod, answers all questions put to him." These wizards arc of cither sex, but the men wear women's dress. It is not un- common to kill some of them when a chief dies,- or when pestilences occur, the deaths being attributed to their ill-will (Falkners "Patagonia"). In several respects the funeral customs of the Patagonians are singular. They make skeletons of the dead by cutting off the flesh, during which operation a number of people, covered with long skin mantles and with ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 79 their faces blackened with soot, walk round the tent with long poles or lances in their hands, singing dolefully and striking the groundF|meraJrlteg in order to frighten away the evil spirits. Visits of condolence and are paid to the relatives of the deceased. The visitors howl mourni and sing dismally, squeeze out tears, and even prick their limbs with sharp thorns till they bleed. They receive suitable presents in return for their mourning display. If the deceased possessed horses, they are killed to enable him to ride in the land of the dead, a few only being reserved for the funeral ceremony. When the bones of the deceased are finally removed, they are packed in a beast's skin, and laid upon a favourite horse, which is decorated with mantles, feathers, etc. There are several modes of burial. One is burying the skeletons in large square pits, sitting in a Burying the row, with the sword, lance, bow, arrows, etc., they formerly pos- skeletons- sessed. The pits are covered with beams or trees, canes, twigs, etc., woven together, upon which earth is laid. The beads and plumes which adorn the skeletons are changed once a year, when they pour upon the grave some of their first made chica, also drinking some of it themselves to the good health of the dead. The more southern tribes carry the bones to a desert place by the sea-coast, placing them in rows above ground, but adorned as before, with the skeletons of their dead horses around them. The Fuegians, according to Fitzroy, had distinct ideas of beneficent and evil powers ; but he never witnessed or heard of any act on their part of a decidedly religious nature, neither could he satisfy himself of Fuegian their having any idea of the immortality of the soul. They in- good and Dad voked the good spirit when in distress or danger, believing him to be the author of all good. Their evil spirit they supposed to be like an immense black man, and able to cause illness, famine, bad weather, and all evils, and to torment them in this world if they did wrong. The wizard was not absent from them, and they believed entirely in omens, signs, and dreams. When a person dies, his family wrap the body in skins, and carry it into the woods ; there they place it upon broken boughs, or pieces of solid wood, and then pile a great quantity of branches over the corpse. The Chibchas of Colombia believed that their ancestors arose from cer- tain mountain lakes, under which were the homes of their tutelary gods. Lake Guatavita and the adjacent city were their chief places of t^ worship. Many costly offerings were thrown into these lakes, Chibchas. such as small golden figures representing men, women, and animals, and various customs and industries. Many of these have been obtained from the lakes. The sacred graves also received similar objects, in addition to utensils and personal property. Golden frogs and lizards, supposed to re- present the god of water ; birds, the god of the air, were also among the religious objects of the Chibchas. They sacrificed a youth, the Guesa, every fifteen years, specially nurtured, to carry the people's messages to the moon, the goddess of husbandry. At the age of fifteen he was conducted in pro- cession to a pole, to which he was bound, and killed by arrows. The empire of the Incas of Peru has been described as one of the most So THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. WOODEN IDOL FOUND IN PERU '63 FEET UNDER GUANO. complete theocracies the world has seen. The Incas were themselves both kings and priests, who reigned as descendants of the sun, the chief god, children of and their person was revered as divine, the sun. Qne_tl1ircl 0f the country was the property of the sun-god, that is, of his priests ; and a part of the forced labour of the people was given to work- ing in the lands of the Inca and of the sun-god. The sun (Inti, or light) was usually represented by a golden disc with human features, and sur- , , rounded by rays and flames. Second to The gods of \ • the the sun, the moon was worshipped as his eruvians. s^ev an(j wife ; she was depicted as a silver disc with human features. Next to these were two great deities : Viracocha, represented as having risen out of lake Titicaca, and having made the sun, moon, and stars. He evidently was a sur- vivor from a period before the sun and moon worship had risen to great proportions. He is described as having neither flesh nor bone, as running swiftly, and as lowering mountains and lifting up valleys. The lake was his sister and wife. Hence he was evidently a rain-god, represented as a fertilising agent. Pachacamac was another ancient god, the divine civiliser who taught the people all arts and crafts. He was a god of fire, and especially of volcanic fire; and, like Viracocha, he required human victims. The Incas admitted these two gods to have been equally children of the sun with their ancestor, Manco-capac. Other deities worshipped by the Incas were the rainbow, the planet Venus, many stars, fire, thunder, the earth, many trees and plants and animals. Charms or fetishes were greatly in esteem, and the same word, huaca, was applied to every object of veneration, from the sun <\>>\vn to a grotesque stone. Every valley, every tribe, every temple, had a guardian-spirit. Meteorites were much used as huacas, and it is said that missionaries found it more CII1BCHA IDOL IN POTTERY. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 81 difficult to abolish the worship of the huaeas than that of the sun and moon. The temples originally in use in Peru were very like those of Mexico ; but under the Incas the building over the altar was very greatly increased in size, and indeed enclosed the whole structure. They were furnished with great stone statues, and were lavishly decorated with gold. The entrance of the great temple at Cuzco faced the east, and at the west end, above the altar, was the great golden disc of the sun. The mummies of the deceased Incas were placed on golden thrones in a semi- circle round the solar disc. Near this building were the temples of the moon and other deities associated with the sun. While all kinds of fruits, incense and drinks were offered to the gods, animals were very frequently sacrificed, and usually burned ; if not, the flesh was eaten raw b}7 the sacri- ficers. M. Seville . , , , Sacrifices, concludes that this is a custom handed down from times preceding cook- ery. The idols and the doors of the temples were smeared with the blood of victims. It appears that human sacrifice was less frequent under the Incas than among Human the Mexicans. But offerings, it is known that when the reigning Inca was ill, one of his sons was sacrificed to the sun as a substitute, and that at certain feasts a young in- fant was sacrificed. "Wives of the Incas were required to be buried alive on their husbands' death. When Huayna Capac died, a thousand of his retinue voluntarily followed him into the other world. The organisation of the priesthood greatly favoured the stability of the Peruvian religion. The chief priest was next to the reigning Inca, and was recognised as the interpreter of the sun's will. The other chief The priests were members of the Inca family. At Cuzco, and to a less pnes degree in the provinces, an imposing ritual was kept up. Hymns to the sun were chanted, but religious dances were among the most important parts of the great festivals, or " Raymi " (signifying dance). At the Festivalg festival of the winter solstice, in June, after three clays' fasting, a great procession, with banners and masks, went out to await the dawn, and, when the sun appeared, fell on their faces before him. The Inca offered a consecrated liquid to the sun, then drank of it himself, and passed it on to his retinue. After this, on return to the temple of the sun, a black G MAGE REPRESENTING THE GUESA OF THE CHIBl'HAS. 8i THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. llama was sacrificed ; sun-fire was kindled from the sun by means of a con- cave mirror, and then a number of llamas were sacrificed and distributed to the families of the upper classes, to be eaten with sacred cakes prepared by the virgins of the sun. At the second great festival, that of the Spring, ball-shaped cakes, mixed with the blood of victims or of young children, drawn from above the nose, were eaten, to purify the land from hostile in- fluences. In the evening an Inca, with four relatives, undertook the task of chasing all maladies from the city and its environs ; and at night all evil spirits of the night were driven into the river by the hurling of torches into its water. These are only specimens of numerous feasts of the Inca religion. The sorcerer had but little place in civilised Peru, for his place was largely taken by the priestly " diviners of the future," or " those who made the gods speak." It is very worthy of notice that something like convents were to be found among the Peruvians, inhabited by " virgins of the sun," of whom The virgins there were 500 at Cuzco. They took a vow to be the consorts of tnesun. oniy 0f t]ie SU11 or 0f him to whom the sun should give them. Thus the reigning Inca chose from them the most beautiful for his harem ; but any of the virgins who otherwise broke her vow was buried alive, even for the offence of letting the sacred fire go out, and her whole family was put to death. The virgins were occupied in making garments for the Incas, adornments for the temples and palaces, in preparing the sacred cakes and drinks, and in watching the sacred fire. Few moral teachings have been discovered in the Peruvian religion. The most important thing was to please the sun, and his representative, the Moral Inca. The priests had power to make inquisition into private inquisition. COnduct, to discover any actions detrimental to the state if not expiated by penance. Children, a few days after birth, were dipped in water before receiving a name, the dipping being supposed to drive away evil spirits and malign influences. Between the ages of ten and twelve, at the time when the adult name was given, the child's hair and nails were cut off as an offering to the sun and guardian-spirits. The future life was thought of as similar to the present, and all kinds of useful objects were consequently buried with the deceased. It was not imagined that the body would be raised again to life, although it was thought that the soul still returned to the body at times after death. The Incas were believed to be transported to the mansion of the sun, while the nobles might, if exceptionally meritorious, follow them there, or live under the earth under the sway of Supay, the god of the dead, whose kingdom was a gloomy one rather than a place of punishment. KHOND (OR KANDH) HUMAN SACRIFICE. CHAPTER V. Aboriginal £digumss of finUia anti othtv parts of £teia. Spirit-world of the Veddahs— Invocation of spirits of the dead— Veddah burial— Bell-god of the Todas— Buffaloes in heaven— Successive funerals of the Todas— Sins laid upon a calf among the Badagas— The Kotas —Various gods of the Bhils —Effigies of horses on cairns— Bhil sacri- fices—Inspired men and witch-doctors— Deities of the Gonds— Rude symbols of gods— The spirits of disease and death— The goddess of small-pox— Human sacrifices— Exorcisers — Memorial slabs for the dead— Funeral of a Madia— Human sacrifices of the Khonds— Their religious sincerity— Sacrifices to the god of war— Death a penalty for special sin— The leaping rock— Khond priesthood— Khond oaths— Santal household gods— Superior powers malevolent- National god the Great Mountain— Spirits of natural objects— Wanderings of disembodied spirits— The sacred river Damooda— Santal priests and festivals— Worship in viHage groves- Funeral ceremonies —Guardian-spirits of the Karens— Bringing back the Las— The state of the dead— Traditions of God and sacred books— Inspection of fowls' bones— Priests and offerings- Funeral ceremonies— Feasts for the dead— The god Puthen of the Kukis— Their evil deities — Inferior deities— Kukis' idea of futurity— Future punishment— Kuki priests— Funeral feasts- Gods of the Nagas —Scolding the spirits for causing death— Burial at doors of houses— PUlars and cromlechs of the Kasias— The oath-stone— Deities of the Bodo and Dhimals— Priests and their functions— Malevolent demons of the Mishmis— Disease, death and burial— Gods of the Ostiaks— Ancestor worship— Convulsions of the Shamans— The Kalmuck Shamanists— The Voguls— The Samoyedes— The Finnish religion— The Kalevala— The Under-world. MAKING now a great leap in distance, we come to the aboriginal peoples, still existing in large numbers in India and Ceylon, whose religions are very different from those of the more highly gifted Splrit_world nations among whom they dwell. The Veddahs of Ceylon, a of the small but extremely interesting tribe, have a limited group of beliefs, presenting some striking resemblances to those current among the 84 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. American Indians. G-ood spirits predominate in their creed ; in fact, Mr. Bailey could only find one absolutely malignant spirit whom they really feared, though they had a vague dread of the spirits that haunt the dark- ness. Every feature in Nature is for them occupied by a spirit, as also is the air; but they have no idea of a Supreme Being. The spirits of the dead occupy a prominent place in the Veddah beliefs. The spirit of every dead person watches over relatives left behind. These invocation spirits, termed " nehya yakoon," kindred spirits, are described as of spirits of coming to them in sickness and in dreams, and giving them success in hunting. Thus they invoke them in every necessity, and, curiousty enough, it is the shades of their dead children, " bilindoo yakoon/' infant-spirits, which they most frequently call upon. Some simple ceremonies are observed, one of which is to fix an arrow upright in the ground, and dance slowly round it, chanting an address which has been thus translated: " My departed one, my departed one, my god, Where art thou wandering ? " "When preparing to hunt, they promise a portion of the game to the spirit, and they expect that the spirits will appear to them in dreams and tell them where to hunt. " Sometimes," says Bailey, " they cook food and place it in the dry bed of a river or some other secluded spot, and then call on their deceased ancestors by name, "Come and partake of this! Give us main- tenance as you did when living ! Come, wheresoever you may be — on a tree, on a rock, in the forest— come ! " and dance round the food, half chant- ing, half shouting the invocation. They have no idea of a future state of veddah rewards and punishments. Till lately they did not even bury. burial. t]ie-r c|eacj^ kut coverec] them with leaves and brushwood in the jungle, or in the cave where they died, which was thereupon forsaken. The Todas of the Neilgherry Hills are somewhat vague in their re- ligious beliefs ; but, while not venerating natural objects, they appear to Beii-god worship several deities, the principal being called the bell-god, of the Todas. or buffalo-bell, represented by a bell hung about the neck of their best buffalo, which is also an object of worship, and held sacred. To the bell-god they offer both prayers and libations of milk. They worship also a hunting-god and the sun. While venerating the memory of ancestors, they do not worship them. They believe in a somewhat vague transmigration of souls, but in their next world, which they term " the other district," they expect to follow the same occupation as in this, that is, buffalo-feeding, and all expect to go to it. " The Mukurty Peak," says the Eev. F. Metz,1 "is a spot held very sacred as the residence of a personage whom the Todas be- Buffaioes in heve to be the keeper of the portals of heaven. . . . Their idea is that the spirits of deceased Todas, together with the souls of the buffaloes killed by their friends to accompany them to heaven and supply them with milk there, take a leap from this point as the nearest way 1 " Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills." ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 85 to the celestial regions/' which are situated in the west. Their priests are an odd compound of priest and dairyman, showing the importance of their chief means of livelihood in their eyes. The Todas burn their dead, at the same time slaughtering milch- buffaloes, which, curiously enough, are sold to another tribe to be eaten. This is called the " green funeral," followed a year after by the Successive " dry funeral," at which, on a pile of dry wood, the priests place funerals of the bag containing the ashes of the deceased, with his mantle, ornaments, and wand, and gourds and baskets of grain, and ignite the whole, while the mourners stand round and cry monotonously, heh-hey, heh-hdh ! Among the funeral observances, they practise fasting, cutting off the hair, putting off ornaments, chanting morning and evening laments, mutual condolence, and falling on the corpse. They also vacate the house of the deceased for a limited period. The Badagas, a neighbouring tribe, had, according to Capt. Harkness (" The Neilgherry Hills "), a ceremony which reminds one of the Hebrew scapegoat. The son or representative of the deceased, seiz- sins laid ing a calf brought for the purpose, addressed it, beseeching it "among S? to mediate for the departed, that the gates of heaven might be Badagas. opened to him, and his sins, and those of his generation, be forgiven. The calf was then let loose and ran off, all the party shouting, " Away, away ! " The idea is that the sins of the deceased enter the calf. The Kotas, also inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, worship both rude images of wood or stone, and rocks and trees in secluded localities, and make sacrificial offerings to them. In each village is a recognised place of worship — a large, square piece of ground, walled round with loose stones three feet high, and containing in its centre two thatched sheds open in front and behind, and having rude circles and other figures drawn on the supporting posts. They hold an annual licentious feast in honour of their gods, lasting two or three days. The Bhils of the mountains of Central India are notable for the great number of their gods : every tribe too has different objects of adoration, arising from local superstitions and legends. The following gods various are worshipped by the Bhils of Jebnah : — the Hindu Kali, on gods of the many occasions ; Halipowa, at the Dewali and Dasara feasts ; Waghacha-Kunwar, to protect them against wild beasts ; Halk Mata, for success in predatory journej^s ; Khorial Mata, for protection of cattle from plundering and sickness ; Devi Kanail, for a good harvest ; Behyu Baji, for rain ; Ghora Raja, against plunderers ; Hallam, at the annual pilgrimage to the large hill of Retna Wal ; Chamconda Mata, goddess of harvest, the first of every grain being offered to her ; Havin Wana Mata, against mur- rain and lameness among cattle ; Sita Mata and Ghona and Bhadri Bac, goddess of small-pox ; Bhulbag Mata, during epidemics, especially in cholera. The Bhil places of worship are not elaborate, being mostly limited to heaps of stones on some elevated spot, on which are frequently arranged 86 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. a number of stone or burnt-clay effigies of horses, the latter being hollow, with a hole behind, through which the spirits of the dead are horsed on supposed to enter and travel up to paradise. On arrival there, cairns. ^ norse is given to the local deity. In many of their legends the principal event depends upon the assistance or the advice of an enchanted horse. According to Sir J. Malcolm,* the sacrifice or offering to Bali-powa and Waghacha-Kunwar is a bullock; to the other deities, BM1 fowls and he-goats ; a male bird to the male deities, and a sacrifices, female to the female ones. Their usual ceremonies consist merely in smearing the idol, which is seldom anything but a shapeless stone, with vermilion and red lead or oil ; offering, with protestations and a petition, an animal and some liquor ; casting a small portion of each, with some pulse, into the fire ; and then partaking of the flesh and remain- ing liquor, after giving the presiding priest-minstrel his share. The medicine-man appears here under the form of a class of men specially inspired by the hill-gods, whose powers are excited by music. These men, called Barwas, travel with musicians in attendance, Inspired men ' _ . and witch- by whose performances they are first excited to irenzy, dancing doctors. frantica]iV) whirling and tossing, and throwing themselves into strong convulsions. In this state they utter oracles which are highly regarded by those who listen. The Barwas also act as physicians and as witch-doctors, following the usual cruel practices of their kind. Super- stition is deeply ingrained. A cat crossing the path of a Bhil when starting on any particular business will send him straightway home. Eclipses and other celestial phenomena he regards as the diversions of the gods. He believes to a certain extent in the transmigration of souls, especially of bad spirits, and that the spirits of the dead haunt places they lived in during their lifetime. Burial is performed with complex ceremonies on the banks of streams. On the death of a chief a brass bull or horse is made and handed to the wandering minstrel, who, carrying this image, makes an annual circuit through the villages, commemorating the fame of the deceased in songs and receiving a due reward. The Gonds of Central India show some resemblances to the Bhils, ;i> in their offering earthenware figures of horses in sacrifice, to propitiate Deities of ^ne gnosts of their ancestors. They worship altogether about the thirty deities. The supreme being, under the name of Bhagwan, is occasionally prayed to, and receives offerings of sugar and ghee ; but, as in so many other tribes, it is to the inferior divinities that worship is most largely paid. Badu Dewa (great god) or Budhal Pen (old god) is one of those most worshipped ; he appears to be identical with Rayetal, or the sun-god, represented by an iron tiger three inches long. His worship takes place once a year at the rice-harvest, a hog being then sacrificed to him. Among a subordinate tribe, the Gaiti, he is represented by a small copper coin kept in a tree in the jungle. Maty a, the god of small- pox and of towns ; Sali, the protector of cattle ; Gangara, the bell-god ; * Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 87 Gadawa, the god of the dead ; Kodo Pen, the horse-god, are others of the varied deities whom the Gonds propitiate. The Gonds do not keep images of their gods in their houses, and even for religions ceremonies only use the simplest symbols, such as stones, lumps of clay, iron rods, blocks of wood, chains and bells. Mutya Dewa is represented by a small heap of stones, inside a village, besmeared with red lead. He is believed to be connected with the prosperity of the village, and his appropriate offerings are a goat, cocoa-nuts, limes, dates, etc. Pharsi Pen, a war-god, is symbolised by a small iron spear-head. His worship only takes place at intervals of three, four or five years, at full moon. On such occasions a white cock, a white he-goat, symbols of and a young white cow are sacrificed with secret ceremonies, no g woman being permitted to attend. Bhiwasu, a god of rain, has a festival of four or five days in the Mahadeva Hills, being worshipped under the form of an unshaped stone smeared with vermilion, or of two pieces of wood. In one place, however, there is an idol figure of Bhiwasu, eight feet high. These are but specimens of the multitudinous deities worshipped by these people, whose religious history, if ever fully written, will be a strange and curious one. The Rev. Mr. Hislop,1 who studied the Gond district carefully, says : " In the south of the Bundara district the traveller frequently meets with squared pieces of wood, each with a rude figure carved in front, j^e spirits set up somewhat close to each other. These represent Bangaram, of ^^ase Bungara Bai, or Devi, who is said to have one sister and five death. brothers, the sister being styled Danteshwari, a name of Kali, and four out of the five brothers being known as Gantaram, Champaram, Naikaram, and Pollinga. These are all deemed to possess the power of sending disease and death upon men, and under these or different names seem to be generally feared in the region east of Nagpore city. ... It has always appeared to me a question deserving more attention than it has yet received, how far the deities who preside over disease, or are held to be malevolent, are to be looked on as belonging to the Hindus or aborigines. Kali in her terrible aspect is certainly much more worshipped in Gond- wana and the forest tracts to the east and south of it than in t o 11 The goddess any other part of India. As the goddess of small-pox, she has of smaii- attributed to her the characteristics of various aboriginal deities ; pos and it is worthy of remark that the parties who conduct the worship at her shrines, even on behalf of Hindus, may be either Gonds, fishermen, or members of certain other low castes. The sacrifices, too, in which she delights would well agree with the hypothesis of the aboriginal derivation of the main features of her character. At Chanda and Lanji, in the province of Nagpore, there are temples dedicated to her honour, in which human victims have been offered almost within the memory of the present generation. The victim was taken to the temple after sunset and shut up within its dismal walls. In the morning, when the door was opened, he 1 " Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces." 8S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. was found dead, much to the glory of the great goddess, who had shown Human her power by coming during the night and sucking his blood, sacrifices. ]^0 doubt there must have been some of her servants hid in the Pane, whose business it was to prepare for the horrid banquet. At Dante- wada, in Bustar, there is a famous shrine of Kali, under the name of Danteshwari. Here man}' a human head has been presented on her altar. About 1830 it is said that upwards of twenty-five full-grown men were immolated on a single occasion by a late Raja of Bustar." The medicine-man or professional priest is not so prominent among the Gonds as among some other Indian tribes ; but men exist among them who profess to be able to call tigers from the jungles and to Exorcis©rs control their actions, to protect men and cattle, to detect sorcery and to tell fortunes. The public festivals of the Gonds are largely con- nected with their crops. They can also exorcise evil spirits and interpret the wishes of the gods, going into a trance, leaping wildly and performing the usual antics of their class, and then declaring whether the god has accepted the service offered to him. Burial was formerly universal among the Gonds ; but cremation has been largely adopted by them from the Hindus. They used to bury the Memorial dead in their own houses, afterwards deserting them, but have in slabs for the later years buried outside their villages, Some of the tribes erect clcid rough unhewn slabs of stone as memorials of the dead. Offerings are presented to the dead, consisting of rice and other grains, eggs, fowls, or sheep. To persons of more than usual reputation for sanctity, offerings continue to be presented annually for many years after their death. As a specimen of Gond funeral rites, we may quote the following from Mr. Hislop : — " When a Madia (a tribe of Gonds) dies, the relatives Funeral of kill and offer before his corpse a fowl. They then place the body a Madia. on a 'bam|D00 mat; anci four young men lift it on their shoulders. All the neighbours, calling to mind their own deceased fathers, pour out on the ground a handful of rice in their honour ; then turning to the corpse, they put a little on it, remarking that the recently departed had now become a god, and adjure him, if death had come by God's will, to accuse no one ; but if it had been caused by sorcery, to point out the guilty party. Sometimes, it is said, there is such a pressure exerted on the shoulders of the bearers, that they are pushed forward and guided to a particular house. The inmate is not seized at once ; but if three times the corpse, after being taken some distance back, returns in the direction and indicates the same individual, he is apprehended and expelled from the village. Frequently also his house shares the same fate. The body is then carried to a tree, to which it is tied upright, and burned amid the wailing of the spectators. Funeral rites are performed a year or eighteen months after the cremation, when a flag is tied to the tree where it took place. After sacrificing a fowl, the friends return and eat, drink and dance at the expense of the deceased man's family for one or more days, according to their ability." ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 89 The Khonds (or Ivandhs) of north-eastern India have an evil fame as being among the most inveterate and lavish in their human sacrifices of any race of mankind, sacrifices which continued till quite the middle of this century when persistent government pressure sacrifices of appears to have put a stop to it. The Khonds are divided into the Khonds- two sects, one of which abhors human sacrifice. The other is devoted especially to the Tari, the earth-goddess, to whom human sacrifices were offered, a regular class of victims being purchased from neighbouring tribes, of any age and either sex, and held in readiness, well fed, for the regular festivals. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice, the hair of the victim was cut off, and the villagers,- having bathed, went to the sacred grove with the priest, who there invoked the goddess. The ceremonies, attended by unbridled licence, lasted three days. On the second day, the victim was led in procession through the village to the sacrificial grove, and bound, sitting, to a post in the middle of the grove, anointed with oil, ghee, and turmeric, adorned with flowers, and even worshipped. In this attitude he or she was left all night, while feasting was resumed by the people. The details which follow, as given by Major Macpherson, are almost inconceivably horrible. As the victim must not die in bonds nor show any resistance, the arms and legs were broken, or stupefaction by opium was produced, so that the bonds might be unloosed. The ment of the priest after this offered up prayers to the earth-goddess. At vlctims- noon on the third day, the priest took the branch of a green tree, cleft several feet down the centre. The victim was forced into the cleft, his throat being in some districts inserted into it, and then the cleft was forcibly closed by cords twisted round the open extremity of the stake. After the priest had wounded the victim slightly with his axe, the crowd threw itself on the dead body, and, leaving untouched the head and intestines, stripped the flesh from the bones, and fled with them to their fields. The remains were next day burned on a funeral pile, and a further sacrifice of a sheep was made, the ashes being scattered over the fields or made into a paste, with which the floors of the houses and granaries were smeared. Subsequently a bullock was given to the father or procurer of the victim, and another was sacrificed and eaten at the feast which terminated the celebration. One year after such a sacrifice the goddess Tari was reminded of it by the offering of a pig. In some districts the victim was put to death by a slow fire, the great object being to draw as many tears as possible, in the belief that the goddess would proportionately increase the supply of rain. Notwithstanding the barbarity of this sacrifice, Macpherson declares that he found it not attended by any manifestations of passion, and that it appeared to be offered in a spirit essentially religious, " in fearful . obedience to the express mandate of the terrible power, whose cerityofthe wrath it is believed to place in abeyance. And the offerings are lives free, unforfeited, undegraded, generally in innocent childhood, belong- ing to a different race from the immolators, procured by persons of another 9o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. faith, and acquired by scrupulous purchase, which the Khonds believe to confer a perfect title." An unbought life they considered an abomination to the deity. At one of the later sacrifices no fewer than 125 victims were immolated. Afterwards, by unceasing efforts of British officials, a large number of destined victims were set free and cared for by the British. In Joy pore there were annual sacrifices to Maniksoro, the god of war, as well as to the earth-goddess. The victim was tied to a post by his hair, and at the same time his body was held face downwards over an Aces to the " open grave. The priest, while praying for success in battle, god of wax. jiackecj {-kg neck of the victim, at the same time consoling him by the assurance that he would soon be honoured by being devoured by the god for the people's benefit. His head was then cut off, the body falling into the grave, and the head remaining suspended until devoured by birds. The worship of deceased ancestors is an important feature of Khond religion. Other gods beside Tari are worshipped. They have introduced the Hindu goddess Kali into their worship, and employ Hindu priests for special in celebrating her rites. They also firmly believe in magic, often attributing deaths or misfortunes to enchantment. They hold that death is solely a penalty for offences against the gods, and this whether it occurs in battle, or by the hand of men who can transform them- selves into wild beasts, or by magicians who destroy by wicked arts. They do not appear to have definite views as to a future state, but believe man's spirit to be imperishable, animating a succession of human forms. Percival says that they believe the judge of the dead resides beyond the sea on a The leaping- slippery rock called the leaping-rock, surrounded by a black rock. unfathomable river. Souls, on quitting the body, go directly thither ; and in attempting to leap the river and gain a footing on the rock, they often get injured, and the injury is expected to be repeated in the body they next inhabit. The Khond priests were regarded as divinely appointed, the original priests being directly appointed by each deity, and transmitting the office The Khond 1 >y descent. But this does not prevent any one from becoming priesthood. a priest by a new divine call. One of the priest's offices on the occasion of a birth or naming of a child is to declare which ancestor of the family is born again. The priest takes no part in funeral ceremonies, even if present ; he may not touch a dead body. The ceremony of taking an oath by Khonds is given by Campbell as follows : " Seated on tiger-skins, they held in their hands a little earth, rice, Khond oaths. aU(l water> repeating as follows: 'May the earth refuse its pro- duce, rice choke me, waters drown me, and tiger devour me and my children, if I break the oath which I now take for myself and my In other cases they sit on a lizard-skin, whose scaliness they pray may be their lot if forsworn ; or on an anthill, like which they ask that, if hey may be reduced to powder ; while the ordeals of boiling water, oil, and hot iron are constantly resorted to. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 91 The Santals of the western portion of Lower Bengal are notable for the family nature of their religion. Each household has its special deity whose rites it carefully conceals from strangers. According to santai house- Hunter,1 even one brother does not know what another worships. hold gods- They appear to pray chiefly that evils may be removed : " May the storm spare my thatch," " may the black-rot pass by my rice-fields," " let my wife not bear a daughter," " may the usurer be taken by wild beasts." The head of the family on his deathbed whispers the name of the family god to the elder son. As far as can be ascertained, the household deity represents evil only ; but in addition to this source of misfortune, the Santai worships the ghosts of his ancestors. The Santai cannot even conceive the existence of a supreme and bene- ficent god. The impression of past history is upon him — of having been successively driven from more desirable homes by a conquering , J ... • t 1 • i • • • ° Superior race, and superiority 111 power implies to him desire to injure, powers The idea of a supreme god makes him say, " What if that strong malevoleilt- one should eat me! " Demons and evil spirits are vividly before the Santal's mind, and he endeavours to propitiate them by frequent annual sacrifices and other bloody rites. The national god of the Santals is Marang Buru, the Great Mountain, their guardian from the earliest times, who is invoked with blood-offerings at every crisis. The victims are numerous and varied, of any kind of plant or animal. The Great Mountain is neither male god, the Great nor female, but is the great life-sustainer. He is regarded as Mountam- having a brother and a sister to whom libations are offered by the priests, as well as white goats and fowls. The Great Mountain must receive blood- offerings ; if the worshipper has no animal, the offering must be a red flower or a red fruit. When the English first came into contact with these people, human sacrifices were regularly made to this god. Wherever he goes, the Santai finds gods, ghosts, or demons, which he must appease. Among them are the Abgi, or ghouls, who eat men, and the Pargana Bonga, local deities whose name is legion, belonging „ 0 . P ' . & ? & & Spirits of to extinct villages, wandering desolately through the Santai natural territory. They have deities of the rivers, wells, tanks, moun- ° jec s' tains and forests. So that their worship, strongly related to the family and ancestors on one view, on another is equally a Nature worship. Like their view of the nature of the gods is their idea of the future. As a time of punishment for the wicked they can comprehend it, but not as a period of happiness for those who have been good. Fre- _ rr o Wanderings quently the future is a complete blank to them. Some think that of disem- good men after death enter into fruit-bearing trees, while 1111- c sp charitable men and childless women are eaten eternally by snakes and worms. Others think of disembodied spirits as flitting disconsolately among the fields they once tilled, standing upon the banks of the streams in which they once fished, and gliding in and out of the dwellings where they lived ; 1 " Annals of Rural Bengal." 92 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and these spirits must be propitiated in various ways, or they will bring evil upon the living. Once a year the Santals make a pilgrimage, in commemoration of their forefathers, to the Damooda, their chief river. This is termed the Purifying for the Dead. A similar regard for the river is shown by the river" fact that however far from it the Santal may die, his nearest Damooda. re]a^ve carries a little relic of him, such as some fragments of his skull in an earthen pot thither and places it in the current to be conveyed to the far-off eastern land from which his ancestors came. This is called uniting the dead with their fathers. The Santal priests belong to the fifth and second tribes, representing the fifth and second sons of their common ancestor, the former being the santal priests most esteemed and best rewarded. Each village has its grove and festivals. £or worshipping the village gods. The priests of the second tribe are chiefly seers and diviners, and are largely occupied in propitiating demons. Festivals are held several times a year in the village grove, men and women dancing and chanting songs in honour of the founder of the community. Goats, red cocks and chickens are sacrificed ; and the various families dance round the particular trees supposed to be inhabited by their special gods. In some tribes every family dances round each tree, so as not to omit one in which by any possibility one of their gods might reside. Once a year the tribal god is solemnly worshipped, none but vuiage male animals being offered, and women being excluded from the groves. feas^ Each period in the cultivation of the rice-crop — seeding, sprouting, earing, harvesting — is marked by its own festival, with sacrifices to the gods. On the death of a Santal, his body is at once anointed with oil tinged with red herbs, and laid out. His friends place two little brazen vessels, Funeral one f°r ^ice, the other for water, upon his couch, together with a ceremonies. few rUpees to appease the demons whom he will meet on the threshold of the spirit-world. These gifts, however, are removed when the funeral pile is ready. The body is carried by fellow-clansmen three times round the pile and then laid on it. A cock has meanwhile been nailed through the neck by a wooden pin to a corner of the pile or to a neigh- bouring tree. The nearest kinsman has prepared a torch of grass, bound with thread from his own clothes, and, after walking silently round the pile three times, touches the dead man's mouth with the brand, averting his face as he does it. Then the pile is lighted, all the clansmen facing the south. Before the body is quite consumed, the fire is extinguished, and the next of kin breaks off the three fragments of skull to be thrown into the river Damooda, as before stated. In quite recent years the Santals were excited by a novel religious ferment. In 1875 one Bhagrib Mangi gave out that he was commissioned by heaven to free the Santals from British rule. He gained great influence, and received both royal and divine honours, having a shrine set up for his worship. Notwithstanding his being taken and imprisoned and his shrine ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 93 destroyed, his religion grew, being preached by his disciples, the Kherwar, the chief of whom was arrested and imprisoned in 1881. The Karens of British Burmah regard the world as more thickly peopled by spirits than it is by men. Every human being has a guardian spirit, or La, either at his side, or wandering in dreamy adven- tures. If too long absent, he must be recalled by appropriate spirits of the offerings of food, etc., beating a bamboo to gain its attention. arens- Besides, he is surrounded by a crowd of the spirits of the departed, whom he must continually appease if he would preserve life and health. All striking material objects inspire him with awe, and must be reverenced and propitiated. Moreover, everything living has its La. " When sitting by the A KAEEN FUNERAL. fire at night, and an insect flies into it and is burnt to death, a Karen will say, ' There, the La of some animal has leaped into the fire and burnt itself to death. "We shall have meal curry to-morrow. The snares and traps have caught something.' Plants, too, have their Las. So if a man drops his axe while up a tree, he looks below and calls out, ' La of the axe, come, come'!" (Mason). Prophets or necromancers are said to have the Bringing power of bringing back the sick man's La when it has wandered back the Las- away ; but false prophets are said to bring back the La of some other per- son, by which the disease is augmented. According to some, each person has 94 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. seven Las constantly devising his death, which can only be prevented by his own guardian spirit sitting on his head. If this spirit removes thence, the man is killed by one of the Las. All diseases are the work of spirits, which must be appeased by offerings. Another class of spirits, working evil, is the Na, which is believed to inhabit witches and wizards. These persons can take the form of another, and can also devour the Las of other people. Ancestor-worship is practised by the Karens, their ancestors being supposed to exercise a guardianship over their descendants on earth. The ■me state ^as, however, of many of the dead are not permitted to go to of the dead. Hades, the land of the happy, which is a counterpart of this world, whose inhabitants follow occupations similar to those they engaged in on earth. Those who have been deprived of funeral rites wander about on earth. Those who have died violent deaths remain on earth preying on the Las of men. Others who may not go to Hades are unjust rulers or criminals who have suffered death. These are believed to take the forms of birds and beasts ; and those who dream of elephants, horses, dogs, vultures, Burmans, or Burmese priests, are said to see these ghosts. Dr. Mason says all the Karen tribes have traditions of God as having once dwelt amongst them, but having forsaken them. Sometimes He is Traditions represented as dying and rising to life again, sometimes as simply ancfsacred departing. They have a story that God gave the Chinese a book books, of paper, the Burmese a book of palm-leaf, the Karens a book of skin, which they allowed a pig to tear up and a fowl to eat ; while the former peoples carefully studied their divine books, and hence came to excel the Karens. Consequently the Karens consult the remains of fowls, which inspection of ^iey suppose to retain the knowledge imparted by the book, and fowls' bones. undertake nothing important until a favourable response has been gained from the fowl's bones, which are inspected after prayer. It may readily be imagined that it requires a practised eye to read the indica- tions accurately, and there are many nice distinctions, known only to the elders, or priests, who do not always agree in their readings. Each village has four hereditary " heads of the sacrifice," or priests. The first is called lord of the village ; the second, the messenger ; the third,, Priests and keeper of the village; the fourth, Sa-kai, a word of unknown ,nn£s- meaning. The offerings given by the people vary according to families and tribes. Some offer only rice and vegetables ; one group offers fowls, another hogs, another oxen or buffaloes. It is doubtful sometimes to whom these things are offered,— often to unseen spirits generally, or to deified ancestors, or to the goddess of harvest. Complex ceremonies take place on the death of a Karen elder of the Bghai division. While the body lies in state, piping and mourning go on Funeral constantly. Before the burial an elder opens the hand cf the eremomes. dead man and puj.g ^ ^ & ^ Qf ^^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^ & ^ with a sword, saying, "May we live to be as old as thou art." The rest of the company do the same, and the fragments cut off are regarded as charms to prolong life. Dr. Mason further says that when the corpse is about to ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 95 be buried, two candles made of beeswax are lighted, and two swords are brought. A sword and a candle are taken by the eldest son, and a sword and a candle by the youngest son ; and they march round the bier in oppo- site directions three times, each time they meet exchanging swords and candles. After this, one candle is placed at the head, the other at the foot of the coffin ; then a fowl or hog is led three times round the building, and on completing the first round it is struck once with a bamboo, the second time twice, and at the end of the third round it is killed, and set before the corpse for food. When the coffin is carried to the grave, four bamboos are taken, and one thrown to the east and one to the west, some one saying, " That is the west, that is the east," contrary to the fact ; a third is thrown towards the top of a tree, with the statement, " That is the foot of the tree " ; and a fourth towards the root of the tree, which is gravely termed the top of the tree. This is done because in the spirit-world it is believed that everything is upside clown in relation to this world. When the grave has been filled and a fence erected round it, boiled rice and other food is placed within it for the deceased. On returning from the grave, each person takes three little hooked branches, and calls on his spirit to follow him, at short intervals making a motion of hooking, and thrusting the hook into the ground. This is to prevent the spirit of the living from staying behind with the spirit of the dead. Annual feasts for the dead are made for three years after a person's death. It is a general assemblage of all the villagers who have lost rela- tives. Before the new moon at the end of August or beginning Feasts for of September, all kinds of food, tobacco, etc., are made ready, t^edead. A bamboo is laid across one corner of the roof of the room, and on it are hung new tunics, turbans, beads, and bangles ; and at the proper time — the spirits of the dead being supposed to have returned to visit them — the people address them thus : " You have come to me, you have returned to me. It has been raining hard, and you must be wet. Dress yourselves, clothe yourselves with these new garments, and all the companions that are with you. Eat betel together with all that accompany you, your friends and associates, and the long dead. Call them all to eat and drink." Next morning, the new-moon day, they kill a hog, and make thirty bottles of bamboos, which they fill with all kinds of food and drink. Rice and meal are cooked, and all the food is spread out as far as possible at one moment, so that none of the spirits of the dead may be delayed in eating. Each one calls on his particular relative who has died. If a mother, he says, weeping, " Oh ! prince-bird mother, it is the close of August ; oh ! it is the new moon in September ; oh ! you have come to visit me ; oh ! you have returned to see me ; oh ! I give you eatables, oh ! I give you drinkables ; oh ! eat with a glad heart, oh ! eat with a happy mind ; oh ! don't be afraid, mother ; oh! do not be apprehensive, oh!" When the spirits have finished, the people eat the food ; but a further supply is placed for the spirits to carry away with them ; and at cock-crow next morning all the contents of the basket, including the bamboo bottles, are thrown out of the house on the 96 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. ground, the same ceremony of crying and calling on the spirits of the dead being repeated. The Kukis of Assam believe in an omnipotent deity named Puthen, the creator of everything. Although actuated by human passions, he is benevolent, and desires the welfare of humanity. He is the judge Puthen of of all men, and punishes them by death and disease, both in this the Kukis. worin you have afflicted in my family. I offer you the entrails of a fowl." When a man of note dies in a village, the people do not quit it for three days, during which they kill animals, and the whole community feasts and drinks. At the funeral all the men, in war equipment, make a great noise, and jump about, saying, " What spirit has come and killed our friend ? Where have you fled to? Come, let us see you, how powerful you are. If we could see you, we would spear you and kill you with these spears ; " and they continually curse the spirit and strike the earth with their spears and swords. On the grave they place all the personal belongings of the deceased, and, as with the Kukis, the skulls of pigs and cows are stuck on sticks at one end of the grave, but in this case in memory of the deceased's Burial t nospita]ity. Stewart2 says the Nagas bury their dead at the the doors of doors of their houses, in coffins, a huge stone being rolled over houses . the grave. Thus Naga villages are full of these rough, unhewn tombstones. The people show great regard for these tombs, at first fencing them in and scattering flowers over them. Cases of violating tombs to gain possession of the buried articles were not heard of. The Kasias of Assam are remarkable for the abundance of monumental stones everywhere by the wayside. Usually they are oblong, erect pillars, Pillars and unnewn or carefully squared. The number in one monument cromlechs of varies from three to thirteen, and is generally odd; the tallest is in the middle. In front of these is a kind of cromlech, a large flat stone resting on short rough pillars. In one case a pillar was twenty- seven feet high ; and a cromlech slab, thirty-two feet by fifteen, and two feet thick, has been seen, raised five feet above the ground. Often the sarcophagus is found to consist of a large circular slab, resting on many little rough blocks placed close together, through whose chinks may be seen earthen pots containing the ashes of the family. The upright pillars are undoubtedly monumental ; and if the Kasia is asked why his fathers went to such expense to erect them, he answers, " To preserve their name." Yet they can attach a name to but few. The name of one, " Mansmai," the The oath oath-stone, was explained by a native thus : " There was war between Cherra and Mansmai; and when they made peace and swore to it, they erected a stone as witness." Hence it is suggested that some of these were erected as witnesses to notable compacts. The Bodo and Dhimals of the Assam forests worship a great number ot Deities of deities I e-9; household gods, worshipped at home, which are at thDhi°mlisnd,!"' same time national gods; gods of the rivers; and gods of sun and moon, mountains, forests, etc. They are also divided Travels and Adventures in Assam." " Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. 24. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 99 into male and female, young and old, etc. To these gods they do not assign definite moral attributes ; but several of them are called Rajah, and one of them bears the name of a known historic person. Hence it is probable that their gods are, at least partially, deified ancestors. On the whole their deities have a vaguely benevolent character, and there is a general absence of cruel and savage rites. They do not worship images, nor have they temples. Their chief festivals bear reference to agriculture. They seem to have an idea of a future state. Diseases are caused entirely by preternatural agencies, and hence they employ exorcisers, who are a class of priests. There is a regular priest for each village, and a class of district priests exercising some control over the village priests of his district. "Whoever chooses may be a priest, but must be regularly inducted. At times the elders take equal part with the priests. At marriages their and funerals the priests perform the essential preliminary sacri- fices ; they conduct the great festivals and make all sacrifices. The lesser deities receive offerings of eatables and drinkables- other than" meat, while the greater divinities receive animal sacrifices-. The dead are buried decently and simply. The}^ have no fixed burial grounds or monuments. Food and drink are laid upon the grave at burial, and a few days after the same is repeated and the deceased is addressed. The Mishmis of the Assam borders ascribe more destructive and malevolent powers to their gods than the Bodo and Dhimals. They fear most a god of destruction ; they also sacrifice to a god of health Malevolent and disease, and a god of instruction and the chase. One of demons of these people, on being told that the English worshipped a good Spirit who ruled all the demons, observed, " Ah, you English people must be very happ3r in having such a good and powerful demon in your country. The Mishmis are very unfortunate — we are everywhere surrounded by demons ; the}?- live in the rivers, mountains and trees ; they walk about in the dark, and live in the winds ; we are constantly suffering from them." "When disease appears in a Mishmi's family, the priest is sent for to drive away the evil spirit, which he does with antics which only repeat the operations of his class elsewhere. The sacrifice, however, is DlseaEe killed with unnecessary cruelty. Death of a Mishmi, especially a dj th, End chief, is followed by extensive feasting in honour of the departed. The body is burntr after two. days, and the ashes are placed in a miniature house close to the house of the deceased. This miniature house is sur- rounded by some- of the skulls collected by the chief during his lifetime. The eldest son hold's a yearly feast in honour of his deceased father, and this is considered a most sacred observance. The Osiiaks of the Obi district in Siberia, before Christian missionaries came among them, appear to have had a belief in a Supreme Being, of whom they had no image and to whom they made no offerings. Gods of Shaitan is their household god, guardian of all they possess. the ostiaks. They represent him by the figure of a man, carved in wood and dressed THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. like an Ostiak. To Shaitan all meals are first offered, all the dishes being placed before him ; and they abstain from eating till the idol, who eats invisibly, lias had enough. Other divinities are worshipped, including Long, master of secret arts, medicine, etc. Offerings made to him by the sick must be works of art ; skins will not do. Meik is a god of ill-luck : to him Ostiaks make vows of gifts and service when in danger of perishing in the wilderness, or in snow storms. Many reindeer, put to death slowly and cruelly, are sacrificed to their gods by the Ostiaks. Ortik, one of their deified heroes, a beneficent being and mediator, is, like the rest, represented as a bust without legs, the face being made of a hammered plate of metal nailed upon wood, the body of a sack stuffed with hair and skins and with two linen sleeves sewed to it for arms, the whole dressed in a linen frock and placed on a table, with sword and spear beside it. To this being offerings of furs are made. Ancestor worship prevails considerably among them. When a man dies, the priests (shamans) make his relatives form a rude wooden image re- Ancestor presenting him, which is set up in their huts, and receives divine worship, honours for a greater or less time, as the priest may direct. At every meal they set an offering of food before the image, and the widow embraces it from time to time. The time of worship apparently lasts three years. The priests, however, preserve the images of their ancestors for generations, and manage, by oracles and other arts, to procure offerings for them equal to those of the other gods, thus showing how deified ancestors became regular national gods. The Ostiaks also venerate trees and bears ; they ask a bear's pardon after having killed him. They even insult him mockingly when his skin is stuffed with hay, and then set him up and pay him worship in their huts. The priests or shamans of the Ostiaks combine the offices of priest, diviner, exorciser, and medicine-man. They mediate between the people convulsions anc^ ^ie*r S°^si falling into convulsive fits, during which they are of the believed to be in communion with their gods. When the shaman falls, according to Erman (" Travels in Siberia "), the bystanders throw a cord round his neck, and cover him with skins. Two men then take the ends of the cord, and pull it with all their might, while the shaman under the skin slips his hands to his neck to prevent his being strangled. When at last he has had enough of the struggle, he makes a sign that the spirits have left him, and communicates to the assembled people the pre- dict ions which have been sought. A large proportion of the Kalmucks of the Altai are still shamanists, and sacrifice animals to their good and evil spirits. Their images, rudely The carved in wood or bark, resemble human forms with extended sh^maiusts armS' and rel)resent tlieir ideas of tlie nature-spirits. The spirits B- of their ancestors are said to be represented by ribbons of varied colours hung on the branches of trees, and from them the living man believes that he hears the whisperings of his dead father giving him counsels whi.h he scrupulously obeys. ABORIGINAL RELIGIONS OF INDIA, ETC. 101 Many of the Voguls are still thorough shamanists, and keep up a complete system of totemism. They are also said to worship a national god who has a sanctuary among the forests in a valley high up The in the Ural. At his festival a horse is sacrificed, previous to voguis. which each man in turn drinks his blood as it flows from a wound. They are said also to worship the sun in an especial manner. Among the Samoyedes of Northern Europe, though many are chris- tianised, the old shamanism and nature worship still lingers. Near the Ural Mountains may still be seen their odd-looking sacred stones or The roughly carved idols. They believe in principal good and evil samoyed3s. divinities, to whom they offer arms and various valued objects. Bears and many reindeer are sacrificed to the gods. By far the most developed religion of the Finno-Ugrian group of peoples, however, was that of the Finns, which has in recent times been reconstructed by the collection of fragments handed down orally, The Finnish which seem to represent a national epic, the Kalevala, describing rell£10n- the history and nature of the gods they believed in. Castren, a Swede, is the special authority on this subject. We find in it a supreme god, Youmala, whose name is recognised in the Samoyede Noum, the Lapp Youbmel, and the Esthonian Yoummal ; and in all these the name signifies ''the heaven" or "sky." In more modern times the name was applied generally to deities, and hence was adopted as the name for God The by Christian missionaries to Finland. It appears that the name Kalevala- originally applied especially to the sky when thunder was resounding, being supposed to indicate the personal divinity. The name Oukko was also used for much the same conception of the sky, and for the head of the family of gods, represented as a tall man with armour giving forth flames. The lightning was his sword, and he had a hammer with which he struck the thunderclaps. From this it may be gathered that the old Finns had an extreme dread of thunder, which is still the case. At the return of spring, Oukko was honoured with a festival, food being offered to him on the mountain-top. Akka, the old mother, was his wife, sending rain and often acting contrary to the wishes of Oukko. Each main object of nature, — sun, moon, stars, — had an important place in the Finnish nature worship, the heart of a bear or other wild animal being offered to the sun, and no work being done after sunset. Fire, also, was greatly revered. All these nature gods in general were favourable and propitious to mankind. Many spirits of the forests, of trees and waters, were also reverenced. The Finns believed in a future life, passed in an under-world called Tuonela, the domain of Tuoni (also known as Kalma and Mana). He is represented as a gloomy, severe, inexorable man, never to be The under- persuaded to relax his grasp on souls he has once seized. His world- domain is pale and shadowy, though it has a sun, meadows, bears, serpents, etc. The spirits of the dead were feared, especially those of deceased shamans, and hence the living ones who could communicate with them and hinder them from doing evil made their occupation very profitable. TRADITIONAL PORTRAIT OF COSFUCIUS. BOOK II. RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. I. CONFUCIANISM. CHAPTER I. life of Confuriusu A single founder— Early condition of China — Birth of Confucius— His early life— His studies— Inter- view with Lao-tze— He refuses high office— Official view of Confucius— His son, Le— Confucius a magistrate — His manners and demeanour — Dress and food— The Duke of Lu beguiled— Con- fucius travels— Employment not readily found— His life in danger— He is compared to a stray dog— Breaking a promise— Scarcity of provisions — Confucius describes himself— Death of Yen Hwuy — Later years — Death of Confucius— His tomb— His influence— Personal description— His guarded speech — His self-confidence— Views on public evils— Compromise of principles — Docl rines— Alternate neglect and reverence— Modern worship — Confucius a lover of antiquity— His special themes— Belief in a Supreme Ruler — Worship of ancestors and spirits— A future life — The family — Subordination of women— Grounds for divorce— The power of example— Filial obecience— The golden rule— Treatment of enemies— Dr. Legge's view of Confucius. THE predominant religion of China, Confucianism, like Buddhism, Zoro- astrianism, and Mahometanism, is peculiarly connected with a single founder. Dating back as far as, if not farther than Gautama, Confucius a single still influences the life of his countrymen in an extraordinary founder. degreej not on\y by ^jg moral an(j religious teachings, but also by his political institutions. In the sixth century b.c. the "Middle Kingdom" was ruled over by the dynasty of Chow, as a feudal kingdom, far less extensive than its modern successor. Honan and Shansi, with portions of LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. 103 surrounding (modern) provinces, comprised the whole. There was already a considerable development of the arts of war and peace, and a _., copious literature existed. Polygamy was in full play, and condition of women occupied a degraded position. There was no established and influential religious system, and the masses of the people lived in chronic misery, suffering greatly under misrule. As Mencius, the great follower of Confucius, wrote : " The world had fallen into decay, and right principles had disappeared. Perverse discourses and oppressive deeds were waxen rife. Ministers murdered their rulers, and sons their fathers. Con- fucius was frightened by what he saw, and he undertook the work of reformation." At this period, in the year 550 or 551 B.C., was born Kung-Fu-tze (Latinised into Confucius), whose name means " the philosopher or master Kung." He was the son of a brave officer in the army, Shuh- Birth of leang Heih, a man of immense strength, and a descendant of Confucius, former emperors. The later histories surround his birth with marvels. It is claimed by two places in the state of Lu, in the modern Shan-tung. Confucius was the child of his father's old age, and the father only survived the son's birth three years. His youth was passed in comparative His early poverty, and there is no satisfactory account of his early educa- life- tion. He says briefly in the Analects that at the age of fifteen his mind was bent on learning, and that it was owing to his low condition that he acquired ability in many mean matters, as he regarded them. At the age of nineteen he married, and his wife bore him a son (Le) and two daughters. Soon after his marriage he was appointed keeper of the grain stores under the chief of his district, and afterwards superin- tendent of parks and herds, and discharged these offices in a praiseworthy manner, without attempting to enrich himself. In his twenty-second year (about 530 B.C.), Confucius began his career as a public teacher, having no doubt prosecuted his studies while following his previous employments. His great desire was to have earnest and intelligent students, rather than those who could pay high fees. Indeed he did not reject any pupil who could pay the smallest fee. Two years after this his mother died, sincerely and long mourned by her son. At this time he seems already to have foreseen something of his future. " I am a man," he said, " who belongs equally to the north and the south, the east and the west." After this he continued his studies, and at the age of thirty, he says, " he stood firm " in his learning ; in 517 b.c his fame was so well established that a principal official of Lu, on his death- bed, recommended his son and brother to study with Confucius. This appears to have improved his position, and to have led to his visiting the capital, the city of Lo, where he examined the royal library, temple, and sacrificial grounds, and saw Lao-tze, afterwards famous _ . „ •iTii Interview as the founder of Taoism, whom he appreciated cordially. with According to the followers of Lao-tze, the latter did not think much of Confucius, and he is reported to have said to his visitor : " Those ,o4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. whom you talk about are dead, and their bones are mouldered to dust ; only their words remain. . . . Put away your proud air and many desires, your insinuating habit and wild will. These are of no advantage to you." These sayings are, as will afterwards be seen, quite in keeping with Lao-tze's teaching ; the ceremony, reverence for antiquity, and self-righteousness apparent in Confucius were very much against the spirit of quietism and rationalism of his great contemporary. Returning to Lu, the fame of Confucius increased, and his disciples are said to have risen to three thousand ; but he removed from Lu to Tse He refuses when the chief clans expelled the reigning duke. King, the high office. X)uke of Tse, sent for him, and offered him the city of Lin-kew with its revenues; but the sage declined the tempting offer, saying, "A superior man will not receive rewards except for services done. I have given advice to the Duke King, but he has not followed it as yet, and now he would endow me with this place. Very far is he from understanding me." When the duke was willing again to reward Confucius, his chief minister dissuaded him in words which convey to us a good, idea of how official view Confucius impressed his contemporaries. "These scholars," he of Confuciussaid, "are impracticable, and cannot be imitated. They are haughty and conceited of their own views, so that they will not be content in inferior positions. They set a high value on all funeral ceremonies, give way to their grief, and will waste their property on great burials, so that they would only be injurious to the common manners. This Mr. Kung has a thousand peculiarities. It would take generations to exhaust all that he knows about the ceremonies of going up and going down. This is not the time to examine into his rules of propriety. If you, prince, wish to employ him to change the customs of Tse, you will not be making the people your primary consideration." Soon after this time Confucius returned to Lu, where he stayed fifteen years without official employment, the whole State being in much confusion. During this period, marked by the composition of his Book of Odes and Book of Offices, occurred the single incident in which Confucius's son ms son Le "^e *s Prominent. One of the great man's disciples met the son one day, and asked him if he received from his father any differenl instructions from those given to the students in general. "No," said Le. "He was standing alone once, when I was passing through the court below with hasty steps, and said to me, 'Have you read the Odes?' On my replying 'Not yet,' he added, 'If you do not learn the Odes, you will not be fit to converse with.' Another day he said to me, ' Have you read the Rules of Propriety ? ' On my replying, ' Not yet,' he added, ' If you do not learn the Rules of Propriety, your character cannot be estab- lished.'" Nothing else of special importance had the son heard from his father. The disciple's comment was characteristic of his kind in China : 1 asked one thing, and I have got three things. I have heard about the Odes ; I have heard about the Rules of Propriety ; I have also heard that the superior man maintains a distant reserve towards his son." This last LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. i°5 practice was quite in accord with the principles of Confucius ; propriety was to be so far studied, even in the parental relation, that there was little room for the manifestation of open-hearted affection. Even when his wife died, and the son continued to weep aloud for her after the appropriate period, Confucius sent to him to tell him that his sorrow must be subdued. Having contrived for many years to steer clear of party conflicts, Confucius, about b.c. 500, was made chief magistrate of the city of Chung- too. Here confuciusa he SOOll magistrate. signalised himself by his strict administra- tion, and by the num- ber of rules that he framed for all con- ditions in life ; and it appears certain that he effected a great reformation in the manners of the peo- ple. This led to his promotion through several offices to be minister of crime to the entire state. Whereupon we have the doubtless exag- gerated statement that all crime ceased from the date of his appointment. "We have a pic- ture of the manners and beha- His manners viour 01 and Confucius, demeanour- in the tenth book of the Analects, which appears very natural to his character. Everything with him was a matter of ceremony, and every action was designed to be an example to others. When out of doors, in his village, he looked simple and sincere ; in courts and before princes his demeanour was humble, but precise and self-possessed. When receiving the visitors of a prince, his legs bent under him, and he showed uneasiness. Dress and In dress, Confucius would only use the correct colours — azure, food- yellow, carnation, white, and black ; his under garment was of silk, with fur CONFUCIUS : KUBBINU FBOH A POKl'HAIT ON BRASS. io6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. over it in winter, and a thin garment again over that. In his eating he \\ raa particular, though he did not eat much. Everything must be clean, well cooked, in season, properly served; and he was never without ginger when he ate. When eating, he did not converse. When in bed, he did not speak. Although his food might be coarse rice and vegetable soup, he would offer a little of it in sacrifice with a grave, respectful air. "In bed, he did not lie like a corpse. At home, he did not put on any formal de- portment." In all these matters he was consistently anxious to set a good example. His idea was, that if the prince's expressed desires and his ex- ample were good, the people would be good. And certainly he was so far successful that he added to the power of the State of Lu, its inhabitants increased because of his good government, the men became loyal and faithful, the women chaste and docile. The people were enthusiastic for him, and sang in his praise at their work. But this bright period of success was not to last long, The duke of the neighbouring State, instead of following the example of Lu, took The Duke of fright ; he thought Lu would become supreme and would swallow Lu beguiled. Up Tse. Consequently he readily adopted the advice of one of his officials, that he should try and procure the disgrace of the statesman who was adding to the fame of his neighbour so greatly. With skilful adaptation to oriental court habits, he sent a present of eighty beautiful girls, good dancers and musicians, with a hundred and twenty- five horses, to the Duke of Lu. The fascinations of harem and horses had their effect and the minister and the council were neglected. At length, finding that even the recurrence of the great sacrifice to heaven failed to produce a change, and that the whole thing was hurried through, Confucius slowly and regretfully took his leave of the Court, and was not summoned back. So he began his wanderings. Even now Confucius hoped to find suitable employment for his abilities in neighbouring States. " If any ruler," he said, " would submit to me as Confucius his director for twelve months, I should accomplish something travels, considerable ; and in three years I should attain the realisation of my hopes." He believed he could teach the rulers how they ought to behave, what they ought to encourage, what they ought to forbid. One of his expressions was that there was good government when the ruler was ruler and the minister minister ; when the father was father and the son son. That means authority and submission, due subordination of ranks. But, notwithstanding his firm faith in his principles, his departure from Lu, in his fifty-sixth year, was melancholy, and it is recorded that he spoke in verse to the following effect: — " Fain would I still look towards Lu, But this Kwei hill cuts off my view. With an axe, I'd hew the thickets through :— Vain thought! against the hill I nought can do. LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. 107 How is it, 0 azure Heaven, From my home I thus am driven, Through the land my way to trace, "With no certain dwelling-place ? Dark, dark the minds of men ; Worth in vain comes to their ken. Hastens on my term of years ; Old age, desolate appears." Although many received him well on his journey, he did not readily find the employment he sought. The times were unpropitious, the internal dissensions of the various States of the empire foreboded the dissolution of the State of Chow ; and Confucius, eager to not readily strengthen that dynasty, was not likely to be acceptable to those who were fighting for self-interest, or for the downfall of Chow. Even the sage's disciples advised him to bend to the times ; but he replied, " A good husbandman can sow, but he cannot secure a harvest. An artisan may excel in handicraft, but he cannot provide a market for his goods. And in the same way a superior man can cultivate his principles, but he cannot make them acceptable." And the result at Wei clearly proved the latter fact, for the duke, though showing him considerable honour, put a public slight upon him, so that the populace cried out, " Lust in front ; virtue behind ! " and Confucius was constrained to observe, " I have not seen one who loves virtue as he loves beauty." While Confucius was on his journey from Wei to Chin, an officer of Sung sought to kill him, greatly alarming the philosopher's disciples ; whereupon he uttered one of his famous sayings : " Heaven has his life in produced the virtue that is in me ; what can Hwan Twy do to dan&er- me?" On his farther journey Confucius was separated from his disciples, and word was brought to his followers in Ching that there was a man at the city gate whose description was given, with the addition that altogether he had the disconsolate appearance of a stray dog. Identified He ig com_ by the description, the master was soon found, and was greatly pared to a amused by hearing of the style in which he had been described. " The bodily appearance," said he, " is but a small matter ; but to say I was like a stray dog, — capital ! capital ! " During 495 B.C., Confucius was in Chin. In 493 he decided to return to Wei ; but on the way he was detained by a rebel officer at Poo, who made him promise, before releasing him, not to go on to Wei. Breaking a But Confucius broke this promise, and, on being questioned as Promise- to the morality of this course, replied that it was a forced oath, winch the spirits do not hear. So he went on to Wei, and was well received by the Duke Ling, who, however, gave him no office, perhaps because of his great reverence for the Chow dynasty and the elders. After some further travels, Confucius returned to Chin, and in b.c. 490 travelled into Tsae. During the journey his party endured severe privations scarcity of from want of provisions. One of his disciples asked, in surprise provisions, and mortification, " Has the superior man indeed to endure in this way?" ioS THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Confucius replied, "The superior man may indeed have to endure want; but the mean man, when he is in want, gives way to unbridled licence." Thus showing that the distinction between the two was adequately marked by the wav in which such calamities were borne. During this distress the sage maintained his composure, and was even able to sing and play upon the lute. In 488, Confucius was in She, where a district chief had assumed the title of duke. The latter did not know what to think of such a visitor, and hearing of his inquiries, Confucius described himself as " a man describes who in his eager pursuit of knowledge forgets his food, who in Mmself' the joy of its attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not perceive that old age is coming on." Surely this is a noble description of a lofty - minded man, eager for truth, satisfied and happy in its attainment. But he could not win the opportunity to put his views into practice: again and again he was foiled by the jealousy of prime ministers or courtiers, the indolence of rul- ers, or their dis- inclination to change their sordid courses. Finally he re- turned to Wei, where at first he was asked to undertake the government for a young ruler, the grandson of his old patron, who was reigning in opposition to his own father. Con- fucius again showed strength of principle in refusing to aid a ruler whose title was founded on unfilial rebellion ; and he remained several years em- Death of ployed only in his literary compositions and in teaching. During YenHwuy. ^ period his favourite pupil, Yen Hwuy, died, occasioning poignant grief to the master, who exclaimed, " Heaven is destroying me ! " It is said that his wife died in b.c. 484. At last he was recalled to Lu in 183 l>y the powerful Ke Kiang, who had heard anew the praises of Con- fucius from his pupil Yen Yew. The latter was judicious enough to warn the ruler not to allow mean men to come between him and the philosopher. His return, however, did not lead to any very striking improvement in TOMB OF CONFUCIDS. LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. 109 Confucius's position. He was not admitted to take any part in state affairs, and consequently he applied himself to the completion of his great works. We are told that at this period he wrote a preface to the Shn King, made a careful digest of the ancient rites and ceremonies, made a collection of ancient poetry, and endeavoured to make improve- ments in music. In 482 his son Le died, and in 480 he had a presage of his own speedy death. In 479 he lost another of his notable disciples, Tze-loo, a man of bold and soldierly presence, who would remonstrate with his chief, or make inquiries of him which others would not venture on making. And now came the death of the great philosopher himself. Early one morning in the 4th month of. 478 b.c. he rose from bed and moved slowly about by his door, saying : — " The great mountain must crumble, The strong beam must break ; And the wise man wither awa3' like a plant." Then entering his house, he sat down opposite the door. To a disciple who hastened to him on hearing these words, Confucius declared his preference for the burial form of Yin, in which the funeral ceremony was Death of performed between the two pillars, as if the deceased were at once Confucius- host and guest, instead of treating him exclusively as one or the other. " Last night," said he, " I dreamt that I was sitting with offerings before me between the two pillars. No intelligent monarch arises; there is not one in the empire that will make me his master. My time is come to die." So he took to his bed, and died seven days afterwards, b.c. 478, in the seventy-third or seventy-fourth year of his age. He was buried by the river Sze, north of the chief city of Lu, and his disciples continued mourn- ing at his grave for three entire years. His most devoted surviving dis- ciple, Tsze-kung, mourned for three years longer. He it was who said, "I have all my life had the heaven above my head, but I do not know its height ; and the earth under my feet, but I know not its thickness. In serving Confucius, I am like a thirsty man, who goes with his pitcher to the river and there drinks his fill, without knowing the river's depth." The tomb of Confucius is still reverently attended to and visited. It is surrounded by a forest of oak, cypress, etc., within a high wall. A huge mound, covered with trees and shrubs, stands . over the grave, and in front of it are befitting arrangements for sacrifice. A tall tablet, twenty-five feet high and six feet broad, standing by the mound, bears a record of the name and deeds of the philosopher. Hard by are the tombs of his son Le and of the principal persons of his clan. Dr. Legge thus comments on the death of Confucius : " His end was not unimpressive, but it was melancholy. He sank behind a cloud. Disap- pointed hopes made his soul bitter. The great ones of the empire had not received his teachings. No wife nor child was by, to do the kindly offices of affection for him. Nor were the expectations of another life present with him as he passed through the dark valley. He uttered no prayer, and he betrayed no apprehensions." THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Succeeding ages have known how to do Confucius justice, if not more than justice. His life fell upon times unsuited to the development of his
  • acren Eoofcs* The Analects — Moral teachings— The Great Learning— Personal training— Regulation of the family — The doctrine of the mean— Tsze-tsze— Teaching of the Chung-} ung— Man's moral nature — Confucius on spiritual beings— Benevolence— The sage, or perfect man— Omens and divination - Ceremony and demeanour— Shu-king, or historical documents— Ancestor worship and sacrifices —Music —Counsels of Kao-yao— The appointments of Heaven— Mang and the Powers above— — He desires to sacrifice himself— Instructions of I Yin— The dynasty of Chow — The great duke of Chow— The foundation of the city Lo— The goodness and perversion of men — The marquis of Chin on a good minister — The Shi-king or Book of Odes— Shang-ti, the Supreme Being— Ancient sacrifices to ancestors— Prayer to Heaven— The Classic of Filial Piety — The Book of Changes — The Book of Rites— Rules of propriety and ceremony— List of sacrifices— Mourning for a father — Sympathy of Confucius— Calling back the dead— Mencius— His life and journeyings— The teach- ings of Mencius— Ideas of Heaven and God— The service of Heaven— His ideal of personal character. LjlIRST among the Sacred Books of China we must place the Analects, -L or " Discourses and Dialogues " of Confucius, although containing many of the sayings of his disciples. The whole is very dis- jointed and fragmentary in style. In many a paragraph the praises of " the superior man " are sung. Thus, Yew says, " The superior man bends his attention to what is radical. That being established, all right practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal sub- mission, are they not the root of all benevolent actions ? " The superior man is catholic and no partisan ; he acts before he speaks, and then speaks according to his actions. He does not, even for the space of a single meal, act contrary to virtue : in moments of haste and in seasons of danger he cleaves to it. Four characteristics of the superior man are, that in his „6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. conduct of himself he is humble ; in serving his superiors he is respectful ; in nourishing the people he is kind ; in ordering the people he is just. ^ There are many details of Confucius's life and teaching embodied in the Analects, which we have already referred to. Some additional teachings Moral on morals may be given : of religion, properly so called, there is teachings. none. " He who aims to be a man of complete virtue, in his food does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor in his dwelling-place does he sock the appliances of ease ; he is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech; he frequents the company of men of principle, that he may be rectified." The importance of the thoughts was fully recognised, for the Book of Poetry was summed up by Confucius in the words, " Have no depressed thoughts." In all things filial piety is exalted, and this is made to include, in addition to obedience and reverence while parents are alive, sacrificial rites, full mourning, and keeping to their ways after they are dead. Conservatism marks everything. Hear and see much, learners are told, and put aside everything that seems perilous, while being cautious in practising the safe things. All through we come across repeated references to the "rules of propriety," till we are inclined to say the Chinese intellect has been quite cramped and swaddled in rules of propriety. A peculiar Confucian dictum is this: " It is only the truly virtuous man who can love or who can hate others." The term righteousness, as used by Confucius, falls far short of our use of it, for it is a thing to be performed according to the rules of propriety. " The Great Learning" is one of the chapters of the Li-ki, or Book of Kites, of doubtful authorship, but containing many of the sayings of Con- Tne Great fucius. Its main object is political, but it illustrates chiefly Learning, virtue and morals. It shows how the cultivation of the indi- vidual is at the root of and leads to the right regulation of the family and good government of the State. The wearisome style in which it is written may be illustrated by one of the early paragraphs: "The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the empire, first ordered well their own States. Wishing to order well their States, they first regu- lated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first culti- vated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of know- ledge lay in the investigation of things." The book is probably only a fragment of a larger work ; and it is not possible to get any very connected system out of it, One of its important principles is the following, which may be said to illustrate the golden rule on its negative side : " What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not display in the treatment of his inferiors ; what he dislikes in inferiors, let him not display in his service of his superiors; what he dislikes in those who are before him, let' him not therewith precede those who are behind him," and so on. As to personal training, it is most truly said, that "the rectifying of the THE CHINESE SACKED BOOKS. 117 mind is realised when the thoughts are made sincere," when there is no self- deception, and when we move without effort to what is right, personal The superior man is watchful over himself when he is alone, training. There is no full account of " the investigation of things," as we should expect from the paragraph given above. Supposing the cultivation of the person adequately performed, it is expected that the due regulation of the family will necessarily follow. The virtues taught and practised in the family will also appear in the Reffulation State. From filial piety proceeds loyalty ; and from fraternal sub- of the mission, obedience to elders and superiors. The great object of government is recognised as being to make the people happy and good. The Chung-yung, or, " The Doctrine of the Mean," otherwise inter- preted, " The State of Equilibrium and Harmony," is a still more important part of the Li-ki, and is ascribed to Tsze-tsze, the grandson of The Doctrine Confucius, being the son of Le. In his early days he received of the Mean- his grandfather's instructions, and greatly profited by them. He was to a considerable extent an ascetic, and refused a gift of wine as an „ , p Tsze-tsze. appliance of feasting. He appears to have been a man of strong will and decided independence of character. He was held in great esteem by the dukes of Wei, Sung, Lu, and Pe. On one occasion he recommended a man of worth, Le-yin, to the duke of Wei, although he was only the son of a husbandman. The duke justified Tsze-tsze's statement that he could not appreciate men of worth, by bursting into laughter, and saying, " The son of a husbandman cannot be fit for me to employ ! " The sage answered, " I mention Le-yin because of his abilities ; what has the fact of his fore- fathers being husbandmen to do with the case ? " In Lu, Tsze-tsze had several hundred disciples, the duke paying him the highest honour. One day the duke said to him, " The officer there told me that you do good without wishing for any praise from men ; is it so ? " Tsze-tsze replied to the effect that he did wish it to be known and praised, because of its effect as an example. We do not, however, find that he rose to the same elevation as Confucius. The Chung-yung is but a short work, very dogmatic, and not contain- ing adequate proofs of what it advances. It begins by a series of propo- sitions, of which the following are specimens. " What Heaven has conferred is called the Nature. An accordance with this oftne° Nature is called the Path of Duty ; the regulation of this path is ^^-J™11^ called the System of Instruction." We may express this more in accordance with Western thought thus : " Man has received his nature from Heaven. Conduct in accordance with that nature constitutes the path of duty." Later we read, " When there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, we call it the state of Equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and all in their due measure and degree, we call it the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root (from which grow all the human actings) in the world ; and this Harmony is the universal path (in which they should all proceed). The state of equilibrium corresponds with „S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the nature given by Heaven. The superior man is he who always exhibits the state of equilibrium and harmony ; yet few can keep it for a month." The treatise diverges without system, and often without much sense. In the main, it amounts to teaching that man's moral nature, received from Man's moral Heaven, is a law to himself, and must be jealously watched over. nature. jn s0 far as jie rightly and completely exercises it, and comes up to it, he may say, " I am a god; I sit in the seat of God." One of the numerous sayings of Confucius quoted in this book is significant. He said, " The Path is not far from man. When men try to pursue a path which is far from what their nature suggests, it should not be considered the Path.'' Tims much personal choice in morals is justified. One of the digressions in the Chung-yung is interesting, as attributing to Confucius some definite belief about spiritual beings ; but it amounts to little more than crude animism, which he neither originated nor Confucius on ' . , °. spiritual developed. He says, " How abundant and rich are the powers beings. p0Ssesseci anci exercised by Spiritual Beings ! "We look for them, but do not see them ; we listen for them, but do not hear them ; they enter into all things, and nothing is without them. They cause all under Heaven to fast and purify themselves, and to array themselves in their richest dresses, in order to attend at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over the heads, and on the left and the right (of their wor- shippers)." Then he quotes from the Book of Poetry : — " The spirits come, but when and where, No one beforehand can declare ; The more should we not spirits slight, But ever feel as in their sight." Much of the Chung-yung is occupied with recounting the illustrious examples of former emperors, dukes, etc. In the second section we find the bold statement, " Benevolence is Man," that is, his true self. It BsnGVOlGncG. is followed by the assertion that the greatest exercise of it is in the love of relatives, while the greatest exercise of righteousness is in the honour paid to the worthy. Wisdom, benevolence, and fortitude are given as the universal virtues, probably for all to exemplify. Tsze-tsze carries the teaching of Confucius much further in the latter part of the book, and therein may be called truly an originator. He says The sage, or that perfection of nature is characteristic of Heaven, but that perfect man. man may attain to that perfection. The sage, or perfect man, hits what is right without any effort, and apprehends without any exercise of thought; he chooses what is good, and holds it fast. "He extensively studies what is good, inquires accurately about it, thinks carefully over it, clearly discriminates it, and vigorously practises it." Some of his expres- sions about the persistence of effort, by which the sage attains knowledge, are worthy of all commendation. "If another man succeed by one effort, he will use ten ; if another succeed by ten, he will use a thousand. He will not intermit his labour while there is anything he has not asked about, has THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS. 119 not thought about, does not understand, or has not studied in every possible way. Let a man proceed in this way, and, though stupid, he is sure to become intelligent, though weak, he is sure to become strong." This sage is credited with power to give its full development, not only to his own nature, but also to that of other men, and even to animals and things ; he can even assist the transforming and nourishing operations of heaven and earth. When we consider such expressions by the light of the modern influence of man, as shown in the breeding and teaching of animals, the investigation and culture of plants, and the maste^ over physical powers attained in recent years, we shall be inclined to say that the sage of China had a remarkable prescience, although we may not agree with him that "it is only he who is entirely perfect that can transform." The theme sinks to a lower level in the next paragraph; for the perfect man is declared gifted with foreknowledge, which, however, is derived from omens. " When a State or family is about to flourish, there are omens and sure to be lucky omens ; and when it is about to perish, there are dmnatlon- sure to be unlucky omens. They will ba seen in the tortoise-shell and stalks " [two favourite means of divination, the stalks being those of Achillea (Ptarmica) sibirica, a plant of the same genus as Milfoil] ; they will affect the movements of the four limbs (of the tortoise). " When calamity or happi- ness is about to come, the good is sure to be foreknown by him, and the evil also. Hence he who is entirely perfect is like a spirit." In divination by the tortoise, the outer shell was removed, leaving the inner portion marked by the muscular impressions. This being smeared with a black pigment, and fire applied beneath, the pigment was found to present various appear- ances, giving indications which were interpreted to mean rain, clearing up, cloudiness, want of connection, and crossing. Forty-nine of the divining stalks were manipulated in a special way eighteen different times, resulting in certain diagrams which were interpreted by appointed persons. Both the tortoise and the plant were held to possess spiritual intelligence or correspond- ence, and the spirits were believed to make revelations by their means. The perfection of the perfect man is then eulogised in a way that does not add much to our knowledge. He is said to effect changes without any movement, and without any exertion. Then by a sudden transition the author rises to a higher subject thus : " The way of heaven and earth may be completely described in one sentence : The}' are without any second thought, and so their production of things is inexhaustible. The character- istics of heaven and earth are to be large ; to be substantial ; to be high ; to be brilliant ; to be far-reaching ; to be long-continuing." But there appears in this and its subsequent expansion no notion of a personal deity. Then the sage is once more described and lauded, his admired greatness including the three hundred usages of ceremony and the three thousand modes of demeanour. Some of the excellent results of the sage's ceremony and action are that, " throughout the whole kingdom, carriages have all wheels of the same breadth of rim ; all writing is with the same characters ; and for conduct there are the same rules." Such a man marks out the path THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. fi >r all under heaven ; his words are the pattern for all. He shows himself, and the people all revere him ; he speaks, and the people all believe him ; he acts, and the people all are pleased with him. " How shall this individual have any one beyond himself on whom he depends? . . . Call him Heaven, how vast is he!" In fact, the superior man is all-important, for everybody will follow his example. First catch your superior man, and everything will go well. But it has not proved so easy for the Chinese to catch their superior man, in spite of the most elaborate contrivances. We now turn to the main mass of the Chinese classics, which existed before Confucius, and which he was instrumental in collecting, preserving, and arranging. There is first the Shu-king, or Book of Historical Historical Documents, purporting to begin with the twenty-fourth century Documents. R c ^ an^ coming down to the seventh. It is but a collection of documents, not definitely connected, and often with considerable gaps between them. There is no reason to doubt the great antiquity of many of them, for the ancient emperors kept a whole set of recorders to record everything of importance : and Dr. Legge believes written characters were in use among the Chinese earlier than the time of Hwang Ti (dated B.C. 2097). The greater number are also credible, allowing for some colouring of the narrator in favour of the ruling powers. Any discussion of historical records would be out of place here ; but we may note that at this early period the terms " Heaven," " The Supreme." or God, and emperor were interchangeable, being signified usually by the syllable Ti. One of the earliest records contains a reference to the " Temple of the Accomplished Ancestor," showing that ancestor-worship was already established. The emperor Shun sacrificed specially, but with the worship and ordinary forms, to God (or Heaven) ; sacrificed with reverent purity to the Six Honoured Ones (who these were is doubtful) ; offered their appropriate sacrifices to the hills and rivers, and extended his worship to the hosts of spirits." Here we see ancestor and spirit worship in a widely diffused form, combined with a recognition of higher and supreme powers. Bulls were sacrificed at this time. The characteristic severity of Chinese punishments is seen in the naming of branding on the forehead, cutting off the nose, cutting off the feet, whipping, and banishment among the punishments in vogue. Those who transgressed presumptuously and repeatedly were to be punished with death. Schools were already in existence in 2200 B.C., and the stick was the orthodox implement of punish- ment. The three great ceremonies were the worship of the Spirits of Heaven, the Spirits of Earth, and the Spirits of Men. At this time music was considerably developed, and was combined with poetry. The director of music was to teach the emperor's sons to be Music, straightforward, yet mild; gentle and dignified ; strong, yet not tyrannical. Poetry is defined as the expression of earnest thought, singing as the prolonged utterance of that expression ; and eight different kinds of musical instruments were in use. Divination was in regular use by means of the tortoise-shell and the divining stalks. THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS. 121 The early celebrated minister of crime, Kao-yao, gave wise counsels to them, placing the sovereign's chief hope in the steadfast pursuit of personal virtue. He enumerates nine virtues in conduct, viz., affability counsels of combined with dignity ; mildness combined with firmness ; Kao-yao. bluntness with respectfulness ; aptness for government with reverent caution ; docility combined with boldness ; straightforwardness with gentleness ; an easy negligence with discrimination ; boldness with sin- cerity ; and valour combined with righteousness. Kao-yao ascribes the social relationships and duties to Heaven, which graciously distinguishes the virtuous and punishes the guilty. We must only note some of the religious references in the Shu-king. Thus we read that to revere and honour the path prescribed by Heaven is the way ever to preserve the favouring appointment of Heaven. TheaDDOint " The great God has conferred even on the inferior people a moral ments of sense. ... To make them tranquilly pursue the course which it would indicate, is the work of the sovereign. The way of Heaven is to bless the good, and make the bad miserable." Thang, the first emperor of a new dynasty, b.c. 1766, represents him- self as commissioned by Heaven to make an end of the criminality of the previous dynasty. He requested the favour of Heaven on his en- Thang. and terprise, and for his new dynasty. His inaugural address shows the Powers that he was deeply anxious not to offend against the Powers above. As for his people or princes, the good in them he will not dare to conceal; the evil in himself he will not dare to forgive himself. " I will examine these things," he says, " in harmony with the mind of God. When guilt is found anywhere in you who occupy the myriad regions, let it rest on me, the One Man. When guilt is found in me, the One Man, it shall not attach to you." In correspondence with these lofty sentiments, there is a tradition about Thang, that after his accession to the throne, there was a great drought followed by famine. A suggestion was made in accordance with the principle mentioned in our Introduction (p. 16), that . some human sacrifice was necessary, and that rain should be sacrifice prayed for. Thang answered, " If a man must be the victim, I will be he." After fasting, and cutting off his hair and nails, he proceeded in a plain carriage drawn by white horses {i.e. of the Chinese mourning colour), decked in rushes as a sacrifice, to a forest of mulberry-trees, where he- prayed, asking to what fault of his the drought was owing. Before he had concluded, abundance of rain fell. The title of " the One Man," used of Thang, had already come into use as a special designation of the emperor. The Instructions of I-yin, minister of Thang's grandson, contain little beyond the ancient truths. He says that Heaven has no partial affection ; only to those who are reverent does it show affection. The spirits j^^^ ng do not always accept the sacrifices that are offered to them ; of they accept only the sacrifices of the sincere. A virtuous sovereign 'ym' is spoken of as the fellow of God, who rules on earth as He rules above. In retiring from office, I-yin said that it was difficult to rely on Heaven, for THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. its appointments were not constant; but if the sovereign's virtue were constant, he would preserve his throne. One of his references shows that the kings in his time had a temple of ancestors containing seven shrines or smaller temples, in which were placed the spirit-tablets of kings held worthy of honour. One of his words of advice to the king, is a remarkable one to be addressed to a ruler: " Do not think yourself so large as to deem others small." The latter portion of the Shu-king relates to the dynasty of Chow (B.C. 122 to 256). In the first book, "The Great Declaration," the founder of The dynasty the dynasty, Wei, addresses his followers, and gives a picture of of chow. the wicked sovereign whom he is going to displace, which shows clearly what conduct was thought reprehensible then. " He sits squatting on his heels, not serving God nor the spirits of heaven and earth, neglecting also the temple of his ancestors, and not sacrificing to it. The victims and the vessels of millet all become the prey of wicked robbers, and still he says, ' The people are mine, the heavenly appointment is mine,' never trying to correct his contemptuous mind." Wei relies on the fact that his own dreams coincide with his divinations, the auspicious omen is double. He attributes his coming success entirely to the illustrious virtue of his own late father, Wan, thus showing the true Chinese filial piety. A little later we come to the first mention of the duke of Chow, whom Confucius regarded with such great reverence. He was brother of King Wei ; and once when Wei lay very ill, the duke, fearing great duke of danger to the State if he should die, prayed to the three ances- tral kings that he might be taken as a substitute for his brother. He offered himself as having been lovingly obedient to his father, and as possessed of many abilities and arts which fitted him to serve spiritual beings (confirming the idea of service being rendered by those sacrificed). He then divined with three tortoise-shells (corresponding to the three ancestors prayed to), and consulted the oracular responses, which apparently were some special formulas to be examined by certain rules now unknown. His prayer was granted ; but neither king nor duke died. The prayer was written down and concealed, and served in the reign of his successor to justify the duke from false accusations. In the Announcement of the duke of Shao, we find an interesting account of the foundation of the city Lo, about B.C. 1109. Divination by The founda- ^ie t°rtoise-shell first took place, then two bulls were offered as tionofthe victims in the northern and southern suburbs of the chosen site, perhaps to heaven and earth respectively ; then a bull, a ram, and a boar were offered at the altar to the spirit of the land in the new city. The duke of Chow took an important part in this enterprise, and he is the nit tor of several later portions of the Shu-king. In one of these " Against Luxurious Ease," he instructs the king by reference to the severe toil of the agricultural labourer, which affords a pattern to himself, and also by reference to the good fortune of previous kings who had been diligent and not self-indulgent. The king is not to allow himself leisure at any time to THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS 123 say, ': To-day I will indulge in pleasure ; " surely a hard lesson for an absolute monarch. At various points we find expression of the belief that " the people arc born good, and are changed by external things,'' which is a keynote of Chinese beliefs, and makes them resent the "Western teaching of _ . (MM *7 The goodness the natural depravity of man. The good example of superiors and perver- will alone suffice to bring them out of error and to confirm them in the way of virtue. We must conclude our extracts from this most inter- esting book by noting the gist of the marquis of Chin's speech, about 100 years before the birth of Confucius. His principles of government might well be read as a text for modern rulers : " Let me have but one resolute minister, plain and sincere, without other ability, but having a The marquis straightforward mind, and possessed of generosity, regarding the ofcninona talents of others, as if he himself possessed them ; and when he finds accomplished and sage men, loving them in his heart more than his mouth expresses, really showing himself able to bear them : — such a min- ister would be able to preserve my descendants and people, and would indeed be a giver of benefits. But if the minister, when he finds men of ability, is jealous and hates them ; if when he finds accomplished and sage men, he opposes them and does not allow their advancement, showing himself really not able to bear them : — such a man will not be able to pro- tect my descendants and people, and will he not be a dangerous man?" But all Western minds will not agree that " the decline and fall of a State may arise from one man," or that " the glory and tranquillity of a State may also arise from the goodness of one man." The Shi-king (or She-king), the great Book of Poetn', includes more than three hundred pieces, varying in date from b.c. 1766 to B.C. B86. Only a certain number of them are specially of a religious character ; gni-king many are domestic and narrative, others are metaphorical and or Book of allusive. The authorship is uncertain, but many are ascribed to the great duke of Chow. Those in the fourth part are chiefly concerned with the ancestral worship of the Sliang and Chow dynasties and of the mar- quises of Lu ; but these served as a model for the ancestral worship of the common people. They are so different in their nature from anything called poetry with us, that it is difficult in a brief space to give an idea of their scope and variety. Here is one describing a sacrifice to Thang : — " How admirable ! how complete ! Here are set our hand-drums and drums. The drums resound harmonious and loud, To delight our meritorious ancestor. The descendant of Thang invites him with this music, That he may soothe us with the realisation of our thoughts. Deep is the sound of our hand-drums and drums Shrilly sound the flutes, all harmonious and blending together, According to the notes of the sonorous gem. Oh ! majestic is the descendant of Thang ; Very admirable is his music. 124 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The large bells and drums fill the ear, The various dances are grandly performed. We have the admirable visitors, who are pleased and delighted. From of old, before our time, the former men set us the example How to be mild and humble from morning to night, And to be reverent in discharging the service. May he regard our sacrifices of winter and autumn, Offered by the descendant of Thang ! " 111 explanation of " the realisation of our thoughts," we learn that the sacrificer was required, before the service, to fast for several days, during which he must think of his ancestor, his demeanour, words, aims, and de- lights. Then with a perfect image of him in his mind, he would inwardly see him in his shrine when he came to sacrifice, and hear him during the service. The visitors referred to are descendants of previous dynasties, whom it was always important to have present. Here is a portion of an ode expressing the current beliefs about the Divine Ruler and the primary goodness of men : — " How vast is God, the ruler of men below! How arrayed in terrors is God, With many things irregular in his ordinations. Heaven gave birth to the multitudes of the people, But the nature it confers is not to be depended on. All are good at first, But few prove themselves to be so at the last." There can be no doubt that the Supreme Being was early worshipped in China by the title Shang-ti, translated " God" in the above quotations. . .. Another title indicated Heaven, but the two are used in a way Shang-ti, the ....'. J Supreme which is practically equivalent. It is recorded that as early mg' as the reign of Hwang-ti (b.c. 2697) a temple was erected in his honour ; and a hundred years later music was ordered to be performed in connection with these rites. At first he was conceived as a personal ruler, interfering directly in the affairs of man by rewards and punish- ments ; but it is not doubtful that a degeneration took place, by which Shang-ti became more impersonal, as the Azure Heaven ; and Confucius, by practically ignoring Shang-ti and laying more stress on the worship of the spirits of ancestors and on filial piety, did much to sterilise and stereotype the faith of his countrymen. Several sacrifices to Shang-ti are however mentioned in the Shi-king, especially in spring and autumn. Many interesting details of the ceremonial of sacrifice to ancestors may be gathered from the Shi-king. After fasting by the king or prominent Ancient Persons concerned, a great assembly of princes, especially of those sacrifices to bearing the same surname as the royal house, took place. Liba- 3.UC6St0f3 tions of fragrant spirits were made, to attract the spirits of the ancestors. The king himself killed the chief victim, a red bull, and cut away the fat, which was burned with southernwood. Numerous other victims were sacrificed, and the ceremonial was complex and laborious. " The description," says Dr. Legge, " is that of a feast as much as of a sacrifice ; THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS. 125 and, in fact, those great seasonal occasions were what we might call grand family reunions, where the dead and the living met, eating and drinking together, where the living worshipped the dead, and the dead blessed the living." The departed spirits were represented by living relatives bearing the same surname, received personally the honour due to the dead, and ate and drank for them. They also expressed the will of the deceased spirits, and gave their blessing to the sacrificing king or prince, with the aid of a skilled minister of religion. Thus the predominant idea of these sacrifices was the maintenance of filial piety and of the clan feeling. The continued existence and guardianship of ancestors was expressed and embodied. As a specimen of a deep tone of appeal to Heaven sometimes found in the odes, we may quote the following : " 0 great Heaven, how hast thou shut up thy love ! Compassionate Heaven, arrayed in terrors ! Prayer to why revealest thou not thy care? Leaving criminals aside, Heaven, who have but paid just penalty, the innocent are involved in the same ruin. Why will he not listen to jus- tice? Why, 0 officers, will ye not respect each other, nor stand in awe of Heaven? Alas! there are no words for it ; 'tis deeper than the tongue can speak. Words that can be spoken prosper. Artful speech flows like water, and the speaker dwells at ease. See how perilous is office. By advice given in vain, you offend the prince, you offend your friends even. Painful are my inmost thoughts. I weep tears of blood." Tie tenor of the Hsiao-king, or Classic of Filial Piety, a work attributed to a member of ofniiai the school of a prominent e y" disciple of Confucius, may be sufficiently understood from the following extract : " The service which a filial son does to his parents is as follows : — In his general conduct to them, he manifests the utmost reverence ; in his nourishing of them, his endeavour is to give them the utmost pleasure ; when they are ill, he feels the greatest anxiety ; in mourning for them, he exhibits every demonstration of grief ; in sacrificing to them, he displays the utmost solemnity. When a son is complete in these five things, he may be pronounced able to serve his parents." The Yi-king, or Book of Changes, can only be estimated by study. It is an explanation of certain line-diagrams, or hexagrams, being The Boo]c variations on these types I Hi = and 1 =, of changes, which are believed to date from the twelfth century b.c, and to repre- sent various moral and political teachings. There are sixty-four of these EIGHT DIAGRAMS, WITH REPRESENTATION OF MALE AND FEMALE PRINCIPLES OF NATURE. THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. hexagrams. In the reign of the tyrant whom the great Wan overthrew, these figures were already nsed in divination. Wan, it is said, was im- prisoned by the tyrant in 1143 B.C., and spent his imprisonment in studying these hexagrams. As he mused over them and thought of public affairs, he wrote the sixty-four short paragraphs explaining each hexagram as a whole. His son Tan afterwards did the same for each line, making it harmonise with the general paragraph. M. Terrien de Lacouperie appears to have proved that the hexagrams of the Yi-king are merely a vocabulary of primitive words and expressions, derived from the earliest writing of South-western Asia, so ancient that the earliest critics did not know what it meant. (Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. vol. 15, 1883.) The Li-ki, Book of Rites, is the most important of all the Chinese classics, as regards the practical behaviour of the people. It is a collection of ■me Book treatises on the Rules of Propriety, or ceremonial usages : in its of Rites, present form it is not older than the Han dynasty, and was only completed in the second century a.d. It has however gained higher rank than the two earlier rituals of the Chow dynasty, which are not reckoned among the five chief classics. Probably some parts of it are really as early as, or may be earlier than, these rituals. It has been described " as the most exact and complete monograph which the Chinese nation has been able to give of itself to the rest of the human race." The first book is a summary of the general rules of propriety and ceremony, and begins with a propriety and maxim which strikes an appropriate keynote: "Always and in ceremony. every thing let there be reverence." The man who observes no rules of propriety is said to have the heart of a beast. After some general moral expressions, the origin of the rules is discussed. " In the highest antiquity they prized simply conferring good ; in the time next to this, giving and repaying was the thing attended to. And what the rules of propriety value, is that reciprocity. If I give a gift and nothing comes in return, that is contrary to propriety." The services due from juniors to elders and from sons to parents, and the rules of all daily ceremonies are minutely prescribed. Thus : " For all sons it is the rule, in winter to warm the bed for their parents, and to cool it in summer." A filial son, when he meets an intimate friend of his father, must neither advance nor retire without being told, nor speak unless questioned. In the third part of this first section, we have a list of sacrifices which is of interest. We learn that the Son of Heaven (the king or emperor) List of sacrifices to Heaven and earth (representing the Supreme Being), sacrifices. to tiie Spir[ts presiding over the four quarters, to those of the hills and rivers; and offers the five sacrifices of the house, every year. The feudal princes sacrifice to the spirits each of his own quarter, of its hills and rivers, and the five sacrifices. Great officers offer only the latter, while other officers merely present oblations to their ancestors. The Son of Heaven sacrifices an ox of a single pure colour ; a feudal prince, a fatted ox ; a great officer, a selected ox ; an ordinary officer, a sheep or a pig. In ac- cordance with their love for symbolic expressions, the ox is designated THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS. 127 " the creature with the large foot," the pig, " the hard bristles," a cock, " the loud voice," a dog, " the soup offering," the stalks of dried flesh, " the exactly cut oblations," water, " the pure cleanser," spirits, " the clear cup," etc. When the son of Heaven dies, he " has fallen "; when a feudal prince dies, he " has crashed"; a great officer " has ended" ; an ordinary officer " is now unsalaried." The corpse placed in its coffin is described as being " in its long home." In the Than-kung, dealing chiefly with mourning rites, we learn that when a father has just died, the son should appear quite overcome, and as if he were at his wits' end ; when the corpse is in the coffin, he Mourning- should cast quick and sorrowful glances round, as if seeking for for a father, something he cannot find ; after the funeral, he should look alarmed and restless, as if seeking some one who does not arrive ; at the end of the first year's mourning, he should look sad and disappointed ; at the end of the second year, he should have a vague and unreliant look. Many of the sayings in this book are ascribed to Confucius, but are regarded as doubtful or spurious by the Chinese; nevertheless they show what was considered appropriate to his character at a very early date, sympathy of For instance, when Confucius went to Wei, he found the Confucius. mourning rites going on for a man with whom he had formerly lodged. Entering the house, he wept for him bitterly, and ordered the outside horses of his carriage to be given as his mourning gift. On being remonstrated with, Confucius said :— " I entered a little while ago and wailed for him, and I found the mourner so dissolved in grief that my tears flowed with his. I should hate it, if those tears were not. properly followed." Again, Confucius said " In dealing with the dead, if we treat them as if they were entirely dead, that would show a want of affection, and should not be done ; or if we treat them as if they were entirely alive, that would show a want of wisdom, and should not be done." And the Chinese commentators say on this, that in the offerings put down immediately after death, there is an approach to treating the deceased as living ; and at the burial, an approach to treating him as a disembodied spirit. There are numerous references in the Book of Rites to the practice of calling back the dead, still in vogue in China. In calling back the king or emperor, the proper phrase is, "Return, 0 son of Heaven," caning back in calling back a feudal prince, the phrase is, " Return, sir so- the dead- and-so." In Ku-lu the practice was, to call back the dead with arrows. The soul of a deceased ruler is called back in his smaller chambers, and in the large chamber ; in the smaller ancestral temples and in the great one ; at the gate leading to the court of external audience, and in the suburbs all round. Calling the soul back, is described as " the way in which love receives its consummation." The third section of the Li-ki contains " The Royal Regulations." We learn that the ancestral temple of the Emperor, or Son of Heaven, included seven smaller temples, three on either side, and that of his great ancestor, fronting the south. A prince had five, a great officer three, an ordinary i28 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. officer only one, while the common people presented their offerings in their principal apartment. It is impossible in any brief space to give an account of the multitude of ceremoniai.forms and the reasons for them detailed in the Book of Rites. The few samples we have given must suffice to barely indicate a people above all occupied with ceremonial and propriety to an extent which has almost stopped progress and perpetuated a childishness of mind in some respects which is quite astounding to Europeans. MENCIUS. The name of Mencius ranks next after that of Confucius in Chinese estimation. It is a Latinised form of Mang-tsze, or Liang the philosopher. His statue or tablet is everywhere to be seen in the temples of Confucius. Born early in the fourth century B.C., he lived to a great age, and died in b.c. 289. He was a great student and admirer of Confucius and his writings, and of the old historic records which he had collected ; he even knew some persons who had been disciples of Confucius. In his time the feudal kingdom was broken up into seven monarchies, all at feud with one another. Various leaders of opinion propagated opinions destructive of the State or of the His life and special filial affection and regard which Confucius so strongly up- journeyings. held. Mencius set himself to rescue the country from its impend- ing dangers by a plan similar to that of Confucius ; he would travel about from State to State till he got a hearing from some ruler who would carry out his teaching, and so bring about a better state of things. When one State had reached a proper condition of order and happiness, it would be sub- mitted to by all others — a visionary hope truly. But Mencius went confidently on his journeys, visiting many States in turn, often meeting with a respectful hearing, and receiving large gifts. He put forward his doctrines with entire fearlessness, not scrupling to censure faults and vices ; but this led to no great result in his life-time, and he at last gave up the fruitless labour about 310 b.c, contenting himself with completing the re- cord of his teaching. The restoration of the feudal kingdom on its old basis was impossible ; the Chin dynasty was to change the face of the land, and rule by a despotism which in its essence has continued till now, though the dynasties have changed. The teaching of Mencius, like that of Confucius, was mainly directed to political ends, but it has incidentally much moral and religious bearing. The teachings ^e can only comment on his writings, now reckoned as one of Mencius. 0f the Four Books, in so far as their view differs from that of Confucius, or has a peculiar tone. He is more of a philosopher than Con- fucius, and more definite in his teachings on many points. He believes that man is good, and the heart (probably equivalent to our conscience) is a sound guide. "He who has fathomed his heart, knows his nature ; if one knows his nature, he also knows Heaven." Every heart, according to him, has the germ of perfection, and only falls short of it by not taking advan- tage of opportunities, or missing them. Man has the power of choice. He THE CHINESE SACRED BOOKS. 129 says, " There is both a heavenly greatness and a human greatness. Benevo- lence, righteousness, truth, faith, delight in goodness without weariness, this is heavenly greatness." Concentration and symmetrical cultivation are necessary to attain them : but these are opposed in some by natural selfish- ness, or by ignorance, or by external difficulties. Some of the sentiments and phrases of Mencius are extremely fine ; as " The great man is he who does not lose his child-heart. He does not think beforehand that his words shall be sincere, nor that his acts shall be reso- lute ; he simply abides in the right." " To nourish the heart, there is nothing better than to keep the desires few.,: " When one by force subdues men, they do not submit to him in heart ; when he subdues them by virtue, in their heart's core they are pleased, and sincerely submit." " Every man has a heart sensible of sympathy, shame, tenderness, and conscientiousness, and he who is without these is simply not a man." " Benevolence (or love), is the heart of man, right- eousness the way." Mencius expressed as his great aim the im- provement or elevation of the heart. He saj^s, " I wish to improve the hearts of men, to put a stop to destructive doctrines, to oppose strange behaviour, to banish unseemly language. Is it because of a taste for controversy ? I cannot do otherwise." While not believing that error and sin are neces- sary, Mencius recognised their general existence. Thus, " Men for the most part go astray, and at first are able, after so doing, to reform. They are grieved in their hearts and oppressed by anxiety, and act accordingly." It was undesirable to have much prosperity and joy, for they encouraged the desire for pleasure, and so caused ruin. It was the struggle with adversity that led to active effort against error, and towards truth. In his ideas about Heaven and God, Mencius held much the same views as Confucius, but was more full in his expressions. His view of Heaven is that it is an overruling Providence as well as a first Cause. " No man nor emperor can bestow an empire, but only Heaven alone." Heaven and " When Heaven is about to impose an important office upon a God' man, it first embitters his heart in its purposes ; it causes him to exert his bones and sinews ; it lets his body suffer hunger ; it inflicts upon him want and poverty, and confounds his undertakings. In this way it stimulates his heart, steels his nature, and supplies that of which the man would else be incapable." The true service of Heaven, according to Mencius, is the right culti- vation of the heart and nature. The ruler serves Heaven by ^g servlce of serving both the small and great. The tutelary deities or Heaven, spirits he believed to be channels for the blessings of Heaven ; 3ret they TRADITIONAL LIKENESS O? MENCIUS. I3o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. were in a peculiar way dependent upon men, and possessed human weak- nesses. Thus he says, " When the sacrificial victims are perfect, the cm rn in the vessels pure, the sacrifices at their proper times, and yet there arises drought or flood, then the tutelary spirits must be changed. He also believed in many kinds of spirits besides the tutelary spirits, all capable of serving man and of being propitiated by gifts. Strangely in contrast with some of his lofty ideals, we find the following, " Although any one be a bad man, if he fasts and is collected, bathes and washes himself, he may indeed offer sacrifice to God " ; but perhaps this ceremonial indicates that the bad man has changed his heart and repented, and become worthy of offering sacrifice. For from other passages we gather that in Mencius's idea " Shang- Ti." or the Supreme Being, is the Supreme Ruler and Governor of the World, desirous of the physical and moral well-being of mankind, a holy Being whom nothing impure may approach, and who receives the penitent with favour. All men are under universal law and destiny; the education and cultivation of each man is but a fulfilment of destiny. Yet there is moral freedom, and virtue needs to be inculcated and preached. We cannot go fully into his disquisitions on the virtues and their re- sults, the character of the superior man and the sage. He takes as a model character an ancient holy man, Shun, who for a long time dwelt among sa- vages without degenerating under their influence. The true disciple of Shun is diligent in good things, and the difference between the holy man and the robber is the distance between selfishness and goodness. He is no friend to cringing servility. "He who bends himself can never make others straight." He attacks Phariseeism and hypocrisy, and lauds kindness, truth, and be- nevolence. He blames uncharitable speech, and unreality in words. Righteousness Mencius held to belong to the essential nature of men, and to have been originally common to all hearts. He valued it more than True ^e* "■"■ ^e ^e anc^ ^ a^s0 ^ke righteousness," he said; "if the Righteous- two are not to be had together, I let go life and hold to righteous- ness. Life also appertains to the things which I desire ; but if amongst the things which I desire there is something greater than life, I will not on this account retain it by baseness of conduct. Death, again, appertains to the things which I hate ; but if amongst the things which I hate there is something greater than death, therefore these are calamities which I do not avoid." Righteousness is realised by a practical recognition of the rights of others ; its result is contentment or self-satisfaction. " He who prizes virtue and rejoices in righteousness may well be cheerful, there- fore in destitution the scholar does not lose righteousness, in prosperity he departs not from the way." (F.) On the whole, his doctrines are more practical than those of Confucius ; but however much reverence he may now receive, however much he may be studied by the superior minds, his thoughts do not influence largely the present religious attitude of the mass of the Chinese. Confucius is to them a god, in reverencing whom with the ancestral spirits they find such outlet hey think they require for their spiritual aspirations. THE Clfl.VESE SACRED BOOKS. *3* A description of the ideal of personal character compiled from Mencius includes many of the finest maxims. " A real man is one whose goodness is a part of himself. Of the qualities of the sage, none is greater Hig ideal of than that of being a helper of men to right living. He is personal cna- ashamed of areputation beyoni 1 his desert. Having found the right way within himself, he rests in it, firm and serene, holding intimate con- verse with it, and reaching to its fountain-head. He obeys the right, and waits for the appointed. His words are plain and simple, yet of widest bear- ing. His aim is self-culture, yet it gives place to all men. ... If one strive to treat others as he would be treated by them, he shall not fail to come near the perfect life. Every duty is a charge, but the charge of oneself is the root, of all others. The disease of men is to neglect their own fields and go to weeding those of others ; and to exact much from others, and lay light burdens on themselves." (J.) By some thinkers, as the American Johnson, Mencius is lauded as one of the greatest teachers, more assertive on behalf of humanity in general' than Confucius, more positive in upholding the right of revolution against evil rulers, more definite in his plans of reform. There can be no question of his greatness ; but it can hardly be claimed that his theories have been translated into facts in China. His temple stands to the south of his native city, Tsin-hien, enclosed by cypress-trees and a high wall ; it is similar to the temples of Confucius, but on a greater scale than most of them. The huge marble tablet of the sage, twenty feet high, six feet wide, and twenty inches thick, stands on a monster tortoise twelve feet long. A large statue • of him is on a platform in the building, showing him, according to William- son (" Journeys in North China "), as " of middle stature, stout, and having a ready-for-any thing appearance, with a round full face, sanguine bright eye, thin closed lips, and a large flatfish nose." The idea given of him is, that he was thoughtful, resolute, outspoken, and experienced in disappointment and sorrow. Many tablets have been erected in his honour by emperors and others. Lineal representatives of Mencius still live in honour, and receive large pensions from the Government. [•'Sacred Books of the East," vols. 3, 27, 28. Faber's " Mind of Mencius," Hutchinson's trans- lation. (F.) S. Johnson, "Oriental Religions," China. (J.)] PliESENTING FOOD TO THE SPIRITS OF THE DEAD. CHAPTER III. €\)t Cl)inesK iflotiern £>tate sReltgton, anfc Confurianfem, The imperial sacrifices to Heaven— The emperor as high priest — The ceremonial— The animal sacri- fices—The tablets of ancestors— The prayer to Keaven— The ceremony of burning— The prayer to Earth— The imperial Temple of Ancestors— The prayer to ancestors— Sacrifices to spirits of the land and grain -Temples to Confucius— Temple at his native place— Temple at Peking— Invoca- tion to Confucius —Great Hall of the Classics — The sixteen maxims— The sacred mountain of Tai-Shau— Signs of progress -Chines 3 morals— Ideas of future life— Obstacles to religious change. WE now proceed to give some account of the present development of the State religion and Confucianism in China ; but it is scarcely possible to separate this entirely from ideas connected with Taoism and Buddhism. Not only is there no antagonism recognised between these three religions, but it is possible and frequent to conform to all. The ex- tent and limits of the State religion and Confucianism will be pointed out in this chapter, while Taoism will be dealt with in the next, and Chinese Buddhism will be briefly treated later. We must first describe the great altar and Temple of Heaven at Peking, where the emperor worships as Son of Heaven. Within a vast enclosure of trees is the great south altar, a beautiful triple circular terrace TTig iiriTDGricil Bacrifices to of white marble, the outer one 210 feet, the inner one 90 feet in Heaven (|;ameter> ^he upper terrace is paved with marble slabs forming nine concentric circles, the inner being formed of nine stones with a central stone, the outer all of multiples of nine stones. On the single circular stone in the centre the emperor kneels when worshipping Heaven and his ancestors at the winter solstice. On the next lower stage are tablets to the spirits of t In- sun, moon, and stars, and the god of the year. A hundred feet THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION. 133 south-east of the altar is a great porcelain furnace, in which a bullock is con- sumed by fire at the yearly ceremony. Separated from the Altar of Heav< 11 by alow wall, is a smaller, though more conspicuous construction, called the Altar of Prayer for Grain. On its upper terrace rises a magnificent cir- cular building, known to foreigners as the Temple of Heaven, but to the Chinese as the Temple of Prayer for the Year. Here, on a day soon after the first day of spring (February 6th), the emperor offers prayers to Heaven for a blessing upon the year. When great drought prevails, prayer for rain is made by the emperor at this altar. Another great enclosure, about two miles in circumference, contains four altars, one to the god of the heavens, a second to the earth, a third to the planet Jupiter, and the fourth to Shin-nung, the supposed inventor of agriculture. On the altar of the heavens are four marble tablets, containing the names of the gods of the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder. On the altar to the gods of earth are five marble tablets bearing the names of celebrated mountains, lakes, and seas of China. The reason why the emperor in person performs the great sacrifices of the State religion in China, is bound up with the very conception of the empire. Since the emperor is believed to derive his right direct Tiie emperor from Heaven, and is the one man who represents mankind in the as high priest, trinity of Heaven, earth, and man, he is necessarily the only possible high priest, and he only can offer the great oblations to heaven and earth. Imperial responsibility is in theory carried to its extreme at Peking, for the emperor charges himself with fault if the people suffer from pestilence or famine, and acknowledges himself to be a disobedient son, who must atone by prayer, sacrifice, and reformation for his misdoings. If he should be ill or a minor, these services are all omitted. Although formerly the words Tien and Ti, signifying Heaven and earth, had a special reference to a Supreme Being, the tablets of these two are now placed on an equality only with those in the great temple of ancestors representing deceased monarchs of the existing dynasty, and that of the gods of the land and grain. To all these are offered what are called "great " sacrifices. Medium sacrifices are offered to nine objects, the sun, moon, spirits of emperors and kings of former dynasties, Confucius, the ancient patrons of agriculture and silk, the gods of heaven, earth, and the cyclic year. The first six of these have separate temples at Peking. The "inferior" sacrifices are offered to the ancient patron of the healing art and the spirits of deceased statesmen, philanthropists, etc., spirits of natural phenomena, and even of flags, gates, cannon, the North Pole, etc. Thus the State worship of China is not greatly above that of many bar- barous tribes. Nothing is more remarkable, however, in the Chinese State religion, or more different from the practices of uncultivated tribes, than the complete absence of a priesthood, unless, however, the emperor may be called The cere- a priest. Women take no part in most of the ceremonies ; only monlal- the worship of the goddess of silk is performed by the empress and her i34 THE WORLD'S EEL1GI0NS. ladies. The emperor, when lie worships Heaven, wears appropriate "blue robes ; in worshipping the earth, his robes are yellow, to represent clay ; he wears red in worshipping the sun, and white for the moon. At the winter solstice the emperor quits his palace the evening before the great sacrifice, drawn in his state car by an elephant, and attended by thousands of cour- tiers, musicians, and learned men. He is required first to go to the palace of fasting, and prepare for his duties by solitary meditation, during which he looks at a copper statue fifteen inches high,. dressed like a Taoist priest, with tlir mouth covered by three fingers, inculcating silence, and the other hand bearing a tablet, on which is inscribed, "Fast three days." When the worship is ready to commence, all the attendants being in their appointed places, the animals are killed, and the emperor begins the solemn rites, in, the case of the worship of Heaven, at midnight, being directed at every step by the learned members of the Board of Rites. The animal sacrifices offered by the emperor must necessarily consist of animals in use for human food ; they include cows, sheep, hares, deer, and The animal pigs- The animals are slaughtered on the east side of the altar, sacrifices. ancj ^\ie najr an(j ki00ci are collected and buried, apparently with the idea that the sacrifice is in this way conveyed to the spirits of the earth, as the smoke and flame of the burnt offerings convey them to the spirits of heaven. The idea of the sacrifice, says Dr. Edkins, is " that of a banquet ; and when a sacrifice is performed to the supreme spirit of Heaven, the honour paid is believed by the Chinese to be increased by inviting other guests. The emperors of China invite their ancestors to sit at the banquet with Shang- ti, the supreme ruler. A father is to be honoured as heaven, and a mother as earth." In no way could more perfect reverence be shown, according to the Chinese mind, than by placing a father's tablet on the altar with that of Shang-ti, so the emperor's ancestral tablets are always placed on the altar of sacrifice with that of Shang-ti. " On the upper terrace of the altar, the tablet of Shang-ti, inscribed Hwang-tien (Imperial Heaven) Shang-ti, placed, facing south, immediately in front of the kneeling emperor. The The tablets of tablets of the emperor's ancestors are arranged in two rows, facing ancestors. east an(j west . offerings are placed before each tablet. " These include various sorts of millet and rice, boiled; beef and pork in slices, with and without condiments, in soup ; salt and pickled fish, slices of hare and deer, pickled onions, bamboo shoots, chestnuts, walnuts, wheat and buck- wheat cakes, all in separate dishes. Behind these are jade stones, and silk offerings to be burnt; in front are three cups of tseu, a kind of arrack. A young heifer is also in place before the altar, and behind it are the five imple- ments of Buddhist worship (see later, on Chinese Buddhism), an urn, two '•andelabra, and two flower jars. Behind these are other. candelabra ; and at the south-west corner is a table at which the emperor reads the prayer. The elaborate ceremonies gone through by the emperor cannot be fully detailed here. His duties include lighting incense and placing it in urns, kneeling before each of the tablets of his ancestors and kindling incense sticks, prostrating himself three times before the chief tablet, and bowing THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION 135 or, in fact, knocking his head nine times on the ground. If it were not done as a solemn religious ceremony, it would appear ludicrous to see how all this prostration is imitated by the emperor's attendant worshippers. Part of the prayer at the winter ceremony is as follows : "I, your subject, by hereditary succession Son of Heaven, having received from above the gracious decree to nourish and console the inhabitants The prayer of all regions, think with sympathy of all men, earnestly desirous t0 Heaven, of their prosperity. At present, looking to the approach of the day Sin, and the spring ploughing, which is about to take place, I earnestly look up, hoping for merciful protection. I bring my subjects and servants with offerings of food in abundance, a reverential sacrifice to Shang-ti. Humbly I pray for thy downward glance, and may rain be granted for the produc- tion of all sorts of grain, and the success of all agricultural labours." The rest of the prayer recites the praises of the deceased emperor. At various times during this ceremony, a band of some hundreds of musicians plays " the song of peace," the music now taking the title " universal " peace, " excellent " peace, " harmonious," and " glorious " peace. Cups of wine are offered to Heaven, and afterwards wine is offered to the emperor, who partakes of it, and again bows and prostrates himself. This is followed by the ceremony of burning, when the officers The ceremony burn the tablet on which the prayer is written, the incense, the of dut1"11^ silk and the viands, in the great furnace, and the offerings to the deceased emperors in special large braziers. A whole astrological system is involved in the days and hours at which the sacrifices are conducted, into which we cannot here enter ; but astrology, cyclic and mystic numbers, palmistry, phrenology, and indeed all mysterious modes of obtaining knowledge of lucky days and circumstances, and of foretelling the future, are highly regarded by the Chinese, and are introduced into everyday affairs, about the cut of clothes, the day and mode of a journey, the building of a house, the choice of a grave, etc. The imperial worship at the altar of Earth at the summer solstice is substantially similar ; but instead of the offerings being burnt, there is a burying of the prayer and of the offerings of silk to the Earth, while the silk offered to the spirits of emperors is burnt. The prayer to Earth is .as follows : " I, your subject, Son of Heaven by hereditary succession, The prayer dare to announce to How-too, the imperial Spirit of Earth, that t0 Earth- the time of the summer solstice has arrived, that all living things enjoy the blessings of sustenance, and depend for it upon your efficient aid. You are placed with imperial Heaven in the sacrifices which are now presented, consisting of jade, silk, the chief animals used for food, with various viands abundantly supplied." It is only to the Spirits of Heaven and of Earth that the emperor in prayer acknowledges himself a subject. The whole idea of the service appears to be that of a banquet, to which the Spirits are invited. The imperial Temple of Ancestors, or Great Temple, has three large halls and several smaller ones. The first hall is used for the common sacri- ,36 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. fice to all ancestors at the end of the year. In the middle hall are offered the sacrifices on the first day of the first month of each season. ^empSfoi Here are placed the most important tablets, those of the de- Ancestors. ceasec| emperors and empresses of the present dynasty, of recent venerations. In the third hall are more tablets of ancestors. The sacrifices are made in these two halls at the same time, not only four times a year, but on other great occasions or events. Other secondary halls contain tablets of relatives and loyal officers who are appointed to be guests at the sacrificial banquets. In the court on the east is a brazier in which the prayer to ancestors and the silk offered to them and the relatives are burnt; in another brazier is burnt the silk offered to meritorious officers. The food and silk do not include all the offerings. In accordance with the instruction of Confucius, that the dead are to be sacrificed to as if living, chests of clothing, with mats and stools, are kept in the temple, and pre- sented with the sacrifices. One set of offerings is presented before each emperor and his wife. Here it is to be noted that " the emperor and empress can have their meals together when dead, though they may not when living ; " and reasoning from this it has been suggested that the ex- clusion of women from the social meal is not so ancient as the time when the sacrifices were instituted. In this ceremony, the prayer, instead of being read by the emperor himself, is read by an officer upon his knees, in the emperor's name. After announcing the emperor's title and descent, and his proper name, it pro- Tne prayer ceeds : — " I dare announce to my ancestor, that I have with care, to ancestors. on fljjg f^rs^ month of spring (summer, etc.), provided sacrificial animals, silk, wine, and various dishes, as an expression of my unforgetting thoughtfulness, and humbly beg the acceptance of the offerings." Several odes are sung, of which the following is a sample. " Ah ! my imperial ancestors have been able to become guests with supreme Heaven. Their meritorious acts in war and peace are published in all regions. I, their filial descendant, have received the decree of Heaven, and my thought is to carry out the aims of those who preceded me, thus ensuring the gift of long pros- perity for thousands and tens of thousands of years." The ceremony is rather more elaborate, if anything, than the sacrifice to Heaven. The emperor has to kneel sixteen times, and to knock his forehead thirty-six times against the ground, thus showing the immense importance assigned to piety towards anc< stors. Another important part of the imperial worship consists of the sacrifices to the gods of the land and grain. The altar to the spirit of the land has sacrifices to two terraces, the upper of which is covered with earth of five orttofiand different colours. There are tablets to the spirit or god of the and grain. l;UKlj an(] a]so one to t|ie ^ft Qv god 0f gram . tw0 ot}ier tablets occupy positions as guests, and represent founders or chief promoters of Chinese agriculture. This worship takes place in the middle months of spring and autumn, as well as on other impoitant occasions, when it is THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION. i37 necessary to make announcements to these spirits. The sacrifices are essen- tially of the same character as those previously described. The whole system of Chinese thought is so different from our own, thai it is difficult to realise that in these ceremonies the emperor discharges the highest religious functions for almost four hundred millions of people, tli.it he represents them more fully (in idea) than the Pope of Rome represents the members of the Roman Catholic Church, that he accuses himself of any fault which may have brought widespread calamities on the people, and that to the Chinese mind he stands as God on earth. Nor is it more easy to realise, that in close connection with every examination-hall in the empire I3S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. is a temple to Confucius, together with a temple containing tablets to Temples to the national sages, both being arranged in a manner similar to Confucius. tiKlI 0f the temples to deceased ancestors. It is very rare to find any image of Confucius ; but worship is paid before the tablet, which is called, " the place of the soul." There are no prayers, however, to Confucius, fclie worshipper simply prostrating himself to express his reverential respect. On either side of his tablet down the hall are the tablets of seventy-two of his most distinguished followers, the tablets containing as usual their names and titles. On the entrance gates are inscriptions, such as the following: " The teacher and example for ten thousand generations ; " " Equal with heaven and earth." Sacrifices are offered to the sage at the spring and autumn equinoxes, when oxen and sheep and other animals are killed and skinned, the bodies being then placed on tables in front of his tablet. This offering takes place at 8 a.m., in the presence of the mandarins, and after- wards the flesh is divided among the literate class in the chYy, and eaten by them. It is scarcely correct to say that Confucius is worshipped as a god ; but the reverence paid to him differs little from any other religious ceremonial among the Chinese, although prayers are not offered to him. Children are taught to bow to Confucius when they enter school, and they do the same when they, in riper years, enter the examination-hall. Thus is justified the title of " the throneless king," which the Chinese commonly give to Confucius. The most important temple of Confucius is that adjoining his tomb, Kiu-fu-hien, his native place, which is chiefly inhabited by his descendants. The principal building is of two stories, the upper verandah rest- Ws native ing on gorgeous marble pillars twenty-two feet high, which at a distance appear as if huge dragons were coiled around them ; but they are all cut out of one solid piece of marble. The tiles of the roof are of yellow porcelain. Within is a statue of Confucius eighteen feet high, in a shrine with gorgeous curtains. He is represented as tall, strong, and well-built, with a full red face, and large heavy head. His attitude is serious and contemplative, with eyes gazing upwards. On the tablet is the inscription, " The most holy prescient sage Confucius — his spirit's resting- place." The roof is crowded with tablets in honour of the sage, lauding him in most extravagant terms. There are separate, smaller and plainer t'ln pies in honour of his father and mother, his wife, his. ancestors, etc. In one temple are three pictures of Confucius on marble, and a series of en- gravings on marble, illustrating all the principal scenes in his life, with verbal explanations at the side. These number altogether 120 slabs, built int.. the wall, and are extremely interesting from their representations of ancient dress, furniture, carriages, etc. There is a less elaborate temple to Confucius at Peking, having no statues, but containing in the court six monuments with yellow-tiled roofs, Temple at recording foreign conquests of various emperors in the last cen- tury, which were thus announced to the spirit of Confucius. The tempi*' includes a great hall, from forty to fifty feet in height, and contains THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION i39 tablets to the sage and his principal disciples. The roof has many tablets to the praise of Confucius; every fresh emperor adds one. Around thia temple are other buildings in which are placed tablets of many celebrated followers of Confucius. The emperor goes in state twice a year to this temple, and honours the sage by the following invocation, after having twice knelt and six CHINESE AGRICULTURAL CEBEMONY. times bowed his head to the ground : " Great art thou, 0 perfect Sage ! Thy virtue is full ; thy doctrine is complete. Among mortal men invocation to there has not been thine equal. All kings honour thee. Thy Confucius, statues and laws have come gloriously down. Thou art the pattern of this imperial school. Reverently have the sacrificial vessels been set out. Full of awe we sound our drums and bells." This is followed by the presentation of the appropriate offerings of food, wines, and silk ; a mandarin then reads i4o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. this prayer: "On this . . . month of this . . . year, I, the emperor, offer a sacrifice to the philosopher Kung, the ancient teacher, the perfect sage, and say, 0 teacher, in virtue equal to Heaven and Earth, whose doctrines embrace the past times and the present, thou didst digest and transmit the six classics, and didst hand down lessons for all generations! now iii this second month of spring (or autumn), in reverent observance of the old statutes, with victims, silks, spirits, and fruits, I carefully offer sacrifice to thee. With thee are associated the philosopher Yen, continuator of thee ; the philosopher Tsang, exhibitor of thy fundamental principles ; the philosopher Tsze-tsze, transmitter of thee ; and the philosopher Mang Mencius), second to thee. Mayest thou enjoy the offerings ! " (Legge.) Adjoining the temple of Confucius is the Great Hall of the Classics, built by the emperor Kien-lung, a lofty building with long cloisters, Great Han of containing the complete text of the classics, engraved on about 200 the classics. ]arge st0nes. The hall is a very elaborate structure, in which the emperor enthrones himself once in his reign, at a solemn assembly of all the scholars of the capital, and listens to the reading of a classical essay, nominally composed by himself. Here we may quote the sixteen maxims of the emperor Kang-hi, about the end of the seventeenth century, which sum up the principles of Con- nie sixteen fucianism as px'omulgated among the common people. These maxims. are , ^ Esteem most highly filial piety and brotherly submission, in order to give due prominence to the social relations. 2. Behave with generosity to the branches of your kindred, in order to illustrate harmony and benignity. 3. Cultivate peace and concord in your neighbourhoods, in order to prevent quarrels and litigations. 4. Recognise the importance of husbandry and the culture of the mulberry-tree, in order to ensure a sufficiency of clothing and food. 5. Show that you prize moderation and economy, in order to prevent the lavish waste of your means. 6. Make much of the colleges and seminaries, in order to make correct the practice of the scholars. 7. Discountenance and banish strange doctrines, in order to exalt the correct doctrine. 8. Describe and explain the laws, in order to warn the ignorant and obstinate. 9. Exhibit clearly propriety and yielding courtesy, in order to make manners and customs good. 10. Labour diligently at your proper callings, in order to give settlement to the aims of the people. 11. Instruct sons and younger brothers, in order to prevent them from doing what is wrong. 12. Put a stop to false accusations, in order to protect the honest and the good. 13. Warn against sheltering deserters, in order to avoid being involved in their punishments. 14. Promptly and fully pay your taxes, in order to avoid the urgent requisition of your quota. 15. Continue in hundreds and tithings, in order to put an end to thefts and robbery. 16. Study to remove resentments and angry feelings, in order to show the importance due to person and life." The ancestral tablets vary in form and make in different parts of the country. In that we figure (p. 141), as used in the neighbourhood of Fu- chow, it is made of three blocks of wood, one forming the pedestal, the THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION 141 second the back and upper part, and the third the front. In the centre of the latter we see in Chinese characters the name of the reigning dynasty, the title, ancestral, and given name of the person commemorated by the tablet. The name of the son or other person who has erected it is added in smaller characters on the left. If the tablet is erected by a son in memory of his mother, the ancestral name of her father as well as that of her husband is put on the tablet. On the front of the pedestal is seen the image of some fabulous animal, said to appear only when sages live ; while the upper part of the tablet has the head of the Chinese dragon. The whole tablet varies from nine to eighteen inches in height, and from two to four inches in width ; and the en- graved and lettered portions are usually covered with gold leaf. The tablets for the father and mother are alike, the chief differ- ence being in the inscription. As long as a family lives together, they worship the tablet erected by the eldest son ; when it breaks up, each of the younger sons may erect a different tablet, com- memorating all the ancestors of the family ; then, when each younger son dies, his eldest son may erect tablets of the other kind to his father and mother and so the series goes on. After the third or fifth generations they usually cease to be worshipped. As another side of Chinese religious superstition, we will de- scribe the chief of the _ . The sacred five sacred mountains mountain of in China, Tai-shan, in the interior of Shan-tung. It is termed on a map, " equal to heaven in merit, and lord of this world." It is believed to determine births, deaths, misfortune and happiness, honour and dishonour. It has many peaks, and is said to be, of all places under heaven, the most worthy of being visited. At the top of the hill the principal temple contains an ANCESTKAL TADIiET OF ONE l'EKhO.N. I42 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. image of the " Old Mother," who is held in great veneration, being especially prayed to by sick and unfortunate persons, childless women, etc. The main building is closed all the year round, with merely a hole in the door, through which pilgrims cast money and other offerings. Once a year a great pro- cession marches to this temple, and some official appointed by the emperor opens the 1 mill ling and takes all the contents. Near this is a temple to the god of the Tai-shan mountains, who is termed equal to the Almighty God. Aimt her temple on the highest peak is sacred to the Taoist deity who is active governor of all, under their Trinity. Other temples are erected to Confucius, the god of spring, heaven and earth, and many others belong- ing to the Taoist system. One is to the star Wun-chang, the patron of literature, another to Kwan-ti, the god of war, another to the spirits of women who commit suicide after the death of their husbands. The spirits or gods of fire, of riches, of agriculture, of roads, of land, and grain are all honoured with temples. Mr. Williamson says of the entire sacred city, " A plan of the hill and city gives a very poor idea of the beauty of the place. If the reader, however, causes his imagination to fill the city with streets and shops ; the causeway up the hill to the top with rows of beauti- ful trees on each side ; the hills with trees, brushwood, verdure, and rocks piled rugged and threatening, with waterfalls here and there ; temples of gaudy colours, and strings of pilgrims, old and young, men and women, marching up in Indian file, with richer men among them, in mountain chairs ; small companies sipping tea at the several arches, beggars lying on the road like bundles of living rags, or animated sores, with beggar chil- dren following each companjr of pilgrims, he will have some idea of the bewildering variety of the scene." Notwithstanding the immense amount and intensity of superstition and blind conservatism in China, there are some signs of progress even within signs of the Confucian ranks. Before the rule of the present dynasty, progress, there was in vogue a strong spirit of denial of the personality of Shang-ti, the supreme ruler, who was asserted to be nothing but a "prin- ciple " underlying all existence. It was a vague panthesim. Nowadays there is a distinct return to belief in a personal ruler, and it is asked, " Can a principle become angry? Can a principle be said to approve the actions of men, and be pleased with the offerings of men? Yet these acts are ascribed to Shang-ti in the classical books. Shang-ti, therefore, cannot be a principle, but must be a personal being." Many educated Chinese claim, in answer to Christian missionaries, that they too worship God, who is present in all nature, and that all their study of science is honouring God." AV hat has been the result on the Chinese of the Confucian morality ? asks I>r. Edkins. He replies, that " It has not made them a moral people. Chinese Many of the social virtues are extensively practised among them ; but they exhibit to the observer a lamentable want of moral gth. Commercial integrity and speaking the truth are far less common among them than in Christian countries." It is but fair to add that other competent observers credit the Chinese with quite as much commercial THE CHINESE MODERN STATE RELIGION 143 integrity as Europeans, if not more. As to a future life, it is scarcely within the scope of Confucianism, though this encourages so much Ideas of reverence and prayer to ancestral spirits. Confucius, as we have a future life- seen, did not care to discuss supernatural appearances or spirits ; and it is difficult to say that Confucius believed anything definite on the subject; the beliefs of Taoists or Buddhists are far more extensive and definite. No doubt the continued existence of the souls of the departed is believed, but their happiness is mainly dependent upon the honour paid to them by the living. Dr. Edkins says, that according to the strict Confucian doctrine, there is no heaven in the Western sense. " The soul, if it does not return to its elements and become for ever dissipated, exists in a widowed and lonely state, hopeless and helpless. The time of its enjoyment as a con- scious individual agent has passed. It is only during the period of union with the body that it can be called happy, except in receiving the approval and reverence of posterity." People who have not visited and studied China have little conception of the strength of the obstacles to religious change there. In fact, the whole power of the State is combined with religion to maintain * Obstacles the divine authority and representative character of the emperor, to religious This has been impressed on Chinese minds for thousands of years, chan&e- and is about as deep-seated in them as the feeling " I must eat " is in the body. Ignorance and contempt of foreign ideas, deep-seated as those of the Chinese, can be overcome sooner than this prejudice and prepossession in favour of their emperor, which in its turn supports the sacrifices and beliefs of the State religion. It might be imagined that filial reverence and an- cestor worship, a "respect for the dead indicative of noble feelings," were favourable to enlightenment ; but it is a most powerful support to early betrothals and polygamy, for the Chinaman cannot bear the possibility of having no descendants to provide the sacrifices for him in his turn. The power which this regard for ancestors and for every ancient custom exer- cises is enormous in preventing change. Though change does come, as seen in the progress of Buddhism and Mohammedanism, such tendency to change as there is by no means favours the adoption of European ideas. [J. Edkins, " Religion in China " ; S. Wells Williams, " The Middle Kingdom " ; A. Williamson, 1,1 Journeys in North China."] II. TAOISM CHAPTER IV. 2La£ut*r, Life of Lao-tze -Antagonism to Confucius —Interviews with Confucius— Lao-tze's dislike of profes- sions—The Tao-te-king — The mystery of existence— The relativity of things — The sublime Tao or Way— What may be done— Characters of Tao— The conduct of the good man— Self-deprecia- tion, humility, reality, frugality— Imaginary interpretations— Originality of Lao-tze. CONFUCIUS sought to rectify evils by rectifying names ; but there was already a living philosopher, whom he visited, who had elaborated a very different mode of mending the world. Lao-tze (" the Venerable Life of Philosopher "), the accredited founder of Taoism, is most authen- Lao-tze. tically known to us by the narratives of the Confucian school, probably compiled in the third century a.d. from old records, and from the brief history of Lao-tze in the historical records of Sze-ma Chien dating from about B.C. 100. We need not relate the mythical accounts given of hi in. which are full of marvels; but he appears to have been born in the State of I hu, in the present province of Ho-nan, about 604 B.C. He became one of the royal recorders at the court of Chow, having charge of the royal library. Thus there can be little doubt of his having had great historical knowledge. At least one interview took place between Confucius and LAO-TZE. 145 Lao-tze, to which we have already referred. Chien's brief account says : " Lao-tze cultivated the Tao and virtue, his chief aim in his studies being how to keep himself concealed and unknown. He resided at the capital of Chow ; but after a long time, seeing the decay of the dynasty, he left it, and went away to the gate leading from the royal domain into the regions beyond. Yin Hsi, the warden of the gate, said to him : ' You are about to withdraw yourself out of sight ; I pray you to compose for me a book before you go.' On this Lao-tze made a writing, setting forth his views on the Tao and virtue, in two sections, containing more than 5000 characters. He then went away, and it is not known where he died." Chien further relates that Lao-tze was a superior man, who liked to keep in obscurity and concludes his narrative with the following statement : — " Those who attach themselves to the doctrine of Lao-tze con lemn that of the Antagonism literati (the followers of Confucius), and the literati on their part t0 Confucius. condemn Lao-tze ; thus verifying the saying, ' Parties whose principles are different cannot take counsel together.' Lao-tze taught that transformation follows, as a matter of course, the doing nothing to bring it about, and rectification ensues in the same way from being pure and still." The most interesting records about Lao-tze, apart from his book, are those connected with Confucius. It is difficult to come to a conclusion as to their authenticity, but they at any rate preserve for us very early , t J ' . J ... Interviews beliefs as to the antagonism between their principles and modes with of thought. Even the flow of language of Confucius was distasteful to Lao-tze, who told him in plain terms: "If it be known that he who talks errs by excess in arguing, and that he who hears is confused by too much talk, the Way can never be forgotten." According to this expression, the Way consists neither in excess of arguing nor in too much talk. Con- fucius was very unsuccessful in interesting Lao-tze in his views about the ancients ; the Old Philosopher retorted upon his junior in this wise : " The men of whom you speak are dead, and their bones are mouldered into dust ; only their words remain. Moreover, when the superior man gets his oppor- tunity, he mounts aloft and takes office ; and if he do?s not get his opportunity, he goes through life like a wisp of straw rolling over sand. I have heard that a good merchant, who has his treasure-house well stored, appears devoid of resources, and that the superior man of perfect excellence has an outward semblance of stupidity. Put away, sir, your haughty airs' and many desires, your insinuating habit and extravagant will ; these are all unprofitable to you. This is all I have to say to you." It is evident, if this be authentic, that there was little sympathy between the two. Lao-tze disliked Confucius as a formal and conventional teacher, extravagantly conservative ; the latter regarded Lao-tze as a dragon soaring into the clouds, far beyond his practical mind. When Lao-tze beheld Confucius studying the Book of Changes, which, according to him, treated of humanity and justice, he replied : " The justice and humanity of the day are no more than empty names ; they only serve as a mask to cruelty, and trouble the hearts of men ; disorder was never more rife than at present. The pigeon L I46 7 HE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. does not bathe all day to make itself white ; nor does the crow paint itself each morning to make itself black. ... So, sir, if you cultivate the Way. if yon throw yourself towards it with all your soul, you will arrive at it. To what good is humanity and justice ? . . . Master, you only trouble man's nature." Here we see again how fundamentally Lao-tze is contrasted with Con- fucius. He despised the latter's rectification of names— practising humanity ami calling it humanity, practising reverence towards parents dislike of and calling it filial piety, etc. To profess a thing, in Lao-tze's professions. m^n^ was ^0 iack ft The generous man needs not to profess generosity, nor the loyal man loyalty. If these virtues really exist, they need not be named or professed ; the profession of them signifies their absence. Try as he would, Confucius could not fathom the Way which Lao-tze desired to set before him ; but it was evidently a mystery not easy for him to understand. " If," said Lao-tze, " the Way could be offered to men, there is no one who would not wish to present it to his parents ; if it could be transmitted to men, there is no one who would not wish to transmit it to his children. Why then are you not able to acquire it ? This is the reason ; you are incapable of giving it an asylum at the bottom of your heart." Confucius brought forward his literary labours and compositions, but Lao-tze objected : " That with which you occupy yourself results only in obsolete examples, and all you do is to walk in the footprints of the past, without producing anything new." We do not gather a very pleasant view of Lao-tze's amiability from these narratives ; they may perhaps be more readily accounted for when we consider that Confucius was fifty years younger than the Old Philosopher, who was not disinclined to use the privileges always accorded to age in China. Lao-tze's single book, the Tao-te-king, is brief and exceedingly con- densed, containing a few more than five thousand characters. It begins thus :— The "The Way (Tao) that can be spoken is not the Eternal Way. Tao-te-king. rnic Name that can be named is not the Eternal Name. Nameless, the Way is the Source of Heaven and Earth; Named, it is the Mother of all beings. He that is free from selfish desires shall behold it in the spirit; He that is possessed by passions, in the outward form alone, And those two are one in substance, though differing in name ; Depth, and the depth of depths, the entrance to all spiritual life." Thus did Lao-tze seek to penetrate the mystery of creation and exist- ence ; with one straight flight reaching as far as man can know, — if indeed •me mystery any such speculation can be termed knowledge, — and realising' of existence, the difference between those who penetrate behind the veil of physical nature, and those who are dominated by physical nature. By these few sentences Lao-tze shows himself to be indeed a master philosopher, though struggling to express a conception which he could hardly define. and which by the nature of the case transcended his powers; struggling, LAO-TZE. 147 moreover, to speak in a language which possessed little pliancy for such a purpose. Lao-tze realised the relativity of things ; that good implied its contrast, evil ; beauty, ugliness. The sage, he said, would confine himself to what is without effort, acting without presuming on the result, completing The his work, but assuming no position for himself. A singular view relativity of of his is, that not exalting worth keeps people from rivalry, as ngs" not prizing things hard to procure keeps them from theft. His plan of government consists in keeping the people from the knowledge and desire of evil, and in makirg those that have the knowledge not dare to act. The sublime Way, or Tao, which the philosopher imagines, even appears to him to have been before Shang-ti (the Supreme Being). Heaven and earth last long, he says, though not aiming at life ; so the sage -n^ sublime puts himself last and yet is first, abandons himself and yet is Tao, or way. preserved. Is not this, he asks, through his having no selfishness ? Pur- suing this idea of self-abnegation, Lao-tze says : " When a work of merit is done and reputation is coming, to get out of the way is the Way of Heaven." In Section Ten, " What may be done," the old philosopher rises to an elevation immeasurably beyond Confucius. " By undivided attention to the passion-nature, and increasing tenderness, it is possible to be a what may little child. By putting away impurity from the hidden eye of be done- the heart, it is possible to be without spot. By loving the people, and so governing the nation, it is possible to be unknown. One may be bright and transparent on all sides, and yet be unknown. To produce and to nourish, to produce and to have not, to act and expect not, to enlarge and cut not off — this is called sublime virtue." (C.) Again, he says that virtue in its grandest aspect is simply following the Way (Tao), which indeed is a thing impalpable, yet containing forms and ideas ; it is immaterial, unchangeable, all-pervading, giving characters life to all, supporfcing^allpand~lording it over none. It is ever of Tao- inactive, yet leaves nothing undone. Without striving, it conquers ; with- out speaking, it answers ; without calling, men come to it of themselves. The net of heaven has very wide meshes, yet misses nothing. The word Tao, however, signifies more than the Way. As Professor Douglas puts it, it is the Way and the way-goer ; it is an eternal road along which all beings and things walk. No Being made it, for it is Being itself ; it is everything and nothing, and the cause and effect of all. All things originate from it, conform to it, and at last return to it. Thus Tao stands for the Absolute Deity, and all the phenomena produced by Him, and also for the good man's nature and principles. The conduct of the good man constitutes the subject of many sections of the Tao-te-king ; and the remainder of it consists of Lao-tze's ^ conduct political system. Nothing is more prominent than his opposition |* tjj^ to self-display. " He who is self-displaying does not shine. He who is self-approving is not held ij> esteem. He who is self-promising I43 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. has no merit. He who is self-exalting does not stand high." In fact, it is Self. not possible to go beyond Lao-tze in self-depreciation. In one depreciation. place he S;i ys : " In mind how like I am to the fool. I am all in a maze. The common people are brightly intelligent; I alone seem to be in thf dark. I am tossed as the ocean ; I roll as if never to stop. All other men have something that they can do ; I alone am good for nothing, and despicable. I alone differ from other people, but I glory in my nursing mother (Tao)." Again he says, that any one wishing to reform the world will never have done. The spiritual vessels of the world must not be made. He that makes mars. He that grasps loses. While one goes ahead, an- other will lag behind. While one blows hot, another will blow cold. Therefore the wise man simply puts away all excess and gaiety and grandeur. . . . He who conquers others is strong. He who conquers himself is mighty. He who knows when he has enough is rich. He who dies, but perishes not, enjoys longevity." Again, he says : " True goodness and humanity are good, because they make no account of mere doing. The great man abides by the solid, and Humility never rests in what is flimsy." Three things he held precious, reality, compassion, frugality, and humility. The good should be treated with goodness, and also the not-good. Virtue is good, absolutely. The faithful should be met with faith, and also the not-faithful. Virtue is faithful, absolutely. The sage thinks of all the people as his children. He takes care of his own part of the contract, and exacts nothing of others. He who knows his true life shall fear no wild beast, nor needs he armour in the armed host. He has no mortal part. The saint hoards not ; the more he does for others, the more he has of his own. The more he gives to others, the more he is increased. " This is the Way of Heaven, which benefits and does not injure. This is the Way of the sage, who acts but does not strive." So ends this small but remarkable book. We cannot go into the political teachings of Lao-tze, which are based upon his moral system. The government should be conducted by the best people, who should rule through humility and service, repressing selfishness. Reality, rather than over-regulation, should be aimed at. Nor can we dis- cuss the fanciful views of Homan Catholic missionaries, who have imagined imaginary in- that they found many things about the Trinity in Lao-tze's terpretations. mvstic utterances. Some have even believed that the following iges contained the characters of the Hebrew name for God (Jehovah or • Jahveh). 