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 Division *— -i- 
 
 Section 
 
 Number f.. 
 
WESTMINSTER 
 
 BIBLE    DICTIONARY. 
 
THE 
 
 WESTMINSTER 
 
 BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 
 
 PREPARED   FOR  THE  BOARD 
 
 BY  THE 
 
 Rev.   THOMAS    J.  SHEPHERD,   D.D. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 PRESBYTERIAN   BOARD   OF   PUBLICATION, 
 
 1334   Chestnut  Street. 
 
Copyright,  1880,  by 
 
 THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE 
 
 PRESBYTERIAN    BOARD    OF    PUBLICATION. 
 
 Westcott  a  Thomson, 
 
 Stereotypera  and  MUctrotypers,  Philada. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The  quickening  of  Bible  study  on  the  part  of  our  Sabbath-school 
 teachers  and  scholars  at  the  present  time,  in  connection  with  the  re- 
 markable additions  recently  made  to  our  knowledge  on  topics  related 
 to  Scripture  interpretation,  affords  abundant  reason  for  the  issue  of  the 
 Westminster  Bible  Dictionary.  It  will  meet  an  existing  call  for 
 a  compact  dictionary  abreast  of  the  times. 
 
 The  work  was  entrusted  by  the  Board  of  Publication  to  the  Rev. 
 Thomas  J.  Shepherd,  D.  D.,  who  has  devoted  to  it  much  study  and 
 patient  as  well  as  skillful  labor.  Free  use  has  been  made  by  Dr. 
 Shepherd  of  all  accessible  authorities,  and  especially  of  Dr.  William 
 Smith's  invaluable,  though  not  perfect,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  as 
 well  as  of  the  Bible.  Dictionary  prepared  by  the  Rev.  W.  M.  En- 
 gles,  D.  D.,  and  previously  published  by  the  Board.  The  thanks 
 of  the  author  and  of  the  publishers  are  also  given  to  Professor  Isaac 
 H.  Hall,  by  whom  the  sheets  of  the  Dictionary  were  read,  and 
 who,  from  his  stores  of  Oriental,  linguistic  and  archaeological  infor- 
 mation, has  rendered  the  work  an  important  service. 
 
 Numerous  engravings  illustrating  the  articles  are  distributed 
 through  the  volume,  and  valuable  maps  are  given  at  its  close. 
 
 In  the  preparation  of  this  Dictionary  the  leading  aims  have 
 been — 
 
 1.  To  make  a  Bible  Dictionary,  including  only  words  in  our  Au- 
 
 5 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tliorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures  needing  explanation.  A  few- 
 proper  names,  such  as  "  Dead  Sea  "  and  "  Esdraelon,"  not  occurring 
 in  our  English  Bible,  are  given  because  of  their  common  use  and  to 
 assist  reference  to  their  scriptural  designations.  Occasionally,  also,  a 
 word,  such  as  "Games,"  has  been  admitted  because  of  frequent  allu- 
 sions made  thereto  in  the  Bible. 
 
 2.  To  indicate  the  precise  sense  in  which  each  word  treated  is  used 
 in  the  Scriptures.  The  root-ideas  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  originals, 
 and  the  English  equivalents  of  these  ideas,  are  carefully  stated. 
 
 3.  To  embody  the  results  of  such  recent  explorations  in  Bible 
 lands,  and  of  such  study  of  the  historic  monuments  of  Egypt,  As- 
 syria, Babylonia  and  Persia,  as  have  thrown  light  upon  the  text 
 of  Scripture. 
 
 4.  To  treat  with  entire  freedom,  and  such  fullness  as  the  size  of 
 the  volume  permitted,  the  words  underlying  the  faith  and  order  of 
 the  Christian  Church,  as  "Baptism,"  "Bishop,"  "Elder,"  "Elec- 
 tion," "  Predestination  "  and  the  like. 
 
 5.  And,  in  all,  to  j)ut  the  largest  amount  of  information  into  the 
 smallest  space  possible. 
 
 J.  W.  D. 
 
THE  WESTMINSTER 
 
 Bible  Dictionary. 
 
 A'a-ron  [sign ificatiou  uncertain,  prob- 
 ably enlightened^,  eldest  son  of  Amram 
 and  Jochebed,  both  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
 and  elder  brother  of  Moses.  He  was 
 born  B.  c.  1574,  according  to  the  chronol- 
 ogy of  Uslier,  three  years  before  Moses 
 (Ex.  7:7),  and  probably  one  year  before 
 Pharaoh's  decree  of  death  to  the  sons  of 
 the  enslaved  Hebrews.  His  name  occurs 
 first  (Ex.  4  :  14)  when  the  anger  of  the 
 Lord  was  kindled  against  Moses  in  Horeb 
 because  of  his  reluctance  to  carry  God's 
 message  to  the  king  of  Egypt.  The  Lord 
 said,  "  Is  not  Aaron,  the  Levite,  thy  broth- 
 er ?  I  know  that  he  can  speak  well.  And 
 also  he  cometh  forth  to  meet  thee.  .  .  .  He 
 shall  be  thy  spokesman  unto  tlie  people ; 
 he  shall  be  to  thee  instead  of  a  mouth,  and 
 thou  shalt  be  to  him  instead  of  God."  Aa- 
 ron was  then  on  his  way,  under  a  divine 
 call  (Ex.  4  :  27),  to  invite  the  return  of 
 Moses  to  Egypt.  After  a  separation  of 
 forty  years,  and  when  Aaron  was  eighty- 
 three  years  of  age,  they  met  in  Horeb,  and 
 together  returned  to  fulfill  their  commis- 
 sion to  their  brethren  of  the  house  of  Is- 
 rael and  to  Pharaoh. 
 
 From  the  first  communication  by  Moses 
 to  Aaron  of  the  honorable  but  perilous 
 work  to  which  God  had  called  them,  he 
 stood  unflinchingly  by  his  brother.  He 
 introduced  Mo.ses  to  the  elders  of  Israel, 
 
 rehearsed  to  them  the  divine  message,  and 
 then  went  with  him  into  the  presence  of 
 the  proud  king  of  Egypt.  All  through  the 
 interview  with  Pharaoh,  Aaron  stood  at 
 his  great  brother's  side,  sustaining  him 
 and  acting  as  his  spokesman.  In  the 
 Sinai  wilderness,  when  the  Israelites  were 
 met  and  attacked  by  the  Amalekites,  we 
 find  Aaron  and  Hur  with  Moses  on  the  hill 
 from  which  he  viewed  the  battle,  uphold- 
 ing liis  weary  hands,  and  thus  securing  suc- 
 cess in  the  conflict  (Ex.  17  :  8-13).  When 
 Moses  ascended  Mount  Sinai  to  receive  the 
 law  from  God,  Aaron  and  his  sons,  Nadalj 
 and  Abihu,  with  seventy  elders  of  Israel, 
 were  permitted,  as  a  special  token  of  the 
 divine  favor,  to  accompany  him  a  part  of 
 the  way,  and  to  behold  the  symbol  of  God's 
 presence  ( Ex.  24 :  9, 10).  It  was  during  his 
 absence  that  Moses  received  directions  for 
 the  organization  of  the  ecclesiastical  estab- 
 lishment, according  to  which  Aaron  was  to 
 be  constituted  high  priest,  and  his  sons  and 
 their  descendants  priests  (Ex.  28).  W^hile 
 Moses  was  absent  in  the  mount,  Aaron  and 
 Hur  were  entrusted  with  the  direction  and 
 control  of  the  Israelites.  In  the  interval 
 the  people  became  impatient,  and  required 
 Aaron  to  make  them  gods  to  go  before 
 them.  Partly  through  timidity,  partly 
 from  an  imperfect  conviction  of  the  sin 
 he  was  committing,  he  complied  with  their 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 AARON. 
 
 wicked  suggestions,  and  constructed  a  gold- 
 en calf,  in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  system 
 of  idolatry,  by  whicli  he  affixed  an  indelible 
 stain  on  his  own  character  anrl  provoked  tlie 
 displeasure  of  the  Almighty,  lie  attempt- 
 ed in  vain  to  excuse  his  conduct  by  transfer- 
 ring the  guilt  of  it  to  those  whose  clamors 
 had  induced  it.  As  a  leader  of  the  people 
 he  should  have  indignantly  rejected  the 
 proposal  (Ex.  32). 
 
 Having,  however,  repented  of  this  sin, 
 he  was  received  into  favor,  and  was  conse- 
 crated with  imposing  ceremonials  the  high 
 priest  of  the  people  (Lev.  8),  and  the  of- 
 fice was'  voiifined  to  his  family.  Two  of 
 his  sons,,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  shortly  after 
 their  consecration,  probably  under  the  in- 
 fluence of  strong  drink,  were  guilty  of  ir- 
 reverence in  their  ministrations,  and  were 
 destroyed  by  fire  from  the  Lord  (Lev.  10). 
 Aaron,  though  deeply  wounded,  accepted 
 the  chastisement  without  a  nmrmur. 
 
 When  Miriam,  through  jealousy  of 
 Moses'  wife,  revolted  against  liis  author- 
 ity, Aaron  gave  her  his  countenance  (Num. 
 12).  Miriam  was  stricken  with  leprosy. 
 Aaron  promptly  confessed  his  fault,  and 
 was  not  similarly  punished ;  but,  as  he  had 
 thus  questioned  the  authority  of  Moses, 
 his  own  authority  in  after  years  was  re- 
 sisted by  a  conspiracy  headed  by  Korah, 
 Dathan  and  Abiram,  who  maintained  that 
 he  was  not  entitled  to  any  exclusive  priest- 
 ly rights.  A  fearful  judgment  from  God 
 arrested  this  conspiracy  and  miserably  de- 
 stroyed its  chief  actors.  A  rebellious  spirit, 
 however,  had  taken  possession  of  the  peo- 
 ple, and  now  broke  forth.  The  anger  of 
 the  Lord  was  kindled,  and  a  grievous 
 plague  destroyed  upward  of  fourteen  thou- 
 sand of  them,  and  was  only  stayed  by  Aa- 
 ron's official  intercession  (Num.  16).  This 
 event  afforded  a  striking  attestation  of 
 Aaron's  authority.  That  he  and  his  family 
 might  be  recognized  by  the  people  as  un- 
 doubtedly invested  with  this  priestly  pre- 
 rogative, the  princes  of  the  different  tribes 
 
 were  required  to  bring  to  Moses  each  a 
 rod  inscribed  with  his  name,  Aaron's  name 
 being  placed  on  the  rod  of  Levi.  These 
 rods  were  deposited,  by  divine  command, 
 in  the  tabernacle.  On  the  following  day 
 it  was  found  that  while  the  rods  of  the 
 other  tribes  remained  unchanged,  that  of 
 Aaron  had  budded,  blossomed  and  brought 
 forth  almonds.  This  rod  was  preserved  as 
 a  memorial,  and  for  a  long  series  of  years 
 no  instance  of  invasion  of  the  priest's  of- 
 fice was  known  (Num.  17). 
 
 At  the  waters  of  Meribah,  Aaron  was 
 implicated  with  Moses  in  tlie  distrust  of 
 God  there  evinced,  and  for  this  they  were 
 forbidden  to  enter  into  the  promised  land 
 (Num.  20  :  8-13).  Not  many  months  af- 
 ter this  the  hosts  of  Israel  came  to  Mount 
 Hor,  and  Aaron,  accompanied  by  Moses 
 and  by  his  son  Eleazar,  was  directed  to  as- 
 cend to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  in  view 
 of  the  people.  Having  been  divested  of 
 his  priestly  robes,  which  were  transferred 
 to  Eleazar,  he  there  expired,  Ijeing  one 
 hundred  and  twenty-three  yeai-s  old.  He 
 was  buried  on  the  mountain  (Num.  20  : 
 22-29;  33  :  38,  39),  and  the  Israelites 
 mourned  for  him  thirty  days.  Mount 
 Hor  is  a  rocky  peak  in  the  mountains  of 
 Edom,  and  is  still  known  as  "  Movmt 
 Aaron."  TJie  Arabs  sliow  what  they 
 claim  to  be  the  tomb  of  Aaron  on  its  sum- 
 mit, and  manifest  great  reverence  for  his 
 memory.  In  Deut.  10  :  6,  Aaron  is  said 
 to  have  died  at  Mosera  (plural,  Moseroth, 
 Num.  33  :  30),  which  appears  to  have  been 
 the  name  of  a  station  near  Mount  Hor. 
 
 Aaron  married  Elisheba,  sister  of  Naa- 
 shon,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Judah.  He 
 liad  four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar  and 
 Itliamar  (Ex.  6  :  23),  of  wliom  the  first  two 
 died  before  him.  The  high  priesthood 
 passed  to  the  descendants  of  the  other 
 two. 
 
 Aaron  was  a  man  of  true  godliness.  The 
 weak  side  of  his  character  was  a  readiness 
 to  be  unduly  influenced  by  others.    Whilst 
 
AARONITES— ABDON. 
 
 9 
 
 with  Moses  he  Wiis  brave,  steadfast,  unflinch- 
 ing, but  away  from  him  he  was  apt  to  fall 
 in  with  suggestions  that  he  should  have  re- 
 sisted. This  is  noticeable  in  the  affairs  of 
 the  golden  calf  and  Miriam's  revolt.  Yet 
 is  he  to  be  honored  for  his  long  and  noble 
 devotion  to  his  work  as  a  leader,  for  his 
 willingness  to  stand  second  to  his  younger 
 brother,  for  his  submission  to  the  rebukes 
 of  the  Lord,  and  for  the  unhesitating  faith 
 with  which  he  obeyed  the  commands  of 
 the  God  of  Israel.  He  was  eminently 
 honored  in  receiving  the  high-priestly 
 office,  which  typified  the  nobler  priesthood 
 of  the  Christ  to  come. 
 
 See  Moses,  Priest,  Hor. 
 
 A'a-ron-ites,  descendants  of  Aaron, 
 and  therefore  priests.  Jehoiada  led  3700 
 Aaronites  in  arms  to  the  support  of  David 
 at  Hebron  (1  Chron.  12  :  27);  later,  Zadok 
 was  their  chief  (1  Chron.  27  :  17). 
 
 Ab,  the  Hebrew  word  ior  father,  which 
 enters  into  the  composition  of  many  prop- 
 er names,  as  Absalom,  Abner,  Abigail,  A'oi- 
 jah,  Moab,  etc. 
 
 Ab,  the  name  given  after  the  Babylo- 
 nian captivity  to  one  of  the  Jewish  months, 
 being  the  fifth  of  the  saci-ed  and  the  elev- 
 enth of  the  civil  year  reckoning.  It  cor- 
 responded with  parts  of  July  and  August, 
 and  consisted  of  thirty  days.     See  Month. 
 
 A-bad^don  [destruction  or  the  des- 
 troyer'] is  the  Hebrew  equivalent  of  the 
 Greek  Apollyon,  the  title  given  in  Rev. 
 9  :  11  to  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit 
 or  abyss.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  term 
 Abaddon  is  applied  to  destruction  (Job 
 31 :  12),  and  to  the  place  of  destruction  (Job 
 26  :  6;  Prov.  15  :  II).  Apollyon  in  Eev. 
 9:11  may  be  either  the  idea  of  destruc- 
 tion personified  or  a  personal  destroyer, 
 Satan,  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit. 
 
 Ab^a-iia  [in  the  margin  Amana,  still 
 preserved  in  Arabic  and  Greek,  meaning 
 fait hf id,  probably  as  continually  flowing], 
 a  river  of  Damascus,  Syria,  mentioned  in 
 2  Kings  5  :  12.     Naaman,   spurning   the 
 
 direction  of  Elisha  to  wasli  in  Jordan  for 
 the  cure  of  his  leprosy,  indignantly  asks, 
 "Are  not  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivei-s  of 
 Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of 
 Israel  ?"  Its  modern  name  is  Barada. 
 It  rises  in  the  mountains  west  of  Damas- 
 cus, some  twenty-three  miles  from  the 
 city.  After  flowing  through  the  plain  and 
 the  city  of  Damascus,  and  carrying  in  its 
 flow  an  extraordinary  fertility  and  beauty, 
 it  loses  itself  in  a  marshy  lake  on  the  east. 
 (See  engraving  on  p.  11.) 
 
 Ab^a-rira  {j)a!i!^a(je'^  over  fords],  a  range 
 of  highlands  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 
 in  Moab,  lacing  Jericho  and  forming  at 
 that  part  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Jordan 
 valley.  The  range  presents  many  distinct 
 masses  and  elevations,  commanding  exten- 
 sive and  exquisite  views  of  the  country 
 west  of  the  river.  From  one  of  the  high- 
 est of  these,  called  Mount  Nebo,  Moses 
 surveyed  the  Promised  Land.  From  the 
 manner  in  which  the  names  Abarim,  Ne- 
 bo and  Pisgah  are  associated  in  Deut. 
 32  :  49  and  34  :  1,  it  has  been  inferred 
 that  Abarim  is  the  general  name  for  tlie 
 mountain-chain,  Pisgah  the  specific  name 
 of  a  ridge,  and  Nebo  the  topmost  peak  of 
 Pisgah.    See  Nebo  and  Pisgah. 
 
 Ab^ba  l^father],  from  the  Hebrew  M'ord 
 Ab,  of  which  it  is  the  Aramaic  form,  oc- 
 curs in  Mark  14  :  36;  Eom.  8  :  15;  Gal. 
 4  :  6,  where  it  is  translated /a^/ter.  It  was 
 used  as  a  term  of  endearment  by  children 
 in  speaking  to  their  father,  like  our 
 "papa,"  and  expresses  trustful  love.  It 
 is  a  title  given  to  priests  of  Oriental 
 churches ;  and  the  old  English  title  of 
 abbot,  the  head  or  father  of  a  religious 
 community,  is  derived  from  it,  as  is  also 
 pope  (papa).  When  believers  receive  the 
 Spirit  of  adoption,  they  are  justified  in  ad- 
 dressing God  as  Abba,  Father  (Gal.  4:6). 
 
 Ab'don  \_HervUe],  the  name  of  a  judge 
 and  of  a  city. 
 
 1.  The  tenth  judge  of  Israel,  who  seems 
 to  have  enjoyed  a  peaceful  government  of 
 
10 
 
 ABEDNEGO— ABEL-MIZRAIM. 
 
 eiglit  years.  He  had  forty  sons  and  thirty 
 nephews  wlio  rode  on  young  asses,  an  evi- 
 dence of  the  influence  of  his  family  ( Judg. 
 12 :  13-15).  The  name  was  a  common  one, 
 as  four  otlier  pei"sons  bearing  it  are  men- 
 tioned (1  Chron.  8  :  23,  30;  9  :  36;  2 
 Chron.  34  :  20). 
 
 2.  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  given 
 to  the  Levites  (Josh.  21  :  30). 
 
 A-bed'ne-gO  [servant  of  Nego  or 
 Nebu'\,  the  Chaklean  name  given  to  Aza- 
 riah,  one  of  the  three  captive  princes  who 
 were  companions,  of  Daniel  at  the  court 
 of  Babylon  (Dan.  1:7).  He,  with  Shad- 
 rach  and  Meshach,  was  cast  into  a  fiery 
 furnace  for  refusing  to  worship  the  golden 
 image  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  set  up 
 in  the  "^lain  of  Dura,  and  was  miraculously 
 delivered  (Dan.  3). 
 
 A'bel,  Hebrew,  Hebel  [breath,  vapor, 
 transitorine^l,  the  second  son  of  Adam 
 and  I\e,  born  after  their  fall  into  sin  and 
 their  expulsion  from  Eden.  His  story  is 
 told  in  Gen.  4.  Abel,  altliough  inherit- 
 ing the  corrupt  nature  of  his  parents,  was 
 eminent  for  piety.  Our  Lord  (Matt.  23  : 
 35)  distinguishes  him  as  the  "  righte'^rs 
 Abel."  He  was  the  first  of  the  human 
 family  who  endured  the  pains  of  death, 
 the  first  martyr  who  sealed  his  testimony 
 to  the  gospel  with  his  blood.  In  obedi- 
 ence to  God's  command,  he  offered  in  sac- 
 rifice the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  whilst 
 his  elder  brother,  Cain,  refused  to  do  so, 
 and  in  the  spirit  of  presumption  and  pride 
 brought  a  bloodless  oflering  of  "fruit  of 
 the  ground."  By  some  visible  sign — such, 
 most  likely,  as  the  sending  of  fire  from 
 heaven  to  consume  the  victim — God  at- 
 tested the  acceptance  of  Abel's  offering 
 and  the  rejection  of  Cain's.  This  so  en- 
 raged Cain  that  he  "  rose  up  against  Abel 
 his  brother  and  slew  liim  "  (Gen.  4  :  8). 
 In  Heb.  11:4  the  superior  excellence, 
 and  the  consequent  acceptance,  of  Abel's 
 offering  are  referred  to  liis  "  faith."  Hence 
 we    infer  tliat   God    had    revealed   with 
 
 more  or  less  clearness  the  grand  doctrine 
 of  redemption,  and  had  required  bloody 
 sacrifices  as  the  significant  types  of  the 
 one  great  sacrifice.  This  revelation  Abel 
 received ;  this  requirement  Abel  met. 
 Cain,  however,  rejected  both,  and  was 
 himself  rejected. 
 
 A'bel  signifies  a  meadow  or  grassy  plain, 
 and,  with  distinguishing  additions,  is  asso- 
 ciated with  several  towns  in  Pale.stine. 
 
 A'bel-Beth-Ma'a-chah  [Abel  of 
 the  house  oj  Maachah'\,  a  city  in  the  north 
 of  Palestine,  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe 
 of  Naphtali,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dan. 
 From  its  importance  it  is  designated  (2 
 Sam.  20  :  19)  "  a  mother  in  Israel ;"  that 
 is,  a  metropolis.  It  was  also  called  Abel- 
 Maim,  or  "  Abel  on  the  waters."  (Com- 
 pare 2  Sam.  20  :  14,  15  and  2  Chron.  16  : 
 4.)  It  was  besieged  by  Joab  on  account 
 of  its  sheltering  Sheba  the  son  of  Bichri, 
 a  Benjamite,  who  had  rebelled  against 
 King  David,  but  was  saved  from  over- 
 throw by  the  compliance  of  its  inhabit- 
 ants with  the  suggestion  of  a  wise  woman 
 that  the  head  of  Sheba  should  be  struck 
 oflT  and  cast  over  the  wall  (2  Sam.  20  :  14- 
 22).  It  was  afterward  taken  by  Benha- 
 dad  (1  Kings  15  :  20),  and  two  hundred 
 years  after  by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  car- 
 ried its  inhabitants  into  captivity  (2  Kings 
 15:29). 
 
 A^bel-Ce-ra^mim  [  plain  of  the  vine- 
 yurJi'].  It  is  referred  to,  by  a  translation 
 of  its  name,  in  Judg.  11  :  33.  It  was  a 
 village  of  the  Ammonites,  east  of  Jordan. 
 
 A^bel-Me-ho'lah  [plain  of  the  dance'], 
 in  the  north  part  of  the  Jordan  valley, 
 west  of  Jordan  and  ten  miles  south  of 
 Bethshean  (1  Kings  4  :  12).  It  was  the 
 birthplace  or  residence  of  Elisha  (1  Kings 
 19  :  16).  The  Midianites  fled  thither  to 
 reach  the  river  when  defeated  by  Gideon 
 (Judg.  7  :  22). 
 
 A'bel-Miz'ra-im  [the  mourning  of 
 the  Egyptians],  the  name  given  to  the 
 threshing-floor    of    Atad,    because    there 
 
12 
 
 ABEL-SHITTIM— ABIB. 
 
 Joseph  and  the  funeral  procession  that 
 accompanied  him  from  Kgypt  "  mourned 
 with  a  great  and  very  sore  himentation" 
 over  the  patriarch  Jacob  (Gen.  50:  11). 
 Its  position  has  been  a  question  in  dis- 
 pute. We  should  look  for  it  in  the 
 neighborhood  of  Hebron,  where  was  the 
 cave  of  Machpelah. 
 
 A'bel-Shit'tim  [meadow  of  the  aca- 
 cias], a  town  in  tlie  plains  of  Moab,  on  tlie 
 ea.st  of  Jordan,  between  which  and  Beth- 
 Jesimoth  the  Israelites  made  tlieir  last 
 encampments  before  the  passage  of  Jor- 
 dan (Num.  33  :  49).  It  is  often  called 
 Shittim,  as  in  Num.  25  :  1.  From  this 
 place  Joshua  sent  out  spies  to  visit  Jeri- 
 cho (Josh.  2:1).  Here  too  the  Israel- 
 ites were  seduced  by  the  daughters  of 
 Moab  into  the  obscene  idolatries  of  Baal- 
 peor,  and  were  punished  therefor  by  a 
 {tlague  (Num.  25  :  1-9). 
 
 A'bi,  shortened  form  of  Abijah,  the 
 mother  of  King  Hezekiah.  (Compare  2 
 Kings  18  :  2  with  2  Chron.  29  :  1.) 
 
 A-bi'a,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
 Abijuh  (Matt.  1:7).  In  Luke  1 : 5,  Za- 
 charias  the  priest,  and  father  of  John  the 
 Baptist,  is  spoken  of  as  pertaining  to  the 
 "course  of  Abia."  The  j^ricsts  were  di- 
 vided into  twenty-four  courses  or  classes, 
 each  in  its  turn  to  be  engaged  in  the  pub- 
 lic ministrations  (1  Chron.  24).  The 
 course  of  Abia  or  Abijah  was  the  eighth 
 in  order. 
 
 A-bi'ah,  a  less  correct  English  form 
 of  Abijah.  It  occurs  four  times  in  the 
 Old  Testament,  notably  as  the  name  of 
 the  second  son  of  tlie  prophet  Samuel,  by 
 whom  he  was  appointed  a  judge  over  Is- 
 rael, in  connection  with  his  brother  Joel. 
 Their  administration,  however,  was  so 
 glaringly  corrupt  that  the  people  became 
 disgusted,  and  demantled  a  king  (1  Sam. 
 8  :  2-5). 
 
 A-bi'a-thar  [father  of  abundance,  or 
 liberal^,  the  son  of  Ahimelech,  high  priest 
 of  Israel,  and  fourtli  in  descent  from  Eli 
 
 in  the  line  of  Ithamar.  When  his  father, 
 who  was  high  priest,  was  slain  by  the 
 command  of  Saul  for  his  supposed  friend- 
 ship for  David  (1  Sam.  22),  Abiathar  es- 
 caped the  massacre  to  whicii  his  family 
 wfus  doomed,  and  taking  with  him  the 
 ephod,  a  priestly  garment,  he  repaired  to 
 David  at  the  cave  of  Adullam.  He  be- 
 came the  priest  of  David's  party,  and  in- 
 quired of  the  Lord  for  him  in  times  of 
 doubt  and  danger  (1  Sam.  23  :  9 ;  30  :  7), 
 adiicring  to  him  in  all  his  trials. 
 
 On  David's  accession  to  the  throne  he 
 seems  to  have  recognized  both  Abiathar 
 and  Zadok  as  liigh  priests  (1  Kings  4:4). 
 At  the  abdication  of  David  in  favor  of  Solo- 
 mon, Abiathar  wrongly  favored  the  succes- 
 sion of  Adonijah  to  the  throne.  For  this, 
 Solomon,  on  his  accession,  displaced  him, 
 and  recognized  Zadok  as  having  exclusive 
 possession  of  the  office  (1  Kings  2  :  26,  27). 
 The  deposition  of  Abiathar  was  in  strict 
 fulfilment  of  the  doom  pronounced  by  the 
 Lord  against  the  house  of  Eli,  he  being 
 the  last  of  the  priests  in  that  line  (1  Sam. 
 2  :  30-36). 
 
 In  Mark  2  :  26  there  is  a  reference  to 
 David's  eating  the  shew-bread  in  the  house 
 of  God  in  the  days  of  Abiathar  the  high 
 priest,  and  in  1  Sam.  21  :  1-6  this  is  said 
 to  have  occurred  when  Ahimelech  was 
 high  priest.  Abiathar  was  probably  as- 
 sociated in  service  with  his  fatlicr  at  that 
 time,  and,  afterward  becoming  liigh  priest 
 was  spoken  of  as  high  priest  in  connection 
 with  that  event — i.  e.  "  in  the  days  of  Abi- 
 athar, afterward  high  priest."  In  2  Sam. 
 8:  17;  1  Chron.  18:  16;  24:  3,  6,  31, 
 Ahimelech  or  Ahimelech  is  spoken  of  as 
 the  son  of  Abiathar,  or  as  high  priest  in 
 the  days  of  David.  The  two  names  seem 
 to  liave  been  transposed  by  a  copyist. 
 The  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions  have 
 "Abiathar  the  son  of  Ahimelech"  in 
 these  jilaces  (Kitto).     See  Zadok. 
 
 A^bib  [heads  or  ears  of  r/rain,  green 
 ears],  one   of  the   Hebrew   months    (Ex. 
 
ABIDE— ABIJAH. 
 
 13 
 
 13  :  4),  afterward  called  Nisan  (Neh.  2  : 
 1).  As  the  month  of  newly-ripe  grain,  it 
 indicates  the  season  of  spring,  and  is  sup- 
 posed to  correspond  with  part  of  March 
 and  part  of  April.  Because  on  its  fifteenth 
 day  the  Israelites  made  their  exodus  from 
 Egypt,  it  was  associated  with  the  passover, 
 and  was  reckoned  the  first  month  in  the 
 sacred  year  reckoning. 
 
 Abide,  an  old  English  word  having 
 the  sense  of  aivail  (Acts  20  :  23),  and 
 passing  by  easy  transition  to  the  sense  of 
 bear,  endure  (Num.  31  :  23;  Joel  2  :  11). 
 
 Ab'i-el  [my  father  is  God],  the  father 
 of  Kish,  and  grandfather  of  Saul  the  first 
 king  of  the  Israelites  (1  Sam.  9:1).  An- 
 other of  the  same  name  was  one  of  the 
 thirty  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
 David's  army  (1  Chron.  11  :  32). 
 
 A-bi-e'zer  [my  father  is  help,  or  help- 
 ful], a  native  of  Anathoth,  one  of  David's 
 thirty  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  23  :  27 ;  1 
 Chron.  11:28;  27:12).  The  military 
 exploits  of  a  family  of  the  same  name, 
 d  ^"  ;ended  from  Manasseh  ( Josli.  17  :  2), 
 and  to  which  Gideon  belonged  ( Judg.  6  : 
 11),  are  referred  to  in  Judg.  8:2. 
 
 Ab'i-gail  [my  father  is  joy,  joyous], 
 the  name  of  two  women. 
 
 1.  David's  sister,  the  wife  of  Jether  or 
 Ithra,  an  Islmiaelite,  and  the  mother  of 
 Amasa  (1  Chron.  2  :  17). 
 
 2.  The  wife  of  Nabal,  a  wealthy  man  with 
 large  possessions  in  Carmel  of  Judah,  about 
 ten  miles  south  of  Hebron.  The  dispositions 
 of  the  two  were  in  striking  contrast.  Nabal 
 was  churlish  and  selfish,  while  his  wife  was 
 not  only  distinguished  for  her  personal 
 beauty,  but  for  her  discretion  and  kind- 
 ness. When  David  was  fleeing  from  the 
 fury  of  Saul  he  came  with  his  followers 
 to  the  mountainous  country  where  Nabal's 
 flocks  were  fed,  and  his  presence  was  the 
 means  of  their  protection.  On  represent- 
 ing this  to  Nabal,  and  asking  for  some  re- 
 turn of  kindness,  he  was  treated  with  rude- 
 ness and  insult.   This  so  exasperated  David 
 
 that  he  would  have  visited  Nabal  with  sig- 
 nal vengeance  had  not  Abigail  disarmed 
 him  by  kindness  and  delicate  liberality. 
 David  was  so  pleased  with  her  beauty  and 
 discretion  that  he  married  her  after  the 
 death  of  Nabal  (1  Sam.  25).    See  Nabal. 
 
 A-bi-ha'll  [my  father  is  might,  mighty'], 
 the  second  wife  of  Rehoboam,  king  of 
 Judah.  She  is  called  the  daughter  of 
 Eliab,  David's  elder  brother ;  but  as  Da- 
 vid began  to  reign  more  than  eighty  years 
 before  her  marriage,  and  was  thirty  years 
 old  when  he  became  king,  we  are  no  doubt 
 to  understand  the  expression  as  meaning 
 that  she  was  a  descendant  of  Eliab,  the  term 
 "  daughter  "  often  having  this  general  sense 
 (2  Chron.  11  :  18). 
 
 Several  other  persons  bear  the  same 
 name,  as  (1)  Abihail,  father  of  Zuriel, 
 the  father  of  the  Levitical  families  of 
 Merari  (Num.  3  :  35) ;  (2)  the  wife  of 
 Abishur  (1  Chron.  2  :  29);  (3)  Abihail, 
 one  of  the  heads  of  ftimilies  of  the  tribe 
 of  Gad  (1  Chron.  5  :  14);  and  (4)  Abihail, 
 the  father  of  Queen  Esther  and  uncle  of 
 Mordecai  (Esth.  2  :  15). 
 
 A-bi'hu  [my  father  is  He — i.  e.  God, 
 meaning  Komhiper  of  God],  the  second  of 
 the  sons  of  Aaron,  who,  with  his  three  broth- 
 ers, was  consecrated  to  the  priesthood  (Ex. 
 28  :  1).  The  priests  were  required,  in 
 burning  the  daily  incense,  to  use  the  per- 
 petual fire  which  was  kept  burning  on  the 
 great  brazen  altar.  Nadab  and  Abihu  used 
 common,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Scripture, 
 strange  fire,  and  for  this  irreverence  were 
 destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven  (Lev.  10  : 
 1-11).  The  prohibition  of  wine  and  strong 
 drink  to  priests  whose  turn  it  should  be  to 
 enter  the  tabernacle,  which  follows  the 
 narration  of  this  judgment  on  Nadab  and 
 Abihu,  leads  to  the  belief  that  intoxica- 
 tion was  the  cause  of  their  sin  and  punish- 
 ment.    Both  died  childless  (Num.  3:  4). 
 
 A-bi'jah  [my  father  is  Jah — /'.  e.  wor- 
 shiper of  Jehovah],  a  common  Hebrew  name, 
 the  same  as  Abia  and  Abiah  (which  see). 
 
14 
 
 ABILEXE— ABINADAB. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Rehoboam  and  grandson 
 of  Solomon,  second  king  of  the  separate 
 kingdom  of  Judah.  He  began  to  reign 
 B.  c.  958,  and  reigned  three  years.  On 
 taking  the  tlirone  he  made  an  earnest  at- 
 tempt to  bring  back  the  ten  tribes  to  their 
 allegiance.  Although  he  defeated  the  army 
 of  Israel  led  by  Jeroboam,  he  failed  to  unite 
 the  ten  tribes  with  Judah  (2  Chron.  13). 
 His  speech  to  the  army  of  Jeroboam  shows 
 that  he  recognized  Jehovah  as  the  sove- 
 reign God,  but  his  life  was  not  that  of  a 
 child  of  God.  "He  walked  in  all  the  sins 
 of  his  father,  and  was  not  perfect  with  the 
 Lord"  (1  Kings  15  :  3).  In  Kings  he  is 
 called  Abijam,  perhaps  because  deemed 
 unworthy  of  the  title  of  a  worshiper  of 
 Jehovah. 
 
 2.  A  little  son  of  Jeroboam,  the  story  of 
 whose  death  is  touchingly  told  in  1  Kings 
 14. 
 
 3.  The  daughter  of  Zediariah,  mother 
 of  King  Hezekiah  and  wife  of  Ahaz  (2 
 Chron.  29 :  1),  called  Abi  (2  Kings  18:2). 
 
 A-bi-le'ne,  a  tract  of  country  the  ex- 
 tent of  which  is  not  precisely  known,  but 
 it  is  thought  to  have  embraced  the  eastern 
 declivities  of  Anti-Libanus  and  the  fertile 
 valleys  at  its  base.  In  Luke  3  :  1,  Lysa- 
 nias  is  referred  to  as  the  tetrarch  of  Abi- 
 lene, and  Pococke  mentions  an  inscription 
 among  the  ruins  of  Abila  (now  Suk  Warly 
 Barada),  the  chief  city  of  the  province, 
 containing  the  words  "  Lysanias  Tetrarch." 
 
 A-bim'e-lech  [my  father  is  king'],i\\e 
 common  title  of  the  kings  of  Philistia, 
 as  Pharaoh  was  that  of  the  kings  of 
 Egypt. 
 
 1.  The  first  one  of  the  name  mentioned 
 in  Scripture  was  Abimelech,  king  of  Ge- 
 rar,  who  was  contemporary  with  Abram. 
 In  Gen.  20  is  a  narrative  connected  with 
 Abram's  visit  to  Gerar.  Abimelech,  sup- 
 posing Sarai  to  be  the  sister,  and  not  the 
 wife,  of  Abram,  had  her  brought  into  his 
 harem,  an  act  of  violence  quite  in  accord- 
 ance with  Oriental  ideas.     In  obedience  to 
 
 a  divine  warning,  Abimelech  restored  Sa- 
 rai to  her  husband. 
 
 2.  At  a  subsequent  period  Isaac  was  driven 
 by  stress  of  famine  to  visit  the  same  place, 
 which  was  then  governed  by  another  king 
 of  the  same  name,  and,  following  his  fa- 
 ther's evil  example,  he  was  guilty  of  a 
 similar  deception  in  regard  to  his  wife 
 Rebekah  (Gen.  26). 
 
 3.  A  son  of  Gideon,  one  of  the  judges 
 of  Israel.  Gideon  had  seventy  sons,  among 
 whom  Abimelech  was  the  most  enterpris- 
 ing and  unprincipled.  Having  insinuated 
 himself  into  the  favor  of  the  Shechemites, 
 he  slew  all  his  brothers  except  Jotham,  the 
 youngest,  who  escaped.  After  this  barba- 
 rous massacre  he  Avas  made  king.  Retrib- 
 utive justice  awaited  him.  Many  of  his 
 subjects  revolted,  and  while  he  was  at- 
 tempting to  reduce  Thebez,  which  was  en- 
 gaged in  the  revolt,  a  woman  threw  down 
 from  the  tower  a  piece  of  millstone,  which 
 fractured  his  skull.  Finding  himself  mor- 
 tally wounded,  he  commanded  his  armor- 
 bearer  to  thrust  him  through  the  body, 
 lest  it  should  be  said  that  he  fell  by  a 
 woman's  hand  (Judg.  9  :  54).  For  a  war- 
 rior to  be  slain  by  a  woman  was  regarded 
 as  a  terribly  ignominious  death.  Vainly, 
 however,  did  Abimelech  attempt  to  escape 
 this  disgrace,  for  the  fact  of  his  death  by 
 the  hand  of  a  woman  was  long  after  a.sso- 
 ciated  with  his  memory  (2  Sam.  11  :  21). 
 
 A-bin'a-dab  [iny  father  is  noble — 
 noble],  the  name  of  several  men. 
 
 1.  The  Levite  of  Kirjath-jearim  in 
 whose  house  the  ark  was  deposited  after 
 the  Philistines  had  restored  it  to  the 
 Israelites.  There  it  remained  eighty 
 years,  until  removed  by  David  (1  Sam. 
 7  :  1  ;  2  Sam.  6  :  3,  4 ;  1  Chron.  13:7). 
 
 2.  One  of  Saul's  sons,  who  was  slain 
 with  him  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam. 
 31  :  2). 
 
 3.  The  second  of  the  eight  sons  of  Jes- 
 se, the  father  of  David  (1  Sam.  16  :  8; 
 17  :  13). 
 
ABIRAM— ABOMINABLE. 
 
 15 
 
 4.  The  father  of  one  of  the  twelve  offi- 
 cers appointed  by  Solomon  to  provide  for 
 the  royal  household  (1  Kings  4  :  11). 
 
 A-bi'ram  [my  father  is  exalted']. 
 
 1.  A  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  and 
 one  of  the  conspirators  against  Moses  in 
 the  wilderness,  for  which  crime  he,  with 
 Korah  and  Dathan,  was  engulfed  by  the 
 opening  earth  (Num.  16  :  l-o3). 
 
 2.  The  eldest  son  of  Hiel  the  Bethelite, 
 who  died  prematurely  in  fulfillment  of  the 
 curse  pronounced  against  the  man  who 
 should  rebuild  Jericho  (Josh.  6  :  26  and 
 1  Kings  16  :  34). 
 
 Ab^i-shag  [meaning  doubtful,  per- 
 haps given  to  ei'ror'],  a  fair  young  woman 
 of  Shunem,  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  se- 
 lected to  cherish  David  in  his  declining 
 age  (1  Kings  1  :  3).  After  the  death  of 
 David,  Adonijah,  as  a  step  to  the  throne, 
 engaged  in  an  intrigue  to  marry  Abishag, 
 and  thereupon  was  put  to  death  by  Sol- 
 omon (1  Kings  2  :  17-25). 
 
 Ab'i-shai  [my  father  is  a  gifl — gifted], 
 a  nephew  of  David,  through  his  sister  Ze- 
 ruiah,  who  zealously  devoted  himself  to  the 
 interests  of  his  uncle.  He  was  David's 
 companion  in  the  daring  exploit  of  pass- 
 ing through  the  sleeping  guards  to  where 
 Saul  slept  (1  Sam.  26  :  5-9).  When  Shim- 
 ei  reviled  David,  Abishai  turned  to  slay 
 the  foul-mouthed  assailant  of  his  king  (2 
 Sam.  16  :  9).  In  suppressing  the  rebel- 
 lion of  Absalom  he  commanded  one  of 
 the  three  divisions  of  David's  army  (2 
 Sam.  18  :  2).  When  David's  life  was  en- 
 dangered by  the  giant  Ishbi-benob,  Abi- 
 shai interposed  for  his  succor  and  killed 
 the  giant  (2  Sam.  21  :  16,  17).  He  was 
 distinguished  as  having  slain  three  hun- 
 dred men  (1  Chron.  11 :  20).  The  victory 
 over  Edom  in  the  Valley  of  Salt  is  ascribed 
 to  him  (1  Chron.  18:12);  and  he  probably 
 was  the  one  who  gained  the  battle,  al- 
 though in  2  Sam.  8:13  the  achieve- 
 ment is  ascribed  to  David  as  commander- 
 in-chief.     He  was  a  valiant  man,  chival- 
 
 rous and  impetuous,  and  intensely  attached 
 to  David,  who  valued  him  more  as  a  dar- 
 ing warrior  than  as  a  wise  counsellor. 
 His  history  is  closely  associated  with  that 
 of  his  more  politic  brother,  Joab. 
 
 Ab^ner  [my  father  is  light — that  is,  en- 
 lightener],  the  son  of  Ner  and  uncle  of 
 Saul,  of  whose  armies  he  was  the  chief 
 leader  (1  Sam.  14  :  50;  17  :  55;  20  :  25; 
 26  :  5).  Although  it  was  known  that  Da- 
 vid had  been  divinely  designated  as  the 
 successor  of  Saul,  at  that  monarch's  death 
 Abner,  presuming  on  the  great  influence 
 he  had  acquired  with  the  people,  pro- 
 claimed Ishbosheth,  Saul's  feeble  son  (2 
 Sam.  2  :  8),  and  upheld  his  government 
 until  it  suited  his  schemes  to  abandon 
 him.  The  tribe  of  Judah  adhered  to 
 David,  who  appointed  Joab  his  chief 
 captain.  The  two  armies,  led  by  Joab 
 and  Abner,  engaged  in  battle,  which  re- 
 sulted in  the  defeat  of  the  latter.  In  his 
 flight  Abner  was  pursued  by  Asahel, 
 Joab's  brother.  Notwithstanding  the 
 warning  of  Abner,  Asahel  came  so  near 
 that  Abner,  by  a  back  thrust  of  his  spear, 
 pierced  him  through  the  body  (2  Sam.  2  : 
 23).  On  a  subsequent  occasion  Ishbo- 
 sheth enraged  Abner  by  rebuking  him 
 for  marrying  Rizpah,  Saul's  concubine, 
 and  the  treacherous  captain  immediately 
 made  overtures  to  David  to  deliver  up  to 
 him  the  kingdom.  While  engaged  in 
 settling  the  preliminaries,  Joab  availed 
 himself  of  a  secret  opportunity  of  killing 
 Abner  in  revenge  for  his  brother  Asahel's 
 death,  and  at  the  same  time  to  remove  a 
 rival.  David  lamented  the  death  of  Ab- 
 ner and  paid  him  high  funeral  honors 
 (2  Sam.  3  :  38).  Abner  left  one  son, 
 Jaasiel  (1  Chron.  27  :  21),  who  was 
 made  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
 by  Solomon. 
 
 A-bom'i-na-ble,  A-bom-i-na^- 
 tion.  These  terms  are  applied  in  the 
 Scriptures  to  objects  awakening  disgust  or 
 abhorrence,  to  impurity,  falsehood,  fraud, 
 
16 
 
 ABRAHA^r. 
 
 pride,  but  especially  to  idols  and  idolatry. 
 See  Idolatry. 
 
 In  Gen  43  :  32  it  is  said  that  it  is  an 
 abomination  to  the  Egyptians  to  eat  bread 
 witli  the  Plebrcw's.  The  Egyptians  were 
 ceremonially  defiled  by  eating  with  for- 
 eigners, and  so  with  the  Hebrews.  This 
 feeling  was  intensified  as  to  the  Hebrews 
 by  the  fact  that  they  offered  in  sacrifice  the 
 cow  and  ate  its  flesh,  whilst  to  the  Egyp- 
 tians it  was  a  sacred  animal  and  an  object 
 of  worship  (Ex.  8  :  2G). 
 
 In  Gen.  46  :  34,  it  is  said  that  "  every 
 shepherd  is  an  abomination  unto  the  Egyp- 
 tians." This  seems  to  have  reference  to 
 nomads  or  wandering  shepherds,  such  as 
 are  the  Bedouin  of  to-day,  and  to  have 
 been  due  to  an  early  invasion  and  oppres- 
 sion of  the  Egyptians  by  their  nomadic 
 neighbors  on  the  north-ea.st,  and  to  the  ir- 
 ritations of  local  depredations  at  a  later 
 day.  This  feeling  still  exists  between  the 
 Egyptians  and  the  Bedouin. 
 
 The  Abomination  of  Desolation,  or 
 "  the  abomination  that  maketh  desolate," 
 spoken  of  in  Dan.  9  :  27 ;  11:31;  and  J  2  : 
 11,  refers  to  the  idolatrous  symbols  which 
 the  desolating  conqueror  of  Jerusalem 
 would  set  up  in  the  holy  place.  These 
 prophecies  were  fulfilled,  first,  in  the  pol- 
 lution of  the  temple  by  Antiochus  Epiph- 
 anes,  who  dedicated  it  to  Jupiter,  170  B.  c. ; 
 and  secondly,  as  foretold  by  Christ  in  Matt. 
 24  :  15:  "When  ye,  therefore,  shall  see 
 the  abomination  of  desolation,  spoken  of 
 by  Daniel  the  prophet,  stand  in  the  holy 
 place,"  in  the  advance  of  the  Roman  ar- 
 mies upon  Jerusalem  and  their  planting 
 in  the  temple  their  military  standards. 
 These  standards  were  crowned  with  im- 
 ages, were  paid  idolatrous  homage  by  the 
 Romans  and  were  regarded  as  idols  by  the 
 Jews.  Such  was  the  abomination  of  the 
 Jews  for  these  standards  that  the  Roman 
 soldiers  quartered  in  Jerusalem  did  not 
 bring  them  into  the  city,  even  Pilate  con- 
 ceding this  point  to  its  people.    History 
 
 tells  us  that  the  Christians  in  Jerusalem, 
 admonished  by  their  Master's  words  (Matt. 
 24  :  16),  found  opi>ortunity  to  leave  Jeru- 
 salem on  the  approach  of  \'espasian,  before 
 the  siege  had  been  begun  by  Titus,  and 
 to  take  refuge  in  Pella.  Titus  surrounded 
 the  city  with  a  wall  in  three  days,  when 
 escape  would  have  been  impossible. 
 
 A'bra-ham  [father  of  a  muUilude], 
 originally  called  Abram  [high  father], 
 the  son  of  Terah  and  a  descendant  of 
 Shem  in  the  ninth  generation.  He  was 
 the  brother  of  Nahor  and  Haran.  The 
 latter  died  young,  leaving  a  son,  Lot,  to 
 the  care  of  his  uncle.  Haran  also  left 
 two  daughters,  of  whom  one,  Iscah,  called 
 also  Sarai,  became  the  wife  of  Abraham. 
 He  was  born  in  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees" 
 about  B.  c.  1996  (Gen.  11  :  27,  28).  Obe- 
 dient to  a  divine  call,  he  left  the  place  of 
 his  nativity,  and  abode  in  Haran  or  Char- 
 ran  (Acts  7  :  4)  until  the  death  of  his  fa- 
 ther. After  this  event,  when  seventy-five 
 years  old*  in  company  with  his  wife  Sarai 
 (afterward  Sarah)  and  his  ne[)hew  Lot,  he 
 journeyed  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  then 
 thinly  populated  by  the  Canaanites,  and 
 there  lived  a  pastoral  life,  dwelling  in 
 tents  and  feeding  his  flocks  where  the 
 pastures  proved  inviting. 
 
 On  his  arrival  at  Sichem  the  Lord  ap- 
 peared to  him  and  renewed  his  promise 
 that  he  would  make  of  him  a  great  nation 
 and  secure  Canaan  as  a  heritage  for  his 
 posterity.  The  promise  of  God  not  only 
 respected  his  temporal  greatness,  but,  inas- 
 much as  it  declared  that  in  him  should  all 
 the  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed,  it  in- 
 cluded the  spiritual  blessings  which  should 
 enrich  the  world  on  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
 siah, who  was  to  descend  from  him  (Gen. 
 12  :  2,  3).  A  famine  driving  Abraham 
 into  Egypt,  then  the  granary  of  the  world, 
 he  was  guilty  of  deceit  in  relation  to  his 
 wife.  Fear  lest  the  beauty  of  Sarai  might 
 prompt  the  Egyptians  to  kill  him  induced 
 him  to  call  her  his  sister,  and  led  to  her 
 
ABRAHAM. 
 
 17 
 
 being  taken  to  the  harem  of  the  king  (Gen. 
 12  :  10-20).  Pharaoh,  however,  who  had 
 been  deceived  by  him,  instead  of  punish- 
 ing him,  loaded  him  with  favors  and  sent 
 him  away. 
 
 Having  acquired  considerable  wealth 
 (Gen.  13  :  2),  he  left  Egypt  with  Lot, 
 and  returned  to  Canaan.  The  extent  of 
 their  flocks  was  the  occasion  of  a  differ- 
 ence which  induced  them  amicably  to  se]}- 
 arate,  the  choice  being  nobly  conceded 
 by  Abraham  to  his  nephew,  who  chose 
 the  well-watered  plain  in  which  Sodom 
 was  situated.  Shortly  after  this  the  Lord 
 cheered  Abraham  by  a  repetition  of  his 
 promise  that  he  should  possess  Canaan 
 with  a  numerous  posterity  (Gen.  13  :  14- 
 17).  He  then  repaired  to  Mamre,  near 
 Hebron.  The  country  in  which  Lot  dwelt 
 was  at  this  time  tributary  to  Chedorlao- 
 mer,  king  of  Elam,  east  of  the  Euphrates. 
 This  king  invaded  the  land  on  its  refusing 
 to  pay  him  the  customary  tribute ;  Lot, 
 with  his  household  and  flocks,  was,  with 
 others,  seized  and  carried  into  captivity. 
 Abraham,  hearing  of  his  disaster,  armed 
 his  servants  to  the  number  of  three  hun- 
 dred and  eighteen,  and,  pursuing  the  cap- 
 tors, overtook  them  near  the  springs  of  the 
 Jordan,  defeated  them,  liberated  Lot  and 
 recovered  his  property.  Reaching  Salem 
 on  his  return,  he  was  met  by  its  king  and 
 priest,  Melchizedek,  to  whom  he  presented 
 a  tenth  of  the  spoils.  By  strict  right,  ac- 
 cording to  war-usages,  all  that  had  been 
 recovered  belonged  to  Abraham.  Tliis 
 was  recognized  by  the  king  of  Sodom, 
 but  Abraham,  with  characteristic  dignity 
 and  generosity,  positively  refused  to  re- 
 ceive any  compensation. 
 