'That which is as though it were visible, and yet cannot be seen, is called EM (to be read 1), that which is visible and yet speaks not to the ears is called Hi, that which is as though it were within one's reach, and yet cannot be touched, is called Wei." However, we cannot but place Lao-tze ahead of all the sages of the Oriental world whose outline is clearly originality seen by us. Even Buddha cannot be held to surpass him in tze- range and originality of thought, although he went beyond him in prad icality of ideas. The man, who six centuries before Christ, invented or endorsed the view that, " He who bears the reproach of his country shall LAO-TZE. '49 be called the Lord of the land, and he who bears the calamities of his country shall be called King of the world," well deserves to be held in per- petual remembrance. In teaching that goodness was to be manifested equally to the good and the evil, faithfulness to the faithful and the un- faithful, he rose beyond every teacher of the East except the Founder of Christianity. Lao-tze was not the founder of a religion, yet his name is identified with one, and he is regarded as the founder of modern Taoism. This, however, is so different from anything that he imagined or originated, that it must be dealt with in a separate chapter. [Chalmers, "The Speculations of 'The Old Philosopher,' Lau-tsze" (C). Doolittle, "Social Life of the Chinese." Douglas's " Confucianism and Taouisin." Legge, " The Religions of China." In " Chuang Tzu," 188!), Mr. H. A. Giles attacks the Tao-te-king, saving, tbat while it undoubtedly contains many of Lao-tze's sayings, it contains much that he never said aud never could have said, belonging rather to the period when the pure Tao began to be corrupted by alcbemistic research and gropiugs after the elixir of life.] TAOIST PRIEST, TALI. THE THREE PURE ONES (see p. 157). CHAPTER V. JBebelopment antr frafcnt Condition of Caotenn Development of Taoism— Lieh-tze's teaching— Chwang-tze— Desire of longevity favoured magic — The Chin-jin— Temple to Lao-tze— Ups and downs of Taoism — The use of charms— Asceticism — Public worship— Reported reappearances of Lao-tze —Walking through fire— Sects of Taoists— The Book of Blessings— Book of Actions and Retributions— Great number of Taoist deities — The Three Pure Ones— Yuh-hwang Shang-ti— Wan-chang— Deified powers of nature and deified men —A Taoist temple— Several trinities— Kwan-ti, the god of war— Purgatory and remission- Horrible punishments— Dread of evil spirits— The feng-shui— Selection of graves and sites. LAO-TZE'S life, retiring and inconspicuous, left no such mark on the Chinese character as that of Confucius, public and ever seeking to regulate the outward life. His thoughts were as alien to the average Development Chinese mind as those of Confucius were in accord with it. of Taoism. Wlule Confucius satisfied every one who was proud of his coun- try and its ancient kings, Lao-tze was only welcomed by those who were discontented with the whole state of society. How then has Taoism be- come a great system or congeries of beliefs and practices, constituting a more widely prevalent religion than even Confucianism ? The answer is, that it gradually, in developing, adapted itself to popular beliefs and created new Lieh-tze's superstitions. Already, in the fifth century B.C., Lieh-tze, a fol- teaching. ]ower 0f Lao-tze, is found introducing magical marvels and preaching a philosophy, not of self-depreciation, humility, and frugality, but one of selfish enjoyment and absence of anxiety. Since death was close at hand, he would enjoy to-day, leaving to-morrow to take care of itself. He describes imaginary states of happiness seen in dreams, where life was satisfactory because desires were kept within bounds, and the people cared for nothing and feared nothing. To this he added particulars of the fairy- talc type, depicting people walking in water without being drowned, sur- round. >d by fire and not burnt, cut without being hurt, etc. Thus he fostered belief in magical possibilities. Thus he travestied Lao-tze's teach- in- about the possible union of mankind with the spirit pervading the universe, and so becoming superior to the laws of nature. He tells many wondrous tales of magic and conjuring — of a man who after three months' DEVELOPMENT OF TAOISM. 151 deep thought was able to change the seasons and produce ice in summer and thunder in winter, etc. He further advances a scheme of creation by spirits or gods, whom he named "The great Change," " The great Begin- ning," '; The great First," and " The great Pure." So much, however, was Lieh-tze's teaching adapted to the popular ignorance, that it was readily swallowed ; and its countenance of sensual and selfish enjoyment made it the more acceptable. Chwang-tze, a little later, contemporary with Mencius, adhered more closely to Lao-tze, and was strongly antagonistic to the Confucians. He preached the vanity of human effort, disliking efforts and strug- gles to become benevolent and righteous, as well as ceaseless attenrpts to observe the rules of propriety. He believed that Tao and virtue were being destroyed by the very endeavours to establish benevolence and righteousness by works. Scholars and sages, as well as mean men, were greedy after some object ; and Chwang-tze did not consider that the difference in their objects entitled the former to praise. All were outraging nature. Chwang-tze went further, and doubted the reality of personal existence ; everything was a series of phantasms. He cared to live, but was indifferent to death ; for, he said, " I will have heaven and earth for my sarcophagus, the sun and moon shall be the insignia when I lie in state, and all creation shall be the mourners at my funeral." He did not object to his body being exposed to the birds. " What matters it ? Above are the birds of the air ; below are the worms and ants. If you rob one to feed the other, what injustice is there done ? " It is readily seen that Chwang- tze had no teaching which could elevate. Thus the loftier parts of Lao- tze's teaching found little favour, especially its features of humility and self-depreciation ; while magic and charms gradually assumed prominence. Everybody wanted to live as long as possible, and already in Che-hwang- tirs time charms to confer this boon were loudly vaunted ; and Desire of the king himself exempted the Taoist books from the general fav^ed destruction of literature which he endeavoured to bring about, magic. Such a believer was likely, as he did, to favour professors of magical arts, who promised him riches and long life, and to spend vast sums in expe- ditions in search of various wonders. These professors called themselves the Chin-jin, or true men, and gave themselves credit for being able ^ Chin_jin. to achieve all sorts of impossibilities. Their death put an end to their prophecies ; but their allies always gave out that they had disappeared into an unknown paradise. These professors made themselves more and more essential to the Chinese emperors of several dynasties, and in fact con- stituted themselves a priesthood ; and emperors and priests devoted them- selves to a search for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone, leaving on one side all the lofty teachings of Lao-tze. But about the time of the Christian era these magicians were played out, and both Confucianism and the teaching of Lao-tze revived. Temple to During the reign of the Emperor Hwan (a.d. 147-168) imperial Laotze- sacrifices were first offered in the temple dedicated to Lao-tze at Ku-hien, THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. his supposed birth-place. Buddhism was now rapidly advancing in favour, and !)• gan to influence Taoism, so that legends of Lao-tze appeared, bearing a great resemblance to those about Buddha. For a long time after Hwan's reign Taoism languished; and in the fourth century all religious orders u sand were abolished, including the Taoist magicians and doctors, downs of But iii the fifth century a Taoist became the emperor Tai-wu-ti's adviser, and persuaded his master to avow his adhesion to Taoism by accepting a magical charm, signifying that by practising benevolence, love, rest, and self-rectification, he had won long life and become in- corporated with Tao. This charm consisted of a white book, containing 5,000 characters giving the names of the officers of heaven, and various incantations for deceiving demons. Ko-hung, a Taoist doctor in the fourth century, thus described the use of charms. " All mountains," he said, " are inhabited by evil spirits. If The use of the traveller has no protection, he will fall into some calamity, charms. _ # _ Mountains should not be traversed during the winter ; the third month is the best, and then a lucky day should be chosen for setting out. Fasting and purification for several days beforehand are necessary, and a suitable charm should be worn on the person. Sometimes a mirror is needed ; for living things, when they grow old, can all, by means of their pure part, assume the human form. In such cases their true forms can be infallibly detected by means of a mirror, which should be nine inches in diameter, and suspended from the neck behind. These deceiving elves do not dare to approach it ; or if one should approach, bent on mischief to the wayfarer, a glance in the mirror at the reflected image of the monster will reveal its true form." The influence of Buddhism led the Taoists to adopt a kind of asceticism, not with the object of gaining absorption in Tao, but in order to gain length Ascetics °^ years- Sitting still and cross-legged in an upright position, the devotee was supposed to diminish the expenditure of vital energy, to repress the passions, and so ward off death. No doubt many as ;etics attained a great age, and thus increased the vogue of the system. Next Taoism became developed in the direction of public worship, and temples and monasteries were built in the fifth century for the Taoists, Public resembling so closely those of the Buddhists as to lead to frequent worship. qUarre]s between them. The Buddhists, as originally foreign immigrants into China, were pointed at for expulsion by the Taoists, whom the former in turn called jugglers. The Emperor Woo, after his ascent to the throne (a.d. 566) held a great assembly of priests and learned men to discuss the three contending religious systems, and finally gave his decision in favour of Confucianism, placing Taoism after it, and Buddhism last ; a little later be abolished the two latter. Soon another change was brought •'I ""it by the Emperor Tsing (a.d. 580) who again recognised them, and commanded that in every temple where there were statues of Buddha and fcze (termed " the honoured one of heaven ") they should be placed in positions of equal honour. We cannot follow the varied fortunes of Taoism DEVELOPMENT OF TAOISM. '53 and the other religions during succeeding ages, now one gaining ascend- ency, now another. More than once Lao-tze was reported to have appeared TEMPLE IN MOUNTAINS OF FOKKIN. i again on earth, leading to his being dignified with the title of Greatre^£J$£ce l Sage Ancestor, and the distribution of his Tao-te-king throughout of Lao-tze. 154 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the empire. At one period the Taoist priests or doctors married, and engaged in ordinary occupations ; at another they were forbidden to marry, and the Buddhists were compelled to accept some of them as rulers of fcheir religion. The Manchus again put down the Buddhists, while the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan found in them apt representatives of their own sorcerers and soothsayers. In the time of Kublai Khan they held great walking festivals to the "High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens," and through nre. walked through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their priests, bearing images of their gods in their arms. Notwithstanding the severe burns they always received, they constantly asserted, that if they possessed a sincere mind they would not be hurt by the fire. Later emperors now favoured, now tabooed the influential religion of the Taoists, who kept their hold on the people. The Manchu emperors of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries promulgated penal decrees against them. -Their sects had grown so nu- merous and interfered so much with common life, that the emperor Chang-hi commanded that all members of the Do-nothing, the White sects of Lily, the Incense-burners, the Hung, Taoists. the Origin of Chaos, the Origin of the Dragon, and the Great Vehicle sects should be treated as criminals. But superstition dies hard, and at the present day Taoism is more firmly seated in China than ever. Before describing the present state and practices of Taoism, we must give some account The Book of °f two books which, much more than Blessings, j^q Tao-te-king, are the literary guides of the Taoists, namely, the Kan-ying- peen, or " Book of Actions and their Retribu- tions," otherwise translated " Book of Rewards and Punishments," and the Yin-chi-wan, or Book of Secret Blessings. The latter is pro- bably ancient, and is supposed to have been written by the god Wan-chang Te-cheun ; but it has no reference to the special doctrines of the Taoists. It exclusively relates to moral questions, and being very short, containing only 541 words, it is widely distributed, and is given away freely by well- disposed persons. With comments and pictures, some editions form a con- siderable volume. Many of its precepts are of a high quality, thus : " Use not thy riches to oppress the poor. Invite to virtue by practising it in body and soul. Hide the faults of others and make known their virtues. Let not thy tongue say what thy heart denies. Give to posterity the instruction that will reform mankind. Surrender thy riches for the good of the human race. In action be conformed to Heavenly Reason ; in speech, to the moral sense of humanity. Examine thy conscience in the solitude of thy bed." Its general principle is the necessity of purifying the heart. CUAItll TO WARD OFF EVIL SPIRITS FROM A UIIIDE. DEVELOPMENT OF TAOISM: 155 Straightforwardness, compassion, fidelity to friends and masters, filial con- duct to friends, are among the virtues inculcated. The hungry are to be fed, the naked clothed, and the dead buried. The poor and unfortunate must be kindly treated, the aged honoured, the sick and thirsty succoured, the good loved. A neighbour's faults are to be hidden, and only their good deeds published. Just weights and measures only are to be used, and the people are not to be overtaxed. Animals are to be protected, even insects in the forests. Travellers are to be guided and helped ; stones and debris are to be removed from the roadway, and footpaths and bridges repaired. We can scarcely credit such a book with other than a good influence ; yet, in spite of it, the lives of the Chinese contradict many of its precepts, as those of Christian peoples discredit the teachings of the New Testament. The Book of Actions and Retributions is still more widely read, and has been called the Bible of the Taoists. It consists _.■-,_. The Book of mainly of some two hundred pre- Actions and cepts as to good and bad conduct, e n u 10ns- ascribed without grounds to Lao-tze himself, but probably not dating more than a few cen- turies back. It is in such a form that Chinese of all religions can accept its precepts, though they may not believe in the connecting frame- work. It begins by asserting that there are no special doors for calamity and blessing, which come as men call them ; meaning, that our bad and good fortunes are not determined in ad- vance, but come in accordance with our conduct. Recompenses follow good and evil actions as the shadow follows the substance. It is then stated that spirits exist in heaven and earth which search out the faults of men, and shorten their lives by periods of a hundred days, accord- ing to the gravity of their offences. This cur- tailment of life is attended by numerous calamities, punishments, and mis- fortunes. Many of these spirits are named, some dwelling in the bodies of. men, one being the spirit of the hearth in each household. These go on stated days to the palace of Heaven, to report on men's conduct. This preliminary is followed by a considerable number of positive moral precepts, in the main like those of the Book of Secret Blessings. Of the man who keeps them, it is said that all men respect him and Heaven protects him, the spirits defend him, and demons flee from him. Whatso- ever he does shall prosper, and he may hope to become an Immortal. It be desires to be an Immortal of heaven, he must do 1,300 good works ; but 300 will suffice to make him an immortal of earth. Next follow more than two hundred prohibitions of conduct characteristic of the bad man, many being those of universal morality, others specially characteristic of the Chinese, KU-SlXti, A GOD OF LITERATUP.i:. i56 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. such as, " Do not introduce vexatious reforms into the administration of the empire ; do not shoot at birds nor hunt animals ; do not drive insects from their holes, nor frighten roosting birds ; do not bury the effigy of a man to charm away his life ; do not listen to what your wife and concu- bines say ; do not kill and cook domestic animals, except in accordance with the rites ; do not abuse the spirits ; do not leap over a well or a hearth, thus insulting the gods ; do not pass either over food or over men ; do not kill your children, either before or after birth." Several refer to ordinary Chinese practices. " Do not sing and dance on the last day of the month or year; do not weep or spit towards the north, where resides the prince of the stars of the north ; do not rise in the night naked, a crime against the gods, who walk abroad at night ; " and so on. Towards the end of the book we find the statement, that when a man MA-CHC, GODDESS OF SAILORS, AND HER TWO ASSISTANTS. takes unjustly the riches of others, the spirits calculate the number of his wives and children, and make them die one by one as a retribution, or cause him to suffer disasters by fire, flood, thieves, sickness, or slander. Finally, the treatise ends with the following sentence : " When one's mind is directed to good, though the good be not yet done, the good spirits follow him ; and when one's mind is directed to evil, though the evil be not yet done, the evil spirits follow him. If he has done the wicked thing, and afterwards alters his way and repents, not doing anything wicked, but- endeavouring to do everything good, after a time he will obtain good fortune and prosperity : this is changing calamity into blessing." ;' The words, looks, and deeds of the good man are all good. If all these are seen to be so every day, after three years Heaven will surely send down blessing on him. The words, looks, and deeds of the bad man are ail evil Should you not exert yourself to do what is good ? " MODERN TAOISM. 1 57 But modern Taoism is largely a religion of gods and spirits and demons. Originally it had no special objects of worship, though Shang-ti, the supreme God, and various nature and ancestral spirits wereGreatnumb r believed in. The great development of Taoist ideas about ofTaoist deities deities is generally believed to have been due to the advent of Buddhism. In imitation of the honour paid to Buddha, Lao-tze was deified, and represented as the third member of a divine trinity ; or the The Three trinity is represented as the same person in different incarna- Pure 0nes- tions. The trinity is known as San-tsing, the Three Pure Ones, the image? of which are always to been seen in Taoist temples. According to Edkins, the highest god of the Taoists of the present day, Yuh-hwang Shang-ti, dwells in the heavens, being their creator and sus- KWAX-TI, GOD OF WAR. GOD OF THIEVES. Wan-chang. tainer, and the source of all truth ; he is immaterial and spontaneous. The second divinity, Wan-chang, presides over literature, and yUh-kwang is the diffuser of renovating influences. The third is Lao-tze. Shang-ti. Wan-chang is officially worshipped at every altar twice each year by representatives of the emperor. Part of the invocation to him runs thus; "From generation to generation thou hast sent thy miraculous influence down upon earth. Thou hast been the lord and governor of learning among men. In upholding that which is right, long hast thou brightly shone and stirred up hearts to thankfulness. . . May the fumes of this sacrifice and the odour thereof be acceptable to thee. Look down, we beseech thee, on our devotion and our humility." Not only is imperial worship paid to Wan-chang, but there are temples in every city dedicated to him, often adjoining the colleges. In the prin- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. cipa] hall of the temple may be seen an altar and shrine, within which is •• a venerable figure, seated in calm and dignified repose, a benign expres- sion manifested in the gilded features, and a flowing beard descending to the lap upon which the hands lie folded. In front stand the narrow per- pendicular tablets, set in deep frameworks of elaborate carving, which in- dicate the titles of the object of worship." In Canton alone there are ten of these temples. His principal temple is at Chu-tung-yun, where Wan- chang is said to have been born, or rather incarnated, for, as with many others of their gods, it is said that a star descended and became incarnate, -'X i 1 1 ■ lib. ■ : \ - PASSING THROUGH THE DOOR. not once, but many times, in virtuous men ; his representative in the heavens is a small constellation near the Great Bear. The great regard paid to this deity by the student class in China shows that Taoism has deeply influenced Confucians, in spite of the old antagonism between these two systems. The image of Ku-sing, the god of Literature, we figure, is placed directly in front of Wu-chang's ; he represents a particular star. There is practically no end to the multitude of Taoist deities now Deified worshipped ; and it is this, with their ancestor- worship, which Dowers of • * l • nature and gives rise to the saying that in China more gods are worshipped deified men. than there are people. They belong to two main classes, deified MODERN TAOISM. *59 powers of nature and deified men. There are sea and river gods, star gods, weather gods, agricultural gods. On the sea-coast may be found temples to the spirit of the sea, the king of the sea, and the god of the tide. Dragon-kings have their shrines on the banks of the rivers ; they are sup- posed to reside partly in air, partly in water. Any remarkable phenomenon in the sky or water is often pointed at as a dragon. Many of the stars are worshipped as gods, and are regarded as sublimated essences of material things. The earth is described as made up of five kinds of matter, metal, wood, water, fire, and earth ; and these are all said to have souls or essences, which when highly purified rose to the starry heavens and became planets, Mercury being the essence of water, Venus of metal, Mars of fire, Jupiter SACRIFICE TO GOD OF KITCHEN. of wood, and Saturn of earth. The fixed stars are also essences or souls of matter, and there are other invisible ones, which are also called stars by the Chinese. "In this way," says Edkins, " the word star has come to have, in the Chinese language, a meaning additional to the common one. A living material soul, the sublimated essence of matter, is so denominated." iThe Taoists see in the starry firmament the upper portions of the sea of i ether of which our atmosphere forms the lower part. In it the star {divinities revolve and powerfully influence the fortunes of men. So it j comes to pass that alchemy and astrology, dealing with essences and stars, are so important in the Taoist religion and in Chinese thought. We cannot devote space to any fuller account of these deities. It is ! evident that the task would be endless, while a specimen suffices to indi- i6o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS cate their nature. A Taoist temple. Nor can we recount the numberless legends of imaginary genii or spirits, some of islands and mountains, some celestial and residing in various heavens. A complete Taoist temple makes provision for all aspects of the popular Taoist beliefs. There are halls set apart for the superior and inferior divinities, corresponding to the heavens in which they are believed to dwell, and some of them are repre- sented by images. Among them are to be found ancestral worthies, hermits and alchemists, termed collectively Seen-jin ; and among higher deities the great god, Yuh-hwang Shang-ti, and the Three Pure Ones already mentioned have the highest place. The former they identify with the Confucian Shang-ti, and make him out to be the ancestor of the hereditary chief -priest of their religion, whose family name is Chang. The birthday of the god is kept on the ninth day of the first month. The Taoists have other trinities besides the Three Pure Ones ; one is that formed by the gods of happi- severai ness, rank, and old age. trinities. These are stars and star gods, and are very common sub- jects for Chinese paintings and carvings. Another trinity is the San-kwan, the three rulers of heaven, earth, and water, said to form in their unity one great god, and to send down good and ill fortune on men and save the lost. Another important divinity is the' god of riches, worshipped by the trading classes, who believe he causes their profits and losses. The number of temples erected to j him is very great. There is even a god of Thieves, worshipped by those who wish to gain wealth. The State gods have been readily adopted by the Taoists, who in most cases discharge the rites for them. Among Kwan-ti, the recent additions to the list is Kwan-ti, the god of war, who god of war. was raised to the rank of a god in 1856, and made equal to Confucius in particular, because of a victory over the Tai-pings. The de- scription of many of the gods shows a Buddhist colouring, and the style of' many of the prayers is Buddhistic, exhibiting similar views of the universe and of the interference of divinities in the affairs of men. A recent further development of Taoism adopts the Buddhist ideas of transmigration of souls in a very gross form, together with an elaborate Pure-atorv Purgat°ry and hell. A book called the Divine Panorama, said and " to be published by the mercy of Yu-ti (the same as Yu-hwang Shang-ti), that men and women may repent and make atonement for their sins, gives a full account of it. In it the souls of men are said to BRINGING HACK THK SOUL OF A SICK MAN INTO HIS CLOTHES ON THE BAMBOO. MODERN TAOISM. 161 live for ever, and retribution is declared for all evil done in this life. There are said to be ten courts of justice at the bottom of a great ocean under the crust of the earth, and pictures of the punishments inflicted are shown in the temple of the " Spirit of the Eastern Mountain," an ap- pendage of the temple of the greater tu- telary deity of each provincial city. It is related that on the birthday of the saviour, Pu-sa (a brief Chinese rendering of the Buddhist Bodhi sattva, or one who has only to pass through one more human life be- fore attaining Buddhahood, but used by the Chinese for a deity in general, and here for the ruler of the infernal regions), as the spirits of purgatory were offering their congratulations, the ruler of the infernal regions said: "My wish is to release all souls, and every moon as the day comes round, I would wholly or partially remit the punishment of erring shades, and give them life once more in one of the six paths (the six kinds of existence, see Buddhism later). But also the wicked are many, and the virtuous few. Nevertheless the punish- ments in the dark region are too severe and require some modification. An}r wicked soul that repents and induces one or two others to do likewise, shall be allowed to set this off against the punishment which should be inflicted. The judges of the ten courts then agreed that all who lead virtuous lives from their youth upwards shall be escorted at their death to the land of the immortals ; that all whose balance of good and evil is exact, shall escape the bitterness of the three states (hell, pretas, and animals) and be born again among men ; that those who have re- paid their debts of gratitude and friendship, and fulfilled their destiny, yet have a balance of evil against them, shall pass through the various courts of purgatory, and then be born again among men, rich, poor, old, young, diseased or crippled, to be put a second time upon trial. Then, if they behave well, they maj7 enter into some happy state ; but if badly, they will be dragged by horrid devils through all the courts, suffering bitterly as they go, and wi 1 again be born, M TALL WHITE DEVIL. p1-'1'1 P Ik >^*\i 3 r/y-" Jjfl^^fl V ''^1 I" WW'^'S S6&3 W?L£jKE> RJGil ^t'jT >4H -^=- BHgL »3J§ - \MI - -« ^ rh~ " SHORT BLACK DEVIL." 162 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. to mi lure in life the uttermost of poverty and wretchedness, in death the everlasting tortures of hell." (Appendix to Giles's translation of " Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.") This relaxation in severity of punishments, having been approved by the judges of the ten courts, was sanctioned by the ruler Pu-sa, and then submitted to Yu-ti, who authorised it, and added that any mortal who repented and had had two punishments remitted, if he succeeded in doing five virtuous acts, should escape all punishment and be born again in some happy state ; if a woman, she should be re-born as a man. More than five such acts should enable a soul to obtain the salvation of others, and redeem his wife and family from hell. The description of the various courts as given is too long to quote. One of them has a great gehenna, many leagues wide, with sixteen wards, Horrible an(i ^ne following horrible punishments are said to be inflicted in punishments, them, still further exemplifying the Chinese genius for devising tortures. " In the first, the wicked souls have their bones beaten and their bodies scorched. In the second, their muscles are drawn out and their bones rapped. In the third, ducks eat their heart and liver. In the fourth, dogs eat their intestines and lungs. In the fifth, the}^ are splashed with hot oil. In the sixth, their heads are crushed in a frame, and their tongues and teeth are drawn out," and so on through a sickening catalogue of bar- barities. Contrast this with the original teaching of Lao-tze, and it will be seen how far a religion can degenerate, and how childish as well as de- graded must be the minds which can accept this as true. An exaggerated animism marks Taoism as well as Confucianism ; and a vast number of the spirits believed in are malevolent. The simple China- Dread of evil man dreads spirits, and imagines them in all the sounds of the spirits, night and in many natural phenomena, as producing sicknesses and continually trying to deceive men. The Taoist priests, little elevated above Mongolian Shamans, except sometimes in cunning, are magicians who find occupation and wealth in overcoming the evil spirits by charms and spells. " The charms," says Dr. Legge, " are figures, and characters, single or combined, drawn and written in grotesque forms. The myriads of doors on which you see them pasted shows the thriving trade that their writers must have. A few years ago, over a large extent of country, men were startled by the sudden and unaccountable disappearance of their pig- tails. An invasion of cholera could not have frightened the people more. It was the work of malevolent spirits ! There was a run upon the charm manufactories. It was thought that four characters, mysteriously woven together and wrapped up in the pigtail, warded the spirits off." In this connection we must mention the practices known as feng-shui, or wind and water, ceremonies by which the spirits of air and water are The propitiated, and including the repose of the dead, the influence of feng-shui. tne dead upon the we]fare 0f tlie livingj the selection of sites for dwellings, and of graves for the dead. Every individual has three souls, the rational in the head, the sensuous in the breast, and the material in the MODERN TAOISM. 163 stomach. At death the first may become fixed in the memorial tablets, the second in the tomb, the third escapes into space and seeks to enter some other body. If proper observances are neglected, it will become hostile to the family. Incense sticks are kept constantly burning at the entrance of houses and shops, in order to prevent the entrance of these and other malignant spirits. The selection of a grave is of the utmost importance, and must be per- formed by persons skilled in interpreting signs or in inventing them. "I have known bodies kept unburied," says Dr. Legge, graves and " lying in their large and carefully cemented coffins, for a long 8ites" time, from the difficulty of selecting the best site for the grave. I have known 1 64 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. great excitement and expenditure in connection with the removal of a coffin from a grave which had turned out unpropitious, to one that was likely to enable its tenant to rest in peace, and leave his family circle unmolested." The same spirit pervades all kinds of practices. Good and evil spirits being continually passing to and fro, it is most necessary to build houses, make ron, Is and bridges, canals and wells, in such a way as to obstruct the evil and aid the journeys of the good spirits. In every part of the country mines and quarries have been filled up owing to complaints that they have caused bad harvests by letting the demons pass. Neighbours accuse each other of having turned the good spirits aside by making changes on their lands. The planting of a tree on a favourable spot or a new tower rightly built, may bring fortune to a whole district. All straight lines are disastrous, while curves in anything promote prosperity ; good spirits come from the south, evil spirits from the north. No wonder that the Taoist priests are despised by the educated Chinese, and win their chief spoils from the ignorant ; but the extent to which they have received recognition by the Government in connection with the State religion is undoubtedly an evil. The priests are supposed to study five years, but practically they do little but assist the acknowledged priests, learning their tricks and practices, and a certain amount of knowledge which will enable them to give proper " oracles " in answer to the prayers of the sick and dying. Their morals are low, and their nunneries are generally believed to be haunts of vice. There is scarcely any religion of a great people which can surpass Taoism in degradation. A volume could readily be filled with descriptions of their ceremonies and practices, but our space is exhausted. Mr. Doolittle's " Social Life of the Chinese " may be referred to for abundant information on this head. Ave must briefly describe some of our illustrations, not otherwise referred to. " Passing through the Door " (p. 158) is an important cere- mony for children, performed more or less frequently till childhood is over. 1 aoist priests come to the house, arrange an altar, place on it censers, candle- sticks, and images of gods, especially that of the goddess "Mother"; and also a table full of various eatables. Certain goddesses are invited by name to be present, by ringing of bells, beating of drums, and reciting the names and residences of the goddesses. The priests recite prayers and invitations while the goddesses partake of food. The " door "to be passed through is made of bamboo covered with red and white paper, and is seven feet high. After several ceremonies, a procession is formed to pass through the door, the head of the family and all the children following. This is repeated several times, the "door" being successively removed to all corners of the room, while the priest recites various formulas. Soon after, the door is cut to pieces and publicly burnt. The idea is, to benefit the children by causing them to recover, if sick, or to continue well if in good health. Incense and candles are regularly burnt before the god of the kitchen e first and fifteenth of every month, morning and evening ; some do it daily. An annual sacrifice of meats (p.' 159) is made to the kitchen god, MODERN TAOISM. 165 and, together with mock money, is put upon the kitchen furnace before a slip of paper representing the god. The Chinese believe that the kitchen god ascends to heaven and reports to the supreme ruler the behaviour of the family during the year. When a man is very ill and his spirit, or one of his spirits, is believed to have left his body and to be hovering near, the Taoist priests repeat their formulas for his benefit, and attempt to bring back his soul by the following means (see p. 160). A long bamboo with green leaves at the end is taken, and a white cock is often fastened near the end. A two-foot measure is sus- !66 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. pended from the bamboo, and to it is fastened a coat recently worn by the sick man. A mirror is so arranged as to occupy the place where the head would be, one of the family holds the bamboo as shown in the illustra- tion, while a priest repeats his formulas, with the name of the sick person, to induce his spirit to enter the coat. If the pole turns round slowly in the hands of the holder, success is believed to have been attained, and the spirit can be taken back to the sick man ; the coat is then placed as soon as possible on his body. "Tall White Devil," and "Short Black Devil" (p. 161), are only foreigners' names for two of the five images of emperors or rulers who control epidemics, and which are paraded about the streets of Fu-chow. The image is formed of a bamboo framework in each case, covered with a garment, and carried by a man standing inside it. Our illustration (on p. 163) depicts a strange custom observed by many families soon after a death. First has come the loud outburst of lamentation immediately following death. The deceased being believed to be unable to see how or where to walk, candles and incense are lighted to enable him to see. After the body has been laid out, the sons-in-law of the deceased erect a sort of bamboo chandelier as seen in our engraving, the body is on a table on one side of this, another table has candles and incense, and some large paper placards describe or depict the state of the departed. The long pole is pushed gently by the eldest son, followed by the married daughter covered by a veil, and the rest of the family ; so the bridge-ladder is slowly pushed round several times, while the priests chant a liturgy to the' sound of cymbals, and all lament and weep loudly. This is done in daylight. The object is to assist the deceased on his way to the abode of the dead, the pole or bridge aid- ing him to cross rivers, the tree-like ladder to climb steep places. After this wine and food are offered to the deceased by the eldest son ; the feelings of the dead man being manifested by the way in which their small copper " cash " behave when shaken out of his sleeve, Very many other cere- monies are observed by the truly devout before the body is consigned to the grave, everything being designed either to show the sorrow of the living or to comfort or help the deceased. Many of these customs are observed for months. They vary, like others mentioned, from district to district. On the forty-second day after death, it is believed that the spirit arrives at a certain place in the other world, whence he looks back on his old home and becomes for the first time aware of his own decease. He is then sup- posed to lose his appetite and to be unable to partake of the food provided for him, afterwards he is provided with one large last meal, signifying that he must thenceforth procure and cook his own food, and at the same time a large amount of mock paper money is provided for him and burnt. In addition to works already quoted, Mr. H. A. Giles's "Gems of Chinese Literature," 1884, aud " Chuang-tzu" (or Chwang-tzu), lsS'J, may be consulted with advantage.] JAPAN: PRESENTING NEW-BORN BABE IN SHtN-TO TEMPLE. (The archway in front is the general symbol of Shinto.) CHAPTER VI. £>I)in-'toi$m (Japan) ♦ Japanese less religious than Chinese— The way of the gods— Resemblance to Taoism— Erection of temples— Ancestral worship —Shin-to mythology— The sacred mirror— Modern reformers of Shin-toism— Results of the late revolution — Hirata's views— The old liturgies — Hirata's ritual — The god and goddess of wind— Parted spirits — The rulers of the Unseen -The spirits of the dead — Classes of temples— The uji-gami — Household gods— Priesthood and services— Shin-to temples —The torii— The temples of Ise— Ritual— Re-building of temples. JAPAN is by no means so interesting in a religious point of view as China. The people are as a whole less concerned about religious matters, and less under the influence of the dread of unseen powers. As in China, religions exist side by side without inconsistency or clash- Japaneseless ing ; in fact, the vast majority of the people may be described as religious than Shin-toists as well as Buddhists, and few profess either religion exclusively, except in the province of Satsuma, from which the Buddhist priests have long been excluded. A philosophical system known as Siza, having some resemblance to Confucianism, is professed by many of the 1G7 l6S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. upper classes, while also adhering to Shin-toism ; it is essentially a system of moral truths and maxims. The term Shin-to literally means the way of the gods or genii; but tin- Japanese word which renders the two Chinese characters Shin- to is me way of Kami-no-michi. There is no doubt whatever that it is properly the gods, described as animism, and is largely developed from ancestor- worship. Thus there is a remarkable resemblance in essence to Chinese Resemblance Taoism and ancestor- worship, though the exaggerated features of to Taoism. ^he Chinese types are absent. The Shin-to cult is very ancient, probably dating from before the Japanese immigration, while the name Shin-to only came into use after the introduction of Buddhism, as a means of distinguishing between the two. It is useless to speculate which origi- nated first, the worship of ancestors, or that of the nature-deities. From time immemorial offerings have been presented to the household or family spirits or deities, consisting of swords, food, clothing, horses, etc, all of which are of the class usually offered to ancestral-spirits. Very early no doubt the spirit or spirits worshipped by the ruler acquired pre-eminence. When the wor- ship of the spirits of trees, animals, rivers, rocks, wind, fire, mountains, and heavenly bodies arose, we cannot tell, but it could scarcely have been till a subsequent period that the Mikado's earliest ancestor was identified with Erection of the sun, for which a separate temple was erected at least fifteen temples, hundred years ago, and a daughter of the Mikado was appointed chief priestess. Then the erection of temples to ancestors became general, but they were of a simple character, and usually contained no image of the god, but merely a mirror as an emblem. These temples had priests who were either direct descendants of the deified ancestor or of his chief attendant ; Ancestral and this custom largely continues to the present day. Thus ances- worship. |ra| worship is a very essential element in Japanese religion ; and, as Mr. Satow tells us, " in almost every Japanese house, by the side of the domestic altar to the Shin-to gods will be found the shrine of the favourite Buddhist deity, and the memorial tablets of dead members of the family, who immediately on their decease become ' Bucldhas ' to whom prayers may be offered up." There can be little doubt that the most popular and most worshipped gods are these who are the reputed ancestors of the Mikado, and deified heroes even of modern times. So much is this the case that no separation or distinction is made by the Japanese shin-to between the Shin-to mythology and their own national history. ethology. National egotism makes Japan the first country created, and does not trouble itself about the rest of the world. The oldest cosmogony, the Kojiki, dating from the eighth century a.d., recounts that at the beginning »t the world three gods came into existence in succession, named the Master of the Centre of Heaven, the August High-August-Producing Deity, and the Divine-Producing Deity. Then followed a series of pairs of deities, repre- senting the stages of creation, concluding with Isanagi and Isanami, the two parents of the earth, sun, moon, and all living creatures. A most fanci- ful origin of all these and of many things on earth from these two parents SHIN-TOISM {JAPAN). 169 is related. Amaterasu, the sun-goddess, was tke ancestor of the first Japanese sovereign. Jimmu Tenno, descended from Ninigi-no-mikoto, the adopted grandson of the sun-goddess, is the early ruler from whom the sovereign known to Europeans as the Mikado is descended, the name by which he is known to the Japanese being Teushi, or Son of Heaven. When the sun- goddess made Ninigi sovereign of Japan, she delivered to him " the way of the gods," and decreed that his dynasty should be immovable as long as the sun and moon should endure. She gave to him three sacred emblems, the mirror, sword, and stone, saying as to the first, " Look upon this The sacred mirror as my spirit, keep it in the same house and on the same mirror, floor with yourself, and worship it as if you were worshipping my actual presence." The story is, that in the year 92 B.C. the reigning Teushi removed it to a temple, whence, after further removals, it was deposited in b.c. 4, in the Naiku temple or palace at Yamada, in the province of Ise. Most extravagant names are given to the various deities, each name being preceded by " Kami," which is applicable to a god, goddess, or spirit, while the Mikado's ordinary title is O-Kami. It must be borne in mind that the translation god for this term, is liable to be misleading, for its real meaning is simply " superior," and very varied significations may be given to it. A remarkable revival of pure Shinto took place in the last and present i centuries, endeavouring to discover and re-establish the ancient religious belief as it was before Buddhism and Confucianism modified it. Modern It has produced several notable scholars, especially Mabuchi reformers of (1697-17(39), Motoori (1730-1801) and Hirata (1776-18-13). The SMn-toism- latter published something like a hundred separate works. From the ninth to the seventeenth centuries Buddhism was paramount in Japan, including and absorbing most of the old Shin-toism. But the revival of the older views by these scholars caused a very marked reaction, the support of the Mikado and his court being obtained for them while the Shogun and his following disliked them. The new school hoped, at the revolution of 1868, to get Buddhism suppressed, and Shin-to made the one national religion ; but Western ideas and a certain carelessness about religion combined to limit the reform to a liberation of Shin-toism from the fetters of „ u r in • n Results of Buddhism, and the separation of one from the other. The the late Buddhist priests were expelled from the Shin-to temples, and revolutlon- the excrescences and additions which they had imposed upon them were taken away, including many treasures and architectural ornaments. (Nevertheless Buddhism once more proved its power of overcoming obstacles knd opposition, and has recently been regaining much of its former nfluence, while Shin-toism has again declined. Still its temples are supported by the Government and by local revenues, and certain yearly estivals at court are attended by all the principal officials. Yet on the vhole it occupies about the same position that it has done for a thousand rears past. The result of Hirata's studies is, that in ancient times the celebration of he worship of the gods was the chief duty of the Mikado. When the first i7o 7 HE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Mikado descended from heaven, he was instructed by his divine ancestors mrata's now to ri^e tne country. They taught him that everything in this views, world depended on the spirits of the gods of heaven and earth, and that consequently their worship was of primary importance. The gods "i- spirits) who worked injuries must be appeased, so that they might not punish those who had offended them; and all the gods must be worshipped, so that they might be induced to increase their favours. The art of govern- ment was termed " worshipping," and personal worship by the sovereign was essential. Consequently the early Mikados regularly prayed, that the people might have sufficient food, clothing, and protection from the elements ; and twice a year they celebrated the festival of general purification, by which the whole nation was purged of calamities, offences, and pollutions. However firmly Hirata believed that he was relating the old beliefs before the influence of Chinese thought, we cannot fail to see here a similar The 0id idea to that of the Chinese State religion ; and thus we may date liturgies, ^q^ back to a period in the dim past when the Chinese and Japanese stocks had not yet separated. The rites of Shin-to for many centuries occupied a conspicuous place in the rules and ceremonies of the court, ten of the fifty volumes of the Yengi Shiki being devoted to them, including liturgies for the general festivals, the names of 3,132 gods in 2,861 temples at which the Court worshipped, either personally or by envo3'S. Every important matter was preceded by worship of the gods. Hirata says that, as it is the duty of subjects to imitate the incarnate god who is their sovereign, every man must worship his ancestors and the gods from whom they spring ; but as the number of gods possessing different functions is so mrata's great, it is convenient to worship only the most important by ritual name, and to include the rest in a general petition. Those who cannot go through the whole of the morning prayers, may content them- selves with adoring the emperor's palace, the domestic spirits, the spirits of their ancestors, their local patron god, and the deity of their particular calling. His view of the superiority of the Mikado's prayers is clearly shown in the following extract. " In praying to the gods, the blessings which each has it in his power to bestow are to be mentioned in a few words, and they are not to be annoyed with greedy petitions, for the Mikado in his palace offers up petitions daily on behalf of his people, which are far more effectual than those of his subjects. Rising early in the morning, wash your face and hands, rinse out the mouth, and cleanse the body. Then turn towards the province of Yamato, strike the palms together twice, and worship, bowing the head to the ground. The proper posture is that of kneeling on the heels, which is ordinarily assumed in saluting a superior." Hirata gives the following explanation of the names of the god and The god and Sodcless °f wincl : Their first names mean Pillar of Heaven and goddess of Pillar of Earth, and they are given because the wind pervades the space between Heaven and Earth and supports the former, as a pillar supports the roof of a house. Part of the prayer to these deities SHIN-TO ISM {JAPAN). 171 runs thus : " I say with awe, deign to bless me by correcting the unwitting- faults which, seen and heard by you, I have committed, by blowing off and clearing away the calamities which evil gods might inflict, by causing me to live long like the hard and lasting rock, and by repeating to the gods of heavenly origin and the gods of earthly origin the petitions which I present every day, along with your breath, that they may hear with the sharp- earedness of the forth-galloping colt." Hirata classifies faults into those committed consciously and unconsciously. The latter, he says, are com- mitted by every one ; and if we pray that such as we have committed may be corrected, the gods are willing to pardon them. By evil gods he means bad deities and demons who work harm to society and individuals. These spirits originated, he states, from the impurities contracted by Izanagi during his visit to the nether world, and cast off by him during the processes of purification. They subsequently increased in number, especially after the introduction of Buddhism. The two deities of wind can, he says, blow away anything it pleases them to get rid of, including the calamities which evil spirits endeavour to inflict. Men are dependent upon them for the breath which enables them to live ; and therefore it is right to pray to them for long life, and to carry their prayers to the gods. Another prayer given by Hirata, illustrates a curious Shin-to doctrine, according to which a god throws off portions by fissure, producing what are called Parted Spirits, with special functions. Thus a grand- parted daughter of the god of fire and the goddess of soil is described spirits, by eight different names, which signify that she is goddess of all kinds of food. Two of the parted spirits thrown off by her are named producer of all trees and parent of all grasses. Strange to say, we hear of the dead body of this goddess of food, from which dead body rice and other seeds, cattle, and the silkworm were produced. Consequently it early became a custom to worship this goddess on moving into a new house, built as it was of the wood and thatched with the grass of which she was the creator. The paired grouping of the gods is very noticeable in Japan. One ot the most noteworthy parts of Hirata's " Tama-dasuki " is that which refers to Oko-kuni-nushi, who rules the Unseen, and his consort Suseri- The Rulers of bime. The term Unseen, he says, includes " peace or disturbance the Unseen- in the empire, its prosperity and adversity, the life and death, good and bad fortune of human beings, in fine, every supernatural event which cannot be ascribed to a definite author." A man's secret sins draw down upon him the hatred of the invisible gods, who inflict diseases, misfortunes, short life, etc. Conversely, the gods bestow happiness and blessings on those who practise good, giving them exemption from disease, good luck, long life, and prosperity to their descendants. Hirata's teaching here becomes more lofty, and worthy of all commendation. " Never mind the praise or blame of fellow-men," he says, " but act so that you need not be jashamed before the gods of the Unseen. If you desire to practise true virtue, learn to stand in awe of the Unseen, and that will prevent you from doing wrong. Make a vow to the god who rules over the Unseen, and I?2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. cultivate the conscience implanted in you, and then you will never wander" from the way. You cannot hope to live more than a hundred years under the most favourable circumstances; but as you will go to the unseen realm of Oko-kuni-nushi after death, and be subject to his rule, learn betimes to bow down before him." We are told by Hirata that the spirits of the dead continue to exist in the unseen world, which is everywhere about us, and that they all become ■me spirits of gods (kami) of varying character and degrees of influence. While the dead. some reside in temples built in their honour, others hover near their tombs, and continue to render services to their prince, parents, wife, and children as when they wrere in the body. Just as in China, we find chief provincial temples, city temples, and village temples ; and all new-born infants have to be presented to the local classes of deity to be put under his protection. The local deity is correctly temples. ca}}et] << gOC[ 0f the native earth or land." There are other local deities (uji-gami) which really signify the common ancestor of a number of people who bear the same name, or one who has merited equivalent honours by benefits. The local differences between people, animals, and plants, are explained as being due to the different character of the patron god. All The the uji-gami are supposed to rule the fortunes of human beings uji-gami. |jefore anc[ after birth, and even after death. In some pro- vinces it is customary before starting on a journey to proceed to the temple of the local uji-gami and beg for his protection. The priest then gives him a paper charm to protect him from harm on the road ; the traveller also- takes a little sand from the site of the temple, which he mixes in small quantities with water and drinks on the journey whenever he feels uncom- fortable. The remains of the sand must be duly returned when he gets back, and naturally he returns thanks for the protection afforded. It is a still more serious event when a person removes his residence to another place. The uji-gami of his old home has to make arrangements with that; of the new one, else all will not be right. Consequently the man must take due leave of his old uji-gami, and pay a visit to the new one as soon as possible. Whatever may be the apparent reasons which a man may think have induced him to change his residence, it is said that there can be only two ; one being that he has offended the uji-gami of his old home and is expelled, the other, that the uji-gami of the new home has arranged his removal. The household gods of the Japanese represent the most universally practised form of Japanese worship. Their shrine contains tablets covered Household with paper, on which are painted the titles of the gods of Ise, and of other gods in whom the householder places his trust. Before these tablets the householder offers up on particular days, such as the first day of the year, the 2nd, 15th and 28th of the month, sake, the favourite Japanese drink, rice, and leafy twigs of the sacred tree (Cleyera Japonica) belonging to the camellia and tea order. Every evening a saucer of oil with a lighted wick in it is placed before the domestic shrine. The following is SHIN- TO ISM (JAPAN). 173 Hirata's version of the proper prayer to be made before it : " Reverently adoring the great god of the two palaces of Ise in the first place, the eight hundred myriads of celestial gods, the eight hundred myriads of terrestrial gods, all the fifteen hundred myriads of gods to whom are consecrated the great and small temples in all provinces, all islands, and all places of the Great Land of Eight Islands (Japan), the fifteen hundred myriads of gods whom they cause to serve them, and the gods of branch palaces and branch temples, and sohoclo-no-kami (the scare-crow, reputed to know everything in the empire), whom I have invited to the shrine set up on this divine shelf, and to whom I offer praises day by day, I pray with awe that they will deign to correct the unwitting faults which, heard and seen by them, I have committed, and blessing and favouring me according to the powers which they severally wield, cause me to follow the divine example, and to perform good works in the Way." Shin-toism is remarkable for its lack of public services, for the incon- spicuous part played by its priests, and for the simplicity of character of its temples. The priests are not celibates, and may take up any other Priesthood calling. They offer morning and evening sacrifices, and when so and serylces- engaged wear a long loose gown with wide sleeves and a girdle, and on the head a black cap bound round the head by abroad white fillet. The priests recite prayers and praises of which we have given some types, and present offerings of rice, fish, fruits, flesh, sake, etc. A general purification service is held twice a year in many of the principal Shin-to temples, to wash away the sins of the people with water. Formerly it was practised also in indi- vidual cases ; and sins or crimes were expiated by the sacrifice of valuable gifts in proportion to the fault committed. Shin-to temples usually have a chapel of two chambers, the inner con- taining the emblem of the god, usually a mirror, sometimes a sword, or even a curious stone, which the priest himself may only see shin-to rarely, and kept in a box within other boxes, covered with many temPles- wrappings of silk and brocade. The outer hall contains an upright wand, from which hang pieces of white paper cut out to resemble the offerings of cloth anciently made at festivals. In front of the chapel, and connected with it by an ante-chamber, may usually be seen an oratory, sometimes with a gong over its entrance, by ringing which the worshipper calls the attention of his god ; sometimes this oratory is only a shed on four uprights, before which the worshipper bows and clasps his hands together, but utters no audible prayer ; he then throws a few copper coins on the floor and departs. The priests of these temples eke out their scanty income by selling slips of paper bearing the title of the god as charms. Near the main build- ing there may often be additional buildings dedicated to various Shin-to deities ; around the whole is a grove of trees. There is no elaboration of architecture or design or colouring in these temples, the type of which is said to be the primeval hut, many having thatched roofs, though some are tiled or have coppered roofs. Normally, they are made entirely of wood, of the finest quality ; the flooring is wooden, raised some feet above the I74 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. ground, allowing of a balcony all round outside, approached by a flight of steps. Another distinctive feature of a Shin-to temple is the torn, literally " bird-perch," an arch of very plain form at the entrance to the grounds, and often repeated at intervals up to the temple. It is never •me torii. ( jecorateci with carving, but is sometimes made of stone or bronze, or painted bright red and inscribed with the names of the gods to whom the temple is dedicated. There were formerly many highly decorated temples, but this was the work of the Buddhists when they got control of them. In the precincts of many temples they erected pagodas, chapels to their deities, bell and drum towers, etc. All the distinctively Buddhist buildings in Shin-to grounds were however, destroyed after 1808 ; but the chapels which they had built to Shin-to gods were left untouched, so that many of these remain, highly decorated with carvings, gilt fastenings, and bright colouring. The famous temples of Ise at Yamato, the Naiku and the Geku, show the pure Shin-to simplicity, and are among the most ancient shrines of the The temples religion. They are annually visited by great numbers of pil- ofise. grims. At these temples, says a recent visitor, are to be seen " no grandeur of form or cunning workmanship, no sacrifices, hardly any symbols. Except that the main posts are supported on hewn-stone blocks instead of entering the ground, that the floors are raised, and that wooden walls have taken the place of mats, the buildings approximate in form and structure to the primeval Japanese hut. Wood and thatch form the materials ; brass, bronze, and iron, scantily used, the sole adornments ; plain fences of posts, rails, and palisades the outer and inner cathedral enclosures. There is no patch of paint or scrap of carving — no colour but the browns and drabs of thatch and weather-worn woodwork. For gateways there are merely open torii, constmcted of bare round logs, in the form with which the world is now familiar ; for gates nought but hanging screens of thin white silk ; for sacrifices, daily offerings of water, rice, fish, salt, and other simple products of the land and sea. The very lamps for the service of the temple are of coarse white paper, decorated only in black, with the chry- santhemum flower, which is the crest of the Son of Heaven. As for emblems, they too are of the same simple and unaffected type. Rice-straw ropes and wisps, sprigs and wands of the rare and sacred sakaki tree (C ley era Japonica), hanging slips of notched white paper — each symbolical of some incident in the well-known legend of the Sun-goddess's enticement out of the cave to which she had retired, in wrath and pain, from the Moon-god's violence — that is all. Though the sacred mirror and its copies are there too, they are never now seen by human eyes. For each there is a spruce- wood box, shrouded in a wrapper of plain white silk and covered by a wooden cage, which again is completely hidden under a voluminous silken mantle. Ay ithin the box reposes the mirror, in a sack of brocade, or rather in a succession of sacks, for, as soon as one begins to perish from age, a new one is added without removing it. SHIN-TO ISM {JAPAN). 175 " Of public ritual at these shrines there is virtually none, except on occasional feast-days ; and even then it is of the most unpretending kind. Two or three plain-robed priests, calling the deity's attention by strokes upon a gong, recite short prayers and formulas for a few minutes, worship, bow the head, and retire. Now and then the Tcagura — a maiden dance of great antiquity, and said to be emblematic of the goddess Uzume's choragic feats before the cave of Amaterasu — is performed in a building outside of the temple ; but it is not a feature of the ritual proper. And the lay- worshippers ; what of them ? Again the same tale of pro- found simplicity. First, purified by washing their hands in the neighbour- ing river, they advance to the silk screen at the fourth torii, cast a few coppers into the receptacle for tribute, clap their hands twice together, and then, with bowed heads and bended knees, or in a kneeling posture, remain for a minute or so in silent or muttered prayer. Petitions for prosperity and long life, for correction of faults, and exemption from evil, sin, calamity, and pestilence — these, with humble expressions of worship, all in the fewest possible words, form the Shin-to believer's prayer." These temples are allowed to decay by natural processes, although every part of the grounds is kept scrupulously neat and clean. But the buildings are renewed every twenty years, not by pulling down Rebmiding one set and building another in its place, but by using a precisely of temples. I similar site near by, and building the new temple on it, reproducing the old one most exactly in every detail. Thus two sites are alternately occu- pied. The trees in the surrounding groves are the finest in Japan. Such is the Shin-to system of Japan, which, evidently akin to the State and ancestral worship of China, falls short of it in the slightness of its associated moral teaching. Perhaps this is the reason why it appears to have on the whole but a moderate hold on the Japanese, and why they have shown so much readiness on the one hand to accept the more definite moral teaching and the more astounding marvels of Buddhism, and on the other to throw aside ancestral beliefs, and seek a new philosophy and religion from Europe. ["Introduction to Murray's Handbook for Japan: Religious," by E. M. Satow. " The Revival of Pure Shin-to," and other papers in " Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan."] VABONA (FKOM A NATIVE PICTURE). BOOK III. BEAHMANI8M. CHAPTER I. Analogies to Greek and Roman Religion— Date of the Rig-- Veda, anterior to writing— Language of Rig- Veda — Religious basis— The earliest hymns— Worship of powers of Nature personified— Dyaus and Prithivi (heaven and earth)— The origin of things— Mitra and Varuna— Indra, the god of the clear blue sky— The Maruts, or storm-gods— The sun-gods, Surya and Savltri— Pushan — Soma, the Indian Bacchus or Dionysus— Ushas, the dawn goddess— Agni, the god of fire— Tvashtri— The Asvins— Brahmanaspati — Vishnu— Yama, and a future life— Virtues rewarded by heaven -Future punishment— Transition to monotheism and pantheism— Visvakarman— Absence of later Hindu doctrines— Organisation of early Hindus— Morals— The other Vedas— The Brah- manas -Human sacrifice- Animal sacrifice— Tradition of a flood— Immortality— Idea of the sun's course— Origin of caste — Self-assertion of Brahmans— Nature of the Brahmanas— Household sacrifices— Purification— Fasting- Establishment of sacrificial fires— The Upanishads— The syl- lable Om— The origin of the world in ether— The Atman, or self-existent— The Svetas-vatara— Transmigration of souls —Purpose of the Upanishads. Analogies to "VTTHATEVER may have been the history of the Aryans, by Roman1 » * whom the Vedas1 were produced, previous to their enter- reiigion. mg India, it is certain that when they did so, long before Budd- 1 See Muir, " Original Sanskrit Texts" (M.) ; Max Muller, "History of Ancient Sanskrit Litera- ture, "Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion,'' " Sacred Books of the East " (M. M.) ; Bir_Moniet Williams, "Indian Wisdom," "Hinduism" (M. W.) ; Sir W. W. Hunter, "India"; Wilson's works. 176 H. II. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 177 hism took its rise, in the sixth century B.C., they had developed religious ideas and conceptions which present singular analogies and similarities to those which appear to be most primitive among the Greeks; and which suggest, if they do not prove, that the European and Hindu Aryans sprang from a common stock. When we find their divinities termed " devas," or the shining ones," and recognise the same word in the Latin Deus, divinity ; when we compare the Dyaush-pitar (Heaven-Father) of San- skrit, with Jupiter or Dies-piter of Rome, and the Zeus of Greece ; Varuna, the encompassing sky in Sanskrit, with Ouranos Uranus in Greek ; and many other like words, we cannot help realising that, strange as it might iseem at first, Brahmanism and Greek and Latin religion sprang from similar source. And it is not very important which is the older. We know that the Hindu sacred books, the Vedas, — at any rate some of them, — are among the oldest of extant human compositions, and exhibit to us some of the earliest human ideas that were handed down by writing. The best opinions place the date of the Rig- Veda somewhere between J800 and 1200 b.c. The collection consists of ten books, containing altogether p.,017 hymns ; eight out of ten books begin with hymns addressed Date of the to Agni, and others addressed to Indra follow. It appears pro- Ri£-Veda- table that at least two distinct generations or series of authors composed them, the later being more imitative and reflective ; and it is probable that some of the hymns date from a period earlier even than 1200 b.c. In the whole series there is no reference to anything connected with writing, and this suggests that they are relatively anterior to the Book of Exodus, where books " and writing are distinctly mentioned. Even long after the period rf the Rig- Veda, writing is never mentioned. Thus we must ascribe £he 3reservation of these wonderful collections entirely to memory, Anterior to which is, no doubt, equal to the task. Many years, we know, writing, ire still regularly spent by Brahmans in the slow, methodical learning and repetition of their sacred literature ; and there is every sign of this habit raving been handed down from a period when no other means of preservirg bhe Vedas existed. In ancient compositions, later than the Rig- Veda, we ire told in detail every event in the life of a Brahman, but there is no nention of his learning to write. It is not till we come to the Laws of Vtanu that writing is spoken of. The very language of the Rig- Veda is a further confirmation of its mtiquity. The words are so difficult of explanation as to have given rise to extensive commentaries ever since. When the words are known, Language of yreat differences of opinion arise as to how they are to be con- Ri&-Veda- lected together, or what idea they represent. Often the most puerile or rrelevant things (to us) are interspersed among the loftiest sentiments, and jjreat verbosity alternates with the most terse and pregnant aphorisms. This precludes the idea of single authorship of any considerable portions. !n fact, early Hindu literature was not concerned about authorship in the nodern sense. The word Veda, meaning " knowledge," clearly refers to divine knowledge, imagined as proceeding like breath from the self-existent N i78 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Spirit, and inspiring a class of sages called Rishis ; and thus it is held to this day to be absolutely infallible. The general form of the Veclas is that of the simplest lyrical poetry, with a not very regular metrical flow ; and the matter is almost exclusively Religious religious. This fact is regarded as due largely to the character basis. 0f tne people. " No great people, surely," said Prof. Whitney, ; ' ever presented the spectacle of a development more predominantly reli- gious ; none ever grounded its whole fabric of social and political life more absolutely on a religious basis ; none ever meditated more deeply and ex- clusively on things supernatural ; none ever rose, on the one hand, higher into the airy regions of a purely speculative creed, or sank, on the other, deeper into degrading superstitions — the two extremes to which such a tendency naturally leads." Although the earliest Vedic hymns are so ancient, they must have been preceded by an indefinitely long period of growth and development ■me earliest °f the race, for the language is fixed, complex, full-grown ; the hymns. j(|ea 0f g0cjs was fully developed, indeed their number seems to I have been fixed as thirty-three, who are described as all great and old, and are besought not to lead their votaries far from the paths of their fathers. It may be said generally that in the earliest hymns each god that is mani- fested is for the time being contemplated as supreme and absolute, and not limited by the powers of the rest. Max Muller says, " Each god is to the mind of the suppliant as good as all the gods. He is felt at the time as a real divinity, as supreme and absolute, in spite of the necessary limita- tions which, to our mind, a plurality of gods must entail on every single god." In fact the early Hindu of the Vedas was a worshipper of the powers worship of of Nature personified, and capable of being influenced by his PNature° Praises, prayers, and actions. Their qualities are not precisely ] personified, limited or distinguished from one another. While the gods are termed immortal, they are mostly not regarded as uncreated or self-existent, 1 iut are often described as the offspring of heaven and earth. There is no uniformity, however, on this point. But there are numerous passages recon- cilable with the view that some of these gods represent deified ances- tors, as where they are said to have acquired immortality by their acts, or their virtues, or by gift of Agni ; and it is even implied that the gods named were the successors of others previously existing. Thus we find Indra thus invoked, " Who made thy mother a widow ? What god was present in the fray, when thou didst slay thy father, seizing him by the foot?" and there is no doubt that at times the gods are represented as being at war with one another. As to the powers and prerogatives of the gods, they are above all mortals, who can by no means frustrate their decrees, they will reward dutiful worshippers, and punish the negligent. Heaven and Earth, the progenitors of the gods, are represented by Dyaus and Dyaus and Prithivi. Hymns addressed to them include the fol- (Heaven lowing, "At the festivals (I worship) with offerings, and celebrate and earth), the praises of Heaven and Earth, the promoters of righteousness, THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 179 the great, the wise, the energetic, who, having gods for their offspring, thus lavish, with the gods, the choicest blessings, in consequence of our hymn. With my invocations I adore the thought of the beneficent Father, and that mighty inherent power of the Mother. The prolific Parents have made all creatures, and through their favours (have conferred) wide immortality on their offspring." ... So closely did the old Hindus approach the Greeks and Romans in their conceptions of Mother Earth and Father Heaven. In various passages, however, they are themselves spoken of as created, especially by Indra, who formed them out of his own body, and to whom they do homage. How then was the origin of things The origin imagined? The following extract is from Sir Monier Williams's oft11111^8- metrical rendering of one of the most remarkable Vedic hymns. "In the beginning there was neither nought nor aught, Then there was neither sky nor atmosphere above. What then enshrouded all this teeming universe ? In the receptacle of what was it contained ? Was it enveloped in the gulf profound of water ? Then there was neither death nor immortality, Then there was neither day nor night, nor light nor darkness, Only the Existent One breathed calmly, self-contained. Then first came darkness hid in darkness, gloom in gloom. Next all was water, all a chaos indiscrete In which the One lay void, shrouded in nothingness." But Dr. Muir's literal translation gives a better notion of the original : " There was then neither nonentity nor entity ; there was no atmosphere nor sky above. What enveloped (all) ? Where, in the receptacle of what (was it contained) ? Was it water, the profound abyss ? Death was not then, nor immortality ; there was no distinction of day or night. That One breathed calmly, self-supported ; there was nothing different from, or above it. In the beginning darkness existed, enveloped in Darkness. All this was un- distinguishable water. That One which lay void, and wrapped in nothing- ness, was developed by the power of fervour. . . . Who knows, who here can declare, whence has sprung, whence, this creation ? The gods are subsequent to the development of this (universe) ; who then knows whence it arose ? From what this creation arose, and whether (any one) made it or not, — he who in the highest heaven is its ruler, he verily knows, or (even) he does not know." From this we see that man in the ancient Vedic times had progressed almost, if not quite, as far in speculation as to the origin of things as the latest and mostjadvanced of men, and with as little definite result. Leaving aside Aditi, apparently a personification of universal Nature or Being, the mother of the gods (Adityas), and capable of setting people free from sin, but confessedly a difficult personification to explain, Mitra and we pass to consider the characters of Mitra and Varuna, sons var1"^- of Aditi, frequently associated, and often interpretable as day and night. Varuna is sometimes represented as visible ; and the two deities are said to mount on a car drawn by horses, and soar to the highest empyrean, and behold all things in heaven and earth. Sometimes the sun is called fcbfl iSo THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. eye of Mitra and Vanma ; and both jointly and separately they are termed king of all and universal monarch. Yaruna has attributes like those of the Greek Ouranos, Latinised as Uranus. He made the sun to shine ; the wind is his breath ; river courses are hollowed out by his command, and the rivers pour their water into the one ocean but never fill it. He knows the flight of birds in the sky, the path of ships on the ocean, the course of the far-travelling wind, and beholds all the sacred things that have been or shall be done. He beholds as if he were close at hand. Whatever two persons sitting together, devise, "Varuna the king knows it, as a third. He has unlimited control of men, and is said to have a thousand remedies; hence he is besought to show his deep and wide benevolence, and drive away evil and sin. Muir's verse translation, almost literal, is so attractive that it demands quotation. " The mighty Lord on high, our deeds as if at hand, espies ; The gods know all men do, though men would fain their deeds disguise. Whoever stands, whoever moves, or steals from place to place, Or hides him in his secret cell — the gods his movements trace. Wherever two together plot, and deem they are alone, King Varuna is there, a third, and all their schemes are known. This earth is his, to him belong those vast and boundless skies ; Both seas within him rest, and yet in that small pool he lies. Whoever far beyond the sky should think his way to wing, He could not there elude the grasp of Varuna the King. His spies descending from the skies glide all the world around, Their thousand eyes all-scanning sweep to earth's remotest bound. Whate'er exists in heaven and earth, whate'er beyond the skies, Before the eyes of Varuna, the King, unfolded lies. The ceaseless winkings all he counts of every mortal's eyes ; He wields this universal frame, as gamester throws his dice. Those knotted nooses which thou fling'st, 0 God, the bad to snare All liars Let them overtake, but all the truthful spare." In this and in many other passages Varuna appears as a moral Being of high elevation. His forgiveness is implored by the Rishi or sacred bard; and it is urged that wine, anger, dice, or thoughtlessness have led him astray. Very much the same attributes are ascribed to Mitra and Varuna together as to the latter alone. It will be seen later how closely the Zoroastrian Mithra resembles the Indian Mitra ; and there cannot be much INDBA (FKOSI A NATIVE PICTURE THE EARLY VED1C RELIGION. 1S1 doubt that this conception of the Deity existed previous to the separation of the Indian from the Iranian (Persian) branch. Later, Varuna became specially associated with the rule over water, and was solicited to send flood and rain from the slry. Indra and Agni, at first less important than the foregoing, later grow in importance : they were born of parents, and have various striking qualities, and there are many features of personal description given. Indra, god of the clear sky, is handsome, ruddy or golden- g0d of the haired, with long arms, but has endless forms which he can clej£ylue assume at will. He rides on a shining golden car drawn by two golden horses, which move more swiftly than thought ; he has a thunderbolt and other weapons, and is exhilarated by the libations of soma offered by his worshippers. In many passages the known ef- fects of this favourite intoxicant were sup- posed to be felt by the gods. One of Indra's especial functions is to encounter and vanquish the hostile demons of drought. As Muir says, the growth of these ideas is perfectly natural and intelligible to those who have wit- nessed the phenomena of the seasons in India. I Indra is thus at once a terrible warrior and a gracious friend, a god whose shafts deal de- struction to nis enemies AGNI (FB0M MOor's '"hindu panthbon"). while they bring de- liverance and prosperity to his worshippers. The phenomena of thunder and lightning almost inevitably suggest the idea of a conflict between opposing forces ; even we ourselves often speak of the war or strife of the elements. The worshipper would at one time transform the fantastic shapes of the clouds into the chariots and horses of his god, and at another time would seem to perceive in their piled-up masses the cities and castles which he was advancing to overthrow." Frequently Indra is saluted as the god most powerful over the external world, " the most adorable of the adorable, the caster down of the unshaken, the most distinguished of living things." His worshippers are enjoined to have faith in him, and Ins power is asserted against denials of scepticism. He has a love for mortals, and is the helper of all men, a wall of defence and a deliverer, hearing and ,82 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. answering prayers. He is supposed to be capable of bestowing all kinds of temporal benefits, and in fact arbitrarily to control the destinies of men. Yet the simplicity of the worshipper is sometimes shown by prayers that the god will prove his prowess, and statements that "little has been beard of as done upon earth by one such as thou art." Indra is especially the champion and guardian of the Aryan Hindus against the darker races whom they subjected. It appears almost as if the conception of Indra expanded with the advance of the Aryans over India, while that of Varuna declined, who is more directly related to the early common Aryan belief before India was reached, and which appears also in the Zoroastrian Ormuzd and the Greek Ouranos. Another view regards Dyaus as the god whom Indra threw into the shade ; answering to the difference between the time when in the more elevated and mountainous regions of Central Asia, the brilliant radiance of heaven was the holiest and most desirable thing, and the later time, in India, when the rainy sky was most longed for, ami its representation as Indra became most popular. Passing by Parjanya, the thundering rain god, and Vayu, the wind, as less important deities, we find the Maruts, Rudras, or storm gods, many The Maruts *n numDei\ often associated with Indra and with Agni. Some or storm- extracts from one of the hymns addressed to them will give a better idea of the conceptions attached to them than a description. " They shake with their strength all beings, even the strongest, on earth and in heaven. . . . They who confer power, the roarers, the devourers of foes, they made winds and lightnings by their powers. The shakers milk the heavenly udders (clouds), roaming around they fill the earth with milk (rain). . . . Mighty you are, powerful, of wonderful splendour, firmly rooted like mountains, (yet) lightly gliding along ; — you chew up forests like elephants. . . . Give, 0 Maruts, to the worshippers strength glorious, invincible in battle, brilliant, wealth-conferring, praise- worthy, known to all men. Let us foster our kith and kin during a Imndred winters." (M. M.) The gods personifying the Sun, under different phases, are Surya and Savilri, who are praised and described in the Veda with appropriate epithets; The sun- ^ey are drawn m cars by numerous horses, preserve all things, gods surya liable men to perform their work, and see all things, both the and Savitri. , , , 1 r. ' & ' good and the bad deeds of mortals. Surya is sometimes said to be dependent on Indra, who causes him to shine and prepares his path. Pushan Pushan 18 anotner so^ar deity, a guide on roads and journeys, a protector and multiplier of cattle and of human possessions generally. A hymn addressed to him runs thus: "Conduct us, Pushan, over our road; remove distross, son of the deliverer ; go on before us. Smite away from our path the destructive and injurious wolf which seeks after us. Drive away from our path the waylayer, the thief, the robber. . . . 0 god who liringest all blessings and art distinguished by thy golden spear, make weaU 1 1 easy of acquisition. Convey us past our opponents ; make our paths easy to traverse; gain strength for us here." Another hymn more em- THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 183 phatically prays the god for personal favours : " Bring to us wealth suitable for men, and a manly suitable householder who shall bestow on us gifts. Impel to liberality, 0 glowing Pushan, even the man who would fain bestow nothing; soften the soul even of the niggard. Open up paths by which we may obtain food ; slay our enemies ; let our designs succeed, U glorious god." With him is sometimes associated Soma, and the two are celebrated together as the generators of wealth and preservers of the world. Soma, the god animating the exhilarating juice of the soma plant, probably a species of Asclepias, seems to represent Dionysus or Bacchus among the early Indian gods. The whole of the hymns, 114 in number, of the ninth book of the K,ig-Veda are dedicated to him. Indian Prof. "Whitney says of him : " The simple-minded Aryan people ^jJJJJ^J' had no sooner perceived that under the influence of this liquid the individual was prompted to and capable of deeds beyond his natural powers, than they found in it something divine ; the plant which afforded it became to them the king of plants ; the process of preparing it was a holy sacrifice ; the instruments used therefore were sacred." The worship of Soma was very ancient, as it is mentioned in the Zend-avesta. To Soma are attributed almost all divine power and honours, especially in reference to his influence on the other gods and on his human votaries ; but his worship declined and almost wholly passed away with the early Vedic worship. Ushas, the goddess of dawn, has many of the most beautiful hymns addressed to her. She is described as restoring consciousness, smiling like a flatterer, awakening all creatures to cheerfulness, rousing into Usliag tne motion every living thing, born again and again, revealing the dawn ends of the sky. " Blessed Ushas," says the worshipper, " thou who, animated by strength, shinest forth with wonderful riches, may I obtain that renowned and solid wealth which consists in stout sons, numerous slaves, and horses." (M.) Ushas is most usually described as the daughter of the sky, and is said to have the sun for her lover. The name Ushas (Ushasa) is identical with the Greek 'Hoo9 (-Eo?) and the Latin Aurora ( = Ausosa). Agni, the god of fire (the Roman Ignis, the Slavonian Ogni), is a most prominent deity, being only paralleled, in the number of hymns addressei 1 to him, by Indra. His characteristics aptly portray the wonder A&nl( tne with which our forefathers viewed fire. Agni is an immortal £°d of fire- and messenger from and to the gods, who has taken up his abode with man. He is both sage and sacrificer, supreme director of religious ceremonies and duties. " 0 Agni, thou from whom, as a newborn male, undying flames proceed, the brilliant smoke goes towards the sky, for as messenger thou art sent to the gods : thou whose power spreads over the earth in a moment, when thou hast grasped food with thy jaws, — like a dashing army thy blast goes forth ; with thy lambent flame thou seemest to tear up the grass. Him alone, the ever youthful Agni, men groom like a horse in the evening and at dawn ; they bed him as a stranger in his couch." (M. M.) The world and the heavens are made manifest at his appearance, after having been iS4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. swallowed up in darkness. He is all-devouring, has a burning head, is thousand-eyed and thousand-horned ; his flames roar like the waves of the 89a he sounds like thunder, and roars like the wind. He is described as having the highest divine functions of all kinds, and his votaries prosper and live Long. He protects and blesses the worshipper who sweats to bring him fuel, or wearies his head to serve him. Prayers were made to him for all kinds of blessings, and for forgiveness for any sin committed through folly. The same simple familiarity in speaking to the gods which we have noticed before is seen in such an address as this : "If, Agni, thou wert a mortal, and I were an immortal, I would not abandon thee to wrong or to penury. My worshipper should not be poor, nor distressed, nor miserable." That there was also an association of Agni with a future may be gathered from the following paraphrase. (M. W.) " Deliver, mighty lord, thy worshippers, Purge us from taint of sin, and when we die, Deal mercifully with us on the pyre, Burning our bodies with their load of guilt, But hearing our eternal part on high To luminous abodes and realms of bliss, For ever there to dwell with righteous men." Tvashtar is the artisan and skilful con- triver, and in many ways answers to He- phaistos and Vulcan. He sharpens the iron axe of Brahmanaspati and forges the thunderbolts of Indra. All kinds of created powers are attributed to him. The Asvins are the earliest bringers of light in the morning sky, be- fore the dawn, and are often con- nected withSurya; they were enthusiastically worshipped and praised, being hailed as chasers away of darkness, and described as the guardians of the slow and hindmost, as physicians restoring the lame, blind, and sick, as placing the productive germ in all creatures, and as capable of renewing the youth of all. Consequently they were supplicated for varied blessings, and were begged to overwhelm and destroy the niggard who offered no oblations. It is thought by good author- it us thai these gods represent deified mortals who were at the same time swift in their movements and appeared to possess remarkable healing powers. A somewhat later god than these is variously known as Brihaspati and Brahmanaspati, and personifies the worshipper, represented by the priest Brahmanas- and sacrificer interceding with the gods, thus showing a distinct patL advance in moral ideas. The word Brahman is one of the most difficult in all Sanskrit, having been very diversely derived and explained ; but while in its highest use it came to denote the objective Self or Cause Tvashtar. The Asvins. BRAHMA (FROM A NATIVE PICTURE). THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. ,85 Vishnu. of the universe, it may have originally represented the impulse and striving towards the gods, then every sacred word, formula, ceremony, or act, and finally the priest. Brahmanaspati is represented as the god of prayer, aiding Indra in conquering the cloud demon, and in some instances appear- ing to be identified with Agni. He is the offspring of the two worlds (Heaven and Earth), and is the inspirer of praj^er, and by prayer ac- complishes his designs ; he mounts the chariot of the ceremonial and proceeds to conquer the enemies of prayer and of the gods. He is the guide and protector of the pious, whom he saves from calamities and blesses with wealth. Vishnu is a god comparatively little mentioned in the Rig-Veda, but attaining great importance later. He is most characterised of old by the three steps by which he strode over the world ; by his threefold existence as fire on earth, as lightning in the atmosphere, and as the sun in the sky ; or as the sun in his three positions of rising, culmination, and setting. Triple power and functions are variously asserted of him, and he is said to assist other gods. Only sometimes is he adored independently, as thus : " Our hymns and praises have proceeded to Vishnu, the worker of many wonders : he is the wide-stepping, the exalted, whose primeval, creative wives are indefatig- able." Often he is closely associated with Indra. How different a position he after- wards assumes we shall see later on. Most of the goddesses mentioned in the Veda we must omit reference to, as they are of less importance. It is in the later portions, the ninth and tenth books, of the Rig-Veda, that ™^ (™0M A NATIVE "cxorb). we find a marked reference to the ideas of immortality and a future life, although they are hot entirely wanting previously, as in passages Yama and a where mortals are said to have attained immortality, or to have future life, gone to the go Is, who prolong their lives. Sometimes, too, the souls of ancestors, the fathers existing with the gods, are invoked. These ideas are in the later books especially connected with Yama, the divine ruler of the spirits of the dead, by some supposed to represent the first man, and having a twin sister, Yami (Max Midler dissents from this view). Sir Monier Williams thus represents Yama in verse : — " To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid. He was the first of men that died, the first to brave Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. Tso power can rob us of the home thus won by thee. yu 1 AX ft P** ° "i^WlK 'TO 6 / a 5 !S6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. < > king, we come ; the born must die, must tread the path That thou hast trod — the path by which each race of men, In long succession, and our fathers, too, have passed. Soul of the dead ! depart ; fear not to take the road — The ancient road — by which thy ancestors have gone ; Ascend to meet the god — to meet thy happy fathers, AYho dwell in bliss with him. Fear not to pass the guards — The four-eyed brindled dogs — that watch for the departed. Return unto thy home, O soul ! Thy sin and shame Leave thou behind on earth ; assume a shining form — Thy ancient shape — refined and from all taint set free." The two four-eyed dogs are of interest in comparison with Cerberus, the dog of Tartarus. Yama is not represented in the Rig-Veda, though he is in the later mythology, as having anything to do with the future punishment of the wicked. His dogs are said to wander about among men as his messengers, and to guard the road to his abode ; the dead are advised to hurry past them with all speed. "When the remains of the dead one have been placed upon the funeral pile, Agni, the god of fire, is besought not to scorch or consume him, but to convey him to the fathers as an offering. " Let his eye go to the sun, his breath to the wind. Go to the sky and to earth, according to nature ; or go to the waters, if that is suitable for thee. As for his unborn part), do thou (Agni) kindle it with thy heat ; with those forms of thine which are auspicious convey it to the world of the righteous." The spirit is then imagined to enter upon a more perfect life in which all desires are fulfilled ; occupation will also be found in fulfilling the pleasure of the gods. It must not be supposed that in a time when even the gods are represented as marrying and indulging in soma, the heaven of the departed would be idealised. The following passage will give an idea of the virtues for which heaven was given : " Let him depart to those who through rigorous „ abstraction are invincible. Let him depart to the combatants Virtues ... ... rewarded by m battles, to the heroes who have there sacrificed their lives, or to those who have bestowed thousands of largesses. Let him depart, Yama, to those austere ancient fathers who have preached and promoted sacred rites." These fathers are in some hymns held up as objects of admiration to their descendants ; their descendants supplicate their good will, deprecate their wrath, and pray for their protection. They are asked to give them wealth, long life, and offspring. The}' are supposed to rejoice in libations and sacrificial food, and to come in thousands to the sacrifices. As to future punishment, Indra is in the tenth book of the Eig-Veda prayed to consign to the lower darkness the man who injures his worshipper ; Future but it is not always certain that this lower darkness signifies a punishment. ]j]ace 0f punishment. In the ninth book Soma is said to hurl the hated and irreligious into the abyss ; but references to future punishment are confessedly vague and indistinct in the Rig-Veda. I Mie of the finest of the hymns of the Rig-Veda is the 121st in the tenth 1 k, thus translated by Max Midler :— THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 1S7 "In the beginning there arose the Source of golden light — He was the only born Lord of all that is. He established the earth, and the sky ; — Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice ? (This last clause is repeated after each verse.) "He who gives life, He who gives strength; whose blessing all the bright gods desire ; whose shadow is immortality ; whose shadow is death. "He who through His power is the only King of the breathing ami awakening world ; He who governs all, man and beast. " He whose power these snowy mountains, whose power the sea pro- claims, with the distant river — He whose these regions are as it were His two arms. " He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm, He through whom the heaven was established, nay the highest heaven, He who measured out the light in the air. "He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by His will, look up, trembling inwardly ; He over whom the rising sun shines forth. " Wherever the mighty water-clouds went, where they placed the seed and lit the fire, thence arose He who is the only life of the bright gods. " He who by His might looked even over the water-clouds, the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice, He who is God above all gods. " May He not destroy us, He the creator of the earth ; or He the righteous who created the heaven ; He who also created the bright and mighty waters ! " Thus we have contemplated in the earliest Vedic hymns a series of conceptions of distinct deities associated with the powers of Nature, and correspondingly named. It is only later that the idea seems to Transition to arise that these were all representations of different aspects of and one power, and sometimes this appears to proceed from a desire to pantheism, magnify the j>articular god whose praises are being specially celebrated ; later, new names were used to signify these more enlarged conceptions, such as Visvakarman and Prajapati, not limited to any particular department, but believed to be the divine powers governing the earth. Another kind of expression shows an early form of pantheism, identifying the godhead with Nature : Thus " Aditi is the sky, Aditi is the air, Aditi is the mother and father and son. Aditi is all the gods and the five classes of men. Aditi is whatever has been born. Aditi is whatever shall be born." (M. Visvakarman (at first a name of Inclra), the great architect of the universe, is in the tenth book of the Eig-Veda represented as the all-seeing god, who has on every side eyes, faces, arms, and feet, the father visva- generator, who knows all worlds, and gives the gods their names. karman- Similar attributes are in other hymns ascribed to other divine beings, such as Brahman, Prajapati, etc. ; these being probably by different authors. We see here the product of the most advanced thought among these early Aryans, including a singular variety of attempts to express the thoughts to which the great phenomena of the universe gave rise in their minds. That these conceptions should be vague and often discordant and confused, and iSS THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. should include much that is puerile, is to be expected, when we remember that the sum of human thought up to the present day is " man cannot by searching find out God." Sir Monier "Williams thus expresses his mature conclusions on some important points : " The Vedic hymns contain no allusion to the doctrine of . transmigration of souls, which is a conspicuous characteristic of Absence of . ° ' r later Hindu the Hindu creed in the later system. Nor do they afford any sanction to the prohibition of widow marriages, the encouragement of child-marriages, the iron rules of caste, and the interdiction of foreign travel. Nor is there in them any evidence that the personifications of the forces of nature were represented by images or symbols carved out of wood or stone." Animals were killed for sacrifices as well as for food, and we find no trace of the objection to eat the flesh of cows, which became so strong at a later period. The people of the Vedas appear to have inhabited the Punjab, and to have only gradually extended their power into the tracts watered by the . Jumna and Ganges. Every father of a family at first was entitled of early to act as priest in his own family, every chief in his own tribe ; but as the hymns or prayers or offerings began to grow elaborate, there was a tendency to restrict worship, especially on important occasions, to special priests, who knew the approved hymns or the prayers which had been believed to be successful. In time it became a part of the chief's credit to retain about him favourite or noted priests, and their offices, like those of the chiefs, tended to become hereditary. Great gifts were lavished upon the priests by the kings, and many of the Vedic hymns commend this practice. Some of the hymns themselves were composed by kings ; and the Bishis gradually asserted themselves so far as to claim superior rank to the temporal rulers, and erect themselves into a distinct caste of Brahmans ; this position was not, however, acquired without a struggle. Special families were dis- tinguished by symbols, such as the number and arrangement of their locks of hair, or their being shaven in peculiar ways. As to morals under this regime, it appears that one wife was the rule, while a plurality was tolerated ; women might marry a second time, and Morals aPPear to have had some freedom of choice. Immorality was by no means unknown, and Indra is said to have declared that " the mind of a woman was ungovernable, and her temper fickle." Untruth was con- demned, and the gods were said to punish lying ; thieves and robbers are mentioned as infesting the highways or stealing secretly. Liberality and fidelity were held in high esteem. How forcible is the contrast between the beneficence and the bright- ness, the helpfulness and the kindliness of the gods, as imagined by the earlier Aryans, and the severity, the ruthlessness, the cruelty, afterwards iated with Hindu gods. Direct access to the gods, direct benefits in return for prayer and offerings; intensity of prayer and meditation, fervency oi petition, inevitably securing blessing, these are cardinal features of the early Hindu religion. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 189 The Sama-Veda, and the Yajur-Veda are smaller collections formed mainly out of the Rig- Veda, but considerably modified; the former in verse, relating to the Soma offering, the latter in prose, relating to the The other other sacrifices. The Yajur-Veda belongs to a period when the vedas. Aryans had progressed into Eastern India, and when the Brahmans had acquired supremacy. The fourth great Vedic collection, the Atharva-Veda, belongs to a still later period, probably that of the Brahmanas, and contains the hymns and services then in use, modified or developed from the Vedic time. They exhibit a growth of belief in evil powers, and contain a series of formulas designed to protect against these, and against diseases and noxious animals and plants, together with cursings of enemies, and magic verses about all kinds of daily events, designed to counteract unfavourable events. This Veda contains a great number of words used by the people. Not yet within the region of dates and relation to known persons, we come to the next great division of ancient Hindu literature, the Brahmanas, which exhibit to us a fully developed sacrificial system, and are The intended for the use of the priests or Brahmans. We find here a Brahmanas. series of prose compositions describing the connection of the sacred songs and words with the sacrificial rites. They may date from the seventh or eighth centuries b.c. We see in them, as in the case of so many priesthoods, the tendency to elaborate, to develop a ritual which could only be carried out by an hereditary caste, and which furnished a means of demanding large contributions from the votaries. The length of the Brahmanas themselves is wearisome, and is matched by their dogmatic assertion and their complex symbolism. Each of the collections of Vedic hymns has its proper Brahmanas, there being no fewer than eight Brahmanas to the Sama-Veda. Besides ceremonial directions, these Brahmanas contain numerous materials for tracing the growth of Hindu religious ideas. In one story of a Human king who had no son, after extolling the benefits that a son sacrifice- brings, the king offers, if a son be born to him, to sacrifice him to Varuna. When the son was born and was told of his destiny, he refused, and left his father's home. Disappointed of his victim, Varuna afflicted the father with dropsy. The son wandering for years in the forest, at last found a Brahman hermit in distress, whose second son voluntarily offered to be sold in order that he might be sacrificed instead of the king's son. Finally the substitute, by the virtue of Vedic prayers, was released from sacrifice. Another narra- tive describes how the gods killed a man for their victim, and the Animal part of him fit for sacrifice entered successively into a horse, an sacnflce- ox, a sheep, and a goat, which were all sacrificed in turn. The sacrificial element remained longest in the goat, which thus became specially fit for sacrifice. Here we may see how an introduced human sacrifice may have been replaced by animal sacrifice. In the Satapatha-Brahmana, perhaps the most interesting of all these books, there is found an early tradition of a flood. Manu, a holy Tradition of man, was warned by a fish that a flood would sweep away all crea- a fl00d- tures, but he would rescue him. He was directed to build a ship and enter I90 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. it when the flood rose ; he did so, and fastened the fish to the ship, and was drawn by it beyond the northern mountains. When the flood subsided Mann was the only man left ; a daughter was mysteriously born to him by virtue of religious rites, and ultimately the world was peopled with the sons of Mann. In later times it was said that the fish was an incarnation of Brahma, who assumed that form in order to preserve Mann. The doctrine of immortality is more definitely presented in the same Brahmana than in the Vedic hymns. The gods had by toilsome religious rites become immortal. Death complained to the gods that men immortality. w^1(1 follow tlieir example. The gods enacted that no being should thenceforward become immortal in his own body, but should first present his body to Death. A remarkable passage shows that the ancient Brahmans had a very advanced conception about the sun : " The sun never sets nor rises. When idea of the people think to themselves the sun is setting, he only changes sun's course. abovit after reaching the end of the day, and makes night below and day to what is on the other side. Then when people think he rises in the. morning, he only shifts himself about after reaching the end of the night, and makes day below, and night to what is on the other side. In fact he never does set at all." There seems little doubt that the origin and establishment of the caste system was largely due to the successful assertion by the Brahmans of their / origin of superior rank, combined with the growth of a class of cultivators caste. distinct from the warriors who at first were the great majority of the people. By this time the conquering Aryans had spread themselves over the basin of the Jumna and Ganges, and the Brahmans found it necessary and advantageous to show that they had a more noble, powerful, and important religion than the aborigines whom they conquered. Con- seif-assertionse(luently we meet with such assertions as the following : " Verily of Brahmans..^ g0(Js do not eat the food offered by the king who is without a purohita (family priest)." In the Atharva-Veda, " May perfect, unceasing and victorious power accrue to those whose purohita I am. I perfect their kingdom, their might, their vigour, their strength. With this oblation I cut off the arms of their enemies." This development was accompanied with the development of ceremonial to such an extent that several classes of priests were required. It is exceedingly difficult, without entering into great detail, to give an idea of the contents of the Brahmanas. Assuming the older ceremonials to Nature of the t>e known, they comment upon every detail supposed to require Brahmanas. explanation, discuss the meaning of particular verses or even of the metres used, and furnish explanations of the origin of the sacrifices, frequently consisting of legends and myths, often told very diffusely. A few extracts, somewhat abbreviated, from Mr. Eggeling's translation of parts of the Satapatha-Brahmana may give some notion of their contents. Every Brahmanical householder, from the period of setting up a house- hold fire of his own, was enjoined to perform two monthly sacrifices, one at THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 191 new the other at full moon, each lasting two days. The first was a fast day, in which the fire-places were swept and trimmed, and the fires Household lighted, and the Brahman and his wife took the vow to abstain sacrifices, from meat and some other foods, to cut off the beard and hair, except the crest-lock ; to sleep on the ground in one of the chief fire-houses ; and to observe silence. " He who is about to enter on the vow touches water, while standing between the (sacrificial) fires, with his face turned towards the east. The reason why he touches water is, that man is (sacrificially) impure on account of his speaking untruth, — and because by that act an internal purification is effected, for water is indeed (sacrificially) pure. . . . Looking towards the fire, he enters on the vow, with the text, '0 Agni, Lord of Vows! I will keep the vow! May I be equal to it, may I succeed in it ! ' For Agni is Lord of Vows to the gods, and it is to him therefore that he addresses these words." As to the fasting, it is contended that the essence of the vow consists in fasting; for the gods see through the mind of man, and when he takes the vow they know that he means to sacrifice to them next morning, and betake themselves to his house. It would then be unbecoming in him to take food before they have eaten, and he may only eat what is not offered in sacrifice, which must be only what grows in the forest. Every night and morning a burnt-offering of fresh milk had to be made to Agni, and on the morning of the sacrificial day, the householder chose his Brahman or superintending priest, an official who now becomes pro- minent— this class having indeed been no doubt the originator of the modern Brahmans. Then follows a most complex series of directions and explanations as to the various offerings. Equally elaborate are the directions given for the ceremony of establish- ing sacrificial fires by a young householder. Four officiators were required besides the sacrificer ; they erected two sheds or fire-houses by Estabiish- strict rules, and the fire was to be produced afresh by friction, ^cer^Ci^i or from certain definite sources, and placed upon the carefully fires, purified fire-place. Towards sunset the sacrificer invoked the gods and ancestors thus : " Gods, fathers, fathers, gods ! I sacrifice, being whom I am ; neither will I exclude him whose I am ; mine own shall be the offering, mine own the toiling, mine own the sacrifice ! " He and his wife then entered the respective houses, and received with various ceremonies two pieces of wood specially prepared for reproducing the sacred fire the next morning. The offerings which followed were chiefly of rice and clarified butter. Later the sacrificer, having honoured the priests by washing their feet and giving them perfumes, etc., and given to each his share, invited them to eat. The Soma ceremony, according to the Brahmanas, is still more developed ; but it is quite impossible to compress an account of it into a short sr ace. The Vedas and the Brahmanas in time proved insufficient for securing the hold of the priestly class on the people. The next great x^e group of compositions were the Upanishads or mystical doctrine, upamshads. Some of these are contained in a class of writings supplementary to the 192 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Brahmanas, known as the Aranyakas, or forest-books, intended for those Brahmans who, after having performed all the duties of a student and a householder, retired to the forest to spend their remaining days in con- templation. The word Upanishad is said by native authorities to mean " to set ignorance at rest by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit " ; its real etymological meaning is a session, especially of pupils round a teacher. These books consequently became the most important Vedic treatises for learned Hindus. Max Miiller considers that although the Upanishads are later than the Brahmanas, their germs already existed in BBAHIIA, VISHNU, AND SIVA, FROM THE ELLORA CAVES. the Rig- Veda ; and the earliest of them, he says, will always maintain a place in the literature of the world among the most astounding pro- ductions of the human mind in any age and in any country. The Khandogya Upanishad, which continues the succession of the Sama-Veda, is one of the most important Hindu philosophical books. It The synabie begins by the astonishing advice (to the Western mind), " Let a 0m- man meditate," or as some translate it, " Let a man ' worship ' the syllable Om." The real meaning is, first, that by prolonged repetition of the syllable, the thoughts should be drawn away from all other subjects and concentrated on the subjects of which that syllable was the symbol. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. *93 It was the beginning of the Veda, and the essence of it, the symbol of all speech and all life. Om therefore represented man's physical and mental powers, and especially the spirit or living principle, and this is identified later with the spirit in the sun or in nature ; and the beginning of this Upanishad teaches that no sacrifices, however perfectly performed, can | secure salvation, while meditation on Om alone, or what is meant by it, will secure salvation or immortality. Finally the discussion reaches the highest philosophical subjects. The declaration that the origin of the world is ether, " for all beings take their The origln of rise from the ether, and return into the the worm in ether ; ether is older than these, ether is their rest," has a striking significance when com- pared with the sentiments and speculations of philosophers at the British Association in 1888. But there is a further elevation of the ether, which includes more than the physical, for after defining Brahman as the immortal with three feet in heaven, the Upanishad says : " The Brahman is the same as the ether which is around us ; and the ether which is around us is the same as the ether which is within us. And the ether which is within, that is the ether within the heart. That ether in the heart is omnipresent and unchanging. He who knows this obtains omnipresent and unchangeable happiness." (M. M.) The highest doctrine of the Upanishad, accord- ing to Max Midler, is that the human Brahman recognised his own Self or "Atman" as The Atman a mere limited reflection of the Highest or seif- Self, and aimed at knowing his own Self in the Highest Self, which may be identified with the Divine Being, the Absolute, of "Western philo- sophers. Through that knowledge he was to re- turn to the Highest One and to regain his identity with it. " Here to know was to be, to know the Atman was to be the Atman, and the reward of that highest knowledge after death was freedom from new births, or immortality." This Atman was also the source of all visible existence, identical with the Brahman and the Sal, the true and real, which exists in the beginning and for ever, and gives rise to every kind of existence. Although there is much associated with tins philosophy that seems trivial or fanciful, it contains the essence of pan- theism ; modern philosophers find it hard to advance really further than the ancient Hindus. There are many references to the sacrifices and to par- ticular gods, and it is said that he who knows or meditates on the sacrifices as enjoined, has his reward in different worlds with the gods for certain J FIGURE OF IIINJ'0 PBAYING. (From Temple at Madura.) 1 94 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. periods of time, till at last he reaches the true Brahman. In this state he neither rises nor sets, he is alone, standing in the centre ; to him who thus knows this doctrine " the sun does not rise and does not set. For him there is day, once and for all." The meditation on the five senses is one of the most striking ; but the one which follows must be quoted as expressing one of the essential exposi- tions of Brahman philosophy. "All this is Brahman. Let a man meditate on that (visible world) as beginning, ending, and breathing in it (the Brahman). " Now man is a creature of will. According to what his will is in this world, so will he be when he has departed this life. Let him therefore have this will and belief. " The intelligent, whose body is spirit, whose form is light, whose thoughts are true, whose nature is like ether (omnipresent and invisible), from whom all works, all desires, all sweet odours and tastes proceed ; he who embraces all this, who never speaks, and is never surprised, — " He is my self within the heart, smaller than a corn of rice, smaller than a corn of barley, smaller than a mustard seed, smaller than a canary seed, or the kernel of a canary seed. He also is my self within the heart, greater than heaven, greater than all these worlds. " He from whom all works, all desires, all sweet odours and tastes pro- ceed, who embraces all this, who never speaks and who is never surprised, he, my self within the heart, is that Brahman. When I shall have departed from hence, I shall obtain him (that Self)." (M. M.) In the Talavakara Upanishad occurs the following notable passage : ;' That which is not expressed by speech and by which speech is expressed, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore: That which does not think by mind, and by which, they say, mind is thought : That which does not see by the eye, and by which one sees the eyes : That which does not hear by the ear, and by which the ear is heard : That which does not breathe by breath, and by which breath is drawn, that alone know as Brahman, not that which people here adore." (M. M.) This Upanishad is asserted to rest on penance, restraint, and sacrifice ; " the Vedas are its limbs, the True is its abode. He who knows this Upanishad, and has shaken off all evil, stands in the endless unconquerable world of heaven." The Svetasvatara contains a more fully developed doctrine, although it at times identifies the Brahman or highest self with several of the lower ■me svetas- divinities. It teaches the unity of souls in the one and only lra- self; the unreality of the world as a series of figments of the mind, as phenomenal only. There is no evolution of the Brahman ; he is absolute and does not directly create. He deputes that office to Isvara or Deva, the Lord, Brahman under the semblance of a personal creating and governing god. It is interesting to compare the pantheism of this Upanishad with previous expressions. Thus " I know that great Person of sunlike lustre THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION. 195 beyond the darkness. A man who knows him truly, passes over death ; there is no other path to go. This whole universe is filled by this Person, to whom there is nothing superior, from whom there is nothing different, than whom there is nothing smaller or larger, who stands alone, fixed like a tree in the sk}\ That which is bejrond this world is without form and without suffering. They who know it, become immortal, but others suffer pain indeed. ... Its hands and feet are everywhere, its eyes and head are everywhere, its ears are everywhere, it stands encompassing all in the world. Separate from all the senses, yet reflecting the qualities of all the senses, and it is the lord and ruler of all, it is the great refuge of all." (M.M.) Certain of the narratives incidentally introduced into the Upanishads show a still further development of what is dimly visible in the Rig- Veda, and still more clearly expressed in the Brahmanas, namely, a struggle between the good or bright gods (devas) and the evil spirits. In one of these Indra, as chief of the devas, and Virokana, chief of the evil spirits, are represented as seeking instruction of Prajapati, as a supreme god. Prajapati said, " The self whrch is free from sin, free from old age, from death and grief, from hunger and thirst, which desires nothing but what it ought to desire, and imagines nothing but what it ought to imagine, that it is which we must search out, that it is which we must try to understand." (M. M.) The two seekers desire to realise that self, and are led on by successive stages of illusion, Virokana being easily satisfied with the idea that the body is the self ; but Indra persists in inquiries, and finally learns that the real self is the knower or seer as distinct from the mind or the eye as instruments. Another Upanishad introduces in full expression the doctrine of trans- migration. The immortality of the Self is taught, and that after death some are born again as living beings, some enter into stocks and Transmigra- stones. " He, the highest Person, who wakes in us while we aretion of souls- asleep, shaping one lovely sight after another, he indeed is called the Bright, he is called Brahman. . . . There is one eternal thinker, thinking non- eternal thoughts ; he, though one, fulfils the desires of many. The wise who perceive him within their Self, to them belongs eternal peace. . . . He, the Brahman, cannot be reached by speech, by mind, or by the eye. He cannot be apprehended, except by him who says : He is. "When all desires that dwell in the heart cease, then the mortal becomes Immortal, and obtains Brahman." Max Miiller sums up the purpose of the Upanishads as being " to show the utter uselessness, nay the mischievousness of all ritual performances ; to condemn every sacrificial act which has for its motive a desire Purpose of or hope of reward ; to deny, if not the existence, at least the t^e exceptional and exalted character of the devas, and to teach that there is no hope of salvation and deliverance, except by the individual self recognising the true and universal Self, and finding rest there, where alone rest can be found." WORSHIPPING THE GANGES. CHAPTER II. CI)e Sra&inanfcm of ti)e Cofcrs. The Sutras— Rationalist philosophers— The six Shastras— Common tenets— How to attain emancipa- tion—The banefulness of activity— The Sankhya philosophy — The Yoga philosophy— Early rituals — Gautama's institutes— Rites of purification— The four orders of Brahmans —The ascetic — The hermit— The householder's duties— Kings— When the Veda is not to be recited— Various restric- tions—The duty of women— Outcasts— Penances and penalties- The laws of Manu— Date— Alleged origin— Self-repression inculcated— Study of the Veda a privilege— The gods in Manu— New births and hells— Duties of the four castes— Lofty claims of the Brahmans— The four periods of life— The student— Some liberal sentiments— The householder — The chief daily rites— Sacrifices for the dead— Position of women— Gifts— Spiritual merit— The hermit in the forest— The mendi- cant ascetic— The duties of a king— The Brahman's superiority— Crimes— Punishments and pen- ances—Falsehood excused— Caste— Growth of mixed castes— Transmigration of souls— Efficacy of the code— Code of Yajnavalkya. THE very mass of the Vedic sacred literature became its bane. No one could learn it all and understand it all. There arose a need for con- densed statements of the revealed truth and the laws of ceremonial, and The Sutras we nave these in the form of Sutras, or collections of aphorisms tersely giving the most needful information ; and these were com- posed by different authors for different Brahmanical families, and are exceed- ingly numerous. They are based upon the Vedas and the subsequent Brahmanas, and exhibit many of the peculiarities of the Vedic language. They give us for the first time a full account of the castes, composed at a time contemporaneous with the rise and spread of Buddhism. During the same period, probably about 500 B.C., there arose, contem- i% THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 197 porary with Buddha, a number of rationalist philosophers, who, while accept- ing the authority of the Vedas and the supremacy of the Brah- Rationalist mans, speculated freely on questions of philosophy and the moral philosophers, government of the universe. Finally these were arranged in six main systems of teaching, sometimes called the six Shastras. Which t^ six of these is the earlier cannot yet be considered settled. But a Shastras. great deal is common to most of the systems, and is still held by the majority of educated Hindus. Such articles of common belief are : the common eternity of the soul, both the supreme soul or Brahman and the tenets, individual soul or Atman ; the eternity of matter, or that substance out of which the universe is evolved ; that the soul can only exercise thought and will when invested with some bodily form and joined to mind, and has in successive ages become manifest as Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, etc., and in the form of men ; that the union of the soul with the body is a bondage, and in the case of men produces misery ; that consequences inevitably follow acts, whether good or bad, and these are partly suffered in heaven or hell, and partly have to be worked out through continual transmigrations of the soul in varied animal, material, or higher forms ; that this transmigration is the explanation of all evil, but the soul bears the consequences of its own acts only, though these may have taken place in an inconceivable number of past existences, not recollected ; and finally, that the great aim of philosophy is to produce indifference in thought, feeling and action, and to enable the individual to return to the condition of simple soul. The terseness of these Sutra philosophies may be illustrated, from the Nyaya of Gautama (a philosopher distinct from the great Buddha). Deliver- ance from the misery of repeated births is to be thus attained : Hqw " Misery, birth, activity, fault, false notions ; on the removal of attain eman- these in turn (beginning with the last), there is the removal also cip of that which precedes it ; then ensues final emancipation " (M.W.). A Hindu comment on this is as follows : " From false notions proceed partiality and prejudice ; thence come the faults of detraction, envy, delusion, intoxication, pride, avarice. Acting with a body, a person commits injury, theft, and unlawful sensualities — becomes false, harsh, and slanderous. This vicious activity produces demerit. But to do acts of charity, benevolence, and ser- vice with the body ; to be truthful, useful, agreeable in speech, or given to. repetition of the Veda ; to be kind, disinterested, and reverential — these pro- duce merit. Hence merit and demerit are fostered by activitj^. Banefuiness This activity is the cause of vile as well as honourable births. of actlvlty- Attendant on birth is pain. That comprises the feeling of distress, trouble, disease and sorrow. Emancipation is the cessation of all these. What in- telligent person will not desire emancipation from all pain ? " This system, with its supplement, the Vaiseshika, teaches the eternity of material atoms, and also of the supreme Soul and of individual souls. The Sankhya philosophy is still more positive on these points, and Tne sanknya says : " There cannot be the production of something out of no- pnuosophy. thing ; that which is not cannot be developed into that which is." It recog- I93 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. nises that there is a being or essence which evolves or produces everything else together with Souls which neither produce nor are produced, but become united with the world-evolver in varied degrees. The development of these ideas in later Hindu theology and philosophy will be referred to hereafter. The Yoga philosophy is the foundation of much of the asceticism of the Hindu. It directly acknowledges the supreme Being, and aims at teaching The Yoga the human soul to attain perfect union with the supreme Soul, philosophy. j_n it we have the fuller development of the benefits of contem- plating the syllable 0>n, the symbol of the deity. Mental concentration is facilitated by bodily restraint and postures, religious observances, suppres- sion of the breath, restraint of the senses, etc., and by these in their varied forms, the devotee is supposed to attain union with the supreme Being, even in the present life. The remaining chief systems of philosophy, the Jaimini and the Vedanta, are mainly concerned with ritual. The former may be said to have made a god of ritual, and appealed to the Veda as infallible. The Vedanta professes to be based upon the TJpanishads and their pantheism. Much of the ceremonial of the Hindus was also very early condensed in Sutra form, and every school had its own form. Several of these, preceding the celebrated laws of Manu, have come down to us. They are a ar y n u s. j_.^ ^ maimai composed by the Vedic teachers for use in their respective, schools, and only later put forward as binding on Aryans gener- Gautama's a-lty- The "Institutes of the Sacred Law," ascribed to Gautama, institutes, begins by acknowledging the Veda as the source of the sacred law, and proceeds to fix the period and mode of initiation of a Brahman, and the rites of purification after touching impure things. Here is a speci- men of these rites. " Turning his face to the east or to the north, he shall purify himself from personal defilement. Seated in a pure place, placing his right arm Rites of between his knees, arranging his dress (or his sacrificial cord) in purification, the manner required for a sacrifice to the gods, he shall, after washing his hands up to the wrist three or four times, silently, sip water that reaches his heart, twice wipe his lips, sprinkle his feet and his head, touch the cavity in the head with his right hand, and place it on the crown of his head and on his navel." Students of the Vedas had to study each for twelve years, but might restrict their study to one Veda only. After the Veda had been studied, he The four m^Snt choose which order of Brahmans he would enter ; that of orders of the student, the householder, the ascetic, or the hermit in the woods. The ascetic was required to live by alms, to restrain every desire, and maintain an attitude of indifference towards all creatures, whether The ascetic ^ey did ^im an injury or kindness. The hermit was to live in ' the forest, and subsist on roots and fruits, practising austerities. He wag to worship gods, manes (ancestor worship), men, goblins, and Eishis The hermit (S1"68,4 Vedic teachers). He must not enter a village, nor step on ploughed land ; his dress must be made of bark and skins. THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 199 For the householder, marriage and its rites are of the utmost im- portance, and full directions are given as to the choice of a wife and the ceremonies attending marriage, which vary according to the kind noUse- of marriage. The offspring of marriages with other castes give holder's rise in each case to a distinct caste. Complex domestic cere- monies are prescribed, with offerings to the deities presiding over the eight points of the horizon, at the doors of the house to the Maruts, to the deities of the dwelling inside the house, to Brahman in the centre of the house, to the Waters near the water pot, to the Ether in the air, and in the evening to the beings walking about at night. A kindly courtesy is shown in the direction that a householder before he eats shall feed his guests, infants, sick people and women, aged men, and those of low condition. A Brahman is allowed to earn his living by varied occupations in times of distress ; but he is forbidden to sell a great many specified kinds of goods. The authority of kings is upheld in Gautama's Institutes, but at the same time high privileges are demanded for Brahmans, who, if of high rank and religious character, must not be corporally punished, imprisoned, fined, exiled, or reviled. Truth-speaking and the ascertainment of truth are strongly inculcated. One of the most curious chapters in these Institutes details a multitude of circumstances in which the Veda is not to be recited ; as for instance, if the wind whirls up the dust in the daytime, or if it is audible at When th& night, if the barking of many clogs and jackals or the braying of vedaisnotto many donkeys is heard, when the reciter is riding in a carriage or on beasts of burden, in a burial ground, in the extremity of a village, when it thunders and rains, etc., etc. Equally curious are the particulars of the gifts which may be accepted from twice-born persons (i.e., pure Aryans). If the means of subsistence cannot be otherwise various obtained, it may be accepted from a Sudra (one of the slave or restrictions, subject races). A householder may not eat food into which a hair or an insect has fallen, nor what has been smelt at by a cow, nor what has been cooked twice, nor what has been given by various people of bad character performing low offices. The classes of animals that may not be eaten re- mind one of the ceremonial restrictions of Leviticus ; but in fact the principle of tabooing certain things to those who belong to a higher or select order is found in many parts of the world. The milk of sheep, camels, and entire-hoofed animals was forbidden to the Brahmans. Five- toed animals were not to be eaten, except the porcupine, the hare, the boar, the iguana, the rhinoceros, and the tortoise ; nor animals with a double row of teeth, those covered with an excess of hair, those with no hair, entire-hoofed animals, and indeed whole groups of creatures. Women were enjoined to fulfil their duty to their husbands strictly, and restrain their tongues, eyes, and actions ; yet much that Christians would revolt against is declared lawful and right for her to do. -me duty of Early betrothals are enjoined. The crimes for which a man be- women. comes an outcast are very varied, including murder and many crimes THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. against Brahmans, and association with outcasts; thus boycotting is almost as old as Brahmanism, if not older. "To be an outcast," says sts' Gautama, "means to be deprived of the right to follow the lawful occupations of twice-born men, and to be deprived after death of the rewards of meritorious deeds." Numerous and severe penances for various offences are enjoined. He who has killed a Brahman must emaciate himself and thrice throw himself Penances and mto a fire, or remaining chaste he may, during twelve years, penalties, enter the village only for the purpose of begging, carrying the foot of a bedstead and a skull in his hand, and proclaiming his deed ; thus standing by day, sitting at night, and bathing thrice a day, he may be purified in twelve years, or by saving the life of a Brahman. It is most striking how vigorously the Brahman literature maintains the sanctity and inviolability of its priests, and claims to exert throughout the life of the Aryans a minute authority scarcely paralleled by the Church of Rome. Some of the severest penalties are those inflicted for touching spirituous liquor. Thus " they shall pour hot spirituous liquor into the mouth of a Brahman who has drunk such liquor ; he will be purified after death." Severe secret penances are enjoined on those whose sins are not publicly known. It is not to be supposed that the worship of the gods is intentionally lowered by these regulations ; but the very great importance assumed by ceremonial observances and penances naturally tended to lower the dignity of the gods and raise that of the Brahmans. It is not wonderful, therefore, that Budd- hism should have arisen. THE LAWS OF MANU. We have not space to compare this lawbook with later ones which bear the names of Vasishtha, Baudhayana, and Apastamba, or to give an account of the Grihya Sutras or books specially on domestic ceremonies ; but must pass on to the celebrated Laws of Manu, a metrical version of the whole Brahmanical scheme, dating, according to some authorities, from the fifth century b.c. ; but Prof. Btihler does not consider it certain that it existed in its present form earlier than the beginning of the second century a.d., though undoubtedly it is derived from earlier versions containing substantially the same matter. It results, in fact, from the gradual transformation of the teaching of a school into a general law- book. But in process of time this book became surrounded by a multitude of fictitious legends designed to support its divine authority and secure the obedience of ali Aryans. The first chapter of Manu is an apt illustration of this, and we therefore quote a portion from Biihler's translation. " The great sages approached Manu, who was seated with a collected mind, and having duly worshipped him, spoke as follows :— Alleged ' Deign, divine one, to declare to us precisely and in due '*&*• order the sacred laws of each of the four chief castes and of the intermediate ones. 'For thou, 0 Lord, alone knowest the purport {i.e.) the rites, and the THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 201 knowledge of the soul, taught in this whole ordinance of the Self-Existent, which is unknowable and unfathomable ! " ' He who can be perceived by the internal organ alone, who is subtile, llINDou KJiLIUIoUa UBNDICAMT. indiscernible, and eternal, who contains all created beings and is incon- ceivable, shone forth of his own will. " ' He, desiring to produce beings of many kinds from his own body, first with a thought created the waters, and placed his seed in them. THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. " ' That seed became a golden egg, in brilliancy equal to the sun ; in that (egg) he himself was born as Brahman, the progenitor of the whole world.' " After a very fanciful account of the derivation of all creation and of the relations of the creator to the creatures, it is stated that the creator himself composed those Institutes and taught them to the author, Manu, who deputes Bhrigu his pupil to recite them. It appears that the introduction of the Laws of Manu as a general authority was due to the great accumulation of older works, having but a local and limited authoritiy, and to the gradual extension of the influence of a particular school of general religious and legal instruction. No doubt one factor which contributed to its wide reception was the extended description of the duties and powers of the king and of the administration of justice, and another was its general relation and suitability to all Aryans, whatever their caste. Their authority Avas clenched and upheld by their being given out as the work of Manu, the typical man, the offspring of the self-existent Brahman, and consequently of double nature, divine and human. Hence he was invoked as Lord of created beings, and even as identical with Brahman, the supreme Soul. In the Rig- Veda he is frequently termed Father Manu, and it is stated that "the five tribes" or " the races of men " are his off- spring. We have already referred to the legend in the Satapatha-brahmana in which Manu is said to have been saved from a great flood which de- stroyed all other creatures. He thus naturally represents social and moral order, and is the type of the temporal ruler, the inspired teacher and the priest combined. In many passages of the Rig- Veda his sacrifices are men- tioned, and the gods are begged to accept the offerings of the priests as they accepted those of Manu. That writing was known and in considerable use when the Laws of Manu were compiled, is evident from several passages, and also from the com- plex translations which are mentioned, which would have been impossible without writing. The number of archaic phrases and the primitive customs described show that it is based on earlier works ; and by careful study a very good idea of its development may be formed. In giving some account of the Laws of Manu an endeavour will be made to dwell principally upon their religious aspect ; but it is difficult for the Hi Western mind to realise the extent to which every detail of a religious Hindu's life and conduct is connected with and supported by his religious belief. In fact the Christian ideal, that the whole life should be religious, has long been practised by a vast number of Hindus, although the form, basis, and nature of the religions differ so widely. The assent of the heart is the inner sanction of the Hindu law, sup- ported by the authority of Manu, the Veda, the Veclic teachers, and the seif-repres- clls^oms °f holy men. The desire of rewards is declared to be sion incui. not laudable in itself, but it is recognised and utilised ; and the cated . man who discharges his prescribed duties is promised the attain- ment of the deathless state, and even in this life the realisation of all his desires. How completely the system was directed to self-repression and the THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 203 production of passivity in this life may be seen by this verse : " That man may be considered to have really subdued his organs, who, on hearing and touching and seeing, or tasting and smelling anything, neither rejoices nor repines." The privilege of being instructed in the Veda is strictly fenced in, but the limitations may be relaxed by presents of the Veda money. Even in times of dire distress, however, a Vedic teacher a p ege' was rather to die with his knowledge than sow it in barren soil. The Brahman unlearned in the Veda is stigmatised as useless, like a wooden elephant, having nothing but the name in common with his kind. The Veda is, indeed, extolled to a position which is only rivalled by those whom some have called Bibliolaters. Thus we read that the Veda is the eternal eye of the manes, gods and men, and beyond human comprehension. Everything not founded on it is founded on darkness, and produces no reward after death ; the eternal lore of the Veda upholds all created beings. He only who knows the Veda deserves royal authority, the office of a judge, the command of armies. By knowledge of the Veda the taint arising from evil acts is burnt out of the soul. A Brahman who retains the Rig-Veda in his memory is not stained by guilt, though he may have destroyed the three worlds. Study of the Upanishads is mentioned as necessary to the attainment of union with the supreme Soul. . As to the gods other than this universal Spirit or Soul, they scarcely go beyond the lists already given in the Vedic period, such as Indra, Surya, the Maruts, Yama, Varuna, Agni, etc., whose energetic action the The gods in king is to emulate ; but they appear to occupy a very moderate Manu- place in the scheme, the Supreme Spirit and the Brahmanic rites being chief. Indeed, there is a manifest leaning towards pantheism, it being frequently declared that everything proceeds from Brahma the universal Soul, and will ultimately be absorbed once more in the same. The whole philosophy is affected by the doctrine of transmigration of souls, new births in New births the same or a lower order of creation or in hells being the result and heUs- of evil conduct, and absorption in the Supreme Soul being the grand result of the greatest merit. The hells described, though terrible, are consequently only temporary. Among the torments are " being devoured by ravens and owls, the heat of scorching sand, being boiled in jars," etc. Altogether, theology is largely absent from Manu. But it must be remembered that the constant study of the Veda is everywhere inculcated. There is scarcely any reference to public worship or to temples ; and from its whole tone we see how the family was the keystone of the Brahmanic religion. The influence of the Brahmans over the domestic life of the people was pro- found and sufficient at the time when the code of Manu was composed. The original castes are stated to be four, the Brahman, the Kshatriya or warrior, the Vaisya (cultivator), and the Sudra or servant ; and (as in the tenth book of the Rig- Veda) they originated respectively from Duties of the the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of Brahma, who assigned them four castes- their separate duties. To Brahmans he assigned teaching and studying the Veda, sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, and giving and 204 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. accepting of alms; to Ksliatriyas the protection of the people, the bestowal of gifts, the ottering of sacrifices, the study of the Veda, and abstinence from sensual pleasures ; to the Vaisyas tending cattle, the bestowal of gifts, the offering of sacrifices, the study of the Veda, trading, lending money, and the cultivation of land ; to the Sudras simply to serve the other three. The Brahman caste is exalted far above the others, having sprung from the mouth of Brahma, being the first-born, the preserver of the Veda, and having the right of expounding it. " What created being can Lofty claims & & * in i , • n of the surpass him, through whose mouth the gods continually consume Brahmans. ^ sacrificial viands and the offerings to the dead ? " The most distinguished Brahman is he who fully performs his duty and knows the Brahman ; he in fact becomes one with Brahma the creator. The most ex- travagant claims of lordship over all creatures, of possession of everything, are made on his behalf. In fact, not only is everything bestowed upon him, his own already, but other mortals are stated to owe their subsistence to the benevolence of the Brahmans. In some passages of Manu a Brahman is even lifted to the rank of a divinity, whether he were ignorant or learned, and even if he were occupied in a mean occupation. A Brahman who studies Manu and faithfully performs his duties is said to be never tainted by sins of thought, word, or deed, and to sanctify any company he may enter, together with seven ancestors and seven descendants. Surely more arrogant self-assertion was never advanced and admitted than by these Brahmans. The king is warned not to provoke them to anger, for it is asserted that they could instantly destroy him and his army, by their power over all creation, and by the utterance of magic texts. Yet inconsistently enough, it is allowed that just as Ksliatriyas cannot prosper without Brahmans, so Brahmans cannot prosper without Kshatriyas. Their persons are de- clared inviolable, and the crime of threatening a Brahman with a stick will be punished in hell for a hundred j^ears, while the actual striker of a Brahman will remain in hell a thousand years. Still" more extravagant is this further threat : " As many particles of dust as the blood of a Brahman causes to coagulate, for so many thousand years shall the shedder of that blood remain in hell." This system could of course only be maintained by the receipt of heavy fees. The repetitions of the Veda, and the perform- ance of the sacrifices were made to depend upon the gifts to the officiating Brahmans. No taxes were to be paid by them ; and any king who suffered a learned Brahman to die of hunger would have his kingdom afflicted by famine, while the meritorious acts of any Brahman whom he protected would increase the king's wealth, length of life, and kingdom. Yet, if after all these injunctions, a Brahman failed to receive proper patronage and support, he might become a soldier, a cultivator, or a trader. We must give some further detail of the Brahman's life and course of study ; for although it only partially applies to the other classes of Hindus, '.The four *■* represents that ideal which they continually looked up to and rae°8dtudente' revered> anc* ^s as characteristic of Hindu religious life as that of the clergyman of the present day is of our own. We cannot THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES 205 fail to be astonished at the lengthy student period which the Brahman must go through. Studentship might last for nine, eighteen, or thirty-six years, or even for the whole of life, The most important of the numerous preliminary rites was the investiture with the sacred cord or sacrificial string, which must be of three threads of cotton, twisted to the right, and worn over the left shoulder and across the body to the right hip. The ceremony HINDU SUTTEE (SATl), OB THE SELF-IMMOLATION OF A WIDOW. commenced with taking a stafi as tall as the pupil, and worshipping the sun while standing and walking round the sacred fire, after which he begged alms and food in succession of each person present according to a fixed order. After having eaten, and purified himself with water, a series of formalities is required before the teacher begins to instruct his pupil in the Veda, the i (syllable Om being always pronounced at the beginning and end of a lesson. 206 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Once initiated, regular bathing, with libations of water to the gods, the inspired Eishis, and deceased ancestors, is required of the Brahman student, and lie must reverence the deities (explained later to mean, " worship the images of the gods "), and place fuel on the sacred fire. He must live a chaste lit'.', refrain from meat and all sensuality, from dancing, singing, and playing musical instruments, must never injure any living creature, must not wear shoes or use an umbrella, and must refrain from anger, covetousness, idle disputes, and gambling. The regulations for securing reverent behaviour towards the teacher are very elaborate ; and parents and elders generally are to be highly regarded. It is declared that the trouble and pain which parents undergo on the birth of their children cannot be compensated even in a hundred years, and obedience to them and to the teacher are the best forms of austerity ; the son must rejoice to do what is agreeable and bene- ficial to them ; by honouring them the three worlds are gained ; for him who honours them not, all rites are fruitless. Somewhat surprisingly, in the midst of these stringent regulations we come upon the following liberal sentiments : " He who possesses faith may some liberal receive pure learning even from a man of lower caste, and an sentiments. excenent wife even from a base family." " Even from poison nectar may be taken, even from a child good advice, even from a foe a lesson in good conduct, and even from an impure sub- stance gold. " Excellent wives, learning, the knowledge of the law, the rules of purity, good advice, and various arts maybe acquired from anybody." Finally, the Brahman who has not broken his vow during his student stage is promised after death the highest abode, and that he will not be born again in this world. The stage of a householder being at length reached, the Brahman must marry a wife of equal caste, free from bodily defects and having vari- xke ous good qualities; but polygamy is allowed though not recom- nousenoider. mended, and when the first wife is one of equal caste, another wife may be taken from each of the inferior castes. Eight different forms of marriage, four laudable and four blamable, the chief differences being in the matter of dowry and attendant circumstances, the highest rank being accorded to a marriage where the parent of the bride offers her with costly garments and jewels to a learned Brahman ; the son of such a wife is said to liberate from sin ten ancestors and ten descendants if he does meritorious works. The Brahman householder had to perform daily five chief rites ; (1) muttering the Veda ; (2) offering water and food to ancestors ; (3) a burnt The chief offering to the gods ; (4) an offering to all creatures, including aged daily rites. parentSj g00ci anci evii Spirits, consisting of the scattering of rice- grains on the housetop or outside the door; (5) an offering to men, consisting of sacrifices for hospitable reception of (Brahman) guests. This last was naturally ea(L considered of great importance, as it afforded the chief means of support to the students, ascetics, and hermits. Sacrifices for the dead were THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 207 required to be performed every new moon, and at these times learned Brah- mans were specially entertained. A long list of those who must not be invited or who must be shunned on these occasions is given, including physicians, temple-priests (implying that these were rising in importance and were considered to have interests opposed to those of the domestic Brah- mans), sellers of meal, actors or singers, one-eyed men, incendiaries, drunkards, gamblers, those who had forsaken parents. The great importance assign*1' I to these celebrations for deceased ancestors, — being declared much more im- portant than the rites in honour of the gods, — seems to indicate that ancestor worship among the Aryans was later than nature worship. The funeral sacrifices further acquired importance to the Hindus as affording the basis of their law of inheritance. All who offered the funeral cake and water together were bound in one family, represented by the eldest male, although the living family had a joint interest in the family property. This part of the subject we cannot here detail, although intimately connected with and enforced by the religious sanction. An astonishing number of daily rites and of things to be avoided is laid down for good Brahmans, and this can only be matched by the extreme of early Pharisaic restriction ; but although the eating of meat is forbidden in general, it is expressly enjoined on certain occasions. As regards the position of women in Manu, it is one of complete sub- jection ; the husband was not to eat with his wife, nor look at her when she ate ; women were forbidden to repeat the Veda, or to perform position of any religious rite separately ; they must continually feel their women, dependence on their husbands. The wife must worship her husband as a god. "Women were credited with many inbred evils. When unfaithful to her husband she is born of a jackal in the next life, and tormented with diseases. No repudiation or divorce of a wife was (originally) recognised, and if sold or repudiated she could not be the legitimate wife of another. There is no ground for the long-current statement that Manu or the Vedas supported or enjoined the burning of widows (Sati1). The re-marriage of widows is mentioned, but with censure, and a widow who remains chaste is rewarded with heaven. Very early marriage of girls was permitted if a suitor was distinguished and handsome. Householders are enjoined to be liberal in gifts. " If he is asked, let him always give something, be it ever so little, without grudging ; " the giver receives corresponding rewards, either in worldly prosperity or in future existences. Truthfulness is highly recommended : "he who is dishonest in speech is dishonest in everything." Giving no pain to any creature, the householder is to slowly accumulate spiritual merit, •the only lasting companion. " Single is each being born ; single spiritual jit dies ; single it enjoys the reward of its virtue ; single it suffers ment- jthe punishment of its sin. . . He who is persevering, gentle, and patient, jshuns the company of men of cruel conduct, and does no injury to living creatures, gains, if he constantly lives in that manner, heavenly bliss." \ Sati means, "she who is faithful," and is a feminine form of the root seen in "sooth" — truth. 203 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The hermit and ascetic periods of life were held up to Brahmans as the culmination of their existence. We do not know how many Brahmans The hermit went through this discipline ; but it is recommended to the house- in the forest. holder, that when his skin becomes wrinkled and his hair grey, and he has grandchildren, he should go and live in the forest, taking with him the sacred fire and implements for the domestic sacrifices which he is still to perform, and there live in control of his senses, wearing his hair in braids, and the beard and nails undipped. He was still to recite the Veda, and to be patient of hardships, friendly towards all, of collected mind, compassionate to all living creatures. He must feed only on special kinds of vegetables. A considerable number of austerities are enjoined on him, including exposure to fires in summer, living under the open sky and clothed in wet garments in winter, with other performances conducive to short life, much study not being forgotten. Finally he may, subsisting only on water and air, walk straight on " until Ins body sinks to rest " ; then, having got rid of his body, he is exalted in the world of Brahma, free from sorrow and fear. The forest dweller who has not found liberation may become a mendi- cant ascetic, absolutely silent, caring for no enjoyment, indifferent to every- The mendi- thing, but concentrating his mind on Brahma. " Let him not cant ascetic. desire to live, let him not desire to die ; let him wait for his appointed time as a servant waits for the payment of his wages." " Let him patiently bear hard words, let him not insult anybody, and let him not become anybody's enemy. . . . Against an angry man let him not in return show anger, let him bless where he is cursed." These are only a few of the numerous precepts for promoting the high spiritual life of the ascetic. Meditation, self-repression, equability, contentment, forgiveness, honesty, truthfulness, abstention from anger, purification, etc. — these may be said to sum up the moral law for all Brahmans. AVe can only lightly dwell on the duties of a king and of government as described in Manu. The king represents Agni and Indra, the Maruts, The duties Varuna, Yama and other gods, out of all of whom he is supposed of a Mng. to be framed ; thus he is " a great deity in human form." He hasj divine authority, is to protect all creatures, and be an incarnation of the law. He must have seven or eight ministers, the chief of whom must be a Brahman. Punishment is his chief instrument, indeed the only maintainer The of the law. He is, however, to be obedient to the Brahmans, Brahman's and be determined not to retreat in battle. The Brahmans ' are to be the judges, either by themselves, or as assistants to the king. The criminal code is marked by much severity, and not a little incon- 3istency. Offences by the low-born against the higher classes were very severely punished, often with great cruelty ; while Brahmans were very leniently treated. A Brahman's life was not to be taken, however grave crimes or numerous ^lis crimes. Among " mortal sins " are : killing a Brahman, drinking spirituous liquor, stealing the gold of a Brahman, adultery with a Guru's (spiritual teacher's) wife, associating with THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. 209 those who did those things, falsely attributing to oneself high birth, falsely accusing one's teacher, forgetting or reviling the Yedas, slaying a friend, giving false evidence, stealing a deposit, incest and fornication ; but the YOGIS (HIXUU KELUilOlS FANATICS). [^classification and punishments show a very crude estimate of punishment I ,their relative importance. Many punishments are designed as a!ld Penances- penances, to remove the guilt of the offender. Various ordeals are pre- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. scribed to ascertain if a witness speaks the truth, such as fire and water. Altogether, the rules of evidence do not inspire us with the idea that the early Brahmans had invented very excellent machinery for discovering Falsehood truth ; and such statements as the following are not calculated to excused. snow them in a favourable light. In some cases a man who, though knowing the facts to be different, gives false evidence from a pious motive, does not lose heaven. Whenever the death of a Sudra, a Vaisya, a Kshatriya, or of a Brahman would be caused by the declaration of the truth, a falsehood may be spoken. In cases of violence, of theft and adultery, of defamation and assault, the judge must not examine witnesses too strictly. But he is to exhort all witnesses to speak the truth, pro- mising them bliss after death and fame here below, while false witnesses are firmly bound by Varuna and are helpless during one hundred exist- ences. Reverting once more to the question of castes, we may note that the Brahman was supposed to have three births ; the first his natural birth, the second his investiture with the girdle of Munga grass, the third CcLStS his initiation to perform the greater sacrifices ; the Kshatriyas or warriors, and the Vaisyas or cultivators, were only twice born, the second birth happening on their investiture with the sacred thread. "We may recall here that the term caste is not an original Hindu or even an ancient word. It is believed to be an adaptation of a Portuguese word, casta, race or family, from the Latin castus, pure. The word used in Manu is varna, or colour, while in later Hindu phrase caste is denoted by jail or jat, meaning birth. The code of Manu was forced to recognise that wide departures took place from the original purity of caste, although maintaining 'that only Growth of those born of wedded wives of equal castes were to be considered mixed castes. as belonging to the same caste as their fathers. Hence distinct names were given to the offspring between the different castes ; some of these are declared to be ferocious in manners and delighting in cruelty. These had already been assigned to distinct occupations, which increased as the II in' lu life grew more settled and diversified. Some of them are said to be inherently fit only for low and degrading offices, and unworthy to receive the sacramental rites. The modern development of the caste system must be dealt with later. Finally, as to the important belief in the transmigration of souls, which in the Hindu system plays so large a part, it appears to have been wielded Transmigra- by the Brah mans very much as a mode of influencing actions on tion of souls. earth. Evil actions done with the body were to be punished by being born next in something inanimate, those done by speech were followed by birth as a bird or a beast, while sins of the mind, such as covetousness, evil thoughts, and adherence to false doctrines, led to re-birth in a low caste. Self-control in all these respects led to emancipation from all births and final blessedness. This scheme is elaborated in great detail, many grada- tions being fixed in descending order, each the just recompense for some THE BRAHMANISM OF THE CODES. fault. The specific reason for many of these cannot be imagined, although some are intelligible enough, such as these: "men who delight in doing injury become carnivorous animals ; thieves, creatures consuming their own kind ; for stealing grain a man becomes a rat, for stealing meat, a vulture," etc. Sensual men are said to suffer in a succession of dreadful hells and agonizing births, slaveiy, imprisonment in fetters. The last pages of Manu are devoted to further glorification of Brahmans who do their duty, and to the extolling of the Self or Soul in all things ; " for he who recognises the universe in the SCCLriUHED FICiUKES IN THE CAVE AT ELEPHANIA. Self, does not give his heart to unrighteousness. ... He who thus recog- nises the Self through the Self in all created beings, becomes equal-minded towards all, and enters the highest state, Brahman. A twice-born man, who recites these Institutes, revealed by Manu, will be always virtuous in conduct, and will reach whatever condition he desires." It must be owned that the system thus developed in Manu does not fail for lack of penalties or of precise directions. Its efficacy is to be sought in its gradual growth, its accordance with the ideas of creation, Efficacy of supreme power, and morality which had long been current, and the code- its promulgation by those who had most intellectual power and most capa- bility of swaying the conduct of men. Thus we may imagine the extra- ordinary influence which the sacred class of Brahmans attained in early Indian history, an influence which has been sufficient to perpetuate itself THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. to our own times, which remains very great, and which more than two thousand years ago was sufficient to produce by exaggeration and reaction the remarkable religion of Buddhism. But looking on it calmly, while admitting the loftiness of many of its precepts and imaginings, it cannot be said that its general moral elevation was great. The scheme was powerful enough to bind together society for centuries, but not powerful enough to diffuse itself widely among other races, or to become more than a Hindu religion. There is one other code to which we must refer, besides that of Maim, namely the Darma Shastra of Yajnavalkya, possibly dating from the first code of century a.d. It is still the chief authority in the school of Yajnavalkya. Benares. It is much shorter than that of Manu, is more syste- matic, and represents a later stage of development. It adds to the sources of authority the Puranas and various traditional and scholastic authorities. To some extent caste is carried farther, and a Brahman is forbidden to have a Sudra as a fourth wife. We have reached a period when writing is in regular use, and written documents are appealed to as legal evidence; coined money is in use. It is evident that Buddhism has arisen, and that the shaven heads and yellow garments of its votaries are well known ; the king is also recommended to found monasteries for Brahmans, an evident imi- tation of Buddhists. Compare the following philosophy with that of Manu. " The success of every action depends on destiny and on a man's own effort ; but destiny is evidently nothing but the result of a man's act in a former state of existence. Some expect the whole result from destiny or from the inherent nature ; some expect it from the lapse of time ; and some from a man's own effort ; other persons of wiser judgment expect it from a combination of all these." M. W.) But there is no sufficient difference in the nature of the precepts to make it necessary to quote further. "We may here refer briefly to the celebrated rock-temples of India, excavated in solid rock many centuries ago, but by no means confined to Hinduism, having often been excavated by Buddhists and Jains. Some of them display surprising skill in construction as well as in sculpture. Many are ornamented with figures of the gods or scenes from their supposed adventures. The majority of the Brahmanic temples are dedicated to Siva. The most famous are those of Elephanta, an island in Bombay harbour ; one of them contains a colossal trimurti, or three-faced bust, representing Siva in his threefold character of creator, preserver, and destroyer. Many other caves, scarcely less famous, are at Ellora in the Nizam's dominions. LAKSHMI. DUKG.1. (From a native picture.) KAI'.TIKEY.V. CHAPTER III. ittofomt tniiTnusm I. Reaction from Brahmanism— Triumph of Buddhism— Downfall of Indian Buddhism— The caste system —The Mahabharata— The Bhagavad-gita— Krishna— Incarnations of the Deity— Immortality taught— The Ramayana— Partial incarnations— Conquests of Rama— Resistance of Brahmanism — Kumarila Bhatta— Sankara— Worship of the supreme Brahman— The Smartas— Vishnu worship —The Puranas— The Vishnu Purana— Description of the Supreme Being— Great Vishnuite preachers— Ramanand— Kabir— Chaitanya— Influence of Buddhism— The linga and the salagram —Brahma— Vishnu the preserver— Incarnations of Vishnu— Rama— Krishna— Buddha— Jagan- nath— Lakshmi— Siva the destroyer— Ascetic Sivaites— Durga— Kali— Ganesa— Gangsa— Local deities and demons— Worship of animals and trees— Deification of heroes and saints. IN our chapter on Buddhism, it will be shown that the new religion which deposed Brahmanism from supremacy in India, and Reaction greatly depressed it for more than a thousand years, was partly ^manism a natural reaction from the haughty sway of the Brahmans, and their reliance on ritual and sacrifice, and partly the development of 2I4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. a movement which had already risen within the older system. The edu- cated Brahmans came to see that the Vedic gods were poetic imaginations which could not all be true, and that whereas various gods— the Sun, the 11 passing Sky, the Dawn, etc.— were represented as independent and supreme, they must be emanations of one supreme Cause. While they continued to uphold the popular ideas about the gods, and to conduct the customary sacrifices, they began to develop a theological literature, of part of which we have already given an account, the TJpanishads and the Puranas, teaching the unity of God and the immortality of the soul, still mingled with many myths and superstitions. Their new system involved the brotherhood of man ; but it was reserved for Gautama to break through all the old conventions, and to found the great system of Buddhism. All Triumph of classes found in it something that was lacking in Brahmanism, Buddhism. anj rejoiced in the upsetting of many things that had been irk- some. From the third century B.C. to the fourth century a.d., Buddhism in- creasingly triumphed, until it was professed by the majority of the Indian people. But in the fifth century the Buddhists were persecuted by the adherents of the old religion. By the end of that century the Buddhist leaders had taken refuge in China, and many of its priests had carried the faith to new lands. As late as the twelfth century a few remained in India, but now they are non-existent, unless Jainism be regarded as representing the old Buddhism. But the influence of Buddhism upon Brahmanism had been profound, and modern Hinduism is a very different thing from the religion of the Vedas and Brahmanas. Indeed, Sir W. W. Hunter terms modern Hinduism the joint product of Buddhism and Brahmanism. The latter was active and slowly changing during all the time of the predomin- ance of the former, and we have the testimony of Greeks in Alexander's time and later, and of Buddhist priests from China who visited India in the fifth and seventh centuries, that Brahman priests were equally honoured with Buddhist monks, and temples of the Hiudu gods adjoined the Buddhist religious houses. The Hindus date the final triumph over Buddhism from the j3reaching of Kumarila, a Bengal Brahman, who powerfully advanced the Vedic Downfan of teacnmg of a personal Creator and supreme Being, against the Indian impersonal negations of Buddhism ; but he also shone as a per- Buddhism. 0. " _ _TT T r secutor. bir W. W. Hunter, however, traces the change which followed to deeper-seated causes— such that the rise of Hinduism was a natural development of racial characters and systems. According to him it upon the caste system and represents the coalition of the old Vedic faith with Buddhism, as well as with the rude rites of pre-Aryan and Mongolian races. We cannot here give an account of the caste system. The immense subdivision of castes is the result partly of intermarriages, partly of varied occupations, partly of locality, partly of the introduction of The caste outside tribes to Hinduism. Religious exclusiveness and trades £m- unionism, once grasped, made easy progress, and converted India i vast grouping of separate classes. Caste is a powerful instrument MODERN HINDUISM. 215 for personal discipline and the maintenance of convention and custom, but it is a weakener of united popular action and national unity. Its great force is in its hereditary instincts and in social and religious excommuni- cation. The offender against caste laws may be fined by his fellow-mem- bers, may be forbidden to eat or intermarry with them, and may be boy- cotted by the community. We cannot understand the growth of modern Hinduism without refer- ence to the two great Indian epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Rama- yana. The former is a vast aggregation of poems and episodes, The arranged into a continuous whole, and is the longest poem in the Mahabharata. world, being fourteen times as long as the Iliad. It includes many portions dating back to Vedic times, with others of later date up to a comparatively modern time. It includes the whole cycle of Hindu mythology since the Vedas, and practically represents a deification of human heroes, side by side with views of Divine incarnation. Its central story relates a prehistoric struggle between two families descended from the Moon god for a tract of country around Delhi. It is believed to have existed in a considerably developed form five or six centuries before Christ, but it has been greatly modified by subsequent Brahmanic additions, especially didactic and religious in their nature, teaching the submission of the military to the Brahman power. The Bhagavad-gita, or song of Bhagavat, is the most important episode of this great epic, Bhagavat being a term applied to Krishna, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, the Pervader and Preserver. Krishna TheBha- makes a revelation to the hero Arjuna, just before a great battle, savad-gita. in order to remove his scruples about destroying human life. This revela- tion in effect teaches the supremacy of the soul over the body, and in fact its eternity of existence in the supreme Being, so that death cannot harm it. Duty to caste and its obligations is highly extolled ; but the poem is most remarkable to us for its exposition in poetry of the Vedantist phil- osophy of Pantheism, which teaches that all the universe is indeed Brahma, from whom all proceeds and to whom all returns. Krishna in giving an account of himself to Arjuna, says (we quote from Sir Monier- Williams's " Indian Wisdom ") : — "I am the ancient sage, without beginning, I am the ruler and the all-sustainer, I am incomprehensible in form. More subtle and minute than subtlest atoms ; I am the cause of the whole universe ; Through me it is created and dissolved, 1 dwell as wisdom, in the heart of all. I am the goodness of the good, I am Beginning, middle, end, eternal time, The birth, the death of all. I have created all Out of one portion of myself. Think thou on me, Have faith in me, adore and worship me, And join thyself in meditation to me. Thus shalt thou come to me, O Arjuna ; 2l6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Thus shalt thou rise to 1113- supreme abode, AVhere neither sun nor moon have need to shine, For know that all the lustre they possess is'mine." Among other revelations of Krishna, he states that he is born on earth from time to time for the establishment of righteousness. In landing work, Krishna says : — I: Know that work Proceeds from the supreme. I am the pattern For man to follow ; know that I have done All arts already ; nought remains for me To gain by action, yet I work for ever "Tnweariedly, and this whole universe "Would perish if I did not work my work."' ■'V" THE KRISHNA AYAT.UU. {From a native picture.) It' will be evident from these quotations that the Bhagavad-gita contains much lofty thought ; indeed, it has been praised as un- equalled for sublimity of conception, reasoning, and diction. Yet it is in no slight degree parallel with Buddhist ideas, in preaching deliverance through self-renuncia- tion and devotion, end- ing in absorption in the Deity. Although women are not raised by it, yet the declara- tion of Krishna is, that all who resort to him will reach the highest. He says : " I have nei- ther friend nor foe ; I am the same to all ; and To them that love me, I No soul that has all who worship me dwell in me and I in them. give that devotion by which they come at last to me. faith, however imperfect the attainment, or however the soul have wandered, shall perish, either in this world or in another. He shall have new births till, purified and made perfect, he reaches the supreme abode." The repetition of incarnations of deity is an important feature in this incarnations teaching ; and from this rcot has developed the great " avatar " of the deity. or illcarnation idea of the Hindus, the idea being that the deity is continually being manifested for the guidance and protection of his MODERN HINDUISM. 2 17 people. Throughout the transition period, from Brahmanism to Hinduism, varying forms of Krishna, as the incarnation of Vishnu1 are continually described. He appears as the protecting hero and saint and sage, the overcomer of evil spirits, the popular wonder-worker. From some of the characteristics of Krishna it has been imagined that he has been derived from Christ ; but there is no proof of this, and, indeed, the multiplication and varying form of the incarnations tells against this idea. In fact, the belief proceeds from a date before the Christian era. The meaning of the word Krishna, " black," also makes against the Christian relationship ; it rather points to respect for common humanity of black and white alike ; for Krishna is the teacher of Arjuna, 11 white." This doctrine about Krishna brings into view the essential imm0rtaiity link by which taught, the intellectual Brahmans connected their higher philosophy with the com- mon beliefs of the people. Krishna manifests the noblest traits of Hindu ge- nius ; he also condescends to the most ordinary pur- suits of men and children, and even to sportive re- creation. The higher doc- trine of immortality is preached in such passages as the following in the Bhagavad-gita, " There is an invisible, eternal exist- ence, beyond this visible, which does not perish when all things else perish, even when the great days of Brahman's creative life pass round into night, and all that exists in form returns unto God whence it came ; they who obtain this never return. . . . Bright as the sun beyond darkness is He to the soul that remembers Him in meditation, at the hour of death, with thought fixed between the brows, — Him the most ancient of the wise, the primal ruler, the minutest atom, the sustainer of all, — in the hour when each finds that same nature on which he meditates, and to which he is conformed. . . . 1 Vishnu is a god named in the Rig- Veda as a form of the sun striding across the heavens in three paces. VISHNU. (From a unlive picture.] 2l8 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. They who put their trust in Me, and seek deliverance from decay and death, know Brahma, and the highest spirit, and every action. They who know me in my being, my person, and my manifested life, in the hour of death, know me indeed." The other great epic poem, the Ramayana, or the goings of Rama, is a chronicle which relates primarily to another region of Aryan conquest, Oudh, The and then recounts the advance of the Aryans into Southern India. Ramayana. Jt, represents perhaps a later stage than the earlier parts of the Mahabharata, but was arranged into something like its present form a century earlier — perhaps about the beginning of the third century B.C. Like the sister epic, it presents the Brahman idea of the Godhead in the form of an incarnation, Rama, of Vishnu, to destroy a demon. Briefly stated, the story is as follows. It begins by relating the sonlessness of the king of Oudh. a descendant of the sun-god. After a sacrifice to the gods, Partial f0111" sons were born of incarnations. }±[s three wives, the eldest, Rama, having one-half the nature of Vishnu ; the second, Bharata, one- fourth ; and two others, twins, having each one-eighth. This ex- emplifies the Brahman doctrine of partial incarnations, Krishna being a full incarnation ; and, beyond this, there might be fractional incarna- tions of the Divine essence, in men, animals and even inanimate objects. The wonderful youth, marriage to Sita, and exile of Rama, are next told and the refusal of Bharata to take the kingdom on his father's death. Rama continuing an exile, Ravana, the demon king of the south, heard of his wife's beauty, and conquests carried her off in a magical chariot to Ceylon. Rama then makes of Rama, alliances with the aboriginal peoples of Southern India, invades Ceylon, slays Ravana and delivers his wife, who has to undergo the further trial of being suspected of infidelity and banished. She is the type of womanly devotion and purity, and after sixteen years' exile is reconciled to her husband, with whom she is after all translated to heaven. Such was the framework in which the change from ancient Brahman- ism to modern Hinduism was developed and taught. These epics bear witness to the fact that notwithstanding the great extension of Buddhism in India, there was no time when Brahmanism was not working with great skill and intellectual force to adapt itself to the changed conditions. At Resistance of a council of the Buddhist monarch Siladitya at Kanauj on the »• Ganges in a.d. 084, while a statue of Buddha was installed on the first day, on the second an image of the Sun-god, on the third an SIVA, BBA.HMA, AND VISHNU. MODERN HINDUISM. 219 Sankara. image of Siva, the product of later Brahmanism, was inaugurated. A great series of Brahman apostles arose simultaneously with the decay of Buddhism, beginning with Kumarila Bhatta, about a.d. 750, who revived the old Brahman doctrine of a personal God and Creator, and reconverted Kumarila many of the people. He was the first of a long line of influential Bhatta. religious reformers, who all solemnly cut themselves off from the world like Buddha, and give forth a simple message, readily understood, including in essence, according to Sir "W. W. Hunter, " a reassertion, in some form, of the personality of God and the equality of men in His sight." Sankara Acharya was the disciple of Kumarila, still more famous than his master ; he popularised the late Vedantist philosophy as a national religion, and " since his short life in the eighth or ninth century, every new Hindu sect has had to start with a personal God " (Hun- ter). He taught that the supreme God Brahma was distinct from the old Brahman triad, and must be worshipped by spiritual medi- tations, not by sacrifices ; and he perpetuated his teaching by found- ing a Brahman sect, the Smart as. However, he still allowed the practice of the Vedic rites, and worship of the deity in any popu- lar form ; and it is claimed by popular tradition that he founded many of the Hindu sects of the present day. Siva worship is sup- posed to be specially his work, though it existed long before; and he has ever been represented by his followers as an incarnation of Siva. Siva is, as we have said before, the Rudra or Storm-god of the Rig SIVA. (From a native picture.) Veda, recognised as the Destroyer and Reproducer. He was worshipped contemporaneously with the Buddhist ascendency and is highly spoken of in the Mahabharata ; but Sankara's. followers elevated his worship till it became one of the two chief forms of Hinduism. The doctrine of Sankara just referred to, that Brahma or Brahman, is the supreme God, distinct from the triad Brahma, Vishnu, and WorsMp of Siva, who are manifestations of him. The supreme Brahman is the supreme the absolute, having no form, nor shape, self-existent, illimit- able, free from imperfection. There are but a few worshippers of Brahman THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. or Brahma alone. As creator he is believed to have finished his work, and there is now onl}r one temple to him, at Pnshkara in Ajmir. Ward, in ISIS, wrote : " The Brahmans in their morning and evening worship repeat an incantation containing a description of the image of Brahma; at noon they present to him a single flower; at the time of burnt-offering, ghee is presented to him. In the month of Magh, -at the full moon, an earthen image of him is worshipped, with that of Siva on his right hand and Vishnu on his left." The Smartas of Southern India are a considerable sect who follow the philosophic teaching of Sankara. There are numerous religious houses con- nected with The Smartas. , , . this sect, acknowledging the headship of the monas- tery of Sringiri, in the western Mysore hills ; and the chief priest of the sect, the head of this monastery, is spe- cially acknowledged by all Sivaite worship- pers, who regard San- kara as one of the in- carnations of Siva. " The worship of Vishnu," says Sir W. Vishnu W. Hunter, worship. « i n 0 n e phase or another, is the religion of the bulk of the middle classes \ with its roots deep down in beautiful forms of non- Aryan nature - worship, and its top sending forth branches among the most refined Brahmans and literary sects. It is a religion in all things graceful. Its gods are heroes or bright friendly beings, who walk and converse with men. Its legends breathe an almost Hellenic beauty. ' This is the lofty position assigned to Vishnuism by one of the most learned and most impartial students— a very different opinion from that which regards the car of Juggernaut as the representative of all that is vile. The doctrines of modem Hinduism, in their learned aspect, are con- tained in the Puranas (in Sanskrit), a series of eighteen treatises, in which The various Brahmans expound, in lengthy dialogues, the supremacy of Vishnu or Siva. The chief of them is the Vishnu Purana, HAVANA. Prow a nativi picture. See account of Ramayana.) MO DERN HIND UISM. 221 dating from the eleventh century, but containing, as the word "purana" signifies, ancient traditions, some of which descend from Vedic The vishnu times ; and others are traceable to the two great epics. " It purana. includes a complete cosmogony or account of primary creation, accounts of the destruction and renovation of worlds, genealogies of gods and patri- archs, the reigns of the Manus, the institutes of society, including caste and burial rites, and the history of the princes of the solar and lunar races, a life of Krishna, and an account of the end of the world. It is not necessary to dwell upon its contents, which would require a volume. Pantheism is woven into the general scheme, God and Nature being identified, and Vishnu, as supreme God, being incarnat- ed in Krishna. The style of the Vishnu Pnr- Description of ana the supreme Being-. •0 n its philosophical side may be ga- thered from the following ex- tracts, relating to the supreme •deity, as trans- lated by H. H. Wilson: "Who •can describe him who is not to be appre- hended by the ■senses, who is the best of all things, and the supreme soul, self-existent ; who is devoid of all the distinguishing characteristics of complexion, caste, or the like, and is •exempt from birth,' vicissitude, death, or decay ; who is always, and alone ; who exists everywhere, and in whom all things here exist ; and who is thence named Vasudeva (the resplendent one in whom all things dwell). He is Brahma, supreme lord, eternal, unborn, imperishable, undecaying ; of one essence ; ever pure as free from defects. He, that Brahma, was all things, comprehending in his own nature the indiscrete (spirit) and the •discrete (matter). He then existed in the forms of Purusha and Kala. KALI DANCING ON SIVA. {From a native picture.) THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Purusha (spirit; is the first form of the supreme. Next proceeded two other forms — the discrete and the indiscrete ; and Kala (time) was the last. These four the wise consider to be the pure and supreme condition of Vishnu. These four forms, in their due proportions, are the causes of the production of the phenomena of creation, preservation, and destruction. Vishnu being thus discrete and indiscrete substance — spirit and time— sports like a playful boy, as you shall learn by listening to his frolics." Here it should be noted that the creation of the world is very commonly considered by the Hindu to be the sport or amusement of the supreme Being. The life of Krishna, as given by this Purana, is so full of fabulous marvels as to read like an Arabian Night's story, without its charm. It is sufficient to say that this Purana did not work the great vishnuite development of Vishnu worship, which was due to a series of Vishnuite preachers, beginning with Ramanuja in the 12th century, rising against the cruel doctrines of the Sivaites. It was not till the end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century that the great development of popular religion in the name of Vishnu took place, under the apostolic leadership of Ramanand. This teacher had his headquarters in a monastery at Benares, and travelled from place to place in Northern India. He chose twelve disciples from the despised castes of the barbers, leatherdressers, weavers, and the like, who, like the Buddhist monks, had to forsake the world, and depend solely on alms, while they went about teaching religion. They addressed the people in the vernacular Hindi, and largely helped to make it a literary language. The inclusion of lower-caste men among Ramanancl's chief disciples is a proof that his reaction was directed against Brahman exclusiveness ; and it embraced many features of Buddhism, including the monasteries or retreats lor the mendicants. Kabir, the greatest of Ramanand's disciples, is notable for his effort to combine the Mohammedans with the Hindus in one religious fraternity. Kabir ^e caste system and Brahman arrogance, as well as image- worship, found in him a strong opponent. He taught that the g< ii I < »f the Hindu is the same as the god of the Mahometan. " To Ali (Allah) and to Rama " (writes one of his disciples) " we owe our life, and should show like tenderness to all who live. What avails it to wash your mouth, to count your beads, to bathe in holy streams, to bow in temples, if, while you mutter your prayers or journey on pilgrimage, deceitfulness is in your heart? The Hindu fasts every eleventh day; the Mussulman on the Ramazan. "Who formed the remaining months and clays, that you should venerate but one ? . . . Behold but one in all things. He to whom the world belongs, He is the father of the worshippers alike of Ali and of Rama." Kabir recognised in all the varied lots and changes of man, his hopes and fears and religious diversities, the one Divine Spirit ; when this was re- i ognised, Maya, or illusion, was over, and the soul found rest. This was to be obtained, not by burnt-offerings or sacrifices, but by faith and meditation on the Supreme being, and by keeping his holy names for ever on the lips MODERN HINDUISM. 223 and in the heart. Kabir had a vast number of followers, especially in Bengal ; the headquarters of his sect is the Kabir Chaura at Benares. The worship of Juggernaut, more properly Jagannath (literally, the Lord of the world) dates only from the beginning of the 10th century, being mainly propagated by Chaitanya, who was so great a preacher of the Vishnuite doctrines that since his death he has been widely worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu. He preached a religion of faith to Hindus and Mohammedans alike ; but he laid great stress on obedience to religious teachers. By contemplation rather than ritual he taught that the soul would find liberty from the imperfections and sins of the body. After death the soul of the believer would dwell for ever in a heaven of perfect beauty, or in the presence of Vishnu himself, known in his supreme essence. After the death of Chaitanya there appeared teachers who lowered the spiritual level of Vishnuism, some preaching the religion of enjoyment, others giving increased importance to the idea of physical love ; one adoring the infant Krishna as the cowherd. Vallabha-Swami (sixteenth century) was one of the chief of these ; he established a ritual of eight services in which the image of Krishna as a lovely boy is bathed, anointed, sumptu- ously dressed and fed, and in which beautiful women and other sensual delights figure largely. Such a religion appealed largely to the well-to-do, the luxurious, and the sensually minded, and was made the pretext for self- indulgence. Before particularising the forms of modern Hindu worship, we must briefly indicate the influence which Buddhism and other popular religious of India have had on Hinduism. The brotherhood of man is influence of implicitly if not explicitly recognised by many of the Hindu BuddMsm. sects ; the Buddhist communities or monasteries are reproduced in the monastic houses of many Hindu brotherhoods. Sir W. Hunter describes the rules of the Vishnuite communities as Buddhistic, with Brahmanical reasons. One of the brotherhoods of Kabir's followers has as its first rule the very Buddhistic one that the life neither of man nor of beast may be taken, the reason being that it is the gift of God. Truth is enjoined as the great principle of conduct ; for all ills and ignorance of God spring from original falsehood. Retirement from the world is commended, worldliness being hostile to tranquillity of soul and meditation on God. Similarly the Buddhist trinity of ideas, Buddha, Dharma (the Law), and Samgha (the congregation) is largely present, more or less openly, in Hinduism. Not the least strange conjunction of Hinduism with other religions is that in which Siva-worshippers visit Adam's Peak in Ceylon to worship the foot- prints of their deity. Buddhists revere the same impression as the impression of Buddha's foot, while Mohammedans revere it as a relic of Adam, the father of mankind. This is but a specimen of the common resorts of Hindu pilgrims, where Mussulman and Hindu alike revere some sacred object. Hindus also absorbed or adopted many rites and superstitions of non- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Aryan peoples, such as the serpent and dragon worship of the Nagas, re- verence for crocodiles and generative emblems, fetish and tree Tandthea worship, etc. The worship of generative emblems (linga) saiagram. foun(j a wicie £ej(i among the Sivaites, whose god was the reproducer as well as destroyer; while the fetish, or village or local god, in the shape of an unhewn stone (known as salagram) or a tree, usually the tulasi plant, became the usual symbols of the Vishnuite. In not a few their rites are little elevated above those of primitive savagery as conducted by low-caste Hindus. Coming now to a description of the chief Hindu gods as popularly w< irshipped, we find Brahma, the creator, represented as a red man with four heads, dressed in white, and riding upon a goose. Brahma's ,rahma. w^ garasVati, the goddess of wisdom and science, is depicted as a fair young woman with four arms ; with one right hand she presents a flower to Brahma ; in the other she holds a book of palm-leaves ; in one of her left hands she carries a string of pearls. In the Mahabharata she is called the mother of the Vedas. She is worshipped once a year in the same month as Brahma by all who have any learning ; and with this worship are connected pens, ink, paper, books, etc. Women take no part in this festival. Vishnu is adored by the Vishnuite sects as the equal or even the superior of Brahma, and is especially termed the Preserver, exempt from impatience and passion. Various legends in the Puranas describe the other gods as submitting to Vishnu, who is termed om- niscient and almighty. In pictorial representations Vishnu usually appears as a black man with four arms : in one hand a club is held, in a second a shell, in the third a discus, in the fourth a lotus, and he rides upon the Graruda bird. Sir Monier- Williams describes both Vishnuism and Sivaism as forms of monotheism, because they set aside the coequal trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Siva in favour of their special god : but it may be doubted whether many of the Vislmuites can be called intelligent monotheists, rather than superstitious worshippers of they know not what. The opinion of this great Indian scholar, that Vishnuisni " is the only real religion of the Hindu peoples, and has more common ground with Christianity than any other non-Christian faith," must be taken as having but a limited application when he has to qualify it by referring to " the gross polytheistic supersti- tions and hideous idolatry to which it gives rise." We must acknowledge the distinguishing merit of Vishnuism to be, that it teaches intense devo- tion to a personal god, who exhibits his sympathy with human suffering ind his interest in human affairs by frequent descents (avatars) upon earth. Of these we must give a brief account. As many as twenty-eight avatars of Vishnu have been enumerated in the Puranas. They represent the descent into human bodies, by birth from incarnations earthly parents, of a portion or the whole of the divine essence of of Vishnu, the god ; they do not interfere with the divine body of the god, MODERN HINDUISM. 225 which remains unchanged. Of these we may enumerate (1) the Fish, whose form Vishnu took to save Manu, the progenitor of mankind, from the universal deluge. Manu obtained the favour of Vishnu by his piety, was warned of the coming deluge, and commanded to build a ship, wherein he was to take the seven E-ishis or patriarchs and the seeds of all living things. When the flood came, Vishnu, as the Fish, dragged the ship, by a cable fixed to a horn on his head, to a high crag where it was secured till the flood went down. The avatars of the tortoise, the boar, the man-lion, the Q 226 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. dwarf, and Rama with the axe, we must pass over. The great Rama, Eama- chandra, or the moon-like Rama, has been already referred to as Rama the subject of the Ram ay ana. " Every man, woman, and child in India," says Sir Monier- Williams, probably with some exaggeration, "is familiar with Rama's exploits for the recovery of his wife, insomuch that a common phrase for an ignorant person is ' one who does not know that Sita was Rama's wife.' From Kashmir to Cape Comorin the name of Rama is on every one's lips. All sects revere it, and show their reverence by employing it on all occasions. For example, when friends meet, it is common for them to salute each other by uttering Rama's name twice. Xo name is more commonly given to children, and no name more commonly invoked at funerals and in the hour of death. It is a link of union for all classes, castes, and creeds." But Krishna is the most popular of all the incarnations of Vishnu, and is represented as manifesting his entire essence. He is especially the god Krishna the °f the lower orders, having been brought up among cowherds preserver. an(j 0^ner peasants, with whom he constantly sported. A mul- titude of marvellous stories are told about him ; but it is evident from the history of Krishna literature and practices that he, like Rama, is a deified hero. Sir Monier- Williams identifies him as a powerful chief of the Yadava tribe of Rajputs in central India east of the Jumna, while the original of Rama was a son of a king of Ouclh. So possible is it to trace gods adored by multitudes of human beings to the exaggeration and deification of heroic men. Thus we shall be little surprised to find Buddha adopted as one of the incarnations of Vishnu. The Brahmans account for this by saying that b ddh ^risnnu? in compassion for animals, descended as Buddha in order to discredit the Vedic sacrifices. The Brahmanical writers, says Wilkins, " were far to shrewd to admit that one who could influence men as Buddha did could be other than an incarnation of deity ; and as his in- fluence was in favour of teaching opposed to their own, they cleverly say that it was to mislead the enemies of the gods that Buddha promulgated his doctrine, that they, becoming weak and wicked through their errors, might fall an easy prey." Not content with incarnations that have taken place, the Vishnuites look for a future descent which they call the Kalki avatar. He is to appear at the end of the Kali age (which began with his descent as Krishna), when the world has become utterly wicked, and will be seen in the sky, seated on a white horse, wielding a drawn sword, for the destruction of the wicked and the restoration of the world to purity. We have not included Jagannath among the incarnations of Vishnu, both because it is believed that he is an appearance of Vishnu himself, and Jagannath. als0 because it is probable that he was originally the god of ^ a non-Aryan tribe adopted into Hinduism. It is a sight of this god that is so vehemently desired, whether as he is bathed or dressed, or emg drawn on his car. Chaitanya, the reformer, is another incarnation of MODERN HINDUISM. \ Vishnu, according to the popular notion, although he lived in almost modern times. Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, is very considerably wor- ■)Sa\Lm\. | shipped as the goddess* of Love, Beauty, and Prosperity. She is represented as of a bright golden colour, seated on a lotus, and having only the ordinary number of arms. Siva, the destroyer, is naturally represented as of a stern and vindictive disposition ; but yet this is compatible with his being regarded as a bene- ficent deity. Death being the transition to a new form of life, the Sivai the Destroyer is truly the Re-creator, and this accounts for the mean- destroyer, ing of his name — the Bright or Happy one. Siva is exclusively a post-Vedic god, though he has been identified by the Hindus with the Rudra of the Veclas, and numerous features of Siva's character and history are developed from those of Rudra. In the Ramayana, Rudra (Siva) is represented as marrying Uma, the daughter of Daksha ; it is this same Uma who is much more widely known under the names of Parvati, Durga, and Kali. It is stated that a great quarrel arose between Siva and Daksha, his father-in-law. In this quarrel Uma gave herself voluntarily to the flames, and became a sati (suttee), and was reborn as Parvati. Siva then became an ascetic } living with Parvati in the Himalaj^as, destroying demons. He is represented sometimes with Parvati, wearing round his black neck a serpent and a necklace of skulls, and with an extensive series of emblems, such as a white bull on which he rides, a tiger's skin, etc. ; he has three eyes, one being in his forehead. As Mahadeva (the great god), which is his most usual name, he may be shown as an ascetic with matted hair, living in meditation and self-discipline in a forest. It is said that Siva, in a quarrel with Brahma, cut off his fifth head, which, however, stuck to the destroyer's hand. To escape from a pursuing giant created by Brahma, Siva fled to Benares, where he became absolved from his sin and freed from the head of Brahma, thus causing Benares to become a specially sacred city. In consequence of Siva's patronage of the bull as his steed, a strange custom has arisen in connection with the funerals of Sivaites. "Whenever it is possible, a bull is set free to wander, and has a sacred character, so that no one dares to injure it ; sometimes as many as seven bullocks are thus set free. This is believed to secure the favour of Siva. Similarly, since he. was an ascetic, many of his followers pay court to him by a life of austerity and painful suffering. This was much more frequent in former times than now, for the British Government has discouraged or prohibited many of the most painful exhibitions. Formerly many Siva worshippers would be swung from iron hooks fixed in their backs, or would jump from Ascetic a height upon the edges of ' sharp knives. But it is not easy to Sivaites- put down such practices as the maintenance of the arms and legs in one position for years, the holding of the fist clenched till the nails grow through the palm, the keeping of silence or the fixing of the eye continuously upon the sun. There are still many thousands of these devotees in India. Intoxication is also freely indulged in by Sivaites during then worship, this being believed to be pleasing to the god. After all, Siva is most 228 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Durga. worshipped under the emblem of the Linga, although he is said to have a thousand names. The wife of Siva occupies a comparatively subordinate position as Uma and Parvati ; but as Durga she is a powerful warrior, with many stern and fierce qualities. In this character she is represented to have appeared in many incarnations, and is very widely worshipped. The name Durga was given to her as having slain a demon named Durga. The tales about this are of the most mythical and exaggerated nature. Not- withstanding her powers, Durga is portrayed with a gentle and beautiful face and a golden colour ; but she has ten arms, holding various weapons, while her lion leans against one leg and her giant against the other. Of the various forms of Durga we can only refer to Kali (the black woman), prob- ably some tribal goddess adopted into the Hindu series. She won a victory over giants by drinking their blood with the aid of Chandi, another form of Kali. The account of the image of Kali given later in describing one of the Bengal festivals will ex- KalL I'.KAHMA AND SAUASVATI. plain some of her qualities. Former- ly human beings, as well as considerable animal sacri- fices, were offered to Kali, a human sacrifice being said to please Kali for a thousand years. Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their bodies were among the ac- tions by which worshippers sought to please the goddess. The great number of Hindus who bear the name of Kali or Durga or Tara indicates her popularity down to the present day. Ganesa, the elder son of Siva and Parvati, the god of prudence and policy, having an elephant's head, indicating his sagacious nature, is the god of Bengal shopkeepers ; he has a trunk, one tusk, and four hands. Kartikeya is the younger son of Siva and Parvati, and is called the god of war ; in southern India his name is Subramanya. Lastly, we must notice Ganga, the Ganges, whose birth and doings are the subject of elaborate legends, and whose waters are believed to have power to cleanse from all sins, past, present and future. A specially sacred spot is that where the Ganges meets the ocean, at Sagar island, to which vast numbers of people flock each January, to bathe with joy in the flood, and to worship the long line of deities whose images are set up by priests who take toll of the pilgrims. But when we have exhausted the list of great gods, we have only touched as it were the more prominent of Hindu deities, which are popularly Ganesa. Ganga. MODERN HINDUISM. 229 said to number three hundred and thirty millions. In fact, throughout India the old local deities and demons, so much noticed in Local deities China, hold extensive sway. Every village has its own special and demons- guardian mother, who has a husband associated with her as protector. But the mother is most worshipped, and is believed to be most accessible to prayer and offerings, and very liable to punish, and to inflict diseases if neglected. Many have a specialty, such as the prevention of a particular disease, or the giving of children. Many are deifications of notable women ; some are in effect devils, delighting in blood. All are believed to control secret operations of nature, and to have magic powers which may be imparted to worshippers. Some even go so far as to say that the predominant belief of the Hindus, especially in the villages, is a dread of evil spirits, who are believed to bring about all evils and diseases, and often have peculiar and special areas of destructiveness. They may have material bodies of a more ethereal struc- ture than those of men, have differences of sex, and possess the power of assum- ing any shape and moving through the air in any direction. Some of these are the Asuras, or demons created at the foundation of the world or by the gods (though originally the word meant simply beings of a godlike nature). We cannot go into their classes ; but it is to be noted that the majority of de- mons are believed to have been origin- ally human beings, whose evil nature lives after them as demons. All crimes, diseases, and calamities are due to special devils. They mostly require food, and especially the blood of living animals. Sometimes mounds of earth, piles of bricks, etc., do duty as shrines for their " worship," the offering of food and recital of incantations being the chief rites. Every village has its own demon. A volume might be occupied in describing the devil-cults of India. In the south, where they are believed to delight in dancing, music, etc., " when pestilence is rife in any district, professional exorcisers, or certain persons selected for the purpose, paint their faces, put on hideous masks, dress up in fantastic garments, arm themselves with strange weapons, and commence danc- ing. Their object is to personate particular devils, or rather perhaps to induce such devils to leave the persons of their victims and to occupy the persons of the dancers, who shriek, fling themselves about, and work them- selves up into a frenzy of excitement, amid beating of tom-toms, blowing of fa JIli /^"lVs>xS^ '-^^t% g*?£ w K lh^*A /~J^JyZ 1 1 V'-^) I SASTHI. (From a unlive jn'cture.) THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. horns, and ringing of bells. "When the dancers are thoroughly exhausted, they sink down in a kind of trance, and are then believed to be gifted wi1 h clairvoyance and a power of delivering prophetic utterances. The spec- tators ask them questions about missing relatives or future events, and their deliverances are supposed to be oracular " (Monier- Williams). Many strange festivals are held in connection with this devil-worship in India, and the facts show how general must formerly have been the practices now found among the more savage races. The extensive animal animals and worship of cows, serpents, monkeys, etc., and the worship of trees trees' still prevailing is another considerable survival of more primitive times. It depends largely in India on the view taken of the sacredness of life, and the transmigration of the souls of men into animals. Again, the worship of great men seems even more deeply implanted in the Deification of ^. , *_ ? _ _.. . ... , . \ ^ . *- . . , heroes and Hindu than m the Chinese mmd, and again and again great leaders, saints. preac]ierSj teachers or saints are deified, and regarded as incarna- tions of Vishnu or Siva ; and even men of moderate fame are after death honoured and worshipped, and a shrine is set up to them in the place where they were best known. Surely we have said enough to show that in every way the Hindus are very remarkable for their worship of the superior powers in all conceivable forms. [See "Oriental Eeligions : India," by S. Johnson, English and Foreign Philosophical Library. Sir W. W. Hunter's " India," vol. vi. of the " Imperial Gazetteer of India," and also separately pub- lished. Rev. W. Ward's "View of the History, Religion and Literature of the Hindus, 1818." Rev. W. J. Wilkins's " Hindu Mythology and Modern Hinduism." Sir Monier- Williams's "Religious Thought and Life in India," and "Indian Wisdom ;" " Sacred Books of the East."] A GHAUT AT BENARES, WITH KECESSES FOR DEVOTEES. CHAPTER IV. i¥lofcmt tKiftutem n- Inclusiveness of Hindu worship — Variations in modern times— Religiousness of the Hindus— House- hold worship — The guru — Initiation — Elements of worship — Brahman ritual — Ritual of the common people— Temple services — Temple priests— Frequent festivals— Images— Festival cere- monies— Miracle-plays— Festivals of Durga— Pilgrimages to holy places— Benares— Temple of Bisheshwar— Pilgrims' observances— Puri— The great temple— The images— Consecrated food— The Car festival— Reported immolation of victims— A touching incident— Vishnu temple at Trichinopoly— Vishnuite sects— Sivaite sects— The Saktas— The Sikhs— The Sikh bible— The Brahmo Somaj— Rammohun Roy— Devendra Nath Tagore — Keshub Chundra Sen— The Uni- versal Somaj — Fatalism — Maya, or illusion— Transmigration — Rewards and punishments — Death and cremation— Ceremonies for the dead — Moral state— Condition of wives— Position of women — Widows — Suttee — Disconnection of morals and religion — Hindu virtues. IN describing modern Hindu religious practices and worship, we are met with a most varied assemblage of rites and customs, often mutually discordant, all of which have an equal claim to inclusion underInclugivenegs the name Hinduism. Never has there been a religion so expan- of Hindu sive and all-inclusive. As a recent Bengal census report states, the term denotes neither a creed nor a race, neither a church nor a people, but is a general expression devoid of precision. It embraces alike the disciples of Vedantic philosophy, the high-class Brahman, the low-caste worshippers of all the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and the semi-barbarous aborigines who are entirely ignorant of Hindu mythology, and worship a stone in time of sickness and danger. There is so great a difference in the prevalent forms of worship in different districts, there are so many personal 231 23, THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and household ceremonies, differing according to rank or locality, and also variations in there have been so many changes in modern times, that it is quite modern times.] mp0ssible to give more than a partial view in a limited space. The common people believe their worship has lasted unchanged for long ages, and Europeans have largely adopted the same view ; but while the Hindu nature remains very largely the same, variations in worship have been multitudinous. The great car festival of Jagannath is a modification of a Buddhist festival ; and it would be easy to multiply proofs of the changes in modern Hinduism. To a greater extent than any nation under the sun, the Hindus are a religious people. As Mr. Wilkins says, " to treat of the ordinary life of the „ ,, . Hindu is to describe the Hindu religion. From before birth to Religiousness _ y . . of the the close of life periodical ceremonies are enjoined and, for the most part, practised." Mostly they are survivals from animism, sorcery, astrology, and the like primitive beliefs. Thus, before the birth of a child the mother must not wear clothes over which birds have flown, must always have a knot in her dress round the waist, must not walk or sit in the courtyard, in order to avoid evil spirits must wear an amulet round her neck containing flowers consecrated to the god Baba Thakur, and must drink every day a few drops of water touched by this amulet. The naming of a boy is a most important ceremony, including a thanksgiving service, with gifts for the benefit of ancestors. The names of gods or deified heroes are often chosen, with the addition of another chosen by the astrologer, who calculates the horoscope of the child. Every household at all raised above poverty has a family priest (unless the head is himself a Brahman), who performs service, usually twice a day, Household ui a room in which the family idol is kept. There is also a plat- worship. form opposite the entrance gate of the house, to receive the images made for the periodic festivals. The priest bathes and anoints the idol, recites a ritual, and presents offerings of fruits and flowers given by the family. The family, however, are not usually present, the priest being the only person whose presence is needed. The offerings are his perquisite, and he is supported entirely by one or two families. Of course he is present at all the important family ceremonies. The guru, or religious teacher, is a distinct functionary ; he is the initiator into the Hindu sects, and the teacher of their doctrines ; but he The guru C*0es not **ve *n ^ie nouse °f a disciple. The Hindus are taught that it is better to offend the gods than their guru, for the latter can intercede if the former are angry ; but if the guru is offended, no one can intercede, and the curse of the guru brings untold miseries. He usually visits his disciples only once a year, unless he wants more money. His treatment of them is very lofty ; and educated Hindus themselves describe the gurus as covetous, unprincipled, and familiar with vice. The best initiation. entertam]uent, new carpets and large presents are demanded by them, and few teach anything of value. Every Hindu boy of eight i old (sometimes older) receives from his chosen guru, who need not MODERN HINDUISM. 233 be a Brahman, a sacred text or mantra, called the seed text, which is taught to him in private, with the name of the god selected by the guru for his especial worship. This text must never be repeated to others, and must be 234 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. said over mentally or in whispers one hundred and eight times a day (the number is often counted by a rosary). The youth, before receiving it, fasts, bathes, and appears in spotless robes; and if he be of the twice-born (Brahman, Kshatrya, or Vaisya) castes, he for the first time puts the sacred thread round his neck. The relationship between the disciple and his guru continues throughout life. The present race of gurus are as a rule self- indulgent and ignorant men. The astrologer is an equally necessary personage to the household ; no journeys can be undertaken, no new busi- ness begun without his aid; he fixes the hour for weddings and religious festivals, and numerous other matters depend absolutely on his pronouncing the time opportune. The great elements of Hindu worship may be defined as (1) mediation, (2) works of merit, (3) purchasing the favour or arresting the disfavour of the Elements gods by presents and sacrifices. The educated Hindu certainly of worship. iias a ^jgh object, namely, to gain a realisation of his identity with the supreme Being, and to become reunited to Him. This state can only be approached by the Brahman ascetic ; all others not Brahmans must by religious works seek to be reborn in some future life in a higher caste, until they reach the bliss of Brahmanism. We have already indicated to some extent the ritual observances laid down for Brahmans in the sacred books. These are still kept up in essence ; Brahman and so numerous and laborious are they, that two hours both ritual, morning and evening, and an hour in the middle of the day, are occupied in fulfilling them all. The ascetics have plenty of time for this ; but Brahmans engaged in business find them very trying, and a few perform them by deputy, through a family priest. Previous to any act of worship a complex ablution must be performed, with many details and prayers ; then the sun is worshipped, with meditation on Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva ; the text known as Gayatri is next repeated three times while holding the breath. It runs thus : " Om " (see p. 192), " earth, sky, heaven ! We medi- tate on the adorable light of the resplendent generator (the sun) which governs our intellects, which is water, lustre, savour, immortal faculty of thought, Brahma, earth, sky, heaven." Thus, the light of the sun is taken as the type of all effulgent power ; and, as a native commentator says, " it must be worshipped by them who dread successive births and deaths, and who eagerly desire beatitude. . . ." But this prayer must be preceded by the repetition of the names of the seven worlds: 1. This earth. 2. The wi .rid of the unconscious dead awaiting the end of the present age. 3. The heaven of the good. 4. The middle world. 5. The world of births, foi animals destroyed at the end of each age. 6. The abode of the sons of Brahma. 7. The abode of Brahma the supreme. The word Om is to be repeated before and after this list. Many other ceremonies follow. The heart is supposed to be cleansed from sin by drawing up a little water by one nostril and expelling it by the other. One of the prayers is, " May whatever sin I have committed by night, in thought, word, or deed, be cancelled by day. Whatever sin is in me, may it be far removed." MODERN HINDUISM. 235 Before the reading of the Vedas, which follows, offerings of grain, etc., must be made to the gods, with invitations to them to be present and cheerful during the reading of the Veda ; then similar offerings must be made to Yama and the great progenitors of mankind, then for the Brahman's ancestors, and for all men, with the object of relieving the wants of sufferers in hells, or increasing the blessedness of those in heaven. After this exhausting series of ceremonies, the Brahman, before taking his meal, offers a portion to deities, ancestors, and to all other beings, and must then feed his guests before partaking himself. Finally he must wash his hands and feet, afterwards tasting the water. As his food is given him, he says, " May heaven give thee ! " and when he takes it he says, " May earth receive thee ! " He may not yet eat until he has passed his hand round the plate to separate it from the rest of the company, has offered five pieces to Yama, has made five oblations to breath, and has wetted his eyes. In addi- tion to these rites (which are here only partially given) there may be others significant of the particular sect to which the man belongs. Some will also wait for possible guests before taking food, for Brahma himself is represented as present in every guest. But it must be owned that the mass of the Hindus have no such elaborate daily ritual. The Sakta sect, it is true, and the more religious members of other sects, have a considerable daily ceremony, all Ritual of the including much the same ideas of purification of body, avert- common ing the anger of ghosts or ancestors, the offering of sacrifices to the great gods and goddesses, the recitation of their deeds as told in the Puranas, etc. But the majority of Hindus only bathe daily, and raise their hands and bow to the rising sun. Shopkeepers have an image or a picture of Ganesa in their shops, and burn a little incense before it in the morning ; Vishnuites have one or more of the god's emblems, especially the Salgrama (a fossil Ammonite), which they guard as if it were a living being, bathing it in the hot season, etc., and before these daily prayers are offered. The names of the gods are repeated a great number of times a day. How- ever, on days when it is not very convenient to go through a long form, the Hindu will be content with repeating the text he was taught by his guru, which is often an unmeaning jingle. The public temples contain the principal religious apparatus of the mass of the Hindus. But it must not be imagined from this that their temples are as a rule large. They are not, in general, places for Temple the assemblage of numbers of people, and in fact they are mostly services- not more than ten or a dozen feet square. They are simply small buildings in charge of a priest, who takes care of an idol or image, which is supposed to be a special abode of the deity, and who receives offerings from worshippers coming one by one, and prostrating themselves before the image. Many of them have been built by public contributions, others by rulers, and many jby well-to-do private persons anxious to secure merits to balance their sins. If they desire to make a large offering, they do not build a larger temple, but a number of smaller ones, seven, fourteen, twenty-one, or even more, 2,6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. some of which may never be used. Old temples of this kind are not re- paired ; the new man does not wish to do what will but add to the merit of another. Usually the temple has an outer court, often with verandahs round, in which pilgrims may lodge when they come from a distance. The pie itself has two main portions — the vestibule, and the shrine contain- ing the image, only large enough to admit the priest. One of the singular forms observed is the ringing of a bell to attract the notice of the god to his worshipper, who merely walks round, hands his gift to the priest, and bows to the image. The priests of these temples are all Brahmans, who alone perform the proper worship, usually without any spectators. The sacred texts are Temple merely muttered, and being in Sanskrit, are unintelligible to the priests. masses ; the texts, of course, differ according to the god or incar- nation that is being worshipped. The essential character of this worship lies in the treatment of the image as if it were a living being, and the priest his servant ; washing, dressing, feeding, decorating, putting to bed, etc., are all gone through most carefully. "With all this the people have nothing to do but to bring the offerings, which become the priests' property. Of course, in the case of deities whose rites require animal sacrifices, there is a great business of slaughtering victims, and afterwards disposing of the meat not required by the priests ; it finds a ready sale, being especially valuable owing to its sacred character. The regular daily worship of the temples forms but a small part of the religious life of the Hindu. His attention is mainly given to the festivals Frequent which occur so frequently, though somewhat irregularly, as to festivals. 0CCUpy the place of the Christian Sunday. Most of the gods have special festival days, and others are only worshipped publicly on such days. Not only are special images of the gods made for the temples, but also for many private persons, whose houses become public temples for the day or days of the festival, and are visited by crowds of people. Usually, after the proper ceremonial has been gone through, various amusements — nautch dances, plays, musical entertainments— are provided. Sometimes two or more adjoining villages will join in these celebrations, each householder paying his share. Images are provided for these festivals by regular tradesmen. They are largely based upon bamboos tied together, and covered with hay and mud from a sacred stream. They are then dried in the sun, and after- wards painted, dressed, and otherwise decorated according to some mode presented by the sacred law-books. When they are taken to the place <>!' worship, the priest engaged for the occasion performs a ceremony called the giving of life, in which the god is invited to reside in the image for one, two, or three days. It then becomes sacred, and must be touched by none Festival but a Brahman, — must be approached by none but a Hindu. A lomes. fuii morning anj evening worship is celebrated before the image, that in the evening being followed by amusements. The concluding day witnesses the farewell of the deity, who is thanked for favouring the MODERN HINDUISM. 237 worshippers with his or her presence, and is supplicated to return next year. When the god is supposed to have departed, the sacred image CAR OF JAGAMNATH AX l'UHI, OKISisA. becomes once more common clay, and may be touched by any one. About sunset it is taken to a river bank, or to a tank, with a musical procession, dancing women and lighted torches. The image is rowed out to the middle ,38 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of the stream and dropped into the water, there to dissolve and decay. The amount of worship performed by Hindus is increased by the necessity of averting the evil which other gods besides their own special deity may cause and by their desire to gain any possible additional benefit. We can net give space to a recital of the important public festivals which , ,ccur throughout the months of the year. These vary in different localities, bhe total number is enormous. For instance, there are festivals all over ,1 to Jagannath, in imitation of the great ones at Puri, cars and great images being similarly provided. There are numerous special festivals to Sasthi who watches over women in child-bearing, and protects children. At the festivals of Krishna miracle-plays form an important Miracle plays, f ea£ure^ an(j represent the most important events in the lives of the gods, the actors being got up to represent them, and not omitting their many indecent words and actions. By such representations, among other things the illiterate Hindu masses come to have a more vivid idea of the history of their gods than any people. The festival of Durga in Bengal is especially elaborate, the sons of Dur°"a, Sarasvati, the wife of Brahma, and Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, Festivals of being attendant figures. Durga herself has ten hands, holding Durga. weapons emblematic of her victories. The forms of worship previous to the coming to life of the goddess are very long, and one or more animals may be sacrificed, sometimes a buffalo. So generally is this festival observed, — husbands and sons returning home for it, and business being suspended, — that it has been termed the Christmas of Bengal. It is cele- brated in the sixth" month (parts of September and October). The festival of Lakshmi, which follows, is the occasion for sitting up at night playing cards or amusing themselves, for the goddess is believed during the night to pass over all who are awake. In the seventh month there is a very repulsive celebration of Durga in her bloodthirsty aspect. " In the images which represent her at this festival," says Mr. Wilkins, " she is black, as her name Kali implies, and her husband is lying down under her feet. Her tongue protrudes from her mouth, her four arms are extended, one hand grasping a sword, another the head of a giant, and the other two signalling to her hosts. As ear-rings she has two dead bodies of her foes ; her neck is adorned with a necklace of skulls, and her only garment, a zone, is made of the hands of her vanquished foes, whilst her hair falls down in long tresses to her waist. Intoxicated with the blood of her foes, her eyes flash with rage, her eyebrows are dyed with crimson, and blood flows down her breast." This worship is attended with midnight sacrifices of animals, shrieking invocations, and drunken orgies. Many of the festivals assume the aspect of carnivals. At some of the festivals of Siva hooks used to be ted in the backs of men, which were then swung in the air at a great '!;• Lght; but this is now discontinued, either a dummy being used, or the hook fixed to a rope round the man's body. The next great department of Hindu worship is that concerned with pilgrimages to particular places of great sanctity or to special temples. MODERN HINDUISM. 239 Large numbers of Hindus have given themselves up to nothing but travel- ling from one sacred place to another ; but a great proportion piigrimages of the people strain every nerve to visit a shrine at least onceto holy places, in their lifetime, and will exercise self-denial for many years to pay the expenses of their journey and provide offerings for the gods, believing that their pilgrimage will secure them great blessings both in this world and the next. They cheerfully endure the greatest privations or sufferings on the way, and show the most intense joy when they come in sight of their destination, or see the sacred image exhibited. " I have seen the people throw themselves on the ground," says Mr. Wilkins, " and kiss the very dust as soon as they have caught sight of the holy city of Benares ; I have seen them take the dust from the wheels of Jagannath's car, and place it on their head with signs of the intensest pleasure ; I have heard them shout with joy as they have come in sight of the meeting of the waters of the Ganges with the sea at Saugor Island." Many now travel by rail to the famous shrines, and thus the crowds that visit them are greater than ever • but many still go by road or boat, often being drowned, or dying by the wayside. Some take vows to perform long distances by measuring their length upon the ground. The sacrifice of life is increased by the demands of the priests, which too often do not leave the pilgrims enough money to provide for the return journey. It cannot be said that the amount or character of the worship paid is an adequate justification for the weary toil and expense of the journey. Bathing, presenting offerings, walking round the temples and seeing the place are the chief religious acts, and too often the rest of the time is occupied with immoral or degrading practices which the priests facilitate. The reputation of many shrines is kept up by the preaching or talking of travelling adherents, always engaged for the purpose of vaunting the benefits obtained by a pilgrimage. Visits are also paid in the hope of obtaining the much-valued blessing of a son, or in fulfilment of a vow in time of distress or sickness. We can only notice in any detail the two greatest places of pilgrimage in India, Benares and Puri : the former being the special abode of Siva, the latter of Vishnu. In no Indian city has gross idolatry a stronger hold than in Benares ; ugly idols, monstrosities, and reproductive emblems are met with on all sides. More temples have been built and more money has been spent on worship under British rule than during an equal period of Mussulman domination ; but this is accounted for by the greater wealth and freedom of the people. Some years ago more than a thousand temples were counted in Benares proper, exclusive of suburbs, and of images in house walls. These are devoted to a great variety of deities, sometimes Siva under different names, or relatives of other deities connected with Siva ; and not content with an image of the god worshipped in a particular temple, in many cases the priests have added images of others in niches or in rows ; sometimes even a hundred are to be seen in rows. The exceeding sanctity of Benares is accounted for by a legend which we have already given (p. 227), and this holy character extends to ten miles from the Ganges, 24o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the tract being bounded by a winding road fifty miles long, containing hundreds of temples. To walk along this road is itself a most meritorious act; residents are taught that they should walk along it at least once a year ; and whosoever dies within this area, even a heretic or a criminal, gains heaven. The most important temple in the city is that of Bisheshwar (god of the world), a name given to Siva as king of all the gods in the Benares Temple of territory, the gods of the sacred road being his police force. He Bisheshwar. js supposed to reside in a stone linga emblem, and before this crowds of people pass daily with offerings of rice, flowers, grain, ghee, and money. Many of the worshippers in approaching the god show signs of great fear, dreading to call down his anger. Another of the great places of attraction is the Mankarnika well, a foul tank of water which is believed to wash out the greatest crimes. Pilgrims taking the fifty miles journey round Benares have to go through a severe ritual ; they must, if possible, bathe before starting, and Pilgrims' at the end of each day, and must walk barefoot, must provide observances. for their own wants without receiving from or giving to others, must not quarrel or use bad language on the road, and must give gifts to the priests of the Mankarnika well at the end of the journey. In a somewhat different way from Benares, Puri (the city) on the coast of Orissa is as famous and holy in the eyes of Hindus. Here Vishnu is worshipped as Jagannath (the Lord of the World) ; and a series of notable festivals throughout the year keep up a continual round of religious excitement, culminating in the famous Car Festival, attended by something like 100,(300 pilgrims. There seems little doubt that Puri was a Buddhist sanctuary, to the reputation of which Jagan- nath has succeeded. The present temple dates from the end of the twelfth century, and is a pyramidal building on a site about twenty feet above the The great surrounding country. Vishnu worship was greatly modified by temple. Chaitairya, who taught that faith and love were more acceptable to the deity than penance and rites. The temple already had a large double enclosure with lofty walls ; and Chaitanya taught that within it men of all castes were equal, and might eat together of the sacred food. Altogether the worship of Jagannath became that of a gentle, genial deity with human feelings and sympathies, and having no trace of those bloodthirsty qualities generally associated in this country with the 'car of Juggernaut.' No doubt the genial has become the jovial and the voluptuous with many of the worshippers, and the worship itself is accused of licentiousness, but as warmly defended from the charge by some who have had good opportunities of knowing. The inner enclosure of the great temple, nearly four hundred by three hundred feet, includes a number of small temples and sacred places and trees as well as the large temple. The latter contains four principal halls, the Hall of Offerings, the Dancing Hall for amusements, the audience chamber, and the shrine proper, both the latter being eighty feet square. MODERN HINDUISM - 1' In niches in the shrine are three large images of three of Vishnu's incarna- tions—the Boar, the Man-lion and the Dwarf. The principal images are those of Jagannath, painted black ; of Balarama, his brother, white, and Subhadra, their sister, golden yellow. They are made of one block of iron-wood, and are most uncouth representations of human bodies without hands or legs, the arms being stumps to which 2 42 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. golden hands are fixed. The male images are about six feet high, the female four and a half feet. The clothing and ornaments of these images are changed several times a day, so that they appear very different at different hours, sometimes being dressed as Buddha, sometimes as Krishna, sometimes as Ganesa. Various stories are told to account for these ugly images, one being that God is so great that no figure can properly represent Him, consequently these ugly ones are made to inspire people with fear, that they may propitiate Him by gifts. Most probably they are modified forms of Buddhist images ; there is an additional shapeless stump about six feet high, which is said to have the mark of a wheel on the top, representing the Buddhist wheel of the law. A certain relic is imbedded in the image of Jagannath, and is carefully transferred when new images are made ; what it is, none but the priests know, and it is probably a Buddhist relic. Numerous other gods or forms of the principal gods have images in or near the shrine. The chief images are only moved at the great festivals : consecrated but daily services of a complete character, as if they were human food. beings, are performed. At the four chief meals of the day large quantities of cooked food are brought into the temple and consecrated by being set in front of the idol. It is cooked by men of low caste, and eagerly eaten by pilgrims of all castes after consecration, or even taken home as a sacred treasure. On some clays this food is supplied to 100,000 people, for paj^ment, of course, so that the profits of the priests in charge are enormous. The great festivals at Puri are the Dol Jatra festival, a sort of spring carnival ; the Snan Jatra, when the images are bathed with sacred water and beautifully dressed, after which they are supposed to have taken a fever from exposure and are put in a sick chamber for a fortnight, during which The car time they are repainted ; and then follows the Rath Jatra, or Car Festival. Festival, when the gods are taken for a ride on their cars. These chariots have often been described ; they are of immense weight and cuni- brousness, that of Jagannath being forty-five feet high, and having sixteen wheels. Amid an enormous concourse the images are placed on the cars, and dressed, and have golden hands and arms attached to them. When this is complete, the chief guardian of the temple, the Kurda Raja, termed " the sweeper of the temple," sweeps the road for one hundred yards in front of the cars, worships the images, and touches the ropes of the car as if he were dragging them ; then hundreds of Hindus specially set apart for the office, aided by the attendant pilgrims, drag the car slowly to a set of temples about two miles distant. This great effort, however, occupies four days, and on arrival at the destination the image of Lakshmi is taken to see Jagannath. After four or five days the return journey takes place. It is at this festival that immolations of pilgrims have been supposed to take place as part of the routine, so that the car of Juggernaut has become with Reported many almost synonymous with a system of ruthless crushing of immolation human victims ; but this is really contrary to the spirit of the worship of Vishnu. No doubt self-immolation has not un- frequently taken place, because the worshippers felt their sins were all MODERN HINDUISM. 243 atoned for, and they did not wish to return to the world to commit fresh sins ; and in the crowds many have no doubt been accidentally crushed to death ; but human sacrifice is not inculcated by the priests nor in any way encouraged by them, for a drop of blood spilt in the presence of Jagannath pollutes priests, people, and consecrated food. If a death takes place within the precincts of the temple, the worship is suddenly stopped, and the offerings are taken away from the sight of the offended deity. There is an almost continual round of festivals at Puri, which indeed lives on its religious character, having no other attraction. Other notable localities for pilgrimages are the great temples of Tan- jore, Madura, and Rarnesvara (an island between India and Ceylon), these being seats of Siva worship. It is a great pilgrims' feat to visit Benares and bring from thence a pot of Ganges water to Ramesvara, to pour it on the symbol of Siva and then bathe in the sea, of course with payment of fees. Sir Monier- Williams relates a touching incident in con- a touching nection with this. " Shortly before my arrival at the temple a i11"*16111- father and son had just completed their self-imposed task, and after months of hard walking succeeded in transporting their precious burden of Ganges water to the other side of the channel. The longed-for goal was nearly reached and the temple of Ramesvara already in sight, when the father died suddenly on the road, leaving his son, a mere child, utterly destitute and unprotected. The boy, however, had one treasure left — his jar of Ganges water. This, if only it could be poured upon the sacred symbol, would prove a complete panacea for all his earthly troubles. Eagerly he grasped his burden once more and hurried on to the shrine. Imagine the child's outburst of passionate grief when the door was closed against him. He had no fee for the presiding priest."' The most remarkable Vishnu temple in southern India is that of Sri-rangam, at Trichinopoly. It has a vast series of seven enclosures one within another, in which hundreds of Brahmans live. The visanu corners of the four grate wavs of each square have splendid temple at mi T7" 1. 1 Trichinopoly. pyramidal towers. The whole is supposed to represent Vishnu s heaven. The principal image is lying down, and believed to be immovable — of course with a legend to account for the position, and there is a shrine over it in the shape of the syllable Om. A second image of Vishnu is kept for carrying in processions at the Car Festival, etc. The crown of the idol is covered with diamonds, pearls, and rubies, and the other ornaments are equally rich. Temples like this maintain large bands of musicians and troops of dancing girls, to take part in the festivals. We must now give some brief account of the sects into which the Hindus are divided. To some extent these follow lines already indicated, as worshipping Vishnu or other gods under different manifesta- vishnuite tions, or following the teaching of particular reformers. Thus, to |begin with the Vishnuite sects, there are the Ramanujas, or followers ot Ramanuja, the Ramanandis, the Kabir Panthis, and numerous other sects founded by individuals. All these have special marks which must be 244 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. painted on their foreheads, after bathing at the great festivals, with a special white earth. The Ramanujas, for instance, are distinguished by two perpendicular lines passing from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows, and a transverse line across the top of the nose connecting the other two. In the centre is a transverse streak of red. They are also marked with patches of red and white on the breast and arms, supposed to represent certain signs of Vishnu. Their chief special belief is that Vishnu is Brahman, the supreme Being. The Ramanandis specially worship Vishnu as Ramachandra, with Sita his wife. This sect has many monasteries, and many travelling members, who collect offerings and visit shrines, all these being celibates. They practically disregard caste. The Kabir Panthis, following Kabir, believe in one god, and need not join in the outward worship of the Hindu deities ; but they sing hynins to Kabir, their founder. Their moral code is excellent, including truth, humanity, and hatred of violence. There are very many worshippers of Vishnu under the form of the infant Gopal, child of the cowherd. This sect, founded by Vishnu Swami and extended by Vallabha, is notable for its belief in costly apparel and liberal feeding as meritorious, in opposition to asceticism. The chief temple of Gopal is in Ajmir. The Madvas of Southern India are followers of Madhava, said to have been an incarnation of the god Vayu in the 12th century. They wear a single cloth of a dirty yellow colour, go bareheaded, and have the symbols of Vishnu stamped with a red-hot iron on their shoulders or breast. They worship a plurality of gods, but teach that the human spirit is distinct from the Divine Spirit, though united to it, and that absorption in the godhead is impossible, thus differing markedly from the ordinary Hindu belief. The majority of the Vishnu worshippers of Bengal belong to the sect founded by Chaitanya, whose influence raised the festivals of Puri to such popularity. His followers believe that Vishnu is the supreme soul and the one substance in the universe, and that Chaitanya was an incarnation of him. They also lay great stress upon bakti, or faith, of which there are five degrees : (1) peace, calm contemplation ; (2) servitude; (3) friendship; (4) filial affection; (5) sweetness. Their cult is a joyous one, qualified by the necessity of implicit obedience to the guru. Caste is laid aside at their feasts. The distinguishing marks of the Sivaitic sects are horizontal lines instead of perpendicular; and differences of width and colour indicate the sivaitic particular sect. The Sivaites are very largely Brahmans, and the • sects are not so extensive and popular as those of the Vishnuites. Among them are the Dandis, or staff bearers, mendicants who spend most bheir time in meditation. Often they become almost idiotic from their perpetual suppression of thought and speech. The Yogis are another of meditationists with very special regulations, which are believed i give them the power of levitation, of travelling immense distances tantly, of rendering themselves invisible, etc. Many of them are MODERN HINDUISM. 245 practically jugglers and fortune-tellers, travelling about and practising on popular credulity. The Saktas include those sects specially devoted to the worship of female forms of the deity, such as Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Sita, Parvati, Durga, Kali, etc. The Saktas look upon their female deity as the active ^ Saktas energy of all things, and the source of all beings, for without the 246 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. female element they could not be born. It is chiefly in modern books termed Tantras that these views are taught. They have been called the Bible of the Saktas, and are akin to the Puranas in parts, but in others deal largely with the peculiar rites of the Saktas, and charms and spells, mostly being in the form of dialogues between Siva and his wife. No doubt in this cultus the lowest grade of Hinduism was reached. It upholds and pro- pagates the most unbridled ideas of sensuality, in the belief that to indulge the grossest appetites with the mind fixed on the supreme Being was the most pious act possible. The drinking of alcoholic liquors forms a great element in Sakti worship, as well as the eating of meat. The powers sup- posed to be acquired by meditating on the texts and spells of the Tantras outdo anything imaginable. By them it is possible to predict the future, work more wonders than the gods, inspire any one with love, turn plants into meal, etc. Credulity cannot go farther than in the case of the believers in Saktism. It is believed, however, that the spread of education by the English has done much to diminish the sway of these baleful notions. Here we may call attention to an opposite phenomenon in modern Hinduism — the spread of theistic sects of an increasingly pure tendency. The Sikhs of the Puniaub owe their rise to Nanak, a follower of The Sikhs Kabir in the 15th century, born not far from Lahore in 1469. He became a guru or teacher, and his followers were termed Sikhs or disciples. He taught a religion free from caste and idolatry, having been largely influenced by the growing Mohammedanism around him ; but he still remained more of a pantheist than a monotheist, and he taught that God should be especially worshipped under the name of Hari, one of the titles of Vishnu. After his death there succeeded him a line of chief gurus, who, at first friendly, developed great hostility to the Mohammedans, and became largely military leaders. Their political history must be read else- where. The fourth guru, Ram-das, set up a lake temple in the sacred tank at Umritsur, which became the head-quarters of the Sikhs. The fifth guru, Arjun, compiled the first Sikh bible largely from the precepts of his prede- cessors. Govind, the tenth guru, compiled a second book or supplement, devised a form of baptism, imposed a vow not to worship idols, to bow to no one but a Sikh Guru, and in many ways cemented the bonds of the party. War was made a religious duty ; and while Govind refused to name a successor as guru, he created the Sikh bible (or Granth), a permanent object of worship with the title Sahib. Henceforth it was to be their infallible guide ; what- The sikh ever they asked it would show them. The Sikh bible is written bible. in tjie 0i(j Hindi dialect, with a peculiar mode of writing. It declares the unity of God, but is based on pantheistic ideas. Many of the names of Vishnu are accepted as names of the supreme Deity. It forbids image worship, but the way in which the Granth itself is worshipped, dressed, and decorated, goes far to elevate it into an idol. Many ordinary Hindu superstitions are included in it, such as the belief in the sanctity of the cow, the vast number of transmigrations of souls, and complete submis- MODERN HIND r ISM. 247 sion to the guru. In recent years the Sikh faith has very considerably retrograded towards Vishnuism. Many Sikhs now adopt caste, wear the Brahmanical thread, and observe Hindu festivals and ceremonies. There is a notable temple to Govind at Patna containing many remains of him. The temple at Umritsur is one of the most striking sights in India ; it is dedicated to the one god under his name Hari ; but he is believed to be visibly represented by the Sacred Book. A very significant development of modern Hinduism is that represented by the Brahmo Somaj, which represents a revival of the theism to be found in the Veclas, influenced not a little by the teaching of Christianity. The Brahmo Rammohun Eoy (born 1774), founder of the Brahmo Somaj, was a somaj. high-caste Brahman, son of a Vishnu worshipper, and highly educated in Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. At the age of sixteen he wrote a tract against idolatry, and excited such opposition that he left home for some Rammohun years, studying Buddhism in Tibet. He afterwards studied R°y- English, obtained government employment, and mixed with Europeans. After his father's death he was more free in his opposition to what he con- sidered perversions of the true Vedic religion ; and he particularly drew attention to the fact that suttee, the self-immolation of widows, was not sanctioned by the Vedas. In 1819, after studying Christianity, he pub- blished a book, " The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness," in which he stated that he found the doctrines of Christ more conducive to moral principles, and better adapted for the use of rational beings, than any other that had come to his knowledge. Nevertheless he strongly objected to accept the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, for he considered it to be of the same nature as that of a plurality of gods. Thus he is properly described as a Unitarian. He preferred to choose the best from all religions, believing that inspiration was not confined to any age or nation ; thus he accepted whatever was good in the sacred books of all nations. The Brahmo Somaj was finally established in 1830, " for the worship of the eternal, unsearchable, and immutable Being, who is the Author and Preserver of the universe." No image or portrait was to be admitted, no sacrifice was to be made, and nothing worshipped by other men was to be spoken of with contempt in the building. Although he has spoken and written against the caste system, Rammohun Roy did not give it up, nor abandon the Brahmanical thread. The Vedas were still read at his meet- ings, while the Bible was not introduced. In 1831 he visited England with several objects, but fell a victim to the climate and died in 1833 at Bristol. To him must be given the credit of the first striking new de- parture in the elevation and purification of modern Hinduism. His practical successor was Devendra Nath Tagore, bom in 1818, who in 1839 formed a society for the knowledge of truth, and in 1811 joined the Brahmo Somaj. He prepared a scheme for organising that Devendra society as a church in 1843, including seven solemn vows to be Nath J i • <• • i 1 Tagore. taken by members. The members were to abstain from idolatry, to worship the great God, Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer, through the .4S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. love of God and doing works dear to God, — to lead holy lives and to seek forgiveness through abandonment of sin. A minister was appointed, and by 18-17, 707 persons had taken the vows, while many others adhered to them. About 1850 it was decided that the Vedas were not infallible, and tluir only such views as were in harmony with Theistic truth were to be accepted from them. Approved extracts were made from the Vedas, Maim, the Satapatha Brahmana, etc. The views of the church include the Fatherhood of God, who has never become incarnate, but whose providence is over his creatures, and who hears their prayers. Repentance is the one path of atonement, forgiveness, and salvation. The only necessary religious deeds are good works, charity, contemplation and devotion, and the attain- ment of knowledge, all penances and pilgrimages being useless. The only sacrifice is self-sacrifice, the only temple is the pure heart. Caste is not acknowledged. With all these advanced views, much tacit recognition of Hinduism, and even conformity with it was still maintained ; and in 1865 a new reformer Keshub proclaimed his mission, the well-known Keshub Chunder Sen, im- chunder bued with more advanced views as well as a more emotional and Sen. . . spiritual nature. He wished to abolish all caste observances, and this led to a rupture. A new form of initiation, the admission of women and the reform of marriage observances followed ; but after vigorous work for a number of years, Keshub agreed to the marriage of his daughter while a child to the Maharajah of Kuch Behar, at which some Hindu ceremonies were observed, and this caused much scandal. Nevertheless his church, the Progressive Brahmo Somaj of India, showed much vitality under his almost autocratic rule up to his death on January 8th, 1884. The original society, now known as the Adi Somaj, continues under the guidance of Devendra Nath Tagore, but has somewhat gone back towards Hinduism. Keshub had the skill to introduce new festivals to replace the older Hindu celebrations, including religious meetings with public pro- cessions, music, and singing. He also professed himself inspired to put down sectarianism and discord between sects. His influence still lives ; the apostolic Durbar of his church refused to allow the platform from which he taught to be used, and declared that Keshub was still the leader of the church. It would be curious to note if this is followed by any further step towards his deification. The party who left Keshub after the marriage of his daughter have formed a stronger church than the one they left, under the title of the The Universal Somaj. They have adopted a sort of presbyterian universal government, to prevent the autocratic rule of one man, and only those who have given up idolatry and caste in private as well as in public can be office-bearers. Altogether there are about 1,500 strict members and 8,000 adherents of these various Theistic bodies in India, distributed over 178 churches. We have said little hitherto of certain common notions of the Hindus, which however influence them very greatly and hinder improvement. For MODERN HINDUISM. ^49 instance, fatalism is one of their strongest beliefs. All a man's life is con- trolled by the Deity, and it is fruitless for man to oppose the decrees Fatalism of God. It is this resignation to fate which so largely paralyses the efforts of the people, especially in regard to sickness. The belief in Maya, or illusion, is another of their beliefs. It is said that all Mayai or mankind are the victims of illusion, especially in imagining musl0n- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. themselves to be something different from God. It is commonly said that the supreme Being was tired of being alone, and formed the world as a sport or amusement, and that all the miseries of life came from Maya, the creatures being ignorant that they are really one with God. Again, belief in the transmigration of souls pervades all India. It will be found to constitute a prominent feature in Buddhism. We may here .»_ briefly state the essential details of the creed. Existence after TransrmgTa- J . „ tion. death is a matter of course. A predominantly good life is rewarded with heaven, an evil life with hell. After a longer or shorter time the soul returns to earth to be re-born in a higher or lower station, according to its good or evil deeds. Re-births may be indefinitely and numerous, and may be alternately higher and lower, or higher urns men s. ^ ^ ^e conduct has been sufficiently good. Many of the gods are believed to have a heaven of their own, into which they take their worshippers for a longer or shorter time, and admit them to various degrees of nearness to themselves. Many are the acts which confer these privileges, but especially pilgrimages, acts of worship, sacrifices, building temples, giving gifts to Brahmans, and honouring gurus. The higher states of blessedness are exclusively for Brahmans ; but those of lower caste may by good works earn re-birth in higher castes till they at last become Brahmans. The various hells and heavens are elaborately described in the Puranas. There are said to be a hundred thousand hells, one for each class of offence. For instance, a glutton is to be cast into boiling oil ; he who injures a man of superior caste is punished by being torn by swine ; one who contemptu- ously treats a religious mendicant is made to stick fast in the mud with his head downwards. But fortunately for both sinners and priests, these punishments may be remitted if appropriate atonements, good deeds, and offerings are made. For corporeal sins, says Manu, a man will be re- born as a plant or a mineral ; for verbal sins, as a bird or a beast ; for mental sins, in the lowest human state. The slayer of a Brahman will be re-born as a dog, boar, ass, bull, etc. ; he who steals gold from a priest will be born a thousand times in the bodies of spiders, snakes, etc. But the earlier books are far surpassed by the later ones in their teaching on this point. Thus, in the Agni Purana it is taught that " a person who loses human birth passes through 8,000,000 births amongst inferior creatures before he can appear again on earth as a human being. Of these he remains 2,100,000 among the immovable parts of creation, as stones, trees, etc. ; 1)00,000 amongst the watery tribes ; 1,000,000 amongst insects, worms, etc. ; 1,000,000 amongst birds, and 3,000,000 amongst the beasts. In the ascending scale, if his works be suitable, he lives 400,000 lives amongst the lower castes of men, and 100 amongst Brahmans. After this he may obtain absorption into Brahma." To such an extent can the policy of frightening people into goodness, or rather into compliance with priestly demands, be developed. Happily the Hindus, as a rule, do not remember the sufferings of their imaginary previous lives or conditions ; and it is a ready way of MODERN HINDUISM. 251 accounting for any misfortune to say that it is a punishment for sins com- mitted in a former life. With such views it is not surprising that death and its approach should be made the occasion for endeavouring to obtain future benefits, or relief from penalties. The Hindu is taught that after death his .... & Death, spirit will wander in wretchedness, unless he dies near the Ganges or some holy stream, or unless his body is burned on its banks, or at any rate near some water, and some portion of his ashes must be thrown into it. This leads to a custom of exposing the dying on the banks of rivers. Long rows of steps line the banks and rude buildings, used for the dying to lie in, called ghats. The benefits of so dying are represented as so great, that relatives often believe it to be the greatest kindness to expose them, often carrying them through terrible heat, and exposing them at imminent risk. Great numbers of lives have been sacrificed in this way when the disease was by no means mortal ; the word of the native doctors is taken as sufficient, and great haste is made lest the patient should die at home. The whole scene is repulsive and injurious in the highest degree. A few minutes before death is expected the victim is brought down to the brink of the river, where he dies more or less immersed in the stream. No doubt in some cases advan- tage is taken of these circumstances to administer poison. A native writer says : " Persons entrusted with the care and nursing of a dying man at the burning ghat soon get tired of their charge (no women being allowed to be there) ; and rather than minister to his comforts, are known to resort to artificial means. The process of immersion is another name for suffoca- tion." So tenacious are some people of life, that they will sometimes- survive nine or ten immersions, and be brought home again ; but their continued life is considered disgraceful. The burning of the corpse follows quickly on death. "The corpse is removed from its resting-place to the burning ghat, a distance of a few hundred yards, and preparations for a funeral pile are speedily made. The body is then covered with a piece of new cloth and laid upon the pyre, the upper and lower parts of which are composed of firewood, faggots, and a little sandalwood and glue to neutralise the smell. The Manipora Brahman, an outcaste, reads the formula, and the son, or nearest of kin, changing his old garments for new white clothes, at one end of which is fastened an iron key to keep off evil spirits, sets fire to the pile. The body is consumed to ashes, the portion remaining unburnt is thrown into the river. The son, after pouring a few jars of holy water on the pile, bathes in the stream and returns home with his friends." Then follow wild expressions of grief on the part of the women. Often the family cannot afford to buy enough wood to consume the corpse, and part is left for jackals and vultures. The Brahmans of course go through much more elaborate funeral ceremonies than are here indicated. After the cremation come the Shradda, or ceremonies for the benefit of the dead ; these may be comparatively inexpensive, or may be made the occasion of lavish expenditure. On the thirtieth day after death, offer- .-_, THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. - of food, sweetmeats, etc., are made to the spirit of the deceased and his or her ancestors, and at the same time a number of Brahmans Ceremonies • for the and persons of other castes are entertained. These ceremonies deacL are evidently much akin to the ancestor-worship of the Chinese, as already detailed, showing how powerful a factor this reverence for ancestral spirits has been in races very dissimilar. One of the prayers is • May those in my family who have been burnt with fire, or who are alive who are }ret unburnt, be satisfied with the food presented on the ground, and proceed contented towards the supreme path! May those who have no father nor mother, nor kinsman, nor food, nor supply of nourishment, be contented with this food offered on the ground, and attain, like it, a happy al x >de ! " Some of the food is cast into the fire, by which means it is supposed to reach those for whom it is intended. Brahmans repeat these ceremonies frequently in the first year after death, and afterwards annually. The title to property is most intimately bound up with the funeral rites. Only a son or near male relative is properly qualified to perform them ; but if males fail, females or other heirs may undertake the duty. Large promises are made in the Puranas and other sacred books to those who properly per- form the Shradda rites, including the forgiveness of all their own sins. The details, like those of all religious matters in so religious a people, are far too lengthy to be given. What about the influence of Hindu religious ideas upon their moral condition ? Many writers agree that this is bound up with the position of women, and that until thev are freed and elevated no permanent Moral state ' improvement can be made. Here is an extract from a Hindu lady's book on the duties of wives. " The husband is the wife's religion, the wife's sole business, the wife's all-in-all. The wife should meditate on her husband as Brahma. For her, all pilgrimages should be concentrated condition of orL her husband's foot. The command of a husband is as obliga- wives. tory as a precept 0f the Vedas. To a chaste wife her husband is her god. When the husband is pleased, Brahma is pleased. The husband is the wife's guru, her honour, the giver of her happiness, the bestower of fortune, righteousness, and heaven, her deliverer from sorrow and from sin." Of course the seclusion of women is not generally possible among the lower classes, but it is often aimed at by them ; and the full consequences Position of °f the belief that the birth of a girl is a misfortune follow most women. In.clia.rL women through life. On the contrary, Hindu women pray, make pilgrimages, fast, and make costly offerings, that they may have sons who can by performing the Shradda rites deliver their ancestors from sufferings after death. All a girl's worship is directed towards obtaining good husbands and sons, by a series of rites which we cannot particularise ; nor can we enlarge upon the evils of girl marriages (at the age of from seven to ten), and of plural marriages in the higher castes, or the details of wedding ceremonies, which however are full of religious significance. The wives of the poorer people have considerable freedom ; but among the richer classes a wife is the servant not only of her husband but of all MODERN HINDUISM. 253 the older women of his family. She must always be visited in the presence other brothers-in-law, and must not speak to her husband in the daytime, nor even take her meals with him. Too frequently she is the subject of painful tyranny and abuse on the part of the older women of the zenana. Yet the life of a Hindu wife is heaven compared with that of a childless widow. The faithful wife was long expected to sacrifice herself on his funeral pile (suttee), and, according as she did it or not, was lauded or cursed. Many widows in the past, from lack of courage to perform what they vowed, had themselves drugged and forcibly immo- Widows. Suttee. SHRINE OF THE GODDESS PARVATI, WIFE OF SIVA (EARLIER FORM OF KALI, DUBGA, ETC.), IN A TEMPLE AT POONAH. lated. Frequently widows would most calmly and impassionately devote themselves to the fire, never giving a cry or a sigh of pain. So powerfully can the belief that they are doing what is pleasing to the gods and their deceased husbands work upon the Hindu women. In 1830 suttee was prohibited in States under British rule ; but it was still practised in some of the native States. Mr. Wilkins states that the last case he heard of was about 1880. The extreme difficulty experienced in abolishing suttee is explained by the treatment to which surviving widows are subjected, especially child- less widows, who are forbidden to marry again, and become the household ,54 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. drudges and objects of scorn of the zenana. One meal a day, with a fast for two days a month, is their hard lot ; with the deprivation of ornaments and of every pleasure. In many cases the sufferings of a widow are such that she would gladly die. No doubt the older widows are able to assert them- selves and in time gain influence. But enough has been said to show that thf key to much of the religious and social question in India is bound up with the condition and education of women. Some improvement has already come with the improved education of the better classes, and the partial opening of the zenanas to European ladies and to lady doctors ; and herein lies great hope for the future. The Hindu system is such that merit and pardon can be obtained for gross offences without any reform of heart and life. Thus it is not sur- prising that theft, dishonesty, lying, ingratitude, forgery, perjury, of morals and revenge, cruelty, and personal immorality are very rife among religion, ^heni. Mr. AVilkins saj^s : " It does not surprise me at all to find the Hindus morally what they are, as I remember that whilst their books contain some of the highest and noblest moral precepts, their deities, when incarnate, are described as ignoring these beautiful moral lessons ; and still further, when I see that religion and morality are quite separate in their view. . . . When a Hindu's anger is excited, truth, honour, trust — all are forgotten, and no means are left unemployed that can injure an enemy. The term ' mild Hindu,' certainly is the purest sarcasm ; they submit to oppression and cruelty because they are physically incapable of resistance. Only give them the opportunity to avenge themselves and to oppose others, and certainly they are as vindictive in their way as any race of men on earth. They do not use the knife or the dagger, it is true, but they resort to poison, and, what is sometimes even worse, the poison of their own untruthful tongues." On the other hand, we must credit the Hindus with Hindu much fraternal affection and filial regard, much charity in the virtues. form of gifts, great patience, industry, and ingenuity. Out of these elements and their great intellectual powers we may hope that there may yet arise a nation mighty in goodness and noble in character. In addition to works referred to in the previous chapter, the following are valuable: Bose's ■I lii Hindus as They Are"; H. H. Wilson's "Hindu Sects"; "Medical Jurisprudence," by Dr. Norman Chevers; Dr. Lall Mittra on "Orissa"; Eev. T. E. Slater's "Life of Keshub Chundra Sen"; many articles in The Calcutta Review.] >E>OoS* M"1DHV AND 1HE LOTUS. BUDDHISM, CHAPTER V. 3Life of Butioba, The soil prepared — The founder's period — Real existence of Buddha — Buddhist sacred books— The native land of Buddha — His youth and early life — The great renunciation— His long retirement — His enlightenment — His temptation — Opening of his mission — The eightfold path— The origin of suffering — The freedom of Buddhism — Early converts — General features of Buddha's life— alter- nation of itinerancy with rest — The Buddhist gardens — Buddha and the courtesan Ambapali — Anxious inquirers — The new order of monks — Buddha not a socialist — Buddha's principal adherents — Lay believers — Women and Buddhism — Reception of sisters or nuns— Opposition — Brahmans confuted — The best sacrifice — Method of teaching— Long-drawnd issertations— A noble youth's conversion — Socratic method — Parables — The book of the Great Decease— Buddha pre- pares for his final discourse — His last temptation — His death. THAT BuddliisHi arose in a country and among people saturated with Brahmanism,1 as we have described it, must never be forgotten in contemplating its rise and development. Without pre-existing Brahman- ism it would have lacked its most essential elements, its raison The soil d'etre. The higher Brahman philosophy had already merged the PrePared- multitude of early Vedic gods into the Universal Spirit, and had developed very considerably their Pantheistic system ; but at the same time the fetters of Brahman control, the observance of expensive and frequent rites, the obligation to obey the Vedic teaching and the authorised comments upon it were made more and more strict and onerous ; and a spirit of reaction naturally arose. That the reform associated with the great Buddha's name was only one evidence of this spirit, may be seen by the account we have already given of other rationalist philosophies (p. 102, etc). But while these gave a more or less nominal assent to the Vedas, Buddhism declared the good man's independence of Brahmans and Vedas, and his power of working 1 [Bhys Davids' "Hibberfc Lectures." Oldenbery's "Buddha" (0). Sacred Books of the East (S.E.).] 255 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. out his own salvation. It put forward at once a higher ideal of a religious Life and claimed a release from the bonds of Pharisaism. When we come to examine into the life of the supposed founder of Buddhism, we find great uncertainty even as to the period at which he me founder's lived. Many good authorities formerly placed him in the sixth period. aU(i seventh centuries B.C.; but the latest and apparently the most reasonable view assigns him to the fifth century b.c. and places his death about 420-400 b.c How far Brahmanism was directly connected with the origin of Buddhism can probably never be known ; but the deity " Brahman " of the earlier religion is adopted, amplified, and subdivided in early Buddhism ; ami no doubt the encouragement of the hermit and ascetic lives had led to the formation of communities of hermits and ascetics who may be taken as the prototypes of Buddhist monastic orders. Probably there were several sects of new religionists, who did not stick closely to the Veda and professed to have found a more excellent way, of whom the Buddhists and Jains have alone remained. We need not doubt that Buddhism had a founder, though less may be attributable to him than is commonly imagined. Those who have believed that the story of Buddha was altogether a myth representing a existence of smi-hero have had to construct more imaginary tales than those they seek to destroy. The study of the Buddhist accounts, as preserved in Ceylon, written in the Pali, or sacred language of Buddhism (an early modification from Sanskrit), shows that from a very early time (supposed to be considerably before the Christian era) their religion has been believed to have been founded by the Knowing or Enlightened One (Buddha), also designated the Exalted One (Bhagava). But it must be confessed that we have no genuine ancient biography of Buddha dating from the same age as the early Pali texts. Such information as they do contain is rather in an incidental and unconnected form ; but this does not cause us to doubt his having existed and been a religious leader, for at that early period and among that people the idea of composing a biography of a man had not arisen ; and all the ancient Hindu books are destitute of any specimen of an attempt at even a brief biography of a man. But the Buddhist existence of numerous Buddhist sacred books, the composition of sacred books. w]aic]1 almost certainly took place before the council of the seven hundred fathers met at Vesali in the fourth century b.c, together with the nature of their contents, suffices to assure us that they represent the teaching of a great teacher, the Buddha, who preached salvation and deliver- ance to the people, and was in rivalry or opposition to six other heads of of whom one, Nataputta, founded the Jain system, often represented as an offshoot of Buddhism, though it is rather a representative of similar tendencies acting at the same time. " It is evident," says Prof. Oldenberg " that Buddha was a head of a monastic order of the very same type as that to which Nataputta belonged; that he journeyed from town to town in the garb and with all the external circumstances of an ascetic, taught and LIFE OF BUDDHA. 257 gathered round himself a band of disciples, to whom he gave simple ordinances." The form in which details concerning him have been pre- served is chiefly his discourses and teaching, sometimes doubtfully asso- ciated with the name of the place where they were uttered ; and in addition to this the main events of his life are frequently referred to. The native land of Buddha was situated between the lower Himalayas of Nepal and the middle course of the river Rapti, in the north-east of Oudh. The little river Rohim, which joins the Rapti near Goruckpore, about 100 miles north of Benares, is its eastern land of boundary. Both the Rohim and the Rapti appear by the same names in early Buddhist literature. In this fertile region, liable to heavy rains and long-lying inundations, the Aryan tribe or people of the Sakyas (the Powerful), grew rice and main- tained a close connection with the more powerful kingdom of Kosala (Oudh) to the south-west, which ultimately ab- sorbed them. Although it has been widely represented that the Buddha was a king's son, the oldest records only mention the father as Suddhodana, a wealthy landowner, one of whose wives, playa, of the same tribe, died ms youth and Boon after the birth of her e^y^fe. son, who was named Siddhattha, and was often called Sakya, or Sakya-muni, the Sakya sage ; this event took place Drobably somewhere about 500 b.c. He massed his youth in Kapila, the capital )f the Sakyas, and there is no early (tradition of his having become a Vedic student ; rather the events of his after- ife tend the other way, exhibiting him is a reformer and an opponent of Brah- nanic pretensions. He appears to have seen married, and to have had one son, Rahula, who became one of his lisciples ; but there is no absolutely certain detail about the reasons and iircumstances which led him at the age of twenty-nine to me Great I ibandon his home, and become a wandering ascetic, thenceforward Renunciation- I caown as the ascetic Gautama (pronounced Gowtama). One of the earliest I ecords represents him as having felt deeply and often meditated on the i Weakness and decay of old age, and the horror of sickness and death, and I laving thus lost the buoyancy of youth and the enjoyment of life. Other I arly records tell that "the ascetic Gautama has gone from home into home- \ bssness, while still young, young in years, in the bloom of youthful strength , a the first freshness of life. The ascetic Gautama, although his parents lid not wish it, although they shed tears and wept, has had his hair and SEATED FIGURE OF BUDDHA. 258 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. beard shaved, has put on yellow garments, and has gone from his home into homelessness." Elsewhere we read, " distressing is life at home, a state of impurity ; freedom is in leaving home ; while he reflected thus, he is home." (0.) Thus seeking spiritual enlightenment, freedom, deliverance, Gautama travelled during a period of seven years, placing himself in succession under His long re- two notable teachers. Leaving them without being satisfied, he tirement. travelled through? the kingdom of Magadha, and arrived at the town of Uruvela. There, in a beautiful forest land, he spent many years inj self-discipline, repressing and curbing his desires and aspirations, and waiting for supreme enlightenment. Fasting, suppression of the breath, and other forms of self-mortification were tried with the greatest persistence, but in vain. Five other ascetics, who had been his companions for a time, abandoned him. Finally came the great crisis, when, sitting under a tree] His eniight- (the Bo-tree, or Tree of Knowledge), he passed through successive enment. stages of abstraction until he became enlightened about the] transmigrations of souls, and the Four Sacred Truths, (1) that suffering is universal in the world ; (2) that its cause is desire or attachment ; (3) that it can be ended by Nirvana; (4) the way to attain Nirvana. "When I j apprehended this," say the early records, " and when I beheld this, my soul was released from the evil of desire, released from the evil of earthly existence, released from the evil of error, released from the evil of ignorance. J In the released awoke the knowledge of release ; extinct is re-birth, finished the'sacred course, duty done, no more shall I return to this world ; this L knew." (0.) He had become the Buddha, the awakened, the enlightened. For" some time Buddha remained near the tree of knowledge, fasting and enjoying the happiness of deliverance ; the oldest narrative states that ms tempta- this period lasted four times seven days. After this time, he is tion. believed to have undergone severe temptation to enter at once into the desired condition of Nirvana instead of preaching his doctrine to the ' world. Meeting a Brahman, who questions his right to assume the title of Brahman, Buddha tells him that he is a true Brahman who has put away all evil from himself, who knows nothing of contempt or impurity, and has conquered himself. Finally at the request of the supreme Being Himself, Brahma Sahampati, Buddha resolved to proclaim to the world the truth he had attained. Buddha's formal mission, by general consent, opened at Benares. He is supposed to have started with preaching to the ascetics who had been his opening of former companions, expounding to them the perfect way, a mean his mission, "between mortification and self-indulgence, and leading to rest, to knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nirvana, by the eightfold path : " Right The eightfold faith, right resolve, right speech, right action, right living, right Path- ^ effort, right thought, right self-concentration." This, his first sermon, is recorded in a form which, if it can scarcely be regarded as giving the ad mil words Buddha uttered, embody a very early form of what the Buddhist monks regarded a the essence of their master's teaching. As we LIFE OF BUDDHA. 259 read it, we realise more vividly liow suffering was regarded by Hindus generally as the bane of existence, a feeling which might well x^e origin of arise in the ceaseless turmoil of strife and oppression among which suffering'- they lived. " Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, to be united with the unloved is suffering, to be separated from the loved is suffering, not to obtain what one desires is suffering ; in short, the fivefold clinging to the earthly is suffering." " This, 0 monks, is the sacred truth of the origin of suffering : it is the thirst for being, which leads from birth to birth, together with lust and desire, which finds gratification here and there ; the thirst for pleasures, the thirst for being, the thirst for power." " This, 0 monks, is the sacred truth of the extinction of suffering, the extinction of this thirst by complete annihilation of desire, letting it go, expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room." He then expounded to them the eightfold path, by which he had attained the supreme Buddhahood in this world and the worlds of gods. Henceforth there was for him no new birth. The new doctrine is summed up thus : — I Walk in purity, to make an end of all suffering." The five ascetics being the first converts, others soon began to flock Iround them, and Buddha sent them forth to preach in the surrounding (country. A conspicuous feature in their teaching, contrasting The freedom arkedly with that of the Brahmans, was their freedom from of Buddnism- onstraint, from forms, from ceremonies, from Pharisaism. " I am loosed om all bands, divine and human," says Buddha. " Ye also, 0 disciples, e loosed from all bands, divine and human. Go ye out, 0 disciples, and avel from place to place for the welfare of many people, for the joy of any people, in pity for the world, for the blessing, welfare, and joy of gods ,nd men. Go not in twos to one place." Returning then to Uruvela, where he had entered into the knowledge f deliverance, he preaches to a band of ascetics, whose leader, Kassapa, he onverts after performing numerous miracles, according to the re- Early ords. The whole body then proceeded to Rajagaha, the capital of converts- agadha (Behar), whose king, Bimbisara, he converted ; this was followed y the conversion of many of the noble youths of M agadha, so much so as lead to much murmuring, the people fearing that the ascetic was come bring childlessness and widowhood and the subversion of families. From this time forward we can frame no proper history of Buddha's fe ; but from the early records about him it is easy to realise the general ature of his career, although without those touches of individu- Generai ity which Hebrews and Europeans so well knew how to hand features of jown, but which have scarcely been noted by the Hindus and fhinese. This is partly because individuality, as we understand, it was tagely undeveloped among them. Their civilisation created types rather Lan individuals, accustomed continually to do the same thing, feel simi- jtrly, and think alike. But one thing is certain ; in early Buddhism there little trace of a contradictory spirit within the order, no trace of a disciple 26o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. developing the master's teaching in new and unexpected directions, or mak- ing himself a second founder. Whether Buddha himself was all that he is described in the earliest records or not, he has no rival, and his disciples closely imitated what they believed him to have said or done. Thus the pic- ture of Buddha's life will describe much of that of his immediate disciples. The contrast of the principal Indian seasons marks the two chief alternations in Buddha's life. The three rainy months necessitated a season ,of rest and retirement in or near towns and villages ; and this Alternation of . -i itinerancy period was devoted partly to teaching the disciples who flocked ' round him. The rest of the year was spent by Buddha in travel- ling from place to place, attended by disciples, throughout the kingdoms of Kosala and Magadha and their neighbourhood, chiefly comprised within Oudh and Behar. They do not appear to have entered Western Hindustan where Brahmanism had its stronghold. Near the chief cities of these king- doms, Savatthi (now Sahet Mahet on the Rapti), and Rajagaha (now Rajgir), pleasant gardens were given to Buddha and his followers, well provided with places for lodging, eating, and assembling. We may gather some idea of what these places were like from a description in one of the The Buddhist early Buddhist books. " Not too far from, nor yet too near the gardens. town, Well provided with entrances and exits, easily accessible to all people who inquire after it, with not too much of the bustle of life by day, quiet by night, far from commotion and the crowds of men, a place of retirement, a good spot for solitary meditation." Here were beautiful groves of trees, pools in which the symbolic lotus grew, and every convenience for meetings ; and such on a smaller scale were provided in many other places. Among the visitors were strangers from distant countries, and those who had accepted the teaching of his disciples and longed to see him ; even kings and chiefs thronged to see him and to hear his teaching. In some cases the rulers of a town commanded every inhabitant to go forth and meet the Exalted One when arriving, under a heavy penalty. One of the most remarkable records in the Buddhist books is that re- lating the conversion of a courtesan, and his preference of her invitation Buddha and ^° ^at °^ ^ie n°klest people. This has been compared to a well- the courtesanknown incident in the life of Christ ; but it must be confessed that the resemblance is but superficial. The following is abridged from the " Book of the Great Decease." " Now the courtesan Ambapali heard that the Blessed One had arrived at Vesali and was staying at her mango grove. And ordering a number of magnificent vehicles to be made ready, she mounted one of them, and pro- ceeded with her train towards her garden. She went in the carriage as far as the ground was passable for carriages ; there she alighted, and she pro- ceeded on foot to the place where the Blessed One was, and took her seat respectfully on one side, and when she was thus seated, the Blessed One instructed, aroused, incited, and gladdened her with religious discourse. ' Then she, instructed, aroused, incited, and gladdened with his words- addressed the Blessed One and said :— LIFE OF BUDDHA. 261 " ' May the Blessed One do me the honour of taking his meal, together with the brethren, at my house to-morrow.' " And the Blessed One gave by silence his consent. Then when Ambapali, the courtesan, saw that the Blessed One had consented, she rose from her seat and bowed down before him, and keeping him on her right hand as she passed him, she departed thence. " Now the Likhavis of Vesali (rich noble youths) heard that the Blessed One had arrived at Vesali, and was staying at Ambapali's grove, and pro- ceeded to invite Buddha to dinner the next day ; but he refused, saying he was already engaged to dine with Ambapali. " And the Blessed One robed himself early in the morning and took his bowl, and went with the brethren to the place where Ambapali's dwelling-house was ; and when he had come there lie seated himself on the seat prepared for him, and Ambapali, the courtesan, set the sweet rice and cakes before the Order, with the Buddha at their head, and waited upon them till they refused any more. " And when the Blessed One had quite finished his meal, the courtesan had a low stool brought, and sat down at his side, and addressed the Blessed One, and said : ' Lord, I present this mansion to the order of mendicants, of which Buddha is the chief.' And the Blessed One accepted the gift ; and after instructing, and rousing, and inciting, and gladdening her with religious discourse, he rose from his seat and departed thence." Here it will be noted that there is absolutely no teaching special to the case. The regular formulas are supposed to have been uttered, and to have proved invincible, so that the hearer yielded absolutely. The great points are the condescending to take a meal with the courtesan (a woman of considerable property, nevertheless), and preferring her invitation to that of rich young nobles, whose forms were compared with those of the Vedic gods. Among those who visited Buddha are distinguished Brahmans, who seek enlightenment on their differences from him, and are brought to see the un- reality of their own religious views and the truth of the Buddhist Anxious belief,— as well as logical casuists, who lay traps for him, and seek mium*8- to make him contradict himself. In fact all sorts and conditions of men, except apparently the poor, resort to Buddha to obtain the knowledge he had to impart ; and they usually signalise their adhesion to his order by giving him and his companions a dinner, followed again by spiritual in- struction. When he had no invitation, Buddha and his companions would traverse the town carrying bowls and seeking alms. As Dr. Oldenberg says : "In the days when his reputation stood at its highest point, and his name was named throughout India among the foremost names, one might day by day see that man before whom kings bowed themselves, walking about, alms-bowl in hand, through streets and alleys, from house to house, and without uttering any request, with downcast look, stand silently waiting until a morsel of food was thrown into his bowl." But the great achievement of Buddha, apart from his doctrine, was his 262 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. formation of a new society, composed of the Bhikkhu or Bhiggu, which cannot ■me new order^e accurately rendered in its Buddhist sense. It has often been of monks. reiujered " monks," but literally it signifies "beggar," "mendi- cant." Yet they did not, strictly speaking, beg at all ; they had given up all worldly things, but were not secluded from society, and hence were not strictly monks ; they took no vow of obedience, and could leave the order when they chose. They were not priests, as they had no rites to administer, and were not in any sense the vehicle of the worship of others. Perhaps the terms " brethren " or " members of the Order " would be least mislead- ing ; but the name of monk is most used. Their outward signs of member- ship were the tonsure and a yellow garment. That Buddha should so readily have established a separated Order, shows that the idea of separation from the world to lead a religious life had already a wide influence in his time. It appears to have soon become a regular thing for convinced inquirers to profess their belief in the Blessed One, and to ask him to accept them as disciples and true believers ; and he would receive them in some such form as this : " Come hither, 0 monk ; well preached is the doctrine, walk in purity, to make an end of all suffer- ing." Having given all his property to the Order, or at any rate having renounced it, having quitted family ties, and vowed to live a life of chastity, they in many cases set out on their travels to spread the principles taught by the Buddha. Personal ambition, personal exaltation, vanity, self-seek- ing, henceforth had no place among them. Caste was abolished, or rather ignored, by these men who had renounced the world. Buddha is said to have answered a king thus : " If a slave or servant of the king puts on the yellow garment, and lives as a monk without reproach in thought, word, and deed, wouldest thou then say, "Well then, let this man still be my slave and servant, to stand in my presence, bow before me, take upon himself to perforin my behests, live to minister to my enjoyments, speak deferentially, hang upon my word ? " And the king answers, " No, sire ; I should bow before him, stand before him, invite him to sit down, give him what he needed in the way of clothing, food, shelter, and of medicine when he is ill, and I should assure him of protection, watch and ward, as is becoming." And this treatment, it is inferred, is what Buddha ap- proved. Prof. Oldenberg strongly combats the idea that Buddha was specially a social reformer, who broke the chains of caste, and raised the poor and Buddha not a humble to his spiritual kingdom. There is no notion in his socialist, teaching of upsetting the established order of tilings and sup- planting it by a new one. " Buddha's spirit was a stranger to that enthusiasm, without which no one can pose as the champion of the oppressed against the oppressor. Let the state and society remain what they are ; the religious man who as a monk has renounced the world, has no part in its cares and occupations. Caste has no value for him, for everything eartldy has ceased to affect his interests ; but it never occurs to him to exen is<> his influence for its abolition or for the mitigation of the severity LIFE OF BUDDITA. 263 of its rules for those who have lagged behind in worldly surroundings." It is scarcely even true that Buddha practically presented an equal front to all classes of people. Those who were among his early chosen adherents were almost exclusively drawn from the upper classes, nobles, Brahmans, merchants, educated persons. We find in early Buddhist works such phrases as these : " Truly not undesired by the Exalted One is such an interview with such noble youths." " The good-will of such a respected and well-known person towards this doctrine and ordinance is of the highest importance." Scarcely can an isolated story be found of the reception of a person of very low grade, such as the sweeper-away of withered flowers from temples and palaces ; and in his case the moral which specially follows is directed against the exclusiveness of the Brahmans. " By holy zeal and chaste living, by restraint and self-repression, thereby a man becomes a Brahman ; that is the highest Brahmanhood." The weak ! and children are scarcely mentioned. " To the wise belongeth this law," it was said, "not to the foolish." We need only briefly mention Buddha's principal adherents, as all resemble one another in purity, in the attainment of perfect peace, and in devotion to Buddha : Sariputta and Moggallana, early converts Buddha.g from Brahmanism, following him through life, but dying shortly principal before Buddha ; his own cousin Ananda, and his brother Deva- datta ; Upali the court barber of the Sakyas. Ananda seems to have served as personal attendant to Buddha in his old age, and to have often accompanied him alone ; to him many of his last discourses were specially addressed. Devadatta is the traditional traitor, who sought to supplant his brother in chief influence, and is said to have attempted to kill him, a project which was frustrated by many recorded miracles. Devadatta is related to have attempted to enforce a more ascetic discipline on the monks, and to have failed miserably. Besides the monks, Buddha recognised lay believers, those who honoured his teaching as the truth, but who remained in the world, and were per- mitted to give sifts and exercise charity to the brethren of the T wll ° o . • . - , . • Lay believers. Order. In fact this was but a recognition of the necessities 01 the case. If there were no adherents outside the mendicant members, and if all other persons were opponents, there would be little possibility of supporting the members ; of course their maintenance in such a country as India cost very little, but still it was needed and had to be provided. No special form of reception of lay adherents was provided, and they never had any share in the government of Buddhism. And as with regard to the brethren or monks, so with regard to the lay-adherents, much more prominence is given to the princes and nobles, Brahmans and merchants, who appear to have constituted by far the largest proportion of them, than to the poor. Thus Buddha and his monks gathered round them crowds of votaries who could receive and maintain them and convene assemblies to hear them speak, or who accompanied them in various vehicles or on foot. In relation to women Buddha was in some respects more liberal and 264 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. in some less so than the Brahmans. Brahmanism expected the Vedic women and student to become a householder, to marry, and to bring up a Buddhism. family to continue the sacrificial rites; yet women were kept strictly in a subordinate, practically in a servile position. Buddhist monks were to abjure marriage and intimate relations with women, as utterly inconsistent with their profession ; but women were admissible as sisters of the Order, analogous to nuns, under severe restraints as to intimacy with men. Women were recognised as lay adherents, and indeed the maintenance of the Order would have been very much more difficult without their ministrations. But the toleration and even welcome of women came rather late in the day. At an early period, when Buddha was asked by Ananda how the brethren should behave to women, he answers, " Don't look at them " ; and when further pressed, " If we should see them, what are we to do?" he replies, "Don't speak to them " ; and again, " If they should speak to us, what are we to do?" "Keep wide awake," is the master's advice, or as another translation has it, " Keep watch over your- selves," and that this view continued in considerable force may be gathered from the moral of one of the later Buddhist narratives, — " Unfathomably deep, like a fish's course in the water, is the character of women, robbers with many artifices, Avith whom truth is hard to find, to whom a lie is like the truth and the truth like a lie." But wider experience somewhat modified Buddha's attitude towards women, though not without much hesitation. His foster-mother and his Reception of c^sciple Ananda at last persuaded him, on the ground that women sisters were capable of realising the four-fold path. He, however, imposed upon them eight rules, such as that a nun, of however long standing, was always to serve and to rise in the presence of a monk, even if only just initiated ; and in several respects nuns were placed in subordination to the monks ; they must be initiated by monks as well as nuns, and receive admonition from monks. But Buddha is very mournful, and is represented as saying that the good law will not now last more than five hundred years. As when mildew or blight visits a crop, it does not last long, so " under whatever discipline women are allowed to go forth from the household life into the homeless state, that religion does not last long. And just as a man would in anticipation build an embankment to a great reser- voir, so have I laid down these eight chief rules for the sisters, not to be overpassed through their life." The female disciples were to adopt the same rules as the men, so far as applicable ; and the general rule was applied, that whatever doctrines conduced to peace and not to passion, to veneration and not to pride, to wishing for little and not to wishing for much, to seclusion and not to love of society, to the exercise of zeal and not to sloth, to content and not to querulousness, these doctrines were the teaching of the Master. *** On the opposite page is represented one of the elaborate gateways of a solid stupa or tope, as old as. Asoka's time; the sculptures on the gateways (about 35 feet high) re- present scenes irom the life of Buddha, and other Buddhist legends. They date probably from the first century a.d. . LIFE OF BUDDHA. 265 ^ EASl GATE OS THE (JKEAT TOPE, BANCHI, NEAB BHILSA, BHOPAL. jA great many disabilities and restrictions as to wearing apparel, decoration E>f the body and face, habits and occupations, etc., were imposed. Never- 266 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. theless, Buddha and his followers frequently received large hospitality from women, who, however, were to regard themselves as benefited by being allowed to give anything to the saints. Visakha, a rich and noble woman of Savatthi, voluntarily offered clothing, food, and medicine for both incom- ing and outgoing monks, asking this as a boon. Buddha's response was : •Whatsoever woman, upright in life, a disciple of the Happy One, gives, glad at heart and overcoming avarice, both food and drink — a gift heavenly, destructive of sorrow, productive of bliss — a heavenly life does she attain, entering upon the path that is free from corruption and impurity ; aiming at good, happy does she become, and free from sickness, and long does she rejoice in a heavenly body." It is striking how little we hear of active opposition to Buddha in the Buddhist literature. This of course may proceed from concealment ; but seeing the undoubted great prosperity of Buddhism, serious opponents would have been mentioned, if only to show how they had been overthrown. But Buddhism arose in the eastern land where Brahmanism had not taken such strong root as in the north-west. Numerous bodies of ascetics and religious freethinkers had arisen ; and we must bear in mind the predominant religiousness of the Hindus, which would lead them naturally to revere a seeker after religious truth, especially one who renounced worldly possessions, and who did not in any way disturb the general peace and order. In fact the asceticism sanctioned or encouraged by the Brahman literature and practice had numerous points of resemblance to that of Buddha. Yet it could only be in a country where high Brahman pretensions were already questioned, or denied, that Buddha could have so severely criticised their system. Sacrifices, Vedic teaching, caste, were to him as nothing. In a kind of Socratic method, when questioned by Brah- mans as to the right path, Buddha makes them acknowledge that the paths announced in the Vedas have not enabled any of the Brahmans to see Brahma face to face, or to know him, or where and whence he is ; and he declares that the boasted knowledge of the Brahmans is foolishness : " As when a string of blind men are clinging one to the other, neither can the Brahmans foremost see, nor can the middle one see, nor can the hindmost uted. see " rp^-g js followed by an elaborate series of images demon- strating the same thing. The Brahmans, he says, are hindered from know- ing the truth by five obstacles,— lustful desire, malice, sloth and idleness, pride and self-righteousness, and doubt. All these things are absent from Brahma, and consequently the Brahmans could never become united with him. In answer to the appeal that he would show the Brahmans the way to a state of union with Brahma, Buddha says that from time to time an unsurpassed teacher is born into the world as a guide to erring mortals, a fully enlightened one, a blessed Buddha. He thoroughly understands the universe, gods and men, and makes his knowledge known to others. " The truth doth he proclaim both in its letter and in its spirit, lovely in its origin, lovely m its progress, lovely in its consummation ; the higher life doth he make known, in all its purity and in all its perfectness." A householder LIFE 01 BUDDHA. 267 hears the truth and believes in the Buddha and then considers, " Full of hindrances is household life, a path defiled by passion ; free as the air is the life of him who has renounced all worldly things. How difficult is it for the man who dwells at home to live the higher life in all its fulness, in all its purity, in all its bright perfection ! Let me then cut off my hair and beard, let me clothe myself in the orange-coloured robes, and let me go forth from a household life into the homeless state ! " " Then, before long, forsaking his portion of wealth, be it great or be it small ; forsaking his circle of relatives, be they many or be they few, he cuts off his hair and beard, he clothes himself in the orange-coloured robes, and he goes forth from the household life into the homeless state. " When he has thus become a recluse, he passes a life self-restrained according to the rules of the Pattimokka ; uprightness is his delight, and he sees danger in the least of these things he should avoid ; he adopts and trains himself in the precepts ; he encompasses himself with holiness in word and deed ; he sustains his life by means that are quite pure ; good is ! his conduct, guarded the door of his senses ; mindful and self-possessed, he is altogether happy." (S.E.) Buddha is equally prepared to expound to Brahmans the essentials of a proper sacrifice. A great king of former days, he says, after great ex- ploits, and establishing peace and prosperity in his land, and remedying evils, made a great sacrifice at which no animals were slain and no trees were cut down ; simply libations of milk, oil, and honey were offered. But Buddha proclaims that a better and easier sacrifice than that, is to The best make gifts to pious monks, and build dwelling-places for him and sacrifice- his Order. A higher offering was to accept Buddha's doctrine ; higher still to become a monk ; while the highest offering was to obtain deliverance, and the knowledge, " I shall not again return to this world." How far the rival ascetic bodies and their leaders openly disputed the progress of Buddha we cannot tell. Later we find some traces of inter- change of civilities between them, and also some attempts to deprive each other of the aid of influential people. Buddha's greatest distinction from the various brotherhoods was his disparagment of self-mortification. He I had discovered that this last was gloomy, unworthy, unreal. The life of : pleasure and sensual enjoyment was base and ignoble. The perfect life was I the middle way, the eight-fold path. Thus he exemplified with remarkable force the strength which lies in a middle course; it certainly powerfully i helped to make his the religious community with the largest following in ithe world. The general method of Buddha's teaching was oral and conversational. I Such a thing as writing a book was not then dreamt of, although book- learning was highly developed. But learning by heart seemed Method jthen the only possible or stable form of it ; and no doubt it was of teaching, ionce thought a great innovation, and probably an unreasonable thing, for 'any one to attempt to write out a book in full, when it was so easy and so I common to commit the contents to memory. We, with our comparatively THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. treble recollections of the contents of any given book, do not realise a state of society when people who were learned knew their few books by heart more perfectly than most of us know anything. But personal teaching was I hen as influential as it ever has been, perhaps more so. The accounts given of Buddha's interviews with disciples, even if not precisely accurate, must represent a kind of interview which was the common type of such teaching, and which at that very early age was accepted as the type of his teaching. Unlike the Vedic books, which are in the pure high Sanskrit, the books of Buddhism are in the popular dialect ; and in the sayings attributed to Buddha there is no trace of Sanskrit being used. Indeed, he is reported to have given directions that every believer should learn the words of Buddha in his own tongue. Everything in the Buddhist narratives bears the stamp of an age which had become accustomed to solemn, long-drawn dissertations, and in which Long-drawn people of leisure, or who had abandoned the world, gave them- •dlssertations- selves up to continual speculation on the causes of various phenomena, or of troubles and difficulties. There is no trace of a life like our hurried modern one, in which only the smallest possible time is given to any one thing. "With these old Hindus there was always plenty of time if a discussion was on foot, and it must be conducted in an orderly, sober fashion, with due ceremony and full elaboration. The great heat caused a tendency to indolent gravity and long-drawn-out expression. Compression and selection were scarcely attempted. The Upanishads, even if not com- posed before the Buddhist books, were in existence about the same time, and testify to the widespread spirit of abstraction and philosophising. So that the form of Buddhist teaching was due to the spirit of the more educated among the Hindus, as it had been developed by the Vedic and post- Vedic literature. Although there is considerable variety in the matter and often much beauty in the illustrations used in the discourses attributed to Buddha, the following gives an idea of a method frequently followed by him. He is expressing the thought that all the senses and the outer things which they perceive are eaten away by the sorrows and the fleeting nature of mortal affairs. He thus addresses the thousand disciples or monks who were with him. " Then said the Blessed One to the disciples : ' Everything, O disciples, is in flames. And what Everything, 0 disciples, is in flames ? The eye, 0 disciples, is in flames ; the visible is in flames ; the knowledge of the visible is in flames ; the contact with the visible is in flames, the feeling which arises from contact with the visible, be it pleasure, be it pain, be it neither pleasure nor pain, this also is in flames. By what fire is it kindled ? By the fire of desire, by the fire of hate, by the fire of fascination, it is kindled ; by birth, old age, death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief, despair, it is kindled: thus I say. The ear is in flames,"' and so on through a similar repetition of every detail ; and the same with the senses of smell, taste, touch, and with the mind, forming a long discourse, very monotonous to us, but probably delighting the hearers. It then goes on, " Considering LIFE OF BUDDJ1A. 269 this, 0 disciples, a wise hearer, walking in the noble path, becomes weary of the eye, weary of visible things," and so on through the whole detail once more. Then, "becoming weary of all that, he becomes free from desire; free from desire he becomes delivered ; in the delivered arises the know- ledge, I am delivered ; re-birth is at an end, perfected is holiness, duty done; there is no more returning to this world ; he knows this." When this discourse had been delivered, the minds of these thousand disciples became free from attachment to the world. (0.) The mode of converting a noble youth who was already mentally pre- pared is thus represented (Mahavagga I. 7, S.E.). " At that time there was in Benares a noble youth, Yasa by name, the son of a treasurer, and delicately nurtured. He had three palaces, one for winter, youth's one for summer, and one for the rainy season. In the palace for the rainy season he lived during the four months of that season, surrounded with female musicians among whom no man was, and he did not descend from that palace all that time. Now one day Yasa, the noble youth, who was endowed with and possessed of the five pleasures of sense, while he was attended by those female musicians, fell asleep sooner than usual : and after him his attendants also fell asleep. Now an oil lamp was burning through the whole night. "And Yasa, the noble youth, awoke sooner than usual ; and he saw his attendants sleeping ; one had her lute leaning against her armpit, one had her tabor leaning against her neck, one had her drum leaning against her armpit, and one had dishevelled hair, one had saliva flowing from her mouth, and they were muttering in their sleep. One would think it was a cemetery one had fallen into. When he saw that, the evils of the life he led manifested themselves to him ; his mind became weary of worldly pleasures. And Yasa, the noble 3^outh, gave utterance to this solemn exclamation : ' Alas ! what distress ; alas ! what danger ! ' So he went on into the night and sought Buddha, who was walking up and down at dawn. To him he expressed his distress. Buddha replied to him, ' Here is no dis- tress, Yasa; here is no danger. Come here, Yasa, sit down ; I will teach you the truth ' (Dhamma). And Yasa, the noble youth, when he heard that there was no distress, and that there was no danger, became glad and joyful ; and he put off his gilt slippers, and went to the place where the Blessed One was ; having approached him and having respectfully saluted the Blessed One, he sat down near him. Then the Blessed One preached to him in due course : that is to say, he talked about the merits obtained by almsgiving, about the duties of morality, about heaven, about the evils, the vanity, and the sinfulness of desires, and about the blessings of the abandon- ment of desire. " When the Blessed One saw that the mind of Yasa, the noble j'outh, was prepared, impressible, free from obstacles, elated, and believing, then he preached what is the principal doctrine of the Buddhas, namely, Suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the Path." So Yasa became a convert and subsequently a monk ; and his father also received the truth, ,7o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. which fact is thus elaborately expressed : " The treasurer, the householder, having seen the truth, having mastered the truth, having penetrated the truth, having overcome uncertainty, having dispelled all doubts, having gained full knowledge, dependent on nobody else for the knowledge of the doctrine of the Teacher, said to the Blessed One : ' Glorious Lord! Glorious Lord! just as if one should set up, Lord, what had been overturned, or should reveal what had been hidden, or should point out the way to one who had lost his way, or should bring a lamp into the darkness, thus has the Blessed One preached the doctrine in many ways. I take my refuge in the Blessed One, and in the Truth, and in the Order of the monks ; may the Blessed One receive me from this day forth while my life lasts, as a disciple who has taken his refuge in him." These are typical stories ; whether it is that there was not much necessity for adaptation to the individual cases, or that such individual touches have been lost by the narration, we find little but general teaching. There is one simple consistent teaching, one refuge for all who would attain full knowledge, — to join the Order of monks. Something like the Socratic method is not infrequently made use of when an argument is held with a learned person. Thus, in arguing with socratic Brahmans, Buddha says : "Is Brahma in possession of wives and method. wealth, or is he not ? " — " He is not." " Is his mind full of anger, or free from anger ? " — " Free from anger." " Is his mind full of malice, or free from malice ? " — " Free from malice." " Is his mind depraved, or pure ? " — " It is pure." " Has he self-mastery, or has he not ? " — " He has." " Now, what think you, are Brahmans versed in the Vedas in the possession of wives and wealth, or are they not ? " — " They are." And so on through all the questions ; leading to the triumphant reply : " Can there then be agreement and likeness between the Brahmans with their wives and property, and Brahma who has none of these things ? " It is noteworthy how frequently parables and similes are made use of in the higher Buddhist teaching. Here is an instance. " Just as when a hen has eight or ten or twelve eggs, and the hen has properly brooded over them, properly sat upon them, properly sat herself Parables rounc^ them, however much such a wish may arise in her heart as this, " Oh, would that my little chickens should break open the egg-shell with the points of their claws, or with their beaks, and come forth into the light in safety ! " yet all the while those little chickens are sure to break the egg-shell with the points of their claws, or with their beaks, and to come forth into the light in safety. Just even so, a brother thus endowed with fifteenfold determination is sure to come forth into the light, sure to reach up to the higher wisdom, sure to attain to the supreme security." The lesson is, that the result is quite certain, however much doubt the hen or the believer may have about it. (S.E. xi.) In one place Buddha says : " I shall show you a parable ; by a parable many a wise man perceives the meaning of what is being said." His own preaching is compared to the physician's work, drawing poisoned arrows from wounds, and overcoming the venom by remedies. Like the lotus flower, LIFE OF BUDDHA. 271 raising its head in the lake, unaffected by the water, so the Buddhas are unaffected by the world's impurity. One of the most elaborate parables is the following, part of which we quote. " As when, 0 disciples, in the forest, on a mountain slope, there lies a great- tract of lowland and water, where a great herd of deer lives, and there comes a man who desires hurt, distress, and danger for the deer ; who covers over and shuts up the path which is safe, good, and pleasant to take, and opens up a fresh path, a swampy path, a marshy track : thenceforward the great herd of deer incurs hurt and danger, and diminishes. But now, 0 disciples, if a man comes, who desires prosperity, welfare, and safety for this great herd of deer : who clears and opens up the path which is safe, good, and pleasant to take, and ! does away with the false path, and abolishes the swampy path, the marshy I track, thenceforth will the great herd of deer thrive, grow, and increase. I j have spoken to you, 0 disciples, in a parable, to make known my meaning. i But the meaning is this. The great lowland and the water, 0 disciples, are pleasures. The great herds of deer are living men. The man who devises hurt, distress, and ruin, is Mara, the evil one. The false path is the eight- fold false path, false faith, false resolve, false speech, false action, false living, false effort, false thought, false self-concentration. The swampy way is pleasure and desire. The swampy track is ignorance. The man who devises prosperity, welfare, salvation, is the Perfect One, the holy supreme Buddha. The safe good way in which it is well to walk, is the eightfold path," etc. " Everything that a master who seeks the salvation of his disciples, who pities them, must do out of pity for them, that have I done for you." (0.) Fables, too, were not infrequently introduced into Buddha's discourses. THE BOOK OF THE GREAT DECEASE. "We now come to the record of Buddha's death and the events im- mediately preceding it, contained in the " Book of the Great Decease," which has been compared to a gospel. This book comes to us apparently from the latter end of the fourth or beginning of the third century B.C., about a hundred years after Buddha's death. The author is unknown. The date of Buddha's death cannot be determined from it, but he appears to have been about eighty years of age, and to have exercised his public mission for about forty-four years. He is represented as journeying from Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha, to Pataliputta (Patna), the new capital, whose future greatness he prophesies. The narrative throughout contains summaries of discourses and directions which Buddha had probably given on previous dates. Journejung on, he was attacked by a severe illness, which Buddha he subdued temporarily by great resolution, having a strong pr^gensa[or desire to give a farewell address to the Order. He asserts to discourse. Ananda that he has kept back nothing, and he no longer wished to lead the brotherhood or thought that the Order was dependent upon him. " I too, 0 Ananda, am now grown old and full of years, my journey is drawing -7- THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS, to its close, I have reached my sum of days, I am turning eighty years of age ; and just as a worn-out cart, Ananda, can only with much additional care be made to move along, so, methinks, the body of the Enlightened One can only be kept going with much additional care." He advised his people to be a refuge to themselves, and not look for any other, and above all, be COLOSSAL FIGUIiE OF BUDDHA, CEYLON. anxious to learn. The tempter Mara came to him, suggesting that he ms last should voluntarily die at once, as all his objects were accom- . temptation. piished ; he however still elected to live three months. And the narrative goes on : " Thus the Blessed One deliberately and consciously rejected the rest of his allotted sum of life, and on his rejecting it there arose a mighty earthquake, awful and terrible, and the thunders of heaven LIFE OF BUDDHA. 273 burst forth, and when the Blessed One beheld this, he broke out into this liynin of exultation : — ' His sum of life the sage renounced, The course of life immeasurable or small ; With inward joy and calm, he broke, Like coat of mail, his life's own cause.' " He then gave a summary of his most essential teachings to the assembled Msciples, and concluded thus : — ■ " My age is now full ripe, my life draws to its close : I leave you, I depart, relying on myself alone ! Be earnest then, 0 brethren ! holy, full of thought ! Be steadfast in resolve ! Keep watch o'er your own hearts ! Who wearies not, but holds fast to this truth and law, Shall cross this sea of life, shall make an end of grief." After still a few days' journeying, Buddha was seized with dysentery ittended with sharp pain, which he bore without complaint. At last he irrived at Kusinara where he died, even in his last hours convert- ng new disciples. His last words were, " Behold now, brethren, i exhort you, saying, Decay is inherent in all component things. Work kit your salvation with diligence." His death was followed by earthquakes [nd thunders, and Brahma, the Supreme Deity or First Cause, is represented s uttering some of the most characteristic Buddhist doctrines, while his renerable disciple Anuruddha spoke thus : — " When he who from all craving want was free, Who to Nirvana's tranquil state had reached, When the great sage finished his span of life, No gasping struggle vexed that steadfast heart. All resolute, and with unshaken mind, He calmly triumphed o'er the pain of death. E'en as a bright flame dies away, so was His last deliverance from the bonds of life ! " His funeral was celebrated by the nobles of Kusinara with the honours ue to a king of kings, wrapping his body in five hundred alternate layers cotton wool and new cloth, enclosing it in two iron vessels, and finally ©mating it on a funeral pile made of perfumes. Finally, the legend says at neither soot nor ash was left, but only the bones. Then the relics were vided into eight portions, over each of which a mound was erected by the spective groups who had claimed and obtained them. THE ROYAL MONASTERY AT MANDAT AY. CHAPTER VI. C!)f BtititiMst JBoctrines, tfof Artier anti £>arrrtj Books. Reaction from Brahmanism— Suffering and ignorance— The Eternal Immutable— Vanity of earthly things— The causal nexus— Human responsibility— Punishment of evil— Being and causality— The soul — Nirvana— Moral precepts— Negative morality— Benevolence— Beneficence ^Self-dis- cipline -Temptation— Mara— The struggle and victory of the soul — States of abstraction— The four grades of attainment— The person of Buddha— The Buddhist Scriptures The Dham- mapada— The Buddhist order— The Mahavagga— Fortnightly meetings— Confession and penance— Strict regulations— Profession of faith— Not a body corporate— No head after Buddha— Assemblies or Councils— Limitations on admission— Form of reception— The four resources— The four prohibitions— Quitting the order— Its advantages— No silver or gold- Seemly outward appearance —Companionship — Tutelage — Recitations and discussions— Retire- ment and love of nature— Few ceremonies — Reverence and Buddha — Regard for holy places —The confessional— The Kullavagga — Offences and penances— The Pavaranaor invitation— The nuns or sisters — The laity. THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. IT is one of the strangest phenomena, that the system holding itself forth so prominently as the bringer of happiness and extinguisher of suffering should be fitly called a philosophy of pessimism, of negation, of! _ u agnosticism. Yet it was a natural reaction from the Brahman Reaction ° . from assumption of knowing everything, and that everything would be right if its management were committed to Brahmans. In only one direction did the Buddhists claim to attain knowledge, that was the path by which to attain deliverance from suffering, and ultimate Nir- vana. The kernel of this doctrine we have already given (p. 258). The suffering which Buddha bewails is not merely active pain and misery, but also the want of control which our self has over the bodv and Suffering . J . and consciousness. .Everything, too, is non-permanent, and that is a lce- sorrow ; consequently a man is not sure of himself, and cannot say, " That is mine, that is I, that is myself." The root cause of this is 271 THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 275 ignorance ; but while we might agree with the Buddhists that ignorance lies at the root of much if not of all evil, the Buddhists have their own inter- pretation of what ignorance constitutes this great evil; it is the ignorance of their four sacred truths, and these truths contain no allusion to any notion of nihilism, to the Nothing and nothingness as the supreme attain- ment, which is sometimes represented as the essential of Buddhist pessi- mism. Far from being of this nature, Buddhism has a positive if limited philosophy, and elevates its gaze to the highest and most permanent existence, regarding the Eternal Immutable, supremely free and happy. There is the only refuge of man from suffering, where Eternal birth and death, change and decay have no dominion. Man mmutable- must seek deliverance from the mutable, and return to the Immutable : whether that may lead to eternal existence or not, is left undetermined. Buddha never pretended to know ; rather he left it to be inferred that he did not know. His object was gained, as well as the happiness of his followers in this world, when they had attained " deliverance," release from desire, union with the Immutable. Never has the vanity of earthly things, so succinctly expressed by the Old Testament Preacher, been so elaborately set forth as in the Buddhist books. Listen to its sad strain. " The pilgrimage of beings, Vanit of 0 disciples, has its beginning in eternity. No opening can be earthly discovered, from which proceeding, creatures, mazed in ignor- ings' ance, fettered by a thirst for being, stray and wander. What think ye, 0 disciples, whether is more, the water which is in the four great oceans, or the tears which have flowed from you and been shed by you, while ye strayed and wandered on this long pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept, because that was your portion that ye abhorred, and that which ye loved was not your portion ? A mother's death, a father's death, a brother's death, a sister's death, a son's death, a daughter's death, the loss of rela- tions, the loss of property, all this have ye experienced through long ages ; jand while ye experienced this through long ages more tears have flowed from you and have been shed by you, while ye strayed and wandered on this long pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept, because that was your portion which ye abhorred and that which ye loved was not your portion, than all the water which is in the four great oceans." (0.) And so on through the whole range of mortal affairs. The Dhammapada, that notable collection of Buddhist apophthegms proverbs, and similes, which existed before the second council* (377 B.C.), ontains some of the most pithy sayings of melancholy. " Man gathers lowers ; his heart is set on pleasure. Death comes upon him, like the loods of water on a village, and sweeps him away." " How can ye be ;ay? How can ye indulge desire '? Evermore the flames burn. Darkness urrouncls you: will ye not seek the light?" "Look upon the world as a rabble ; look upon it as a mirage." " There is no satisfying lusts, even by >. shower of gold pieces." " Let no man love anything ; loss of the beloved s evil. Those who love nothing, and hate nothing, have no fetters." 276 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. " From love comes grief ; from love comes fear." Yet in association with these sad views throughout we have the joyful standard raised aloft. He who has learnt the sacred truths of Buddhism has overcome these evils and entered into joy. " Tho virtuous man is happy in this world, and he is happy in the next ; he is happy in both. He is happy when he thinks of the good he has done; he is still more happy when going on the good path." " Earnest among the thoughtless, awake among the sleepers, the wise man advances like a racer, leaving behind the track." " Let no man think light ly of good, saying in his heart, it will not come nigh unto me. Even by the falling of water-drops a waterpot is filled ; the wise man becomes full of good, even if he gather it little by little." " Let us live happily, free from greed among the greedy." " His good works receive him who has done good, and has gone from this world to the other ; as kinsmen receive a friend on his return." We cannot fully expound what is known as the causal nexus in Budd- hism, but this in itself has never been taught to the masses, and was only for The causal the more intellectual ; while to western minds it is confused and nexus, inconclusive and more or less self-contradictory. We find that Buddhism, like most other human systems, has failed to express, though it has verged near to the core of, philosophical questions. What is certain is, that the early Buddhists regarded the consciousness as the sole continuing thing, while at death the body, sensations and perceptions vanish ; and this con- sciousness was connected with a sort of spirit-stuff or element, undemon- strable, everlasting, all-illuminating ; it passes over at death to become associated with the germ of a new material being to be born again. The succession of re-births must continue until the being attains " deliverance," as made known by Buddhism. Although expressed in a widely different form from our own, we see throughout Buddhism an assertion of human responsibility which tends Human re- *n tne nignest degree to morality. However much we may be sponsibmty. conditioned by our previous state as by our environment, we are always affected by our own actions. As explicitly as in the Christian Bible, we find stated that " not in the heavens, not in the midst of the sea, not if thou hidest thyself away in the clefts of the mountains, wilt thou find a place on earth where thou canst escape the fruit of thy evil actions " Punishment (Dhammapada v. 127). Even when the way of deliverance of evn. nas i3egn attained, a man will still suffer punishment for evil- doing not yet expiated. Thus, a robber and murderer who became a Buddhist was violently attacked when he went to collect alms ; and Buddha tells him he was now receiving the penalty for evil deeds for which otherwise he would have had to suffer thousands of years in hell. A judgment scene is depicted, in which the wicked man is brought up from hell before King Yama, who inquires of him whether he did not see on earth the five visions of human weakness and suffering,— the child, the old man, the sick man, the criminal under punishment, and the dead man. He is further asked whether he did not consider that he was not exempt THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 2yy from old age and death, and ought to do good in thought, word, and deed. Confessing that he had neglected it, he is told that he alone is responsible, and must gather the fruit. The warders of hell take him away and subject him to the severest physical torments, ending in death only when his guilt is fully expiated. One aspect of the Buddhist doctrine of causality is well illustrated by the following. " Whoever perceives in truth and wisdom how things originate in the world, in his eyes there is no ' it is not ' in Bein and this world. Whoever perceives in truth and wisdom how things causality, pass away in this world, in his eyes there is no 'it is ' in this world. . . . I Sorrow alone arises where anything arises ; sorrow passes away where any- i thing passes away. ' Everything is ' ; this is the one extreme : ' everything is not,' this is the other extreme. The Perfect One, remaining far from both these extremes, proclaims the truth in the middle. ' From ignorance come conformations (sankharas),' " forms of being determining their own successions and successive forms. There is no thought of an independent matter apart from an existence or being. Every perception, every con- dition, bodily or spiritual, is one of these sankharas, and all are transitory, all under the control of causality. Beyond this Buddhism does not attempt to go ; it does not know the Eternal, or how the world was created, or whether it is everlasting or finite. Buddhism even does not allow that there is a soul distinct from the body. Practically it only recognises the combined being that is seen or is conscious of itself, and that suffers ; and it has no explanation beyond. Reduced to its lowest term, Buddhism recognises simply that suffering is going on, or keeps coming and going ; without defining any permanent soul that suffers. All on this earth is under the dominion of causality. The state of Nirvana, Buddha held, may be entered upon before the death of the body, and therefore it is not identical with annihilation, as has often been represented. Although its meaning is extinction, it „. . on Nirvana, is the extinction of desire, of suffering, of error, of ignorance ; and it is termed the eternal state. What that eternal state is, early Budd- hism in no way determines. Hence the Nirvana may perhaps best be regarded as the perfection which the Buddhist attains in this life. " What is to be extinguished has been extinguished, the fire of lust, hatred, be- wilderment." In this state the devout disciple says, " I long not for death, I long not for life ; I wait till mine hour come, like a servant who awaiteth his reward." Yet the Buddhist may truly be said to anticipate extinction of the consciousness on dying. Yet even that is consistent in his eyes with an imagined completion of his being, which no terms applicable to earthly things can possibly describe. And those who wished to cherish a hope of continual existence and perfect happiness were permitted to do so. The moral system taught by Buddha as obligatory upon his followers can be separated from the system and rules of his monastic order. It is not a little curious to find moral precepts at that early time not based upon J7S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. obedience to a Supreme Buler of the world, or a Creator, and consequently Moral not based upon any duty of human beings to obey a Supreme precepts. Ruler. In fact this moral law is entirely utilitarian, taking its stand solely upon benefits obtainable by the doer, or punishments to be incurred by him. Further than this, that we hear of no one being repelled by Buddha who sought to learn the truth, it does not appear that Buddhism concerned itself with the mass of mankind even so far as to give precepts available for them all, or to preach deliverance to them all. It is evident that this has not hindered the very wide spread of the society ; and the declaration that they had a message only for those who recognised their evil state and desired deliverance no doubt acted as a stimulus to the outer masses so far as they were in an intellectual state capable of aspiring after something better. But Buddhism did not lay itself out to tell all people that they ought to do or to be so-and-so every day, always, everywhere. Only when they sought discipleship, lay or mendicant, did Buddhism furnish them with a code of observance, which included moral duties, undertaken for the purpose of elevating their own state. Thus " He who speaks or acts with impure thoughts, him sorrow follows, as the wheel follows the foot of the draught horse. He who speaks or acts with pure thought, him joy follows, like his shadow, which does not leave him." The third to the sixth portions of the noble eightfold path more specially concern morals. The first and second, correct views, free from superstition or delusion, and right aims or correct thoughts, worthy of an intelligent man, are specially intellectual. The third, right speech, per- fectly truthful, as well as kindly ; the fourth, right conduct, pure, honest, peaceable ; the fifth, a right mode of gaining a livelihood, doing harm to no living thing; and the sixth, right effort, self-control, self- training, embrace the sum of Buddhist morals. The seventh and eighth, mindfulness and contemplation, are again purely inward. The whole moral code may thus be expressed as uprightness in word, deed, and thought; but the great importance of wisdom as the crown of uprightness is fully expressed. A great portion of the Buddhist morality, however, was negative, made up of prohibitions. Five special hindrances, veils, or entanglements Negative are specified, which must be mastered, namely, lustful desire, morality. ma]ice? sloth, self-righteousness or pride, and doubt. Five main commands are often repeated. The Buddhist must (1) kill no living thing, (2) not steal, (3) live chastely, (4) speak no untruth, (5) not drink intoxica- ting drinks. But in the rules for the monks, we find such positive additions as the following :— " The cudgel and the sword he lays aside ; and full of modesty and pity, he is compassionate and kind to all creatures that have life. What he hears here, he repeats not elsewhere to raise a quarrel. . . . He lives as a binder-together of those who are divided, an encourager of those who are friends, a peacemaker, a lover of peace. . . . Whatever word is humane, pleasant to the ear, lovely, reaching to the heart, urbane, pleasing to the people, such are the words he speaks. . . . Putting away ioolish talk, he abstains from vain conversation. In season he speaks; THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 279 lie speaks that which is ; he speaks fact . . . that which redounds to profit, is well defined, and is full of wisdom. He refrains from injuring any herb or any creature. He takes but one meal a day. He abstains from dancing, singing, music and theatrical shows" (S. E. xi.). It cannot be said that the Christian virtue of love is taught by Buddhism. There is sometimes some approach to it, but it is not clear. The virtue enjoined by Buddhism is rather the extinction of hating than • Bgd.6 volsncG positive love. Thus, " He who holds back rising anger like a rolling chariot, him I call a real driver. . . . Let a man overcome anger by not becoming angry ; let a man overcome evil by good ; let him over- come the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth." " Enmity never comes to an end through enmity here below ; it comes to an end by non-enmity ; this has been the rule from all eternity." A notable story is found in the iMahavagga, which illustrates this last doctrine. But the benevolence which an carry Buddhist felt was far removed from Christian benevolence. His bod}r, which might be hurt by others, was not really himself; so he felt no bitter resentment at anything done to it. " Those who cause me pain jand those who cause me joy, to all I am alike, and affection and hatred I know not. In joy or sorrow I remain unmoved ; in honour and dishonour (throughout I am alike." This benevolence was not a spontaneous sympathy rising in the good man's heart, but a result of meditation and intentional mental exercise ; and this benevolence, radiating from him, is said to exert a kind of magical influence, bringing about harmonious relations between Buddhists and all people and even animals. But what of beneficence, so highly esteemed in Christianity ? To out- ward appearance, it was just as highly esteemed in early Buddhism ; but the iforms of its exercise were different. From all that we can gather, BGllGfi.CGHC6 >oor people, in the sense of those wanting daily food or means to ret it, were by no means abundant at that time in India ; and the higher modes of Christian beneficence Avere not yet dreamt of. Joining the Buddhist order itself gave rise to the very practical step of renunciation ; but in the case of those who were already married and had families it released the adherents from their family responsibilities and cares. This renunciation can scarcely be called beneficence, for it was not done in order :hat other persons might be benefited. Practically the chief beneficence ex- 3rcised by Buddhists was by the lay adherents, who wrere expected to show iberality to all individual monks and to the Order generally. This benefi- cence was for the sake of their religious profession, however, and can hardly be called pure beneficence. And all through early Buddhism the special vir- tue of beneficence is overshadowed by the broader and deeper necessity for renouncing every worldly possession ; even lay adherents were not to count (things their own, by which they might confer on the Order needed benefits. In some of the narratives a little later than the earliest, the giving away )f wife and children is represented as of no moment compared with winning the Bucldhahood. We see clearly that it was not by means of beneficence that the character advocated by Buddhism was to be acquired. 2 So THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. That discipline was essentially internal. " Rouse thyself by thyself, ex- amine thyself by thyself, . . . curb thyself as the merchant curbs a good seif-disci. horse. . . . Cut off the five senses, leave the five, rise above piine. t}ie nve ... In the body restraint is good, good is restraint in speech, in thought restraint is good, good is restraint in all things" (S.E. x., Dhammapada). Everything is to be done with a self-conscious effort, and watchfulness. Self-examination is to be practised after every contact with the world, after every begging excursion ; and all emotions or desires, which are stigmatised as evil and treacherous, are to be suppressed. In no religion is it more sternly insisted on that the character is the inner self. "All that we are is the result of what we have thought ; it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our ^thoughts," says the first verse of the Dhammapada. Temptation to evil is associated with a personal spirit or essence called Mara, not believed to be the originator of evil and sorrow — for onHhat point Temptation, Buddhism had no belief — but the chief tempter to evil in thought, Mara. word} anci deed. He, like Yama in the Brahman system, is Death or the King of Death, and so is king of all the pleasures of this world. The foundation of the Buddhist Order is a deadly blow at this kingdom, and con- sequently the Buddhists are objects of his continual attack. He offers Buddha himself the rule over the whole earth, if he will renounce his spiritual mission. He is tempted by Mara's daughters, Desire, Unrest, and Pleasure, and resists their temptations. In all the narratives addressed to the people generally, Mara appears as a real personage, not everlasting, but capable of attacking every one. The higher Buddhist philosophy sees Mara in everything which is subject to change. " Wherever there is an eye and form, wherever there is an ear and sound, wherever there is thinking and thought, there is Mara, there is sorrow." (0.) But in the details relating to the tempter, as given by the Buddhist books, we find nothing grand, nothing great even in evil. The attacks made upon Buddha and his followers are comparatively simple, and are easily foiled. Buddha was, it is related, tempted with a kingdom in order that he might do what he asserted to be possible, " rule as a king in righteousness, without killing or causing to be killed, without practising oppression or permitting oppression to be practised, without suffering pain or inflicting pain on another," and he is told that he could turn the Himalayas into gold if he chose. Buddha answers: "What would it profit a wise man if he possessed even a mountain of silver or of gold ? He who has comprehended sorrow, whence it springs, how can he bend himself to desire ? He who knows that earthly existence is a fetter in this world, let him practise that which sets him free therefrom." Then Mara, the Evil one, said, " The Exalted One knows me, the Perfect One knows me," and disconcerted and disheartened he rose and went away. Other narratives represent Mara as constantly watching the avenues of the senses that he ma}' gain access to the mind ; and this continual siege is only to be met by continual watch- fulness, which will at last make Mara give up the hopeless task. Dr. Oldenberg graphically describes the struggle between the individual 7 HE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 281 soul and the sorrow-producing chain of suffering, and the tempter Mara, as pictured by the early Buddhists. "The struggle is neither slight nor brief. From that moment forward, when first the and victory conviction dawns upon a soul, that this battle must be fought, that there is a deliverance which can be gained— from that first beginning of the struggle up to the final victory, countless ages of the world pass away. Earth worlds and heavenly worlds, and worlds of hells also, pass away as they have arisen and passed away from all eternity. Gods and men, all animated beings, come and go, die and are born again, and amid this endless tide of all things, the beings who are seeking deliverance, now advancing and victorious, and anon driven back, press on to their goal. The path reaches be}rond the CASKET CONTAINING BUDDHA'S TOOTH, IN THE TEMPLE OF DALADA MALIGAWA, KANDY, CEYLON. ange of the eye, but it has an end. After countless wanderings through worlds and ages the goal at last appears before the wanderer's gaze. And in his sense of victory there is mingled a feeling of pride for the victory won by his own power. The Buddhist has no god to thank, as he had previously Ino god to invoke during his struggle. The gods bow before him, not he before the gods." The place of prayer in other religions is in Buddhism taken by (abstraction, meditation, withdrawal as far as possible from the world of sense. How far this may proceed by an artificial system we may states of see later. Some portions of the Buddhist scriptures describe abstraction, methods of producing self-concentration ; and frequently they approach pathological or morbid conditions. It is no wonder that hallucinations of THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the senses should arise in men who have torn themselves from every home tie, and devoted themselves to homelessness and abstraction. But heavenly- visions, heavenly sounds, forms of supernatural beings are only rarely seen ; rather the condition commonly attained was that known as clairvoyant, in which the spirit was believed to be peculiarly refined, pure, pliant, and firm. Then the monks imagined they saw the past clearly, even their own past existences, saw into the thoughts of others, acquired miraculous powers, be- came invisible and again appeared on earth. Many of these may be paralleled by various accounts in the Bible ; but there are no parallel results flowing from them. Among the monks no gradation was at first recognised except the higher order of those who had attained deliverance ; but later four grades The four were acknowledged : (1) the lowest, those who had attained the grades of path, and were not liable to re-birth in the lower worlds (hells, ' world of animals, spirit worlds) ; (2) those who return once only to this world— these have destroyed desire, hatred, and frivolity ; (3) the n'on- returning, who only enter the higher worlds of the gods, and these attain Nirvana ; (4) the Saints (Arhats). But these grades did not give those who had attained them any special place in the Order. A special grade was occupied by those who gained participation in the Buddhahood by their own inherent force, having won the knowledge bring- ing deliverance by their own exertions. They were believed to have lived chiefly in the ages previous to Buddha himself ; but they were not equal to the "universal Buddhas " of whom Gautama was one. The position claimed by and assigned to Buddha is peculiar in that he had no special commission from a supreme Being, and did not put The person himself forward as the representative of the invisible powers, of Buddha. He was simply, in the present order of things, the first who had obtained universal Buddhahood. He taught to others the truths that he had himself discovered. He was their helper, but it was by their own effort and meditation that it could really be received by them. And yet the claims attributed to Buddha are nothing less than omniscience and perfection. He says : "I have overcome all foes ; I am all-wise ; I am free from stains in every way ; I have left everything ; and have obtained emancipation by the destruction of desire. Having myself gained know- ledge, whom should I call my master ? I have no teacher ; no one is equal to me ; in the world of men and of gods no being is like me. I am the Holy One in this world, I am the highest teacher, I alone am the perfect Buddha ; I have gained coolness by the extinction of all passion, and have obtained Nirvana." (Mahavagga, S.E. xiii.) " He appears in the world for salvation to many people, for joy to many people, out of compassion for the world, for the blessing, the salvation, the joy of gods and men." But Buddha is by no means represented as the sole person who has attained Buddahood. Many Buddhas had been before him and would come after him ; but they were supposed all to be born in Eastern India, and to be all of the Brahman or soldier (Kshatriya) castes ; and their teaching prevailed 'THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 283 i for longer or shorter periods, after which faith vanished for a time in the , earth. Thus we see that Buddha was the starter of the new religious life,, and essential to it ; but by no means a god, or a heaven-sent messenger. THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES. Those which are pre-eminently worthy of this designation, as being the i oldest and purest, are the Pali books preserved by the Ceylonese Buddhists. [ They are arranged in three collections or " Baskets " (pitakas). The first, or Vinaya-pitaka, includes books containing regulations for the external life of the order of monks. The second, or Sutta-pitaka, contains a number of miscellaneous works, each composed of suttas or short pithy sentences, some relating sayings of Buddha, others legends and stories of the preceding Buddhas. The third contains various disquisitions, an enumeration of the conditions of life, etc. The most interesting of all these, and the most deserving of attention for its literary excellence, is the Dhammapada, or Path of Virtue (or Foot- step of the Law), from which we have already quoted. The word The D&am- subsequently came to mean generally " a religious sentence." Its maPada- date, like that of the rest of the scriptures, is stated by the Buddhists to be fixed by the first Council of the Church immediately after the death of Buddha ; what appears to be certain is that this book existed before Asoka's. council, about b.c. 242, after which date it was introduced into Ceylon by Mahinda, Asoka's son. And we may take the Dhammapada as having been believed to have been personally uttered by Buddha. Even if he did not compose it (which there is ^nothing to prove positively), it was composed soon after his death, by some one or more persons whose genius rose as high as his. A point of great importance in judging of this whole canon is that it contains no mention of Asoka's council, but does mention the first and second councils (of Eajagaha and Vesali), and describes them at the end of the Kullavagga. We will now give some further extracts from the Dhammapada, to Ijillustrate its literary character, apart from the special points we have already j drawn attention to. Sometimes we find in it dogmatic teaching quite t straightforwardly put, thus : " He who wishes to put on the yellow dress :! without having cleansed himself from sin, who disregards also temperance and truth, is unworthy of the yellow dress." " By oneself the evil is done, by oneself one suffers ; by oneself evil is left undone, by oneself one is purified. Purity and impurity belong to oneself, no one can purify another." " That deed is not well done of which a man must repent, and the reward of which he receives gladly and cheerfully." "Do not speak harshly to anybody ; those who are spoken to will answer thee in the same way." Here we have the Eastern representative of the Proverbs of Solomon. How much wisdom is to be found in the following : "Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are very difficult to perceive, very artful, and they rush wherever they list." " The fool who knows his foolishness is wise, at least so far. But a fool who thinks himself wise, he is called a fool 284 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. indeed." " One's own self conquered is better than all other people." Here is a condensed censure of asceticism : " Not nakedness, not platted hair, not dirt, not fasting, or lying on the earth, not rubbing with dust, not sitting motionless, can purify a mortal who has not overcome desires." The following is a varied selection of these gems. " Bad deeds, and deeds hurtful to ourselves, are easy to do ; what is beneficial and good, that is very difficult to do." " This world is dark, few only can see here ; a few only go to heaven, like birds escaped from the net." " Health is the greatest of gifts, contentedness the best riches ; trust is the best of relationships, Nirvana the highest happiness." " If any thing is to be done, let a man do it, let him attack it vigorously. A careless pilgrim only scatters the dust of his passions more widely." Similes of great aptness or beauty abound. " As the bee collects nectar and departs without injuring the flower, or its colour or scent, so let a sage dwell in his village." " Like a beautiful flower, full of colour, but without scent, are the fine but fruitless words of him who does not act accordingly." " There is no fire like passion, there is no shark like hatred, there is no snare like folly, there is no torrent like greed." " The fault of others is easily perceived, but that of oneself is difficult to perceive ; a man winnows his neighbour's faults like chaff, but his own fault he hides, as a cheat hides the bad die from the gambler." " If a fool be associated with a wise man even all his life, he will perceive the truth as little as a spoon perceives the taste of soup." It is natural to find in these pithy sayings the pervading truth of the universality of suffering and the vanity of life. " Before long, alas ! this body will lie on the earth, despised, without understanding, like a useless log." "As a cowherd with his staff drives his cows into the stable, so do Age and Death drive the life of men." Old age is thus depicted : "Look at this dressed-up lump, covered with wounds, joined together, sickly, full of many thoughts, which has no strength, no hold. This body is wasted, full of sickness and frail ; this heap of corruption breaks to pieces, life indeed ends in death." We are told to "look upon this world as a bubble, as a mirage." But watchfulness and the true knowledge preserves a man in safety. One of the later sentences gives a fine picture of a stoic. " Him I call indeed a Brahman who, though he has committed no offence, endures reproach, bonds, and stripes, who has endurance for his force, and strength for his army." Indeed the whole section on the true Brahman is fine : he is tolerant with the intolerant, mild with faultfinders, free from passion among the passionate, is thoughtful, guileless, free from doubts, free from attachment, and content. THE BUDDHIST ORDER. Some attention must now be given to the great Order of mendicants or monks which perpetuated Buddha's influence and extended his teaching. Very early in Buddha's career they became an organised Brotherhood ; and a formal system of admission and rules of conduct were framed as need arose. At first candidates who professed belief in this doctrine were THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 285 dimply admitted by the great teacher, but it is a natural development that this should be delegated to others as the Order grew. The Tne lYTahavagga, one of the oldest Pali books, contains the records Manavagga. >)f these events, and of the regulations imposed on the Order, preceded by x narrative embodying many of the early events in Buddha's preaching, ncluding not a few marvels and miracles. Soon it became customary to kold meetings of the Order twice a month, at the periods of full Fortnightly ,nd new moon, already sacred periods in India, observed by meetin&s- rahmans with ceremonies of long standing. The special purpose of these uddhist meetings was the confession of faults one to another and the cceptance of the due penance. A list of common or possible confession ffences was drawn up, and read out at each meeting, every and penance- ember present being called upon to answer three times as to his innocence ,)f each offence. Among these offences are some which show how strictly rom the first Buddhist monks were regulated. Even in building strict hut it must be of prescribed measurement ; no extra robes must regulations. e kept ; no rug or mat with silk in it must be used by a monk, and a rug nust last six years ; spare bowls must not be possessed ; no monk must mcroach on the hospitality already given to another ; no monk might take nore than one meal at a public rest-house. The members of the Order had to go into the neighbourhood of houses jompletely clad, clean, with downcast eye, making but little noise, not waying the limbs about with excited gestures. Their heads must be un- ;overed. Various observances are connected with taking the food given to ihem. They were not to preach the Buddhist doctrine to persons in inseemly attitudes, nor to any one sitting. After Buddha's death a different system of receiving monks of course I rose. The following is the profession of faith which early became pre- 'alent : " To Buddha will I look in faith ; he, the Exalted, is the holy, supreme Juddha, the knowing, the instructed, the blessed, who knows Profession of he worlds, the Supreme One, who yoketh men like an ox, the f£Uth- teacher of gods and men, the exalted Buddha. " To the doctrine will I look in faith ; well preached is the doctrine by he Exalted One. It has become apparent ; it needs no time ; it says 'Come md see ' ; it leads to welfare ; it is realised by the wise in their own hearts. " To the Order will I look in faith ; in right behaviour lives the Order )f disciples of the Exalted One ; in proper, honest, just behaviour lives the )rder of the disciples of the Exalted One, the four couples, the eight classes >f believers ; that is the Order of the disciples of the Exalted One, worthy o have men lift their hands before them in reverence, the highest place n the world, in which man may do good. 11 In the precepts of rectitude will I walk, which the holy love, which ire uninfringed, unviolated, unmixed, uncoloured, free, praised by the^wise \nd not counterfeit, which lead on to concentration." Although we have spoken of the Buddhist Order, somewhat as if it 286 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. were a body corporate, it never became strictly so. No central authority or Not a body representative council was ever constituted ; no person was corporate, deputed by the founder of the religion to represent him after his death. And indeed mankind had not then arrived at the conception of a Pope, or a general authority exercising sway through widely different No bead after an^ separate regions. The only device that then occurred to Buddba. ^ie m0nks was to attribute every new regulation which they wished to enforce, to Buddha himself. He was the one person to whom authority was conceded ; and in so far as his authority was acknowledged, his supposed behests were likely to be obeyed. The only other way of Assemblies or imposing new regulations was by means of assemblies or councils councils. 