 Abraham  was  at  this  time  cliildless,  and 
 the  promise  was  again  renewed  tliat  lie 
 should  have  a  posterity  which,  after  be- 
 ing in  bondage  four  liundred  years,  should 
 inherit  the  land.  Sarai  proposed  that  he 
 should  take  Hagar  as  a  second  wife,  and 
 by  her  he  had  Ishmael.  Thii'teen  years 
 2 
 
 after,  when  Abraham  was  ninety-nine  years 
 old,  he  had  a  remarkable  vision,  in  which 
 God  assured  him  that  the  heir  of  the  prom- 
 ise was  not  yet  born,  and  that  Sarai  should 
 bear  him  a  son.  At  this  time  his  name 
 was  changed  from  Abram  to  Abraham, 
 and  his  wife's  from  Sarai  to  Sarah  (Gen. 
 17).  Circumcision  was  also  appointed  as 
 the  seal  of  the  covenant  between  God  and 
 him,  and  the  male  members  of  his  family 
 received  the  seal.  A  few  months  after  this, 
 three  persons,  in  appearance  travellers,  ap- 
 proached the  tent  of  Abraham  as  he  sat  at 
 its  door  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  As  the 
 language  used  on  the  occasion  plainly 
 shows,  one  was  the  Lord,  or,  as  may  be  in- 
 ferred, the  Son  of  God,  with  two  attend- 
 ant angels,  who  communicated  to  Abra- 
 ham the  intention  of  the  Lord  to  destroy 
 the  cities  of  the  plain.  Abraham  wa-s 
 permitted  to  intercede  for  the  doomed 
 cities,  and  if  tliere  had  been  ten  righteous 
 persons  found  in  them  his  intercession 
 would  have  availed  for  their  safety.  As 
 it  was.  Lot  and  his  daughters  were  the 
 only  persons  saved  from  the  cities  of  the 
 plain. 
 
 Abraham  then  went  to  Gerar,  where  he 
 was  guilty  of  a  duplicity  similar  to  that 
 practiced  by  him  in  Egypt  (Gen.  20).  See 
 Abimelech. 
 
 About  the  year  b.  c.  1897,  Isaac,  the 
 child  of  promise,  was  born.  This  greatly 
 altered  the  situation  of  Ishmael  in  his  fa- 
 ther's house,  and  resulted  in  the  exile  of 
 liimself  and  his  mother  Hagar. 
 
 When  Isaac  was  about  twenty  years  old 
 the  Lord  was  pleased  to  subject  the  faith 
 of  Abraham  to  a  very  sore  trial.  He  was 
 commanded  to  go  to  the  mountainous  coun- 
 try of  Moriah,  and  there  to  offer  up  his  son, 
 the  child  of  promise,  as  a  sacrifice.  Being 
 assured  that  the  commandment,  mysterious 
 as  it  was,  came  from  the  Lord,  he  instant- 
 ly prepared  to  obey  it,  believing  that  "God 
 was  able  to  raise  him  up  even  from  the 
 dead"  (Heb.  11  :  17-19).    The  Lord  in- 
 
18 
 
 ABSALOM. 
 
 terposed  after  Isaac  had  been  bound  and 
 laid  upon  the  altar,  and  a  ram  was  pro- 
 vided for  the  sacrifice  (Gen.  22). 
 
 Eight  years  after  this  Sarah  died  at  the 
 age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven,  at 
 or  near  Hebron  (Gen.  23  :  1,  2).  This  led 
 Abraham  to  take  steps  to  secure  a  place 
 for  burial.  He  purchased  the  cave  of 
 Machpelah  as  a  family-sepulchre,  the  only 
 possession  he  ever  had  in  the  land  of  prom- 
 ise (Gen.  23).  The  next  care  of  the  patri- 
 arch was  to  obtain  a  suitable  wife  for  his 
 son  Isaac.  This  was  done  by  the  embassy 
 of  Eliezer,  who  was  instructed  to  go  to 
 Abraham's  kindred  in  Ilaran  (Gen.  24), 
 whence  in  due  time  he  returned  with 
 Kebekah,  the  daughter  of  Kalior's  son 
 Bethuel. 
 
 Abraham  afterward  married  Keturah, 
 and  had  several  children,  to  whom  he 
 gave  portions,  but  Isaac  was  constituted 
 his  heir  and  the  head  of  his  house.  At 
 the  age  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
 the  patriarch  died,  and  was  buried  by 
 Isaac  and  Islimael  in  the  same  tomb 
 with  Sarah  at  Hebron  (Gen.  25  :  8-10). 
 A  Mohammedan  mosque  now  covers  the 
 spot. 
 
 Abraham's  name  is  honored  tiie  world 
 over.  Besides  the  Israelites,  the  Edom- 
 ites,  Midianites  and  Lshmaelites  of  ancient 
 time  looked  up  to  him  as  their  progenitor. 
 He  was  honored  with  the  title  of  "  Friend 
 of  God  "  (.James  2 :  23),  and  by  that  title  he 
 is  still  known  and  revered  by  the  Moiiam- 
 medans  of  every  land.  All  Christians  are 
 accounted  as  his  spiritual  seed  and  are 
 heirs  with  him  of  the  promise.  As  a 
 man  he  was  the  type  of  devotion,  faith, 
 courtesy  and  magnanimity,  but  he  is  more 
 eminent  for  having  been  called  of  God  to 
 be  the  head  of  the  visible  Church,  to  con- 
 serve the  woi-ship  of  the  true  God,  to  be 
 the  progenitor  of  Christ  and  the  fatlier  of 
 the  faithful  in  all  lands  and  ages.  Inter- 
 esting as  is  the  study  of  his  life  for  the 
 light  it  throws  upon  the  patriarchal  times, 
 
 far  more  important  is  it  for  its  illastrations 
 of  the  divine  plans  and  government. 
 
 Abraham's  Bos'om.    Our  Lonl,  in 
 speaking  of  tiie  condition  of  Lazarus  after 
 death,  represents  it  ;ls  that  of  one  "carried 
 by  the  angels  into  Abraham's  bosom"  ( Luke 
 IG  :  22).     He  thus  conveys  to  the  mind  of 
 j  a  Jew  the  very  definite  idea  of  a  state  cha- 
 i  racterized  by  equal  happiness  and  honor, 
 I  the   highest  joys   of  paradise.      His   al- 
 lusion   is  to   that   Eastern   mode  of   re- 
 clining at  table  by  which  the  one  who  sat 
 next  to  the  m:istcr  of  the  feast  was  neces- 
 sarily brought  almost  into  his  bosom,  and 
 I  was  coasequently  regarded  an  occupying 
 the  place  of  highest  distinction. 
 
 Ab'sa-lom  I  father  of  peace,  or  peace- 
 full,  called  also  Abishalom  [my  father 
 is  peacel,  (1  Kings  15  :  2,  10),  son  of 
 David  by  Maachah,  daughter  of  Tal- 
 mai,  king  of  Geshur  (2  Sam.  3  :  3). 
 He  was  distinguished  by  his  beauty,  in- 
 herited from  both  his  father  and  mother, 
 and  also  by  vanity,  ambition  and  a  reck- 
 lessness that  stopped  at  no  crime  in  tlie 
 pursuit  of  his  aims.  His  personal  for- 
 tunes were  determined  and  darkened  by 
 the  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  one  of 
 David's  numerous  wives. 
 
 Polygamy  is  a  sin  against  the  family  as 
 well  as  against  God.  David's  polygamy 
 cursed  his  home  and  himself.  Rival  in- 
 terests sprang  up  in  the  circle  tliat  God 
 meant  for  a  unit.  David's  eldest  son, 
 Amnon,  who  dishonored  his  half-sister 
 Tamar,  and  was  in  consequence  murdered 
 by  her  full  brother  Absalom  (2  Sam.  13  : 
 29),  was  the  son  of  Ahinoam.  His  sec- 
 ond son,  by  Abigail,  disappeared  from  his- 
 tory and  probably  died  young.  Absalom, 
 the  third  son,  owned  a  third  mother,  Maa- 
 cliah,  daughter  of  a  Syrian  prince,  "the 
 king  of  Geshur."  Doubtless  David  sought 
 by  this  alliance  greater  security,  changing 
 his  troublesome  neighbors  in  the  rocky 
 Lejiih,  on  his  north-eastern  border,  from 
 foes   to    kinsmen.      But   discord    entered 
 
ABSALOM. 
 
 19 
 
 David's  household.  Amnon  might  well 
 aspire  to  the  throne  by  virtue  of  prior- 
 ity in  birth,  whilst  Absalom,  son  of  a 
 king  and  with  a  king's  daughter  for  his 
 motlier,  would  despise  the  son  of  the 
 humble  Jezreelitess,  wedded  by  David 
 whilst  yet  but  a  private  person.  But  it 
 was  yet  another  son  of  another  mother 
 who  was  chosen  by  God  to  succeed  his 
 father  on  the  throne.  Here  entered  dis- 
 cord, jealousy,  enmity,  to  sow  the  seeds  of 
 strife  and  assassination. 
 
 Absalom  did  not  inherit  •  from  his 
 mother  his  peerless  beauty  alone.  From 
 her,  no  doubt,  he  caught  the  traits  of  the 
 Syrian  of  the  Lejah.  Reckless,  cunning, 
 ambitious,  passionate,  he  reflected  the 
 characteristics  of  the  heathenism  which 
 David  brought  into  his  harem.  If  the 
 mother  determines  the  formative  yeai-s  of 
 the  boy  where  the  family  is  a  unit,  much 
 more  will  she  have  this  power  where  each 
 mother  is  the  head  of  her  own  inner  cir- 
 cle, and  where  the  father  to  that  circle  is 
 but  a  fraction  of  a  father.  When  with 
 his  father,  Absalom  was  the  spoiled  boy 
 of  beauty — the  petted,  the  fondled,  the 
 indulged,  but  not  the  disciplined  son. 
 Thus  he  grew  to  manhood,  with  the  ele- 
 ments of  evil  stored  away  in  his  soul,  and 
 ready  in  a  moment  to  combine  and  to 
 burst  into  fearful  violence. 
 
 A  spark  at  length  dropped  on  the  mag- 
 azine. Hitherto,  Absalom  had  been  the 
 brilliant,  handsome,  fascinating  prince. 
 The  cruel  wrong  done  his  sister  Tamar 
 by  his  elder  brother  Amnon  was  the 
 spark.  But  the  explosion  did  not  im- 
 mediately follow.  With  true  Oriental 
 power  of  repression,  for  two  long  years 
 he  locked  his  purpose  of  revenge  within 
 his  own  breast.  Month  after  month  the 
 avenger's  anger  kept  hot,  whilst  outward- 
 ly all  was  calm.  At  length  his  opportu- 
 nity came.  Amnon  ceased  to  be  on  his 
 guard,  and  the  knives  of  his  brother's  re- 
 tainers were  in  his  heart  (2  Sam.  13  : 1-29). 
 
 Absalom's  flight  to  his  Syrian  grand- 
 father's fastness  secured  his  life,  but  did 
 not  mend  his  morals.  Three  years  at  a 
 heathen  court,  with  nothing  good  to  do, 
 might  spoil  a  better  man  than  Absalom. 
 He  returned  to  Jerusalem,  to  wait  yet  tAvo 
 years  for  permission  to  enter  his  father's 
 presence,  and  to  brood  over  his  exclusion. 
 At  length,  by  a  contrivance  of  Joab,  he 
 was  admitted  again  to  the  presence  of  the 
 king  (2  Sam.  14).  But  no  sooner  was  he 
 received  at  court  than  he  began  to  plot 
 for  the  usurpation  of  liis  father's  throne. 
 
 Pillar  of  Absalom. 
 
 When  the  plot  was  sufficiently  matured 
 he  repaired  to  Hebron  and  caused  him- 
 self to  be  proclaimed  king.  Ahithophel, 
 a  man  of  great  political  sagacity,  became 
 his  counselor,  and  advised  a  prompt  move- 
 ment against  David  before  he  could  make 
 proper  preparations  for  defence.  Had 
 this  counsel  been  followed,  humanly 
 speaking,  his  success  would  have  been 
 certain.  David,  however,  had  prayed 
 that  the  counsel  of  Ahithophel  might  be 
 defeated,  and  through  Hushai,  the  secret 
 friend  of  David,  Absalom  was  prevailed 
 on  to  delay,  by  which  he  lost  the  oppor- 
 
20 
 
 ABSTINENCE— ACCHO. 
 
 tunity   of   completing    his   revolution   (2 
 Sam.  17). 
 
 David  retired  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 
 and  made  his  stand  at  Mahanaim,  near 
 the  ford  of  the  torrent  Jabbok.  At  the 
 end  of  three  months  Absalom  moved 
 upon  his  father's  army,  and  an  engage- 
 ment took  place  in  the  wood  of  Ephraim, 
 which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  rebel- 
 lions son. 
 
 A  company  of  David's  men  came  upon 
 him  riding  on  his  mule.  He  turned  aside 
 to  escape,  but  his  head  was  caught  and 
 jammed  between  the  branches  of  a  great 
 terebinth  tree — Josephus  says,  entangled 
 by  his  flowing  hair — so  that  he  was  held 
 fast,  while  the  mule  passed  from  under 
 him  and  left  him  hanging  "  between 
 heaven  and  earth."  This  situation  was 
 speedily  reported  to  Joab,  who  seized 
 tliree  javelins,  and,  coming  to  the  place, 
 thrust  them  into  the  swaying  body,  and 
 was  soon  followed  by  his  armor-bearers, 
 who  gave  the  finishing-strokes. 
 
 Joab  with  the  trumpet  gave  tlie  signal 
 for  a  halt,  and  withdrew  the  army.  The 
 rebellion  ceased  in  the  death  of  the  rebel, 
 and  no  more  blood  was  to  be  shed.  The 
 body  of  Absalom  was  thrown  into  a  pit 
 and  stones  were  cast  upon  it  (2  Sam.  18). 
 
 The  name  of  Absalom  is  execrated 
 alike  by  Jew,  Mohammedan  and  Chris- 
 tian. Having  no  male  children,  he  had 
 erected  in  the  King's  Dale,  near  Jerusa- 
 lem, a  column  to  perpetuate  his  memory. 
 A  monument  called  "  Absalom's  Pillar"  is 
 shown  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
 which  is  unquestionably  a  structure  of 
 much  more  modern  date  than  tlie  times 
 of  Absalom,  but  m;iy  stand  on  the  site  of 
 the  original  monument.  Every  Jew  who 
 passes  casts  a  stone  at  it  in  abhorrence  of 
 the  memory  of  the  unnatural  prince. 
 
 Ab'stinence  [not.  eatimj'\,  a  general 
 term  to  express  the  refraining  from  some- 
 tliing  to  which  we  are  inclined  or  in 
 which   we  find   pleasure.      It  occurs   but 
 
 once  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  27  :  21 ), 
 where  it  has  the  sense  of  refraining  from 
 food.  The  verb  abstain,  from  a  different 
 (ireek  root,  is  not  infrequently  met  with, 
 and  is  a-ssociated  with  injunctions  to  re- 
 frain from  numerous  forms  of  evil  (Acts 
 15 :  20;  1  Thess.  4  :  3;  1  Pet.  2  :  11). 
 
 Ac'cad  [fortre-fs],  one  of  the  cities 
 built  by  Nimrod  in  the  land  of  Shinar 
 (Gen.  10  :  10).  About  five  miles  from 
 Bagdad,  in  the  midst  of  a  marsh  west  of 
 the  Tigris,  there  is  a  gigantic  pile  of  ruins 
 which  some  suppose  to  be  the  site  of  an- 
 cient Accad.  Another  and  perhaps  a  more 
 probable  conjecture  locates  the  city  above 
 Babylon,  near  Sepharvaim.  Before  Bab- 
 ylon emerged  from  obscurity  Accad  was 
 prominent.  About  b.  c.  1800,  Saigon  I.  re- 
 built it,  made  it  his  capital  and  the  seat  of  a 
 famous  library  of  Accadian  literature. 
 
 The  city  of  Accad  was  tlie  capital  of  a  dis- 
 trict of  the  same  name,  and  city  and  dis- 
 trict Avere  thus  denominated  from  their  or- 
 iginal inhabitants,  the  Accadai  or  "  High- 
 landers." These  Accadai  were  Hamites, 
 who  in  the  earliest  times  possessed  them- 
 selves of  a  portion  of  Shinar,  who  orig- 
 inated the  Tigro-Euphratean  arts  and 
 sciences,  who  develojied  a  remarkable 
 agglutinative  language  and  an  equally 
 remarkable  system  of  writing,  and  who 
 made  their  land  the  country  of  classical 
 cuneiform  literature,  from  which,  subse- 
 quently, all  the  great  Assyrian  works  were 
 copied. 
 
 Ac'cho  [hot  sand],  tlie  modern  Acca  or 
 Acre.  In  the  partition  of  the  Holy  Land 
 this  place  was  assigned  to  tlie  tril)e  of  Asiier, 
 but  the  original  inhabitants  were  not  dis- 
 possessed ( Judg.  1:31).  It  is  situated 
 about  thirty  miles  south  of  Tyre,  on  the 
 north-western  point  of  a  commodious  bay 
 called  the  Bay  of  Acre,  the  soutliern  point 
 of  which  is  formed  by  Mount  (jarmel.  Its 
 western  shore  is  washed  by  the  Mediterra- 
 nean. Before  the  Christian  era  it  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt, 
 
ACCURSED— ACHISH. 
 
 21 
 
 probablj'  Soter,  who  enlarged  and  beautified 
 it,  and  from  him  it  received  the  name  of 
 Ptolemais.  Under  this  name  it  is  referred 
 to  (Acts  21 :  7)  as  a  place  in  which  the  gos- 
 pel had  met  with  some  success.  During 
 the  Crusades  it  was  known  as  Aeon,  and  the 
 knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  having 
 taken  possession  of  it,  gave  it  the  name  of 
 St.  Jean  d'Acre.  Modern  travelers  have 
 discovered  many  striking  remains  of  this 
 ancient  city,  but  these  are  rapidly  disap- 
 pearing, being  used  as  materials  for  other 
 structures.  It  is  a  place  susceptible  of 
 strong  defence,  and  in  its  eventful  history, 
 even  down  to  very  late  times,  it  has  fre- 
 quently been  besieged.  At  present  it  con- 
 tains about  eight  thousand  inhabitants,  but 
 its  internal  does  not  correspond  with  its  im- 
 posing external  appearance.  Its  trade  is 
 now  much  reduced  and  the  bazaai-s  are 
 deserted.  The  whole  place  has  a  desolate 
 appearance. 
 
 Ac-cur'sed  [cherem  in  Hebrew,  and 
 anathema  in  Greek]  is  a  term  signifying 
 primarily  a  devotion  of  persons  or  things 
 to  Jehovah,  to  be  his  entirely.  Persons 
 thus  devoted  were  to  die  (Lev.  27  :  29;  1 
 Sam.  14  :  24,  44) ;  cattle  and  other  prop- 
 erty were  to  be  given  to  tlie  service  of  tlie 
 Lord  in  the  tabernacle  or  by  the  priest- 
 hood (Lev.  27  :  28;  Num.  18  :  14).  The 
 law  in  respect  to  idolatrous  cities  is  stated 
 in  Deut.  13  :  12-17.  Of  an  accursed  city 
 and  of  an  accursed  man,  Jericho  and 
 Achan  are  examples  respectively.  Jer- 
 icho was  accursed,  devoted  to  destruction 
 (Josh.  6  :  17) ;  Achan,  having  violated  the 
 anathema  (Josh.  7  :  11),  was  punished  with 
 death  (Josh.  7  :  15-25).  It  has  also  a  more 
 general  sense,  as  in  Rom.  9 :  3 ;  1  Cor.  12 : 
 3;  16:  22;  Gal.  1  :  9. 
 
 Subsequently  the  same  term  was  used  to 
 signify  excommunication,  the  casting  of  a 
 Jew  out  of  the  synagogue.  See  Anath- 
 ema. 
 
 A-ceLda-ma  [_field  of  bloo(l'\,  the  field 
 near  Jerusalem  purchased  with  the  money 
 
 which  Judas  received  for  betraying  Our 
 Lord,  and  so  called  from  his  violent  death 
 therein  (Matt.  27  :  3-8;  Acts  1  :  18,  19). 
 It  was  well  known  as  the  Potter's  Field, 
 and  was  thenceforward  used  as  a  bul-ial- 
 place  for  strangers.  The  traditional  site 
 of  Aceldama  is  on  the  northern  declivity 
 of  the  steep  cliff  on  the  south  of  the  valley 
 of  Hinnom. 
 
 A-chai'a,  a  province  of  ancient  Greece, 
 of  which  Corinth  was  the  capital.  Under 
 the  Romans,  Greece  was  divided  into  the 
 two  provinces  of  Macedonia  and  Acliaia, 
 the  former  embracing  Macedonia  proper, 
 with  lUyricum,  Epirus  and  Thessaly,  and 
 the  latter  all  that  lay  south  of  that.  The 
 New  Testament  references  to  it  (such  as 
 Acts  18  :  12;  19  :  21 ;  2  Cor.  11  :  10)  are 
 made  with  a  view  to  this  division. 
 
 A'chan  [troublerl,  an  Israelite  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah,  who  when  Jericho  and  all 
 that  it  contained  were  devoted  to  destruc- 
 tion, contrary  to  the  express  prohibition 
 of  God  and  under  the  impulse  of  covet- 
 ousness,  secreted  in  his  tent  some  valu- 
 able articles  from  the  spoils,  presuming 
 that  he  could  escape  detection.  The  an- 
 ger of  the  Lord  was  revealed  against  the 
 community  of  which  he  was  a  member, 
 and  they  were  defeated  before  Ai.  A 
 search  was  then  instituted  for  the  ofTend- 
 er,  and,  being  discovered,  he  and  his  fam- 
 ily were  devoted  to  destruction  in  the 
 valley  of  Achor,  so  called  from  the 
 trouble  which  Achan  had  occasioned 
 (Josh.  7). 
 
 A'char,  the  same  as  Achan  (1  Chron. 
 2:  7). 
 
 Ach'bor  [probably  field-monse'],  the 
 father  of  Baal-hanan,  one  of  the  kings 
 of  Edom  (Gen.  36  :  38).  Another  of  the 
 same  name  is  referred  to  in  2  Kings  22  : 
 12,  who  is  also  called  Abdon  (2  Chron.  34 : 
 20). 
 
 A'chish  [perhaps  angry],  the  name  of 
 two  kings. 
 
 1.  A  Philistine  king  of  Gath,  to  whom 
 
22 
 
 ACHMETHA— ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 
 
 David  twice  applied  for  protection  when 
 fleeing  from  Saul.  On  the  Cnvi  occasion, 
 thinking  his  life  to  be  in  danger,  I^avid 
 unjustifiably  feigned  madness  (1  Sam. 
 21:10-13).  On  his  returning  again  to 
 Oath,  David  asked  for  a  residence,  and 
 Ziklag  was  given  to  him  by  the  Philis- 
 tine king  (1  Sam.  27).  Achish  expressed 
 great  confidence  in  David,  and  would 
 have  promoted  him  to  a  command  in 
 his  army  in  the  campaign  whidi  ended 
 in  the  death  of  Saul,  had  he  not  l)een  de- 
 terred by  the  jealousy  of  the  lords  of 
 the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  29). 
 
 2.  Another  king  of  Gatli  at  a  later  day, 
 bearing  the  same  name  or  title,  to  whom 
 two  servants  of  Shimei  fled  (1  Kings 
 2  :  39). 
 
 Ach'me-tha,  tlie  Ecbatana  of  clas- 
 sical writers  and  the  capital  of  the  Medes 
 ( Ezra  6:2).  It  was  a  city  of  great  strength 
 and  of  considerable  architectural  beauty. 
 Its  ancient  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  mod- 
 ern Harnadan,  Persia. 
 
 Anchor  [trouble],  the  name  of  a  valley 
 near  Jericho,  given  because  of  the  trouble 
 occasioned  to  the  Israelites  by  the  sin  of 
 Achan,  who  was  stoned  to  death  and  bur- 
 ied there  (Josh.  7  :  24-26).  See  Aciian. 
 It  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
 Wddy  Keif,  running  from  the  spring  of 
 that  name,  and  south  of  Eriha  (Jericho), 
 past  Jiljulieh  (Gilgal)  into  the  .lordan. 
 
 Ach'sah  [anklet],  the  daughter  of 
 Caleb,  whom  he  promised  in  marriage  to 
 the  leader  who  should  attack  Kirjath- 
 sepher,  or  Debir,  in  the  southern  part  of 
 Judah,  and  take  it  from  the  Philistines. 
 His  nephew,  Othniel,  took  the  place  and 
 won  Achsah  as  his  wife  (Josh.  15: 16, 17). 
 Whilst  being  conducted  to  her  new  home 
 she  asked  and  received  from  her  father 
 the  gift  of  the  "  upper  and  nether  springs," 
 which  no  doubt  added  much  to  the  value 
 of  her  dower  ( Judg.  1  :  15). 
 
 Ach'shaph  [fascination],  a  city  with- 
 in the  territory  of  Asher,  originally  the 
 
 seat  of  a  Canaanite  king  (Josh.  11  :1; 
 12  :  20). 
 
 Ach'zib  [JaUeliood],  the  name  of  two 
 places  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah  (Josh, 
 lo  :  44).  At  the  Assyrian  inva-sion  it 
 proved  faithless  to  the  national  cause,  and 
 Micah  the  prophet  Uiunts  it  by  a  play  on 
 its  name  :  "  The  houses  of  Aclizib  shall  be 
 a  lie  to  the  kings  of  Israel"  (Mic.  1  :  14). 
 
 2.  A  maritime  town  assigned  to  the 
 tribe  of  Asher  (Josh.  19  :  29),  but  from 
 which  the  Canaanites  were  not  expelled 
 (Judg.  1  :  31).  It  lay  on  the  Mediterra- 
 nean coast  some  ten  miles  north  of  Accho 
 or  Acre.  An  insignificant  village  called 
 Zib  now  occupies  its  ancient  site. 
 
 A'' ere,  the  rendering  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  a  Hebrew  word  wliich  has 
 the  indefinite  sense  of  a  measure  of  ground 
 (Isa.  5  :  10),  but  of  which  the  precise  ex- 
 tent is  not  known.  The  Hebrew  word 
 literally  means  "a  yoke,"  and  indicates 
 most  likely  as  much  land  as  a  yoke  of 
 oxen  will  plough  in  a  day  (1  Sam.  14 :  14). 
 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  fifth 
 and  last  of  tlie  liistorical  books  of  the 
 New  Testament.  An  almost  univereal 
 consent  and  the  very  strongest  internal 
 evidence  ascribe  the  autiioi-ship  to  Luke, 
 the  writer  of  the  Gospel  which  bears  his 
 name.  In  Col.  4  :  14,  Luke  is  designated 
 "  the  beloved  physician."  He  was  a  man 
 of  education,  and  his  style  is  regarded  by 
 critics  as  purer  than  that  of  the  other 
 evangelists.  A  companion  of  Paul  in 
 some  of  his  missionary  excursions,  he 
 was  an  eye-witness  of  many  of  the  events 
 he  records.  The  book  narrates  the  labors 
 of  the  early  preachers  of  the  gospel,  more 
 especially  those  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and 
 the  wonderful  extension  of  Christianity 
 throughout  the  numerous  countries  then 
 subject  to  the  Roman  power.  It  was 
 written  in  the  Greek  language,  about  A.  d. 
 63,  and  most  likely  at  Rome.  Designed 
 to  supply  by  select  and  suitable  instances 
 
ADAH— ADAM. 
 
 23 
 
 an  illustration  of  the  divine  power  of 
 that  religion  which  Jesus  died  to  estab- 
 lish, it  everywhere  represents  the  risen 
 and  enthroned  Christ  as  the  supreme 
 Sovereign  and  Saviour  of  men.  Christ 
 appoints  that  twelfth  witness  who  takes 
 the  place  of  the  fallen  apostle  (ch.  1  :  24). 
 Christ,  liaving  received  "the  promise  of 
 the  Father,"  sends  down  tlie  Holy  Spirit 
 (ch.  2  :  33).  Christ  turns  the  people 
 from  their  iniquities  and  adds  them  to 
 the  membership  of  his  Church  (chs.  2  : 
 47 ;  3  :  26).  Christ  works  miracles  from 
 time  to  time  by  the  hands  of  the  apostles 
 (chs.  3:6;  5  :  12) ;  receives  into  glory 
 the  spirit  of  the  martyred  Stephen  (ch. 
 7  :  59) ;  instructs  Philip  to  go  and  meet 
 the  Ethiopian  (ch.  8  :  26) ;  arrests  Saul 
 in  his  career  of  persecution  and  makes 
 him  a  chosen  vessel  to  the  Gentiles  (ch. 
 9  :  15) ;  sends  Peter  to  open  the  door  of 
 faith  to  the  Gentiles  (ch.  10  :  45) ;  and 
 through  all  the  marvellous  history  con- 
 tinually appears,  presiding  over  the  af- 
 fairs of  his  Church,  directing  his  ser- 
 vants in  their  course,  protecting  them 
 from  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  and  in 
 the  midst  of  much  tliat  was  adverse  giv- 
 ing effect  to  their  ministrations  and  caus- 
 ing the  truth  of  the  gospel  to  grow  and 
 bear  fruit.  Hence,  in  the  Acts  we  have 
 not  merely  a  narrative  of  facts  which  fall 
 out  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
 Church,  but  we  have,  first  of  all  and  in 
 all,  the  ever-present,  controlling,  adminis- 
 trative agency  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 himself  shedding  forth  the  powers  of  his 
 risen  life  and  giving  shape  and  form  to 
 his  spiritual  and  everlasting  kingdom. 
 
 A'dah.  lornament'},  one  of  the  wives 
 of  Lamech  (Gen.  4:19);  also  one  of  the 
 wives  of  Esau  (Gen.  36  :  2). 
 
 Ad^am  [jjian,  cognate  with  Edom, 
 redj,  the  progenitor  of  the  human  fam- 
 ily. His  body  was  formed  of  the  dust 
 of  the  earth  and  animated  by  the 
 breath    of  God.     His    history    is    given 
 
 with  great  simplicity  in  the  first  four 
 chapters  of  Genesis.  God  having,  by 
 the  word  of  his  power,  called  into  exist- 
 ence the  inanimate  elements,  then  the 
 vegetable  creation,  then  beings  possessed 
 of  mere  animal  life,  at  last  produced  man, 
 made  in  the  divine  image,  endowed  with 
 a  rational  and  immortal  soul  and  invested 
 with  dominion  over  tlie  inferior  works  of 
 creation.  The  maturity  of  Iiis  powers 
 was  not  attained  by  gradual  pi'ogress. 
 He  came  at  once  from  the  hand  of  his 
 Creator,  perfect  in  form  and  pure  and  sin- 
 less in  nature. 
 
 A  beautiful  garden  provided  with  every 
 object  to  charm  the  senses  was  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  first  man.  The  beasts  of 
 the  field  were  subject  to  him,  and  were 
 named  by  him.  To  complete  his  happi- 
 ness, Eve  was  formed  as  pure  and  inno- 
 cent as  himself,  and  became  his  com- 
 panion. 
 
 It  pleased  God  to  subject  this  first  pair 
 to  a  test  of  obedience  simple  and  easy  in 
 itself.  They  were  forbidden  to  eat  of  the 
 fruit  of  one  particular  tree  in  the  garden 
 called  the  "  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good 
 and  evil,"  whilst  the  fullest  liberty  to  par- 
 take of  all  the  rest  was  given  to  them. 
 
 Although  they  were  created  sinless, 
 they  were  nevertheless  capable  of  sin- 
 ning ;  and  Satan,  the  great  spirit  of  evil, 
 who  had  Mien  from  his  own  high  state, 
 taking  advantage  of  this  peculiarity,  by 
 the  most  artful  devices  induced  Eve  to 
 eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit,  and  she,  in 
 her  turn,  became  the  successful  tempter  of 
 Adam.  Thus  they  violated  the  covenant 
 whicli  they  had  made  with  God,  accord- 
 ing to  the  terms  of  which  their  obedience 
 would  have  secured  to  them  the  uninter- 
 rupted enjoyment  of  life,  happiness  and 
 the  communion  of  their  Maker,  whilst 
 disobedience  subjected  them  to  the  loss  of 
 the  divine  image,  the  depravation  of  their 
 holy  nature,  the  interruption  of  their 
 happiness  and   the   loss  of   natural   and 
 
24 
 
 ADAM— ADDER. 
 
 spiritual  life.  Sad  was  the  change! 
 (Tod  no  longer  talked  witli  them  a.s  a 
 friend,  but  in  his  anger  drove  them  from 
 the  garden  under  a  heavy  curse. 
 
 The  curse  was  distinctly  pronounced  on 
 Adam  and  Eve,  and  the  general  tenor  of 
 it,  by  whicii  its  effects  are  transmitted  to 
 their  latest  posterity,  clearly  demonstrates 
 that  Adam  stood  in  the  relation  of  a  rep- 
 resentative of  the  iiuman  race,  and  that 
 they  were  so  identified  with  him  in  his 
 representative  cliaracter  as  to  be  liable  to 
 all  the  disastrous  consequences  of  his  first 
 sin.  We  "sinned  in  him,  and  fell  with 
 him  in  his  first  trangression."  Thus  was 
 sin  introduced  into  the  world,  the  taint  of 
 wiiich  attaches  to  every  human  being, 
 wliiie  the  earth  groans  under  unnumbered 
 woes.  The  gloomy  scene  was  ciieered  by 
 the  first  promise  of  Messiah,  who  as  "tlie 
 seed  of  the  woman"  should  "bruise  tlie 
 serpent's  head,"  and  thus  repair  the  ruins 
 of  the  fall. 
 
 The  history  of  Adam's  subsequent  life 
 is  not  noted  with  much  particularity.  He 
 lived  long  to  suffer  and  repent.  He  be- 
 came a  sorrowful  spectator  of  the  murder- 
 ed body  of  his  second-born  son ;  saw  his 
 first-born  driven  out  as  a  wanderer;  be- 
 held the  corruption  of  his  numerous  and 
 increasing  posterity ;  felt  conscious  that 
 he  was  the  guilty  author  of  all ;  and 
 when  nine  hundred  and  thirty  years  old 
 yielded  his  life  to  the  touch  of  death 
 (Gen.  5  :  5). 
 
 Ad'am,  a  city  mentioned  in  Josh.  3  : 
 16  as  beside  Zaretan,  beyond  which  the 
 overflow  of  the  Jordan  extended  when  it 
 was  crossed  by  the  Israelites.  As  Zaretan 
 was  near  Bethshean  (1  Kings  4:12),  Adam 
 must  have  been  far  up  the  Jordan  and  on 
 Iiigh  ground  on  its  west  side. 
 
 Ad'a-mah  [t/round],  a  fortified  city 
 of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19  :  30). 
 
 Ad'a-mant.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  in  Ezeit.  3  :  9  and  Zech  7  :  12,  is 
 in   Jer.  17  :  1  rendered   "diamond,"  and 
 
 represents  some  stone  of  excessive  hard- 
 ness. .\s  tiie  Hebrews  were  unacquainted 
 apparently  with  tiie  true  diamond,  it  is 
 probable  that  the  word  rendered  "ada- 
 mant" designates  emery,  a  variety  of  co- 
 rundum, a  mineral  inferior  only  to  the 
 diamond  in  hardness. 
 
 A'dar  \_iiplendid],  thesi.xth  month  of  the 
 civil  and  tiie  twelftii  of  the  sacred  year — 
 reckoning  among  the  Jews,  corresponding 
 with  part  of  our  February  and  March 
 (Estii.  3:7).  The  name  was  introduced 
 after  tiie  Captivity  (Ezra.  6  :  15). 
 
 A'dar  [splendor,  or  wide  extent^,  a  place 
 mentioned  in  Josh.  15  :  3  as  marking  the 
 border  of  Judah.  It  seems  to  be  the  same 
 as  Hazar-addar  (Num.  34  :  4). 
 
 Ad'der,  a  general  name  for  several  spe- 
 cies of  venomous  serpents  belonging  to  the 
 viper  family.  In  our  English  version  of 
 tiie  Old  Testament  it  is  the  rendering  of 
 
 Iloriud  Cerastes. 
 
 four  difTerent  Hebrew  words,  each  indica- 
 ting some  specific  diflference.  The  first  of 
 these  words  occurs  only  in  Ps.  140  :  3,  and 
 expresses  the  action  of  a  serpent  lurking 
 in  ambush  and  coiling  himself  to  strike. 
 The  second  of  these  words,  twice  rendered 
 adder  (Ps.  58  :  4;  91  :  13),  but  elsewhere 
 asp,  is  from  a  root  meaning  to  th-ust  out ; 
 in  allusion,  it  is  said,  to  the  animal's  cus- 
 tom of  thrusting  out  its  fangs.  It  is  de- 
 scribed by  the  Psalmist  (Ps.  58  :  4,  5)  as 
 deaf,  and  lience  as  indifTerent  to  the  voice 
 of  the  charmer ;  from  which  we  infer  that 
 the  art  of  charming  serpents  by  music  was 
 
ADJUKE— ADONIZEDEK. 
 
 25 
 
 practiced  in  David's  time.  See  Ser- 
 pent. The  third  of  these  words,  once 
 rendered  adder  (Pro v.  23  :  32)  and  four 
 times  cockatrice  (Isa.  11  :  8;  14  :  29;  59  : 
 5;  Jer.  8  :  17),  is  derived  from  a  root 
 meaning  to  hiss.  The  fourth  of  these 
 words,  used  but  once  (Gen.  49  :  17),  wliere 
 it  is  rendered  adder,  comes  from  a  root 
 which  means  to  puvclure  or  wound,  and  is 
 commonly  supposed  to  be  tlie  Coluber  Ce- 
 rastes, or  horned  viper  of  Linnfeus,  a  small 
 and  very  poisonous  snake. 
 
 Ad-jure^,  a  form  of  urgent  appeal  in 
 which  one  is  required  to  speak  or  act  as  if 
 under  the  solemnity  of  an  oath  (Josh.  6  : 
 26 ;  Matt.  26  :  63 ;  Mark  5:7;  Acts  19  : 
 13). 
 
 Ad.''mall  [^earth],  one  of  the  five  cities 
 in  the  vale  of  Siddim  which  had  a  king 
 of  its  own  (Gen.  10  :  19).  It  was  des- 
 troyed along  with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
 (Deut.  29  .  23). 
 
 Ad-mi-ra^tion,  a  word  which  when 
 our  Authorized  Version  was  made  had  the 
 simple  sense  of  wonder,  and  did  not  carry 
 witii  it  that  notion  of  approval  which  our 
 modern  usage  does.  In  Rev.  17  :  6,  "won- 
 dered with  great  admiration"  is  equivalent 
 to  "  wondered  greatly." 
 
 A-do'ni-Be'zek  \_lhe  lord  of  Bezekl, 
 a  petty  tyrant  living  not  far  from  Jerusa- 
 lem at  the  time  of  the  entrance  of  the  Is- 
 raelites into  Canaan.  In  his  conquests  of 
 neighboring  chiefs  he  had  mutilated  sev- 
 enty of  them  by  cutting  off  tlieir  thumbs 
 and  great  toes,  thus  disqualifying  them  for 
 future  warfare.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Ca- 
 naanltish  kings  conquered  by  the  Israelites 
 after  the  death  of  Joshua,  and,  as  a  right- 
 eous retribution,  he  was  dealt  with  in  the 
 same  manner  as  he  had  treated  others. 
 He  acknowledged  the  justice  of  his  pun- 
 ishment, and  afterward  died  a  captive  in 
 Jerusalem  (Judg.  1  :  5-7). 
 
 Ad-o-nl'jah  \_my  Lord  is  Jehovah],  the 
 fourth  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  and  born 
 at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  3 : 4).     After  the  death 
 
 of  his  brothers,  Amnon,  Chileab  and  Ab- 
 salom, Adonijah  was  by  birth  heir  to  the 
 throne,  but  his  claims  had  been  previously 
 set  aside  in  favor  of  Solomon.  He  gathered 
 around  him  a  number  of  influential  men, 
 including  Joab  and  Abiathar,  and  caused 
 himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.  David, 
 who  was  then  near  the  close  of  life,  awa- 
 kened to  the  danger  of  the  movement  by 
 Bathsheba,  counteracted  it  by  proclaiming 
 Solomon  as  his  successor  and  at  once  in- 
 vesting him  with  the  regal  dignity.  This 
 prompt  and  timely  measure  dispirited  the 
 followers  of  Adonijah,  who  immediately 
 forsook  him.  He  himself  fled,  and  laid 
 hold  of  the  horns  of  the  altar  as  a  place 
 of  safety.  He  was  pardoned  by  Solomon, 
 with  the  reservation  that  his  future  course 
 should  be  loyal ;  otherwise  he  should  die. 
 Subsequently  he  desired  Abishag,  the 
 young  virgin  concubine  of  his  father 
 David,  to  be  given  to  him  as  his  wife; 
 and  Solomon,  perceiving  that  his  design 
 was  thus  to  strengthen  his  pretensions  to 
 the  throne,  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death 
 (1  Kings  1  and  2). 
 
 Ad-o-ni'ram  [lord  of  exaltation'],  the 
 receiver-general  of  taxes  under  David  and 
 Solomon  (1  Kings  4  :  6;  2  Sam.  20  : 
 24),  called  also  Adoram  and  Hadoram. 
 When  Rehoboam  succeeded  Solomon  on  the 
 throne,  his  refusal  to  lighten  the  burdens  of 
 the  people  led  to  the  revolt  of  ten  tribes 
 and  the  murder  of  the  obnoxious  collector 
 of  taxes  (1  Kings  12  :  18;  2  Chron.  10  : 
 18). 
 
 Ad-O'ni-ze'dek  [lord  of  righteous- 
 ness'], the  Canaanitish  king  of  Jerusalem 
 when  Palestine  was  invaded  by  the  Is- 
 raelites, and  the  first  who  seriously  at- 
 tempted to  arrest  their  progress.  Secur- 
 ing the  alliance  of  the  other  four  Amor- 
 itish  kings,  he  first  made  a  descent  on 
 the  Gibeonites  to  punish  them  for  entering 
 into  a  treaty  with  Joshua.  When  he  heard 
 of  it,  Joshua  made  a  forced  march  from 
 Gilgal,  and  coming  unexpectedly  on  the 
 
26 
 
 ADOPTION— ADRIEL. 
 
 Amorites  defeated  tliem.  During  the  pur- 
 suit Joshua  commanded  the  sun  and  moon 
 to  stand  still,  that  the  day  might  be  pro- 
 longed and  the  defeat  be  more  signal. 
 The  liostile  kings  were  caj)tured  in  a 
 cave  in  wliich  they  had  concealed  them- 
 selves, and  after  the  Hebrew  chiefs  had 
 placed  their  feet  on  their  necks,  in  token 
 of  triunij)h,  according  to  the  custom  of 
 the  times,  they  were  hanged  and  their 
 bodies  buried  in  the  cave  (Josh.  10  : 
 1-27). 
 
 A-dop'tion,  the  act  by  which  a  stran- 
 ger is  received  into  a  family  as  a  child, 
 with  a  title  to  all  the  privileges  of  sonship. 
 Adoption  was  and  still  is  common  among 
 the  Shemitic  races.  It  was  more  rare 
 among  the  Hebrews,  because  the  Mosaic 
 code  of  laws  provided  for  the  descent  of 
 property  wliere  there  were  not  sons  to  in- 
 herit it.  Yet  it  was  not  a  strange  practice 
 to  them.  In  the  time  of  Christ  and  the 
 apostles  the  practice  of  adoption  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans  rendered  it  a  thing 
 familiarly  understood.  Hence  the  use  of 
 it  in  the  New  Testament  as  an  illustration 
 of  God's  dealings  with  his  people. 
 
 In  its  spiritual  application  it  denotes 
 the  filial  relation  between  God  and  the 
 believer,  by  which  the  latter  is  received 
 into  the  number,  and  has  a  right  to  all 
 the  privileges,  of  the  sons  of  God.  It  is 
 a  dignity  to  which  believei-s  are  predes- 
 tinated, not  for  any  fcjreseen  loveliness 
 or  excellency  in  themselves,  but  of  the 
 good  pleasure  of  God  (Eph.  1  :  5).  It  is 
 by  the  Holy  Spirit  that  tiie  believer  is  en- 
 abled to  jiscertain  and  appreciate  tlie  re- 
 lation (Rom.  8  :  15,  16;  Gal.  4  :  6).  As 
 adopted  children,  believers  become  joint 
 heirs  with  Clirist,  God's  only-begotten 
 Son  (Rom.  8  :  17).  They  are  enabled  as 
 little  children  to  rest  in  their  almighty 
 Father;  to  approach  his  mercy-seat  with 
 confidence ;  to  regard  all  the  sorrows  that 
 he  may  send  or  permit  as  fatherly  chas- 
 tisements; and  to  look  forward  with  as- 
 
 surance to  the  glorious  inheritance  laid 
 up  for  them  in  heaven. 
 
 A-do'rani.    See  Adonikam. 
 
 Ad-ram 'me-lech  [rjlory  of  llie  king; 
 or,  rather,  in  tiie  liglit  of  recent  discover- 
 ies, Adar  is  Iciiic),  Adar  being  an  Assyrian 
 deity]. 
 
 1.  The  name  of  an  idol  woi-shiijcd  by 
 the  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaini,  who  were 
 transported  from  Assyria  to  Samaria.  To 
 it  children  were  offered  as  burnt  sacrifices. 
 It  is  noticed  in  2  Kings  17  :  31  in  connec- 
 tion with  Anammelech  \_Anu  is  kiiKj"],  an- 
 other Assyrian  deity.  It  is  supposed  to 
 represent  the  male  j)ower  of  the  sun,  as 
 Anammelech  is  supposed  to  represent  the 
 female  power. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  sons  and  murderers  of 
 Sennacherib,  a  king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings 
 19  :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38). 
 
 Ad-ra-ra3rt'ti-uin,  a  city  of  Asia 
 Minor,  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  facing  the 
 island  of  Lesbos  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Ida.  To  it  belonged  the  siiip  in  wiiich 
 Paul  embarked  when  on  his  way  to  Italy 
 as  a  prisoner  (Acts  27  :  2).  Its  modern 
 name  is  Adramyt,  and  it  is  still  a  place  of 
 some  commerce,  but  its  general  appear- 
 ance is  poor. 
 
 Ad'ria.  Luke,  in  his  account  of  Paul's 
 journey  to  Italy,  says  (Acts  27  :  27),  "As 
 we  were  driven  up  and  down  in  Adria,"  a 
 name  then  applied  to  all  that  part  of  the 
 Mediterranean  which  lies  between  Crete 
 and  .Sicily. 
 
 The  term  "Adriatic"  now  designates  only 
 the  gulf  which  lies  between  Italy  on  the 
 one  side  and  the  coast  of  Dalmatia  on  the 
 othen  The  wider  extension  of  the  ancient 
 term  removes  the  objection  that  Melita,  or 
 Malta,  wliere  Paul  was  wrecked,  is  not 
 within  the  limits  of  the  present  Adriatic 
 Gulf;  for  Avhilst  it  lies  beyond  the  f;»///,  it 
 is  within  tiie  limits  of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
 
 Ad'ri-el  [flock  of  God],  a  son  of  Bar- 
 zillai,  to  wliom  Saul  gave  in  marriage  his 
 daughter  Merab,  who  had  been  promised 
 
ADULLAM. 
 
 27 
 
 to  David  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19).  He  had 
 five  sons,  who  were  given  up  to  the  Gibe- 
 onites,  according  to  the  principle  of  blood 
 revenge,  on  account  of  the  cruelties  exer- 
 cised toward  that  people  by  Saul.  In  2 
 Sam.  21  :  8  these  five  sons  are  said  to  be 
 the  sons  of  Michal,  whom  "she  brought 
 up  for  Adriel."  The  word  properly 
 means  "  bare,"  or  "  wliich 
 Michal  bare  to  Adriel." 
 Some  reconcile  the  difli- 
 culty  by  supposing  that 
 the  name  of  Michal  was 
 substituted  for  that  of 
 Merab  by  a  mistake  of 
 the  copyist ;  and  others, 
 that  Michal,  having  no 
 children,  adopted  those 
 of  Merab,  her  sister,  and 
 was  hence  regarded  as 
 their  mother. 
 
 A-duriam  [justice 
 of  the  people^,  the  name 
 of  a  city  and  of  a  cave. 
 
 1.  The  city  was  in  the 
 territory  of  Judah,  be- 
 tween the  highlands  and 
 the  sea.  It  had  been  one 
 of  the  royal  cities  of  the 
 Canaanites  (Josh,  lb:  35). 
 It  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
 boam  (2  Chron.  11  :  7), 
 and  is  styled  the  "glory 
 of  Israel"  (Mic.  1  :  15). 
 From  its  place  in  the  list 
 of  the  cities  which  Reho- 
 boam  fortified,  it  appears 
 to  have  been  not  very  far 
 from  the  Philistine  city 
 of  Gath.      Lieutenant 
 
 Conder,  of  the  English  Survey  Expedi- 
 tion, places  its  site  on  a  high  rounded 
 hill,  almost  isolated  by  valleys  and  cov- 
 ered with  ruins,  a  natural  fortress  in  near 
 vicinity  to  two  ancient  wells. 
 
 2.  The  Cave  of  Adullam,  from  the 
 circumstance  that  David  with  four  hun- 
 
 dred followers  took  refuge  in  it  (1  Sam. 
 22  :  1,  2),  and  from  the  persuasion  that 
 no  cave  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  was 
 sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  such  a 
 body  of  men,  has  from  very  early  times 
 been  located  in  the  mountainous  wilder- 
 ness in  the  east  of  Judah,  toward  the 
 Dead   Sea.      Here   numerous    caves    are 
 
 The  Cave  of  Adullam. 
 
 found,  one  of  wliich,  about  six  miles 
 south-east  of  Bethlehem,  in  the  side  of  a 
 deep  ravine,  is  the  traditional  Cave  of 
 Adullam.  It  is  an  immense  natural 
 cavern,  the  mouth  of  which  can  be  ap- 
 proached only  on  foot  along  the  side  of 
 the   cliff.      It   has    large    chambers    and 
 
28 
 
 ADULTERY— AGATE. 
 
 many  winding  passages,  and  is  admirably 
 adapted  not  only  to  slielter,  but  also  to 
 hide,  a  much  greater  liost  tlian  that  of 
 David.  Lieutenant  Conder  states  tiiat  the 
 sides  of  tiie  valley  which  anciently  led  to 
 the  city  of  AduUam  are  lined  with  rows 
 of  caves,  some  of  them  quite  large,  and 
 argues  that  if  tlie  city  of  Adullam  were 
 near  Gath,  David  upon  hastily  leaving 
 Galh  (1  Sam.  21  :  12-15)  would  naturally 
 seek  the  nearest  and  most  accessible  ref- 
 uge. It  is  said,  too,  that  if  David  occupied 
 a  cave  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Adul- 
 lam, he  was  in  position  to  cover  the  line 
 of  Philistine  advance  on  the  cornfields 
 of  Keilah,  and  in  case  of  necessity  to  re- 
 treat to  the  thickets  of  Kareth,  three 
 miles  away.  But  the  probabilities  are 
 still  in  favor  of  the  traditional  site  south- 
 east of  Betlilehem. 
 
 A-dul'te-ry,  unfoitlifulness  to  the 
 marriage  covenant  on  the*  part  of  the 
 husband  or  the  wife.  A  crime  of  special 
 enormity,  it  was  punished  by  the  law  of 
 Moses  with  death  (Lev.  20  :  10).  In  Matt. 
 5  :  31,  32  it  is  represented  by  our  Lord  as 
 the  true  and  justifiable  ground  of  divorce. 
 From  its  sense  of  unfaitlifulness  to  cove- 
 nant it  is  frequently  employed  in  Scripture 
 as  the  symbol  of  idolatry  and  apostasy  from 
 the  worsliip  of  the  true  God  ( Jer.  3  :  8,  9  ; 
 Ezek.  23:37).  "An  adulterous  genera- 
 tion" (Matt.  12  :  39)  means  a  faithless 
 and  impious  one,  untrue  to  its  God. 
 
 A-durn'mim  [the  red  or  bloody  place], 
 a  hill  or  ascending  ground  between  Jerusa- 
 lem and  Jericho,  mentioned  in  Josh.  15  : 
 7  and  18  :  17.  It  is  described  as  a  difficult 
 and  narrow  pass  much  infested  by  robbers, 
 and  was  probably  the  place  referred  to  by 
 our  Lord  in  the  parable  of  the  man  who 
 in  his  journey  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho 
 fell  among  thieves  (Luke  10  :  30).  It  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  on  the  south  face 
 of  the  gorge  of  the  Wddif  Kelt. 
 
 Ad'ver-sa-ry,  an  opposer,  an  enemy 
 (1  Kings  n  :  14;  Matt.  5  :  25).     It  is  ap- 
 
 plied to  Satan,  the  great  adversary  or  en- 
 emy of  man  (1  Pet.  5:8). 
 