0f monks, but though sometimes spoken of as general councils as of a Church, they were only assemblies of monks at a particular centre at one time, not called from all Buddhist centres, and not representative. Probably the first of these, said to have been held at Rajagaha immediately after Buddha's death, included the most prominent and revered of his followers ; but there was no way of imposing its decisions on those who were not present, except by a purely intangible influence. The same was the case with the later councils. No doubt they were assembled because evils had arisen, or questions required decision. But the more Buddhism spread, the more independent spirits entered its ranks, the more difficult was it to heal divisions or to prevent divergences of doctrine and practice from arising. And this went on, antagonised only by the cohesion pro- duced by the sacred books, the devotion and reverence for Buddha, the greater or less consciousness of a common interest to advance and a common battle to fight. Hence it was that, as its founder predicted, Buddhism was destined to die in India, and to maintain itself in other countries in widely different forms from those in which it had originated. At first no limitations were imposed as to admission to the Order ; any applicant was received. But it was soon necessary to lay down certain Limitations ru^es °f exclusion. Criminals, those afflicted with serious de- to formities, soldiers and servants of kings, debtors and slaves, and sons whose parents refused their consent, were thus excluded. No youth might enter the first stage till twelve years old, or might be fully received as a monk till twenty. Two stages were marked, the preliminary reception or outgoing from lay life or from another sect of ascetics, and the complete entry (Upasampacla) into the Order. The latter was conferred Form of at a general meeting (Samgha) of monks in any place, a resolu- reception. tjon askjng for ^ being proposed, and any one who objected being required to declare his objection. The petitioner was asked if he had certain diseases, if he was a freeman, if he had no debts, if he had a proper alms-bowl and robes, if his parents consented, if .he was in the royal service, etc. He had further to offer some experienced monk as his sponsor or Tbe four teacher. He was then proposed for formal reception ; and if no resources. monk objected, he was declared to be received. He was next formally told what were the four resources of the Order, (1) morsels of food THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 287 given in alms, (2) a robe made of rags taken from a dust heap, (.;i) dwelling I at tlie foot of a tree, (4) the filthiest liquid for medicine. All other food, drink, shelter, and clothing were to be regarded as extra allowances. After K this, four great prohibitions were communicated: (1) the command The four j to live a chaste life, (2) not to take even a blade of grass that had prohibitions, not been given to him, (3) not to take the life of even the minutest creature, (4) not to boast that he possessed any superhuman perfection. Thus the whole reception was confined to declarations on the part of both the can- didate and the assembly. Nothing like prayer, special initiation, or confer- ment of power Avas included. It followed that it was equally easy to leave the Order. This was .a direct consequence of Buddha's teaching, which was only open to those who voluntarily received it. Perhaps no Order ever held its Quitting the members so lightly; and in this lay one of the secrets of its order. strength. The monks were bound to lead a very temperate life, but their subsistence was sure so long as the Order had any repute ; the thoughts to which they were exhorted chimed in with their own natural pre- Its possessions, and an undoubted position of respect and influence advantages, was occupied by every monk. Then again, while not coercing any one to stay (a monk might leave on simply declaring that he wished to return to relatives, or home, or a worldly life), the Order had a considerable hold on him by reason of the censure and the exclusion which it might pronounce. The breaking of any of the great prohibitions caused exclusion, provided ■any monk took notice of it and brought the case before an assembly. So the double mode — forcible exclusion, and voluntary retirement — were in •easy operation, and thus the Order, retaining only voluntary and well- I behaved members, was strong. In one thing Buddhist monks differed from many other Orders : they were strictly forbidden to acceptor possess silver or gold, or even to treasure them for the Order. Thus they were kept far from " the root of No silver or all evil." If a monk nevertheless accepted such a gift, he was sol± compelled to hand it over to some lay adherent in the neighbourhood, who was to purchase with it butter, oil, or honey, for the use of the monks, the guilty receiver excepted. Or again the gold or silver might be cast away. Such a severe restriction was steadfastly maintained for centuries. Another distinction of the Buddhist monks from other Orders, in India and elsewhere, was in the seemliness of their outward appearance. Far from cultivating dirt or unseemliness in any form, they were Seemly scrupulously careful about bathing, the care of the body, ventila- outward i-i i- -i • . t 1,1 mi- appearance, tion, and other things conducive to health. iheir garments, though they might be very poor, were to be seemly and decent, and it was not forbidden to accept a sufficiency of food and clothing from any lay adherent. The whole picture of the Buddhist monks of early times is a remarkable one in its preservation of the medium between asceticism and excess, a resolute choice which has no doubt preserved it from the extremes of Hindu asceticism, though it has not always kept it equally free ,8S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. from excesses of other kinds. Shelter was always obtainable and allow- able and even comfortable quarters were not disdained. Everything was, •' - far as known, conducted on sanitary principles, in many points reminding of the domestic legislation of the Jews. The seniors and. teachers were cially revered and well attended to, their pupils and the novices who were their woteaes being expected to travel ahead of them and Companion- ""^ J ,.,11 j.i_ • -1 , -, snip. prepare quarters for them when on their journeys, and to do every kindly office for them. Solitude in fact was discouraged. We every- where hear of groups of monks residing together, helping one another in difficulties sickness, or temptation, and looking after one another's spiritual welfare. For five years after his admission to the Order each monk had to be under the tutelage of two monks of ten years' standing whom Tutelage. ^e wag tQ accompaily and attend upon, and from whom he was to receive instruction. Where many monks resided together, offices became somewhat subdivided, but only in relation to domestic matters ; thus different individuals were charged with the distribution of fruit, of rice, the care ot the sleeping and assembly rooms, etc. It is noteworthy how little importance the Buddhist monks attached to labour apart from absolute necessities. Like the strict Brahmans, to whom the recitation of the Vedas was all-important, the monks Recitations ^ r(je(j ^e repetition of Buddha's sayings and discourses and discussions. ^ raies of the Order as essential. But this was varied with discussions on points of difficulty or the fuller exposition of the leading doctrines : " He who abides in the Order talks not of many topics and talks not of vulgar things. He expounds the word himself, or stirs up another to its exposition, or he esteems even sacred silence not lightly." (0.) On the whole we have a picture of an Order living in the world, yet not of the world almost daily contemplating the turmoil and distractions of a suffer- ing changeful life, yet never taking part in its affairs ; a standing witness to self-seeking quarrelling people that something existed far better than their life that passions could be quelled, that there was a life which gave relief from sorrows and produced a philosophic calm. Perhaps and love of in this life too there was more pure love of nature than was always acknowledged ; and the rule as to sparing life was certainly in accord with this. Some of their poets have beautifully expressed this love of nature. " The broad heart-cheering expanses, crowned by Jcareri forests, those lovely regions, where elephants raise their voices, the rocks, make me glad. Where the rain rushes, those lovely abodes, the mountains where sages walk, where the peacock's cry resounds, the rocks, make me glad. There is it good for me to be, the friend of abstraction, who is struggling for salvation. There is it good for me to be, the monk, who pursues the true good, who is struggling for salvation." (0.) The fortnightly meetings already referred to (p. 285) were almost the only regular assemblies of Buddhists, and confession and questioning of Few one another was almost the only religious form. We must con- ceremonies. stantly keep in mind the burdensome and expensive nature of THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 2 8< ) the Brahman observances, and likewise the authority which the Brahmans claimed over all kinds of concerns of other people. Thus the contrast to the latter was very evident in Buddhism : little ceremony, retired life, modest demeanour, pure living, no profession of supernatural power, no assumption of authority. Herein was a great part of its strength. It is surely one of the most remarkable phenomena in the world that a religion — if it can be truly called a religion, — which professes no knowledge and inculcates no worship of a god, and which is not bound in reverence to a supernatural Person, should have obtained sway over one- third of Reverence to the population of the globe. Buddha, it is true, is ever held in Buddha. WORSHIPPERS BEFORE THE ENTRANCE TO THE SHRINE OF THE TOOTH, CEYLON. reverence, but he is not believed in as existing ; he is in Nirvana, but whether Nirvana is a state of present existence or not is doubtful, and thus there is no prayer to Buddha, no answer to prayer by Buddha; yet his memory is fresh, his name is sanctified, his teaching is influential as ever. The only thing in early Buddhism approaching the pilgrimages ami acts of worship in other religions, is the holding in reverence of the four notable places in Buddha's life : his birthplace, the spot where Regard for he attained knowledge and perfect insight, the place where he holy Places- started the kingdom of righteousness, and the place of his death. Those who died while journeying to these places were promised that their re-birth u 29o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Bhould be in heaven. The care of Buddha's relics, the building of monu- bs to contain them, and the holding of festivals in their honour were entirely left to lay members. Perhaps the institution most nearly parallel with the Buddhist assemblies is the class-meeting among the Methodists as instituted by John The Wesley. The " leader " of the meeting was the monk of longest confessional standing in the district, and every member of the Order was to be present, even if ill, unless he were able to send by another monk his assurance of freedom from the faults which the sacred form (Pattimokkha, the words of disburdenment) inquired into. No woman, no lay member, no novice, might take part in or be present at this solemnity. Three times every question must be put, and silence was an assertion of purity. In later times it was held necessary that every monk should have previously confessed his fault and done the appropriate penance (unless it were one for which exclusion was the punishment); and it was the duty of any brother who knew of an offence committed by another to demand his confession and performance of penance. A full procedure (contained in the Kullavagga) gradually grew up to meet all cases of transgression. Buddhist monks, like other human beings, ■me proved themselves liable to err, and we find recitals such as this Kioiavag-ga. a^ the beginning of various sections of the Kullavagga : " Now at that time the venerable Seyyasaka was stupid, and indiscreet, and full of faults, and devoid of merit, and was living in lay society in unlawful associa- tion with the world, so much so that the monks were worn out with placing him on probation and with throwing him back to the beginning of his probationary term," etc. (S. E. xvii.) The various narrations show that offences and some monks at times were guilty of almost every kind of offence penances. or frivolity, and so regulations for warning, punishing, or ex- clnding them were devised. If an individual, even a lay person, had been offended or put clown, his pardon had to be asked. Suspension was the punishment for not acknowledging and not atoning for an offence. How severe this " cutting " could be, is shown by the following recital: "And the monks did no reverence to him, rose not from their seats to welcome him, rendered him not service, offered him not salutation, paid not respect to him, offered him not hospitality, nor esteemed him, nor honoured him, nor supported him." The various penances and forms connected with them are too numerous for us to attempt a further account of them. One other simple annual ceremony there was, known as the Pavarana or invitation. At the end of the rainy season, before commencing the season The Pavarana of itinerancy, the monks met in assembly, each sitting down on ;ati01L the ground, raising his clasped hands, and inviting his brethren to charge him with any offence he might be suspected of, promising, if he had been guilty, to make atonement. If any monk happened to be isolated, be could held this service by himself. 1 mis utterly devoid of show, of stately formality, of imposing accom- paniments, was Buddhism ; priestless, templeless, agnostic as to the supreme THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINES. 291 Being, its undeniable power and influence drew to it multitudes of ad- herents ; and they were not all sound or docile fish that came to the net. Hence we early hear of dissensions in the Order, and whole chapters in the sacred books are devoted to their consideration. There are procedures for settling disputes, for dealing with charges against the innocent, the insane, etc. ; and when peaceable reconciliation proved impossible, matters were to be decided by a vote of the majority, unless the subject was too trivial, or a vote would lead to an open schism. The " nuns," or " sisters," of Buddhism were regarded as constituting a separate Order, with their own fortnightly assemblies, yet in complete subordination to the monks, so that none of the higher cere- The nuns, or monies were complete without the co-operation of monks. Every si3ters- sister had to bow reverently, rise, and raise her clasped hands before every monk, however newly admitted. Both the confession meetings and the preaching of the true Buddhist doctrine had to be conducted for them by the monks ; and the nuns, after having held their own annual meeting, had to send to the corresponding meeting of monks asking them if they had any fault to reprehend in them. They were forbidden to revile or scold monks, or to accuse them. Ordination of the sisters, penances for transgressions, settlement of disputes, all had to be performed or arranged by the monks. Every fortnight the sisterhood had to obtain audience of a monk who had been appointed by his assembly to instruct and admonish them ; but he was strictly forbidden to enter their abode, or to journey or have any intimate companionship with them. No sister might live alone, or in a forest ; they lived within the walls of towns and villages, and never seem to have been at all comparable in numbers or influence to the monks. Indeed, it would have been against the spirit of the Buddhist system that they should be so; for it could only exist by the keeping up of family life, the provision of food and dwelling-places, which could not be continued [if women made a practice of living in nun-like separation. The relations between the Order and the laity were unlike those of almost every other church. Lay believers must have been very numerous, to admit of the support of such large numbers of monks, and the extensive dedication of parks and buildings to their use ; but the monks never thought it necessary to institute a formal method of admitting: lay adherents, nor to keep a roll of them. Practically in each district the followers of Buddha were well known, and it was not desirable to exclude any one from the class of givers without some potent reason. It was usual however for a declaration to be made to a monk by believers, that they took refuge in Buddha, in the Doctrine, and in the Order ; but a monk might recognise a beneficent person as a lay believer before such profession. Instruction in the doctrines of Buddha would be readily given to any person who offered hospitality to the monks, and as readily withdrawn from any one who maligned or insulted them. A serious offence was visited by withdrawal of the alms-bowl, and refusal of hospitality; but such mild excommunication would probably be quite in accordance with the desire .92 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of any cue who could speak ill of the Order. The monks showed consider- able readiness to re-admit any one who apologised for his fault and became reconciled to them. Beyond tins they did not greatly concern themselves with the private life of the laity. Their true church consisted of the Order ; the rest of mankind was scarcely within measurable distance of bliss. And their moral state was but faintly cared for. It is true that an eight- fold abstinence was enjoined on them, including abstinence from killing animals, stealing, lying, drinking intoxicating liquors, unchastity, eating after mid-day, and from perfumes and garlands ; and they must sleep on hard beds on the ground. General meetings of believers do not seem to have been held, nor were they admitted to meetings of the monks. But praises and promises of bliss were freely bestowed after this fashion: " To give houses to the Order, wherein in safety and in peace to meditate and think at ease, the Buddha calls the best of gifts. Therefore let a wise man, who understands what is best for himself, build beautiful houses, and receive into them knowers of the doctrine. Let him with cheerful mind give food to them, and drink, raiment and dwelling-places, to the upright in heart. Then shall they preach to him the doctrine which drives away all suffering ; if he apprehends that doctrine here below, he goes sinless into Nirvana." Naturally there was sometimes a tendency for monks to exact too much, and the sacred books exhibit a stern repression of such practices, together with considerable sensitiveness as to the opinion of the lay-believers. AVe may here briefly refer to the modern doctrine termed " Esoteric Buddhism," which finds favour with some persons in our own land. In the Esoteric Book of the Great Decease, Buddha expressly disclaims any secret Buddhism, doctrine of this kind. Modern Esoteric Buddhism should rather be called a form of Theosophy, which takes hold of some points in Budd- hism, especially that of transmigration or reincarnation, and expresses the belief that souls become reincarnated in successive bodies, without remem- bering what took place in a previous state of existence ; the successive lives being separated from one another by " intervals of spiritual consciousness on a plane of nature wholly imperceptible to ordinary senses." During this stage, the lower passions of earth are forgotten and the higher alone enjoyed ; and the vividness of this joy will depend on the impulse and intensity of previous upward aspirations. Reincarnation, when this impulse is ex- hausted, provides an appropriate punishment for ordinary evil doing. The word " karma," or " doing," is very important in Esoteric Budd- hism : it is explained as the law of cause and effect in the moral world. It Karm determines, according to fixed consequences, the state and con- dition in which reincarnations take place ; on earth good karma may be laid up, and bad karma worked out by suffering. Finally, the individual returns no more to earth-life ; and the spiritual state becomes permanent and exalted. A further doctrine is, that, concurrent with the physical existence, the human ego is capable of existence and of conscious- ness in a non-physical state. But all these ideas are quite unprovable by ordinary methods of proof. (See A. P. Sinnett, " Esoteric Buddhism.") BURMESE BUDDHIST PRIEST AND PUPILS. CHAPTER VII. iHofcent 95utmi)tsfm. #> Missionary religions — Buddhism many-sided — The first Buddhist councils — King Asoka— The third council — Asoka's edicts— Divergence of tranches — The fourth (Kanishka's) council — Fa-hien — Siladitya's council— His good deeds— Huen-Siang — Decline of Indian Buddhism— Its causes— The Greater and the Lesser Vehicles— Wide range of Buddhism— Number of Buddhists Singhalese Buddhism— Gradual modification — Images of Buddha — Viharas in Ceylon— Cave temples — Wor- ship of the laity — Worship of the Bo-tree— Dagobas— Relics of Buddha— Impressions of Buddha's foot— Vassa and public readings— The Pirit ceremony — Buddhist monks in Ceylon— Schools — Services of monks in illness — Burmese Buddhism — Burmese monastery schools — Novices— A Burmese monastery — The Phon-gyees— Life of a monk— Monastery buildings— Burmese pagodas — The great Rangoon temple — Pagahn— Burmese worship — Images of Buddha— Pagoda feasts — Nat worship —Animism— Funerals of laity— Funerals of monks— Siamese Buddhism— Siamese temples— Newborn children— Reformed sects in Siam. AS a missionary religion, Buddhism l is only comparable with. Mahomet- anism and Christianity. No other religions have set themselves to conquer many races outside their original home ; no others have Missionary achieved so much peacefully. Hinduism professedly restricts re^ff10113- itself to the Hindus, though it has displayed great powers of absorbing aboriginal races into itself. Buddhism, Mahometanism, and Christianity are for all people who will receive them ; and their followers have proved their faith by their missionary efforts. Sir Monier- Williams, in his recent work on Buddhism, well expresses the great variety of aspects under which it is necessary to study Buddhism. In various countries and periods, " its teaching has become both Buddhism negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It passes from many-sided- apparent atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and spiritualism. 1 See Spence Hardy's " Eastern Monaohism " and " Manual of Buddhism " ; Sir Monier- Williams's "Buddhism"; "The Burman," by Shway Yoe (Mr. Scott), (B.) ; Alabaster's "Wheel of the Law." 2g4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. It is, under one aspect, mere pessimism ; under another, pure philanthropy ; under another, monastic communism; under another, high morality; under another, a variety of materialistic philosoplry; under another, simple de- monology; under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, including necromancy, witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In some form or other it may be held with almost any religion, and embraces something from almost every creed." At the first Buddhist Council, held at Rajagriha, after the death of Gautama, the teachings of the Enlightened One were sung in three di- visions, namely, the Sutras, or Suttas, or words of Buddha to his disciples ; the Vinay a, or discipline of the Order, and the Dharma, or doctrine ; BuddMst forming together the Tripitakas, or three baskets or collections. councils, j^ hundred years later, a second council, held at Vesali, con- demned the system of indulgences which had arisen, and led to the splitting of Buddhism into two parties, who afterwards gave rise to as many as eighteen sects. But these controversies did not hinder the spread of Buddhism in Northern India. About the middle of the third century B.C., Asoka, the king of Magadha, or Behar, grandson of Chandragupta (Greek Sandrokottos), founder of the kingdom, and noted for his connexion with Alexander the Great and Seleucus, became a sort of second founder of Buddhism. He founded so many monasteries that his kingdom received the name of Land of the Monasteries (Vihara or Behar). The third He made it the religion of the State, and held at Patna the third council. Buddhist council in 244 B.C., which rectified the doctrines and canon of Buddhism. Asoka subsequently did much to spread the Order by sending out missionaries; and he inculcated its principles by having them cut upon rocks and pillars, and in caves, through a wide extent of India. A number of these still exist. The form which the Buddhist scriptures took under his influence, in the dialect of his time and country, has been the basis of the manuscripts preserved in Ceylon, in what is now known as the Pali language. In every way Asoka showed himself to be one of the most enlightened of religious monarchs ; and he in no way sought to make his views triumph by force. His missionaries were directed to mingle Asoka's equally with all ranks of unbelievers, and to " teach better things." edicts. His edicts include the prohibition of the slaughter of animals for food or sacrifice, the statement of the happiness to be found in virtue and the contrast of the transitory glory of this world with the reward beyond it, the inculcation of the doctrine that the teaching of Buddhist doctrine and virtue to others constitutes the greatest of charitable gifts, an order for the provision of medical aid for men and animals, the appointment of guardians of morality, etc. From the time of Asoka we may date the divergence of Buddhism into its varied national forms; henceforth it is only possible to treat the subject Divergence cither by the comparative method or by referring in turn to the .ranches, development of each main branch. Space will only permit us to treat each very briefly. The fourth great Buddhist council, held under MODERN BUDDHISM. 295 Kanishka, who reigned from Kashmir widely over north-western India, in the first century a.d., drew up three commentaries on Buddhism, 7^^^^ which were the basis for the Tibetan scriptures. This council in- (Kanisnka's) dicates that Buddhism was firmly and widely established in India, and up to at least a.d. 800 it continued widely prevalent there, though Brah- manism was never suppressed, and in fact it was gradually absorbing many Buddhist ideas, and preparing, when that operation was completed, to take its place entirely. In the beginning of the fifth century a.d., Fa-hien, a Chinese Buddhist, visiting India, found Buddhist monks and Brah- ^ man priests equally honoured, and Buddhist religious houses side by side with Hindu temples. In the seventh century the Buddhists were being outnumbered by the Hindus, although there were still powerful Buddhist monarchs and states in India. At this period Siladitya appears as a great patron-king, who in 634 held another great council at Kanauj on snaditya's the Ganges; but the progress of Brahmanism was manifest in councU- the discussions which took place at this council between Buddhists and Brahmans, and by the worship of the sun god and of Siva on days succeed- ing the inauguration of a statue of Buddha. The divergences among followers of Buddha were seen in the disputes which took place between the advocates of the Northern and the Southern Canons, or the greater and lesser " Vehicles" of the law. Siladitya was further notable for msgood his public distribution of his treasures and jewels every five years, deeds- after which he put on a beggar's rags ; thus he celebrated Buddha's Great Renunciation. Near Gaya he supported the vast monastery of Nalunda, where it is said that ten thousand Buddhist monks and novices pursued their studies and devotions ; but Gaya was already a great centre of Hinduism. Huen-Siang, who travelled from China through India „ &? . . Huen Siang. in the seventh century, found Brahmanism gaining ground, though Buddhism still flourished in Southern India. Some of the Hindu reformers persecuted it, as already related. It was still comparatively strong Decline of in Orissa and Kashmir in the 11th century, and Magadha con- Indian , _, . -,. . ., , ^r , , J ' ,., -. r Buddhism, tmued Buddhist until the Mohammedan conquest at the end 01 the twelfth century. After that, Buddhism was practically extinct in India. Why was this ? Partly because, as we have already pointed out, Hinduism seized upon the more valuable doctrines of Buddhism, and com- bined them with the stronger and more popular elements of its courseg own faith and ritual. Buddhism, too, did not set itself to ex- tinguish Brahmanism ; that would have been contrary to its principles ; and its composure and extinction of desires was not calculated to put down any active opposition. Moreover, the Buddhists' celibacy contradicted one of the great instincts of humanity ; and we must allow for the full effect of their ignoring the existence of God, of their denial of revelation, and of the efficacy of prayer and priesthood. Again, and perhaps chiefly, Buddhism left too little for the lay adherent to do. Those only were true Buddhists who became monks ; the Church outside was not defined ; almost 2g6 THE WORLDS RELIGIONS. its only privilege was to wait on and feed the monks; consequently, Vishnuism and Sivaism, in which the people had a most important part to play, most special ends to gain, and a most vital interest, conquered the affections and devotion of the masses of India. It is in Ceylon, Burmah, and Siam that the nearest resemblance to primitive Buddhism is to be found at the present day. These countries adhere to the canon of scriptures, as given in preceding chapters, andtheLessercalled by the Northern Buddhists the "Lesser Vehicle," in de- vemcies. precjat j011i Mahinda, the son of king Asoka, was the great apostle of Buddhism in Ceylon ; and now it has a history of over two thousand years. The canon was first translated into Singhalese and then translated back into Pali by Buddaghosa in the fifth century, since which the texts have remained practically unchanged in Pali, not very different from the language of Asoka's day and kingdom. They have been translated into modem Singhalese, and commented upon at great length. The council held by Kanishka was the starting-point of the Northern Canon, often called the " Greater Vehicle " (Mahayana), written in Sanskrit. There are nine principal books of these scriptures, of which the best known are the " Lotus of the true Law," and the " Legendary Life of Buddha." All of them were translated into Tibetan ; and a large number of com- mentaries upon them were written. It is upon this "Greater Vehicle" that the Buddhism of Nepaul, Tibet, China, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Japan is founded ; but these all differ considerably from one another. Extending over so wide and so populous an area of the earth's surface, Buddhism has wide range been described as being the religion professed by more persons of Buddhism, faan any other, and has sometimes been credited with five hundred millions of adherents. The mistake that is made in such a calculation is evident when we remember that in China, where the greatest number of nominal Buddhists exists, a vast proportion of the population profess Con- fucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism equally or indifferently ; and the study of our chapters on the former will have shown how deep a hold Confucianism, ancestor worship, and the varied forms of Taoism, have upon the Chinese. Number of If they were called upon to exclude one of their religions, it is Buddmsts. aimost certain that Buddhism would be excluded. It is very doubtful if it is proper to reckon so many as a hundred millions of Chinese as Buddhists. Again, we have seen that Shintoism prevails in Japan, where, nevertheless, many people generally show some adhesion to Buddhism. Buddhism, essentially, has no lay standard of adherence, since the true Buddhists are the monks only. Sir Monier- Williams reckons the number of Buddhists at one hundred millions ; Dr. Happer, an experienced American missionary in China, estimates that there are only twenty millions of real Buddhist believers in China, and a total of seventy-two and a half millions in Asia. But it is a very doubtful thing to attempt to reckon the numbers of adherents of a religion, and especially such a religion as Buddhism. It is certainly one of the four most prevalent religions in the world. MODERN BUDDHISM. '97 SINGHALESE BUDDHISM. Great indeed is the contrast between modern Buddhism, with its elabo- rate organisation, its wealthy monasteries, its considerable ritual, its image worship and deifications, and the simplicity of its early state Gradual as we have sketched it. No doubt this has come to pass by a modification, gradual process of adaptation to those instincts and desires of the masses of the people which have compelled recognition in all quarters of the globe and in almost all religions, together with the regard which grew around Gautama as a perfect man ; and from the first, great importance seems to have been attached to his relics. Yet it was long before images of him came images of into general use. In Ceylon these are called "Pilamas," meaning Buddha- counterpart or likeness. They had become numerous in the third, fourth, and fifth centuries a.d., some being over twenty feet high and resplendent 1ft. *9S A BURMESE FUNERAL PROCESSION. with jewels. " The viharas in which the images are deposited," says Spence- Hardy, " are generally, in Ceylon, permanent erections, the walls vmaras in being plastered and the roof covered with tiles, even when the Ceylon, dwellings of the priests are mean and temporary. Near the entrance are frequently seen four figures in rilievo, representing the guardians and champions of the temple. Surrounding the sanctum there is usually a narrow room, in which are images and paintings ; but in many instances it is dark. Opposite the door of entrance there is another door, protected by screen, and when this is withdrawn an image of Buddha is seen, occupy- ing nearly the whole of the apartment, with a table or altar before it, upon which flowers are placed. Like the temples of the Greeks, the walls are covered with paintings ; the style at present adopted in Ceylon greatly re- sembling, in its general appearance, that which is presented in the tombs and temples of Egypt. The story most commonly illustrates some passages 298 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. in i lie life of Buddha, or in the births he received as Bodhi-sat. The viharas are not unfrequently built upon rocks or in other romantic situations. The courl around is planted with the trees that bear the flowers most usually offered. Some of the most celebrated viharas are caves, in part natural, with excavations carried further into the rock. The images of Buddha are sometimes recumbent, at other times upright, or in a sitting posture, either in the act of contemplation, or with the hand uplifted in the act of giving instruction. At Cotta, near Colombo, there is a recumbent image forty-two feet in length. Upon the altar, in addition to the flowers, there are fre- quently smaller images either of marble or metal. In the shape of the images, each nation appears to have adopted its own style of beauty, those of Ceylon resembling a well-proportioned native of the island, whilst those of China present an appearance of obesity that would be regarded as any- fching but divine by a Hindu. The images made in Siam are of a more attenuated figure, and comport better with our idea of the ascetic." The cave temple at Damballa is one of the most perfect. One of its halls contains a gigantic recumbent figure of Buddha in the solid rock forty-seven feet long ; at its feet stands an attendant, and opposite 'to the face is a statue of Vishnu, who is supposed to have assisted at the building ; another has more than fifty figures of Buddha, and statues of several Brahmanic devas, Vishnu, Natha, etc. There is a handsome dagoba in this vihara, the spire nearly touching the roof. The whole interior — rock, wall, and statues — is painted in brilliant colours, yellow predominating. These, and other cave temples in Ceylon show that they were constructed through the same impulse and in the same art epoch with those at Ajunta and Ellora. No recent vihara of importance has been erected in Ceylon. The laity, on entering a vihara, bend the body or prostrate themselves before the image of Buddha with palms touching each other and thumbs worship of touching the forehead. They next repeat the threefold formula the laity. 0f taking refuge, or they take upon themselves a certain number of the ten obligations. Some flowers and a little rice are then placed upon the altar, and a few coppers are cast into a vessel. No form of prayer is used, and to all appearance there is no feeling concerned in the worship, which is a matter of course and convention, with a desire of gaining some boon. Buddha, the Doctrine, and the Order, appear in Ceylon to be almost co-equally invoked for protection. The protection of Buddha is to be obtained by listening to the scriptures or keeping the precepts, and thus the evil consequences of demerit are overcome. The protection of the Order is gained by a small gift. The protection of the three takes away the fear of successive existences, mental fear, bodily pain, and the misery of the four hdls. Buddha will not protect one who refrains from worship when near a dagoba or other sacred place, or covers himself with his garment, an umbrella, etc., when in sight of an image of Buddha. The Doctrine will not protect one who refuses to listen to the reading of the scriptures when called upon, or who listens irreverently or does not keep the precepts. The MODERN BUDDHISM. 299 Order will not protect one who sits near a priest without permission, who reads the precepts without being appointed, or argues against a priest, or has his shoulders covered or holds an umbrella up when near a priest, or who remains seated when riding in any vehicle near a priest. Many notable legends attest the importance of these statements. The worship of the Bo-tree (Pipul, or sacred fig) under which Gautama was accustomed to sit is no doubt very ancient, and in the court-yard of most viharas in Ceylon there is one, said to be derived from worship of the original one brought to the island in the fourth century b.o. the Botree- Usually one was planted on the mound under which the ashes of Kandyan chiefs and priests were placed. The dagoba next claims attention, but this word appears in another guise, as " pagoda " ; it is derived from " da," an osseous relic, and " geba," the womb, meaning the shrine of an osseous relic. The word f tope," otherwise " stupa," a relic, is used for the same buildings. It is a circular building of stone, built on a natural or artificial elevation, and its summit is crowned with a hemispherical cupola, formerly terminated by I spires. One of the great dagobas in Ceylon, at Anuradhapura, was originally 405 feet high, but is now not more than 230 feet; another, formerly 315 feet, is now not more than 269 feet. All are built of brick and covered with : a preparation of lime, of a pure white, and capable of high polish, so that when perfect the building resembled a crystal dome. At various periods in modern times these dagobas have been opened. One, opened in 1820 in Ceylon, contained in the interior a small square compartment of brickwork, set exactly towards the cardinal points. In the centre, directly under the apex, was a hollow stone vase with a cover, containing a small piece of bone, with some thin pieces of plate-gold, a few rings, pearls, and Relics of beads, a few clay images of the sacred naga, or snake-god, and Bu<*dha. two lamps. Such relics are either supposed to have been those of Buddha himself or of some Buddhist saint, and many miracles are ascribed to their virtues. The most celebrated relic of Buddha now existing is in Ceylon, namely, the dalada, or left canine tooth, a piece of discoloured ivory two inches long (much too long for a human tooth). This is preserved in a small chamber in the vihara attached to the old palace of the Kandyan kings, enclosed in nine successive bell-shaped golden and jewelled cases, each locked, and the key kept by a separate official. On the walls of the corridor •of entrance are coloured frescoes of the eight principal hells of Buddhism, in which evildoers are represented being torn asunder by red-hot tongs, or sawn in two, or crushed between rocks, or fixed on red-hot spikes. Thus does the spirit of gentle Buddhism find place for practical threats of horrible torture. Next to the relics in regard are impressions of Buddha's foot. The most celebrated is on Adam's Peak in Ceylon, annually visited _ •> ' •* Impressions |by 100,000 pilgrims. It is a depression or excavation over five of Buddha's Ifeet long, and three-quarters of a yard wide. Representations !of it are divided into 108 compartments, each containing a design or figure, with a wheel in the centre. 3oo THE IVOR ID'S RELIGIONS. The Vassa, or residence in a fixed abode during the rainy season, cele- brated by reading the Buddhist scriptures to the people, is well kept up in Ceylon. The reading takes place in a temporary building of public pyramidal form, with successive platforms, built near a vihara. In readings. ^ centre is an elevated platform for the monks, and the people sit around on mats. Lamps and lanterns of great variety and gay colour are held by the people in their hands or on their heads during the reading. Sometimes the scene is a very attractive one. " The females are arrayed in their gayest attire, their hair being combed back from the forehead and neatly done up in a knot, fastened with silver pins and small ornamental combs. The usual dress of the men is of white cotton. Flags and streamers, figured handkerchiefs and shawls, float from every convenient receptacle. At intervals, tom-toms are beaten ; the rude trumpet sends forth its screams ; and the din of the music, the murmur of the people's voices, the firing of musketry and jinjalls, and the glare of the lamps, pro- duce an effect not much in consonance with an act of worship " (Hardy). Usually only the Pali text is read, so that the people do not understand a word, and many fall asleep or chew betel. Whenever the name of Buddha is repeated by the reader, the people call out simultaneously "Sadhu," an exclamation of ]oy. In many ways these readings are observed as festival occasions ; they take place at each change of the moon, or four times in the lunar month. Great merit is said to accrue to all hearers who keep the eight precepts upon these service days. It is not proper to trade or to make trade calculations on them, still less to injure any one. Another of the ceremonies in which the laity have a share is the '; Pint," or reading certain portions of the scriptures as an exorcism against TnePirit demons, i.e., really malignant spirits who were formerly men. ceremony. Certain portions of the scriptures are supposed to avail specially in this work, and these are collectively termed the Pirit. One of these contains the following: "All spirits here assembled, those, of earth and those of air, let all such be joyful ; let them listen attentively to my words. Therefore hear me, 0 ye spirits ; be friendly to the race of men ; for day and night they bring you their offerings ; therefore keep diligent watch over them. Ye spirits here assembled, those of earth and those of air, let us bow before Buddha, let us bow before the Law, let us bow before the Order." The recitation of the Pirit on a great occasion continues without interruption through seven days and nights, relays of priests being engaged, with many attendant circumstances of festivity. We now pass to the Buddhist order of monks in Ceylon, " priests " as they call themselves now-a-days. " In nearly all the villages and towns Of BuddWst Ceylon/' says Hardy, " that are inhabited by the Singhalese or monks in Kandyans, the priests of Buddha are frequently seen, as they have to receive their food by taking the alms-bowl from house to bouse. They usually walk along the road at a measured pace, without taking much notice of what passes around. They have no covering for the head, and arc generally barefooted. In the right hand they carry a fan, in MODERN BUDDHISM. shape not much unlike a hand-screen, which they hold up before the face when in the presence of women, that the entrance of evil thoughts into the mind may be prevented. The bowl is slung from the neck, and is covered by the robe, except at the time when alms are received." There are several ON THE SACRED PLATFORM OF THE RANGOON PAGODA. thousands of these living as celibates in simple leaf-huts or in viharas ; they follow substantially the rules given in the last chapter. Their countenances are usually less intelligent-looking than those of the common people, with an appearance of great vacancy approaching imbecility ; a few rise above this T,02 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. state, but it is only the natural physical result of the kind of meditation and rote-worship in which they engage. Yet the populace regard them as a kind of inferior Buddhas, and pay them great deference. In their dress they repeat that attributed to Buddha; it is assimilated to a yellow garment of rags, by the pieces being torn and sewn together again. The left shoulder is usually covered, the right bare. There is generally a school attached to the vihara, in which boys are taught to read, recite, and write, this last being first effected on sand with the finger. A large portion of the books read relate to Buddhism. Latterly the Ceylon Buddhists have established a college at Colombo for the study of Sanskrit, Pali, and Singhalese. Each vihara has a head, and frequently possesses considerable landed property, but there is no organised hierarchy. One of the most important services rendered by the Buddhists has been in their maintenance of schools; the pupils in general become qualified to enter upon the Buddhistic novitiate at once, and the ceremony of initiation is a very simple one. Notwithstanding the limited sacerdotal functions assigned to the monks, they are to a certain extent recognised in birth and marriage cere- . monies, especially in fixing auspicious days for weddings. In monks case of illness, a monk is sent for, an offering of flowers, oil, and food being at the same time forwarded. A temporary audience- place is fitted up close to the house, and here the monk reads from the scripture for six hours to the relatives and friends, and, if possible, the sick man also. Offerings are again given to the priest, who finally says, " By reverence do the wise secure health, by almsgiving do they lay up treasures for themselves." If he appears about to die, the monk recites the formula of profession of Buddhism, the five prohibitions (p. 278), -and the four earnest reflections. As a rule, in Ceylon, the dead are buried; but the l><»dies of monks are burnt under decorated canopies, which are left to moulder away. 11 l TRME8E B UDDHISM. A very vivid picture of Buddhism in Burmah has been given by Mr. Scott in his fascinating book, " The Burman," published under the Bu pseudonym of " Shway Yoe.;' Every boy goes to the monaster; monastery school from the age of eight, and is taught to read and write, the chief part of the teaching consisting of Buddhistic formulas anc precepts ; and, until the English took possession of the country, every bo] took the yellow robe at the close of his schooling, although he might retain it. bul for a short time ; and as yet comparatively few have thrown off the conventional mode of education in favour of the Government schools. Oi Novices entermg the Order as a novice, at the age of twelve or more, there is an elaborate ceremony, corresponding to baptism, at which the youth receives a new name, showing that it is now possible foi him to escape from suffering; but this is again lost when or if he returns to the world, though having borne it enables him to add to his merits by MODERN BUDDHISM. 3°5 good works. The ceremony includes the putting off ol fine clothes, the j shaving of the head, reciting a Pali prayer to be admitted to the Order as a novice, that he may walk steadily in the path to perfection, and finally , attain to the blessed state of " Neh'ban,". as Nirvana comes to be rendered in Burmese, and the reception of the yellow robes and the begging-pot from j the chief or abbot of the monastery. Finally, there is a feast at the parent's house. The stay of the novice in the monastery is not usually long, some- I times even only one day, but usually at least through one rainy season, or "Wah (Vassa, sometimes called Lent by Europeans). Those who resolve to I adopt the religious life enter upon advanced studies of Buddhist writings; but many things hinder the novice, especially the duty of attending on the [monks, begging, carrying umbrellas or books for his seniors. In Lower Burmah the parents sometimes send food regularly for their son, but this- would not be allowed in Upper Burmah. In a Burmese monastery the whole community is roused a little before day- light, awakened by a big bell, a Burmese and after washing, each brother monastery, recites a few formulas, one of which is " How great a favour has the Lord Bu- ddha bestowed upon me in manifesting to me his law, through the observance of which I may escape hell and secure my salvation." The entire brotherhood as- semble round the image of Buddha, recite the morning service, and then perform various domestic duties, the elder onty meditating. A. slight meal and an hour's tudy are followed by the procession of all the monks through the town, to receive food in the alms-bowl. On their •eturn a portion is offered to Buddha's image, and then breakfast is taken. Strictly it ought to consist of the morning's gift, not specially dressed ; )ut usually this is now given to the scholars or any chance wanderers, svhile a tasty meal is prepared for the monks. Visits of courtesy or lonour fill up part of the day, at which great ceremony is observed, the 3onversation, according to Shway Yoe, coming round to the merit of alms- giving. After a light meal at noon, all return to work, some teaching, others studying the Buddhist books, overseeing the writers who copy manuscripts ; 3ut the work of many is merely meditation, repeating the formulas of the )rder, " while, throughout all, sounds the din of the schoolroom, where the mpils are shouting out their tasks at the top of their voices. The novices tnd monks may take a stroll in the evening, but at sunset all are summoned )ack, and the scholars recite the whole or part of their day's work to the ibbot. So the evening passes till 8.30 or 9, when all assemble for devotion, BUKMFSE IMAGE OF GAUTAMA. )efore the image of Buddha. Then a novice loudly proclaims the hour, day, 3o4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and year ; all bow before Buddha thrice, and similarly before the abbot, and then retire. The testimony of Shway Yoe is, that " the effect of such a school, presided over by an abbot of intelligence and earnestness, must in- fallibly work for the good of all connected with it, and especially so in the case of an impulsive impressionable people like the Burmese. As long as all the men of the country pass through the monasteries, the teachings of western missionaries can have but little power to shake the hold of Buddhism on the people/' Among those who are fully recognised as monks, the Phon-gyee of ••great glory" is distinguished, having been at least ten years a monk, and ■me Phon- having proved himself steadfast and self-denying. From this £yees- class the Sayah (head or abbot) is chosen. Beyond these is re- cognised the Provincial, overseeing a number of monasteries in a district and the Sadaw, or royal teacher, of whom there are eight, forming a sort of supreme Burmese religious board. It is always possible to leave the monastery, in which point Buddhist monasteries differ from most others. The life of a monk is an ideal one in many respects ; food is supplied to him ; he has no sermons to prepare ; he has few outside religious rites to Life of a attend ; and if he observes the cardinal precepts of Buddhism, monk. jie -g continually accumulating merit. There is nothing in the admission or routine of the full monkhood which is not in essence con- tained in our chapters. Discipline is strictly maintained, the breaking of the prime commands being severely punished; unfrocking, expulsion, pos- sibly stoning, are penalties sufficiently heavy. The condition of an ex- pelled monk is pitiable : " no one may speak to him ; no monk will take alms from him ; he can neither buy nor sell ; he is not allowed even to draw water from a well." If there is evil living or neglect of religious duty in a neighbourhood, the brethren invert their alms-bowls and cease to go out begging. This is felt to be so grave a censure that it does not fail to influence the most hardened in a very short time, yet laxities are not unknown. Some monks will receive money or gold, or will adopt cir- cuitous methods of getting what they desire. So far has this proceeded that an active sect has arisen in lower Burmah to restore and maintain the true austerities and ordinances of Buddhism, and it has gained many ad- herents among laity as well as monks. On the whole, the monks are greatly reverenced by the people, who make obeisance when they pass, the women kneeling down by the roadside in Upper Burmah. The oldest layman terms himself the disciple of the youngest monk, whose commonest actions are spoken of in magniloquent language. The monastery is an essential accompaniment of the Burmese village, away from bustle, surrounded by fine trees. Usually it is built of teak, Monastery sometimes of brick. All are oblong, and one storey high, the living tidings. rooms being raised eight or ten feet on pillars. The woodwork is ornamented with varied carving of figures and scroll-work ; the roofs appear as if constituting successive storeys — three five, or, seven. The main hall is divided into two portions — one for the scholars and a higher one for FUNERAL PYRE OF A BURMESE PHON-GYEE. 305 3o6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. ( he reception of visitors. At the back of this, against the wall, are images of Buddha on a sort of altar, with candles, flowers, praying flags, etc. Near t his are various treasures, books, manuscripts, chests, models of monasteries and pagodas, etc. This hall is also used as the sleeping place of the monks. Sometimes a number of these buildings are contained within one enclosure. The most gorgeous group of monastic buildings in the world probably is the Itoyal Monastery outside Mandalay. " Every building in it is magni- ficent ; every inch carved with the ingenuity of a Chinese toy, the whole ablaze with gold leaf and a mosaic of fragments of looking-glass. . . . The interior is no less elaborate. The wood-carving is particularly fine." But this is only one among many. The whole space between Mandalay Hill and the city is full of monasteries, some with excellent libraries of palm-leaf books; while in Lower Burmah many do not possess even a complete copy of the three chief books of the " Lesser Vehicle." It being the special privilege of the lay believers to build and support monasteries, plenty of scope for such philanthropy is always allowed ; but many monasteries have a good deal of cash laid away. The Burmese are taxed most seriously by Buddhism, for abundant almsgiving must be supplemented by regular worship at the pagodas. The pagodas of Burmah are still more numerous than the monasteries, old crumbling ones beside new glittering buildings, as in India, with very many Burmese imaginary relics of Buddha or other saints. All these buildings pagodas. ^ne Burmese call Z ay dee, the offering place, or place of prayer ; while the more notable pagodas are termed Payahs. A relic or sacred object is buried or enclosed in each ; without it no " htee," or umbrella, could crown its spire. Often these include golden images of Buddha with the hooded snake. They are based on the primitive mound plan, combined with the lotus, extended in many cases into an inverted bell with a spire. They are all made of sun-dried brick, very liable to decay, and only a few are renewed or made substantial enough for permanence. Some of the pagodas are surrounded at the base by a circle of smaller pagodas, each enshrining an image of Buddha. The most magnificent Buddhist temple is that at Rangoon, the Shway Dagohn Payah, containing, it is said, eight hairs of Gautama Buddha, beside The great rencs °f tne three Buddhas who preceded him. It stands upon a temple11 ^U&e mouncl of tw0 terraces, the upper 166 feet above the ground outside, and in extent 900 feet by 685. The long flights of steps by which the ascent is made are covered by long ranges of handsome teak roofs, with frescoes showing scenes in Buddha's disciples' lives, and horrible scenes of the torments of the wicked in hell. From the centre of the upper terrace rises the solid octagonal brick payah, 370 feet high, abundantly gill . At the top is the htee, or gilt umbrella of iron work of many rings, each with many jewelled bells of gold and silver, tinkling with every movement of the air. Four chapels at the foot of the pagoda have colossal sitting figures of Buddha, with hundreds of smaller ones in every style and posture, surrounding or even fixed upon them. The decorations and carvings upon MODERN BUDDHISM. 307 and around these are elaborate beyond description ; the multitudes of bells of all sizes, from the great one of 42 tons downwards, deserve special mention. The great bell was carried off by the English after the second Burmese war, but by accident it capsized and lay at the bottom of the Rangoon river, and the English failed to raise it. The Burmese begged to be allowed to try, and with primitive appliances and great perseverance succeeded in raising it, and so got it back again, to the great triumph of Buddhists ; and indeed the carrying off of religious emblems or property of any kind from a conquered people is a feat no Englishman has reason to be proud of. The original temple, 27 feet high, has been again and again encased with bricks rendering it larger and taller, and has thus attained its present height, and it is periodically regilt ; also the faithful are never tired of climbing as high as they can, and fixing squares of gold leaf upon it. u Lepers and cripples and nuns in their white robes line the steps and cry out in piteous tones for alms. Round the platform itself are sellers of candles and coloured tapers, Chinese incense sticks, and prayer flags, along with abundance of gold leaf. Numbers of young girls sit about with flowers, especially of the lotus, and meats of different kinds for offerings. The platform is never deserted. Even long after midnight the voice of the worshipper may be heard in the night air, chanting in solemn monotone his pious aspirations, while on a duty day, and especially on a feast day, the laughing, joyous crowd of men and maidens, in their gay national dress, makes the platform of the Shway Dagohn one of the finest sights in the world." (B.) The Shway Maw-Daw, the lotus-shrine of Pegu ; the depository of the sacred hair at Prome, and the great temple at Mandalay, are among the more remarkable temples in Burmah. But we must not omit to mention the great collection of pagodas at Pagahn, the deserted capital on the Irrawaddy, extending for eight miles along the bank and for two miles inland. Colonel Yule, in his " Mission to Ava," has described them in detail. Some are cruciform vaulted temples, with great galleries and transepts, and remind visitors of old-world cathedrals ; others have minarets, pyramids of fretwork ; some are like huge bulbous mushrooms. It is said that there are nearly ten thousand more or less complete, but ruin is on many, and jungle-bushes have overgrown them. Very many contain colossal figures of Buddha and sculptured groups. Again, Shway Goo, an island between Mandalay and Bhamo, is a great centre of temples, having nine hundred and ninety-nine. Thus we may gather some faint idea how deeply the belief in securing merit by building a pagoda has entered into the nature of the Burmese ; but, says Shway Yoe, they are not idolaters ; they worship neither Burmese relics nor images. The pagoda and the figure only furnish a worshiP- fitting place to praise the great Buddha and to resolve to imitate his charity and sinless life. No actual prayers are offered to them ; simple praises ! learnt at the monastery school, or special forms made by the worshipper are repeated, and their character is similar to those we have already given samples of. They are not merely addressed to the image, but also to the 3o8 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. entire building, and may be repeated anywhere, at a distance from it. Pilgrims to the Rangoon temple prostrate themselves now and again, from the time the}' catch sight of the spire, repeating simple formula or Pali mces of which they may or may not know the meaning. Many of them have little paper prayer flags in various fanciful shapes, having written in ihe centre some pious sentence in Pali or Burmese. These are laid on the shrine, and add to the merit of the worshipper, as do the candles, lamps, flowers, incense-sticks, etc., which are offered. " The worshippers, if they are men, squat down, resting the body on their heels. The body is bent a little forward, and the hands are joined together and raised to the forehead. The women kneel down altogether, and take especial care to cover up their feet. All are of course barefooted. Before commencing the repetition of the formula?, three prostrations are made with the forehead to the ground. It is usual to hold some offering between the hands during worship, and this is afterwards reverently deposited on the altar. Strange to say, the Burmese have but little idea of perpetuating their images of Buddha; few are of marble or brass; most are of short-lived brick, images of mortar, and wood. The utmost period for which they could Buddha, endure would be as nothing in comparison with the countless future ages. Their variety too is not great ; they are either standing in the preaching attitude, sitting cross-legged, or recumbent and representing the approach of death. The erect figures are usually very large ; these are common in Upper Burmah, some forty feet high ; many have been and are frequently gilt. In Lower Burmah the whole of the receptacles near the shrines are crammed full of little images of all kinds. Only a few great images are carved or placed in the open. The ignorant in some cases ascribe miracles to particular images or relics, but all enlightened Buddhists strongly repudiate those beliefs, and only unprincipled monks can now and then be got to propagate them. There is one noteworthy marble Buddha at the foot of Mandalay Hill, twenty-five feet high, carved out of one block, scores of tons in weight. Another on the top of the hill has gold leaf only on the eyeballs, and its ant renewal by the faithful causes the pupils to protrude frightfully. ( )ther notable images are formed of bricks laid against rock surfaces. Many are deserted, marks of past populations, still reverenced by the chance visitor, but regarded more with curiosity than adoration. The pagoda feasts are the great holidays of the Burmese, each shrine having its own day, and they considerably resemble the great fairs of Pagoda medieval Europe, a few minutes spent at the shrine, reciting 3ts- sentences in praise of Buddha, sufficing for the devotions of most of the visitors, while a few listen to the reading and expounding of the Bacred books by t he head of the monastery. The four feast days every month ' are also well observed, and have in general been made to coincide with Sunday in Lower Burmah since the British occupation ; but there is much variation in the strictness with which the day is kept. The three months of Wah corresponding to Vassa) are kept as a sort of Lent, without fasting, MODERN BUDDHISM. 309 but with special observance of religious duties, and absence of feasts and marriages. Often the richer people get monks to expound the law in their houses, and invite their friends to hear them. The end of this season is celebrated by a carnival, including in Rangoon much feasting and even plays in the monasteries and grand illuminations. Notwithstanding the firm hold which Buddhism has upon the Burmese, they still propitiate the nature-spirits or nats, as if Buddhism were unknown. The word " nat " in Burmese has two distinct meanings, one kind of nats being the inhabitants of the six inferior heavens, the devas, Nat worship. ENTRANCE TO THE SHWAT DAGOIIX, HANGOOX. transferred from the Vedic mythology, and the other the spirits of the air, water, and forest. The last are most diligently propitiated, for fear of the harm they may do, at a little shrine at the end of each village. Sometimes, it is a mere bamboo cage with a gaudy image or images of a fetish-like ugliness, to which offerings are made by the villagers. In fact, the whole category of local spirits, disease spirits, demons, omens, and magic- workers is to be found in considerable force in Burmah, though greatly frowned upon by the Buddhist priests. Lucky and unlucky days, days proper for special things or improper for others, have also very great influence in Burmese life, and in them the astrologers find great profit. So that concurrently with 3io THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the more advanced notions of Buddhism, there may be found in Burmah practically the whole round of primitive notions about the spirit sm' world. The butterfly spirit is the Burmese idea of the essential spirit of human life, which may wander in dreams, be charmed or afflicted by demons and wizards, be preserved by witch-doctors, and which finally departs at death. Marriage in Burmah is not a religious ceremony, being contrary to the celibate ideas of the monks ; but in burials the latter are largely concerned. Funerals They are summoned to stay in the house of death as a protection of laity. from evii spirits ; they deliver addresses on the vanity of human i lesires and the uncertaint}" and wretchedness of life ; they receive large alms, determining the extent of their services, and at the grave they recite the five commandments and the ten good works, and various sentences in Pali. "When they are leaving with their alms, the chief mourner pours water on to the ground and says, " May the deceased and all present share the merit of the offerings made and the ceremonies now proceeding," that the earth may remember it when men forget. For a week after, feasting and mourn- ing go on in most cases, the monks receiving offerings, reciting Pali sentences, driving off evil spirits, and purifying the house. Many people in Burmah are still cremated. The funeral of a monk is very different. When he dies, he simply returns to one of the various heavens, and his funeral is called "Phongyee Funerals bvan," the return of the great glory. A notable monk has a of monks. funerai that is attended by people from all around. After elaborate preparations, the body is enclosed in a gorgeous sarcophagus, painted with religious subjects and variously decked. It lies in state for months under an open teak building called a " monastery for the dead," hung with gift- paintings of all kinds of subjects and various other gifts, and is visited by streams of pilgrims, who say their religious sentences, make offerings of flowers and fruit, and give contributions towards the final ceremony. This is the erection and burning of the funeral pyre : an elaborately decorated seven-roofed building, with a spire rising to seventy feet, is erected in a space cleared of jungle ; the funeral car, previous to the coffin being placed upon it, is the subject of a prolonged "tug of war," the victory of those who are privileged to drag the car bringing abundant merit to them and being highly prized. The coffin is at last dragged to the pyre and lifted to its platform, beneath which an abundant supply of combustibles is heaped. Finally the whole is lighted by rockets fired from a distance. The bones of the deceased are gathered up and buried near the pagoda. Unlike other Buddhist countries, a shrine or pagoda is not erected over the dead in Burmah. SIAMESE BUDDHISM. After this account of Burmese Buddhism it will not be necessary to say much of its Siamese form, which is very similar. The Siamese monks, though their monasteries are sometimes elaborate buildings, only remain in MODERN BUDDHISM. 31* theni during the rainy season. Tlie sacred footprint of Buddha, five feet long by two broad, known as the Phra Bat, is greatly venerated, and has a shrine erected over it, at which valuable gifts are offered. There is no real likeness to a foot, and the cavity has scarcely any markings on it ; but it is venerated as a genuine relic. There are plenty of markings on the supposed genuine copies of it, divided into 108 compartments, with figures having an elaborate symbolic relationship to Buddhism. On the whole, it may be said that Buddhism is more strictly observed in Siam than in Burmah. The great temple, " Wat Poh," in Bangkok, contains an enormous gilt figure of the dying Buddha, about 160 feet long, constructed of bricks, lacquered and heavily gilt. The huge foot-soles are inlaid with Siamese mother-of-pearl figures illustrating stories of Buddha's life. The temples, floor is of tesselated marble. Another great temple, — the "Wat Chang/' or Elephant Temple, — has a lofty spire with external decoration in remark- able patterns which at a distance look like mosaics of precious stones, but are in truth nothing but a mixture of broken glass, crockery, and shells. A representation of the three-headed elephant is prominently placed on each of the four facades of this temple. Cremation is the usual mode of disposing of the dead. Priests pray day and night in the house until the body is removed to the temple-grounds. The interval between death and burial varies according to the 1 o 1 iip Cremation. rank and wealth ot the family ; it may even be protracted tor months, during which the prayers go on continuously, the coffin being covered with flowers. But the devouring of bodies by vultures and dogs is not at all uncommon. The Laos believe that children are the offspring of the spirits ; and when newly born, they are placed on the top of the ladder leading to the house, and the spirits are called to take away the child at once or Newborn not to molest it afterwards. Various offerings to the spirits are children, made ; and on the second day the child is considered out of their power, and is nominally sold to some relative for a trifle, it being supposed that the spirits would not take what has been thus sold. The Siamese as a rule have but one wife. The Buddhist priests are called in to the marriage ceremony, read an extract from their scriptures, and pray for a blessing on the pair, who are then sprinkled with holy water. After further prayers and feasting the marriage is complete. It is significant of possibilities of Buddhist revival, that in Siam in recent years free Buddhist churches have arisen, rejecting the miraculous and mythical elements, and recurring to the pure moral teachings Reformed of the founder. The late king gave a powerful support to these sects m Siam* churches and their efforts. His foreign minister, Chao Phya Phraklang, wrote " a book explaining many things," showing that much of the popular mythology was not essential to Buddhism, although he retained the belief in Buddha having visited the heavens and taught the angels. He may be called a Buddhist rationalist, teaching a universal morality. Having studied 312 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Christianity very carefully, lie rejected it, terming it " a foolish religion." His book, as translated by Mr. Alabaster, is worth reading as a specimen of the keen criticism Christian missionaries encounter from educated Buddhists. A brief quotation from a passage relating to the future state will be found of interest. " We observe that some die young, others live to old age ; some are born great, others not ; some rich, others poor ; some beautiful, others ugly ; some never suffer illness, others are continually ill, or blind, or deaf, or deformed, or mad. If we say that God made these, we must regard Him as unjust, partial, and ever changing ; making those suffer who have never done anything to deserve suffering, and not giving to men in general that average of good and bad fortune which attends even the speculations of the gambler. But if we believe in the interchange and succession of life throughout all beings (i.e., the transmigration of souls), and that good and evil arise from ourselves, and are the effects of merit and demerit, we have some grounds for belief. "Those who believe that after death the soul passes to hell or heaven for ever, have no proof that there is no return thence. Certainly it would be a most excellent thing to go direct to heaven after death, without further change, but I am afraid that it is not the case. For the believers in it, who have not perfectly purified their hearts, and prepared themselves for that most excellent place, where there is no being born, growing old, and dying, will still have then souls contaminated with uneradicated evil. How is it possible that those who have not cleared away the evil disposition from their soul should attain the most excellent heaven, and live eternally with God the Creator ? And of those who are to remain in hell for ever, many have made merit and done much good. Shall that be altogether lost ? " PAGODA AT PAG iIIN. THE THREE PRECIOUS ONES (CHINESE BUDDHISM). CHAPTER VIII. iiflofceru SuDft&fein* H. Tibetan Buddhism— Tibetan Scriptures— Worship of the Triad— The Bodhi-satvas— Maitreya— The Dhyani-Buddhas — Buddhist heavens — The Lamas — The Grand Lama— History of Tibetan Buddhism — The Mongol emperors — The Dalai and Panchen Lamas — Succession of Grand Lamas — Great monasteries — The Vatican of Buddhism — Interview with Grand Lama— Tashi Lunpo— Praying- by machinery — Prayer cylinders — Prayer walls and flags — Daily worship of monks — Festivals — Fasts — The Papal domain of Buddhism— Chinese Buddhism — Introduction of Buddhism to China — Chinese life of Buddha — Mythical details — Buddhist patriarchs — The Buddhist books translated— Opposition of Confucianists — Bodhidharma — The Mongol emperors - Modern dis- couragement— Present state— Temples — Images in the halls — Realism of images— Kwan-yin— Anntabha — Halls of 500 saints — Tien-tai — Schools of Chinese Buddhism — The Lin-tsi — Monasteries and monks — Ascetics — Nunneries— Popular aspect — Buddhist calendar — Influence of Buddhism on China — The Do-Nothing Sect— Japanese Buddhism — The Shin-Shin. TIBETAN BUDDHISM. THE Buddhism of Tibet may be said to pervade and dominate the national life. The Buddhist leaders practically rule and possess the entire land, paying little more than nominal allegiance to China.1 Their hierarchy, monasteries, ceremonies, and images are repeatedly instanced •as the most elaborate parallel which can be found to the Roman Catholic system ; and it is certain that Buddhism in Tibet presents an almost com- plete contrast to the simplicity of Gautama's Order. It did not reach Tibet till the seventh century a.d., when it had already a history of more than •a thousand years behind it, and had gained predominance in Kashmir and Nepal. The Tibetans, like other Mongoloid peoples, had a Shamanistic nature worship, with much magic and sorcery and dread of spirits ; and it is little doubtful that their previous beliefs largely influenced the modifica- tion which Buddhism underwent. 1 See Sir Monier-Willianis's " Buddhism "— Edkins's " Chinese Buddhism " and " Religion in China '' — Beal's " Chinese Buddhism." 813 ,,4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. We will first give some notion of the developments which the central doctrines of Buddhism underwent in the Tibetan Scriptures. The Triad, Tibetan Buddha, the Law or Doctrine, and the Order had already become scriptures, venerated, and we find that Fa-hien on his travels committed him- self to the Order as a sort of personality, invoking it by its " dread and worship of supernatural power." Images of Buddha became common, and the Triad. at a iater period the Law and the Order began to be symbolised among the northern peoples. The Law is now often represented as a man (a woman in Sikkiin) with four arms, two hands folded in worship, or raised, a third holding a book or a lotus, the fourth a rosary or a garland ; but the Law is in some cases only represented by a book. The Order is de- picted as a man with one hand holding a lotus, and the other lying on his knees. Strangely enough, the order of arrangement of these three represen- tative figures is not uniform. The next further development of Buddhism was connected with Gautama's Bodhi-satva state. Before he was born on earth, he was believed The Bodhi- to have last existed in a state of self-enlightened knowledge as a satvas. Bodhi-satva, and to have voluntarily chosen to become a saviour of the world before attaining the Nirvana to which he was entitled. He le> 1 his followers to look for the advent of another Buddha, now a Bodhi- satva, known as Maitreya, " the compassionate one," after 5,000 years, when Gautama should have been forgotten and the Law no longer obeyed. At . present he is believed to preside in the heaven of contented beings, and to watch over all Buddhists and their interests. Inasmuch as he lives and is the future Buddha, not merely one who has passed away, he has become an object of worship and prayer. Huen-Siang reported that it was said, " No words can describe the personal beauty of Maitreya. He declares a law not different from ours. His exquisite voice is soft and . pure." And his worshippers look forward to attaining his heaven andi listening to his voice. Beyond this, the memory of the leading disciples of Buddha and those who became prominent later for their holy life, ability, or zeal in propa- gating the faith, was in process of time exalted into what could only be solitary properly compared with canonisation or almost deification. Also< Buddhas. an ^a grew Up t^ ^ere were self-dependent solitary Buddhas and many Bodhi-satvas. The Great Vehicle or Maha-yana teaches that there] will be numberless supreme Buddhas, Bodhi-satvas and solitary Buddhas,, who will attain their position by their virtues and wisdom ; and these Bodhi- satvas are represented as. enjoying heaven indefinitely without aiming atj Nirvana. In fact, the Tibetan idea is, that these Buddhas and saints only descend in their corporeal emanations upon earth, much like the avatars of, the Hindu gods, being incorporate in a succession of saints. Naturally they* are much reverenced, as they are believed to raise their worshippers tc the bli.ssful heaven where they abide. Thus did Buddhism give promise of heavens which were attainable, and throw into the background the far-distant Nirvana. MODERN BUDDHISM. 3*5 In the third century three Boclhi-satvas were worshipped in Northern India besides Maitreya, At first protectors of Buddha, they were gradually credited with the function of watching over all Buddhists. The first, Avalokitesvara, the lord that looks down (with pity), is in Tibet regarded as a sort of supreme spirit, who, while remaining ever in heaven, becomes incarnated in successive Grand Lamas. He presides over the temporal well-being of all human beings, ghosts, and animal spirits. He is termed " God of mercy," " Lord of the world," etc., and is prayed to very frequently in bodily danger or disease, as well as for relief from future re-birth. He is generally depicted with several faces and arms, the former pyramidally placed in three tiers, two hands folded in adoration of Buddha, and two others holding the lotus and the wheel. Often he greatly resembles Vishnu. Vajra-pani (the thunderbolt-handed) is a sort of Buddhist Siva, controlling and destroying evil spirits ; while Manju-sri (he of glorious beauty), is possibly a deification of the Brahman who introduced Buddhism into Nepal. Later still a new mj-stical worship arose, worshipping the Dlryani-Buddhas, or Buddhas existing in the higher worlds of abstract meditation, corresponding to The Dnyani- the earthly Buddhas and representing them. Buddhas- Each of these was supposed to give off a Dhyani Bodhi- satva, to preside over and protect Buddhism between the death of one Buddha and the coming of the next ; and before long, the Dhyani-Buddha corresponding to Gautama, namely Amitabha (diffuser of infinite light), was worshipped as a personal god. Some of the Nepalese Buddhists de- veloped a still more advanced theory of a primordial or Adi-Buddha, the source of all things, out of whom the Dhyani-Buddhas proceeded, and corresponding to the Hindu supreme Brahma. But neither Adi-Buddha nor Amitabha were regarded as creators of the world out of TIBETAN PRAYER WHEEL. no.hing. The elaborate descriptions of the twenty-six successive Buddhist heavens, in which many of the Hindu gods were fabled to dwell and reign, we cannot reproduce. Six are inhabited by beings still liable to Buddhist sensuous desires ; sixteen by those in successive stages of abstract heavens- meditation, called the worlds of the Brahma gods, and Brahma rules there, but yet is greatly inferior to Buddha. All these gods have to pass into a new form of existence after vast periods of time. Finally, there are four heavens of formless beings. All their mythology, though departing enor- mously from primitive Buddhism, does not violate the view that Buddhist Arhats (saints) and Buddhas are ranked above all the popular divinities- We need not enlarge upon other additions to Buddhism from Hinduism, and also from popular beliefs in demons, spirits of animals, nature spirits, sorcery, and magic. These additions are abundant, and rise but little, if at all, above the corresponding ideas and practices among savage races. 3i6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. We shall not detail the inferior gradations of the Tibetan monkhood, but pass on at once to the superior monks, who are rightfully termed Lamas, or superior teachers, and are, like European abbots, heads of monasteries. Some of these are believed to be incarnations of deceased saints and Bodhi-satvas ; they are consequently termed Avatara Lamas. The lowest grade of these represents a saint or the founder of a The Grand great monastery ; the second grade is a living emanation of a Lamas. Bodhi-satva ; while the highest or Grand Lama is an incarnation of a supreme Buddha or his Bodhi-satva ; to them a wide range of authority is assigned. There is also a female hierachy in the convents, with its female avatars. To understand the Tibetan system, we must sketch in brief its history. The first monasteries were founded at Lhassa in honour of two princesses, _._. , wives of the Tibetan king who introduced Buddhism. In the History of ° Tibetan eighth century the translation of the enlarged (Maha-yana) canon ism. o£ gU(j(j|1jg^ scriptures into Tibetan was begun. It extended to 108 volumes (forming the Kanjur), and was followed by 225 volumes of commentaries and general literature, known as the Tanjur. After several fluctuations, in the latter part of the eleventh century Buddhism again revived, under the influence of Atisha from Kashmir and Brom Ton, a Tibetan. Many monasteries were founded in that and the next centuries, those at Sakya and Raseng being the most important. Raseng, founded by Brom Ton in 1058, was devoted to the strict rules of Buddhism (the yellow The Mongol sect) ; Sakya was more lax, and became the headquarters of the emperors. j£ec| gec^ many 0f -whom were married before becoming monks. In the thirteenth century the power of the Mongols spread over Tibet. Kublai Khan adopted Buddhism and greatly favoured the Tibet monks. Already great authority had gathered round the chiefs of the Sakya and the Raseng monasteries, and Kublai exerted his authority to appoint the nephew of the ruler of the Sakya monastery to succeed his uncle, and made him a tributary ruler over Tibet. In return for his authority, he and his suc- cessors were required to crown the Mongol emperors. This first Grand Avatara Lama, known as Phuspa Lama, devised the Mongol alphabet, started a revision of the Tibetan Buddhist texts, which prepared the way for their translation into Mongolian, and founded many monasteries. When the Ming dynasty supplanted the Mongols in China, they continued to favour the Tibetan Lamas, but raised three other chief Lamas to similar rank. At the end of the fourteenth century there arose a reformer, Tsong Kim pa, who, after studying the originals of the Buddhist scriptures in Tibet, raised again the standard of orthodoxy, and gathered round him many thou- sand monks of the strict yellow sect; he built and became the first head of a great monastery at Galdan, and his followers built others. He wrote many books, restored celibacy, abolished many superstitious forms of worship, and renewed the practice of retirement for meditation at a fixed season, which had not been kept up in Tibet owing to its lack of a rainy season. After his death in 1419 (since celebrated at the Feast of Lamps, as his MODERN BUDDHISM. 3i7 ascension to heaven), he was reverenced as an incarnation of Amitabha, Manju-sri, or Vajra-pani, and his image is still seen in temples ofThe Dalal and the yellow sect, with those of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas 011 the Panchen ... • . Lamas right and left. Since his time (though it cannot be precisely traced) there has arisen the practice of discovering each new incarnation in an infant, probably io avoid discussions and competition. At any rate, at present there are two Grand Lamas : one the Dalai or Ocean Lama, at Lhassa, the other the Tashi or Panchen Lama at Tashi Lunpo, not far from the British Indian frontier. The former is believed to be an incarnation of the Dhyani-Bodhi- BUDDHIST MONASTERY IN TIBET. satva Avalokitesvara, the latter of his father or Dhyani-Buddha, Amitabha ; but the Dalai Lama is by far the most powerful, or rather his representa- tive, an elected chief Lama who attends to business, while the Dalai him- self is supposed to be lost in divine meditation, and receives the succession of reverence and worship due to^his character and origin. There Grand Lamas- appear to have been various modes of keeping up the succession,r viz., by the dying Lama stating in what family he would again become incarnate, or by consulting sacred books and soothsayers, or by the Panchen Lama interpreting the traditions and discovering the new Dalai Lama, and rice versa. Nowadays the Chinese court has a predominant influence in choosing; 3>8 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. new Grand Lamas. Yet all the forms of divination, signs, choice by lot, etc. are gone through ; and similar proceedings take place in the election of all Lamas in whom saints are supposed to be incarnated. The same is the case in various Mongolian monasteries. When the choice has been made the child is brought before a great assembly of the monks, and is expected to recognise clothes, books, etc., belonging to the deceased Lama, and to answer questions as to his former life as Lama. Among the chief Lamas may be mentioned those of Galdan (where the body of Tsong Khapa is said to be still visible poised in the air, and uncorrupt), Kurun in Mongolia, Kuku in Tartary, the Dharma-rajah of Bhutan, and the Grand Lama of Poking. The Dharma-rajah of Bhutan, belonging to the Red sect, has for his titles : u Chief of the realm, Defender of the Faith, Equal to Sarasvati in learning, Chief of all the Buddhas, Head- expounder of the Shastras, Caster out of devils, Most learned in the holy laws, an Avatar of God, Absolver of sins, and Head of the best of all religions." While in many parts of northern Buddhistic countries the monasteries are small buildings near or combined with a chapel or temple, in Tibet, Great Mongolia, and Ladak there are many immense monasteries or monasteries. Lamasseries, often in retired and lofty situations, but also aggregated about great centres such as Lhassa and Tashi Lunpo. About 500,000 monks owe allegiance to these two capitals, and there are at least thirty large monasteries in and near Lhassa. Potala, on the north-west of Lhassa, has been the abode of all the Dalai Lamas since the fifth, Navang me Vatican Lobsang (1617-1682), who rebuilt it. This great building, four of Buddhism. st0ries high, on a commanding height, has in or connected with it ten thousand rooms for monks. Everywhere are statues of Buddha and ( tther saints, and varied offerings of the pious, who throng to Lhassa to pay their worship to the Grand Lama, with gifts of gold, silver, and copper. The great building is surmounted by a cupola overlaid with gold. Thomas Manning is the only Englishman who has ever seen a Dalai Lama ; this was on the 17th December, 1811. He described him as a t rview clieerful> intelligent child of seven. Mr. Sarat Chandra Das, CLE., with Grand saw the present Dalai Lama in 1882. The interview was con- ducted with impressive silence and dignity by the high officials. Consecrated water coloured yellow with saffron was sprinkled on the company ; incense, great lamps, and a yellow hat with five points (denoting the five Dhyani-Buddhas) are important elements in the ceremonial, which is not complete without all sharing tea with the Lama from a golden teapot, preceded by a grace in proper Buddhist form, and concluding thus, "Never even for a moment losing sight of the three Holies (Buddha, the Law, and the Order) ; always offer reverence to the Tri-ratnas (or three jewels) ; let the blessings of the three be upon us." Consecrated rice, touched by the Grand Lama, was distributed to the faithful. The sacred youth sat all through the ceremony cross-legged on a throne- like altar with wooden lions on either side. L is said that Lhassa almost vies with Benares and Mecca as a place of, MODERN BUDDHISM. 319 pilgrimage, Potala, the Vatican of Buddhism, being the great resort ; and the rice, the pills of blessing, the scraps of silk, and the prayer-papers or flags which the Grand Lama has consecrated, are treasured for life. Tashi Lunpo, with its great monastery of the Panchen Lama, has been much more frequently visited by Europeans. This monastery is much more varied, consisting of several hundred distinct houses, surrounded by pinnacled gilded temples and topes. It is, however, in connection with the oldest monastery— La-brang in Lhassa — that the greatest temple of Buddhism in Tibet is to be found. It is three storeys high, with a portico and colonnade of huge wooden pillars. Opposite the entrance are the usual great statues of the four great kings ; beyond is a long oblong hall, like a basilica, with rows of columns dividing it into three longitudinal divisions, with two transepts. The walls contain no windows, but across the central division or nave is stretched transparent oil-cloth, which is the only mode of admission of daylight to the building. A row of small chapels flanks each side of the long building. In the transepts are seats for the monks, and beyond the second is a sanctuary with an altar for offerings ; at the extreme west end, in a special recess, is a grand altar with many steps, and on the summit is the revered gilt image of Gautama Buddha, respecting the origin of which various stories are told. On the upper steps of the altar are many images of deified saints ; and the temple contains very many images and pictures of Buddha, saints and deities, as well as relics. Li front of this altar are lofty thrones for the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, flanked by smaller ones for the other Avatar Lamas ; seats of less dignity are provided for the heads of monasteries and higher orders of monks in the western transept. Five thousand oil lamps give light, and the muttering of the chief Buddhist formula goes on continually. Tibetan temples are usually much smaller than this ; the chief features are altars with images of Buddha and the Bodhi-satvas, bowls for offerings, bells, etc. The Tibetan Buddhists have outdone every other race in one respect ; that is, in praying by machinery. Impressed with the importance of accumulating religious merit as a means of shortening their stay praying by in lower forms of life, and accelerating their entrance to heaven, maclliIiery- they not only orally repeat multitudes of times the "jewel " formula, which has acquired such vogue among them, but they get it repeated by turning machines or extending flags to the wind, in or on which the sacred formula is written. This formula consists merely of the sentence, " Om mani padme Hum.7' The first syllable is the Hindu sacred syllable (p. 102) ; the next two words mean, " the Jewel in the Lotus," an allusion, it is said, to Avalo- kitesvara as the patron of Tibet appearing from or seated on a Lotus. The last syllable is regarded by some as an Amen. The whole formula is thought by Sir Monier- Williams to have some relation to Hindu Siva-worship, and, he says, " no other prayer used by human beings in any quarter of the globe is repeated so often. Every Tibetan believes it to be a panacea for all evil, a compendium of all knowledge, a treasury of all wisdom, a summary of all religion." Each of its syllables is believed to influence one of the six MODERN BUDDHISM. 321 courses or stages of transmigration through which all must pass, diminishing his stay in them, or in time abolishing it altogether. The favourite prayer cylinders are of metal, having the mystic invoca- tion engraved on the outside, while the cavity is filled with paper in rolls, on which it is written as many times as possible. This cylinder can prayer be made to revolve on a handle, and is whirled in the hand, or cy^d"3- rotated by a chain or string. " All day long," says Capt. Gill in " The River of Golden Sand," " not only the Lamas, but the people may be seen muttering the universal prayer, and twisting their cylinders, invariably in the same direction with the hands of a clock. One or more great cylinders, inscribed with this sentence, stand at the entrance to every house in Tibet ; and a member of the household or a guest who passes is always expected to give the cylinder a twist for the welfare of the establishment. At almost every rivulet the eye is arrested by a little building that is at first mistaken for a water mill, but which on close inspection is found to contain a cylinder, turning by the force of the stream, and ceaselessly sending up pious ejaculations to heaven ; for every turn of a cylinder on which the prayer is written is supposed to convey an invocation to the deity. Sometimes enormous barns are filled with these cylinders, gorgeously painted, and with the prayer repeated on them many times ; and at every turn and every step in Tibet this sentence is forced upon the traveller's notice in some form or another." Another variety of praying ingenuity is the erection of long walls inscribed with any number of this and other invocations, by which travellers who walk in the proper direction gain the credit of so many prayer walls repetitions. Praying-flags, with prayers and symbols, extended and flags- by every wind, praying drums which frighten away evil spirits, bells which have the same function, or which call the attention of the deities or saints, armlets with sacred sentences or relics inside, and various other objects, are among the " properties " greatly used in Tibetan Buddhism, while the rosary for counting the number of repetitions of prayer is a more familiar object in Tibet than even in Roman Catholic countries. The monks of the Tibetan monasteries meet in their temple or chapel three times a day for worship : at sunrise, midday, and sunset. They are summoned by a loud conch-shell trumpet, and enter in procession. D A bell gives the signal to commence repeating or chanting prayer worship of formulas, passages of the Law, litanies, etc., often with noisy musical accompaniments. The ritual is varied by each monk repeating a sentence in turn, the recital of the praises and titles of honour of Buddha or V* The illustration on page 320 depicts a group of Buddhist priests or Lamas at Darjeeling, British Sikkim, at the entrance to their Temple, The head Lama is seated below at the left, wearing the sacred hat, a garment of cloth of gold, and a set of holy beads. In front of him are a small tom-tom, a brass sanctifying instrument, and a bell. Next to him is the second Lama, with cymbals and a short horn. In the centre is a student under instruction for the office of Lama, having before him sheets of the sacred writings. Over the doorway is a small image of Buddha, flanked by small brass cups containing rice and oil. Standing in the Verandah are two travelling Lamas from Lhassa. Y THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. one of the Bodhi-satvas. When one of the Grand Lamas is present, the service is very elaborate. Incense and perfumes are burnt, and at times holy water and grain are distributed. In some ceremonies tea-drinking is a conspicuous element. Laymen play but a very subordinate part in these services. They are allowed to be present, repeating prayers and invocations and making offerings ; they may also acquire merit by walking round monasteries, temples, etc., without stopping. Sometimes they carry loads of books containing prayers, and frequently prostrate themselves at full length on the ground ; at the end of their journey they are held to have gained the same merit as if they had recited all the prayers in the books they carried. The Tibetans have a number of special festivals which we can only briefly mention. The new year's celebration, lasting a fortnight, is a sort of carnival ; at the water-festival in August or September, rivers and lakes are blessed, and the people bathe to wash away their sins. Buddha's birthday and the anniversary of his death are very impor- tant days ; on the latter, every monastery and temple, and every house In Lhassa is darkened with the burning of incense. The festival of lamps, the ascent of Tsong Khapa to heaven ; and days of spirit-hunting and per- formances of religious dramas, are among the diversified holidays of Tibet. Periods of fasting, especially before the great festivals, are observed by the devout. Of course these are more observed by the monks Fasts of the yellow sect. One of these periods of fasting lasts four days, during which the monks confess their faults and meditate on the evils of demerit. On the third day no food whatever is taken, and not even the saliva must be swallowed ; not a word is spoken, and each monk is engaged without intermission in silent prayer and confession. Many monks keep the four holy days of each month as fast days. Tibet, then, is the Papal domain of Buddhism. Some lamasseries are enormously rich. They own half the country, constantly receive legacies, The Papal anc^ even gr°w rich by usury. No taxes are paid by them, and domain of their own lands are attended to by large numbers of slaves. Many Buddhism. - , . n oi the monks do not keep their vows of celibacy, and the common people are said in their hearts to detest the Lamas for their oppression. Whether this is generally true or not, every rational mind will agree that. Tibetan Buddhism is by no means an unmixed good. CHINESE BUDDHISM The influence of Buddhism in China is still great, though not as exten- sive as formerly, owing to the loss of the patronage of the emperors ; but it exists in a considerably modified form. " The worship of Pu-sah," says Dr. Beal, " in the houses of the rich and poor, is hardly recognised as Buddhist iii its origin ; and, indeed, the very term Pu-sah, which is the Chinese form of Bodhi-satva, is explained as of native origin, and signifying " universal benevolence," whilst the objects of Buddhist worship, such as the Goddess of Mercy and the Queen of Heaven, have been placed among the number of MODERN BUDDHISM. 323 their genii." Also the images of Pu-sah are to be found in the houses of many officials and others who would deny that they were Buddhists. Chinese Buddhism dates from a.d. 61, when the Emperor Ming-ti is THE CALL TO WORSHIP IN A BULDHIS1' MONASTERY^ said to have had a dream in which he saw a golden figure of a god hovering over his palace. He inquired of one of his ministers what this lntroducti(m could mean, and was told that a divine person named Buddha of Buddhism' had "been born in the "West, and that his dream was probably 324 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. connected with him. The emperor in consequence sent a mission to India to obtain books and news concerning this person. They returned in a.d. 67, with two Buddhist monks, together with various books, pictures, and relics. The emperor listened to them readily, and had a temple built for them in his capital Loyang (now Honan-fu). The narrative of these events includes various miracles worked by the Buddhists in proof of their religion. The short life of Buddha which these priests introduced and translated, into Chinese is of special interest, for, as we have seen, no separate life of Chinese life Buddha exists in the southern canon. In the Chinese life he is of Buddha, generally termed Sakyarnuni, the Sakya sage, and his proper name, Gautama, is scarcely mentioned. This title, Sakyarnuni, seems to have been more acceptable to the northern Buddhists, because of the belief that the name Sakya was like that of a prominent Central Asian people, the Sacae or Scythians ; and this name has been adopted as the title of the Chinese Buddhists (Shih-kian or Shih-tsen). It would be most interesting, if we had space, to give an account of the life of Buddha as depicted, in Chinese books. Previous Buddhas, Mythical appearing through enormously long ages, are named ; and the details. Buddha of the present age (Sakyarnuni) is said to have gone through a number of stages of elevation in previous ages. A.t last, in the age immediately before the present one, Sakya became a Bodhi-satva, was born in the Tushita heaven, and. finally descended, to earth on a white elephant with six tusks. The narratives which follow, while ex- plicable as consistent with the life we have already given, are overlaid with much exaggeration and myth. The life is arranged so as to explain the origin and scenes of the very numerous books of the northern canon. Thus at one time Sakya is instructing the Bodhi-satvas ; at another he is in the heavens of the Hindu gods, teaching Indra, Yama, etc. All this serves as a scene for the development of the Bodhi-satva mythology. After long abstinence and meditation, and severe temptation by the king of the Maras, Sakyarnuni became a perfect Buddha (i.e., in Chinese phrase, from being Pu-sa became Fo). In order to convey the truth to men simply, and as they could receive it, he assumed the guise of an ascetic, preached the four primary truths, established the order of monks, and sent them out to propagate his doctrine. He is afterwards said to have *ul>dued a fierce snake and to have made him take the vows of the order; to have resisted the fiercest temptations of the king of the Maras, and to have gone to the Tushita heaven to instruct his mother Maya. Then fol- lowed the reception of his son Rahula and other boys as novices, the admission of women, the establishment of discipline, etc. Sakya is said to have gone to Ceylon himself, to have visited the middle heavens, to have secured the gods (devas) as protectors of his doctrine, to have sent Visva- karma and fifteen daughters of devas to be the patrons of China. He instituted the daily service and ordained honour for his books. In his last j days he gave forth his most perfect works, "The Lotus of the Good Law" and " Nirvana," intended to make his disciples long for higher attainments. MODERX BUDDHISM. 325 This was his meaning, say the Chinese Buddhist authors, when he said, u I am not to be destroyed, but shall be constantly on the mountain of instruction." Buddha, entering Nirvana, is not dead, but lives in his teaching. Before his death he is said to have had presented to him images of himself of gold and sandal-wood, which he consecrated, giving his disciples in charge to them. At this time also he forbade the eating of animal food. His death and cremation were attended by marvels too numerous to mention. In the Chinese records we are introduced to a long series of Buddhist patriarchs, the successive chiefs and defenders of Buddhist law and disci- pline, each selected by the last patriarch, the first being Maha Buddhist Kashiapa, appointed by Buddha. A patriarch, says Dr. Edkins, patriarchs, is represented as " one who does not look at evil and dislike it ; nor does he, when he sees that which is good, make a strong effort to attain it. He does not put wisdom aside and approach folly ; nor does he fling away delusion and aim at comprehending truth. Yet he has an acquaintance with great truths which is beyond being measured, and he penetrates into Buddha's mind to a depth that cannot be fathomed." Such an one had magical powers, could fly through the air, go into trances, and penetrate men's thoughts. Nevertheless he lived poorly, and was meanly clad. Thirty-three of these are named, including five Chinese patriarchs, and their biography is given. From the foundation of Chinese Buddhism a succession of western Buddhist monks and learned men came to China and undertook great labours of translation and preaching to propagate their doctrines. The In the fourth century the Chinese were entering the Order by ^oks5* permission of a Chow prince, many pagodas were erected in translated. Loyang, and considerable monasteries were built in North China. Many of the Buddhist teachers professed to work miracles, and certainly dealt in magic. Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visited India and other Buddhist coun- tries, and brought back accounts of marvels they had seen (as, for instance, Fa-hien and Huen-siang). Early in the fifth century Kumarajiva, an Indian Buddhist, assisted by eight hundred priests, produced a new translation of the Buddhist books into Chinese, extending to three hundred volumes. After this time the rulers of China became for a time hostile to Bud- dhism ; but this was soon reversed, and there was much intercourse between Buddhist princes in India and China. Monasteries and temples 0ppogition multiplied, and magic and wonders, as fostered by the books of of .... Coiifucianists the Greater Vehicle, overlaid the original faith. At various times Chinese emperors, followed by their people, combined more or less of Con- fucianism and Taoism with Buddhism, and seldom prohibited any of them. At various periods the Confucianists sought to put down the Buddhists, to make the monks and nuns marry, etc., and decrees were promulgated against them ; and sometimes their property was confiscated and they were compelled to return to secular life. Side by side with religious changes, Hindu Buddhists introduced many improvements in Chinese orthography, science, and literature. 326 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The twenty-eighth Indian Buddhist patriarch, Bodhidharma, visited China in the sixth century, and died there. He exalted meditation at the expense of reading and book knowledge, allowing no merit BodMdharma. either tQ thege or to tlie building of temples. In his view true merit consisted in t; purity and enlightenment, depth and completeness, and in being wrapped in thought while surrounded by vacancy and stillness." ]\i< influence in China, where he died, was powerful enough to make his followers a distinct sect of contemplatists, as contrasted with the ascetics and the ordinary temple-monks. His sect gradually became the most influ- ential ; and it appears to have distinctly weakened the looking for a future life and retribution, by exalting self-reform as to be brought about solely by inward contemplation. Not long after his death a monk of Tien-tai, named Cki-kai, invented a system which combined contemplation with image-worship, and it gradually gained great popularity, his books being after some centuries reckoned among the classics of Chinese Buddhism. The history of Chinese Buddhism in the middle ages presents a continual series of assaults by Confucianists, alternate persecutions and support by emperors, and frequent interference. Certain temples were destroyed and others exalted; certain monasteries and temples were transferred from one kind of worship to another, from one sect of Buddhists to another; and all the time the emperors did not ostensibly become Buddhists, me Mongol The Mongol emperors, however, especially Kublai Khan, became emperors, decided Buddhists, and used the Chinese imperial temples for Buddhist worship. Towards the end of the thirteenth, century a census stated that there were over 42,000 Buddhist temples and 213,000 monks in China, which implies a very great number of lay adherents. After the fall of the Mongols some restrictions were gradually imposed on the Bud- dhists : and the Sacred Edict, issued in 1662, and still read periodically in public, blames them for fixing their attention on their individual minds alone, and for inventing baseless tales about future happiness and discourage- misery. Thus Buddhism is officially discountenanced, although in Mongolia and Tibet the Chinese encourage and pay deference to it ; and in China itself the worship and festivals continue to be very largely attended, although the building of new temples has to a large extent fallen off. Chinese Buddhism at the present day is so extensive and varied that it is only possible to glance at its leading features. In many ways it Present occupies much the same standpoint as in Tibet ; and the Chinese state. monk takes refuge in Buddha, the Law, and the Order, like his Singhalese brother. The worship of Buddha still remains, in a considerably materialised form ; but image-worship is by no means held to be essential by instructed Buddhists, though it is allowed by them for the ignorant and weak. But added to this worship is that of a great number of associated and inferior beings, making Chinese Buddhism at present practically a complex polytheism. Its public attitude may be gathered from an account of the temples and services. MODERN BUDDHISM. 127 Looking south, like so many Chinese buildings, the temples of the Chinese Buddhists consist of a series of halls, the vestibule being guarded by the same four great kings mentioned at p. 319, carved in wood, and dressed and equipped with various symbols, such as a sword, an umbrella, a snake, or some other object with a well-defined sig- nificance to Orientals. They give all kinds of blessings to true Buddhists, and withdraw their favour from kings and nations which neglect the truth. Maitreya (Mi-li Fo) also appears in the same entrance-hall ; sometimes even Confucius has an image here, as protector of the Buddhist religion. The great hall opening from the entrance-hall contains the images of TWO OF THE GCAUDIANS OF BUDDHA. KUSJAN MONASTERY, NEAR FOO-CHOW. Buddha, the Six Bodhi-satvas, Ananda, and many saints, in various sym- bolical attitudes, Wen-shu and Pu-hien often being placed right images and left of Buddha, while Kwan-yin is behind them looking m the haUs- northward. Sometimes Buddha is alone in front and the other three are in a row behind him. Kwan-yin appears in numerous forms in pictures and sculptures ; in one he is represented by a female figure presenting an infant to mothers praying for children. Other halls may be added to the principal ones, containing statues, sculptured scenes, and pictures. The large central hall, according to Dr. Edkins, is intended to symbolise Buddha giving 32S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. instruction to an assembly of disciples, while the leading idea of the entrance-hall is to show the powerful protection by celestial beings which Buddhists enjoy. All this is in agreement with the narratives in the " Greater Vehicle." There may be many subordinate chapels, dedicated to Bodhi-satvas and other beings of Buddhist, Hindu, and Chinese mythology. The images of the Pu-sa or Bodhi-satvas stand when in the presence of Buddha, but sit when in their own shrines. Even the Taoist images are admitted into the all-comprehending Buddhist temples, as well as those of celebrated Chinese Buddhists. In North China, especially at Pekin, it is customary, whether the images are of brass, iron, wood, or clay, to make them with internal organs Realism of as complete as possible, according to Chinese notions, which are images. not veiy correct ; but the heads are always empty. Surrounding the abdominal organs is a large piece of silk covered with prayers or charms, while within it are bags containing small pieces of gold, silver, and pearls, and the five chief kinds of grain ; but many of these valuables have been stolen from the images. "While the more intellectual Buddhists explain their temples and images as purely symbolical, and their offerings, bowings, etc., as expressing rever- ential reception of Buddha's teaching, the common people regard the images as deities, and pray to them for deliverance from sickness, sufferings, childlessness, poverty, etc. Kwan-yin is very exclu- sively worshipped, being commonly known as the goddess of mercy, who hears the cries of men. This worship is always associated with that of Amitabha (O-me-to), the father of Kwan-yin, and they are believed to dwell in the happy (western) land of Sukhavati. Those born in this paradise have only unmixed joys, of which gorgeous descriptions are given. This heaven has taken a strong hold of the imagination of Chinese Buddhists, and they will repeat the name " Amita Buddh " incessantly, while counting their beads. It is possible, and is strongty held by some, that some of the ideas of this worship, especially of the Litany of Kwan-yin, were derived from Persian, Arab, and Jewish sources. It is a wide-spread belief that Kwan- yin, moved by infinite compassion, has promised to become manifest in all the innumerable worlds, to save their inhabitants. He also visited all the hells for this purpose ; and detailed accounts of his visits and their beneficial results are given. There are special elaborate services in which Kwan-yin is worshipped and invoked, while at the same time Buddha and the other Bodhi-satvas are duly honoured. One prayer runs thus: "May the all-seeing and all-powerful Kwan-yin, in virtue of her vow, come hither to us as we recite the sentences and remove from us the three obstacles (of impure thought, word, and deed). Professor Beal gives the following translation fri »m the Chinese of the confession or " act of faith " in Kwan-yin : — "All hail, good, compassionate Kwan-yin! Though I -were thrown on the Mountain of Knives, They should not hurt me ; Though cast into the lake of fire, MODERN BUDDHISM. 329 It should not burn me ; Though surrounded by famished ghosts, They should not touch me ; Though exposed to the power of devils, They should not reach me ; Though changed into a beast, Yet should I rise to heaven. All hail, compassionate Kwan-yin." Incense is burnt, flowers and food are offered, and invocations are repeated again and again to Kwan-yin and Amitabha, with appropriate readings from the sacred books, some of them in Sanskrit and unintelligible alike to priests and people, but supposed to have a magic effect. The distinctive worship of Amitabha is practised by many, both in China and Japan ; they are called the "pure land " sect, who rely on Amitabha to effect their entrance to the bright paradise. The mere repetition of the name with concentrated and undivided attention is believed to ensure paradise ; he is also invoked by the form " Praise to Amita Buddha," and the most extravagant promises are made to those who rightly invoke him. This is the prevailing form of Buddhist worship in many parts of China, and it is very popular owing to its putting out of sight Nirvana and presenting a heaven of conscious happiness and joy to the believer. At the temple Pi-yun-si, west of Pekin, there is a hall of 500 departed saints, arrayed in six parallel galleries ; the figures are of clay, full-sized, and seated. In another court are scenes from the imagined Halls of 500 future state, all modelled in clay, showing the fate both of the saints, good and the evil. These halls are in addition to the usual elaborate series of halls. Pagodas also form part of this great establishment. Similar halls are numerous in the Tien-tai district. Music is much used in Chinese Buddhist worship, the instruments in- cluding drums, small and large bells, cymbals, and various metal forms struck by clappers which have no analogy in western music. Dr. Edkins admits that while the populace believe in the extravagant details of mythology or magic, the priests in the services still read the old passages from the Buddhist books which teach the nothingness of every- thing ; so that, if fully exposed, the most utter contrasts would be found in any of their services. One of the most famous Buddhist regions of China is Tien-tai, a cluster of hills 180 miles south-east of Hang-cheu. It came into note through Chi-kai, who in the sixth century founded his school of con- _ 1 . t-> . . . . . Tien-tai. templative Buddhism there, imagining its grand natural scenery to be the residence of the great saints of Buddhism, the Arhats or Lohans ; indeed, he heard them sing near the remarkable rock bridge over a cataract, and now they are represented by five hundred small stone figures at the side of the bridge. Here Chi-kai developed an elaborate comment on and development of Buddhism, which he called " perfected observation." He explained everything as an, embodiment of Buddha, subtly getting rid of 13° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. all the objects of popular belief. He taught his followers various forms of meditation which his followers have maintained, while not entirely con-, demningVopular belief, nor going to the extreme of Buddhist agnosticism. At the present clay monasteries are to be found five miles apart throughout the Tien-tai hill country. Besides this there are numerous important " schools " of Chinese Bud- dhism, named from prominent teachers, from whom the present heads of MODERN BUDDHISM. 331 monasteries claim continuous succession. Their doctrines lor the most part do not differ widely from one another, but great importance is attached to minutiae. The Lin-tsi school was founded by a cMnese teacher who diebl in 8G8, and had a great reputation for magical Buddhism, powers ; it is now very widely spread in China and in Japan. The Lin-tsi. It teaches that Buddha is within the believer if he only be recog- nised. " "What is Buddha ? A mind pure and at rest. "What is the law ? A mind clear and enlightened. What is Tao '? In every place absence of impediments and pure enlightenment. These three are one." Discipline is strictly maintained by means of three blows with the hand or with the cane, three successive reproofs, and the alternation of speech with silence. We cannot particularise the other varied schools of Chinese Buddhism, but they are as numerous as the principal dissenting bodies in England. The monasteries need not be particularly described, after what we have said of Buddhist monasteries in other countries. They all have a temple or worship-hall attached. Most of the larger establishments own land Monasteries or other property, but not often sufficient for all expenses, which and monks, are met by mendicant expeditions, the offerings of worshippers, and volun- tary presents sent to them. The procession of monks walks through the streets to receive alms beating a gong or cymbal at intervals, and often recit- ing Buddhist formulas. The monks dress very differently from the Chinese people. In officiating they usually wear yellow garments of silk or cotton, with a wide turn-down collar and huge sleeves ; at other times their clothes are mostly of an ashy grey. Their heads are closely shaven two or three times a month, and many have one or more places on the scalp burnt with red-hot coals. Their celibacy appears to be strict, and they do not own any relationships in the outside wrorld, and show very little sociability in their intercourse with the people. They spend much of their time in chanting their sacred books, mostly in a form which represents the sound without the sense of the Hindu or Tibetan originals. Some monasteries keep their large bells constantly tolled day and night, so that the sound never ceases. A large monastery has numerous rooms devoted to specific uses, includ- ing a library, study, reception-rooms for distinguished guests, and a place for keeping living animals, not for food, but as a work of merit. Sometimes there is a fish-pond full of fine fish which must not be caught or eaten. ' Special provision is made for cattle, swine, goats, fowls, etc., many being deposited by lay people in fulfilment of a vow, together with money or grain to support them until their death. The monks professedly refuse all animal food, but it is believed that some transgress. On the whole, the mass of the Chinese do not highly reverence the Buddhist monks, because they trans- gress the principles of filial obedience so deeply rooted among them ; but they are nevertheless much employed to conduct private religious cere- monies, whether on behalf of recently deceased persons, those suffering in hells, or the sick and infirm. Frequently the succession of novices in the monasteries is kept up by the purchase of boys from their parents. Within the monastery ranks there are frequently ascetics who for 332 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Nunneries. years together have no intercourse with the outside world, but sit in con- stant silent meditation in their cells, receiving their food through a hole in the door. Usually the bodies of deceased monks are burned in a special cremation-building, the ashes and unconsumed bones being afterwards collected and deposited, in an earthen vessel, in a special room or building of the monastery. There are numerous Buddhist nunneries in China, under the especial patronage of Kwan-yin, and while many join them of their own accord, others are bought when young girls. The nuns shave the whole head like the men, do not compress their feet, and wear a very similar costume to the monks. Some learn to read the Buddhist books, and attend upon those who worship at the temples. They also visit the sick and afflicted, and pay special attention to those who place themselves under their spiritual care. Although they have taken a vow of celibacy, the nuns are generally accused of breaking it, as in Tibet; and in some districts the Chinese officials have closed all nunneries for this reason. While Buddhism is not ardently believed in by a large proportion of the Chinese, it is Popular undoubtedly regarded with consider- aspect. able respect; and its formulae and practices, especially those which are magical, are largely resorted to as a matter of precaution. Words not understood by the people are con- tinually repeated by them with some sort of belief in their efficacy in overcoming evil influ- ences. The workman will burn his paper with the charm written on it before beginning his morning's work ; while the man of learning, who professes to despise Buddhism, knows byj heart the magical sentences of the Ling-yen- king, or Heart Sutra. The Buddhist calendar includes a very complete set of festivals and j processions, though they are not made the occasion for such display as inl Buddhist Burmah. The emperors' and empress's birthday, the anniversaries calendar. 0f emperor's deaths, and the four monthly feasts are, of course,! kept, Then there are days for worshipping the devas of the older Hindu! mythology, for eclipses of the sun and moon (addressed as Pu-sahs or Bodhi- satvas, the power of Buddha being invoked to deliver them), for sacrifice toj the moon, and praying for fine weather or rain. The Deva Wei-to (really the Veda) is invoked as protector, and his birthday is kept, as also the! birthdays of three other divine protectors, including the god of war, o\ Buddha, and each Bodhi-satva, the anniversaries of the death of the chief Chinese Buddhist saints, and of the founder of a monastery, etc. But this list might easily be lengthened. BUDDHIST -M N, with CAP BOSABY. MODERN BUDDHISM. 333 Independent of its professors, Buddhism has exerted a great influence in tempering the character of Chinese religion. The discountenancing of sacrifices, the tenderness to animal life, the conception of a spiritual & aim in religion, and of self-discipline as of supreme importance, have not been without far-reaching effect on the Chinese. The example of Influence -Buddha as beneficently desirous of being born in the world BudSmL to save it, his patience and self-sacrifice in his successive lives, China- 334 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. his teaching of the noble path and the desirability of freedom from the fetters of this life have all tended to elevate the popular faiths. A more doubtful influence of Buddhism has been the popularisation of beliefs in material hells. A great variety of tortures and circumstances of punish- ment are described, and the demons are represented as delighting in human sufferings. On the one hand it is alleged that the beliefs on the whole have tended to discourage the crimes that are said to be visited with such punishments, on the other, that the popular mind is thereby familiarised with pictures and descriptions of horrible cruelties. The tolerance inculcated by Buddhism, too, has had its effect in spread- ing a considerable indifference to religion in China, while on the other hand it has favoured its own existence. But the extent of mutual concession and accommodation to be found among the Chinese in religious as well as other matters is a very pleasing feature, when it does not signify lifelessness or mere indifference. The Buddhists too deserve credit, for their representations of Buddhas and Bodhi-satvas are pre-eminently merciful, although their objection to suffering as an evil loses sight of its medical and beneficial influ- ence. Buddhism, too, has in China acquired more regard for filial duty than elsewhere. We may also note how greatly Buddhism has contributed to the artistic and literary development of the Chinese. The pagoda form is theirs especially. It is derived from the Indian tope or dagoba ; the base or platform signifies the earth, the semicircular building covering it the air, and the railing above, the heaven ; the spire and umbrellas above have been expanded into successive storeys or platforms, representing the succes- sive worlds above the heavens. In many cases, however, the Chinese pagodas have no religious significance, and only relate to the popular geomancy by which luck is determined. Those which contain Buddhist relics are always connected with monasteries. Some are of brick, others of porcelain, others of cast iron. Many are now falling to ruin, and few are now built. Flower cultivation is another artistic feature in China and Japan which has a connection with the Buddhist flower offerings; many beautiful flowers are grown in the temple and monastery gardens for use as offerings and in decorations. We must not conclude this account of Chinese Buddhism without calling attention to an interesting sect of reformed Buddhists who have spread -me do- considerably since the beginning of the sixteenth century in the nothing sect. lower rankg of the Chinese, known as the Wu-wei-kian, or " Do- nothing sect." They oppose all image-worship, but believe in Buddha withom worshipping him. They meet in plain buildings with no images, and containing only an ordinary Chinese tablet dedicated to heaven, earth, king, parents and teachers, as signifying the fit objects for reverence. They enjoin the cultivation of virtue by meditation alone, and inward reverence for the all-pervading Buddha, who is within man and in all nature. Their founder, Lo Hwei-neng took the title Lo-tsu (the patriarch Lo) ; on the anniversaries of his birth and death, the new year, and in the middle of the MODERN BUDDHISM. -» ■> r eighth month, they meet to drink tea and eat bread together. They are strict vegetarians, believing strongly in metempsychosis and the conse- quent sin of taking animal life. They have no order of monks or of priests. BUDDHIST CEREMONY, JAPAN. Matter they regard as perishable, and believe that at the end of the world they will be taken to heaven by Kin-mu, the golden mother, whom they re- gard as the mother of the soul. She is indeed more an object of worship by 33o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. this sect than Buddha, being regarded as a protectress from calamities and sickness, and from the miseries of the unseen world. So far have the Taoist notions invaded even this pure form of Buddhism. JAPANESE BUDDHISM. Buddhism found its way to Japan in the sixth century a.d. both from China and from Corea, but gained no great influence until the ninth, when the priest Kukai, or Kobo Daishi, showed how to adapt Shintoism to Buddhism by asserting that the Shinto deities were transmigrations of the Buddhistic ones. Thus explained, Buddhism gained great ascendency. In the seven- teenth century a philosophical awakening took place, under which every man was taught to long for perfection, to believe in successive transmi- grations of souls, and to look forward to the perfect reward of absorption into Buddha. A very great number of Buddhist shrines and temples exist, vastly more ornate and wealthy than those of the Shinto, containing images of extraordinary variety for adoration, supporting till lately a numerous priesthood, who took care to attract the people in every possible way, by spectacles, games, lotteries, and even shooting galleries. The recent revolution, however, has been attended with a great spoliation of Buddhism, ' suppression of temples and monasteries, melting of bells for coinage, etc. ; and the religion now only exists on sufferance, and has already put forth renewed efforts to gain spiritual influence over the people. There are numerous sects, corresponding in the main to those of China, some being contemplative, others mystic, others taking charge of The shin- the popular ceremonies. The Shin-shin especially reverence shin. Amitabha as being willing and able to save those who be- lieve in him. No prayers for happiness in the present life are made by them, and they teach that morality is of equal importance with faith. They have many of the finest temples in Japan, and are remarkable for their active missionary work in China and Corea, and for the high standard of education they maintain. The priests are allowed to marry and to eat meat. The creed of the sect, as stated by one of its principal teachers, is as follows : " Rejecting all religious austerities and other action, giving up all idea of self-power, we rely upon Amita Buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the future life, which is the most important thing, believing that at the moment of putting our faith in Amita Buddha our salvation is settled. From that moment invocation of his name is observed as an expres- sion of gratitude and thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being thankful for the reception of this doctrine from the founder and succeeding chief priests whose teachings were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in a dark night, we must also keep the laws which are fixed for our duty during our whole life." JAIN TEMPLE OF ADINATH, GWALIOK. CHAPTER IX. 3atnt$m« Jalnism and Buddhism — Mahavira — Jain beliefs— Temples at Palitana— Mount Abu— Parasnatn— Tbe Yatis. THE Jains are at the present day an important body of religion- ists in India, more for their wealth and influence than their numbers. It is said that half the mercantile transactions of India pass through their hands as merchants and bankers, largely in the north and west of ; India, and in smaller numbers throughout the southern peninsula, jainism and Till comparatively recently they were believed to be quite a B"ddnism- ! modern sect of Hindus, at any rate not much more than a thousand }rears i old. But the careful researches of several eminent scholars have led them to the belief that Jainism is coeval with, if not slightly older than, Bud- dhism, and took its rise in the same development of Brahman asceticism and reaction from Brahmanical tyranny. We cannot enter into the details of the discussion, but shall simply take this view as supported by the best authority, Prof. Jacobi. 337 ~ 338 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. There are some resemblances between Buddhism and Jainism which do not necessarily show that the one is derived from the other, but rather that the}'- took their rise in the same age or during the same intellectual period. Buddhism proved the more adaptable and appealed to more widespread sympathies, and surpassed and overshadowed Jainism ; but the latter, less corrupted, and more characterised by charitable actions, has survived in India, while the former is extinct. We find similar titles given to the saints or prophets in both, such as Tathagata, Buddha, Mahavira, Arhat, etc. ; but one set of titles is more frequently used by the one, another by the other : and it is noteworthy that the word Tirthankara, describing a prophet of the Jains, is used in the Buddhist scriptures for the founder of an heretical sect. Both lay great stress on not killing living creatures ; both worship their prophets and other saints, and have statues of them in their temples ; both believe in enormous periods of time previous to the present age. The rejection of the divine authority of the Vedas and of the sway of the Brahmans is also common to the two. There is further almost an identity between the five vows of the Jain ascetics and those of the j Buddhist monks : namely not to destroy life, not to lie, not to take that which is not given, to live a life of purity, and to renounce all worldly things (the last being much more comprehensive than the corresponding: Buddhist vow) ; but it appears that the first four were equally the vows of I the Brahman ascetics. There are other points in the life of the Jain monks ; which agree substantially with rules laid down for the Brahman ascetics. Vardhamana, or Mahavira (his name as a Jain prophet), the great! founder of Jainism, figures in their Kalpa Sutra as the twenty-fourth! Mahavira, Pr0Pne^? and appears to have been a younger son of Siddhartka,! a Khsatriya noble or chief of Kundagramma, not far from Vesalij already mentioned in our account of Buddhism, and the wife of Siddhartha was sister of the king of Vesali, and related to the king of Magadha. At the I age of twenty-eight Mahavira became an ascetic, and spent twelve years irj \ self-mortification. After that period he became recognised as a prophet and: saint, or Tirthankara (meaning conqueror or leader of a school of thought)' and spent the remaining thirty years of his life in teaching and in or! ganisiug his order of ascetics, mostly within the kingdom of Magadha, bu' also travelling to Sravasti and the foot of the Himalayas. Mahavira is re ferred to in the Buddhist books under his well-known name Nataputta, a the head of the rival sect of Niganthas, or Jains, and several contempc raries are referred to in the books of both religions. We may put dow;! , Mahavira's date as about the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., but the earlier extant works of the Jains do not go beyond the third century, and were nc reduced to writing till the fifth or sixth century a.d. It is very doubtfi how far Mahavira is indebted to Parsva, his predecessor, according to tl Kalpa Sutra, by about two centuries. The lives of the earlier Jains, lil those of the predecessors of Gautama, are altogether mythical. Adinath the earliest of them. The life of Mahavira, as related in the Kalpa Sutra, contains but fe' JAIN ISM. 339 details, and is very far from having the interest of that of his great con- temporary. He is declared to have torn out his hair on entering the ascetic life, to have gone naked for eleven years, and to have abandoned all care of his body. All perfections of circumspect conduct and self-restraint are attributed to him. He at last reached the highest knowledge, unobstructed and full, so as to become omniscient. At his death he became a Buddha, a Mukta (a liberated soul), putting an end to all misery, finally liberated, freed from all pains. "Mahavira," says Professor Jacobi, "was of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the genius which Buddha undoubtedly had. The Buddha's philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, whilst that of Mahavira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a sum of opinions on various subjects." The matter of the Jain works yet translated is so inferior to that of the Buddhist scriptures that we shall not make any extracts from them. The Jains believe in a Nirvana, consisting in the delivery of the soul from the necessity for transmigration ; and they do not look for an absorp- tion of the soul into the universal Soul. In fact they do not toeliefs teach anything about a supreme deity. Right perception, clear knowledge, followed by supernatural knowledge, leading to omniscience, were the stages of progress to Nirvana. The space occupied by each of the perfected ones who have attained Nirvana is stated to be boundless, increasing according to their desire. Their parts are said to be innumer- able, and there is no returning again to a worldly state, and no interruption to that bliss. Their term of existence is infinite, and they exercise them- selves in the highest philosophy. Believers must also practise liberality, gentleness, piety, and sorrow for faults, and kindness to animals and even to plants. This last the Jains exhibit in the present day by an extreme unwillingness to injure living creatures. They believe all animals and plants (and even the smallest particles of the elements) have souls, and they spend much money in maintaining hospitals for sick animals. They will not eat in the open air during rain or after dark, for fear of swallowing a fly or insect ; they strain water three times before drinking it, and will not walk against the wind for fear that it should blow insects into the mouth. The strict devotees carry a brush to sweep insects out of the way when they sit down, and a mouth-cloth to cover the mouth when they are engaged in prayer. In strictness the Jains disregard Vedas, gods, and caste; but practically they yield considerably to caste regulations, they pay some devotion to many of the Hindu deities and have a numerous list of good and bad spirits of their own, and they appeal to the Vedas as of considerable authority when they support their views. Now-a-days the peculiarity of nakedness is only retained by the ascetics among the Digam- baras (sky-clad ones), and then only at meal-times. The Svetambaras, the other sect of the Jains, are white-robed and completely clad. They have no sacrifices, and practise a strict morality. Many of their beliefs ,40 THE WORLDS RELIGIONS. are common to Brahman and Buddhist philosophies, such as that re-births are determined by conduct in previous states of existence. The Jains possess some of the most remarkable places of pilgrimage in India, situated in the midst of most lovely mountain scenery. At Palitana, Temples at XVL Kathiawar, is the temple-covered hill of Satrunjaya, the most palitana. sacred of the pilgrim-resorts of the Jains ; and Jains from all parts of India desire to erect temples upon it. Many of them are very small buildings only about three feet square, covering impressions of the soles of two feet marked with Jain emblems, and sacred to Mahavira. The larger temples have considerable marble halls with columns and towers, and plenty of openings, unlike Hindu temples ; the marble floors have beautiful tesselated patterns. In the shrine, on a pedestal, are large figures of Maha- vira, sitting with feet crossed in front, like those of Buddha. Often on the brow and breast are five brilliants, and gold plates adorn many parts of the body. The eyes are of silver overlaid with pieces of grass, and projecting very far, so as to stare very prominently. The larger temples, says Fer- gusson (" History of Indian Architecture"), " are situated in tuks^ or separate enclosures, surrounded by high fortified walls ; the smaller ones line the silent streets. A few yatis, or priests, sleep in the temples, and perform the daily services, and a few attendants are constantly there to keep the place clean or to feed the sacred pigeons, who are the sole denizens of the spot ; but there are no human habitations, properly so called, within the walls. The pilgrim or the stranger ascends in the morning, and returns when he has performed his devotions or satisfied his curiosity. He must not eat, or at least must not cook his food on the sacred hill, and he must not sleep there. It is a city of the gods, and meant for them only, and not intended for the use of mortals." Some of the temples date from the eleventh century, but the majority have been built in the present century. Mount Abu, in Rajputana, is another remarkable place of pilgrimage, and has been termed the Olympus of India. There are five temples, two of which, according to Fergusson ("History of Indian Archi- tecture"), are unrivalled for certain qualities by any temples in India. They are built wholly of white marble, and the more modern of the two was built (between 1197-1247) by the same brothers who erected a triple temple at Grirnar ; for minute delicacy of carving and beauty of detail it stands almost unrivalled. A simpler yet very elaborate one, erected in the eleventh century, is a typical example of larger Jain temples ; it his a central hall terminating in a pyramidal spire-like roof, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the deified saint worshipped, who in this case is Parsva, the predecessor of Mahavira. There is also a large portico surmounted by a dome, and the whole is enclosed in a large courtyard, sur- rounded by a double colonnade of pillars forming porticos to a range of titty-five cells, as in Buddhist viharas, but each occupied by a facsimile <>t the central image, and over the door of each are sculptured scenes from the saint's life. In some Jain temples the image of Mahavira or other saints ia repeated in an identical form hundreds of times, each with cells or niches. JAINISM. 34* Kemarkable skill and ingenuity have been displayed in the decoration of the columns and other parts of the Jain temples. pi raJfl pi JAIN EMBLEMS. Parasnath, in Bengal, is the eastern metropolis of the Jains, having been the supposed scene of the entrance into Nirvana of ten of their Parasnatll twenty-four deified saints. In one view of Parasnath there are to be seen three tiers of temples rising one above another, in dazzling white EMBLEM OF DHAKMA (THE LAW), AT SANCOI (BUDDHIST). EMBLEM OF DHAKMA, TEMPLE OF JAGANNATU, POM. stone, with fifteen shining domes, each with bright brass pinnacles. In style these temples differ from those in the West or South, and are partly 34* THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. derived from Hindu temples and partly from Mahometan mosques. There are no priests to perform ceremonies for the pilgrims ; each performs his devotion according to his own views. They have to pay toll to the priestly order before entering, and to leave some contribution to the repairs of the buildings. Extreme cleanliness being one of the Jain principles, it is carried out perfectly in the temples, producing an effect of surpassing beauty. " On entering the centre and holy chamber," says one of the few European visitors who have gained admission, " it is impossible to avoid being im- pressed with the simple beauty of the place. The pavement is composed of fine slabs of blue-veined marble ; and on a white marble pediment, opposite to the entrance, five very beautiful images of the Jain saints sit in dignity waiting for the prayers of their disciples, which are rendered more deep- toned by the echoing influence of the dome." Pilgrims visit every shrine in the holy place, a work of extreme labour, owing to the number of peaks and the pilgrimage is completed by a circuit round the base of the group of hills, a distance of something like thirty miles. The yatis, or ascetics, among the Jains have no absolute rule as to wor- ship, being only devoted to meditation and abstraction from worldly affairs; The yatis. but they often read the Jain scriptures in the temples, while the ministrants, attendants, etc., in the temples are Brahmans. The Jains fast and specially devote themselves to religious duties during a part of the rainy season (the Buddhist Vassa). At its commencement they are accustomed to confess their sins to an ascetic and obtain absolution for them. The Svetambaras are the broader of the two sects, taking their meals clothed and decorating their images, and allowing that women may attain Nirvana, which the Digambaras deny. On .Tainism see "Sacred Books of the East," vol. xxii. ; "Imperial Gazetteer of India;" " Statistical Account of Bengal ; " " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Art. Jain. J CHAPTER X. Zoroaster an* iIk %eirti*abe$ta« The A vesta— Zend and Pahlavi— The Magi of the Bible— The Greeks and the Magi— Modern study by Europeans— Zoroaster— A real personage— His life in Eastern Iran— His date— Mythical develop- ments—Marvels and miracles— Contrary opinions — The doctrines of Zoroaster— Ormuzd and Ahriman— Dualism— Importance attached to thoughts —Relation to early Aryan religion— Com- parison with Vedic religion— Ahura— Zoroaster and the settled agriculturists— Attributes of Ormuzd— The name of Ormuzd— Lofty conception of the Deity— The Amesha-Spentas— The Yazatas or spiritual genii— Mithra— Vayu— Sraosha — The soul of the bull— The powers of evil— Ahriman— The daevas and druj— The Yatus, Drvants, etc.— Zoroaster magnified— The universal conflict— The Fravashis— Immortality — Future rewards and punishments —The final dissolution and renovation. THE Zend-Avesta1 is the popular name of the great religious book or collection of books of the Parsees, a wealthy and influential body of Indian residents (numbering over 70,000) whose ancestral home Ttis AvssttL was Persia, but who after the seventh century, when the Persians were overthrown by the Mohametans, took refuge in Western India and the peninsula of Guzerat. Only a few thousand descendants of the old people still keep up the ancestral worship in Persia itself, in Yezd and its neighbour- hood. Properly speaking, the old collection of books is the Avesta, Zend (or " interpretation ") being the name of the translation and commentary on it in the Pahlavi or early Persian language. Nor is " Zend " strictly a correct term for the language of the Avesta ; both the book and the Ian- Zend and guage in which it is written are properly called Avesta, and there Palllavi- is no other book remaining in the language. But the language of the Avesta is very generally termed Zend, since that name has long gained currency. This language was that of north-eastern Iran in its wide sense, and was akin to Sanskrit. From it or a closely allied form the Iranian or Persian family of languages is derived. Considering how much was known by the ancient Hebrews and Creeks about the Zoroastrian religion, it is a surprising fact that little more than a century ago Sir William Jones rejected the Avesta as a modern Tne Magi of rhapsody. The priests of this religion were the Magi or " wise the Blble- men" of the Old and New Testaments, located in "the East" among the Chaldseans and Persians, and viewed by the Israelites chiefly as astrologers, diviners, and interpreters of dreams. In Daniel xx. we read that the prophet 1 See " Sacred Books of the East," vols, iv., v., xviii., xxiii., xxiv., xxxi. "Encyclopedia Britannica," ninth ed., articles "Persia," "Pahlavi," "Parsees," "Zend-Avesta," "Zoroaster." "Avesta," translated with commentary by Prof.de Harlez, second ed. Paris, 1881. "Civilisation of the Eastern Iranians," by Prof, (ieiger, translated into English by D. P. Dastur; London: Henry Frowde, 188G. (G.) 343 344 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and his associates were reckoned " ten times wiser than all the magicians and astrologers." How deeply this view of them impressed itself, we see in the fact that from their Greek name " magoi " is derived our generic term for all professors of enchantment and preternatural powers. Daniel is represented as interceding for the Magi when condemned to death by Nebuchadnezzar, and was himself appointed Master of the Magi ; again and again after this we find that one common ground -was recognised between the religions, both hating idolatry and acknowledging the "God of Heaven." The " wise men (Magi) from the east " of Matthew ii. may not have been from Persia, but the mention of them implies the high position they held and the respect paid to their persons and doings. Later references to Magi in the New Testament imply what was the fact, that large numbers of impostors had become distributed through the Roman empire, among whom may be mentioned Simon Magus and Elymas. The Greeks early knew about the Magi through Herodotus and other travellers and historians ; and Aristotle and other philosophers wrote about The Greeks ^ie Persian religion in lost books. The Magi appear to have and the recommended the destruction of the Greek temples in Xerxes' Magi. . _ invasion. After the Greek conquest of Persia the name of the Magi represented a hated system of divination, and the religion of a con- quered foe. Both Plato and Xenophon, however, speak of the Magi with respect. Philo, the great Alexandrian philosopher, describes them as men who gave themselves to the worship of nature, and the contemplation of the Divine perfections, and as being worthy to be the counsellors of kings. Much literature was put forth in Greece as being the oracles of Zoroaster, but having very faint traces of his system. Throughout the middle ages, how- ever, no real knowledge of the ancient Persian religion existed in Europe. Gradually after the Renaissance the old knowledge was re-collected ; and travellers in Persia and India gathered the beliefs of the Parsees and described Modern study their practices. Thomas Hyde, an Oxford professor, in 1700 pub- y Europeans. ]jsneci the first accurate description of modern Parseeism; and in 1723 Richard Cobbe brought to England a copy of the Vendidad, which was hung up by an iron chain in the Bodleian library, a treasure which no- body could read. More than thirty years later, Duperron, a young French- man, after years of persuasion and investigation, obtained from the Parsees of Surat both their books and the means of translating them, and in 1764 brought to Paris the whole of the Zend-Avesta; in 1771 he published the first European translation. But it was loudly asserted that the Avesta was a forgery and a late concoction ; and it was not till the Pahlavi inscriptions oi the first Sassanian emperors had been deciphered by De Sacy, and they in turn led to the reading of the Persian cuneiform inscriptions by Burnouf, Lass. ii. and Rawlinson, that it was proved beyond doubt that the Avesta s written in a still more ancient language. Zend, as it is usually called, I apparently derived from a common source with Sanskrit; and its grammatical forms remind one of Greek and Latin as well as of the language oftheVedas. & h ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 345 ZOROASTER. So much scepticism has been displayed as to the A vesta that it is scarcely surprising to find that many have doubted the existence of any person corresponding to Zoroaster or Zarathustra (in modern Persian, Zardusht), although they might in some cases admit that a real he was a mythological personage developed out of some man. personage- But it requires very cogent proof to upset the unanimous voice of classical antiquity, which speaks of Zoroaster as a real person and the founder of the Persian religion. The period when he lived and the details of his life must be admitted to be doubtful ; and his name is not mentioned in any cuneiform inscription yet deciphered. No doubt the Zoroaster of the later parts of the Avesta and of the Zend is largely mythical, and of these myths we must later give some account. But the Zoroaster of the gat has or hymns contained in the Yasna appears as a man, trusting in the Divine Being whom he worships, facing fierce opposition from without, crippled at times by the faintheartedness of his supporters, sometimes suffering from inward doubts and straggles, and again exulting in secure confidence. And it is less marvellous to believe in these sentiments as having proceeded from a man who was the founder of a religion than to believe they were invented long afterwards in the successful days of the religion, when it was beginning to decay. But, as in the case of Buddha and also of the early history of Buddha, these old Aryans had no notion of writing biographies. All we have from them is incidental information, which may be even more reliable, when sifted, than details professing to be biographical would have been in that age. Although his birthplace is uncertain, Zoroaster's active life and teach- ing may safely be placed in Eastern Iran, possibly in Bactria. The later parts of the Avesta describe him as teaching during the reign of His life in Vishtaspa, the same word as is rendered Hystaspes by the Greeks ; Eastern tt3J1- but there is reason to believe this king belonged to a much earlier period than Hystaspes, the father of Darius. This king was evidently the patron and friend of the great religious teacher ; and his influence greatly con- tributed to Zoroaster's success. Two brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jamaspa, the latter a minister of the king, were among Zoroaster's prominent sup- porters ; indeed he married their sister Hvovi. Like some other religious leaders, Zoroaster derived much aid from his relatives and their followers ; and he appears to have had a family of sons and daughters. The Avesta does not speak of his death ; but in the late Shah-Nama, or book of Turanian kings (13th century), it is related that he was murdered at the altar in the storming of Balk by the Turanian conquerors. Almost the only means that we have of indicating Zoroaster's date is the fact that when a His date. Cyrus reigned, in the 6th century B.C., the Magian religion was firmly established in Western Iran. Various conjectures assign him dates between 1000 and 1400 B.C. Turning now to the view of Zoroaster given by the later parts of the 346 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Avesta, it is easy to see that he became invested with marvellous powers, nothing less than supernatural, and was in fact made part of the develop- Magian mythology. He is described as smiting fiends chiefly with his prayers, driving away Ahriman the evil spirit with huge stones which he had received from Ormuzd, the supreme and good god. At his birth the floods and trees rejoiced. Ormuzd is even represented as sacri- ficing to a spring, and praying that Zoroaster may be brought to think and speak and do according to his law. Zoroaster in fact becomes the sup- porter of Ormuzd, and drives away Ahriman and the fiends that try to kill him. He is a godlike champion, who kills the powers of evil with the word of truth or the sacred spell. At some far-off period a posthumous son will be born to him who will come from the region of the dawn to free the world from death and decay, and under his rule the dead will rise and immortality commence. Still later, in the Bundahish we have more details and marvels about Zoroaster, and from it a legendary history of the great teacher may be com- Marveis and piled. During his early life a whole series of marvels occurred, miracles. m0stly protecting his life from danger. His early life was blame- less, but it was only after he attained the age of thirty that his mission commenced. He appears to have emigrated from his native country to Iran proper, with a few followers, and miracles were worked in his progress. The spirit Vohu-mano (" the good mind") introduces him to Ormuzd, the su- preme Being ; he asks permission to put questions to Him, inquiring which of God's creatures is best, and receiving the answer, " He is the best who is pure of heart ; " and then receives instruction as to the names and duties of angels and the nature of the evil spirit Ahriman. Various miraculous signs are shown to him. He sees a fiery mountain and is commanded to pass through the fire, but is not hurt thereby. Molten metal is poured into his breast without his feeling pain ; and these wonders are explained to him as having a mystic meaning. He then received the Avesta from Ormuzd and was commanded to proclaim it at the court of King Vishtaspa. This belief in the communication between Zoroaster and Ormuzd runs through the whole Avesta. In every important matter he questions Ormuzd and receives a precise answer from him. Various statements are made that these revela- tions took place upon a mountain, which afterwards burst out into flames. A\ In mi he at last presented himself at court, the king's wise men endeavoured to refute him, but were compelled to own that he had beaten them in argu- ment ; finally the king accepted the Avesta, after the prophet had been accused as a sorcerer and had proved his mission by miracles. The king at last did nothing without consulting Zoroaster, and erected the first fire- temple. Having treated Zoroaster as having been a real historical personage, round whom many mythical or exaggerated narratives have collected, we contrary will quote a few sentences showing the contrary opinion held by not a few scholars : " All the features in Zarathustra point to a god : that the god may have grown up from a man, that pre-existent ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 347 nrytliic elements may have gathered around the name of a man, born on ■ earth, and by-and-by surrounded the human face with the aureole of a god, may of course be maintained, but only on condition that one may distinctly express what was the real work of Zoroaster. That he raised a new religion against the Vedic religion, and cast down into hell the gods of older days can no longer be maintained, since the gods, the ideas, and the worship of Mazdeism (i.e., Zoroastrianism) are shown to emanate directly from the old religion, and have nothing more of a reaction against it than Zend has against Sanskrit." (Darmesteter, S.E., vol. iv.) THE DOCTRINES OF ZOROASTER. The most special feature of Zoroaster's teaching is the dualistic principle, according to which Ahura Mazda (Ormuzd), the good spirit, is constantly antagonised by Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the evil spirit, who is ormuzd and the originator of everything evil. The latter is to be ultimately Alininai1- expelled from the world^ and man must take an active part in the struggle, his conduct being regulated by the code revealed to Zoroaster by Ormuzd. Ormuzd and Ahriman are believed to have been co-existent, and Dualism# opposed in the earliest period known to the Gathas ; but the ultimate triumph of Ormuzd indicates essential if latent inferiority in Ahriman. It must not be taken that other spirits were not believed in by Zoroaster ; but as far as one can judge, his special teaching relates to the supremacy and greatness of Ormuzd and his final victory. As regards conduct in this world, Zoroaster enforces the doctrine that no one can occupy a position of indifference ; he must be either on the side of good or of evil. The only proper course was to choose the Importailce good, and to follow it in thought, word, and deed. This was a"^11^ 0 ' & j 3 to thoughts. announced clearly in the first gatha ; and we must concede to Zoroaster the great merit of seeing the importance of the thoughts, and tracing evil to that source. When we remember how few of the hymns of the Eig-Veda refer to sin or its expiation, and how slight are the traces of feelings of guilt, and the necessity for obtaining forgiveness for it from the Deity, it will be seen that the Avesta contains distinctly an advanced teaching. Whatever may have been Zoroaster's contribution to. the religious progress of his race, such a religion as his could only become accepted where there was already a large basis of positive belief, even if Relation t0 that belief were erroneous ; and as there can be no doubt that the early Aryan t • TJ- j religion. Iranians were derived from the same stock as the Aryan Hindus, we must compare their early religion with the features found existing in the Avesta, in default of any document recording what was the state of belief upon which Zoroaster began to work. And this study leads to most interesting results. The general name for a god in the earlier portions of the Rig- Veda is deva (bright) ; in the Avesta the evil spirits are called daeca, essentially the same word ; while in the later Rig- Veda the name means exclusively 348 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. a good spirit, a beneficent god. In contrast to this, we find the use of an alternative name to deca in the earlier parts of the Rig-Veda. Comparison . r . ° witnvedic namely asura. This is the same word as ahura m the Avesta, e gion. ^ormjng par^ 0f faQ name Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda) and limited to a good sense. Yet in the later Rig-Veda and in Brahmanism the same name is exclusively applied to evil spirits. We have not space to trace fully how this divergence was concomitant in India with the deposition of Varuna from the supreme place among the gods and the rise of Indra ; but it may be inferred from the Avesta that in Zoroaster's time the people of Iran were divided between two distinct and contrasted forms of belief — the wilder unsettled nomads who believed in the devas, the original spirits of the Avran race, and who ill-treated and sacrificed cattle ; while the Ail urns more settled people believed in the ahuras, the patrons of cattle, and elevated the care of cattle into a sacred function. Zoroaster therefore appeared as a champion of the belief of the settled peoples, and added the epithet Mazda, the wise, to the name of the chief god whom thev already believed in. He identified the old devas, still ZorOcistcr 3.ncl the settled believed in by the nomads, with powers of evil, false gods, devils, agriculturists. rp^ege^ j^ {.aUght, were all different manifestations or helpers of a predominant evil principle, often called Druj, or deception, and less frequently Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman. This is but a concentration and development of the early Aryan belief in a conflict between the powers of nature, some benefiting and others injuring mankind. The frequent brief address to Ormuzd in the Vendidad is " the most blissful spirit, creator of the material world, thou Holy One," or more fully, Attributes of " I venerate the Creator, Ahura Mazda, the brilliant, radiant, ormuzd. greatest, best, most beautiful, mightiest, wisest, best-formed, most exalted through holiness, giving profusely, granting much bliss, who created us, who prepares us, who maintains us, the most blissful spirit." Dr. Geiger lays stress on the spiritual view which is given of Ormuzd, and says that he is not represented as having any visible form, except where the sun (Mithra) is spoken of as " the body and the eye of Mazda." Anthro- pomorphism is rare as applied to the Supreme Being in the Avesta : and Geiger looks upon all the passages as symbolical, which speak of wives and relatives of Ormuzd. But we cannot be blind to the extreme probability that such relationships would be looked upon as real by the general mass of the people, however definitely the leaders may have regarded them as symbolical. Great importance is evidently attached to the " name " of Ormuzd, and it is interesting to compare it with the "name" of Jehovah as treated in The name of the Old Testament Scriptures, and the 1,001 names of Allah. ormuzd. These names, as given in the Ormuzd Yast are " the One of whom questions are asked, the Herd-giver, the Strong One, Perfect Holiness, Creator of all good things, Understanding, Knowledge, Well-being, and the Producer of well-being, Ahura (the Lord), the most Beneficent, He in whom there is no harm, the Unconquerable, He who makes the true account (that ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 349 is of good works and sins), the All-Seeing, the Healer, Mazda (the All-wise). He is represented in the gathas as not to be deceived, and as looking upon everything as a warder with eyes radiant with holiness. How high is the conception of the deity reached in the gathas may be seen from the following extract from one of them (Yasna 44) . " That I ask of Thee, tell me the right, 0 Ahura ! Who was the father of the pure creatures at the beginning ? Who has created the way of the sun, of the stars ? Who but Thou made it that the moon waxes and wanes ? This, 0 Mazda, and other things I long to know. Who upholds the earth and the clouds above, That they fall not ? Who made the water and the plants ? Who gave their swiftness to the winds and the clouds ? Who is, O Mazda, the creator of the pious mind ? Who, working good, has made light as well as darkness ? Who, working good, has made sleep and wakefulness ? Who made the dawn, the mid-days, and the evenings ? " There is no doubt that Ormuzd is believed to have existed before any material thing, and to have called the world into existence by his will. He is specially mentioned as the creator of the holy mind, of religious truth, and of the prayers and offerings. Fire is also a special creation of Ormuzd, the importance of which we shall see later. Being omniscient and infallible, he rewards the good and punishes the evil both in this world and the next. Thus we read in the gathas : " Whosoever in righteousness shows to me The genuine good actions, to me who am Zarathushtra : Him they (the divine beings) grant as a reward the next world, Which is more desirable than all others. That hast thou said to me, Mazda, thou who knowest best." The impious are thus threatened : " Whoso brings about that the pious man is defrauded, his dwelling is finally for a long time in darkness, and vile food and irony shall fall to his lot. Towards this region, 0 ye vicious, your souls will conduct you on account of your actions." There have not been wanting those who see in the resemblances between this conception of the supreme Deity and that of the Jews a proof that the one was derived from the other ; but the view that they are distinct and unrelated finds warm advocacy. Thus Dr. Geiger says : " In this sublime conception of the Avesta, Ahura Mazda undoubtedly stands far above the deities of the Vedic pantheon. Only the Jehovah of the ancient Jews may . be compared to him. But however obvious the similarity be- Lof tween the God of Israel and the god of the Mazdeans may be, still conception of I reject entirely the assumption that the Avesta people have borrowed from the Jews. Upon the Iranian soil a narrowly-confined nation has, independently and of itself, attained that high conception of God, which, with the exception of the Jews, was never attained by any Aryan, 350 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Semitic, or Turanian tribe." (G.) To another student, Professor Geldner, Ormuzd appears as the idealised figure of an oriental king. To Professor Darmesteter he is the developed idea of the old Aryan "Heaven-God," and many features betray his former sky nature. Thus " he is white, bright, seen afar, and his body is the greatest and fairest of all bodies ; he has the sun for his e}Te, the rivers above for his spouses, the fire of lightning for his son ; he wears the heaven as a star-spangled garment ; he dwells in the infinite luminous space." The sevenfold arrangement of the Vedic gods which was sometimes made, and from which were developed the twelve adityas, was seen also Tiie Amesha-in the Iranian religion, and it is a question whether it did not spentas. exist very early, Ormuzd becoming the most prominent and finally the supreme. In some parts of the Avesta mention is made of seven Amesha-Spentas (the blissful immortals), of whom Ahura Mazda is chief. The names of the others are (1) Vohu-mano, the good mind, (2) Asha-vahishta, the best holiness, (3) Khshathra-varya, the desirable sovereignty, (4) Spenta-Armati, moderate thinking and humble sense, (5) Harvatat, well- being, happiness, health ; (6) Amertal, long life, immortality. The abstract meanings of these names renders it difficult to understand them, but there is no doubt that they are invoked in the Avesta as real beings who can answer prayer. "We find them very definitely associated with particular functions : Vohu-mano protects herds, Asha is the genius of fire, Khshathra has the care of metals, Spenta-Armati is the guardian of the earth, while the last two protect the waters and plants. "We may here indicate with some reserve Geiger's explanation of the abstract meaning of some of the Amesha-Spentas, as connected with these practical functions. Vohu-mano, the good mind, is the protector of herds because the people who accepted the Zoroastrian doctrine, and consequently were of good mind, were the cattle-rearers, as opposed to the nomads. Vohu-mano came also to be regarded as the guardian of all living beings. The connection of Asha, purity, with fire, is evident, fire being the symbol of purity. Armati (the Vedic goddess Aramati) is the protector of the earth, regarded as " the humble suffering one which bears all, nourishes all, and sustains all. In the Big- Veda Aramati is devotion, or the genius of devotion. By the Indian commentator Sayana, Armati is regarded as wisdom, but he also defines the same word twice as the 'earth.' " Harvatat, health, is the master of water, for the waters dispense health. Amertal, long life and immortality, is the genius of plants, which dispel sickness and death, especially the Haoma (Indian Soma) plant, which gives health and long keeps up the vital powers. The white Haoma gives immortality. Fire is spoken of as the son of Ormuzd, and Armati as his daughter. In one place (Yast xix.) we find all invoked as sons of Ormuzd : "I invoke the glory of the Amesha- Spentas, who all seven have one and the same thinking, one and the same •loin-, one and the same father and lord, Ahura Mazda," Another subject of great interest is the part played by the ijazatas, sometine lerised as angels or spiritual genii presiding over elements ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 351 or over abstract ideas. Mr. Dastur says : "In the abstract, anything that is excellent and worthy of praise in the moral and material uni- verse and that glorifies the wisdom of the Deity is a yazata. (Gh o^sphituai' p. xxiv.) Mithra is one of the most significant of these, because senil- he can be identified with Mitra, the Vedic god of the heavenly light, closely associated with Varuna. Mithra was believed to see and therefore know everything, and became the witness of truth and the preserver of oaths and good faith ; consquently he punishes those who break their promises. He is also the lord of wide pastures and the prince of the countries. The tenth yast contains many hymns to Mithra, from which the following extracts are made. (S. E. xxiii.) " Ahura Mazda spake unto Spitama Zarathushtra, saying : ' Verily, when I created Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, 0 Spitama, I created him as worthy of sacrifice, as worthy of prayer as myself, Ahura Mazda. The ruffian who lies unto Mithra (or who breaks the contract) brings death unto the whole country, injuring as much the faithful world as a hundred evil-doers could do. Break not the contract, 0 Spitama, neither the one that thou haclst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the faithful, who is one of thy own faith. For Mithra stands for both the faithful and the unfaithful.' " " We sacrifice unto Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, who is truth- speaking, a chief in assemblies, with a thousand ears, well-shapen, with ten thousand eyes, high, with full knowledge, strong, sleepless, and ever awake. " Who upholds the columns of the lofty house and makes its pillars solid ; who gives herds of oxen and male children to that house in which he has been satisfied ; he breaks to pieces those in which he has been offended." On behalf of Mithra, loud claims are put forth for a sacrifice, invoking him in his own name. He is prayed to for riches, strength, and victory, good conscience and bliss, wisdom and the knowledge that gives happiness. In one place he is a warlike courageous youth, who drives in a chariot with four white horses through the heavens, and also into battle ; who becomes a 3razata of war. See the account of Mithraism, later, p. 363. Vayu, another Vedic deity, is the storm yazata in the Avesta, and is appealed to by Ormuzd to grant him power to smite Ahriman. He is in- voked as a strong warlike helper in every danger. Among other important yazatas are that of Fire, the messenger of the gods, sent down as lightning and sun-fire to the earth ; that of the waters, Ardvi- sura Anahita, Tistrya the rain-bestower, Verethragna the fiend smiter, and the Sun and Moon, etc. Many of these are identical in name and epithets with Vedic gods or spirits, and in reading the yasts we seem to hear again the strains of the Rig- Veda. " He who offers up a sacrifice unto the undying, shining, swift-horsed sun, to withstand darkness, to withstand the daevas born of darkness, to withstand the robbers and bandits, to withstand death that creeps in unseen, offers it up to Ahura Mazda, offers it up to the Amesha-Spentas, offers it up to his own soul. 35 2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. "We sacrifice unto Tistrya, the bright and glorious star, for whom long the standing waters, and the running spring- waters, the stream-waters and the rain-waters : " When will the bright and glorious Tistrya rise up for us ? When will the springs with a flow and overflow of waters, thick as a horse's shoulder, run to the beautiful places and fields, and to the pastures, even to the roots of the plants, that they may grow with a powerful growth ? " The spirit or god Sraosha must also be mentioned ; his name signifies obedience, especially to the Holy Word. He it was who first tied together the baresma, the consecrated sacrificial branches ; he first sang l0S a' the sacred hymns ; three times a day he descends on the world to smite Ahriman. Hence he has been termed the priest-god ; the holy prayers are the weapons with which he smites. He requires a man to rise early that he may perform the due rites ; he pities the poor and needy and guards the sanctity of the covenants. Again Ashi or piety, moral order, the dauo-hter of Ormuzd and sister of Sraosha, Mithra and others, bestows the human intellect, defends matrimony, and cares actively for the house. She confers power and riches, and gives beauty to maidens. Another spirit is named Geush-urvan, " Soul of the Bull " ; in the gathas we find this spirit complaining before Ormuzd of the oppressions The soul of and dangers inflicted on him by enemies. Besides those named the bun many other spirits are invoked, such as the holy doctrine, the Holy Word, the genius of justice, etc. Here we see how prone Zoroastrian- ism was to personify abstract ideas, just as the Vedic religion personified material objects or forces. We now come to the obverse side of the picture — the powers of evil, and their relations to Ormuzd and the forces of goodness. It has already The powers been stated how prominently the Avesta asserts dualism in the of eva government of the world ; but there are not wanting those who consider that Zoroastrianism is not more dualistic than Christianity, and point to the fact that no attempt is made to account for the origin of either spirit, while the temporary character of the power of the evil one is dis- tinctly asserted. (West, S. E., vol. xviii.) Haug says that Zoroaster held the grand idea of the unity and indivisibility of the supreme Being, and sought to reconcile the existence of imperfections and evils with the goodness and justice of God by supposing two primeval causes which, though different, were united. But it is surely simpler to take the plain statements of the gathas, that two powerful beings opposed and counteracted each other, but that the good Being is the stronger and will ultimately conquer, as ex- pressing the essence of the creed of Zoroaster. If one reads the gathas naturally, without prepossessions, it will appear that Ahriman is imagined to have existed from the beginning. Ahriman, the prince of the demons, is the opposite and counterpart of Ormuzd in all characters. He dwells in infinite darkness, and is all dark- Ahrtmati 116Ssj falsehood and wickedness, and around him all evil spirits collect. Any good man is his enemy, and he is represented as ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 353 being enraged at the birth of Zoroaster. The evil spirits are the daevas, (devas) male, and the druj (female). There are six principal The daevas evil spirits corresponding to the Amesha-Spenta : thus (1) and ^J- Akomano, evil mind; (2) Andra (Indra), destructive fire; (3) Saru, the tyrant, opposed the first three of the Amesha-Spentas. The first section of the Vendidad exhibits in detail the way in which Ahriman counterworked the beneficent creation of Ormuzd. His first creation was the serpent in the river, and winter, followed by the cattle-fly,, corn-carrying ants, the mosquito, demon-nymphs and wizards, etc. ; and also the sinful lusts, unbelief, pride, unnatural sins, the burying and burning of corpses, the oppression of foreign rulers, and excessive heat, each following a beneficial creation of Ormuzd. Ahriman was also represented as the killer of the first bull, the poisoner of plants, the causer of smoke, of sin, and of death. Some of the associate spirits of evil can be identified with Vedic spirits ; such are the Yatus, wizard demons. The Pairikas are demon-nymphs who keep off the rain-floods. The Drvants or Dregvants are head- The Yatus, long-running fiends. The Varenya daevas are the fiends in the Drvants. etc- heavens. Bushyasta sends people to sleep at dawn, and makes them forget to say their prayers. "We cannot go into the details relating to all these. We must note how in the Yasts Zoroaster appears as the typical and best human being, who first antagonised Ahriman. Thus, we read in Yast 13, " We worship the piety and the Fravashi (see p. 354) spirit Zoroaster of the holy Zarathustra, who first thought, spoke, and did what is magnified, good, who was the first priest, the first warrior, the first plougher of the ground, who first knew and taught ; who first possessed the bull, and holiness, the word and obedience to the word, and dominion, and all the good things made by Mazda ; who first in the material world proclaimed the word that destroys the daevas, the law of Ahura ; who was strong, giving all the good things of life, the first bearer of the law among the nations ; for whom the Amesha-Spentas longed, in one accord with the sun, in the fulness of faith of a devoted heart ; they longed for him, as the lord and master of the world, as the praiser of the most great, most good, and most fair Asha ; in whose birth and growth the waters and the plants rejoiced ; and whose birth and growth all the creatures of the good creations cried out, " Hail ! ;' (S.E. vol. xxiii.) Here we see, as if in process, the deification of a human being. The conflict between good and evil was represented as universal in its extent. Every power or being or material thing was engaged on one side or the other. All animals and plants belong to one or the other, -me universal or are forced into their service. Sometimes the gods and fiends conflict, are seen under the guise of dogs, snakes, otters, frogs, etc. ; and it was held a crime to kill the creatures of Ormuzd, while a man might atone for evil by killing the creatures of Ahriman. Darmesteter, speculating on this aspect of the Avesta, says, " Persia was on the brink of zoolatry." A A 354 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Of course mankind were shared between Ormuzd and Ahriman. The servant of Ahriman and of Asha (fire) offers sacrifice to them with libations of haoma juice (the Vedic Soma), the great healing and invigo- andtbe rating plant, which when drunk by the faithful benefits the wicked. g0(^s . sacrifices of consecrated meat and libations of holy water. Be aids Ormuzd and the holy spirits by every good thought, word, and deed, and by increasing the number of and protecting the creatures of Ormuzd. The priest, or Atharvan, who drives away fiends and diseases by his spells : the warrior who destroys the impious, the husbandman who produces good harvests, are all workers for Ormuzd, and those who do the contrary, for Ahriman. The former will have a seat near Ormuzd in heaven, and at the end of time the dead will rise and live happily on the earth, which will then be free from all evil. In this connection we maj1" note ^he belief in the existence of a spirit (FravasM) distinct from the body originally, separated from it by death, and The believed to be simply the spirit of ancestors ; but this developed FravasMs. into a belief in Fravashis as the immortal principle or counter- part of any being, whether gods, animals, plants, or physical objects. They are spoken of in Yast xiii. as "the awful and overpowering Fravashis," bring- ing help and joy to the faithful, helping in the maintenance of all creations. Because of the help they give in the perpetual conflict between good and evil, the Fravashis are worshipped and invoked on all occasions. They are praised as " the mightiest of drivers, the lightest of those driving for- wards, the slowest of the retiring, the safest of all bridges, the least erring of all weapons and arms, and never turning their backs"; they are correspond- ingly dreadful to the foe. They are, however, said to ask for help thus ': "Who will praise us ? Who will offer us a sacrifice ? Who will meditate upon us ? Who will bless us ? Who will receive us with meat and clothes in his hand, and with a prayer worthy of bliss?" High above all other Fravashis is the Fravashi of Ahura Mazda. There is no doubt that the Avesta teaches the doctrine of immortality, and a coming world which is " better than the good." The idea of a bridge conducting men thither has been common to many religions. The Immortality. » • • ^ ■ ^ 1 ■• -i -/• early Avesta represents it as a chmvat bridge, or bridge of retribu- tion, at which justice is administered. The good go to the abode of light and glory where Ormuzd reigns and is praised in hymns. The evil, the false priests, and idol-worshippers go for all eternity to the habitation of the devils, in eternal night, scorned by the demons. Yast xxii. gives Future detailed description of the fate of the good and of the evil. A rewards and good man's spirit, remaining near the head of the body, tastes ' during the three nights succeeding the death of the hody as mud happiness as the whole living world can taste. He passes into the most blissful region and is met by his own conscience in the shape of a beautifu heavenly maiden who recites to him all his good deeds, and' then conducts him through the Paradises of Good Thought, Good Worth, Good Deed, anc Endless Light. The evil man correspondingly suffers for three nights a ZOROASTER AND THE ZEND-AVESTA. 355- much as the whole living world can suffer, and then is brought through a foul region into the hills of Evil Thought, Evil Word, and Evil Deed, and finally into endless darkness. Later this vision is amplified. In one passage of the gathas we find mention of a final dissolution of creation, wheu the final distribution of rewards and punishments will take place ; but the general tenor of the Avesta is to look for a re- The final generation of the earth, with a resurrection of the bodies of the ^^nT1011 dead, to join their souls. Many hold that this view of the resur- renovation, rection was original in Zoroastrianism and that it was adopted from the Persians by the Jews. The end of the world is to be preceded by the appearance of three great prophets, all regarded as supernatural sons of Zarathushtra, the last one (Astvat-erta), being named the victorious Saviour,, embodied piety, overcoming all torments of men and demons. He is to- renew the world, he makes the living immortal and awakens the dead from their sleep, brings death, old age and decay to an end, and grants to the- pious eternal life and happiness. One last decisive struggle takes place- between the powers of light and darkness, and Astvat-erta, with the aid of the good spirits, vanquishes the demons, and extirpates evil. Then comes- the peaceful and happy reign of Ormuzd and all the good, no longer dis- turbed hj any evil-disposed being. ^^23 PfT2 PARSEE SUN-WORSHIP. CHAPTER XI. Cl)f Zoroastrian 36ooks— iWttfiratsim* The Avesta— Country of its origin— Date of the Avesta— The Gathas— People to whom addressed— The Vendidad— The most pleasing and displeasing things— Impurity of corpses — Exposure of dead— Law of contracts and assaults— The Vispered and Yasna— The liturgies— The early rites of Mazdaism— Rise of the Magi— Loss of Zoroastrlan books— The Pahlavi texts— The Bundahish —The Shayast la-Shayast— The Dadistan-i-Dinik— The Spirit of Wisdom— Mithraism— Mithraic monuments— Antagonism of Christians — Mithraic ceremonies. THE AVESTA. in ROM the Avesta itself it appears to be conclusively proved that it -L originated in Eastern Iran, east of the central desert of Persia, the land of the Syr-Daria, nearly all the places mentioned in it being situated country of therein, with the exception of Ragha, near its western boundary. its origin. Babylon is the only famous western city mentioned. A passage especially noted is this, in which the Aryan country is described as the first created and best land. " As the first of the lands and as the best dwelling place, I, Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd) created the Aryana-vaija (the country) situated on the good Datya. Thereupon Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) , who is full of death, counter-created the water serpents and a winter produced by the demons. (G.) This Aryan country was very possibly in Upper Ferghana. 366 THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 357 The A vesta, itself testifies to its own date in the following way. It does not mention any town which was famous in the Median Date of the and Achemenian period except Ragha ; nor does it mention the Avesta. names of later nations or empires. It only knows Aryans, not Persian sr Parthians, or Medes as such. It does not even contain any reference to the battles between the Medes and the Babylonians, still less to the conquests of Alexander the Great. And this is the more significant as it alludes to many external events, battles, inroads of foreigners, the hostility of the Aryans to non-Aryans, and of the settled agriculturists to the nomad tribes. The tribal grouping was in full force, and only specially powerful kings were able tO' unite the tribes into kingdoms. It is much more natural to regard all this as- a sign of great antiquity, especially when coupled with the primitive type of the Avesta language. And it is not safe to dismiss portions of the narrative as purely mythical because all trace of some of the names men- tioned has vanished. Herodotus's statement that the Medes were anciently called Aryans, supports this view of the antiquity of the record which deals- solely with Aiwans, before the Medes had become a distinct people. Let us take the gathas, or hymns of the Avesta, contained in the Yasna,. and study them for traces of the people among whom they were composed. In them Zoroaster speaks directly. The king Vishtaspa is de- scribed as his pious friend in his great work, wishful to announce it ; and in many ways the gathas address or speak of contemporary persons and events. The religion itself is in process of formation, and its followers- are subject to persecution. No doubt mythology is intermingled ; but if everything which contains mythological interpretations or descriptions- were adjudged to contain no historical fact, very much more than the Avesta would have to be sacrificed. One important fact intimating the great age of the gathas, and also- showing the connection of the Aryan people they describe with the Aryans of the Big- Veda, is the high importance attributed to the cow, show- ^g le ing special attention to its breeding and rearing. Thus they were to whom in the pastoral state which succeeds a nomad life, and becoming more settled than mere keepers of sheep and goats, which can be readily transferred from place to place. We are expressly told in the gathas that the cow is the giver of permanent homes, and the especial care of the active labourer, and also leads to the development of agriculture. In the Ven- didad, in contrast to this, agriculture has become of equal importance with cattle-breeding. In the gathas antagonism is represented as occurring be- tween the nomads and the agriculturists, and the former oppose the teach- ing of Zoroaster. In fact the nomads plundered the settled people then as now, and naturally disliked the moral teacher of their more civilised/ brethren. We find Zoroaster assigned as the special protector of the cow, and the announcer to man that the cow is created for the industrious and the active. In the later parts of the Avesta we find the religion of Zoroaster firmly established and an order of priests (Atharvans), but the people are still peasants and shepherds, and their daily life is intimately connected THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. with th.'ir religion, the annual feasts being specially related to the agri- cultural and pastoral life. The people do not yet seem to have used salt. Glass, coined money, and iron were unknown ; the bronze age still ruled. One passage, which has been alleged to refer to Gautama, and to show the date of the Avesta to be later than his time, is not at all conclusive, and the name is rather an old Iranian form ; also the name Gautama occurs in the Rig- Veda. It was in fact an early Aryan name. The Vendidad is specially the Zoroastrian book of purification ; but the first two sections belong to the older literature. The first section at once Tbe touches a natural chord by representing Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd) vendidad. as telling Zoroaster that he has made every country dear to its own people ; were it not so, they would all have come to the Aryan country, which was created best of good lands. The counter-creation of Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) is then described, giving rise to the ten months of winter. •Other neighbouring countries were then created, followed by Ahriman's •creation of special evils or plagues, including various sins, evils, and insect plagues. In tho second section Zoroaster asks Ormuzd who was the first mortal with whom he had conversed ; and he replies, " The fair Yima, the great shepherd," who appears to have represented the founder of civilisa- tion. Afterwards he was told that a period of fatal winters was approach- ing, and he was commanded to gather into a large enclosure all kinds of seeds and grains, and to make a sort of terrestrial paradise. This Yima is compared in some respects with Yama, the ruler of departed spirits, in the Rig- Veda. The third section gives an enumeration of five things most pleasing And five most displeasing to the earth. These are, (1) the place where one Tne most of the faithful with wood for the altar fire, and the sacred bundle Mispleading1 °^ twigs, steps forward praying to Mithra, the lord of wide pas- things, tures, and Rama Svastra, the god that gives good pastures to cattle ; (2) the place where one of the faithful erects a house for a priest, with wife, children, and herds ; (3) the place where one of the faithful cultivates most corn, grass, and fruit; (4) where there is most increase of flocks and herds; (5) and where they yield most manure. The unpleasing places relate to the corpses or other creations of Ahriman, and also the captive wife and children of one of the faithful. No man is allowed to impurity carry a corpse alone, and every corpse, if buried, must be disin- of corpses, terred (for exposure) within six months. A large part of the Vendidad relates to the extent of defilement by corpses or portions of dead matter and the means of purification. Throughout all we see the guiding principle that purity, especially of the body, is of prime importance; but impurity is believed to be the work of a demon, which especially inhabits a corpse, and thence passes to those who touch it. Peculiar washings and 3pells are enjoined in order to expel the impure spirit. Nowhere has this idea •i impurity connected with the dead been more elaborately developed. The evil spirit, is expelled from the corpse itself by the " four-eyed dog " being 2>ruught near ami made to look at the dead. In practice this is interpreted THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 359 as a dog with two spots above the eyes. This may be compared with the four-eyed dogs of the Vedic god Yama, and the three-headed Cerberus, watching at the doors of hell. Wherever the corpse passed, death walked with it, threatening the living ; consequently no man or animal might pass that way till the deadly breath had been blown away by the four-eyed dog, the priest aiding with his spells. Fire, earth, and water being all holy to Zoroastrians, corpses must be kept as far as possible away from them and placed on the highest summits, where there are always corpse-eating dogs and birds, and fastened Exposure by the feet and hair lest the bones should be carried away. The of dead- bones must afterwards be laid in a building known as the Dokma or tower of silence. This principle was carried out very thoroughly, partial death and sickness being equally unclean. Everything proceeding from the human body was impure, even parings of nails and cut hair. Sickness was sent by Ahriman, and must be cured by washings and spells. If several healers offered themselves together, one healing with the knife, one with herbs, and one with the holy word or by spells, the latter was to be preferred. Hence the class of priests included the chief doctors. The fourth section of the Vendidad is occupied with laws about con- tracts and assaults; the latter are of seven degrees, and guilt is estimated as very greatly increased by each repetition of the offence. Crimes Law. of QQn_ are punished not only by stripes, but in addition by penalties tracts and after death. Offences against the gods were punished more heavily than offences against man ; and death is the punishment of the man who falsely pretends to cleanse the unclean, and the man who carries a corpse alone, these being special offences against the gods. Repentance only saves the sinner from penalties after death. The burning or burial of the dead, the eating dead matter, and unnatural crimes were inexpiable, apparently punished by death as well as future torments. The Vispered and Yasna properly form an indivisible part of the Avesta ; in fact, they constitute a liturgy. The Vispered, which is very short, contains merely invocations and invitations to Ormuzd The vispered and the good genii to be present at the ceremonies about to be an performed. The Yasna means literally " offering with prayers," and includes the gathas or hymns, to which we have already referred. These were to be recited by the priests alone (the laity not being present), during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, which in brief were the consecration of holy water, of the sacred twigs or Baresma, and of the juice of the Haoma, and the offering of the draonas, or little round cakes, on which pieces of cooked flesh were placed, and afterwards eaten by the priests. Properly it was the priest's duty to recite the entire Avesta once every twenty-four hours, and principally during the night, this being essential in order that they might keep themselves fit to perform the rites of purification. The liturgies are not of interest proportionate to their length, and it is difficult to give an idea of their varied character within our limits. 36o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Here is a brief extract from tlie Vispered : " "We honour the omniscient The spirit Ahura-Mazda. We honour the light of the sun. We liturgies. honour the sum, the Amesha-Spentas. We honour the perfect Mantras. We honour the brilliant works of purity. We honour the assemblies, of which fire is the cause. We honour pure and benevolent prosperity and intelligence." Again, " Apply your feet, hands, will, Mazdeans, disciples of Zarathustra, to the practice of the good works pri scribed 03' law and justice, to the avoidance of bad actions, contrary to law, and unjust ; give to those who lack." The Yasna largely consists of lists of those in whose honour the various consecrated objects are offered, or to whose praise the priests are chanting. Thus : " With this Baresma and holy water I honour the pure spirits of the months, pure spirits of the pure world. I honour the new moon, pure spirits of the pure world." Frequently various points in the history or achievements of the spirits are alluded to. Then the features of Ormuzd's rule are spoken of : " Reign undisputed over the waters, over the trees, over all that is good and of pure origin. Make the just man powerful, and the wicked powerless and weak." A long account of the origin and history of Haoma is put into the mouth of Zoroaster, and prayer is offered to him as a person, in extravagant terms. Paradise, health, long life, prosperity, conquest, safety, posterity, etc.; are among the gifts besought of Haoma. He is also asked to frustrate the efforts of those who would injure the worshipper, and to bring every calamity upon him. From these various indications we may picture to ourselves the Zoroastrian religion as practised centuries before the Christian era, and long The early a^er the time of Zoroaster. It is to be noted that the Avesta rites of contains no mention of temples ; and the sacred fire was kept Mazdaism. i«t • up on altars in the open air on elevated places, at most sur- rounded by a simple wall. No image or representation of the gods or genii was made ; fire alone was sufficient to symbolise them, kept up perpetually in great stone or copper basins, fed with the choicest wood. The priests (atharvans) taught the holy law, recited the sacred texts and invocations, prepared the Haoma, washed and kept the sacred vessels, and presided at ceremonies of penance and purification. They were expected to know the Avesta by heart, and had charge of the instruction and initiation of novices and students. It appears that they were accustomed to go from place to place in the exercise of their sacred functions ; and some of them were medically skilled, but performed many cures by sacred formulas. The holy days which the religion prescribed were sufficiently numerous, including the 1st, 8th, 18th, and 23rd of each month, sacred to Ormuzd, the 3rd and 5th to the Amesha Spentas, and every day had its special spirit or deity. The new year's festival to Ormuzd, and that of the autumnal equinox to Mithra, were among the principal festivals; and the dead in general were celebrated on the last ten days of the year. The contaminations that made men impure, as we have already detailed them, gave much work to the priests in purification. THE ZOROASTRIAN BOOKS. 361 By the time of Darius, Chaldsean and Semitic image-worship had influenced the worshippers of Ormuzd to a limited extent. Darius placed a symbolical picture of the god on his inscriptions ; Artaxerxes Rise 0f the II. erected statues and a temple to Anahita, at Ecbatana. Magl How the Magians became the priests of the Avesta religion we have no clear account. They appear to have been a tribe or caste of the Medes, and probably they were the inheritors of the primitive Arj'an tradition, who accepted the Zoroastrian development of it, and acquired great influence in the Persian empire, becoming not only teachers of religion, and priests, but also political administrators and advisers ; and they appear to have become combined or amalgamated with the priestly families of old Persia. The Sacred fire was carried before the kings by Magians, and the king's sons were instructed by them in the religion of Zoroaster. It is doubtful whether at this time they occupied themselves with soothsaying, pro- phecy, the interpretation of dreams, etc. ; it is probable that these offices were performed by the Chaldsean priests. The Greek historians represent that no one could sacrifice in Persia without a Magian. They offered sacrifices at high places, first praying to fire (or rather, looking towards the sacred fire). They sacrificed animals, striking them down with a club ; but no part of the flesh was set apart for the deity, the soul of the animal only being required. " As far west as Cappadocia," says Strabo, " there were enclosed places, in the midst of which was an altar heaped up with ashes. On this the Magians kept up the unquenchable fire. Each day they went and sang for an hour before the fire, holding in their hands a bundle of twigs." The Magian religion extended even to the cities of I/ydia, where Pausanias observed their worship. The exposure of corpses was but partially practised by the ancient Persians, and may have been restricted to the priests. Certainly the kings were buried : but under the Sassanian monarchy, the dead were exposed according to the modern custom. There can be little doubt that the Avesta anciently consisted of niairy more books than we have at present. Various traditions speak of their number (twenty-one) and contents, and the efforts made to Lossof preserve them. Alexander the Great, in a drunken frolic, burnt zoroastrian . 1 books, the palace at Persepolis, which contained one of the two then existing complete copies of these books, and the other was said to have been taken away by the Greeks. The attempts of the Sassanian kings of Persia to collect and preserve the Zoroastrian books were rendered futile by the destroying fury of the Mohammedans, and those who refused to adopt the faith of the conquerors emigrated to India, and settled chiefly on western shores. They preserved some portions of the Avesta, together with translations, commentaries, and original works in the Pahlavi lan- guage and character, which prevailed in Persia from the third to the tenth century a.d. In these Pahlavi texts we have much of The Pahlavi the middle period of Mazdaism, " with a strange mixture of text8, old and new materials," says Dr. West, " and exhibiting the usual symptom 362 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of declining powers, a strong insistence upon complex forms and minute detail-. The Bundahish is one of these texts which gives an account of cosmo- gony and legendary history, describing creation under the good and evil Tlie influences of Ormuzd and Ahriman, with their conflicts, and Bundahish. COming down to early Persian kings and to Zoroaster, with a brief account of later Persian history. There are many references which indicate that this is a translation with commentary from an Avesta original. The Bahman Yast is a remarkable prophetical book, in which Ormuzd is said to give to Zarathustra a narrative of the future history of his religion. The Shayast La-Shay ast is a work about " the proper and the im- proper," or laws and customs about sin and impurity. The nature and degrees of different breaches of propriety, the kinds of good works and those who can or cannot perform them, the mode of atoning for sins, various kinds of worship, and an infinite number of detailed rules are given, showing no elevation of mind, but a pedantic reliance on outward formal purification. The Dadistan-i-Dinik, by Manuskihar, a high priest of the Parsees, was written in the ninth centurj7', and represents the doctrines and practice of The the modern Parsees. The title signifies " Religious Opinions or Dadistan-i- Decisions." The purpose of the creation of men is defined as " for progress and goodness," which men are bound to promote. Man is bound to glorify and praise the all-good Creator. "A righteous man is the creature by whom is accepted that occupation which is provided for him, and is-fully watchful in the world as to his not being deceived by the rapacious fiend." The evil happening to the good in this world to so large an extent is attributed to the demons and evil men ; but for this they receive more reward in the spiritual existence, and by it they are kept from evil and improper actions. Explanations are given as to the exposure of the dead, the knowledge by the soul of the fate of the body, the future of the evil and the good. A brilliant picture is given of heaven, and a very dark one of hell. The sacred thread-girdle is declared to be a sign of the service of the sacred beings, a token of sin ended, and a presage of beneficence. The sacred ceremonial is pleasing to Ormuzd, because it entirely fulfils his commands, and produces propitiation of good spirits, the increase of digestiveness-, the growth of plants, the prosperity of the world, and the proper progress of living beings. The proper mode of celebrating the ceremonial is described ; but there is little in it that adds to the essen- tials already described, and nothing that is of a very lofty or original The spirit ('nara°ter- Another Pahlavi book, "Opinions of the Spirit of of Wisdom " is of interest for its expressing; the belief that the wisdom ': innate wisdom " of Ormuzd, a distinct personality created by Ormuzd, produced both the material and spirit worlds,' and can appear in a ptTsonal form and give instructions, such as those recorded in the work itself. Another similar book is called by its author " The Doubt-dispelling MITHRAISM. 363 Explanation," and defends and expounds the dualism of Mazdaism, assert- ing that other religions can only account for the origin of evil by degrading the character of the supreme Being, or by supposing a corrupting influence to be at work, which is really an evil spirit. He makes references to, and attacks the inconsistencies he finds in Mohammedan, Jewish, Christian, and Manicha?an doctrine. MITHRAISM. The recurrence of the name of Mithra in the preceding chapters, from page 171 onwards, will already have been noted ; and we must now give a brief account of the obscure eultus which has been termed Mithraism, which some assert to have been the most widespread religious system in the Roman empire for some centuries after the rise of Christianity, having been even brought into this country by the Roman soldiery (see J. M. Robertson in "Religious Systems of the World," 1890, pp. 225-248). In the Veda, Mithra is twin-god with Varuna ; in Zoroaster, he is lord of wide pastures, created by Ahura-Mazda ; he was still lord of the heavenly light, and so became specially the sun-god, god of light and truth, of moral goodness and purity, punishing the Mithra-Dmj, 'him who lies to Mithra'; hence also he is a judge in hell. (S.E., iv. xxiii.j Rawlinson says that Darius Hystaspes placed the emblems of Ahura-Mazda and of Mithra in equally conspicuous positions on the sculptured tablet above his tomb (b.c. 485) ; and his example was followed by later monarchs. The name Mithradates " given by Mithra," so often borne by Eastern monarchs, is another testimony to the influence of Mithra. He came to be regarded as a sort of intermediate between Ormuzd and Ahriman, a mediator eternally young, preserving mankind from the evil one, and performing a mysterious sacrifice, through which the good will triumph ; and in some aspects Mithra was regarded as a female deity, and there are many Mithraic monuments on which the symbols of two Mithraic deities appear, male and female. The Grseco-Roman bas-relief monuments, of Mithras slaying a bull, in the British Museum, indicates one form of the symbolism associated with this god, and connected with the idea of sacrifice and purification ; and in other associations a ram was slain to Mithra. We learn from Origen that the Mithraic mysteries included a complex represen- tation of the movements of the stars and planets, and of the disembodied human soul among them. Much of the difficulty of comprehending Mithraism really is due to its opposition and proscription by early Christianity, and to the secrecy with which its worship was carried on, largely in caves. There are many Antagonism remains of Mithraic altars cut out in rocks, and he was even of Cnristians- named " Mithras out of the rock." The rites were probably to a large extent derived from those of Zoroastrianism. At the vernal equinox, the deity appears to have been symbolically mourned as dead, a stone image being laid by night on a bier to represent the dead god ; and Justin Martyr and Tertullian describe initiation and other ceremonies of the worshippers of Mithra, which they regarded as imitations of the Christian sacraments. 364 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. We can see in the light of the Greek myth of Persephone, that this was no imitation, but an early and widespread symbolism of the early death of Nature, and the restored life of spring-time. Initiation was an elaborate ordeal, including trial by water, by fire, by cold, by hunger, by thirst, by Mithraic scourging, etc. ; and the worshippers were divided into different ceremonies. grades, called after different birds and other animals. Tertullian says that the soldier of Mithra was offered a crown, which it was his place to refuse, saying Mithra was his crown. Mithraism seems to have had considerable popularity among the later Roman soldiery, and to have been acknowledged by the emperors, so that there are many military inscriptions, "Deo Soli Invic to Mithras," — " to the invincible sun-god, Mithra." The most usual representation of him depicts a young man in Oriental costume kneel- ing with one knee on a prostrate bull, grasping the head and pulling it back with his left hand, while with the right he plunges his sword into its neck. A dog, a snake, and a scorpion drink the blood flowing from the bull, and the sun and moon occupy the two sides of the relief. There is much curious speculation and fact bearing on Mithra wor- ship, but the study cannot yet be said to be placed on a basis of certainty ; and to say that Christianity borrowed largely from Mithraism, is quite unproved. FIRE TEMPLE OF PAESEES, BAKU. CHAPTER XII. ifflotorn $tergms»m« The Parsees— Their persecutions— Their principles— A Parsee catechism— The priesthood — Devotions of the laity— Festivals— Ceremonial rites— Deathbed forms— The towers of silence— Ceremonies of departed souls— Family life. THE PARSEES. A PEOPLE within a people, like the Jews in England, the Parsees have attained and maintained an influence and wealth far beyond their numerical proportion. Their persistence is in its way as strong a testimony to the power of heredity as any. The people survive by their commercial , ability ; their religion survives with them, like Judaism with Persecution the Jews. Persecution was long their fate, both in Persia and of the India; the difficulties of their struggle for existence have fixed their striking characteristics in a mould more tenacious of life. May we not say that they have largely preserved a pure faith in one supreme beneficent God, Ormuzd, and believe them when they repudiate the designation fire- worshippers, and reject idolatry in all forms ? Fire they revere, fire is the symbol of their god, and they do not treat fire lightly in any circumstances ; 3G5 366 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. indeed, they are the only people who universally refrain from tobacco- Their smoking, as offending their religious principles. But they are principles, equally fixed in the determination not to defile any of the works of Ormuzd, whether earth, water, animals, or plants ; and their practices of cleanliness and frequent personal ablution must have contributed greatly to their maintenance in health. The greatest number of them is to be found in Bombay ; they are numerous in Surat, Ahmedabad, and other cities of Gujerat : and they are to be found in many other cities under British Indian rule. Their total number is about 82,000, including 8,000 in Persia (Yezd, etc.). Their name is derived from their original province, Pars, or Fars, from which Persia is named. The Parsees, or Guebres, of Yezd have still thirty-four fire temples great and small, but possess very few books ; and. till lately were in a very degraded condition and in great poverty, being most unjustly treated by their Mahometan neighbours ; their condition has, however, been mitigated by the persistent efforts of the Parsees of Bombay and of the British ministry in Persia. At Baku, on the Caspian, they still have fire temples. Till recently the pure faith was only preserved by a few of the Parsee priests ; and the average priest was little but a reciter of portions of the a Parsee sacred books and formulas \>y rote, without understanding the catechism, language in which they were written. Of late years a catechism of instruction has been prepared for the instruction of Parsee children, from which we learn that they are taught that there is one God, Ormuzd, and that Zartusht (Zoroaster) is his true prophet; that the religion of the A vesta was communicated to him by God, and that it is true beyond doubt; that God is good, and that good deeds are enjoined. All evil and wicked- ness are strictly forbidden. Morality is confined within three words, pure- thought, pure-word, pure-deed ; truth is particularly enjoined. Evil deeds will bring punishment after death in hell, and judgment is believed to take place on the fourth day after death, determining whether the deceased goes to heaven or hell. But a future resurrection is held out as certain, when God only can save any one. It is also enjoined upon believers that they turn their face towards some luminous object while engaged in prayer and worship, which must be of frequent occurrence in the day. Angels are believed in, who aid mankind in various ways, and superintend various parts of creation. Prayers are addressed to these spirits. Prayer is made that the evil may become virtuous and be pardoned by the mercy of Ormuzd. There is no propitiation of the evil spirits, or prayer to them. The priesthood is handed down by inheritance from father to son, although priests may become laymen. The high priests, or dasturs, are the The priest- especial religious authorities, imposing penances and declaring hood. doctrine. The- ordinary priests, or mobeds, and the lower priests,- <)!• herbads, complete the religious orders of the Parsees. They have a coun- cil, or Panchyat, composed of six dasturs and twelve mobeds, which settles all the joint affairs of the Parsee community. At present the condition of the P;.i\see priesthood is one of progress ; two colleges, representing the two MODERN PARSEEISM. 367 sects of the Parsees (marked by comparatively unimportant differences), have been established, under able teachers; and learned works of consider- able value bearing on the history and ancient texts of their religion have been produced by Parsees who have studied at German universities and write English with fluenc}7. The Parsee community does not make offerings to the priests and to the temples the chief or only meritorious work ; but its charitable institutions are numerous, and a Parsee beggar is unknown. As to the devotional practices of the laity, a man who is very religious will say prayers many times a day, albeit in the Avesta language, which he does not understand. Prayer may be said on rising from sleep, Devotions after bathing, and after every operation of life, before and after of the laity, meals, and before going to bed. Among the strangest and most repulsive of Parsee practices, to western notion, is the habit of rubbing nirang (cow's urine) over face and hands, as a specific against devas or evil spirits, a prayer or incantation being recited at the same time. Devotions at the Parsee fire altars are quite optional, and they may be performed at any time by the worshippers, who usually give something to the priests. There is, however, a considerable attendance at the festivals, about once a week, and at special seasons, such as the six days' festival in the middle of winter, celebrating the six periods of creation, that at the spring equinox in honour of agriculture, that to Mithra, etc. On the tenth day of the eighth month there is a festival to Fravardin, who presides over the souls of the departed, when special ceremonies for the dead are per- formed, the towers of silence are visited, and prayers said for them in the small temples in the grounds ; these are in addition to annual celebrations for the dead in each house. New Year's Day is both a da}'- of religious festival and social intercourse, when the fire-temples are visited and pra}rers said, looking towards the altar of sacred fire. Visits to friends, with cere- monial hand- joining, follow, and alms are given to the poor. The Parsee infant, born on a ground floor, to which he is again brought as soon as he is dead, has his nativity cast on the seventh day by a Brahman or Parsee astrologer-priest ; at seven years old he is purified with ceremonial nirang, and invested with the sacred girdle of seventy-two threads, ntes- representing the seventy-two chapters of the Yasna. As the priest blesses the child, he throws upon its head portions of fruits, spices, and perfumes. This is the ceremony of the Jcusti. Marriages are carefully arranged by the astrologer, but are celebrated with a religious ceremony, in which the couple are tied together by a silken cord gradually wound round them, while a benediction is pronounced in Zend and Sanskrit. It is in their funerals that the Parsees are most peculiar. A dying Parsee will be Deathbed attended by a priest, who repeats to him consolatory texts from forms- the Avesta, gives him the sacred Haoma juice to drink, and prays for the forgiveness of his sins. The body is then taken to a ground-floor room from which everything has been removed, laid upon stones, washed in warm water, dressed in clean white clothes, and laid upon an iron bier. The priest, in the presence of the corpse, gives an exhortation to the relatives 368 MODERN PARSEE1SM. 369 to live pure and holy lives, so that they may meet the deceased again in paradise. This exhortation consists of the first gatha of Zoroaster. A dog is brought in to look at the deceased, this being known as the sag-did or dog's gaze. This used to be looked upon as a means of judging, by the dog's instinct, whether life was really extinct; but it is now explained as securing the passage of the soul over the Chinvat bridge, over which only the pious pass to heaven. The carriage of the body to the towers of silence is committed to a special class of Parsees called Nessusalar, or The towers unclean, from the work they perform. The towers of silence in of8llenc3- Bombay are constructed on the top of Malabar Hill, a great home of vultures. Built of stone, they rise about twenty-five feet, with only a small entrance below. On arrival at the appointed tower, prayers are said at the neigh- bouring fire-altar. The body is then exposed on a stone platform within the tower, so that all fluids pass into a well, into which also the bones left by the vultures are swept. During the three days after death a Ceremonies priest constantly prays before a burning fire fed with sandal- of departed wood near the spot where the dead body was laid, the soul not being believed to leave this world during that period. On the fourth day after death there is a further ceremony for the soul of the departed. Con- tributions to charities are made in memory of the deceased, and successive annual, muktad, or ceremonies of departed souls, keep them in remem- brance. The well-to-do perform a ceremony every day of the first year after a death ; and the last ten days of their year are specially set apart for the muktad. One of the rooms of the house is spacially cleaned and set apart, and every morning choice flowers and fruits are placed there, and prayers are offered in it by the relatives, not only for the dead but for themselves for forgiveness of their past sins. Parsees keep their heads covered day and night, having imbibed an idea that it is sinful to be uncovered. Parsee women occupy a much higher position than among Hindus and Mohammedans ; and in recent years women have been admitted to meals in common with the men. The family life, especially of the well-to-do, has much in it that is admirable. The education of women has made great progress among them in recent years. Much superstition still exists about the sig- nificance of particular days, every day having some special thing for which it is best suited ; some days for beginning a journey, others for choosing a new house, others for soliciting a bride, etc. The largest tower of silence in Bombay is about ninety feet in diameter, or 300 feet in circumference, the outer (circular) walls being built of very hard stone, faced with white plaster. Inside the tower is a circular plat- form extending to its full circumference, formed of large stone slabs, divided into three rows of exposed receptacles for the bodies of the dead, diminish- ing towards the interior, the exterior row being used for men, the middle for women, and the inner for children. Each receptacle is separated from the others by ridges about an inch high ; and channels are cut for the pur- B B THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. pose of conveying all liquids into a deep hollow, or well, in the centre of the tower. " When the corpse has been completely stripped of its flesh by the vultures, which is generally accomplished within one hour at the outside, and when the bones of the denuded skeleton are perfectly dried up b}' the powerful heat of a tropical sun, they are thrown into this pit, where they crumble into dust." There are also four drains leading from the pit to the exterior, opening into four wells. " At the mouth of each drain charcoal and sandstones are placed for purifying the fluid before it enters the ground, thus observing one of the tenets of the Zoroastrian religion, that " the mother earth shall not be defiled." The wells have a permeable bottom, which is covered with sand to a height of five or seven feet. The foundation-laj'ing and the consecration of a new tower is an occasion of great ceremony. After the ground has been marked out and limited Foundation with a thread carried round a large number of nails arranged in secraticrTof a cii'cle, prayers are offered to Sravsha, the guardian deity of the towers, souls of the dead, to Ormuzd, and to Spenta Armati, the guar- dian deity of earth, to departed souls, and to the seven Amesha-Spentas. These prayers, acknowledging that it is wrong to contaminate the earth with the bodies of the dead, pray that the enclosed space, and no more, may be occupied for depositing the bodies of departed souls. At the consecration of a dokhena, a trench is dug all round it, and then in the centre of the tower two priests perform the Yasna and Vendidad prayers and ceremonies in honour of Sravsha for three consecutive mornings and nights. On the fourth morning there is a prayer in honour of Ormuzd ; and afterwards there are similar prayers to those at the foundation. Other services outside the tower follow, during and after which thousands of Parsees visit the tower, which is afterwards closed to everybody. Sometimes the towers are erected by public subscription, but private persons frequently bear the sole expense, it being considered a specially meritorious act to build one. Thus, in the midst of antagonistic creeds, persists the religion associated with the name of Zoroaster, a standing revelation to us of the ideas and wor- ship of long-distant ages. Reverence and worship for the great Ormuzd, the supreme Being, principally typified by the wondrous fire, dread of the evil spirit and anxiety to avoid the evils he can bring, and practical charity chiefly characterise this most interesting survival from the past. Learned modern Parsees maintain and teach that invocations to spirits other than the supreme God do not belong to the religion as originally established by Zoroaster, and that they may all be dispensed with, retaining the belief in one God and in purity of thought, word, and deed. They hold also that all I their ritual and ceremonies may be altered according to the spiritual state I and needs of the community. th< besl account of the modern Parsees and their present religious state, see "History of, the Parsei b, ' by Dosabhai Framji Karaka, C.S.I., late member of the Bombay Legislative Council.'! Macmillan, L884. IDEAL ASSEMBLAGE OF THE GODS ON MOUNT OLYMPUS. BOOK IV. EUROPEAN ARYAN RELIGIONS. CHAPTER I. Cfce gttrieiit <8vtck ftrlfgfon? €\)t > ucalion and his wife Pyrrha were saved, in consequence of their piety, in an ark, in which they floated for nine days and nights, till it rested on the summits of Parnassus. From the bones (i.e., stones) of their mother earth, cast over their shoulders, sprang men and women. It was by a dis- placement of this view that men came to be regarded as made by the gods, and as having passed through successive periods known as the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, and the Iron Ages. The first age (when Kronos or THE ANCIENT GREEK RELTGION: THE GODS. 375 Saturn was supreme) was one of unmixed bliss, all things growing freely ; men were pure, happy, and long-lived, did no evil, and had no wars. In the Silver Age, when Zeus came into power, men were feebler and shorter- lived, fought with one another, and were not properly reverent to the gods. Consequently, they were banished to Hades, where they wandered rest- lessly, regretting their lost pleasures. The men of the Brazen Age were a new strong race, cruel and warlike, using brazen (or rather, bronze) tools and arms. The gods at length sent them also to Hades, and they were followed by the men of the Iron Age, who had to toil hard to gain food, and who also became sinful. These then were all drowned but Deucalion and Pyrrha, who became the father of Hellen, from whom the Hellenic people derived their origin. But this was by no means the only cosmogony of the Greeks, for which we must refer to separate works. In fact, every tribe or town may be said to have had a share in a cosmogony, at least, sd far as concerned their own locality. As Mr. Grote says, "Every association of men traced back their union to some common progenitor, either Local tribal their common god or some semi-divine person closely allied to or • civic cods him. A series of names of ancestors, with adventures ascribed to them, constituted for the Greeks their pre-historic past connected with the gods. The names in this genealogy were largely their own names, or those of local objects, rivers, mountains, etc., embodied as persons, and introduced as acting or suffering. The personage from whom the com- munity derived their name was sometimes the son of the local god, or sometimes a man sprung from the earth, thought of as a goddess." We must now refer to the principal gods and their characteristics as accepted in the greatest period of Greece ; but we have not space to describe even such a great hero-god as Herakles (Hercules), whose labours and significance as the patron god of the Dorians are well-known, or Theseus, the patron god of Athens. Zeus was the ruler of earth and heaven, the god producing storms, darkness, and rain ; he controlled the phenomena of nature and the recur- rence of seasons ; kingly power was derived from him, and he upheld princes and rulers, and all the institutions of the State. As father of men, he watched over them, rewarding good deeds, such as charity, truth, and integrity ; while he punished cruelty, false swearing, and want of hospitality. Zeus also, as father of the gods, saw that each of the gods performed his duty, settled their quarrels, and punished their defaults. His special home was on the cloud-capped top of Mount Olympus, in a palace of gold, silver, and ivory, built by Hephaistos (Vulcan), who had also built palaces for the other gods lower down. In Greek art Zeus was represented as a man of noble appearance, serious and benign, with high forehead, thick hair, and flowing beard. An eagle, a bundle of thunderbolts, lightning, and a wreath of oak-leaves are his accompanying symbols. At one of the earliest places where he was wor- shipped,— Dodona, in Epirus, — he was chiefly adored as the sender of water or rain. There his voice was believed to be heard in the rustlings of an 376 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. oak, interpreted by his priests. The worship at Dodona became inferior to thai at Olympia, in Elis, where there was a magnificent statue of Zeus of HERA AND IRIS. ivory and gold, forty feet high, counted as one of the seven wonders. The appropriate sacrifices to Zeus were white bulls, cows, and goats. Zeus appears as a polygamist, seven of his wives being immortals. His first wife, Metis (representing prudence and wisdom), was devoured by him in the belief that her offspring would depose him. After this he himself gave birth to Athene, his head being cloven for that purpose by Hephaistos. His remaining goddess wives were Themis (goddess of Justice), Eurynome, Demeter, Mnemosyne (goddess of Memory and mother of the nine Muses), Leto, mother of Apollo and Artemis (Diana), and Hera (Juno) whose position became highest, so that she was regarded as queen of heaven. Zeus was not only allied to numerous goddesses, but he visited mortal women under various disguises ; Antiope, Leda, Europa, Kallisto, BACCHUS. Alkmene, Semele, Io, and Danae are among these ; and the children of Leda (Castor and Pollux), Europa (Minos, Rhadamanthus), Alkmene (Herakles or THE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGTON: THE GODS. 377 Hera. Hercules), are world-famed types of heroes. No doubt the fables of Zeus becoming the father of earthly kings and heroes represent part of the process of their deification, so that much of the Greek mythology is resolvable into ancestor- worship. Hera was generally regarded as the one truly married wife of Zeus (also his sister), and so became the protectress of married women. She was also figured as specially faithful to her husband, and thence was the representative of wifely virtue and the sanctity of the marriage bond. Jealous of any immorality, she was a strict censor of the misdoings of gods and men ; and she is represented as vain of her beauty and jealous of any indignity. She became the mother of Ares (Mars), He- phaistos, and Hebe, and was the special guardian of the Greek people. She is figured seated on a throne, with a sceptre in one hand and a pomegranate in the other, as a calm, beauti- ful, dignified matron, wearing a tunic and mantle. Her princi- pal temples were at Argos and Samos ; and on the first day of each month a ewe lamb and a sow were sacrificed to her. Pallas-Athene, whom we have already described as issu- ing from Zeus's head, paiias- was born fully armed, Athene, and she is the goddess of wis- dom, protecting the State, law and order, the patroness of learning, science, art, and all arts and inventions. She is the type of chastity and purity. An segis or shield was given to her by Zeus, which she whirled swiftly around her; in its centre was the awful Medusa's head, which changed all who looked at it into stone. Athene, among other arts, presided especially over spinning and weaving, in which she excelled. In statues, etc., she appears as a fully clad woman, serious, thoughtful, and earnest, with beautiful oval face and abundant hair, somewhat masculine on the whole. As a war goddess in defence of the Greeks, of cities, and of innocent victims, she wears a helmet with a large plume, a golden staff, and her famous shield. While very generally worshipped throughout Greece, she Was specially the goddess of the Athenians, who built the great temple of 37S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the Parthenon to the virgin goddess, whose great statue by Phidias was enshrined there. The olive-tree was specially sacred to Athene, and rams, bulls, and cows were offered to her. The great Panathenaic festival was held in her honour. Themis, the goddess of law and justice, presided over popular assemblies and guarded the rights of hospitality ; even Zeus is represented as taking counsel with her. Her statues represent her witli the scales of justice in her right hand, indicating her impartiality, which is further secured by her eyes being bandaged, so that no individual influence or prejudice should influence her. The sword in her right hand indicates the majesty and sovereignty of the law. Together with Zeus and Athene, Apollo may be named as constituting the greatest triad of the Greek gods ; and in many ways Apollo, though described as a son of Zeus and deriving his power from him, is the god whose character and worship had the greatest influence upon the Greeks. There is no doubt that among the later Greek poets and philosophers Apollo was identified with Helios, the sun-god, although in Homer and for some centuries afterwards the two are quite distinct ; but the epithet Phoebus, the shining one, is even in Homer applied to Apollo. It has been strongly held by some that Apollo was originally the sun-god, and that it was a process of development which made Helios a subordinate deity. We must not attempt to decide whence his worship was brought to Greece, whether from Egypt, the East, or the Hyperboreans ; in fact, if sun-worship is a natural product, there is no necessity to regard it any- where as imported. The settled tradition was, that he was born of Leto in the island of Delos, though several other places claimed his birth. Not long after his birth he suddenly appeared as a full-grown youth of divine strength and beauty, demanded a lyre and a bow, and announced that he would thenceforth make known to mortals the will of Zeus ; whereupon he at once ascended to Olympus. Apollo is described as the punisher and destroyer of the wicked and insolent, as the god of medicine and warder-off of* plagues and epidemics (father of Asclepios, the god of the healing art), as the god of prophecy, song, and music, as the protector of flocks and herds, and the founder of cities and leader of colonists, no colony being founded without consulting his oracle. Many of these characteristics are explicable in reference either to the sun as the great light of the earth, or to the heavenly illumination given to the spirit of man. "We can see how, like the fierce sun of summer, he could be a bringer of pestilence and death, or like the genial orb, he could give pasture to preserve the flocks. The rising sun awaking nature to life and rousing the birds to sing, gave foundation to Apollo's being the god of music, and hence of poetry. Prophecy was his, for nothing escaped his all-seeing eye. Not long after his ascent to Olympus, he again came back to earth and travelled through many countries, seeking a place in which to establish his oracle. It was fixed at Delphi, after he had oyed the dragon Python (whence the epithet Pythian Apollo) ; but this THE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION: THE GODS. 379 was not his only oracle, though by far the most famous one. It actually became the national Greek oracle, which was even consulted by foreigners, Eomans, Lydians, and others ; and no Greek would undertake an important enterprise without consulting the oracle, whose priestess, as interpreted by the priests, gave utterances of world-famed dubiousness. No doubt the highest aspect of Apollo was that in which he appears as the pardoner of sin after repentance and the protector of those who expiated their crimes by long years of suffering. No evil deed escaped him, and hence expiatory offerings were often made to him. The extraordinary abundance and often beautifully idyllic character of myths and stories about Apollo show how his nature had become part of the Greek mind and spirit. In sculpture and in the poets he is represented as gifted with eternal youth, joyous, and perfectly beautiful. His deep blue eyes, somewhat low but broad forehead, golden or bright chestnut hair falling in wavy locks, well suited this ideal. Laurel-crowned, wearing a purple robe, and carrying a silver bow, he looks the perfection of manly beauty. The celebrated Apollo in the Belvedere of the Vatican is a naked statue seven feet high copied from one at Delphi. Among the appropriate surroundings or implements of Apollo are the bow and quiver, the lyre and plectrum, the raven, the shepherd's crook, the tripod, and the laurel. Wolves and hawks were sacrificed to him. The Delphian temple was one of the most famous and magnificent of all Greek temples ; its foundation dated before historic record, and it was for centuries the recipient of vast offerings from kings, States, and private persons who sought its counsel. The Pythian games were held at Delphi every fourth year, in honour of his victory over the Python ; and two annual festivals celebrated the god's supposed departure at the beginning of winter to the Hyperborean region, and his return at the beginning of summer. Athens, Sparta, Delos, Thebes, etc., all had their distinctive festivals for Apollo. In many ways the idea of Apollo represents an elevated aspect of Greek religion, having so much distinct moral teaching ; for Apollo could only be rightly approached by those of pure heart who had duly examined themselves, and who practised self-control, though without any austerity. It is held that the Delphian oracle maintained a really high standard of moral and political conduct for several hundred years. Apollo is certainly one of the highest ideals of the Greek mind. Artemis is the twin and correlative of Apollo, the goddess of night and of the moon, of hunting and of chastity. In several of her functions she resembles Apollo, as in her relieving the sufferings of mortals, and ^g^ her power of sending plagues and destruction. She devotes her- self passionately to the chase, and always carries a bow and quiver and is attended by huntress-nymphs. Under this form she is especially termed the Arcadian Artemis, her temples being more numerous in Arcadia than in other parts of Greece. She especially protected the young, both children and animals. All her priests and priestesses were required to live chaste lives. 38o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Artemis is represented as a head taller than her nymphs, slender and youthful, beautiful in feature but not gentle in expression, her figure grace- ful but somewhat masculine. Her hair is loosely knotted at the back of her head, and her short robe, not reaching to the knees, gives her abundant freedom for hunting. Of the many existing statues of Artemis, the most famous is in the Louvre, in which she is depicted rescuing a hunted deer from its pursuers. The bow, quiver, and spear belong to her equipment ; and the hind, dog, and wild boar are specially sacred to her. In Thrace dogs were sacrificed to Artemis. Another form of Artemis was named the Tauric or Brauronian, from the statue of her at Brauron in Attica, said to have been brought by Orestes from Taurica (the Crimea), where human sacrifices, especially of strangers, were offered to her. This is probably connected with bear-worship. The little Athenian girls imitated bears in her honour. These sacrifices, what- ever their origin, were kept up both in Attica and Sparta till the days of Lycurgus. Afterwards at Sparta boys were cruelly scourged at her altar. Stags and goats were sacrificed to her. The Ephesian Artemis was very distinct, being in fact identical with the old Chaldasan divinity Mitra (or Anaitis), the goddess at once of love and of the light of heaven. It was owing to this latter character that the Asiatic Greeks adapted this deity to the name of Artemis ; but she retained her other character, also exercising sway in the land of Hades and permitting departed spirits to visit this world sometimes for counsel or for warning. Contrary to any Greek custom, her priests were eunuchs, and she was represented with many breasts. Her magnificent temple at Ephesus, often termed that of Diana (see Acts xix.), was one of the seven wonders of the world, being 425 feet long by 220 wide, having 127 columns, each 60 feet high, a great ebony statue of the goddess with a crown of turrets on the head, the body pillar-like and sculptured with rows of animals, and count- less other rich treasures, statues, and paintings. It was destroyed by fire in 356 B.C. by Herostratus ; but afterwards rebuilt, burnt by the Goths in 262 a.d., and utterly destroyed by the end of the fourth century. The moon-goddess Selene became identified with Artemis. Hecate was a moon-goddess of the Thracians, at one time identified with Selene, at another with Persephone (see later). There is abundant evidence that the worship of Aphrodite was origin- ally derived from that of the Phoenician Astarte. But she became thoroughly Aphrodite Hellenised, and in Homer takes a natural place as daughter of Zeus and Dione, a sea-nymph ; while we have already referred to Hesiod's account of her origin from Ouranos, her rising from the sea-foam, and her landing at Cyprus. In the popular creed of the Greeks, Aphrodite represented love, excited it in human beings, and by her special power ruled all creatures. In the Greek mind love and beauty were associated; and thus Aphrodite is perfectly beautiful and the goddess of beauty, which she could grant to her votaries. She was married to Hephaistos (Vulcan), but was unfaithful with Ares (Mars) and others; these traditions representing the THE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION: THE GODS. 38i gradual decay of Greek morals, which at last made Aphrodite the patroness of courtesans. Her magic girdle was held capable of inspiring love for any one who wore it. Her principal festivals were held in spring, among flowers and sweet scents ; some of them were undoubtedly of a licentious character. Eros (Cupid) is generally represented as her son and chief companion. Aphrodite is variously represented in ancient art as clothed, half clothed, or nude, as bathing, or as armed (the latter at Cythera, Corinth, and Sparta). In every respect she is depicted as possessing the most perfect beauty of form and expres- sion. The finest existing statues of her are those of Melos (Milo) in the Louvre, of Capua at Naples, and of the Medici at Florence. The principal sacrifices made to Aphrodite were incense and garlands of flowers ; but sometimes various animals were offered. The dove, swan, swallow, and spar- row were sacred to her. Demeter is another great goddess, intimately associated with the natural opera- tions of agriculture, sowing and reaping. In this waj' she was associated with subterranean working ; and many stories about her re- late to the periodic death and quietude of nature and the recurring spring-time and harvest. She was the daughter of Kronos and Rhea, and became one of the wives of Zeus, to whom she bore Persephone and Dionysos. The great myth about Demeter and Persephone relates to the carrying off of the latter to the subterranean regions by Pluto, to whom Zeus had promised her. Demeter travelled far to seek her, but on finding out the truth abandoned Olympus and came to dwell among men, blessing those who received her kindly, and punishing those who repelled her. At last, however, unable to recover her daughter, she produced a famine on earth. Zeus, failing otherwise to reclaim her to Olympus, or restore fertility to the earth, sent Hermes to fetch back Persephone, and arranged that she should Dematsr. 3g2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. spend only a part of the year (namely the winter) in the subterranean regions. Thus Demeter was conciliated. "We may see in this story a representation of the concealment or dormancy of the reproductive powers of tin1 earth during the winter season. Some of the later Greek philo- sophers interpreted the disappearance and return of Persephone as referring to the burial and resurrection of man. She was looked upon not only as a goddess of agricultural fertility, but also of marriage, and as a law- giver and friend of peace. She was worshipped in Crete, Delos, Attica, and especially in Sicily. The worship was carried out by secret rites at the Eleusinian mysteries every five years, of which nothing certain is known, except that they were conducted by torchlight and with great solemnity. Demeter is depicted as of noble stature and bearing and matronly appearance ; her hair was golden-yellow falling in curling locks. Sometimes she is represented sitting in a chariot drawn by winged horses ; sometimes she is standing, with a sheaf or a bunch of poppies in one hand and a lighted torch in the other. She is always fully clad, and wears a garland of ears of corn or a simple riband round her hair. The appropriate offerings to her were figs, pine, fruits, etc. Her temples, known as Megara, were often in groves near towns. Hephaistos (Vulcan), son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of fire, as a natural phenomenon and as useful in the arts. He was fabled to possess a workshop with an anvil and twenty pairs of bellows in Olympus ; Hephaistos. there he made arms, utensils, etc., of marvellous workmanship ; yet in the court of the gods he was the object of laughter, being lame, deformed, and slow. Various volcanic islands were also termed his work- shops. He gave skill to human artists, and taught them to make their tools and other products. He was also reputed, like Athene, to have great healing powers. He was depicted as a man of powerful muscular frame, bearded, and wearing a small cap, his right arm raised to strike the anvil with a hammer, while with the left he is turning a thunderbolt which he is forging for Jove. In several temples he was jointly worshipped with Athene. He was specially worshipped at Lemnos. Hestia (Vesta) was a goddess of fire, being a daughter of Kronos and Rhea, and especially the patroness of the domestic hearth and home life. Her worship became distinct from that of Zeus rather late ; she is not mentioned in Homer. As represented at the house and temple altar fire, she shares in the sacrifices of all the gods. To her the first and last libations of the sacrificial meal were poured out. Her fire was always kept burning, or if extinguished it was again kindled by friction or from the sun's rays. As the goddess of the hearth, she also became the goddess of house-building ; she was worshipped, not in special temples, but in the prytaneum or city hall, the city hearth, so to speak ; there the city entertained its benefactors, and thence colonists took a portion of the fire to their new abode. Ares, the god of war, son of Zeus and Hera, is represented as rejoicing THE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION: THE GODS. 383 in the actual business of war, its tumult and carnage, wild and destructive and bloodthirsty. His worship nourished in Thrace, and is re- puted to have reached Greece from the north. He does not fight always on the same side, nor is he uniformly victorious. He is represented as youthful, athletic, and muscular, carrying a great sword, with a shield. He had comparatively few temples ; but it is related that human sacrifices were offered to him at Sparta. Hermes (Mercury), the messenger and herald of the gods, was the son of Zeus and Maia, one of the Pleiades ; but there are traces of his being modified from an early Pelasgian nature divinity, the god of festivity and bestower of flocks and herds. As messenger of the gods, he is the ideal skilful and eloquent speaker ; and hence the tongues of sacrificed animals were offered to him. He was prudent and cunning, sagacious and shrewd, the promoter of social intercourse, and the reputed inventor of the alphabet, numbers, astronomy, weights and measures, etc. He was charioteer and cupbearer to Zeus, the imparter of dreams to men, the giver of sleep, the conductor of the spirits of the dead to the lower world, the maker of treaties, the helper of commerce, the god of words, and protector of travellers. He watched over the rearing of children, and encouraged gj^mnastic exercises ; as the giver of gain, he was regarded as the author of any stroke of good luck, and as presiding over the dice-box. He was said to have performed many acts of mischief and dexterity, and even to be the god of thieves. Hermes is represented in art as young and handsome, without beard, often in the attitude of running. He may wear a travelling hat with little wings, a herald's staff (caduceus) with entwined serpents, and wings at the top, and golden sandals. He was worshipped anciently in Arcadia, whence his worship spread to Athens and throughout Greece. Little images of him, known as Hermae (being busts upon pillars of stone), were set up at cross roads and in streets and apparently before the door of each house. Lambs and kids were among his special offerings, with incense, honey, and cakes. The palm-tree and the tortoise were sacred to him. Dionysos, the god of wine, son of Zeus and Semele (called Bacchus in late Greek and Roman times), was related to have, accidentally discovered the making of wine from the juice of the grape. The exhilara- Dionysos, tion produced by drinking it caused both Dionysos and his com- or Bacchus, panions to burst into song, joyful exclamations, and dancing. The god extended the gift to all mankind, that they might have more enjoyment, and forget care and sorrow. Consequently he journeyed through the world, planting the vine and instructing people how to make wine. Lycurgus, king of Thrace, disapproved of his wild revels, and banished him from his kingdom. Midas, king of Plnygia, was one of his most noted worshippers. The stories about Dionysos are extremely numerous, and many give accounts of the riotous exploits of his followers. But other accounts of him elevate his character. From being associated with the vine, he becomes the pro- tector of trees in general ; the wine-giver is an inspired being and a source 3«4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of inspiration, and reveals the future by oracles; at the same time he heals diseases by revealing remedies in dreams. Thus he is accounted a pro- moter of peace and the well-being of States. His worship probably had a Phoenician origin. Later he was regarded as the patron of the drama. THE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION: THE GODS. 3*5 Bacchus is represented in early times as a grave manly figure, bearded and robed like an oriental monarch ; but later he appears as a beautiful but effeminate youth, his long curling hair adorned with vine or ivy leaves, his expression pleased and gentle. He carries in one hand a drinking-cup with two handles, in the other a thyrsus, or pole terminated with vine-leaves, a fir-cone, or other ornament. Human sacrifices are said to have been offered to him in early times ; later, rams and goats were offered. Tigers, panthers, and dolphins were among his sacred animals. His attendant women are usually known as Bacchantes, and they are generally represented in violent enthusiasm or madness, with dishevelled hair. Poseidon (Neptune), son of Kronos and Ehea, was the god of the sea, especially of the Mediterranean, and took the place of the older Oceanus. His most distinctive attribute was that of causing and quieting poseidon storms ; and hence mariners poured out a libation to him before beginning a voyage, and made offerings on their safe return. He is re- presented as riding in a chariot drawn by sea-horses, at whose approach the waves became smooth. Hence he is greatly famed as the creator and tamer of horses, and the originator of horse races. He was the patron of fisher- men, and had the power of sending great inundations and horrible sea- monsters on States which displeased him. Poseidon is depicted in varying forms, a good deal resembling Zeus, without benignity, the hair usually disorderly, the figure massive, the eyes bright. His special symbol was the trident, a three-pointed fork with which he could stir up or allay storms and shake the earth. As signifying the contest between sea and land, he is fabled to have disputed the posses- sion of several countries with other gods. He was accompanied by a crowd of minor divinities and attendants, including his wife Amphitrite, the Tritons, Nereids, dolphins, etc. He was specially worshipped in Pelo- ponnesus and the coast towns of Greece. Black and white bulls were his appropriate sacrifices. We can only briefly refer to his wonderful palace beneath the waters, of which marvellous descriptions were given. Hades, or Pluto, son of Kronos and Ehea, and monarch of the land of shades, is connected with a very important part of our study, the question of the future life : we shall therefore postpone details about his Hades, or kingdom, merely noting that it was inhabited not only by the Plut0- shades or spirits of deceased mortals, but also by dethroned deities. The name of this god was habitually left unmentioned ; and those who invoked him struck the earth with their hands, and averted their faces when they sacrificed. According to Homer, he was the most detested of all the gods. He is depicted as very much like Zeus in feature, but stern and gloomy- looking, his hair and beard being black. His wife Persephone is seated beside him, and he holds a staff with which he drives the shades into the lower world. He was worshipped, though with fear, throughout Greece ; and his sacrifices, consisting of black sheep, whose blood was allowed to run into a trench, were offered at night. Even his priests wore black robes. At a comparatively late period Pluto, as god of the lower world, was c c 386 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. regarded as giver of all things dug out of the earth, and hence of the precious metals ; so he became confounded with Plutus (wealth), originally quite a distinct divinity. "We have not space to describe a crowd of minor divinities, many of them important in the Greek way of looking at things, and connected with Minor distinctive circumstances or events pertaining to human life. divinities, s^h are the Fates, the Furies, the Gorgons, the Nereids, the Sirens, Nemesis, Thanatos (Death), Hebe, the Muses, the Graces, etc. In the Greek religion, the gods are very generally represented with human characteristics, though characters usually heightened of gods. anc[ ennobled; they required food and sleep, and married and had children. In passions they were like men, and frequently committed the same evil deeds as men. They are represented as punishing evil-doers, although in most cases the heaviest punishment is for neglecting to worship them. Their visits to and friendships for human beings are frequent ; and the children of gods and mortals were heroes or demi- gods. If we invert this process, it will be seen that many gods have been imagined as a mode of accounting for the courage or prowess of real heroes. Of course, in addition to mortal powers, the Greek gods were gifted with all kinds of super- natural faculties, and many of these represent natural phe- nomena. In fact, while ac- knowledging that many attri- and achievements of deities are derived from those of heroes, and HEAD OF THE BELVEDERE APOLLO. butes that some gods are deified heroes, we must admit that a great number of individual gods and of their attributes represent departments of nature and nature's workings, as idealised by the most imaginative and highly cultured' people that ever lived. Sir G. W. Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations"; Grote, Curtius, and Duncker's Histories ol Greece; Berens, "Myths and Legends of Greece and Rome " ; A. Lang, "Myth, Eitual, and Religion."] TEMPLE OF POSEIDON AT P^STUM. CHAPTER II. (grerfe Sacrifices, priests, Cemples anti jfesttbals, antr ittorals. Sacrifice— Votive offerings— Kinds of sacrifices— Description— Slight consciousness of sin— The priests— State aspect of religion— Duties of priests— Their position— Private temples— A Greek festival— Wealth of temples— Early temples— The Greek styles— Sculpture— Altars— Oracles— The Delphian Oracle— Various beliefs— The great festivals— Religious origin and purpose- Rise of the drama— Marriage— Death and the future life— Funeral rites— Moral state of the Greeks. IN presenting a picture of Greek religion, we are in the presence of diffi- culties of a kind more liable to mislead than in the case of any other people. Worship and ideas about the gods not only changed considerably from one age to another, but they varied largely from place to place, from State to State at the same time, no doubt in dependence upon the original ideas about local deities, but also in accordance with the great fertility of the Greek mind. Thus it would be impossible, without more space than we can give, to present a clear idea of the religious observances of any one State or city. T herefore what we say must be understood to be generalised to a considerable extent, and perhaps inapplicable to special localities. Inasmuch as sacrifice is the essential element of religious acts in such a religion as the Greek, we will begin the account of the practical side of it with this subject. The Greek, as far back as we know any- thing about him, offered gifts to his gods, in gratitude for their protection, to obtain their favour, either generally or in some particular instance, or to expiate some offence or appease the anger of the gods. The gratitude of individuals and of States led to the building of temples, the Sacrifice. :87 3SS THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. donation of statues, the offering of garlands, locks of hair, costly garments, vases, cnps, candelabras, pictures, arms, etc. After successful wars a tenth votive Pai't °f the sP°il was 0^en dedicated to the gods. On recovery offerings. fY0m illness votive tablets and presents were given to temples of A.sclepios. Persons who had escaped from shipwreck dedicated to Poseidon the dress which they had worn when in danger ; and many other presents of gratitude for escape or for prosperity are recorded in Greek authors, show- ing that the Greek religion was real, and founded not merel}" on fear, but also on a sense of humble dependence on Divine protection and on the acknowledgment of gratitude for benefits received. Fre- quently the finest of flocks and herds or the firstfruits of agricultural produce were thus offered. No doubt the early Greek gods, like dead human be- Kindsof ings, were con- sacrifices, ceived as needing food, or capable of deriving pleasure from it ; and early sacrifices consisted largely of grains, either cooked or un- cooked, and fruits ; though with the increase of flocks these gained a predominant place among the offerings. The gods of the seas, rivers, etc., were fed by offerings thrown into the water, and the offerings to gods of the subterranean regions were buried. Ordinarily, when the deity is looked upon as benign, the meal offered is one which the god and his worshippers can share at the HEAD OF ZEUS (FROM OTEICOLI same time ; and often ordinary meals were sanctified by invoking the gods to be present. Even in St. Paul's day most of the meat sold for ordinary food had been dedicated to the gods, small parts having been specially assigned to the god. It was an appropriate accompaniment of sacrifice to drink wine, part of which was poured on the altar or on the ground for the gods (compare the Soma and Haoma offerings of the Hindus and Parsis), to listen to music, or to dance. The entire sacrifice, by burning, of the animal offered was rare, though it is difficult to ascertain how extensively it once prevailed. "We cannot here discuss the relation of GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. ;89 special animal sacrifices to the totem system and totem worship by clans ; but there can be little doubt that many special features of the early Greek sacrifices are due to it. The Greek religion, as accepted nationally, repre- sents the combination of the beliefs of many diverse tribes, maritime, mountainous, pastoral, agricultural ; and the discordant or strange features sometimes seen in the characters and sacrifices appropriate to the several gods are attributable to this combination. In Homer we find that the legs were burnt, enclosed in fat, together with part of the intestines, and the worshippers Description consumed the rest. of sacrifices. The smoke from the burning victims was believed to be peculiarly pleasing to the gods, and the greater the number of animals sacrificed the more meritorious was it. Hence States and wealthy individuals would frequently sacrifice " hecatombs " (not necessarily meaning a hun- dred victims) ; and such sacri- fices were much in vogue at Athens. The head of a victim was usually sprinkled with roasted barley-meal mingled with salt, and adorned with garlands ; a portion of hair from its head was thrown into the fire before it was killed. The head of the animal was drawn upwards when the offering was to one of the Olympian gods, and down- wards if to the gods of the lower regions, or to deceased heroes. While the flesh was burning, wine and incense were cast upon it. At the time of sacrificing, opportunity was taken to judge whether the god was propitious, for, if not, he would certainly give signs recognisable by the priests ; these being de- rived from the movements of the still warm intestines, the phenomena of the altar fire, etc. The singing or chanting of hymns in praise of the gods or recounting their actions was a frequent accompaniment of the sacrifices ; but few of those have come down to us. In general, the longer hymns are narratives of the principal stories current relating to the gods. Few of them can properly be compared with the " scriptures " we have THE EAHNESE UEKA. 39° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. already noticed. We may quote, however, the hymn to Athene, as trans- lated by Chapman. ;t Pallas Athene only I begin To give my song, that makes war's terrible din ; Is Patroness of cities, and with Mars Marshalled in all the care and cure of wars ; And in everted cities fights and cries, But never doth herself set down or rise Before a city, but at both times she All injured people sets on foot and free. Give, with thy war's force, fortune then to me ; And with thy wisdom's force, felicity." THE BELVEDERE APOLLO. The remainder of the hymns are just as _,. . . much or as Slight consciousnesslittle "de- 0 sm" votional" as this specimen ; and taken by themselves they would indicate a race comparatively little conscious of " sin " as understood in mo- dern times. To have displeased the gods was grievous, but the gods were not supposed to be governed by any inexorable standard of right and wrong ; they could be appeased and persuaded, and even grievous faults could be, as it were, paid for or expiated by a pro- portionate animal sac- rifice. The " The- ogony " and the " Works and Days " of Hesiod are two of the most important poems which have come down to us, giving accounts of the gods and their doings, portions of which probably were chanted in their services. That there were priests in ancient Greece, and that they exercised important functions and filled important positions in the Greek States, is The priests. evi^ent fr°m a very slight study of Greek literature ; but it is difficult to realise their precise status without a knowledge of the GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 391 entire social and political condition of the Greeks. The priests did not constitute a distinct and ordained order ; there was no fixed or regular principle about the priesthood. Religion was above all an affair of the communit}'', whose first business it was to fulfil the duties of the State towards the gods. Such duties must be performed for all by certain ap- pointed persons, or by the head of the State, whether king or general. In early Greece we find that the king frequently sacrificed on behalf of the people ; and when kings ceased to reign, the priestly func- tions were given to elected leaders or magistrates, such as the archon basileus at Athens. Where this course fell into abeyance, we find the priest as the elected or here- ditary minister of a temple, charged to fulfil all the due rites of the worship there celebrated, and paid from the temple revenues or by the gifts of worshippers. Subordinate bodies, such as the phratnce, had common religious duties which were discharged by chosen mem- bers. The State kept watch over any infraction of duty towards the gods by private persons, and each family discharged its private re- ligious duties through its head. The priesthood of certain gods be- came hereditary in particular fami- lies on account, sometimes, of the supposed hereditary transmission of prophetical power, or of the know- ledge of certain traditional rites. Some priests were merely appointed for a term of years ; in some cases the succession was to brothers, and to the sons of the eldest brother ; sometimes the priesthood was pur- chased, or was granted for special services. In Greece we have the spectacle of a people, with strong religious feelings, in whom the public or State aspect of religion permanently pre- dominated over the ecclesiastical. The priesthood did not become state aspect the ruling power ; art, literature, and politics used religion as part of region. of their inheritance, without placing their consciences in commission to an APHRODITE (MELOS). (Commonly termed the Venus of Milo.) 392 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. order of priests. Although the priests claimed and gained the benefit of protection from the gods they served, they were by no means exempt from criticism, and they were not in general allowed to control the funds of the temples. The tenure of the priesthood by unworthy persons was jealously guarded against, and persons of high birth were preferred. The priest of a temple had specially to superintend the ritual of his temple, to protect it from improper intruders, and to see that the sacrifices Duties of were properly priests, performed. He was also charged with all, or nearly all, the interpre- tation of the will of the gods, and, especially in re- gard to the sacrifices, he had to note all signs in- dicating the approval or disapproval of the gods. In this he had the aid of skilled soothsayers, who noted the manner in which the victim approached the altar, and whether he made sounds or not ; the colour and smoothness of the in- testines, the appearances of the flame and smoke of the altar, etc. It was specially important, too, that no ir- reverent or frivolous words should be uttered by the bystanders. The flight of birds and the phenomena of the heavens were also observed for the purposes of drawing omens. The diviners who interpreted dreams and told fortunes, though they enjoyed con- AKES (MAJiS). . , 1 i n • rv siderable favour m Greece, had no regular connection with the temples or the priests. Within their temples the priests had great authority, being able to excommunicate those who broke their regulations, and invoking curses on them before which the stoutest-hearted Greek quailed. Such offences were stigmatised as impiety, and often heavily punished by fines or boycotting. Notwithstanding the limitations we have mentioned, a Greek priest bad no mean position, especially in virtue of his office as interpreter and GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 393 representative of the god. The priests could solve the State's difficulties when disaster or pestilence occurred, and in the case of the position of greater oracles which were consulted by all Greece, they occupied Priests- a position which no great man in a single State could attain. At public festivals they occupied special seats of honour, and sometimes appeared decked with the costume and attributes of the god they served. Con- sequently the position was sought after by the wealthy, who in their turn could gratify the people by splendid ceremonies and costly festivals. Naturally such persons tended to gather about them assistants to perform the more laborious or irksome portions of their duty, such as revealers of the mysteries to the uninitiated, torch-bearers, proclaimers of rites, bearers of sacred water, etc. ; and not a few slaves were attached to the temples to perform menial offices. Each temple had its appropriate series of services, according to the character of the god and the State. But public, national, or State temples were not the only ones in which the services of priests were required. They private were not infrequently founded by temPtes. private persons or societies, and endowed with estates to keep up a succession of priests and services. They might be founded in honour of success in an enterprise, in honour of a deceased friend or relative, in obedience to dreams or oracles. Xenophon, for in- stance, devoted a tenth of certain spoil of war to buy an estate in Lakonia, on which he built a temple to the Ephesian Artemis, surrounded by a forest full of wild animals, let to a tenant who had to give one-tenth of the produce to a festival in honour of Artemis, and also to keep the temple in re- pair. In other cases rites for the dead were associated with a temple, and periodical gatherings of a family were enjoined, which hebka. remind us of Chinese ancestral worship. There were also numerous religious corporations or associations devoted to the worship of some particular divinity, holding assemblies, building temples, choosing priests, making regulations enforced by fines. Really these assemblies formed limited churches, governed by the church assembly. Many of these were founded in large cities for the worship of gods not worshipped by that particular city. 394 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The most complete account of the ritual of a Greek festival is given in an inscription from Andania in Messenia. The twin gods known as Kabiri OFFERING SACRIFICE TO THE GODS (AFTER FLAXMANj. were there celebrated, together with Demeter, Apollo, Hermes, and a local a Greek nymph, by a body of priests and priestesses chosen by lot out of festival. ^\ie tribes of the city, who had to swear to conduct the ritual in accordance with prescribed form. They had the custody of the sacred books and the chest in which they were kept. Strict regulations are laid down as to the dress of the priests and priestesses, limiting the cost, pre- scribing the absence of paint and of gold ornaments. The procession included a leader, the priest of the deities, the president of the games, the sacrificers and flute-players ; then sacred virgins, priestesses, and priests. The victims were also led in procession ; they included a large number of lambs, a sow for Demeter, a two-year-old pig to the Kabiri, a ram to Hermes, etc., and all victims were to be without blemish. After the sacrifices, the portions not given to the gods were eaten by the priests, priestesses, and virgins, the musicians and other assistants. Complete provision was made for a market to supply the crowds gathered to the festival, and for the judgment of offenders during its con- tinuance, as well as for public warm baths. All brawlers and sacrilegious persons were sternly denounced ; and there is every sign that in the best period of Greece public opinion was strongly against any unseemly conduct at the festivals. The wealth of temples became very great from the accumulated offerings of devout wor- weaithof shippers and States. As a temple temples. grew jn fame7 it attracted wealthy foreigners and even foreign kings to its worship. The place being sacred, money was often deposited there, and invested either in loans or in property. The State undertook the management of GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 395 all the property of the civic temples, issuing commissions from time to time, or regularly appointing officers to supervise the temple accounts. Apart from property which could be dealt with, the temples became very rich in . votive offerings, and as these varied ex- tremely with the taste of the giver or of his time, the temple was in fact a museum of art ; and wherever it has i been possible to explore the site of an ancient temple, it has yielded many treasures and much valuable informa- tion, especially in the form of dedicatory inscriptions. We must now briefly refer to the Greek temples, which succeeded the early open-air altars on hills Early and in sacred enclosures. temPles- We see a strange likeness to the fetish enclosures of the African negro in the placing of the images of gods and heroes in hollow trees as a habita- tion in early times. Then, as architecture developed, the sacred image was covered and protected in dark buildings only lighted from the door, or by lamps. This period of the history of Greek temples is almost entirely prehistoric, for the Greeks in early times had so far progressed as to build fine temples of the well-known oblong form, almost always adorned with a row or rows of columns in various styles or arrangements. Certain types, associated with or invented by a particular state or tribe, became peculiar to 'l certain gods, probably from having been early used for their temples. Thus the Doric style was used in the temples of Zeus and Ares ; the The Greek Ionic, in those of Apollo, Artemis and Dionysos; the Corinthian, styles. of Hestia. Most of the chief temples, besides the porch with columns, had a vestibule, a large cella or habitation of the god or gods, in which the statues of the gods were placed, facing the entrance, and a chamber in the : rear, often used as a treasury. When the temple ' was a famous oracle, the cella was kept closed to all but priests and the initiated, and its violation by others brought the severest punishments. The temples afforded the Greeks the utmost scope for their sculpture, in the capitals, friezes, pediments, etc. ; and while no light was admitted into the cella from the sides, it was frequently partly open above. The entire series of legends about the gods was represented in sculpture, and the highest skill and costliest ma- asclepios (jesculapius). : terials were lavished on the statues of the gods, which are in reality only to be distinguished from the " idols " of other religions in the greater Sculpture. 396 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. I beauty and imaginative power they displayed. This is not degrading the! beautiful images of the gods ; for few so-called idols have ever been imag- 1 ined to be anything in themselves, apart from the spirit of a god believed I to reside in, or to visit them ; yet the rudest image made by a savage may! represent as true an act of devotion and submission of himself to the unseen I powers as the most magnin-I cent Greek statue. Who canji assign relative merits in this i J the most difficult of all fields II But as we have shown theij savage as not destitute of< genuine religion, so do we de- monstrate the same fact fori the Greek, whom St. Paul re- cognised as "very attentive toi religion." Among the most notable Greek temples wereffl those of Zeus at Olympia, of Athene Parthenos (known as] the Parthenon), and Theseus ' at Athens, of Zeus at iEgina,h Artemis at Ephesus, Athene j at Syracuse, the Erechtheumj: and Propyleum at Athens.; The Spartans were conspicuous^ for their lack of grand temples.! "We must not omit to note thatl: the porch of every temple hadp a font containing holy watery consecrated by dipping into it, a burning torch from the altar.. With this water, all those who entered to take part in the| sacrifices were sprinkled. The altar was an indis-; pensable part of the temple,; and indeed existed before there were temples. The early Greet1 word for altar signifies any; elevation, and then came tcj mean any elevation used for worship. Originally it was always in the open air ; but when temples were built, the altar for burnt sacrifices continued in I the open in front of the temple, while a smaller altar was placed in front oi the statues of the gods in the cella. They might be made of earth, turf or stones, and might be built anywhere on occasion, especially during war j TEE FAIi.NESE HERCULES. GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 397 but in the temples they were built of regular masonry, raised several feet, either of a round or of an oblong shape. They were decked with flowers and ornamented with appropriate sculpture, and either bore the name of the god or gods to whom they were devoted, or some representation of them. The inner altars were used for kneel- ing in prayer, and for the offering of incense and other non-living sacri- fices. Altars were universally held to be places of refuge for criminals or unfortunate persons ; the altars had horns, of which refugees took hold. Solemn oaths were also taken at altars. Some altars, as that of Zeus at Olympia, on which offerings of hundreds of animals were made, were of great size. The gods of the lower world, however, had no altars, the blood of the sacrifices made to them being received in ditches or trenches. No part of the Greek religion was more devoutly believed in than the oracular utterances de- livered at many shrines. The gods were believed to make communications to mankind through some medium, an inspired priestess or priest, or by dreams or signs. There were comparatively few oracles of Zeus,, who was supposed to be too far from men's affairs to enter into close relations with them. Thus his will was revealed through Apollo and other gods, and even through heroes. Oracles of Zeus were given at Olympia from the in- spection of victims, and at Dodona from sounds produced by the wind in a grove of trees. The oracle of Apollo at Delphi so far outgrew all others in fame Oracles. PALLAS-ATHENE. that it has become the typical example. Here, in the innermost sanctuary, in front of the statue of Apollo, was an altar fire always burning, The Delphian and in the centre was a small opening in the ground, from which oracle- at times an intoxicating or sulphureous smoke arose. Over this was placed a tripod, upon which the prophetess, known as Pythia, took her seat. The 398 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. smoke ascending produced a kind of delirium in the prophetess, who, while! it lasted, uttered various sounds which were believed to contain revelations | from Apollo. These being taken down by the priests were interpreted by! them to the people, being often given in hexameters, and conveyed in Ian- J guage that admitted of more than one interpretation. Many oracles, how-l ever, were quite direct and plain, so that the modern meaning attached to! " oracular utterances " is not quite just to the originals. The oracle was! believed to give answers to every one of pure heart, but no answer could be)j obtained by a criminal until he had atoned for his crime. At first oracles J were only given once a year ; later, certain days were set apart every month, i when the oracle could be consulted on payment of a fee, and sacrifice of a! goat, an ox, or a sheep. The Pythia prepared for her function by fasting fora three days, bathing, and sacrificing laurel leaves and barley flour to Apollo. | The priests of this oracle belonged to certain noble families of Delphi, and! were appointed for life. No doubt the credit of the oracle was principally due j to them ; they were of high birth, and had the most advantageous oppor-| tunities for gaining education and worldly wisdom, especially as Delphi! was visited by embassies from every Greek city, as well as others; and thereto are grounds for believing that for a long period they were actuated by lofty; ideas and constituted a means of elevation and of religious conservation.! " In the earliest time we can trace the influence of the oracles discouraging the relentless blood-feud, distinguishing classes of murder, and allowing purification and expiation in certain cases. They make the sanctity of oaths between man and man a special duty ; Apollo regards even hesita^a tion to keep a pledge as already a sin. They are the centre of unions or amphictyonies which bind their members to observe certain duties, and show: mercy to their fellow-members; and Delphi, as the oracle of an amphictyony; including great part of Greece, had an important share in promoting the: ideal unity of the whole country " (Ency. Brit., "Oracle"). During the greati struggle for supremacy between Athens and Sparta the Delphic oracle! showed an increasing partiality towards Sparta, and gradually the Athen-j ians and their allies lost their respect for it ; but it continued to be con- sulted down to the time of the emperor Julian. At an early time the spirits of the dead were believed to appear and give counsel ; later the inquirer went to sleep over the grave of a hero, who various appeared to him in a dream. At the oracle of Amphiaraus neai beliefs. Oropus, where the hero had risen from the earth to become al god, the inquirer slept in the temple on the skin of a ram which he had sacrificed, after, abstaining from food for twenty-four hours. Oracles were, also at one time believed to be given by Mother Earth, being the abode ol the dead, who could still give counsel to their descendants. The conception that Themis and Apollo gave oracles at Delphi appears to have been later than this. In addition to regular or occasional religious worship at the temples, the Greeks had a religious bond and influence of a yet more powerful' nature, in the public festivals kept by every State of any importance, or by1 399 400 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. numerous States in common. So far as their origin can be discerned, they are shared between celebrations of ancestral heroes and of the festivals, seasons or their successive phenomena, usually associated with a god or gods whose worship was specially appropriate to the season. origin and There is evidence, however, that their number and splendour purpose. jncreasec[ during the early historic period, and at last we find the Greeks of Tarentum keeping more festivals than working days. At Athens in the height of its prosperity fifty or sixty days were kept free from all business by magisterial order. The chief of these were the greater and the lesser Dionysiac, the Eleusinian, the Panathenaic, and the Thesmo- phorian. Thebes celebrated the Daphnephoria every ninth year. But the most influential of all the great meetings of the Greeks were the four pan-hellenic festivals, known as the Olympic, the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. Whatever the origin of the Olympian festival might be, it was lost in obscurity, and at a very early date the games had assumed such importance that during their celebration all warfare was stayed for a month, and the territory of Elis was regarded as sacred for the time being. One great part of the festival consisted of sacrifices to the gods by the Eleans, by the conquerors in the games, by representatives of other States, and by private persons. We cannot here refer to the contests of strength and artistic skill which formed so celebrated a part of the festival, but note that they expressed the strong Greek feeling that men honoured Zeus best by the harmonious discipline of both body and mind ; and consequently" it is not surprising that the Olympic festival continued long after the Greeks had succumbed to Rome, the last being held in a.d. 393. The German excavations at Olympia in 1875-81 have made known the elaborate nature of the buildings and appliances, of the sculptures and works of art which existed in connection with these great games. The honours given to victors on their return home show how deeply these contests affected the national sentiment; some extolled their lot as divine. It is even recorded that altars were built and sacrifices offered to some victors. The Pythian games and numerous other festivals were of special interest from their including poetic recitations, often original, and from their Rise of the connection with the rise of the drama. As Dr. Donaldson says, drama. -n j^g « Qreek Theatre " : " The susceptible Athenian, whose land was the dwelling-place of gods and ancestral heroes, to whom the clear blue sky, the swift-winged breezes, the river fountains, the iEgean gay with its countless smiles, and the teeming earth from which he believed liis ancestors were immediately created, were alike instinct with an awe- pervading spirit of divinity ; the Athenian, who loved the beautiful, but loved it because it was divine, who looked upon all that genius could invent, or art execute, as but the less unworthy offering to his pantheism ; and considered all his festivals and all his amusements as only a means of with- drawing the soul from the world's business, and turning it to the love and worship of God, — how could he keep back from the object of his adoration the fairest and best of his works ? " The dramatic features in the stories of GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 401 the gods and heroes suggested most natural subjects for dramatic represen- tation, and these were most conspicuous in the festivals of Apollo at Delphi, INXKK1UK Oi1 PAKTHENUN, As restored by Prof. H. Muller. of Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis, and of Dionysos at Eleusis .and Delphi. The Eleusinian mysteries were the most famous and popular of D D 402 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. all, and were specially marked by magnificence and by the secrecy of some rites, to which is owing our ignorance about them. Their importance does not seem to have de- pended upon any dog- matic instruction, but they were believed to educate the people in reverence for the deity. Silence, excitement, and rapt devotion were typi- cal of the spectators, and the fasting, long cere- monies, and night wan- derings which preceded THE MOSES — CALLIOPE, CLIO, LKA10, EUTLUPE, MLLPOMENE. Marriage. the actual mysteries, heightened their effect. The touching and kissing of holy things, the hearing and repeating of traditional songs, the dramatic representation of incidents in the lives of the gods, appear to have formed important parts of the ceremonial. The worship of Dionysos had similar variations to that of the sun-god. His sufferings and misfortunes were dramatically bewailed, and his gifts of light and wine, etc., were celebrated with rites which, at first licentious, remained so, because of the conservatism of ritual. We cannot further follow this most interesting topic, and simply remark that we find in Greece, as in India, that everything, especially every invention, every art, every faculty, was under the patronage of, and inti- mately connected with, the popular religion. We must acknowledge that the Greeks, in their best periods, were true to their religious beliefs, and carried them out most thoroughly. We cannot trace the stages by which marriage came to be placed under religious sanctions : but we may believe that this process was almost simultaneous with the growth of belief in the relation of the gods to human conduct, and the necessity of pleasing them if good fortune were to attend a man. Cecrops was fabled to have instituted marriage in Athens, as well as the worship of the gods. Marriages between very near kin took place in early Greece, and dislike to such marriages was the growth of a later age, though it never pro- ceeded so far as among Jews and Christians. Celibacy was decidedly frowned upon, and sometimes punished by Greek law ; and one reason for marriage was that a succession THE MUSKS — POLVHXMNIA, TEBPSICHOBE, THALIA, AND URANIA. GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 4°3 of descendants might be kept up by every man, as worshippers or ministers of the godhead and of the family gods ; indeed, they practically worshipped THE GliACES — AGLAIA, THALIA, EUPHROSYNE. THE FURIES TISIPHONE, 1IEG.EUA, ALECTO. their ancestors. In connection with marriages (which did not take place till an adult age was reached), sacrifices or offerings were made to the gods presiding over marriage (Hera, Artemis, the Fates, and sometimes others), by the father of the bride ; and after the marriage the husband offered a sacrifice. There was no religious ceremony which constituted the marriage; and wives occupied a comparatively low place in Greek estimation. Death and the events succeeding it occupied a prominent place in the Greek mind. From Homer we gather that at death the spirit, occupying a shadowy outline of the body, was driven by Hades into his do- Death and the minions in the lower world (Erebus) ; and we read that the shades future life- occupied themselves in regretting lost pleasures, or past changes of fortune, but were only half conscious, except when roused by drinking the blood of sacrifices offered to them by living friends. The heroes enjoyed a more happy state, but longed for their former life. It was not till Egyptian ideas had influenced the Greeks that a doctrine of future re- wards and punishments according to ac- tions was taught. Hermes became recog- nised as the guide of mortals to the lower regions, where Hades received them hos- pitably ; so that his kingdom ceased to be regarded as one of gloom. Three rivers had to be crossed by all, namely, Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus (lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the latter flowing nine times round Erebus. It was necessary to be ferried over the Styx by a grim boat- man named Charon, who would take none but those who had received funeral rites, and brought with them a coin as toll ; otherwise they must wander restlessly for a hundred years on the banks THE FATES — CLOTHO, LACHESIS, ATROPOS. 404 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of the river. On the other side of the Styx was the seat of Minos, who received confessions from and judged all shades, and announced their sen- tences, whether of happiness or misery. Cerberus, the three-headed dog, guarded his tribunal, and allowed no shade to emerge when once within the portals. The happy passed first into the palace of Hades and Persephone and received their greeting, and then set out for the Elysian fields, full of all delights, where they occupied themselves with their favourite pursuits, the hunter resuming his bow and arrows, the musician his lyre, the soldier his arms. According to the doctrine associated with the name of Pythagoras, after the shades had remained in Elysium for a thousand years, they re- turned to earth to occupy fresh bodies. Those who had been condemned as guilty were conducted from Minos to the great judgment hall of Rhadamanthus, who announced in detail the TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS (DIANA), EPHESUS. punishments which each would receive in Tartarus, a gloomy region far below Hades. The Furies then seized the culprits, scourged them with whips, and hurled them down into Tartarus. Naturally we find these ideas influencing the funeral rites of the Greeks. The greatest horror was felt at the idea of not receiving burial, and any passer who found a corpse felt it his duty at least to throw some n es-^j.^ Up0n ft. Indeed, the deceased were regarded as having both a legal and moral right to burial. Burning was also in vogue among the Greeks, but probably not so much as burial in historic times. The body was anointed and decked with flowers and dressed in white ; an obolus was put in its mouth for Charon, and a honey-cake by its side for Cerberus. When the body was laid out, painted vases were placed by the side of the bed, and afterwards buried with it. In early times, sacrifices (and some- GREEK SACRIFICES, PRIESTS, TEMPLES, ETC. 405 Ijtimes captives) were offered previous to the burial ; but these had ceased in ■[Plato's time. The coffins for burial were usually of earthenware or baked llclay. There were no specially consecrated grounds for burial, convenience ■land sometimes beauty of situation being the chief considerations. Those Bwho had taken part in the funeral required purification before they could lienter the temples. Sacrifices were offered on the third, ninth, and thirtieth ■days after the funeral, the latter ending the mourning. On certain days ■the tombs, which were often very handsome, were decked with flowers, and ■offerings of flowers and sometimes of food were made to the deceased. "We may now briefly endeavour to comprehend the moral state pro- IJduced by, or co-existent with, the Greek religion. In the Homeric poems |the cardinal virtue of truth does not appear to be in great M •esteem. " To deceive an enemy is meritorious, to deceive a of the . n . . Greeks stranger innocent, to deceive even a friend perfectly unobjection- ble, if any object is to be gained." (M.) Most of the leading characters in the Qiad and Odyssey do not hesitate to lie, and the same is the case with the ;ods. " Zeus deceives both gods and men, the other gods deceive Zeus." The one check on deceit is the presence of the gods, who, if adjured by an )ath, will certainly punish falsehood. Apollo and Menelaus are truthful maracters, but even they have their defects. Might was practically right, md while Homer describes persons guilty of manslaughter or murder as oing into exile or paying pecuniary compensation, it is not till after the [omeric period that a guilty person requires purification by special religious ;eremonies. It would be easy to show that courage was really defective n the Homeric times, and could not readily be produced even by appeals ;o the gods. The sad condition of orphans, widows, and old people is graphically depicted in Homer, and the possession of women by the stronger md the conqueror is an acknowledged fact. The Homeric world, far from •epresenting an early age of pure morality, is one of still rudimentary noral and religious ideas. The gods are but larger copies of men, and ;he best, if high in comparison with some conceptions of gods, are low vhen compared with the highest. The best character among the gods, Pallas- Athene, is, as Mr. Hayman, in his " Odyssey," says, without ten- derness or tie of any sort, never owns obligation, is pitiless, unscrupulous a. partisanship, and full of dissimulation ; she whispers base motives of the ;ood, beats down the strong, and mocks the weak, while true to a comrade >r friend. Practically, the power of the chiefs, or of the aristocratic caste, vas supreme in the Homeric and Hesiodic times, and their morals were on ■he whole selfish, and the common people followed their example. So there vas every chance for the religious pretenders or believers who attributed roubles to the displeasure of the gods, and brought forward their prescrip- ions for appeasing or persuading them. Thus religion not based on morals ;rew in strength, and in time, and by the aid of importations from Egypt, he East, and Thrace became full of excitements and orgies, sensuality and •mmorality. At the same time, and even down to the time of Herodotus, >here lingered in parts of Greece horrible customs of human sacrifice. 4o6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The age of the tyrants was to some extent favourable to morals, for the tyrants put down excesses of immorality and prepared the way for wide- spread improvements such as those introduced by Solon and Pisistratus. In some minds a higher morality arose ; poets and philosophers began to doubt the old mythologies, and to rest in a general belief in the Deity, in divine virtue and justice, confessing themselves unable to reconcile this belief with the facts of life. Theognis says that no man works with a sure knowledge whether the result will be good or evil ; and the general view of the moralists of the time was that although Providence rewarded virtue, the reward was often withheld, and it was therefore best to follow the stream, and to gratify the passions of love and revenge. The lower orders thus had no elevating influence to raise them. It was held to be a shame to remain sober among men who were drunk. Romantic friendships were however not uncommon, and women were perhaps better esteemed and treated than in the Homeric days. Avarice and selfishness were common, and pleasure was universally sought. In most places old age was little honoured, though Lycurgus's ordinance to honour the old stands out in marked contrast. Honesty was largely honoured in the breach, and from the times of Herodotus to that of Cicero we hear of Greek untruthful- ness and want of fidelity to then word. At the same time there was much kindly care of and affection for the young, and honourable justice. The great period of Athens was warlike, and led to a greater ferocity, cruelty, and unscrupulousness of feeling. Oaths and promises were less kept than ever ; party and state were everything. The ideal of woman- hood was lowered ; but there was a greater kindliness towards slaves. Many of the richer Athenians, however, set all morality at defiance, and their example was sufficient to start and maintain a degradation of morality which led to the ruin of Greece. "When the old mythology was undermined there was not enough that was solid in the Greek religion to keep morals pure. "While the oracles were respected and managed by impartial priests who represented the best ideas current, the moral standard was much better than at a later period when they had become partial and subservient to state factions, and when the best minds of Greece were engaged in politics, art, poetry and philosophy. The philosophers were raising their heads, it is true, and seeking for the true good, and many of them gave systematic instruction in conduct ; but meanwhile the people were going to ruin, and the philosophers had little as yet to communicate. [Mahaffy, " Social Life in Greece," " Greek Life and Thought." (M.) C. T. Newton, " Greek Religion illustrated by Inscriptions," Nineteenth Century, vols. iii. and iv. Articles, " Mysteries," " Priest," " Sacrifices," " Temple," " Encyclopedia Britannica," Grote's, Curtius's, and Duncker's " Histories of Greece. "] CHAPTER III. donates, piato, anti otftrr £vnk flbilostopbrrs. Socrates— His mode of life— His discharge of religious duties — His sign or dsemon— Socrates not really a sceptic— Socrates and the Deity — His views of Providence — Socrates a teacher of morals— His ardour for knowledge — His personal appearance— Socrates before his judges His condemnation — The death penalty — Socrates on the future life— His death- -Plato— His view of the body as evil— Virtue the highest good— Morals and the State— Views of the Deity— Aristotle— The Megarians — The Cynics — The Cyrenaics— Epicurus — The Stoics— Morals -Greeks in other lands— Polybius. BEFORE Socrates, Greek philosophers like Tkales, Pythagoras, Hera- clitus, Democritus, and Protagoras had vainly tried to get at the secret of the universe and the true basis of conduct, and Protagoras had arrived at the conclusion that the human consciousness is the only standard of what is and what is not. It was reserved for Socrates the Athenian (circ. 470-399 b.c.) to start a new era by exhaustively showing how little men really knew, especially about divine government. He re- jected all the popular mythology, which represented the gods as having committed actions which would be disgraceful in the worst of men. But he was no despiser of the gods ; in fact, his friends claimed that he was " so pious that he did nothing without taking counsel of the gods ; so just that he never did an injury to any man, whilst he was the benefactor of his associates ; so temperate that he never preferred pleasure to right ; so wise that in judging of good and evil he was never at fault. His self-control was absolute ; his powers of endurance were unfailing ; he had so schooled himself to moderation that his scanty means satisfied all his wants. To want nothing, he said, is divine ; to want as little as possible is the nearest possible approach to the divine life ; " and he practised what he taught, yet knew how to enjoy himself heartily. Like almost all the greatest teachers and reformers we have written of, his teaching was mainly conversational, and he left no books ; but like them, also, his memory impressed itself upon his pupils and friends, so that we have more than one striking record and picture of the greatest soul among the Greeks. Highly educated in Greek learning and a sculptor in early life, Socrates soon gave up statuary for his public mission, believing that he had a divine commission to convict other men of their ignorance, and so help his mode them to improve. His wife, Xanthippe, led him an unhappy life of life, with her shrewish temper, and his sons appear to have been unworthy of him. He showed bravery as a soldier at Potidaea and elsewhere, and on several important occasions he manifested great public spirit and courage in withstanding popular and aristocratic sentiment or commands. But most of his life was spent in his sacred duty, that of showing men their ignorance and helping them to choose right paths in practical morality. As Xenophon 407 408 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. represents him, he caused many to turn from evil ways by inducing them to^seek after ] virtue. In every way he could discover to be beneficial, he disciplined both his mind and his body, and he refused all payments for his instruction. "We shall perhaps best elucidate his character, so far as it relates to morals and religion, by referring to the accusation brought against him in B.C. 399, that he was guilty, first, of denying the gods recognised by the State and introducing new divinities, and secondly of corrupting the young. In answer to this, Xenophon alleges that he was fre- Sis ciisclicir^G of religious quently seen sacrificing both at his own house and on the public duties. a]tars . anc[ it appears that he accepted the established beliefs so far as the}'" did not plainly conflict with his conscience, especially where they dealt with matters of which the gods seemed to have reserved all real knowledge to themselves. It was on human conduct and knowledge that he concentrated his attention. Yet he incurred opposition as being an inno- vator, for he sought to expunge from popular belief the fictions of the poets ; and he avowed that he derived guid- ance from au inward " divinity," or " divine sign," often spoken of as the " daemon " of Socrates, and sometimes as an intelligent spiritual companion or guardian spirit. But it is not correct to say that he regarded himself as possessed by a divinity or a guardian spirit. " According to Xenophon," says Dr. Henry Jackson (Encyclopaidia Bri- mssignor tannica, 9th ed.), "the sign daemon. was a Warning, either to do or not to do, which it would be folly to neglect, not superseding ordinary prudence, but dealing with those un- certainties in respect of which other men found guidance in oracles and tokens ; Socrates believed in it profoundly, and never disobeyed it. Accord- ing to Plato, the sign was a ' voice ' which warned Socrates to refrain from some act which he contemplated ; he heard it frequently and on the most trifling occasions ; the phenomenon dated from his early years, and was, so far as he knew, peculiar to himself." It has been suggested, with consider- able plausibility, by Mr. Jackson, that the rational suggestions of his own brain, except ionally valuable in consequence of his accuracy and intelligence, appeared to be heard by him as a voice speaking to him ; others see in the " divine sign " the voice of conscience and instinct combined ; while some may regard it as a direct Divine voice. This difficulty we cannot solve ; but Xenophon uses this phenomenon to show that Socrates had a personal sign which was parallel to the divination of the other Greeks by birds and voices and sacrifices. Bat Socrates declared those bereft of their senses who had recourse to divination with a view to solving questions upon which the gods had given men power to decide themselves. SOCKATES. SOCRATES, PLATO, AND OTHER GREER' PHILOSOPHERS. 409 Socrates, seeming to his contemporaries to be a sceptic, was the most genuine believer of his time, so far as he thought lie had grounds for belief. When the Delphian oracle pronounced him the wisest of men, Socrates not he sought to discover some one wiser than himself, and succeeded really a only in finding people who thought the}' knew, whereas they were self-deluded. Still Socrates felt that he did not possess the wisdom with which he was credited, for, said he, God only is wise, and the oracle only meant to say, " He is the wisest who, like Socrates, knows that his wisdom is in truth worth nothing." About the Deity Socrates would put for- socrates and ward little that was dogmatic. He believed in a Supreme Being the Deity- who was an intelligent and beneficent Creator of all things, and he prayed to the gods to grant him good gifts, believing that they best knew what was good. He gave as proofs of the existence of " the divine," the providential order of nature, the universality of the belief in it, and the revelations and warnings given to men by signs and oracles. He appealed very strongly to the argument from design, proclaiming that the evident purpose of vast numbers of things showed that they were produced by intelligence. The arguments of Socrates on these subjects have been made familiar to genera- tions of schoolboys in Xenophon's ''Memorabilia." We will quote part of one of his central arguments from Mr. Levien's translation. " It did not, however, satisfy the Deity to take an interest in man's body only, but, what is the most important point of all, He also implanted in him that most excellent essence — his soul. But in the first His views of place, of what other animal does the mind comprehend the fact Providence, of the existence of the gods as the organisers of so stupendous and excellent a system ? and what other race except that of men offers service to the gods '? or what intelligence exists more adapted than that of man to make provision against cold and heat, or hunger and thirst, or to alleviate disease, or to practise feats of strength, or to labour for instruction, or more capable of remembering what it may have heard or seen or learned ? For is it not clearly manifest to you that men pass their lives like gods as compared with other creatures, and excel them in the nature both of their minds and bodies ? For neither could a creature endowed with the body of an ox and the feelings of a man accomplish its wishes ; nor do such animals as possess hands, but are devoid of intelligence, obtain any benefit thereby. But do you, who enjoy both these stupendous advantages, think that the gods have no regard for you ? " Again, " You must not imagine that while your vision is capable of ranging over a distance of many furlongs, the eye of the Deity is unable to survey the universe at a glance. Nor should you suppose that while your mind can contemplate things that are taking place at home and in Egypt and Sicily, the Divine Intelligence is insufficient to regard all things simultaneously. ... So with regard to the gods, you should make the experiment whether, if you cultivate them, they will not vouchsafe to you their guidance in matters which are unrevealed to mankind in general ; and you may thus recognise the fact that the nature of the Deity is so stupendously constituted as to be able to see all things 4io THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. at once, and to hear all things, and to be present everywhere, and to take cognisance of everything at the same time." It will at once be evident that we here have a style and matter of teaching never reached by any of the religions we have previously spoken of, and perhaps only approached by that of Zoroaster. To speak of Socrates simply as the greatest of the heathens does him injustice, unless it is clearly understood that the term heathen simply means a non-Christian. We cannot but rank him as one of the greatest of men, pre-eminent as an original thinker and independent character, and as a teacher of divine things. He was equally eminent as a moral teacher. Far from being a cor- rupter of youth, we have abundant testimony that he was a corrector of Socrates a y°unS men's morals, and always tried to raise them, to inspire teacher of in them a sense of duty, of responsibility for the use of their morals . «/»*•/ intellect and conscience, and to lead them to spend their lives usefully and nobly. His moral teachings, if followed out, would have saved many a king or state or parliament, in presumably more enlightened times, from disaster. He did not believe in appointing men who succumbed to gluttony, crime, sensuality, and other vices to posts of difficulty and danger ; in committing the education of children or the care of property to in- temperate men. He regarded temperance (in the broad sense) as the foundation of virtue, and any one who accepted money readily from others as setting up masters over himself and binding himself to a most degrading slavery ; rather he preferred to live more humbly than a slave. He rejoiced especially in having estimable friends ; and if he knew of any good thing, he thought it a great joy to impart it to them. To him justice and every kind of virtue was wisdom, and he had a belief, too sanguine, that those who recognised this would never prefer to do any but just and virtuous actions. For a man not to know himself, and to imagine he knew things of which he was ignorant, he considered to be a very near approach to insanity. And therefore he did his utmost to cure that kind of insanity, and to lead men not merely to like abstract goodness or intelligence, or know- ledge, but to be good inwardly and to gain acquirements which were of practical value. But this man who, chief among his fellows, sought to raise and benefit youth, was charged with being a corrupting influence. " In Socrates," says Professor Sidgwick, " for the first time, we find the combination of a genuine ardour for knowledge, and a paramount His ardour interes^ in conduct." By his dialectic art he brought home their for ignorance to those who talked with him, and then hammered kn o wl 6 d °* 6 home his conviction that their ignorance of the good and evil in human life was the source of all practical error. He was above all practical, for " he knew no good that was not good for something in particular ; " he taught that good is self-consistent, that the beautiful is also profitable and useful, and the virtuous also agreeable, in every instance. He demanded that every man should know what he was doing and why, should act on consistent principles, and should carry them out firmly and vigorously. SOCRATES, PLATO, AND OTHER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 411 This most trying of all demands, persistently enforced by criticism of those who acted contrariwise, was at last sufficient to bring about his ruin. The great teacher was not of gainly or prepossessing appearance. Short, thick-necked, with prominent eyes, broad, upturned nostrils, large/ mouth and thick lips, he in fact embodied the opposite of beauty Socrateg. of form. He lived meanly that he might carry out his mission, personal and took a sort of delight in making himself out to be the dullest appea person, or the most ignoble, or the most vile, and thus blunted the force of any shafts that might be levelled against him. He was willing to be of no account, to be despised, to be misjudged, in order that he might win those who could rise by his teaching. And he was willing to die rather than give up truth and conscience or curry favour with his judges. When brought before a dikastery (consisting of between 500 and 600 citizens), to answer a charge of which the penalty sought was death, Socrates delivered in his defence the noble speech of which we _ r Socrates have the substance in the " Apology " of Plato. The accusers, before his he said, had hardly uttered a word of truth, and had been most JU ees' shameless. He condescended so far as to expound his course of life and the reasons for it, as we have already partially detailed them. He would use no arts to secure an acquittal, but relied on truth alone. " For if, 0 men of Athens, by force of persuasion and entreaty, I could overpower your oaths, then I should be teaching you to believe that there are no gods, and convict myself, in my own defence, of not believing in them. But that is not the case ; for I do believe that there are gods, and in a far higher sense than that in which any of my accusers believe in them. And to you and to Grod I commit my cause, to be determined by you as is best for you and me." He had refrained from preparing a set defence, believing that his just and blameless life were the best defence, and also because his divine sign had forbidden him. If he were condemned, he would be condemned unjustly, which would disgrace his judges, but not him ; rather it would gain him sympathy and praise. He even seems to have thought that the fit end of his life, as divinely determined, had come. In any case he would not beseech his inferiors to let him live. The die was cast, and by a majority of five Socrates was adjudged guilty. He disdained now to suggest any less penalty than the extreme one, a penalty which the majority would gladly have mitigated. HiS con- Bather, he loftily expressed his belief that, inasmuch as he had demnation. been engaged for many years in conferring the greatest benefits on Athens and its people, he deserved a public maintenance in the Prytaneum at the cost of the State. At last, in compliance with his friends' entreaties, he proposed that he should be fined the small sum of thirty nrinse. The conclusion of the " Apology," after his condemnation to death had been pronounced, is one of the most affecting and sublime of all speeches. " The difficulty, my friends," he says, " is not in avoiding death, The deatn but in avoiding unrighteousness ; for that runs faster than Penalty- death." His accusers were condemned by the truth to suffer the penalty of 4i2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. villainy and wrong. He supposed that these things were fated ; and he thought that they were well. There was great reason to hope that death is a good ; it was either a state of nothingness or a migration of the soul from this world to another. Even considered as a perfect, peaceful sleep, he said, " to die is gain, for eternity is then only a single night. But if death is the journey to another place, and there, as men say, all the dead are, what good, 0 my friends and judges, can be greater than this ? . . . Above all, I shall then be able to continue my search, into true and false knowledge ; and I shall find out who is wise, and who pretends to be wise and is not. ... In another world they do not put a man to death for asking questions, assuredly not. For besides being happier in that world than in this, they will be immortal, if what is said is true. Wherefore, 0 judges, be of good cheer about death, and know of a certainty that no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after death. He and his are not neglected by the gods ; nor has my own approaching end happened by mere chance. But I see clearly that to die and be released was better for me. ... I am not angry with my condemners, or with my accusers ; they have done me no harm, although they did not mean to do me any good ; and for this I may gently blame them. . . . The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways — I to die and you to live. Which is better, God only knows." Having refused to take advantage of an opportunity which his friends had provided for his escape, especially because he will not break the laws of Socrates ^e State under which he has lived peaceably so long, on the last on the day of his life Socrates is represented, in Plato's dialogue en- titled "Phsedo," as having delivered his opinions on the future life. He disapproves of suicide ; " a man should wait, and not take his own life until God summons him." Yet he acknowledges that he ought to be grieved at death, if he were not persuaded that he was going to gods who are wise and good, and to men departed who are better than those he would leave behind. By death the foolishness of the body would be cleared away, and those who loved wisdom and purity in this life would be pure and hold converse with other pure souls, and know the light of truth. The impure souls at death have to pay the penalty of their evil life, and he supposes that they wander among tombs and sepulchres, till finally they are born again in another body, probably of a fierce or evil animal. He believes indeed that the soul exists before the body, as proved he thinks by the apparent reminiscences of previous states. Hence that which pre-existed cannot be destroyed by the mere death of the body. The lesson is drawn that the greatest care should be taken of the soul, and that the danger of neglect is truly awful. There is no release or salvation from evil except the attainment of the highest virtue or wisdom. He accepts the essence of the current doctrine of Hades and Tartarus, and of the sentences of reward and punishment there awarded. Those who have duly purified themselves with philosophy " live henceforth altogether without the body in mansions fairer than these, which may not be described, and of which the time would fail me to tell." SOCRATES, PLATO, AND OTHER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 413 He does not venture to say that his description is exactly true, but he thinks something of the kind is true, and the pure man who has arrayed the soul in her own proper jewels — temperance, justice, courage, nobility, and truth — is ready to journey to the other world. He would not have his friends sorrow at his hard lot, or say at his burial, " Thus we lay out Socrates," or " Thus we follow him to the grave or bury him ; " they must say to them- selves that they are burying his body only. But their sorrow was not taken away by his words ; they felt as if they were being bereaved of a father, and that they should spend the rest of their lives as orphans. The jailer coming in to tell him that the appointed time for drinking the cup of hemlock had come, called him the noblest and gentlest and best of all who ever came there, and burst into tears. " Then," said Socrates, " I may and must ask the gods to prosper my journey from this to that other world — even so — and so be His death it according to my prayer." Then he drank the poison quite cheerfully and readily. As the poison was taking effect, he said, " Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepios ; will you remember to pay the debt? " " The debt shall be paid," answered Crito. Possibly the philosopher meant that he was now restored by death to health, and would make the usual offering to the god of health. Thus died the man whom Plato terms the wisest, greatest, and best man he had ever known. Truly he, being dead, yet speaketh. The life and death of Socrates did not indeed produce a new religion in Greece, but as represented by Plato and Xenophon, he became the true founder of most of the greatest philosophies of life and mind, and the influence of his life and death can never die. Of no man can it more truly be said that he lived up to the light he had, gained all the light he could, conquered human evil and the fear of death, and fearlessly trusted the Divine. Having thus given in outline an account of Socrates and his teaching, we can give much less space to Plato, whose significance as a religious teacher is far less than his importance as a philosopher. As the pupil and friend of Socrates, he is of the utmost value as a recorder, more or less literal, of his teachings. His life (427-347 b.c.) is of less special note because he lived very quietly and unobtrusively, teaching in the grove named after Academus, whence his school is known as the Academy, and in his own garden. In dealing with those portions of his extensive writings which belong most clearly to our subject, we must begin with the moral teachings, for with him religion and morals are one. Plato, seeing that earthly life can never be free from evil, says that Hig ^^ of we must flee away as quickly as possible to God, by making the hody as ourselves like Him through virtue and wisdom. The body is an evil, the grave of the higher life ; unrighteousness, arising in the soul, allies itself to the lower elements of the body, and develops all kinds of evil. Every man must seek the highest good, which is virtue. The virtue, the virtuous man alone is free. Only he who takes hold on the Eternal Mghest g00d- can be truly satisfied. True philosophy is one with perfect morality. Virtue 414 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. is its own reward, as vice is its own punishment. Virtue is rewarded in the life to come, and vice punished. The just man must do only good, even to his enemies ; but the State, Plato held, might use untruth as a means of government. He also held views about marriage which were by no means lofty ; he considered the question merely as a means of providing healthy youths to build up the State. Still he sought the elevation of women, both physically, mentally, and morally, and especially by making them share the training and pursuits of men to a considerable extent. In Morals and regard to another evil of the Greek social condition, he was little the state. £n a(jVance of his time, for he upheld slavery, though he tried to improve the treatment of slaves. He had a low opinion of trade and agri- culture as occupations for intelligent men. His political scheme (" Republic" " Politicus" " Laws") contained many elements related to morals, but they are too numerous to be detailed, and are seldom made to depend on his religious belief. The State, as an ideal, was the main object of his " Re- public," and to obtain and maintain good citizens, he described conditions of com- munism in property, wives and children, and of exposure of sickly new-born infants, which we may doubt whether he would have soberly put into practice. Modern anthropology has taught us that numerous races have approached Plato's ideal in some of these respects, without securing the advantages he desired to gain ; and we must remember that Plato's theoretical discussion justifies no one in doing for private ends what he imagined a State to ordain solely for the common good. It is unnecessary to occupy space in condemning what no civilised race is at all likely to enforce or sanction. Plato recognises one Eternal and Invisible God, perfectly true and good, the highest ideal, the Maker and Father of all. He is unchangeable views of an(l perfect, and will never show Himself to man other than as the Deity. jje js> Thus he is absolutely against all mythological stories of the gods which fall below this ideal. God being pure and good can produce or originate no evil ; He does anything that can be done ; He has wisely adapted means to ends ; He knows everything, cares and provides for all in the best way, rewards virtue and punishes vice. He recognises also certain created gods, who represent or are the universe and the heavenly bodies. He uses the name Zeus for the soul of the universe, and frequently when he speaks of gods, he is evidently describing the Supreme Deity. He again and again combats the popular beliefs. The gods are above pleasure and pain, and cannot be bribed and persuaded by prayers and offerings. Divine Providence looks after small as well as great things and persons, and all things conduce to the true welfare of those whom the gods love. SOCRATES, PLATO, AND OTHER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 415 According to Plato the worship of God consists especially in a desire to be good, and the strenuous endeavour to attain the ideal. God is good, and man must strive to be like Him. He would maintain the old forms of religious worship, made pure and moral ; and he would not only reverence guardian spirits (daemons), but would have distinguished men reverenced as such after their death. He would punish atheism and other offences against religion, but would allow the young to be taught by myths and stories which he did not himself believe, regarding such as necessary stages towards the truth. Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) is often regarded as the great practical and scien- tific philosopher as opposed to Plato the idealist ; but it is necessary to remem- ber that he was a pupil of Plato, and that much of their teaching ... Aristotle is in agreement. We shall only refer to the teaching of Aristotle upon morals and religion, which forms but a small part of his works. He makes man's highest good to consist in the exercise of his reason, which he places above the exercise of the moral virtues. He describes the brave man consciously encountering death for a worthy object, because he feels that it is beautiful to do so ; and this illustrates his somewhat artistic conception of the excellence of virtue. He maintains that slavery is based on nature, and that certain races are intended to be subject. "Women are distinctly inferior to men, and he objects to Plato's scheme for their education and elevation. As to the cause of all things, Aristotle is not very clear. He speaks of a personal mover of all things, enjoying bliss for ever, wrapt in lofty con- templation upon Himself. Man is too inferior to God for Him to concern Himself about his affairs ; and thus Aristotle can give us no light upon a future life, immortality, Providence, and prayer. The chief schools beside the Platonic, which owed their origin to the pupils of Socrates, were the Megarian, the Cynic, and the Cyrenaic. The former, of which Euclid (not the geometer) was the founder, held The that what is not good has no real existence, and that God sums Me&arians. up all intelligence, reason, and goodness. The Cynics, of whom Antisthenes and Diogenes were the greatest, deprecated theory and glori- . fled action and self-control. Virtuous conduct based on wisdom and prudence was the only thing to make men happy ; pleasure was the greatest evil. Their virtue being sufficient for them, they became self- sufficient boasters. They lived as beggars, with no property at all, and were more arrogant than the rich and powerful ; and in contempt for convention they despised much of ordinary morality. The Cyrenaics, re- x^g presented first by Aristippus, made pleasure the chief good, but Cyrenaics. kept a mastery over the desires. To Aristippus no possession was more valuable than contentment, no disease worse than avarice ; he valued free- dom above everything. He cared nothing for the popular notions about the gods. Epicureanism was the natural successor of the Cyrenaic philo- sophy, as Stoicism was of the Cynic. Epicurus has too often been referred to as the type of the sensualist, 416 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Epicurus. The Stoics. but he was far from being so. "While he regarded pleasure as the need and end of every one, he lived a sparing and quiet life, preferring pleasures of the mind to those of the body, and making virtue his aim because it conferred the most permanent and truest pleasure. He however places the family at a discount. " The sage," he says, " will not marry and beget children, nor will he take part in State affairs. He will not form hard and fast judgments ; he will not believe all sinners to be equally depraved, nor all sages equally wise." He gathered around him a society of intimates, who lived in simple community, eating barley bread and drinking chiefly water. A remarkable degree of attachment subsisted between him and his pupils, who were exceedingly numerous. After his death statues were erected in his honour at Athens, where he lived for thirty-six years. Epicurus does not figure as a religious teacher. He does not deny the existence of the gods, but believes that human affairs are beneath their ken, and that they do not interfere even in the grand phe- nomena of nature. His philosophy found a remark- able exponent in the Roman Lucretius, and had great influence at Rome for centuries. The Stoics, with Zeno at their head, took up the Cynic views of self-control as the means of re- generating the soul of man, and urged the discovery of the laws governing the world as indicating man's best path to perfect happi- ness. The whole world was under a Divine order or Providence, of which all the gods were but tem- porary or local manifestations. Passion was neces- sarily wrong, giving an erroneous judgment of what is desirable or to be shunned. Pain was not to disquiet a man, and all the causes that disturb man's spirit were not to ruffle the sage. Yet conformity to KiicuKus. nature was their motto ; and if desire, passion, and pain are not part of nature, what is ? So the Stoics were as little consistent as many other schools ; but they had a multitude of adherents. And well it might be so, for their views gave consolation to many an unfortunate or downtrodden man, by giving him a kingdom within himself, where no tyrant could control his thoughts or hinder him from having serene delights. Pyrrho, the Sceptic, is perhaps most interesting to us, since he taught what is practically a philosophy of feeling, the cultivation of good feel- ings, thus approaching somewhat to Christianity ; at the same time he de- nied that any safe criterion of intellectual judgment had ever been found, though he did not go so far as to say there was none. Up to and beyond the Christian era, the philosophic schools of Greece held sway, and attracted most of the best intellect of Greece and Rome. There arose a sharper distinction than ever between the learned, and the common people whom they contemned ; and we have little to show that the latter were in any way elevated by the teachings or influ- Morals. SOCRATES, PLATO, AND OTHER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 417 ence of the former. The morals of the people continued to degenerate, or at least ceased to improve, with the decay of real faith in the gods ; while the philosophic schools became more and more recognised and honoured by the great and powerful. At the same time the traditional beliefs wsre kept up. Public oaths were made in the names of many gods, and the comedians were styled priests of Dionysos. In the wider Greece developed after the death of Alexander are many interesting phenomena relating to Greek religion. Thus Zeus Hades was imported from Sinope to Alexandria, and identified with the Greeks in Egyptian god Serapis. The Museum and the Library founded other ^nds. there by the same great Ptolemy (Soter) were alike precursors of the wide diffusion of Greek learning which was one day to have so great an influ- ence on and through Christianity. We find hymns written to order for the Greek monarchs of Egypt, celebrating Greek feasts and lauding the kings as almost on a level with the gods, and expressing a commonplace view of the old Greek religion. Later, the Ptolemies learnt to build temples to the old Egyptian gods ; but Greek did not by any means fuse with Egyptian religion. We may conclude this chapter by an account of the views of Polybius, who lived through the greater part of the second century B.C., and the irre- trievable subjugation of Greece by Rome. He may be taken as a type of the best Greeks of the time. He was devoted to truth, and believed in the moral government of the world, and in retributive pro- vidence. He hated meanness and lack of self-respect. But he had no great inspiration to regenerate his people ; and his teaching of the lessons of history, while of much interest, roused no enthusiasm. Whether from a decay that was inevitable or not, in Greece religion and national life were dead. [Xenophon's " Memorabilia " ; Plato's works (Jowett's translation) ; Grote's " History of Greece," vols. iv. and vii. ; Zeller's "Socrates and the Socratic Schools" and "Plato and the Older Academy."] E E MONUMENTS ON THE APPIAN WAY NEAR ROME. CHAPTER IV. €\)t Ionian Bdigiom Early Roman religion— Origin— The Latins— Etruscan religion— Jupiter— Festivals— Juno — Mars- Janus— Minerva— Vesta— Flora— Vertumnus— Pales— Terminus— Comus and Libitina— Other gods— Prophetic nymphs— The Greek gods Romanised— The Penates or household gods— The Lares— The Manes— The Lemures — The Genii— Roman temples - Priests— The Vestal virgins— The Flamens— The Pontiffs— Divination— The Augurs— Relation to the magistrates— Funeral ceremonies— The calendar of festivals —Abstract deities— Essence of the religion— Keepers of the Sibylline books— Moral character of early Romans— Hellenism— Cybele— Bacchus— Degrada- tion of morals— The later republic— Decay of religion— Julius Csesar— The Empire— Imperial apotheosis— New beliefs— Seneca— Moral state of the empire. ALTHOUGH the Romans were akin in stock to the Greeks, and were originally, to some extent, similar in religion, the divergences in political history and in personal and civic temperament were so great as Early Roman to develop concurrently a decidedly distinct type of religion, religion. »pne disuni0I1 0f Greece was contrasted with the gradual achieve- ment of unity in Italy ; the variety of Greek gods was represented in Rome by a compendious worship, tribal gods being retained by the combined people of early Rome, and later the Greek gods being either adopted de novo, or identified with some of the old Italian divinities. Many of the deities most familiar to us by Roman names were scarcely known, and certainly were not worshipped at Rome during the period when the little city was, by slow and stern discipline, rendering certain its future conquest of the world. 418 THE ROMAN RELIGION. 419 Yet, to begin with, the Roman and the Greek religious notions were the same. Nature worship, personification of natural forces, hero and ancestor worship, were combined in various degrees. Spirits were imagined in every natural phenomenon, and concerned in the perpetual re- production of creation and creatures ; but from an early time the Romans viewed their religion more seriously than the Greeks, were less gay and confident, more gloomy and prudent. Their worship was much more marked by fear and awe, and they dared not handle the persons and names of their gods so freely. Consequently their mythology is very deficient in imagination, and there is almost an entire lack of those marvellous stories in which Greece was so prolific. Yet Rome in its way was prolific in regard to religion, for a special spirit was designated in relation to every action, every place, every object ; each man, each family, each clan had its own guardian spirit ; and for every State or city separate gods were recognised, who, however, might be admitted into the Roman worship by resolution of the people. One feature may be taken as common to the Roman religious ideas, that of naming them according to their qualities, and by abstract terms. The Roman gods do not marry and have children, and do not walk about unseen among mortals. Yet they unquestionably gained a powerful hold on the minds of the people who reverenced them, and we owe to them the most significant word Religion. That Alba was a more primitive religious and national centre than Rome was borne witness to even during the time of Rome's greatness by the continuation of the Latin festival on the Alban mount, when an __■ .. . ill m© J-j3.lihs. ox was sacrificed to Jupiter as the god of the Latins, and cattle, milk, and cheese were contributed by various communities to a joint festival. It is impossible now to trace accurately the constituents which combined to form the Roman religion, but at least three tribes took part in it very early, and the oldest religious bodies consisted of a number divisible by three ; and the earliest festivals, derived from times before the existence of towns, show the people as being pastoral and agricultural. AVe will not recite the familiar legend of Romulus, but we may note that it was on the Palatine Hill that various supernatural events connected with the founding of Rome were believed to have occurred ; and there the priest of Jupiter lived, there was the sanctuary of Lupercus, and the meeting-place of the Leaping Priests of Mars ; but there were no temples in early times. It is probable that the Quirinal Hill was at first the seat of a distinct community, later incorporated with the Palatine ; and in its stronghold or Capitol was a sanc- tuary of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and of the goddess of Fidelity (later re- placed by the new Capitol and its temples). Mars and Lupercus too had their bodies of priests on the Quirinal. Within recent years a discovery has been made of pre-historic remains on the Esquiline — tombs of the most primitive type, going back at least to the fifth century B.C. ; this, then, was doubtless the seat of a third settlement. At a later period, but still early as regards authentic history, the Romans incorporated much that had been Etruscan, or identified the gods they 42o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. already had with Etruscan gods. We will not attempt to discuss the racial Etruscan connection of the Etruscans ; but there is little in their religious religion. remains to negative their being Arj^ans like the Romans. They recognised two classes of gods — those who directly managed the affairs of the world (Dii consentes), and others who were nameless — but controlled the rest. The former included Tinia (identified with Jupiter by the Romans), Uni (Juno), Meurfa (Minerva) ; but we find that their functions differed in some respects from those of the corresponding Roman gods. Jupiter was their god of war, though he ruled over all during peace, and caused the fertility of the earth. Minerva was winged as well as armed, represented Fate, and was symbolised by a serpent. Venus was known as Turan, Bacchus as Phuph- luns, Mercury as Turms, and many other Greek gods were adopted by the Etruscans. They had also Janus, Saturnus, Silvanus, Mantus, Voltumna among nature deities; and the Lares, Penates, etc., which figure prominently at Rome, appear to have been Etruscan. No doubt the reigns of the Tar- quins had much to do with establishing these at Rome. We have no re- mains of their temples, but they appear to have approached a square shape. Many of their tombs have, however, been preserved, and the sculptures, in- scriptions and paintings on them constitute our most important source o± information as to their religious as well as other customs. Their religious rites, which were gloomy and fantastic, and abounded in repulsive practices, were described in certain lost books. Divination, from animals' entrails, from natural phenomena and lightning, was much practised under fixed rules. There were families charged with the interpretation of them, and consti- tuting a priesthood. The Etruscans undoubtedly had a vast influence on Roman religion — in augury, teleology, and even the architecture of their temples. Commencing with Jupiter, we will now give an account of the Roman gods, and more particularly of those which are special to the Romans. The word Jupiter stands for Jen piter, Dieu piter — the first part of the word being identical in root with divus and dyaus, heaven. Thus Jupiter means the heavenly father ; and in keeping with this the Romans ascribed to him all changes in the heavens, rain, storms, thunder, etc., and indeed gave him a special name for each, as Jupiter Pluvius (Rainer), Fulgurator (Lightener), Tonans (Thunderer). He is termed best (optimus) and highest (maximus). Capitolinus from his dwelling on the Capitol, Imperator, Victor, Triumphator, etc., and he had temples under many of these distinctive names. His enthronement on the Capito- line Hill dates from the time of Tarquin ; but long afterwards he continued to be the object of separate worship at various other shrines. One marked peculiarity of Jupiter was that of revealing his will by portents, which he sends to all who diligently seek them, especially by signs in the heavens and the flight of birds. He was originally the god both of the dead and the living ; but, as in Greece, the former character dropped out of recogni- tion. Jupiter was the patron and protector of human society, guarding the sanctity of oaths, the rights of strangers, the unity of the State, etc. THE ROMAN RELIGION. 421 Jupiter also led the people to war as Victor ; and to him thanks and sacrifice were offered by the general on returning from battle. In concluding a treaty, the Eomans took the symbols of Jupiter, a flint stone and a sceptre and some grass from his temple. The consuls sacrificed to Jupiter on taking office, and young men did the same when they put on the toga mrilis— the man's gown. He was invoked at the beginning of every undertaking. 422 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Festivals. The principal festivals to Jupiter were the Roman and the Great, the Capitoline and the Plebeian : all of these included a feast of the magistrates and senators in the Capitol. At these feasts seats were left for Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, as though they were family feasts of a tribe and its gods. There were numerous peculiar features attaching to the worship of Jupiter, which were derived from the Etruscans. The priest of Jupiter (called Flamen Dialis) was forbidden to touch a corpse ; and if his wife died, he lost his office. He was the subject of many taboos ; thus he must not see an army, nor leave the city for a night, nor take off his cap of office, nor touch a dog, etc. As the god of light, the colour white was sacred to Jupiter ; and white animals were sacrificed to him. The consuls wore white when they sacri- ficed to him, and his priests wore white caps. The god was represented as seated on an ivory throne, with a bundle of thunderbolts in his right hand and a sceptre in his left, an eagle standing beside his throne. We need not en- large on the Greek aspect given to the god after the introduction of Greek learning to Rome. Juno, identified later with the Greek Hera, was originally very unlike the wife of Zeus. She was introduced to Rome from Etrus- can cities, where she was the goddess of the State and of society, and had no naturalistic functions. At Rome she was to the female sex what Jupiter was to the male, and was especi- ally the goddess of everything connected with marriage, as well as of young girls ; hence she was known as Juno Virginalis and Matrona, and also as Lucina, from the help she afforded in childbirth. A variety of other names, often associated with distinct shrines, were given to her. At her great festival, the Matronalia, on the Kalends of March, a grand procession of wives and maidens of spotless character was made to the temple of Lucina on the Esquiline Hill. It is probable that at an early period Mars was the chief god of at least one of the States which combined to form Rome. He was worshipped under the name of Marspiter (father Mars), or Maspiter, also Mavors or Maurs. Mamers was his name among the Sabines. It is ques- tionable whether he was not at first purely an agricultural divinity, the god of spring, overcoming the evil effects of winter ; but the necessity of war to preserve the fruits of agriculture no doubt aided in the transformation of THE ROMAN RELIGION. 423 Mars into the god of war, without his losing all his old characters. He was still god of heaven, giver of light, hurling thunder and sending rain. In olden times, there were pro- pitiatory ceremonies to Mars, to ward off drought, pesti- lence, etc. At one festival a sheep and a reddish dog were sacrified by the flamen of Mars, to avert mildew from the crops. In times of calamity a " sacred spring " (ver sacrum) was consecrated to Mars, all things born then being sacrificed to him. Like Jupiter, he gave oracles and portents, and was a god of the dead and of death. The Palatine-priests of Mars, for many days after the first of March, were accustomed to dance in armour through parts of Rome, singing a certain song, mentioning all the gods of the city, but especially referring to Mamurius or Mamers. The name Quirinus (a Sabine word) was also applied to Mars, as reputed father of Romulus and Remus ; and his sacred wolf was their foster-mother. The old goddess Bellona, goddess of war, was said to be sister, or daughter, or wife of Mars. As going to battle with his people, Mars was known as Gradivus ; as an agricultural god, he was termed Silvanus. In late times the attributes of the Greek Ares were ascribed to Mars. With regard to Janus, undoubtedly one of the old- est of the Roman divinities, there much doubt, both as to origin and his true He is variously represented as a dual-god, personifying the sun and moon, and as simply a god of opening and beginning, typified in the old begin- ning of the year with Jan- uary, and by the opening of the gates of Janus at the beginning of war, and closing them when peace prevailed. The earliest representations of the god were simply two-faced heads; later complete Janus. IS his „„& character 424 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. statues of him were made with four faces. Such a statue was placed under a double covered gateway, known as the temple of Janus : the open gates in war signified that the god had gone out with the people to battle. But Janus was also regarded as the god of the beginning of all occupations and actions ; and it was a marked feature of the Romans to attribute ill- success to an ill-beginning, necessitating recommencement. As Jupiter by favourable augury gave his sanction and Janus blessed the beginning, these two gods were invoked first in every undertaking. New Year's Day was the special festival of Janus, on which the people were anxious that every word and action should be pure and favourable. Consequently they gave presents to one another, abstained from cursing and quarrelling, began some of their work for the year, etc. His appropriate sacrifices were cakes, barley, incense, and wine, which were offered to him at the beginning of every month. His name was always invoked, and a libation was poured out to him before sacrificing to the other gods. Possibly Janus represents a very early ruler of one of the Italian tribes, who showed such powers of memory and foresight that he came to be credited with full knowledge both of the past and the future, and was deified after death. This is confirmed by the story that the Greek Kronos, whom they identified with Saturnus 7 one of their own agricultural gods, took refuge, after his defeat by the Titans, with Janus, king of Italy, who shared his throne with him, and so introduced a golden age of prosperity. Saturnus had a temple at the bottom of the Capitoline Hill, in which the State laws and the public treasures were preserved. The name Saturnus is really derived from the word for sowing (sero, sevi, satum), and probably represents the introducer of agriculture, his character resembling that of Demeter rather than Kronos. His wife was Ops, goddess of plenty, afterwards identified with Rhea, wife of Kronos. Minerva, the third of the early Roman triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva — derived from the same root as mens, mind), is the impersonation of thought and invention, or even, according to Varro, of all ideas. She is said to have invented numbers, and was the patroness of all arts and trades. She specially, as a virgin goddess, protected women, to whom she gave skill in sewing, spinning, weaving, etc. But she was also a war goddess, supplying the mental qualities, — cunning, prudence, courage, and perseverance, — needed for success ; consequently she wore a helmet, shield, and coat of mail. As the inventor of musical instruments, especially of wind, she was of great importance to festival celebrations ; and the instruments used in them were purified on the last day of Minerva's festival in March. She was the guardian of schools ; and during her festival boys had holiday, and brought a special gift to their master, known as the Minerval. Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, an early divinity at Rome, was very like the Greek Hestia in attributes. She was honoured at every Roman family meal, together with the Penates ; but her great sanctuary was be- tween the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, where, instead of a statue, there burned an eternal fire, kept up by her virgin priestesses, the Vestals. A great festival, the Vestalia, was celebrated in her honour on the 9th of June. THE ROMAN RELIGION. 425 Numerous other gods may be mentioned as among the early objects of Roman worship, principally connected with agriculture ; such as Flora, the goddess of flowers, represented as a beautiful girl decked with Flora flowers, and honoured at a mirthful festival at the end of April ; Pomona. Pomona, the goddess of fruit-trees and representative of autumn ; Vertumnus, god of garden and field produce, to whom gardeners offered the first produce, with garlands of budding flowers ; he was also con- nected with various circumstances of change (verto, I turn), the change of Vertumnus. Pales. SACRIFICING TO THE LARES, OR GODS OF THE HEARTH. seasons, purchase and sale, the return of rivers to their beds after floods ; Pales, a god of flocks and shepherds, and also of husbandry. The name of the Palatine Hill is connected with this god. During his festival, on April 21st, shepherds ignited a quantity of straw and drove their flocks through it, themselves following, as a purification from sin. Terminus, the god of boundaries and landmarks ; Consus, the god of secret counsel and of the infernal regions ; Silvanus, the god of plantations and forests ; Picus, the son of Saturnus, another divinity of the Terminus woods, possessing prophetic gifts ; Comus, who presided over suvanus, etc. banquets and gay festivities generally ; Libitina, the goddess of funerals, are 426 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. other peculiarly Roman divinities. The temple of Libitina at Rome con- Comus and tained all necessaries for burials, and these could either be bought Libitina. or \{xx^ there. Terminus was probably an appellation of Jupiter in his capacity of protector of property. Picumnus and Pilumnus were two brother deities protecting marriage and newborn children. ' Pilumnus warded off sufferings, while Picumnus gave the infant health and prosperity. It does not tend to raise our idea of the Roman character when we learn that an altar was suffered to exist at Rome to Laverna, the goddess of thieves and impostors, as well as a grove on the Salernian road. Robigus, the antagonist of Flora, is more intelligible. As he destroyed young plants by mildew, he was appropriately propitiated by Prophetic prayers and sacrifices. The Camense were four prophetic Nymphs. nymphS; analogous to the Greek Muses. Carmenta, one of them, was also a healing divinity, with a temple at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. Egeria was the nymph who is said to have taught Numa Pompilius the form of public worship. "We shall not detail the various beliefs introduced into Rome from Greece in the later ages of the Republic and the early time The of the Empire. Ceres, Venus, Apollo, Neptune, Diana, Vulcan, Greek gods Mercury, Bacchus, and other gods besides those we have men- " tioned were considerably recognised and worshipped in this later period ; and the characteristics of their Greek representatives were ascribed to them. The Penates, or household gods of the Romans, were connected with inner or private matters (penus), and perhaps originally were gods of the The hearth and kitchen. They were always spoken of as plural, and hou^etoiaf *w0 images of them were placed on the hearth, but no specific gods. name was given to them. In late times they were identified with various gods ; but they are more probably derived from primitive animism, resembling the early Teutonic household gods, and the Chinese god of the kitchen. The close connection of the Penates with domestic life is evident from the fact that their name became synonymous with " home." The old Romans used to have a morning family gathering (including the slaves), to offer sacrifice and prayer to the Penates. Their blessing was asked before meals, and after the meal part of the food was burned upon the hearth. Sometimes the images were brought in and set upon the table. On the Kalends (1st), Nones (5th or 7th), and Ides (13th or 15th) of the month a special family worship took place, when the images were decorated and crowned, and offerings of cakes, honey, wine, and incense were made to them ; and birthdays, marriages and safe returnings from journeys were similarly celebrated. There were also public or national Penates, with a temple at Lavinium and another at Rome, in which were two images of youths holding spears. The Lares were the ancestral spirits of the family, regarded as still capable of protecting it and giving its inmates prosperity. One special Lar, the founder of the family, was worshipped in each house, and honoured by an image beside those of the Penates. A part of THE ROMAN RELIGION. 