 Ad'vo-cate,  one  who  pleads  the 
 cause  of  another.  Christ  is  the  exalted 
 and  successful  Advocate  of  believers  (1 
 Jolm  2:1;  Heb.  7  :  25). 
 
 j^'non  [itpriiiffs,  fountains].  See  Exox. 
 
 Af-fin'i-ty,  relationship  by  marriage, 
 as  distinguished  from  consanguinity  or 
 blood-relationship  (1  Kings  3 : 1 ;  2  Chron. 
 18  :  1).  Thus,  a  woman  is  aunt  to  a  man 
 by  consanguinity  when  she  is  the  sister  of 
 his  father,  or  she  may  become  his  aunt 
 by  affinity  by  being  the  sister  of  his  wife's 
 father.  The  Levitical  law  which  specifies 
 the  relations  witliin  whicii  marriage  may 
 be  contracted  is  recorded  in  Lev.  18  :  6-17. 
 
 Ag'a-bus  [perhaps  beloved],  a  prophet 
 of  the  early  Churcli  who  predictetl  the  great 
 famine  which  should  prevail  througli  the 
 then  known  world  (Acts  11  :  2S).  He  af- 
 terward predicted  Paul's  suflerings  by  the 
 hands  of  the  Jews  (Acts  21  :  10,  11). 
 
 A''gag  [jlaming],  the  name  of  two  kings 
 of  the  Amalekites,  and  probably  a  titular 
 name  peculiar  to  their  kings  (Num.  24  : 
 7).  When  Saul  defeated  the  Amalekites 
 he  spared  Agag,  tlieir  king,  contrary  to  the 
 express  injunction  of  the  Lord's  j)rophet. 
 Samuel,  when  lie  heard  this,  repaired  to 
 Saul,  and  after  rebuking  him  for  his  dis- 
 obedience, hewed  Agag  in  pieces  as  a  just 
 reward  for  his  crimes,  saying,  "  As  thy 
 sword  hath  made  women  childless,  so 
 shall  thy  mother  be  childless  among 
 women"  (1  Sam.  15  :  33).  Haman  is 
 called  the  Agagite  in  Esth.  3  :  1,  10 ;  8  : 
 3,  5,  and  is  held  by  tiie  .Jews  to  have  been 
 a  descendant  of  the  king  whom  Samuel 
 slew,  and  to  have  had  a  hereditary  hatred 
 of  tlie  Jewish  people. 
 
 Ag'ate,  an  ornamental  stone  worn  in 
 the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest  (Ex. 
 28  :  19),  and  held  in  high  esteem  for  its 
 beauty  (Isa.  54  :  12;  Ezek.  27  :  16).  It  is 
 the  rei)resentative  of  two  Hebrew  words, 
 the  one  meaning  shining,  the  other  spark- 
 
AGE— AHAB. 
 
 29 
 
 ling.  The  stone  now  known  by  this  name 
 is  a  semi-pellucid,  uncrystallized  species 
 of  quartz,  found  in  parallel  or  concentric 
 layers  of  various  colors  and  presenting 
 many  different  tints  in  the  same  speci- 
 men. The  finest  agates  were  brought  from 
 India,  but  equally  beautiful  specimens  ai-e 
 met  with  in  Europe  and  America. 
 
 Age,  Old.  The  attainment  of  old  age 
 is  in  Scripture  promised  and  represented 
 as  a  blessing  (Gen.  15  :  15).  Wisdom  and 
 understanding  are  supposed  to  be  the  ac- 
 companiments of  it  (1  Kings  12  :  6,  8). 
 Cruelty  to  the  aged  is  distinguished  for 
 its  peculiar  enormity  (2  Chron.  36  :  17), 
 Most  of  the  Eastern  nations  paid  a  pro- 
 found respect  to  the  aged.  In  the  social 
 and  political  system  of  the  Jews  the  aged 
 occupied  a  prominent  place.  In  private 
 life  they  were  looked  up  to  as  the  deposi- 
 tiiries  of  knowledge  (Job  15  :  10) ,  in  their 
 presence  the  young  were  ordered  to  rise  up 
 (Lev.  19  :  32) ;  their  opinion  was  given  first 
 (Job  32  :  4) ;  their  gray  hairs,  especially 
 when  associated  with  piety,  were  to  be  ac- 
 counted "  a  crown  of  glory  "  (Prov.  16  : 
 31).  In  public  affairs  they  were  the  rep- 
 resentatives of  the  people  in  all  matters 
 of  difficulty  and  deliberation.  The  old 
 men,  or  elders,  thus  became  a  class,  the 
 title  being  used  in  an  official  sense  wlien, 
 as  was  at  length  the  case,  it  had  ceased  to 
 convey  the  notion  of  age. 
 
 Ag^o-ny  [contest'],  a  word  borrowed 
 from  the  Grecian  games,  and  metaphor- 
 ically applied  to  a  severe  struggle  or  con- 
 flict with  pain  and  suffering.  In  Luke 
 22  ;  44  it  is  used  to  describe  the  fearful 
 and  mysterious  struggle  which,  in  the 
 Garden  of  Gethsemane,  our  Lord  passed 
 through.  In  this  agony  the  suffermg  of 
 soul  so  wrought  upon  the  body  that  "  his 
 sweat  was  as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood 
 falling  down  to  the  ground." 
 
 A-grrip'pa.  The  name  of  two  mem- 
 bers of  the  Herodian  family  mentioned  in 
 the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  The  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great, 
 whose  name  he  bore  as  a  surname,  and 
 under  the  emperor  Caligula  the  king  of 
 all  Palestine.  To  conciliate  the  Jews  he 
 slew  with  the  sword  the  apostle  James 
 and  shut  up  in  prison  the  apostle  Peter 
 (Acts  12  :  2,  4).  His  fate  was  a  fearful 
 one.  On  a  certain  public  occasion,  when 
 giving  audience  to  the  people  of  Tyre  and 
 Sidon,  he  made  an  address  to  them,  which 
 they  applauded  by  impiously  saying  it  was 
 "the  voice  of  a  god,  and  not  of  a  man." 
 Uplifted  with  pride,  "  he  gave  not  God 
 the  glory,  and  was  eaten  of  worms"  (Acts 
 12  :  210-23). 
 
 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  the  fore- 
 going. He  also  bore  the  surname  of  Her- 
 od, but  ruled  a  much  smaller  realm  than 
 his  father.  It  was  before  him  that  Paul 
 was  brought  (Acts  25  .  13,  26).  He  was 
 the  last  of  his  family,  surviving  the  de- 
 struction of  Jerusalem  and  dying  at  the 
 age  of  nearly  seventy  years. 
 
 A'gur  ^gathered],  the  son  of  Jakeh,  an 
 unknown  Israelite  sage,  the  author  of  the 
 sayings  contained  in  Prov.  30. 
 
 A-hab^  [fathet-^s  brother],  the  name  of 
 two  men. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Omri,  and  the  seventh 
 king  of  the  separate  kingdom  of  Israel. 
 He  ascended  the  throne  b.  c.  919,  and 
 reigned  twenty-two  years.  He  was  a 
 weak  man,  and,  surrendering  himself  to 
 the  guidance  of  Jezebel,  his  resolute,  un- 
 scrupulous and  depraved  wife,  he  sank  to 
 an  appalling  depth  of  wickedness  ( 1  Kings 
 16  :  30).  Jezebel  was  the  daughter  of 
 Ethbaal,  the  king  of  Tyre,  and  success- 
 fully used  her  influence  over  Ahab  for 
 the  establishment  in  Israel  of  the  impure 
 and  demoralizing  worship  of  Baal.  In 
 obedience  to  her  wishes,  Ahab  erected  in 
 Samaria  a  temple  in  honor  of  Baal,  and 
 consecrated  to  Astarte,  the  Phoenician  Ve- 
 nus, the  symbols  or  image  used  in  her 
 worship.  With  a  fixed  determination 
 to    extirpate  the    true    religion,   Jezebel 
 
30 
 
 AHASUERUS. 
 
 hunted  down  and  put  to  death  God's 
 prophets  and  utterly  suppressed  all  pub- 
 lic worsliip  of  Jehovah.  In  tiiis  emer- 
 gency God  raised  uj)  the  prophet  Elijah, 
 who  boldly  reproved  the  wicked  king  and 
 stood  forth  to  vindicate  the  claims  of  the 
 true  God.  His  triumph  over  the  priests 
 of  Baal  at  Mount  Carmel  (1  Kings  18: 
 21-40)  was  a  remarkable  attestation  of 
 his  prophetical  mission  and  of  his  supe- 
 riority to  the  idolatrous  ministers.  It 
 wrought,  however,  no  change  in  Ahab, 
 and  so  e.xasperated  Jezebel  that  Elijah 
 was  compelled  to  flee  for  his  life.  One 
 of  Ahab's  leading  tastes  was  that  for 
 splendid  architecture,  which  lie  indulged 
 in  several  cities  of  the  kingdom,  but 
 chiefly  in  the  beautiful  city  of  Jezreel 
 (now  Zerin),  where  he  built  a  palace  and 
 laid  out  a  park.  Desiring  to  add  to  his 
 pleasure-grounds  the  vineyard  of  his 
 neighbor  Naboth,  he  proposed  to  buy  it 
 or  give  land  in  exchange  for  it ;  and, 
 when  Naboth  refused  his  proposals,  he 
 secured  against  him  a  false  accusation  of 
 blasphemy,  and  caused  him  and  his  sons 
 to  be  stoned  to  death  (1  Kings  21  :  13; 
 2  Kings  9  :  26).  For  this  atrocious  crime, 
 the  crowning  act  of  a  long  course  of  wick- 
 edness, the  judgments  of  God,  involving  the 
 entire  extirpation  of  his  house,  were  pro- 
 nounced upon  him  by  Elijah,  and  were 
 literally  and  terribly  fulfilled  (1  Kings 
 21  :  17-24 ;  2  Kings  9  :  3o ;  10  :  11). 
 
 2.  A  lying  prophet,  who,  with  Zede- 
 kiah,  a  man  of  like  character,  deceived 
 the  captive  Israelites  at  Babylon  by  false 
 promises.  Because  of  this  wickedness  he 
 and  his  confederate  were  denounced  by  the 
 prophet  Jeremiah,  who  predicted  their  vio- 
 lent death  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  king. 
 The  literal  fulfillment  of  Jeremiah's  pre- 
 diction originated  a  common  form  of  mal- 
 ediction, "The  Lord  make  thee  like  Zed- 
 ekiah  and  like  Ahab,  whom  the  king  of 
 Babylon  roasted  in  the  fire !"  (Jer.  29  :  21, 
 22). 
 
 A-has-u-e'ru8,  the  Hebrew  form  of 
 Xerxes,  and  the  name  or  title  of  one  Me- 
 dian and  two  Persian  kings  mentioned  in 
 the  Old  Testament.  The  orthograj)liy  of 
 the  name  Xerxes  has  recently  been  ascer- 
 tained from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
 Persepolis,  where  it  is  written  Khxliydrska 
 or  Ksharsd,  meaning  "  eye  of  the  realm  " 
 or  "  ruling  eye." 
 
 1.  The  first  Ahasuerus,  mentioned  in 
 Dan.  9  :  1  as  the  father  of  Darias  the 
 Mede,  is  usually  regarded  as  the  Astyages 
 of  profane  history.  He  is  regarded  by 
 others,  however,  as  Cyaxares,  the  father 
 of  Astyages. 
 
 2.  The  second  Ahasuerus,  mentioned  in 
 Ezra  4  :  6,  is  believed  to  be  C'amljyses,  the 
 son  and  immediate  successor  of  Cyrus, 
 B.  c.  529.  He  was  a  man  of  furious  tem- 
 y^er,  and  is  not  to  be  mistaken,  as  is  some- 
 times done,  for  the  third  Ahasuerus. 
 
 3.  Tiie  third  Ahasuerus,  introduced  to 
 us  in  the  book  of  Esther,  is  identified  with 
 Xerxes,  the  Persian  king  who  invaded 
 Greece.  He  reigned  with  great  ])omp 
 and  magnificence.  In  tlie  third  year 
 of  his  reign  he  made  a  sumptuous  ban- 
 quet for  his  nobility,  and  prolonged  tlie 
 feast  for  one  hundred  and  eighty  days. 
 Merry  with  wine  on  one  occasion,  he  or- 
 dered liis  queen,  Vasliti,  to  appear  be- 
 fore his  guests  for  the  public  display 
 of  her  marvellous  beauty.  On  her  re- 
 fusal he  inmiediately  and  indignantly 
 divorced  her.  In  the  seventh  year  of  his 
 reign  he  married  Esther,  a  Jewess,  know- 
 ing not  her  parentage.  In  the  twelfth 
 year  of  his  reign  he  acceded  to  the  re- 
 quest of  his  minister  Haman,  who  had 
 received  some  slights  from  Mordccai  the 
 Jew,  that  on  an  appointed  day  the  Jews 
 in  all  parts  of  the  empire  should  be  mixs- 
 sacred.  The  wicked  plot  was  defeated 
 through  the  agency  of  Esther,  Mordccai's 
 niece.  By  righteous  retribution,  Haman 
 met  a  more  ignominious  doom  than  that 
 he    had    designed    for    Mordecai,    while 
 
AHAVA— AHAZIAH. 
 
 31 
 
 Mordecai  was  promoted  to  the  highest 
 honors. 
 
 A-ha'va  [probably  water],  the  river 
 on  the  banks  of  which  Ezra  collected  the 
 second  expedition  that  returned  with  him 
 from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  8  ;  21). 
 Its  position  is  not  easily  identified.  The 
 latest  researches  are  in  favor  of  its  being 
 the  Euphrates  itself  at  the  point  where 
 stands  the  modern  Hit,  due  east  of  Da- 
 mascus. 
 
 A^haz  Ipossessnr'],  the  eleventh  king  of 
 Judah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Jotham. 
 In  2  Kings  16  :  2  he  is  said  to  have  as- 
 cended the  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty 
 years,  a  mistake  of  the  copyist  for  twenty- 
 five  years,  and  to  have  reigned  sixteen 
 years.  He  surpassed  all  his  predecessors 
 in  wickedness.  He  w.is  impious  in  his 
 total  di,«regard  of  God  and  the  institu- 
 tions of  religion  ;  he  was  sacrilegious  in 
 stripping  the  temple  of  all  its  valuable 
 utensils  and  ornaments  and  mutilating 
 its  furniture;  he  was  idolatrous  in  prin- 
 ciple and  practice,  scandalous  in  life,  su- 
 perstitious in  spirit,  and  infamous  in  every 
 respect.  He  made  molten  images  for  Baal ; 
 he  sacrificed  his  children  to  Moloch  in  the 
 valley  of  Hinnom ;  he  closed  the  temple 
 against  any  who  sought  to  worship  there; 
 in  every  city  of  Judah  he  erected  high 
 places,  and  in  every  corner  of  Jerusa- 
 lem he  reared  idol  altars.  His  punishment 
 quickly  followed.  The  kings  of  Syria  and 
 Israel,  on  the  east  and  north  of  his  king- 
 dom, formed  a  league  against  him ;  the 
 Edomites  attacked  him  from  the  south, 
 and  the  Philistines  from  the  west;  on 
 every  side  the  difficulties  of  his  position 
 were  multiplying  and  the  dangers  to  his 
 life  and  crown  steadily  thickening.  In 
 his  dilemma  he  applied  for  help  to  Tig- 
 lath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  whose  in- 
 tervention, although  it  freed  him  from 
 attack  by  the  Syrians  and  Israelites,  yet 
 availed  him  little.  At  length,  worn  down 
 by  anxieties  and  excesses,  he  died  at  an 
 
 early  age,  and  because  of  his  impiety  was 
 not  honored  with  a  burial  in  the  sepul- 
 chres of  the  kings  (2  Kings  16;  2  Chron. 
 28;  Isa.  7). 
 
 A-ha-zl'ah  {Jehovah  sustains'],  the 
 name  of  two  Jewish  kings. 
 
 1.  The  eighth  king  of  the  separate 
 kingdom  of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Ahab,  whose  wickedness  he  emulated 
 (1  Kings  22:40).  He  reigned  but  two 
 years.  His  vassals,  the  Moabites,  revolt- 
 ed against  him  and  refused  to  pay  trib- 
 ute ;  but  before  he  could  take  measures 
 to  coerce  them  he  received  a  serious  bod- 
 .ily  injury  by  a  fall  through  a  lattice  in  his 
 palace  at  Samaria.  In  health  he  had  wor- 
 shiped the  gods  of  his  mother  Jezebel, 
 and  now  he  sent  messengers  to  inquire 
 of  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub,  in  the  Philis- 
 tine city  of  Ekron,  whether  he  should  re- 
 cover. On  the  way  the  messengers  met 
 Elijah,  who  sent  them  back  to  tell  the 
 king  he  should  certainly  die.  Exaspe- 
 rated at  this,  he  despatched  several  com- 
 panies of  men  to  arrest  the  prophet,  who, 
 after  destroying  by  fire  from  heaven  two 
 companies  of  fifty  men  each,  went  to  him 
 at  the  Lord's  bidding  and  announced  the 
 certainty  of  his  speedy  death  (2  Kings  1  : 
 1-17). 
 
 2.  The  fifth  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Je- 
 horam  and  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab, 
 and  therefore  nephew  of  the  preceding 
 Ahaziah.  He  is  called  Azariah  (2  Chron. 
 22  :  6)  and  Jehoahaz  (2  Chron.  21  :  17). 
 He  reigned  but  one  year,  and,  altogether 
 controlled  by  the  wicked  counsels  of  his 
 idolatrous  mother,  he  did  that  which  was 
 evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  (2  Kings  8  : 
 24-29).  He  joined  his  uncle,  Jehoram  of 
 Israel,  in  an  expedition  against  Hazael, 
 king  of  Damascene  Syria,  and  afterward 
 paid  him  a  visit  while  he  lay  wounded  in 
 his  summer  palace  of  Jezreel.  Jehu  hav- 
 ing meanwhile  been  proclaimed  king  of 
 Israel,  Jehoram  and  Ahaziah  went  against 
 him  in  battle.    Jehoram  was  killed,  and 
 
32 
 
 AHIAH— AHIMELECH. 
 
 Ahaziah,  mortally  wounded,  had  only 
 strength  to  reach  Megiddo,  where  he 
 died  (2  Kings  9  :  27). 
 
 A-hi'ah,  a  form  of  Aiiijah  (1  Sam. 
 14:3;  1  Kings  4:3;  1  Chron.  8:7). 
 See  A111.TAII. 
 
 A-hi'jah  [my  brother  it  Jehovah'],  the 
 name  of  several  men,  of  whom  two  only 
 need  special  mention. 
 
 1.  A  son  of  Ahitub,  and  high  priest  in 
 the  reign  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  14  :  3).  He 
 was  probably  the  same  as  Ahiinelech  the 
 son  of  Ahitub,  who  was  high  priest  at 
 Nob  in  the  same  reign  (1  Sam.  21  :  1), 
 and  was  slain  by  Haul  for  assisting  David 
 (1  Sam.  22  :  11-19). 
 
 2.  A  prophet  of  Shiloh  (1  Kings  14  : 
 2),  called  the  Shilonite  (1  Kings  11  :  29), 
 in  the  days  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam. 
 Of  his  prophecies  two  are  extant ;  the 
 one  in  1  Kings  11  :  29-39,  addressed 
 to  Jeroboam,  announcing  the  rending  of 
 the  ten  tribes  from  Solomon  in  punish- 
 ment of  his  idolatries  and  the  transfer  of 
 the  kingdom  to  Jeroboam,  b.  c.  973 ;  the 
 other  in  1  Kings  14  :  5-16,  addressed  to 
 Jeroboam's  wife,  announcing  the  destruc- 
 tion of  Jeroboam's  house  and  foretelling 
 the  captivity  of  Israel  "  beyond  the  river 
 Euphrates,"  b.  c.  952. 
 
 A-hi'kam  [my  brother  arose],  one  of  the 
 five  distinguished  persons  sent  by  King 
 Josiah  to  consult  Huldah  the  prophetess 
 concerning  the  book  of  the  law  found  in 
 the  temple  (2  Kings  22  :  12-14) ;  after- 
 ward protected  the  propliet  Jeremiah  from 
 the  persecuting  fury  of  King  Jehoiakim 
 (Jer.  26  :  24). 
 
 A-him'a-az  [my  brother  is  anger], 
 son  and  successor  of  Zadok,  the  joint 
 high  priest  in  David's  time  and  sole  high 
 priest  in  that  of  Solomon.  During  the  re- 
 volt of  Absalom,  who  took  possession  of 
 Jerusalem  when  David  fled  from  it,  the 
 two  high  priests,  Zadok  and  Abiathar,  re- 
 maining in  the  city  with  the  ark,  posted 
 their  sons  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan  outside 
 
 the  walls,  to  be  in  readiness  to  bear  off  to 
 David  any  important  information  respect- 
 ing Absalom's  movements  and  designs 
 which  they  might  receive.  When  Hush- 
 ai,  David's  friend,  had  defeated  that  crafty 
 counsel  of  Ahithophel  which,  if  Absalom 
 had  followed  it,  would  in  all  human  prob- 
 ability liave  proved  fatal  to  David,  he 
 communicated  the  fact  to  the  higli  priests, 
 and  they  in  turn  committed  it  to  their 
 sons  with  directions  to  carry  the  news  to 
 David.  Absalom,  being  informed  of  the 
 flight  of  the  messengers,  caused  them  to 
 be  pursued ;  but,  by  the  aid  of  a  certain 
 woman  wiio  ingeniously  concealed  them, 
 they  escaped  (2  Sam.  15  :  24-37;  17  : 
 15-21 ).  Ahimaaz  was  remarkably  swift  of 
 foot.  On  the  defeat  and  death  of  Absalom, 
 Joab  sent  him  with  the  tidings  to  David 
 (2  Sam.  18  :  19-29). 
 
 A-hi'man  [my  brother  is  a  gift], 
 one  of  the  three  giants  of  the  race  of 
 Anak  who  dwelt  at  Hebron  when  the 
 Hebrew  spies  explored  Canaan  (Num. 
 13  :  22). 
 
 A-him'e-lech  [my  brother  is  king],  the 
 name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  .son  of  Ahitub  (1  Sam.  22  :  12), 
 and  high  priest  at  Nob  in  the  days  of  Saul. 
 When  David  was  fleeing  from  Saul,  he  came 
 to  Nob,  and,  representing  himself  as  on  an 
 expedition  for  the  king,  he  obtaineil  from 
 Ahimelech  the  sword  of  Goliatli  and  a 
 portion  of  the  tabernacle  shew-bread. 
 Doeg  the  Edomite  maliciously  reported 
 this  to  Saul,  who  sent  for  Ahimelech  and 
 the  other  priests  then  at  Nob,  and,  not- 
 withstanding their  declaration  that  they 
 were  not  aware  of  the  position  in  which 
 David  stood  to  the  king,  he  cruelly  or- 
 dered them  to  be  slain,  to  the  number  of 
 eiglity-five.  Abiathar  was  the  only  one 
 who  escaped  (1  Sam.  22  :  20).  See  Abi- 
 athar. 
 
 2.  A  Hittite,  one  of  David's  companions 
 whilst  he  was  persecuted  by  Saul  (1  Sam. 
 26  :  6). 
 
AHINADAB— AIJALON. 
 
 33 
 
 A-hin^a-dab  [??iy  brother  is  noble], 
 one  of  the  twelve  officers  appointed  by 
 Solomon  to  raise  supplies  for  the  royal 
 household  (1  Kings  4  :  14). 
 
 A.-hin^O-ain  [?«?/  brother  is  pleasant- 
 ness, pleasant],  the  name  of  two  women. 
 
 1.  The  daughter  of  Ahimaaz  and  wife 
 of  King  Saul  (1  Sam.  14  :  50). 
 
 2.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  the  wife  of  Da- 
 vid and  mother  of  Amnon.  When  the 
 Amalekites  plundered  Ziklag  she  was 
 taken  captive,  but  was  recovered  by  Da- 
 vid (1  Sam.  30  :  5,  18). 
 
 A-hi'o  [brotherly'],  one  of  the  sons 
 of  Abinadab,  who  with  his  brother  Uz- 
 zah  drove  the  new  cart  on  wliich  the  ark 
 was  placed  when  David  attempted  to  re- 
 move it  from  their  house  to  Jerusalem  (2 
 Sam.  6:3). 
 
 A-hi'ra  [my  brother  is  evil],  chief  of 
 the  tribe  of  Naphtali  when  the  Israelites 
 left  Egypt  (Num.  1  :  15). 
 
 A-hi'shar  [my  brother  siiu/s],  an  of- 
 ficer set  over  the  household  of  Solomon 
 (1  Kings  4:6),  a  station  of  high  honor 
 and  power. 
 
 A-hith'o-phel  [my  brother  is  folly], 
 an  eminent  counsellor,  distinguished  for 
 his  political  sagacity  and  wisdom  (2  Sam. 
 16  :  23).  Although  he  was  the  confi- 
 dential adviser  of  David,  he  suffered  him- 
 self to  be  involved  in  the  revolt  of  Absa- 
 lom. When  David  heard  that  Ahithophel 
 had  joined  the  conspiracy,  he  prayed  the 
 Lord  to  turn  his  counsel  into  foolishness 
 (2  Sam.  15  :  31),  in  allusion  probably  to 
 the  signification  of  his  name.  This  pray- 
 er was  remarkably  answered;  for,  when 
 Ahithophel  judiciously  advised  an  im- 
 mediate prosecution  of  the  war  before  Da- 
 vid could  collect  his  forces,  Hushai,  the 
 secret  friend  of  David,  advised  and  ob- 
 tained delay.  When  Ahitliophel  saw  that 
 Hushai's  advice  had  prevailed,  he  de- 
 spaired of  success  and,  returning  to  his 
 home  at  Giloh,  hung  himself  (2  Sam.  17  : 
 1-23). 
 
 A-hi^tub  [my  brother  is  goodness],  the 
 name  of  two  priests. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Phinehas  and  grandson 
 of  Eli  the  high  priest  (1  Sam.  14:3). 
 His  father  Phinehas  being  slain  when 
 the  ark  of  God  was  taken  by  the  Philis- 
 tines, he  may  have  succeeded  Eli  in  his 
 office,  but  this  fact  is  not  mentioned. 
 
 2.  Tlie  father  of  Zadok  the  high  priest 
 (1  Chron.  6  :8;  2  Sam.  8  :  17). 
 
 A-ho'lah  [in  her  my  tent^,  and  A-hoF- 
 i-bah  [tent  of  loftiness],  two  fictitious  or 
 symbolical  names  under  which  Ezekiel 
 represented  Samaria  and  Judah  (Ezek. 
 23  :  4). 
 
 A-ho'li-ab  [father'' s  tent]  a  man  of 
 the  tribe  of  Dan  and  a  skillful  weaver 
 and  embroiderer,  to  whom,  with  Bezaleel, 
 Moses  entrusted  the  construction  of  the 
 tabernacle  (Ex.  35  :  34). 
 
 A-huz'zath  \_possession],  a  friend  of 
 Abimelech,  the  king  of  Gerar,  who  accom- 
 panied him  on  his  visit  to  Isaac  for  the 
 purpose  of  forming  an  alliance  (Gen.  26  : 
 26). 
 
 A'i  [_ruins],a,  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
 lying  east  of  Bethel.  Its  name  is  variously 
 written  in  Scripture.  In  the  times  of  Abra- 
 ham, who  built  near  it  an  altar  (Gen.  12  : 
 8),  it  was  called  Hai.  In  the  times  of 
 Joshua,  who  utterly  destroyed  it,  it  was 
 called  Ai  (Josh.  8  :  28).  In  the  times  of 
 Isaiah,  when  a  new  town  occupied  its  site, 
 it  was  called  Ainth  (Isa.  10  :  28).  In  the 
 times  of  Nehemiah  it  was  called  yl(;a  (Neh. 
 11 :  31).  The  chief  historical  events  which 
 Scripture  associates  with  it  are  the  repulse 
 before  it  of  a  part  of  Joshua's  army  be- 
 cause of  Achan's  sin,  the  ambuscade  by 
 which  Joshua  surprised  and  stormed  it, 
 and  the  utter  extermination  of  its  inhab- 
 itants (Josh.  7  and  8).  It  is  located  be- 
 tween the  modern  villages  of  Dcir  Diwdn 
 and  MUkhmus,  where  are  the  remains  of  a 
 large  ancient  town. 
 
 Ai'ja-lon  or  Aj'a-lon  [place  of  ga- 
 zelles], a  town  originally  allotted  to  the  tribe 
 
34 
 
 AIN— ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 of  Dan  (Josh.  19  :  42),  but  held  in  posses- 
 sion by  the  Amorites  ( Judg.  1 :  35).  Being 
 on  the  frontier  of  the  two  kingdoms,  Jiidah 
 and  Iisrael,  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  in 
 Ephraim  antl  sometimes  as  in  Judah  and 
 Benjamin.  Its  name  is  most  familiar  to  us 
 from  its  mention  in  the  celebrated  speech 
 of  Joshua  during  his  pursuit  of  the  Ca- 
 naanites  (Josh.  10: 12).  It  is  represented 
 by  the  modern  Ydlo,  south  of  Beth-Horon, 
 now  Beit-  Ur. 
 
 A'in  or  A'en  [an  ei/f],  a  city  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah,  and  afterward  of  that  of 
 Simeon  (Josh.  15  :  32;  1  Chron.  4  :  32). 
 The  word  in  Hebrew  is  used  to  denote  a 
 spring  or  fountain,  the  eye  of  the  landscape, 
 and  is  found  combined  with  names  of  places, 
 usually  rendered  En  in  English,  as  En- 
 Gedi,  fountain  of  kids ;  En-  Gaiinim,  foun- 
 tain of  the  gardens;  En-IIaddah,  swift 
 fountain. 
 
 Air,  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the 
 earth  (1  Thess.  4:17).  "Speaking  into 
 the  air,"  a.s  in  1  Cor.  14  :  9,  is  a  pro- 
 verbial expression,  denoting  to  speak  in 
 vain ;  as  we  say,  "  throwing  his  words  to 
 the  winds."  "  Beating  the  air,"  as  in  1 
 Cor.  9  :  26,  denotes  an  abortive  effort,  in 
 allusion  to  an  ineffectual  blow  in  a  pugi- 
 listic combat.  "  The  powers  of  the  air," 
 in  Eph.  2  :  2  is  an  expression  probably 
 allusive  to  a  common  opinion  of  the  Jews 
 that  tlie  air  or  atmosphere  wius  filled  with 
 evil  spirits. 
 
 Ak-rab'bim  [Hcorpions'],  one  of  the 
 points  designating  the  southern  frontier- 
 line  of  the  Promised  Land  (Josh.  15  :  3). 
 It  was  an  ascent  or  chain  of  hills,  prob- 
 ably infested  with  scorpions,  according  to 
 the  signification  of  its  name. 
 
 Al'a-bas-ter.  In  Matt.  26 : 7  ;  Mark 
 14  :  3;  Luke  7  :  37  we  have  an  account 
 of  a  woman  who  came  to  the  house  of 
 Simon,  where  Jesus  was  dining,  and  who, 
 in  token  of  her  profound  regard,  poured 
 upon  his  head  from  an  alabaster  vase  a 
 most   costly  and    precious    ointment    of 
 
 spikenard.  In  Mark  14  :  3  it  is  said  she 
 broke  the  alabaster  box,  by  which  we  are 
 evidently  to  understand  that  slie  broke  the 
 seal,  wliich  had  never  before  been  disturb- 
 ed, and  by  which  the  perfume  was  pre- 
 served from  evaporation.  The  alabaster 
 which  was  manufactured  in  ancient  times 
 into  pots  for  holding  perfumes,  and  which 
 was  so  called  from  Alabastron,  the  town 
 in  Egypt  where  the  manufacture  was  first 
 begun,  is  supposed  to  liave  been  a  harder 
 and  more  compact  stone  than  that  beau- 
 tiful species  of  gypsum  of  the  same  name 
 which  is  now  so  well  known  as  the  mate- 
 rial of  ornamental  vases.  From  the  ap- 
 plication of  this  substance  to  tliis  partic- 
 ular use,  eventually  all  kinds  of  pots  and 
 vases  used  to  hold  perfume,  altliough 
 made  of  gold,  ivory  or  other  substances, 
 were  called  alabaster  vases. 
 
 AFa-raoth  [virrjim'],  a  supposed  mu- 
 sical term  of  unknown  signification.  It  is 
 used  in  1  Chron.  15  :  20  and  in  the  title 
 to  Ps.  46,  where  it  is  thought  to  be  a  di- 
 rection to  the  choristers  to  sing  in  the  fe- 
 male voice,  i.  e.  our  Uebk  or  soprano. 
 
 Al-ex-an'der.  The  name  of  several 
 persons  in  tlie  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian  (Mark" 
 15  :  21). 
 
 2.  A  distinguished  Jeiv,  a  member  of 
 the  council  before  which  Peter  and  John 
 were  interrogated  for  healing  the  lame 
 man  (Acts  4  :  6). 
 
 3.  A  Jew  of  Ephesus  who  tw)k  a  prom- 
 inent part  in  the  controversy  between 
 Paul  and  the  populace  of  the  city,  and 
 attempted  without  success  to  quell  the 
 tumult  (Acts  19  :  33). 
 
 4.  A  professed  convert  to  Christianity, 
 who  for  apostasy  was  "delivered  unto 
 Satan,"  that  is,  excommunicated  by  Paul 
 (1  Tim.  1:19,  20).  This  last  was  prob- 
 ably the  same  with  "  Alexander  tlie  cop- 
 persmith,"' mentioned  2  Tim.  4  :  14. 
 
 Al-ex-an'dri-a,  mentioned  Acts  18  : 
 24;   27  :  6.     A  celebrated   city  in  Lower 
 
ALEXANDEIANS— ALLIANCES. 
 
 35 
 
 Egypt,  occupying  a  strip  of  land  from  the 
 Mediterranean  on  the  north  to  Lake  Ma- 
 reotis  on  the  soutli.  It  was  founded  by 
 Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c.  332.  It  was 
 a  place  of  great  commercial  enterprise 
 and  wealth,  and  abounded  in  magnificent 
 buildings.  According  to  Pliny  tlie  histo- 
 rian, its  circuit  was  fifteen  miles.  After 
 the  death  of  Alexander,  who  was  buried 
 there,  it  became  the  regal  city  of  Egypt, 
 and  under  the  Ptolemies,  a  Greek  dy- 
 nasty, its  splendor  rose  to  the  highest 
 point.  Its  population  was  six  hundred 
 thousand,  half  of  wliich  was  composed 
 of  slaves.  Among  other  things  it  was 
 celebrated  for  its  library  of  seven  hun- 
 dred thousand  volumes,  which,  guarded 
 for  centuries  with  great  care,  was  at  length 
 destroyed  by  the  torch  of  war. 
 
 At  an  early  age  Christianity  was  intro- 
 duced into  Alexandria.  Apollos,  the  elo- 
 quent convert,  was  a  native  of  the  city, 
 and  two-fifths  of  the  population  were  Jews. 
 Its  history  from  the  first  has  been  eventful, 
 and,  for  centuries,  disastrous.  Its  commer- 
 cial importance  passed  away;  its  popula- 
 tion deserted  it ;  its  edifices  fell  into  ruin 
 or  were  used  to  build  up  younger  cities.  In 
 the  year  640  it  was  yet  a  great  city,  for 
 when  Amru  captured  it  he  wrote  to  tlie 
 Moslem  caliph  Omar,  "  I  have  taken  the 
 great  city  of  the  West,  which  contains  four 
 thousand  palaces,  four  thousand  baths,  four 
 hundred  theatres,  twelve  thousand  shops 
 and  forty  thousand  tributary  Jews."  But 
 even  this  measure  of  greatness  was  soon  lost. 
 
 In  more  recent  times  Alexandria  has 
 again  revived  and  become  an  important 
 centre  of  commerce.  In  1870  its  popula- 
 tion was  estimated  at  238,888,  composed  of 
 Arabs,  Turks,  Copts,  French,  Italians  and 
 othei-s. 
 
 Al-ex-an^dri-ans,  Jews  from  Alex- 
 andria (Acts  6  :  9). 
 
 AFgum,  a  transposed  form  of  the  He- 
 brew terra  Almug  (which  see). 
 
 AFle-gO-ry,  a   figure  of  speech   re- 
 
 sembling the  parable,  and  much  used  by 
 all  Oriental  peoples.  It  is  a  personifica- 
 tion either  of  irrational  and  inanimate  ob- 
 jects or  of  moral  qualities,  and  an  illus- 
 tration and  enforcement  of  truth  by  their 
 conduct  or  by  a  supposed  conversation  be- 
 tween them.  The  word  occurs  but  once  in 
 the  Scriptures  (Gal.  4  :  24)  and  there  the 
 passage  should  be  rendered  "  which  things 
 are  allegorized."  Paul  refers  to  certain 
 events  in  the  history  of  Israel  and  Ish- 
 mael  which  he  uses  to  foreshadow  import- 
 ant gospel  truths,  and  which,  therefore, 
 he  allegorizes.  He  does  not  mean  to  say 
 that  the  historic  facts  he  cites  are  them- 
 selves an  allegory. 
 
 Al-le-lu'ia  [praise  ye  the  Lord],  a 
 Grecised  form  (Rev.  19  :  1,  3,  4,  6)  of  the 
 Hebrew  Hallelujah  (which  see). 
 
 Al-li^ances.  In  our  Authorized 
 Version  this  word,  as  expressive  of 
 the  social  and  political  relations  which 
 the  ancient  people  of  God  were  or  were 
 not  permitted  to  form  with  strangers,  ap- 
 pears but  once  in  its  verbal  root  "  allied  " 
 (Neh.  13  :  4),  but  the  thought  which  it 
 embodies  is  found  not  infrequently. 
 
 In  respect  to  social  or  family  alliances  the 
 Mosaic  Law  was  explicit.  The  covenant 
 people  of  Jehovah  could  enter  into  no 
 marriage  covenant  with  the  daughters  of 
 a  strange  god,  for  this  was  to  poison  their 
 life  at  the  fountain-head.  Such  alliances 
 were  expressly  forbidden  in  the  Law 
 (Deut.  7:3),  and  in  actual  life  were  stern- 
 ly denounced  as  violations  of  the  funda- 
 mental principles  of  the  covenant  (Ezra  9 : 
 2;  10  :  2,  3;  Neh.  13  :  23-25;  Mai.  2  :  11, 
 12).  It  was  allowable,  however,  for  He- 
 brews to  marry  wives  from  other  nations, 
 on  condition  that  the  person  so  wedded 
 renounced  the  gods  and  corrupt  manners 
 of  their  country  and  embraced  in  tiieir 
 stead  the  faith  and  worship  of  Israel.  Of 
 this  several  examples  are  recorded,  as  in 
 the  cases  of  Zipporah,  Eahab  and  Ruth. 
 
 In  respect  to  ■political  or  national  alii- 
 
36 
 
 ALLON— ALMOND. 
 
 ances,  the  legislation  of  Moses  laid  down 
 nothing  very  explicit  except  as  regards 
 the  original  inhabitants  of  the  land  of 
 Canaan.  Witli  them  the  Israelites  were 
 enjoined  to  make  no  league,  public  or  pri- 
 vate, but  to  carry  into  effect  the  decree  of 
 God,  wliich  doomed  them,  because  of  their 
 enormous  sins,  to  an  utter  destruction 
 (Deut.  7:2;  Judg.  2  :  2).  What  was 
 said  respecting  the  surrounding  nations 
 bore  upon  the  religion  and  manners  preva- 
 lent among  them,  rather  than  upon  the  peo- 
 ple tliemselves.  Israel  was  not  to  copy 
 their  idolatrous  and  sinful  practices,  but 
 might  cultivate  with  them  peaceful  and 
 friendly  relations.  Accordingly,  wlien  Is- 
 rael became  an  established  commonwealth 
 formal  alliances  were  entered  into  with 
 several  of  the  neighboring  states.  Solo- 
 mon concluded  two  important  treaties  ex- 
 clusively for  commercial  purposes :  the 
 first  with  Iliram,  king  of  Tyre,  originally 
 witli  the  view  of  obtaining  materials  and 
 workmen  for  the  erection  of  the  temple, 
 and  afterward  for  the  supply  of  shipbuild- 
 ers and  sailors  (1  Kings  5  :  2-12;  9  :  27) ; 
 the  second  with  a  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt, 
 by  which  he  secured  a  monopoly  of  the 
 trade  in  horses  and  other  products  of  that 
 country  (1  Kings  10  :  28,  29).  After  the 
 division  of  the  kingdom  the  alliances  were 
 of  an  offensive  and  defensive  nature.  When 
 war  broke  out  between  Amaziah  and  Jer- 
 oboam II.,  a  coalition  was  formed  lietween 
 Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekali  on  the 
 one  side,  and  Ahaz  and  Tiglath-pilescr, 
 king  of  Assyria,  on  the  other  (2  Kings 
 16  :  5-9).  An  opening  for  the  advances 
 of  Assyria  was  thus  made ;  and  tlie  king- 
 doms of  Israel  and  Judah,  as  they  were 
 successively  attacked,  sought  the  alliance 
 of  the  Egyptians,  wlio  were  strongly  inter- 
 ested in  maintaining  the  independence  of 
 the  Jews  as  a  barrier  against  the  encroach- 
 ments of  the  Assyrian  power  (2  Kings  17  • 
 4;  19:  9,  36;  Isa.  30  :  2). 
 The  formation  of  an  alliance  was  at- 
 
 tended with  various  religious  rites.  A  vic- 
 tim was  slain  and  divided  into  two  parts, 
 between  which  the  contracting  parties 
 pa.ssed  (Gen.  15  :  10;  Jer.  3-4  :  18-20). 
 Generally  speaking,  the  oath  alone  is  men- 
 tionetl  in  tlie  contracting  of  alliances  either 
 between  individuals  (Gen.  26  :  28;  31 :  53; 
 1  Sam.  20  :  17 ;  2  Kings  11  :  4)  or  nations 
 (Josh.  9  :  15).  The  event  was  celebrated 
 by  a  feast  (Ex.  24  :  11 ;  2  Sam.  3  :  12,  20). 
 Salt,  the  symbol  of  fidelity,  was  used,  and 
 occasionally  a  memorial  pillar  or  a  heap 
 of  stones  was  set  up  (Gen.  31  :  52).  The 
 fidelity  of  the  Jews  to  their  engagements 
 was  conspicuous  at  all  periods  of  their  his- 
 tory (Josh.  9  :  18),  and  any  breach  of  cov- 
 enant was  visited  with  very  severe  punish- 
 ment (2  Sam.  21  :  1 ;  Ezek.  17  :  16). 
 
 Al'lon  [oaA-].  Large  trees  were  com- 
 paratively rare  in  the  plains  of  Palestine, 
 were  naturally  designated  as  landmarks, 
 and  were  favorite  places  for  residence  and 
 sepulture.  The  spot  where  Kebekali's  nurse 
 was  buried  is  called  Allon-Bachuth,  the 
 "oak  of  weeping"   (Gen.  35  :  8). 
 
 Al'mon-Dib-la-tha'im  [covering  of 
 the  ttvo  fi(j-cakes],  one  of  the  encampments 
 of  the  Israelites  on  their  way  from  Mount 
 Hor  to  the  plains  of  Moab  (Num.  33  :  46). 
 
 .\lmon(l. 
 
 Al'mond,  a  well-known  nut,  the  ker- 
 nel of  which  is  esculent  and  nutritious. 
 
ALMS— ALTAK. 
 
 37 
 
 In  Palestine  it  is  still  cultivated  and  of 
 excellent  quality.  The  tree  on  which  it 
 grows  resembles  the  peach  tree  in  leaves 
 and  blossoms,  and  is  remarkable  for  the 
 rapidity  with  which  it  matures  its  fruit. 
 As  it  has  its  Hebrew  name  from  a  verb 
 signifying  "  to  watch,  to  make  haste,"  it  is 
 strikingly  alluded  to  in  Jer.  1  :  11, 12  as  a 
 symbol  of  the  vigilance  with  which  the 
 Lord  watches  over  his  word  to  fulfill  it,  or 
 of  the  haste  with  which  he  executes  his 
 judgments. 
 
 Alms  [alms-deeds],  (Matt.  6:2;  Acts 
 9  :  36),  showings  of  kindness  or  pity  to 
 the  needy,  gifts  or  deeds  of  charity.  The 
 duty  of  almsgiving  is  much  insisted  on  in 
 Scripture  (Deut.  15  :  11 ;  1  Cor.  16  :  1-3), 
 and  the  deed  of  almsgiving  is  approvingly 
 associated  with  acceptable  prayer  (Acts  10 : 
 2).  The  provisions  of  the  Jewish  law  for 
 the  relief  of  the  poor  were  singularly  judi- 
 cious and  kind  (Lev.  25:35-43;  Deut. 
 15:7-11). 
 
 Al'mug  (or  AVgum)  Trees,  the 
 former  occurring  in  1  Kings  10  :  11,  12,  the 
 latter  in  2  Chron.  2  :  8;  9  :'lO,  11.  Tlie 
 two  words  are  evidently  identical,  and  indi- 
 cate trees  which  furnished  a  rare  and  costly 
 wood  in  great  demand  for  fine  work.  The 
 wood  probably  was  the  red  sandal-wood  of 
 India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  very  heavy,  hard, 
 fine-grained  and  of  a  beautiful  garnet  col- 
 or, and  used  in  the  ornamental  work  of  the 
 temple  and  for  musical  instruments. 
 
 AFoes,  or  Lign-Al'oes,  an  East 
 Indian  tree,  the  flower  and  wood  of  which 
 yielded  an  exquisite  and  expensive  per- 
 fume (Num.  24  :  6 ;  Ps.  45  :  8 ;  Prov.  7  : 
 17  ;  Song  4  :  14).  Its  wood  was  also  used 
 for  fine  cabinet  and  ornamental  work.  An- 
 other species  of  aloes,  the  juice  of  which 
 when  boiled  produces  the  resin  which  is 
 largely  used  in  medicine,  is  supposed  to 
 be  referred  to  in  John  19  :  39,  where  it  is 
 mentioned  in  connection  with  the  process 
 of  embalming.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
 whether  the  Scriptures  refer  to  more  than 
 
 one  kind  of  aloes,  the  fragrant  lign-aloes 
 of  the  East. 
 
 Al'pha,  the  first  letter  in  the  Greek 
 alphabet,  as  Omega  is  the  last.  Our  Lord 
 says  of  himself  in  expression  of  his  eterni- 
 ty of  being,  "  I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the 
 beginning  and  the  ending,  the  first  and 
 the  last"  (Rev.  1  :  8,  11 ;  21  :  6 ;  22  :  13). 
 The  like  form  of  expression  to  denote  the 
 eternity  of  God  is  found  in  Isa.  41  :  4. 
 
 Al-phe''us,  the  name  of  two  men  in 
 the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  The  father  of  the  apostle  James  the 
 Less  (Matt.  10  :  3;  Acts  1  :  13),  and  the 
 husband  of  that  Mary  who,  with  the  mother 
 of  Jesus  and  others,  was  standing  by  the 
 cross  during  the  crucifixion  (John  19  :  25). 
 Alphens  is  the  Greek,  and  Cleophas  or  Clo- 
 pas  the  Hebrew  or  Syriac,  name  of  the 
 same  person. 
 
 2.  The  fixther  of  the  evangelist  Levi  or 
 Matthew  (Mark  2  :  14). 
 
 AFtar.  This  word  is  derived  from  the 
 Latin  (dlux,  high,  lofty,  and  is  used  to  desig- 
 nate a  raised  or  elevated  structure  on  which 
 offerings  of  any  kind  were  made  to  God. 
 The  first  altar  of  which  we  have  any  ac- 
 count is  that  built  by  Noah  when  he  left 
 the  ark  (Gen.  8  :  20).  At  first  the  altar 
 was  either  a  heap  of  stones  or  a  mound 
 of  earth,  and  in  construction  and  form  was 
 quite  rude.  If  made  of  stone,  it  was  to  be 
 of  unhewn  stone ;  upon  it  no  iron  tools 
 were  to  be  employed  and  no  figures  or 
 images  were  to  be  sculptured  (Ex.  20  :  25; 
 Deut.  27  :  5,  6;  Josh.  8  :  31).  Moses  was 
 directed  to  make  two  altars — the  one  the 
 altar  of  burnt-ofTering  (Ex.  27  :  1-8 ;  38  : 
 1-7),  the  other  the  altar  of  incense  (Ex. 
 30:  1-10;  37  :  25-28). 
 
 1.  The  altar  of  burnt-offering.  This  was 
 ordinarily  simply  called  the  altar,  but 
 sometimes  "the  brazen  altar"  (Ex.  38: 
 30).  It  differed  in  construction  at  differ- 
 ent times.  In  the  tabernacle  it  was  com- 
 paratively small  and  portable.  In  shape  it 
 was  square,  five  cubits  in  length,  the  same 
 
38 
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 in  breadtli,  and  three  cubits  high.  It  wa-s 
 made  of  planks  of  sliittiin  or  acacia  wood 
 overlaitl  with  brass.  Tlie  interior  was  hol- 
 low. At  the  four  corners  were  four  projec- 
 tions called  horns,  made  like  the  altai;  itself 
 
 Altar  of  Burnt-oU'eiing. 
 
 of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  brass.  They 
 probably  projected  upward,  and  to  tliem 
 the  victim  was  bound  when  about  to  be 
 sacrificed  (Ps.  118  :  27).  Seized  by  one 
 in  peril  of  iiis  life,  they  also  furnished  an 
 asylum  which  was  generally,  but  not  al- 
 ways, respected  (1  Kings  2  :  28-31).  On 
 the  occasion  of  the  consecration  of  the 
 priests  {Ex.  29  :  12)  and  the  offering  of 
 the  sin-offering  (Lev.  4:7)  part  of  the 
 blood  of  the  victim  Avas  applied  to  these 
 horns  by  the  priest's  finger,  and  the  rest 
 was  poured  at  the  bottom  of  the  altar. 
 Round  the  altar,  midway  between  tlie 
 top  and  tlie  bottom,  ran  a  projecting  ledge 
 ("compass"  in  our  Authorized  Version, 
 Ex.  27  :  5),  on  which,  perhaps,  the  priests 
 stood  when  they  officiated.  To  the  outer 
 edge  of  this  again  a  grating  or  network 
 of  brass  was  afllixed,  and  reached  to  the 
 bottom  of  the  altar,  which  thus  present- 
 ed the  appeai'ance  of  being  larger  below 
 than  above.  At  the  four  corners  of  the 
 network  were  four  brazen  rings,  into 
 which  were  inserted  the  staves  by  which 
 the  altar  was  carried.  These  staves 
 were  of  tUe  same  material  as  the  altar 
 itself.      As    the    priests    were    forbidden 
 
 to  ascend  the  altar  by  steps  (Ex.  20 : 
 26),  it  has  been  conjectured  that  a  slope 
 of  earth  led  gradually  up  to  the  ledge 
 from  which  they  officiated.  The  place 
 of  the  altar  was  at  "the  door  of  the  taber- 
 nacle of  the  congregation"  (Ex.  40  :  29). 
 In  Solomon's  temple  the  altar  was  consid- 
 erably larger  in  its  dimensions.  Like  the 
 former,  it  was  square,  but  the  length  and 
 breadth  were  now  twenty  cubits  and  the 
 height  ten  (2  Chron.  4:1).  It  differed, 
 too,  in  the  material  of  which  it  was  made, 
 being  entirely  of  brass  (1  Kings  8  :  04;  2 
 Chron.  7:7).  It  had  no  grating,  and  in- 
 stead of  a  single  gradual  slope,  the  ascent 
 to  it  was  probably  made  by  three  succes- 
 sive platforms,  to  each  of  which  steps  led. 
 Upon  it,  twice  each  day,  sacrifices  were 
 offered,  and  were  burned  with  fire  mirac- 
 ulously kindled  at  the  first,  and  guarded 
 from  generation  to  generation  with  the 
 most  assiduous  care  (Lev.  6:12,  13;  9: 
 24). 
 
 ■  2.  The  altar  of  incense,  called  also  the 
 golden  altar  (Ex.  39  :  3-5)  to  distinguish  it 
 from  the  brazen  altar  of  burnt-offering,  was 
 in  the  tabernacle,  made  of  acacia  wood  over- 
 laid with  pure  gold.  In  shape  it  was  square, 
 being  a  cubit  in  length  and  breadth  and 
 two  cubits  in  height  (Ex.  30  :  2).    Like 
 
 Altar  of  Incense. 
 
 the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  it  had  horns  at 
 the  foiu'  corners,  which  were  of  one  piece 
 
AL-TASCHITH— AMAZIAH. 
 