427 every meal was offered to it ; and on every important occasion the head and members of the household saluted these images; and a bride's first duty ;on entering her husband's house was to sacrifice to the Lar. The name \Lar, which is possibly Etruscan, signifies lord, king, or hero. There were public Lares, with temples and public worship at Home and in all Roman towns; and there were also Lares of the country, the high roads, and the sea. The Lares were but special instances of the Manes or spirits of the departed. The tendency to think of the departed as good and favourable, VESTALS OFFERING SACRIFICE. led to the frequent interchange of the words ; they are also spoken of as the Dii Manes and worshipped with divine honours. At certain . . The Manes, seasons sacrifices were offered to the spirits of the departed, and there was an annual festival to them. The Larvae, or Lemures, were the shades of the dead considered as unfavourable, and as wandering upon earth in hideous shapes, seeking to harm their relatives. On _ . r ' ° . . The Lemures. three nights in May the Lemuralia were observed, in order to propitiate the Lemurs. At midnight the head of the family went outside the door of the house, making signs with his hand, which were supposed to keep the Lemurs away. After three times washing his hands in spring- 428 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The Genii. water, he turned round, and placed some black beans in his mouth, which he afterwards threw behind him. It was believed that the spectres col- lected these beans. After some further ablutions, the father cried out nine times, " Begone, you spectres of the house ! " and then they were harmless. Associated in thought with the Lares and Penates, and sometimes confused with them, were the Genii, or protecting spirits ; indeed, they were supposed to preside at the origin of, or to produce each living crea- ture, and to accompany it through life. As to mankind, the genius was supposed to stimulate each person to noble deeds, to comfort him in sor- row, and generally to act as guide and guardian angel. Some held the belief that the genius could change character, and now be a good and now an evil genius ; while another belief was, that an evil as well as a good genius accompanied each soul and struggled together for mastery. On various occasions, as birthdays, sacrifices of wine, cakes, and incense were offered to a man's genius ; and merry meetings were regarded as pleasures given to the genius. Each State and town was supposed to have its peculiar genius. They are generally represented as winged beings. While the Romans borrowed much of their architecture from the Greeks, they added to the elements thence derived, one of first-class Roman importance, namely the round arch ; yet they had not sufficient temples. gj^Qj ^o make with the aid of the latter graceful buildings ; and it was not till after the conquest of Greece that fine temples were built by the Romans. Then, however, they built them on a splendid scale, and with some new developments, but never reached the perfection of Greece. In early times there were but few and small temples in Rome ; and the altar was the earlier and more important structure. Usually the temples were built facing the west, with the images of the god similarly placed, so that worshippers entering faced the east. The temples were also as far as possible so arranged that passers-by could readily look into them and salute the god. Owing to the absence or fragmentary nature of the remains of Roman temples, it is difficult to give a satisfactory account of them. There are no remains by which we can certainly reconstruct the temple of the Capitoline Jove. The great Pantheon, with its magnificent dome, is the finest example of Roman originality in architecture ; but it dates from THE ROMAN RELIGION. 429 CASTOR AND POLLUX. the time of the early emperors, and it is not certain that it was ever used for public worship. The earliest distinct mention of a priest at Rome is in connection Roman with Mars — the priests. flamen Martialis, accom- panied by twelve leapers (the salii) who danced and sang at the annual festival of Mars. The organisation of early Roman worship seems to have included in some cases single priests of certain gods, and in others colleges of priests, often twelve in number, to celebrate worship on behalf of the people. The priest of Jupiter (flamen Dialis) with the flamen Martialis and the flamen Quirinalis, formed the chief trio of priests. The worship of Vesta, attended to by the six vestal virgins, was possibly the most sacred of all. The virgins were chosen between the ages of six and ten years, and were of perfect form and intelligence and honourable family. They were compelled to serve for thirty years, ten of which were the novitiate ; but mostly the vestals remained The vestal priestesses for life. Neglect to watch and maintain the sacred v^g^s- fire being deemed a heinous offence, endangering the existence of the city, the priestess in fault was severely scourged. The vestals had also to present offerings to the goddess, to cleanse and purify the shrine, to assist at all the great public festivals, and to guard the supposed sacred pledge and guarantee of the permanence of Roman power, which was kept in the inmost sanctum, and the nature of which is not known. If a vestal broke her vow of chastity, death was the penalty, at first by stoning, but later by burial alive with many of the ceremonies of a funeral. The Vestals were maintained at the public cost, and endowed with considerable funds, and they received many honours. The construc- tion of the House of the Vestals shows many arrangements suited rather to a cold climate than to Italy — which may be survivals from the practices of the Romans' ancestors. There were altogether fifteen flamens, who held office for life, unless they committed a breach of duty. Thev wore a special ,, tit i • t Tae flamens. woollen cloak, and a round or conical cap called the apex, fastened by strings, and terminated by a pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was sur- rounded by a lock of wool. The flamen Dialis, though highly honoured, 43° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. was subject to many restrictions. He might never be absent from the city for one night ; the legs of his bed were smeared with earth, perhaps an indication that he once slept on the ground ; he might not touch a horse, a dog, a she-goat, ivy, beans, or raw flesh ; in early times he could not hold a magistracy, though this was relaxed later. Thus he was compelled to be always devoted to his duties. His wife, called flaminica, gave essential service in certain ceremonies, and had a special costume. The priestly colleges were more important than the individual priests. The pontiffs (pontifices) formed an order or college to which supreme religious authority was given by the State. They were originally ' five in number, including their chief, the pontifex maximus ; but the number was raised to nine in b.c. 300, and in 81 B.C. to fifteen. They were elected by different methods at different periods ; but on the whole they were pretty successful in retaining the right to nominate their own candidates when vacancies occurred. They had control over all the flamens of particular deities, and directed all State ceremonies. They kept the books which laid down the order of public and private worship, and they were bound to give information to any one who consulted them about religious matters. They determined the proper forms for burials and for appeasing the Manes. When any deficiency was observed in regulations already existing, they made new ones, generally, however, being guided by what was in accordance with established custom. Without being responsible to the Senate or to any court of law, they had the power of punishing any one who disobeyed their commands. They arranged and proclaimed the State calendar, containing the dates of the various festivals, of new and full moon, etc., and thus undoubtedly we must regard them as embodying much of the historical and scientific knowledge of the time ; in fact, they themselves described their sphere as "the science of things divine and human." In general the Pontifex Maximus was a distinguished person ; and in the later years of the republic he was often at the same time consul, though the pontifex never left Italy till the time of Crassus. Under the emperors their power was greatly weakened, the emperors exercising the right to nominate any persons pontiffs when they liked, and always appointing themselves chief pontiffs. Divination, or the ascertainment of the will of the gods, was represented at Rome by the augurs, a word at first applied to men skilled only in divining by birds, but later extended very considerably. Their Divination. i . . -, f. , i art was known as augury or auspiaum ; and our use or the words auspicious and inauguration testifies to the deep impress which this mode of divination has left. According to Livy, at Rome everything was done according to auspices. The Romans were distinguished from numerous other nations by their small regard to astrology, prophecy, and ' oracles (excepting under Greek influence) ; but they paid great attention to unusual natural events, especially unfavourable ones, which they termed prodigies— to thunder and lightning, the flight of birds, the feeding of chickens, etc. A remarkable account of divination is given by Cicero, THE ROMAN RELIGION. 431 who was himself an augur, in his two books on that subject. The regard given to the flight of birds at Rome was founded on the belief that birds were the messengers of Jove ; they derived from studying them intimations of what they were to do or not to do. Thus, whenever it was reported by an augur that Jupiter thundered or lightened, the public comitia could not be held. Birds gave auguries by flight or by voice. The eagle (known especially as Jove's bird) and vulture were among the chief birds whose flight was studied, while the raven, crow, hen, and owl afforded signs by voice, a special meaning being given to every sound they uttered, varying according to the circumstances, the time of the year, etc. The feeding of special chickens, especially on military expeditions, was noted ; if they ate greedily, it was a favourable sign ; if they refused their food, and beat their wings, etc., the omen was unfavourable. Auspices from quadrupeds were only used in private divination ; a fox, wolf, dog, horse, or any quadruped unexpectedly crossing any one's path, gave an indication, varying according to circum- stances. Sneezing, stumbling, and other personal matters were also con- sidered to be means whereby the gods indicated their will. In taking the auspices, the augur first marked off with a wand a certain portion of the heavens which he was to observe for the flight of birds and other phenomena, and set up a tent with an opening in that direction. Then he watched from this observatory, amid silence and quiet, until some indication appeared by which he could interpret the will of the gods. Originally the augurs were persons appointed to assist the king or chief magistrate, and for a long period only patricians were eligible for the office. Any patrician could take private auspices. The Relation chief magistrates continued to be the possessors of the right to the to take- and declare the auspices; but the augurs were the continuous representatives of the art of augury ; and as they acquired the right of pronouncing whether the indications were favourable or un- favourable, they really had a veto upon all important public business. Up to B.C. 300 there were four augurs ; then they were increased to nine. Sulla added six more, and Julius Csesar made the number sixteen. New members were elected by the surviving augurs, till B.C. 103, when they were elected by popular vote, after which there were variations of law. Finally the emperors assumed the right of appointing augurs at pleasure. By this time augury had become a mere farce. We have little knowledge of early Roman marriage. In the later Republic the only form of marriage celebrated with religious rites was that known as confcu'reatio, when a sheep was sacrificed, and the bride and bridegroom sat down upon its skin, spread over two chairs. Then a solemn prayer was pronounced, followed by another sacrifice. Many of the other forms observed are of great significance in anthropology. Roman funeral ceremonies were not specially religious in character ; but a coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse to pay Charon, as in Greece. In early times burial was in vogue ; in the later Republic burning 432 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. took its place, and continued in general use till Christianity had gained Funeral cere- gr©at influence. In early times captives and slaves were killed monies. at fae funeraj pile ; later, animals took their place, and gladia- tors fought around the burning pile. The ashes were deposited in funeral urns, which, in the case of rich people, were placed in fine monuments of different forms, which occupied long distances by the side of public roads, such as the Via Appia. All persons who attended a funeral were rendered impure, and required purifying by a priest, who sprinkled them with pure water from an olive or laurel branch. Tombs were held sacred, and those who violated them were liable to heavy punishment. The mourning and various ceremonies after a funeral lasted for nine days, after which another sacrifice was offered, and a feast was given in honour of the dead. The tombs were visited at certain periods, and sacrifices and gifts were offered to the dead. In particular there was an annual festival (Feralia) at which food was carried to the tombs. "We gain considerable insight into early Roman religion from the very early calendar of public festivals which has come down to us. There we The calendar see Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus in the leading places. Jupiter was of festivals, celebrated on all the days of full moon (Ides) and on various wine festivals and other days ; Mars on the 1st of March and the great festivals of March, as well as in autumn after campaigns were over. In April there were festivals to Tellus, the earth, to Ceres, to Pales, goddess of flocks, and Jupiter as protector of vines, and to Robigus, the enemy of the crops. Con- sus and Ops were celebrated in harvest time and in December, in which month also the Saturnalia took place as a festival of seed-sowing. In Feb- ruary took place the wolf festival of the shepherds (Lupercalia), and the boundary festival of the husbandmen. Vulcan's was almost the only handi- craft festival, in August ; but there was a second festival to him in May, the consecration of trumpets. The Neptunalia in July, the Portunalia (the harbour festival), and that of the Tiber in August, represented sea divini- ties. "V esta and the Penates were honoured in June ; the Matralia in the same month celebrated the goddess of birth, and the Liberalia was a festival of childbirth. Departed spirits were honoured on February 21st, and the ghosts or Lemures had a three days' festival in May. The flight of King Tarquin was kept in mind on February 29th, while the peoples' flight was noted on July 5th, though it is doubtful what event it commemorated. Several other festival days seem scarcely intelligible. The abstractness of Roman worship is one of its most noteworthy fea- tures. Unlike the Greeks, with their warm imaginations, they did not give Abstract elaborate personal histories to their gods ; they were rather names deities. for qualities or idea]s# Their festivals had reference mainly to practical wants and considerations. The frugal, legal, and commercial spirit of the people is well seen in their early religion. They were particu- larly interested in the departed spirits because of the benefits they thought they could render to the living ; and no doubt many of their gods, like those of the Greeks, represented deified heroes who had conferred great THE EMPEROR CALIGULA WORSHIPPED BEFORE THE STATUES OF CASTOR AND POLLUX. 433 F F 434 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. benefits on the people. In all things the kings or magistrates were supreme. The priests never acquired the supremacy the Brahmans gained in India ; and when the magistrates were priests also, it was rather a sign of the temporal power controlling the spiritual than the reverse. "We have received no verbal ritual, no celebrated sacred book from the Romans ; and clearly their genius did not go in this direction. Mommsen Essence of tnesavs that their religion depended only in a minor degree on fear religion. 0f natural forces, and consisted especially in songs of joy, in games and dances, and in banquets. Yet all extravagant expense was strictly for- bidden. "At the very core of the Latin religion," he says, " there lay that profound moral impulse which leads men to bring earthly guilt and earthly punishment into relation with the world of the gods. . . . The execu- tion of the criminal was as much an expiatory sacrifice offered to the divinity as was the killing of an enemy in just war. . . . The profound and fearful idea of substitution also meets us here ; when the gods of the community were angry, and nobody could be laid hold of as definitely guilty, they might be appeased by one who voluntarily gave himself up ; noxious chasms in the ground were closed, and battles half lost were con- verted into victories, when a brave burgess threw himself as an expiatory offering into the abyss or upon the foe. The sacred spring was based on a similar view ; all the offspring, whether of cattle or of men, within a speci- fied period were presented to the gods." This was no doubt a sacrifice in view of the removal of a calamity, and at first, no doubt, all infants born within the assigned periods (March and April) were sacrificed. In later times the infants were allowed to grow up to the age of twenty, and then were marched out of the State, to go where they would. Thus, no doubt, many colonies were formed ; and the Mamertines of Sicily in particular derived their descent from such an exodus. Such a religion, in the hands of a commercial and legal people, became very formal. " The gods confronted man just as a creditor confronted his its formality debtor — each of them had a right to certain performances and andunreaUty-payments; and as the number of the gods was as great as the number of the incidents in earthly life, and the neglect or wrong performance of the worship of each god revenged itself in the corresponding incident, it was a laborious and difficult task even to gain a knowledge of one's religious obligations," and the priests gained a corresponding influence. Yet the individual man had to discharge his religious obligations himself; and no doubt through this there came to be various ceremonies in which a sham or a literal fulfilment of an obligation at little expense was substituted for something more genuine. " They presented to the lord of the sky heads of onions and poppies, that he might launch his lightnings at these rather than at the heads of men. In payment of the offering annually demanded by father Tiber, thirty puppets plaited of rushes were annually thrown into the stream." Legality, not genuine devotion, zeal for the State and its progress, not for the righteousness of the individual, were the keynotes of Roman religion. It was on the whole a religion easy to understand ; it THE ROMAN RELIGION. 435 powerfully aided the State in its growth and in maintaining its stability ; but it did not tend to give rise to great works of imagination, of poetry, of art, or even to great religious books. Hence it died, while Hinduism and Buddhism have lived. Greek influence may be credited with the origin of the third college at Rome, of men skilled in interpreting oracles, originally the keepers and interpreters of the Sibylline books, which contained prophetic Keepers of utterances and oracles in Greek. At first two men were charged the sibylline • books with this function, who had two slaves skilled in Greek ; later there were ten and then fifteen members in this college, who consulted the books only by special command of the Senate. The books were destroyed wheh the temple of Capitoline Jove was burnt, in b.c. 82 ; but new ones were collected and compiled in later times. The Delphian Apollo was also consulted by the Romans in comparatively early days of the Republic ; and Hercules was adopted into current conceptions as a god of gain by special adventure or good fortune. Generals gave a tenth of their spoil, and merchants a tenth of their property, to Hercules at the altar in the cattle market, and business agreements were confirmed at the same altar. His altars were everywhere to be seen in the streets and on country roads. Castor and Pollux, Hermes as Mercury, and iEsculapius were also among the Greek gods early adopted by the Romans. We must view the moral character of the Romans by the light of the conquests they achieved as well as the religion they believed in. Justice to equals, sternness to inferiors, to women, to children, were among its characters. The religion was certainly a binding force.racter of early but not one of affection. Morals were cherished, such at least as oman could be seen to affect the welfare of the State ; but any questions of con- duct which did not affect the State or the father's rule were most probably decided on selfish principles ; and the aristocrat and the rich man did largely as they liked, within the limits of State welfare. Extravagance was sternly repressed, however; rich men were heavily taxed ; and we may view Roman morals under the earlier Republic as the most advanced the world had yet seen in general practice. A more than Chinese rule of the father over his family gave him power to kill or to sell his son ; and this discipline, loveless and stern, carried out in State and army, enabled the Romans to conquer the world. In the third and second centuries b.c. the State religion, Hellenised, be- came more expensive ; and in 196 b.c. a new college of three banquet masters was added to the other three. The priests gained more privileges, nigm and were more highly endowed ; and it was rare for an estate to descend without a heavy sacrificial obligation as a perpetual charge. A tenth of a man's property was often given to religion, and with the pro- ceeds a public feast was given twice a month at Rome. More money was spent, and more pedantry was displayed in every department of religion, and insensibly the old beliefs were being undermined. The consuls began to arrange the auguries to suit their own views ; and poets and philosophers 436 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. began to explain away the gods, leading to belief in no gods. Then super- stitions, conjuring, charms, and astrology from the East began to make way. In b.c. 204 the Phrygian goddess Cybele, mother of the gods, was publicly admitted among the Roman divinities, and a rough stone was imported as the real Mother Cybele with great rejoicing ; and her eunuch priests in Oriental costume inarched through the streets with foreign music and begged from door to door. A few years afterwards Bacchus worship was introduced, and corrupt orgies were celebrated, lead- ing rapidly to widespread crime and immorality. Though many thousands were sentenced to death for these crimes, the evil was not sup- pressed. Against it the pure, well-governed life of the type of Cato the Elder had little chance of permanence. With him may be said to have disappeared that grand morality which was a reality in ancient Rome, that zealous industry for State and family which made Rome great. Crime, im- DegTadation morality, and luxury spread, as vividly described in Mommsen of morals. (Book iii. chap, xiii.); and the festivals of the gods were made the occasion for extravagant banquets and display, women taking a more and more prominent part. Grand spectacles and gladiatorial games became com- mon. Money and pleasure were the new gods. "All shifts seemed allowable to attain rapidly to riches — plundering and begging, cheating on the part of contractors and swindling on the part of speculators, usurious trading in money and in grain, even the turning of purely moral relations such as friendship and marriage to economic account. Marriage especially became on both sides a matter of mercantile speculation ; marriages for money were common." Are we reading the description of rich Rome only '? Cannot the same things be said to a large extent of England in the nineteenth century ; and if so, are we so much better than the Romans ? Later still, from 150 to 100 b.c, extravagance and immorality increased at Rome to a frightful extent. Luxury and Hellenism, with scepticism The later about the national gods, were almost universal among the educated Republic. classeSj though there are signs that the uneducated were not so bad, at any rate in many parts of Italy outside Rome. Yet the example of the leaders was most evil in its effects. There was in progress a combina- tion of Greek and Roman civilisation in which the old faith and the stern morality were largely lost. Instead there were unbelief, state-ceremonial, and the Greek gods, popular superstition, and the introduction of Asiatic and Egyptian sects. Not being original in philosophy, the Romans became bad imitators only ; and the schools we described in the last chapter gave their names if not their thoughts to those Romans who cared to think at all seriously on such subjects. The Stoics were the most influential, for their toleration of popular and State religion, their view of every phenomenon as Decay of in its degree divine, their honour for deceased heroes, their casu- reiigion. ist,ical morality, suited the intelligent Roman very well. Many said, that while the intelligent had no need of religion, the populace must be fed and controlled by signs and wonders ; and religious rites and grand THE ROMAN RELIGION. 437 festivals were kept up more than ever. Indeed, the providing of expensive sacrifices and games came to be a qualification for magistracy, which none but the rich could afford. "We need not detail the foreign elements which found their way to Rome ; it must suffice to say that they were abundant, varied, and not in any way an improvement on the beliefs which Rome had now laid aside. These evils grew, and were exaggerated up to the time of the Caesars. Julius Caesar, at least in some respects, endeavoured to stem the torrent of evil, making regulations against extravagance, and, to a consider- juiius able extent, enforced them. Morality and virtue had almost C3esar- become unknown ; crimes of all kinds, including murder, were frequent. Caesar's police at least checked this open licence. As he tolerated the Egyptian gods in Rome, so he permitted the Jews to worship freely there, and so established at Rome the germ of the mighty Christian revolution. But the spirit of the people is shown by the introduction at the gladiatorial games of the practice of deciding as to the fate of the vanquished by the will of the spectators. Men of strength and courage were so far without a field for their labour, that free men were known to sell themselves to be gladiators. Nothing new arose in Rome itself to purify morals and religion, except so far as the rise of imperialism led to the adoption of measures needed to secure military unity. The Epicureans and Cynics extended their influence. Under the Empire some renewal of life came to the old religion, with its Greek transformation. The Emperor Augustus discerned that religion might be made use of to strengthen his empire ; and his super- stition about many things is well established. His very title embodied an idea of sacredness allied to divinity. He rebuilt old temples and restored ancient customs ; and he added three important new worships and temples, those of Venus Genitrix, Mars Ultor (the avenger), and Apollo Palatinus. The latter he particularly affected, often wearing the attributes of his favourite deity. He also endeavoured to reform public morals as to expenses, marriage, and the behaviour of women. He restored (in b.c. 16) the " secular games," which had previously in- cluded expiatory sacrifices to the deities of the lower world, Pluto and Proserpine, but which he replaced by Apollo and Diana. It was for this occasion that Horace's " Carmen Saeculare " was composed, in magnification of Rome and Augustus. The Emperor was made a member of all the priestly colleges, and supreme pontiff; the latter title was held by the Emperors up to the reign of Gratian, that is, for nearly four centuries. The Emperors were supreme in matters of religion. This supremacy was recog- nised in many quarters of the Roman Empire by the introduction of the Emperor's name into the old festivals, and the celebration of many new ones in his honour. Augustus, in the latter part of his life, built a new temple to Vesta adjoining his temple of Apollo ; and his own palace assumed many of the characters of a temple. The people, who had already acquiesced in the deification of Julius Caesar, made Augustus a god during his lifetime ; 438 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and we can trace in the history of early Roman Emperors the process by which many at least of the ancient gods came to be worshipped. Temples of Augustus, of Rome, and of the living Roman Emperor were rapidly built in many cities, served by priests of Augustus and of Rome. These became in each province the heads of the national religion, and, as such, played a great part in endeavouring to put down Christianity. Space does not permit us to follow here the history of the downfall of the Roman religion before the advance of Christianity. We can but note the singular accord between some of the teachings and beliefs of Seneca (died a.d. 65) and several of the Christian doctrines, such as the forgiveness of injuries and the overcoming of evil with good ; and the lofty moral tone of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180), whose practical wisdom, control of bodily passions, and belief in the necessity of obeying conscience, make him very remarkable among Roman Emperors. Seneca, though far from offering a bright example of moral conduct, — for he was the confidential adviser of the notorious Agrippina, and his having been the tutor of Nero does not redound to his credit as a success- ful inculcator of moral precepts, — must be judged in the light of his evil surroundings. Though he made happiness the main object of life, his statement of his aim is not an ignoble one : " True happiness is to be free from perturbations, to understand our duties toward God and man ; to enjoy the present, without any anxious dependence upon the future ; not to amuse ourselves with either hopes or fears, but to rest satisfied with what we have, which is abundantly sufficient ; for he that is so wants nothing." But, he adds, there is no condition of life that excludes a wise man from discharging his duty : and in everything a man is to be honest and conscientious. Seneca has a comfortable belief in Providence, saying that God deals with us as a good father does by his children ; tries us, hardens us, fits us for himself; chastises some under the appearance of blessing, and blesses some when appearing to chastise them. He teaches that men ought to live for others, and be kind to slaves ; and that the mind ought to rule the body. He strenuously denounced gladiatorial exhibitions. Marcus Aurelius, as Emperor, was an upholder of the Roman State religion and a persecutor of the Christians who denied it, and who especially denied the deity of the Roman Emperor. Yet he did many noble acts, and regarded mankind as a brotherhood, bound to strive for the common good. " No man," he says, " can do me a real injury, because no man can force me to misbehave myself ; nor can I find it in my heart to hate or be angry with one of my own nature and family." He had not such a particular belief in Providence as Seneca, though he thought the gods directed all for the best ; and neither he nor Seneca had a very confi- dent faith in a future life. [Mommsen's "Rome"; Boissier's " Roman Religion from Augustus to the Autonines"; Smith's Dictionaries; " Encyclopaedia Britannica," under names of gods.] CHAPTER V. COe fteligfon of tbe (Teutons (including ^rantunabians). Imperfect materials— Grimm's Teutonic mythology — Animism and ancestor worship— Woden, or Odin — His attributes — Trigg, or Frigga — Thor, or Donar — His hammer— His worship in Norway - Tiu, or Ziu— Fro, or Frey— His temple at Trondheim— Freyja— Njord— /Eger- Balder— His death- Explanations of the Balder myth — Heimdal— Bragi— Goddesses — Erda or Nerthus- Loki - Hel and her domain- The Teuton cosmogony— Origin of the gods— Valhalla Its influence— The ash- tree Ygdrasil— The Supreme Deity — Prayer and sacrifice— Human and animal victims — Fruit and drink offerings— Worship in woods — The temple Tanfana— Images of the gods— Destruction of Irminsul— The priests— Beliefs in spirits, etc.— Ragnarok, or the end of the world— Doubtful points— Moral condition. ALTHOUGH the native religion of the Teutons, — including in that name Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, as well as Germans, — was practised much later than that of the Greeks and Romans, we know far less about it, because the Teutons were less literary and cultivated than the imperfect Mediterranean peoples, and because, apparently, the northern materials, religion was less fully and definitely developed. Yet we have in the collections of old myths known as the Eddas, — the older believed to have been compiled in the twelfth century in the Orkney or Shetland Islands by an Icelander, the younger in the thirteenth, by Snorre Sturlason, the Icelandic historian, — and in the writings of Are, an Icelandic priest who wrote in the early part of the twelfth century, in the " Historia Danica" of Saxo Grammaticus, written in Latin, and in various writings of Tacitus, Dis, Marullinus, etc., extremely valuable materials for study. l But it remained for the nineteenth century to furnish us with a most important contribution to the elucidation of Teutonic religion in the gigantic work of Jacob Grimm (1785-1863), " Teutonic Myth- Grim ology,"2 in which philosophy, folk-tales, old customs, and anti- "Teutonic^ quarian remains were combined with the old literature to reconstruct a system of ideas and practices which had long vanished from general recognition. He demonstrated the close affinity of speech and mythology between the Scandinavian and the German divisions of the Teuton race, the joint possession by all Teutonic languages of many terms relating to religious worship, and similar changes of gods into devils, of old festivals into Christian ones, and the remains of old beliefs about the gods in folk-tales and common phrases. Consequently Grimm is a great source from which knowledge on the subject must be drawn, although there is still much to be done in tracing the relations between the Teutonic and other Aryan mythologies. 1 See the works of Are (ed. Vigfusson and P. York Powell) ; the Elder and the Younger Edda; Saxo's "Historia Danica"; Jacob Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology"; Eydberg's " Teutonic Mythology " ; Rasmus B. Anderson's " Norse Mythology." 2 First published in 1835 ; now obtainable in an excellent English translation. 439 440 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Mr. York Powell ascribes to the Teutons animistic and anthropomorphic beliefs, ^as well as ancestor worship. They believed that all inanimate •Animism and °bjects and animate beings had spirits akin to their own. The ancestor wizard and medicine-man flourished among them, and dreams worship. were greatty regarded. Thus all the main primitive elements or types of religion existed among them. In addition, certain gods had attained prominence under cognate names in many tribes ; but each had more or less its own special gods and observances. Consequently we find many variations of the same myths, and many tales related of different personages in different localities ; but on the whole the general cast of the religion of the Teutonic peoples was the same. The highest deity, by general consent, among the Teutons, was Woden, Wodan, or Wuotan, otherwise Odin (the Norse form). The word Woden, or means all-powerful, all-penetrating ; Woden bestows shape and Odin. beauty on man and things, gives song, victory in war, the fertility of soil, and the highest blessings. With such a warlike people, he was prominently the arranger of wars and battles, and thus he was sometimes confused with Tiu, the god of war. He is sometimes described as looking down on the earth through a window, and having Frigga sitting by his side. He took up the heroes who fell in fight into his heavenly dwelling. In the North, faring to Odin, visiting Odin, meant simply dying. The Norse Odin is represented as one-eyed, wearing a broad hat and wide mantle. He has a wonderful spear, which he lent to heroes. To him were attached two wolves and two ravens, following the fight and seizing on corpses. Just as in Gaulish mythology there is a god who represents several Greek and Roman types, so we find Woden also as a water-spirit or god, an- ms swering to Neptune. Others of his attributes are more like Hermes attributes. an(j Apollo. Severe pestilences spring from him, and also their cure. There are multitudinous details about the wanderings and journeys of Woden, or Odin, and his visits to giants and men. The sun is his eye. To him are traced up all the races of heroes and kings. The number of place-names in various countries compounded with his name shows the extent over which places were sacred to him or named after him. In England may be named Wednesbury and Wednesfield. The association of the name with Wednesday ( = Woden's-day) is another evidence of his importance. In Southern Germany his worship died out sooner than in the North, while the Gotlanders and Danes worshipped him more than the Swedes and Norwegians. In the Norse sagas Thor usually took precedence of Odin. The so-called historical Odin, the leader of the migration of the original Teutons or Asas from a land near the Black Sea a century before Christ, appears to be mythical. Frigg (Frigga) is the wife of Odin (distinct from Freyja, the sister of Freyr), and represents the inhabited earth, free, beautiful, lovable. It is Frigg, or doubtful which of the two gives the name to Friday. Frigg, as Fngga. consort of Odin, takes highest rank among the goddesses ; she 442 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. knows the fates of men, is consulted by Odin, presides over marriages, and is prayed to by the childless. Balder is her son, whose fate she and Odin mourn together. Returning to the great gods, Thor, Thunar, or Donar occupies the chief place after Odin. He rules over clouds and rain, lightning and Tbor, or thunder ; yet he is a fatherly god, though a punishing one, Donax. ancj frequently angiy. This conception answers well to that of Jupiter Tonans. Inasmuch as crops are greatly influenced by rains and thunderstorms, the control of them is attributed to Thor ; so also Thor, like Odin, presides over the events of war, and receives his share of the spoils. Indeed, in the Norse mythology the warlike exploits of Thor greatly predominate over his peaceful achievements. Thor is represented as enormously strong, with a long red beard, fiery eyes, girt with a belt of strength, swinging a hammer in his hand, wearing a crown of stars on his head. He rides in a chariot drawn by r' two goats. He is terrible when angry, but naturally good-natured. His hammer (mjolner) can split the mountains ; the belt of strength re- doubles his divine strength; he always wears an iron gauntlet when wielding the hammer. Longfellow, in his " Tales of a "Wayside Inn," has vigorously represented some of the characteristics of Thor : — " The light thou beholdest Stream through the heavens, In flashes of crimson, Is but my red beard Blown by the night-wind, Affrighting the nations. ###### Mine eyes are the lightning ; The wheels of my chariot Roll in the thunder, The blows of my hammer Ring in the earthquake." Thor's wife, Sif, is a symbol of the earth, and gold is termed her hair, Loki having cut off her hair and having caused dwarfs to make golden hair for her. Thor is the true national god of the Norwegians ; and his temples and statues were the most numerous in Norway and Sweden. Even into His worship comparatively modern times there was special observance of in Norway. Thursday or Thorsday ; and the Esthonians thought Thursday more sacred than Sunday. According to Grimm, his sturdy strength recommended him specially to certain peoples ; and " prayers, oaths, curses retained his memory oftener and longer than that of any other god." The numerous adventures and achievements recorded of him in the myths we have not space to refer to. As showing how intensely the old Teutons valued military prowess, we find their third great god, Tiu, Tyr, or Ziu, associated with warlike deeds, THE RELIGION OF THE TEUTONS. 443 Tiu, or Ziu. though his sphere is wider than that ; and it is here that we find a name as well as a signification closely like that of Zeus and Dyaus, the cases of which word are very parallel with the Gothic forms of Tiu. Although represented in the Edda as Odin's son, he becomes equal with him as a war god. He is the god of martial honour, the most daring of all gods, the giver of valour. The Romans identified Tiu with their Mars from the prominence of the martial character. The name Tuesday, wide- spread among the Teutonic peoples, is paralleled by the Latin Marti* dies, French, mardi. Fro, or Frey, was a divine being (son of Njord) presiding over rain and sunshine and the fruits of the earth, and dispensing wealth and good harvests. He had a ship Skid- bladner, made by the dwarfs, and capable of containing all the gods, with their weapons and war stores. Grimm connects him with the Roman Liber. The Edda as- cribes to him a sword of surpas- sing powers, which could put itself in motion against the giants. In Trondheim, during the reign of 01 af Tryggvason (king Fro, or Frey. 995-1000 A.D.) there His temple at still existed a temple Trondheim. of Frey, in which he was zeal- ously worshipped. The king overthrew the wooden statue of the god, and scolded the peasants for their foolish idolatry ; where- upon they replied that Frey had often talked with them, foretold TH0K- them the future, and given them good seasons and peace. There are numerous records of temples of Frey, sanctioned by wonders and miracles, in Iceland and Scandinavia. At Upsala, Frey was worshipped in conjunc- tion with Odin and Thor. Freyja, sister of Frey, as a goddess ranks next to Frigg, already men- tioned. She is the Teuton Venus, and was invoked by lovers. The elder Edda thus describes Freyja and her abode in heaven : — Freyja. " Folkvang 'tis called Where Freyja has right To dispose of the hall-seats. Every day of the slain She chooses the half And leaves half to Odin." 444 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Her husband, Oder, left her, and travelled into far countries, since which Freyja continually seeks him, weeping tears of pure gold. Hence gold is in poetry termed Freyja's tears. "Women after death go to Freyja. All the varied emotions of love are exemplified by her. The name of her abode, " Folkvang," signifies the human dwellings, since no human being escapes her influence. The father of Frey or Freyja, Njord, is a water deity, ruling over the winds and controlling the sea, in its relation to man. Hence he was „. . invoked by fishermen and sailors. Over the raging ocean out- side, iEger (the terrible) reigns, far from land. He is rather a ger' giant than a god. He marries Rau, who has a net that catches those who venture out to sea. The nine daughters of iEger and Rau represent the varying aspects of the waves. The story of Balder (Paltar), though there are fewer traces of his worship than of that of the superior gods, is perhaps the most attractive in Scandi- navian mythology. Balder is the son of Odin and Frigg, and is the favourite of gods and men. He is rich in physical beauty, and rays of light issue from him. He is mild, wise, and eloquent; and his judgments, once pronounced, are unchangeable. Into his heavenly mansion nothing unclean can enter. The critical point in his history is reached when he has terrible dreams threatening his life. On his relating them to the gods, Frigg took an oath from everything not to harm Balder, but forgot the mistletoe. Then the gods wrestled with and struck Balder with darts and stones, but nothing could harm him. But the evil spirit Loki found out the power of the mistletoe, and guided the hand of blind Other (a god of war) to throw it at Balder, who was pierced to the heart and died. The gods were smitten with utter grief, and at last besought Hermod the nimble to ride into the lower world to ask Hel, the goddess of the grave, to release Balder. Meanwhile Balder's dead body was burned on a great ship, amid great commotions of the elements ; and Nanna, Balder's wife, died on the same pyre. This is told with great elaboration in the Eddas. Finally Hermod found Balder occupying the most dis- tinguished seat in Hel's kingdom. Hel granted Balder the right to return to the gods, if all things living as well as lifeless would weep for him. Everything wept except the witch-giantess Thok, the step-daughter of Loki. The general explanation of this myth is, that Balder represents summer, Explanations wnicn *s finally overcome by darkness which long pervades all of the Balder nature, till the thaw after frosts makes everything weep, and then summer returns. But a still deeper significance is read in it by some. So long as Balder, the best and wisest of the gods, lived, evil could not prevail. Loki, and the powers of evil, at last, after fierce contests, kill Balder, and it is only after this that the world can be renovated and purified, and Balder can return to the upper world to recommence a reign of happiness and peace. He is believed to represent also the heavenly light of the soul and the mind, purity, innocence, and piety. Most of the gods treated of after this are peculiar, or almost so, to the THE RELIGION OF THE TEUTONS. 445 Bragi. Scandinavian mythology. Heimdal, a son of Odin, is a bright and gracious god, and a powerful deity of strange origin, of whom the elder . Edda says, — " Bom was I of mothers niue, Son am I of sisters nine." He is watchman of the gods, with a powerful horn ; and one of his functions is to keep the gods from forcing their way out of heaven. No sound escapes him ; he sees by night as well as by day, etc., etc. Bragi is an- other son of Odin, and the god of wisdom, poetry, and eloquence. At the Scandinavian sacri- ficial feasts a horn consecrated to Bragi was often drunk from by the guests, who at the same time pro- mised to perform some great deed, to furnish matter for song. Several of the goddesses have al- ready been . Goddesses, mentioned, together with their husbands or sisters. " They are," says G-rimm, " thought of chiefly as divine mothers, who travel round and visit houses, from whom the human race learns the occupations and arts of housekeeping and husbandry, spinning, weaving, tending the hearth, sowing, and reaping. These labours bring with them peace and quiet in the land ; and the memory of them abides in charming traditions." Erda, the earth, appears under many appellations among the Teutons, as the fruitful, teeming mother. Tacitus relates that numerous Teutonic peoples worshipped Nerthus, who was mother Earth. She was ?&&&., or said to be worshipped in an island at a great festival, during Nertbus. which the priest communed with the goddess, and then performed a secret THE GODDESS FREYA. 446 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. bathing of the goddess and her vestments and vehicle in a lake. The other goddesses, numerous enough, are too indistinct, or too considerably derived from Roman sources, to be dealt with at length here. Loke, or Loki, the spirit of evil, appears among the gods in various seductive guises, and he pervades all nature as a corrupting influence. Originally he appears as the companion and relative of Odin, and in the Elder Edda he says, — " Do thou mind, Odin, That we in time's morning Mixed blood together ! Then thou pretendedst That thou never wouldst ask a drink Unless it was offered to both of us." He was fabled to have taken part in the creation of man, contributing the senses and passions, the sources of evil desires. He became sly and treacherous, beautiful in appearance, but inconstant and evil, the slanderer of the gods and the contriver of deceit and fraud. Thus nobody honours him as a god. His name is variously derived from air and flame. In union with a giantess he begot the wolf Fenrer ; Hel, who presides over the land of death, is his daughter. He is represented as leading the gods into all kinds of predicaments and calamities, though often extricating them by his artifices. Through his devices gold was cursed and became the source of many calamities to mortals, as related in the Edda, in the songs about Sigurd, Brynhild, Gudrun. The whole constitutes in effect a great epic, which may be read in the Volsunga Saga, as translated by Eirikr Magnusson and William Morris. The goddess or giantess Hel has a gloomy domain under one of the roots of Ygdrasil, surrounded by a fence, and watered by rivers. A dog Hel and her stands outside of a cave and loudly howls. Hel binds the dying domain. man with chains which cannot be broken. She has a nether- most place for the wicked, with a palace named Anguish, a table, Famine, and a bed, Care. We must now turn to the cosmogony current among the Teutons. Originally there existed nothing where the world is ; there was simply a The Teuton space or gap between the two poles, cloud and fire. In the cloud cosmogony. was a springy out of which twelve rivers flowed. By a mysterious process, by the might of him who sent the heat (i.e. the Supreme Being), out of thawing drops of water Ymer was formed, a giant and evil principle : from him arose the race of the giants. Later a cow arose, from whose milk Ymer was nourished. The cow fed by licking stones, and after much lick- ing there was born from the spot a man, Bor or Buri, who became the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve, the gods and rulers of heaven and earth. There is much more of this fanciful mythology, which we cannot go into ; and moreover, it is by no means certain how far it was believed in by the people as a part of their religion. The giant Ymer being killed, his huge body supplied material out of which the gods formed all the world, while THE RELIGION OF THE TEUTONS. 447 mankind were formed out of two trees on the seashore, to which the gods gave breath. In this mythology the gods, ass (plural cesir), origin of appear as a higher product, after an imperfect first creation. the£°ds- They dwell together in Asgard, with higher heavens above them. Twelve gods were reckoned, and twenty-six goddesses. Odin dwelt in a great hall, Valhal or Valhalla, its ceiling supported by spears, its roof formed of shields. To it Odin invited all those who were wounded or fell in battle ; Vfllha.llfl. there they were fetched and waited upon by the Valkyries, Odin's waiting-maids. Similarly distinct abodes are assigned to the gods and goddesses. The belief in Valhalla exercised a great influence on the Norsemen. The warrior was cheered when dying by the thought that the Valkyries had been sent to invite him to Valhalla ; only by true courage could influence of he win Odin's welcome. The cowards he would despise and vai^ana- drive away, and thus it was misery to the Norseman not to die valiantly in battle. In Valhalla there is a perpetual food, a miraculous boar, cooked every day, but becoming whole again every night ; and perpetual supplies of mead and water furnish them with drink. One of the most interesting Norse conceptions was that of the ash-tree Ygdrasil, whose branches furnish bodies for mankind, whose roots extend through all worlds, whose branches reach through the heavens, The ash-tree and which fosters all living things. One of the three great roots Y&drasil- of Ygdrasil stretches to the giants, and under this is Mimer's fountain, in which wisdom and wit are hidden. Under the root which extended to the asa-gocls is a holy fountain, where the gods sit in judgment. By this foun- tain there dwell three maidens, Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (Present, Past, and Future), called norns, who fix the lifetime of men, and dispense good destinies ; while other evil norns give men bad destinies or misfortunes. The Supreme Deity cannot be identified with any of the Norse gods, but rather with that " him who sent it," who was before the beginning of creation. And the word "God," which is a very old Teutonic The supreme word, is not identified with any particular named god, whence Deity- we may possibly derive the conclusion that the named gods are mainly ancestors or hero gods, or personifications of powers or departments of nature. Both prayer and sacrifice to the gods date from the earliest times we can discern among the Teutonic peoples. Sacrifices were not necessarily, though frequently, of animals. The gods were invited to take prayerand their share of human food, and later, separate offerings were made sacrifice- to them. They were frequently thank-offerings, a share of the gift or gifts bestowed by a god being offered to him. Other sacrifices were expiatory, and offered on occasions of disaster, famine, pestilence, etc. Human victims were, no doubt, occasionally offered, in circum- Humanand stances of special gravity ; frequently they were captured enemies, animal or slaves or criminals. Horses were favourite animals for sacrifice, horseflesh being very generally eaten by the Teutons. The head was not 44« THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. eaten, but specially consecrated to the gods. Oxen, boars, pigs, rams, and! goats were also offered ; white being a favourite colour for sacrificial animals. Among the Norse peoples the animal was killed on a sacrificial stone, and the blood caught in a trench or in vessels ; with it the sacred vessels were smeared and the worshippers were sprinkled. A great part of the meat was eaten by the priests and people. Fruit offerings occupy but a small space in the Teutonic records ; but drink is more prominent. On any festal occasion some of the food would M be laid aside for the household spirits, and some drink would be Fruit and . drink offer- poured out to the gods ; and at great festivals and sacrifices the mgs" gods were separately honoured, and horns drunk to them. This, was called drinking their minne, or memorial draught; it was also the custom to bemoan absent or deceased friends in this way. The old Teuton words for temple also mean " wood," indicating that primitive Teuton worship was conducted in woods or groves. " There dwelt worship in tne deity," says Grimm, " veiling his form in the foliage ; there woods, the hunter must present to him the game he has killed, and the herdsman his horses and oxen and rams." There are scantier traces of worship of the gods on hill-tops, in caves, or by the river side. In the groves no images are mentioned as being set up, and no temple walls appear to have enclosed the sacred space. But altars and sacred vessels were erected there, and heads of animals were hung from boughs. The proper name of Holy Wood, common in many parts of Germany, probably is a relic of this ancient worship. There are, however, traces of the existence of built temples among the Teutons. Tacitus gives an account of the destruction of a celebrated temple The temple °f the Marsi called Tanfana, in a.d. 14; and he also describes a Tanfana, worship of Mother Earth, the carrying about of her image, and its return to the " temple." But descriptions of these temples are very scanty and imperfect. As soon as Christianity gained headway, we have records of their burning and destroying both sacred groves and temples, and often of the Christians building a church on the same sites. We hear of an impor- tant temple of Frey, at Upsala, where was a famous oracle and place of sacrifice. Heligoland was once a noted Teuton place of assembly, with a temple. The temples had the usual sacred character, and no improper action (that is, censured by the god or his priests,) must be done within their precincts. Images of the gods, of some kind, were no doubt made ; they were of wood, stone, and metal, but to what extent they were made in human forms images of we do n°t know, as none have come down to us. They may the gods, often have been but rude symbols, bearing some form associated with the gods. In some cases they had covered carriages, analogous to the Hindu idol-cars, in which the images were dragged about over the fields, to give them fertility. Sometimes we hear of three images of gods seated side by side ; that of Thor was the most common in Norway. From the Frankish annals we learn that Charlemagne destroyed a THE RELIGION OE THE TEUTONS. 449 principal seat of Saxon heathendom in Westphalia, called Irminsal, or Ermensul ; and the accounts rgive us to understand that there Destruction was a celebrated worshipped pillar designated by this name. It of Irminsal- appears to have been a great wooden pillar in the open air, as a symbol of the supreme god. The early German priests were generally chiefs or leaders as well, and exercised a powerful influence, being judges as well as priests, controlling discipline in war, to which they carried such images of the gods as they possessed. But details about them are very scanty, and the same is the case as regards the Norse priesthood. They no doubt exercised the functions of divination, as well as of sacrifice and prayer. Prophetesses were in high repute among the Teutons, and they were much occupied in divination. We have not space to describe the crowds of spirits of various kinds, heroes, giants, elves, dwarfs, etc., with which the Teutons peopled the un- seen world. They belong to the domain of animism, which can Belief in be studied abundantly in the pages of Grimm, and in the folk- sPints- etc- lore of the Teutonic peoples, but which cannot be framed into any body ot doctrine definitely taught as a religion. There is a vast body of mythology too, relating to magic, ghosts, devils, animals, and plants, which it is im- possible to enter on here, which would be of great importance if we were endeavouring to trace the nature, or growth, or varied forms of the religious sentiment. We must briefly refer, in conclusion, to the ideas associated with the name Ragnarok, which signifies the final catastrophe of the world, and the death of the gods. Throughout the mythology, events Ragnarok) or happening to the gods foreshadow their final destruction. The the end of rr. b . ° . . . the world, growing depravity of the world precedes this, attended with frightful calamities, akin to those described in the Christian Apocalypse. Strange miracles and phenomena will abound. The great contests between the evil spirits and the good, and the final destruction of all are grandly described in the elder Edda ; but it is difficult to be certain that parts of it are not a reflection from the Apocalypse, and therefore we do not go into details. When the earth and the heavens have all been consumed by flames, a new heaven and a new earth arise. " The fields unsown yield their growth. All ills cease: Balder comes." There are halls for the good and virtuous, in some of which all who delight in drinking good drink will find plenty. A terrible hell also is imagined for the evil, built entirely of the backs of serpents, with heads turned inwards, vomiting venom. " Then comes the Mighty One To the great judgment ; From heaven he comes, He who guides all things : Judgments he utters : Strffes he appeases, Laws he ordains To flourish for ever." G G 45° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. It should be borne in mind, as a qualification of any too confident con- clusion on the Teutonic religion, that scholars vary in their estimate as to Doubtful the degree in which Christianity influenced what we know of points, the religions it superseded in the North. But in this account the elaborations found in the later Edda are very largely omitted. We have made no attempt, also, to trace the influence of totemism in Teuton countries, which was no doubt considerable. The moral principles of the Teutons may be summed up briefly thus: honour and kindness among kin and tribesmen, deceit, violence, and enmity Moral con- to all outside. Bravery was a cardinal virtue, and sincerity dition. anc| generosity were appreciated towards kinsfolk and friends. Reverence certainly existed both towards gods, superiors, and the old, but was liable to be overborne by passion and self-seeking. Great cruelty was often shown towards slaves, strangers, and enemies ; and the witchcraft and superstitions believed in indicated a comparatively low intellectual elevation. HKKTHA LAKE, ISLAND OF UUGKN. CHAPTER VI. CI)f Religion of tbe J&Iabonfan& Nature and ancestor worship— Svarog— Dazhbog—Perun, or Perkunos— His great image at Kief— Its destruction— The sacred oak— Other gods— Svantovit— Temple at Riigen— Four-headed image — Great expense of service— The horse of Svantovit— Great harvest festival -The horn of mead— Zernabog — Lado and Lada — Inferior spirits— The journey after death — Heaven and hell — Haunt- ing spirits— The house spirit — Witches, charms, and spells— Priesthoods and temples— Imperfect AS the latest race to enter into civilised ranks, it is not to be wondered at that the religion of the Slavs1 was less elaborate than that of the Teutons. It is doubtful whether there ever existed a Slavonic collection of poems at all comparable to the Eddas, still less to the Vedas ; but there still remain isolated songs and fragments, which illustrate the popular ideas, even if they fall far short of what we might desire. We find reason to believe that they combined, like other Aryan peoples, worship of the forces Nature and of nature with that of the spirits of deceased ancestors. While ancestor wor- ,.,, 11 . . ship, they worshipped the sun, moon, stars, and elements, or their spiri- tual governors or actuating powers, they most deeply reverenced the forces producing storms, and had a thunder-god Perun, who may be compared with the Teutonic Thor, and who ultimately became the supreme god. There appears, however, as in the Vedic religion, to have been a gra- dual transference of the supremacy from one to another series . Svarog. of gods. Thus it is believed that the earliest great god was Svarog, said to mean " shining one," and to correspond to the Vedic god 1 W. R. S. Ralston : " Songs of the Russian People," and "Russian Folk-Tales ; " G. F. Maclear : " The Slavs" (Conversion of the West). 431 452 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Varuna, and the Greek Ouranos. Both the sun (Dazhbog) and fire (Ogon) are described as his children, to whom he deputes the work of creation, and the actual rule over creation. The word Dazhbog appears to mean Day-god, the last syllable signifying god. Perun, or Perkunos, who afterwards became the chief deity, has been identified with the Vedic god Parganja (supposed by some to be another Perun, or name for Indra), the thunderer, the showerer, the beautiful. In Perkunos. Lithuania we read of a statue of him, which held in its hand " a precious stone like fire, shaped in the image of the lightning." Before it a fire of oak-wood was constantly kept burning. His name still lingers in popular expressions about thunder. The following is said to be a prayer formerly said in Livonia at a feast in the beginning of spring, " Perkons ! Father ! thy children lead this faultless victim to thy altar. Bestow, 0 father, thy blessing on the plough and on the corn. May golden straw, with great well-filled ears, rise abundantly as rushes. Drive away all black, haily clouds to the great moors, forests, and large deserts, where they will not frighten mankind, and give sunshine and rain, gentle falling rain, in order that the crops may thrive." In one of the Lettish songs we are told that " Father Perkons has nine sons ; three strike, three thunder, three lighten." Among the "White Russians Perun is described as tall and well- shaped, with black hair, and a long golden beard. He rides in a flaming car, grasping in his left hand a quiver full of arrows, and in his right a fiery bow, and sometimes he flies abroad on a great millstone, which is supported by the mountain spirits who are in subjection to him, and who by their flight give rise to storms. In the spring Perun goes forth in his fiery car, and crushes with his blazing darts the demons, from whose wounds the blood is sometimes described as streaming forth. (Ralston.) The great image of Perun at Kief, set up on rising ground, had a trunk of wood, a head of silver, and moustaches of gold, and held a mace. Near the end of the tenth century this was still worshipped until Vladimir, image at who reigned over the Russians at Kief, was converted to Christi- Kief' anity, and had the statue pulled down, dragged across the hills at a horse's tail, flogged all the while, and finally flung into the Dnieper. its destruc- The people called on their god to show his power, but nothing tion- happened, and the conversion of the Russians was rapid. Simi- larly the image of Perun at Novgorod was thrown into the Volga. Perun's bow has been identified with the rainbow, and his flaming dart has been represented as a golden key, with which he unlocked the earth, brought to light its concealed treasures, and locked away fugitives from the reach of wizards. His golden key is also interpreted as the light- ning with which he breaks up the frost-bound earth in spring, or pierces the clouds and lets loose the rains. As among numerous other Aryan peoples, the oak was a sacred tree The sacred among t ne Slavonians ; and it was connected with the worship of oak. Perkunos by the oak-fire already mentioned. Together with the statue of Perun at Kief, there were the images of THE RELIGION OF THE SLAVONIANS. 453 other gods. Khors and Dazhbog, probably different forms of the Sun-god f Stribog, god of the winds, Simargla and Mokosh, the latter two other gods, being otherwise unknown. Svantovit is the name given to the chief god of the Baltic Slavonians within the historic period. This as well as Radegast, the god of war, and Yarovil have been interpreted as forms of the Sun-god. At svantovit. Arcona, the capital of the island of Rugen, the Danish Christian mission- aries, as related by Saxo Grammaticus, found a beautiful wooden Temple at temple with inner and outer courts, the latter with a roof painted Rugen. red. The inner court was draped with tapestry, and contained numerous paintings. But the image itself was of Oriental strangeness. It pour^eaded had four heads and necks, two chests, and two backs, but only image, two arms, it would seem. The great right hand held a horn of several metals, which was once a year filled with mead. The left arm was bent in the shape of a bow, and the lower limbs were covered. Beside the statue lay a bridle and a sword with silver hilt and scabbard. In honour of the deity thus represented, expensive worship was maintained, partly devoted to the priests and partly to the ornamen- tation of the temple. Besides the proceeds of a yearly tax, one- Great expense third of the booty taken in war was given to the temple ; and in of service- addition it received large offerings from the chiefs. A special body of horse-soldiers, said to number three hundred, fought in the name of the god, and gave all their spoils of war to the priests for the ornamentation of the temple. The white horse of Svantovit was an animal sacred to the god, on which he was believed to accompany his people to war, of course invisibly. Only priests might feed him or ride upon him, and it was a The h0Tse of serious offence to do the slightest injury to him. The horse was svantovit. regarded as an oracle in case of war. He was led out, after prayer to the god, to step over three rows of spears ; and if, in stepping, he lifted his right foreleg first, that was regarded as a favourable omen for the success of the war : any other proceeding was unfavourable. A grand harvest festival was held at the close of the harvest in Rugen. Considerable sacrifices of cattle were first offered, followed by a feast. An old priest, with hair and beard uncut, then entered the Great harvegt innermost sacred enclosure of the temple, to sweep it carefully, festival. During this operation he was strictly required to hold his breath, in order not to defile the presence of the god ; each time when he was compelled to breathe he must emerge from the temple precincts. "When this was over, he took the horn of mead from the hand of the image and carried it out to the assembly, proclaiming whether it had decreased or increased since the last festival. If the former, scarcity was imminent ; if the latter, plenty was in store. It was then poured out as a libation to the god, and the The horn of horn was refilled by the priest, with a prayer for a prosperous year mead- and for success in war. This horn-full was next drunk by himself at a draught, and the horn again filled, to remain untouched (it was supposed) 4"4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS till the succeeding year. Offerings of sweet cakes made of honey and flour were then presented, and finally the priest, representing the god, blessed the people, exhorting them to sacrifice continually to the god, who in that case would give them victory over their enemies. An abundant feast followed. It appears that there were other images of gods in Riigen, one, named Porenut, presided over the seasons, and had five faces, one being upon his chest. Another, Rhugevit, had seven faces and eight swords ; possibly he is identical with Radegast, already mentioned. Triglav was another god, whose image was destroyed at Stettin, and the triple head sent to the Pope. Among the evil or cruel deities feared by the Slavonians must be included Zernabog, to whom human sacrifices were offered with frightful rites. Lado and La'da are two names of gods about whom there is some doubt. They have been compared to Frey and Freyja, and Lada is called Lado and the goddess of love and pleasure. Lithuanian songs are quoted, Lada. jn which Lada appears as "our great goddess," and Lado is coupled with the sun. An old chronicle describes Lado as the god of marriage, of mirth, of pleasure, and of general happiness, to whom intend- ing brides and bridegrooms offered sacrifices, to secure prosperity in their married life. In Russian songs lado and lada are commonly used as equi- valents for bridegroom, lover, husband, and bride, mistress, wife. Kupala was a god of the fruits of the earth, and Koleda, a god of festivals. The name Koleda has been transferred to Christmas in various parts of Russia ; while in some districts the midsummer festival of St. John's eve is called St. John Kupala. Besides gods, the Slavonians peopled their outer world with numerous inferior spirits, such as dwarfs, wood-spirits, water-sprites, house-spirits, etc.; inferior and beliefs about them are still common among the Russian pea- spirits. sants. In fact, animism, combined with reverence for the spirits of deceased ancestors, was in full vogue among them, and it still lingers. The Slavs thought that after death the soul had to begin a long journey, either in a boat across a sea, or on foot. One view was, that a The journey steep hillside had to be climbed, at the top of which paradise was after death, situated. One word for the abode of the dead, Rai, meant the abode of the sun, in the East, always warm and light. Similarly, another Heaven and uame for it, Peklo, means a place of warmth ; but it is now used as helL a name for hell. But there are other views which consider the grave itself as the abode of the spirits of the dead. The old Slavs seem to have had no idea of a future state of reward and punishment, of redress or compensation for evils suffered in this life. Rather did they consider death only the preliminary to a similar life to the present. Before burial, the spirit was supposed to remain near the body, some- times haunting the old home for six weeks, during which they watch the Haunting behaviour of the bereaved. No doubt it was a very general spirits, belief, that the souls of parents watched over their children and grandchildren, and that ancestors ought always to be reverenced. How THE RELIGION OF THE SLAVONIANS. 455 this belief came to be associated with the domestic fire, and how the stove became associated with the house-spirit is not clear. The house- The spirit is believed to live behind the stove; formerly he was more H0^6-3?1111- closely connected with the fire. Even now Russian families are known, when removing from one house to another, to rake out the fire from the old stove into a jar and carry it to the new house, the words " Welcome, grand- father, to the new home ! " being pronounced when it arrives there. On the 28th of January, Afanasief says, the Russian peasants after supper leave out a pot of stewed grain, for the house-spirit. This pot is placed on the hearth in front of the stove, and surrounded with hot embers. Very generally the hearths are believed to be haunted by the spirits of deceased ancestors. There are many superstitions connected with beliefs or fears as to these household spirits, which are often believed to be at times malicious or mischievous. It is scarcely necessary to say that the old Slav- -witches onians had their witches and wizards, and believed in charms and charms, and spells, were- wolves and vampires; to a considerable extent their descendants do so still. There are many other features of Slavonian belief and custom that it would be interesting to dwell upon ; but it is so doubtful to what extent they belonged to the developed Slavonic religion, or to previous states of belief, and to what extent they have originated or been transformed in Christian times, that we must not venture farther into regions of hypothesis and doubt. We know comparatively little, too, about the priesthoods, and adminis- tration of the Slavonian religion. The Eastern Slavs, indeed, appear to have had no regular priesthood, religious rites and ceremonies priesthoods being performed by the heads of families or communities ; and and temPles- no doubt the chief of a community or tribe was also its priest. Sacrifices were simply offered under a tree, preferably an oak, or beside a stream, and regular temples were not built. Among the Western Slavonians the priest- hood assumed a more definite character, though even here associated largely with civil or warlike functions ; and references to temples have already been- several times made. On the whole, the Slavonic religion appears to have been as little developed as that of any Aryan people, though its beliefs were firmly held, and have left marked traces even to the present day. imperfect But the lack of anything like Scriptures, or even a mythology of remams- distinct and elevated type, diminishes its general interest and value very considerably. CHAPTER VII. Celtic ftelfgfotu Rhys's Hibbart Lectures— Julius Caesar— Roman names of Celtic gods— Ogmios, the Gaulish Mercury — Maponos, the Gaulish Apollo— Caturix, the Gaulish Mars— Camulos— Baginates and Esus— The Welsh duw— Nodens— Stonehenge— The mistletoe —Aryan affinity of myths— The Druids probably pre-Aryan in origin— Caesar's account. "TXTE are extraordinarily ignorant as to the religious ideas of the earl}'" » * Celts, and their origin. We have but scanty or unsatisfactory literary or other remains to help us, and their decipherment and recon- Rhys's struction have only recently been undertaken. Professor Rhys, Hibbert in his " Celtic Heathendom " (Hibbert Lectures, 1886), has made Lectures by far the most important contribution to the question ; but 436 CELTIC RELIGION. 457 much that he puts forward is merely tentative, and thus it will not be profitable to dwell at any great length on the subject. Julius Caesar, as on so many other subjects, has left us the most im- portant information as to the religion of the Gallic Celts (" DeBello Gallico," vi. 17). He learned much from the Druid Divitiacus ; and . „ m - Julius Caesar, although he identifies and names the chief Gallic gods m accord- ance with Roman beliefs, at any rate we are in contact with an authority contemporary with the actual existence of the religious ideas set down. Csesar tells us that a god he names Mercury was worshipped above all others, and under many images. He was regarded as the inventor of the arts, the patron of roads and journeys, of commerce and money- Roman names making. Apollo was regarded as driving away diseases, Miner vaof Celtlc g0d3' as the teacher of various trades and arts, Jupiter as the ruler of the sky, and Mars as the director of wars, to whom all spoils of battle were dedicated, the animals being sacrificed and the other booty being collected and dedicated in sacred places. Most of our information from inscriptions dates from Gaulo-Roman days, when the Romans following Augustus had taken the Celtic gods into their pantheon, and included the Gaulish divini- ties among the Roman Lares and Penates, as Lares Augusti ; and thus the evidence is imperfect. In a single district like that of the Allobroges (mostly east of the Rhone and south of Lake Geneva, with Vienne as capital) there were twenty-six temples dedicated to the Gaulish " Mercury ; " and there were 0 ios the many others in the department of the Puy de Dome, on the Gaulish . . • i • i Mercury, summit of which was a great temple of the Arverni, which Pliny describes as having an image of Mercury 120 feet high, which was not destroyed till the middle of the third century a.d. The native name of this god appears to have been Ogmios (also represented as Hercules), god of speech, eloquence, and wisdom ; and this name, Ogmios, Professor Rhys identifies with the "Welsh ovyd or ofydcl, a teacher or leader ; while in Irish Ogma is one of the gods, the inventor of writing and of the Ogam alphabet, to provide for secret speech known only to the learned. The Gaulish " Apollo " bore among others the names, Maponos, Grannos, and Toutiorix. The first name has been found in three inscriptions in the north of England; it means boy, or male child. Grannus, the MaponoS( the name used among the Belgse, suggests " shining," " glow," " sun- Gaunsh shine." Several of his inscriptions are found near medicinal springs, as those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Granheim, etc. A female divinit}^ as- sociated with this Apollo Grannus was Sirona, represented as a matron holding in one hand a bunch of fruit, in another some ears of corn. The Roman Mars was identified with a Gaulish god Caturix, meaning king of war, or lord of battle. Other names assigned to him are Segomo and Dunates. Mars Vintios is yet another name, suggesting the caturix, the wind as associated with the war-god. Again, the name Camulos is met with in association with the war-god ; it is the name found Camulos- in Camulodunum (Colchester) ; and Camulos is supposed to mean the sky, 458 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and he has been compared to Jupiter as god of the heavens. And numerous facts point to the war-god having been in early times the supreme Celtic divinity, though reckoned lower in Csesar's time. A god named Baginates has been identified with Jupiter, but very little is known about him. Esus, or Hesus, who may possibly be connected Baginates with this god, was identified by the Gauls with the Roman and Esus. Silvanus ; and he is represented as felling a tree with an axe, and probably presided over woodlands and the interests of shepherds. But all these gods are very dim and shadowy as yet. There appears to be more certainty about the ascription of a genius or divinity to each locality, to whom libations were annually made ; and about the worship of matron goddesses, or matres, who enjoyed a large share of Gaulish worship ; besides which the land was regarded as having an indefinite number of evil spirits, goblins, witches, etc. They, as well as the good spirits, are often represented in threes. Coming to the gods of the insular Celts, while the Sanskrit deva and the Greek Zeus are represented by the Welsh duic, the latter means any The welsh god, and the word never appears to have become used of one duw- supreme god by the early Celts. There are facts which suggest that the Irish Nuada of the Silver Hand represented Zeus and Jupiter. He was said to have been the king of the mythical colony that took possession of Erin more than 3000 years B.C. In "Wales we find this name Nodens, remains of whose temple have been found at Lydney, on the west bank of the Severn, in the country of the Silures. In both countries he appears to have been a leader in war, and there are symptoms of his being the king of the gods, giver of wealth and lord both of land and sea ; he appears to be a relic of a time when the sharing of domains among the gods was by no means so far advanced as among classic Greeks and Romans. Other gods are even less definite, and we can gain more vivid notions about the demigods or deified heroes of the Celts ston h than about the nature-gods. According to Mr. Rhys, Stonehenge was believed to be the work of Merlin the enchanter working under the orders of the Celtic Zeus, and thus it would be a temple of this god ; but we have no evidence as to the precise way in which it was used for worship. Merlin, though an enchanter, was believed to be immortal ; and even when his body is killed, his living spirit abides with it, though no longer able to render it active. Leaving till a little later such descriptions of the Druids as we can find, what can we say of the god they worshipped ? What is the meaning of the intimate association of the Druids with the oak ? This is, in fact, a part of the common heritage of the Aryans, who associated the grand growth of the oak with their supreme god. Pliny says the Gaulish Druids hold x^e nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the tree it grows mistletoe. 011j provided it be an oak. They selected groves of oak, and per- formed no sacred rites without its leaves. Maximus Tyrius says the Celts worshipped Zeus under the image of a lofty oak. CELTIC RELIGION. 459 Prof. Rhys infers that the early mythology and beliefs of the Celts were substantially similar to those of the Greeks and Hindus, but that the form 'n which we have the narratives handed down to us is so modified Aryan by the influence of Christianity, that it is difficult to disentangle affinity of the ancient elements. He lays stress upon the traces of a sun- myths- 460 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. hero, a culture-hero, and dawn goddesses ; but the precise conclusions which should be drawn are very uncertain. We must place the Druids here, though no doubt their occupation dated from pre-Aryan times, and perhaps was more rooted in pre-Aryan than in The Druids Aryan thought. Csesar gives the fullest and apparently the most pTe°Ajyan authentic description of the Druids, though of course allowance m origin, must be made for his Roman education. We quote the following from the "Gallic War" (Book vi., c. 13, etc.). "They attend to sacred things, perform public and private sacrifices, and interpret all matters of religion. A great number of youths resort to them for the sake of instruction, and they enjoy the highest honour in that nation ; for nearly all public and private quarrels come under their jurisdiction ; and when any crime has been csesar's committed, when a murder has been perpetrated, when a con- account, troversy arises about an inheritance or about landmarks, they are the judges too. They decree rewards and punishments ; and should any one, whether a private individual or a public man, disobey the decrees, then they exclude him from their sacrifices. This is with them the severest punishment. The persons who are thus laid under interdict are regarded as injurious and wicked people ; everybody recoils from them, and shuns their society and conversation, lest he should be injured by associating with them ; nor is justice administered to them when seeking it, nor is any dignity bestowed on them. "All these Druids have one chief, who enjoys the highest authority among them. When he dies, he is succeeded by the member of the order who is most prominent ; ... if there are many equal, the successor is elected by the Druids. Sometimes they even contend in arms for the supremacy. At a certain time of the year, the Druids assemble on the territory of the Carnutes, which is believed to be the centre of all Gaul, in a sacred place. To that spot are gathered from everywhere all persons that have quarrels, and they abide by their judgments and decrees. It is believed that this institution was founded in Britannia, and thence transplanted into Gaul. Even now-a-days, those who wish to become more intimately ac- quainted with the institution generally go to Britannia for instruction's sake. " The Druids take no part in war ; nor do they pay tribute like the rest of the people ; they are exempt from military service, and from all public burdens. Attracted by such advantages, many come to be instructed by their own choice, while others are sent by their parents. They are reported to learn in the school a great number of verses, so that some remain there twenty years. . . . Beyond all things, they are desirous to inspire a belief that men's souls do not become extinct, but pass after death from one body to another ; and they hold that people are thereby more strongly urged to bravery, the fear of death being disregarded. Besides, they hold a great many discourses about the stars and their motion, about the size of the world and of various countries, about the nature of things, about the power and might of the immortal gods ; and they instruct the youths in these subjects." CELTIC RELIGION. 4^ " The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to superstitious rites ; land on that account they who are troubled with unusually severe diseases, and they who are engaged in battles and dangers, either sacrifice men as jvictims, or vow that they will sacrifice them, and employ the Druids as the iperformers of those sacrifices ; because they think that unless the life of a jman be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the immortal gods cannot be rendered propitious, and they have sacrifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which, formed of osiers, they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods ; but when a supply of that class is j wan ting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent." Nothing really more satisfactory than this can be ascertained about the Druids ; and we must leave readers to derive from it what notions they ;can. To us it appears that the Druids were the descendants of old magicians and medicine-men, who adopted to a great extent the ideas about the gods :Which the invading Celts introduced : but at best this is conjecture. PILLARED HALL OF THE TEMPLE AT PHIL.E, IN' EGYPT. BOOK V. EGYPTIAN AND SEMITIC RELIGIONS. CHAPTER I. CI)e <£!)tfan ixcli'sion. Modern discoveries— Local deities— Tendency to monotheism— Hymn to Amen-ra— The Egyptian a nature-religion— Ra, the sun-god— Shu and Tefnut— The worship at On— Osiris— Apis— Serapis— Isis— Horus— Hathor— Thoth— Ptah— Anuhis and Neith— Amun-ra -Animal worship— Animism —Deification of kings— Temples— The priests— Orders of priests— Festivals and processions- Invocation of the Nile— Animal sacrifices— Oracles— Astrology— Life after death -A funeral song— Osiris, the judge of the dead— " The Book of the Dead"— Other Egyptian Books— Pro- ceedings at the sacred lake— Ohjects huried with the dead— Egyptian morals— High esteem of truth and charity— Singular custom at banquets. NOT less astonishing than the religions of India, and probably more ancient in its advanced development, is the religion of the early Egyptians1 as it has been slowly recovered and pieced together in the present Modern century. Many monuments and records have unfortunately discoveries, perished, many are still buried and unexplored, but those which have been rescued and explained furnish us with undoubted facts sufficient to give rise to ideas of a highly-developed form of religion, in many respects worthy to rank beside that revealed in the Vedas. And geological facts show that the human race has inhabited the Nile valley for a number oi 1 See Sir Gardner Wilkinson, "Manners and Customs of the Early Egyptians," Birch's edition (W.); Renonf, " Hibbert Lectures on the Religion of Ancient Egypt" (R.); Tieie's "Egyptian Religion" (T.) ; " Memoirs of Egypt Exploration Fund " ; Murray's " Handbook for Egypt " ; " Records of the Past" (R.P.). 4G2 THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 463 centuries far surpassing all ordinary chronology, and abundantly sufficing to account for the growth of the art, architecture, religion, and other evidences of civilisation, which culminated at least two or three thousand years B.C. The religion which grew with this civilisation was in one sense still more polytheistic than the early Vedic, and it was more thoroughly local and tribal. Each locality, each town and village worshipped local deities. But there are extant texts which indicate that at somo Local early date the priests recognised that there was but one God, and deities, that all the various forms of deity that were worshipped were but the mani- festations of different aspects of the same Being, which they identified with the universe. We have abundant evidence that the earlier periods of the Egyptian religion were purer, and that its best features were older than the absurdities and inconsistencies which formed so large a part of later worship. This is but like the contrast between ancient Vedism and much of modern Hinduism. But it cannot be proved that anything like Tendency to a pure monotheism existed primitively, which only developed monotheism, later into polytheism. It is evident that the belief in one God and in many gods was held by the same men without the thought of inconsistency. Thus we find many expressions in which the almighty Power is referred to as one and supreme. " If thou art a wise man, bring up thy son in the love of God." "God loveth the obedient, and hateth the disobedient." "Praised be God for all His gifts." " The God of the world is in the light above the firmament ; His emblems are upon earth ; it is to them that worship is rendered daily." And on the walls of the oasis-temple of El-Khargeh is an inscription from which the following recognition of the identity of this supreme God with all the gods is derived : " The gods salute his royal majesty (Amun-ra, the sun-god) as their Lord, who revealeth himself in all that is, and hath names in everything, from mountain to stream. That which persisteth in all things is Anion. This lordly god was from the very beginning. He is Ptah, the greatest of the gods. . . . Each god has assumed thy aspect. ... To thee all things that are give praise when thou returnest to the nether world at even. Thou raisest up Osiris by the radiance of thy beams. To thee those give praise who lie in their tombs. . . . The gods are in thine hand, and men are at thy feet. What god is like to thee? Thou hast made the double world, as Ptah. Thou hasl placed thy throne in the life of the double world, as Anion. . . . Thy form emanated at first whilst thou shinest as Anion, Ra, and Ptah. . . . Thou art Mentu Ra. Thou art Sekar ; thy transformations are into the Nile. Thou art Youth and Age. Thou givest life to the earth by thy stream. Thou art heaven, thou art earth, thou art fire, thou art water, thou art air, and whatever is in the midst of them." (R.) The following extract from a hymn to Amen-ra still further exemplifies the idea of unity or supremacy among the gods : " The One in his works, single among the gods ; the beautiful bull in the cycle of gods, Hymn to chief of all the gods, Lord of truth, Father of the gods, Maker Amen-ra. of men, Creator of beasts, Lord of existences, Creator of fruitful trees, Maker 464 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of herbs, Feeder of cattle— good Being, begotten of Ptah, beautiful youth beloved : to whom the gods give honour ; Maker of things below and above, Enlightener of the Earth, sailing in heaven in tranquillity," . . . and the hymn continues through a long series of most elevated phrases. In one CHS I'M, THB GOD OF MK WATEKS. SECHET, OK P1SHI, THE LION-HEADED GODDESS. SKBKK, THK CROCODILE-HEADED GOD EGYPTIAN DEITIES (a few out of many divine representations). part Ra is addressed as " Athom, maker of men, supporting their works, giving them life, distinguishing the colour of one from another, listening to the poor in distress, gentle of heart when one cries to him, deliverer of the timid man from the violent, judging the poor, the poor and the op- pressed " (R.P., vol. ii.) ; and one almost imagines he is reading one of the Hebrew Psalms of blessing. Many such splendid compositions have been found ; and we must realise that the people who had such conceptions stood at a high level, poetic and spiritual, and that there must have been many CONVEYANCE OF A SID1IMY TO THE TOMB. besides the composers who reverenced their inspiration, and carefully pre- served and valued its products. It is evident that this religion is, like the Vedic, at bottom a nature- religion. Their mythology concentrated itself mainly upon the daily THE EG YPTIAN RELIGION. 465 recurring phenomena, especially of sunrise and sunset, and had a large number of different stories about these events, often mutually The inconsistent. Perhaps the oldest form under which the sun was E ^xurf- * worshipped was Ra, that being the common word for sun. The religion. iMMOS, PTAH, THE ALL-CREATING. THE ALL-ACCOMPLISHING. OSIRIS, JUDGE OF THE DEAD, ISIS, ' I ". I ■ ALL-BOUNTEOUS NATUBB. SON OF OSIBIS. A SUBTERRANEAN DBITT. ANUBIS, THE ESCORT OF THE DEAD. EGYPTIAN DEITIES. THOTH, THE MOON-GOD. sky was imagined as a watery expanse, across which the sun-god travelled, in a boat. Like the Aryan gods, he had to fight with the demon rj, the sun of darkness, Apap, a serpent, who is pierced by the weapons of god- the god. He has many names, among which may be mentioned Harmachis., H H 466 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. as rising sun, and Turn, as the setting sun. He is generally represented as a hawk-headed man, with the solar disc on his head. The sun's disc was termed his emblem, but he was said to journey in it across the sky. The following quotation from the " Book of the Dead " will give an idea of the worship addressed to him : " Hail, thou who art come as Turn, and who hast been the creator of the gods ! Hail, thou who art come as soul of the holy souls in Amenti ! Hail, supreme among the gods, who by thy beauties dost illumine the kingdom of the dead ! Hail, thou who comest in radiance and travellest in thy disc ! Hail, greatest of all the gods, bearing rule in the highest, reigning in the nethermost heaven ! . . . Hail, renowned and glorified god ! Thy enemies fall upon their scaffold ! Hail ! thou hast slain the guilty, thou hast destroyed Apap." (T.) Shu, the son of Ra, without a mother, represents the air, and also the principle of heat and light, and as such is called the abode of the sun. But Shu and he is also said to be uncreated, the principle of creation, the life- Teftmt. giver, the young old, and by him righteousness and truth reign. Later he was made a sun-god, in union with Ra, and is then represented as a male cat; but his ordinary figure is human. Tefnut, representing dew, foam, and ocean, is the wife of Shu, by whom the birth of all things is brought about. She is represented as a lioness. These three gods formed the central objects of worship at On (known to the Greeks as Heliopolis, the city of the sun). Its priests were notable The -worship for their learning ; and it was an especial distinction for Joseph to at on. ^q marriecl to a priest's daughter. This worship continued influ- ential, and was widely spread throughout Egypt to a late period. It was closely associated with the belief in resurrection and immortality. Osiris was the chief god worshipped at Thinis and Abydos ; his pa- rents were said to be Seb (earth) and Nut (heaven). The myth of Osiris given by Plutarch, describing him as an Egyptian king, is but a late explanation ; but it seems that Osiris represents the good principle, and the Creator, always at war with evil, and especially with Seb, the destroyer, his brother, who is darkness. The myth, as given in the u Book of the Dead " in various places, appears to show forth the sun's daily course, as well as the daily round of human life, both combating darkness and evil, continually succumbing and reviving. The aspect in which Osiris was most thought of was that in which he is hidden ; and thus the dead were placed under his guardianship, and nearly all the inscriptions on tombs are addressed to him. As typifying the good principle, Osiris also represents Egypt and the Nile. As his worship spread widely, many local legends were adapted to him, and we find in one chapter of the " Book of the Dead," a hundred names ascribed to him. " It would appear," says Tiele, " that so soon as his worship had established itself in any one place, Osiris took the form of the deity whose ancient seat it was, and the sacred animal of that particular town or district was consecrated to him." Thus, at On and at Abydos, he was represented as the migratory bird Bennu, at Memphis as a species of ape and as a lofty pillar, surmounted by his THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 467 complete headdress and emblems, indicating his abode in the highest heaven. Perhaps the most remarkable of the emblems of Osiris was the living bull, Apis, worshipped as an incarnation of the god in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. His movements and varying appetites were care- fully observed, and indeed regarded as giving oracular indica- tions. His life was not to extend beyond twenty-five years ; at this age he was put to death, and his successor sought for and recognised by certain markings. Thus the succession of these bulls fixed periods of chronology. When dead he was termed Serapis or Apis. Serapis. RESTORATION OF FACADE OF ROCK TEMPLE OF HATHOR, ABU SIMBEL, NUBIA. Osarapis (Apis who has become Osiris) and lord of the under world. The Mendesian goat, termed the Ram, was an emblem of Ra as well as of Osiris, worshipped at Mendes. Isis, the Wife of Osiris, had temples in early Egypt, and had some- thing in common with the Greek Demeter and Persephone. In later Egypt, especially under the Ptolemies, she became elevated to a most prominent position. Originally she represented chiefly festivity, and was mistress of heaven and daughter of Ra. She appears with a cow's head instead of a human one, or with a vulture-headdress, and also in the form of a female hippopotamus. All these symbols show how completely Isis. 468 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the early Egyptians recognised natural phenomena and animals as living manifestations of the gods. Horns is the son of Osiris and Isis, and his avenger ; thus he was identified with the rising sun. His name was associated with a whole group Horus °^ ^°^s rePresenting the visible sun, and very like Ra in some forms. There are many myths about him which we cannot detail. He is always represented with the head of a hawk. Hathor, described both as the mother and wife of Horus, was very like Isis, and was worshipped throughout Egypt, as the female counterpart of Hathor ^siris- She was queen of the heavens, both by day and by night, the giver of great gifts to Egypt. Thoth was the Egyptian moon-god, wearing the moon upon his head as crescent or full disc, but often represented with the head of an ibis. From the moon being the measure of time, he becomes patron of all measurement, and hence of all science and letters, and of priestly culture. His influence steadily increased as the kingdom advanced in culture. Phtha, or Ptah, was the chief god of Memphis, representing creative power, but not the sun distinctively. He was worshipped in a human form, and sometimes as a pigmy. The gods were said to have come out of his mouth, and men from his eye. He was the god of justice and of beneficence to man. The frog-headed deity, Ka, is also a form of Ptah. Among other gods whom we can only briefly mention were Anubis, son of Osiris, the god presiding over mummification, with four attendant Anubis and subordinate divinities ; and Neith, or Nit, a goddess worshipped Neitn. specially at Sais, described as "the mother who bore the sun, the first-born, but not begotten." We must also briefly mention the god Amen or Ammon (hidden or unrevealed deity), whose worship assumed such great proportions during later Egyptian history. Amen, his wife, Mut (the mother), and his son, Khonsu, formed the chief triad of gods worshipped at Thebes, especially from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynasties. At this period he was identified with Ra, the sun-god, and named Amun-Ra. Later, he was regarded as the god of oracles ; and his oracle, in the oasis in the Libyan desert, was consulted by many foreign rulers and nations. Amen was often figured as a man seated on a throne, holding a sceptre in his right hand and a small cross with a handle in his left. His headdress frequently had two huge feathers. Animal worship became more marked in Egyptian religion than in Indian ; and there were fables representing that the spirits of the principal Animal animals were supposed to be embodied in the kings. In later worship, times every important place had its sacred animal ; and it was a great part of the local religion to tend it, and to embalm and bury it with honour when dead ; and their mummies have been found in many places. The dog-headed ape (cynocephalus) at Thebes, the jackal at Kynopolis, mice THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 469 and sparrowhawks at Butos, the ibis at Hermopolis, Memphis, and Thebes, the cat, the ram, the vulture, the ichneumon, the hippopotamus, the cro- codile, at other places were waited on with the utmost care. Herodotus relates that the crocodile at Krokodilopolis, on Lake Moeris, had golden earrings, and rings on its forefeet, was fed with meat and meal, and em- balmed after death. BUINS OF TEMPLE OF AMUN-RA, KARNAK, EGYPT. No doubt the Egyptian animal worship represents an extreme form of Ii§, The Egyptians regarded animals, especially those most con- spicuous for strength, power, or beauty, as incarnations ol spirits, ^^.^ whose favour might be gained or displeasure averted by worship This may have been originally quite apart from ^f^f^^^ the latter became more developed, it was imagined that the gods themselves 47 o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. were S3^mbolised or were inhabited by the animals. Later, these ideas grew and varied in different ways, and new animals were worshipped, because their names resembled more or less closely those of the gods. As the Egyptians worshipped animals, they also, at an early date,, worshipped their kings. At first they were only so worshipped after death, Deification priests being appointed for their service ; but later, they were of kings, -worshipped while alive, and temples were built for them by the side of their pyramids. This worship grew very expensive, so that Una, a high official in the fifth dynasty, boasts that he had built four sanctuaries in connection with great levies for public works, in order that the spirits of the living king, Merenra, might be invoked " more than all the gods " ; and the succession of priests of the several kings was kept up till a late date. The divine right of kings was never more zealously believed in or more devoutly expressed than by the Egyptians. What we should term, now-a-days, the most abject servility, was an unquestioned commonplace among them ; and it by no means appears to have been first imposed by the kings themselves. Indeed, if an animal was regarded as an incarnation of a god, how much more a king ? Thus we find a disgraced servant im- ploring his king in this fashion : " Let god be gracious to him whom he has removed, whom he has banished to another land, let him be mild as Ra." When restored to favour, he cannot sufficiently express his adoration of the king. " The great god, the equal of the sun-god, mocks me ! thy majesty is as Horus, the power of thy arm extends over all lands." When admitted once more to his presence, he says : " The god spoke amicably to me. I was like one brought out of the darkness into the light. My tongue was dumb, my limbs refused their office, my heart was no longer in my body, so that I knew not whether I lived or if I was dead." (T.) When such opinions prevailed, even among the common people, it is not surprising that the kings accepted with complacency the adoration offered to them. The China of to-day was outdone by ancient Egypt, and the king alone was fully competent to approach the gods in the temples with the priests. In many an inscription the king claims the empire over all nations and the whole world. Even the gods are represented as worshipping the living king. The god says to Rameses II., " I am thy father ; by me are begotten all thy members as divine. . . . Thou art lord like the majesty of Ra \ the gods and goddesses are praising thy benefits, adoring and sacrificing before thine image." And the king was said to possess the seven souls and the fourteen Ras, or spirits of Ra. Yet the divinity assigned to the kings did not prevent them from worshipping the gods in the humblest attitudes. Perhaps the kings so utterly nattered really had some notion of their own insignificance before the Divine power. It would be as impossible to describe within our limits the Egyptian as the Indian or the Greek temples. They were erected, to a large extent, on a uniform plan, though differing considerably in details. Temples. . Each was built by a king in honour of some god or triad of gods ; and the motive was not that the people might worship the gods, but that. THE EG YPTIAN RELIGION. 47* the king might pay honour to them, and secure their future fa- vours. The temples are always massive stone structures, surrounded by lofty brick walls, with fine entrances, sometimes flanked by huge broad towers sculptured with repre- sentations of the king's doings, either in war or peace. "Within was an avenue of sphinxes ; images wherein the body of a lion was con- joined with a human head, denoting the com- bined excellence of mind and body of the king ; this might be interrupted by one or more portals, flanked b}^ huge side towers. Then came a portico opening into one or more fore- courts, through which a roofed enclosure was reached, adjoining the sacred sanctuary, which was low and compara- tively small, and con- tained a sort of ark or chest, half covered by a veil or curtain, and con- tained in a boat. Both these were decorated with symbols of life, light, and fertility. The ark contained a small image of the god, never seen, and supposed to have never been seen. Everywhere in the tem- ple the deeds of the 11 s c mtum Ttrnf[ji»Yry»lr i^ilN 472 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. great king were celebrated in pictures and sculptures of various kinds, and records of them were engraved upon the walls. To the right and left of, or all round the central sanctuary, might be smaller courts in which special kinds of offerings were made. Huge statues of the kings, obelisks, and other special Egyptian features were abundant. As a speci- men of the greater temples we may mention that that of El-Karnak, Thebes, has a front 360 feet wide ; the first court is 275 feet long ; the great roofed hall is 170 feet long by 329 feet wide, and its roof is supported by 134 columns, of which the twelve tallest are seventy feet high, and about 40 feet in diameter, and form an avenue through the middle, the smaller columns forming groups on either side. Thus a marvellous effect, as of a forest of columns, is produced. It does not appear that the people performed their worship at any time in the temples ; they, if they had any special place of worship, probably had private chapels. The Egyptian priests were not a definite hereditary order, and were not absolutely confined to their priestly office. " The priest of a god was often a military or naval commander, exercised the office of scribe, and was invested with the supervision of public works or local government. A general in the army could marry the daughter of a priest, and his children could be scribes, priests, or public functionaries.'' (W.) All this emphasised the power of the king, who was fully initiated as a priest, and was the head of the national religion. In fact, upon great occasions, the king himself offered the sacrifices ; he appointed and superin- tended the great festivals and regulated the sacrifices. But the extent to which the priests were employed in all the great offices of the State, and their function of expounding to the king his moral duties, gave them an aggregate influence transcending that of any other class. In fact7 viewing the king, as priest also, it must be acknowledged that, as in China, India, Greece, and Home, the priests of Egypt practically ruled the country. The priests were very numerous, and formed many colleges, classed according to the god they specially served, and their various functions. Thus, orders of there were the prophets, who were the chief priests, four being priests. , attached to each principal god ; the divine fathers, who might become prophets ; the purifiers or washers, the incense-bearers, the funeral attendants, the bards, and others. There were also priestesses, divine wives and divine handmaids, singers, etc. ; and in the early Empire there were prophetesses, and these offices were held by queens, princesses, and mem- bers of the noblest families. The priests and their families had great privileges, were free from taxes, and received as a body one-third of the land, besides being provided for out of the public stores. The prophets had the greatest amount of learning about all religious matters, they also managed the priestly revenues, and they had a conspicuous place in re- ligious processions. They kept their mysteries as secret as some of the Greek priesthoods, and only admitted to them those who had satisfied them of their high character and learning. They paid great attention to THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 473 the education of their children in all the science of the time, and kept up a strict discipline and severity ot outward demeanour. They were strict as to the quantity and quality of their food — fish and the flesh of swine, pulse, etc., being strictly forbidden. They bathed twice in the day and twice in the night ; and they shaved the entire body every third day. EGYPTIAN KING WoliSHII'l'I.NG IN A TEMPLE. Fasts of great length, from seven to forty-two days, were observed by them, preceded by a period of purification. They were circumcised at initiation (though this was very general among the people). Their ordinary garments were of linen, but the high priests wore an entire leopard's skin on great occasions ; they wore sandals of papyrus and palm leaves, and they 474 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. lay either on skins on the ground, or on wickerwork beds of palm branches . the head being raised on a semi-cylinder of wood. The great occasions of Egyptian religion were the festivals and pro- cessions ; among these were the processions of shrines, the dedication of Festivals ^emP^es I the conveyance of the royal offerings to the gods ; the and king's coronation, and his triumphs on returning from war.. p " The procession of shrines included a variable number of arks and their boats, carried by priests, by means of long staves passed through metal rings at the sides. A shrine of the reigning king might also be included in the procession, as well as the statue of the principal deity, of the king and of his ancestors. The shrine or shrines were brought into- the temple, placed on a table, and decked with fresh flowers. Many offerings were made, on several altars, and the king offered incense and made a libation. The anointing of the king at his coronation was per- formed by the high priest in a similar manner to the anointing of the Jewish high priest ; but such anointing was an ordinary expression of welcome in Egypt. Many other ceremonies showed the intimate con- nection of the kings with the national religion ; the king represented the whole nation and was everything in himself. The annual invocation of the Nile was one of the most important festivals. If this were not duly celebrated, the people believed the Nile invocation would not rise and inundate the land. People assembled in the of the Nile, towns from all the villages around to take part in this festival, which was marked by hymns, music, and dancing, as well as feasting. A wooden statue of the Nile-god was carried through the villages. A re- markable hymn or invocation to the Nile has been preserved, in which it is credited with divine honours. " 0 inundation of the Nile," it is said. " offerings are made to thee, oxen are slain to thee, great festivals are kept for thee . . . unknown is his Name in heaven, he doth not manifest his forms, vain are all representations." (R.P. iv.) Many other festivals were held in celebration of the various qualities of the gods and of the recurring seasons. The festivals of Isis and Osiris were numerous and magnificent, and so many details are known that it is impossible here to give even an outline of them ; but yet Sir Gardner Wilkinson remarks that " the greater part of the fetes and religious rites of the Egyptians are totally unknown to us." How thoroughly, therefore, the religious element entered into Egyptian as into Indian and Chinese life ! The Egyptians offered animal sacrifices to all their gods, as well as cakes and wine, incense, flowers, and herbs. Oxen were prominent among Animal the victims, which also included gazelles, ibexes, geese, and wild sacrifices. fow^ kut not slieep. The right shoulder was generally the part first offered on the altar. The king was present at the daily sacri- fices, when the people prayed for him, and the priests praised him and warned him against the faults of other kings, caused by ill advice having been given to them. The king himself inspected the entrails of the victim and performed some of the ceremonies of sacrifice. There is no distinct THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 475 -evidence that human sacrifices were ever made in Egypt within historic? times ; and indeed, at the earliest time we can clearly read, they seem to have advanced beyond the idea that human victims are required by the gods. "We have already seen how important a place oracles came to occupy in Greece ; but the Greeks themselves confessed that they were of late institution among themselves, and had been derived from Eavnt. Oracles The most famous oracles were those of Thebes, of Buto, of Heliopolis, and of Amnion in Libya, the giving of oracles being a function1. of some gods only. In some temples questions were taken to the temple^ in writing, and sealed ; and answers were given in the same fashion, and supposed to have been inspired or given by the god. The oracle of Ammom was highly celebrated in foreign countries. In some cases oracles were spontaneously sent, to warn, censure, or command prominent persons or States. Astrology was also largely cultivated in connection with the temples ; and future events were predicted by the indications of the stars. These predictions gained high repute in the ancient world through their frequent accuracy. WOKSHIP OF SUN BY AN EGYPTIAN KINO. It is in the funeral rites and literature of the Egyptians that we come upon some of the most interesting features of their religion. That they very early had a belief in a continuous life after the death of Life after the body, is indubitable. Every human soul being supposed to death- have a divine part which returned to the deity after death, the good were believed to attain reunion with the deity, and consequently received the name Osiris. The deceased person's body was bound up so as to bear a resemblance to Osiris ; and offerings were made to Osiris after the burial, in the deceased's name. Sacrifices and liturgies were offered to Osiris by the priests in the presence of the mourners ; and these were repeated on a greater or less scale as long and as frequently as the family were willing to pay for them. Sometimes the special funeral songs composed for a festival or anni- versary attained great beaut}*. Thus, when we read such a song as this of the harper, dating from the eighteenth dynasty, we are irresistibly reminded 476 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of passages in the Bible ; and this is older than a large proportion if not a funeral all °1 the Hebrew Psalms. " The great one is truly at rest, the song. good charge is fulfilled. Men pass away since the time of Ha, and the youths come in their stead. Like as Ra reappears every morning, and Turn sets in the horizon, men are begetting and women are conceiving. Every nostril inhaleth once the breezes of dawn, but all born of women go down to their places. . . . No works of buildings in Egypt could avail ; his resting-place is all his wealth. Let me return to know what remaineth of him. Not the least moment could be added to his life. Those who have magazines full of bread to spend, even they shall encounter the hour of a last end. . . . Mind thee of the day when thou too shalt start for the land to which one goeth to return not thence. Good for thee, then, will have been an honest life, therefore be just and hate transgres- sions. . . . The coward and the bold, neither can fly the grave, the friendless and proud are alike." (R.P. vi.) The treatment of the deceased after death and the general practices of the Egyptians in regard to death showed that, as Diodorus says, they re- garded the tombs as " eternal dwelling-places," and this idea goes very far back in the records. Only the evil are spoken of as actually dead. The greatest importance was attached to the permanence of the religious cere- monies for the dead, just as among the Chinese, and the motive of building the Great Pyramids was to perpetuate the dwelling-place of the dead kings for ever. The supposed fate of the dead, as related by Herodotus, quite corresponds with the sculptures, pictures, and inscriptions. He describes the principal . office of Osiris as being that of judging the dead in the under- judge of the world (Amenti) ; seated on his throne, he received an account of ea ' the actions of the dead as recorded by Thoth, his actions having first been weighed in the scales of Truth by Anubis, who, assisted by Horus, placed the heart, as typifying virtuous actions of the deceased, in the balance against the figure of the twofold goddess of Truth and Justice. Sometimes the deceased are represented as wearing round their necks the emblem which appears in the scales, signifying their acceptance. Those who had done evil were supposed to pass in succession into the bodies of different animals, the number and kinds of the animals depending upon their guilt ; it is however a disputed point whether this view was really held by the Egyptians. These views are borne out by the manuscript and inscribed writings found in Egyptian tombs and known as " The Book of the Dead," or the ■■" The Book of " Ritual of the Dead," containing prayers mostly supposed to be the Dead." recited by the deceased in the underworld, but always recited in his name by those present at the funeral ceremonies. In many cases however there is great difficulty in ascertaining the precise meaning of expressions, owing to the carelessness of copyists, and to different readings. Much of it dates from the early dynasties, and implies a complete knowledge of the early mythology. In it the happy dead are represented as leading a THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 477 life like that on earth ; the gods provide their food and admit them to their tables. Even agricultural employments are attributed to them. But they were believed also to be able to traverse the whole universe in every desired shape and form. Through their identification with Osiris and their utter- ance of "words of power," they can pass unhurt in any direction. In some chapters of the Ritual the limbs of the deceased are each separately identi- fied with a distinct god. In one chapter it is said that " Whom men know not " (a mode of referring to a god without naming his revered, name) is his name. The " yesterday which sees endless years is his name. The deceased is the lord of eternity." (R.) His soul, his Ra or genius, and his shadow are all given back to him ; he overcomes in combat crocodiles, serpents, etc., and. successful ly surmounts all kinds of difficulties and dangers, to which evidently those of evil life or not protected by the gods would succumb. FliONT OF TEMPLK AT F.DFU. The recitals made by the deceased to the gods indicate the virtues which were highly esteemed. Thus : " I am not a doer of fraud and iniquity against men. I am not a doer of that which is crooked in place of that which is right. ... I do not force a labouring man the gods to do more than his daily task. ... I do not calumniate a for the deacL servant to his master; I do not cause hunger; I do not cause weeping; I am not a murderer ; I do not give order to murder privity ; I am not guilty of fraud against any one ; I am not a falsifier of the measures in the temples." Even inward faults or crimes are referred to in this wa}r by implication, such as causing pain of mind to another, turning a deaf ear to the words of truth and justice ; and sins against chastity are included in the list of sins disclaimed. These quotations are contained in the 125th chapter of " the Book of the Dead," and are believed to represent the oldest known code of 47S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. morals. It is entitled : " Book of entering into the Hall of the twofold Maat : the person parts from his sins that he may see the divine faces." The twofold Maat is the twofold god of Truth and Justice, represented by a double figure. There are other ancient Egyptian books of great interest, which we •cannot detail. Such are the book which describes the course of the sun through the night, the twelve divisions of his journey, and the Egyptian names of the gods of each locality ; the Lamentations of Isis and books. Nephthys, supposed to be recited by the two sisters of Osiris in order to bring about his resurrection, and actually recited by priests over the dead; "the Book of glorifying Osiris," "the Book of the Breaths of Life," etc., etc. The influence of the Egyptian ideas about the future state was mar- kedly shown in the preliminary proceedings at the sacred lake which was constructed near or in every city or centre. The body of a at the deceased person was brought to the borders of the lake, and sacred lake. a num"her 0f judges were assembled to hear any accusation of evil life that might be brought against the deceased. On sufficient proof, ceremonial burial and transport across the sacred lake were denied ; while a false accusation subjected the accuser to heavy penalties. If no accuser appeared, or if accusations were disproved, the relations praised the dead person, enlarging on his virtues, and begging the gods below to receive him as a companion of the pious ; and if the family already possessed special tombs, the funeral then proceeded. But the denial of honourable burial was considered an extreme disgrace, foreshadowing the terrible fate which overtook the deceased in Hades ; and no little share in this feeling was due to the triumph enjoyed by the enemies of the family. There appears however to have been a way of escape ; crimes might be thus punishable for limited periods ; and thus when the priests had been sufficiently paid to make continuous prayers'for them, and the sorrowing relatives showed sufficient religious devotion, it was believed that the evil destiny could finally be removed from the deceased. Many persons of course had no money to go through this ceremony of the sacred lake at all, or to be embalmed, and such had to be buried on the shores of the lake, or in the houses of their relatives. Even kings had to go through the ordeal of possible accusation and judgment, and in several cases a public honourable funeral was refused to them. The descriptions of mummies and embalming, besides being very well known, would lead us too far from our main subject. We may note that the tombs of rich persons had various objects of value placed in buried with them, such as vases, some with the heads of the genii of Amen-ti, the dead. &^ smau images of the deceased, papyri with sacred or other writings upon them, tablets of stone or wood decorated with funeral subjects or narratives relating to the deceased, and many objects connected with the deceased's profession. Some of the little figures, in all kinds of materials, had their arms crossed like Osiris, with whom the dead became identified, FUNERAL OF AN EGYPTIAN" KING. 479 480 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and bearing hieroglyphics containing the deceased's name and rank and the formulae of presentation of his soul to Osiris. These figures, which only commence in the eighteenth dynasty, were called "respondents" in the " Ritual of the Dead," being imagined to answer the deceased's call for aid I to do various agricultural work for him in the other world. One of these has- engraved on it a chapter of the ritual, entitled " Avoiding," or " How not to do Work in Hades," showing that in that degenerate period the Egyp- tians were greatly concerned to avoid the toils of the future. In some respects Egyptian morals present a favourable picture ; in others, the kings appear as trying varied experiments in social legislation Egyptian an(^ regulation ; in others, morals fared but badly. Truth and I morals, justice were sought to be attained, but sometimes by primitive methods. False oaths were even punished with death ; and a man who slandered the dead was severely punished ; whilst a false accuser was con- demned to the same punishment as the accused would have deserved if guilty. "Wilful murder, even of a slave, was punishable with death ; and the witness who did not try to prevent the crime was similarly punished- Parricide was punished with torture before death. Child-murder was visited, not with death, but with the strange punishment of spending three days and nights with the dead body fastened to the neck of the culprit,, under a public guard. Adultery in a woman was punished by loss of the nose ; forgery and falsification of weights and measures by loss of the hands. Many offences which are now visited with imprisonment were visited with the bastinado. Usury was condemned, and interest was never allowed to increase beyond double the original sum. Only goods, not persons, could be seized for debt, the person being the property of the king or of the State. At an early period people were required to give in pledge for bor- rowed money the mummy of a father or near relative, a deposit certain to be redeemed if at all possible, for if it were not redeemed the debtor could not be buried with the usual ceremonies, or in any honourable place. Luxury and vice had their place in Egypt as in every other rich country ; but we do not find evidence that Egypt was worse than other nations, if so bad. Women occupied a considerable place in society and in politics, and were by no means kept as secluded as in modern Oriental life. One wife was the rule, but not the limit ; and the kings had as many wives as they pleased ; the marriage of brothers and sisters was however allowed. All children, by whatever mother, shared in the inheritance. Sons were re- quired to pay great deference to their parents and to serve them much as in China. Their respect for old age and for elder strangers, reverence for ancestors and for the monarch, remind one of marked features in the Chinese, and suggest that if the Egyptians and the Chinese did not derive their religion from a common source in a far-distant past, they were at least founded on such deeply-implanted instincts or such naturally-growing per- ceptions that strikingly similar results appeared in widely different nations. Whether Egypt was the original home or not of the divine right of kings, it was there very early and markedly believed in ; and the king's actions. THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 481 unless flagrantly injurious, were celebrated as great benefits to the nation, kmd his funeral was marked by extreme magnificence and by prolonged fasting and mourning. The whole country, in fact, belonged to the gods, who regarded it with special affection, and conferred on it all its great institutions. It was not wonderful that the Israelites should have been x>werfully influenced by what they saw in Egypt, or that they should cast ongmg eyes back to its gorgeous forms and objects of worship, and seek to ntroduce some of them among or in addition to the features more peculiarly ;:heir own. It is noteworthy how frequently^the Egyptian inscriptions praise the 1 1 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. strictest truthfulness and works of charity. Thus we read of one man : " Doing that which is right, and hating that which is wrong, I of truth and was bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothes to the cnarity. naked, a refuge to him that was in want ;**that which I did to him, the great God hath done to me." Again, "I was one who did that which was pleasing to his father and his mother ; the joy of his brethren, the friend of his companions, noble-hearted to all those of his city. I gave bread to the hungry ; my doors were open to those who came from without, and I gave them wherewith to refresh themselves. And God hath inclined his countenance to me for what I have done ; he hath given me old age upon earth, in long and pleasant duration, with many children at my feet." (R.) It must be remembered that these commendations, though put in the mouth of the deceased, were the work of his survivors ; even if they are not strictly accurate, they show what features of conduct were considered worthy of praise in view of the eternal world, and therefore they have a wide-reaching significance in our estimate of the character of the ancient Egyptians. It is singular to find, in a song of a king so early as the eleventh dynasty, ideas which are familiar to us in the much later book of Eccle- siastes. Herodotus describes a custom which may be connected custom with the recitation of some song. He says: "At the entertain- at banquets. mentg 0f ^e rich, just as the company is about to rise from the repast, a small coffin is carried round, containing a perfect representation of a dead body, . . . as it is shown to the guests in rotation, the bearer exclaims, ' Cast your eyes on this figure : after death you yourself will re- semble it ; drink then, and be happy.' " The song, after reciting that the body passes away, goes on, "After all, what is prosperity? Their fenced walls are dilapidated. Their houses are as that which has never existed. No man comes from thence who tells of their sayings, who tells of their affairs, who encourages their hearts. Ye go to the place whence they return not. Strengthen thy heart to forget how thou hast enjoyed thyself, fulfil thy desire whilst thou livest. . . . The day will come to thee, when one hears not the voice, when the one who is at rest hears not their voices. Lamentations deliver not him who is in the tomb. Feast in tranquillity, ' seeing that there is no one who carries away his goods with him. Yea, behold, none who goes thither comes back again." (R. P. iv.) Altogether, in considering the moral nature of Egyptian religious 1 teaching, we cannot but give it a high place. The standard set up was high, an ideal excellence was aimed at and praised ; and if the people failed ultimately to keep up to that level, it was scarcely for want of knowledge or opportunity. All the systems of religion we have yet surveyed seem to have gone through stages of development and degeneracy, as if human religions were in themselves endowed with bodily or mental life which they were compelled to imitate by decay and death, as well as by stages of growth, assimilation, and differentiation. GREAT MOUND ON SITE OF BABYLON. CHAPTER II. Ci)f Babylonian, Assyrian, anti ^ftcrnuian Religions. arly magical texts— Exorcists — Heaven and earth as creative powers— Local religions— Ea, the god of the deep— Dav-kina, the lady of the earth— Hymn to Ea— Mul-lil, lord of the ghost-world— The moon-god of Ur— The sun-god Samas or Tammuz— Istar— The fire-god— Nergal— Matu— Bel-Merodach— His temple at Bahylon— Neho— Assur— Rimmon— Hymns to the gods— Penitential hymns— Future existence— Star-worship and astrology— Early cosmogony— Mr. George Smith's discoveries— Bel and the dragon— The tower of Babel— The epic of Izdubar— The Chaldsean deluge —Priests— Festivals and sacred days— Sacrifices— Images— Monotheism— Religious character of people— Phoenician religion— Baal— Melkarth— Ashtoreth— Adonis— Nature-gods— The Kabiri— Human and other sacrifices— Moloch— Chemosh— The Philistine gods— Dagon. O ABYLONIA and Assyria, like Egypt, in varying degrees and through D long periods, influenced the Israelites and were influenced by them ; nd consequently the study of their religious development is of high im- ortance. Though much remains to be known about Mesopotamian religion, mch is already known.1 In Chaldsea, as in China, we come near to primitive animism and its evelopment into an advanced polytheism. The magical texts which form me earliest Chaldsean sacred literature probably date from a time Earl magicai early as the earliest Egyptian records, when there was no texts, istinct idea of gods, and when the world around the Accadian was peopled y supernatural powers and spirits of living things. This state of mind 1 Sayce: "Hibbert Lectures " (Religion of Ancient Babylonians), (S.). Sayce's edition of Smith's lialdaan Account of Genesis ; llawlinson's " Five Great Monarchies," and " Religions of the Ancient orld" ; Sayce's "Ancient Empires of the East." St. Chad. Boscaweu, in "Religious Systems of e World,"' 1890. " The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia." Published by Trustees of ritish Museum (I.). -is; 4S4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIOXS. was dealt with by sharuanists or exorcists who can hardly be called priests, but who rank rather with the medicine-men of the American Exorcists Indians. They undertook to cure or prevent all kinds of diseases, and to cause the spirits of evil things to depart ; and this was effected especially by incantations such as the following : " The evil god (or spirit), the evil demon, the demon of the field, the demon of the mountain, the demon of the sea, the demon of the tomb, the evil spirit, the dazzling fiend, the evil wind, the assaulting wind, which strips off the clothing of the body as an evil demon, conjure, 0 spirit of heaven ! conjure, 0 spirit of earth ! '* " The painful fever, the potent fever, the fever which quits not a man. the fever-demon who departs not, the fever unremovable, the evil fever, conjure, 0 spirit of heaven! conjure, 0 spirit of earth!" (I.) These texts which have come down to us, probably do not represent the earliest forni of exorcism, but rather the highest level attained by the system ; and they show in a most interesting way, that, in connection with these early incantations, the idea of the spirit of heaven and the spirit of earth, as representing the essence of the higher powers, was impressed upon the early Accadians and their suc- cessors the Babylonians and Assj'rians. The belief in these great powers as beneficent grew stronger as the cures wrought by medicines, by natural recovery, or by mental faith were noted ; and the idea of the good powers as antagonistic to and stronger than the evil demons rose into prominence. Heaven and It was conceived that the heaven and earth, and the deep sea, creative were the creative powers, and were especially the creators of powers, man, and of all good things. Strangely enough, these powers, Ana or Ann, the sky, Mul-lil, the earth, Ea, the deep, were represented as themselves having a spirit, like all living or moving objects. These gods might assume human forms, and then their spirits corresponded to those of men ; they are represented as inhabiting animals, which were worshipped as totems. Thus Ea appeared as antelope, fish, and serpent, and we find divine bulls, storm-birds, dogs, etc. So, according to Prof. Sayce, innu- merable spirits were believed in, controlled by creative gods representing the order and law of the universe. In opposition to them were the malevolent spirits of darkness and disease, and there were also spirits neither good nor bad. All these were supposed to be controlled by the sorcerer-priest, using spells and exorcisms, and communicating with, and practically influencing, the gods by his ritual. The forms of worship became enlarged with this higher belief, and true supplication appears in the Penitential Psalms, such as this : — " Accept the prostration of the face of the living creature. I, thy servant, ask thee for rest. To the heart of him who has sinned thou interest words of blessing. Thou lookest on the man, and the man lives, 0 potentate of the world, mistress of mankind ! Compassionate one, whose forgiveness is ready, who acceptest the prayer. (Priest) 0 God and mother goddess that art angry with him. he calls upon thee ! Turn thy face towards him and take his hand ! " (I.) In this prayer, as well as in others, we see an invocation of more gods than one. as being in combination BABYLONIAA RELIGION. 485 or alliance. Of course while this elevation was proceeding, the incantations and exorcisms remained largely in use among those less enlightened, hut were gradually lowered in esteem, like charms in mo lern days ; while the religious development went on to produce the hymns to the gods. But these were due partly no doubt to the early Semitic influence which largely altered the character of Mesopotamian religion. As in Egypt, the national religion grew upon the basis of local re- ligions, adopting and adapting local gods of cities and tribes. Thus, Ea was originally the god of the city Eridu, at the then mouth of the Local Euphrates. Under the name of Oannes, he is said by Berosus, religions, the late Chaldeean historian, to have come out of the water of the gulf, to have passed his days among men, and to have given them insight Ea, the god into letters and sciences, and arts of every kind. "He taught ofthe deep- them to construct houses, to found temples, to compile laws, and explained to them the principles of geometrical knowledge. He made them dis- tinguish the seeds of the earth, and showed them how to collect the fruits ; in short, he instructed them in everything which could tend to soften man- ners and humanise their lives." Thus he was the god of wisdom of early Babylonia, and was represented as partly man and partly fish. In conjunction with Ea was worshipped his consort Dav-kina, the lady of the earth, which she personified ; and this relationship accords with the old Chaldsean idea of the origin of the world from the deep, upon which the earth lay. Through Dav-kina the words of E a were ladyoftne conveyed to men, as heard in the roar of the waves. The attri- eaxtiL butes of Ea may be gathered from a hymn addressed to him. He is " the god of pure life, who stretches out the bright firmament, the god of good winds, the lord of hearing and obedience, creator of the pure H,^m t0 Ea and the impure, establisher of fertility, who brings to greatness him that is of small estate. . . . May he command, may he glorify, may he hearken to his worshippers. . . . May he establish, and never may his word be forgotten in the mouth of the black-headed race, whom his hands created. As god of the pure incantation may he further be invoked, before whose pure approach may the evil trouble be overthrown ; by whose pure spell the siege of the foe is removed." A later part of the same hymn is occupied with recognising the identity of the Bel of Northern Babylonia with Ea, showing the process of fusion by which different local deities became amalgamated, and regarded as practically the same. Ea is repre- sented as saying, " Since he (Bel) has made his men strong by his name, let him, like myself, have the name of Ea. May he bear (to them) the bond of all my commands, and may he communicate all my secret knowledge through the fifty names of the great gods." The hymn goes on, " His fifty names he has pronounced, his wa}*s he has restored. . . . May father to son repeat and hand them down." (S.) This emphasis on the " name " is intelligible when Ave remember that the name signified the essential nature of the deity, as in the Old Testament and in Egyptian religion. 4S6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. "We find a son also ascribed to Ea, namely Mardugga, the holy son, the same name being traceable in Marduk, or Merodach. He was supposed Marduk or to yis^ mankind as a mediator and healer. Between Ea and Meredach. Merodach, as good gods, and the powers of evil typified by a serpent with seven heads and seven tails, there was continual warfare. There is doubtless some connection between this belief and that recorded in the early chapters of Genesis. Another of the gods dating back to Accadian times is Mul-lil, the lord of the ghost- world, of the earth, and of the spirits of the earth, originally a Mul in lord l°cal g°& °^ Nipur (now Niffer) in nothern Babylonia. Here the of tiie belief in ghosts and demons and spirits of disease was strong, and g os -wor . kence •£ Spreac| to other parts. Adar (a name possibly read wrongly) was the son of Mul-lil, a sun-god, represented as issuing from night, as typified by the god of the lower world ; and his wife was the lady of the dawn. Adar was especially the meridian sun, the warrior and champion of the gods, the messenger of his father. It is strange to find the moon-gocl represented as masculine, and the sun-o-od as his offspring. There was apparently a local moon-god in every The Moon-god Babylonian town; Ur seems to have been a great centre of ofUr- his worship, and the moon-gods of Ur and Nipur were early identified. At Ur the moon-god, known as Nannak or Nannar, became the father of the gods. Part of an old hymn to him runs thus : " Lord and prince of the gods, who in heaven and earth alone is supreme. . . . Father Nannar, lord of heaven, lord of the moon, prince of the gods. Father, long-suffering and full of forgiveness, whose hand upholds the life of all mankind. . . . Father, begetter of gods and men, who causes the shrine to be founded, who establishes the offering, who proclaims dominion, who gives the sceptre, who shall fix destiny unto a distant day ; First-born, omnipotent, his heart is far-extended ; none shall describe the god. ... As for thee, thy will is made known in heaven, and the angels bow their faces. ... As for thee, thy will is done upon the earth, and the herb grows green. ... As for thee, thy will is the far- off heaven, the hidden earth which no man hath known. . . . Look with favour on thy temple ; look with favour on Ur ; let the high-born dame ask rest of thee, 0 lord ; let the free-born man ask rest of thee, O lord ! Let the spirits of earth and heaven ask rest of thee, 0 lord." When we remember that this Ur in Chaldsea was the place whence Abraham migrated to Harran, we shall see that he already lived in an atmosphere of very considerable development. Local gods were wor- shipped, not a truly universal god ; but already conceptions of no slight elevation had been attained, and Harran, to which he in the first place migrated, was closely connected with Ur in religion. The moon-god of Ur appears to have gained fame and to have taken a predominant position among the Babylonians as the father of gods and men, under the name Sin (the bright). And in conformity with the Chaldsean idea of the sun coming forth and being produced from the night (over which the moon presides), BA B YL OXIAN RELIGION. 487 Istar. we find the sun-god Samas (Taramuz) described as the son of Sin. Perhaps the most noted sun-god of the Accadians was that of Larsa, not far _,., . 0 The sun-god from Ur, whose temple was famous, having been founded or re- samas, or stored by Ur-bagas, the earliest known king of Unite* I Babylonia. He also was noted as the builder or restorer of the temple of the moon-god at Ur, that of Mul-lil at Nipur, and those of Aim and Istar at Erech. Istar was the goddess of the evening star, assigned as the wife of Samas, later developed into the Ishtar or Ashtoreth of Semitic worship. The sun-god was also worshipped under his name of Samas at Sippara (the Scripture Sepharvaim), where there was a temple believed to worship at have already grown old and decayed in b.c. 3800, which was sep&arvaim. the centre of a vigorous worship, with many priests, scribes, schools ; and most interesting hymns to the god have come down to us apparently from this very early date. The ftre-god. WINGED FIGURES FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT NINEVEH, WITH NIN, OR NISIP, BETWEEN. There was also a fire-god among the early Accadian gods, celebrated in this fashion in an early hymn : " The Fire-god, the first-born supreme, unto heaven they pursued and no father did he know. 0 Fire- god, supreme on high, the first-born, the mighty, supreme en- joined of the commands of Ann. The Fire-god enthrones with himself the friend that he loves." He is represented as conquering especially seven evil or injurious spirits of earth and heaven. Another god of whom we know little in his early Accadian form is Ana or Anu, the sky, the chief deity of Erech, which city regarded him as a creative god. He became early in the Semitic dominion of Babylonia the chief member of a sort of triad 01 gods, Anu, Bel or Mul-lil, and Ea, representing the heaven, the earth, and the ghost-world, and the water. Nergal, the god of Cutha (now Tel-Ibrahim), the strong one, the god of death, among the Accadians, became rather the champion of the gods among the Semites, destroying especially the wicked. But he passed very considerably out of mind with the advance of Semitic forms of worship. The winds, especially Nergal. 488 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the destructive ones, were also worshipped as deities ; and one of them, Matu, is supposed to have given rise to part of the Semitic conception worshipped under the name of Ramman or Rimmon. Many- other spirits or gods were included in the worship of the many separate states'or cities of early Babylonia, spirits of heaven, spirits of earth, etc. ; and we even meet with such expressions in the Penitential Psalms before mentioned, as " To the god that is known and that is unknown, to the goddess that is known and that is unknown, do I lift my prayer." When the Semites gained predominance in Mesopotamia, they to a large extent adopted or adapted the religious worship they found already established, in accordance with a general idea that it was necessary, or at least advisable, for the conquerors to establish friendly relations with the gods of a conquered country, while maintaining their own original beliefs. The Semites were already to a large extent sun-worshippers. We cannot yet unravel this development in its details, but it seems probable Bei-merodach.tliat Bel-mer°dach, the great god of Babylon, represented a local 'god of Babylon who was identified by the Semites with their sun-god and elevated to a supreme position above all the gods, though not excluding their worship. The following prayer of Nebuchadnezzar indicates that monarch's attitude toward his god : — " To Merodach my lord I prayed ; I began to him my petition, the word of my heart sought him, and I said : ' 0 prince that art from ever- lasting, lord of all that exists, for the king whom thou lovest . . . thou watchest over him in the path of righteousness ! I, the prince who obeys thee, am the work of thy hands ; thou createst me and hast entrusted to me the sovereignty over multitudes of men, according to thy goodness, 0 lord, which thou hast made to pass over them all. Let me love thy supreme lordship, let the fear of thy divinity exist in my heart, and give what seemeth good unto thee, since thou maintainest my life.' Then he, the first-born, the glorious, the first-born of the gods, Merodach the prince, heard my prayer and accepted my petition." It is evident that Merodach was supreme in Babylon ; but outside Babylon other gods and creators were acknowledged. He is variously described as merciful, as the inter- oessor between gods and men, and as interpreter of the will of Ea. Not the least remarkable of the old Chaldaean hymns is one in which he is addressed as " the merciful lord who loves to raise the dead to life," and this is held to show that the Chaldseans had some belief in a resurrection. To Bel-Meroclach a great temple was erected at Babylon, a huge square containing a tower of eight great stages, with a shrine in the topmost, also Merodach's nsec^ as an observatory. The temple at the foot contained a great ^JbPioat S°lden statue of the god, seated ; and outside was a golden altar for the sacrifice of special victims, while a larger altar was used for the offering of large numbers of sheep, and for burning large quantities of frankincense at the god's festival. The ceremonies at this temple are said to have presented many resemblances to those of the Jews ; they in- cluded daily morning and evening sacrifices, meat and drink offerings, the BAB YL ONI AN RELIGION. 489 Nebo. free-will offering, the sin-offering, and the shew-breacl. In close association with this temple was a smaller one erected to Nebo, the god of prophecy, called the son of Merodach, the pro- claimer of his mind and wishes ; and within the shrine of Nebo, Merodach was supposed to de- scend at his festival and an- nounce his oracles to his priests. Nebo had a separate grand temple in the sub- urb Borsippa. He was famed as the creator of peace, the author of the oracle, the creator of the written tablet, the author of writing ; he was also the bond of the universe and the overseer of the angel hosts. Thus we can understand the exultation of Isaiah's words : " Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth," and those of Jeremiah, " Ba- bylon is taken, Bel is confounded, Me- rodach is broken in pieces." The con- quest of Babylon by Cyrus introduced a wider cult, in which NIN, OK NIXIP. 49° THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Merodack was recognised as the god of all men ; and the Greeks even identified him with Zens. The Assyrians especially worshipped him, and, in conjunction with him, Beltis his lady. Now we come into the area of the Semitic tendency to attribute to each god a corresponding goddess. The worship of Nebo passed westward, like that of Bel-merodach, and he was assigned a consort, Tasmitu, " the hearer," who opened the ears of those who received Nebo's inspiration. In addition to Bel and Nebo, a third important god rises to view in Assyria, being the national god of the people, Assur, king of all the gods, enabling the Assyrians to destroy " the enemies of Assur." He was originally the local god of Assur, the early capital, and became a national god, being transferred to Nineveh when it was made the capital. Assur was still more special among the Semites, as not having a consort. " When a female divinity is invoked along with him, it is the equally independent goddess Istar or Ashtoreth." (S.) With him were worshipped many of the gods of Babylonia ; but he is especially named as their creator and father. In many respects the characters ascribed to Assur correspond to those by which Jehovah was worshipped by the Israelites. Thus, to quote Prof. Rawlinson, " He places the monarchs upon their throne, firmly es- tablishes them in the government, lengthens the years of their reigns, preserves their power, protects their forts and armies, makes their name celebrated, and the like. To him they look to give them victory over their enemies, to grant them all the wishes of their heart, and to allow them to be succeeded on their thrones by their sons, and their sons' sons, to a remote posterity. . . . It is to spread his worship that they carry on their wars. They fight, ravage, destroy in his name. Finally, when they subdue a country, they are careful to set up ' the emblems of Assur,' and to teach the people his laws and his worship." He is often represented as a man with a horned cap, and carrying a bow, and his face appears in the middle of a winged circle, shooting an arrow or stretching out his hand ; and this emblem is upon everything royal, robes, rock-carvings, obelisks, etc. A probable suggestion is, that Assur represents an early ruler or king ; but later he was closely identified with the ruler of heaven and earth. Among the other gods introduced into Assyria from Chaldsea, Nergal was much worshipped, together with Nin (Ninus) or Ninip. The symbol of the latter, the winged bull, was greatly in vogue throughout Assyria. Nin and Nergal sharpened the king's weapons, and gave him the victory over the fiercest beasts. There was a large temple to Nin (Ninus) at Calah (the modern Nimrud). Nergal was symbolised by the winged lion with a human head. Another gocl of interesting history, most especially worshipped in the kingdom of Damascus, by the northern Syrians, was Eimmon, more r R- properly Ramanu, the exalted one, believed to be a literal trans- lation of the name of the Accadian god Muru, representing the air. The Hebrews identified the name with rimmon, a pomegranate, and in that form it became widely known. In Syria, Rimmon was identified with BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGIONS. 491 the northern Baal or sun-god Hadad ; and there are traces of the worship of Hadad-Rimmon as far south as the plain of Jezreel (Zech. xii. 11). In Babylonia and Assyria he was a god of the air and winds, whose worship incorporated that of many older deities. To some of these only their evil powers remained, while Rimmon exemplified beneficence. We must now return again to the religious texts of Babylonia. The hymns to the gods, composed at different dates, and largely Semitic in origin, include forms to be recited at sunrise and sunset, and on Hymns to special festivals of the gods. There appear to have been sepa- tne gods- rate collections' for each temple, but it is doubtful how far they were incorporated into airy general collection ; at any rate, they have travelled far beyond primitive conceptions, and include many advanced ideas. Many of the penitential hymns show strong resemblances to the Old Testament psalms. For instance : "I sought for help and none took my Penitential hand ; I wept and none stood at my side ; I cried aloud and there by™*3- was none that heard me. I am in trouble and hiding ; I dare not look up. To my god, the merciful one, I turn myself, I utter my prayer. The feet of my goddess I kiss and water with tears. To my god whom I know and whom I know not I utter my prayer. 0 lord, look upon me ; 0 goddess, look upon me. . . . How long, 0 goddess whom I know and know not, shall thy heart in its hostility be not appeased ? Mankind is made to wander, and there is none that knoweth. Mankind, as many as pronounce a name, what do they know ? "Whether he shall have good or ill there is none that knoweth. . . . The sins I have sinned turn to a blessing. The transgressions I have committed may the wind carry away. Strip off my manifold wickednesses as a garment. 0 my god, seven times seven are my transgressions ; forgive my sins ! . . . Foi^give my sins ; may thy bane be removed." (I.) This psalm, copied out from the original by direction of Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus) in the 7th century B.C., dates back to a much earlier time, when, however, the Semites were in full possession of Babylonia. It is interesting for its view of sin, penitence, and prayer for forgiveness, as well as for its association of the goddess with the god. Instead of evils being due to evil spirits, they were now read as the offspring of man's sinfulness or the punishments inflicted by the gods. Yet there are Accadian ideas clearly distinguishable in it ; the gods are not personally named lest they should be offended, and there is no clear idea what is the nature of the sin committed, or how it became an offence. There is remarkably little reference in the early magical hymns and incantations to ideas of future existence. Later we find Merodach invoked as raising the dead to life ; but it is not certain that future life Future is meant. Still the description of Mul-lil as god of the ghost- existence, world, implies some kind of belief in the continuance of the dead. Later we find reference to the " land of the silver sky." But there were various inconsistent views of the abodes of the gods produced in Mesopotamia, which we can merely allude to. One of these describes a " mountain of the world," a sort of Chaldsean Olympus, where the gods were born and lived. 492 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. It was also called " the mighty mountain of Mul-lil, whose head rivals the heavens ; and whose foundation is the pure deep." The predominant impression as to the ghosts of the departed was, that they abode in the gloomy underworld, eating dust and mud, and sometimes emerging to drink the blood of the living. It was not a land of punishment, but of darkness and forgetfulness, shadows and spectres. But in the Epic of Gisdhubar we find the ghost of Ea-bani described as rising to heaven and living among the gods, reclining on a couch and drinking pure water, beholding the deeds done on earth. In later Assyrian times, the idea of heaven became somewhat spiritualised as the heaven of Anu, and some notion of future rewards and punishments arose. It was now that prayers began to be offered that they might live for ever in the land of the silver sky. Thus we trace ever and again the similarities which are to be found among the Semitic religions. Little has yet been said about the star-worship which was formerly supposed to be the main feature of Chaldsean religion. It is true that the .. Chaldseans very early observed and revered the constellations, and Star-worship ^ J J _ ?_ and framed a calendar ; and we may perhaps see in the names given s ro gy. ^o ^^ signs of the zodiac evidences of primitive totemism, the names being Accadian, and indicating in an interesting way the thoughts connected with animals at that early period. Prof. Sayce shows good reason, from the first place being given to the "Directing Bull," for concluding that the signs of the zodiac were named long before 2,500 B.C., and probably more than 4,000 years before Christ. It is not till the Semitic period of Sargon's rule over Accad that the ram marked the beginning of the year ; and to this period may be credited much of the early astrology which essayed to predict events by the signs of the sky. In later Babylonia the stars were largely identified with the gods ; and the whole heavens were parcelled out between the three deities Anu, Bel, and Ea. In the cuneiform characters a deity is indicated by an eight-rayed star. We cannot stay to trace the development of this worship in its later stages, when elaborate offerings and sacrifices were made to the stars, in some cases even taking precedence before Assur. An early Semitic cosmogony, with traces of Accadian origin, has been discovered in a tablet originally written for the temple of Nergal at Cutha. Early It refers to a time when the great gods created living creatures of cosmogony. a compOUnci nature, " warriors with the body of a bird of the valley," " men with the faces of ravens," suckled by Tiamat or the dragon of Chaos. The offspring of these became heroes, but were destroyed ultimately by Nerra, the plague-god, identified with Nergal. Possibly this view of early monsters may account for some of the strange compound figures found in Assyria. But greater interest attaches to the series of tablets of a Mr George ^a^er Chaldsean cosmology discovered by Mr. George Smith in smith's 1872, which, though comparatively late in their present form, discoveries. . ' embody a very early series of legends, of deep interest from their correspondences with the narrative in the first chapter of Genesis. The BABYLONIAN RELIGION. 493 record is unfortunately in a very fragmentary condition. The first tablet begins tlius : 1. At that time above, the heaven was unnamed ; 2. Below the earth by name was unrecorded ; 3. The boundless deep also (was) their generator. 4. The chaos of the sea was she who bore the whole of them. 5. Their waters were collected together in one place, and 6. The flowering reed was not gathered, the marsh-plant was not grown. 7. At that time the gods had not been produced, any one of them ; 8. By name they had not been called, destiny was not fixed. Then follow verses describing the birth of several gods. The first half of the fifth tablet gives an account of the creation of the heavenly bodies : 1. (Bel) prepared the (seven) mansions of the great gods ; 2. He fixed the stars, even the twin-stars, to correspond to them ; 3. He ordained the year, appointing the signs of the zodiac over it ; 4. For each of the twelve months he fixed three stars, 5. From the day when the year issiies forth to the close. 6. He found the mansion of the god of the ferry-boat (the sun-god), that they might know their bonds. 7. That they might not err, that they might not go astray in any way. 8. He established the mansion of Mul-lil and Ea along with himself. 9. He opened also the great gates on either side, 10. The bolts he strengthened on the left hand and on the right, 11. And in their midst he made a staircase. 12. He illuminated the moon-god that he might watch over the night, 13. And ordained for him the ending of the night that the day may be known. In similar style another tablet relates the creation of animals. But while there is great interest in finding a Chaldsean legend agreeing in some features with that of Genesis, there is no warrant for saying that either of the accounts has given rise to the other ; but that they Bei and the have some connection is very possible. They are of special import- dragon, ance, however, in anthropology as examples of the ways in which the human mind has explained creation. The Chaldean account adds a very striking- narrative in one tablet, of the contest between the god Bel and the dragon of Chaos, which is too complex to describe here. Among other early Chaldsean fragments is one which appears to describe a parallel incident to the confusion of tongues at Babel. Bel, the father of the gods, is said to have been angry at the sin of the builders The tower of Babylon, and especially of the "Illustrious mound," and the ofBabel- builders were punished, and the mound destroyed at night by the winds ; but nothing is said of the confusion of tongues. It is probable that the tower of Babel is represented by the great mound of Nimroud, with its succession of diminishing stages, forming a great temple or " gate of the gods." In the time of Nebuchadnezzar it was incomplete, and had long been ruinous, when he undertook its restoration and completion. It has been suggested that during its long period of decay the legend arose which described it as a monument of human folly and presumption, and that the 494 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. variety of languages spoken in Babylonia gave good cause for attributing the diversity to divine punishment. In the great Epic of Izdubar or Gisdhubar, also discovered by Mr. Smith in 1872, we have a Semitic translation of the exploits of an early The epic of Accadian king or primitive Hercules, arranged on a solar plan, izdubar. wnicn accords with the representation of the hero as sun-god. In many ways the events recorded in the epic correspond to the twelve labours of Hercules ; and it may be that the Izdubar legend is one of the early forms from which Phoenicia and then Greece derived the famous myth. The most perfect tablet is that which describes a deluge, which has been very generally identified with that of Noah. The character of Izdubar corresponds exactly to that of Nimrod in Genesis ; and it is not certain that the names may not be identical, for Izdubar is but a provisional ren- dering. The deluge, according to the Chaldsean epic, was due to the judgment of the gods Ami, Bel, and Ninip, and Ea told the "man of Surippak," The Chaldsean Samas-Napiati (the living sun), to build a ship to preserve plants deluge. anc[ living beings ; it was to be 600 cubits long, and 60 broad and high. Numerous details of the building and construction are given ; and when Xisuthrus with his people, and animals, and plants, and food had entered the ship, " the waters of dawn arose at daybreak, a black cloud from the horizon of heaven. Rimmon in the midst of it thundered, and Nebo and the wind-god went in front." The earth was covered, and all living things destroyed. Even the gods were afraid at the whirlwind, and took refuge in the heaven of Anu. After six days and nights the storm abated, and the rain ceased, and the wind and deluge ended. " I watched the sea making a noise, and the whole of mankind were turned to clay, like reeds the corpses floated. ... In the country of Nizir (east of Assyria) rested the ship ; the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship, and to pass over it it was not able. . . . On the seventh day I sent forth a dove, and it left. The dove went, it returned, and a resting-place it did not find, and it came back." Later a raven was sent forth, and it did not return. Then the ship was opened, the animals came forth, sacrifice was offered to the gods, and Xisuthrus became the father of Izdubar, himself being afterwards translated to live as a god. "We cannot attempt a detailed comparison of the Chaldsean and Noachian floods, for which reference must be made to Professor Sayce's edition of Mr. Smith's " Chaldsean Account of Genesis ; " but we may remark that this deluge narrative, perhaps more than anything else, shows how closely the narratives in Genesis are related to Chaldaaan traditions or sources of information. In various Assyrian records we find the king himself offering sacrifices, as in Egypt and Palestine ; but there were also high priests, and several orders of inferior priests. One of the most important of these PriBsts was the anointer, who purified persons and things with oil and water ; others were the soothsayers and the elders, or " great ones." The movable symbols or images of the gods were carried about in procession in BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION 495 little arks or 1: ships," at least in Babylon ; and this custom can be traced back to the early Accadian times of the city of Eridu. Festivals Festivals and were numerous ; in fact, it seems that almost every day could be 8acred days- celebrated as a festival. We have a complete list of festivals assigned to the intercalary month Elul ; and we find, for example, that on the second day " the king makes his farewell offering to the Sun, the mistress of the world, and the Moon, the supreme god : sacrifices he offers." The third day, a fast day, is dedicated to Merodach and Zarpaint, the fourth to Nebo, the fifth to the Lord of the Lower Firmament and the Lady of the Lower Firmament, the sixth to Rimmon and Nin-lil, and so on, the king offering sacrifices on every day. On the seventh day we have an interesting record of what was lawful or unlawful on the Babylonian Sabbath, or day of rest. " The shepherd of mighty nations must not eat flesh cooked at the fire in the smoke. His clothes he must not change. White garments he must not put on. He must not offer sacrifice. The king- must not drive a chariot. He must not issue royal decrees. In a secret place the augur must not mutter. Medicine for the sickness of his body he must not apply. For making a curse it is not fit." (S.) These pro- hibitions are repeated on the 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th days. These Sabbath days go back to the times of the Accaclians, who called them " unlawful days." It was also cus- tomary to observe special days of thanksgiving or humiliation, as when Esarhaddon II. prayed to the sun- god to remove the sin of his people, and when Assurbani-pal purified the shrines and cleansed the temples and restored the daily sacrifices. In early Accadian times human sacrifice was practised ; and a text is extant which declares " that the father must give the life of his child for the sin of his own soul, the child's head for his head, the child's _ ,_ M ' . Sacrifices. neck for his neck, the child's breast for his breast" ; and later, m "the observations of Bel," an astronomical record, it is stated that, " on the high places the son is burnt." But there are no accounts of human sacri- fices in the historical tablets. Oxen, sheep, and gazelles, corn and wine, are the chief kinds of offerings we read of, accompanied by the offering of prayers and repeating of hymns. A distinction was made between different animals, the flesh of some being declared unlawful to eat ; and the pig is not even mentioned in the inscriptions. In one inscription the flesh of men, gazelles, dogs, wild boars, asses, horses, and dragons is mentioned as unlawful. TEilPLE AT AMRITH, PHOENICIA. 496 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The early Babylonians used much religious symbolism, both by mystic numbers and by emblematic signs. Many of these are not yet understood. The Assyrians had many images representing their gods, and some of these have been obtained from the ruins. Nebo is represented as a man standing, heavy and solid-looking. These images were of metal, sometimes of silver or gold, but usually of stone or baked clay. The latter are often of small size, as if intended for private use. Feasts were set out before the images, and it was currently believed that the god really ate and drank. The inner shrine of the temple of Bel, at Babylon, had a grand couch and a golden table for the god. We hear sometimes of riotous excesses in con- nection with the festivals ; and in the worship of the goddess Beltis there was a regular system of immorality prescribed to women. There are traces of a monotheistic school or teaching in Chaldsea, and hymns have been found addressed to " the one god." Another phenomenon, still more marked, is the attribution of universal power to the " particular deity addressed, though another god might be addressed in similar terms. We cannot enlarge on the contrasting system of magic and augury which was elaborately developed, apart from the State religion, and had a very powerful influence on the mass of the people. We must allow that the Mesopotamian peoples show a marked religious character. Everything the kings did or gained was attributed to the favour of their gods ; and their records begin and end with praises, character of prayers, and invocations to them. The kings show their devotion people. ^ muc|1 expenditure on temples, offerings, and religious sculpture ; and we cannot but acknowledge that in their religious devotion they are parallel with the kings of Israel. Still, the sensuous had a large share in their religion, which did not diminish their ferocity and treachery towards their enemies ; and they are described in no moderate terms by the Hebrew prophets. As to the moral condition of the people generally, it is difficult to say anything with certainty ; we have no reason to think it exceptionally high. Harsh and cruel punishments were undoubtedly in- flicted on offenders and on enemies ; and if the Babylonian nobles had cause to tremble at the slightest displeasure or caprice of their king, it is only likely that the same rule applied through lower grades of society. Pride and luxury developed wherever possible, and yet we must couple with their prominent religiousness a considerable degree of honesty and calmness of demeanour. The religion of the Phoenicians, the nearest Semitic neighbours of the Israelites, is but too scantily known to us, and yet is of great interest, ow- Phcenician ing to the influence it had on them. We have neither sacred religion, ko^g nor extensive sculptural remains to guide us ; but we can discern clearly that the Phoenicians, more than the Chaldseans, worshipped the power or powers which moved in and through the principal natural phenomena. Their principal divinity was undoubtedly Baal, " lord,'r originally a sun-god, worshipped now in his beneficent aspects, and now as- the fierce god of fire and summer heat. He was early worshipped on the PHCEXICIAN RELIGIOX. 497 BaaL tops of mountains, where his presence was indicated by upright conical stones. There was a marked tendency in the Phoenicians to give separate names to separate aspects of the deity; whether these worships gradually became united, and the common term Baal was prefixed, or whether they gradually separated from a common origin, cannot be deter- mined. Thus we find such names as Baal-Tsur, " Lord of Tyre," Baal- Tsidon, "Lord of Zidon," Baal-Peor, "Lord of Peor," Baal-Zebub, " Lord of flies," etc. Moloch, or Melek, " king," represents Baal in his fierce aspect, and was a god who required his worshipper to sacrifice his best or dearest possession to him, often his only or his eldest son. In later times a rani was substituted. The special god of Tyre, Baal-Melkarth, united „ „ .. pi-,-,../. • Melkarth. the two aspects of the god ; and it is this god who appears m the Greek " Melicertes," or the Tyrian Hercules. The temple of Melkarth was said to be the oldest Ijuilding in Tyre, but it was destitute of images, the altar-fire burning continually being his symbol. No women, dogs, or swine were permitted to enter his temples, which were erected in many towns of Phoenicia, as well as in Carthage, Cadiz, and Malta. Perhaps an earlier name under which the sun was worshipped was El, " the exalted one," also known as El Shaddai, the thunderer, and Adonai, " Master," but much about their wor- ship is obscure. There are numerous refer- ences to these divinities in the Old Testament; which can be understood now that Semitic re- ligions are better known ; thus, Melchizedek was priest of El Eliun, " the most high God." Ash tore th, or Ashtaroth, the chief god- dess of the Phoenicians (Astarte of the Greeks), represented both the productive female power and the moon ; her name is really derived from the Accadian Semitic Babylonian myth which Istar into Hades in search of Ashtoreth. TI1E THCEXICIAN ASTARTE. Adonis. Istar, the subject of the recounts the descent of the goddess the healing waters which should restore to life her bridegroom Tammuz, the young and beautiful Sun-god, slain by the cruel hand of night and winter." (S.) At Gebal, or Byblos, eight miles north of Bey rout, the death of Adonis, or Tammuz, was yearly commemorated, when the river Adonis (Nahr Ibrahim) became red with mountain mud in the flood season, by a funeral festival of seven days. " Gardens of Adonis, as they were called, were planted, — pots filled with earth and cut herbs, which soon withered away in the fierce heat of the summer sun, — fitting emblems of the lost Adonis himself. Mean- while, the streets and gates of the temples were filled with throngs of wailing women. They tore their hair, they disfigured the face, they cut the K K 498 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. breast with sharp knives, in token of the agony of their grief. Their cry of lamentation went up to heaven mingled with that of the G-alli, the emasculated priests of Ashtoreth, who shared with them their festival of woe over her murdered bridegroom." (Sayce : " Hibbert Lectures," p. 229.) Ezekiel (viii. 14) was indignant at finding women weeping for Tammuz (Adonis) at the very gate of the Lord's house in Jerusalem. In Phoenician worship, Istar, or Ashtoreth, came into such general favour as to serve as the generic name for a goddess ; and by the side of the Baalim were the Ashtoreth their consorts. The reproductive aspect of Ashtoreth led to the connection with her worship of much licentiousness. Under the title " Queen of Heaven," and under her own name, she appears as an abomina- tion to the Hebrew historians and prophets, having often led the people astray into idolatry (Jer. vii. 18 ; xliv. 25). In Gen. xiv. 5, she is called Ashtoreth Ivarnaim, Astarte of the two horns, in allusion to one of her symbols, the head of a heifer, with crescent horns. But the Phoenician worship extended widely through the field of nature. There were gods or Baalim of the rivers, of the mountains, etc.; but on the whole there was a tendency to regard all ' deities as Nature gods. • jen^ca] a^ bottom, so that Baal worship may be regarded as the predominant Phoenician religion. The Kabiri were eight special divinities, the patrons of manual arts and civilisation, the in- The Kabu-L ven^ors 0f snipS and medicine. Trees are accounted specially sacred, and certain wonderful stones, especially aerolites, were reverenced and consecrated as signs of the presence of the deity. Whatever tendency there was in Phoenicia to worship the unity of the godhead was neutralised as a moral force by the sensuality of the worship H d offered. Human sacrifices were offered on exceptional occasions ; other anc| children, especially firstborn sons, were the principal victims. Usually, however, oxen and male animals, or birds, were sacrificed. The purity of women was also violated in the groves of the queen of heaven, as part of the worship at certain feasts. Although idols were few and simple and scarcely ever in human form, the worship of dwarf or distorted images, two-headed, or winged, or horned, had no superior efficacy in making the worship of a higher character ; and thus there was full reason for the strength of the opposition of Elijah and other Israelitish leaders to the whole system of Phoenician religion. There probably was more religious affinity between the Ammonites and Moabites and the Israelites, for each professed the exclusive worship of one god ; Moloch being the god of the former, and Chemosh of the Moabites. But the service of Moloch was sharply differentiated from that of Jehovah, especially by the practice of sacrificing children by fire to Moloch. In 2 Kings iii. 27, we read how the king of Moab sacrificed his eldest son as a burnt-offering upon the wall of his city, as a last resort when threatened with destruction by the Israelites ; and that afterwards the invaders raised the siege and returned home. Such examples had an in- fluence over more than one king of Judah, who acted similarly (2 Kings BABYLONIAN, ASSYRIAN, AND PHQ2NICIAN RELIGIONS. 