 39 
 
 with  the  rest  of  the  altar.  Its  appear- 
 ance may  be  ilhistrated  by  the  annexed 
 figure. 
 
 This  altar  stood  in  the  Holy  Place,  "  be- 
 fore the  vail  that  is  by  the  ark  of  the  tes- 
 timony" (Ex.  30  :  6;  40  :  5).  In  Solo- 
 mon's temple  the  altar  was  similar,  but  was 
 made  of  cedar  overlaid  with  gold  (1  Kings 
 6  :  18,  22 ;  7  :  48 ;  1  Chron.  28  :  1 8).  Upon 
 this  altar  every  morning  and  every  even- 
 ing, in  connection  with  the  daily  sacrifice, 
 incense  was  burnt,  and  the  service  was  de- 
 nominated "a  perpetual  incense  before 
 the  Lord"  (Ex.  30  :  8).  Upon  it  neither 
 burnt-offering  nor  meat-offering  nor  drink- 
 offering  was  at  any  time  allowed  (Ex.  30  : 
 9),  nor  was  it  ever  stained  with  blood  ex- 
 cept once  a  year,  when  the  priest  made 
 atonement  (Lev.  16  :  18,  19). 
 
 Al-Tasch'ith,  found  in  the  introduc- 
 tory verse  to  Psalms  57,  58,  59,  75.  It  lit- 
 erally means  "  destroy  not,"  and  is  probably 
 the  beginning  of  some  song  or  psalm  to  the 
 tune  of  which  those  psalms  were  to  be 
 chanted. 
 
 Am'a-lek,  a  son  of  Eliphaz  and  grand- 
 son of  Esau  (Gen.  3G :  16).  He  was  not  the 
 father  of  the  Amalekites,  who  are  mentioned 
 as  a  powerful  people  long  before  the  birth 
 of  Amalek  (Gen.  14  :  7). 
 
 Am'alek-ites,  a  powerful  nomadic 
 people  occupying  the  peninsula  of  Sinai 
 and  the  wilderness  between  Southern  Pal- 
 estine and  Egypt,  and  called  in  Num.  24  : 
 20  "the  first  of  the  nations."  They  be- 
 longed, not  unlikely,  to  a  branch  of  the 
 great  Hamitic  family.  They  came  into 
 conflict  with  the  Israelites  at  Rephidim 
 soon  after  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  were 
 signally  defeated,  and,  for  their  guilt  in 
 opposing  tiie  progress  of  God's  people,  be- 
 came the  objects  of  terrible  denunciations 
 and  judgments  (Ex.  17  :  8-14;  Deut.  25  : 
 17-19).  They  were  defeated  by  Gideon 
 (Judg.  7:  12),  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  15),  and  by 
 David  (1  Sam.  30),  and  at  last,  in  fulfill- 
 ment of  the  word  of  the  Lord,  their  name 
 
 was  blotted  from  the  earth  (1  Sam.  30  :  17 
 and  1  Chron.  4  :  43). 
 
 Am'a-na,  the  marginal  reading  in  2 
 Kings  5  :  12  of  the  stream  near  Damascus 
 called  in  the  text  Abana.  It  is  used  in 
 Song  4  :  8  to  designate  a  mountain,  the  re- 
 sort of  wild  beasts.  Mount  Amana,  appar- 
 ently, was  the  southern  part  or  summit  of 
 Anti-Libanus,  and  w.as  so  called,  perhaps, 
 from  containing  tiie  sources  of  the  river 
 Amana  or  Abana.     See  Abana. 
 
 Am-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  said — i.  e. 
 promised],  the  name  of  several  distinct 
 but  undistinguished  persons  mentioned  in 
 Scripture  ( 1  Ciiron.  6:7;  23  :  19 ;  2  Chron. 
 19  :  11 ;  Ezra  7:3;  10  :  42;  Neh.  10  :  3 ; 
 .Zeph.  1:1). 
 
 Am'a-sa  [burden'],  the  name  of  two 
 men. 
 
 1.  A  nephew  of  King  David  and  the 
 leader  of  Absalom's  army  in  the  rebel- 
 lion (2  vSam.  17  :  25).  He  was  defeated  by 
 Joal),  but  because  of  his  valor  and  near  re- 
 lationship to  King  David  Avas  not  only  par- 
 doned, but  alsojDromoted  above  Joab,  who 
 subsequently  and  most  treacherously  slew 
 him  (2  Sam.  20  :  4-10). 
 
 2.  A  chief  of  Ephraim,  who  with  others 
 vehemently  and  successfully  resisted  the  re- 
 tention as  prisoners  of  the  persons  whom 
 Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  had  taken  captive 
 in  a  successful  campaign  against  Ahaz, 
 king  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  28  :  12). 
 
 Am-a'sa-i  [burdensome],  the  name  of 
 several  men,  but  especially  of  the  leader 
 of  a  considerable  company  from  the  tribes 
 of  Judah  and  Benjamin  who  came  to  Da- 
 vid at  Ziklag,  when  he  was  fleeing  from 
 Saul,  and  offered  him  their  services  (1 
 Chron.  12  :  16-18). 
 
 Am-a-zi^ah  [Jehovah  has  strength- 
 ened], the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  son  and  successor  of  Joash, 
 and  eighth  king  of  Judah.  He  ascend- 
 ed the  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
 about  B.  c.  837,  and  reigned  twenty- 
 nine  years    (2   Kings  14  :  1-20).     The 
 
40 
 
 AMBASSADOR— AMEN. 
 
 first  part  of  his  reign  promised  well, 
 but  the  promise  was  soon  darkened 
 by  insincerity  of  soul.  The  record  re- 
 specting him  is,  "  He  did  that  which  was 
 right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not 
 with  a  perfect  heart"  (2  Cliron.  25  :  2). 
 Resolving  to  subdue  the  Edomites,  who 
 several  years  before  his  accession  had  re- 
 volted from  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (2 
 Kings  8  :  20),  and  presuming  that  his  own 
 army  of  three  hundred  thousand  men  would 
 not  be  sufficient,  he  hired  one  hundred  thou- 
 sand men  from  the  king  of  Israel,  to  whom 
 he  paid  one  hundred  thousand  talents  of 
 silver.  Before  he  set  out  upon  the  expe- 
 dition he  was  bidden  by  a  prophet  of  tlie 
 Lord  to  dismiss  his  hired  soldiers,  upon 
 pain,  if  he  did  not,  of  falling  before  his 
 enemies.  After  some  hesitation  he  sent 
 the  Israelites  home,  and  was  rewarded  by 
 a  signal  victory  over  the  Edomites,  slay- 
 ing ten  thousand,  taking  ten  thousand 
 prisoners,  and  capturing  Petra  the  capital. 
 Elated  by  his  success  and  alienated  in 
 heart  fi'om  Jehovah,  he  took  tlie  idols 
 which  his  vanquished  enemy  liad  wor- 
 shiped and  made  them  liis  gods.  The 
 anger  of  the  Lord  was  kindled  against 
 him,  and  he  was  given  over  to  follow  his 
 own  devices.  He  sought  an  occasion  of 
 war  with  the  king  of  Israel,  but,  defeated 
 and  made  a  prisoner,  he  was  compelled  to 
 submit  to  the  plundering  of  the  temple 
 and  the  spoiling  of  Jerusalem.  After 
 this  disgraceful  defeat  he  lived  fifteen 
 years,  despised  by  his  subjects  and  de- 
 rided by  his  neighbors.  At  length  he 
 was  murdered  by  conspirators  at  Lacliisli, 
 whither  he  had  fled  for  safety  (2  Chron. 
 25  :  27). 
 
 2.  The  priest  of  the  golden  calves  at 
 Bethel,  who  complained  to  Jeroboam  II., 
 king  of  Israel,  of  the  prophecies  of  evil 
 which  Amos  was  uttering,  and  who,  by 
 the  prophet,  was  tlireatened  with  degra- 
 dation and  death  (Amos  7  :  10-17). 
 
 Am-bas'sa-dor,  a  person  sent  to  a 
 
 foreign  court  as  the  representative  of  his 
 king  (2  Chron.  32  :  31).  In  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament the  word  is  of  frequent  occurrence, 
 and  in  the  New  Testament  (2  C!or  5  :  20) 
 it  is  applied  to  the  apostles  in  the  sense 
 that  tliey  were  sent  forth  by  divine  au- 
 thority and  furnished  with  divine  creden- 
 tials to  proclaim  the  terms  of  pardon  and 
 peace  to  the  rebellious  and  condemned 
 subjects  of  God's  government  in  this 
 world.  Paul  when  a  prisoner  in  Rome 
 styles  himself  "  an  ambassador  in  bonds  " 
 (Eph.  6  :  20),  with  the  intimation  tliat  the 
 outrage  done  to  him  is  an  outrage  done  to 
 his  divine  Sovereign. 
 
 Am'ber,  in  ordinary  acceptation  a 
 beautiful  fossil  resin,  susceptible  of  a 
 fine  polish  and  presenting  several  coloi-s, 
 the  most  common  being  yellow  and  orange. 
 It  is  found  in  lumps  near  the  shores  of  the 
 Baltic  Sea.  Tlie  word  occui"s  in  three  pas- 
 sages (Ezek.  1  :  4,  27;  8  :  2),  where  the 
 reference  is  thought  by  some  to  be  not  to 
 the  resin,  but  to  a  very  brilliant  metal 
 composed  of  silver  and  gold,  and  much 
 prized  by  the  ancients ;  but  the  prophet 
 speaks  only  of  amber  color,  which  resem- 
 bles tliat  of  fire. 
 
 Am'bush,  or  Ambushment  (Josh. 
 8 : 2 ;  2  Cliron.  13 :  13),  a  military  manajuvre 
 by  wliich  a  hostile  party  is  exposed  to  cap- 
 ture or  destruction  by  coming  unawares 
 upon  their  hidden  and  waiting  foes. 
 Josliua  arranged  such  an  amljTisli  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Ai,  and  by  it  signally  defeat- 
 ed the  inhabitants  of  that  city  (Josh.  8). 
 
 A'men  [true,  faiihfnl].  This  word, 
 wlien  occurring  at  the  close  of  a  sentence, 
 singly  or  doubly,  is  an  affirmative  response 
 denoting  assent  or  entire  acquiescence.  Af- 
 ter a  creed  it  means  "  So  it  is ;"  after  a  prayer 
 "So  let  it  be"  (Dent.  27  :  15;  1  Kings  1  : 
 3G;  Jer.  11  :  5;  Ps.  41  :  13).  It  is  some- 
 times translated  verily,  and  by  our  Lord 
 is  frequently  used  at  the  beginning  of  a 
 sentence  to  introduce  some  emphatic  and 
 important  truth.      Its  repetition,  "  Verily, 
 
AMEKCE— AMON. 
 
 41 
 
 verily,  I  say  unto  you,"  is  intended  to 
 strengthen  the  assertion.  Among  the 
 early  Christians  ail  the  worshipers  said 
 Amen  at  the  close  of  the  prayer  or  of  the 
 giving  of  thanks  (1  Cor.  14  :  16).  As  our 
 Lord  is  "  the  foithful  and  true  Witness," 
 Amen  is  one  of  his  titles  (Rev.  3  :  14). 
 
 A-merce',  to  punish  by  a  fine  (Deut. 
 22  :  19). 
 
 Am'e-thyst,  the  name  of  a  beautiful 
 stone  of  a  purple  or  violet  color,  greatly 
 esteemed  by  the  ancients  for  rings  and 
 cameos,  and  believed  by  them  to  possess 
 the  power  of  dispelling  drunkenness.  It 
 was  the  ninth  stone  in  the  high  priest's 
 breastplate  (Ex.  28  :  19),  and  the  twelfth 
 in  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
 (Rev.  21.  20). 
 
 Am ''mi  [my  people]  and  Ru-ha'mah 
 lhavi7if/  obtained  merry'],  figurative  names 
 bestowed  by  Jehovah  on  the  people  of  Is- 
 rael to  indicate  his  mercy  toward  tJiem 
 in  their  restoration  (Hos.  2:1). 
 
 Am-miin'a-dab  [my  people  is  noble], 
 the  father  of  Nahshon,  wlio  was  the  prince 
 of  the  tribe  of  Judah  at  the  Exodus  (Num. 
 1:7;  2:3).  He  was  the  fourth  generation 
 after  Judah,  and  one  of  our  Lord's  ances- 
 tors (Matt.  1:4). 
 
 In  Solomon's  Song  (6  :  12)  the  chariots 
 of  Ammivadib  (the  last  syllable  different- 
 ly spelled)  are  mentioned  as  proverbial 
 for  their  swiftness.  The  person  referred 
 to  was  probably  a  celebrated  cliarioteer. 
 
 Am'rQon  [o/  the  people'],  Am'mon- 
 ites,  Children  of  Ammon,  a  peo- 
 ple descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son 
 whom  Lot's  younger  daughter  bore  to 
 him  after  the  destruction  of  Sodom  (Gen. 
 19  :  38).  Although  they  dispossessed  the 
 Rephaim  or  giants,  called  Zamzummim 
 (Deut.  2  :  20),  of  the  territory  lying  east 
 of  the  Jordan  between  the  rivers  Jabbok 
 and  Arnon  and  stretching  indefinitely 
 into  the  desert  of  Arabia,  yet  through 
 most  of  their,  history  they  were  not  so 
 much  residents  on  the  soil  as  wanderers 
 
 and  fierce  marauders  (1  Sam.  11  :  1-3). 
 They  were  gross  idolaters  (Judg.  10  :  6). 
 Their  chief  idol  was  Moloch,  the  same 
 with  Baal  and  Milcom.  They  were  al- 
 ways hostile  to  the  Israelites,  were  fre- 
 quently denounced  by  the  prophets,  and 
 were  finally  swept  away  in  the  flood  of 
 God's  judgments  (Jer.  49  :  1,  2;  Ezek. 
 25  :  3-7  ;  Amos  1  :  13-15). 
 
 Am^non  [faithful]  the  eldest  son  of 
 David,  by  Ahinoam  of  Jezreel  (1  Chron. 
 3:1),  born  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  3  :  2).  He 
 is  only  known  for  his  violation  of  his  half 
 sister  Tamar,  and  for  his  assassination  there- 
 for by  her  full  brother  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
 13  :  1-29).     See  Absalom. 
 
 A^mon,  the  name  of  a  divinity  and 
 of  a  king. 
 
 1.  An  Egyptian  and  Libyan  god,  the 
 Zeus  and  Jupiter  of  the  classical  writers. 
 The  name  occurs  in  that  of  No-amon 
 (Nah.  3  :  8),  in   our  Authorized  Version 
 
42 
 
 AMORITE— AMPHIPOLIS. 
 
 "populous  No."  The  ancient  Egyptian 
 name  is  Amen.  He  was  the  chief  god  of 
 the  Theban  triad,  and  was  worshiped  as 
 Amen-Ra,  or  "  Amen  the  Sun." 
 
 2.  A  king  of  Judah,  son  and  successor 
 of  Manasseh.  lie  reigned  two  years,  from 
 B.  c.  G4'2  to  G40.  He  devoted  himself 
 Wiiolly  to  the  service  of  false  gods,  and 
 was  assassinated  in  a  court  conspiracy. 
 He  was  avenged  by  the  people,  who  put 
 the  regicides  to  death  and  raised  to  the 
 throne  his  son  Josiah,  then  eight  years 
 old  (2  Kings  21  :  18-2G;  2  Chron.  33  : 
 20-20).  To  liis  reign  is  to  be  referred  the 
 terrible  picture  which  the  propliet  Zeplia- 
 niali  gives  of  the  moral  and  religious  state 
 of  Jerusalem. 
 
 Am^or-ite  [mountaineer],  the  Am'- 
 or-ites,  one  of  the  chief  nations  who 
 possessed  the  land  of  Canaan  before  its 
 conquest  by  the  Israelites.  In  the  gene- 
 alogical table  of  Gen.  10  "the  Arnorite" 
 is  mentioned  as  the  fourth  son  of  Canaan. 
 Dwellers  on  the  highlands  of  the  country, 
 they  are  contrasted  with  the  Canaanites  or 
 dwellers  on  the  lowlands.  In  the  early 
 times  they  occupied  tlie  barren  heights 
 immediately  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen. 
 14  :  7).  From  this  point  they  stretched 
 west  to  Hebron,  where  iVbram  met  with 
 them  (Gen.  14  :  13).  Thence  they  seem 
 to  have  extended  eastward,  crossing  the 
 valley  of  the  Jordan  and  dispossessing 
 the  Moabites  of  the  rich  pasture-lands 
 south  of  the  Jabbok.  Hero  we  find  them 
 at  the  date  of  the  Israelitish  invasion  of 
 the  country.  Sihon,  their  king,  refused  the 
 request  of  the  Israelites  to  pass  through 
 the  country  to  the  fords  of  the  Jordan, 
 and,  aided  by  other  kings,  mustered  an 
 immense  host  to  dispute  tlie  passage. 
 The  Amorites  were  signally  defeated,  and 
 their  territory  was  apportioned  to  the 
 tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Dent.  4  :  46- 
 49;  Josh.  12  :  1-6 ;  Judg.  11  :  19-22).  Af- 
 ter the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Scriptures 
 are   silent  respecting  the  Amorites,  with 
 
 the  exception  of  an  occasional  mention 
 of  their  name  among  the  early  inhabit- 
 ants of  the  country. 
 
 A'mos  [6K)(/t'«-6ca?Y)-],  one  of  the  twelve 
 minor  pro2)hcts,  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah 
 and  Ilosea.  He  was  a  native  of  Tekoa, 
 about  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  in- 
 habited chiefly  by  sheplierds,  to  which 
 class  he  belonged.  He  was  called  by 
 God's  Spirit  to  be  a  prophet,  although  not 
 trained  in  any  of  the  regular  prophetic 
 schools  (Amos  1:1;  7:1 4,  15).  He 
 traveled  from  Judah  into  the  northern 
 kingdom  of  Israel,  and  there  for  a  short 
 time  exercised  his  ministry.  He  was 
 driven  from  Bethel  upon  false  represen- 
 tations made  to  King  Jeroboam  II.  by 
 the  idolatrous  priest  Amaziah  (Amos  7  : 
 10,  11).  The  time  and  manner  of  hLs 
 death  are  uncertain.  His  prophecy  be- 
 gins with  awful  denunciation  of  the  na- 
 tions surrounding  Israel,  and  passes  to  a 
 terrific  sketch  of  Israels  own  punishment. 
 Thence  lie  rises  to  a  loftier,  more  evangel- 
 ical strain,  and  anticipates  tlie  time  when 
 tJie  hope  of  Messiah's  kingdom  shall  be  ful- 
 filled, and  wlien  the  cliosen  people  sliall 
 be  forgiven  and  established  in  the  enjoy- 
 ment of  God's  blessings.  HLs  style  is  viv- 
 id, combining  great  splendor  of  imagery 
 with  powerful  invective  and  appeal. 
 
 A'moz  [■'<tro)i(/],  the  fatlier  of  the 
 prophet  Isaiah  and,  according  to  rabbin- 
 ical tradition,  the  brotlier  of  Amaziah, 
 king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  19:2;  Isa. 
 1:1). 
 
 Am-phip'O-lis  [a  cih/  on  both  sidex], 
 a  city  of  Macedonia,  situated  near  the 
 mouth  and  within  a  bend  of  the  river 
 Strymon.  It  was  built  by  Cimon  the 
 Athenian  about  B.  c.  470.  Paul  and  Silas 
 passed  through  this  city  on  their  way  to 
 Thessalonica  from  Piiilippi  (Acts  17  :  1). 
 It  has  long  been  in  ruins,  and  a  village  of 
 about  one  hundred  iiouses,  called  in  Turk- 
 ish Jeiii-Kent,  or  New  Town^  now  occupies 
 part  of  its  site.     A  miserable  village  near 
 
A  MPLI  AS— ANANIAS. 
 
 43 
 
 it  is  called  by  the  Turks  Emboli,  a  corrup- 
 tion of  the  ancient  name. 
 
 Am'pli-as,  a  Christian  at  Kome, 
 mentioned  by  Paul  as  one  whom  he  es- 
 pecially loved  (Rom.  16  :  8). 
 
 Ani''rain  [the  people  is  exalled,  lofty 
 people],  a  Levite  of  the  family  of  the 
 Kohathites,  and  father  of  ]Moses,  Aaron 
 and  Miriam  (Ex.  G  :  18,  20;  Num.  3  :  19; 
 1  Chron.  6  :  2,  3,  18).  He  is  called  the 
 "  son  "  of  Kohath,  and  is  said  to  have  mar- 
 ried Jochebed,  "  his  father's  sister ;"  but 
 inasmuch  as  from  Joseph  to  Joshua  ten 
 generations  are  recorded,  whilst  from  Levi 
 to  Moses  there  are  but  three  (1  Chron.  G  : 
 16,  18;  7  :  23,  25-27),  it  has  been  conjec- 
 tured that  several  generations  between 
 Koliath  and  Amram  have  been  omitted. 
 If  such  be  the  case,  then  tlie  "son"  is 
 simply  the  descendant  of  Kohath,  and 
 Jochebed,  "his  fatliei-'s  sister,"  is  a  rela- 
 tive of  the  Koliathite  family. 
 
 Am'ra-phel  [ihe  son  is  ndev,  Babylo- 
 nian], a  king  (Ilamite  probably)  of  Shinar 
 or  Babylonia,  who  confederated  with  Che- 
 dorlaomer,  king  of  Elam,  and  two  other 
 kings  to  make  war  on  Sodom  and  the 
 neighboring  cities,  which  they  plundered. 
 Among  the  captives  whom  they  carried 
 off  was  Lot,  Abraliam's  nephew.  Abra- 
 ham pursued  them,  retook  Lot  and  re- 
 covered the  spoil  (Gen.  14  :  1-16). 
 
 Am'u-lets,  charms  or  preservatives 
 against  the  power  of  evil.  The  word  is 
 not  found  in  our  Autliorized  Version,  but 
 is  the  proper  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
 word  which  in  Gen.  35  :  4 ;  Isa.  3  :  20  and 
 Hos.  2  :  13  is  translated  "  ear-rings."  See 
 Ear-rings. 
 
 A'nah.  [avsiveringi,  the  son  of  Zibeon, 
 the  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  36  :  20, 
 24),  a  "  duke "  or  prince  of  his  tribe,  and 
 father  of  Aholibamah,  one  of  the  wives 
 of  Esau  (Gen.  36  :  2,  14,  25).  While  feed- 
 ing asses  in  the  desert  lie  discovered  "  hot 
 springs  "  (not  "  mules,"  as  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version,  Gen.  36  :  24),  which  in  the 
 
 region  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  exist  to  this 
 day. 
 
 A''nak  [long-necked,  i.  e.  a  (/iantl,  the 
 son  of  Arba,  who  founded  Kirjath-Arba 
 (afterward  Hebron),  the  progenitor  of  a 
 race  of  giants  (.Josh.  15  :  13). 
 
 An'a-kim  [giants'],  a  nomadic  tribe 
 of  giants  descended  from  Arba  and  bear- 
 ing the  name  of  Anak,  their  immediate 
 progenitor  (Num.  13  :  22,  33 ;  Deut.  9:2; 
 Josh.  14  :  15).  They  dwelt  in  the  south- 
 ern part  of  Palestine,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Hebron.  Although  their  warlike  appear- 
 ance terrified  the  spies  whom  Moses  sent 
 to  ascertain  the  defences  of  Canaan  (Num. 
 13  :  28),  they  yet  were  easily  dispossessed 
 by  Joshua,  and,  except  a  small  remnant 
 that  found  refuge  in  tlie  Philistine  cities, 
 Gaza,  Gath  and  Ashdod  (Josh.  11  :  21,  22), 
 were  utterly  driven  from  the  land.  Their 
 chief  city,  Hebron,  became  the  possession 
 of  Caleb  (.Josh.  15  :  13,  14;  Judg.  1  :  20). 
 After  the  conquest  they  vanish  from  his- 
 tory. 
 
 An'a-mini,  a  tribe  descending  from 
 Mizraim  (Gen.  10  :  13),  supposed  to  be  an 
 East  African  tribe  contiguous  to  Egypt,  but 
 their  exact  position  is  not  known. 
 
 A-nam'mel-ech  [in  Assyrian,  Anu- 
 melik — Aim  is  king],  the  companion  idol  to 
 Adrammelech,  both  of  whom  were  wor- 
 shiped by  the  colonists  introduced  into  Sa- 
 maria from  Sepharvaim  (2  Kings  17  :  31). 
 
 An-a-ni'as  [Greek  form  of  the  He- 
 brew Ananiah,  protected  by  Jehovih].  In 
 the  New  Testament  it  is  the  name  of  three 
 persons. 
 '  1.  A  Christian  of  Damascus  (Acts  9  : 
 10-17)  held  in  high  repute  (Acts  22  :  12), 
 who  was  sent  to  Saul  of  Tarsus  after  he  had 
 been  miraculously  stricken  blind  on  his 
 way  to  Damascus,  and  through  whom  his 
 siglit  was  as  miraculously  restored. 
 
 2.  A  Jew  of  Jerusalem,  who,  professing 
 to  be  a  convert  to  Christianity,  conspired 
 with  his  wife  Sappiiira  to  deceive  the 
 apostles  by  a  willful  falsehood   (Acts  5  : 
 
44 
 
 ANATHEMA— ANDREW. 
 
 1-1 1 ).  Having  sold  his  goods  for  the  ben- 
 efit of  the  Church,  he  kept  back  a  part  of 
 the  price,  and  alleged  the  part  which  he 
 brought  to  be  the  whole.  For  this  hy- 
 pocrisy and  falsehood  he  and  his  wife  were 
 struck  dead,  as  an  awful  warning  to  all  who 
 might  be  tempted  to  repeat  their  sin. 
 
 3.  A  son  of  Nebedseus,  made  high  priest 
 by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  alx)ut  a.  d.  48. 
 When  Paul  was  brought  before  him,  he 
 commanded  the  officers  to  strike  the  apostle 
 in  the  face  for  saying  that  "  he  had  lived  in 
 all  good  conscience  before  God  until  that 
 day"  (Acts  2.3 : 1,  2).  Indignant  at  his  in- 
 justice, Paul  fearlessly  replied,  "  God  shall 
 smite  thee,  thou  whited  wall."  Tliis  predic- 
 tion was  literally  and  terribly  fulfilled.  Af- 
 ter his  displacement  from  the  high  priest- 
 hood, and  amid  his  lavish  expenditure  of 
 ill-gotten  wealth,  he  was  assailed  in  his  pal- 
 ace by  a  band  of  assassins  and  murdered. 
 
 A-nath^e-ma,  a  Greek  word  which 
 literally  means  something  laid  vp  or  sus- 
 pended as  a  votive  offtrimj,  and  which  is  the 
 equivalent  of  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a 
 thing  or  person  devoted.  Whatever  was  thus 
 devoted  to  Jehovah  was  irredeemable.  If 
 inanimate,  it  was  to  be  given  to  the  priests 
 (Num.  18  :  14) ;  if  living,  it  was  to  be  slain 
 (Lev.  27  :  28,  29).  Hence,  with  a  thing  de- 
 voted there  came  to  be  associated  the  two 
 ideas  of  curse  and  extermination.  Hence, 
 too,  the  word  anathema  received  that  rab- 
 binical sense  of  it  which  connects  it  with  ex- 
 communication. Among  the  Jews,  accord- 
 ing to  the  rabbins,  there  were  three  forms 
 of  excommunication.  The  fii-st  and  slight- 
 est was  the  separation  of  an  individual  for 
 thirty  days  from  the  privileges  of  the  syn- 
 agogue and  intercoui-se  with  his  brethren. 
 If  this  failed  to  bring  him  to  repentance, 
 the  second  form,  entitled  "  the  curse,"  was 
 resorted  to,  and  this  was  pronounced  more 
 solemnly,  with  imprecations.  By  this  tlie 
 excommunicated  person  was  completely 
 cut  oft"  from  all  social  and  religious  i)riv- 
 ileges,  and  it  was  unlawful  to  eat,  drink 
 
 or  deal  with  him.  If  the  offender  re- 
 mained still  impenitent,  a  sentence  of  a 
 still  severer  kind  was  pronounced  against 
 him.  Til  is  most  formidable  ban  was  tan- 
 tamount to  an  utter  excision  from  the 
 Church  and  the  giving  up  of  the  criminal 
 to  the  justice  of  God  and  final  perdition. 
 
 The    ANATHEMA    MARAN-ATJIA    which 
 
 Paul  denounces  against  all  who  love  not 
 the  Lord  Jesus  (1  Cor.  16  :  22)  is  a  Syriac 
 exclamation,  signifying  Accursed,  our  Lord 
 Cometh.  The  words  "maran-atha"  add 
 weight  to  the  "  anathema ;"  they  affirm 
 that  the  curse  will  remain,  for  the  Lord 
 who  cometh  will  take  vengeance  on  those 
 who  reject  him.    See  Accursed. 
 
 An'a-thoth  [answers,  that  is,  to 
 prayers],  a  priests'  city  in  the  tribe  of 
 Benjamin,  about  four  miles  north-ea.st  of 
 Jerusalem  (Josh.  21  :  18).  It  was  mem- 
 orable as  the  birthplace  of  Jeremiah  ( Jer. 
 1:1).  On  the  return  of  the  captives  from 
 Babylon  only  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
 eight  of  the  men  of  this  place  returned 
 (Ezra  2  :  23).  Dr.  Robinson  identifies  it 
 with  tlie  present  village  of  Anata,  wliere 
 the  remains  of  an  ancient  wall  and  the 
 foundations  of  ancient  buildings  are  still 
 to  be  seen. 
 
 An'chor,  an  instrument  which,  fa.st- 
 ened  in  tlie  bottom  of  the  sea,  holds  a  ves- 
 sel firm  during  a  storm.  From  the  pas- 
 sage in  Acts  27  :  29,  30  it  appears  that  the 
 vessels  of  Roman  commerce  carried  each 
 several  anchors,  some  attaclied  to  the 
 stern  and  otliers  to  the  prow.  Tlie  word 
 anchor  is  used  metaphorically  to  denote 
 what  sustains  the  soul  amid  the  storms 
 of  earthly  griefs  and  fears  (Heb.  6  :  19). 
 
 An'cient  of  Days,  a  title  applied 
 to  God  the  Father,  denoting  his  eternity 
 (Dan.  7  :  9,  13,  22). 
 
 An'drew  [«)«)(7i/],  one  of  tlie  twelve 
 apostles  and  brother  of  Simon  Peter  (John 
 1  :  40).  He  was  a  native  of  Bethsaida  in 
 Galilee,  and  by  occupation  a  fisherman. 
 Originally  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
 
ANDEONICUS— ANNAS. 
 
 45 
 
 he  attached  himself  to  our  Lord  on  hear- 
 ing John  style  him  "  the  Lamb  of  God," 
 and,  seeking  forthwith  his  brother  Simon, 
 brought  him  also  to  Jesus  (John  1 :  41,  42). 
 He  is  several  times  referred  to  by  the 
 evangelists,  but  of  the  scene  of  his  labors 
 and  the  place  of  his  death  there  is  no  reli- 
 able record.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  he 
 suffered  martyrdom. 
 
 An-dro-ni'cus  [^nan  of  victory'],  a 
 kinsman  and  fellow-prisoner  of  Paul 
 (Eom.  16  :  7). 
 
 A^ner.  1.  A  Canaanite  chief  who, 
 with  Eshcol  and  Mamre,  joined  Abraham 
 in  pursuing  the  host  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen. 
 14  :  24).  2.  The  name  of  a  Levitical  town 
 in  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  6  :  70). 
 
 An^gels  [inessengers],  a  race  of  spir- 
 itual beings  of  a  nature  exalted  far  above 
 that  of  man,  although  infinitely  removed 
 from  that  of  God,  whose  office  is  "  to  do 
 Jehovah  service  in  heaven,  and  by  his 
 appointment  to  succor  and  defend  men  on 
 earth."  Our  knowledge  of  them  is  derived 
 wholly  from  revelation,  and  that  rather  in- 
 cidentally. Their  appearance  is  majestic 
 (Gen.  19  :  1 ;  Judg.  13  :  6;  Matt.  28  :  2-7; 
 Rev.  22  :  8).  Their  erii-ployment  is  benev- 
 olent (Ps.  34  :  7  ;  91  :  11 ;  Matt.  18  :  10; 
 Heb.  1  :  14).  Their  mimher  is  vast  (Ps. 
 68  :  17  ;  Dan.  7  :  10 ;  Matt.  26  :  53 ;  Heb. 
 12  :  22).  Their  strength  is  great  (Ps.  103  : 
 20;  Dan.  6  :  22;  2  Pet.  2  :  11 ;  Rev.  18  : 
 21 ).  Their  activity  is  wonderful  ( Isa.  iS:Q] 
 Dan.  9  :  21;  Acts  27  :  23;  Rev.  8  :  13). 
 Such,  in  some  few  particulars,  are  the 
 intimations  which  revelation  gives  of 
 the  angels  of  God. 
 
 But  according  to  the  Scriptures  there  is 
 also  an  order  of  evil  spirits,  called  angels 
 (Matt.  25  :  41)  and  devils  (Luke  8  :  27), 
 fallen  from  their  first  estate,  ministering 
 to  the  will  of  the  prince  of  darkness,  and 
 both  active  and  powerful  in  their  opposi- 
 tion to  God's  will  and  government.  Among 
 them,  as  among  the  holy  angels,  difl!erences 
 of  rank  and  power  exist  i^Eph.  6  :  12). 
 
 An'ger,  a  strong  emotion  of  dis- 
 pleasure against  a  real  or  supposed  injury. 
 It  is  not  evil  in  itself,  but  when  inordinate 
 and  excessive  it  becomes  evil.  It  is  as- 
 scribed  to  God  (Ps.  7  :  11;  90  :  11)  and 
 to  good  men  (Neh.  5  :  6 ;  2  Pet.  2  :  7,  8) 
 in  the  sense  of  displeasure  against  sin. 
 Anger,  degenerating  into  malignity  and 
 revenge,  is  severely  denounced  (Eph.  4  : 
 31;  Col.  3  :  8). 
 
 An'gle,  An^gling,  the  capture  of 
 fish  by  the  use  of  hook  and  line.  That 
 this  method  of  taking  fish  was  well  known 
 to  the  ancients  is  evident  from  Isa.  19:8; 
 Hab.  1  :  15,  as  well  as  from  ancient  Egyp- 
 tian monuments. 
 
 An^ise,  an  annual  plant  with  aro- 
 matic fragrance.  The  Avord  in  the  original, 
 it  is  thought,  should  have  been  translated 
 diU.  It  was  an  herb  which  grew  abun- 
 dantly in  Judfea,  of  which  the  Pharisees, 
 while  neglecting  the  weightier  matters  of 
 the  Law,  were  careful  to  devote  a  tithe  or 
 tenth  to  the  service  of  religion  (Matt.  23  : 
 23). 
 
 An''na,  a  prophetess,  the  daughter  of 
 Phanuel  of  the  tribe  of  Asher.  During 
 her  long  widowhood  she  devoutly  and  con- 
 stantly attended  the  temple-service.  She 
 was  eighty-four  years  of  age  Avhen  the  in- 
 fant Jesus  was  brought  into  the  temple, 
 and  as  Simeon  pronounced  the  prophetic 
 blessing  she  united  in  it  with  great  fei'vor 
 (Luke  2  :  36-38). 
 
 An'nas,  a  high  priest  of  the  Jews. 
 He  is  spoken  of  as  joint  high  priest  with 
 Caiaplias  (Luke  3:2).  He  held  this  of- 
 fice under  Quirinus,  proconsul  of  Syria, 
 but  was  deprived  of  it  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Having  held 
 the  office,  he  still  bore  the  title,  and  prob- 
 ably assisted  Caiaphas,  who  was  properly 
 the  incumbent,  and  who  was  his  son-in- 
 law.  He  was  a  man  of  great  influence. 
 To  him  Our  Lord,  when  apprehended,  was 
 first  carried  in  order  to  secure  his  sanction 
 of  the  purposed  death,  and  by  him  Our 
 
46 
 
 ANOINTING— A  NT. 
 
 Lord   was    sent    in    bonds    to    Caiaphaa 
 
 (John  18  :  13-24). 
 
 A-noinfing,  the  custom  of  pouring 
 perfumed  oils  on  persons,  places  and  things. 
 In  the  East  it  was  of  extensive  use  and  wide 
 application. 
 
 1.  Ordinary  Anointing.  With  the 
 Jews,  as  with  ether  Oriental  nations,  it 
 was  a  common  practice  to  anoint  the  body 
 or  head  (Deut.  28  :  40;  Ruth  3:3;  Mic. 
 C  :  15).  Abstinence  from  it  was  a  sign 
 of  mourning  (2  Sam.  14  :  2;  Dan.  10:3; 
 Matt.  6  :  17).  Anointing  tiie  head  Avas 
 also  a  mark  of  respect  sometimes  paid 
 by  a  host  to  his  guests  (Luke  7  :  46 ;  Ps. 
 23  :  5). 
 
 2.  Official  Anointing.  Anointing 
 was  a  principal  ceremony  in  the  rite  of 
 inauguration  into  each  of  the  three  typical 
 offices  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth — that 
 of  prophets,  that  of  priests  and  that  of 
 kings  (1  Kings  19:16;  Ps.  105:15; 
 Ex.  40  :  15 ;  Lev.  16  :  32 ;  1  Sam.  9:16; 
 1  Kings  1  :  34,  39). 
 
 3.  CoNSECRATORY  ANOINTING.  Inan- 
 imate objects  were  anointed  in  token  of 
 their  being  set  apart  for  religious  ser- 
 vice. Thus  Jacob  anointed  a  pillar  at 
 Bethel  (Gen.  31  :  13),  and  thus,  too,  in 
 the  wilderness  the  tabernacle  and  all  its 
 furniture  were  anointed  (Ex.  30  :  26-28'. 
 
 4.  Ecclesiastical  Anointing.  The 
 apostle  James  prescribes  anointing  in  the 
 name  of  the  Lord  and  with  prayer  by  the 
 elders  of  the  Church  for  the  recovery  of 
 the  sick  (James  5  :  14).  Analogous  to 
 this  is  the  anointing  practiced  by  the 
 twelve  (Mark  6  :  13)  and  by  our  Lord 
 in  restoring  a  blind  man  to  sight  (.John 
 9:6,11). 
 
 5.  Spiritxtal  Anointing.  The  ideas 
 associated  with  official  and  consecratory 
 anointing  readily  and  by  metaphor  passed 
 into  the  higher  idea  of  spiritual  anointing. 
 With  this  the  Scriptures  connect  two  con- 
 ceptions. 
 
 a.  In  the  Old  Testament  a  deliverer  is 
 
 promised  under  the  title  of  Messiah  or 
 Anointed  (Ps.  2  :  2;  Dan.  9  :  25,  26),  and 
 the  nature  of  his  anointing  is  described  to  be 
 siiiritual,  with  the  Holy  Ghost  (Isa.  61 : 1 ), 
 In  tlie  New  Testament,  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
 is  shown  to  be  the  Messiah  or  Christ  or 
 Anointed  of  the  Old  Testament  (John  1  : 
 41 ;  Acts  9  :  22 ;  17  :  2,  3 ;  18:4,  28),  and 
 the  historical  fact  of  his  being  anointed 
 with  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a.sserted  and  re- 
 corded (John  1  :  32,  33 ;  Acts  4  :  27 ;  10  : 
 38). 
 
 h.  Spiritual  anointing  with  the  Holy 
 Ghost  is  conferred  by  God  upon  Ciiris- 
 tians  (2  Cor.  1  :  21),  who,  in  consequence 
 thereof,  are  described  as  having  an  unc- 
 tion from  the  Holy  One  by  which  they 
 know  all  things  (1  John  2  :  20,  27). 
 
 Ant,  a  small  and  well-known  insect. 
 It  is  mentioned  but  twice  in  Scripture 
 (Prov.  6:6;  30  :  25):  First,  as  an  exam- 
 ple of  dili(/ence  in  "gathering  food  in  the 
 harvest;"  second,  as  an  example  of  7(/.sr/o»u 
 in  "preparing  meat  in  the  summer."  Both 
 passages  imply  that  the  ant  anticipates  its 
 need  of  food  in  the  winter,  and  makes  in 
 the  summer  the  requisite  provision.  This 
 obvious  sense  of  the  two  passages  has  been 
 represented  as  inconsistent  with  an  alleged 
 finding  of  science  that  the  ant  is  dormant 
 in  winter,  and  needs  no  food.  Biblical 
 critics,  too,  have  so  fi\r  yielded  to  these 
 representations  as  to  apologize  for  King 
 Solomon  and  the  Scriptures  by  alleging 
 that  the  two  passages  mean  not  a  pro- 
 vision for  the  winter  in  summer,  but 
 a  general  provision  of  food  in  season. 
 Prominent  among  these  apologies  for  the 
 assumed  mistake  of  Scrii  ture  is  that  con- 
 tained in  Smith's  Dictionary  iif  the  Bible. 
 But  a  profounder  science  has  at  length 
 vindicated  Scripture.  Moggridge  of  Eng- 
 land and  McCook  of  Philadeli)hia,  by  their 
 studies  of  the  habits  of  the  harvesting  ant, 
 two  species  of  which  are  found  in  Pales- 
 tine, have  abundantly  corroborated  the 
 statements  of  Solomon   in  the   Proverbs, 
 
ANTICHRIST— A  NTIPATRIS . 
 
 47 
 
 and  have  conclusively  shown  that  in  in- 
 stinct and  industry  the  ant  surpasses  most 
 insects.  Thus  the  ant  in  diligently  and 
 wisely  improving  the  opportunity  to  gather 
 food  which  summer  gives,  very  pointedly 
 rebukes  the  sluggard,  who,  in  the  indul- 
 gence of  sloth  and  idleness,  lets  the  sum- 
 mer pass  and  the  harvest  end. 
 
 An^tichrist  [against  Christ'],  a  word 
 occurring  only  in  the  Epistles  of  John, 
 where  it  characterizes  certain  false  teach- 
 ers who  denied  the  real  humanity  of  our 
 Lord  (1  John  2  :  18,  22 ;  4:3;  2  John  7). 
 The  denial  of  Christ  "in  the  flesh"  was 
 the  capital  error  of  that  Gnostic  heresy 
 which  existed  in  tlie  times  of  John  and 
 which  wrought  great  havoc  in  the  Church. 
 Although  the  term  Antichrist  has  in  John's 
 Epistles  a  specific  sense,  it  has  yet  been 
 adopted  by  theologians  as  a  convenient 
 designation  of  some  great  power  which, 
 according  to  Scripture  hints,  is  to  arise 
 in  the  future,  and  which  is  to  oppose  with 
 great  virulence  and  blasphemy  the  doc- 
 trines and  the  disciples  of  Christ.  It  has 
 been  applied  to  the  "  little  horn "  of  the 
 "king  of  fierce  countenance"  (Dan.  7  and 
 8) ;  to  the  false  Christ  predicted  by  our 
 Lord  (Matt.  24);  to  the  "man  of  sin" 
 whom  Paul  describes  (2  Thess.  2  :  3-10) ; 
 and  to  the  "beasts"  of  the  Apocalypse 
 (Rev.  13  and  17).  The  adequate  discus- 
 sion of  the  theme  transcends  the  limits 
 of  a  brief  article.  See  "  Man  of  Sin " 
 under  Man. 
 
 An'ti-och,  the  name  of  two  cities 
 mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  Antioch  in  Syria,  the  capital  of 
 the  Greek  kings  of  Syria,  and  afterward 
 the  residence  of  the  Roman  governors  of 
 the  province,  which  bore  the  same  name. 
 It  was  situated  on  the  river  Orontes,  and 
 about  thirty  miles  from  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, seven  hundred  from  Alexandria, 
 and  the  same  from  Constantinople.  It 
 was  founded  in  the  year  b.  c.  300  by 
 Seleucus   Nicator,   and   named   in   honor 
 
 of  his  father,  Antiochus.  It  was  cele- 
 brated for  its  opulence,  luxury  and  licen- 
 tiousness, and  at  tlie  same  time  for  its 
 cultivation  of  the  fine  arts.  No  city,  af- 
 ter Jerusalem,  is  so  intimately  connected 
 with  the  apostolic  Church.  Here  the  first 
 Gentile  church  was  gathered  (Acts  11  :  20, 
 21 ) ;  here  Barnabas  and  Paul  preached  "  a 
 whole  year"  (Acts  11  :  20) ;  and  here  the 
 disciples  of  Jesus  Christ  were  first  called 
 Christians  (Acts  11  :  26).  Whether  the 
 name  Christians,  like  that  of  Nazarenes, 
 was  given  by  way  of  reproach  or  not,  is 
 uncertain ;  it  seems,  however,  to  have 
 been  adopted  by  the  disciples  (1  Pet.  4  : 
 16),  and  has  ever  since  been  retained  as 
 an  appropriate  distinguishing  name.  In 
 the  time  of  Chrysostom,  at  the  close  of  the 
 fourth  century,  the  population  of  Antioch 
 was  computed  at  two  liundred  thousand,  of 
 which  one  half  professed  to  be  Christians. 
 The  city  afterward  passed  through  mani- 
 fold convulsions  and  changes,  and  at  length 
 by  war,  pestilence  and  earthquake  was  con- 
 averted  into  what  it  now  is,  a  heap  of  ruins. 
 The  present  town,  called  Anlakia  by  the 
 Arabs,  a  shrunken  and  miserable  place, 
 occupies  but  a  small  portion  of  the  site 
 
 I  of  the  ancient  city. 
 
 I      2.  Antioch    in    Pisidia,  .  the   capital 
 
 I  of  the  province  of  Pisidia  in  Asia  Minor. 
 
 !  It  was  also  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator. 
 
 j  Its  site  has  been  identified  by  Arundell 
 and  Hamilton  with  a  place  called  Yalo- 
 batch.  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas  preached, 
 and  here  they  encountered  such  violent 
 persecution  that  they  were  compelled  to 
 flee  for  their  lives  (Acts  13  :  14-51 ;  2 
 Tim.  3  :  11). 
 
 An'ti-pas,  a  faithful  martyr  of  the 
 church  of  Pergamos  (Rev.  2:13).  He 
 is  said  to  have  been  one  of  Our  Lord's 
 first  disciples,  and  to  have  been  burned  in 
 a  brazen  bull  during  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
 ror Domitian. 
 
 An-tip^a-tris,  a  town  of  Palestine, 
 situated  on  a  fertile  plain  between  Csesa- 
 
48 
 
 APE— APOSTLE. 
 
 rea  and  Jerusalem.  It  was  built  by  Her- 
 od the  Great,  and  named  after  his  father, 
 Antipater.  To  this  place  Paul  was  brought 
 by  the  Roman  guard  when  on  his  way  to 
 Csesarea  to  escape  the  Jewish  conspirators 
 (Acts  23  :  31 ).  The  remains  of  a  Roman 
 road  from  Jerusalem,  by  Beth-Horon,  to 
 Antipatris  are  still  plainly  visible. 
 
 Ape,  an  animal  of  the  monkey  tribe 
 mentioned  in  1  Kings  10 :  22  and  2  Chron. 
 9  :  21  among  the  merchandise  brought  by 
 the  fleets  of  Solomon  and  Hiram  once  in 
 every  three  years.  The  name  in  Hebrew 
 has  been  borrowed  from  the  Sanskrit,  and 
 points  to  Ceylon  or  India. 
 
 A-pel'les,  a  Christian  at  Rome  whom 
 Paul  salutes  (Rom.  16  :  10).  His  history 
 is  unknown,  but  his  character  is  given  in 
 three  words :  approved  in  Christ. 
 
 A-phar^sa-chites,  otherwise 
 A-phar'sath-chites  and  A-phar'- 
 sites,  the  name  of  the  nation  to  which 
 belonged  one  portion  of  the  colonists 
 whom  the  Assyrian  leader  Asnapper 
 planted  in  Samaria  in  place  of  the  ex- 
 patriated northern  tribes,  and  who  vio- 
 lently opposed  the  Jews  in  rebuilding 
 Jerusalem  (Ezra  4:9;  5:6;  6:6). 
 
 A'phek  [Jirmness'\,  tlie  name  of  seve- 
 ral cities. 
 
 1.  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh. 
 
 19  :  30).  It  was  the  same  with  Aphik, 
 which  the  Israelites  were  unable  to  cap- 
 tiu-e  from  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  1  :  31), 
 and  the  site  of  a  famous  temple  of  Venus. 
 It  is  now  Afka. 
 
 2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  not 
 far  from  Jezreel.  Here  the  Philistines 
 twice  encamped  before  joining  battle  with 
 the  Israelites  (1  Sam.  4  :  1  and  29  :  1). 
 
 3.  A  city  on  the  military  road  between 
 Damascus  and  Palestine.  Near  it  Ben- 
 hadad,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  the 
 Israelites,  and  in  it  took  refuge  (1  Kings 
 
 20  :  29,  30).  It  is  now  called  Fik,  and  is 
 six  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
 
 A-pol-lo'ni-a,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
 
 i  situated  between  Amphipolis  and  Thessa- 
 lonica,  and  about  thirty  miles  from  the  for- 
 mer.    Paul  passed  through  this  place  on 
 
 j  his  way  to  Thessalonica  (Acts  17  :  1). 
 
 I  A-pol'los,  a  Jew  from  Alexandria, 
 described  as  a  learned  or  eloquent  man, 
 well  versed  in  the  Scriptures  and  the 
 Jewish  religion  (Acts  18  :  24).     He  was 
 
 '  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  but,  com- 
 ing to  Ephesus  and  taught  by  Aquila  and 
 
 "  Priscilla,  whom  Paul  had  left  there  dur- 
 ing his  temporary  absence,  that  Jeaus  was 
 
 ;  the  Christ,  he  espoused  with  great  ardor 
 the  higher  doctrine,  and  proclaimed  it 
 with  extraordinary  zeal  and  power.  He 
 labored  in  the  gospel,  first  in  Achaia  and 
 then  in  Corinth  (Acts  18  :  27;  19  :  1), 
 where  he  watered  that  which  Paul  had 
 planted.  When  Paul  wrote  his  first  Epis- 
 tle to  the  Corinthians,  Apollos  was  with 
 or  near  him  (1  Cor.  16  :  12).  He  is  men- 
 tioned but  once  more  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment (Tit.  3  :  13).  A  doubtful  tradition 
 makes  him  bishop  of  Csesarea,  and  he  is 
 thouglit  by  some  scholars  to  be  the  author 
 of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
 
 A-poll'yon,  the  Greek  equivalent 
 (Rev.  9  :  11)  of  the  Hebrew  Abaddon 
 (which  see). 
 
 A-pOS'tle  [o7?fl  sew/ /or/A].  Our  Lord, 
 the  Christ,  who  was  God's  great  ambassador 
 to  reconcile  a  fallen  and  rebellious  world, 
 is  called  an  apostle  (Heb.  3  :  1).  The 
 term,  however,  particularly  designates 
 those  twelve  disciples  whom  our  Lord 
 selected   and   invested   with   authority  to 
 
 I  preach  the  gospel,  administer  the  sacra- 
 
 i  ments,  work  miracles  and  build  up  the 
 Church.     The  office  was  evidently  an  ex- 
 
 !  traordinary  one,  and  differed  materially 
 from  that  of  the  ordinary  minister  of  the 
 gospel.  This  appears  from  its  character- 
 istic features. 
 
 1.  It  was  essential  that  those  who  exer- 
 cised this  office  sliould  have  seen  the  Lord, 
 
 '  that  they  might  be  both  eye  and  ear  wit- 
 nesses   of   that    to   which    thev   testified 
 
APOTHECARY— APPLE  TREE. 
 
 49 
 
 (John  15  :  27) ;  and  this  was  laid  down 
 as  a  requisite  in  the  one  who  was  to  be 
 chosen  to  succeed  Judas  (Acts  1  :  21,  22). 
 Paul  refers  to  this  mark  of  an  apostle  in 
 his  own  case  (1  Cor.  9:1;  15  :  8). 
 
 2.  It  was  necessary  that  the  apostles 
 should  be  immediately  called  to  the  office 
 by  Our  Lord  himself;  this  was  the  case 
 with  all  of  them  (Luke  6  :  13).  Paul 
 was  no  exception,  for  he  was  called  by 
 Christ  on  his  way  to  Damascus ;  neither 
 was  Matthias,  for  the  lot  by  which  he  was 
 chosen  was  by  the  disposal  of  the  Lord 
 (Acts  1  :26).' 
 
 3.  They  were  infallibly  inspired  to  ex- 
 pound the  Old  Testament  and  to  give 
 forth  the  revelation  of  the  New.  Our 
 Lord  promised  to  "teach  them  all 
 things;"  to  "bring  all  things  to  their 
 remembrance"  (John  14  :  26) ;  to  "guide 
 them  into  all  truth ;"  and  to  "  show  them 
 things  to  come"  (John  16  :  13).  Their 
 word,  therefore,  was  to  be  received,  "  not 
 as  the  word  of  man,  but,  as  it  is  in  truth, 
 the  Avord  of  God"  (1  Thess.  2  :  13). 
 
 4.  The  working  of  miracles,  the  sjieak- 
 ing  with  tongues  and  the  conferring  mirac- 
 ulous gifts  on  others  were  apostolical  quali- 
 fications (Mark  16  :  20 ;  Acts  2  :  43).  Paul 
 said,  "  Truly  the  signs  of  an  apostle  were 
 wrought  among  you  in  all  patience,  in 
 signs  and  wonders  and  mighty  deeds"  (2 
 Cor.  12:  12). 
 
 5.  The  universality  of  their  mission  was 
 a  characteristic  of  the  office.  They  were 
 not  to  be  confined  to  any  particular  place 
 as  ordinary  pastors  (2  Coi-.  11  :  28). 
 
 Now,  as  these  marks  of  an  apostle  can- 
 not possibly  meet  in  any  one  at  the  pres- 
 ent time,  it  is  presumption  in  any  branch 
 of  the  Church  to  claim  that  their  ministers 
 are,  in  office,  the  successors  of  the  apostles. 
 Their  office  as  an  extraordinary  one  ceased 
 with  them,  and  there  is  not  a  particle  of 
 proof  that  thef  Head  of  the  Church  de- 
 signed to  perpetuate  it. 
 
 The  apostles  of  our  Lord  were — 1,  Si- 
 4 
 
 mon  Peter;  2,  Andrew;  3,  James;  4, 
 John ;  5,  Philip ;  6,  Bartholomew ;  7, 
 Thomas ;  8,  Matthew,  also  called  Levi ; 
 9,  James  the  Less ;  10,  Jude,  also  called 
 Lebbeus  and  Thaddeus,  and  (in  John  14  : 
 22)  Judas;  11,  Simon  the  Canaanite;  12, 
 Judas  Iscariot.  When  Judas  Iscariot  had 
 destroyed  himself,  Matthias  was  chosen  in 
 his  place,  and  Paul  was  afterward  added 
 to  the  college  of  the  apostles. 
 
 A-poth'e-ca-ry,  a  perfumer  or  deal- 
 er in  perfumes  (Ex.  30  :  25,  35;  37  :  29; 
 Eccles.  10  :  1).    See  Ointment. 
 
 Ap-par^el.    See  Clothes. 
 
 Ap-pe'al,  a  legal  provision  by  which 
 a  cause  is  carried  up  from  an  inferior 
 judge  or  court  to  a  superior  one.  The 
 principle  was  recognized  by  the  Mosaic 
 Law  (Deut.  17  :  8,  9),  and  through  all 
 the  ages  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth 
 was  incorporated  in  permanently-estab- 
 lished courts  ( Judg.  4  :  5 ;  2  Sam.  15  :  3 ; 
 2  Chron.  19  :  8;  Ezra  7  :  25).  After  the 
 institution  of  the  Sanhedrim  the  final 
 appeal  lay  to  it.  Paul,  as  a  Roman  citizen, 
 exercised  his  right  of  appeal  from  the  jur- 
 isdiction of  the  local  court  to  the  empe- 
 ror at  Rome  (Acts  25  :  11). 
 
 Ap'pi-i  Fo'rum,  a  market-town  in 
 Italy,  on  the  Appian  Way,  forty -three 
 miles  from  Rome.  When  Paul  was  taken 
 to  Italy,  some  of  the  Christians  of  Rome 
 journeyed  to  meet  him  as  far  as  "Appii 
 Forum,"  and  others  as  far  as  the  "  Three 
 Taverns"  (Acts  28  :  15).  Three  Taverns 
 (Tres  Tabernse)  was  the  title  of  a  place 
 ten  miles  nearer  to  Rome  than  Appii 
 Forum. 
 
 Ap'ple  Tree,  Ap'ple.  The  apple 
 tree  is  mentioned  in  the  Song  2:3;  8:5; 
 Joel  1  :  12;  the  apple  is  alluded  to  in 
 Prov.  25  :  11  and  the  Song  2:5;  7:8. 
 What  the  specific  tree  and  fruit  really  are 
 it  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  say. 
 The  quince,  whose  fragrance  was  held  in 
 high  esteem  by  the  ancients,  has  some 
 plausible   arguments   in   its   favor.      The 
 
50 
 
 AQUILA— ARABIA. 
 
 general  opinion,  however,  inclines  to  the 
 citron,  whose  rich  color,  fragrant  odor  and 
 handsome  appearance,  meet  well  the  re- 
 quirements of  Scripture  allusion,  whilst 
 Canon  Tristram  prefers  the  apricot  tree. 
 
 Aq'ui-la,  a  Jew  whom  Paul  found  at 
 Corinth  on  his  first  visit  to  that  city  (Acts 
 18  :  1-3).  He  was  a  native  of  Pontus  in 
 Asia  Minor,  and  by  occupation  a  tent- 
 maker.  He  and  his  wife  Priscilla  had 
 embraced  Christianity  at  Rome,  but,  in 
 consequence  of  an  order  by  tlie  emperor 
 Claudius  that  all  Jews  on  pain  of  death 
 must  leave  the  capital,  had  fled  to  Cor- 
 inth. They  became  efficient  helpers  to 
 Paul,  who  held  them  in  high  esteem  (Rom. 
 16  :  3).  They  had  a  church  in  their  house 
 (Rom.  16:5;  1  Cor.  16:  19). 
 
 Ar  [city],  or  Ar  of  Moab,  the  capi- 
 tal city  of  the  Moabites  (Num.  21  :  28  ;  Isa. 
 15  :  1),  south  of  and  near  tlie  river  Anion 
 (Deut.  2:  18,  24;  Num.  21  :  13-15).  It 
 was  also  called  Rabbah  and  Rabbath-Moab, 
 to  distinguish  it  from  Rabbath  of  Ammon. 
 In  later  times  its  name  was  Grecized  Are- 
 opolis,  "city  of  Ares  or  Mars."  The  site 
 is  still  called  Rahba.  It  is  about  seventeen 
 miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  ten  miles  south 
 of  the  Arnon,  and  about  the  same  distance 
 north  of  Kerak. 
 
 Ar'a-bah  [desert  place],  the  name  of 
 a  region  and  of  a  town. 
 
 1.  As  the  name  of  a  region  it  occurs 
 but  once  in  our  Version  (Josh.  18  :  18), 
 but  repeatedly  in  the  original,  and  is 
 translated  in  our  Version  "  plain,"  "  wil- 
 derness," "desert"  (Deut.  1:1;  2:8;  3  : 
 17 ;  4  :  49 ;  Josh.  3:16;  12:3;  2  Kings 
 14  :  25  ;  Amos  6  :  14).  In  its  widest  usage 
 tlie  Arabah  designates  tliat  deep  depression 
 or  valley  which  stretches  from  the  moun- 
 tains of  Lebanon  on  the  north  to  the  Ela- 
 nitic  or  Eastern  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea  on 
 the  south,  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and 
 fifty  miles.  Its  northern  half  is  tlie  chan- 
 nel of  the  Jordan  ;  its  middle  portion,  tlie 
 basin  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  its  southern 
 
 portion,  a  frightful  desert.  It  is  restricted 
 by  the  modern  Arabs  to  the  valley  south 
 of  the  Dciid  Sea.  Tlie  wliole  valley  north 
 and  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  the  most  re- 
 markable depression  known  to  exist  on  the 
 surface  of  the  globe. 
 
 2.  As  the  name  of  a  town  it  is  mentioned 
 in  Josh.  18  :  18.  It  belongo<l  to  the  tribe 
 of  Benjamin,  and  was  ordinarily  called 
 Bcth-Arabali  (Josh.  15  :  61  and  18  :  22). 
 
 A-ra'bi-a,  an  extensive  region  of 
 country  occupying  the  south-western  ex- 
 tremity of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  north 
 by  a  part  of  Syria,  on  the  east  by  the 
 Pei*sian  Gulf  and  the  Euphrates,  on  the 
 south  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  tlie 
 west  by  the  Red  Sea.  It  lies  soutii  and 
 south-east  from  Palestine.  It  is  a  country 
 sacred  from  its  associations.  It  was  the 
 residence  of  Job,  the  temporary  refuge  of 
 Moses  and  Elijah,  and  the  scene  of  tlie  re- 
 markable vicissitudes  through  wliich  the 
 Israelites  passed  in  their  protracted  jour- 
 ney to  the  Holy  Land.  The  inliabitants, 
 deriving  tlieir  origin  from  Islimael  and 
 from  Joktan,  son  of  Ilober,  of  the  family 
 of  Shem,  are  among  the  most  interesting 
 peoples  of  tlie  world,  and  amid  changes 
 whicli  have  proved  destructive  to  other 
 nations  have  retained  possession  of  their 
 original  territory  and  much  of  their  orig- 
 inal character. 
 
 Arabia  comes  to  view  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment Scriptures  under  two  designations : 
 
 I.  The  eaut  country  (Gen.  25  :  6),  or 
 perhaps  the  east  (Gen.  10  :  30),  and  land  of 
 the  people  of  the  east  (Gen.  29  :  1)  ;  Gentile 
 name,  children  or  ?/iera  of  the  east  ( Judg.  6  : 
 3;  7  :  12;  1  Kings  4  :'30;  Job  1:3;  Isa. 
 11  :  14;  Jer.  49  :  28 ;  Ezek.  25  :  4).  From 
 these  passages  it  is  clear  that  the  land  of 
 the  east  and  children  of  the  east  indicate, 
 primarily,  the  country  east  of  Palestine 
 and  the  tribes  descended  from  Ishmael 
 and  from  Keturah,  and  tliat  tliis  original 
 signification  may  have  become  gradually 
 extende<l   to   .Arabia   :ind    its   inhabitants 
 
ARABIA— ARAM. 
 
 51 
 
 generally,  though  without  any  strict  lim- 
 itation. 
 
 II.  ' Ardb  and  ' Arab,  vfhence  Arabia  (1 
 Kings  10  :  15;  2  Chron.  9  :  14;  Isa.  21  : 
 13;  Jer.  25:24;  Ezek.  27  :  21).  This 
 name  seems  to  have  the  same  geograph- 
 ical reference  as  the  former  name  to  the 
 country  and  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
 chiefly  north  of  the  Arabian  peninsula. 
 
 In  the  New  Testament,  Arabia  is  men- 
 tioned twice  (Gal.  1:17;  4  :  25).  In  the 
 first  passage  the  reference  is  probably  to 
 the  tract  adjacent  to  Damascene  Syria ;  in 
 the  second,  to  the  region  about  Mount 
 Sinai. 
 
 Of  the  several  divisions  into  wliich 
 Arabia  is  distributed,  the  most  conve- 
 nient and  characteristic  are  those  of  the 
 Greek  geographers — namely,  Arabia  De- 
 serta,  or  desert ;  Arabia  Petrcea,  or  rocky; 
 and  Arabia  Felix,  or  happy. 
 
 1.  Arabia  Deserta — or,  as  the  Arabs  call 
 it,  El-Badieh — is  bounded  on  the  north- 
 east by  the  river  Euphrates,  on  the  north- 
 west by  Syria,  and  on  the  west  by  Pales- 
 tine. It  is  a  vast  and  burning  waste  of 
 sand,  almost  wliolly  destitute  of  water  and 
 vegetation,  without  fixed  habitations,  and 
 relieved  only  by  the  tents  of  the  wander- 
 ing Arab  tribes  called  Bedouin.  Its  early 
 inhabitants  were  tlie  Rephaim,  tlie  Emim, 
 the  Zuzimand  the  Zamzummim  (Gen.  14: 
 5 ;  Deut.  2:10,  11 ),  succeeded  by  the  Am- 
 monites, the  Moabites,  tlie  Edomites,  the 
 Hagarenes,  tlie  Nabatlieans  and  the  peo- 
 ple of  Kedar. 
 
 2.  Arabia  Pelriea  lies  south  of  the  Holy 
 Land.  It  is  the  peninsula  between  tlie 
 gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akabah.  Mount  Sinai 
 is  witliin  its  bounds,  and  wliat  is  now  call- 
 ed tlie  Desert  of  Mount  Sinai  was  the  scene 
 of  the  wanderings  of  the  tribes  of  Israel. 
 Its  chief  characteristics  are  wildernesses 
 of  rocks  and  craggy  precipices,  interspei-sed 
 witli  narrow  defiles  and  innumerable  sandy 
 valleys,  many  of  which  are  nearly  as  bar- 
 ren as  the  rocks.     Its  ancient  inhabitants 
 
 were  the  southern  Edomites,  the  Amalek- 
 ites  and  the  Hivites.  Petra,  the  rock-city 
 whose  ruins  are  so  remarkable  and  so  cele- 
 brated, was  its  principal  city  and,  at  one 
 time,  the  strong  capital  of  its  chief  prov- 
 ince, Edom. 
 
 3.  Arabia  Felix — or,  according  to  its 
 Arabic  name,  Yemen — is  the  region  which 
 lies  between  the  Red  Sea  on  the  west  and 
 the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  east;  and  as  it 
 is  not  near  tlie  Holy  Land,  it  is  not  so 
 frequently  referred  to  in  Scripture  as  the 
 other  divisions.  Although  called  Happy 
 Arabia,  or,  in  the  language  of  tlie  poets, 
 "  Araby  the  blest,"  it  is  only  so  in  compar- 
 ison with  the  otlier  parts  of  Arabia.  The 
 population,  consisting  chiefly  of  Ishmael- 
 ites,  is  of  a  more  fixed  character,  and 
 sustains  itself  by  agriculture  and  com- 
 merce. Within  its  boundaries  were  Seba 
 and  Slieba,  whose  kings  are  mentioned  in 
 Ps.  72  :  10,  and  whence  it  is  surmised 
 came  the  queen  of  Sheba  wlio  visited 
 Solomon  (1  Kings  10:1;  2  Cliron.  9:1). 
 The  country  was  rich  in  gems  and  gold, 
 in  spices,  odoriferous  shrubs  and  fragrant 
 gums,  tlie  articles  of  a  varied  and  valu- 
 able trade  (1  Kings  10  :  10 ;  Ezek.  27  :  22). 
 Tlie  famous  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina 
 (the  first  the  birtli-place.  the  second  tlie 
 burial-place,  of  Moliammed)  are  within 
 its  limits.  But,  wliilst  this  division  em- 
 braces the  greater  portion  of  the  country 
 known  to  us  as  Arabia,  it  is  to  a  very 
 large  extent  an  unknown  land.  Its  ac- 
 cessible districts  have  been  but  imper- 
 fectly explored,  and  very  little  of  its  in- 
 terior has  been  visited  as  yet  by  any  Eu- 
 ropean traveler. 
 
 A^rad,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine, 
 twenty  miles  south  of  Hebron.  Its  king 
 opposed  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  and 
 for  this  he  witli  his  people  was  utterly  de- 
 stroyed (Num.  21  :  1-3). 
 
 A'ram  [hifjh  region'],  (Num.  23  :  7), 
 the  Hebrew  designation  of  Syria  (wliich 
 see). 
 
52 
 
 ARARAT— A  RCHANG  EL. 
 
 Mount  Ararat. 
 
 Ar''a-rat,  a  name  sometimes  applied 
 to  a  province  and  sometimes  to  the  whole 
 country  of  Armenia.  When  in  Gen. 
 8  :  4  we  read  that  "  the  ark  rested  on 
 the  mountains  of  Ararat,"  we  are  to 
 understand  that  great  Armenian  plateau 
 which  rises  as  a  rocky  island  out  of  a  sea 
 of  plain  to  a  height  of  six  or  seven  thou- 
 sand feet,  whence,  as  from  a  fresh  base, 
 spring  lofty  mountain-ranges.  In  one  of 
 these  ranges  there  is  a  peak  wliich  is  com- 
 monly but  erroneously  regarded  as  the 
 resting-place  of  the  ark.  Its  summit  is 
 upward  of  seventeen  thousand  feet  above 
 the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  comparison 
 with  it  all  the  surrounding  peaks  dwin- 
 dle into  insignificance.  It  is  grand  and 
 imposing  in  its  appearance,  and  its  top 
 is  capped  with  everlasting  snow.  In  the 
 year  1829,  Professor  Parrot  of  Germany, 
 after  repeated  failures,  succeeded  in  reacli- 
 ing  its  top,  and  he  describes  it  as  being  a 
 circular  platform  about  two  hundred  and 
 twenty  feet  in  diameter,  which  descends 
 steeply  on  all  sides.  It  has  been  ascended 
 several  times  since,  and  Parrot's  descrip- 
 tion of  it  has  been  fully  confirmed.  It 
 could  not  have  been  the  peak  where  the 
 
 ark  grounded,  since  the  safe  descent  from 
 it  of  Noah  and  his  family,  with  all  the 
 "living  creatures"  committed  to  their 
 care,  would  have  been  a  greater  miracle 
 than  their  deliverance  from  the  Flood. 
 Most  likely  the  ark  touched  eartli  on 
 some  one  of  the  lower  Armenian  hills 
 or  plains. 
 
 A-rau'nah,  a  Jebusite,  one  of  the 
 people  wlio  inhabitctl  Jerusalem  before 
 it  was  occupied  by  the  Israelites.  He 
 owned  on  Mount  Moriah  a  threshing- 
 floor,  which,  with  his  oxen,  he  sold  to 
 David  wiien  the  king  was  commanded  to 
 oflTer  there  a  sacrifice  in  order  to  stay  the 
 desolating  plague  brought  on  Jerusalem 
 by  his  presumptuous  sin.  The  thresh- 
 ing-floor became  tlie  site  of  the  temple 
 which  Solomon  built  (2  Sam.  24  :  18). 
 In  1  Chron.  21  :  18,  Araunah  is  called 
 Oi'nan. 
 
 Ar'ba,  or  Kirjath-Ar'ba  [city  of 
 Arba],  the  ancient  name  of  Hebron  (Gen. 
 35  :  27  ;  Josh.  20  :  7  ;  21  :  11).  See  He- 
 bron. 
 
 Arch-an'gel  [cli ief  avr/ell .  The  word 
 occurs  in  the  New  Testament  but  twice 
 (1  Thess.  4  :  16;  Jude  9).     It  is  supposed 
 
ARCHELAUS— ARIEL. 
 
 53 
 
 to  denote  those  angels  who  occupy  the 
 highest  rank  in  the  celestial  order  or 
 hierarchy.  Of  these  there  are  said  to  be 
 seven  who  stand  immediately  before  the 
 throne  of  God  (Rev  .8:2),  who  have  au- 
 thority over  other  angels,  and  are  the  pa- 
 trons of  particular  nations  (Rev.  12:7; 
 Dan.  10  :  13).  The  names  of  two  only 
 are  found  in  Scripture — Michael,  the  pa- 
 tron of  the  Jewish  nation  (Dan.  10  :  13, 
 21  ;  12  :  1 ;  Jude  9;  Rev.  12  :  7),  and  Ga- 
 briel (Dan.  8  :  16;  9  :  21 ;  Luke  1 :  19,  26). 
 
 Ar-che-la''us  Iruler  of  the  people^,  a 
 son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  his  successor 
 in  the  kingdom  (Matt.  2  :  22).  Like  his 
 father,  he  was  a  man  of  malignant  and 
 cruel  disposition,  and  after  enjoying  his 
 dignity  for  ten  years  he  was  accused  be- 
 fore the  Roman  emperor  for  his  cruel- 
 ties, and  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul, 
 where  he  died. 
 
 Ar'cher,  one  skilled  in  the  use  of  the 
 bow  (Gen.  21  :  20).  Before  the  invention 
 of  firearms  the  bow  was  much  used  in 
 war  and  hunting.    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Ar-chip'pus  [ruler  of  the  horse},  a 
 Christian  minister  whom  Paul  styles  his 
 "  fellow-soldier  "  (Philem.  2),  and  to  whom 
 on  another  occasion  he  sends  a  message  to 
 take  heed  to  the  ministry  that  he  had  re- 
 ceived, and  to  fulfill  it  (Col.  4  :  17). 
 
 Arc-tu'rus  [bear-warden'].  Tliis  name 
 is  found  twice  in  the  book  of  Job  (9  :  9  and 
 38  :  32).  The  etymology  of  the  original 
 word  is  obscure.  Most  critics  regard  it  as 
 denoting  the  principal  star  in  the  tail  of  the 
 Great  Bear,  and  of  course  take  the  "sons" 
 of  Arcturus  in  the  sense  of  the  smaller  stars 
 near  it.  Other  critics,  however,  suppose 
 that  Arcturus  and  the  other  stars  men- 
 tioned in  Job  were  the  leading  constella- 
 tions of  spring  and  autumn  in  the  days 
 of  the  patriarch,  and  they  seek,  by  calcu- 
 lations based  upon  the  precession  of  the 
 equinoxes,  to  fix  the  time  when  the  book 
 of  Job  was  written. 
 
 Ar-e-op'a-gus    [the   hill   of  Ares  or 
 
 Mars],  (Acts  17  :  19),  a  rocky  height  in 
 Athens  opposite  the  western  end  of  the 
 Acropolis.  It  had  its  name  from  the 
 legend  that  Ares  (Mars),  the  god  of  war, 
 was  here  tried  by  the  other  gods  on  a 
 charge  of  murder.  Here  was  held  that 
 noted  council,  the  Areopagus,  which  took 
 cognizance  of  questions  of  religion,  edu- 
 cation and  politics,  and  which  considered 
 and  determined  all  kinds  of  offences,  but 
 especially  such  as  related  to  religion.  Be- 
 fore this  court,  on  the  hill  of  Mars,  the 
 apostle  Paul  was  arraigned  on  the  charge 
 of  being  "  a  setter-forth  of  strange  gods " 
 (Acts  17  :  18).  His  noble  defence  of  him- 
 self and  his  clear  exposition  of  the  grand 
 facts  and  doctrines  of  tiie  gospel  resulted 
 in  the  conversion  of  one  of  his  judges, 
 "  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,"  and  in  his 
 dismissal  without  rebuke  (Acts  17  :  32- 
 34). 
 
 A-re''tas,  the  name  of  several  kings 
 of  Arabia  Petraea,  one  only  of  whom  is 
 referred  to  in  Scripture.  Having  made 
 an  incursion  upon  Damascus,  he  took  the 
 city  and  appointed  a  governor  over  it.  It 
 was  during  the  incumbency  of  this  subor- 
 dinate officer  that  the  attempt  was  made, 
 at  the  instigation  of  the  Jews,  to  seize  and 
 imprison  the  apostle  Paul,  of  wliich  when 
 his  friends  were  apprised,  they  let  him 
 down  from  the  walls  at  night  in  a  basket 
 (2  Cor.  11  :  32  and  Acts  9  :  24,  25). 
 
 Ar'gob  [stone-heap],  a  district  in 
 Bashan,  east  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesa- 
 ret,  which  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of 
 Manasseh  (Deut.  3  :  4,  13  ;  1  Kings  4  :  13). 
 In  later  times  it  was  called  Trachonitis 
 [the  rough]  ;  now  it  is  the  Lejdh,  south 
 of  Damascus.  The  region  is  a  very  re- 
 markable one.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  twenty- 
 two  miles  by  fourteen,  and  is  thickly  stud- 
 ded with  ruined  cities  and  villages.  It  is 
 described  as  an  "  ocean  of  basaltic  rocks." 
 
 A^ri-el  [lion  of  God],  a  designation  of 
 Jerusalem  (Isa.  29  :  1,  2,  7),  originating, 
 probably,  from    the   fact   that   Jerusalem 
 
54 
 
 ARIMATHEA— ARK. 
 
 was  the  chief  city  of  tlie  tribe  of  Judah, 
 
 whose  emblem  was  a  lion    ((Jen.  49  :  9). 
 
 Ar-i-ma-the'a,  probably  the  birth- 
 place, certainly  the  residence,  of  Joseph, 
 the  rich  counselor  in  whose  sepulchre  Our 
 Lord  was  laid  (Matt.  27  :  57-60).  It  is 
 called  in  Luke  23  :  51  "a  city  of  the 
 Jews"  or  of  Judaea.  Some  identify  it 
 with  Ramah,  Samuel's  birthplace ;  others 
 with  the  modern  Ramkh,  on  the  road 
 from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 
 
 Ar-is-tar'chus  [beal  ruler],  a  native 
 of  Thessalonica  and  a  faitliful  and  esteemed 
 co-laborer  with  Paul  (Acts  20  :  4;  27  :  2), 
 In  Col.  4  :  10,  Paul  styles  him  his  "fel- 
 low-prisoner ;"  in  Philem.  24,  his  "  fellow- 
 laborer."  In  the  tumult  raised  against 
 Paul  by  the  silversmiths  of  Ephesus  he 
 was  nearly  killed  (Acts  19  :  29).  He  was 
 a  companion  of  Paul  on  the  perilous  voy- 
 age to  Rome  and  during  his  first  impris- 
 onment there.  According  to  tradition,  he 
 was  finally  beheaded  at  Rome. 
 
 Ark  {^coffer,  chesQ,  the  designation  in 
 the  Scriptures  of  three  specially  important 
 vessels : 
 
 1.  Ark  of  Noah.  This 
 was  built  by  Noah,  at  God's 
 command,  for  the  preserva- 
 tion of  himself  and  family 
 when  the  earth  was  devas- 
 tated by  the  Flood.  Accord- 
 ing to  ordinary  calculation, 
 it  was  four  hundred  and  fifty 
 feet  in  length,  seventy-five  in 
 breadth  and  forty-five  in 
 height,  but  most  probably  its 
 real  dimensions  were  very 
 much  greater.  Its  form 
 is  supposed  to  have  been 
 that  of  an  oblong  floating 
 house,  with  a  roof  either  flat 
 or  only  slightly  inclined.  It 
 was  constructed  with  three 
 stories,  and  with  a  door  in  the  side.  It 
 had  sufficient  capacity  for  its  purposed 
 use,  and  kept  alive  those  human   beings 
 
 and  those  selected  animals  which  floated 
 
 in  it.  As  the  second  cradle  of  the  human 
 race  the  ark  entered  largely  into  the  tra- 
 ditions of  the  ancient  world,  and  reap- 
 peared in  the  mysteries  and  religious  cer- 
 emonies of  many  primeval  nations. 
 
 2.  Ark  of  Bulrushes.  In  Ex.  2 : 3  we 
 read  that  Moses  was  exposed  among  the 
 flags  of  the  Nile  in  an  ark  or  boat  of  bul- 
 rushes daubed  with  slime  and  with  pitch. 
 The  bulrush  wixs  the  papyrus  reed,  wiiicli, 
 grew  abundantly  in  Egypt,  and  which, 
 with  many  other  uses,  was  largely  em- 
 ployed in  the  weaving  of  boats.  These 
 boats  were  noted  for  lightness  and  swift- 
 ness, and  are  alluded  to  in  Isa.  18  :  2. 
 
 3.  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  This  was  the 
 first  piece  of  the  tabernacle's  furniture  for 
 which  precise  directions  were  delivered 
 (Ex.  25).  It  appears  to  have  been  an 
 oblong  chest  of  acacia  wood,  two  and  a 
 half"  cubits  long  by  one  and  a  half  broad 
 and  deep.  Within  and  without  gold  was 
 overlaid  on  the  wood,  and  on  the  upper 
 side    or    lid,    which   was    edged    around 
 
 Ark  of  the  Covenant. 
 
 about  with  gold,  the  mercy-seat  was 
 placed.  It  was  fitted  with  rings,  one  at 
 each  of  the  four  corners,  through  which 
 
AKKITE— ARMS. 
 
 55 
 
 were  passed  tlie  acacia  staves,  overlaid 
 with  gold,  whereby  it  was  carried  (Num. 
 7:9;  10  :  21).  When  transported,  it  was 
 enveloped  in  tlie  veil  of  the  dismantled 
 tabernacle,  in  the  curtain  of  badgers' 
 skins  and  in  a  blue  cloth  overall ;  it  was 
 therefore  not  seen.  It  contained  tlie  two 
 tables  of  the  moral  law,  that  covenant  be- 
 tween God  and  his  people  from  wliich  it 
 derived  its  title  (1  Kings  8  :  9).  Occupy- 
 ing the  Most  Holy  Place  of  the  sanctuary, 
 it  excluded  every  idol  from  the  centre  of 
 worship.  It  was  also  the  support  of  tlie 
 mercy-seat,  symbolizing  materially,  per- 
 liaps,  the  grand  truth  that  the  "  covenant " 
 was  that  on  wliich  mercy  rested. 
 
 After  the  children  of  Israel  had  passed 
 the  Jordan  the  ark  in  the  tabernacle  was 
 placed  at  Gilgal.  Thence  it  was  removed 
 to  Shiloh,  where  it  was  stationary  some 
 three  or  four  hundred  years.  When  taken 
 out  and  borne  before  the  army — which, 
 renouncing  faith  in  God,  thus  degraded 
 the  symbol  of  his  presence  into  a  magical 
 charm — it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Phil- 
 istines at  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  near 
 Aphek  (1  Sam.  4).  The  Philistines  took 
 it  to  Ashdod,  and  placed  it  by  the  side  of 
 their  idol-god  Dagon  (1  Sam.  5).  They 
 were  taught,  however,  in  a  very  surprising 
 manner  that  their  profane  use  of  it  was 
 higlily  displeasing  to  God,  and  they  re- 
 turned it  to  the  people  of  Israel,  who 
 lodged  it  at  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Sam.  6,  7). 
 When  David  had  fixed  his  residence  at 
 Jerusalem  it  was  removed  thither,  and 
 kept  until  the  temple  was  prepared  to  re- 
 ceive it.  When  Jerusalem  was  sacked  by 
 Nebuchadnezzar  it  was  either  carried  away 
 or  destroyed. 
 
 Ark'ite,  one  of  the  families  of  the  Ca- 
 naanites,  located  in  tlie  nortli  of  Phoenicia 
 (Gen.  10  :  17 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  15).  The  site 
 which  now  bears  the  name  of  Arka  lies  on 
 the  coast,  some  five  miles  from  the  sea  and 
 about  twelve  miles  north  of  Tripoli. 
 
 Arm,  the  common  instrument  of  hu- 
 
 man strength  and  power,  and  so  the  sym- 
 bol of  God's  almightiness  (Ps.  89  :  13 ; 
 Isa.  53  :  1 ).  To  break  the  arm  of  any 
 one  is  to  destroy  his  power  (Ezek.  30  : 
 21).  The  expressions  "making  bare  the 
 arm  "  and  "  redeeming  with  an  outstretched 
 arm  "  refer  to  the  action  of  warriors  or  other 
 persons  employed  in  vigorous  and  energet- 
 ic working,  who,  in  order  to  accomplisli 
 their  purpose,  must  have  full  and  free 
 scope  for  the  arm. 
 
 Ar-raa-ged'don,  a  name  used  em- 
 blematically for  a  place  of  slaughter  and 
 mourning  (Rev.  16  :  16).  It  means  the 
 mountain  of  Megiddo,  on  which  stood  the 
 city  of  the  same  name,  on  the  southern 
 border  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel  or  Es- 
 draelon,  that  great  battle-field  where  Ba- 
 rak and  Gideon  conquered  (Judg.  5  :  19; 
 6  :  33),  and  where  Saul  and  Josiali  fell 
 (1  Sam.  29  :  1 ;  31  :  8 ;  2  Sam.  4:4; 
 2  Chron.  35  :  20-24).  It  is  to  be  under- 
 stood as  pointing  prophetically  to  the  utter 
 overthrow  of  the  marshaled  hosts  of  Anti- 
 christ at  some  place  which  shall  revive  the 
 memories  of  Megiddo,  and  at  some  time  in 
 the  future. 
 
 Ar-rae'rii-a,  a  country  of  Western  Asia 
 between  the  Caucasus  and  Taurus  Moun- 
 tains and  the  Mediterranean,  the  Black 
 and  the  Caspian  seas.  It  is  an  elevated 
 table-land  triangular  in  shape,  and  the 
 base  from  which  rises  the  gigantic  Ararat. 
 In  it  the  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Ti- 
 gris have  their  springs,  and  through  it 
 flow  the  Araxes  and  Kur.  It  is  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  in  connection  with 
 but  one  event,  the  death  of  Sennaclierib, 
 king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  19  :  37 ;  Isa. 
 37  :  38).  Christianity  was  introduced 
 into  it  in  the  fourtli  century,  but,  in  the 
 present  Armenian  Church,  is  greatly  cor- 
 rupted. 
 
 Arms,  Ar'mor,  the  weapons  of  of- 
 fence and  the  equipment  for  defence. 
 
 1.  Arms,  or  the  Weapons  of  Of- 
 fence.— These  were  the  sword,  the  spear. 
 
56 
 
 AKMS. 
 
 the  javelin,  the  dart,  the  lance,  the  sling, 
 the  bow  and  arrow  and  the  battle-axe. 
 
 The  sword  was  the  earliest  known  and 
 the  most  widely-used  weapon  (Gen.  27  : 
 40).  Little  can  be  ascertained  as  to  its 
 shape,  size,  material  or  mode  of  use.  It 
 was  probably  a  lighter  and  shorter  weapon 
 than  the  modern  sword,  resembling  what 
 we  call  a  dagger.  It  was  carried  in  a 
 sheath  or  scabbard  (1  Sam,  17  :  61 ;  1 
 Chron  21  :  27 ;  Jer.  47  :  6),  slung  by  a 
 girdle  (1  Sam.  25  :  13),  and  rested  upon 
 the  thigli  (Judg.  3  :  16)  or  upon  the  hip 
 (2  Sam.  20  :  8).  From  allusions  to  its 
 brightness  and  "glittering"  (Dent.  32  : 
 41)  we  infer  that  its  material  was  metal. 
 
 Shield,  Axe,  Sword,  Bow  and  Quiver. 
 
 The  spear  (Josh.  8  :  18),  the  javelin 
 (Num.  25  :  7,  8),  the  dart  (2  Sam.  18  :  14) 
 and  the  lance  (Jer.  50  :  42)  differed  chief- 
 ly in  length  and  size.  The  spear  was  a 
 long  wooden  staff  with  a  stout  metal  point 
 at  one  end.  The  lance  was  shaped  like 
 the  spear,  but  was  a  lighter  weapon.  The 
 javelin  was  a  short  spear,  and  was  cast 
 with  the  hand  (1  Sam.  18  :  11).  The  dart 
 was  still  smaller  than  the  javelin,  and  was 
 used  in  like  manner. 
 
 The  sling  (1  Sam.  17  :  40)  was  an  early 
 weapon  of  war,  by  which  stones  were  thrown 
 with  great  force  and  surprising  accuracy  of 
 aim  (Judg.  20  :  15,  16). 
 
 The  bow  and  arrow  held  the  foremost 
 place  among  the  missile  weapons  of  of- 
 fence. From  the  earliest  times  tliey  were 
 in  use  both  for  tlie  chase  and  for  war  (Gen. 
 21  :  20 ;  48  :  22).  The  bows  were  made  of 
 flexible  wood  or  steel  (Ps.  18  :  34),  and  the 
 bow-string  of  leather,  horse-hair  or  the  ten- 
 dons of  animals.  The  arrows  were  orig- 
 inally made  of  reeds,  and  afterward  of  any 
 light  wood  ;  they  were  carried  in  a  case  or 
 box  called  a  "quiver,"  slung  over  the 
 shoulders  in  such  a  ix)sition  that  the  ar- 
 rows could  be  readily  drawn  out  when 
 wanted.  Those  who  shot  them  were  called 
 archers. 
 
 Tlie  battle-axe  (Jer.  51  :  20)  was  a  pow- 
 erful weapon  of  war,  but  of  its  form  and 
 manner  of  use  we  have  now  no  definite 
 knowledge. 
 
 Coats-of-Mail. 
 
 2.  Armor,  or  the  Equipment  for 
 Defence. — This  comprised  tlie  shield  or 
 buckler  or  target,  the  coat-of-mail  or  ha- 
 bergeon or  breastplate  or  brigandine,  the 
 greaves  and  the  helmet. 
 
 The  shield  or  buckler  or  target,  differ- 
 ing in  size  and  perhaps  in  form,  w.as  a  de- 
 fence against  sword-blows  and  spear-thrusts, 
 and  such  missiles  as  stones,  javelins,  darts 
 and  arrows.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
 pieces  of  armor  (Gen.  15  :  1  ;  Ps.  6  :  12). 
 It  was  usually  made  of  light  wood,  and 
 covered  with  several  folds  or  thicknesses 
 
ARMOR-BEARER— ARPAD. 
 
 57 
 
 of  stout  hides.  Sometimes  osiers  or  reeds 
 woven  like  basket-work  wei'e  used  to  stretch 
 the  hide  upon.  Sometimes  the  sliield  was 
 either  made  entirely  of  brass  or  gold,  or 
 covered  with  thick  plates  of  those  metals 
 (1  Kings  14  :  26,  27).  It  was  held  by  the 
 left  arm,  and  sometimes  was  attached  to 
 the  neck  by  a  thong. 
 
 The  eoat-of-mail  (1  Sam.  17  :  5)  or  ha- 
 bergeon (Neh.  4  :  16)  or  breastplate  (Rev. 
 9  :  9)  covered  the  body  upon  and  below 
 the  breast  and  back.  It  consisted  of  two 
 parts,  and  was  fastened  together  at  the 
 sides.  As  it  was  the  principal  and  most 
 complete  part  of  the  armor,  it  is  an  ap- 
 propriate emblem  of  defence  and  safety 
 (Isa.  59:  17;  Eph.  6  :  14). 
 
 The  greaves  (1  Sam.  17  :  6)  resembled 
 boots  without  feet,  and  protected  the  legs. 
 They  were  usually  made  of  brass. 
 
 Helmets  and  Swords. 
 
 The  helmet  was  a  cap  to  protect  the 
 head.  It  was  made  of  thick,  tough  hide, 
 sometimes  of  plated  brass,  and  was  often 
 ornamented  with  a  crest  or  plume. 
 
 Arms  and  armor,  the  weapons  of  of- 
 fence and  the  equipment  for  defence,  fur- 
 nish some  of  the  most  vivid  Scripture  al- 
 lusions and  figures.  A  fine  example  is  in 
 Eph.  6  :  11-18,  where  the  Christian  is  rep- 
 resented as  clothed  in  the  panoply  (or  whole 
 armor)  of  God,  and  as  so  using  the  sword 
 
 of  the  Spirit  that  in  the  good  fight  of  faith 
 he  achieves  a  certain  and  glorious  triumph. 
 
 Ar'mor-Bear^er,  a  soldier  selected 
 by  a  king,  or  general  from  the  bravest  of 
 his  followers  to  carry  his  armor  until  he 
 was  ready  to  equip  himself  for  battle,  and 
 during  the  contest  to  stand  beside  him  (1 
 Sam.  16  :  21 ;  Judg.  9  :  54). 
 
 Ar^mo-ry,  the  place  where,  in  times 
 of  peace,  arms  and  armor  were  deposited 
 (Song  4  :  4). 
 
 Army.     See  Soldier  and  War. 
 
 Ar'non  {^rushim/,  roarinc/],  a  river 
 rising  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead  east  of 
 Jordan,  and  flowing  into  the  Dead  Sea 
 (Num.  22  :  36;  Deut.  2  :  24).  It  was 
 originally  the  boundary  between  the  Mo- 
 abites  and  Amorites  (Num.  21  :  13),  and 
 afterward  between  Moab  and  the  tribe 
 of  Reuben  (Josh.  13  :  15,  16).  It  is 
 now  called  El-Mnjeb,  and  is  described  as 
 flowing  in  a  deep  ravine  or  chasm  cut 
 through  red  and  brown  and  yellow  sand- 
 stone. The  stream,  although  rapid  and 
 wild  in  winter,  is  nearly  dried  up  in  sum- 
 mer.  See  Moab  for  a  picture  of  the  Arnon. 
 
 Ar^oer,  the  name  of  several  places. 
 
 1.  A  city  on  the  north  bank  of  the  tor- 
 rent Arnon,  assigned  after  the  conquest  of 
 Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  to  the  tribe 
 of  Reuben  (Deut.  2:32-36;  Josh.  13: 
 15,  16),  but  later  again  in  the  possession 
 of  Moab  (Jer.  48  :  16-20).  Near  this  city 
 Jephthah  defeated  the  Ammonites  (Judg. 
 11  :  33).  The  site,  marked  by  ruins,  with 
 the  name  'A-rd^ir,  is  on  the  old  Roman 
 road,  upon  the  very  edge  of  the  precipi- 
 tous north  bank  of  Wady-el-Mojeh. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  towns  "  built "  or  probably 
 rebuilt  by  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  32  :  34). 
 
 3.  A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah,  to 
 which  David  sent  presents  after  recov- 
 ering from  the  Amalekites  the  spoil  of 
 Ziklag  (1  Sam.  30  :  26-28).  It  appears 
 to  have  been  the  native  city  of  two  of 
 David's  warriors  (1  Chron.  11  :  44). 
 
 Ar'pad,  sometimes  Ar^phad,  a  city 
 
58 
 
 ARPHAXAD— ASAHEL. 
 
 of  Syria,  always  mentioned  in  connection 
 with  Hamath,  and  probably  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Danijuscus,  but  its  exact  site  is  now 
 unknown  (2  Kings  18  :  34 ;  Isa.  \0:9;  3G  : 
 19;  37  :  13;  Jcr.  49:  23). 
 
 Ar-phax'ad,  a  son  of  Sheni,  born 
 two  years  after  the  Flood  (Gen.   11 :  10). 
 
 Ar'ro-w  (see  Arms,  Armor),  a  word 
 of  extended  symbolical  use.  As  a  means 
 of  domestic  power  and  self-defence  chil- 
 dren are  called  arrows  (Ps.  127  :  4,  5), 
 Lightnings  are  described  as  Jehovah's 
 arrows  (Ps.  18  :  14;  Hab.  3  :  11) ;  so  also 
 are  providential  calamities  (Job  6  :  4;  Ps. 
 38  :  2).  Words  of  bitterness  and  false- 
 hood are  strikingly  compared  to  arrows 
 (Ps.  64:  3;  120:  3,  4). 
 
 Ar-ta-xerx'es  \^great  ivarrior'],  the 
 name  of  two  Persian  monarchs  mentioned 
 in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  The  monarch  who  obstructed  the 
 building  of  the  temple  (Ezra  4  :  7-21). 
 He  is  supposed,  with  good  reason,  to  have 
 been  the  Magian  impostor  Smerdis,  who 
 usurped  the  throne  B.  c.  522  and  reigned 
 eight  months. 
 
 2.  The  monarch  who  in  the  seventh 
 year  of  his  reign  permitted  Ezra  to  re- 
 turn into  Judaea  with  such  of  his  country- 
 men as  chose  to  follow  him  (Ezra  7  :  1,  7), 
 and  who,  fourteen  years  afterward,  allowed 
 Nehemiah  to  return  and  build  Jerusalem 
 (Neh.  2:1).  He  has  been  identified  with 
 Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  the  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Xerxes. 
 
 Ar'te-mas,  an  esteemed  disciple 
 whom  Paul  proposed  to  send  to  Crete 
 to  supply  the  place  of  Titus,  while  the 
 latter  should  visit  the  apostle  at  Nicop- 
 olis  (Tit.  3  :  12). 
 
 Ar-til'le-ry.  This  word,  found  in  1 
 Sam.  20  :  40,  is  applied  to  the  arrows  wliich 
 Jonathan  had  been  shooting.  It  is  Old 
 English  for  offensive,  especially  missile, 
 weapons ;  it  must  not  be  confounded  with 
 modern  artillery,  of  which  the  ancients 
 had  no  knowledge. 
 
 A-ru'mah  or  Bu''inah,  a  village 
 near  Shechem  where  Abimelech  lived 
 (Judg.  9  :  41 ;  2  Kings  23  :  36). 
 
 Ar 'vad,  a  small  island  and  city  on  the 
 coast  of  Syria,  still  known  under  the  name 
 of  liuad.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  called 
 Arvadites  (Gen.  10  :  18),  were  celebrated 
 as  mariners  (Ezek.  27  :  8-11). 
 
 A^sa  [healing  or  physician'],  the  third 
 king  of  Judah,  son  and  successor  of  Abi- 
 jam.  He  began  to  reign  about  b.  c.  956, 
 and  reigned  forty-one  years  in  Jerusalem 
 (1  Kings  15  :  9,  10).  When  he  assumed 
 the  government  he  displayed  a  commend- 
 able zeal  in  suppressing  all  idolatrous  prac- 
 tices and  the  gross  immoralities  which  be- 
 fore had  been  tolerated  (1  Kings  15  :  12). 
 He  did  not  spare  his  grandmother  Maa- 
 cliah,  who  occupied  the  special  dignity  of 
 "king's  mother."  He  burnt  the  symbol 
 of  her  religion  (1  Kings  15  :  13),  and 
 threw  its  ashes  into  the  brook  Kidron ; 
 he  then  deposed  Maachah  from  her  dig- 
 nity. He  strengthened  the  kingdom  and 
 made  the  best  use  of  liis  resources.  His 
 reliance  on  the  divine  aid  was  rewarded 
 by  a  signal  victory  over  Zerah  the  P.thio- 
 pian  (2  Chron.  14  :  9-15).  Altliough  it  is 
 said,  "  Asa's  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord 
 all  his  days,"  we  are  to  understand  this  not 
 of  every  particular  act  of  his  life,  but  of 
 his  continuing  to  maintain  the  sound  prin- 
 ciples with  wliich  he  began  his  career. 
 His  alliance  witli  the  king  of  Syria  in  his 
 war  with  Israel  evinced  a  distrust  of  God, 
 and  his  treatment  of  the  Lord's  prophet 
 for  faithfully  rebuking  him  on  this  ac- 
 count was  inexcusable  (2  Chron.  16  : 
 1-10).  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
 suffered  from  the  gout,  and,  to  his  re- 
 proach, relied  more  on  the  skill  of  his 
 physicians  than  on  God's  help  (2  Chron. 
 16  :  12).  He  died,  greatly  loved  and  hon- 
 ored, in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  reign, 
 and  was  buried  with  extraordinary  pomp. 
 A'sa-hel  [Ood  has  made],  nephew 
 of    David   and   brother   of   Joab,   distin- 
 
ASAPH— ASHDOD. 
 
 59 
 
 guished  for  liis  swiftness  in  running.  At 
 the  battle  of  Gibeon  lie  pursued  Abner, 
 who,  in  self-defence,  was  obliged  to  kill 
 hira  (2  Sam.  2  :  19-23). 
 
 A''saph  [^assemblerl,  the  name  of  three 
 persons. 
 
 1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Gershom, 
 son  of  Berachiah  (1  Chron.  6  :  39 ;  15  : 
 17),  eminent  as  a  musician,  and  appoint- 
 ed by  David  to  preside  over  the  sacred 
 choral  services  which  he  organized  (1 
 Chron.  16  :  5).  The  office  appears  to 
 have  been  hereditary,  for  his  sons  are 
 mentioned  as  choristers  in  the  temple 
 (1  Chron.  25  :  1,  2).  To  twelve  of  the 
 Psalms,  the  fiftieth  and  the  seventy-third 
 to  the  eighty-third  inclusive,  his  name  is 
 prefixed,  but  his  authorship  of  them  all 
 is,  on  good  grounds,  disputed.  He  may 
 have  been  the  founder  of  a  school  of 
 poets  and  musical  composers,  who  were 
 called  after  him  "the  sons  of  Asaph." 
 
 2.  The  "  father  "  of  Joah,  the  "  recorder  " 
 in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  18  :  18, 
 37  ;  Isa.  36  :  3,  22). 
 
 3.  A  "keeper  of  the  king's  forests"  (in 
 Lebanon  probably),  to  whom  Nehemiah 
 requested  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  an 
 order  for  timber  to  rebuild  the  temple  at 
 Jerusalem  (Neh.  2  :  8). 
 
 As-cen^sion,  our  Lord's.  See  Christ. 
 
 As'e-nath,  daughter  of  Potipherah, 
 priest  (or  possibly  prince)  of  On,  wife  of 
 Joseph  (Gen.  41  :  45)  and  mother  of  Ma- 
 nasseh  and  Ephraim  (Gen.  41 :  50 ;  46  :  20). 
 
 Ash.  This  word  occurs  but  once  in 
 Scripture  (Isa.  44  :  14).  Whether  it  des- 
 ignates the  ash-tree  or  a  pine  is  uncertain. 
 
 Ash'an  [.smoA;e],  a  city  in  the  plain, 
 spoken  of  as  belonging  sometimes  to  Ju- 
 dah  (Josh.  15  :  42),  sometimes  to  Simeon 
 (Josh.  19  :  7  and  1  Chron.  4  :  32),  and 
 sometimes  to  the  sons  of  Aaron  (1  Chron. 
 6  :  59).     Its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
 
 The  Modern  Ashdod. 
 
 Ash'dod    [stronghold,  castle^,  one  of 
 the  five  cities  of  the  Philistines  assigned 
 
 to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  47),  but 
 not  permanently  conquered.     The  Greeks 
 
60 
 
 ASHER— ASHTAROTH. 
 
 called  it  Azotus  (Acts  8  :  40).  It  was  sit- 
 uated about  three  miles  from  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, midway  between  Gaza  and  Joppa. 
 In  it  was  the  temple  of  Dagon,  to  which 
 the  Philistines  bore  the  captured  ark  (1 
 Sam.  5:2).  It  is  now  an  insignificant  vil- 
 lage called  EsdAd,  the  prophetic  denun- 
 ciations (Amos  1  :  8,  Zeph.  2  :  4)  having 
 been  literally  fulfilled. 
 
 Ashler  [happy  one],  tlie  name  of  a  man, 
 of  the  tribe  descended  from  him  and  of  a 
 city. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  by  Zilpah, 
 Leah's  handmaid  (Gen.  30  :  13).  No  par- 
 ticulars of  his  personal  history  are  re- 
 corded. 
 
 2.  The  tribe  descended  from  Asher  has 
 as  little  prominence  in  Scripture  history 
 as  Asher  himself.  After  the  conquest  it 
 took  tlie  territory  allotted  to  it  without 
 any  special  mention,  and,  so  far  as  the  rec- 
 ords sliow,  participated  in  none  of  the  stir- 
 ring events  of  succeeding  times.  Its  gen- 
 eral position  was  on  the  seashore  from 
 Carmel  northward,  with  Manasseh  on  the 
 soutli,  Zebulun  and  Issachar  on  tlie  south- 
 east and  Naphtali  on  the  north-east.  Its 
 territory,  some  sixty  miles  long  by  ten 
 broad,  contained  some  of  the  richest  soil 
 in  all  Palestine,  and  to  this  fact,  and  to 
 the  tribe's  proximity  to  the  commercial 
 and  luxurious  Phoenician  cities,  may  pos,- 
 sibly  be  attributed  the  degeneracy  of  the 
 Asherites  (Judg.  1  :  31,  32). 
 
 3.  A  city  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe 
 of  Mana.sseh  (Josh.  17  :  7). 
 
 Ash'es.  As  in  the  East  persons  in 
 deep  aflliction  Avere  accustomed  to  scatter 
 dust  or  ashes  on  their  heads  or  in  their 
 hair,  and  to  sit  or  lie,  or  even  roll,  in 
 ashes,  so  it  was  not  unnatural  that  ashes 
 should  become  the  symbol  of  penitential 
 mourning  (Job  42  :  6 ;  Matt.  11  :  21),  and 
 should  contribute  to  many  figurative  forms 
 of  expression.  When  the  Psalmist  (Ps. 
 102:9)  says,  "I  have  eaten  ashes  like 
 bread,  and  mingled  my  drink  with  weep- 
 
 ing," he  means  that  he  has  eaten  the 
 bread  of  humiliation  and  drunk  the  water 
 of  affliction.  When,  too,  Isaiah  (44  :  20) 
 says  of  the  idolater,  "  He  feedeth  on  ashes," 
 his  meaning  evidently  is  that  idolatry  can 
 afford  no  spiritual  nourisliment,  and  that 
 to  practice  it  is  to  die. 
 
 Ash'i-ma,  the  idol-god  of  the  people 
 of  Ilamath,  whose  worship  the  colonists 
 settled  by  Shalmanezer  introduced  into 
 Samaria  (2  Kings  17  :  30).  It  is  said  to 
 have  had  the  form  of  a  goat,  and  to  have 
 been  the  same  as  the  Pan  of  the  Greeks 
 and  the  Phoenician  god  Emiun.  Probably 
 it  is  the  Persian  Asumav. 
 
 Ash'ke-lon.    See  Askelox. 
 