499 xvi. 3, xxi. 6), and the people followed in their wake ; and " high places " were bnilt, where they slew and then burnt their sons and daughters. So general and open became the practice that the Israelites went direct from slaying their children, on the same day into the temple to worship. In fact, in recognising Baal or Moloch as the equivalent of their own Jehovah, the Israelites gave way to all the cruel and evil practices associated with the alien gods. There is no clear distinction to be made between _ ° Chemosli. Chemosh and Moloch ; and on the celebrated Moabite stone, the Moabite king, Mesha, attributes the victories of the Israelites over him to the wrath of Chemosh, and his deliverance to his aid. The worship of the Philistines appears to have been of a general Semitic type, with local deities and special types, as the Baal- The phiustine zebub (or god of flies), of Ekron and Dagon the fish-god, whose s°ds- image was partly human, partly fish-like. The Philistines carried the image of their god into battle, and used oracles and divination ; and their ceremonies appear to have been much like those of the Phoenicians, though we know very little about the details. It is conjectured that Dagon is derived from the Assyrian Dorgan or Daken, figured as half- man, half-fish. Of the Hittite religion too little is known to make it desirable to discuss it here. Dagon. AliABS PRAYiXG. CHAPTER III. lifr of iHafjomrt. part $. The latest great religion— Early Arab religious ideas — Tribal deities— Importance of kinship— Pil- grimages—The Jinn, or genies— Abodes of the gods— Sacred trees, wells, pillars, etc. — Sacrifices —Hair offerings— Idols— Notion of a supreme God -Prevalent profane spirit in Arabia— Jewish and Christian influence— Mahomet's family — His birth —Early life —His marriage to Khadijah— State of morals in Arabia Rebuilding of the Kaaba— Mahomet's solitude and reveries— His high ideal— Dawn of prophetic mission— The vision of Gabriel— Command to preach— Apparent break in revelation — Nervous disorder and agitation — His early adherents — Opposition at Mecca— Attempts to silence him— Flight of adherents to Abyssinia A proposed compromise- Withdrawal by Mahomet— Return of fugitives, and second flight Hamza and Omar converted — Hostility of the Koreish — Mahomet's alliance with Jews— Boycotting -Seclusion— Mahomet preaches to strangers — Death of Khadijah — Mahomet's despondency— Re-marriage— The pil- grims from Medina— First pledge of Acaba — Adherents won at Medina — The visions of Jeru- salem and of heaven — The Emperor Heraclius — Famine at Mecca— Mahomet's high claims — Commencement of the flight to Medina — Mahomet leaves Mecca— Takes refuge in a cave— Arrives at Medina, A.D. 622. AFTER the successful foundation and wide propagation of Christianity, few could have predicted the rise and establishment of a new re- ligion ; and, inasmuch as practically no other great religion has been founded since Christianity, it may be granted that Moham- great medanism rested upon or gratified some important and deeply religion. seaterj fact0rs in humanity. What these were, and how far they were due to the founder himself, it must be our aim to discover. It is desirable to have in mind, when considering Mohammedanism, the history LIFE OF MAHOMET. 501 of Judaism and the early history of Christianity ; but these will be dealt with later in this volume, in continuity with the later history of the Chris- tian Churches. Situated between the great populations of Asia and Africa, the Arabs, as might be expected, had numerous religious elements in common with the adjacent peoples. Fetishism, animal- worship, nature- worship, EarlyAraD especially of the sun and heavenly bodies, as well as ancestor- religious worship, undoubtedly existed among the Arabs before Mahomet's time. And the founder of Mohammedanism had to build upon the state of things he found deeply ingrained in his people. How powerful his influence and that of his successors was, may be gathered from the facts, that they elevated an obscure dialect into a language as widespread as Latin in the days of the Roman empire ; and that to this day new conquests are being made by Islam and the Arabs. The study of the early religion of the Arabs is of intense interest, from its necessary relation to that of the early Hebrews. It is to be regretted that it is still obscure, although much important work has been Tribal done, especially by Wellhausen and Robertson Smith. No doubt deities- the type and forms of early Arab religion were influenced by their separa- tion into small tribes ; and this caused or allowed a certain variety, as well as a certain smallness of conception to prevail. Each tribe, or group of tribes, had its particular god or gods, with which it was in peculiar relation, which fought for it and against the gods of hostile peoples, which were believed to be equally real. Then, when two or more tribes became amal- gamated, a commencement was made of a polytheistic system, by which several gods were worshipped side by side. Very generally, if not always, the tribal god was an ancestor-god, either an actual or a fabled deified an- cestor. Something of the same idea is seen in the Genesis narrative that the sons of God took wives of the daughters of men. Many Arab tribes bore the names of their gods, or of celestial bodies worshipped as gods ; but in later times, before Mahomet, these relationships were forgotten, and " the later Arabs worshipped gods that were not the gods of their fathers, and tribes of alien blood were often found gathered together on festival occa- sions at the great pilgrim shrines." (Robertson Smith.) But the idea of kinship in blood to the god was a predominant factor in early importance Arabia; and this made the blood of a kinsman holy and inviolable, of ^^p- and sanctioned the extremes of blood revenge. Inasmuch as the connection by kinship suggests motherhood as well as fatherhood, it is not surprising to learn that numerous early Arab deities were goddesses ; and it is believed that in later times the goddesses became changed to gods, in accordance with a change in the predominant idea of kinship. One of the goddesses was Al-Lat, worshipped by the Nabatseans as mother of the gods ; another was Al-Uzza, who has been named Venus by Latin writers. As is so often the case in goddess-worship, sensualism largely existed. The nomad life of the Arabs was not favourable to the growth and permanence of ideas of the godhead suited to agricultural peoples. AVe do 502 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. not find that they gave fixed annual offerings to the gods, or offered stated sacrifices at set seasons. They, however, early became Pil°'TilIlEl£T6S **' ' 1 mi accustomed to the idea of pilgrimages to towns (when such arose), which were the seat of some specially sacred object or worship ; and thus it was that gradually the religion of the townspeople gained great importance, and threw that of the nomads into the shade. There were temples of some kind in these towns ; and even when they did not exist, sanctuaries were formed in caves, and priests guarded the abode of the gods. Gifts to the gods were offered by being brought to the sacred place, hung on a sacred tree, or if the offering were one of blood or other liquid, by being poured over a sacred stone. We may refer here briefly to the primitive Arab belief (associated with animism) that nature is full of superhuman beings, the Jinn (Djinn), or The Jinn, or demons, corporeal beings with hairy skins, and capable of assum- gemes. jng varie(j shapes : and Mohammedanism has degraded all the heathen gods into jinn. They were feared and avoided, living as they did in uninhabited wastes, occupying the mysterious mountains that were be- lieved to encompass the earth, and also invading baths, ovens, wells, the junctions of roads, etc. Many injuries were supposed to have been inflicted by them on human beings. There were many orders of them, and the belief in them was so profound that it has been perpetuated among modern Arabs. The early Arabs recognised abodes or haunts of the gods, which they clearly marked out, such as a tract of pastureland marked off by pillars or Abodes of cairns, or a whole valley or town, within which bloodshed was the gods, forbidden and no tree was to be cut down, and numerous other things were forbidden. Within these was to be found some special place or altar at which the blood of sacrifices was smeared on sacred stones, or some tree upon which gifts were hung. Fountains or wells, trees, pillars, and Sacred heaps of stones were very general symbols or centres of worship. S 01weiis,eeS' Sometimes all were combined in one sacred place. At Mecca the pillars, etc holy well Zamzam was holy long before Mahometrs time. At Nejran a sacred date-palm was worshipped ; and at its annual feast it was hung with fine garments and female adornments. The people of Mecca used to hang weapons, garments, ostrich eggs, etc., upon a similar tree. Even the modern Arabs revere sacred trees as places where the jinn or genii descend, and may be heard dancing and singing. They regard it as a deadly danger to pluck a bough from these trees ; they make sacrifices to them, hanging parts of the flesh of the victims upon them, as well as calico, beads, etc. Sick men, when brought to sleep under them, have dreams which restore them to health. Except in the case of human victims, sacrifice by fire was little prac- tised, the pouring of the blood over a rude altar of stones being regarded as sufficient. In some cases the flesh of the slaughtered animals Sacrifices. ° was left to be devoured by wild beasts, but usually it was eaten by the worshippers. There was a customary offering of firstlings as well LIFE OF MAHOMET. 5°3 as firstfruits among many Arab tribes. Sometimes gifts of food, meal, etc., were cast at the foot of the idol, mingled with the giver's hair, and milk was poured over the sacred stones. Libations were very prominent among the Arabs. It appears to have been a very early Arab usage to sacrifice the hair of youths as a sign of admission into the adult religious Hair status ; and' a hair-offering formed part of every Arab pilgrimage. °-Terinss- The people of Ta'if shaved their heads at their holy place every time they returned from a journey. In Mahomet's time the ordinary worship of household gods among the Arabs consisted in stroking them with the hand in eoinsr in or out of the house or tent. Ten idols of the ancient Arabs are mentioned in the Koran, viz., Al- Jibl and Al-Taghut, Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, Manat, Wadd, Suwa, Yaghus, Yaug, and Nasr. The first two were idols of the Koreish, Al-Lat was the idol at Ta'if, Al-Uzza was identified with Venus, but was worshipped under the form of an acacia-tree ; Manat was a large sacrificial stone. The five succeeding names represent deified ancestors ; but several were worshipped under animal forms, as the Lion-god (Yaghus), the Vul- ture-god (Nasr), the Horse-god (Yaug). Habhah was a large sacred stone on which camels were sacrificed ; and the remarkable Black Stone of Mecca was another object of intense reverence. In the Kaaba at Mecca there Avere images representing Abraham and Ishmael, each carrying divining arrows in his hand. But in the midst of the old idolatry there had arisen some perception of a supreme God, who was known as Allah, the other gods being termed children of Allah. The word Allah may be connected with Notion ^ a the Babylonian and Semitic El ; it is doubtful whether it supreme J ' „, God. should be regarded as a contraction of Al-ilah, the Strong One, or should be read Al-lah, the Secret One. "By him," according to Wellhausen, " the holiest oaths were sworn ; in his name treaties and covenants were sealed. The enemy was reminded of Allah to deter him from inhuman outrage ; enemy of Allah was the name of opprobrium for a villain. But, since Allah ruled over all, and imposed duties on all, it was not thought that one could enter into special relations with him. In worship he had the last place, those gods being preferred who represented the in- terests of a specific circle, and fulfilled the private desires of their wor- shippers. Neither the fear of Allah, however, nor reverence for the gods, had much influence. The chief practical consequence of the great feasts was the observance of a truce in the holy months ; and this in time had become mainly an affair of pure practical convenience. In general, the disposition of the heathen Arabs, if it is at all truly reflected in prevalent their poetry, was profane in an unusual degree. . . . The pJPirit ancient inhabitants of Mecca practised piety essentially as a in Arabia, trade, just as they do now ; their trade depended on the feast, and its fair on the inviolability of the Haram and on the truce of the holy months/' Just at Mahomet's time, some few individuals in Ta'if, Mecca, and Medina, who worshipped Allah, had gained the name of Hanifs, probably meaning 504 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. "penitents," rejecting polytheism, seeking freedom from sin, resignation to God's will, and feeling a sense of human responsibility and judgment to come. It is doubtful how far their ideas were derived from Jews and Chris- Jewish and tians< Jews were veiT numerous both in Hejaz and in Yemen, and influence a certain amount of their l°re and peculiar tenets was no doubt current among the more intelligent Arabs. There does not appear to have been any considerable development of Christianity in Arabia, though the travelled Arabs knew something of Greek, Syrian, and Abys- sinian Christians. The Sabians and anchorites of the northern deserts of Arabia are more likely to have had an influence on the Arabs preceding Mahomet ; and in the Koran Mahomet notes that they believed in God and in the day of resurrection and judgment. They were not the same as the people who later took the name of Harranians, who were star-worshippers (Sabseans) and polytheists descended from the early people of Mesopotamia. The ascetic anchorites of the desert undoubtedly impressed the Arabs by their earnestness, their consecration to a holy life, and their steadfast pre- paration for a life to come. Thus the seed was, to some extent, prepared for the prophet of Islam. Mecca was the strongest centre of Arab worship, however superstitious it might be ; and out of Mecca, and the tribe of the Koreish who dominated Mahomet's it, came the family of Mahomet. His grandfather, Abd-al-Muttalib, femiiy. was cj^ef 0f a famyy 0f tne Koreish in the middle of the sixth century, a.d. His youngest son, Abdallah, married Amina, the daughter of Wahb, but did not live to see his son Mahomet, who also lost his mother His birth wnen ne was st^u a child. Mahomet was born in a.d. 570 ; his name is more precisely Muhammad, " the Praised " ; but the rendering "Mahomet " has so long enjoyed vogue'in this country that it is retained in this book. He was put out to nurse in the desert with a Bedouin woman. At five years of age he visited Medina with his mother, who died Early life 0n ^ie retllm journey. After his grandfather's death he was cared for by his uncle, Abu-Talib, and with him he went on a journey with a caravan to Syria about 582 a.d. A few years later he was perforce engaged in the so-called sacrilegious war between the Koreish and the Hawazin, which occurred within the sacred months and was carried into the sacred territory. In this war, says Mahomet, " I discharged arrows at the enemy, and I do not regret it." The chief remaining incident of interest in his early life is his taking part in a league of several families of the Koreish, who swore by the avenging Deity to take the part of the oppressed and see his claim fulfilled, so long as a drop of water remained in the ocean, or that they would satisfy it from their own resources. At one time he was occupied as a shepherd. At the age of twenty-five he was recommended by his uncle to take charge of a trading caravan belonging to a wealthy Koreishite widow named Khadijah. In charge of this he travelled His marriage to Bostra, sixty miles east of Jordan on the road to Damascus, adijan. Being successful, and attracting the regard of Khadijah, she conveyed to him her desire to marry him ; and this marriage, though the LIFE OF MAHOMET. 505 wife was fifteen years the husband's senior, was a very happy one. Khadi- jah bore him two sons, who died young, and four daughters, of whom the most famous was Fatima. Mahomet's life, previous to his announcement of his mission, was passed among a people with whom revenge was a religious duty, and blood feuds were common, whole tribes being involved in them. Drunkenness state of and gambling prevailed largely. Female children were often morals in buried alive as soon as born. "Women were in general mere chattels ; polygamy and divorce were frequent. Idolatry, divination, bloody sacrifices (not unfrequently of sons by fathers), sensualism, were prevalent. We have no record as to how far Mahomet himself conformed to the customary worship and beliefs ; but it ma}' well be conceived, judging from his later life, that his inward self gradually revolted from them, and that he pondered over the different ideas he had received from surrounding religious sj^stems — chiefly by word of mouth and by sight, for there is no probability that Mahomet could read or write. When Mahomet was about 35 years old, the Kaaba, or shrine of the sacred stone at Mecca, was rendered insecure by a flood, and it was de- cided to rebuild the walls and cover them with a roof. During Rebuilding of a dispute as to who should place the black stone in its position in thB Kaaba. the wall, Mahomet was chosen to decide the question, and he took off his mantle and placed the stone on it and said, " Now let one from each of your four divisions come forward and raise a corner of this mantle." This was done, and Mahomet with his own hand guided it to its place ; and this de- cision increased his influence among his fellow tribesmen. Other incidents are recorded, showing his capacity for forming warm friendships, for show- ing gratitude and kindness, and for exercising paternal judgment. About his fortieth year Mahomet became more and more contemplative, and frequently retired into solitary valleys and among rocks near Mecca. His favourite resort was a cave at the foot of Mount Hira, north Mahomet>s of Mecca ; and here, in dark and wild surroundings, his mind solitude and r6V6I*iGS was wrought up to rhapsodic enthusiasm ; and it may well be that some few of the earliest chapters in the Koran date from this time, such as : — " By the declining- daj* I swear! Verily man is in the way of ruin ; Excepting such as possess faith, And do the things which he right, And stir up one another to truth and steadfastness." In others of the early chapters we find Mahomet possessed by an ideal of truth and righteousness, and a stern reprobation of evil, injustice, His high and lying, and their certain punishment ; together with visions ideaL of his own people as designated by Providence to overthrow evil and to pre- serve true worship at Mecca. He points out as the lofty path : " Freeing the captive, And giving food in the dav of want 5o6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. To the orphan that is near of kin, Or to the poor that lieth in the dust." Further, the righteous must be of those that believe and stir up one another unto steadfastness and compassion : " These are the heirs of blessedness." Apparently some of his thoughts and his rhapsodic utterances were communicated to his family and friends, who regarded him as one almost Dawn of beside himself. When he enlarged on the purer ideas that he prophetic had heard were possessed by the Jews and Christians, they said : " If a prophet had been sent unto us, we should no doubt have followed his directions, and been as devout and spiritual in our wor- ship as the Jews and Christians." His meditations led him more and more to the belief that a preacher or prophet was needed by his people, and that he might be the destined prophet. After long mental struggle, during which he fell into deep depression and often meditated suicide, he became encouraged and confident, and looked for a period when the sway of his preaching should extend over all Arabia, and lead to the destruction of idols and the conquest of other peoples. The tradition is, that one night, The vision of while he was in Mount Hira, during the month of Ramadan, Gabriel, engaged in pious exercises, the angel Gabriel came to him as he slept, and held a silken scroll before him, and compelled him to recite what was written on it ; and it is asserted that this is part of the ninety-sixth sura,1 beginning : " Recite ! in the name of thy Lord, who created man from congealed blood ! Recite ! for thy Lord is the most High, who hath taught the pen, hath taught man what he knew not. Nay, truly man walketh in delusion when he deems that he suffices for himself" [otherwise translated : "Man is indeed outrageous at seeing himself get rich"] ; " to thy Lord is the return." When the angel left him, continues the tradition, Mahomet came to his wife and told her what had happened ; and she comforted him and confirmed him in the belief that this was a revelation from God. But no others would listen to him, and he was thrown back upon his medita- tions. One day, while stretched upon his carpet and covered with his garments, it is related that the angel Gabriel again appeared to him, and said : " 0 thou that art covered, arise and preach [or warn], and magnify thy command to Lord ; and purify thy garments, and depart from uncleanness ; preach. ancj grant not favour to gain increase ; and wait for thy Lord." Revelations now began to follow one another frequently ; but, after a certain time there was a break, during which the inspiration was suspended, Apparent arLC^ Mahomet's thoughts turned towards suicide. How far during break in this time he was overpowered by hysterical hallucinations it would be idle to attempt to determine ; but it is related that from youth he had suffered from a nervous disorder which has been termed 1 The name given to the chapters of the Koran, meaning, " reading." LIFE OF MAHOMET. 507 epilepsy ; and that this tendency was increased during his spiritual struggles by his mental excitement, night-watchings, and fastings is most Nervous probable. But this does not detract from the genuineness of his dlsorder- belief in his Divine inspiration. On one occasion, when about to commit suicide, it is related that he was suddenly arrested by a voice from heaven, and saw the angel on a throne between the heavens and the earth, who said : " 0 Mahomet, thou art in truth the prophet of Allah, and I am Gabriel." It is said that in moments of inspiration his anxiety of coun- tenance was painfully evident ; he would fall to the ground like one intoxicated or overcome by sleep, and in the coldest day his forehead would be bedewed with sweat. These periods were unexpected even by Mahomet himself. He himself said later : " Inspiration descendeth upon me in one of two ways : sometimes Gabriel cometh and communicateth the revelation unto me as one man unto another, and this is easy ; at other times it affecteth me like the ringing of a bell, penetrating my very heart, and rending me as it were in pieces, and this it is which grievously afnicteth me." Mahomet now preached his doctrines privately among his friends. His wife's freedman, Zaid ; his cousin Ali ; his intimate friend Abu-bekr, a ready believer, a steadfast friend, a rich merchant, generous in His early purchasing slaves who had become believers; Othman, Zobair, adherentF- and others soon formed a little community. He was in accord too with the Hanifs. Gradually his appeal extended to the whole of the Koreish and their slaves, who, being foreigners, had often some knowledge of Judaism and Christianity, and were somewhat predisposed to accept a new doctrine that elevated them ; but the Meccans in general paid him little heed. They were already familiar with the essence of his teaching about the one God, and the necessity of truth and righteousness. He was not preach- opposition at ing to them a really new and attractive doctrine ; it was one which, Mecca, if followed out, demanded painful changes in their life, a true obedience to the all-powerful Judge of man, accompanied by prayer, almsgiving, and temperance of life. If the slaves, the children of the lower classes, heard him gladly, that was an additional reason why the haughty Koreish would not listen to him. Repulsed very considerably, Mahomet proceeded to denounce more vigorously the false gods and the false ideas of the Koreish, and to threaten them with judgments of God if they did not listen to His prophet. Attempts to . They were constrained at one time to beg Abu Talib, Mahomet's snence Wm- uncle, to silence him or to withdraw his protection from him. When Abu Talib discussed matters with his nephew, the latter was sturdy in upholding the paramount imperiousness of his convictions. "Though they gave me the sun in my right hand and the moon in my left," said Mahomet, " to bring me back from my undertaking, yet will I not pause till the Lord carry my cause to victory, or till I die for it." So saying he burst into tears, and turned to go away. "Go in peace," said his uncle, " and say what thou wilt, for, by God, I will on no condition abandon thee." At this time Mahomet was holding his meetings in the house of Arkun, 5oS THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. one of his converts, close by the sanctuary of the Kaaba ; but petty „, ^ , insults were heaped on Mahomet, and grosser indignities and Flight of r . adherents to cruelties on the humbler converts, so that while Abu-bekr pur- yssima. chase(j ^e freedom of some slaves, others fled to Abyssinia, where the}'- were kindly received by the Christians. After this, Mahomet, depressed by apparent failure, was in a mood for compromise. One day he sat down among the chief men of Mecca beside the Kaaba, and recited to them the fifty-third sura, including an account of the first visit of the angel to him, and also of a later vision, containing a proposed "What think ye of Al-Lat and Al-Ozza, and Manat the third compromise. wjth them ? " At this verse, so the story runs, the devil suggested to Mahomet words of reconciliation. " These are the sublime Females " [otherwise " cranes "], " whose intercession may be hoped for ; " whereupon the Koreish were delighted at this recognition of their deities, and when Ma- homet concluded, " "Wherefore bow down before Allah and serve Him," they all prostrated themselves and worshipped ; and professed themselves ready to recognise the prophet, since he had granted them part of their idolatry. But Mahomet went home disquieted, and in the evening was visited by Gabriel, who said to him, "What hast thou done? thou hast repeated be- fore the people words that I never gave unto thee." Then Mahomet withdrawal grieved sorely and said, " I have spoken of God that which He by Mahomet. hath not said." Then he was comforted, and Allah erased part of the sura, making it read, after " Manat the third," " What? shall there be male offspring for them, and female for you ? That were an unfair division. They are naught but names, which ye and your fathers have invented." When the Meccans heard of this, their hostility broke out with renewed violence. There can be little doubt that this story indicates a period of attempted compromise, which failed, owing to the unreality of any change produced . in the Meccans. A profession which was no conversion was RGtu.ru of fugitives, and useless in establishing a reformation. The news of it brought second flight. hack the Abyssinian refugees ; but finding enmity again in full activity, they returned in added numbers, including Mahomet's daughter Rokkaya and her husband Othman. The Koreish were very scornful after this change of front, and said, " Ah, is this he whom Allah sent as an Apostle ; verily, he had nearly seduced us from our gods, unless we had patiently persevered therein." " Verily thou plainly art a fabricator." In the midst of these discouragements, Mahomet made two notable con- verts, his uncle Hamza, and Omar, a young man who had till then been „ M strongly hostile to the new faith. Omar was twenty-six years Hamza and to J . . Omar old, tall and commanding in figure, with a strong and impetuous converted. temperj and he had great personal influence, though neither rich nor of a principal family. He was converted owing to his discovery that his sister Fatima and her husband Said had believed in the new faith, and he was welcomed cordially by Mahomet. From this time people were not LIFE OF MAHOMET. 5°9 afraid to profess the new faith openly. Omar first offered his prayers publicly at the Kaaba, and performed the accustomed walks round its precincts, and other adherents of Mahomet soon followed his example. The Koreish were MAHOMET, PKOPHET OF ISLAM. alarmed, and became still move hostile to the prophet and all his Ho^mty of family, the Hashimites. Meanwhile he attacked them more fierce!^ by his revelations, many of them at this time being alleged to be 5io THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. confirmed by the Jewish scriptures. Not a few of the chapters of the Koran which date from this period contain narratives distorted evidently from the Old Testament narratives, or from Jewish traditions. Again and again ,, he refers to his own revelation as confirming and attesting: the Mahomet s ° *? alliance with Book of Moses or the Jewish Scriptures. In fact, he claimed, that " the learned men of the children of Israel " recognised this ; and there is very strong reason to believe that some of the Jews to whom he was known gained the idea that he might be " the Prophet whom the Lord would raise up." There is no proof that Mahomet ever studied from an actual copy of the Old Testament. But his utterances became more and more intermingled with Jewish stories, and he even claimed the revelation of these as proof of his mission. His enemies said : " They are fables of the ancients which he hath had written down ; they are dictated to him morn- ing and evening ; " and Mahomet's only answer was, " He hath revealed it who knoweth that which is hidden in heaven and in earth." The Meccans were not likely to relish the plain denunciations of Maho- met, threatening them with a terrible overthrow ; but these threatenings were so often repeated that the people at last expressed a wish that the day might arrive ; and they termed his revelations tedious. Finally, they resolved Boycotting' to adopt a very severe form of boycotting Mahomet and the Ha- °f dfnis foi- shimites. They would not intermarry with them; they would lowers, neither sell to nor buy from them ; in fact, dealings of all kinds should cease. This ban was put into writing and sealed with three seals ; then it was hung up in the Kaaba, as a sign of its religiously binding nature. So severe a measure naturally frightened those at whom it was aimed, and they withdrew strictly within the quarter of Abu Talib, separated by cliffs, buildings, and a gateway from the rest of Mecca (a.d. 616-7). Not being strong enough to send out a caravan of their own, they soon began to suffer from scarcity. No one ventured outside, except during the sacred months. Yet the Hashimites maintained themselves thus for two or three years, a few of the other Meccans now and then venturing to help them. Mahomet devoted himself to preaching to those of his clan who were unconverted, and to strengthen- ing the believers. " Conduct thyself gently unto the believers that are with thee," says his revelation about this time, " and put thy trust in Him that is glorious and merciful." During the sacred pilgrimages, however, he preached to the strangers who flocked to Mecca, warning them against idolatry, proclaiming the worship of the One God, and promising them dominion on earth preaches to and Paradise hereafter, if they would only believe. But he s rangers. wag geiiera]]y repulsed with the words, " Thine own kindred and people should know thee best wherefore do they not believe and follow thee ? " At last the ban was removed, after events ot which there is more than one traditional account. It had been discovered that insects had eaten up the parchment record in the Kaaba ; and five chief men of the Koreish went LIFE OF MAHOMET. 5 1 1 to the quarter of Abu Talib, and commanded all the refugees to return to their respective homes in safety. Yet this apparent victory was the prelude of worse losses : Khadijah died (a.d. 619-620), and then Death of the venerable Abu Talib. Protection of his party became more K^adya^- difficult, and Mahomet began to turn his thoughts towards other places. He went and preached at Ta'if (sixty miles east of Mecca), but failed ; he was hooted and stoned out of the place, and was sunk in the deepest despond- ency. His prayer at this time has been handed down. In it he Mahomet's bewails his feebleness and insignificance. "Oh, Thou most despondency, merciful, Thou art the Lord of the weak, and Thou art my Lord. Into whose hands wilt Thou abandon me ? Into the hands of the strangers that beset me round, or of the enemy to whom Thou hast given the mastery over me ? . . . I seek for refuge in the light of Thy gracious countenance, by which the darkness is dispersed, and peace ariseth both for this world and the next, that Thy wrath light not upon me, nor Thine indignation. It is Thine to show anger until Thou art pleased ; and there is not any power or resource but in Thee." On his way home during one night, while in prayer or while dreaming, he saw a company of the jinn, or genii, listening to the Koran, and eager to embrace the faith. Returning to Mecca, Mahomet married again, — two months after Khadi jah's death— Sauda, the widow of Sakran, an early convert ; and was betrothed to Ayesha, the young daughter (only seven 3-ears of age) of his bosom friend Abu-bekr. Thus he first gave way to that polygamy which has been one of the great features of Mohammed- anism. When the time of pilgrimage came round again, Ma- The pilgrims hornet preached earnestly to the pilgrims; and met with a little from Medina, band of persons from Medina 250 miles north of Mecca, who showed an unusual readiness to hear him. He found that they had close connections with the numerous Jews of Medina, and asked them whether he could find protection, and a hearing in their city. They promised to let him know the next year. In the meantime they made known the doctrines he had taught them. They learnt how the Jews were expecting another prophet to arise, and they identified Mahomet with this prophet ; so that when the pilgrims from Medina again met Mahomet, twelve men pledged themselves to him in the following terms : " We will not worship First piedge any but the One God ; we will not steal, neither will we commit of Acaba- adultery, nor kill our children ; we will not slander in any wise ; and we will not disobey him (i.e. the Prophet) in anything that is right." This is called the First Pledge of Acaba, from the locality where it was taken ; and also the Pledge of Women, because it does not include any vow to defend the Prophet, and thus was afterw-ards the pledge required of womeu. Mahomet's reply was, " If ye fulfil the pledge, Paradise shall be your reward. He that shall fail in an}?- part thereof, to God belongeth this concern, either to punish or forgive." The twelve returned to Medina as missionaries of the new faith, and at once zealously spread it, and with such success that they sent to Mahomet 5r2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. for a teacher versed in the Koran, who could give fuller instruction. Musab, a great-grandson of Hashim, was sent and received won at with general assent, and Mahomet from this time had visions of a journey to Medina. To this period apparently belongs his vision of being carried by Gabriel on a winged horse past Medina to the temple at Jerusalem, where he was welcomed by the Prophets. Thence he appeared to mount from one heaven to another, appearing at Jerusalem last in the presence of Allah, from whom he received the com- and of heaven. manc| ^^ jj-g pe0p}e were ^0 pray five times in the day. "When he awoke and told his vision, some of his followers were staggered and drew back, others believed and accepted it. However, the only mention of this wonderful vision in the Koran is in the seventeenth Sura; "Celebrated be the praises of Him who took his servant a journey by night from the Sacred Mosque (the Kaaba) to the remote Mosque (the Temple at Jerusalem), the precinct of which we have blessed, to show him of our signs. Verily He both hears and looks." At this time there was a great struggle going on between the Byzan- tine empire and the Persians, who for some years were encroaching every- The Emperor where, but in 621 were driven back by the emperor Heraclius. Heraciius. j^efore nis victories Mahomet, whose sympathies were with the Greek empire, prophesied his success. Finding his efforts at Mecca fruit- less, he retired from his endeavour — with a revelation to justify him — " We have not made thee a keeper over them, neither art thou unto them a guardian." His resource was in calmness and confidence of future success. " Verily we will destroy the unjust ; and we will make you to dwell in the land after them " (K. xiv. 17). A famine came upon Mecca — a punishment Famine at from Allah ; relief came, — it was Allah's goodness, to give the Mecca. Meccans yet another chance. Meanwhile the Koran said to the unbelievers, " Work ye in your place, — wait ye in expectation ; we too in expectancy will wait." Mahomet's claims rose higher still, and he taught, " Whosoever rebels against God and His prophet, verily for him is the fire of hell ; they shall be therein alway, for ever." He asseverated about his Mahomet's mission with the strongest language, putting into the mouth of high claims. Allah the most dire threats against Mahomet if he had fabricated anything concerning Him. In temporal want he was thus reassured : " Do not strain after what We have provided a few of them with — the show of this life — to try them by ; but the provision of thy Lord is better and more lasting. Bid thy people pray, and persevere in it ; We do not ask thee to provide, We will provide, and the issue shall be to piety." In March, 622, when the pilgrimage again brought his adherents from Medina, Mahomet learnt at a meeting by night, that they had increased to second pledge a large number. At this meeting more than seventy persons of Acaba. from Medina pledged themselves to defend Mahomet at the risk of their lives, and took an oath which has been called the second pledge of Acaba ; and he expressed himself ready to go with them to Medina. Mahomet named twelve of the chief men, saying, " Moses chose from amongst his L L 5 14 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. people twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for the rest, even as were the apostles of Jesus ; and I am the surety for my people." The meeting was suddenly broken up by a noise, and next day the chiefs of the Koreish sought to discover what had taken place, under threats of hostility. When they found out the true nature of the meeting, they pursued the Medina pilgrims, but could not come up with them. This was followed by a renewed persecu- tion of the Mohammedans at Mecca; and a few days afterwards Mahomet com- manded them to depart to Medina, since Allah had given them brethren and commence- a refuge in that city. It was in April, G22, that the flight began, "nigM to e from which the Moslem chronology begins. The emigration went Medina. on secretty for the most part, house after house at Mecca being found abandoned. Within two months about 150 emigrants had reached Medina. The Koreish looked on helpless and amazed, having no precedent for forcibly detaining them. Finally only Mahomet, Abu Bekr, and their families, including Ali, were left in Mecca ; and the Koreish plotted how they might detain, expel, or kill Mahomet. Hearing of their arrangement Mahomet to visit his house, Mahomet left it secretly, took Abu Bekr with leaves Mecca. ninij anc[ both crept through a back window and escaped un- noticed from the southern suburb of the city, and took refuge in a cave of Mount Thaur, where they hid for two or three days. The Prophet in the Koran (ix. 42) thus describes the situation : " And God did help him, when those who disbelieved drove him forth the second of two [i.e. with only one companion].'" When they two were in the cave alone, he said to his corn- Takes refuge panion : " Be not cast down, for verily God is with us. And God in a cave. seil^ (jown jj{s Shechinah upon him, and aided him with hosts ye could not see, and made the word of the unbelievers to be abased, and the word of God to be exalted, for God is mighty and wise." Meanwhile, seeing the daylight through a crevice in the cave, Abu Bekr said, " What if one of them were to look beneath him ; he might see us under his very feet." " Think not this, Abu Bekr," said the Prophet, in perhaps his sub- limest utterance, " We are two, but God is in the midst, a third." They Arrives at were fed by friends secretly and not discovered ; at last, they set Medma, 622. on^ towards Medina, where they arrived, it is believed, on the 28th of June, 622. Thus^the Hegira (or flight) was completed. Mahomet's and Abu Bekr's families remained behind at Mecca for a time. [Wellhausen, "Life of Mohammed," Encyclopedia Britannica; Robertson Smith, "Religion of the Semites ; " Muir, " Life of Mahomet" ; Bos worth Smith, " Mohammed and Mohammedanism"; Hughes, "Dictionary of Islam."] CHAPTER IV. 3Life of iHafcomet* part H. Mahomet at Medina— He enters the city on a camel —Brotherhood of refugees and citizens— The first mosque— Its fame— Mahomet and the Jews — Jewish " witnesses" — Changed direction of prayer — The Ramadan fast— Day of sacrifice The call to prayer— Mahomet's pulpit-Mode of con- ducting service War and politics— Incentives to war -Promised rewards -Battle of Badr— War against kin— Compulsion and cruelty towards Jews Mahomet's new wives— Battle of Ohod — War of the ditch— Pledge of the Tree— Treaty with the Koreish — The Jews of Khaibar— Mahomet's messages to great powers —Mahomet visits Mecca, 629— Mahomet marches on Mecca, 630— Destroys the idols AD. Mecca submits to him Battle of Honein-The Coptic maid and Mahomet — His growing dominion — Taif submits Ban proclaimed against unbelievers — Mahomet's last pilgrimage, 632- His illness and death— Funeral— Personal appearance — Character- Moral influence. THE beautiful oasis of Medina, crowded with date-palms and other fruit- trees, and inhabited by two tribes of Arabs, — of whom the more power- ful, the Khazraj, included Mahomet's adherents, — as wrell as by many Jews. was far more inviting and favourable to the Prophet than Mecca. Mahomet at He was received with a joyful welcome by his converts, whom he Medina, bade to show their joy by good-will to their neighbours, by sending portions to the poor, by increased famil}- unity, and b}r prayer at night. " Thus," he said, ;' shall ye enter Paradise in peace." After a short stay in Coba, one of the suburbs of Medina, Mahomet entered the city on a Friday, seated on a camel, with Abu Bekr behind him. He halted at a place of prayer on the way, and performed his first Friday service, giving a sermon on the new faith. From city on a that day to this, Friday has been the Mahometan Sunday. The after-journey was a grand triumphal procession ; and so numerous and pressing- became the invitations to the Prophet to take up his abode with particular persons, that he announced that the camel must decide. She entered the eastern quarter, and sat down in a large open courtyard, near Abu Ayoub's house ; in his house, therefore, Mahomet lived, until a house of prayer, with houses for his wives, had been built in the courtyard, which Mahomet bought. Meanwhile, the change from the dry climate of Mecca to the damp and cold of Medina were very trying to his followers, most of whom suffered from fever. Mahomet hit upon an excellent plan for raising their spirits and attaching them to their new home. He enjoined them to form a peculiar brotherhood, each stranger taking a man of Medina as his brother, and the pair undertaking a degree of mutual devotion of refugees iiici citizens even beyond the claims of blood. After a time this proved un- necessary or inconvenient, and in about a year and a half it was abolished. The new mosque was on the site now occupied by the great mosque of 515 516 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Medina ; and though less capacious than the latter, it was very large, being The first about one hundred cubits (say 150 feet) square ; and the roof was mosque. 0f palm_tree trunks, covered in with palm-wood rafters. The worshippers directed their faces towards the north, while Mahomet, when in prayer, stood near the north wall and looked towards the north-west, to Jerusalem, with the people at his back ; when preaching he faced them. On the eastern side rooms were built for the Prophet's wives and daughters, his marriage with his child-wife Ayesha being now completed. To the north was a shelter for poor adherents who had no homes, and who slept in the mosque. " Though rude in material," sa}rs Muir, " and comparatively insigni- ficant in extent, the mosque of Mahomet is glorious in the history of Islam. It f Here the prophet and his companions spent the greater portion of their time ; here the daily service, with its oft-recurring prayers, was first publicly established ; here the great congregation assembled every week, and trembled often while they listened to the orations of the Prophet and the messages from heaven. Here he planned his victories. From this spot he sent forth envoys to kings and emperors with the summons to embrace Islam. Here he received the embassies of contrite and believing tribes ; and from hence issued commands which carried consternation amongst the rebellious to the very ends of the Peninsula. Hard by, in the room of A}Tesha, he yielded up the ghost ; and there he lies buried." Mahomet's attitude to the Jews gradually changed. At first he was most anxious to conciliate them, professed his approval of them, laid emphasis Mahomet and upon the points of agreement between them, and even framed a the Jews. sor£ 0£ treaty, agreeing to aid and succour and defend them, and permitting them the full maintenance of their religion. But as his claims grew, as he began to emphasise his position as the " greater Prophet " spoken of by their scriptures, the Jews of Medina felt that they could not accept him as their lawgiver in place of or in addition to Moses, since he was not Jewish of Jewish blood. A few joined him entirely, becoming practically " Wltnesses-" Mahometans, and these were carefully utilised as "witnesses" to the Prophet's claims, asserting that their brethren merely denied them through jealousj7. The portions of the Koran now issued were full of attacks upon the Jews, reciting their old idolatry and disobedience to God. At first Jeru- salem was the chief sacred place, as we have seen, towards which Mahomet turned in prayer. Before he had been eighteen months in Medina, one day Mahomet, having already, it is related, desired permission of God to turn changed towards the Kaaba at Mecca, suddenly received it in the midst direction of of service, and turned round to the south, towards Mecca. From this time the Jews were hostile to the Mahometans. Previously, Mahomet had adopted the Fast Day of the Atonement from the Jews ; he The Ramadan now established his own peculiar fast, and extended it over the month of Ramadan — as a day-fast from meat, drink, and all enjoy- men's, which however were lawful at night. At the end of the month LIFE OF MAHOMET. 517 a festival was held, called " the breaking of the fast," marked by abundant alms to the poor. He also established a day of sacrifice, which Day of was celebrated on the concluding day of the pilgrimage to Mecca. sacriflce- After a solemn service, two fat kids were sacrificed by the prophet, the first for the whole people, the second for himself and his family. After the direction of prayer was changed, a special call to prayer was The can to established, to which a supernatural origin was ascribed. Bilal? Prayer- Mahomet's negro servant, ascending a lofty wall near the mosque before daybreak, on its first glimmer proclaimed, " Great is Allah ! great is Allah ! I bear witness that there is no God but Allah. I bear witness that Mahomet is the Prophet of Allah! Come unto Prayer ! Come unto Happiness ! Great is Allah! Great is Allah! There is no God but Allah, Prayer is better than sleep, Prayer is better than sleep ! " And the same call was repeated at each of the five hours of prayer. Mahomet's dignity and convenience were further promoted by the construction of a pulpit, the Mahomet's platform of which was raised three steps above the floor, and PulPlt;- placed near the southern wall of the mosque. It became an object of great sanctity to Mahometans, oaths being taken close to it, and a false swearer being condemned to hell. We may here quote from Muir the traditional account of Mahomet's mode of first conducting service in his pulpit. " As he mounted the pulpit, turning towards the Kaaba, he uttered a loud Tdkbir, ' Great is Mode of the Lord ! ' and the whole assembly from behind burst forth into conducting . S6rvic©. the same exclamation. Then he bowed himself in prayer, still standing in the pulpit with his face averted from the people ; after which he descended, walking backwards, and at the foot of the pulpit prostrated himself towards the Kaaba. This he did twice, and having ended the prayers, he turned towards the congregation, and told them he had done this that they might know and imitate his manner of prayer." His mode of conducting the Friday service was as follows : " As the Prophet mounted the steps of the pulpit he greeted the assembly with the salutation of peace. Then he sat down, and Bilal sounded forth the call to prayer. After the prescribed prostrations and reciting of the Koran, he delivered two discourses, twice sitting down ; and he would point with his fingers, enforcing his instructions: the people raised their faces towards him, listen- ing attentively, and fixing their eyes upon him ; when he ended, they joined in a universal Amen. As he discoursed he leant upon a staff. His dress on these occasions was a mantle of striped Yemen stuff, six cubits in length, thrown over his shoulders ; the lower garment was a girdle of fine cloth from Oman, but of smaller dimensions than the other. These robes were worn only on Friday, and on the two great festivals ; at the conclusion of each service, they were folded up and put carefully away." The later life of Mahomet may be considered as a period of war and politics even more than of religion ; or rather, his religion became war and identified with war and politics. From the time of his flight to P°utlcs- Medina, though the Meccans abstained from active hostilities, he had 518 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. tlireatened divine vengeance against them, and events proved that he only bided his time. We cannot detail the marauding expeditions which were sent out by Mahomet or led by him against Meccan caravans, with varying success. One of these attacked a caravan during the sacred month of Rajab ; one of the Koreish was killed and two were taken prisoners. After a period of discouragement, Mahomet declared a revelation that " war dur- ing the sacred month was grievous, yet to obstruct the way of God and to hinder men from the Holy Temple was worse." The warlike spirit, so incentives to temptingly combining religious incentives with those of plunder, war. grew apace, and Mahomet produced a revelation in favour of war against unbelievers, until all opposition ceased and there was no religion but Allah's. " Kill them wheresoever ye find them ; and expel them from that out of which they have expelled you. . . . Yet fight not Promised against them beside the Holy Temple, until they fight with you rewards, thereat." " An excellent provision in Paradise " was promised to those who fell in battle. Contributions were solicited towards war, and a higher place was to be granted to those who contributed before the victory. •: Who is he that lendeth unto the Lord a goodly loan? He shall double the same, and he shall have an honourable recompense." The first important battle for the new faith was that of Badr, fought in December, 623, when Mahomet with 308 followers attacked the Koreish Battle of 950 strong, and put them to flight, after many of their principal Badr. men iiacj \)een s]aini Two prisoners whom he hated personally Mahomet put to death, and others were set free on payment of heavy ransoms. Thus was started that career of bloodshed and conquest which has distinguished Mohammedanism more than any other religion, even remembering the Crusades and other wars of Christians. No religion has ever made extension by war so important an element. In the matter of dissolving old relationships and ties, Islam was but like numerous other religions ; still this was a new attitude in Arabia, which struck the Koreish war against with consternation. Brother was ready even to slay brother at Mn- the bidding of the Prophet. The new brotherhood superseded everything, and no toleration wras allowable towards unbelievers. Active natures found full scope for their energies ; and no man could hope for dis- tinction in Islam by a life of contemplation such as the Buddhists favoured. The new religion showed that it was to be founded upon human passion, upon pride of domination, upon fanaticism, quite as much as upon simplifica- tion of truth, and remodelling of belief about God, and new principles and fashions in personal conduct. The very process of winning the first victory became in the hands of Mahomet and his principal followers a method of strengthening their convictions and their hold upon their followers at the same time. The men of Medina extended their pledge to defend Mahomet Loyalty of *n Medina m these words, "Prophet of the Lord, march whither men of thou listest, encamp wherever thou mayest choose, make war or conclude peace with whom thou wilt. For I swear by Him who hath sent thee with the Truth, that if thou wast to march till our camels LIFE OF MAHOMET. 519 fell clown dead, we should go forward with thee to the world's end." The distribution of the spoils too was made the occasion of a revelation claim- ing one-fifth for God and the prophet and his kin, together Division of with the 'orphans and the poor. In numerous other ways this spoils of war- victory was skilfully used to deepen the convictions of the believers, and the influence of Mahomet as a Divine teacher. Bloodshed leads to bloodshed. Mahomet could now brook no opposi- tion. Jews and Jewesses, who attacked him or spread defamatoiy verses about him and his doings, were assassinated one after another „ . . . . ... . . Compulsion by his followers, either by his direct instigation or with his and cruelty subsequent approval. Tribe after tribe of Jews were either com- pelled to submit to Islam and profess its faith, or were expelled, or attacked and exterminated. And sensuality followed hard on bloodshed. Mahomet's New wives were added to Mahomet's harem ; and from this time new wives- i'>24) there was scarcely a year of his life in which he did not take a new wife. The Meccans, after long mourning, decided to take active steps against Mahomet ; and early in 025 the two met outside Medina at Mount Ohod, and after a partial victory for the Mohammedans, they were taken Battle of in the rear, Mahomet was wounded, and his uncle Hamza slain ; oho± but the Meccans retired after their victory, and Mahomet retained his in- fluence at Mecca. He executed a capital sentence on a follower who in the battle had slain an enemy of his own side, and those who had been killed at Ohod were regarded as martyrs. Passages in the Koran (ii. and iii.) represent God as causing alternations of success as tests, and encourage the believers to perseverance, even if Mahomet himself should be killed ; and no soul died without the permission of God. In March, 027, the expelled Jews, allied with the Koreish and two great Bedouin tribes, in all 10,000 strong, attacked Mahomet at Medina. He entrenched himself behind a wide ditch or foss which he dug war of the across the exposed side of the city ; and his followers defended it dltch- so well that the attacking army after fourteen days' siege broke up and returned home. After this Mahomet massacred the men of the last re- maining independent Jewish tribe in Medina, 600 or 700 in number, who had had. some negotiations with the enemy but had broken them off, and who now refused to join his ranks ; their women and children being sold into slavery. Mahomet now prepared to attack Mecca itself. He first attempted to visit Mecca (in March, 628) with 1500 men, but was forced to halt at Hoclaib}^a, just outside the sacred territory, the Koreish refusing nedge of the to let him perform the circuit of the Kaaba. On this occasion, Tree- when in a state of alarm and suspecting treachery, Mahomet made all the pilgrims give a pledge to serve him faithfully till death (this is called the Pledge of the Tree, from the acacia-tree under which it was sworn). The Koreish, realising the devotion of Mahomet's followers, offered him a com- promise, by which he was to withdraw for that year, and in the next return 52o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and remain three days within the sacred territory and offer the sacrifices he desired. Mahomet, willing to accept this, did not even demur to his being described in the treaty as " Mohammed the son of Abdallah," instead of by his title " Apostle of God," and he allowed the Koreish to nse that name Treaty with of God which they chose. The treaty provided for a truce of ten the Koreish. yearSj wfth freedom for all to join either Mahomet or the Koreish. Mahomet, although his people were somewhat disappointed at his agreeing to these terms, realised that he had gained much in being recognised as an independent political power, and in being allowed to enter Mecca un- disturbed the next year. He produced a new revelation describing the result as a victory ; and his later followers echo this view, showing that the treaty had been won without fighting, and that it led very many to join Islam. Strengthened by this result, Mahomet turned his arms against the rich Jews of Khaibar, north of Medina (628) and subdued them in detail with no little cruelty. In the same year he sent a message to the victorious Mahomet's Byzantine emperor Heraclius, demanding that he should acknow- messagesto ledge him as Apostle, lay aside the worship of Jesus, and return powers. ^ Wy^ 0f the One God. A similar message was sent to the Persian king Siroes, without result. An embassy to the Roman governor of Egypt was received with honour, though without submission ; but presents were sent to Mahomet, including two Coptic girls, one of whom he added to his harem. About the same time the Abyssinian prince is reported to have signified his acceptance of Islam. These and other incidents testify to the rapid growth of Mahomet's influence. This reacted upon the Arab mind, susceptible to motives of power and booty ; and Mecca was now to drop into Mahomet's mouth, like a ripe plum. In March, 029, Mahomet, according to the compromise, visited Mecca with 2,000 men, performed the sevenfold circuit of the Kaaba, reciting, __- . " There is no God but Allah alone. It is He that hath holden Mahomet visits Mecca, His servant and exalted his army. Alone hath He discomfited the confederated hosts." Then he sacrificed the appropriate animals on the rising ground of Marwa, and finally shaved his head. On the second day Mahomet entered the Kaaba, Bilal sounded the call to prayer at midday from the top of the building, and the Moslems responded and performed their accustomed devotions. Thus was the Kaaba reclaimed for Islam. As a diversion from more serious matters, Mahomet arranged yet another marriage, with Meimuna, a bride of over fifty years old — this being his last marriage. Some leading men of Mecca joined him. During 029 some further victories over various Arab tribes, and the conquest of Syrian border tribes to the south of the Dead Sea added to his prestige. At the end of G29, some alleged infractions of the treaty of Hodaibya led Mahomet to march secretly on Mecca with nearly 10,000 men, in January, Mahomet 630. Suddenly all their tent fires were lighted within view of the on Mecca, (-'ity? and the sight spread consternation among the Koreish. 63°- Abbas, Mahomet's uncle, had joined him just before, and he now became a medium by which a leader of the Koreish, named Abu Sofyan, LIFE OF MAHOMET. 521 approached Mahomet and tendered his submission. Afc once Mahomet and Lis army entered the city, with scarcely any opposition. Ho went to the Kaaba, sainted the sacred stone, and made the seven circuits of the temple ; then one by one, by his orders, the idols of Mecca were Destroys destroyed, including the great image of Hobal in front of the the iciols- Kaaba. He next worshipped outside and inside the temple ; had the pictures of Abraham and the angels, which decorated the Kaaba, destroyed, and ordered all believers in Allah throughout Mecca to destroy all images in their houses. At the same time he had the pillars marking the boundaries of the sacred territory repaired, showing his intention to keep up the sanctity of i MEDINA". THE MODEIIN CITY. Mecca ; but while expressing his intense attachment to Mecca, he comforted the people of Medina by declaring that he should live and die in the city which had first hospitably received him. Four persons, renegades or criminals, were put to death after this peaceful conquest. The rest of the people unanimously submitted to the Prophet, many, no doubt, Mecca being influenced by fear, by seeing that his was the winning side, Sub^its by the attractions of war, power, and probable plunder. Various images and shrines of idols in the neighbourhood of Mecca were soon destroyed. The next important event in Mahomet's history was the battle of Honein, THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. against the powerful Hawazin tribe, in which Mahomet's forces at first Battle of wavered, and were only encouraged to make a firm stand by his Honein. reminding the men of Medina of their oath of Hodaibya ; their valour turned the day in his favour. Then Mahomet ascribed the victory to the aid of great unseen angelic hosts. Taif was then besieged, but its defenders were valiant and skilful, and the siege was raised. The distri- bution of the booty from Honein caused much dissatisfaction among the Medina men, because great favour was shown to the Meccans, especially to Abu Sofyan ; but Mahomet again appeased them by expressing his un- changeable gratitude to them, and his determination to stick to them as against all the world. His relations with one of the beautiful Coptic maids, Mary, sent from Egypt, now caused much vexation among his wives, owing to his evident The Coptic Pre^erence for her. She gave birth to a son, Ibrahim, the only maid and one born to Mahomet at Medina ; and his death at about sixteen months caused the prophet great grief. Mahomet, in the man- ner characteristic of his later life, produced a " revelation " to suit the particular case, to approve what he had done and what he wished to do, and cautioning his wives against the consequences of murmuring against him. Mahomet's dominion now began to assume the proportions of an empire ; those who adopted the faith submitted to his secular rule, and paid annual His growing tithes to consecrate their wealth, these being applied towards the dominion, cliarities and other expenses of the Prophet. Those who refused to pay were compelled. A noted Arab poet, Kab, }delded his submission in a notable poem ; when he had recited the lines : — " Verily the Prophet is a light illuminating the world, A naked sword from the armoury of God," Mahomet was so delighted that he took his mantle from his shoulders and threw it upon the poet, as a gift. From this incident, the poem was known as ': The Poem of the Mantle " ; later the mantle became the property of the Caliphs, till the fall of Bagdad. Embassies were received from all parts of Arabia, and even beyond, acknowledging Mahomet's chiefship and office, and receiving presents, confirmations of authority, special privileges, etc. (a. p. 030, 031). Of the Christian tribes which submitted, some were allowed to continue in their religion as before, others were bidden not to baptize their children, though they might maintain their worship. Instructors in the faith of Islam were often sent back with the embassies. In 030 an expedition headed by Mahomet received the submission of numerous Christian and Jewish tribes to the south of Palestine. Some of his adherents who had held back from this expedition were rebuked in severe terms in the latest revealed chapter of the Koran (ix.). Those who had no pretext to offer, were put under a strict boycott, but pardoned on their abject submission. The people of Ta'if had not yet submitted, but still continued in idolatry. Orwa, one of their chiefs, embraced the new faith at Medina, and returned to preach it to his people. After he had announced his conversion at LIFE OF MAHOMET. 523 Tai'f, and shouted the call to prayer from the top of his house, he was shot at with arrows and mortally wounded. Hence he was J . . Tail submits. accounted a martyr. The Taiifites continued their idolatry, and suffered from the predatory attacks of the Moslems, which compelled them to keep within their walls. At last they sent an embassy to the Prophet, who gave them instructions, and refused to grant them permission to continue in several sinful habits, or to maintain their idol Al-Lat for three years longer as they desired. After abating their demand to one year, or even a month, the onfy concession they could get from Mahomet was, that they should not be compelled to destroy the idol with their own hands. A follower of Mahomet was sent to do this ; and it was done amid the loud laments of the women and children. Abu Bekr and 300 pilgrims were deputed to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca in 631, Mahomet not sharing in it because a vast number of heathen tribes still went to Mecca and performed idolatrous rites. It was Ban pro- announced that every pilgrimage hereafter would be forcibly Against limited to worshippers of the One Clod, after which time all un- unbelievers, believers should be fought against. This decree was promulgated to all the pilgrims and thus spread throughout Arabia. Christians and Jews were to be subjugated and made to pay tribute. Christian churches were to be destroyed and mosques built on the sites. Various officers were sent out to heathen and to submissive tribes, charged not only with their religious instruction, but also with their judicial and social regulation, according to the Koran and Mahomet's other instructions. Early in 632 Mahomet prepared for the great pilgrimage, and set out for Mecca with a vast company, including all his wives, and with a hundred camels destined for sacrifice. He now found mosques to pray in Mahomet's at the several stages of the journey ; and in them he led public last piigTim- worship. When he arrived in sight of the Kaaba, he raised his hands to heaven and said : ': 0 Lord, add unto this house in the dignity and glory, the honour and the reverence Avhich already Thou hast bestowed on it. And they that for the greater pilgrimage and the lesser frequent the same, increase them much in honour and dignity, in piety, goodness, and glory." Then he completed the circuits and the rites of the lesser pilgrimage, and ordered those who had brought no victims to put off their pilgrim's garb. The first day of the greater pilgrimage he preached in the Kaaba, and passed the night in a tent at Mina. Next day, proceeding to the height of Arafat, he consecrated it as a pilgrimage station, recited several parts of the Koran relating to the pilgrimage, and concluded, " This daj' have I perfected your religion unto 3rou, and fulfilled my mercy upon you, and appointed Islam for you to be your religion." He returned by moonlight to Mozdalifa, and said the sunset and the evening prayers together ; and all his recorded behaviour is imitated by pilgrims to this day. Then returning to Mina, shouting the pilgrims' cry : — '•LaLbeik (Here am I, O Lord!) Labbeik There is no other God but Thee. Labbeik ! THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Praise, blessing, and dominion be to Thee. Labbeik ! No one may share with Thee therein. Labbeik, Labbeik ! At Mina he cast stones at Acaba, according to ancient custom, slew the victims brought for sacrifice, and shaved his. head and part of his beard, pared his nails, etc., and put off the pilgrim's dress. The flesh of the victims and other animals was distributed for food, and a feast was held. Next day he gave a celebrated parting discourse in the Mina valley, re- peating some of his principal injunctions. " Know that every Moslem is the brother of every other Moslem. All of you are on the same equality. Ye are one brotherhood." After inquiring, " Know ye what month this is. what territory this is? " and receiving the answer, " The sacred month, the sacred territory," he said, " Even thus sacred and inviolable hath God made the life and the property of each of you unto the other until you meet your Lord." At the same time he proclaimed the rectification of the calendar by which the month of pilgrimage was to be fixed in future. He subsequently completed the ceremonies of the greater pilgrimage and then returned to Medina. Fresh " prophets " arose in several regions of Arabia, some of whom were indignantly denounced by Mahomet. Aswacl, who had raised the standard of rebellion, was assassinated just before Mahomet's own death! The Prophet had planned an expedition against the Syrian border of thel Byzantine empire. About this time he became ill, having previously- shown signs of old age. One night he visited the burial-ground, and re- mained there long in meditation, then prayed for those buried there. On I the way home he said to his attendant : " The choice hath verily been ms last offered me of continuance in this life, with Paradise hereafter, or mness. to meet my Lord at once ; and I have chosen to meet my Lord."! He rapidly grew worse, and betook himself to the apartment of AyeshaJ who attended him devotedly. For seven or eight clays his fever permitted! him to attend the mosque and feebly lead the public prayers. On a final day he publicly intimated his approaching death ; and on Abu Bekr bursting into tears, he begged him not to weep, and said to the people : u Verily, the chiefest among you all for love and devotion to me is Abu Bekr. If I were to choose a bosom friend, it would be he ; but Islam hath made a closerl brotherhood amongst us all." Next day Abu Bekr was deputed to lead prayers. Mahomet suffered greatly, and gave utterance to expressions symbolising his belief that sins were expiated by physical sufferings. He was, however, not too distracted to be able to reprove the desire to make the tombs of prophets objects of worship, and to say, " 0 Lord, let not my tomb be an object of worship." One of his ejaculations during his suffer- ings was, " 0 my sOul, why seekest thou for refuge elsewhere than in God alone ? " Recovering a little, Mahomet again entered the mosque, saying, with a joyful smile on his face, "The Lord verily hath granted unto me refreshment in prayer." Afterwards he spoke to the people, saying, " As for myself, verily, no man can lay hold of me in any matter ; I have not made lawful anything but what God hath made lawful ; nor have I pro- LIFE OF MAHOMET. 525 libited aught but that which God in his book hath prohibited." After this kxertion he grew much weaker, praying for aid in the agonies of death. Pne of his last ejaculations was, " Lord, grant me pardon, and loin me to the companionship on high." He died soon alter noon, pnly an hour or two after his visit to the mosque, on Monday the 8th of June, (132. It was immediately necessary to choose a chief or deputy (Caliph) to •epresent Mahomet ; for the men of Medina desired to appoint a chief for themselves. But Omar and Abu Bekr gained the adhesion of all Adu Bekr ,he leaders at Medina to the appointment of the latter, who had elected Caiipb. >een " the second of the two in the cave," and had been deputed by Mahomet himself to lead public worship. The Prophet's corpse was visited >y all Medina, and then buried in a vault dug out under the place Mahomet's where he died. Abu Bekr and Omar's farewell to him ex- bunaL jressly made mention of his having sought no recompense for delivering the Taith to the people, and having never sold it for a price at any time. A red nantle which he had worn was placed beneath his body, which was enclosed n white cloth and striped Yemen stuff, without a coffin. The vault was overed over with unbaked bricks and the grave filled up. In person Mahomet was a little above the middle height, of a handsome ,nd commanding figure; he had a large head with broad open brow, jet black ongish hair, deep black piercing eyes, and a long black bushy His person >eard. His face had something very winning in its expression, andcliaracter- nd his smile Avas gracious and condescending ; but his frown or angry 00k was such that men quailed before it. His gait was quick and decided, hough stooping in later \7ears ; and he never turned round in walking. In onversmg, he turned his full face and whole body towards the speaker. ; In shaking hands, he was not the first to withdraw his own ; nor was he lie first to break off in converse with a stranger, nor to turn away his ear." le treated the most insignificant of his followers with consideration, visited he meanest, made each man in company think himself the most favoured piest, sympathised with both joys and griefs, was gentle to little children, md ministered to every one's personal comfort. His warm attachment to Km Bekr, Ali, Zeid, Othman, and Omar was intensely reciprocated by hem. He never assumed lordly airs nor demanded personal services, he voulcl do everything for himself, even mend his own sandals and clothes. ie greatly enjoyed food, yet could readily live as plainly as his followers ; iut, a true Oriental, he enjoyed perfumes and the society and charms of vomen extremely. "Whatever he may have been in his earlier days, when £hadijah was alive, in his later years, the attractions of women proved his mman frailty perhaps more than anything, and led to the deplorable brogation of his laws in his own favour. The extreme instance of this >vas seen when he longed for the wife of his adopted son and friend Zeid, nd produced a " revelation " commanding him to marry her. Yet he was evoted to all his wives. In his conduct to enemies, Mahomet showed both good and bad 526 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. qualities ; politic mercy, to gain them over, but also cruelty in numerous executions, and craft in planning or allowing assassinations, in attacks ,„ .. during the sacred months, and in the use made of Jews and Was ne <=> . sincere? Christians. That he was an erring mortal, in no sense an in- fallible model of conduct, must be the verdict on Mahomet. Who shall pronounce on his sincerity all through ? In many ways, especially before the Flight, he showed marks of entire sincerity ; but to believe that he was ] self-deceived in every act at Medina, is to stretch self-deception to an ex- treme. The fact that he produced successive revelations to enjoin things he desired to do, may possibly be read in two wa}rs : either he deliberately • invented the revelations to suit the emergency, or, being of an excitable, susceptible nature, his broodings on a subject brought about the state ofi mental exaltation in which he genuinely heard, or imagined that he heard, the appropriate " revelation." As regards both his assassinations and his marriages, they show a very great but not an incredible degree of moral ■ warp or of moral infancy, or else a degree of self-delusion which is scarcely"] compatible with the practical wisdom of very many of his actions. "We find him, after his early struggles and the commencement of his preaching, constantly imbued with a belief in special providence, extending almost tol fatalism. He certainly believed that everything was predestined ; but events were, he believed, capable of being influenced by prayer. With all! this, he had several superstitious beliefs, and was guided by omens and prognostications. We may perhaps explain much of his character by the view that his own inward struggles, his moral debates, and his aspirations seemed to him the very voice of God speaking to him. He lacked the' physical courage to face bodily danger in battle. At Mecca, however, hej showed true bravery in preaching so long amid hostile surroundings, and in remaining behind when nearly all his adherents had departed for Medina. His denunciation of idolatry, and his preaching of the one God and of the equality of man before God, must ever distinguish him honourably as a great religious teacher. He had a style of delivery, an evident earnestness o$ belief, which carried home his statements of truth and his eloquent and imaginative poetic outbursts. At Medina sensuality, deception, cruelty, and intolerance stained the prophet's life. Ceremonial routine, material assistance, became more im- portant, outwardly, than inward conviction and purity. But there was enough good in the faith as Mahomet left it, enough that was influential on mankind, to make Islam the second among the great faiths of the world- counting Judaism and Christianity together as the first); and there was enough mingled good and exclusiveness to make it the most difficult of all for Christianity to contend against. OHAPTEE V. QL\)t Itoran anli its CcarDingsi, Formation of the text— The general prayer— Teaching' atjput God -Names of God— Righteousness define!— Nature of God — Account of creation — Angels— Eblis, or the Devil The Moslem paradise —Hell— Intermediate state -The day of judgment Prophets Attitude towards Jews- Pre- destination-Idolatry and Idolaters -Islam -The creed Prayer— The fast of Ramadan Alms- giving—The holy pilgrimage Parents and children Murder and theft Divorce and concubinage —Marriage— Position of wives Rhetorical passages Structure of Koran Delineation of old prophets- Chronological sequence Miracles Reverence for Koran Versions Commentaries. THE Koran (more precisely Qur'an, a reading), which as a whole is not so long as the New Testament, was not in existence as a complete hook in the lifetime of Mahomet; but it was settled in its present form within twenty years of his death. Separate chapters or smaller Formation of fragments were written down, by followers who happened to be the text- present when he first recited them, upon palm-leaves, leather, stones, or anything else that was at hand. Abdallah and Zeid the son of Thabil were among his amanuenses. Copies were afterwards made, and many Moslems learnt to recite large portions by heart ; but no completed collection of them, apparently, was kept by Mahomet. After his death, when many who knew much of the Koran had fallen in battle, Omar feared that the whole might be forgotten, and induced Abu Bekr to have a collection of copies made. Zeid was charged with this duty, and he made a fair copy of all he could obtain, which passed through the first two caliphs to Haphsa, one of Mahomet's widows, Omar's daughter. But disputes arose as to the true text, and Othman in 650-1 ordered Zeid with three others to make an authoritative text ; they took care to accomplish this, burning all discordant texts besides their own and that which Haphsa possessed. The latter however was soon destroyed, and thus we have not to consider conflicting versions of the Koran. That the chapters as we now have them are substantially authentic is suggested by the language, and by the mixture of subjects in the chapters, no designed order being discernible in them. There are but a few passages existing which purport to have been originally in the Koran and rejected by Zeicl. Four copies were made of the Koran, one of which was kept at Medina, and one sent to each of the three (at that time) important Moslem cities of Damascus, Basra, and Cufa. At present there is no likeli- hood that any one of them exists ; but copies probably dating from the first century after the flight are known. We will first endeavour to set forth the chief doctrines about God and divine things, and then the chief moral precepts of the Koran. It opens with the famous short chapter which for the Moslem answers to the Lord's Prayer. It runs thus : 537 5 28 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. " In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Praise belongs to God, the Lord of the worlds, the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Ruler The general of the day of judgment. Thee we worship and Thee we ask for prayer. ajc]_ Direct us in the right way, the way of those to whom Thou art gracious, not of those Thou art angry with, nor of those who err." It cannot be said that Mahomet here expresses ideas unknown before ) his time, or which he is not likely to have heard from others, especially the ] Teaching Jews. The term " the Merciful " is directly a Jewish word. 1 aooutGod. rpiie chapter (112) on unity directly resembles the Christian j statement of the doctrine : " Say, He is God alone, God the Eternal. He ' begets and is not begotten ; nor is there like unto Him any one." Accord- ing to the Koran, " Allah is eternal and everlasting, one and indivisible, not endued with form, nor circumscribed by limit or measure ; compre- hending all things, but comprehended of nothing" : here again thoroughly agreeing with Jewish and Christian belief. There are ninety-nine principal epithets or names applied to God, expressing most of His attri- butes, as the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Holy, the Faithful, the Creator, the Forgiver, the Provider, the Knowing, the Judge, the Seer, the Strengthener, the Wise, the Answerer of Prayer, the Loving, the Living, the One, the First, the Last, the Avenger, etc. : here again furnishing nothing new to Christians, however new they may have been to the Arabs, to whom Mahomet made them known. A concise summary of the teaching of the Koran is found in ii. 172. " Righteousness is not that ye turn your faces towards the east or the west: Righteous- out righteousness is, one who believes in God, and the last day, ness defined. aiL(j ^he angels} and the Book, and the prophets ; and who gives wealth for the love of God to kindred, and orphans, and the poor, and the. wayfarer, and beggars, and those in captivity, and who is steadfast in prayer, and gives alms ; and those who are sure of their covenant when they make a covenant ; and the patient in poverty, and in distress, and in time of violence." It is expressly stated (vi. 101) that God has no offspring, because He has no consort. Many passages describe Him as all-seeing and. knowing, and Nature of omnipotent and omnipresent. " No vision taketh in Him, but God- He taketh in all vision ; He is the subtle, the all-informed. He has created men, in order that they should worship Him." God is represented sometimes as creating both evil and good, and as creating evil spirits and men for hell ; but again men are assured that the evil that befalls them is of themselves. " God misleadeth whom He will, and guideth whom He will " (xxxv. 9). The creation is in 1. 37, as in Genesis, related to have been accomplished in six clays, but in xli. 7, two days is the period assigned. There is no Account of attempt at a detailed history of it, but as to the creation of creation. man ft jg g^, u q.0(j created you from earth (or dust), then from a clod, then He made pairs." In ii. 2D God is said to have taught Adam the names of all things and to have ordered the angels to worship THE KORAN AND ITS TEACHINGS. 5 -'9 Adam; and tliey all did so except Eblis (Satan). A brief account of the temptation and fall is given, after which it is said Ihat God relented towards Adam. This account is evidently an imperfect version of the account in < renesis. The Koran represents God aa attended by angels, pure beings created from lire, neither eating nor drinking, nor having sexes. They ask forgiveness for the dwellers upon earth. Two angels are assigned to each human Angels. INTERIOB OF IHE MOSQUE OF THE HOLY PBOPHBT AT MEDINA. being, standing on his right and on his left, and recording all his actions. One angel, Rhazwan (goodwill), presides over paradise, and another, Malik (compare Moloch), over hell. Two others perforin the examination of per- sons immediately after burial, allowing them to rest in peace if they confess M M 53o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. that there is hut one God, and that Mahomet is His prophet ; but if not, beating them very severely, and leaving them to be torn by dragons and serpents till the resurrection. Several archangels are named : Gabriel, Michael, Israfel (who is to sound the last trumpet), and Azrael, the angel of death. Much of the teaching about angels is evidently based on Jewish ibiis, or the ideas. The idea of the devil, Iblis or Shaitan, is plainly an Devil. adaptation from Jewish-Christian sources ; and the lack of any originality on the subject is made up for by giving many repetitions of the story that Iblis fell because he refused to worship Adam. The belief in the ginn or genii, — the evil hinds being termed " efreet," — has been sufficiently referred to. Mahomet is believed to have converted a tribe of them by his preaching, when returning from Taif. The descriptions of the Moslem paradise or heaven are famous for the sensual delights depicted; but they are not so elaborate and sensual in the The Moslem Koran as in the traditional sayings of the Prophet. It is com- Paradise. m0nly said that there are eight different heavens ; namely, the Garden of Eternity, the Abode of Peace, the Abode of Rest, the Gardens of Eden, the Gardens of Refuge, the Gardens of Delight, the Gardens of the Most High, and the Gardens of Paradise ; but they are nowhere mentioned at once, and may be taken as different descriptions of the same place. The following are some passages from the Koran relating to heaven: "Their reward for their patience shall be paradise and silken robes, reclining therein on bridal couches ; naught shall they know of sun or piercing cold ; its shades shall close over them, and low shall its fruits hang down : and ves- sels of silver and goblets like flagons shall be borne round among them " ilxxvi. 12). "Theirs shall be the houris with large, dark eyes, like pearls hidden in their shells, in recompense for their labours past. . . . Unfailing, unforbidden, and on soft couches and of a rare creation have we made the houris ; and we have made them ever virgins, clear to their spouses, and of equal age " (lvi. 22-35). " Therein are rivers of water which corrupt not ; rivers of milk, whose taste changeth not ; and rivers of wine, delicious to those who drink it ; and rivers of clarified honey ; and therein are all kinds of fruit for them from their Lord " (xlvii. 16, 17). It is very note- worthy that the sensual descriptions of Paradise, and especially the passages referring to women, were nearly all included in the earlier series revealed at Mecca, when as yet Mahomet had only one wife, much senior to him \ while only two or three simple passages, describing the believers as having " four wives," were promulgated at Medina. As regards the other promised delia'hts, Professor Palmer well describes them as " an intense realisation of all that a dweller in a hot, parched, and barren land could desire ; namely, shade, water, fruit, rest, and pleasant companionship and service." Hell is most frequently termed in the Koran " the Fire," also Gehen- num (the Jewish Gehenna). It is said to have seven portals and seven divisions : Gehenna, the purgatory for all Mahometans (xix. 72) ; Laza, the flaming fire ; Hutamah, the raging fire that splits every- thing to pieces ; Sair, the broiling fire ; Sagar, the scorching fire ; Jaliim, THE KORAN AND ITS TEACHINGS. 531 the fierce fire ; and Hawiyeh, the abyss. The second has been by the Moslem commentators assigned to Christians, the third to Jews, etc., without any authority from the Koran. The latter describes hell fire as " leaving naught, sparing naught, blackening the skin " ; over it preside nineteen angels. In Gehenna transgressors shall have no coolness nor any drink, save boiling water and running sores'' (lxxviii. 24, w2-~>j. We need not quote the details of torment which the Traditions attribute to the Prophet. The Koran teaches nothing very definite about the intermediate state between death and judgment, except as regards unbelievers ; but intermediata the good are supposed to rest in blissful unconsciousness. state- The " Last Day " is variously termed in the Koran the day of standing up, of separation, of reckoning, of awakening, of judgment, the encom- passing day, and the hour. This event is the subject of some of -n^ Day the most poetical passages in the Koran. Thus: " Tlnnketh of Jud&ment- man that we shall not reunite his bones? Ay, his very finger tips are we able evenly to replace. . . . When the e}'e shall be dazzled, when the moon shall be darkened, and the sun and the moon shall be together, "On that day man shall cry, Where is there a place to flee to ? But in vain ; there is no refuge : with thy Lord on that day shall be the sole asylum. " On that day shall man be told of all that he hath done first and last : yea, a man shall be the eye-witness against himself" (lxxv.). Again : " Surely among delights shall the righteous dwell, but verily the impure in hell-fire. They shall be burned at it on the day of doom, and they shall not be able to hide themselves from it. Who shall teach thee what the clay of doom is ? It is a day when one soul shall be power- less for another soul: all sovereignty on that day shall be with God" 1 lxxxii.) Further details will be given in dealing with present-day beliefs of the Mahometans. The prophets recognised in the Koran are, in addition to Jesus and Mahomet, all Jewish; namely, Adam, the Chosen of God; Noah, the Preacher of God ; Abraham, the Friend of God ; Moses, the Converser ' ' ' • Prophets. with God ; Jacob, Joseph, and Job. A number of others are men- tioned. All these are said to have received inspired books, but they are superseded by the Koran. A very much adapted account of Moses and his doings occupies considerable portions of the Koran. Jesus, a "Spirit from God," the "Prophet of God," the "Servant of God," the Word of Truth, is presented in the Koran as a Divine being, but not the Son of God, for "God could not take to Himself a Son." Yet the Attitude miraculous conception of Jesus, the annunciation of the Virgin towardsJesus. Mary, and the sinlessness of Jesus are taught. Jesus is described as the greatest miracle- worker of all the prophets, and there is an account of His calling a furnished table down from heaven, to become a recurring festival and sign. This may be really a notion derived from the Communion as celebrated by the early Christians. The mission of Jesus is thus mentioned, the speaker being supposed to be God Himself : " We gave Him the evangel, 532 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. and we put into the hearts of those who followed Him kindness and compassion," His crucifixion, and His return to God are mentioned, with this singularity, that the Jews did not crucify Him in reality, but only " His likeness," God having taken Him up to Himself : this being the belief of not a few early Christians. Jesus is represented in the Koran as denying His own divinity, and threatening with hell-fire those who associate aught with God. The doctrine of the Trinity is specifically denied ; but it would appear that Mahomet imagined that the Christian Trinity consisted of the Father, the Son, and the Virgin. The Koran does not refer speci- fically to the second coming of Jesus, but the traditions about the Prophet speak of him as describing this event as a very material affair ; they also represent Jesus as now existing in one of the heavens. Predestination is one of the primary teachings of the Koran — a doc- trine that has become a most disastrous and paralysing fatalism for very Pre. many Mahometans. Nothing can happen to us but what God .destination. }ias nXed. God misleads whom He will. None can die except by His decree. Many are decreed to err and to enter hell. These doctrines are still more freely set forth in the traditions about Mahomet. Idols and idolatry naturally form a prominent subject of denunciation in the Koran. The nothingness of idols is brought out in passages remind- idoiatry inS us °*" well-known passages in the Psalms and prophets, and idolaters though much inferior to the Old Testament gems. In iv. 51, after the destruction of the Meccan idols, we read, " Verily God will not forgive the union of other gods with Himself. . . . And he who uniteth gods with God hath devised a great wickedness." Idolaters were then strictly forbidden to enter the sacred temple at Mecca. The forgiveness of idolaters might not be prayed for, even by their kin, and the example of Abraham was alleged in support of this. With all this denunciation of idolatry, Mahomet retained the black stone as an object of reverence, and also several rites, such as; the " runnings to and fro," and " stonings of pillars," which were connected with previous idolatrous worship (see later, p. 560). Unbelievers who deny a future life and judgment are admonished that they are destined for torment. " Lost now are they who deny a meeting with God, until, when the hour cometh suddenly upon them, they say, 'Oh, woe to us for past negligence of this hour ! ' And they shall bear their bur- dens on their back. Will not that be evil which they shall carry ?" They will abide in fire for ever. Believers are exhorted not to form intimacies among unbelievers, for they long to corrupt them. Those who become infi- dels after having believed are denounced as unpardonable offenders. Coming now to the practical duties of Moslem believers, they may be summed up in the one word which most fitly represents Mahometanism, — Islam, resignation to the will of God, " To God are we resigned." Islam is said to have been the religion of all the prophets before Mahomet. Those who profess this religion are Muslims or Moslems, Musal- inans being the Persian form of the original Arabic word. THE KORAN AND ITS TEACHINGS 533 The five principal elements of Islam as enjoined in the Koran are : (1) Belief in the one (loci, and in Mahomet as His prophet; (2) Reciting the daily prayers ; (3) Giving the legal alms; (4) Observing the fast of Ramadan; (5) Making a pilgrimage to Mecca once during lit'.'. The creed (Kelimah) as such does not occur in the Koran ; but the first part of it, " Thero is no god but God," is in xlvii. 21 : and the second part, '• Mahomet is the apostle of God," is in xlviii. 29; but the whole often occurs in the Traditions about Mahomet. Prayer is often enjoined in the Koran, but the five daily prayer-times are not mentioned in any one passage. Thus: "Glorify God when it is evening, and at morning, — and to Him be praise in the heavens and earth, — and at afternoon and at noontide." The evening prayer is regarded as including both that before sunset and after sunset. The traditions relate that Mahomet received instructions during his ascent to heaven to recite prayers five times a day, having by pra}-er reduced the requirement from fifty to five. The details of modern Moslem prayers we shall describe later. The fast of Ramadan (or Ramazan), the ninth month of the Mahometan year, is expressly enjoined in ii. 179-184. The fast is prescribed " that ye may fear God for certain days." It is not to be kept by those who The fast of are ill or on a journey, but they must fast the same number of Ramadan- other days. The fast is to be kept by day only ; and eating and drinking are allowed after dark until the earliest dawn. The first observation of the new moon of the month is to be the beginning of the fast. Tradition ascribes to Mahomet the saying, that during Ramadan " the gates of paradise are open and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg, and that only those who observe it will be permitted to enter at the gate of heaven called Raiyan." On one particular night in this month, believed to be the twenty-seventh, the Koran is said to have been revealed, and to have come down in one volume to the lowest heaven, from whence it was revealed to Mahomet in portions by the archangel Gabriel. This is called the night of power : " Herein descend the angels and the spirit by permission of their Lord in every matter, and all is peace till the breaking of the morn" (xcvii.). Two sayings in the Tradition are worthy of note : "If a keeper of fast does not abandon lying, God cares not about his leaving off eating and drinking " ; " There are many keepers of fast who gain nothing by fasting but thirst, and there are many risers up at night and performers of prayers who gain nothing by their rising but wakefulness." The duty of almsgiving is often enjoined in the Koran. " Zakat," or the legal alms, literally purification, expresses a portion of property given a3 a sanctification of the rest. It is paid separately upon different Alms^vln kinds of property that have been at < least one year in possession of an adult; but not upon the necessaries of life, slaves employed in service, books, craftmen's tools, etc. These alms may be paid to an appointed collec- tor, or given independently to the poor and needy, to slaves and debtors, for the service of God in religious warfare, or to travellers. Alms beyond this 534 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. are called Sadaqali, that which, manifests righteousness. Cheerful givers of well-gotten wealth are highly praised, and promised repayment by God. Among the traditional sayings attributed to Mahomet are these : " The upper hand is better than the lower one. The upper hand is the giver of alms and the lower hand is the poor beggar " ; " The best of alms are those given by a man of small means, who gives of that which he has earned by labour, and gives as much as he is able " ; " Doing justice between two people is alms ; assisting a man on his beast is alms ; good words are alms.'' The holy pilgrimage (liajj or liadj) to Mecca is thus commanded (xxii. 28) : " Proclaim to the peoples a pilgrimage. Let them come to thee on The holy foot and on every fleet camel, arriving by every deep defile : that pilgrimage, they may bear witness of its benefits to them, and make mention of God's name on the appointed clays over the brute beasts with which He hath supplied them for sustenance : and let them pay their vows and cir- cuit the ancient house." Numerous regulations are given as to the time and conduct of the pilgrimage. The actual mode of its observance we will give in a later chapter. As regards general moral duties, the Koran is explicit. Parents are to be kindly treated, especially in old age, spoken to respectfully, deferred to Parents and humbly. Only if they desire to draw their children away to children. ic]0latiy, they must not be obeyed. A murderer is accounted worthy of hell. " Whosoever slayeth a believer purposely, his reward is hell " (iv. 95) ; further, " It is incumbent on you to exercise vengeance for Murder murder " (ii. 173), but the heir or next of kin may pardon or com- and theft. p0Unc[ the offence. Theft, when property is taken out of proper custody in a secret manner, is punishable by the amputation of a hand, according to v. 42, " If a man or woman steal, cut off their hands." As to offences against chastity, the Koran is severe ; immoral persons whose guilt is proved are to receive a hundred stripes ; guilty persons, if married, were at first shut up in their houses (iv. 19) ; later they were stoned to Divorce and death, according to a tradition that Mahomet ordained it. But a concubinage, practically unlimited right of concubinage was permitted, both by Mahomet's example and by Koranic precept. Thus, " Unlawful to you are married women, except such as your right hand possesses," i.e. those taken in war, or slaves (iv. 28) ; but free Mahometan women might not be taken as concubines. While not allowing to men generally the same licence as to the Prophet himself, the Koran permits marriage with four . wives : "If women seem good in your eyes, marry two, or three, or four"; and a verse can even be produced (iv. 27) apparently sanctioning merely temporary marriages. Marriage was enjoined on every Moslem. Some of the sayings on marriage attributed to Mahomet are : " Marry women who will love their husbands and be very prolific, for I wish you to be more numerous than any other people." " When a Moslem marries, he perfects half his religion ; and he should practise abstinence for the remaining half." " When any of you wishes to demand a woman in marriage, if he can arrange it, let him see her first." " A woman ripe THE KORAN AND ITS TEACHINGS. 535 in years shall have her consent asked in marriage ; and if she remain silent- her silence is her consent, and it' she refuse she shall not be married by force."' No definite religious ceremony of marriage is prescribed. The Koran prohibits marriage between near relatives, including cousins, between foster-relatives, between parents and step-children; and a man may not marry his wife's sister during her lifetime, unless the first married be divorced. Severe subjection is the position assigned to wives in the Koran. Thus we read : " Chide those whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear. Remove them into sleeping chambers apart, and beat them."' "When a Position of man calls his wife, she must come, though she be at an oven." wes. But there are numerous passages enjoining that wives should be treated with kindness, and extolling the happiness of marriage with an amiable and beautiful wife. And it must be admitted that, the Koran elevates woman considerably beyond her previous position in Arabia, which was that of a mere chattel, passing with the estate of husband and father, so that a son frequently married the wives of his deceased father as of right. A number of passages in the Koran speak of men and women as equal in regard to their religious duties and ultimate blessedness. They are to be treated with equity ; but men are acknowledged to be superior to women on account of various natural gifts. The Koran allows divorce on grounds of aversion ; the divorced woman must be generously treated and must not remarry till four months are past. Our previous quotations have given comparatively little indication of the elevated, rhetorical, and impassioned style of much of the Koran. Rhetorical The following quotations will illustrate this :— passages. " When the heaven is cleft asunder, and when the stars are scattered, when the seas gush together, and when the tombs are turned upside down, the soul shall know what it has sent 011 or kept back. " 0 man, what has seduced thee concerning thy generous Lord, who created thee and fashioned thee and gave thee symmetry, and in what form He pleased composed thee ? Verily the righteous are in pleasure and the wicked are in hell ; they shall broil therein upon the judgment day, nor shall they be absent therefrom (lxxxii.) . " Blessed be He in whose hand is the kingdom, for He is mighty over all : Who created death and life, to try you, which of you does best ; for He is the mighty, the forgiving ! who created seven heavens in storeys : thou canst not see any discordance in the creation of the Merciful." There is a singular analogy between the following and Christ's parable of the ten virgins. " On the day when the hypocrites, men and women, shall sa}r to those who believe, ' Wait for us that we may kindle at your light,' it will be said, ' Get ye back and beg a light.' And there shall be struck out between them a wall with a door; within it shall be mercy, and outside before it torment. They shall cry out to them, ' We were not with you!' They shall saj', 'Yea, but ye did tempt yourselves, and did wait, and did doubt ; and your vain hopes beguiled you ; and the beguiler beguiled you 53& THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. about God. Wherefore to-day there shall not be taken from you a ransom, nor from those who misbelieved. Your resort is the fire'; it is your sovereign, and an ill journey will it be." Those who desire further quotations of this kind must be referred to translations of the Koran. It is singular how few aphoristic sentences, proverbs, or gems of moral truth are to be found in the book. Apart from its claim of inspiration, it structure of ranks by no means high as to literary form. It is a mixture of Koran, longer and shorter chapters, some including a great many subjects, almost unconnected in many cases. Mahomet does not appear to have written anything down himself ; and some at least of his passages seem to have been the outpouring of uncontrollable excitement, giving the greatest show of probable " inspiration." Dr. Noldeke, one of the best authorities on the Koran, says [Encyclopcedia Britannica, xvi. 698), ' We must bear in mind that he (Mahomet) was no cold systematic thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass superstition, and without intellectual discipline ; a man whose nervous temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic austerities, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he en- countered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature. Filled with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy he heard the angel bidding him recite what was said to him. There may have been many a revelation of this kind which no one ever heard but himself, as he repeated it to himself in the silence of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed, the Koran itself admits that he forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7). But by far the greatest part of the book is undoubtedly the result of deliberation, touched more or less with emotion, and animated by a certain rhetorical rather than poetical glow." With the exception of the word " undoubtedly," the foregoing- passage is perhaps near the truth. It is quite evident in reading the Koran that numerous passages contradict or repeat one another ; and the abro- gation of certain passages or the alteration of their effect by subsequent revelations may be taken as proof of the lack of justification for the idea of infallible inspiration of the Koran ; but of course this presents no difficulty to the Moslem, for to him God is a being who can and does change His edicts at pleasure, and who might prescribe opposite things in succession if it pleased Him. One of the most singular evidences of Mahomet's lack of literary percep- tion is furnished by his delineation of the old prophets, who are in effect Delineation cmPucates of Mahomet himself. " They preach exactly like him, of old they have to bring the very same charges against their opponents, who on their part behave exactly like the unbelieving inhabitants of Mecca " (N.). Mahomet further shows his ignorance of the Jewish scrip- tures by his mistakes, such as naming Haman minister of Pharaoh, making the fertility of Egypt depend on rain, and not on the Nile. We will not further pursue the litera^ analysis of the Koran, being concerned here chiefly with its religious import. Although it is by no means arranged in chronological order, it is very possible to mark out most of the chapters of the Koran, according as they THE KORAN AND ITS TEACHINGS. 537 were delivered at Mecca before the flight or at Medina ; and they have still further been subdivided into six sets characterising different chronological periods. In the earliest, while the Prophet was still meditating sequence, on evil and the terrors of the Last Day, his st}de is more poetic, fragmentary, and impassioned, with brief sentences and rapidly changing rhymes. To this period belongs the Moslem prayer which opens the Koran. With these are some most vivid pictures of hell and the judgment. A second series marks the opening phases of the Prophet's ministry ; in one chapter, when Mahomet has been bidding his clan accept the truth, Aim Laheb exclaims. " Perdition to you !" and in answer the Prophet curses him and his wife (cxi.). The later Meccan chapters deal largely with the same subjects which had been dealt with more briefly in earlier ones, with the addition of many narratives from the Jewish Scriptures and Rabbinical and Arab legends. " A sermonising tone predominates. The suras are very edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import ; but to ns at least they do not seem well fitted to carry conviction to the minds of unbelievers. . . . In realit}^ these longer Meccan suras appear to have been peculiarly influen- tial for the propagation of Islam " (N.). The Medina chapters are mostly connected with some definite historical event, or some circumstance which called forth the particular revelation. " At one time it is a summons to do battle for the faith ; at another, a series of reflections on recently-experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak faith, or an exhortation to virtue. He often addresses himself to the doubters, some of whom vacillate between faith and unbelief; others make a pretence of faith, while others scarcely take the trouble even to do that. ... A part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws belonging to the ceremonial, civil, and criminal codes, or directions about certain temporary complications. The most objectionable parts of the whole Koran are those which treat of Mahomet's relations with women " (N.). We must not omit to state that the Koran bears testimony to itself in more than one emphatic passage ; thus, " If men and genii were assembled together that they might produce a book like the Koran, they must fail " (xvii. 90). As regards miracles, the Koran does not assert that Mahomet workei I them, and only a few which are incredible have been attributed to him by his followers. In xxix. 49, we read, " They say, Why are not r\ t • r~A * 1 JJX1PELC16S. signs sent down to him from his Lord ? Say, signs are 111 the power of God alone, and I am only an open warner." In xvii. 92-97, where the unbelievers are represented as asking for miracles, Mahomet is directed to say, " Praise be to my Lord. Am I more than a man, and an apostle? " Mahometan commentators refer to the cleaving of the moon (liv.), the assist- ance of angels at the battle of Bedr (hi.), the night-journey to heaven (xvii.), and the revelation of the Koran itself as miracles recorded in the Koran. And indeed the reverence with which Mohammedans regard the Reverence Koran corresponds with this belief. "They dare not touch it forK°ran- without being first washed and purified, and they read it with the greatest care and respect, never holding it below their girdles. They swear by it, 538 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. consult it on all occasions, carry it with, them to war, write sentences of it on their banners, suspend it from their necks as a charm, and always place it on the highest shelf or some place of honour in their houses." Whatever defects we find in the Koran, it made Arabic a literary language, it has influenced the belief and conduct of countless millions of men, and it is at this day reverenced and obeyed by an increasing number of persons.1 The Koran was first printed in Arabic at Rome in 1530, but was either burned or remained unpublished. In 1649 an edition was published at Hamburg, and there have been several subsequent editions. The Mahometans themselves have issued versions, interlinear with the original, in Persian, Pushto, Urdu, Turkish, and numerous other languages. A translation of the Koran into Latin was made in 1143 for Peter, the Abbot of Cluny, but was not published till 1543 at Basle. This version was after- wards further translated into Italian, German, and Dutch. The first French translation was done in 1547 ; this was translated into English in 1649-1688. The well-known English translation by Sale appeared in 1734. The Eev. J. M. Rodwell published a translation into English in 1861, distinguished by the arrangement of the chapters in their supposed chronological order. Palmer's translation (1880) is more literal and less elegant. Commentaries in Arabic upon the Koran were made very early, and probably the Commentary of Tabari (839-023) contains much of their sub- stance. Thousands of commentaries have since been written, ' and many of them are most important aids to understanding obscure passages. There are many other Arabic works connected with the Koran, its spelling and pronunciation, its beauties, the number of its verses and letters, etc. The devotion of Moslems to their sacred book is natural when we consider that they believe it to have been eternally existent and uncreated in the Divine thought. 1 Eodwell's Koran ; Palmer's Koran (" Sacred Books of the East," vols. 6, 9). Hughes, " Dic- tionary of Islam," — Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. 17, Art. "Mohammedanism," section, " Koran," by Dr. Noldeke. "Islam," Quarterly Bevieiv, vol. 127, by E. Deutsch. MOSQUE 07 AHMED KHIAcjA AND MARKET PLACE, AT BAGDAD. CHAPTER VI. iHofcmt tfslam. $art L The First Caliphs— The Ommyads— The death of Hosain -The Abbaside caliphs — Harun-al-Raschid— The Fatimite dynasty— Caliphs in Spain— Saladin— Fall of Bagdad— Various Sultanates - Sun- nites and Shiites— Distribution and numbers —Various Sects— Motazilites -Jabarites Kharijites — Malikites— Hanifites— Shaflites— Hanbalites— The Ulema —Imams —Extra-Koranic beliefs— The exalted name of God— The essence of the Deity— Sins— Mahometan oaths— Abstinence— Restric- tions on eating— Ablution— Public prayer— The sermon— Circumcision— Marriage -Divorce — Concubinage— Slaves— Death— Burial— Funeral processions— The immediate fate of the soul- Mosques— Endowment and government— The Sacred Mosque at Mecca— The Sacred Hajj, or pil- grimage—The Prophet's Mosque at Medina— The Mosque of Omar— The Dome of the Rock -Great mosque at Damascus— The Mosque of Cordova— Mosques and tombs at Cairo— St. Sophia at Con- stantinople— Indian mosques and tombs— The Jummoo Musjid at Delhi— The Taj Mehal. INASMUCH as the religion of Mahomet speedily became inextricably mingled with political history, in accordance with the injunctions frequently repeated in the chapters of the Koran revealed at Medina, to spread Islam by the sword, we shall but briefly refer to its historical advance, both because it is better dealt with in works of general history, and because we are principally concerned with marked developments in its religious aspect. Islam was consolidated in Arabia by means of the wars which at once arose after Mahomet's death, to secure the predominance of the Caliphate, and the wars of extension by which it was successively or The First simultaneously carried into S}rria, Persia, and Egypt. The Gos- CallPns- pel of Christ was in these lands for a time overwhelmed ; and the people, who had but slightly assimilated it, readily threw it off at the bidding 54o THE WORLD'S RELfGIOAS. of tlieir conquerors. The names of Alm-bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), < Hliman (644-656), and Ali (656-661), the first four caliphs, are mainly associated -with this rapid career of conquest", Omar especially having consolidated the Arabian State at Medina. At the beginning of his reign he uttered a sentence which has become famous : " By God, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have vindi- cated for him his rights ; but him that is strongest will I treat as the weak- est, until he complies with the laws." By a strange stroke of fate, the f amily of the Koreish which furnished the leader, Omayya, in the battle of Ohod, and to which one of Mahomet's The most violent opponents, Abu Sofyan, belonged, gave rise to the ommyads. great Ommyad line of Caliphs, which lasted from Othman's murder in 661 to the death of Merwan II. in 750. Moawiya, the first of the line, made Damascus his capital ; his religion, like that of most of his successors, became largely subservient to his political aims. Long war raged between them and the adherents of Ali's descendants, the cousin of Mahomet and husband of Fatima, the only child who survived him. The Ommyads plundered Medina, took Mecca, and burnt the Kaaba, which, however, was The death of soon rebuilt. The slaughter of Hosain, the son of Ali, on the Hosain. 10th. Moharram (Oct.) 680, at Kerbela, has given rise to one of the most sacredly observed festivals in certain Mohammedan countries. Early in the eighth century the power of the Ommj-ads had extended to the borders of China, over North Africa, and all Spain. Before 720, the Abbaside movement had arisen, named from Abbas the paternal uncle of Mahomet. His descendants enjoyed the greatest consideration among the Moslems, and on Ali's son's death remained nearest of kin to the Prophet. The Ommyad Caliphs, however, insulted them so shamefully that they conceived the idea of supplanting the ruling dynasty, and allied to them- selves Ali's party, b}>- giving out that one of his descendants had appointed an Abbaside, Mohammed, his heir. The advance of the Moslems into Europe was now first checked by Charles Martel in 732, who defeated Abd- el-Rahman near Poitiers, and afterwards drove the invaders back into Spain. Various provinces of the Arab Empire broke away and set up for them- selves. The Ommyad dynasty fell in 750, and Abu '1-Abbas became The Abbaside Caliph at Cufa on the Euphrates. The establishment of the dy- caiiphs. nasty cost^ it is saidj 600,000 lives. The next caliph, Mansur, transferred his capital to Bagdad, which was long the most famous Moslem city. Meanwhile Africa and Spain revolted from the power of the Abbasides, Harunai- but they made great progress in Asia Minor. The most cele- Raschid. brated Eastern caliph, Harun-al-Easchid (786-809), was devoted in his religious duties, especially in pilgrimage, and attempted to secure the succession to the Caliphate to his three sons in order, by a deed which he hung up in the Kaaba, which, however, his eldest son destroyed, and in consequence lost his crown and his life five years after his accession. The second son of Harun, Maimun, after a stormy beginning, led a life 541 542 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. of literary ease, encouraged authors, and set himself to overthrow the widespread doctrine that the Koran was the uncreated word of God ; and his successor continued the same polic}'. From their time the power of the Eastern Caliphate declined. Razi (934-940) was the last Caliph who The Fatimite led prayers and preached to the people. In 910 the Fatimite dynasty. c]ynasty was founded in Egypt, by Obaid Allah, surnamed the Mahdi, " the directed one,"' hence fit to guide others, and assuming to be a descendant of Fatimah, and consequently entering into the rights of Ali. caliphs The empire of the Fatimites lasted in Egypt and North Africa in Spain, till 1171. The Ommyad Caliphs of Cordova, in Spain, maintained their rule from 755 to 1236, and the Moorish Caliphs, or Sultans, of Granada held sway from 1238 to 1492. Meanwhile the Crusades had contributed greatly to the decline of the Eastern Caliphate. At first the Arab conquerors of Palestine, in the The seventh century, allowed Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem to build crusades. a church and a hospital. Under the Fatimite Caliphs, who con- quered Palestine and Syria in the tenth century, the position of Chris- tians was less favourable. In 1065 the Seljuk Turks from the Caucasus, new converts to Islam, overrunning Palestine, committed great atrocities on Christians. This resulted in the first Crusade, which Avas successful in wresting Syria, Palestine, and much of Asia Minor from the Mahometans (1099). But this dominion was practically won back by Saladin, a Kurdish chieftain who had made himself Sultan of Egypt, and the Christians remained free to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem exempt from taxation. A still more formidable enemy to the Caliphs, however, approached from the north and east, in the person of Jenghiz Khan and Fail of the Mongols. Finally Hulaga, the Mongol sovereign, took Bag- Bagdad, dad in 1258, and destroyed the Eastern Caliphate. Before this, however, governor after governor of dependent provinces had become various practically independent ; and hence we find one power at Kairwan, sultanates. in Tripoli, another in Fez (Morocco), another in Khorasan, and others in various parts of India. The Ottoman Turks set up their dynasty in Constantinople in 1299, and it still continues. In giving an account of modern Islam, we must first direct attention to the two predominant and hostile divisions into which it is divided, and sunnites and which date back to the early times of the Caliphate. The Sun- shiites. nites, followers of the Tradition or path (Sunnah), acknowledge the first four caliphs as rightful successors of Mahomet, and accept the six "authentic'' books of tradition, in addition to the Koran, as the guide of faith and conduct. This does not imply that the Shiites, the other great division, reject the Traditions, but the Sunnites have appropri- ated the name ; while the Shiites, or " followers " of Ali, reject the right of the first four caliphs as true successors of the Prophet, and reckon Ali, Mahomet's cousin, as the first true imam or caliph. They call themselves the true believers, and are also known as the imamiyahs, believing that Islam consists in knowledge of the rightful imam. They have traditions MODERN ISLAM. 543 of the nomination of AH to succeed him by Mahomet, and believe that special revelations were made to Fatima, Ali's wife, which were inherited by the last imam, the Mahdi. They recognise in all twelve imams, includ- ing Ali, his sons Hasan and Hosain, Ali son of Hosain, and seven of his descendants, the last, Mohammed, the so-called Mahdi, or Director, being supposed to be still alive, though withdrawn from sight, to reappear in the last days, according to the Prophet's prediction. The Sunnites are the majority in Arabia, Turkey, North Africa, In- Distribution dia, Turkestan, and . n , • . n numbers. Afghanistan, and Eastern Asia, and in all they number something like 150 millions ; while the Shiites are most numerous in Persia and in India, though scat- tered here and there through- out Islam. They are variously estimated at between ten and twenty millions. Besides these, there are the Abadiyeh of Oman and Zanzibar, and the Zirdites of Yemen, esti- mated by Mr. Blunt at four and two millions respec- tively, and the Wahhabis in Nejd and some other regions, said to number eight millions. Consequently the followers of Mahomet at the present day cannot be reckoned fewer than 175 millions. Besides the existent -i sets, we may mention among those of the past, . ,. ., .Various sects, the followers of Hasan of Basra, in the first century of Islam, who set IXl'EKIor. OF A MOSQUE, CAIRO, (Sfto oing fhe r«ltnt and the Kibldh). himself to settle dogmatic difficulties which the Koran left unsolved. ^ One of his disciples, Wasil, founded the sect of the Motazilites (dissentient), or Kadarites, recognising man's power (kadar) over his own actions, in contradistinction to the orthodox view of predestina- tion. Wasil denied the eternity of the attributes of God, reasonin if they were eternal, they constituted so many independent deities, objected to predestination, that it was incompatible with the belief in future MotazUites. ; that Wasil 544 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Jabarites. rewards and punishments ; lie also admitted a purgatory. Another sect, the Jabarites, agreed with the Motazilites as to the attributes of God but maintained the most uncompromising view of predestination, denying to man the slightest share in shaping his own conduct. Somewhat like the Calvinists, they believed that every man was predestined to heaven or hell, and, more consistent than the Calvinists, they denied human responsi- bility. A third sect, the Sifatites, partisans of the attributes, interpreted the Koranic accounts of God literally, and were gross anthropomorphists. Another form of dissent from the Koran and its orthodox upholders arose in the middle of the seventh century, among the partisans of Ali. It refused to acknowledge the exclusive right of the Koreish to furnish a Caliph and Imam to Islam, and maintained that the origin of the leader of the faithful was a matter of indifference, if he did his duty well. This sect, known as the Kharijites, were truer followers of Mahomet than the orthodox ; they held that a man was responsible for his actions, in spite of predestination, and that a great sinner could not be a good Moslem. They were ultimately suppressed in Asia, but long con- tinued to have much influence in northern Africa. These sects, together with the Shiites, subsequently described, were the " protestants " to whom, by antagonism, much of the character of Mohammedan orthodoxy is due. The Sunnis are divided into four principal sects, the Malikites, Hanifites, Shafiites, and Hanbalites ; named after their founders, Malik, Abu Hanifa, Shani, and Ibn Hanbal. These were all established under the Abbaside Caliphs, and really differ comparatively little from one another. The first great collection of the traditions of Mahomet was made by Malik, at Medina, in the eighth century. These he regarded as superseding human judgment. Abu Hanifa, his contemporary, who died at Bagdad in 770, eclipsed him in fame, being the main pillar of the deduc- tive method, which undertook to create precedents in Moslem law by analogy, in agreement with the spirit of the Koran, the Tradition, and the decisions of the first four caliphs. His system, known as the Hanifite law, is the most followed of any. Shafii (born 770), a descen- dant of the Prophet's grandfather, a pupil of Malik, founded an intermediate system between the deductive and the traditional. One of his SlicLfiitcs pupils, Ibn Hanbal, founded the fourth orthodox sect, which was a kind of puritanism, aiming at restoring the primitive purity of religious observances. His followers are now comparatively few, though it is alleged that the Wahhabis represent the spirit of his teaching. Moslem orthodoxy has become fixed within narrow limits, and does not vary much from century to century or from place to place. Its dis- cussions and learning are confined to a narrow kind of scholasticism, mr_ , analogous to that of the Middle Age schoolmen. Even more than The ulema. . ° ° . m the Roman Catholic Church, the believers are in the hands of a clergy, the ulema, or knowers (singular alim), who, without being endued with any temporal power, and without having any ordination or apostolical succession, constitute a spiritual hierarchy of despotic power and enormous MODERN ISLAM. 545 Influence. In fact, they are much more powerful, socially and politically, than the temporal rulers of Moslem countries. As a specimen of their strong self-assertion, we may quote the declaration of the ulema in Spain, when the Sultan Mansur threatened them for opposing him : " All the evil you say of us applies to yourself ; you seek unjust gains, and support your ENTBANCE TO THE MEDUESSE (COLLEGE) OF ABDUL AZIZ KUAN, BOKHARA. injustice by threats ; you take bribes and practise ungodliness in the world. But we are guides on the path of righteousness, lights in the darkness, and bulwarks of Islam. We decide what is just or unjust, and declare the right. Through us the precepts of religion are maintained. We know that the Sultan -will soon think better of the matter ; but if he persists, every act of his N N 54& THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. government will be null, for every treaty of peace and war, every act of sale and purchase, is valid only through our testimony." Leaving the vizier's presence, they were followed by the Sultan's apology before they had passed out of the palace gate. The mode in which the numbers of the ulema are kept up is by a. sort of university education, which is now chiefly obtainable at the famous mosque of El Azhar, at Cairo, but formerly from the famous universities of Damascus, Bagdad, Kairwan, Seville, Cordova, etc., where there were thou- sands of students. They almost all come from the lower classes, in whom fanaticism is most abundant, and not unfrequently obtain permission to sleep in the mosque, and receive daily rations from the funds of the mosque. They enter their names according to their respective sects, and attend the lectures of their professors, which are given around the pillars of the great court. The subjects are Arabic, Mohammedan dogma, the Koran, tradition, and the law. The Hanafite decisions are most effective in law- courts ; but nevertheless the Shafiite and Malikite students are much more numerous, and there are very few Hanbalites. The work of a professor is not mentally onerous, for, strange to say, they merely give explanations from commentaries, being forbidden to add anything of their own. There are various standard compendiums and treatises of great length, consisting chiefly of arguments like those of the medieval school-men, which the students have to master. A few other subjects, such as rhetoric and logic, may be taken up ; but the general course is very narrow, and confirms the natural narrowness of the pupils. All that does not directly appertain to theology is regarded as superfluous or injurious. Theology, being considered to be already perfect, can supply no opportunity of progress beyond a cer- tain narrow limit. " All originality is crushed out, and a blind and ludicrous dependence on written tradition — even in things profane — takes its place."' The students, after three or four years thus spent, having obtained certifi- cates from the professors, gain a government appointment in a law court, or become teachers, prayer-leaders, cadis, or muftis in the smaller towns, or occupy themselves in the various offices for which a theologian is required. There are many sources from which an income may be derived, gifts being not the least abundant of these ; and the higher ulema back up their brethren in all ways, so that they form in effect a powerful corporation. There is no charge for the instruction given in El-Azhar, and there is no endowment for the professors. In Bokhara there is still a considerable attempt at theological education, and there are eighty colleges or schools attached to mosques ; but they are for the most part centres of mere fanatic ignorance. In India every considerable mosque has its college of divinity students, and their heads are generally termed mollahs (or maulawis) ; some of them are good Arabic scholars, but are otherwise very ignorant. Considering their unofficial position, it is surprising how great a power the ulema wield. This is in consequence of their representing the spiritual influence of the Prophet ; while even the Sultan of Turkey, though he calls himself " the successor of the Prophet," cannot exercise the powers of a pope. MODERN ISLAM. 547 He however nominates the Sheikh-nl-Islam (senior or president of Islam), or mufti of Constantinople, who represents him among the ulema, and whose judgments on points of faith and law cannot be appealed against. But the choice of this personage is limited to the moilahs, or chiefs of religious bodies ; and as no one can become one of the ulema but by examination and certification by older ulema, and thus the priesthood is animated by a power- ful esprit de corps. The imams, or leaders in prayer, are the most important essential officials of the mosques. The true imam, or caliph of all the Moslems, is the deputy or representative of the Prophet, and should perform almost every function which Mahomet performed ; but the term has become applied to the leader of any system or school of theology or law, and to leaders in prayer at all mosques. There is no ceremony of ordination, nor is any ministerial act performed by the imam, except that of standing in front and repeating the prayers and reciting the Koran. In fact, wherever there are three worshippers, one of them must act as imam and the other two follow him. Tradition says that the Prophet spoke thus: "Let him act as imam to a congregation who knows the Koran thoroughly ; and if all present should be equal in that respect, then let him perform who is best informed in the rules of prayer ; and if they are equal in this respect also, let him act as imam who has fled for the sake of Islam ; and if equal in this respect likewise, let that person act who is oldest ; but the governed must not act as imam to the governor." Passing now to the teachings and beliefs of these ': clergy " and of intelligent Moslems,— although they rely so much on the Koran, they have imperceptibly developed and codified much teaching that is not formally contained therein. For instance, as to the personality Koranic and nature of God, their detailed statements are to a large extent worthy of Christian doctors and full of philosophic acumen. Of course, be- lieving so absolutely in predestination and control by the Almighty, they hold doctrines which large sections of Christendom would reject, and which come very near to complete Pantheism. Thus the words " There is no God but God," to the Moslem, to quote Mr. Palgrave's language, "imply that this one supreme Being is also the only Agent, the only Force, the only act existing throughout the universe, and leave to all beings else nothing but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in action or in capacity." Thus even all evil, so-called, is His creation. Yet "He has with respect to His creatures one main feeling and source of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest they should perchance attribute to them- selves something of what is His alone. Hence He is ever more prone to punish than to reward, to inflict pain than to bestow pleasure." {Central and Eastern Arabia.) It is a consequence of this position, that no pre- eminence can rightfully be claimed before God by any man ; all are equally His servants. There is one exalted name of God, supposed only to be known to the prophets and great saints; and it is said that Mahomet declared that whoever 54S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. calls upon God by that name will obtain all his desires. Consequently the The exalted Moslem fakirs and mystics spend much of their time in trying name of God. t0 find it out ; those who assert that they know it gain great influence over the suparstitious. The attributes of God are classified under the heads of "Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, Hearing, Seeing, and Speech." As a specimen of the best kind of Moslem theological statement, we may quote from the famous scholastic divine Al-Ghazzali in the eleventh The essence century (1058-1111). He writes thus of the essence of God: of the Deity. « jje jg one? and bath no partner ; singular, without anything like Him ; uniform, having no contrary ; separate, having no equal. He is ancient, having no first ; eternal, having no beginning ; remaining for ever, having no end ; continuing to eternity, without any termination. He persists without ceasing to be ; remains without failing, and never did cease, nor ever shall cease to be de- scribed by glorious attributes, nor is subject to any decree so as to be determined by any precise limits or set times, but is the First and the Last, and is within and without. . . . He is too holy to be subject to change, or any local motion ; neither do any accidents dwell in Him, nor any contingencies befall Him, — but He abides through all generations with His glorious attributes, free from all danger of dissolution. As to the attribute of perfec- tion, He wants no addition to His perfection." And so on through a long exposition. This is quoted, not as proving any originality in the Moslem beliefs, but as show- ing the high level attained in some directions, and as a proof that, so far as regards the Divine attributes, Christians have much in common with Moslems — a fact which should moderate denunciations or censure, and give rise to an attitude of tolerance. With such beliefs as to the absoluteness of Divine control, it is sur- prising that Mahometans should admit the possibility of sin ; but they do this, although there have been long discussions on predestination, and strong endeavours to reconcile it with man's responsibility. Learned Mohammedans divide sins into two classes : the kabirah, or great, which condemn the sinner to a purgatorial hell ; and saghirah or little sins, inherent in man's nature. The great sins are generally stated as seventeen in number : infidelity, despairing of God's mercy, considering oneself safe from His wrath, bearing false witness, constantly committing little sins, MOSLEM POSTURES OF MAYER. Sins. MODERN ISLAM. 549 falsely charging a Moslem with adultery, taking a false oath, drinking wine, practising magic, defrauding orphans of their property, usury, committing adultery, unnatural crimes, stealing, murder, cowardice in battle with infidels, disobedience to parents. Mahometans are considerably given to oaths, and, it may be imagined, at times run great risks of condemnation for perjury. The Koran itself contains many extreme oaths, and it is not surprising that Mahometan Mahomet's followers imitate him in this. There are many fine oath8- distinctions drawn, after the Talmudic manner, as to the various kinds and qualities of oaths, and the guilt of breaking them. The most effective oaths are, saying three times " By the great God," taking hold of the Koran and saying " By what this contains of the Word of God," placing a sword on the Koran and saying "I impose on myself divorcement." Notwithstanding this, lying is pretty frequent among " the faithful." As to abstinence from wine and intoxicating liquors, this is one of the . . Abstinence. most characteristic Moslem virtues ; but in many cases the rule of abstinence is broken through. It is to the credit of Moslem consistency, that opium and tobacco have been recognised as included under the same ban as wine ; but the supposed prohibition MOSLEM POSTUKES OF PEAIEli. is less regarded than in the case of intoxicants. One of the special pro- hibitions generally observed, is that which forbids eating pork ; and there is reason in this in hot climates. Moreover various animals' flesh is forbidden as food, the list being very like that of the Restrictions Mosaic code. The Koran says (ii. 167) " 0 ye who believe, eat of on eatins- the good things with which we have supplied you, and give God thanks if ye are His worshippers. Only that which dieth of itself, and blood, and swine's flesh, and that over which any other name than that of God hath been invoked, hath God forbidden you." But no flesh may be lawfully eaten un- less the animal has been killed in orthodox Mahometan fashion, i.e. by cut- ting the windpipe and gullet through, repeating at the same time, "In the name of God, God is great." According to the traditions, beasts and birds of prey may not be eaten. Moslems have no religious objection to eating with Jews and Christians, provided the meat or drink be lawful for them, and in fact eat with them in various countries, but not in India, where hatred of a conquering race has established the custom of exclusiveness. 55o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The extreme attention of most Mahometans to ablution of the hands, mouth, and nose before eating, is well known. It is a religious ceremony, depending on the traditional precepts of the prophet. His fol- lowers are to eat in God's name, to return thanks, to eat with their right hand, and with their shoes off. The devil, it is said, has power over that food which is eaten without remembering God. Before begin- ning, it is necessary to say " Bismillah ! " (in the name of God), and after finishing, " Glory to God ! " Ablution is also essential before worship. The Koran (v. 8) says, " 0 Believers, when ye prepare yourselves for prayer, wash your faces and hands up to the elbows, and wipe your hands and your feet to the ankles." The detail of this ablution is elaborate, but with practice it is performed in three minutes, the worshipper reciting prayers or pious ejaculations meanwhile. The full ablution is not insisted on before each prayer time, if nothing unclean has been touched and no impurity contracted. When water cannot be had, ablution may be per- formed with dust or sand. In special cases washing of the whole body is prescribed, and among these occasions are the admission of a convert, Friday prayers, the great festivals, and the washing of the dead. The Tradition says, that he who performs ablution thoroughly will extract all sin from his body, even though it may be lurking under his finger nails. The Moslem rule is, that public prayer shall be entirely in Arabic, and the place of prayer must be free from impurity. Before it commences the muezzin or crier gives the call to prayer from the minaret or 'outside the mosque, adding in the early morning "Prayer is better than sleep." The first recitation is given by the imam's " follower," or by the crier, and is the same as the call to prayers, with the addition, " Verity, prayers are now ready." The regular prayers then begin, all standing, with the following : " I have purposed to offer up to God onty, with a sincere heart this morning (or afternoon, or evening), with my face towards the kiblah, two (or more) rakeh prayers." The word rcikeh signi- fies a form of prayer ; farz are prayers enjoined by God ; sunnah, those founded on the Tradition of Mahomet ; nafl, the voluntary performance of two raJcehs. The number of rakehs to be said varies for the different hours of prayer ; at night seven are said after all the usual series have been gone through. A devout Moslem will go through the same form of prayer seventy-five times in the day. Any travelling of the eyes or mind, a cough, etc., vitiates the prayer, and the worshipper must recite all again. Yet a late-comer, after reciting the preliminary, and the " God is great," may join the congregation at the stage which they have reached. The subhan follows, ascribing holiness and praise to God and praising His name, followed by the declaration, " I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan." Then follows the first chapter of the Koran, after which the worshipper may repeat as many chapters of the Koran as he desires, but at least should say one long or two short verses. Very frequently the 122nd, a short chapter, is chosen : " Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal. He begetteth not and is not begotten ; and there is none like unto Him." MODERN ISLAM. 551 i: God is great," and " I extol the holiness of my Lord, the great," are re- peated frequently in various attitudes of devotion. After every two rakehs the following prayer is offered: uO God, have mere)' on Mahomet and on his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great" ; and also, " 0 God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of fire." At the end of prayers follows the salaam : " The peace and mercy of God be with you ! " repeated once with the head turned to the right and once to the left, followed by the supplica- tion, a series of prayers from the Koran or the Tradition, and not infre- quently said in the vernacular. EGYPTIAN FUNEKAL TEOCKSSION. There are also special prayers for Friday, for a traveller, at funerals, during the fast, during eclipses, etc. ; but the specialty consists rather in the number of extra rakehs than in the substance of the prayers. There are many directions for prayers in the Traditions, and promises or assertions of blessing for special acts of prayer. One curious regulation is as follows : il When any one of you says his prayers, he must have something in front of him, but if he cannot find anything he must put his walking-stick into the ground, or if it be hard, place it lengthways before him ; but if he has no staff, he must draw a line on the ground, after which there will be no detriment to his prayers from anyone passing in front of him." Sincere as the Moslem may be, one cannot but see how mechanical and superstitious his devotions tend to become when governed by such multitudinous formal- ities and repeated so often; and, in fact, the lip-service of a large proportion of Mohammedans is notoriously combiued with deceit and evil. The sermon 552 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The Friday sermon is given at the time of noonday prayer, and on the two great festivals at the prayer after sunrise. There is usually a special preacher who delivers this, after the first four sets of prayers. It is in Arabic, and includes prayers for Mahomet, his companions, and the sovereign. Its nature is a matter of choice with the preacher, but it consists very largely of assertions of the various Moslem doctrines. An eloquent New Year's Day sermon given in Lane's " Modern Egyptians "" contains the following passages : " 0 servants of God, your lives have been gradually curtailed, and year after year hath passed away and yo are sleep- ing on the bed of indolence, and on the pillow of iniquity. Ye pass by the tombs of your predecessors, and fear not the assault of destiny and destruc- tion, as if others departed from the world and ye must of necessity remain in it. Ye rejoice at the arrival of new years, as if they brought an increase to the term of life, and swim in the seas of desires and enlarge your hopes, and in every way exceed other people in presumption ; and ye are sluggish in doing good. Oh, how great a calamity is this ! God teacheth by an allegory. Know ye not that in the curtailment of time by indolence and sleep there is very great trouble ? Know ye not that the night and day divide the lives of numerous souls ? Ye are now between two years. . . . Is any of you determining upon diligence in doing good in the year to come ? or repenting of his failings in the things that are passed ? " etc. In the latter half of the sermon : " 0 God, assist the forces of the Moslems, and the armies of the Unitarians [i.e. believers in the one God] ! 0 God, frustrate the infidels and the polytheists, Thine enemies, the enemies of the religion ! 0 God, invert their banners and ruin their habitations, and give them and their wealth as booty to the Moslems!" etc. " 0 Lord, we have acted unjustly towards our own souls, and if Thou do not forgive us and be merciful to us we shall surely be of those who perish." Circumcision, usually performed on boys between the ages of five and twelve, is not a sacred rite, though ordained by the Tradition. There is nothing about it in the Koran, and no record of Mahomet's cir- Circumcision. . . . ' .... cumcision. Marriage also is celebrated with very little religious ceremony ; at the making and signing of the marriage contract the open- . ing chapter of the Koran is recited, together with an address or exhortation and some Koranic prayers and recitations. The actual marriage may be performed with much or little religious ceremony, according to the discretion of the cadi or other person performing it ; and the ceremony does not take place in a mosque. The bridegroom usually repeats after the cadi, " I desire forgiveness of God ; " four short chapters of the Koran, the creed, and a profession of belief in God, the angels, the Koran, the Prophet, the Resurrection, etc. The bridegroom then form- ally consents to the marriage, and the cadi prays that mutual love may reign between the couple, as between Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Joseph and Zuleika, Moses and Sarah, Mohammed and Ayesha, Ali and Fatima." The legal regulations about marriage are more properly political than religious ; four lawful wives are permitted. Divorce is easy, needing MODERN ISLAM. 553 only that the husband should say to his wife, " Thou' art divorced," after which three months' waiting is enjoined, when the divorce is [permanent. A husband may divorce his wife after any misbe- Divorce- Concubinage. Slaves. Ihaviour, or without assigning cause. In some few cases a wife 'may obtain a divorce. Concubinage with any woman held as a slave is lawful ; and among the Shiahs, temporary marriages, for a few hours, afford the most degrading form of concu- binage. In other respects slaves are usually well treated, and often attached to their masters and mistresses. The Tradition praises and blesses the emancipation of slaves, and the}' are not infrequently emancipated, especially at the death of the owner. But the abso- lute power which a Moslem master has over the life and person of his slave is most deleterious to the character of both ; and this, together with the looseness of matri- monial relations, constitutes perhaps the most evil fea- ture of Islam. The Koran teaches that the hour of death is fixed for every one ; and in the Tra- dition Mahomet teaches that it is sinful to wish for death. " Wish not for death, not even if thou art a doer of good works, for perad- venture thou mayst increase them with an increase of life. Nor even if thou art a sinner, for with increase of life thou mayest obtain God's pardon." He is also reported to have said, " Whosoever loves to meet God, God will love to meet him, and whoever dislikes to meet God, God will dislike to meet him. When death comes near a believer, God gives him a spirit of resignation, so that there is nothing a believer likes so much as death." When a Moslem is about to die, some skilled reader of the Koran is sent EGYPTIAN MOHAMMEDAN TOMB WITH TEK ENTRANCE UNCOVERED. 554 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. for, that lie may read the 36th chapter to tranquillise the soul. The creed is also said aloud by all present. Early burial is the rule in Islam, as the sooner the dead are buried the sooner they are believed to reach heaven ; while the bad man must be buried quickly that his lot may not fall upon his family. The burial service is believed to be based on the practice of Mahomet. It may properly be recited by the nearest relative, but is usually led by the family imam or the cadi. It is said in a mosque or in some open space, and includes many of the ordinary prayers, with prayer for the soul of the deceased, after which the people say : " It is the decree of God," to which the chief mourner replies, " I am pleased with the will of God," and then says to the people, " There is permission to depart." After this the body is placed on its back in the grave, with the head to the north and the face turned towards Mecca, the words of burial being, " We commit thee to earth in the name of God, and in the religion of the Prophet." On the third day after burial it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave and recite selections from the Koran, the whole of it being sometimes recited by mollahs paid for the purpose. Funeral processions on foot are the rule with Moslems, and it is a merit- orious act to carry the bier. This is done at a quick pace, that the righte- Funerai ons may arrive soon at happiness. The elaborate funeral proces- processions. s[ons 0f Egypt are well described by Lane ("Modern Egyptians," Minerva Library,) and we must refer readers to this book for many excel- lent accounts of Islam in Egypt. "We have already given an account of the Moslem doctrine of Paradise, but we may here give a summary of what Mahomet is alleged to have said The imme- a^out the immediate fate of the faithful dead. At death, white-faced diate fate of angels descend to meet them, and at first sit apart, while the Angel of Death comes and calls the pure soul to come forth to God's pardon and pleasure. When the soul comes out, the Angel of Death takes it, but the other angels take it from him immediately, and carry it upwards to heaven, where it is received by God, his name is inscribed in the register of good Moslems, and then the soul is returned again to the body to wait for the resurrection with joy. Similarly an infidel is attended by black-faced angels, after which the Angel of Death comes and bids the impure one come forth to the wrath of God. The angels take the soul up to the highest heaven, when God says, " Write his history in Sijjin," that is, the lowest earth ; and the soul is thrown down with violence. It is again replaced in the body, and endures misery, and begs that the resurrection may be delayed. There can be no doubt that the Moslem believes seriously in a future life and state of rewards and punishments ; but his idea of paradise is usually very material, and it can largely be secured by ceremonial and formal merits. Mohammedan mosques are much less varied and complex in their struc- ture than Christian churches. They are usually square buildings of stone or brick, with an open central court-yard, and cloisters and cells Mosques. * around for students. In the centre of the wall turned towards MODERN ISLAM. 555 ;vlecca and farthest removed from the entrance, is a niche, the kihlah, which Indicates the direction of the Kaaba; and the pulpit is placed to the righi of this. A large tank is in the court-yard, at which ceremonial ablntions can Toe performed. Frequently in Egypt, Turkey, and Syria, however, the mosques are completely covered buildings. The side turned towards Mecca 556 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. is the only extensive covered area in most mosques. In front of the pulpit there may be a raised platform from which exhortations are chanted, and lecterns for the reading of the Koran. There are also minarets, or peculiar turrets not diminishing regularly in size, but only at successive stages marked by external galleries, from the uppermost of which the muezzin '■ or crier sounds the calls to prayer day and night. Blind men are often! emplojred in this office, since they cannot see into the privacy of houses j from their elevated station. The mosques are often most costly buildings, decked with elaborate carving in marble or other stone, inlaid with mosaics, agates, etc. The kiblah and the pulpit are elaborate works of art, and many forms of gor- geous ornament are lavished upon various other parts of the mosque. Windows of rich tracery pierced in marble or stucco, filled with richly coloured glass in small pieces, often occur. Many mosques have rich trea- sures of valuable Arabic manuscripts. Most mosques have considerable endowments, managed by an officer who often appoints the imams, of whom one recites the Koran and leads the Endowment ^atiy prayers, while the other, known in Arabia and Eg}Tpt as and the khatib, preaches the Friday sermon. The imams usually have ' some other occupation, such as school-teaching or trade. The mosques are used as places of general resort; and between prayer-times people are to be seen discussing secular topics, and even eating and sleeping in them, contrary to the precepts of the Prophet. They are also very generally used as places of rest and abode for travellers. The Sacred Mosque at Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque at Medina must be more particularly described. The former, which contains the Kaaba, (Cube-House) or House of the Sacred Black Stone, is 250 paces Mosque at long by 200 broad, enclosed on all sides by a colonnade with ecca" quadruple rows of pillars more than twenty feet high on the east side, and triple rows on the remaining sides. Above every four pillars, sup- ported on pointed arches, rises a small dome, externally whitened. These domes are said to be 152 in number. Lamps hang from every arch, some being lighted every night, and all during Ramadan. A great outer wall encloses the colonnade : parts of this are ancient, having escaped the various destructions and repairs which have occurred. Some of the walls are gaudily painted in stripes of red, yellow, and blue, as also are the minarets. The style of the columns is in general coarse Saracenic. Seven paved causeways converge towards the Kaaba, an oblong build- ing which might almost be called a low tower, eighteen paces long, fourteen broad, and thirty-five to forty feet high ; the roof is flat. It is roughly built of grey stone, the present building dating from 1627. There is only one door into it, on the north side, about seven feet from the ground, and it is only opened two or three times a year. The famous " Black Stone " is let into the wall at the north-east corner of the building, about four or five feet from the ground. Burckhardt described it as an irregular oval about seven inches in diameter, with an undulated surface, composed of about a MODERN ISLAM. 557 dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, joined by a little cement and surrounded by a silver setting. It appears to be a meteoric stone; but its present surface does not show its nature, for it is greatly worn by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. Its colour is a deep reddish brown, approaching black. On the north side of the Kaaba near the door is a little hollow in the ground lined with marble, in which it is thought meritorious to pray, as it is the spot where Abraham and Esbmael, the fabu- lous builders of the Kaaba, are said to have kneaded their chalk and mud for mortar. MOSQUE OF THE PALACE, KHIVA. In continuation of a pre-Moslem custom, a covering (the kisweh or veil) of black silk stuff conceals the exterior of the walls of the Kaaba (the roof being bare), openings being left to show the black stone and another •stone at the south-east corner. A new veil is put on every year, in the first month, after the Kaaba has been left bare for about a fortnight. At first it is tucked up high by cords, afterwards it is gradually let down, but is not fastened tightly, so that any wind moves it slowly. These movements are treated by the worshippers as signs of the presence of its guardian angels. Opposite the four sides of the Kaaba are four small erections, used re- spectively by the imams of the four orthodox sects to lead the devotions of 55S THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. their followers. One of these for the Shafiites is over the well Zamzam, which yields an overflowing supply of water for drinking and ablution to the Meccans, and is believed by the Moslems to be the well found in the wilderness by Hagar. This building is beautifully ornamented with coloured, marbles. At one time the shereef of Mecca exacted a high price for this water; but one of the first acts of the "Wahhabis was to abolish this payment, and the water is now distributed gratis, except that a small charge is made when it is drawn up and presented by the regular water carriers. It is regarded as a certain cure for all diseases, and a great improver of health, rendering even prayers to God more acceptable. Enormous quantities of it are drunk by some persons ; many strip themselves and have bucketsful thrown over them ; and few pilgrims leave Mecca without taking some of this water to drink in illness or for their ablution after death. A movable wooden staircase on wheels is used for entering the Kaaba, being ordinarily kept at some distance. Not very far from this is the pulpit, of white marble, highly ornamented, the preacher's station being sur- mounted by a gilt polygonal steeple. Here several of the elder ulemas in Mecca preach in rotation, girt in a white cloak covering head and body, and with a stick in the hand as if prepared against a sudden surprise, as in the early ages of Islam. Round the base of the pulpit the congregation deposit their shoes. Besides one or two other less important buildings, the enclosure of the sacred mosque contains a small one which is said to contain the sacred stone upon which Abraham stood to build the original Kaaba, and believed to show an impression of his foot ; but this stone is always kept entirely covered. At this building worshippers regularly pray for the good offices of Abraham. The larger part of the enclosure consists of gravelled spaces which, together with part of the marble pavement surrounding the Kaaba, is covered at evening prayer with carpets from sixty to eighty feet long and four feet wide, which are rolled up after prayers. Other parts are covered with pilgrims' own carpets, or with mats which they bring with them. During the pilgrimage this vast space is sometimes nearly half filled, although the Meccans believe that the mosque could contain all the faithful at once. Burckhardt could never count more than ten thousand persons in it at one time. The mosque has no fewer than nineteen gates, one of these, the Bab-es-Salam, being that by which every pilgrim must enter it. None are ever closed ; indeed they have no doors. Burckhardt entered at all hours of the night and always found people there, either at prayers or walking about. There are seven minarets on the exterior of the mosque. A number of houses which formerly supported the wall of the mosque are now private property, mostly let out to the richest pilgrims, and with windows looking into the mosque, giving the privilege of performing Friday's devotions in their own houses. This sacred mosque is the one true temple of the Mohammedans, and inasmuch as it contains the Kaaba towards which every Moslem turns in prayer, it is the only place of prayer where believers can turn in any MODERN ISLAM. ;59 direction they please and yet fulfil the law. It will be very evident from the description of other mosques, how different they are in plan from this. It is a striking commentary on the aim of Mahomet to uphold the unity and spiritual worship of God, that an Arab idol of long standing should be tho object most venerated by his followers. Sura ii. 144, 145 says, " From whatever place thou comest forth, then turn thy face towards the Sacred Mosque ; for this is a duty enjoined by thy Lord." Here is the most convenient place for describing the Sacred Hajj, or MOSQUE OF OilAU, " LOJIE OF IHB KOCK,' JEBUSAIiEM. pilgrimage to Mecca. Just as the old Arab idol, or fetish, is the central object of Moslem reverence, so the pilgrimage to Mecca, which had ^ Sacred existed long before Islam, has become the greatest function of the p ^^ religion. Every Moslem is properly bound to make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in his life, and it should be completed in the twelfth month of the Moslem year, although an ordinary pilgrimage may be made at any season. Most essential features are the visits to sacred spots in the neigh- bourhood of Mecca, and the pilgrimage ends with a visit to the Kaaba. We cannot detail the numerous features of interest attending the setting out 56o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. for Mecca from distant countries, the troubles and inconveniences of theB journey or voyage, the sacrifices which good Moslems will make to accoin-B plish this great life-object. "We will simply note that the number whoB reached Mecca in 1SS0 was computed by Mr. Blunt as somewhat over! 93,1 00, of whom 33,000 were Arab pilgrims, 15,000 British subjects from I India, 1*2,000 Malays chiefly from Java and other Dutch possessions. 9.500 I subjects of the Ottoman sultan, 8,500 Persians, 6,000 Egyptians, G000 North Africans, 2,0(30 Soudanese negroes, and 1,000 Zanzibaris, etc. Thus in fifty I years about five millions of pilgrims ma}' visit Mecca. Probably only 3 orl 4 per cent, of Moslems ever see Mecca; but multitudes of others long forB the opportunity. There are three points essential to the lawful completeness of theB pilgrimage : the wearing of no garment but the Hiram, consisting of twoB seamless wrappers, one girding the waist and the other loosely thrown B over the shoulders; to stand in Arafat, the Mount of Recognition, twelve miles from Mecca, where Eve is related to have been found by Adam ; I and to make the circuit round the Kaaba. There are five other observ- ances which are obligatory, but their omission does not constitute absolute infidelity, although it is a sin. These are, to stay in Al Muzdalifa. half- way between Mina and Arafat ; to run between the hills of Safa and Marwah : to perform the ceremony of casting the pebbles at Mina ; to make an extra circuit of the Kaaba, if not Meccans ; and to shave the head at the end of the pilgrimage. When the pilgrim arrives at the last stage, near Mecca, the ceremonies begin by his bathing, saying two rakeh prayers, then putting on the pilgrim's garb, after which he neither anoints his head, pares his nails, nor shaves until the whole of the ceremonies are over. Facing Mecca, he saj's aloud what is termed the intention : ,: O God, I purpose to make the hajj ; make this service easy to me and accept it from me." He then goes to the city. reciting or singing the pilgrims' song (p. 523), enters the sacred mosque, kisses the black stone, and makes the circuit of the Kaaba seven times, three times at a run, four times slowly, each time kissing the black stone and touching the other sacred stone. He then says two prayers at the station of Abraham, returns and once more kisses the black stone. He next goes to the so-called hill of Safa, 76 paces from the mosque, and three times recites the Moslem creed, adding, " He hath performed His promise, and hath aided His servant, and hath put to flight the hosts of infidels by Himself alone." He then runs from this hill to that of Marwah seven times and back, repeating the same sentences each time on each hill. This is usually done on the sixth day, and on the seventh the khutbah or sermon at the mosque is listened to. On the eighth day the journey is made to Mina ; on the ninth the pilgrim goes to Mount Arafat, and after saying prayers and hearing a sermon, stands on the hill and shouts Labbeik, and recites praj^ers and texts till sunset. Early on the next day a second stand is made by torchlight for a short time round the mosque of Muzdalifa be- tween Mina and Arafat : but the chief ceremony on this day is at Mina. MODERX ISLAM. 561 is the day of sacrifice, on which the pilgrim throws seven s:<:nes at each of three pillars in Mina. saying. " In the name 1 : Alnr'ghty, I do this, and in hatred of the devil and his sham :lm has t*1^# ENCAMPMENT OF HLOKIKS IN THE VALLEY OF MINA. part of the flesh being given to the poor: and finally Mecca most be visited again and the black stone kissed. At this time a great fair I - :e at Mina. and the sacrifice may be made on any day of the fair. The pilgrim then gets shaved, takes off his pilgrim's garb, and the pilgrimage is over. o 0 562 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Shiites allow performance of the pilgrimage by deputy, and it is con- sidered very meritorious to pay the expenses of one who cannot afford it. But any Moslem who has not made the pilgrimage may leave money to some one else to mate the pilgrimage, and is thus considered to have ful- filled his duty. The pilgrim becomes known as a hadji, and retains that title ever afterwards before his proper name. Notwithstanding ablutions, the Meccan assemblages are dangerous centres of infectious diseases ; and Mecca is reported to be a hotbed of vice.1 The whole Meccan pilgrim- age strikes an outside observer as a strangely meaningless superstition, cne that does not elevate the character of the worshippers, and only pro- duces an inordinate self-satisfaction on its completion. Its great utility to Mohammedanism is evident, in giving it a centre and a uniting impulse. A visit is very generally made to Medina after the pilgrimage is over, except by Wahhabis, who regard such a visit as idolatiy. The Prophet's The Prophet's moscLne is a very extensive building, much larger than the mosque at original one ; it is between 400 and BOO feet long by about 300 in breadth, with an elaborate principal gate leading into a deep portico with ten rows of pillars, along the southern wall. Near the farther end of this is a walled enclosure without doors, believed to contain the graves of Mahomet, Abubekr and Omar, and close to this is a similar build- ing which encloses the tomb of Fatima. Both are enclosed within an iron railing covered with brass wire-work. Through some small apertures pil- grims address prayers for intercession to the prophet and the other saints. The idea of Mahomet's coffin being suspended in the air by magnets is an European fable. There is a great dome above the prophet's tomb, and there are striking minarets ; but otherwise the mosque is not very remarkable in construction, and is not more than 400 years old. The Mosque of the Caliph Omar, at Jerusalem, built soon after his entry into the city in 637, was supposed to be built upon the site of Solomon's The Mosque Temple, and to be the place to which Mahomet was carried from of Omar. j\jecca on \x[s celebrated "night-journey." The original small building still exists, though it is uncertain whether it is a chamber east of the next mentioned, or that to the west, known as the Mosque of the Mogrebins. Abd el Malik, Caliph of Damascus, built another mosque here in 691. It is a square covered building with seven aisles, as large as many of our cathedrals, and it lacks the square court usually found in mosques. Its north porch was added in the fourteenth century ; the rest of the building is very barn-like. The building called by Europeans " the Mosque of Omar," is certainly not Omar's, and it is rightly termed " the Dome of the Rock," according to The Dome of Moslem nomenclature. It is a beautiful octagonal building of 160 the Rock. feefc diameter, with a high circular dome, and it is according to Fergusson a nearly unaltered Christian building of the 4th century, erected by the Emperor Constantine. Its pillars are of the most precious marble, 1 For interesting speculations as to the origin of all the ceremonies at Mecca, see W. Robertson Smith, art, " Mecca," Eneydopcedta Britannka. MODERN ISLAM. 563 either from Herod's or Hadrian's temple ; and exquisite mosaics and magni- ficent painted glass windows combine to make it one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. The great mosque at Damascus, successively a heathen temple and a Christian church, was, in the first century of Islam, used jointly by Chris- tians and Moslems. The present splendid building was then Great mosque erected by the Caliph Walid. It is 508 feet by 320, enclosing a at Damascus- very large court. The covered side has three aisles, and is 12(5 feet wide. One of the finest mosques of the typical form was that at Cordova, in Spain, built in 786-796, now transformed into the cathedral. The original main covered part has no fewer than twenty rows of marble The Mosque columns, and they are so arranged as to appear to stretch with- of Cordova- out end in every direction, like the Hall of pillars at Karnak. Moreover, formerly rows of orange trees formed aisles in the open court continuing the lines of the columns. Among the notable mosques of this normal type arc those of Amr, Old Cairo, that of El-Azhar at Cairo, the great mosque of Old Delhi, and those of Fez and Kairwan. The mosques of most complex structure are those of Cairo, the reason being that subsidiary buildings, such as schools, colleges, courts of justice, hospitals, etc., have been aggregated around them. The mosque Mosques and of the Sultan Hasan (14th century) is cruciform in plan, the tombs at central court open, the eastern arm forming the place of prayer and preaching, and the domed tomb of the sultan being east of this. There is a splendid entrance on the north-west, with a very high arch. Many pages might be devoted to these splendid mosques ; but we must only notice the tomb-mosques of the Egyptian sultans, outside the walls of Cairo. They have beautiful domes and minarets; and they owe much to Byzantine, Persian, and even Christian gothic architecture, Islam itself having pro- duced few great original architects. There are over four hundred mosques in Cairo. Northern Africa has many fine mosques. Persia has but a few fine early mosques remaining. At Ispahan there is the splendid Masjid Shah, built by Shah Abbas I. (1585-1629), with a very large pyriform dome 165 feet high. When the Turks took Constantinople, in 1453, they at once appropriated seven or eight of the chief Christian churches as mosques, and at the head of them St. Sophia, which they sincerely admired and set to work st Sophia at to imitate ; 100 different mosques at Constantinople testify to the Co^tanti- influence of this type. We may briefly describe it here as an ac- tual Mohammedan mosque, though constructed as a Christian church by t he Emperor Justinian, in 532-537, the architect being Anthemius. It is almost a square of 250 feet added to a nave of more than 200 feet long. Externally it has little beauty, and its great beauty is internal, the great dome being continued by two half domes east and west. The arches on which the great dome rests are about 100 feet across and 120 feet high. The pillars are of the most precious marbles or porphyry, the capitals admirably carved ; all the flat surfaces are covered with exquisite mosaics. Fergussoii calls it the 564 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. most perfect and beautiful Christian church. The mosque of Suleiman the Magnificent adopts the combined dome form, has a great fore-court, and on the opposite side a large garden containing the tombs of the founder and members of his family. Indian mosques and tombs are among the most splendid and varied buildings of that country, rich in splendid buildings as it is. The Moslems, Indian carrying the dome and minaret ideas with them, elaborated and mosques and adapted them to the native architecture, and produced a succes- sion of styles, as numerous as all European styles, and all worthy of notice. "We can only mention a few remarkable features. The mosques and tombs of Ahmedabad, of Bejapore, the tomb of Mahmoud, with its ex- traordinary dome larger than that of the Pantheon at Rome, externally 198 feet high, and the mosques of Agra and Delhi compare even with the exqui- site Hindu temples. The great mosque ( Jummoo Musjid) at Delhi, with its The Jummoo grand porch with pointed arch, its lofty minarets and three great Musjid, Delni-pVriform domes, its courtyard with open colonnades, was, like the Pearl Mosque at Agra, built by Shah Jehan. The latter is entirely of white marble from base to summit, without any ornament. The Taj Mehal at The Taj Agra is the most perfect mausoleum perhaps in the world, also Mehal. erected by Shah Jehan to contain the remains of his favourite wife, Minutaz Mehal, who died in 1631. He meant to build a more splendid one for himself, but died before accomplishing his intention, and he now rests beside her in the Taj Mehal. The whole is enclosed in exquisite gardens ; within is a very large court with splendid gateway, leading to a platform 18 feet high and 313 feet square, upon which are two beautiful detached minarets, and the mausoleum 186 feet square, with the corners cut off. The dome is 58 feet in diameter and 80 feet high, covering the show- tombs, a vault beneath containing the true tombs. Light is admitted through marble trellis-work of exquisite design. Indeed, the whole build- ing is of white marble, and visitors say that no words can express its beauty. All the important parts are inlaid with precious stones in exquisite designs. CHAPTER VII. ittotimt Jtelam, part H. The Bairam festival— Ramadan— The breaking of the fast— The Kisweh and the Mahmal— Other fasts and festivals— The Moharram fast— The holy war.— The dervishes or fakirs— Various orders— Rifayeh— Dancing dervishes— Performance in Tashkend— Various rites— The Doseh— Saints— Worship of deceased saints— Sufism— Relation to pantheism— The Shiites— Their chief distinc- tions—Their mollahs and colleges— Persian dervishes— Passion plays— Babism—Ali the Bab— Abadites and Zeidites— The Wahhabis— Their founder— His teaching — His champion — The Wahhabi kingdom— Mecca and Medina taken— Defeats by Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim— Extension in India— Special doctrines and defects— The Druses— Origin— Hakim— Durazi— Hamza— Recent history— Tenets— Seven great duties— The Akals— Meetings— Turkey— Kerbela— Meshed— India —China - North Africa— Central and Eastern Africa— Contrast between Pagan and Moslem Negro —The Koran unifies and elevates the Negro. THE year of twelve lunar months is still observed by Moslems, and is eleven days short of the solar year ; thus it brings round all the festi- vals in turn to different seasons. For ordinary purposes of life, however, the solar year is used. The festivals and fasts of the Mohammedan year are of great importance. They have already been incidentally referred to, and we need only here describe certain special points. The Feast of Sacrifice, in Turkey and Egypt known as the Bairam festival, is the great The Bairam ■ festival of the year. As part of the Meccan pilgrimage we have festival, already described it, but it is observed all over Islam on the same day, the tenth of the last month of the Mohammedan year, as a time of great re- joicing. A special place outside the city is chosen for the special festival prayers, which are led by the imam, and afterwards a sermon is delivered, emphasising the significance of the day, and commending the offering of sacrifices as capable of carrying the believer across the narrow bridge or road to Paradise. On returning home, the head of each family takes an animal, a sheep, cow, goat, or camel, according to his means or the number of his family, turns its head towards Mecca, and says, " In the name of the great God : verily my prayers, my sacrifice, my life, my death, belong to God, the Lord of the worlds. He has no partner : that is what I am bidden ; for I am first of those who are Moslems : " after which lie kills the animal. One-third of the flesh is kept for the family, one-third is given to relations, and one-third to the poor. The fast of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Moslem year, has been already explained. Its observance in the letter is rigorously necessary for all good Moslems, except the sick, the infirm, nursing and preg- Ramadan nant women, young children, and travellers. When the month falls in the hot season, the day-long fast is extremely trying, for not a 565 ;66 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. drop of water ma}' be drunk during the day ; also twenty additional rakelis or forms of prayer must be gone through after the night prayer. It is customary for good Moslems to stay for considerable periods in the mosques during this month, reading the Koran, and refraining from conversation on MODERN ISLAM. 