 Ash'ke-naz,  son  of  Gomer  and  grand- 
 son of  Japheth  (Gen.  10  :  3),  the  probable 
 ancestor  of  those  who  inhabited  a  country 
 of  the  same  name  (Jer.  51  :  27)  lying 
 along  the  northern  and  south-eastern 
 shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 
 
 Ash'ta-roth,  the  name  of  a  goddess 
 and  the  designation  of  two  cities. 
 
 1.  As  the  name  of  a  goddess,  Ashta- 
 ROTii  is  the  plural  form  of  Ashtoreth, 
 the  great  female  divinity  of  the  Canaiin- 
 itish  nations,  the  partner  of  Baal,  the 
 great  male  divinity.  She  was  called  h- 
 iar  by  tlie  Assyrians  and  AMarte  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans.  The  singular  form, 
 Ashtoreth  (1  Kings  11  :  5,  33;  2  Kings 
 23  :  13),  is  coupled  with  the  title  "godde&s 
 of  the  Zidonians,"  and  evidently  implies 
 that  Zidon,  if  not  the  principal  seat,  was 
 one  of  the  principal  seats,  of  her  worship. 
 The  plural  form  of  the  name  is  the  form 
 of  more  frequent  occurrence  (Judg.  2:13; 
 10:6;  1  Sam.  7  :  3,  4 ;  12  :  10 ;  31  :  10), 
 and  is  often  associated  with  Baalim. 
 The  worship  of  the  goddess,  consisting 
 of  impure  rites  and  libidinous  orgies, 
 was  very  ancient  and  very  widely  spread. 
 The  four  hundred  priests  which  ate  "at 
 Jezebel's  table"  (1  Kings  18  :  19)  were 
 most  likely  employed  in  her  service. 
 
 2.  As  the  name  of  a  city,  Ashtaroth 
 
ASHTORETH— ASS. 
 
 61 
 
 (once  AsTAROTH,  Deut.  1  :  4)  has  the  sense  | 
 of  "shrines   of  Astarte,"    and    is   plainly  \ 
 designed    to   indicate    a   city   where   the  i 
 worship  of  the   goddess  was   maintained  I 
 with   imposing   magnificence.     The    city 
 was   on    the   east   of  Jordan,  in   Bashan,  ; 
 and  was  the  residence  of  King  Og  (Josh. 
 9  :  10;  12  :  4;   13  :  12).      After  tlie   con- 
 quest of  Bashan  by  the  Israelites  the  city 
 was  allotted  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh 
 (Josh.  13:  31). 
 
 3.  A  very  ancient  city  of  the  Rephaim, 
 or  giants  (Gen.  14:5),  is  called  Ashte- 
 roth-Karnaim  {two-horned  Axtarte).  It 
 shows  in  the  spelling  a  slight  variation 
 from  the  usual  form,  and  is  certainly  the 
 name  of  a  different  city  from  that  in 
 Bashan.  Possibly  it  is  the  modern  Meza- 
 reib,  on  the  great  pilgrim-road  from  Da- 
 mascus to  Mecca. 
 Ash'to-reth.  See  Ashtaroth. 
 A'sia,  the  name  in  the  New  Testament, 
 not  of  the  continent  and  not  of  the  whole 
 peninsula  known  now  as  Asia  Minor,  but 
 of  the  west-coast  provinces  of  Asia  Minor, 
 with  a  good  portion  of  that  vague  region  in 
 the  interior  which  was  usually  denomina- 
 ted "Phrygia."  As  designating  a  geo- 
 graphical division,  Asia  is  quite  an  indef- 
 inite term,  for  with  frequent  changes  of  mas- 
 ters its  boundaries  were  continually  chang- 
 ing. In  its  widest  sense,  Asia  is  refer- 
 red to  in  Acts  19  :  26,  27  and  20  :  16,  18. 
 In  a  more  restricted  sense,  Asia  meant 
 Proconsular  Asia,  or  the  section  embra- 
 cing the  provinces  of  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Ca- 
 ria,  Lydia  and  Ionia  (Acts  27  :  2).  In  a 
 more  restricted  sense  still,  Asia  is  spoken 
 of  in  one  place  (Acts  2  :  9)  as  not  includ- 
 ing Phrygia ;  in  another  place  i  Acts  16  :  6, 
 7 )  as  not  including  either  Plirygia  or  Mysia ; 
 in  all  such  places  it  is  to  be  understood  as 
 referring  to  Ionia  and  the  western  coast, 
 of  which  Ephesus  was  the  capital,  and  in 
 which  the  Seven  Churches  were  situated. 
 
 As'ke-lon  (Judg.  1  :  18),  sometimes 
 AsHKELON   (Judg.   14  :  19),  one  of   the 
 
 five  cities  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  G  : 
 17),  situated  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
 between  Ashdod  and  Gaza,  about  forty 
 miles  west  of  Jerusalem.  In  post-biblical 
 times  it  rose  to  a  position  of  considerable 
 importance.  In  the  struggles  of  the  Cru- 
 sades it  played  a  memorable  part.  Its 
 desolation,  predicted  in  Zech.  9:5,  is 
 now  complete. 
 
 Asnap'per,  mentioned  in  Ezra  4  :  10 
 as  the  person  who  settled  the  Cuthseans  in 
 the  cities  of  Samaria.  He  was  probably  a 
 general  of  Esarhaddon,  king  of  Assyria. 
 
 Asp  [Heb.  pethen,  so  called  probably 
 from  extending  itself],  a  serpent  remarkable 
 for  the  venom  and  the  instantaneously  fatal 
 effect  of  its  poison.  The  Hebrew  word  oc- 
 curs in  six  passages :  Deut.  32  :  33 ;  Job 
 20  :  14,  16;  Ps.  58  :  4;  91  :  13;  Isa.  11  : 
 8.  In  the  two  passages  from  the  Psalms 
 the  word  is  rendered  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  adder;  in  the  other  passages  it 
 is  rendered  asp.  See  Adder.  The  pas- 
 sage in  Isaiah  intimates  that  the  pethen 
 was  a  dweller  in  the  holes  of  walls ;  and 
 as  this  is  a  characteristic  of  the  cobra,  it 
 is  commonly  supposed  that  the  cobra  is 
 meant.  There  is,  however,  a  serpent  in 
 Syria,  called  heten  by  the  Arabs,  which 
 answers  well  to  the  requisitions  of  Scrip- 
 ture. It  is  thus  described:  "Spotted  all 
 over  with  black  and  white  ;  a  foot  long, 
 and  about  twice  as  thick  as  one's  thumb  ; 
 oviparous  ;  the  bite  instantly  fatal,  causing 
 the  body  to  swell."  The  passage  in  Isa- 
 iah strikingly  represents  the  security  of 
 Messiah's  reign  under  the  figure  of  a  child 
 playing  safely  "  on  the  hole  of  the  asp." 
 
 Ass.  There  are  five  words  in  the  He- 
 brew which  are  translated  ass,  and  which 
 express  some  of  the  characteristic  differ- 
 ences in  a  well-known  class  of  animals. 
 Two  of  these  words  are  applied  to  the 
 domestic  mule  ass  and  the  domestic  female 
 ass  respectively.  The  other  three  words 
 describe  as  many  species  of  the  wild  ass. 
 The  domestic  ass  was  not  only  valuable  as 
 
62 
 
 ASSHUR— ASSYRIA. 
 
 a  beast  of  burden,  but  also  for  its  sure-foot- 
 edness.  It  occupied  tlie  place  of  the  horse, 
 and  was  used  in  traveling.  The  nobles  of 
 the  land  rode  upon  asses,  especially  upon 
 while  ones,  which  were  usually  appropri- 
 ated to  persons  of  dignity  (Judg.  5  :  10). 
 The  domestic  ass  constituted  a  valuable 
 portion  of  Eastern  wealth  (Job  1  :  3). 
 
 The  ivild  a.s-.s  is  often  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
 ture, and  is  much  more  spirited  and  beau- 
 
 Wild  Ass. 
 
 tiful  than  the  domestic  kind  (Job  39  :  5- 
 8).  In  their  wild  state  these  asses  herd 
 like  wild  horses,  having  their  leaders  and 
 sentinels,  and  show  an  extraordinary  shy- 
 ness and  vigilance.  They  are  captured 
 with  difficulty.  In  fleetness  they  equal 
 the  gazelle,  and  successfully  defy  the  ef- 
 forts of  the  swiftest  Arab  horses  to  over- 
 take them.  Mr.  Morier,  the  Eastern  trav- 
 eler, says :  "  We  gave  chase  to  two  wild 
 asses,  wliich  had  so  much  the  speed  of  our 
 horses  that  when  they  had  got  at  some  dis- 
 tance they  stood  still  and  looked  behind  at 
 us,  snorting  with  their  noses  in  the  air,  as 
 if  in  contempt  of  our  endeavors  to  catch 
 them." 
 
 Assh^ur  [a  step'],  the  second  son  of 
 Shem  (Gen.  10  :  22),  who  gave  name  to 
 the  city  (not  mentioned  in  Scripture) 
 which  was  the  first  capital  of  Assyria, 
 and  to  the  country  which,  at  one  time 
 designating  Asshub  (Num.  24  :  22;  Hos. 
 14  :  3),  at  another  time  Assyria  (Isa. 
 7  :  18 ;  Zech.  10  :  10),  holds  a  prominent 
 place    in  Old  Testament   records.      The 
 
 monuments  indicate  that  in  the  later 
 times  of  Assyrian  history  Asshur  was 
 worshiped  as  the  chief  god  of  Assyria. 
 
 As'sos,  a  seaport  town  of  Mysia,  over 
 against  the  island  of  Lesbos.  Paul  came 
 to  this  place  on  foot  from  Tro:is  to  take 
 ship  for  Mitylene  (Acts  20  :  13,  14).  It 
 is  now  an  insignificant  village. 
 
 As-sur'ance  is  the  persuasion  of  tlie 
 certainty  of  anytliing  or  tlie  confident  ex- 
 pectation of  something  future.  Thus 
 our  Lord's  resurrection  affords  the  as- 
 surance that  he  will  hereafter  judge 
 the  world  (Acts  17  :  31).  In  Col.  2  : 
 2,  Paul  speaks  of  the  "  full  assurance 
 of  understanding,"  by  wiiicli  he  evi- 
 dently means  an  unalterable  convic- 
 ['  tion  of  the  truth  of  the  mysteries  of 
 redemption.  The  "  full  a.ssurance  of 
 faith"  mentioned  in  Heb.  10:22  is 
 the  unwavering,  confident  and  realiz- 
 ing belief  in  divine  things ;  and  to 
 have  it  in  our  approaches  to  the  throne  of 
 grace  enables  us  to  realize  that  God  i.s,  and 
 that  he  is  the  rewarder  of  them  that  dili- 
 gently seek  him.  The  "  full  assurance  of 
 hope"  spoken  of  in  Ileb.  6:11  is  that  con- 
 fident personal  expectation  of  the  believer 
 that  God  will  confer  on  him  the  blessings 
 which  he  has  promised.  Paul  illustrates 
 this  kind  of  a.ssurance  in  his  own  case  in 
 Rom.  8  :  38,  39.  Althougli  the  doctrine 
 of  assurance,  in  either  of  the  senses  above 
 mentioned,  may  be  perverted  to  a  fanatic- 
 al presumption,  yet  assurance  is  attainable, 
 and  may  be  regarded  as  that  precious  priv- 
 ilege of  the  believer  in  which  his  mind  is 
 brought  into  a  state  of  perfect  peace.  As- 
 surance itself  can  never,  in  its  gospel  sense, 
 be  found  associated  with  any  allowed  sin. 
 
 As-sy'-ria,  a  country  and  an  empire 
 of  Western  Asia. 
 
 1.  The  country  of  Assyria  lay  chiefly 
 along  the  eastern  or  left  bank  of  the 
 Tigris,  and  in  the  earliest  times  was  con- 
 fined, most  probably,  to  a  small  tract  of 
 low-lying  land.    It  derived  its  name  from 
 
ASSYEIANS. 
 
 63 
 
 the  progenitor  of  the  aboriginal  inhabit- 
 ants, Asshur,  the  second  son  of  Shem  (Gen. 
 10  :  22;  1  Chron.  1  :  17).  The  Assyrian 
 monuments  place  the  beginning  of  the 
 monarchy  about  b.  c.  1850.  The  first 
 capital  of  the  monarchy  was  Asshur; 
 the  second  capital  was  Calah ;  the  later 
 and  more  illustrious  capital  was  Nineveh. 
 Asshur  (the  modern  Kileh-Shergat)  stood 
 on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris,  sixty 
 miles  south  of  Nineveh.  At  this  place 
 have  been  found  bricks  and  fragments  of 
 vases  bearing  the  names  and  titles  of 
 apparently  the  earliest  known  Assyrian 
 kings. 
 
 2.  The  empire  of  Assyria  embraced  not 
 only  the  original  country  of  Assyria,  but 
 the  populous  and  powerful  countries  be- 
 tween the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  common- 
 ly known  as  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia. 
 The  cuneiform  records  place  the  beginning 
 of  the  empire  about  B.  c.  1300,  when  Tig- 
 lathi-Nin  (the  Ninus,  perhaps,  of  tlie 
 Greeks)  took  Babylon  and  established 
 the  predominance  of  Assyria  over  Lower 
 as  well  as  Upper  Mesopotamia.  In  the 
 times  of  Jonah,  about  B.  c.  800,  Nineveh, 
 the  metropolis  of  the  empire,  had  become 
 "an  exceeding  great  city  of  three  days' 
 journey,"  and  pre-eminent  in  wickedness 
 (Jon.  1:2;  3:3;  4:  11).  See  Nineveh. 
 In  later  times  Assyria  became  the  oppres- 
 sor of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  was  terribly 
 denounced  by  the  prophets  (Isa.  10  :  5- 
 19;  Nah.  3:1-19;  Zeph.  2  :  13-15).  It 
 finally  fell  beneath  the  blows  of  the  Medes 
 and  otlier  revolting  and  combining  nations, 
 B.  c.  625.  Kecent  researches  have  added 
 greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  his- 
 tory and  have  contributed  much  to  the 
 illustration  of  Old  Testament  Scripture. 
 The  cuneiform  inscriptions  give  the 
 names  of  fifty-two  Assyrian  kings  be- 
 tween B.  c.  1850  and  B.  c.  625,  but  leave 
 unfilled  several  gajas  in  the  succession. 
 These  inscriptions  indicate  that  Assyria 
 gained   a  prominent  place   in  the  world 
 
 much  earlier  than  has  been  commonly 
 supposed,  and  through  many  centuries  ex- 
 ercised a  dominant  influence  over  the  af- 
 fairs of  Western  Asia. 
 
 Assyrian  Sculpture. 
 
 As-sy'ri-ans  (2  Kings  19  :  35;  Isa. 
 37  :  36),  the  children  of  Asshur  and  the 
 first  settlers  of  Assyria  proper.  Of  all  the 
 descendants  of  Shem,  they  were  the  most 
 prominent  and  powerful.  The  monarchy 
 and  empire  which  they  founded  lasted 
 more  than  twelve  centuries,  and  during 
 the  period  of  imperial  greatness  comprised 
 all  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the  Mediterra- 
 nean and  the  confines  of  Egypt.  The 
 prophet  Ezekiel  (31  :  3-9)  likens  the  em- 
 pire to  "  a  cedar  in  Lebanon  exalted  above 
 all  the  trees  of  the  field,  fair  in  greatness 
 and  in  the  length  of  his  branches,  so  that 
 all  the  trees  that  were  in  the  garden  of 
 God  envied  him,  and  not  one  was  like 
 unto  him  in  beauty."  The  Assyrians  are 
 characterized  in  Scripture  as  "a  fierce 
 people"    (Isa.  33  :  19).     Their   victories 
 
64 
 
 ASTROLOGERS— ATHALIAH. 
 
 were  due  to  their  combining  individual 
 bravery  and  hardihood  with  a  skill  and 
 proficiency  in  the  arts  of  war  not  possess- 
 ed by  their  more  uncivilized  neighbors. 
 Their  courage  wiis  undeniably  tinged  with 
 ferocity.  The  track  of  an  Assyrian  army 
 was  marked  by  carnage,  ruin  and  desola- 
 tion (Isa.  28 :  2).  The  capital  of  tlie  coun- 
 try was  denominated  "the  bloody  city" 
 (Nah.  3:1).  Treachery,  too,  and  pride, 
 are  in  Scripture  attributed  to  the  Assyr- 
 ians (Isa.  33  :  1 ;  Ezek.  31  :  10,  1 1 ).  Their  . 
 pride  calls  forth  the  sternest  denunciations, 
 and  is  declared  to  be  that  which  brings 
 down  the  divine  judgments  upon  them 
 (Isa.  10  :  7-14;  37  :  24-28;  Zeph.  2  :  15j. 
 But,  whilst  the  character  of  the  Assyrians 
 embodied  a  number  of  very  unpleasant 
 features,  their  mental  power  certainly 
 placed  them  among  the  foremost  peoples 
 of  their  times.  They  had  not  perhaps  so 
 much  originality  as  the  Chaldfeans,  from 
 whom  they  derived  the  greater  part  of 
 their  civilization,  but  in  many  respects 
 they  surpassed  their  instructors,  and  intro- 
 duced improvements  which  gave  a  great- 
 ly-increased value,  and  almost  a  new  cha- 
 racter, to  arts  previously  discovered.  To 
 appreciate  the  Assyrians  fully  one  needs 
 to  compare  them  with  the  much-lauded 
 Egyptians,  who,  in  important  points,  are 
 very  decidedly  their  inferiors.  Their 
 language  and  alphabet  are  greatly  in  ad- 
 vance of  the  Egyptian.  Their  religion  is 
 more  earnest  and  less  degraded.  In  cour- 
 age and  military  genias  their  superiority 
 is  very  striking.  The  one  point  of  advan- 
 tage to  which  Egypt  may  fairly  lay  claim 
 is  the  grandeur  and  durability  of  her  ar- 
 chitecture. The  Assyrian  palaces,  mag- 
 nificent as  they  undoubtedly  were,  must 
 yield  the  palm  to  the  vast  structures  of 
 Egyptian  Thebes.  But,  except  in  this  one 
 respect,  the  great  African  kingdom  must 
 be  regarded  as  inferior  to  her  Asiatic  ri- 
 val. 
 
 As-trol'O-gers,  a  class  of  men  who 
 
 pretended  to  foretell  future  events  by  ob- 
 serving the  motions  of  the  stars.  Astrol- 
 ogy is  said  to  have  originated  in  Chaldaea, 
 where,  as  we  know,  it  w.as  universally 
 practiced.  A  learned  caste,  styled  "Chal- 
 dseans,"  excelled  in  it  (Dan.  2.  2).  The 
 practice  of  iistrology  still  holds  sway  in 
 the  East,  especially  among  Mohammedans, 
 nor  has  it  utterly  ceased  in  professedly 
 Christian  countries. 
 
 A'tad  [a  thorn],  the  name  of  the  man 
 on  whose  threshing-floor  the  sons  of  Jacob 
 and  the  P^gyptians  who  accompanied  them 
 performed  the  final  solemnities  of  mourn- 
 ing for  the  dead  patriarch  (Gen.  50  :  10, 
 11).    See  Abel-Mizraim. 
 
 At'a-roth  [crowns'],  the  name  of  seve- 
 ral places  in  Palestine. 
 
 1.  A  city  east  of  Jordan,  not  far  from 
 Gilead,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dibon,  Jazer 
 and  Aroer,  in  a  fertile  grazing  district 
 (Num.  32  :  3). 
 
 2.  A  city  on  the  border  of  Ephraini  and 
 Benjamin  (Josh.  16  :  2,  7).  Dr.  Robinson 
 thinks  it  identical  with  the  modern  Atani, 
 a  large  village  on  the  summit  of  a  hill 
 about  six  miles  north  by  west  of  Bethel. 
 
 3.  A  city,  called  sometimes  Atarotii- 
 Addar  and  sometimes  Ataroth-Adar, 
 and  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Ax  a  roth, 
 No.  2  (Josh.  16:5;  18:  13). 
 
 4.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  found- 
 ed by  the  descendants  of  Salma  (1  C'hron. 
 2  :  54). 
 
 Ath-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  oppressed], 
 daughter  of  King  Ahab  of  Israel  and 
 the  infamous  Jezebel,  sister  to  Ahaziah, 
 king  of  Israel,  wife  of  Jehoram,  king  of 
 Judah,  mother  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Ju- 
 dah, and,  after  her  son's  brief  reign  of 
 one  year,  usurper  of  the  crown  of  Ju- 
 dah. She  is  one  of  the  most  odious 
 and  revolting  characters  of  all  history. 
 She  instigated  her  husband  to  put  his  six 
 brothers  to  death  and  to  introduce  the 
 worship  of  Baal  into  Judah.  She  ad- 
 vised and  aided  her  own  son  in  schemes 
 
ATHENS— ATONEMENT. 
 
 65 
 
 of  wickedness,  and  when  that  son  was 
 slain  by  Jehu,  the  usurping  king  of  Is- 
 rael, she  murdered  all  his  children  but 
 one,  and  all  the  children  of  her  late  hus- 
 band. The  one  child  saved  was  the  in- 
 fant Joash,  whom  his  aunt  Jehosheba 
 and  her  husband  Jehoiada,  the  high  priest, 
 secreted  in  the  temple,  and  with  his  nurse 
 kept  there  six  years  (2  Chron.  22  :  10-12). 
 During  these  six  years  Athaliah  occupied 
 the  throne.  When,  at  length,  the  young 
 king  was  presented  to  the  people  by  Jeho- 
 iada, he  was  received  and  inaugurated  with 
 shouts  of  acclamation,  whilst  the  wretched 
 queen  was  seized  and  hurried  to  instant 
 death  (2  Chron.  23  ;  11-15). 
 
 Ath'ens,  a  celebrated  city,  the  capital 
 of  Attica  and  the  seat  of  the  Greek  liter- 
 ature in  the  golden  period  of  ancient 
 Greece.  Its  inhabitants  had  the  reputa- 
 tion of  being  fond  of  novelty  and  of  being 
 remarkably  zealous  in  the  worship  of  the 
 gods  (Acts  17  :  16-21).  It  was  visited  by 
 Paul  on  his  second  missionary  journey, 
 and,  most  probably,  was  the  apostle's  resi- 
 dence for  a  time.  Whilst  there  he  de- 
 livered that  memorable  discourse  (Acts 
 17  :  21-31)  which  resulted  in  the  founda- 
 tion of  a  Christian  church  (Acts  17  :  34). 
 
 A-tone'ment,  the  means  or  agency 
 whereby  the  reconciliation  of  two  who 
 have  been  at  variance  is  brought  about. 
 The  word  is  used  with  great  frequency  in 
 the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  especially  in 
 the  very  common  phrase  "  to  make  atone- 
 ment," in  the  sense  of  to  give  or  to  do  that 
 which  removes  estrangement  and  re-estab- 
 lishes peace  (Ex.  30  :  10;  Lev.  9:7;  16  : 
 10,  11,  16,  17,  18,  24,  30,  32;  Num.  8  :  19, 
 21 ;  16  :  46  ;  28  :  22).  Occasionally  in  the 
 Old  Testament  Scriptures  the  original  He- 
 brew phrase  which  is  rendered  "  to  make 
 atonement "  is  translated  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  by  the  alternative  phrase, "  to  make 
 reconciliation"  (Lev.  8:15;  Ezek.  45:15; 
 Dan.  9  :  24).  Hence,  as  used  in  our  Eng- 
 lish Bible,  reconcile  and  reconciliation  are 
 
 synonymous  with  atone  and  atonement.  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  word  "  atonement " 
 occurs  but  once  (Rom.  5  :  11),  but  flie 
 equivalent  words,  "reconcile"  and  "rec- 
 onciliation," often  (Rom.  5  :  10;  11  :  15; 
 2  Cor.  5  :  18-20 ;  Eph.  2:16;  Col.  1  :  20, 
 21 ;  Heb.  2  :  17).  In  both  Testaments  the 
 matter  of  atonement,  or  the  means  which, 
 in  pre-eminence,  effect  reconciliation  be- 
 tween the  holy  God  and  the  sinning 
 human  soul,  is  an  offered  and  accepted 
 .sacrifice  (Lev.  17  :  11  ;  Heb.  9  :  22).  The 
 lambs  and  bullocks  of  the  Levitical  Law 
 simply  served  to  type  "  the  Lamb  of  God," 
 the  one  great  Victim,  who  "once  in  the 
 end  of  the  world  hath  appeared  to  put 
 away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself" 
 (Heb.  9  :  26).  The  Hebrew  verb  which 
 is  rendered  "to  atone"  literally  means 
 "to  cover,"  in  the  sense  that  the  atone- 
 ment made  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Chr;  ,t 
 is  "  the  covering "  or  the  hiding  of  sin 
 (Ps.  32  :  1;  Acts  5  :  30,  31).  With  this 
 covering  of  sin  two  ideas  are  necessarily 
 connected :  the  one  having  respect  to  God's 
 justice,  and  represented  by  the  word  pro- 
 pitiation; the  other  having  respect  to  the 
 sinner's  guilt,  and  represented  by  the 
 word  expiation.  Our  Lord's  self-sacri- 
 fice embodies  not  only  that  on  account  of 
 which  (pra-pitiation)  the  wrath  of  a  holy 
 God  against  sin  is  ajjpeased  and  the  en- 
 mity of  the  sinner's  soul  is  removed,  but 
 also  that  by  which  the  guilt  of  sin  is 
 cleansed  from  the  soul  (ex-piation)  and 
 the  obligation  of  punishment  is  canceled. 
 These  two  ideas  pervade  the  whole  New 
 Testament  (Rom.  3  :  25 ;  1  John  2:2;  4 : 
 10 ;  1  Cor.  6:11;  Heb.  9:14;  1  John  1  : 
 7 ;  Rev.  1  :  5,  6).  They  justify  the  em- 
 phatic statements  in  Scripture  that  our 
 Lord's  atonement  is  in  fact  a  substitution, 
 for  he  suffered  in  our  stead  (Lev.  1:4; 
 7  :  18;  Gal.  3  :  13;  Heb.  7  :  27),  and  a 
 sat i^tf action,  for  he  has  vindicated  the  bro- 
 ken law  and  answered  all  the  purposes 
 of  punishment   with   honor  to  the  Law- 
 
66 
 
 ATONEMENT,   DAY  OF— AVENGER  OF  BLOOD. 
 
 giver  and  eventual  holiness  to  every  par- 
 doned sinner  (Isa.  53  :  4,  o,  6,  10,  11; 
 Rom.  8  :  3,  4 ;  Gal.  1:4;  Heb.  9:14;  10 : 
 10;  1  Pet.  2  :  24).  They  justify,  more- 
 over, the  equally  emphatic  statements  in 
 Scripture  that  because  of  our  Lord's 
 atonement  his  penitent,  believing  and 
 obedient  people  are  reconciled  to  God 
 (Rom.  5  :  10;  2  Cor.  5  :  18),  are  redeem- 
 ed from  all  evil  (Luke  1  :  68;  1  Pet.  1  : 
 IS),  and  are  saved  with  an  everlasting 
 salvation  (Rom.  5:9;  1  Tim.  1  :  15; 
 Heb.  7  :  25). 
 
 A-tone'ment,  Day  of,  the  great 
 day  of  national  humiliation,  and  the  only 
 one  commanded  in  the  Mosaic  Law.  The 
 mode  of  its  observance  is  described  in  Lev. 
 16,  and  the  conduct  of  the  people  is  em- 
 phatically enjoined  in  Lev.  23  :  26-32.  It 
 was  kojit  by  the  people  as  a  high  solemn 
 Sabbatli,  though  not  necessarily  on  a  Sab- 
 bath-day, five  days  before  the  feast  of  tab- 
 ernacles. In  the  particular  rites  of  the 
 day  three  points  appear  to  be  of  a  very 
 distinctive  character:  the  white  garments 
 of  the  high  priest ;  his  entrance  into  the 
 I  loly  of  Holies ;  and  the  scape-goat.  The 
 writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (9  : 
 7-25)  teaches  us  to  apply  tlie  first  two  par- 
 ticulai-s.  The  high  priest  liimself,  with  his 
 person  cleansed  and  dressed  in  white  gar- 
 ments, was  tlie  best  outward  type  which  a 
 living  man  could  present  in  his  own  per- 
 son of  the  pure  and  holy  One  who  was  to 
 purify  his  people  and  to  cleanse  them  from 
 their  sins.  But  respecting  the  meaning  of 
 the  scape-goat  we  have  no  such  light  to 
 guide  us.  The  common  view  is  perhaps 
 the  true  one,  namely  this:  the  goat  was 
 dismissed  to  signify  the  carrying  away  of 
 tlie  sins  of  the  people,  as  it  were,  out  of 
 tiie  sight  of  Jehovah.  If  we  keep  in 
 view  that  the  two  goats  in  the  prescribed 
 service  are  spoken  of  as  parts  of  one  and 
 the  same  sin-offering,  we  shall  not  have 
 much  difficulty  in  seeing  that  they  form 
 together  but  one  symbolical  expression; 
 
 the  slain  goat  setting  forth  the  act  of  sac- 
 rifice in  giving  up  its  own  life  for  others 
 "  to  Jehovah,"  and  the  goat  which  car- 
 ried off"  its  lo;ul  of  sin  "  for  complete  re- 
 moval," as  signifying  the  cleansing  influ- 
 ence of  faith  in  that  sacrifice. 
 
 At-ta-li'a,  a  coast-town  of  Pamphy- 
 lia  in  Asia  Minor.  It  was  built  by  Atta- 
 ins Phiiadelphus,  king  of  Pergamos,  and 
 named  after  that  monarch.  Paul  and 
 Barnabas  made  a  visit  to  it  (Acts  14  :  25). 
 It  is  still  known  by  the  name  of  Satalia, 
 and,  from  the  ruins  in  its  neighborliood, 
 was  evidently  at  one  time  a  place  of  con- 
 siderable importance. 
 
 Au-gus'tus  [venerable'],  nephew  and 
 successor  of  Julius  Casar,  and  emperor 
 of  Rome  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth. 
 He  ordered  the  enrollment  which  requir- 
 ed the  presence  of  Joseph  and  Mary  at 
 Betlilehem,  where  the  child  Jesus  was 
 born  (Luke  2  :  1-4).  He  reigned  forty- 
 one  years,  and,  dying  in  A.  D.  14,  was 
 succeeded  by  Tiberius  Ca?sar  (Luke  3:1). 
 
 A'va,  a  place  in  the  empire  of  Assyria, 
 apparently  the  same  as  Ivah  (2  Kings  17  : 
 24;  18  :  34;  19  :  13  \  on  the  Euphrates, 
 at  the  extreme  northern  limit  of  Baby- 
 lonia. 
 
 A'ven  [nothingness;  hence  iniquilij, 
 idolalnj,  and,  concretely,  an  idol  itself],  a 
 contemptuous  name  given  to  three  places 
 on  account  of  the  idolatry  practiced  there- 
 in. 
 
 1.  A  plain  in  Syria  (Amos  1  :  5),  called 
 also  the  Valley  of  Lebanon  (Josh.  11  :  17), 
 because  lying  between  the  two  ranges  of 
 the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  It  is  the  sup- 
 posed site  of  the  present  stupendous  ruins 
 of  Baalbek. 
 
 2.  A  city  in  tiie  kingdom  of  Israel  (Hos. 
 10  :  8),  called  also  Beth-avcn  (Hos.  4  :  15). 
 It  is  but  another  name  for  Bethel,  the  seat 
 of  Israelitish  idolatry. 
 
 3.  A  city  in  Egypt  (Ezek.  30  :  17),  the 
 same  as  On  or  Heliopolis. 
 
 Aveng'er  of  Blood.    According  to 
 
AVIM— AZZAH. 
 
 67 
 
 the  Jewisli  law,  a  murderer  was  to  be  put 
 to  death,  and  tlie  nearest  male  relative  of 
 the  person  killed  was  properly  the  avenger 
 of  blood.  Cities  of  refuge  were  appointed 
 for  the  security  of  those  who  had  commit- 
 ted accidental  homicide,  into  which  the 
 avenger  of  blood  could  not  pursue  them 
 (Josh.  20  :  3).  See  Blood,  Revenger 
 OF,  and  Cities  op  Refuge. 
 
 A^'vim,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
 Avites  or  Hivites,  a  people  occupying  the 
 southern  part  of  Palestine,  on  the  Mediter- 
 ranean coast,  who  were  afterward  dispos- 
 sessed by  the  Caphtorim  or  Philistines 
 (Dent.  2  :  23;  Josh.  13  :  3). 
 
 A''V0"Ueh,  to  make  a  solemn  and  de- 
 liberate act  of  recognition  and  choice  (Deut. 
 xxvi.  17). 
 
 A"wl,  a  tool  of  which  we  do  not  know 
 the  ancient  form.  The  only  notice  of  it  is 
 in  connection  with  the  custom  of  boring  the 
 ear  of  the  slave  (Ex.  21  :  6;  Dent.  15  :  17). 
 
 Axe,  In  our  Authorized  Version  seven 
 Hebrew  words  are  rendered  "  axe,"  the  one 
 
 1,  2.  Ancient  Egyptian  Axes;  3,  4.  Ancient 
 Assyrian  Axes. 
 
 of  most  common  occurrence  being  garzen, 
 from  a  root  signifying  "  to  cut  or  sever." 
 It  consisted  of  a  head  of  iron  fastened  with 
 thongs  or  otherwise  upon  a  handle  of  wood, 
 and  so  liable  to  slip  off  (Deut.  19:5;   2 
 
 Kings  6:5).  It  was  used  for  felling  trees 
 (Deut.  20  :  19),  and  also  for  shaping  the 
 wood  when  felled  (1  Kings  6:7).  The 
 other  words  represent  implements  which 
 were  lighter,  and  which  were  employed 
 in  the  various  processes  of  carving  or 
 fashioning.  The  battle-axe  (Jer.  51  :  20) 
 was  probably  a  heavy  mace  or  maul. 
 
 Az-a-ri'ah  [helped  of  Jehovah],  a  com- 
 mon name  among  the  Hebrews,  borne  by 
 nineteen  persons  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament.    The  principal  are  these : 
 
 1.  A  son  of  Ahimaaz  (1  Chron.  6  :  9), 
 and  the  high  priest  at  the  dedication  of 
 the  temple. 
 
 2.  A  son  of  Oded  (2  Chron.  15  :  1),  and 
 a  remarkable  prophet  in  the  days  of  King 
 Asa. 
 
 3.  A  king  of  Judah,  commonly  called 
 Uzziah  (2  Kings  15  :  1 ;  2  Chron.  26  :  1 ), 
 the  son  and  successor  of  Amaziah.  He 
 reigned  fifty-two  years.  He  was  remark- 
 ably prospered  so  long  as  he  did  that  which 
 was  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord ;  but  at 
 length,  elated  by  his  successes,  he  aspired 
 to  execute  the  office  of  a  priest,  entering 
 the  temple  and  essaying  to  burn  incense. 
 He  was  thereupon  struck  with  leprosy, 
 which  remained  upon  him  through  all 
 his  subsequent  life,  and  confined  him  in 
 solitude  to  his  palace  (2  Kings  15  :  5 ;  2 
 Chron.  26  :  16-21). 
 
 A-ze'kah,  a  city  of  Judah,  situated 
 south  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  noticed  in  the 
 defeat  of  the  Amoritish  kings  (Josh.  10  : 
 10),  and  in  the  slaughter  of  the  Philis- 
 tines after  the  death  of  Goliath  (1  Sam. 
 17  :  1). 
 
 Az'mon  [stronf/'],  a  place  on  the  south- 
 ern border  of  Palestine  (Num.  34  :  4,  5 ; 
 Josh.  15  :  4).  It  has  not  yet  been  identi- 
 fied. 
 
 A-zo'tus  (Acts  8  :  40),  the  Greek  name 
 of  AsHDOD  (which  see). 
 
 Azzah,  an  unusual  but  more  correct 
 mode  of  anglicising  Gaza  (Deut.  2  :  23; 
 1  Kings  4  :  24 ;  Jer.  25  :  20). 
 
68 
 
 BAAL. 
 
 B. 
 
 Ba'al  [lord  or  Tnaster],  a  generic  term 
 for  fjod  in  many  of  tlie  Syro-Arabian  lan- 
 guages. It  is  usually  appropriated  to  tlie 
 supreme  male  divinity  of  tlie  Phoenicians, 
 as  Ashtorcth  is  appropriated  to  their  su- 
 preme female  divinity ;  and  under  these 
 names  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  supposed 
 to  have  been  worshiped.  The  principal  seat 
 of  Baal's  worship  was  Tyre.  The  worship 
 itself  was  very  old  and  vcrj'  Avidespread.  It 
 prevailed  throughout  the  countries  where 
 tlie  social  and  commercial  influences  of 
 the  Babylonians,  Carthaginians  and  Phoe- 
 nicinns  were  felt ;  it  penetrated  tiie  wilds 
 of  Scandinavia,  and  was  general  over  all 
 the  Britisli  islands.  At  the  present  day 
 names  of  places  in  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
 and  superstitious  observances  everywhere 
 in  Britain,  attest  the  prevalence  and  power 
 of  the  ancient  faith.  It  was  introduced 
 among  the  Israelites  in  the  times  of  the 
 judges  (Judg.  2  :  13).  It  was  continued 
 in  the  reigns  of  Ahaz  and  Manasseh,  kings 
 of  Judah  (2  Cliron.  28  :  2 ;  2  Kings  21  :  3). 
 Aliab,  i<ing  of  Israel,  through  the  instiga- 
 tion of  his  wife,  set  up  Baal  as  his  god  (1 
 Kings  16  :  31).  The  altars  of  Baal  were 
 generally  erected  on  eminences.  Jere- 
 miah refers  to  those  who  offered  homage 
 to  this  idol  on  tlie  housetops  (.Jer.  32  :  29). 
 As  to  the  particular  rites  of  worship,  in- 
 cense was  burned  to  him  (2  Kings  23  : 
 5),  bullocks  were  sacrificed  at  liis  shrine 
 (1  Kings  18  :  20),  and  even  children  were 
 offered  to  him  as  burnt-offerings  (Jer.  19  : 
 5).  Homage  was  also  paid  by  bowing  the 
 knee  and  kissing  his  image  (1  Kings  19  : 
 18).  His  name,  as  that  of  Ashtoreth, 
 has  the  peculiarity  of  being  used  in  the 
 plural  (Ba'al-im),  and  when  so  used  is 
 not  to  be  regarded  as  designating  his  im- 
 ages or  statues,  but  some  of  the  numerous 
 moditicitions     of     his     divinity     (Judg. 
 
 2:11;    10:10;    1    Kings    18:18;    Jer. 
 9:  14). 
 
 The  word  Baal  is  frequently  found  in 
 composition  with  names  of  divinities, 
 names  of  places  and  names  of  persons. 
 
 1.  Names  of  Divinities. — 1.  Ba'al-be- 
 RlTll  [lord  of  the  covenanQ,  (Judg.  9  :  4), 
 an  idol  of  the  Sliechemites,  and  chosen  as 
 their  god  by  the  Israelites  in  the  times  of 
 the  judges  (Judg.  8  :  33). 
 
 2.  Ba^al-pe-or  [lord  of  Peor'],  (Num. 
 25  :  3),  an  idol  of  the  Moabites,  whose  li- 
 centious rites  are  frequently  alluded  to  in 
 Scripture. 
 
 3.  Ba^al-ze-bub  [lord  of  (he  flyl,  (2 
 Kings  1  :  2),  a  god  of  Ekron,  and  wor- 
 shiped as  a  protector  against  tlie  fly  or 
 gnat.  In  Matt.  1 2  :  21,  Beelzebub  is  the 
 name  given  to  the  prince  of  the  devils. 
 
 II.  Names  of  Places. — 1.  Ba'a-lah,  a 
 city  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  29),  called  also 
 Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  15  :  9). 
 
 2.  Ba'al-ath,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of 
 Dan  (Josh.  19  :  44). 
 
 3.  Ba'al-ath-bker,  a  city  of  Simeon 
 (Josh.  19  :  8). 
 
 4.  Ba'al-gad,  a  city  "  in  tiie  valley  of 
 Lebanon,  under  Mount  Hernion"  (Josh. 
 11  :  17). 
 
 5.  Ba''al-iia'mon,  a  place  wliere  Sol- 
 omon had  a  vineyard  (Song  8  :  11). 
 
 6.  Ba'al-iia'zor,  the  place  where  Ab- 
 salom had  his  shearing-feast  when  lie  mur- 
 dered Amnon  (2  Sam.  13  :  23). 
 
 7.  Ba'al-iier^mon,  a  place  in  or  near 
 Mount  Hermon  (1  Chron.  5  :  23). 
 
 8.  Ba'al-me^on,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of 
 Reuben  (Num.  32  :  38)  called  Beth-meon 
 (Jer.  48  :  23),  and  which  was  in  possession 
 of  the  Moabites  in  the  time  of  Ezekiel 
 (Ezek.  25  :  9).  The  vast  ruins  of  Main, 
 about  three  miles  south-west  of  Medeba, 
 represent  tlie  ancient  Baal-meon. 
 
BA  ANA  H— BABEL. 
 
 69 
 
 9.  Ba'al-per'a-zim,  a  place  where  Da- 
 vid routed  the  Philistines  (2  Sam.  5  :  20), 
 and  which  he  thus  named  in  commemora- 
 tion of  his  victory  over  the  idol  gods  of  an 
 idolatrous  people. 
 
 10.  Ba^al-shal'i-sha,  aplace  supposed 
 to  be  near  Mount  Ephraim,  from  which 
 came  the  man  who  brought  provisions  for 
 the  prophet  Elisha  (2  Kings  4  :  42). 
 
 11.  Ba'al-ta'mar,  a  place  near  Gibeah, 
 where  there  was  a  grove  of  palm  trees  sacred 
 to  Baal,  and  where  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
 was  nearly  annihilated  by  the  other  tribes 
 (Judg.  20  :  33-35). 
 
 12.  Ba'al-ze'phon,  one  of  the  i-esting- 
 places  of  the  Israelites  after  leaving  Egypt, 
 on  the  border  of  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  14:2). 
 
 III.  Niaiicn  of  Persons. — Sometimes  at  the 
 end:  Eth-baal  (1  Kings  IG  :  31);  Jerub- 
 baal  (Judg.  6  :  32).  Sometimes  at  the  be- 
 ginning: Baal-hanan  (Gen.  36:38,  39); 
 Baal-is  (Jer.  40  :  14). 
 
 Ba'a-nah.  [son  of  affliction},  a  captain 
 in  the  service  of  Islibosheth,  son  of  Saul, 
 who  with  Ills  brother  Kechab  treaclierous- 
 ly  slew  Islibosheth,  and  carried  his  head 
 to  David  in  hope  of  receiving  a  reward. 
 David,  indignant  at  the  treachery  of  the 
 brothers,  ordered  them  to  be  put  to  death 
 and  their  mutilated  bodies  to  be  hung  up 
 over  the  pool  in  Hebron  (2  Sam.  4  :  2- 
 12). 
 
 Ba'a-sha,  the  son  of  Ahijah  and  com- 
 mander of  the  army  of  Nadab,  king  of  Is- 
 rael. At  the  siege  of  Gibbethon  he  treacli- 
 erously  slew  his  master  and  usurped  his 
 throne,  which  he  held  for  twenty-four 
 years  (1  Kings  15  :  27).  To  secure  him- 
 self in  his  usurpation,  he  exterminated 
 the  whole  race  of  Jeroboam,  and  thus  un- 
 designedly fulfilled  the  prophecy  respect- 
 ing Jeroboam's  posterity  (1  Kings  14  :  10). 
 He  walked,  however,  in  the  ways  of  Jero- 
 boam, and  was  visited  with  fearful  divine 
 judgments  (1  Kings  16  :  3,  4). 
 
 Barbel  [covfusion'].  The  Tower  of 
 Babel  was  the  name  of  a  structure  erect- 
 
 ed in  the  plain  of  Shinar  by  the  descend- 
 ants of  Noah,  to  serve  as  a  national  rally- 
 ing-point  and  as  a  barrier  against  their 
 dispersion  (Gen.  11  :  1-9).  The  builders 
 of  this  tower  proposed  to  form  a  mighty 
 empire  whose  centre  and  metropolis  should 
 be  this  gigantic  edifice  and  the  city  around 
 it.  Their  design  was  frustrated  by  the  mi- 
 raculous interposition  of  God,  who,  before 
 the  completion  of  the  tower,  confounded 
 their  language  and  compelled  their  sepa- 
 ration. (See  Tongues,  Confusion  of.) 
 The  incomplete  tower  was  probably  never 
 finished,  and,  built  of  sun-dried  brick,  was 
 early  reduced  to  a  shapeless  ruin.  When 
 the  Jews,  however,  many  centuries  after- 
 ward, were  carried  captive  into  Babylonia, 
 they  were  struck  with  the  vast  magnitude 
 and  peculiar  character  of  certain  of  the 
 Babylonian  temples,  and  were  naturally 
 inclined  to  think  that  with  one  or  other  of 
 these  the  very  tower  itself  might  be  iden- 
 tified. The  predominant  opinion  ftivored 
 the  great  temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa,  the 
 modern  Bi7's-Nimrud.  But,  although  the 
 Birs-Nimrud  cannot  be  the  tower  of  Babel 
 itself,  it  yet  may  well  be  taken  to  show  the 
 probable  shape  and  character  of  the  ancient 
 and  famous  edifice.  This  building  appears 
 to  have  been  a  sort  of  oblique  pyramid  built 
 in  seven  receding  stages.  Rawlinson  de- 
 scribes it  thus :  "  UiJon  a  platform  of  crude 
 brick,  raised  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of 
 the  alluvial  plain,  was  built  of  burnt  brick 
 the  first  or  basement  stage,  an  exact  square 
 of  two  hundred  and  seventy-two  feet  each 
 way  and  twenty-six  feet  in  perpendicular 
 height.  Upon  this  stage  was  erected  a 
 second,  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet  each 
 way,  and  likewise  twenty-six  feet  high ; 
 which,  however,  was  not  placed  exactly 
 in  the  middle  of  the  first,  but  consider- 
 ably nearer  to  the  south-western  end, 
 which  constituted  the  back  of  the  build- 
 ing. The  other  stages  were  arranged 
 similarly,  the  third  being  one  hundred 
 and  eighty-eight  feet,  and  again  twenty- 
 
70 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 six  feet  high  ;  the  fourth,  one  liundred  and 
 forty-six  feet  square  and  fifteen  feet  high  ; 
 the  fiftii,  one  hundred  and  four  feet  square, 
 and  tiie  same  height  as  the  fourth ;  the 
 sixth,  sixty-two  feet  square,  and  again  the 
 same  height ;  and  the  seventh,  twenty  feet 
 square,  and  once  more  the  same  height. 
 On  the  seventli  stage  there  was  probably 
 
 placed  the  ark  or  tabernacle,  which  seems 
 to  have  been  again  fifteen  feet  higli,  and 
 must  luive  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  covered 
 the  top  of  the  seventh  story.  The  entire 
 original  height,  allowing  three  feet  for  the 
 platform,  would  thus  have  been  one  hun- 
 dred and  fifty-six  feet,  or,  without  the 
 platform,  one  liundred  and  fifty-three  feet. 
 
 Birs  Niuirdd,  the  Temple 
 
 The  whole  formed  a  sort  of  oblique  pyra- 
 mid, the  gentler  slope  facing  the  north- 
 east, and  the  steeper  inclining  to  the 
 south-west.  On  the  north-east  side  was 
 the  grand  entrance,  and  here  stood  the 
 vestibule,  a  separate  building,  tlie  debris 
 from  which,  having  joined  those  from  the 
 temple  itself,  fill  up  the  intermediate  space, 
 and  very  remarkably  prolong  the  mound  in 
 this  direction." 
 
 Bab'y-lon,  the  capital  city  of  the 
 country  which  is  called  in  Genesis  Shi- 
 nar,  and  in  the  later  books  of  Scripture 
 Chaldcea,  or  the  land  of  the  Chaldseans. 
 The  name  Babylon  is  the  Greek  form  of 
 "  Babel,"  one  of  the  four  cities  which 
 Nimrod  built   (Gen.  10  :  10),  and  which 
 
 of  Nebo,  at  Borsippa. 
 
 the  giant  conqueror  called  Bab-U,  "  gate 
 of  God."  The  architectural  remains  dis- 
 covered in  Southern  Babylonia,  taken  in 
 conjunction  with  the  monumental  records, 
 indicate  that  it  was  not  at  first  the  capital, 
 nor  indeed  a  town  of  very  great  import- 
 ance. The  beginnings  of  tlie  Chaldanui 
 power  were  in  the  region  close  upon  the 
 Pei-sian  Gulf;  thence  the  nation  spread 
 northward  up  the  course  of  the  river, 
 and  the  seat  of  government  moved  in  the 
 same  direction,  and  became  finally  fixed 
 at  Babylon,  not  earlier  perhaps  than  B.  c. 
 1700.  The  city  was  situated  upon  a  wide 
 plain  on  both  sides  the  river  Euphrates. 
 In  its  glory,  immediately  subsequent  to 
 the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  it  was  prob- 
 
BABYLONIA. 
 
 71 
 
 Jibly  the  largest  and  most  sp'.endid  city  our 
 earth  has  ever  seen.  Herodotus,  an  eye- 
 witness of  its  greatness  and  glory,  describes 
 it  as  a  city  incomparable  for  extent,  strength, 
 beauty  and  wealth.  In  form  it  was  a  par- 
 allelogram, the  four  sides  measuring  fifty- 
 six  miles  and  enclosing  an  area  of  nearly 
 two  hundred  square  miles.  Its  walls  were 
 very  wide  and  very  high ;  its  temples  and 
 palaces  were  triumphs  of  architectural  art 
 and  skill,  and  its  "  hanging  gardens,"  borne 
 up  by  many  tiers  of  arches  built  on  one  an- 
 other, were  universally  regarded  as  one  of 
 the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  world.  The 
 Scriptures  recognize  its  pre-eminence  by 
 
 styling  it  'the  great"  (Eev.  17  :  5),  "the 
 glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chal- 
 dees'  excellency"  (Isa.  13  :  19).  Nor  was 
 it  more  noted  for  strength  and  splendor 
 than  for  luxury  and  licentiousness.  Its 
 religion  was  a  depraving  idolatry ;  its 
 morals  were  exceedingly  low.  After  its 
 capture  by  Cyrus  its  glory  steadily  waned, 
 and  for  generations  now  vast  masses  of 
 ruins  have  been  all  that  remains  to  attest 
 its  former  greatness.  The  terrific  predic- 
 tions of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Isa.  13,  14, 
 47 ;  Jei\  51 )  have  been  literally  and  aw- 
 fully accomplished  in  its  utter  desola- 
 tion. 
 
 The  Kasr,  or 
 As  Babylon  was  at  once  the  centre  of 
 the  ancient  idolatry  and  the  seat  of  enor- 
 mous wickedness,  its  name  is  employed  in 
 Eev.  17:5  to  denote  Rome,  the  modern 
 centre  and  seat  of  Anticliristian  corrup- 
 tion. 
 
 Bab'y-lo^ni-a,  the  province  anciently 
 called  Shinar  (Gen.  10  :  10),  of  which  Bab- 
 ylon became  the  metropolis.  It  is  an  ex- 
 tensive  alluvial    plain   between  the   Eu- 
 
 Palace,  Babylon. 
 
 phrates  and  Tigris,  iminterrupted  by  hill 
 or  mountain,  and  subject  to  inundation 
 from  the  annual  rise  in  the  two  rivers. 
 From  its  later  and  very  famous  capital 
 its  inhabitants  were  denominated  "  Bab- 
 ylonians" (Ezek.  23  :  15,  17).  It  was  the 
 seat  of  an  ancient  Hamitic  empire  found- 
 ed by  Nimrod,  and  of  a  remarkable  civil- 
 ization coeval,  perhaps,  with  that  of  Egypt, 
 and  intimately  connected  with  the  origin 
 
72 
 
 BABYLONISH  GARMENT— BAK1^'G. 
 
 of  our  own  civilization.  From  Babylonia 
 civilization  spread  into  Assyria,  thence 
 into  Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  tiience 
 into  Greece  and  Rome,  and  thence  into 
 modem  Europe.  See  Chaldjea  and 
 Shinak. 
 
 Bab'y-lo'nish  Gar'ment  (Josh.  7 : 
 21).  This,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  is  lit- 
 erally "robe  of  Shinar."  It  designated 
 an  ample  robe,  made,  probably,  of  the 
 skin  or  fur  of  an  animal  and  ornamented 
 with  embroidery,  or  perhaps  it  was  a  robe 
 or  garment  variegated  with  figures  inwo- 
 ven, in  the  fashion  for  which  the  Baby- 
 lonians were  celebrated.  Tlic  object  of 
 Achan's  coveting,  it  had  apparently  a 
 large  money-value. 
 
 Ba'ca  \_weepiiig].  Tliis  word  occurs  in 
 Ps.  84  :  6:  "who  passing  through  the  val- 
 ley of  Baca  make  it  a  well."  It  is  disput- 
 ed whether  the  reference  is  to  a  valley  of 
 that  name,  or  to  any  unpleasant  and  toil- 
 some road  which,  in  figure,  may  well  be 
 designated  a  valley  of  weeping.  The 
 psalm  was  written  by  David  when  in  ex- 
 ile from  the  Holy  City,  and  when  his 
 principal  sorrow  was  his  absence  from 
 the  house  of  the  Lord :  "  My  soul  long- 
 eth,  yea  even  fainteth,  for  the  courts  of 
 the  Lord."  As,  in  thought,  he  contem- 
 plates the  companies  of  pious  Israelites 
 who  make  the  usual  ])ilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
 salem in  order  to  woi-ship  there  the  God 
 of  their  fathers,  he  conceives  and  beauti- 
 fully represents  their  privilege  and  hap- 
 piness to  be  such  that  the  most  sterile  val- 
 ley anywhere  traversed  is  straightway  con- 
 verted into  a  fruitful  field. 
 
 Bad'gers'  Skins,  the  external  cover- 
 ing of  the  tabernacle  (l"x.  2G  :  14).  The 
 animal  furnishing  these  skins,  and  ren- 
 dered "  badger "  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion, is  quite  uncertain.  It  could  not 
 have  been  what  is  known  to  us  as  the 
 badger,  for  this  animal  is  not  found  in 
 Bible  lands.  The  most  probable  conjec- 
 ture is  that  the  animal  was  a  species  of 
 
 seal,  as  seems  to  be  intimated  in  Ezek. 
 
 16  :  10. 
 
 Bag',  a  pouch  or  purse.  It  was  an  an- 
 cient custom,  before  coined  money  was  in 
 use,  to  keep  money  in  bags  of  various 
 sizes,  the  amount  in  each  having  been 
 weighed  by  a  proper  officer,  who  also  af- 
 fixed his  seal.  While  the  seal  remained 
 unbroken  the  true  value  of  the  purse  was 
 known,  and  thus  paid  from  hand  to  hand. 
 This  saved  tlie  trouble  of  repeated  weigh- 
 ings. The  custom  is  still  observed  in  some 
 Eastern  countries,  and  furnishes  an  illus- 
 tration of  various  pa.ssages  of  Scripture, 
 as  2  Kings  5  :  23;  12  :  10;  Job  14  :  17 ; 
 Luke  12:  33. 
 
 Ba-hu'rim,  a  place  not  far  from  Jeru- 
 salem, on  the  road  to  Jordan,  where  Shim- 
 ei  cursed  and  threw  stones  at  David  (2 
 Sam.  IG  :  5,  6),  and  where  David's  two 
 spies  hid  themselves  in  a  well   (2  Sam. 
 
 17  :  18). 
 
 Baking.  The  art  of  baking  consists 
 in  heating  anything  in  an  oven  or  fire  so 
 as  to  harden  it  or  prepare  it  for  food. 
 It  is  illustrated  in  the  manufacture  of 
 bread,  porcelain,  pottery  and  bricks; 
 but  in  Scripture  it  is  usually  associate;! 
 with  the  manufacture  of  bread  (Gen. 
 19:3;  Ex.  16  :  23;  Lev.  24:5;  Num. 
 11:8;  1  Sam.  28  :  24 ;  2  Sam.  13  :  8 ; 
 Jer.  37  :  21 ) ;  once  with  the  dressing  or 
 cooking  of  animal  food  (Gen.  40  :  17). 
 The  origin  of  baking,  as  of  most  arts  of 
 primary  importance,  precedes  the  period 
 of  history,  and  is  involved  in  the  obscur 
 rity  of  the  first  ages  of  the  human  race. 
 In  Egypt,  which  led  the  way  to  one 
 of  the  forms  of  early  civilization,  the 
 art  of  baking  bread  and  meats  was  car- 
 ried to  high  perfection,  and  the  chief 
 baker  of  Pharaoh  in  the  time  of  Joseph 
 was  an  important  government  official 
 (Gen.  40  :  2).  From  Egypt  the  Hebrews 
 bore  away  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
 art  (Lev.  28  :  26;  1  Sam.  8  :  13),  and  the 
 best  illustrations  of  the   Scripture   refer- 
 
BALAAM— BALANCE. 
 
 73 
 
 ences  to  the  processes  of  kneading  and 
 rolling  dough,  and  of  forming  and  baking 
 cakes  and  loaves,  are  found  portrayed  on 
 the  Egyptian  monuments.     See  Oven. 
 
 Ba'laara  Idevourer],  the  son  of  Beor 
 or  Bosor,  and  a  resident  at  Pethor,  a 
 city  of  Mesopotamia  (Num.  22  :  5 ;  Deut. 
 23  :  4).  He  was  an  eminent  "sooth- 
 sayer" or  diviner  (Josh.  13  :  22) ;  a  man 
 of  genius  and  of  rare  poetic  power 
 (Num.  23  :  18-24) ;  a  propliet  who,  among 
 heathen  peoples,  possessed  a  greater  than 
 ordinary  knowledge  of  the  one  true  God, 
 and  whom  Jehovah  used  to  accomplish 
 certain  gracious  purposes  toward  Israel 
 (Num.  24  :  2-9).  Conscious  of  his  great 
 gifts,  and  elated  by  the  extraordinary  in- 
 fluence which  these  gifts  gave  him,  he 
 conceived  the  thought  of  making  mer- 
 chandise of  them  ;  of  accjuiring  by  means 
 of  them  both  fame  and  fortune.  Among 
 many  nations  of  antiquity  there  existed 
 tlie  custom  of  devoting  enemies  to  destruc- 
 tion before  entering  upon  a  war  with  them. 
 When  the  Israelites  were  marching  to  the 
 occupation  of  Palestine,  and  had  signally 
 defeated  and  dispossessed  of  their  lands 
 the  warlike  Amorites,  Balak,  the  king  of 
 Moab,  apprehending  a  similar  doom  if  en- 
 ergetic measures  were  not  employed  to  avert 
 it,  entered  into  a  league  with  five  kings  of 
 the  Midianites.  Whilst  the  confederate 
 kings  were  mustering  their  armies,  Balak, 
 to  leave  no  expedient  untried,  sent  once 
 and  again  an  embassage  to  Balaam  with 
 promises  of  money-gifts  and  distinguish- 
 ed honors  if  he  would  come  and  curse  the 
 dreaded  foes.  Balaam  now  saw  the  golden 
 (opportunity  he  had  long  coveted,  and,  al- 
 though he  was  forbidden  by  the  Lord  to 
 accede  to  Balak's  wishes,  he  yet  stifled  the 
 convictions  of  conscience  and  undertook  : 
 the  commission.  He  yielded  himself  body  ! 
 and  soul  to  his  royal  employer.  He  re-  j 
 sorted  to  enchantments.  He  built  altars 
 and  sacrificed  oxen  and  sheep.  He  as- 
 cended high  places  and  put  himself  pro- 
 
 fessedly in  direct  communication  with 
 Heaven.  He  did  everything  he  could  do 
 to  impress  with  awe  the  su[;erstitious 
 Moabites  and  to  further  the  ends  of  the 
 crafty  monarch.  He  was  not  permitted, 
 however,  to  utter  the  desired  curse.  He 
 was  restrained  by  the  overmastering  in- 
 fluence of  God's  Spirit,  and  in  the  stead 
 of  a  curse  was  forced  to  pronounce  on  Is- 
 rael a  blessing.  Foiled  in  the  project  of 
 cursing,  he  conceived  another  and,  as  he 
 judged,  a  more  effectual  stratagem.  At 
 his  suggestion,  Balak  threw  into  the  way 
 of  the  Israelites  the  most  alluring  temp- 
 tations to  idolatry  and  lewdness.  Assum- 
 ing that  he,  and  no  one  else,  could  curse 
 the  Israelites  so  long  as  they  remained 
 faithful  to  God,  Balaam  would  make 
 them  curse  themselves  by  a  wicked  de- 
 parture from  the  ways  of  righteousness. 
 The  stratagem  succeeded  only  too  well. 
 Israel  was  ensnared  by  the  impure  and 
 idolatrous  worship  of  Baal-Peor,  and  in 
 the  visitation  of  God's  anger  therefor 
 twenty-four  thousand  of  the  people  were 
 cut  off  by  plague  (Num.  25  :  9).  The 
 punishment  of  the  covetous  prophet  was 
 signal  and  sudden.  Accompanying  the 
 armies  of  Midian  to  the  battle-field,  Ba- 
 laam, with  the  five  Midianite  kings,  was 
 slain  with  the  sword  (Num.  31  :  8). 
 
 Ba'lak  [empty,  void],  the  king  of  Moab 
 who  hired  Balaam  to  curse  the  Israelites, 
 and  who,  upon  Balaam's  failure  to  curse,  it 
 is  conjectured,  made  no  militaiy  attempt 
 to  oppose  the  chosen  people  (  \Iic.  6:5; 
 Kev.  2:  14). 
 
 BaFanca,  an  instrument  us©  I  in  weigh- 
 ing. The  word  "  balance  "  repi  esents  two 
 Hebrew  words — the  one  of  dual  fi  mn,  point- 
 ing to  the  double  scales  (Gen.  2[  :  16) ;  the 
 other,  the  word  generally  used  for  a  meas- 
 uring-rod, and  denoting  the  tongue  or  beam 
 of  a  balance  (Prov.  16:11).  Before  money 
 was  coined  silver  and  gold  were  made  cur- 
 rent according  to  weight,  and  some  dealers 
 were  accustomed  to  carry  a  balance  or  scales 
 
74 
 
 BALDNESS— BANNER. 
 
 witli  tliem  for  the  purpose  of  weighing 
 these  precious  metals.  Frequent  alhision 
 is  made  to  tlie  balance.  A  false  or  fraud- 
 ulent one — by  which  is  meant  the  wicked- 
 ness of  false  dealings — is  called  an  "abom- 
 ination to  the  Lord"  (Prov.  11  :  1).  To 
 be  "  weighed  in  the  balance,"  referring  to 
 cliaracter,  is  to  have  the  character  tried 
 i)y  infallible  tests.  Thus,  Belshazzar  was 
 weighed  and  found  wanting  (Dan.  5  :  27). 
 According  to  Roberts,  expressions  of  like 
 kind  are  still  familiar  in  tlie  p]ast,  such  as 
 "the  judge  has  been  weighing  the  prison- 
 ers, and  they  are  all  wanting." 
 
 Bald'ness,  bareness  of  hair  on  the  top 
 or  back  of  the  head.  It  is  spoken  of  in 
 Scripture  as  of  two  kinds,  natural  and  ar- 
 tificial. 
 
 1.  Natural. — This  seems  to  have  been 
 uncommon,  since  it  exposed  people  to 
 public  derision,  and  is  perpetually  al- 
 luded to  as  a  mark  of  squalor  and  misery 
 (Isa.  3  :  24 ;  Jer.  47  :  5 ;  Ezek.  7  :  18).  The 
 Jews  prided  themselves  in  a  luxuriant 
 growth  of  hair,  which  they  perfumed 
 and  arranged  with  much  care  (Song.  5  : 
 11 ;  Ps.  23  :  5).  Elisha  was  ridiculed  for 
 his  baldness  (2  Kings  2  :  23).  The  gen- 
 eral sentiment  was  that  baldness  implied 
 a  leprous  taint.  Tliis  opinion  prevailed 
 so  extensively  among  the  Jews  that  the 
 Levitical  Law  required  other  accompany- 
 ing symptoms  before  baldness  should  be 
 accounted  a  conclusive  proof  of  leprosy 
 (Lev.  13  :  40-44). 
 
 2.  Artificial. — This  was  made  by  sha- 
 ving the  head,  and  w;is  an  ancient  and 
 wellnigh  universal  sign  of  mourning  (Job 
 1  :  20;  Jer.  IG  :  6).  It  also  marked  the 
 conclusion  of  a  Nazarite's  vow  (Num.  6  : 
 9;  Acts  18  :  18). 
 
 Balm,  the  gum  or  inspissated  juice  of 
 a  tree  which  cannot  be  identified  with  cer- 
 tainty, but  which,  growing  in  Gilead,  is 
 commonly  referred  to  as  the  "  balm  of 
 Gilead"  (Jer.  8  :  22;  46  :  11).  Its  scent 
 was    pungent   and    exceedingly   fragrant. 
 
 When  applied  to  wounds  it  was  higlily 
 esteemed  for  its  healing  propertie.s.  It 
 was  a  costly  article  of  commerce  (Gen. 
 37  :  25;  Ezek.  27  :  17). 
 
 Ba'mali  [high  p/«ce],  the  general  name 
 of  any  height  ( Ezek.  20 :  29).  The  plural 
 Bamolh, "  higli  places,"  occurs  in  connection 
 with  Baal  (Josh.  13: 17 ;  Num.  21 :  19,  20). 
 
 Band.  In  the  New  Testament  this 
 word  designates  a  cohort  of  Roman  foot- 
 soldiei-s  (Matt.  27  :  27 ;  Mark  15  :  IG;  Acts 
 10  :  1 ;  21  :  31 ;  27  :  1 ),  and  also  a  company 
 from  the  guards  of  the  temple  (John  18:3, 
 12).  In  the  Old  Testament,  besides  its 
 common  application  to  a  troop  or  com- 
 pany, the  word  band,  in  its  plural  form, 
 is  frequently  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense. 
 In  IIos.  11:4"  bands  of  love"  indicate  per- 
 suasive arguments  or  influences ;  in  Ps.  73 : 
 4  the  prosperous  wicked  are  described  as 
 having  "  no  bands  in  their  death ;"  that 
 is,  no  bonds  or  chains  of  which  appar- 
 ently they  are  conscious. 
 
 Bank,  the  rendering  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  two  Hebrew  words  and 
 one  Greek  word. 
 
 1.  A  Hebrew  word  which  means  the 
 shore  of  a  river  or  sea  (Gen.  41  :  17). 
 
 2.  A  Hebrew  word  which  designates  the 
 mound  raised  against  a  besieged  city  (2  Sam. 
 20: 15;  2  Kings  19:  32;  Isa.  37  :  33). 
 
 3.  A  Greek  word  which,  having  the  gen- 
 eral sense  of  table,  is  applied  to  the  (able  or 
 bench  of  a  money-changer  (Matt.  21  :  12; 
 Mark  11:15;  John  2  :  15).  In  Luke  19  : 
 23  the  word  has  the  modem  sense  of  the 
 word  hank,  or  the  place  where  money  is 
 deposited  and  loaned  out. 
 
 Banner,  Ensign,  Standard,  de- 
 vices for  rallying  soldiers  and  preserv- 
 ing ranks.  The  words  are  used  indis- 
 criminately by  the  sacred  writers  (Isa. 
 13 : 2 ;  5 :  26 ;  49 :  22).  They  corresponded 
 to  the  flags  of  modern  warfare.  The  tribes 
 of  Israel,  when  marching  through  the  wil- 
 derness, had  their  respective  standards  and 
 ensigns  (Num.  2:2). 
 
B  A  NQU  ET— BAPTISM . 
 
 75 
 
 Ban'quet.    See  Feast. 
 
 Bap''tisni,  one  of  the  two  sacraments 
 instituted  by  our  Lord  in  liis  Church.  It 
 is  a  solemn,  significant  ordinance,  intro- 
 ducing its  recipient  into  church-member- 
 ship. In  its  administration  water  is  ap- 
 plied to  the  person  "in  the  name  of  the 
 Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost"  (Matt.  28  :  19),  in  sign  of  the  na- 
 tive impurity  of  the  human  soul  and  of 
 the  cleansing  efficacy  of  Christ's  blood. 
 It  is  an  emblem  of  regeneration,  not  regen- 
 eration itself.  As  the  rite  of  initiation  into 
 the  Christian  Church  it  is  a  covenanting 
 ordinance,  whereby  is  pledged  an  alle- 
 giance to  the  Triune  Jehovah  in  the  sev- 
 eral relations  which  the  three  Persons  in 
 the  Godhead  sustain  to  the  scheme  of  re- 
 demption. Its  administration  involves  two 
 points,  namely,  its  subjects,  or  those  who 
 are  to  receive  it,  and  its  mode,  or  how  the 
 water  is  to  be  applied. 
 
 1.  Its  Subjects. — These  are  the  mem- 
 bers of  that  visible  Church  which  consists 
 of  "all  those  throughout  the  world  that 
 profess  the  true  religion,  togetlier  with 
 their  children."  The  Scriptures  plainly 
 teach  that  they  who  make  a  credible  pro- 
 fession of  their  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  as  their  Saviour  are  to  be  baptized 
 (Mark  16  :  16;  Acts  2  :  41 ;  8:12,  36-38; 
 18  :  8).  The  Scriptures  quite  as  plainly 
 teach  that  the  children  of  believers  are 
 to  be  baptized  (Acts  2  :  38,  39;  16  :  15,  33; 
 1  Cor.  1:16).  The  covenant  of  grace  which 
 defines  the  visible  Church  was  with  Abra- 
 ham and  his  "  seed  after  him  in  all  their 
 generations,"  and  as  "  an  everlasting  cov- 
 enant" still  exists  (Gen.  17:7).  The  duty 
 of  teaching  and  training  was  engrafted 
 on  the  covenant  (Gen.  18:18, 19),  and  the 
 Church  became  a  school  or  training  in- 
 stitution (Deut.  6  :  6-9).  Accordingly,  our 
 Lord  commissioned  his  apostles  to  disciple 
 all  nations,  "baptizing  them"  and  "teach- 
 ing them"  (Matt.  28 :  19,  20),  and  the  apos- 
 tles taught  that,  inasmuch  as  the  Abrahamic 
 
 covenant  was  still  in  force.  Gentile  believers 
 in  Christ  iiad  a  right  to  a  place  in  the  Church 
 on  equal  terms  with  the  Jews  (Gal.  3 :  6-29). 
 If,  therefore,  the  children  of  Jewish  parents 
 were  entitled  to  the  sign  of  the  covenant, 
 the  children  of  Christian  parents  are 
 equally  entitled  to  that  changed  sign  of 
 the  same  covenant  which  our  Lord  him- 
 self established.  The  assumption  that 
 Christianity  has  diminished  the  privileges 
 of  God's  people  is  certainly  a  violent  and 
 unscriptural  assumption. 
 
 2.  Its  Mode. — As  baptism  is  the  symbol 
 of  a  spiritual  cleansing,  tiie  mode  of  ap- 
 
 Ancient  representation  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ, 
 from  a  church  in  Ravenna.  John  stands  on  the 
 river-bank,  our  Lord  in  the  water.  Tlie  river 
 Jordan  is  symbolized  by  the  sitting  figure. 
 
 plying  the  water  is  not  definitely  stated  in 
 Scripture.  Yet,  as  baptism  is  at  once  the 
 visible  sign  of  an  invisible  grace,  and  the 
 appointed  seal  of  the  believer's  interest 
 in  the  covenant  of  redemption,  its  mode 
 probably  corresjonds  witii  the  mode  in 
 which  the  redemptive  grace  is  repre- 
 sented as  operating.  Now,  that  blood  of 
 the  ancient  sacrifices  which  tyjies  the 
 blood  of  Christ,  and  that  blood  of  God's 
 Son  which  cleanseth  from  all  sin,  are  uni- 
 formly reiDresented  as  sprinkled  (Ex.  12  : 
 22;  Lev.  16  :  14;  Isa.  52  :  15;  Heb.  11 : 
 28 ;  12  :  24 ;  1  Pet.  1 :  2).     Moreover,  those 
 
re 
 
 BARABBAS— BAREFOOT. 
 
 spiritual  influences  of  God's  Spirit  which 
 enlighten  and  renew  and  sanctify  and  com- 
 fort are  sometimes  represented  as  sprinLled 
 and  sometimes  lus  poured  (Isa.  44  :  3;  Ezek. 
 36 :  25-27 ;  Joel  2 :  28,  29 ;  Acts  2 :  17, 18 ; 
 10 :  44-48 ;  1 1 :  15, 16).  These  representa- 
 tions of  Scripture  are  strikingly  siijjported 
 by  all  the  recorded  instances  of  baptism. 
 The  baptism  of  the  three  thousand  con- 
 verts in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
 tecost (Acts  2  :  38-41)  was,  from  lack  of  a 
 running  stream  or  other  available  water  in 
 the  city,  and  from  the  relations  of  the  new 
 sect  of  Christians  to  the  mass  of  the  people, 
 an  impracticable  achievement  if  immer- 
 sion were  the  mode,  but  if  sprinkling  or 
 pouring  were  the  mode  an  easily-accom- 
 ;}lished  feat.  The  baptism  of  the  eunuch 
 by  Philip  (Acts  8  :  20-39)  took  place  on 
 the  "  desert "  way  from  Jerusalem  to 
 Gaza,  and  where  no  body  of  water  suffi- 
 ciently large  and  deep  for  immei-sion  ex- 
 isted. The  baptism  of  Paul  by  Ananias 
 (Acts  9  :  17,  18 ;  22  :  12-1 G)  was  in  the  sol- 
 itary chamber  where  the  penitent  man  was 
 fasting  and  praying,  and  was  received  stand- 
 ing. The  baptism  of  Cornelius  (Acts  10  : 
 44-48)  was  administered  in  the  centurion's 
 own  house,  upon  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
 (xhost  during  Peter's  sermon,  and  with 
 no  intimation  that  for  such  a  purpose  any 
 one  had  left  the  room  where  the  company 
 was  assembled.  The  baptism  of  the  jailer 
 at  Philippi  (Acts  16  :  32-34)  was  at  night 
 and  in  the  jail,  at  a  time  and  in  a  place 
 which  forbade  the  use  of  otljer  mode  than 
 that  of  sprinkling  or  pouring.  In  every 
 one  of  these  instances  the  strong  presump- 
 tion is  against  immersion. 
 
 Bar-ab'bas  [son  nf  Abba^,  a  robber 
 (John  18  :  40)  who  had  conmiitted  nnir- 
 der  in  an  insurrection  in  Jerusalem  (Mark 
 15:7;  Luke  23  :  19),  and  who,  at  the  time 
 of  our  Lord's  trial  before  Pilate,  was  lying 
 in  prison.  Pilate,  anxious  to  release  our 
 Lord,  and  accustomed  at  the  time  of  the 
 passover,  in  order  to  conciliate  the  Jewish 
 
 people,  to  set  free  some  prisoner,  proposed 
 to  cha-stise  Jesus  and  to  let  him  go  (Luke 
 23  :  22) ;  but  the  proposition  was  vehe- 
 mently rejected,  and,  instead,  the  relea.se 
 of  Barabba.s  was  clamorously  demanded. 
 
 Bar-a-chi'as  [the  Greek  form  of 
 the  name  Barachiah,  meaning  Jehovah 
 has  blessed'],  father  of  the  Zacharias  (Zech- 
 ariah)  mentioned  in  Matt.  23  :  35  as  hav- 
 ing been  murdered  by  the  Jews.  See 
 Zacharias. 
 
 Ba'rak  [lighlnirKj'],  son  of  Abinoam 
 of  Kedesh-Naphtali,  a  Galilean  city  of 
 refuge  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  ( Judg.  4  : 
 6).  He  was  summoned  by  the  prophet- 
 ess Deborah  to  take  the  field  against  the 
 army  of  the  Canaanitish  king  Jabin,  com- 
 manded by  Sisera.  Accompanied  by  Deb- 
 orah, and  at  the  head  of  ten  thousand 
 men  from  the  tribes  of  Naphtali  and  Zeb- 
 ulon,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory.  In 
 commemoration  of  the  signal  deliverance 
 the  victors  composed  and  sang  a  magnif- 
 icent ode  of  triumph  (Judg.  5). 
 
 Bar-ba'ri-an,  a  term  used  in  the 
 New  Testament,  as  in  classical  writers,  to 
 denote  nations  distinct  from  the  Greeks. 
 Paul  refei-s  to  the  distinction  in  Rom.  1  : 
 14  :  "I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and 
 to  the  barbarians."  Luke  styles  the  in- 
 habitants of  Melita  barbarians  (Acts  28  : 
 4),  because  they  were  originally  a  Cartha- 
 ginian colony  and  spoke  a  Phoenician  dia- 
 lect. As  the  term  in  classical  writers  does 
 not  imply  a  rude  and  savage  state  in  those 
 to  whom  it  is  applied,  so  in  Scripture  it  is 
 not  to  be  understood  as  a  term  of  contempt 
 or  reproach. 
 
 Barbed.  A  "  barbed  iron  "  (.Job  41  : 
 7)  is  an  instrument  the  edges  of  which 
 are  armed  with  sharp  points,  so  arranged 
 that  when  it  is  struck  into  a  body  the 
 points  prevent  it  from  being  withdrawn. 
 
 Bare'foot.  To  go  barefoot  was  a  sign 
 of  great  distress  (Isa.  20:2-4).  In  the 
 description  of  David's  grief  at  the  rebel- 
 lion of  Absalom  the  custom  is  refei-red  to 
 
BAKJESUS— BAEZILLAI. 
 
 77 
 
 (2  Sam.  15  :  30).  According  to  Roberts, 
 the  Hindoos,  on  occasions  of  great  sor- 
 row, cover  the  face  and  go  barefoot. 
 
 Bar-je'sus  [son  of  Jesus  or  Joshual, 
 also  called  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  was  a  Jew- 
 ish magician  resident  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus. When  Paul  and  Barnabas  visited 
 Cyprus,  and  Sergius  Paulas,  the  deputy  or 
 proconsul,  was  anxious  to  hear  their  doc- 
 trine, Elymas  opposed  them  and  endeav- 
 ored to  counteract  their  influence.  Paul 
 severely  rebuked  him,  and  he  was  struck 
 with  blindness.  This  judgment,  so  evi- 
 dently inflicted  by  a  divine  power,  pro- 
 duced the  most  salutary  effect  on  the  pro- 
 consul's mind,  and  he  became  a  believer 
 (Acts  13  :  6-12). 
 
 Bar-jo 'na  [son  of  «7o?ia.?],  tlie  Syriac 
 designation  of  Peter  (Matt.  16  :  17). 
 
 Bar'ley,  a  species  of  grain  sown  in 
 Palestine  in  the  autumn  and  reaped  in 
 the  spring  (Euth  1  :  22),  as  is  the  case 
 with  almost  everything  sown  and  reaped 
 in  that  country.  Bread  was  made  of  it 
 (Judg.  7  :  13;  2  Kings  4  :  42),  and  it  was 
 the  common  food  not  only  of  people,  but 
 also  of  horses,  asses  and  draught  oxen, 
 oats  being  unknown. 
 
 Bar'na-bas  [son  of  consolation  or 
 exhortation  or  prophecy],  an  eminent 
 and  successful  preacher  of  the  gospel 
 in  the  early  Church.  He  was  a  native 
 of  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Plis  original 
 name,  Joses,  was  changed  into  Barnabas 
 by  the  apostles,  because  of  the  ability 
 in  proclaiming  the  truth  which  he  dis- 
 played. When  he  embraced  the  gospel 
 he  sold  all  his  property  and  placed  the 
 avails  of  it  at  the  disposal  of  the  apostles 
 (Acts  4  :  36,  37).  He  became  an  active 
 missionary,  and  his  name  is  connected 
 with  that  of  Paul  in  many  of  the  promi- 
 nent incidents  noticed  in  tlie  book  of  Acts. 
 In  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  him 
 and  Paul  relative  to  Mark,  the  nephew  of 
 Barnabas,  they  separated,  Paul  going  to 
 Asia,  and  Barnabas  to  Cyprus  (Acts  15  : 
 
 36-41).  Plis  subsequent  history  is  not 
 known.  Although  on  one  occasion  he 
 was  guilty  of  dissimulation  (Gal.  2:13), 
 yet  "  he  was  a  good  man  and  full  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost,"  and  through  his  ministry 
 "  much  people  was  added  to  the  Lord  " 
 (Acts  11  :  24). 
 Bar'sa-bas,  the  surname  of  two  men. 
 
 1 .  Of  Joseph,  nominated  with  Matthias 
 to  fill  the  apostleship  rendered  vacant  by 
 the  death  of  Judas  (Acts  1  :  23). 
 
 2.  Of  Judas,  referred  to  as  one  of  the 
 chief  men  among  the  brethren  (Acts  15  : 
 22). 
 
 Bar-thoPo-meW  [son  of  Tolmai'}, 
 one  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Matt.  10  :  3 ; 
 Mark  3  :  18 ;  Luke  6  :  14).  He  is  sup- 
 posed, from  several  circumstances,  to  have 
 l)een  the  same  person  whom  John  calls 
 Nathanael  (John  1  :  45 ;  21  :  2). 
 
 Bar-ti-me'us  [son  of  Timeus'],  the 
 blind  beggar  of  Jericho  whom  Christ 
 restored  to  sight  (Mark  10  :  46). 
 
 Ba'ruch  [blessed],  the  faithful  friend 
 and  secretary  of  Jeremiah  the  projihet, 
 who  wrote  the  prophecies  at  the  dictation 
 of  Jeremiah,  and  at  his  personal  risk  read 
 them  to  the  princes  of  the  people.  King 
 Jehoiakim  destroyed  this  roll,  being  of- 
 fended with  its  contents,  and,  at  the  dic- 
 tation of  Jeremiah,  Baruch  wrote  out  an- 
 other, with  some  additions.  This  second 
 roll  is  the  volume  of  prophecies  which  we 
 now  have  (Jer.  36).  He  was  imprisoned 
 during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  releas- 
 ed on  its  capture.  When  and  where  he 
 died  is  not  known. 
 
 Bar-ziPlai  [of  iron,  i.  e.  strong],  a 
 wealthy  Gileadite  of  Rogelim  who  evinced 
 the  sincerity  of  his  attachment  to  David  by 
 entertaining  him  when  fleeing  from  Absa- 
 lom. Every  necessary  comfort  was  provid- 
 ed by  him  for  the  afflicted  king  and  his 
 followers  (2  Sam.  17  :  27-29).  The  king 
 on  his  triumphant  return  was  anxious 
 to  requite  this  friendship,  and  urged  Bar- 
 zillai  to  spend  the  residue  of  his  life  with 
 
78 
 
 BASHAN— BASKET. 
 
 him  at  Jerusalem.  This  he  declined, 
 urging  as  a  reason  his  great  age,  the  com- 
 forts of  which  could  not  be  promoted  by 
 such  a  change.  He  pernutted  liis  son, 
 however,  to  accompany  David  to  his  court 
 (2  Sam.  19  :  31-39).  David,  in  his  dying 
 charge  to  Solomon,  showed  that  he  still 
 affectionately  remembered  this  kindness 
 of  Barzillai  (1  Kings  2  :  7). 
 
 Ba'shan  [rich,  fertile  soil],  a  district  of 
 country  cast  of  the  Jordan,  embracing  the 
 
 ■  ■'  -'ir;'!:--''  " 
 
 four  later  provinces — Graulonitis,  the  mod- 
 ern Jaidan ;  Trachonitis,  the  ancient  Ar- 
 gob,  now  tiie  Lejdh ;  Auranitis,  tlie  Hau- 
 ran;  and  Batana?a,  now Ard-d  Bataniyeh.  It 
 abounds  in  rich  woodlands  and  pa.stures. 
 References  in  Scripture  to  its  oaks  and 
 cattle  and  flocks  are  numerous.  Its  early 
 inhabitants  were  Amorites  and  men  of  gi- 
 gantic stature  ( Deut.  3  :  11-13 ;  4  :  47).  It 
 was  conquered  by  tlie  Israelites,  and  a.s- 
 signed  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (Num. 
 
 Stone  Door  of  Stone  House  in  Bashan. 
 
 21 :  24,  35).  Modern  explorations  bear  em- 
 phatic testimony  to  the  accuracy  of  the  of- 
 ten-ridiculed Bible  description  of  ancient 
 Bashan.  No  longer  can  it  be  alleged  that 
 "  sixty  fenced  cities  and  unwalled  towns  a 
 great  many"  (Deut.  3  :  5)  could  have  had 
 none  other  than  an  imaginary  existence, 
 for  the  whole  land  is  to-day  literally 
 crowded  with  cities  and  towns  which  are 
 deserted,  but  not  ruined.  Many  of  these 
 cities  are  in  almost  perfect  condition,  yet 
 without  an  inhabitant. 
 
 Ba'sin,  a  small  vessel 'used  for  hand 
 and  feet  washing  and  for  receiving  from 
 sacrificed  victims  the  blood  which  was  to 
 be  sprinkled  for  purification.  The  form 
 and  material  of  these  several  vessels  can 
 only  be  conjectured.  The  "basin"  from 
 which  our  Lord  washed  the  disciples' 
 feet  (.John  13  :  .5)  was  probably  deeper 
 and  larger  than  the  hand-basin  for  sprink- 
 ling. 
 
 Bas''ket.  Five  different  words  in  the 
 Old  Testament  and  three  in  the  New  Tes- 
 
BAT— BATTEKING-RAM. 
 
 79 
 
 lament  liave  th;s  rendering  in  our  English 
 Version.  They  indicated,  probably,  the 
 different  uses  to  which  the  basket  was  ap- 
 plied, such  as  holding  bread,  holding  fruit, 
 carrying  corn  to  tlie  mill,  carrying  grapes 
 to  the  press  and  carrying  clay  to  the  brick- 
 yard. They  were  made  of  various  mate- 
 rials, often  of  twigs,  and  were  of  many 
 forms  and  sizes  (Ex.  29  :  3 ;  Num.  6  :  15, 
 17  ;  Jer.  6:9;  Amos  8:1;  Matt.  14  :  20 ; 
 Acts  9  :  25).  It  illustrates  the  difference 
 in  the  size  of  the  baskets  mentioned  in 
 the  New  Testament  to  observe  that  the 
 "  baskets  "  spoken  of  in  Mark  G  :  43  were 
 the  comparatively  small  baskets  in  one 
 of  which  a  Jew  when  on  a  journey  would 
 carry  his  mid-day  meal,  and  that  the 
 "  baskets "  spoken  of  in  Mark  8  :  8  were 
 the  very  large  baskets  used  for  storing 
 grain.  In  a  basket  of  this  latter  kind 
 Paul  was  let  down  by  the  wall  of  Da- 
 mascus (Acts  9  :  25). 
 
 Bat    [Hebrew,   'dtalleph,  flying    in   the 
 (Iark'\,  the  cimnecting  link  between  birds 
 
 and  quadrupeds.  In  tlie  Levitical  Law 
 (Lev.  11  :  19;  Dent.  14  :  18)  it  is  named 
 as  an  unclean  bird ;  in  reality,  hoAvever,  it 
 has  no  resemblance  to  a  bird  except  that 
 it  can  fly.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  mam- 
 miferous  quadrupeds,  comprising  a  great 
 number  of  genera,  species  and  varieties. 
 The  whole  race,  according  to  their  Hebrew 
 
 name,  fly  in  the  dark.  They  vary  in  s'.ze 
 from  that  of  the  smallest  common  mouse 
 up  to  tliat  of  the  vampire,  whose  body  is  a.s 
 large  as  the  squirrel's.  They  liaunt  cav- 
 erns, vaults,  old  ruins,  deserted  buildings 
 and  desolate  places.  Their  well-known 
 habits  afTord  a  forcible  illustration  of 
 Isaiah's  fearful  picture  (Isa.  2 :  20)  of 
 the  day  Avhen  the  Lord  shall  arise  "to 
 shake  terribly  the  earth ;"  "  a  man  shall 
 cast  his  idols  of  silver  and  his  idols  of 
 gold  to  the  moles  and  to  tlie  bats;"  that 
 is,  "for  fear  of  the  Lord"  he  shall  ca.st 
 his  idols  into  those  dark  and  desolate 
 places  which  moles  and  bats  frequent, 
 and  in  which  he  liimself  would  be  glad 
 to  find  a  refuge. 
 
 Bath,  a  Hebrew  measure  for  liquids 
 (Isa.  5  :  10;  Ezek.  45  :  11),  with  a  ca- 
 pacity of  eight  gallons  and  three  quarts, 
 nearly. 
 
 Bathe,  Ba^thing-.  This  was  a  pre- 
 scribed part  of  the  Jewish  ritual  of  puri- 
 fication in  the  cases  of  uncleanness  speci- 
 fied in  the  Law  (Lev.  15,  16  :  28;  22  :  6; 
 Num.  19 :  7,  19 ;  2  Sam.  11 :  2,  4 ;  2  Kings 
 5  :  10),  as  also  after  mourning,  which  al- 
 ways implied  defilement  (Ruth  3  :  3 ;  2 
 Sam.  12  :  20).  With  bathing  anointing 
 was  customarily  joined,  the  climate  mak- 
 ing both  tliese  essential  to  health  and 
 pleasure,  to  wiiich  luxury  added  the  use 
 of  perfumes  (Esth.  2  :  12). 
 
 Bath'she-ba  ^daughter  of  the  oath'], 
 wife  of  LTriah  the  Hittite,  and  after  his 
 death  Avife  of  King  David  and  mother 
 of  Solomon.  The  narrative  of  David's 
 connection  with  this  woman,  while  ex- 
 hibiting the  strict  impartiality  of  Scrip- 
 ture history,  presents  a  deplorable  pic- 
 ture of  human  depravity  when  the  re- 
 straints of  divine  grace  are  witlidrawn 
 (2  Sam.  11). 
 
 Bat'ter-iiig-Ram,  an  ancient  imple- 
 ment of  warfore  for  making  breaches  in  the 
 walls  of  fenced  cities.  It  was  a  heavy  beam 
 suspended  on  a  frame  by  tlie  middle,  so  as 
 
80 
 
 BATTLEMENT— BEA  R. 
 
 to  swing  to  and  fro.  One  end  was  armed 
 witli  a  thick  metallic  head,  often,  but  not 
 always,  fashioned  like  that  of  a  ram,  and 
 this  was  struck   heavily  against  the  wall 
 
 Battering-Ram. 
 
 by  the  swinging  of  the  beam  after  the 
 force  which  drew  it  back  was  removed 
 (Ezek.  4:2;  21  :  22).  See  Kam,  Bat- 
 tering. 
 
 Bat'tle-ment,  a  parapet  or  balustrade 
 which  surrounded  the  flat  roofs  of  Oriental 
 houses  to  prevent  accidents.  This  pre- 
 caution was  rendered  the  more  neces- 
 sary from  the  circumstance  that  people 
 in  Eastern  countries  often  resorted  to 
 the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses  for  re- 
 pose or  amusement  (Dent.  22  :  8). 
 
 Bay  Tree.  The  Jewish  doctors 
 understand  by  the  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  in  Ps.  37  :  35  "  a  tree  which 
 grows  in  its  own  soil ;"  that  is,  one 
 that  has  never  been  transplanted,  and 
 so  is  strong  and  branchy  and  beauti- 
 ful. What  tree  is  meant  is  uncer- 
 tain, but  if  it  were  the  bay  (Laurits 
 nobilis),  it  would  furnisii  a  very  admi- 
 rable symbol  of  a  prosperous  world- 
 ling. 
 
 Bdel'li-um  is  generally  supposed 
 to  be  an  odoriferous  resin  or  gum ;  by  some, 
 however,  it  is  understood  to  mean  a  pre- 
 cious  stone,  and  to  designate  either  the 
 
 pearl,  tlie  carbuncle  or  the  beryl  (Gen.  2  • 
 12;  Num.  11  :  7). 
 
 Bea'con,  a  pole  or  standard  erected  on 
 a  hill  or  mountain-top  a.s  a  signal  for  the 
 assembling  of  the  people — sometimes  on 
 the  invasion  of  an  enemy,  and  sometimes 
 after  a  defeat.  In  bold  figure  the  prophet 
 Isaiah  (30  :  17)  represents  the  Jews,  when 
 suffering  God's  severe  judgments  upon  their 
 sins,  as  a  beacon  to  all  other  peoples  and 
 nations. 
 
 Beans  (2  Sam.  17  :  28  ;  Ezek.  4  :  9)  are 
 cultivated  in  Palestine,  where  are  grown 
 many  of  the  leguminous  order  of  plants, 
 such  as  lentiles,  kidney-beans,  vetches 
 and  the  like.  Beans  are  in  blossom  in 
 January ;  they  have  been  noticed  in  flower 
 at  Lydda  on  the  twenty-third,  and  at  Sidon 
 and  Acre  even  earlier;  they  continue  in 
 flower  till  March. 
 
 Bear.  The  Syrian  bear  is  a  savage 
 and  rapacious  animal,  dwelling  in  soli- 
 tary places,  and  still  found  on  the  higher 
 mountains  of  Palestine.  David  showed 
 his  courage  and  strength  in  successfully 
 defending  his  flock  against  the  attack  of 
 
 Syrian  Bear. 
 
 one  of  these  animals  (1  Sam.  17  :  3-l-3fi). 
 The  impious  children  who  mocked  tlie 
 prophet   Klislia  were  destroyed   by  bears 
 
BEARD— BED. 
 
 81 
 
 (2  Kings  2  :  24).  These  animals  are  par- 
 ticularly ferocious  when  deprived  of  their 
 young  or  when  assailed.  Thus  the  divine 
 anger  is  forcibly  depicted  by  Hosea  (13 :  8), 
 "  I  will  meet  them  as  a  bear  that  is  bereaved 
 of  her  whelps." 
 
 Beard.  The  Oriental  nations  from  time 
 immemorial  have  attached  great  import- 
 ance to  the  beai-d  as  a  feature  of  beauty 
 and  a  mark  of  distinction.  Its  growth 
 was  promoted  in  every  way,  and  its  dress- 
 ing, trimming  and  anointing  were  per- 
 formed with  much  ceremony  by  persons 
 of  wealth  and  rank  (Ps.  133  :  2).  The 
 custom  was  and  is  to  shave  it  oft"  or  to 
 pluck  it  out  in  mourning  (Isa.  15  :  2;  Jer. 
 41  :  5;  Ezra  9  :  3),  to  neglect  it  in  seasons 
 of  permanent  affliction  (2  Sam.  19 :  24),  and 
 to  regard  any  insult  to  it  a.s  the  last  outrage 
 which  enmity  can  inflict  (2  Sam.  10  :  4,  5). 
 To  take  hold  of  a  man's  beard  in  order  to 
 kiss  it  wa-s  an  especial  mark  of  respect  and 
 affection.  Hence,  when  Joab  under  the 
 pretence  of  friendship  took  Amasa's  beard 
 in  his  right  hand  to  kiss  it,  and,  instead 
 of  kissing  him,  plunged  a  sword  into 
 Amasa's  heart  (2  Sam.  20 :  9,  10),  he 
 perpetrated  a  deed  of  the  basest  treach- 
 ery. 
 
 Beast.  In  the  Scriptures  this  word, 
 when  used  in  contradistinction  to  man 
 (Ps.  36  :  6),  denotes  a  brute  creature  gener- 
 ally ;  when  in  contradistinction  to  creeping 
 things  (Lev.  11  :  2-7;  27  :  26),  it  has  ref- 
 erence to  four-footed  animals ;  and  when 
 to  wild  mammalia  (Gen.  1  :  25),  it  means 
 tamed  cattle.  The  Mosaic  regulations  re- 
 specting domestic  animals  forbade  all  harsh 
 and  cruel  usage,  and  were  eminently  con- 
 siderate and  humane  (Ex.  23  :  12;  Lev. 
 25  :  7 ;  Deut.  25  :  4).  Wild  beasts  furnish 
 the  writers  of  Scripture  with  numerous 
 metaphors  and  figures.  Paul  describes 
 some  of  his  opposers  as  wild  beasts,  so  fu- 
 rious and  brutal  were  they  in  their  treat- 
 ment of  him  (1  Cor.  15  :  32).  A  similar 
 use  of  the  word  occurs  in  Ps.  22  :  12,  16; 
 
 2  Pet.  2:12;  Jude  10.  Daniel  represents 
 the  four  tyrannical  world-powers  which  he 
 saw  in  vision  as  so  many  wild  bea.sts  (Dan. 
 7  :  3-23).  By  an  infelicitous  translation, 
 the  four  living  creatures  whom  John  saw 
 before  the  throne  (Rev.  4:6)  are  repre- 
 sented as  "  four  beasts."  They  correspond 
 to  the  "  four  living  creatures,"  or  cherubim, 
 which  Ezekiel  saw  (1  :  5),  and  they  sym- 
 bolize the  providential  agencies  of  the  Al- 
 mighty. 
 
 Bed.  In  the  Jewish  bed  five  principal 
 parts  are  to  be  distinguished :  1.  The  mat- 
 tress, a  mere  mat  or  one  or  more  quilts. 
 2.  The  covering,  a  finer  quilt  than  that 
 laid  on  the  floor.  In  summer  a  thin 
 blanket  or  the  outer  garment  worn  by 
 day  (1  Sam.  19  :  13)  sufficed.  Hence,  the 
 Law  provided  that  it  should  not  be  kept 
 in  pledge  after  sunset,  else  the  poor  man 
 might  lack  his  needftil  covering  (Deut. 
 24 :  13).  3.  The  pillow,  some  fabric  woven 
 or  plaited  of  goats'  hair.  Such  pillows  are 
 common  to  this  day  in  the  East,  formed  of 
 sheep's  fleece  or  goat's  skin  with  a  stufl[ing 
 of  cotton.  4.  The  bedstead.  This  was  not 
 always  necessary,  the  divan  or  platform 
 along  the  side  or  end  of  an  Oriental 
 room  sufl[icing  as  a  support  for  the  bed- 
 ding. Yet  some  slight  and  portable  frame 
 seems  implied  among  the  senses  of  the  word; 
 which  is  used  for  a  "bier"  (2  Sam.  3  :  31) 
 and  for  the  ordinary  bed  (2  Kings  4:10), 
 for  the  litter  on  which  a  sick  person  might 
 be  carried  (1  Sam.  19  :  15)  and  for  Jacob's 
 bed  of  sickness  (Gen.  47  :  31).  5.  The  or- 
 namental portions,  pillars  and  a  canopy, 
 ivory  carvings,  gold  and  silver,  mosaic- 
 work,  purple  and  fine  linen  (Esth.  1:6; 
 Song  3  :  9,  10).  The  ordinary  furniture 
 of  a  bed-chamber  in  private  life  is  given 
 in  2  Kings  4:  10.  The  "bed-chamber" 
 in  the  temple  where  Joash  was  hidden 
 was  probably  a  store-chamber  for  keep- 
 ing beds  (2  Kings  11  :  2;  2  Chron.  22  : 
 11).  The  position  of  the  bed-chamber  in 
 the  most  remote  and  secret  parts  of  the 
 
82 
 
 BEDAN— BEER. 
 
 palace  is  indicated  in  Ex.  8  :  3 ;  2  Kings 
 
 6:  12. 
 
 Be'dan  [nervile],  a  judge  of  Israel  (1 
 Sam.  12:11),  between  Jerubbaal  (Gideon) 
 and  Jephthah.  He  is  not  mentioned  in 
 the  Judges,  and  his  name  is  therefore 
 supposed  to  be  a  corrupted  form  either 
 of  Samson  or  of  Barak  or  of  Abdon. 
 
 Bee.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  is  from  a  root 
 meaning  to  sivarm,  and  is  a  generic  term,  the 
 species  being  very  numerous.  The  honey- 
 bee, to  which  frequent  allusion  is  made  in 
 Scripture,  is  an  insect  noted  for  its  remark- 
 al)le  instincts,  its  untiring  industry,  its 
 fierceness  when  assailed  and  the  valuable 
 products  of  its  labors.  It  abounded  in 
 Palestine,  and  its  honey  was  highly  es- 
 teemed. A  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
 honey  was  one  particularly  desirable  (Lev. 
 20 :  24).  In  their  wild  state  bees  deposited 
 their  honey  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks  ( Ps. 
 81 :  16).  It  has  been  thought  to  be  entirely 
 opposed  to  the  usual  habits  of  the  bee  for 
 it  to  have  chosen  the  carcass  of  a  lion  as 
 a  place  of  deposit  for  its  honey,  as  men- 
 tioned in  Judg.  14  :  8 ;  but  as  the  interval 
 at  which  Samson  visited  the  remains  of 
 the  lion  might  have  been  long  enough  for 
 the  consumption  of  the  flesh  by  wild  ani- 
 mals or  the  heat  of  the  climate,  it  may  be 
 presumed  that  it  was  the  skeleton,  and  par- 
 ticularly the  head,  that  had  been  selected 
 as  a  hive.  When  David  says  of  his  ene- 
 mies, "  They  compassed  me  about  like 
 bees"  (Ps.  118:12),  he  refers  to  the  fierce- 
 ness of  these  formidable  little  creatures 
 when  their  hive  is  disturbed.  Isaiah 
 compares  the  Assyrians  who  should  be 
 commissioned  to  attack  Israel  to  the  bee 
 (Isa.  7  :  18).  The  expression  in  this  con- 
 nection, "The  Lord  shall  hLss  for  the  bee," 
 merely  denotes  his  call  upon  those  repre- 
 sented by  it  to  execute  the  assigned  work, 
 and  can  have  no  allusion,  as  some  suppose, 
 to  any  ancient  custom,  similar  to  those 
 adopted  in  modern  days,  of  gathering  a 
 
 swarm  of  bees  by  varioas  sounds  '>r 
 noises. 
 
 Be-el'ze-bub  is  the  name  applied  to 
 "the  prince  of  the  devils"  in  Matt.  12: 
 24.  It  probably  refers  to  Baalzebub,  the 
 fly-god  of  the  Ekronites  (2  Kings  1  :  2, 
 16),  or,  according  to  a  more  correct  read- 
 ing, to  Beelzebul  \^lord  of  Jilt k]. 
 
 Be'er  [tie//],  or  Beeroth  [wells'],  a 
 local  proper  name,  denoting  the  presence 
 of  water. 
 
 Beer  designated — 1.  A  halting-place  of 
 the  Israelites  after  they  had  crossed  the 
 Amon  (Num.  21  :  16-18),  identical,  prob- 
 ably, Avith  Beer-Elim.  2.  A  town  in  Ju- 
 dah  to  which  Jotham  fled  (Judg.  9  :  21); 
 site  not  certainly  known. 
 
 Be-e'uoth  designated  a  city  of  the  Gib- 
 eonites  (Josh.  9  :  17)  in  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
 jamin. It  is  now  identified  as  el-Bireh, 
 a  village  of  seven  hundred  inhabitants, 
 ten  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  Here,  ac- 
 cording to  tradition,  our  Lord  was  missed 
 by  his  parents  when  returning  from  Jeru- 
 salem (Luke  2  :  44). 
 
 Be'er  was  frequently  combined  with  a 
 descriptive  word  in  order  to  designate  a 
 place  made  memorable  by  some  important 
 event.  The  principal  names  of  places  in 
 which  this  combination  appears  afe  the 
 following : 
 
 1.  Be'er-e''lim  [rcell  of  heroes'],  (Isa. 
 15  :  8),  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
 well  referred  to  in  Num.  21  :  16-18. 
 
 2.  Be'er-la-ha'i-roi  [the  well  of  the 
 Linnr/  One  who  seeth  me],  (Gen.  16 :  13, 14), 
 the  well  which  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
 pointed  out  to  Hagar. 
 
 3.  Be'er-siie-ba  [the  well  of  the  oath], 
 the  place  where  Abraham  formed  an  al- 
 liance with  Abimelech  (Gen.  21  :  31); 
 where  Isaac  dwelt  (Gen.  26  :  23-25); 
 whence  Jacob  set  out  for  Haran  (Gen. 
 28  :  10);  and  where  Jacob  more  than  a 
 half  century  later,  on  his  way  to  Egypt, 
 oflTered  sacrifices  unto  the  God  of  his  fa- 
 ther Isaac  (Gen.  46  :  1 ).    A  town  of  some 
 
BEETLE— BEL. 
 