567 worldly affairs. It is imagined by many that the Mohammedan fast of thirty days was derived from the Christian Lent. The Feast of Alms, or minor festival, is kept on the day after Ramadan is over, and is called the Festival of Breaking the Fast. After the general distribution of alms, there are special prayers outside the city , Tne breaklng followed by a sermon, special petitions for remission of sins, re- of the fast covery of the sick, rain and abundance of corn, safety from misfortune, and freedom from debt. After the service the people salute and congratulate one another, and then spend the day in feasting and rejoicing. In Egypt it is a custom to visit the tombs of relatives on this or the following days, the visitors often carrying palm-branches to lay on the tombs, reciting the creed, and more or less of the Koran. This is not the custom in India, where tombs are visited in the Mohurram festival. There is a considerable festival in Cairo a few days after this, when the Kisweh, or covering of the Kaaba, is conveyed from the citadel to the mosque of the Hasanein, to be sewn together and lined before 1 ' . ° The Kisweh the pilgrimage. An elaborate procession which escorts it is well and the described by Lane. The Mahmal, or canopy, is carried at the same time, but has also a grand procession of its own two or three weeks later, before the departure of the great caravan of pilgrims. The Mahmal is a covered litter or canopy borne on a camel, as an emblem of royalty origi- nally sent to represent a sultana of Egypt in her absence. A festival largely observed in India, is the fifteenth day of Shaban, the eighth month, when it is said that God registers all the actions of mankind, and all births and deaths for the coming year. Originally in- otner faata tended to be observed as a fast, it has become a festival, and is aand festivals, great occasion for letting off fireworks. New Year's Day is a great festival of the Persians. The last "Wednesday of Safar, the second month, is observed in some parts of Islam as a feast, commemorating a mitigation of Mahomet's last illness and his last bath. The birthday of Mahomet on the twelfth of the third month, is kept in Turkey, Egypt, and some parts of India, alms being distributed and additional religious exercises being performed. The first ten days of the first month, Moharram, are kept in memory of the martyrdom of Hasan and Hosein, as days of lamentation, by Tae Mohar- Shiites only; but the tenth day is kept as a fast by Sunnites ram fast- generally, as being the day on which heaven and hell, life and death, Adam and Eve, were created. There can be no doubt that the propagation of Islam by the Jihad, or holy war, has been one of the most potent means of securing its success. It is enjoined in the Koran as a religious duty. But there isThe holy war nothing which forbids the spread of Islam by peaceful persuasion and example, and at the present day this is largely the method by which the Moslem faith is being diffused in Africa. It is enjoined, however, that when an infidel country is conquered, the people shall be offered the option of becoming Moslems, of paying a poll-tax for protection (except in the case of 568 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Arabian idolaters and apostates), or death by the sword. It is held by the Hanifites that the injunction is sufficiently obeyed when any one tribe of Moslems is engaged in spreading the religion by the sword. It is not held right to attack any infidels without previously calling upon them to accept the faith. There are many detailed regulations for the conduct of a sacred war in the books of Mohammedan law. The fakirs or dervishes are very prominent characters in Islam, answer- ing in some ways to the Christian monks in the middle ages. The word The dervishes dervish — more accurately dariceexh — is a Persian word, signifying or fakirs, those who beg from door to door ; the Arabic fakir means " poor " before God, not necessarily poor in a worldly sense. Both terms are in general use for those who lead a religious life, with special practices or exercises. There are many fakirs or dervishes who, while professing to be Mahometans, do not follow the Koran ; those who obey the Moham- medan law are of very varied types or orders, all having special rules, many of which it is impossible to ascertain, being known only to the votaries them- selves, and kept strictly secret. It is claimed, but without foundation, that they deduce their origin from the brotherhood which was formed in the first year of the flight between the emigrants from Mecca and the citizens of Medina, establishing a community of property and common religious rites of penitence and of mortification. These men took the name of Sufis i the meaning of which word is uncertain), and it now designates any Moslem devoted to religious contemplation, exercises, and painful rites. They practically include the fakirs. A long history might be given of the various orders of dervishes, their founders and their history ; and their existence is a standing contradiction of Mahomet's command, " Let there be no monasticism in Islam." Tradition says that Mahomet declared, " The retirement which becomes my people is to sit in a corner of a mosque and wait for the time of prayer." We can only give a few details out of many. One order, the Baktashiyeh, which was founded by a native of Bokhara, and which gave rise to the Janissaries, is marked hy the mystic girdle, various which the members put off and on seven times : sa}ang at the orders, successive times, " I tie up greediness, and unbind generosity ; " "I tie up anger, and unbind meekness ; " ': I tie up avarice, and unbind piety ; " "I tie up ignorance, and unbind the fear of God ; " "I tie up passion, and unbind the love of God : " "I tie up hunger, and unbind (spiritual) contentment ;" "I tie up Satanism, and unbind Divineness." The Rifayeh dervishes, very numerous in Egypt, include a sect who pretend to thrust iron spikes into their eyes and bodies without injuring themselves, to pass swords through their bodies and thick needles through their cheeks without wound or pain. Another of their sects handle serpents with impunity (but have first extracted their fangs) ; it is this sect wl.ose head or sheikh performs the ceremony of the doseh (see p. 570). The Danc'ng or "Whirling Derv-'sLes are the most popular order in the MODERN ISLAM. 5^9 Turkish empire. Their usual services take place every Wednesday and Sunday at two o'clock. Their special exercise consists in spinning Dancing round, dancing, and turning with extraordinary speed, their bell- dervl8hes- shaped petticoats thus acquiring a whirling umbrella shape. Mr. Eugene Schuyler, in his book on Turkestan, lias graphically de- scribed the exercises which he saw in the mosque at Tashkend. A consider- able number of men were on their knees in front of the kiblah, performance reciting prayers with loud cries and violent movements of the *" Ta8lll£en(L body, the prayers being as follows : ¥ My defence is in Allah ! May Allah ba magnified ! My light, Mohammed — God bless him ! There is no God but God!" These words were chanted hun- dreds of times over in a low voice, the devotees' heads being violently thrown to the left over the shoulder, then back, then over the right shoulder, then down. The movements, at first slow, con- tinually increased in speed, till the performers were exhausted. f When their voices became en- tirely hoarse with one cry, another was begun, and finally the cry was struck up of ' Hai, Hai ! Allah Hai! ' (Live, Allah, the immortal), at first slowfy, with an inclination of the body to the ground ; then the rhythm grew faster and in cadence, the body became more and more vertical, until at once they all stood up ; the measure still increased in rapidity, and each one placing his hand on the shoulder of his neighbour, and thus forming several concentric rings, they moved in a mass from side to side of the mosque, leaping about, and alwa3*s crying, ' Hai, Allah Hai ! ' " and this was only a small part of one performance. Some of the rites of the dervishes are observed only by particular orders, some by many orders. Some observe a forty days' fast occasionally (that is, from daybreak to sunset each day), others confine them- selves in a cell in a sepulchre-mosque north of Cairo, remaining there three days and nights, scarcely eating during that perio:l, on the occasion of the festival of the saint of the mosque. During this time they THE MAHMAL (p. 507). 5 7Q THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. continually repeat certain special forms of prayer, coming out of their cells into the mosque to join in the five daily prayers, and making no answer to any one who speaks to them but " There is no God but God." Almost all the dervishes in Egypt, says La.ne, are tradesmen, artisans,. or agriculturists, and only occasionally join in the ceremonies of their orders. Some do nothing but perform their special religious exercises at the festivals of saints and at private entertainments, and chant in funeral processions. Some are water-carriers, a few wander about and subsist on alms, wearing fantastic or characteristic dresses. Many Turkish and Persian wandering dervishes in Egypt are among the most importunate for alms. A volume might be filled with accounts of the dervishes, but we can only give in any detail a notice of the ceremony of the D6seh,ov "treading" on prostrate dervishes bv the horse of the sheikh or chief of the The doseh.. . Saadiyeh dervishes, preacher of the mosque of the Hasanein. After noon prayers on a certain Friday, when the Prophet's miraculous ascent to heaven is celebrated, the sheikh, seated on a horse of moderate size, goes to visit the sheikh El Bikree, who is the head of all the dervishes of Egypt. Before he reaches his destination, a considerable number of dervishes lie down upon the ground, side by side, as close as possible, with backs up- ward, legs extended, and arms placed together beneath their foreheads, and constantly murmuring " Allah ! " Twelve or more dervishes then run along- over their backs, some beating little drums and exclaiming " Allah ! " Then the sheikh approaches on his horse, and with some little difficulty the animal is urged over the prostrate bodies, being led by two men who them- selves also run over the bodies. Apparently no one is hurt, and all jump up and follow the sheikh immediately. Each receives two treads from the horse, and their escaping injury is considered to be a miracle granted specially to the sheikh of this order. Another remarkable performance of a dervish order is the chewing of a mouthful of red-hot charcoal without showing any sign of pain. Epileptic fits often occur during some dervish performances. Nearly akin to the regard paid to dervishes is the worship of reputed saints, both living and dead. Many of the reputed saints of Egypt and other Mahometan countries are harmless lunatics or idiots whose mind is imagined to be in heaven. Some even go about naked, others in the strangest or mcst absurd garbs. The term wali, properly ap- plicable only to a very eminent saint, has consequently become degraded to mean also " fool " or simpleton. Any privilege and reverence is readily accorded to such ; and it is believed that there exists a certain most holy wali, who is not known as such, and who may perhaps be seen anywhere. He is reported to be almost constantly seated at Mecca on the roof of the Kaaba, and at the gate of Cairo called Bab Zuweyleh. Many persons when they pass this gate recite the Moslem prayer, and give alms to a beggar seated there. Persons having headaches drive a nail into the door to charm away the pain ; sufferers from toothache extract a tooth and insert it in a crevice of the door. The holiest wali is believed to be able to transport himself in an instant from Mecca to Cairo, and also to wander at will MODERN ISLAM. 57. through the world, distributing, through other walis, blessings and evils. Many walis, who often live in desert places, are regularly supplied with food by the faithful. In numerous cases they are believed to have the power of working miracles. Deceased saints are venerated and even worshipped more than living- ones. Large mosques are erected over the tombs of the more celebrated : and even minor saints in Egypt are honoured with small square Worship of white-washed buildings crowned with a cupola. Over the saint's deceased saint > vault is an oblong monument, usually covered by silk or linen, with some words from the Koran worked upon it. The most notable memorial of a saint in Eg}^pt is the great mosque of the Hasanen, in which the head of Hosain, the son of Ali and grandson of Mahomet, is said to be buried. The people regard the deceased saints as interceding for them with God, and consequently make offerings and pay visits of veneration to them, reciting the Moslem prayer before the door of the monument and on each of its four sides, also saying, " 0 God, I have transferred the merit of what I have recited from the excellent Koran to the person to whom this place is dedicated," and prayers are said in which the saint's help as intercessor is besought. Almost every village in Egypt has some patron saint, whose tomb is visited by the people on a particular day of the week, making various offerings or vows ; and all the chief saints have anniversary festivals or molids, when varied special observances are gone through, when many persons visit the tombs to obtain special blessings, and dervishes perforin their exercises or portions of the Koran. Sufism as a form of mysticism is far from being exhausted by an ac- count of the dervishes or of reverence for saints. They all agree in giving a mystic spiritual meaning to the Koran, and consider that their system has existed since the foundation of the world. In fact, it is a Moslem adaptation of the Vedanta Hindu philosophy, and the allied philosophy of Buddhism, together with some influence from the early Christian anchorites. They all profess implicit obedience to a spiritual guide, and that they are either inspired by God Himself, or are in union with God. The leading doctrines of Sufism may be thus expressed : God alone exists, and is in all things, and all things are in Him. All beings are an emanation from Him, and are not really distinct from Him. There is no real difference between good and evil, all being from and in God, who fixes man's actions. The soul existed before the body, in which it is constrained, and longs to be set free by death to return to the Divinity. The main occupa- tion of the Sufi is to meditate on the unity of God, to perforin the exercises of his special order, and to progress rightly in the journey of life. This journejr is described in different stages, the lowest of which is the obser- vance of the law. Later, in answer to his prayers, he reaches the true love of God, followed by the desire for seclusion, which by contemplation leads to knowledge. Often this produces ecstasy, during which direct revelation of truth from God may be received, through which union with God may be reached even in the present life. It is this union which the eccentric exer- 572 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. cises of the dervislies are designed to promote. There is a considerable literature describing Sufi thought, for which subject Hughes's " Dictionary of Islam," and Palmer's "Oriental Mysticism," may be consulted. Poetry is a very prominent feature in Sufism ; and indeed the poetry of Saadi and the odes of Hafiz are as a sort of Scripture to the Persian Sufis. The author of the " Masnawi " (a.d. 1302) thus expresses some Sufi doctrines : — " Are we fools ? "We are God's captivity. Are we wise ? We are His promenade. Are we sleeping ? We are drunk with C4od. Are we waking? Then we are His heralds. Are we weeping ? Then His clouds of wrath. Are we laughing ? Flashes of His love." Mahmoud writes : — " All sects but multiply the I and thou ; This I and thou belong to partial being. When I and thou and several being vanish, Then mosque and church shall find thee nevermore.1' A poem of another author has the following lines : — " Joy ! joy ! " I triumph now ; no more I know Myself as simply me. I burn with love. The centre is within me, and its wonder Lies as a circle everywhere about me." Thus we see that Sufism is really a form of pantheism, and, strangely like the Buddhist, the votary seeks to lose his own identity. Sufism is not Relation to true Mohammedanism, but rather an erection starting from it, of pantheism. a mystic creed in which the inner light or some spiritual teacher becomes paramount, and which can dispense with moral law. Consequently one Sufi sect openly neglects morality, and professes community of property and women. Such people regard any sin they are inclined to as imposed by fate ; and do not consider themselves guilty whatever they maj7" do. We pass by a natural transition to the Shiites, who abound in Persia, the stronghold of mysticism. The word Shiah literally means " followers," that is of Ali, the husband of Fatima. They maintain, as we have ' already said, that Ali was the first true imam or caliph, and that true religion consists in the knowledge of the rightful imams. Of these the leading sect, or Twelveans, recognise twelve ; the last, Mohammed Abu l'Kasim, being supposed to be still alive, and to be about to appear as a precursor of the Day of Judgment. This is why pretenders to this title appear at various times, and, if favoured by circumstances, gain such a large following. But the apparently simple faith of the Shiites has admitted of much controversy and schism, and there are nearly as many sects of them as of Sunnites. The principal differences between Shiites and Sunnites, says Prof. A. MODERN ISLAM. 573 Midler in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, depend on their legitimist ie opinions (i.e. tlieir opinion as to the rightful imams or caliphs), < r Their chief are accommodations of the rites of Islam to the Persian nationality, distinctions, or else are petty matters affecting ceremonial. Thus they reject all the " Traditions " of the Sunnites as being compiled under illegitimate caliphs, and they have their own body of tradition, alleged to be compiled under Ali. but not genuine. They add to the ordinary Moslem creed; " and Ali is the "Wali (vicegerent or confidant) of God." Some of tlieir sects regard Ali as Divine, and many of them recognise him as partaking of the Divine nature. Those who have deeply studied Persian Mo- hammedanism, like Sir Lewis Pelly, have discovered that the Shiite schism is really an expression of the race antagonism between the Iranian Aryans of Per- sia and the Semites. The Shiites reject the conclusions of the four great schools of Sun- Their mollahs nite law founded and colleges, on the Traditions, and de- rive all their laAV from the Koran ; but they depend upon their mollahs or re- ligious teachers to declare its correct interpretation. The mollahs are trained in madrasas, or colleges at- tached to the mosques ; but their training is inferior to that of Cairo and Bokhara. The most noted Shiite ma- clrasa is at Kerbela, 50 miles south-west of Bagdad, in the Turkish dominions, said to be the scene ot the martyrdom of Hosain the son of Ali. The students, when passed out of the colleges, become local mollahs, and later may join the college in a larger town, each of which has a chief mollah known as the Sheikh ul Islam. Certain presidents of the chief mosques are known as mujtahids or " enlightened doctors," and their opinion is taken as final in all matters of Mos'emlaw and 574 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. doctrine. In Persia the cadi is an inferior judge who acts instead of the Sheikh ul Islam in special cases ; a mufti, or solicitor for the court, prepares cases to come before the cadi. There was for long a sort of war between the Government of Persia and the Mohammedan doctors ; and the Govern- ment has good ground of offence in the corruption of the courts, while the rights of spiritual asylum and protection by the clergy are most valuable to the common people. The Persian dervishes belonging to the Shiites are, it is said, more im- moral and unworthy of respect than any others. " At the great feasts Persian especially they quarter themselves impudently in wealthy houses, dervishes. an(| deafen the indwellers with their unceasing cry of Yd hakM (' 0 truth ! ' the mystical equivalent of ' 0 God ! '). The wise and modest dervish who in Saadi's poems tells the greatest Sultan the truth as to the hollowness of his royal state has degenerated into the half-mad and insolent hanger-on who thrusts himself into audience-chambers and claims the seat of honour beside the grandees. The multitude of these motley vagabonds, some harmless, others dangerous, is explained by the love of idleness, buffoonery, and story- telling, which is even more marked in Persia than in other parts of the East." (M.) Undoubtedly Islam as practised in Persia is a very degenerate cult. The great majority of those who profess it belie it by their lives. They attach much more importance to their distinctions from Sunnites and Jews than to the teaching of the Koran. The Persian " natural turn for lying and hypocrisy" comes out very evidently in their religion. Private drunkenness and mere temporary " marriages " are very common among them, and the mollahs even countenance them. The Persians set great store by religious festivals and shows. While they celebrate the great sacrificial feast or Bairam festival, they attach Passion the greatest importance to the Moharram (see p. 567), which is plays, celebrated by passion-plays, consisting of several parts, one of which is enacted on each successive clay of the mourning. In these are most pathetically and vividly set forth the events of the life of Hosain and the tragedy of his death ; and the spectators become fanatically excited as they witness the successive scenes. " I have seen some of the most violent of them," says Morier, " as they vociferated, ' 0 Hosain ! ' walk about the streets almost naked, with only their loins covered, and their bodies stream- ing with blood, by the voluntary cuts which they have given to themselves, either as acts of love, anguish, or mortification." The Shiites, who are very numerous in Oude and in other parts of India, also celebrate the martyrdom of Hasan and Hosain at the Moharram festival by miracle plays, which are fully described by Sir Lewis Pelly in his " Miracle Play." We illustrate the Moharram festival at Bombay by a representation of a procession. Yet there is some vitality remaining in Persian Mohammedanism, as evidenced by the growth of sects which aim at purifying or improving Babism. *^ie P°Pu^ar religion. Some hold Ali to be a divine incarnation, others explain away the resurrection. The most remarkable of MODERN ISLAM. 575 the modern sects, however, is that founded by Ali, a young man of Shiraz, in 18-43. He taught a sort of communism and pantheism, the unity of God, and the re-absorption of all things in Him ; that God reveals J lis ah, will by a series of messengers who are divine as well as human, "The Bab." each being the revealer of some new truth. Of these Moses, Jesus, Ma- homet, and himself were the chief, while he looked for a greater to come after him, the great Revealer. A fanciful theory of numbers, especially connected with the number 19, was one of his specialities. He chose 18 chief disciples, who with himself made up 19. The great work of reve- lation was to contain 19 chapters, of which he wrote eleven, leaving the rest to be written by his successor, etc. His person was most attractive, his life pious and regular, and his doctrine gained such sway that the State became alarmed. He took the title of "the Bab," that is "the Door,'' the only one through which men can reach God. He discountenanced pol}r- gamy, forbade divorce, and abolished the veiling of women. He also sternly exposed the vices of the mollahs : and consequently they were his bitter enemies. This fact secured him toleration by the Government for some time, and his converts spread his cult widely in Persia. One of his chief followers, Hosain, formed a camp of Babis, as the new religionists were called, at Castle Tebersy, which in 18-48 was stormed and Hosain killed. In various provinces the Government attacked the Babis, imprisoned and martyred men, women, and children, and killed the Bab himself under circumstances of great cruelty and contumely on 18th July, 1S49. A new Bab, indicated by supposed divine signs, was chosen by his followers, named Yahya. A further massacre of the Babis took place in 1852, since which time the sect has not dared to show itself openly, though zealously propa- gated in secret. It is unknown whether the new Bab is still living, and how many Babis there are is doubtful. A recent traveller puts them at 100,000 (see Contemporary Review, Dec, 1885). They write many books, which are secretty circulated, and their teachings are said to have taken the greatest hold of the most intelligent classes in Persia. We must briefly mention two heretical sects, possibly descended from the Khawarij, who revolted from Ali after the battle of Siffin, being offended because he submitted his right to the Caliphate to human decision, when according to them it ought to be left to Divine arbitrament. The}' also believed that any man might be made Caliph, of whatever Abadites and tribe or nation, provided he were a just person, and also that a Zeidltes- Caliph who was a wrong-doer might be put to death or deposed. The Aba- diyeh of Oman and Zanzibar hold this doctrine at the present day, and are said to number four millions. They reject a vast quantity of Sunnite traditions, and have no communion with Sunnites. The Zeidites of Yemen are probably akin to them in belief, rejecting the traditional Caliphate, but passing themselves off as Sunnites when on pilgrimage. They do not number more than two millions. The Wahhabi movement, now nearly two centuries old, has been one of the most potent that has ever arisen in Islam, and is by no means ex- 576 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. tinct, though shorn of much of its former influence. It arose by the preach- The in& °f Mohammed Abd el Wahhab, the son of Wahhab, whose wahhabis. liame }ias been given to the movement, since his own proper name would have confused it with that of the Prophet. He was born in the Their centre of Nejd, the great desert tract in Arabia, in 1691, was- founder, educated as a Hanbalite, visited and studied at Mecca, Basra (Bassorah), Bagdad, and Medina, and returning home started his mission as. a religious teacher. Fired with zeal for primitive Islam and hatred for the extravagances, excrescences, and evils he had noted in various Moslem countries, he taught the pure unity of God, rejected all the tra- ditions except those derived from the Companions of the Prophet, and claimed the right of private judgment as to the Koran and the Tradi- tions. He abolished the invocation and worship of saints and the dead, and! forbade the use of intoxicants and tobacco, the wearing of silver and gold, and every practice forbidden by the Koran. Thus his movement partook both of Puritanism and Protestantism. The new teacher began to preach at about forty years old, and soon drew down upon himself great opposition. He had to take refuge at His Deraieh, with Mohammed ibn Saood, who espoused his cause champion, eagerly, and sought to establish his own conquests on the basis or pretext of the new doctrines. He began a career of conquest which ex- tended the Wahhabi principles and the rule of his own dynasty over the greater part of Arabia. On Ibn Saood's death in 1765, Nejd was a strong kingdom, and his son's successor, Abd-ul-Aziz, assumed the titles of imam and sultan. The founder of the Wahhabis lived on till 1787. Abd-ul-Aziz TheWahhahi continued his conquests till 1803, when he was murdered by kingdom. a persian fanatic. His son Saood took Kerbela, containing the tombs of the Shiite caliphs, and destroyed everything that savoured of idolatry, from the golden dome of Hosain's tomb to the smallest tobacco , pipe. In 1803 he took Mecca and performed similar destruction, Medina though without any personal outrage on the people. Medina was taken in 1801, and the dome over the Prophet's tomb was destroyed. The usual pilgrimages were now suspended, none but those who conformed to Wahhabi views being allowed to approach the holy places. The Sultan of Turkey was at last roused to vigorous action, and in a succession of campaigns under Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim Pasha, lasting Defeat by from 1811 to 1818, the Wahhabi dominion was practically crushed, Mehemet Ali and Deraieh, its capital, destroyed. In a short time, however, the and Ibrahim. , ' Wahhabis showed signs of revival, and PJad in Nejd became its stronghold, and the capital of a kingdom which gradually extended over the greater part of the central desert land of Arabia, although it never regained its supremacy in Oman, Bahrein, and Yemen. When it appeared destined to extinction, the Wahhabi faith was still taught by some teachers at Mecca ; and Seyyid Ahmed, a freebooter of Extension inBareilly, but a descendant of the Prophet, learning the truth from India" them, returned from Mecca in 1822 resolved to reclaim Northern MODERN ISLAM. 577 ■India to the true belief of Islam. He was hailed as the true caliph or mahdi, propagated the Wahhabi doctrines widely, started a religious war < to Z Eh S3 y. w in 1826 against the Sikhs, but failed after some years' time. But in more recent years Wahhabism has been still more widely spread in India by books, and is now exercising a powerful influence there. p p 578 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS, Some of the doctrines of the Wahhabis, beyond those already men- tioned, are : that at the last day Mahomet "will obtain permission of God to special intercede for His people ; that no prostration or perambulation of ] doctrines, ggjj^s js lawful, not even of Mahomet's at Medina; that women should not visit graves, because of their excessive weeping ; that only four festivals should be observed — those of the Sacrifice, of the Breaking of the Fast (after Ramadan), the 10th Moharram, and the Night of Power. No doubt Wahhabism has some strong features ; but it is too com- pletely reactionary and puritanical. Its end, if it were successful, would be to spread a Moslem propagandism over the world ; and it its defects. wouj(j refllse to recognise anything not known during the early years of Islam. "What injured it more than anything, was its capture and exclusive possession of Mecca and Medina, and the destruction of venerated objects and relics there. The Druses may be most conveniently mentioned here. They inhabit the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and the Hauran to the east of the Sea of Galilee, and extend as far north as Beyrout, and east The Druses . ' to Damascus. Altogether they number about 70,000, having over 100 towns and villages of their own, and occupy more than twice as many in common with Christians. They appear to have originated from mixed Arab, Kurd, and other — even Indian — tribes, who aggregated there in a spirit of lawlessness and self-defence, beginning as far back as pre-Moslem times. The sixth Fatimite caliph in Egypt, Hakim Biamrillah, who began to reign at Cairo in a.d. 1019, a tyrannical and half-insane ruler, believed that he had direct communication with the Deitv, and indeed was an Htikim incarnation of the Divine. In 1029 these claims were publicly asserted in Cairo, and supported by his confessor Darazi. The latter had to fly, owing to the popular indignation. He took refuge in Western Hermon, and propagated his belief considerably. A little later, however, Hakim's vizier, Hamza, a Persian mystic, was more successful in elaborating the new doctrine with various additions of his own, Hamza. and succeeded in getting it widely accepted. Hakim was at last assassinated, in 1032 ; but it was given out by Hamza that he was only gone for a time, and that his followers were to expect his coming again with confidence. Darazi was termed a heretic by Hamza, and is still hated by the Druses, who probably derive their name from him, while Hamza is revered as the founder of their faith. We cannot detail their subsequent history, which is told in Churchill's " Druses and Maronites," 1862. They have nearly always been at war among themselves, with the Christians, or with the Recent Turks. In modern times they became bitterly hostile to their history, neighbours the (Christian) Maronites, and the most cruel warfare was carried on for many years between them (1841-1861). It was at last composed on the appointment of a Christian governor independent of the district (1864), since Avhich time disturbances have practically ceased. The Druses are extremely conservative, and do not seek to make MODERN ISLAM. 579 converts. Their doctrines include, together with much of the Koran and Sufism, a considerable infusion from the Pentateuch and the Gospels. They believe in one God, without seeking to define His nature or attributes, and call themselves Unitarians. God has, according to them, been at different epochs manifested to mankind in a human form, without weaknesses or imperfections, All and Hakim being among these The latter was the last and final incarnation. Finally, when the troubles of the faithful have reached their fulness, Hakim will come again and over- come the world, so that the true religion may reign supreme. The first of God's creatures they name Universal Intelligence ; he is always manifested together with the Divine Incarnation, and Hamza was the last of such manifestations. He alone has direct communication with God, and imparls his knowledge and gifts to all subordinate ministers. He will be the medium of Hakim's conquests, and will distribute rewards and punishments. The Universal Intelligence is also held to be the creator of every soul. At death souls pass into other bodies, and rise to a superior degree if truly attached to truth, or descend if they have neglected religious meditation. The seven great duties of the Druses are : (1) Truth in speech (towards one another only), (2) mutual protection, (3) rejection of all other religions, (4) separation from all who are in error, (5) belief in the unity seven great of God, (6) resignation to His will, (7) and obedience to His duties, commands. Prayer is considered to be an impertinent attempt to interfere with God's designs ; but the freewill of man is clearly held. The faithful are commanded to keep their doctrines secret from unbelievers, and to this end they are permitted to make outward profession of any religion which prevails around them. There is a special class of Druses who alone are admitted into the deeper knowledge of the religion, known as the Akals. This class, constituting 15 per cent, of the whole people, is open to any one after a ^ Akal& year's probation and proof that he will strictly keep the laws of the religion. All these abstain from tobacco and wine, and wear no gold or silver or gorgeous clothing. They are often ascetics, wear a distinctive white turban, and show great devotion and purity. Friday being their day of rest, as among the Mahometans, on Thursday evenings the Akals assemble in their plain meeting-houses in retired spots and read their religious books. These meeting-houses have revenues belonging to them, devoted to the poor and to showing hospitality. Their sacred books, which are numerous (in manuscript), are marked by a high tone of morality ; and there is no proof of the allegations of nefarious practices which the Maronites have brought against them. For hospi- tality, charity, and fidelity to guests they stand high. Polygamy is forbidden ; near relations often marry. Divorce is freely allowed. Those who die in righteousness are buried in their own houses. Numerous manuscripts of the Druses are to be found in European libraries. A brief review of the distribution of Islam must suffice. The Sultan of Turkey is reputed the only true successor to the caliphs, and bears the 58o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. title " Successor of the Prophet.'' But he is very much under the control of the ulemas, headed by the sheikh-ul-Islam (or grand mufti), whom, r ey' however, he nominates as his deputy in the imamate. But he must choose him from among the mollahs or superior ulemas ; and from his judgment on matters of law and religion there is no appeal. The con- servative and dilatory spirit of the ulemas of Constantinople is one of the great obstacles to Turkish reform. The Turkish official and ruling classes are very largely hypocrites, unbelievers, or formalists ; such reality as is found in Turkish Islam is chiefly to be met with in the lower classes. The ordinary Turk of Roumelia or Asia Minor to a large extent really believes and practises his religion. The very general profession of Islam in Arabia, Persia, and Syria will have been gathered from .what has gone before. Kurdistan, Turkestan, and Tartary are mainly Mohammedan,, as are Afghanistan and Beluchistan. Kerbela, not far from Bagdad, Kerbela . . is the most holy place of the Shiites, having the tomb of Hosain, the son of Ali. They believe that whoever lives or dies there will have nothing to fear in the world to come ; and many Shiites leave in- structions in their wills that they shall be buried there. Besides the numerous caravans bringing dead bodies for burial, Kerbela is visited by many pilgrims. Next to Kerbela the Shiites revere Meshed, the capital of Khorasan, the burial place of the Imam Ali or Riza, the eighth imam. His shrine is annually visited by 100,000 pilgrims, and he is dealt with as if. actually living. Kum, between Teheran and Ispahan, is almost equally famous, as the shrine of Fatima, his sister. The Mohammedans of India are largely found in Bengal, the North-west Provinces, and the Punjab, and approach 50 millions in number. They have a vast influence, and are among the most zealous adherents of their faith. They have many magnificent mosques and mauso- leums, as the Jummoo Musjid at Delhi (p. 581), the Taj Mehal at Agra (p. 583), etc., which we figure. Even in Benares, the great centre of Hinduism, there are 330 mosques. Even in China Mohammedans exist in large numbers, though it is very difficult to estimate them exactly. In some parts of North China, however, they form a third of the population ; but they are largel}'- of foreign extraction, Turkish or Persian, and their settle- ment in China took place chiefly after a.d. 1000. They keep up the exclusiveness of their religion, sometimes marking their houses or signs with the words Hwei-hwei (Mahometan) ; but they are not unfrequently to be found in the Government service, and in office conform outwardly to the State religion. They read the Koran in Arabic, which is taught in the schools attached to the mosques ; but the tenets of their religion are also learned from Chinese works. For their mosques they adopt the Chinese style, with some Western features ; and they are ornamented with Arabic and Chinese inscriptions painted on monumental boards. The people are certainly not so attentive to daily prayer as in other countries, and they MODERN JSL.-LU. 5»i do not now make the pilgrimage to Mecca. Several million Malaya are Mohammed;ms,"mostly under Dutch rule. In North Africa, Islam shows some of its least inviting aspects, es- pecially in Morocco. Here exclusiveness and antagonism to Christians are 5 82 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. most markedly displayed. The Slierifs, or so-called descendants of the Prophet, hold sway and insult others with impunity; and the nCa" Marabuts or Saints claim and gain great reverence. In Tunis, the holy city of Kairwan is a noted almost exclusive domain of Islam, and has one of the finest mosques in Northern Africa. In many countries Mohammedanism seems to be decaying, and to have lost all power to elevate the people ; in Central Africa it is seen in most vigorous life, and it has succeeded where Christianity, as hitherto C6ntr3.1 3.11(1 western presented, — together with small-pox and the gin bottle,- — has Africa. fajje(3 No unprejudiced person who has compared the descrip- tions of the Mohammedan countries of the Soudan and Western Africa with that of pagan negroes, can fail to admit that the former include the most active, intelligent, progressive of the Negro races. This may be par- tially due to admixture of Semitic, Abyssinian, or other non-negro blood ; but this admixture is often slight, and many of the most zealous African Moslems are pure negroes. Who can deny that the fetishism of the Fantis and Ashantis is far lower than the belief in one God, the simple, regular Moslem prayers, the devoutness of mosque worship ? or that the abstinence from intoxicants which Islam preaches is preferable in tropical climates to the indulgence of the European, to which he tempts his African brethren ? The simplicity of the creed makes it easy of comprehension by the untutored African. In Islam "everything," as Mr. Joseph Thomson says {Contemporary Review, vol. 50, p. 883), " is within the range of the negro's comprehension — a very terrible One God, who sits in judgment, and a very real heaven and hell." From the tenth century onwards Mahometanism has been advancing continuously in Africa, from Egypt and Abyssinia, spreading westward contrast be- and southward, until now nearly all the large States stretching ^dMosSm across the Soudan to the West Coast are under its sway. Many negro. Christian observers testify to the contrast between a Mahometan and a heathen negro State. " The love of noisy terpsichorean performances, so noticeable in pagan communities," says Dr. Blyden, himself a negro Christian of high character and abilities, " disappears as the people come under the influence of Mohammedanism. It is not a fact that ' When the sun goes down, all Africa dances ' ; but it might be a fact, if it were not for the influence of Islam. Those who would once have sought pleasure in the excitement of the tom-tom, now repair five times a day to the mosque, where they spend a quarter of an hour on each occasion in devotional exercises. After the labours of the day they assemble in groups near the mosque to hear the Koran recited, or the Traditions or some other book read." In every State schools have been established, in which the usual Moslem education is given ; and few villages are now without several men who can read or write Arabic. In some cases the}' even go for further education to Cairo. The polygamy which Islam sanctions is not attended with the seclusion or veiling of women imposed in other countries, and there are several other respects in which Islam in the Soudan is more tolerant MODERN ISLAM. 58: than elsewhere. Still there have been many religious wars in the Soudan : and in Bornu the position of non-converts has been aggravated by their being always liable to be carried away into slavery. Even in Lagos Mahometan schools are to be found, as well as followers of the Prophet who have made the pilgrimage to Mecca. The influence of the Koran as an educator has been very marked in Africa, especially in unifying, supplying common ground for study and worship, and inspiring a common antagonism to paganism. The Koran V Even where the ideas are not fully understood," says Dr. Blyden, "elites* " the words seem to possess for them a nameless beauty and negro, music, a subtle and indefinable charm, incomprehensible to those acquainted only with European languages." No translations could replace it, and thus Arabic is now spreading far and wide. Moreover, just as Islam in former Uflljjjlill / 1 : ii IB'., 1 *^ 7. TBH,/ .1.' \, b*^ \/NFrrTr j,'JJ2i&&-.^ -'■■!'- AF. fX. THE TAJ MEUAL, AGRA. times produced many a hero-prophet, so in modern times has it been in Moslem Africa, although Europe has known nothing of it. Among those in the middle of this century may be mentioned the Sheikh Omaru Al-Hajj, a native of Futah Toro, between Timbuctoo and the West Coast. He was a great proselytiser and religious leader, banished paganism from Sego, and elevated and purified the Mahometanism of several Fulah nations. He wrote many Arabic works in prose and poetry ; and his poems are recited and sung in many Moslem towns and villages from Sierra Leone as far in- land as Kano. And the feeling he had is shared in a degree by all negro Moslems. To propagate Islam is the one object worthy of enthusiasm, whatever sufferings they or their opponents may have to endure. While Christian missions in Africa are an expensive exotic, only to a slight extent permanently impressing the negro nature, the natives of the Soudan keep 584 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. up mosques, services, schools, etc., and contribute to support the missionaries who come to them from Arabia or elsewhere ; and this even in Sierra Leone. Good observers attribute this partly to the fact that Mohammedans do really place the negro convert on a moral level with themselves, give him a career that inspires him with ambition, and practically make him re- spect himself. Moreover Islam has done in Africa what it has scarcely done anywhere else except in China, it has adapted many of its customs to suit the negro. The Arab type has been grafted on the negro, and has not wrecked it. Since the influence of Timbuctoo, which was a replica of Morocco, has given way to that of Kuka and Kano, the negro amalgama- tion has gone on rapidly, and much stability as well as power of spreading has been imparted to African Islam. Perhaps, above all, the Arab consti- tution has suited the climate of Africa ; the Arab has found his way every- where. His skin has not repelled the negro nor contrasted too greatly with his. The two races have understood one another far better than the higher European. Thus on the whole we may anticipate a great future for Islam in Africa and in India. Even in other regions, where religion seems sunk in evil, we may yet witness an uprising of moral and spiritual reform which may revivify the popular religion. Christians may and should acknowledge freely the important elements of truth which they hold in common with Mohammedans ; yet they cannot shut their eyes to the evils of slavery and fatalism, of polygamy and the subjection of women, which largely prevail throughout Islam, though not so extensively as many imagine. [Encyclopedia Britannica : " Sunnites and Shiites," Prof. A. Miiller (M.) ; Palmer, "Oriental Mysticism"; Lane's " Modern Egyptians ; " W. S. Blunt, " The Future of Islam;" J. P. Brown] " The Dervishes ; " Lady Anne Blunt, " A Pilgrimage to Nejd ; " Eugene Schuyler's " Turkestan ; " Edkin's "Pieligion in China," chap. xv. ; Morier, " Second Journey through Persia ; " " Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race," E. W. Blyden, LL.D.] MOUNT HOREB, OR SINAI. BOOK VI. THE JEWISH RELIGION. CHAPTER I. (Early ggfgftorp— JWosfesf* Old Testament the chief authority— Its growth and editing— Elohist and Jehovist narratives— The cosmogony of Genesis— Dean Perowne's view— The Jehovist narrative of creation— The fall variously interpreted— History of Adam's descendants— Longevity of man— The deluge— The covenant with Noah— The confusion of tongues— The history of Israel begins— Abraham's mi- gration—His worship of God— Abraham and Melchizadek— Divine appearances— Abraham's character— Sacrifice of Isaac— Jacob and special providence — Sacred stones and household images— Jacob's great struggle— Patriarchal moral character— Jacob's dying blessings— Israel in Egypt -Egyptian influences— Education of Moses— His long residence in Midian^The Divine commission— The plagues of Egypt —Passage of the Red Sea— The decalogue- Character of Moses. WE must preface our remarks upon the Jewish religion by saying that it is outside the scope of this work to offer any discussion on the question of the inspiration of the Bible, respecting which so many different views are current, even amongst divines. It is simply sought to give an account of Jewish religion and its growth in the same manner as has been done with some other religions, noting the principal features of Old Testament teaching, and their historical development, and especially those points in which a comparison can be made with other religions. For this 5S6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. purpose it is, of course, necessary to examine the historical records of the Old Testament in a manner as unprejudiced as possible by theories of inspiration, which on any theory acted through human instruments. It is somewhat singular that the Old Testament is almost the only authority for much ot the history of the Jews, owing to the absence of om Testa- contemporary records in stone, and of relics of buildings, etc., mcMe?ie which in other countries have thrown light on religion ; and it authority. js [n the religious history of Chaldsea, Assyria, Philistia, and Egypt that the most interesting facts have come to light which illustrate the development of religion among the Jews. Taking the Pentateuch and the Historical Books of the Old Testament as a whole, it is pretty generally agreed that, whatever be the date of their arrangement and promulgation in the form in which we have Its srrowtn ^ and them (and this is variously placed in the period between Hilkiah's editing, discovery 0f the Law in Josiah's reign, in the seventh century B.C., and its recitation by Ezra about b.c. 445), the compilers or authors had before them previous records, some of which may be distinguished from one another by their language, while of others we have only the names, such as the Book of the Wars of Jehovah. There are many indica- tions in the Pentateuch that it was at least extensively revised long after the date of Moses ; and, indeed, there is nowhere in the Pentateuch any assertion that Moses wrote the books which have generally been attributed to him, and which speak of him in the third person. Discussion as to how much Moses has contributed to the Pentateuch would be out of place here. It is stated in numerous passages that Moses wrote records of events, and of the commands of Jehovah ; and in several passages of the Old Testament this is definitely attributed to him. Great knowledge of Egypt and Egyp- tian customs is shown by the writer, thus according with the opportu- nities Moses had of gaining such knowledge. The value of the historical works of the Old Testament as sources of history is extreme ; and many facts therein recorded have been remarkably confirmed by archaeological and geographical investigations, especially by those of the Palestine Ex- ploration Fund. A most conspicuous result of modern criticism of the Pentateuch, is the discernment of at least two authors or documents, one describing the , supreme God as Elohim, " the Mighty," a plural title which was Elohist and ■»• ' -, -,• i itt Jenovist well understood by the peoples surrounding the early Israelites, narratives. anj among whom the briefer El was a common designation for their own chief deity ; the other using the term Jehovah, or Jahveh, translated "the Lord." A third variation is found when the names are coupled together. The passage in Exodus vi. 3, where Jehovah says to Moses, " I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, as God Almighty (El Shaddai), but by My name Jehovah I was not known to them," appears to fix all narratives in which the name Jehovah is used as later than that revelation to Moses ; but this is by no means agreed upon by critics. We may, however, study the religious development of the Jews in EARL Y JE WISH IIISTOR Y 58; two periods — that in which the name of the Deity was some form of El or Elohim, and that in which it was Jehovah. The first hook of the Pentateuch, commonly termed Genesis, in the first place gives a cosmogony (i. to ii. 3) in which the Creator is spoken of as Elohim. It is undoubtedly superior to any other ancient cos- mogoiry. It describes every act of creation as directly the work mogony of of Elohim, and this is the predominant note of the narrative. An orderly procession of events is traced, and identified with days which may be referred to immense periods of time, though there is no evidence that the narrative was originally understood in any sense but that of days consisting of evening and morning, or twenty-four hours. The narrative appears to imply, though it does not expressly assert, the creation of the world out of nothing, and it represents the Creator as in express re- lation to His work, regarding it as "good," and "very good." Many attempts have been made in modern times to bring the statements as to the " days " of creation into connection with distinct or marked geological periods ; but all these appear to fail. In the one case we have a graphic representation of the order of creation, drawn out on broad lines appre- ciable by mankind in an early stage of literary development, and by children and the unlearned of all ages ; on the other we have an attempt at inductive and detailed histoiy. The present writer regards the attempt to draw out a detailed correspondence between the two as futile. Nor does it appear necessary that even those who regard the narrative of creation in Genesis as an inspired and infallible document should read into it all the . discoveries of modern science in order to establish or confirm its value and interest. In any case, we have a grand series of pictures, ending with the creation of man, or " Adam," male and female, on the sixth day, and a con- clusion which gives a foundation and sanction for the Sabbath as observ ■< I by the Jews, by attributing to the Creator " rest " on the seventh day, and the sanctification of the day. Bishop Harvey Goodwin {Contemporary Review, vol. 50, p. 524) argues that the week did not take its rise from the sacred history, but that the form in which the histoiy was cast depended on the writer's knowledge of the division of time by weeks, and of the Sabbath as an institution already existing long before the time of Moses. Bishop Goodwin regards the story of creation as either a speculation, or a poetical picture, or the record of a vision accorded to some gifted seer. The narrator, requiring some framework for his vision, and knowing the division of time by weeks, naturally used it as the most appropriate.1 In this connection we may quote Dean Perowne's words in Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible" (article Genesis). "It is certain that the author of 1 Bishop Goodwin further observes that " when we speak of the ' literal interpretation' of this portion of Holy Scripture, we are using language which, when examined, has no definite meaning. The whole history of creation is necessarily supra-literal. ' The Spit-it of God moved upon the face of the waters.' What literal meaning is there here? ' God said, Let ixs make man in our image, after our likeness.' How can we assign to such transcendental language any sense which can properly be called literal t And so on throughout the whole creative history." 588 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the first chapter of Genesis, whether Moses or some one else, knew nothing Dean °* Se°i°S'y or astronomy. It is certain that he made use of Perowne's phraseology concerning physical facts in accordance with the limited range of information which he possessed. It is also cer- tain that the Bible was never intended to reveal to ns knowledge of which our own faculties rightly used could put us in possession. And we have no business, therefore, to expect anything but popular language in the description of physical phonomena. Tims, for instance, when it is said that by means of the firmament God divided the waters which were above from those which were beneath, we admit the fact without admitting the implied explanation. The Hebrew supposed that there existed vast reservoirs above him corresponding to the ' waters under the earth.' We know that by certain natural processes the rain descends from the clouds. But the fact remains the same, that there are waters above as well as below." It must, however, be admitted that the extent to which modern science is consistent with the broad outlines of the picture in Genesis is remarkable. The section Genesis ii. 4 to iii. 24 is admitted to be very distinguishable from the preceding, especially in its using the form " Jehovah or Jahveh The Jenovist Elohim " for the Deity twenty times. This combination is only narrative found elsewhere in the Pentateuch in Exodus ix. 38. The name ' Elohim is also used three times by itself. The narrative begins by a very different and condensed account of the creation of the world and of living things, with a particularisation of man as " formed of the dust of Adamah, or the ground," whereas he is previously described as " created in His own image," and " male and female." The second account goes on to describe the primitive dwelling of man, the separate command to Adam or the Adam to refrain from eating of a particular tree, on pain of death, the naming of all cattle and fowl by Adam, the framing of a woman as his help- meet out of his side, this being made the basis for the recognition of husband and wife as " one flesh." It is not necessary to repeat here the story of the Fall, which has been so differently interpreted by thinkers of all ages since criticism began. The fan Many interpret it allegorically, as signifying a deep spiritual variously truth, of which, however, various accounts may be given. Apart from questions of theology, it is of great interest as showing the early Hebrew mode of accounting for the presence of sin in the world. The description of the garden in Eden may be referred to some tract of Mesopotamia, from which region the ancestors of the Israelites migrated ; but it is impossible to identify with any certainty the limited tract that is meant. The narrative appears to describe the creation of animals after that of man, but it is evident that it does not attempt to give a chronological account. Altogether, the description is one showing many marks of antiquity, whether or not we suppose the name " Jahveh " to have been inserted at a later date. The conception of the Deity " walking in the garden in the cool of the day," and taking part in a series of dialogues, is an anthropomorphism which of itsslf indicates a state of mind which is EARL Y JE WISH JIISTOR Y. 589 paralleled in many primitive races, whose inward impressions are heard as outward voices, and attributed to spirits or gods. The connection of the first wearing of clothing with the first consciousness of sin, the repre- sentation of the loss of a primeval state of bliss and ease, the exclusion from the garden by cherubims and the flaming sword, the idea of a possible seizure of immortality by man, — all these denote an early stage of self-conscious reasoning upon the phenomena of life, which has been presented to us in such simplicity and charm by no other religious book. We may note that the serpent had in the East a reputation for sagacity which has not stood the test of later investigation. NOAH S SACRIFICE. Genesis iv. contains the story of Adam's family through Cain down to Lameeh, with the murder of Abel by Cain, and narrates the early occupations of mankind, pastoral and agricultural, the de- Historyof velopment of the use of metal for cutting implements, and the Adam's invention of musical instruments. The two main varieties of early offerings to God are here already established, namely "the fruitfof the ground/' and " the firstlings of the flock, and of the fat thereof," and the superiority of the latter is implied in their acceptance. The punishment of murder on earth by a severer sentence than death is indicated, and the power of conscience is strongly asserted. In this narrative the name Jahveh 59o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. is used, and at the close, after describing the birth of Seth as the progenitor of the chosen people, we are told that " then men began to call upon the name of the Lord." Chapter v. is essentially a genealogical chapter, beginning with a third brief account of the creation of man, " male and female," and termed collectively " Adam." Here the name " Elohim " is used, except in ver. 29. We have in this chapter mainly that LousrGvity of record of longevity which Owen and many other' eminent man" zoologists and physiologists declare to be incompatible with the present physical structure of man, especially of the teeth, while no traces of men with any structure admitting of such length of days can be found. Of course, if the early calendar was reckoned on some other basis than ours, this difficulty disappears ; but, humanly speaking, it is useless to look for modern scientific accuracy in a record dating from very early times ; in fact, the power of using considerable numbers is a comparatively advanced achievement. These records are best looked at as representing the ancient genealogy of the Jews preserved in the most authentic form they knew about ; and to attempt to reconcile them with modern views on the antiquity of man is a fruitless endeavour. We know that names were left out and genealogies drawn up in round numbers of generations by the Jews, of which there are numerous examples in the Bible. It has been suggested that the account of Enoch's translation represents an interesting stage of the mode by which heroes become deified in many countries. In the history of Noah we come into closer contact with the traditions of other nations, and especially with the Chaldaean deluge story, already referred to (p. 494). Moral evil had risen to a great height, Tee uge. ow-n^ ag ^}ie ear}v Hebrews believed, to an intermixture of the daughters of the Adam with a powerful race, the sons of Elohim, or the mighty ones, giving rise to " giants." Jahveh is" represented as " repenting " of having made man, and as threatening his extinction. Noah, a righteous man, was selected to be preserved during the impending destruction, and was instructed to make a great "ark" in which he could save his family, and two of " every living thing," an expression which must be taken with obvious limitations. We need not follow the details of the Flood, but note that it is obviously impossible that this can have been a universal Deluge in the sense in which that term would now be understood. The conception of a plain only broken by comparatively low hills, covered by water as far as the eye could see, suffices to adequately fulfil the conditions really demanded. The " mountains of Ararat " are rendered the " mountains of Armenia " by many, and it is nowhere said that the highest mountains were meant. Noah's offering of a burnt sacrifice to God consisting of "every clean beast and every clean fowl " is of great interest as showing religious advance, and as indicating that a sort of classification of animals into clean and unclean had been made. The narrative, among other anthropomor- phisms, represents the Deity as " smelling a sweet savour." The great covenant which Noah now received and promulgated is of prime interest in whatever way it may be regarded, whether as a direct EARLY JEWISH HISTORY. 591 Divine revelation, or as an evidence of a stage in natural religions develop- ment. A very orthodox commentator regards the covenant as T^e covenant expressing Noah's strong inward convictions in answer to his with Noah, prayers during his sacrifice. They express hopefulness of future good, not- withstanding the evil so prone to arise in man's heart, and confidence in God's beneficence. They contain a sort of charter of man's supremacy on the earth and over animals, which in its broad lines is unique at such an early period. The responsibility for human life is laid down as a funda- mental human obligation, resting upon man's brotherhood, and his relation- ship to God as being made " in His image." Noah, appalled by the late destruction, was reassured that neither men nor beasts were to be cut off by a flood in future. The rainbow was to Noah the sign of this covenant, a fact by no means implying, what so many have imagined, that the rainbow then first appeared, an idea incompatible with the laws of light. In the history of Noah, then, we trace the broad outline of the conception so much developed and filled in later in the Jewish and Christian religions, of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. The next great cosmological conception in the Book of Genesis is in the stoiw by which the variety of languages was accounted for. It is closely paralleled by some fragments of Babylonian tablets in which are t^ confusion described the anger of Bel at the sin of the builders of the walls of ton£ues. of Babylon and the mound of the tower or palace. The builders, whose attempts were directed against the gods, were confounded on the mound, as well as their speech. The winds are said to have finally destroj^ed the impious works. This story may very well have had its origin in the building of the great temple on the mound of Birs Nimroud or some other notable temple raised in successive stages. Primitive peoples regarded such huge enterprises as impiety against the gods, much as the originators of railwaj's were denominated impious. The divergence of language between people a few miles apart, which must have been far more marked then than in modern civilised countries, was similarly considered an act of vengeance directly due to the gods. In Genesis, to quote another orthodox divine, Dr. Payne Smith, " Jehovah is described as a mighty king, who, hearing in his upper and heavenly dwelling of man's ambitious purpose, determines to go and inspect the work in person, that having seen, he may deal with the offenders justly." And in order to defeat men's unlimited ambition, diversity of speech was brought about, so that men were not intelligible to one another. The history of Israel now properly begins with the narrative of the life of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the three great ancestral patriarchs of the Jewish people. Some scholars, who cannot believe that any The history of ancient narrative at all closely corresponds with fact, have Israel beglns- imagined these to be mythical beings, and have given fanciful interpreta- tions of their biographies. But the sober style of the narrative lends little countenance to such ideas, while much confirmatory evidence from language, antiquities, geography, etc., gives support to the belief that we have here the 592 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. most authentic early biographical records which have come down to us, although it cannot be expected that they have been transmitted with per- fect accuracy in all details. Leaving questions of general criticism aside, we will trace the conception of the Divine power and of religion which the Abraham's narratives convey. Abraham's migration from Mesopotamia is migration, undertaken by Divine command, and is inspired by a great hope of founding a nation which shall become a blessing to all the, earth. At Sichem, in the centre of Canaan, it was shown to him that his seed would possess the land ; and he built an altar to Jehovah, " who appeared unto him." It is impossible to settle in what form the Divine manifestations to Abraham may have been made ; it is equally impossible to doubt that the narrative represents a genuine belief in their reality. Abraham built altars His worship to God in various places afterwards historically famous as places of God. 0f worsnjp . anc[ on one occasion is represented as signalising a covenant with God by dividing a heifer, a she-goat, and a ram, into halves, a ceremonial implying the most solemn ratification. Abraham on this occasion begged for a confirmation of his having an heir born to him in his old age. In a deep sleep following his watch over the exposed animals Abraham saw a symbol of fire pass between the divided halves, and received a promisa of the future greatness of his posterity, in connection with which is narrated a prediction of their servitude "in a land that is not theirs." An interesting episode in Abraham's life, showing that he did not feel himself cut off from the local worship of El under different names, is his Abraham and conduct after his return from the slaughter of the confederates Meichizedek. 0£ Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Abraham received a blessing and gave a proportion of his booty to Meichizedek, whose title King of Salem (Melek-Salem) is by some understood to mean "King of Peace," as his first name Meichizedek means King of righteousness. Jt is impossible to be certain that by Salem the site of Jerusalem was signified. "Whatever his local habitation, Meichizedek officiated as priest of El-Elion, " God most high," and represented El-Elion as having delivered Abraham's enemies into his hand. Abraham, according to the narrative, identified the God he worshipped with the God of Meichizedek, and here again rose beyond conceptions of local or tribal gods towards that of a Supreme and Universal Deity. All through the narrative of Abraham we have records describing familiar intercourse between the Deity and Abraham, whether by undefined Divine " appearances," by the intervention of " the angel of the Lord," appearances. or 0f human figures. Thus we see how deep-seated was the belief in direct Divine intervention and appearances in the time from which these records date. In the Elohistic narrative of Genesis xvii., which gives the ancient authorisation for the circumcision of the Hebrew males, we find the name El Shacldai, El All-Powerful or Almighty, applied to God. There is evidence that circumcision was known and practised by other nations long before this ; but its adoption by Abraham was an important epoch in the development of the Jewish religion. The idea of the Almighty as coming down from His high enthronement above the earth is still prominent, EARL Y JE WISH HISTOR J ' 593 as in the phrase, "He went up from Abraham." The birth of Isaac is pro- mised expressly, as the heir of the covenant made with Abraham. The position of Abraham at the head of the Jewish religion and in the regard of Christians is assured. To quote Dean Stanley (" Jewish Church " i. 1G), "it is true that Abraham hardly appears before us as a Abraham's prophet or teacher of any new religion. As the Scripture repre- characte-r. sents him, it is rather as if he was possessed of the truth himself, than as if he had any call to proclaim it to others. ... He was the first distinct historical witness, at least for his own race and country, to Theism, to Monotheism, to the Unity of the Lord and Ruler of all, against the primeval idolatries, the natural religion of the ancient world." No doubt he is the first Q Q 594 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. great exemplification of that which henceforth distinguished higher from lower religions, faith in the Supreme Being and in ultimate good, first for himself and his descendants, and secondarily for all mankind. His intended sacri- sacrifice fice °f Isaac,— related probably to the frequent Canaanitish immo- of Isaac. ] at ions of the eldest son,- -is explicable by his intense belief that the command came from God ; and viewed in this light it highly strained his belief that Isaac was the divinely-given heir of the future of his race. One commentator puts it thus, in reference to the Canaanitish practice: "The question might easily arise within, 'AVouldst thou be able to do the like to please thy God?'" The substitution of a ram for Isaac was of fundamental importance in establishing the antiquity of the later Jewish sin-offering, and the sanctity of Mount Moriah, the subsequent site of the Jewish temple. Moral strength, mixed with some moral weakness, first rises to distinct portraiture in Abraham, whose character, clearly related to features still familiar in Semitic life, has become almost equally precious to Mohammedans and Christians. His date, somewhere before or after 2000 b.c, we cannot attempt to settle. In the history of Jacob we find a development of the personal aspect of belief. Special Providence watches over his conduct, appears to favour his Jacob and designs, and by the stress of events drives him into a more up- special right path than he had at first sought. The belief in the validity and value of patriarchal blessings is clearl}7- evidenced in both Isaac's and Jacob's dying blessings. "We note, too, that it comes upon Jacob as a surprise when he becomes convinced at Bethel that it too, " far from the holy places of his family, is a place of Jahveh's gracious presence," whereupon he raises a stone, after the manner of the Phoenicians and Other surrounding peoples, as a memorial, and pours oil upon it, naming it Beth-el. the house of God, long afterwards famous as a place of sacrifice and a sanc- sacred tuary. We note, also, the continued use of household images, household wlietner mere images of guardian spirits or of ancestors, in images. Laban's family, and believed to ensure, or be essential to, the good fortune of the household. Of great significance in the history of Jacob is the development of prayer, in reliance upon what he believes to be the promises of God ; although Jacob's great prayer is still mainly, if not entirely, for temporal benefits. The struggle, memorable "wrestling" of Jacob, whatever it may mean physi- cally, has become the type and model of innumerable spiritual struggles, and indicates changes in moral character as the product of earnest resolution. In the view of very many, it stands as a conspicuous memorial of man's elevation by struggle and resolve, ever blessed by the Supreme Power. To Jacob the struggle was a Divine revelation : " I have seen Elohim face to face, and my life was preserved." The personal guidance of God is again brought into view in the later scene when Jacob goes to Egypt by the com- mand of God received in the visions of the night — an example of the power- ful influence allowed to dreams and visions in those times. In all this patriarchal period polygamy is nowhere condemned, and is JEWISH HISTORY— MOSES. 595 frequently practised ; deceit is approved towards enemies, and even towards hosts, and, with various questionings, towards members of the same house- hold ; morals had as yet become comparatively little developed as a corollary of religious belief. We have no account of Divine PaSoniihal worship except as associated with special occasions. The outlines character- of the patriarchs are very differently drawn from those of the heroes and demigods of most other religions. No perfection is attributed to them. - They fall again and again into error and evil-doing ; yet they rise by ex- hibiting a faith in the Divine superior to that of their neighbours, and by obeying inward monitions more than others did. They are in no sense raised beyond humanity ; they are distinctly human all through ; and thus their histories, though probably intermixed with later traditions and edited to an uuascertainable extent, contain highly credible and valuable accounts of primitive life and of the rise of religious belief. Now comes the important period of the Israelitish sojourn in Egypt, which must have had considerable effect on the religious development of the people. Yet we hear little of it till the great uprising which led to the Exodus. Meanwhile the death-bed of Jacob is the occasion for the delivery of characteristic blessings, often prophetic in their character. One clause ■' The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from Jacob's dying ' between his feet, until Shiloh come ; and unto him shall the blessings, gathering of the people be," has especial significance in the history of the Christian Church, as indicating the person and rule of Christ. Some modern critics translate one phrase, "until he come to Shiloh," in Ephraim, where the ark of the covenant was at one time. Many read " Sheloh," instead of Shiloh, meaning " he whose it is," or " whose right it is." The fact that the 'Jews themselves interpret the passage as a Messianic prophecy is of moment ; and whether the prophecy assumed its present form compara- tively later or earlier, it no doubt existed long before the time of Christ. The residence of the Israelites in Egypt must be esteemed of the high- est importance to their religious development, both for what it taught them to dislike and for what it led them to appreciate and adopt. israei in An enormous gulf separates the primitive patriarchal religion, ^sypt. with its open-air altars, its rare sacrifices, its memorial stones, and its sacred trees, from the elaborate priestly religion which grew up on the foundation of Moses. Although it is not expressly stated in the Pentateuch, we find from Joshua xxiv. and Ezekiel xx. that the Hebrews to a considerable extent served the gods of Egypt, and lapsed from the purity of the Egyptian patriarchal faith. Again and again, in their wilderness-sojourn iaflueaces. and in later times, are Egyptian lapses, Egyptian longings made a subject of reproach to them. Accustomed to the worship of the black calf at the Temple of the Sun in On (Heliopolis), and to that of other idols and deified animals, not all the sanction of the Second Commandment nor all the influ- ence of their loftiest leaders could keep them from frequent outbreaks of worship more or less idolatrous ; and the symbolism of the Ark of the Cove- nant, borrowed very closely from Egyptian models, was required to give 596 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. them a centre for their adoration, to satisfy the cravings excited by their Egyptian experiences. On the other hand, the absolute power of the king, and the divine worship which was paid to him, may surely be credited with some part in that reaction which kept the Israelites, though numerous and powerful, so long without a king. Having suffered the extremes of pain and misery at the hands of a god-king, they can scarcely brook for the length of a short war the absolute rule of a military leader ; and when at length they submitted to a king, the}' were far from worshipping him. Again, the education of Moses, as a priest, " in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," in itself implies a mighty Egyptian influence upon the Israel- Education ites. The foremost intellectual man among them found his force of Moses, tenfold intensified by his culture. We can imagine him keenly surveying the varied observances and criticising the lore of the initiated priests of Egypt, and selecting from them those parts which seemed condu- cive to the welfare of the people, and waiting his time to adopt or enforce them in legislation. Their medical knowledge he absorbed and utilised largely in his domestic and sanitary regulations. And since he had no king in his scheme, his priestly class had the more opportunity of enforcing his ordinances and of obtaining the means of support, since there was none of that heavy levy of taxes and forced labour which made life a burden in Egypt. Yet that Moses found much to object to, much to discard in Egyp- tian religion, is evident from the fewness, on the whole, of the points of agreement between it and the Jewish religion. But it was not only the education of Moses in the wisdom of the Egyptians, but also his long isolation and solitary thought in Miclian, after his relinquishment of all his Egyptian privileges, that must have residence matured his intellect and developed his moral courage. It was not m Midian. an ■tlnprepareci sonl that received the heavenly mission to redeem his people, yet it was one schooled to modest self-depreciation, and capable of a forcible estimate of the difficulties in his way. We need only imagine these latter, to realise how strong must have been the evidence and conviction upon which Moses took up his mission ; and it is only natural that this should The Divine De accompanied by a deeper insight into the Divine nature which commission. could carry him through countless dangers and human impossi- bilities. The expression, " I am that I am," otherwise rendered, " I am because I am," " I am Who am," " I will be that I will be," gives a view of the Self-existence, the Uncaused Nature of the Supreme Being, which no previous statement about the Divine nature had done ; and whatever view be taken of the miraculous, it is at least certain that the Jews profoundly believed in the miraculous signs granted to Moses in proof of his Divine mission, and in the miraculous nature of the plagues which afterwards came upon the Egyptians. The narrative of Moses's commission is the type of that conviction of Divine support and authorisation which most great reli- gious reformers have felt intensely. We pass over the actual Exodus as not directly concerned in our object, merely noting that the plagues of Egypt need not be deemed the less im- MOSES. 597 posing or effectual because they proceeded by means the most natural and the most appropriate in Egypt. The miraculous of one age may The plagues appear the natural to another age, which may possibly discern of Eswt- orderly causes for that which formerly terrified a people or authenticated a mission. To many who view all events, all causes as equally the work of I'HE 1ASSOVER IN EGTPT. the Supreme Being, it is nowadays comparatively unimportant to attempt to closely distinguish between miraculous and non-miraculous, supernatural and natural ; but that in past times enormous effects were produced 1 >y events deemed miraculous, superhuman, supernatural, cannot in the least be doubted ; and that many such events occurred, striking terror or producing 598 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. conviction, convincing the senses or the mind in ways not to be upset, is equally certain. Thus, even though the crossing of the Red Sea has re- Passage centty been explained in a most plausible manner as a thoroughly of the natural occurrence, its effect in the great chain of events cul- F ed Sea • mmatmg in the destruction of the Egyptian army, was not the less striking in fact, and was handed down as a miraculous interposition of Jehovah. And without taking up any dogmatic position, we may be per- mitted to say, that for human beings, with all their imperfections of power and discernment, to deny that u miracles " have occurred, or the possibility of miracles, is to take up a position of superiority in relation to natural phenomena and causation, and of over-confidence in present knowledge, which is little warranted by past experience of changes of thought and knowledge. Apart from the customs or systems which welded the Israelites into a nation, we have to seek the most important religious phenomena in the history of Moses. The first place undoubtedly belongs to the Decalogue, The and its promulgation and enforcement as a direct Divine revela- Decaiogue. i[01lt Moses gave the Israelites a series of positive precepts, the " Ten Words," which have kept their place at the head of legislation, and have influenced a large part of the world's population. They have been re- cognised as right by the higher conscience of the most diverse peoples, and including as they do the monotheistic doctrine which had previously been known, they constitute the greatest contribution to practical morality, apart from Christianity. Perhaps in their original form the longer command- ments did not contain the explanatory clauses, as is indicated by divergences in the versions we have ; but we still to a large extent fall behind the theology and the morality they enshrine, and thus we are still living in the period of the Decalogue. Till monotheism is universal, the first commandment has its mission ; till images and representations which may be worshipped cease to be bowed down to or worshipped, the non-Christian world falls below the Mosaic standard, and such Christian Churches as permit this are behind the Jews ; till irreverent or blasphemous employment of the Divine name is no more heard, the third commandment speaks unavailingly to deaf ears. The fourth commandment, like the second, has been exchanged more or less by Christian Churches for another, and is but rarely observed as the Mosaic code intended. The fifth commandment might have been given to the Chinese, for they observed it long before Moses gave it ; but its spirit is not quite in keeping with modern democracy, which reads-it with qualifications. The precepts of social morality which follow might be justly alleged as con- demning vast numbers of professing Christians and Christian States ; and breaches of them have too often been condoned by Jesuits and others who consider that the end justifies the means ; but no man can truly say that the Decalogue is outworn or dethroned. The progress of mankind since its promulgation has been towards its realisation, especially as interpreted by the simpler and wider commands of Jesus. Simple, pure worship of one God, family order, justice and sslf-restraint between man and man, with MOSES. 599 a weekly rest-day, are the elements powerfully set forth in the Decalogue, which, from the human point of view, forms a work of genius of the highest order. Because of beliefs in the Divine truth and communication of the precepts, the merit of Moses, viewed as a man, must not be lessened ; the Divine message or inspiration came to him, and he did not reject it, but boldly promulgated it in the most powerful way possible to him. His genius as a legislator must be based on the Ten Commandments, as well ;is on his other achievements; if we regard him as a mere channel fur Divine communications, he becomes no more than a medium. It may be noted that the Commandments do not in any way favour breaches of morality towards persons of other tribes, which were so common among early peoples. On the other hand, polygamy is not forbidden. The reason for the institution of the Sabbath is, in one place, the Creator's rest on the seventh day, and in another, "that thy manservant and thy maid- servant may rest as well as thou." The deliverance of Israel from Egyptian servitude is further given as an incentive to keep the Sabbath. Without attempting a complete characterisation of Moses, we ma}7 assign to him a position, as a religious leader and originator, above that of any man we have previously described. He practically created a nation out of an en- slaved people, and he did it not merely by adequate government, a task which he found difficult enough many times in his career, but most of all character by the elevated conception of the Divine nature which he pro- of Moses- mulgated, and his strong faith in his Divine mission and in the personal guidance and direction which he received from God. From him was de- rived, in its essence at least, that sublime conception of a people ruled directly by God, which in its developed form constitutes the grandest ideal of human life ; for what conception can be more perfect than that of a race knowing the laws of its Creator and voluntarily obeying them ? As an example of triumph over natural infirmity — timidity, unreadi- ness, want of eloquence, hesitation — Moses is not less conspicuous than as a man of true self-effacement, only brought to act prominently and indi- vidually by Divine impulse and command. With all that has been said as to the genius of Moses, we must couple the narratives of Divine His Divine visions and communications to him, which no one is entitled to visions, summarily reject as fabrications. Doubt is of course justifiable wherever narratives can be proved to have been written long after the events de- scribed; and here is the crucial point of criticism. It may be pointed out, as regards visions and other communications, that almost all great teachers and spiritual reformers have had them, and in circumstances which throw no doubt upon their veracity and their belief in their reality. Of all men up to his time Moses may be regarded as the man who came into closest relation with the Divine ; and if this be granted, modes of appearance, whether subjective or objective, are less important than the truths Revelations revealed. Who, for instance, that feels the higher truths can to Moses, fail to appreciate the teaching, " Thou canst not see My face ; for there shall no man see M}T face and live," or the inspiration which gives rise to the 600 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. magnificent declaration of Exodus xxxiv. 6, 7, respecting the Name, the Essential Essence of Jehovah, ': merciful and gracious, long-suffering, abun- dant in goodness and truth, forgiving iniquity, transgression, and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty." Contemplating the descriptions of such revelations, we cannot wonder at the consensus of earnest theologians longing to be " with Moses on the mount." What, then, are we to think of the remarkable absence of direct teaching by Moses on the subject of immortality and a future state of rewards and Absence of punishments? This has been a subject of abundant discussion ^future*0 anc^ speculation. Are we to consider that because the Egyptians state. held strongly the belief in immortality, and detailed the stages of the future state, therefore Moses must be understood as consenting to their beliefs, and tacitly assuming them ? Or are we to regard him as to some extent a sceptic on that question ? The inference has been drawn from the frequent use of the phrases, " went to his fathers," " was gathered to his people," etc., that they imply a belief in the continued existence of the fathers, and this does not seem an unreasonable supposition ; but its precise value cannot be ascertained. It is probable that the Israelites, surrounded and influenced by nations who believed in a future state, did not dissent from the prevailing view, or else we should have had it markedly expressed. But Moses was concerned especially to exalt the view of Jehovah as a per- sonal Guide and Ruler in this life ; and this may be the reason why the future was not dwelt upon, though it would be too much to deny positively that it is implied in numerous phrases. As a prophet, Moses's position is assured by the numerous Divine reve- lations he was commissioned to make, by his authorship — more or less — ot sacred books, by his Law, and by his addresses, which, if authentic, often Moses as refer to what will come to pass in a future time in the land of a prophet. Canaan. We may wonder that Moses was never deified by his countrymen ; this fact in itself proves that his teaching about the one God, and the mode in which He must be served, had a powerful effect, and pre- vented the tendencies that were so strong in Egypt from having their natural effect in relation to him. If we cannot adopt Josephus's statement that " He wrote the account of his own death in the sacred books, fearing lest he should be deified," we must at least allow that he was the most remarkable teacher who has not been worshipped by his followers as a god or a demi-god. That Moses worked miracles is assuredly claimed by the narrative ; and those who disbelieve it have a very heavy task in explaining the whole of the events in a non-miraculous sense. [Among works of importance on this subject are Ewald's "History and Antiquities of Israel," Stanley's " Lectures on the Jewish Church," and the various Commentaries and Bible Dictionaries ; Robertson Smith's "Old Testament in the Jewish Church," and the articles " Pentateuch " and " Israel " in the Encyclopedia Britannica, ninth edition.] ALTARS IN HIGH PLACES. CHAPTER II. €l)t Sfftofef) Religion: ^Legislation, jfesstibate, iWorals* Altars and offerings— The Ark of the Covenant— The Tabernacle— Development of the Law— Modern criticism— Various offerings— The trespass offering— The Day of Atonement— The scapegoat— Meaning of Day of Atonement— The Shechinah— The Sahbath— Origin of the Synagogue— Officials of Synagogue — Order of service — The seventh month— The Sabbatic year— The year of Jubilee— The Passover — Passover in later times— Pentecost— Feast of Tabernacles— Feast of Trumpets- Prayer and forms of worship — Vows— Fasting— Nazarites and Rechabites— Consecration of the whole people to Jehovah — Clean and unclean animals— Means of purification— Burial— Marriage limits— Nature the property of Jehovah— Blood-revenge— Cities of refuge— "An eye for an eye" —Usury— Slaves— Treatment of strangers— Parents and children— Wives and concubines- General moral condition of Israel. ONE conspicuous peculiarity of Moses's earlier religious teaching is, that religion is not made to consist in so many offerings, in formal cere- monies, but in simple worship and reverence to God, and obedience to moral precepts. Yet, to satisfy the spirit of worship, altars of earth or Altars and of unhewn stone were allowed, for burnt offerings and peace offerin&s- offerings. The phrase in Exodus xxii. 29, " the firstborn of thy sons shalt thou give unto Me," is understood by some as indicating that human sacri- fices were still allowed to exist, while the majority interpret it as meaning simply a dedication to Jehovah, to be redeemed by an offering ; in this way Moses may be considered as adopting current forms, and giving to them a pure character. It is impossible here to discuss the complex questions which arise through all attempts, such as those of Ivuenen, to trace the Jewish religion cm 6o2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. as a growth through centuries, and to assign to their respective periods beliefs and observances which are considered not to have their origin from Moses. In any case the institution of the Ark of the Covenant as well as the Tabernacle must be referred to Moses, with the foundation of the priestty code, and of the laAvs of ceremonial and of practical conduct. The Ark of the Covenant, which had a marked resemblance to arks carried in Eg37ptian religious processions, was an oblong chest of acacia- The Ark of wood, nearly four feet long, by two and a half broad and deep, the covenant, j^ was overlaid with gold both inside and outside, and on its lid was the mercy-seat, or place of Divine communication to Moses, and to the high priest after him. At each end was a golden figure termed a cherub, a compound creature-form with wings extended upwards and faces directed " towards one another, and towards the mercy-seat " ; and here ends our knowledge of the nature of this symbol. Whether it had any relation to any one of the numerous symbolic animal-figures of the other Semitic peoples and the Egyptians we cannot tell. The importance of the ark lay in two features : one, that it contained the two tables of stone on which Moses had written the Ten "Words ; the other was expressed in relation to the region above the mercy-seat, that there Jehovah would meet with Moses, and commune with him. The ark was provided with rings at the corners, through which were passed staves of acacia-wood overlaid with gold, by which certain Levites carried it when it was moved from place to place. Thus the Israelites were furnished with a symbol of the Divine presence, satisfying that demand of human nature which has been exemplified in so many nations and ages, yet never seen except by the high priest. This ark formed the central or most important object in the Tabernacle, which was erected as the representative of a temple. It was forty-five feet The long by fifteen broad, open at the end intended to be pitched Tabernacle. eastWard as if towards the rising sun, and divided into two parts, the inner or Holy of Holies into which the priest alone entered rarely, divided by pillars and curtains from the larger Holy Place, containing a golden candlestick with seven branches, a small lamp being placed on the end of each, an altar for the burning of incense, and a table overlaid with gold, on which twelve newly-baked loaves were placed every Sabbath, sprinkled with incense, remaining till the following Sabbath, when they were eaten by the priests in the Holy Place. Whether it was thus offered weekly as a symbol of the derivation of bodily nourishment from God, or whether it had other meanings, is undecided. The strict meaning of shewbread is " bread of the faces," and the table is called the " table of the faces." Out- side the tabernacle proper was a great oblong court enclosed by screens, in the western half of which was the tabernacle, while in the eastern half was the altar of acacia-wood, overlaid with brass, for burnt offerings, furnished with pans and other utensils, and having four projections or horns at the corners ; and between this and the tabernacle was a laver, a vessel in which the priests washed their hands and feet before entering the tabernacle. Those critics who have separated the narratives in the Pentateuch into THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 60- component portions regard the tabernacle which Moses erected as a much simpler structure 1 Exodus xxxiii. 7-11) than the elaborate tabernacle de- scribed, as they assert, by the priestly narrator after the exile of the Jews. They claim also that it was devised as a means of giving an ancient sanc- tion^to'the elaborate ritual of the second temple. According to this view, the simple form of tabernacle continued in use during the migrations of the ark until the building of Solomon's temple ; but there is no proof of this. 6o4 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Without attempting to determine, where the most learned disagree, the precise steps by which the Mosaic code of laws grew to its full development, Development we may yet note the very general agreement or admission that it of the Law. c]^ actually develop, even in the view of the narrative as it stands, and that there is a great difference between its presentation in the book of Deuteronomy and in previous books. Again and again we learn how certain regulations originated from particular occasions. While there are various discrepancies between Deuteronomy and the earlier books, as well as important additions in the former — especially noteworthy being the command to worship God and make all offerings at one particular place — there are numerous references to Egypt and Egyptian customs which Moses would be the most competent and likely to make, and we have direct asser- tions that Moses wrote it. Yet there is no reference to the Book of the Law in the books of Judges and Samuel. In the books of the Kings it comes into prominence, and is very plainly described in Ezra and Nehemiah. The difference of style between Deuteronomy and other parts of the Pentateuch is a difficulty for those who regard all as the work of Moses ; but it is not insuperable if a thorough revision and incorporation of other traditions by a writer in the times of the Kings or of Ezra be allowed. From the time of Ezra, undoubtedly, the Jews possessed the complete Pentateuch very much as we have it, and they believed that it had existed Modem from the first in that form. But it is held by many modern criticism. writers that various records in the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, as well as in the Pentateuch itself, are incompatible with the complete early promulgation of the contents of the Pentateuch. The Israelites either disobeyed the extended law, or did not know of it. Especially was this the case in regard to the worship of Jehovah at local sanctuaries and high places, instead of at the one central place, the existence of images in the worship of Jehovah, and the admission of other gods as at least worthy of toleration, though secondary. That which defenders of the traditional view regard as simply the measure of the defection and degene- ration of the Israelites from the truth, modern critics regard as proving that the fully detailed law of the Pentateuch had not yet been promulgated, that not taking place till the times of Josiah and of Ezra. They in fact say that the Levitical Law continued the work of the earlier prophets, and was in large part unknown to the prophets. No doubt, they say, when made known to Ezra, it professed to be the Law of Moses ; but this is explained as referring to its embodying the kernel of Mosaic legislation, with old priestly decisions handed clown in their families, having been given cr arrived at as necessity arose.1 1 It will be convenient to give here sepcarately Prof. Eobertson Smith's grouping of the laws in the Pentateuch, in his " Old Testament in the Jewish Church." There is (1) Exod. xxi. to xxiii., directly connected with the revelation of the Ten Commandments, " containing a very simple system of civil and religious polity, adequate to the wants of a primitive agricultural people : " the title being, " These are the judgments which thou shalt set before them." (2) Deuteronomy : the laws proper, beginning at chap. xii. 1, " These are the statutes and judgments which ye shall observe to do," ending at xxvi. 19 ; COJ 606 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Coming now to the main features of tlio law as affecting religion and morals, burnt-offerings formed a prominent feature of the worship. Morning- various and evening a lamb was offered, with wine, oil, and flour ; and in offerings, addition males of the herds and flocks, or turtle doves or pigeons, were offered voluntarily as general atonements. The whole of these offer- this is described as an independent reproduction of the substance of (1), with extensions and modifications. (3) Tbe Levitical legislation, or priestly code, scattered through Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, but capable of removal without making the rest unintelligible. This includes the fully developed ritual for sanctuary, priesthood, sac- rifices, etc. " The form is historical, but the essential object is legal. The law takes the form of recorded precedent " in great part. This view assigns the first to Moses, with additions by priestly decisions ; the second (it is said) was first made known as the starting-point of Josiah's reformation, abolishing all local sanctuaries ; and this refor- mation and the authority gained by Deuteronomy were based on the teaching of Isaiah and other prophets who had so loudly called for religious reform and amendment. Prof. Robertson Smith and others see in Ezekiel's scheme of worship (ch. xl.-xlviii.) the basis on which the Levitical law was fully developed ; and this is alleged to be confirmed by Jeremiah, who knew no law of sacrifices. In Ezekiel's scheme the Levites, who had lent themselves to idolatrous practices, are lowered in functions. Regular sacrifices are provided for by the prince out of the fixed tribute received by him. The sin-offering and ritual of atonement are made prominent, the altar requiring to be purged with sin-offer- ings for seven consecutive days before burnt-offerings can be properly offered on it. Ezekiel also appoints two great atoning services yearly, at the beginning of the first and the seventh months, to purge the temple ; and this is alleged to be the first appearance, outside the Levitical code, of anything corresponding to the great Day of Atonement, and Ezekiel's service falls short of its solemnities. This is regarded as a first sketch of the priestly Torah or law, resting on old priestly usage, and reshaped so as to bring it into conformity with the ideas of the holiness of Jehovah expressed by the earlier prophets and by Deuteronomy. "In proportion as the whole theory of worship is remodelled and reduced to rule on the scheme of an exclusive sanctity, which presents, so to speak, an armed front to every abomination of impure heathenism, the ritual becomes abstract, and the services remote from ordinary life. In the old worship all was spontaneous. To worship God was a holiday, an occasion of feasting. Religion, in its sacrificial form, was a part of common life, which no one deemed it necessary to reduce to rule. Even in Deuteronomy this view predominates. The sacrificial feasts are still the consecration of natural occasions of joy : men eat, drink, and make merry before God. The sense of God's favour, not the sense of sin, is what rules at the sanctuary. But the unification of the sanctuary already tended to break up this old type of religion. Worship ceased to be an everyday thing, and so it ceased to be the expression of everyday religion. In Ezekiel this change has produced its natural result in a change of the whole standpoint from which he views the service of the Temple. . . . The individual Israelite, who, in the old law, stood at the altar himself, and brought his own victim, is now separated from it, not only by the double cordon of priests and Levites, but by the fact that his personal offering is thrown into the background by the stated national sacrifice. ... In Ezekiel, and still more in the Levitical legislation, the element of atonement takes a foremost place. The sense of sin had grown deeper under the teaching of the prophets ; and amidst the proofs of Jehovah's anger that darkened the last days of the Jewish State, sin and forgiveness were the main themes of prophetic discourse. . . . Now, more than in any former time, the first point in acceptance was felt to be the forgiveness of sin ; and the weightiest element in the ritual was that which symbolised the atonement, or ' wiping out,' of iniquity. The details of this symbolism cannot occupy us here. It is enough to indicate in one word that the ritual of atoning sacrifice was so shaped by Divine wisdom that it supplied to the New Testament a basis intelligible to the Hebrew believers for the explanation of the atoning work of Christ. Not, indeed, that the blood of bulls and goats ever took away sin. The true basis of forgiveness, in the Old Testament as in the New, lies, not in man's offering, but in a work of sovereign love. It is Jehovah, for His own Name's sake, who blots out Israel's transgressions, and will not remember his sin. But the atoning ritual ever held befoi-e the people's eyes the mysterious connection of forgiving love with awful justice, and pointed by its very inadequacy to the need for a better atonement of Jehovah's own providing."— Old Testament in the Jewish, Church, pp. 079-382. THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 607 ings was burnt, and the fire on the altar was n< ver to go out. Next in order among usual offerings was the meat-offering, meat referring here to natural produce of the earth, such as unleavened flour, or cakes, oil and frankincense, of which only part was burnt, the rest being given to the priests. The next and less frequent offering was termed a peace-offerin • i i- xi Day of confession of sin, atonement, and purification before J ehovah ; and the high-priest, as representing the nation, makes atonement, and purifies the sanctuary and the people. The offering of goats and other animal offerings is probably connected historically, though perhaps uncon- sciously, with the offering of human sacrifices by nations around, and with Abraham's offering of Isaac, and with the idea of substitution of animals for human victims. In any case, such is the natural interpretation of the laying of the hands on the head of the victim while making confession. But we cannot yet, with certainty, explain why there were two goats, and the sending forth of one into the wilderness ; for it, like the other, formed part of the sin-offering to Jehovah. Many consider that it was sent into the wilderness to signify the carrying of the sins of the people out of the presence of Jehovah. In any case, we may find in the ceremonies of the Day of Atonement the most impressive of the many solemnities we have hitherto surveyed. Here we may fittingly refer to those visible manifestations in which Jehovah is recorded to have appeared to His people or His priests, often The referred to by the name Shechinah (majesty or presence of God), snechinah. wbicb word, however, is not found in Scripture, and is first found in the Targums, or Jewish Commentaries. It expresses the visible presence of God as dwelling among His people, said to be lacking in Zerubbabel's temple, while pertaining to that of Solomon, and to the tabernacle. The appearance was described as a brilliant light enveloped in a cloud, which alone was for the most part visible. The " glory of the Lord" is stated to have rested upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six clays ; and on the seventh day, " the sight of the glory of the Lord was like devouring fire on the top of the mount in the eyes of the children of Israel." When the tabernacle was finished, a cloud covered it, and the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle, so that Moses was not able to enter it. On occasions when he did enter it, the cloud descended to the door of the tabernacle, and " the Lord spake unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh to his friend." In Numbers vii. 89 we read that " when Moses went into the tent of meet- ing to speak with Him, then he heard the Voice speaking to him from above the mercy-seat." THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 609 After the Day of Atonement, the two most peculiar observances of the Israelites were the weekly Sabbath and the annual Passover. The The Sabbath was no doubt related to a very general Oriental practice, Sabbath- as old as Vedism and Zoroastrianism, and very early in use among the Semites, of arranging their religious festivals or meetings in accordance with the four quarters of the moon. Abstinence from work was its chief characteristic among the early Israelites. This became a grievous burden ; no fire might be lighted on the Sabbath, and it is related that a man was R R 610 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. once stoned to death for gathering sticks on that day. Although, in the writings of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Nehemiah, we read of various infractions of the Sabbath having become frequent, the general practice of the Jews was to obey the law strictly; and in the time of Mattathias (b.c. 168), even fighting in self-defence was abstained from, with disastrous results, until he asserted its lawfulness. The minuteness with which the Pharisees and the Rabbinical schools regulated Sabbath observances in the time of Christ is well known, as well as the resistance which lie offered to this. Conse- quently, it is not surprising to find that no regulations for its observance were given in the writings of the apostles, and that Sabbath-breaking is never denounced by them. The orthodox Jews still maintain the Sabbath of the seventh day, beginning on Friday at sunset and ending with the next sunset. Regular Sabbath services, such as those of the synagogue, did not arise in Mosaic times, nor indeed till after the return of the Jews from Babylon. The morning and evening sacrifices by the priests were doubled on the Sabbath, and there are grounds for believing that the well-to-do feasted on sacrificial meat on that day. In Isaiah lviii. 13, 14, it is indicated that the Sabbath should be called a delight, and should be honoured by " not doing thine own ways, nor finding thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine own words." The synagogue services may well have arisen as an elevating influ- ence, in reaction from the debased character of the meetings and local ob- , servances at a distance from the great religious centre, of which the magnifi- cent ephod made by Gideon, the graven and the molten images and the teraphim of Micah, were some of the apparatus, while groves and high- places were some of the scenes. Although the prophets and prophetical Origin of the schools appear to have met for sacrifice and praise on fixed days, synagogue, ^ js probable that the Babylonish captivity, with its isolation emphasising the need of frequent meetings for mutual comfort and worship, witnessed the true origin of synagogue worship, which after the return played an important part in preserving the Jews as a peculiar people. After the Maccabsean uprising, the establishment of local synagogues spread, until almost every town had one or more synagogues. Inasmuch as it was apart from the temple service, and did not essentially depend on the priests, the synagogue tended to establish a freer atmosphere of study and criticism, and it is significant that the first teaching of Jesus took place in country synagogues, where He met with far less opposition than He immediately received when He taught in the Temple precincts. The synagogue, of varying size, stood if possible on the highest ground in or near the town, and was so arranged that worshippers on entering, and in prayer, faced towards Jerusalem. At its Jerusalem end was placed an ark or chest containing the roll of the Law of Moses, and near this were the chief seats, for which the scribes and Pharisees competed. A lamp per- petually burned near it, while other lamps were brought by worshippers for the Sabbath ; the special seven-branched candlestick was only lighted up on the great festivals. Near the middle of the building was a platform, on THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 6n the middle of which stood a pulpit. The mass of the people sat, according to sexes, on either side of a low partition. The officials of the synagogues were an elder, or rabbi, or a chapter of rabbis (rulers of the synagogue), presided over by a chief rabbi ; these could excommunicate, or " put out of the synagogue," any who were officials of held to have broken the law, and not purged their offences. ByQaeogue. There was usually a chief reader of prayers and of the law, who was not engaged in business, and was chosen by the congregation, and set apart by the imposition of hands. Each synagogue also had a body of ten men, making up a legal congregation, and attending all the services. The Law of Moses was read in the synagogues on every Sabbath morn- ing in regular order, so as to be gone through once a year ; the Prophetical books were read as a second lesson in like manner. Afterwards order of came an exposition, or sermon, drawn from one of the lessons, service- delivered by one of the rulers, or a person appointed or allowed by them. Prayer preceded and benediction concluded the service. This was the principal service. On the Sabbath afternoon, and also on Mondays and Thursdays, there was a reading of the Law, and services were of course held on festivals. The Jewish Sabbath was the basis of a series of observances in which the number seven was predominant. Every seventh month, the seventh year, and the forty-ninth or fiftieth (the jubilee year), were speci- The seventh ally sacred. The seventh month opened with the Feast of month- Trumpets, when offerings were doubled, and trumpets were blown through- out the day, instead of merely at the time of sacrifice. This month was further notable for containing the Day of Atonement, and the joyful Feast of Tabernacles. In the seventh, or Sabbatic year, the land was to lie fallow, " that the poor of thy people may eat ; and what they leave the The sabbatic beasts of the field shall eat." The spontaneous produce of the year# fields was to be for the poor, strangers, and cattle. In Deuteronomy xv. the Sabbatic year is also a year for the release of debts ; but it is not certain that they were abolished, and they may have been merely postponed. Many think the Sabbatic year was only enjoined to be observed the seventh year after the settlement of Canaan, and that it was rarely observed until after the Captivity. We may regard this law as intended to signify an acknowledgment of the Divine ownership of the land. The year of jubilee was an extra Sabbatical year, announced on the Day of Atonement by the blowing of trumpets throughout the land. The word " jubilee " either means the trumpet itself, or the sound it The year of produced. Every Israelite was to recover the land originally JubUee- assigned to his family, however it might have been alienated. The soil was to lie fallow during the year, and only the natural growth was to be gathered. The law of freedom extended also to servitude ; all Israelites who had become bondmen recovered their freedom. Houses in the open country followed the law about land, while those in walled cities were not affected by it. Undoubtedly this legislation had a strong tendency to pre- 6i2 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. vent the accumulation of great wealth in the hands of a few, and was an additional feature distinguishing the Israelites from surrounding nations. "We have no knowledge as to how far the Sabbatic and Jubilee years were observed. Next to the Sabbath the most enduring Jewish observance is the Passover, and the Easter festival in which it is represented by Christians. The Thus the Exodus from Egypt is linked with an annual world- Passover. ^[fte festival of Christianity. It combined the significations of a harvest thanksgiving and an anniversary of the escape from Egypt ; and some critics think the latter association was later than the other. To detail all particulars connected with it would be too lengthy ; but the narrative of the Exodus lays stress on the eating of unleavened bread, because of the hurry of departure from Egypt not allowing time for the slow-working leaven to be used, on the killing of a lamb or kid without blemish, the sprinkling of the side-posts and the lintel of the house door with the animal's blood, its being roasted whole, and on keeping the bones unbroken. The haste of the meal, the preparations for a journey, the staff in the hand, are all graphically described ; and in memory of this, and the death of the firstborn of Egypt, all male firstborn were consecrated to God, the animals to be sacrificed, the sons to be redeemed. In later directions for the observation of this festival we find that the offering of the Omer, or first sheaf of wheat harvest, a seven days' eating of unleavened bread, and a series of expensive sacrifices of bullocks, rams, lambs, etc., were ordained. Also the sacrifice of the Passover was to be made only at the national sanctuary. This latter regulation is regarded by those who argue for the late origin of Deuteronomy and of the priestly code as having only arisen when Israel was united under the kings, and when a centralisation took place of all great acts of worship at Jerusalem. The later Israelitish observation of the Passover began on the 14th of Nisan (part of March and April), when all leaven was put away from dwell- Passoverin ings, and every male Israelite repaired to Jerusalem, taking an later times, offering of money in proportion to his means. As the sun set, the lambs offered were slain, and the fat and blood given to the priests ; the animals were then roasted and eaten whole, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs (endive, chicory, wild lettuce, or nettles), no portion being left till the morning. On the 15th was a holy assembly, and no work might be done. On this and the following days additional animals were sacrificed, but it is probable that these were omitted in later times. On the 16th the first sheaf was waved by the priest before Jehovah, and the festival ended with a solemn assembly on the 21st. We do not know when the drinking of wine at the Passover meal was introduced ; but it became the custom to provide at least four cups of wine, mostly red, to be drunk with water, the cups being passed round at certain intervals. Another addition to the early forms was the singing of a series of psalms of praise, known as the Hallel (a shortened form of Hallelujah) ; Psalms cxiii. and cxiv. were THE JEWISH RELIGION: FESTIVALS, ETC. 613 sung early in the meal, and Psalms cxv. to cxviii. after the fourth cup had been passed round. The next great festival, following the Passover after an interval of seven weeks from the second day, was that generally known as Pentecost, but also as the Feast of Weeks, or of the First Fruits. This period of seven Psntpcosfc weeks included the whole of harvest time, from the beginning of barley-harvest to the complete ingathering of the wheat. At this feast, in addition to the regular sacrifices, two loaves of leavened bread made from the new wheat were to be waved before Jehovah by the priests, who after- wards ate them. At the same time seven lambs, a bullock, and two rams, and other offerings were to be sacrificed. This was a more joyful celebration than the Passover, and special directions were given that the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow should share in it. The principal autumn festival was the Feast of Tabernacles or of In- gathering, when the whole of the crops of the year had been gathered in. It lasted seven days, followed by a special day of assembly and Feast of sacrifice, sometimes called an eighth day. During the seven da}rs Tabernacles, the people were commanded to live temporarily in booths, which were made of the branches of olive, palm, pine, and other trees- with thick foliage. In Jerusalem these booths were built on the flat roofs of the houses, in their courts, in the court of the Temple, and in the principal streets. Specially- numerous animal sacrifices were offered throughout the week, including seventy bullocks, in addition to private offerings, so that more animals were slain at this period than at any other. On the eighth morning the booths were dismantled, and the people returned to their houses. The booths may be regarded as a standing memorial of the Israelites' former nomadic life. We must not omit to mention that the spring festival or Passover, Pentecost, and Feast of Tabernacles were the three great national festivals at which every male Israelite in later times- was bound to go up to Jeru- salem, in earlier times to the place where the tabernacle was pitched. This regular resort to a common centre must have had a powerful influence in uniting the people. Thus we see the rise of one of the great systems of religious pilgrimage still so powerful among the Hindus, Mahometans, and Roman Catholics. It remains to mention the Feast of Trumpets, which took place on the day of the new moon which preceded by ten days the Day of Atonement. It was one of the seven days of special holy assembly and sacri- Feast of fice ; on it trumpets were blown all day. Possibly it was in- TrumPets- tended to prepare the people for the solemnities of the Day of Atonement ; but it was clearly a sort of New Year's Day, introducing the seventh or Sabbatical month of the Jewish calendar. To complete here the account of forms of worship, no form of prayer was enjoined by the Mosaic code, and it is from later history Prayer and that we derive the most emphatic testimony to the habit of forms of prayer among the Israelites ; and it is extremely improbable, seeing the abundance of prayers in the Egyptian and Semitic religions, that 6 14 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. there was any lack of them in early Mosaic times. The beautiful bene- diction of Numbers vi. 24-26 — " Jehovah bless thee and keep thee ; Jehovah make His face shine upon thee, and be gracious to thee ; Jehovah lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace " — is a very early example of the form of liturgy which arose to such high development in the Book of Psalms, in which are included prayers, praise, confessions, triumphal songs, and formal recitals, traversing the whole field of human experience, often in the loftiest strain of poetry. But in their great days the Jewish people were not given to the vain repetitions of prayers and sacred phrases which afterwards became baneful. A form for use when offering first fruits is given in Deuteronomy xxvi. 5-10, 13-15. Probably prayer was offered after every sacrifice. In later Jewish times individuals appear to have gone up regularly to the Temple to pray, and when away from Jeru- salem they prayed with their windows open towards Jerusalem. Numerous remarkable and well-known prayers, both on public and private occasions, are recorded in the Old Testament, among which we may note the prayer of Solomon at the Dedication of the Temple, and that of the priests, in the second Temple, in Nehemiah's time. Apart from the regular offerings, the consecration of persons and things to Jehovah, and the making and fulfilment of vows, entered largely into the Jewish religion. Ewald (" Antiquities of Israel ") thus describes the making of vows : " In order to obtain from God some good thing, the want of which he felt with painful keenness, a man desired to give up on his part something dear to himself ; but because his own weakness made him despair of being able to make this sacrifice, or at least because it could not be made immediately, he bound himself through an oath to God, spoken out clearly and with the utmost seriousness, that he would fulfil it. This naturally inspired him with a strength which had previously failed him, and which, perhaps, without this spasmodic flight, he would never have possessed." The occurrence of extraordinary emergencies sometimes, as in other religions, inspired the most tremendous vows — such as the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter — which were fulfilled ; but the Law allowed of the annulling of some vows, such as those of a wife or unmarried daughter by the head of the family, and the redemption of others by a valuable offering, according to a scale carefully drawn up. The last degeneration of such a practice was seen in the corban custom at the time of Christ, when a man might prevent himself from giving to another, or even to his parent's utmost need,, by vowing his property to God, even without actually resigning its possession and enjoyment. In prohibiting all mutilations or tortures of the human body, excepting that which constituted the rite of circumcision so largely in vogue in South- western Asia and Egypt, the Jewish religion was left with mS' fasting, as an important means of self-discipline in addition to vows and offerings. Fasting, individual and national, figured considerably in their system. The annual fast on the Day of Atonement showed the recognition granted to it, and it was often resorted to in times of national THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 615 d auger or misfortune. Another form of self-discipline was found in the offering of the hair and abstinence from wine ; and the period of thirty days' abstinence, during attendance at the sanctuary, became specially commendable. Groups of persons who took certain religious Nazaritea vows were formed from time to time, such as the Rechabites and and the Nazarites (more correctly Nazirites), the latter of whom Rechabltes- consecrated their bodies and all their powers to Jehovah for a limited time or for life. "Wine and even grapes were forbidden to them ; no change in their body was allowable, even the hair might not be cut ; dead bodies must not be approached. At the end of the period of the vow, special offerings were made in the Temple. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist appear to have all been Nazarites for life. How far the Jewish religion was from the other religions we have described can partially be judged by comparing them in detail, though our brief survey leaves many topics unnoticed. The deification of heroes or priests, the worship of relics, monasticism, the worship of ancestors, wizardry, and magic, found no home in the Jewish system. And consecration perhaps that which prevented these from arising, and which °peopi!^ole elevated the nation most in the religious scale, was the declaration Jehovah, and the constant inward sense that the nation and its individuals were holy, consecrated to Jehovah, and must therefore be kept pure from all inward and outward defilement, and when defiled in any way must be purified by appropriate submission, repentance, and offerings. The people are declared in Deuteronomy to be the children of Jehovah ; and the dedication of the first-born children and the offerings of firstlings and first-fruits kept in memory and expressed gratitude for the deliverances which Jehovah had wrought for them. Special kinds of food, special laws of purification, and other peculiar personal regulations were devised to strengthen the feeling of separation from other nations, and of exceptional elevation as the children of Jehovah. The Jewish religion had as its birthright the revelation, in a degree far above that which others had attained, " Holy shall ye be, for holy am I." Not a human ideal, but a Divine example was the standard set before the nation. Thus the nation became a household united by one thought, one worship, and thus it at- tained a strength which long protected its feebleness. Rejecting an earthly sovereign, the ideal of Jehovah as Sovereign was raised above the nation ; and laws had so much the more the sanction of public opinion, as they were believed to come direct from God, and to be enforced by temporal punishments and calamities, apart from the decreed penalties by which alone pardon and restoration could be obtained by offenders. And, on the other hand, the laws were the more readily enforced, as it will be seen on close study that the majority of them had the soundest basis in natural laws, and others were at least in accordance with the best wisdom of the time, or represented substantial improvement on practices of the surround- ing nations. It may be astonishing at first sight to find that the Jewish law 6i6 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. regarded a large number of animals and natural conditions or & objects as Clean and unclean which we do not ; but in this it only fallowed the unclean instinct of many peoples and religions, whl^n find certain animals. 1 • • i •• repulsions inherent, and which create others s m virtue of some accidental conditions. Ruminant animals, finny fjmd scaly fish, and locusts were allowed to be eaten ; but the camel, ha?re, coney, and swine, and all the smaller land animals were forbidden. The mode of death, too, was important ; any mode which did not allow the t blood to be thoroughly drained from the flesh was forbidden, for the eating of blood, in which animal life was supposed especially to reside, w^as strictly tabooed. All dead animal matter made him who touched it* impure. The elaboration of the regulations about impurity and purification is too great for us to Means of deal with here ; but they had the object not only of making and purification, keeping the body of the servant ^ Jehovah clean and pure, but of guarding carefully the purity of tbie spirit, though, as we know, this object, to a very considerable extents was n°t attained. We may note among the means of purification, especially purified water, cedar-wood, threads of scarlet cloth, the leav<^s an(^ stalk of the hyssop, and a red heifer. One striking particular, *n which a difference from Egyptian practice was shown, was in the di^contmiiance of embalming the dead. Burial was performed at a dis^ance from human dwellings, and, as far as possible, in caves, natural o^ artificial. The impurity attaching Burial ^° enemies' possessions, fls usually polluted in some way by alien religions, was shown by the frequency with which they were entirely destroyed, instead °f being utilised as legitimate booty. Conversely, the touching of sacred objects after they were consecrated was an offence of the deepest dye, oft^u punished by death. It is worthy of remark that many of the Israelitish regulations showed a knowledge, or at least instinct, about the laws of health, which. "wOUld-h^ve done credit to many a nation presumedly much more advanced in civilisation. The relationships within which marriage was allowed were strictly limited ; and a man was forbidden to marry two sisters at the same . Marriage time, although a sentiment about the hereditary descent of limits, property made it a duty for a man's brothers in succession to marry his widow if he died childless. All unnatural lusts were most strictly forbidden and heavily punished ; and even the mixture of different seeds in sowing, and the union of wool and linen in the same garment, were unlawful. Through all the Jewish ideas of their relation to Nature we find ruling a belief that it belongs to God. Young fruit trees were not to be Nature the croPPed till three years had passed ; in the fourth year the fruit property of was offered to Jehovah, and only afterwards did it come into JgIioVcLIi use by man. The ox treading out the corn was not to be muzzled ; eggs or young birds were not to be taken from the nest while the mother was there ; domestic animals were to share the rest of the Sabbath ; and all this that it might be well with the people who belonged to the THE JEWISH RELIGION: LEGISLATION, ETC. 617 same God whose were the animal and the vegetable kingdoms. Thus we may understand the depth of the feeling which inspired in the 50th Psalm the lines (Perowne's translation) : — " Mine is every beast of the forest, The cattle upon the mountains by thousands. I know every bird of the mountains, And that which moveth in the field is with Me." The strength of that feeling in favour of the protection of human life which in so many nations and religions makes revenge of murder an absolute duty, was shown by the permission given to the heirs Biood- of a murdered man, and especially the next heir, the redeemer, revenge, to execute punishment upon him, though his guilt was first to be deter- mined by a regular investigation, two witnesses at least being required. Blood-money was not allowed to be accepted. When the murderer was unknown, a special mode of expiation was provided, so that the people of the neighbourhood might be cleared from Divine vengeance, cities of Unwitting manslaughter was only purged by fleeing to a refuee- sacred city of refuge, which he could not leave, or the avenger might slay him. So strongly was the right of blood-revenge maintained, that even King David could not prevent Joab from putting it in force without the sanction of any court. There is every reason to believe that the Jewish people were unstained by the practices of infanticide, which were so glaring an evil in many Oriental nations. Minor injuries were to be punished in kind — " eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for burning," etc. ; although later, when the offended person consented, they could be « An eye for expiated by money payments. Injuries received in a mutual an eye*" quarrel were satisfied by payment for loss of time. But the Jewish law took cognisance of offences which were followed by no physical injury. Slander, hatred, false witness, unequal honour to the rich, are unsparingly condemned ; and many positive precepts show the rise of kindly feelings, of compassion, of tolerance and kindliness towards strangers, as well as of true justice in word and deed, in generous fulness, among the Israelites. The precept, " Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man/' might have been written in China. The references to the year of jubilee will already have explained one feature of the law of property, which aimed at keeping the land in the hands of the same families permanently. The tendency of the Israelites to lend money for interest is strongly marked by the stringent prohibitions of usury which are found in the Law, and the Deuter- onomic acknowledgment that interest might be taken from strangers, though not from fellow-Israelites. Already in Exodus the practice of taking pledges for loans was in existence, and it became necessary to forbid keeping a man's outer garment (used as a bed-covering) beyond sunset. A widow's garment might not be taken, nor a handmill, and the creditor might not 6i8 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. enter the debtor's house to seize his goods. The service of the debtor who was unable to pay might be demanded, or that of his wife or child ; but such Hebrew bondslaves were to be released in the seventh year. Yet the slave could voluntarily renounce his freedom, at the cost of having his ear bored through with an awl against the door or door-post of the sanctuary. Slaves, while placed in a position much better than in other surrounding nations, in fact being treated much as hired servants, were yet somewhat strictly kept in servitude, and their emancipation only appears to have been customary in the year of jubilee. Female slaves also were treated as chattels with regard to marriage or concubinage. After the Babylonish captivity slavery went out of use among the Jews. The elevation of the Jewish religion above most others is shown in another particular — the treatment of strangers, other than fellow-country- Treatment of men. Strictly fair treatment of them is enjoined ; nay, in Levi- strangers. ticus we are told, " The stranger that sojourneth with you shall be unto you as the homeborn among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt." The widow and orphan, the poor and friendless, were to be kindly received and succoured, to whatever race they belonged, and they were to be made partakers in the joys of sacrifice to Jehovah. The relation of children to parents was originally one of as great sub- ordination as that of slave to master ; the duty of submission on the part of Parents and the child was regarded as so paramount that it received separate cMidren. mention in the Decalogue ; but this did not exclude, nay, it implied a tender regard for children which is exemplified in many Old Testament narratives. On the other hand, the disobedience of a child might be punished with any severity. Death was the punishment of a child that struck or cursed a parent, although in Deuteronomy this punishment might only be inflicted on a rebellious son after a hearing of the case before the elders of a city. Again, a child might be sold or given in pledge for a debt ; and in several instances a whole family was destroyed for the sin of the head. In Deuteronomy, however, we read that the children are not to be put to death for the sin of the fathers ; and this is interpreted by those who regard Deuteronomy as a late compilation, as indicating a gradual relaxa- tion of the severity of the early law. The marriage laws of the Israelites are on the whole so well known that no extended notice is needed ; but with marriage the husband gained wives and a powerful command over the wife, and she was often practically concubines, bought, and might be divorced with comparative ease. A husband who doubted his wife's fidelity might take her to the sanctuary and demand that the priest should subject her to an awe-inspiring trial by ordeal, giving her a peculiarly compounded drink, " the water of jealousy," which was expected to bring destruction upon a guilty woman. That women by no means occupied the degraded position assigned to them in many Oriental countries is evidenced by numerous instances of women being prophetesses, and even military leaders, and being greatly honoured even by 619 62o THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. the most renowned prophets. Marriage was viewed as an honourable estate ; children were a heritage from Jehovah. Violations of purity cannot have been common ; and a great distinction was thus maintained between the Jews and surrounding nations. Concubinage and double marriages were allowed ; but these were very different from the licentiousness of many Oriental States. The kings were commanded not to multiply their wives — a command which they evidently disregarded. In later Jewish times monogamy appears to have become customary, although divorce was much abused. Hebrew marriage was not connectel with any religious rite. That the moral condition of the Jews was high compared with most other nations is evident from comparing their histories. That they were General moral ^argely exempt from the vices which found a home with extreme condition of wealth is undoubted. That they owed much to the examples Israel . of their early leaders is equally true. But they owed more to the vivid conception and assimilation of the belief that they were Jehovah's chosen people, who must therefore be holy and pure, and must reject all the practices which His prophets denounced as displeasing to Him. No- where else have we found a nation inspired with the ideal of a Divine King, guiding every step and giving every victory. And although this ideal proved to be beyond their strength to realise fully, and they were not skilled enough in statecraft to frame a practicable republic, their ideal lived on even when they had set up an earthly kingdom, and bore especial fruit when an odious foreign domination controlled them. When most held in subjection, they turned their thoughts to a coming Deliverer, Divine yet human, who should release them from bondage and place them in triumph at the head of human affairs. even among orthodox divines, as to the interpretation tion of of many passages, showing that there is no theory of inspiration sufficiently agreed upon to settle all difficulties or to obviate the need of either ecclesiastical or private judgment. The most important question about the interpretation of the Psalms, is their reference to the Messiah expected by the Israelites, in the two characters of a victorious king and a suffering prophet. While there can be no doubt that in most cases there is a primary meaning of the Psalms, applicable to the writer or his subject, many divines point to the confessions of sin as excluding numerous Messianic so-called Messianic passages from having a Messianic reference, Psalms. ancj maintain that in others such references were not consciously in the mind of the writer, although they have a broad and grand fulfilment in the Person of Christ. All but a few critics agree that the Psalms in many places foreshadow or pre-typify Jesus. Dean Perowne observes : " Nowhere in the Psalms are the redemption of the world and Israel's final glory bound up with the coming of the Messiah. . . . The Advent to which Israel looks forward is the Advent of Jehovah. It is He who is Israel's true King. It is His coming which shall be her redemption and her glory." And Calvin, in commenting on the 72nd Psalm, says: "They who will have this to be simply a prediction of the Kingdom of Christ seem to twist the words very violently." x Apart from this, the Psalms are distinguished beyond all other sacred books by the directness of their appeal to God. No circumstance of life or Character- experience is regarded as hidden from the Supreme Being, or un- istics of suitable to be the subject of direct communion with Him. Fre- tne Psalms. qUent|y ]jfe -m ^e mi^st of trouble or on pinnacles of greatness is associated with God in such a way that the human and the Divine belong 1 "We may here give the Messianic foreshado wings from the Psalms given in the New Testament : xxii. 18 (John xiii. 18) ; xxxiv. 20 (John xix. 36) ; xli. 9 (John xiii. 18) ; lxix. 10 (Rom. xv. 3); lxix. 21 (John xix. 28). In addition, "In Ps. xxxv. 11 we have a foreshadowing of the false testimony against Jesus ; in Ps. xxii. 7, 8, lxix. 12, of the revilings ; in Ps. xxii. 16, of the piercing of the hands and feet ; in Ps. lxix. 21, of the offering of the gall and vinegar" (Cheyne). THE HEBREW J'SALMS. 629 to one cycle of being, inseparably related. The views of the Divine great- ness and majesty developed in the Psalms contain some of the snblimest of all poetic expressions, and add emphasis to the frequent repudiations and denunciations of idolatry. Worship, by songs and music, prayer and praise, public and private worship, is abundantly inculcated ; but there is little stress laid on sacrifices, compared with the obedience of the heart to the Divine law, and the consecration of the life to righteousness. Sin is laid bare in its inner working in the soul, and as inherent in human nature by birth ; but forgiveness of the true penitent's sin by Jehovah is asserted, and the assistance of God's " Holy Spirit " is besought in efforts after righteous- ness. Evil is recompensed to the evil-doer, and good will befall the righteous : THE "MOLTEN SEA " UPON THE TWELVE OXEN IN SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. and both will, in part, be handed on to their children. The instruction of others by the righteous is exemplified and encouraged, and in a few pas- sages, such as Psalm vii. 4, kindness to enemies is dimly suggested. But the imprecations upon wilful transgressors of Jehovah's laws and defiers of His greatness are as severe as denunciations can be, affording a counter- part to the Commination Service of the Church of England. On the other hand, little distinct mention of a future life is made. In some of the Psalms, indeed, the state of man after death is spoken of as non-existence. In death there is no remembrance of God, we are told, nor is there any access to Him for them that lie down in silence. Yet, at times, there are glimpses of a happy future for the righteous (Ps. xvii. 15 ; xlix. 15 ; and if the reading " to," rather than " with," glory be accepted, in Future life. 630 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. Ps. lxxiii. 24), and of a future judgment, when the good will be rewarded and the evil punished.1 So much might be said on questions connected with the Psalms, — that "Bible within the Bible," as it has been called, — that it is difficult to choose or to abstain. But our main concern here is with the place of the Psalms in the religious history of Israel. Their matter is universally known ; able criticism upon them is accessible, though unfortunately at considerable cost, in works such as those of Perowne and Cheyne. Consequently, we shall not discuss whether all the Psalms attributed to David in the inscriptions are by him, or whether, as some say, only eleven entire Psalms and portions Growth of of others are certainly his. It is acknowledged that the Psalms the Psalter, represent the growth of centuries, extending from the very early 90th Psalm, ascribed to Moses, to the date of the Maccabees, according to some ; that they grew out of smaller collections, made at different times by zeal like that of the " men of Hezekiah," who collected Solomon's Proverbs, and that it is now impossible to ascertain when the inscriptions, which are not integral parts of the Psalms, were added, or upon what evidence. A considerable proportion of the Psalms, doubtless, beyond those of David, belong to his age, — to the singers and poets whom he gathered round him. Only two Psalms are ascribed to Solomon. The times of Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah witnessed the collection and arrangement of many Psalms. Others were written in connection with the Assyrian and Babylonish captivities ; but the greatest outpouring of sacred song, after David's era, was connected with and inspired by the return from Babylon. The Psalms known as Pilgrim Songs, or Songs of the Going-up, belong to this period, and one set (cxiii.-cxviii.) constituted the Hallel, sung at the Passover, Pentecost, etc. A strong national element marks this later psalmody, with less of the anguish or exultation of personal individual ex- perience. Some of the Psalms, which are most confidently referred to the much later time of the desecration of Jerusalem by Antiochus Epiphanes, are the 44th, 74th, and 79th. Altogether, the Psalms consist of five books; but how early this division existed cannot be said : and each book consists of one or more groups, many ascribed to the same authors, or sets of authors, being grouped Books of together. " The first book," says Dean Perowne, " consists, with two or three exceptions, of Psalms of David ; the second, of a series of Psalms by the sons of Korah, and another series by David ; the third, of two minor collections, one supposed to be by Asaph, and the other by the sons of Korah. In the fifth we have one group of Pilgrim Songs and another group of ' Hallelujah Psalms,' each of them manifestly, in the first instance, distinct hymn-books or liturgies." The first book uses the name Jehovah about eighteen times, as often as Elohim ; in the next two books the latter name is chiefly used. From Psalm lxxxv. to the end, and especially in Books IV. and V., the name Jehovah is almost exclusively em- 1 ]?or " The Doctrine of a Future Life as Contained in the Old Testament Scriptures," see Geden's Fernley Lecture, lbTL THE BOOK OF PROVERBS. 631 ployed. There are indications that chronological order has been disturbed in the existing arrangement ; and in many psalms, additions, omissions, and other alterations were made after their composition. Specimens of such alterations are found in psalms which are partially repeated either as psalms or in some other Old Testament book. The inscriptions, too, " are some- times genuine, and really represent the most ancient tradition. At other times they are due to the caprice of later editors and collectors, the fruits of conjecture, or of dimmer and more uncertain traditions" (Perowne). Similarly to the Psalms, the Proverbs ascribed to Solomon are now acknowledged to form a composite work, which was probably only put together three centuries after the age of Solomon (Plumptre) ; The and it is a question whether any of the actual sayings of Solo- p™™1"158- mon are preserved in it, for much of the matter scarcely agrees with his character, or the thought of his age. The central portion of the book (x.-xxii. 16) is probably the earliest. This is followed by several appendices, especially one extending from xxv. to xxix. The preliminary " Praise of Wisdom " shows many marks of distinct origin from the rest of the book, but even Canon Cheyne does not date it later than near the fall of the king- dom of Judah. Perhaps the most characteristic note of the main portion of the Proverbs is its utilitarianism. The benefits arising from wise conduct, and the evils produced by the reverse, are pointedly expressed. Jehovah and praise 0f His service are extolled, the king is revered, and the glory of a utility, nation is said to be its righteousness. We have indications that monogamy prevails, and that women are highly regarded, and good family government is praised. As regards the hope of immortality, it is disputed whether dis- tinct reference is made to it. We are told that the king's heart is plastic in the hand of Jehovah, and that the glory of a nation consists in its righteous- ness. But on the whole, we cannot say that the central portion of the Book of Proverbs greatly enlarged or developed the Jewish religious ideals, although it put many of its ideas in a more popular form. The latest appendix develops an ideal of womanhood more full and detailed, more noble and attractive, than had till then been found in the Hebrew Scriptures — in attributing to the virtuous woman wisdom, and kindness, sympathy, and help for the afflicted. The grandest and most inspiring portion of the book is undoubtedly the preliminary " Praise of Wisdom" (ch. i.-ix.), especially part of- chapter viii. Many divines agree that the description of Wisdom here, Tbe Eulogy if not prophetic of Jesus Christ, is only applicable in its full of wisdom. meaning to Him, especially when He is regarded as identical with the Crea- tive Word. This Divine Wisdom is represented as brought forth and set up " from everlasting," before any creation existed, and as actively present in all subsequent creation. Incidentally in this section, we have one of those pregnant sayings which have been the consolation of multitudes under suffering : " Whom Jehovah loves, He chastens, even as a father the son in whom he delights." 632 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. The Book of Ecclesiastes, the Preacher or Debater (Koheletli), as Dean Plumptre says, comes before us as the sphinx of Hebrew literature. " It has become almost a proverb, that every interpreter of this book ' thinks that all previous interpreters have been wrong. Its very title has received some dozen discordant interpretations. The dates assigned to its authorship by competent experts range over very nearly a thousand 3Tears, from b.c. 990 to b.c. 10." "While, on the one hand, many stick firmly to its apparent authorship by Solomon, others, led by Luther, regard it as a later book, the author of which dramatically puts himself into the sup- posed position of the wise and experienced Solomon. Luther, in his " Table variety of Talk," says : " Solomon did not write the Book, ' The Preacher,' opinions, himself, but it was composed by Sirach in the time of the Macca- bees." Others point to the many words in it which only occur in books written after the exile, and Dr. Ginsburg states that, " We could as easily believe that Chaucer is the author of ' Rasselas,' as that Solomon wrote 'Koheletli.'" One of the most powerful evidences for its late date is, that we find no external mention of it before the Talmud, which speaks in a tone of doubt as to its authority. Several learned critics place it in the period of Persian rule over Judasa ; others, among whom Mr. Tyler is conspicuous, find in the book plain indications of the influence of the Stoic and the Epicurean philosophies, which are contrasted with one another, and alternately adopted or thrown aside. There can be no doubt as to the parallelisms of sentiment between the Greek systems and the philosophy of Koheleth, and Dean Plumptre speaks of the book as " saturated with Greek thought and language." Mr. Tyler and Dean Plumptre date the book about b.c. 200 to b.c. 180. But many experienced critics are still unconvinced, and regard the author of Ecclesiastes as a comparatively early Jewish thinker, whose ideas are rather the germ of systematic ethical philosophy, and whose expressions have a predominantly Hebrew aspect. Readers do not need reminding of the contents of Ecclesiastes. It does not reveal new matter in theology ; rather it tends to show that, apart from some Divine explanation, the system of the world is disheartening and incomprehensible, and that there is no certainty of a future rectifica- tion. Dean Plumptre has drawn out a highly interesting and suggestive ideal biography of the Preacher, which forms a setting for his thought, in- dispensable to students. Many think the last portion (xii. 8-14) was added by a subsequent writer as a summary, with a religious precept, " Fear God, and keep His commandments " ; but it is by no means foreign to Hebrew style, that the author should have also written the Epilogue. The Book of Job is unique in the Old Testament, in its poetic grandeur and in its philosophy ; and this is saying a great deal. It might appear that The Book of it should be easy to date such a book ; but it is the most variously Job- dated book, perhaps, in the Canon — for some consider it to be pre-Mosaic, others that it was written by Moses ; many date it in Solomon's time, while another school refer it to the period of the exile. Even its style and references, precise as they seem, are variously viewed by different Mi ' SHAPHAN READING THE BOOK OF THE LAW BEFORE KING JOSIAH. 633 634 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. writers, some regarding the lack of reference to Mosaic legislation and Jewish history as proving its very early date, others seeing in this only a detachment from ordinary events and concentration on the problem that Diversity of ^s studied. Many have regarded the book as a faithful descrip- views tion of actual events throughout, even as to the Divine dialogue about it. . o, .... . & with batan ; others see m it a traditional narrative based on a real case, and expanded by a later philosopher. The parallelisms discover- able between it, the Proverbs, Psalms, etc., have been said to be caused by the author of Job having read these books, while the converse is assumed by others. The fact is, that on many points connected with the Book of Job, no positive answer can be given, for no positive proofs are now attain- able. We are driven to the contents of the book itself, which are what is really most important. And one can scarcely help admitting that it marks its loftiness a development in thought, in conception of the world and of its of thought, government, of grasp of evidence, of power of discussion, of depth of insight, as well as sublimity of expression, which, taken altogether, places it later, regarded as a product of the human mind, than the writings we have hitherto considered — excepting, of course, the later Psalms. This view does not, of course, exclude the possibility that a work, which is later in the order of thought, may have come into existence at an earlier date than we should expect. And, again, it is dangerous to infer that what the writer of a book does not say he did not know. The book may be regarded as a statement of the most painful problems in the government of the world — the physical and mental trials of the righteous, salient anc^ ^ie justification of God's dealing with good men. Both Job problems and his friends are introduced as possessed by the idea that prosperity followed the righteous as adversity overwhelmed the sin- ful ; and the book shows — to quote the Rev. S. Cox — " in the most tragic and pathetic way, that good, no less than wicked, men lie open to the most cruel losses and sorrows ; that these losses and sorrows are not always signs of the Divine anger against sin ; that they are intended to correct and perfect the righteousness of the righteous. ... Its higher intention is, to show that God is capable of inspiring, by showing that man is capable of cherishing, that genuine and disinterested affection which is the very soul of goodness ; . . . and that man is capable of loving right, simply because it is right, and of hating wrong purely because it is wrong, even though he should not gain by it, but lose." In this sublime book, as Canon Cook remarks in the " Dictionary of the Bible," nearly every theory of the objects and uses of suffering is reviewed ; and there are magnificent descriptions of the mystery and majesty of God's works, and vindications of His ways to man. In many ways the Book of Job so far exhausts the subject, that what has really been added since to the argument is essentially slight, with the exception of the Christian hope in a future existence of reward and redress, which many believe to be explicitly foreshadowed in the Book of Job. Here it may be remarked that Job's patience, so proverbial, is not what it is popularly represented to be — a mere quiet endurance under suffering. THE BOOK OF JOB. 635 True, he endured great plijTsical pain and discomfort with patience; but what could be the reason for it tortured him almost beyond en- job's durance, so that he complained at times in very strong language. Patience- The doubt as to God's providence, the feeling of being unjustly treated in comparison with the wicked, as well as the unjust criticisms to which he was subjected, worried him exceedingly, and it was only by huge efforts that he was able to control the unquietness within. His was a patience produced out of the utmost turbulence of spirit, and by no means out of quietism or stoicism. As to the extent of belief in a heaven and a future judgment implied in the Book of Job, there is considerable difference of opinion. In chapter x. Job certainly represents the spirit world as "a land of gloom, Futurelife black as the blackness of death, where there is no order, and the and light is darkness." Later, in chapter xiv., he has a glimpse of a possible future existence ; if he had the least assurance of it he would gladly endure pain till then ; and in the memorable verses 25-27 of chapter xix., he rises to a solemnity of conviction and expression about the future which is one of the prime sentences of inspiration and comfort to multitudes of the human race. In a marvellous burst of confidence, after expressing the wish that his words might be written down, engraved with iron, and filled in with lead or rock, Job says : " I know that my God or Redeemer (or vin- dicator) liveth, and He shall stand, at last, over this dust (or upon the earth), and after my body hath thus been destroyed, yet (free) from my flesh I shall see God ; whom I shall see on my side, and mine own eyes shall behold, not those of another." Notwithstanding all the doubts he had expressed, he was at bottom convinced of the justice and goodness of God, and there- fore, failing a present vindication, he had a vision of a future vindication by God Himself. So far there is widespread agreement as to the interpretation of this remarkable passage ; but beyond this there are diversities of opinion as to its reference to a bodily resurrection upon this earth, as to its specific prophetic reference to Jesus Christ, and the certaint}' of retribution in a future life, on which general agreement can by no means be attained. It is remarkable that after such a declaration Job should be represented as again falling into deep despondency ; but it is claimed that he never again despairs so greatly, and that his moods are due to the natural alterations caused by his physical state. Job is depicted as having had a personal character unsurpassed in the Old Testament; and in many ways his conduct is that of an eminent type or foreshadowing of Christ. Elihu contributes to the argument Job and .the view that suffering may be corrective and for improvement, Eimu- as well as punitive; yet he charges Job with secret faults which his sufferings were to induce him to correct. He also supplies, in chapter xxxiii., a very clear view of the ways in which, in his time, God was believed to communi- cate with and instruct man. And he, equally with Job, believes that God cannot be unjust. The great question to be solved was, Should man impose his law upon God, or God His upon man ? Yet in any case he shows that 636 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. it is best in many ways for men to be righteous ; but a man ought rather to suspect himself of sin than God of injustice. Numerous critics consider there are signs indicating that the speeches of Elihu are a later addition to the book, especially because Of the peculiar words it contains, and because there is no reference to Elihu in later parts of the book, and especially in the Divine judgment. The speech put in the mouth of Jehovah — the Theophany as it is generally called — is inexpressibly grand ; yet it is generally felt that it is The not convincing or fully explanatory of God's dealings with man. Theopbany. Many consider that this is because no full explanation is possible in man's present state, and because it is of the essence of man's training that a fathomless mystery shall be involved in and be behind his life, com- pelling his attention to the possibilities of a future one. Job, however, is satisfied with the Divine revelation, perhaps because he has now attained what he had so greatly longed for — actual communion with, and speech from, his Maker. Or, we may take it that the lesson taught was to study God in Nature — a lesson which is being so well learnt in these latter clays — and not to dwell on his own personal woes, but rather to contemplate the broad field of existence. We cannot here discuss the questions raised by many as to the Theophany, the prologue and the epilogue, being the work of different writers from the body of the book. In conclusion, we must strongly urge those who wish to gain a true idea of the full meaning of the Book of Job, to read it in the Revised Version, and, if possible, in some commentary like those of Dean Bradley and the Rev. S. Cox. CHAPTER IV. €l)e propjbetas of Brad. Kuenen's views— Greatness of the prophets— The early seers— Elijah— Elisha— Amos, Hosea, and Joel —Their conception of Jehovah's nature— Vision of the ingathering of nations —Isaiah : two authors— Main topics of first portion— " Immanuel " predictions —Isaiah and Jewish history— His grand predictions— The second Isaiah or great unknown — Later date —Prediction of returu from exile— The " Servant of the Lord "—Cyrus— Description of the " Servant "—His humiliation and death— Vicarious suffering— The future glory of Zion— Other teachings of the prophet— Micah— Jeremiah— Ezekiel— Daniel— Predictions as to empires of the world— Prediction of Resurrection— Zechariah— Messianic prophecies— Haggai— Malachi. IN briefly discussing the prophets of Israel, we may quote from Dr. Muir's Summary of Kuenen's argument (Introduction to Kuenen's " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel "), as showing what those who grant least Kuenen's to them say of their work. " In estimating their action, we must views, take a higher standpoint than the national one, and regard their contribu- tion to the spiritual development of our race as its most important result. Ethical monotheism is their creation. They have themselves ascended to the belief in one only holy and righteous God, who realises His will or moral good in the world, and they have, by preaching and writing, made that belief the inalienable property of humanity. It was not an intellectual or philosophical system, but a religious belief, which they presented. The God of the prophets bore a very different character from that of the Deity of the philosophers of Greece and Rome. Holiness, righteousness, and mercy constituted the very nature of the former." We have already spoken of Samuel and David ; now we come to Elijah as the next name of high importance. In the prophets of Israel we witness in culmination a form of Divine teaching which has been by no Greatness of means scantily displayed in our previous narrative. In other rot*J,etg forms of religion we have seen reason to believe that no small amount of error, no small amount of imposture, was mixed in their religious teachers with genuine belief in their mission, and genuine services which they rendered to their fellow-tribesmen in their advance in civilisation. The prophets of Israel as a whole (though with many imperfect members) rendered services and gave teaching which place them in the highest rank among religious teachers. They were the seers who, if any persons did, received messages from the Divine ; they were pioneers of progress, radical reformers, yet in a conservative fashion, for they sought to conserve the nation by maintaining the national worship of Jehovah, and deepening and strengthening it. Of their organisation we know little. They formed schools or groups ; but how a man was admitted to be a prophet we do not 687 638 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. know. Probably his inspiration was either self-evident, or was claimed by himself, and readily admitted. But there is evidence in a remarkable passage The early XVL 1 Samuel ix. that the new order of prophets developed out of seers. ^q older soothsayers or seers, honoured and consulted on account of their knowledge of hidden things. By the time of Elijah they had in- creased to a large number ; they were known as the opponents of the calf- worship and other forms of idolatry that had been introduced into Israel, and the establishment of centres of worship at Dan and Bethel, in rivalry to Jerusalem. At Bethel, a new sanctuary, a rival to the temple at Jeru- salem, had been erected, which, during the persistence of the kingdom of Israel, continued to be its great place of worship. "We have remarkable accounts of the denunciations by prophets of the new order of things, and predictions of the future destruction and desecration of the new altars. It must be noted, however, that some critics consider these narratives were written after the fulfilments they describe. When Ahab, however, departed from even the calf-worship in which Jehovah had been symbolised, and in- troduced the gods of his wife Jezebel's native kingdom of Sidon, Elijah . . . with many impure and licentious rites, the Gileadite Elijah sud- denly appeared before the king and denounced God's vengeance upon him, and predicted a prolonged drought. At some time undefined, Jezebel had ordered the complete destruction of the prophets of Jehovah ; and it was against such a persecution that Elijah had to make headway, and finally triumphed. The miracles related in regard to Elijah's preservation are em- phatic testimonies to his greatness and to the belief of a later age ; and the supreme scene on Carmel is one of the most marvellous and impressive in Biblical records. Like Moses, Elijah was privileged to obtain a nearer sight of the Divine glory and power than other mortals ; and to the account of this we are indebted for a phrase which has become proverbial for the inward voice of conscience. But it is unnecessary here to dilate on so well-known a -story, especially as no new truths appear to have been revealed by Elijah. The impression he made upon his countrymen is shown by the fact that centuries afterwards it was expected that the calamities of the country were only to be remedied by his reappearance. He was a hero-combatant for the truth against kings and false priests — a witness of the first rank for the Invisible and for the purity of worship. That miracles were ascribed to him is a matter of course, whether on the one hand we believe that such events, in fact, took place as part of the Divine dispensation, or whether, on the other hand, we regard it as the inveterate habit of mankind to ascribe supernatural deeds to those whom they stamp as supremely great. Elisha, his successor, is an example, in some marked instances, of re- ligious tolerance, in his intercourse with foreign kings, and especially in the permission he gave to Naaman to continue his attendance in the temple of Rimmon. But he chiefly appears as " a worker of prodigies, a predicter of future events, a revealer of secrets and things hap- pening out of sight, or at a distance." (" Dictionary of the Bible.") Thus we see in him, to some extent, a reversion to the type of diviner, soothsayer, THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 639 and seer. " It is difficult to lielp believing" (according to the same author- ity), " that the anecdotes of his life were thrown into their present shape at a later period." And this, too, accounts, no doubt, for some of the marvels related of him. In entire consistency with the work of Elijah in denouncing Baal- worship, but extending his denunciations to every form of departure or derogation from pure worship of Jehovah, we come to the cycle Amos, Hosea, of prophets at the end of the ninth and in the eighth centuries and Joel- B.C., Amos, Hosea, and Joel. Their testimony is expressly important, that, together with noisy feasts, festivals, and sacrifices to Jehovah, there 'co- existed much image calf-worship in His name, as well as Baal and Ashera worship, with licentious rites, and witchcraft and soothsaying abounded. Against these evils they protested mightily, as their books show, meeting with great opposition because they predicted the downfall of Israel unless these things were amended. Their conception of the character Their con- of Jehovah is most lofty. He is the one God, pure and holy, Jehovah's desiring spiritual worship, and the practice of mercy and right- nature, eousness by His servants. Festivals and assemblies are denounced. " I desire mercy, and not sacrifices," is the keynote of their teaching. " In- temperance and luxury, oppression of the poor, of widows and orphans, unjust appropriation of another's goods, dishonesty in trade, the sordid pursuit of gain, harshness towards debtors — these are some of the sins which the prophets combat zealously." But although judgments and calamities are announced, hope is given of a glorious future. The language of Hosea is quoted by St. Paul as describing the conversion of the Gentiles ; he speaks of a time when Israel shall be betrothed to God for ever. In one passage there is a promise of ransom from the power of the grave. Joel was a prophet of Juclah as Hosea was of Israel. In view of a ter- rible series of calamities then occurring or impending, he exhorted the people to repent and return to Jehovah, when an era of prosperity would again dawn ; after which God would extend the blessings of His Vision of tne religion to all lands, A glowing vision is depicted of a future ingathering time, when the " Spirit' of the Lord " should be poured out, at- tended by great wonders and a gathering of all nations. Many expressions of this prophet are interpreted of the outpouring on the Day of Pentecost, and of numerous events in Christian history. Amos, after all his denuncia- tions, concludes with a prediction of the future restoration of Israel to power and greatness after calamity. It is now so generally agreed that the prophetic book entitled " Isaiah " is composed of two portions at least, written by different authors (i. to xxxix., xl. to lxvi.), that we shall only briefly note the points isaiah: two which are regarded as deciding this. Isaiah wrote at Jerusalem, au^ors. and lived in the reigns of Uzziah, Ahaz, and Hezekiah ; while the second writer, plainly and throughout, belongs to the period of the exile. The Babylonian captivity is presupposed as having already lasted a long time. The work is written to comfort the exiles. In it Jerusalem is depicted in 640 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. ruins, Judaea is ravaged and depopulated, and the nation is captive. Cyrus is spoken of as the destined deliverer of the people, and as a contemporary. Although there are undoubted resemblances between the two writers, it is claimed that this only shows that the later writer had assimilated the spirit of the former ; while there are certain strong divergences of style. But yet there are serious difficulties in explaining why the later book was incor- porated with the earlier, and why there is no mention of its author's name. THE PROPHETS OF ISRAEL. 641 The Book of Isaiah proper, containing discourses or narratives of diverse dates, is not arranged chronologically, and does not appear to have been arranged by the author. Many critics believe that several por- Maln topics tions were written by a different hand. The main topic of Isaiah of first is denunciation of wickedness, both in Judah and in other nations, and the punishments which will follow. Many passages describe the idolatry and the image-worship of his time, and the excess of offerings and feasts to Jehovah, compared with the lack of justice and mercy. He pictures a high ideal of a righteous character, scorning bribes and abhorring bloodshed, speaking truth, and doing justly. He has a special dislike to the lofty and proud, all of whom, he says, shall be brought low. He definitely predicted the captivity in Babylon to Hezekiah. In Isaiah's view, "A marvel or miracle," says Professor Robertson Smith,1 "is a work of Jehovah directed to confound the religion of formal- ism, to teach men that Jehovah's rule is a real thing, and not a traditional convention to be acknowledged in formulas learned by rote ; and the mark of such a work is not that it breaks through laws of nature — a conception which had no existence for Isaiah — but that all man's wisdom and foresight stand abashed before it. The whole career of Assyria is part of the marvel that confounds the Irypocris}^ and formalism of Judah." (See Isa. xxix. 13, 14.) One of Isaiah's favourite phrases is " the Holy One of Israel," and his conception of God predominantly sets forth His majesty and holiness. Very grand is- his view of the universal worship of Jehovah " at the end of the days," with its accompaniment of universal peace (ii. 2-4) ; but he rises still higher in the " Immanuel " predictions, in chapters vii. and ix.. The c]ate 0f the book has been variously placed between 220 b.c. and a.d. 40, and Archdeacon Farrar inclines to accept the JUDAISM AFTER THE TROTHETS. 651 latter date, believing that the book shows traces of the influence of Philo. Some have suggested that it was written by Apollos. In assuming the personality of King Solomon, the author was adopting a common literary device of his age, and an appropriate one, as the name of Solomon had become identified with Jewish proverbial wisdom. The author was appa- rently an Alexandrian Jew, acquainted both with the Septuagint and with Greek literature and philosophy. His knowledge of various forms of nature-worship is well shown in chap, xiii., but striking tolerance is manifested in verse 6, where we read, " for this they are the less to be blamed ; for they peradventure err, seeking God, and desirous to find Him ; for being conversant in His works, they search Him diligently, and believe their sight : because the things are beautiful that are seen." Yet he tells such persons that they ought, while reverencing things of beauty and signs of power, to understand how much better the Lord and Creator of them is. Worship of manufactured idols, or of stones is crushingly denounced, as well as ancestor and king-worship. Throughout, the writer is keen in exposing the folly of the inferior or degraded religions he saw around him, and so far reaches a high level. Neither could philosophy, he maintains, teach the true ideal of God. His object is to show, that, while sin leads to punishment and death, wisdom is the source of all blessings of life and immortalit}\ Such expressions as " God created man to be immortal, and made him to be an image of His own eternity ; " " the righteous live for evermore, and the care of them is with the most High. Therefore shall they receive a glorious kingdom, and a beautiful crown from the Lord's hand," show the essence of his teaching about immortality. The evil are to undergo retribution after death, in a state which is not quite clearly unfolded. The Messianic hope, however, in the Book of Wisdom, is reduced to a hope in the temporal dominion of Israel and the universal worship of Jehovah ; and there is " no personal and no suffering Messiah." The • • IVTf ssifLiiic In rnany ways the author reproduces conceptions made familiar hope, in the Old Testament, but in inferior language and with far less force. The historical allusions by which the influence of Wisdom in history are enforced are tinged by strong preconceived notions about Israel, and by a limited reading of the order of Providence. The sense given to the word " Wisdom " by this writer suggests to the Christian that it is a personification of Christ ; but Wisdom is not even thought of by the writer as an incarnate Divine Person, but as the Spirit of God, as the Providence of God, and as the sum of human trustworthy knowledge. It is evident from the varying uses of the word that dogmatic precision must not be sought in the Book of Wisdom ; and this no doubt weakens its force, the author not having a strong, clear, definite conception, but using one word in a wide latitude of meanings suited to the imper- fection of his mental standpoint. Yet it is evident that the author of "Wisdom" had a marked influence on the language of the New Testa- ment ; at anj- rate both use a number of similar special expressions. The '652 THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS. words we translate " faith," " hope," " to love " in the Christian sense, and influence on the expression that the just man is the " son of God " are found ofNew Tefta- *n Wisdom. The conception of the " visible " as revealing the ment. " invisible," and many other words and phrases used in this book are found in various books of the New Testament, and especially in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Not the least of its claims to regard are, that it expresses the nature of God as predominantly loving ; as in xi. 24, 26, " Thou lovest all the things that are," and " Thou sparest all : for they are thine, 0 Lord, thou lover of souls." Here we may mention a collection of Psalms not included in the Apocrypha, but regarded as canonical by numerous early Christian Churches, termed the Psalter of Solomon, apparently written after the capture of The Psalter of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 b.c. It depicts the sad state of the Solomon, city and people in a tone of earnest piety based on Pharisaic observances ; and it expresses a strong Messianic hope, which is for us its most important feature. Thus it says : " Behold, 0 Lord, and raise up their king, the son of David, at the time that Thou hast appointed, to reign over Israel Thy servant ; and gird him with strength to crush unjust rulers . . . to destroy the lawless nations. . . . He shall divide them by tribes in the land, and no stranger and foreigner shall dwell with them ; he shall judge the nations in wisdom and righteousness. The heathen nations shall serve under his yoke ; he shall glorify the Lord before all the earth, and cleanse Jerusalem in holiness as in the beginning. . . . He is pure from sin to rule a great people, to rebuke governors and destroy sinners by his mighty word. In all his days he is free from offence against his God, for he hath made him strong by the Holy Spirit." What Helleno-Judaism at its best could accomplish, without the light of Christianity, is seen in the writings of Philo of Alexandria, born perhaps PMio of in B-c- 20, and living on to the reign of the Emperor Claudius. Alexandria. Little is known of his life, except that in a.d. 40 he was sent to Rome by the Alexandrian Jews at the head of an embassy, to try and persuade the Emperor Caligula to refrain from claiming divine honour from the Jews. Of this embassy Philo has left a full account. Philo, while well- His relation acquainted with the Septuagint, was even better versed in to Greek Greek philosophy of all schools ; and while accepting the literal divine origin of the Old Testament, he sought to explain it in an allegorical fashion, so as to deduce from it the most important results of Greek philosophy, and thus show to the Greeks that Judaism was worthy of their respect and acceptance. He is so thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Plato, that it has been said that either Philo platonises or Plato philonises. In his writings he argues not only against scoffers amongst his own people, but against believers in astrology and divination, and against the Hlsviewson Egyptians and their beliefs. His belief in the Old Testament as the ow Testa-Divine is so strong that he calls it usually the Sacred and Divine Word, or Divine Oracles ; and he treats the Old Testament as forming one inseparable whole, down to the smallest letter. Thus he was JUDAISM AFTER THE PROPHETS. 653 not a critic of the Old Testament in the modern sense. He was rather an expounder of its philosophical meaning as he conceived it by the light of Greek philosophy. He claimed that the Jews in the Mosaic revelation possessed the true knowledge of things religious ; and he strongly believed the doctrine of One God, and His absolute sovereignty and supremacj', and that He was to be worshipped without images. He went beyond the limited view that everything was to be done by and for the Jews, and regarded the priestly blessing. (See page 075.) the law of Moses as rightfully the law for the whole world ; and, according to him, prosperity is promised to all who turn from idols to the true God. Philo's philosophy of the Godhead is too abstruse to be fully expounded here. He regards God as eternal, absolute, unchangeable, without limita- tions. Consequently God cannot come into direct contact with Hig o finite beings, but He acts by a multitude of divine Ideas or sjphy of the Forces, produced before the visible world, and termed Logoi. Golllea