 83 
 
 consequence  was  afterward  built  at  this 
 place,  twenty-six  miles  south  of  Hebron, 
 at  the  southern  extremity  of  Palestine. 
 Dan  being  at  the  northern  extremity  and 
 Beersheba  at  the  southern,  "  from  Dan  even 
 to  Beersheba"  (Judg.  20 : 1)  became  a  pro- 
 verbial expression  to  denote  the  whole  ex- 
 tent of  the  country.  Dr.  Robinson  visited 
 the  site  of  this  city,  which  still  goes  under 
 the  name  of  Bir-es-Seba.  He  found  two 
 circular  wells  of  water  over  forty  feet  in 
 depth,  around  which  were  tlie  ruins  of 
 what,  at  one  time,  must  have  been  a  place 
 of  considerable  size  and  importance.  The 
 latest  visitor  to  Beersheba  who  has  pub- 
 lished his  observations  is  President  Bart- 
 lett,  who  thus  speaks  of  the  two  wells  de- 
 scribed by  Dr.  Eobinson :  "  The  smaller 
 of  the  two  Avells  still  in  use  was  about  five 
 feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  well  stoned 
 and  the  stones  fluted  by  bucket-ropes.  It 
 seemed  forty  feet  to  the  water.  From 
 this  we  passed  perhaps  sixty  rods  to  the 
 principal  well,  which  Avas  twelve  and  a 
 half  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  water 
 stood,  as  we  judged,  about  forty  feet  from 
 the  top.  It  was  thoroughly  walled  with 
 massive  stones,  and  these  were  cut  with 
 tlie  ropes  of  ages  into  '  one  hundred  and 
 forty-three  flutings'  (according  to  Tris- 
 tram's count),  'the  shallowest  of  them 
 four  inches  deep.'  We  were  by  the  wells 
 of  Abraham." 
 
 Bee'tle,  only  mentioned  in  Lev.  11  : 
 22,  where  some  species  of  locust  is  prob- 
 ably meant. 
 
 Beeves,  the  plural  of  beef.  The  word, 
 collectively,  signifies  horned  cattle  (Lev. 
 22  :  19). 
 
 Beg"'gar,  one  dependent  on  charity 
 through  misfortune,  improvidence  or 
 vice — causes  which  efl^ectually  prevent 
 a  perfect  equality  of  condition  among 
 men.  Even  among  the  Israelites  there 
 were  those  who  depended  on  alms,  and 
 liberality  to  the  poor  was  urged  as  a  duty 
 (Deut.  15:11).      The   Psalmist  states   it 
 
 as  his  experience  that  the  posterity  of  the 
 godly  were  never  reduced  to  beggary  (Ps. 
 37  :  25),  while  he  regards  poverty  as  an 
 appropriate  curse  on  the  wicked  (Ps.  109  : 
 10).  In  the  times  of  our  Lord  instances 
 are  mentioned  of  diseased  and  maimed 
 persons  being  laid  in  the  highways,  at  the 
 doors  of  the  temple  and  at  the  gates  of  the 
 rich  to  solicit  alms  (Mark  10  :  46;  Luke 
 16 :  20,  21  ;  Acts  3  :  2).  It  is  a  peculiarity 
 of  the  Christian  religion  that,  in  propor- 
 tion to  its  prevalence,  the  sorrows  of  the 
 poor  are  mitigated  and  their  wants  sup- 
 plied. 
 
 Be'he-moth.  The  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  Job  40  :  15  is  elsewhere  render- 
 ed beast  (Job  35  :  11 ;  Ps.  73  :  22)  and 
 cattle  (Ps.  50  :  10).  That  it  primarily 
 and  properly  designates  the  hippopota- 
 mus or  river-horse  of  f'gypt  there  can 
 be  little  doubt.     All  the  details   descrip- 
 
 The  Hippopotamus. 
 
 tive  of  the  behemoth  accord  entirely  with 
 the  ascertained  habits  of  that  animal. 
 The  hippopotamus  is  of  great  bulk  and 
 amazing  strength.  Often  it  is  above  six- 
 teen feet  in  length  and  seven  feet  in 
 height,  with  a  large  head,  short  feet  and 
 huge  flat  muzzle.  It  is  herbivorous  and 
 exceedingly  voracious. 
 
 Beka,  half  of  the  shekel.  See  Weights 
 AND  Measures. 
 
 Bel,  the  name  under  which  the  national 
 
84 
 
 BELA— BENHADAD. 
 
 god  of  the  Babylonians  is  cursorily  men- 
 tioned (Isa.  46  :  1 ;  Jer.  50  :  2;  51  :  44), 
 and  the  same  as  Baal(  which  see). 
 
 Bela  [sii allowed,  or  destruction'],  the 
 name  of  one  place  and  three  men. 
 
 1.  A  small  city  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
 Sea,  not  far  from  Sodom,  afterward  called 
 Zoar,  to  which  Lot  retreated  from  the  de- 
 struction of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and 
 for  the  sparing  of  which  he  interceded 
 (Gen.  14  :  2,  8 ;  19  :  20-23). 
 
 2.  The  eldest  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  46 : 
 21 ;  Num.  26 :  38 ;  1  Chron.  7  :  6)  and  head 
 of  the  fjimily  of  Belaites. 
 
 3.  A  king  of  Edom  before  the  institution 
 of  royalty  among  the  Israelites  (Gen.  36  : 
 32 ;  i  Chron.  1  :  43). 
 
 4.  A  son  of  Azaz,  a  Reubenite  and  a  man 
 of  wealth  and  consequence  in  the  land  of 
 Gilead  (1  Chron.  5  :  8,  9). 
 
 Be'li-al  [worthlessness,  recklessness,  law- 
 lessness, wickedness],  a  designation  of  such 
 lewd,  profligate  and  vile  persons  as  regard 
 neither  God  nor  man  (Judg.  19: 22;  1  Sam. 
 2  :  12).  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  not  a 
 proper  name,  but  in  one  passage  in  the 
 New  Testament  (2  Cor.  6  :  15)  it  is,  and 
 is  applied  to  Satan,  as  the  embodiment 
 of  all  that  is  vile  and  worthless. 
 
 Bell.  The  first  bells  known  in  history 
 were  the  small  golden  bells  attached  to 
 the  lower  part  of  the  blue  robe  which 
 formed  part  of  the  high  priest's  dress 
 when  engaged  in  ministrations  (Ex.  28  : 
 33-35).  Their  design  was  to  announce 
 the  high  priest's  entrance  into  the  Holy 
 Place,  the  presence-chamber  of  Jehovah, 
 and  to  summon  the  people  outside  to  en- 
 gage in  prayer.  In  the  East  great  use 
 has  always  been  made  of  small  bells. 
 They  are  attached  to  the  anklets  of  dan- 
 cing-girls, to  the  roofs  and  spires  and  pro- 
 jecting points  of  temples — where  they  are 
 rung  by  the  winds — and  to  the  bridles  and 
 neck-belts  of  horses.  To  the  bells  on  the 
 horses  Zechariah  (14  :  20)  alludes  when 
 predicting  that  the  spirit  of  true  religion 
 
 is  to  be  so  prevalent  in  our  world  a«  to 
 pervade  all  interests  and  pursuits. 
 
 Bel'ly,  a  figurative  expression  in  Scrij)- 
 ture  for  carnal  indulgence  (Rom.  16  :  18; 
 Phil.  3  :  19) ;  once,  for  the  soul's  inmost 
 recesses  (John  7  :  38).  The  gluttonous 
 and  indolent  Cretans  are  described  as 
 "slow  l)ellies"  (Tit.  1  :  12). 
 
 Bel-shaz'zar  {the  prince  of  Bel'\,  the 
 last  king  of  the  Chaldees,  under  whom 
 Babylon  was  taken  by  the  Medes  and 
 Persians  (Dan.  5  :  1 ;  7  :  1;  8  :  1).  He 
 was  a  descendant  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
 by  Nabonadius,  his  father,  was  associated 
 in  the  government  of  the  empire,  and  was 
 allowed  the  royal  title.  He  conducted, 
 probably,  the  defence  of  Biibylon  against 
 Cyrus,  and  was  slain  in  the  massacre  which 
 followed  the  capture  of  the  city.  His  name 
 appears  on  the  inscriptions  as  Bil-sar-iizur. 
 The  only  events  of  his  history  recorded  in 
 Scripture  are  his  impious  feast  and  his  vio- 
 lent death,  b.  c.  538. 
 
 Bel-te-shaz'zar  [whom  Bel  favors'], 
 the  Chaldee  name  given  to  Daniel  at  the 
 court  of  Nebuchadnezzar  in  Babvlon  (Dan. 
 1:7).       _ 
 
 Ben-ai'ah  [Jehovah  prospers],  the  son 
 of  Jehoiada,  a  chief  priest  (1  Chron. 
 27  :  5),  and  distinguished  on  several  oc- 
 casions for  his  enterprise  and  bravery  (2 
 Sam.  23  :  20-23).  He  adhered  to  Solo- 
 mon against  the  pretensions  of  Adonijah 
 (1  Kings  1  :  36),  and,  after  putting  Joab 
 to  death,  succeeded  to  the  command  of 
 the  army  (1  Kings  2  :  29-35). 
 
 Ben-ha'dad  [Bin  (an  Assyrian  god) 
 is  exalted],  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Dam- 
 ascene Syria. 
 
 1.  The  king  who  was  subsidized  by  Asa, 
 king  of  Judah,  to  invade  Israel,  and  there- 
 by compel  Baasha,  who  had  invaded  Judah, 
 to  return  for  the  defence  of  his  own  king- 
 dom (1  Kings  15  :  18).  He  seems  to  have 
 been  an  energetic  and  powerful  sovereign. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  the  preceding.  His  reign 
 was  characterized  by  long  wars  with  Israel, 
 
BENJAMIN-  BESOR. 
 
 85 
 
 in  which  he  suffered  some  signal  defeats. 
 Besieging  Samaria,  he  pressed  the  siege  so 
 closely  that  there  was  a  terrible  famine 
 in  the  city.  Suddenly  and  mysteriously, 
 however,  his  army  was  panic-stricken  in 
 the  night,  and  fled  in  utter  disorder.  Soon 
 after  he  fell  sick,  and  sent  Hazael,  an  oflB- 
 cer  of  distinction,  to  consult  the  prophet 
 Eilisha  as  to  the  issue  of  his  malady.  The 
 interview  with  Elisha  brought  Hazael's 
 ambitious  projects  to  a  head,  for  upon  his 
 return  he  murdered  Benhahad  and  seized 
 his  throne  (2  Kings,  chs.  6,  7,  8). 
 
 3.  The  son  and  successor  of  usurping 
 Hazael.  His  reign  was  disastrous  for 
 Damascus,  and  the  vast  power  wielded 
 by  his  father  was  wrenched  from  his 
 hand  (2  Kings  13  :  25). 
 
 Ben^'ja-min  [son  of  the  right  hand],  the 
 youngest  of  Jacob's  children  and  the  only 
 one  born  in  Palestine.  His  birth  took 
 place  on  the  road  between  Bethel  and 
 Bethlehem,  a  short  distance  from  the 
 latter.  His  mother,  Rachel,  died  in  the 
 act  of  giving  him  birth,  and  with  her 
 last  breath  named  him  Benoni,  "son  of 
 my  sorrow,"  which  Jacob  afterward 
 changed  to  Benjamin  (Gen.  35  :  16-18). 
 The  tribe  descending  from  him  numbered 
 in  the  desert  35,400  warriors  (Num.  1 :  36, 
 37).  The  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  lay 
 immediately  south  of  Ephraim  and  be- 
 tween Ephraim  and  Judah.  It  formed 
 almost  a  parallelogram  of  about  twenty 
 miles  in  length  by  ten  in  breadth.  Its 
 eastern  boundar^^  was  the  Jordan,  and 
 from  thence  it  extended  to  the  wooded 
 district  of  Kirjath-jearim,  a  point  about 
 eight  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  while  in 
 the  other  direction  it  stretched  from  the 
 Valley  of  Hinnom  on  the  south  to  Bethel 
 on  the  north.  In  the  time  of  the  judges 
 the  tribe  was  nearly  exterminated  by  the 
 other  tribes  in  a  war  excited  against  them 
 for  acts  of  atrocious  wickedness  (Judg.  20). 
 The  tribe,  however,  was  afterward  revived, 
 and  in  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat  it  num- 
 
 bered 200,000  warriors  (2  Chron.  17  :  17). 
 When  the  kingdom  was  severed  Benjamin 
 united  with  Judah  in  forming  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah  (1  Kings  12  :  21). 
 
 Ben-0''ni  [sow  of  my  sorroiv],  the  name 
 which  the  dying  Rachel  gave  to  her  new- 
 ly-born son,  but  which  by  his  father  Jacob 
 was  changed  into  Benjamin  (Gen.  35  :  18). 
 
 Be-re'a,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  not  far 
 from  Pella  and  some  twenty  miles  west 
 of  Thessalonica.  To  this  city  Paul  and 
 Silas,  when  persecuted  in  Thessalonica, 
 returned,  and  finding  there  a  large  Jew- 
 ish pojiulation  singularly  free  from  preju- 
 dice, they  preached  the  gospel  with  great 
 success  (Acts  17  :  10-12).  It  is  now  known 
 as  Verria,  in  Roumelia,  and  has  a  popu- 
 lation of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand. 
 
 Ber-ni^ce,  otherwise  Ber-e-ni'ce, 
 the  eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
 and  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  II.  She  was 
 first  married  to  her  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
 Chalcis,  and  after  his  death  she  lived  under 
 circumstances  of  great  suspicion  with  her 
 brother  Agrippa,  with  whom  she  is  men- 
 tioned (Acts  25  :  13,  23;  26  :  30)  as  visit- 
 ing Festus  on  his  appointment  to  the  pro- 
 curatoi'ship  of  Judsea. 
 
 Be-ro'dach-BaPa-dan,  a  king  of 
 Assyria  (2  Kings  20  :  12)  to  whose  mes- 
 sengei's  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  impru- 
 dently displayed  all  his  treasures.  He  is 
 also  called  Merodach-baladan  (Isa.  39  :  1). 
 
 Ber'yl,  the  rendering  into  English  of 
 the  obscure  Hebrew  word  Tarshish,  and 
 the  designation  of  a  precious  stone  whose 
 precise  character  is  not  known.  It  was 
 the  tenth  stone  on  the  high  priest's  breast- 
 plate (Ex.  28  :  20),  and  is  mentioned  as 
 one  of  the  foundations  of  the  heavenly 
 Jerusalem  (Rev.  21  :  20). 
 
 Bes'om,  a  brush  for  sweejMng,  used 
 metaphorically  for  a  sweeping  destruction 
 (Isa.  14  :  23). 
 
 Be^sor  \_lhe  enoV],  a  brook  flowing  into 
 the  Mediterranean  near  Gaza.  Here  two 
 hundred  of  David's  men,  exhausted  and 
 
86 
 
 BESTEAD— BETH-ARBEL. 
 
 faint,  halted  for  rest  and  refreslinient, 
 whilst  he,  at  the  head  of  four  hundred, 
 continued  the  pureuit  of  the  Anialekites 
 who  had  plundered  and  burned  the  town 
 of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  30  :  9,  10,  21). 
 
 Be-stead',  an  obsolete  word  meaning 
 !<ilun(e(J.  It  occurs  in  Isa.  8  :  21,  where  it 
 h;is  the  sense  of  roughly  nitualed,  placed  in 
 difficulty. 
 
 Beth-ab'a-ra  [the  house  or  place  of 
 passage,  the  Jen-y  or  ford'\  a  place  beyond 
 Jordan  where  John  the  Baptist  baptized 
 (John  1  :  28).     A  point  eaat  of  the  Jor- 
 
 dan, and  near  one  of  the  main  fords  of  that 
 river,  just  above  the  place  where,  on  the 
 west  side,  the  Jalud  River  enters  it,  luus 
 been  recently  indicated  as  the  ancient 
 Bethabara.  It  has  been  heretofore  iden- 
 tifietl  with  Beth-nimra,  a  little  above  Jer- 
 icho. 
 
 Beth'a-ny  [house  of  dates],  a  village 
 on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mount  of 
 Olives,  two  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  the 
 road  to  Jericho.  Many  fruit  and  forest 
 trees — olives,  pomegranates,  almonds,  oaks 
 — give  the  place  to-day,  as  in  long-past 
 
 Modern 
 
 times,  an  aspect  of  seclusion  and  repose. 
 Its  scriptural  associations  are  peculiarly 
 interesting.  Here  dwelt  Mary  and  Mar- 
 tha and  their  brother  Lazarus  (John  11  : 
 1 ) ;  here  our  Lord,  after  the  labors  of 
 the  day  in  the  city,  frequently  found  a 
 hospitable  and  quiet  home  (Matt.  21 :  17) ; 
 here  our  Lord  raised  Lazarus  from  the 
 grave  (John  11  :  43,  44);  here  our  Lord 
 was  anointed  by  Mary  for  his  burial  ( Matt. 
 26  :  12 ;  John  12:3,  7) ;  and  near  here,  in 
 close  vicinity  and  in  full  view,  our  Lord 
 
 Bethany. 
 
 j  "  was  parted  from  his  disciples  and  car- 
 ried up  into  heaven"  i  L.ike  24  :  50,  51). 
 It  is  now  an  insignificant  village  of  twen- 
 ty poor  families,  but  its  modern  Arabic 
 name,  el-  Azariyeh  (from  el-'Azar,  the  pop- 
 ular corruption  of  Lazarus),  echoes  very 
 impressively  the  story  which  has  given  it 
 an  imperishable  distinction. 
 
 Beth-Ar'bel  [home  of  the  .mares  (or 
 ambush)  of  God],  a  place  mentioned  only 
 in  IIos.  10  :  14,  and  supposed  to  have 
 been  a  strongly-fortitied  rock-fortress,  de- 
 
BETH-AVEN— BETH-HOEON. 
 
 87 
 
 spoiled  and  destroyed  by  Shalmaneser, 
 king  of  Assyria,  witli  circumstances  of 
 appalling  atrocity.  The  weight  of  opin- 
 ion inclines  to  identify  it  with  the  Arbela 
 of  Josephus,  a  village  in  Galilee,  near 
 which  were  fortified  caverns  situated  on 
 the  sides  of  precipitous  cliffs,  to  which 
 the  only  access  was  by  a  steep,  narrow 
 and  easily-defended  path. 
 
 Beth-A'ven  [house  of  idolatry].     See 
 
 AVEN. 
 
 Betli''el  [house  of  God],  a  town  and 
 sanctuary  in  Central  Palestine,  about  ten 
 English  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It 
 was  thus  named  by  Jacob,  who,  journey- 
 ing from  Beersheba  to  Haran,  and  lying 
 down  here  to  sleep,  had  a  marvelous  vis- 
 ion, which  he  commemorated  by  setting 
 up  and  consecrating  a  stone  pillar  (Gen. 
 28  :  11-22).  When  Jacob  returned  from 
 Padan-Aram,  some  thirty  years  after  the 
 time  of  his  vision,  lie  revisited  the  spot, 
 built  an  altar  to  Jehovah,  and,  consecra- 
 ting another  stone  pillar,  renewed  and 
 confirmed  the  name  he  had  before  given 
 it  (Gen.  35  :  6-15).  After  the  conquest 
 of  the  land  by  Joshua,  Bethel  became  a 
 holy  city,  and,  as  a  sanctuary,  a  place  of 
 commanding  influence.  Here  Jeroboam, 
 upon  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  and  the 
 formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  set 
 up  idolatrous  calves  (1  Kings  12  :  29-33). 
 Here  the  kings  of  Israel  occasionally  held 
 their  courts  and  celebrated  with  great  pomp 
 the  rites  of  an  infamous  worship  (Amos  7  : 
 10-13).  It  now  is,  and  for  many  genera- 
 tions has  been,  one  of  the  most  desolate- 
 looking  places  in  Palestine.  Its  modern 
 name  is  Beitin. 
 
 Beth-es'da  [house  ofmercy'],  a  pool  of 
 water  situated  near  the  sheep-gate  of  Jeru- 
 salem, and  the  scene  of  one  of  our  Lord's 
 miracles  (John  5  :  2-16).  It  is  supposed 
 to  be  the  pool  now  called  Birkel- Israel, 
 within  the  city  walls  and  near  St.  Ste- 
 phen's Gate.  It  is  memorable  from  the 
 fact  that   at  certain  times   an   angel   im- 
 
 parted a  miraculous  efficacy  to  its  waters 
 for  the  cure  of  all  kinds  of  diseases.  After 
 the  troubling  of  the  water  the  first  diseased 
 person  that  stepped  in  was  healed.  This 
 shows  that  the  water  itself  possessed  no 
 medicinal  virtues,  and  that  the  cures  ef- 
 fected by  it  were  truly  miraculous. 
 
 Beth-Gam'ul  [house  of  the  cavul'],  a 
 town  of  Moab  (Jer.  48  :  23),  about  forty- 
 five  miles  south-east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
 Its  modern  name  is  Um  el-Jemal.  "Al- 
 though it  has  been  deserted  for  centu- 
 ries," says  Prof.  Osborn,  "the  massive 
 houses  look  as  though  the  inhabitants 
 had  just  left  tiiem." 
 
 Beth-ha'ran  [house  of  the  height],  a 
 fenced  city  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  32  : 
 36),  called  Beth-aram  in  Josh.  13 :  27. 
 
 Beth-hog''la  [-partridge-house],  a  place 
 on  the  border  of  Benjamin  and  Judah  (Josh. 
 15  :  6  ;  18  :  21).  A  fountain  called  Hajla, 
 on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and  Jeri- 
 cho, according  to  Dr.  Robinson,  may  indi- 
 cate the  site  of  the  ancient  Beth-hogla. 
 
 Beth-Ho'ron  [house  of  the  hollow  ;  per- 
 haps of  the  hollow  way],  the  name  of  two 
 towns  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  one  of 
 which,  called  "the  Upper,"  was  situated 
 in  the  northern  part  of  that  tribe  (Josh. 
 16:5;  21  :  22) ;  the  other,  "  the  Nether," 
 was  situated  on  the  border  of  Benjamin 
 (Josh.  16:3;  18:13).  Both  were  on 
 the  road  from  Jerusalem  by  Gibeon  to 
 the  coast-plain.  Upper  Beth-Horon  was 
 about  twelve  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and 
 Nether  Beth-Horon  some  two  miles  far- 
 ther on,  in  a  precipitous  valley.  Upper 
 Beth-Horon  stands  upon  a  rocky  head- 
 land overlooking  this  valley.  The  "de- 
 scent of  Beth-Horon "  is  the  way  passing 
 these  places,  and  was  the  great  road  of 
 communication — especially  when  heavy 
 baggage  was  to  be  transported — between 
 Jerusalem  and  the  sea-coast.  The  road 
 connecting  the  Upper  and  Nether  Beth- 
 Horon  is  memorable  in  sacred  history  as 
 the  scene   of  the  very  complete   victory 
 
88 
 
 BETH-JESIMOTH— BETH-SHAN. 
 
 achieved  by  Joshua  over  the  five  kings 
 of  the  Araorites  (Josh.  10).  The  two 
 Beth-Horons  still  survive  in  the  modern 
 villages  of  Beil-Hr,  "  Upper "  and  "  Low- 
 er." On  the  mountain  which  lies  to  the 
 southward  of  the  nether  village  is  still 
 preserved  the  name  Ynlo  or  Ajlun,  the  an- 
 cient Ajalon,  the  city  so  closely  connected 
 with  the  proudest  memories  of  Beth-Horon 
 (Josh.  10  :  12). 
 
 Beth.-jeB'i-moth.lhouseof  desolations'], 
 a  city  on  the  east  of  Jordan  and  assigned  to 
 the  tribe  of  Keuben  (Num.  33  :  49 ;  Josh. 
 13  :  20). 
 
 Beth-leb^a-Oth  [house  of  //onexscs],  a 
 city  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (Josh.  19  :  G). 
 
 Beth^le-hem  [house  of  bread},  a  city 
 of  Judah,  nearly  six  miles  south  of  Jeru- 
 salem. It  was  called  Bethlehem-Judah 
 to  distinguish  it  from  another  Bethlehem 
 in  Zebulun  (Judg.  17:7;  Josh.  19  :  15,  IG). 
 It  was  also  called  Ephratah  [the  fruitfid'], 
 (Mic.  5  :  2).  It  was  the  residence  of  Boaz, 
 of  Naomi  and  of  Ruth.  As  David  was 
 born  here  (1  Sam.  17  :  12)  and  here  was 
 anointed  king  (1  Sam.  16  :  1-13),  it  was 
 sometimes  denominated  "the  city  of  Da- 
 vid" (Luke  2  :  4).  But  the  chief  glory 
 of  Bethlehem  is  in  the  fact  that  here  was 
 born  the  most  illustrious  personage  of  all 
 history,  the  Son  of  man  and  the  Son  of 
 <Tod,  the  Saviour  and  the  Sovereign  of 
 the  world  (Matt.  2  :  1,  G ;  Luke  2  :  G-12). 
 Its  modern  name  is  Beit-Lahm.  It  has  a 
 population  of  about  five  thousand  souls, 
 the  most  of  them  Christians,  and  noted  for 
 their  enterprise  and  energy  in  trade.  It 
 is  situated  on  a  hill  of  limestone  which 
 runs  east  and  west.  The  east  end  of  tlie 
 hill  is  bold,  whilst  the  west  end  slopes 
 gradually  to  the  valley.  On  the  sides  of 
 this  hill,  which  is  about  a  mile  in  length, 
 are  terraced  gardens,  with  olive  trees,  fig 
 trees  and  vines.  Altogether,  Bethlehem 
 is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  thriving 
 towns  in  Palestine. 
 
 Beth-me'on   [house  of  Baars  habita- 
 
 tion], a  city  of  the  Moabites  in  the  ter- 
 ritory of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  denounced 
 by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  48  :  23). 
 
 Beth-niin'ra  [house  of  sweet  water], 
 now  called  Nimrin,  of  which  some  ruins 
 remain,  situated  near  the  junction  of  the 
 brook  Nimrin  with  the  Jordan  (Num. 
 32  :  3G).  Here  is  still  a  fountain  corre- 
 sponding with  the  "waters  of  Nimrim" 
 (Isa.  15  :  G). 
 
 Beth-pe'or  [house  or  temple  of  Peor], 
 a  city  in  Moab  not  far  from  the  Jordan, 
 and  near  which  Moses  was  buried  (Deut. 
 j  4  :  46  ;  34  :  6). 
 
 Beth^plia-ge  [house  of  unripe  fi'js],  a 
 
 small    village    south-east    of   Jerusalem. 
 
 I  Our  Lord  in  coming  fi-om  Jericho  visited 
 
 it  before  reaching  Bethany  (Mark  11  :  1). 
 
 Beth're-hob.    Sec  Reiiob. 
 
 Beth-sa'i-da  [house  or  place  of  fsh- 
 \  in(j],  the  name  of  tAVO  places  not  far  from 
 !  each  other,  at  the  liead  and  on  the  op[)o- 
 site  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  Galilee  (John  12  :  21 ),  on 
 the  western  side  of  the  sea  and  not  far  from 
 Capernaum.     It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
 
 i  apostles  Peter,  Andrew  and  Philip  and  the 
 frequent  residence  of  our  Lord.  The  site 
 of  the  town  is  placed  by  Dr.  Robinson  at 
 'Ain  et-Tabigah,  a  short  distance  north  of 
 Khan  Minyeh,  and  recent  explorations 
 strongly  sustain  his  view.  It  was  one  of 
 the  cities  upon  which  our  Lord  pronounced 
 a  woe  for  its  obstinate  unbelief  in  spite 
 of  the  mighty  works  he  performed  there 
 (Matt.  11  :2i). 
 
 2.  A  town  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
 same  sea  or  lake,  near  the  point  where 
 the  .lordan  entei-s.  In  the  neigliborhood 
 of  this  place  our  Lord  fed  the  five  thou- 
 sand (Luke  9  :  10).  Tliis  Bethsaida  was 
 greatly  enlarged  by  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
 and  named  Julias.  The  supposed  site  at 
 et-Tell,  three  miles  north  of  the  sea  or 
 lake,  is  covered  with  ruins. 
 
 Beth'shan  or  Beth'she-an  [house 
 of  quiet  or  security],  a   city  belonging  to 
 
BETH-SHEMESH— BEWKAY. 
 
 89 
 
 the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  (1  Sam.  31  : 
 10;  Josh.  17  :  11),  on  the  west  of  Jordan, 
 three  miles  from  the  river  and  sixteen 
 miles  from  the  southern  end  of  the  Sea 
 of  Galilee,  just  where  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
 elon  begins  its  slope  to  the  Jordan  Valley. 
 The  Greeks  called  it  Scythopolis,  because  a 
 colony  from  the  great  Scythian  irruption 
 in  the  times  of  King  Josiah  was  left  here. 
 It  is  now  called  Beisan,  and  is  a  miserable 
 liamlet  of  mud  hovels.  The  ruins  of  the 
 .ancient  city  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  are  of 
 considerable  extent.  After  tlie  battle  of 
 Gilboa,  in  the  near  neighborhood,  the 
 Philistines  fastened  the  dead  bodies  of 
 King  Saul  and  his  three  sons  to  the  walls 
 of  this  city,  whence  the  valiant  men  of 
 Jabesh-Gilead,  in  a  successful  night-ex- 
 pedition, bore  them  to  a  sad  yet  reverent 
 burial  (1  Sam.  31  :  8-13). 
 
 Beth-shem'esh  [house  of  the  /tun'], 
 the  name  of  four  cities  mentioned  in 
 Scripture. 
 
 1.  A  sacerdotal  city  on  tlie  borders  of 
 Dan  and  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  10;  21  :  13, 
 IC),  about  fourteen  miles  west  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. When  the  Philistines  were  plagued 
 on  account  of  their  retaining  the  captured 
 ark,  they  sent  it  to  Beth-shemesh,  whose 
 inliabitants,  irreverently  prying  into  it, 
 were  smitten  by  tlie  Lord  to  the  number 
 of  fifty  thousand  and  seventy.  As  this 
 number  appears  very  great,  some  suppose 
 that  the  transcriber  has  mistaken  an  arith- 
 metical sign,  writing  this  number  instead 
 of  five  thousand  and  seventy.  Others, 
 with  Bochart,  render  it,  "  he  smote  three- 
 score and  ten  men,  fifty  out  of  a  thou- 
 .sand;"  that  is,  it  was  only  in  this  pro- 
 portion that  the  people  suffered.  A  bat- 
 tle between  Judah  and  Israel,  disastrous 
 to  Judah,  was  fought  at  this  place  (2 
 Kings  14: 11-13).  Dr.  Robinson  has  iden- 
 tified this  city  with  Ain-Shems,  an  insig- 
 nificant Arab  village  constructed  of  an- 
 cient materials.  Extensive  ruins  over- 
 spread the  neighborhood. 
 
 2.  A  fenced  city  in  Naphtali  (Judg.  1: 
 33). 
 
 3.  A  city  of  Issachar  (Josh.  19:  22). 
 
 4.  A  city  in  Egypt,  the  seat  of  an  idol- 
 temple  ( Jer.  43:  13) ;  called  by  the  Greeks 
 Heliopolis  ;  by  the  Egyptians,  On. 
 
 Beth-u^el  [man  of  God],  son  of  Na- 
 hor,  nephew  of  Abraham  and  father  of 
 Rebekah,  whom  Isaac  married  (Gen.  22: 
 23 ;  24 :  15  ;  28 :  5). 
 
 Beth-zur,  now  Beit-Sur,  4  m.  N.  of 
 Hebron.     2  Chron.  11:7;  Neh.  3:11. 
 
 Be-troth'ing,  an  engagement  of  mar- 
 riage between  a  man  and  woman.  An- 
 ciently, these  engagements  were  made  or 
 arranged  by  the  parents  of  the  parties, 
 often  when  they  were  mere  children  and 
 when  they  had  not  seen  each  other.  It 
 is  still  one  of  the  customs  of  Oriental 
 countries.  Although  after  this  betroth- 
 ment  the  parties  lived  apart  until  the 
 day  appointed  for  their  marriage,  they 
 were  nevertheless  regarded  as  so  bound 
 together  that  separation  could  be  effected 
 only  by  death  or  divorce.  Mary,  our 
 Lord's  mother,  was  thus  betrothed  to 
 Joseph,  and,  according  to  the  history 
 (Matt.  1  :  18-20),  the  engagement  was 
 considered  as  equivalent  to  marriage. 
 
 Beu''lah  [vtarried^,  a  symbolical  name 
 applied  to  the  land  of  Israel,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  the  prediction  of  Isaiah  (62  : 
 4),  is  to  be  recovered  from  desolation  and 
 is  to  be  again  the  Lord's  delight.  In  In- 
 dia, according  to  Roberts,  a  sovereign  is 
 familiarly  represented  as  married  to  his 
 dominions. 
 
 Be-'witch'',  to  lead  astray  by  trick  and 
 jugglery.  Thus  Simon  bewitched  the  peo- 
 ple of  Samaria  by  his  arts,  making  them 
 believe  he  was  some  great  person  (Acts  8: 
 9).  False  teachers,  who  are  generally  the 
 most  artful  among  men,  are  charged  with 
 bewitching  those  who  fall  into  their  snares, 
 by  so  fascinating  them  that  they  cannot 
 form  a  right  judgment  (Gal.  3:1). 
 
 Be-'wray',  an  antiquated  word,  signi- 
 
90 
 
 BEYOND— BIRTHDAYS. 
 
 fyiug  to  "  expose,  discover."  Thus,  Peter's 
 speech  bewniyed  or  exposed  him,  his  dialect 
 being  peculiar  to  the  place  from  which  he 
 came  (Matt.  20  :  73).  Tims,  too,  the  per- 
 fumed ointment  bewrays  or  reveals  its 
 presence  by  its  fragrance  (Prov.  27  :  10). 
 The  word  is  also  sometimes  used  in  the 
 sense  of  belrny,  or  to  discover  treacher- 
 ously (Isa.  16  :  3). 
 
 Be-yond'.  The  phrase  "beyond  Jor- 
 dan "  frequently  occurs  in  Scripture,  and 
 to  determine  its  meaning  we  must  take 
 into  consideration  the  writer's  situation. 
 For  example,  in  the  writings  of  Moses 
 "  beyond  Jordan  "  means  the  west  side  of 
 the  river,  as  he  wrote  on  the  east  side; 
 with  Joshua  it  means'  on  the  east  side,  as 
 he  lived  on  the  wes*,  side. 
 
 Bez-al'eel  [m  the  i^hadnw  of  God],  the 
 son  of  Uri,  the  son  of  Hur,  of  the  tribe 
 of  Judah,  an  eminent  artificer  who  was 
 employed  in  constructing  the  tabernacle 
 and  its  furniture  (Ex.  31  :  1-11). 
 
 Be^zek  [lujhtnimj'],  a  city  in  tlie  lot  of 
 Judah,  where  the  Canaanites  were  routed 
 and  their  king,  Adonibezek,  taken  and 
 punished  (Judg.  1  :  4-6).  It  was  prob- 
 ably among  the  hills  not  far  from  Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Be'zer  [ore  of  gold  or  direr'],  one  of  the 
 cities  of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  the 
 north  bank  of  the  Arnon  and  a  few  miles 
 west  of  Aroer.  It  is  called  "  Bezer  in  the 
 wilderness"  (Deut.  4  :  41-43). 
 
 Bib'ber.  A  "  wine-bibber "  is  an 
 habitual  and  excessive  drinker  of  wine 
 (Prov.  23:  20;  Matt.  11  :  19). 
 
 Bil'dad  [son  of  conteniioti],  one  of  the 
 three  friends  who  visited  Job  in  his  afflic- 
 tions. He  is  called  "the  Shuhite"  (Job 
 2  :  11),  wliicli  connects  him  with  Shuah, 
 the  sixth  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah 
 (Gen.  25  :  2). 
 
 Bil'hah  [bashfuinexa'],  the  handmaid  of 
 Rachel,  concubine  of  Jacob  and  mother  of 
 Dan  and  Naphtali  (Gen.  35  :  25). 
 
 BiPl0"WS,    heavy   waves    of   the   sea, 
 
 used     metaphorically    to    denote    over- 
 whelming afflictions  (Ps.  42  :  7  ;  88  :  7). 
 
 Bind,  to  tie  firmly  together.  Meta- 
 phorically, the  word  is  used  to  denote  the 
 obligation  of  an  oath  or  vow  (Num.  30  : 
 2-13);  also  restraint  (Job  28:  11);  the 
 power  of  Satan  in  inflicting  physical 
 evils  (Luke  13  :  10)  ;  arbitrary  stretch  of 
 power  without  authority  (Matt.  23  :  4) ; 
 the  infliction  and  ratification  of  church 
 censures  (Matt.  16  :  19). 
 
 Birds.  Under  the  Levitical  Law  there. 
 was  a  distinction  of  birds  into  clean  and 
 unclean,  and  the  respective  classes  are 
 given.  There  is  no  certainty  that  our 
 Authorized  Version  has  properly  identi- 
 fied these  (Lev.  11  :  13-20).  It  was  a 
 benevolent  provision  in  the  Jewish  law 
 that  when  young  birds  were  taken  from 
 a  nest  the  mother-bird  should  be  permit- 
 ted to  escape  (Deut.  22  :  0).  It  is  not  im- 
 probable that  singing  birds,  as  in  modern 
 times,  were  kept  in  cages,  as  bird-cages  are 
 referred  to  (Jer.  5  :  27).  The  art  of  snar- 
 ing birds  was  also  known  (Prov.  7  :  23; 
 Eccles.  9  :  12).  The  bird  is  frequently 
 spoken  of  in  a  metaphorical  sense:  thus 
 the  Chaldaeans  are  compared  to  ravenous 
 birds  ( Isa.  46  :  11);  thus,  too,  David  was 
 hunted  by  Saul  as  a  partridge  on  the  moun- 
 tains (1  Sam.  20  :  20) ;  and  thus,  too,  our 
 Lord's  followers  are  enjoined  to  be  lus 
 "  harmless  as  doves"  (Matt.  10  :  16). 
 
 Birth'days.  The  custom  of  observ- 
 ing birthdays  is  very  ancient  (Gen.  40 :  20 ; 
 Job  1 :  4).  In  Persia  they  were  celebrated 
 with  peculiar  honors  and  banquets,  and  in 
 Egypt  tlie  king's  birthdays  were  kept  with 
 great  pomp.  The  Scriptures  record  no  in- 
 stance of  a  birthday-celebration  among  the 
 Jews  themselves,  and  from  other  sources  we 
 learn  that  the  later  Hebrews  associated  such 
 celebrations  with  idolatrous  worship,  be- 
 cause of  the  rites  universally  observed  in 
 honor  of  the  gods,  who  were  accounted 
 patrons  of  the  day.  The  example  of  Her- 
 od the  tetrarch  (Matt.  14  :  6)  can  scarcely 
 
BIKTHKIGHT— BITHYNIA. 
 
 91 
 
 be  regarded  as  in  the  line  of  a  Jewish 
 birthday-celebration,  since  the  family  to 
 which  he  belonged  was  notorious  for  its 
 adoption  of  heathen  customs. 
 
 Birth'right,  a  word  denoting  the  spe- 
 cial privileges  and  advantages  belonging 
 to  the  first-born  among  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
 25  :  31).    See  First- Bokn. 
 
 Bish^op  [an  oveiseer].  The  term  in 
 the  New  Testament  designates  spiritual 
 rulers,  and  when  applied  to  the  ministers 
 of  the  gospel  it  simply  and  exclusively 
 signifies  a  pastor  or  presbyter,  and  never 
 a  superior  order  among  the  clergy.  The 
 term  originated  thus :  When  the  organi- 
 zation of  the  Christian  churches  in  Gen- 
 tile cities  involvad  the  assignment  of  the 
 work  of  pastoral  superintendence  to  a  dis- 
 tinct order,  the  title  bishop  presented  itself 
 as  at  once  convenient  and  familiar,  and  was 
 thei-efore  adopted  as  readily  as  the  word 
 elder  had  been  in  the  mother-chui'ch  of 
 Jerusalem.  That  the  two  titles  were  or- 
 iginally equivalent  is  clear  from  the  fol- 
 lowing fiicts: 
 
 1.  Bishops  and  elders  are  nowhere 
 named  together  as  orders  distinct  from 
 each  other. 
 
 2.  Bishops  and  deacons  are  named  as 
 apparently  an  exhaustive  division  of  the 
 officers  of  the  church  (Phil.  1  :  1  ;  1  Tim. 
 3  :  1-15).  Deacons  were  not  officially 
 preachers,  though  they  might  have  indi- 
 vidually become  preachers ;  they  relieved 
 preachers  from  the  duty  of  serving  tables, 
 and  they  ministered  to  the  worthy  poor  the 
 alms  collected  for  that  purpose  (Acts  6  : 
 1-6). 
 
 3.  "  Bishops  "  and  "  elders  "  are  terms 
 descriptive  of  the  same  persons  (Acts  20  : 
 17,  28;  Tit.  1  :  5,  7). 
 
 4.  Elders  discharge  functions  which,  as 
 involving  pastoral  superintendence,  are  es- 
 sentially episcopal  (1  Tim.  5  :  17  ;  1  Pet. 
 5:1,2). 
 
 As  to  the  relation  which  existed  between 
 the  two  titles,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
 
 in  the  order  of  time,  "  elders "  had  the  pri- 
 ority. The  order  itself  is  recognized  in 
 Acts  11  :  30  and  Acts  15:2.  On  the  other 
 hand,  the  earliest  use  of  the  word  "bish- 
 ops" or  overseers  is  in  the  address  of 
 Paul  at  Miletus  to  the  elders  of  Ephesus 
 (Acts  20  :  28) ;  and  there  the  word  is  not 
 so  much  a  title  as  a  description  of  func- 
 tions. The  earliest  Epistle  in  which  the 
 word  bishops  is  formally  used  as  equivalent 
 to  the  word  ekleis  is  that  to  the  Philippians, 
 as  late  as  the  time  of  Paul's  first  imprison- 
 ment at  Rome.  It  was  natural,  indeed, 
 that  the  use  of  the  word  bishop — which 
 was  borrowed  from  the  constitution  of  a 
 Greek  state— should  not  precede  the  use 
 of  the  word  elder,  which  was  derived 
 from  the  usages  of  the  synagogues  of 
 Palestine.  And  if  the  word  bishop  dis- 
 placed in  time  llie  word  elder,  it  must 
 have  been  because  there  was  a  life  in  the 
 organization  of  the  church  higher  than 
 that  of  the  synagogue,  and  because  there 
 were  functions  of  pastoral  superintendence 
 devolving  on  the  elders  of  the  Christian 
 congregation  which  the  elders  of  the  Jew- 
 ish congregation  had  never  known.  The 
 word  bishop  had  the  merit  of  being  de- 
 scriptive as  well  as  titular.  It  indicated 
 office  not  less  than  honor.  It  could  be  a.s- 
 sociated,  as  the  word  elder  could  not  be,  with 
 the  thought  of  the  highest  pastoral  super- 
 intendence—  even  that  of  Christ  him- 
 self, the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  souls  (1 
 Pet.  2 :  25).  It  hinted,  however,  at  no  su- 
 periority of  rank.  It  was  confined  to  the 
 individual  church,  in  which  there  might 
 be,  and  often  were,  several  bishops.  Its 
 association  with  the  word  diocesan  was  al- 
 together subsequent  to  New  Testament 
 times ;  and  in  its  early  and  wellnigh  uni- 
 versal reception  in  the  churches  it  fur- 
 nished a  very  striking  illustration  of 
 the  widely-extended  influence  of  Greek 
 thought  and  expression. 
 
 Bi-thyn'i-a,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 on  the  shore  of  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea, 
 
92 
 
 BITTERN— BLEMISH. 
 
 bounded  on  the  west  by  Mysia  and  on  the 
 south  by  Phrygia  and  Gahitia.  It  Avas  op- 
 posite Constantinople.  Peter  names  tlie 
 Bithynians,  witli  othei-s,  in  the  sahitation 
 of  his  first  Epistle  (1  Pet.  1:1).  It 
 was  to  this  province  that  Paul  essayed 
 to  go,  but  the  Spirit  suffered  him  not 
 (Acts  16  :  7).  In  subsequent  times  Pliny 
 was  governor  of  this  province,  and  from 
 it  wrote  his  celebrated  letter  to  the  em- 
 peror Trajan  on  the  subject  of  persecut- 
 ing the  Christians,  to  whose  good  charac- 
 ter he  bore  honorable  testimony.  The 
 capital  of  the  province  was  Niccea,  where 
 was  held  the  council  (a.  d.  325)  which  con- 
 denmed  Arianism. 
 
 Bit'tern,  a  fowl  of  the  same  genus 
 with  the  heron,  and  about  the  same  size. 
 Its  resorts  are  in  fens  and  swamps,  and  it 
 generally  flies  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening. 
 Nineveh  and  Babylon  became  a  "  posses- 
 sion for  the  bittern,"  according  to  predic- 
 tion (Isa.  14  :  23;  34  :  11 ;  Zeph.  2  :  14). 
 Biblical  critics,  however,  differ  much  as  to 
 the  true  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  ren- 
 dered bittern.  Some  suppose  it  to  designate 
 the  porcupine,  and  others  the  hedgehog, 
 but  the  weight  of  opinion  inclines  to  the 
 rendering  in  oui-  English  Version. 
 
 Black,  Black 'ness,  used  metaiihor- 
 ically  to  denote  terror  and  dismay ;  "  all 
 faces  shall  gather  blackness"  (Joel  2:6; 
 Nah:  2  :  10).  Hell  is  called  the  "black- 
 ness of  darkness"  (Jude  13). 
 
 Blains,  burning  boils  or  eruptions,  con- 
 stituting the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  (Ex.  9: 
 9),  and  hence  called,  in  Deut.  28  :  27,  35, 
 "  the  botch  of  Egyj)t."  It  seems  to  have 
 been  the  black  le[irosy. 
 
 Blas^phe-my.  In  the  Scriptures  this 
 word  signifies  the  irreverent  and  reproach- 
 ful speaking  of  God  and  his  attributes.  The 
 blas})lieiTier  is  the  calumniator  of  the  most 
 high  God,  and  so  is  a  sinner  of  the  most 
 daring  and  impious  kind.  Under  the  Jew- 
 ish law  it  was  enacted  "  that  he  that  blas- 
 phemeth  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  sure- 
 
 ly be  put  to  death  "  ( Lev.  24  :  16).  On  this 
 charge  both  our  Lord  and  the  martyr  Ste- 
 phen were  condemned  to  death  by  the  Jews 
 t  (Mark  14:64;  Acts 6: 11 ).  Profaneswear- 
 ing,  however  thoughtlessly  practiced,  is  ob- 
 viously a  near  approach  to  this  sin. 
 
 The  "  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost" 
 (Matt.  12  :  31),  which  is  represented  as  an 
 unpardonable  sin,  is  supposed  by  some  to 
 have  consisted  in  the  wicked  ascription  of 
 Christ's  miracles  to  the  agency  of  the  devil ; 
 by  others  it  is  regarded  as  a  malicious  and 
 persevering  rejection  of  Christ,  including 
 a  determined  and  infidel  reviling  of  the 
 work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  As  many  per- 
 sons of  sensitive  consciences  are  filled 
 with  apprehensions  that  they  are  charge- 
 able with  this  sin,  it  may  be  remarked 
 that  their  fear  is  groundless.  The  ex- 
 istence of  fear  is  proof  that  they  are  free 
 from  the  sin.  In  all  cashes  of  its  actual 
 commission  there  is  an  obdurate  insensi- 
 bility of  heart  which  effectually  prevents 
 the  sinner  from  seeking  i)ardon  or  from 
 feeling  any  anxiety  about  his  personal  sal- 
 vation. 
 
 Blast,  The  word  is  used  as  a  verb  and 
 as  a  noun.  As  a  verb  it  means  to  wither  or 
 parch  up  (Hag.  2  :  17) ;  as  a  noun  it  rep- 
 resents the  sound  of  a  horn  or  trumpet 
 (Josh.  6:5);  the  anger  of  God  (2  Kings 
 19  :  7) ;  the  violent  and  futile  assaults  of 
 the  wicked  (Isa.  25  :  4). 
 
 Blas'tus,  Herod's  chamberlain,  whose 
 interest  was  secured  by  the  Tyrians  and  Si- 
 donians  (Acts  12  :  20), 
 
 Blem'ish,  No  person  could  be  a  priest 
 under  the  I>evitical  Law  who  had  any  blem- 
 ish or  bodily  defect  (Lev.  21 :  17-21).  The 
 animals  offered  to  God  in  sacrifice  were  re- 
 quired to  be  perfect  and  without  blemish 
 (Deut.  15  :  21).  This  corporeal  perfection 
 of  {)riests  and  victims  typified  the  spirit- 
 ual perfection  of  our  Lord  Christ,  who,  as 
 Priest  and  Victim,  was  "without  blemish 
 and  without  spot"  (1  Pet.  1  :  19).  Like 
 our  Lord  Christ,  the  Church,  washed  from 
 
BLESS— BLOOD. 
 
 93 
 
 sin  in  his  own  blood,  is  to  be  "without 
 blemish"  (Eph.  5  :  27). 
 
 Bless,  Blessing-.  When  God  blesses 
 man,  the  blessing  includes  the  multiplied 
 bestowments  of  temporal  and  eternal  hap- 
 piness (Job  42  :  12;  Ps.  45  :  2).  When 
 man  blesses  God,  the  blessing  extols  the 
 perfections  of  the  Most  High  and  renders 
 thanks  for  divine  mercies  (Ps.  104  :  1 ; 
 16  :  7).  When  man  blesses  his  fellow- 
 man,  the  blessing  implies  good  wishes 
 and  hearty  prayers  (Ps.  129  :  8 ;  Luke  6  : 
 28).  The  form  of  blessing  prescribed  by 
 the  Jewish  ritual  (Num.  6  :  23-27)  is  ad- 
 mirably simple  and  sublime.  It  was  pro- 
 nounced by  the  priest  standing  and  with 
 uplifted  hands.  Our  Lord,  the  High 
 Priest  of  his  peoj^le,  when  ascending  to 
 heaven  from  Olivet,  "  lifted  up  liis  hands 
 and  blessed"  his  disciples  (Luke  24  :  50). 
 
 Blind^ness,  the  privation  of  sight. 
 From  many  causes  it  was  and  is  ex- 
 tremely common  in  the  East.  Our  Lord 
 displayed  his  power  in  removing  it.  Un- 
 der the  Jewish  Law  it  was  highly  criminal 
 to  annoy  or  mislead  the  blind  ( Lev.  19:14; 
 Deut.  27  :  18).  Spiritual  blindness  is  the 
 want  of  discernment  in  spiritual  things 
 (Matt.  15  :  14).  The  indulgence  of  im- 
 proper tempers  is  denominated  blindness 
 (1  John  2  :  11).  Those  who  are  under 
 the  power  of  Satan  are  blinded  to  tlie  ex- 
 cellences of  the  gospel  (2  Cor.  4:4).  This 
 spiritual  blindness  is  often  sent  on  men  in 
 the  way  of  judgment  from  God  (John  9  : 
 39;  12:  40). 
 
 Blood,  the  fluid  of  life  in  the  animal 
 body  (Ex.  29  :  11,  12),  and  by  figure  the 
 life  itself  ^Lev.  17  :  11).  Its  use  for  food 
 was  expressly  forbidden  to  Noah  (Gen.  9  : 
 4)  when  everything  else  was  freely  given 
 him,  and  was  solemnly  interdicted  by  the 
 Levitical  Law  (Lev.  17  :  10).  It  has  in 
 Scripture  many  and  varied  applications. 
 Watering  the  land  with  blood  (Ezek.  32  : 
 6)  or  pouring  out  fury  in  blood  (Ezek.  14  : 
 19)  denotes  great  slaughter.     To  wash  the 
 
 feet  in  blood  (Ps.  58  :  10)  expresses  signal 
 triumph  over  enemies.  To  build  a  town 
 with  blood  ( Hab.  2:12)  imports  the  wicked 
 and  murderous  means  through  which  it  is 
 done.  To  stop  the  ears  from  hearing  blood 
 (Isa.  33 :  15)  is  to  reject  proposals  for  taking 
 away  life.  These  examples  are  sufficient 
 to  show  the  method  of  interpreting  other 
 similar  expressions.  The  Jewish  ritual 
 made  large  use  of  blood  (Heb.  9  :  22)  with 
 the  design  of  prefiguring  the  atoning  effi- 
 cacy of  our  Lord's  self-sacrifice  (Heb.  7  : 
 27).  To  our  Lord's  blood  are  ascribed 
 cleansing  ( 1  John  1:7;  Rev.  1  :  5),  justi- 
 fication (Rom.  5  :  9),  sanctification  (Heb.  10: 
 29),  redemption  (Eph.  1:7;  Col.  1 :  14),  eter- 
 nal  life  (JoJm  6  :  54). 
 
 Blood,  Reveng-er  of.  Among  na- 
 tions of  patriarchal  habits  it  was,  and  still 
 is,  a  common  practice  for  the  nearest  of 
 kin,  as  a  matter  of  duty,  to  avenge  the 
 death  of  a  murdered  relative.  The  Ko- 
 ran allows  murder  to  be  compensated  by 
 the  payment  of  a  price  agreed  on,  but 
 among  the  Bedouin  and  other  Arab  tribes, 
 should  the  ofl"er  of  blood-money  be  refused, 
 the  law  of  blood-revenge  comes  into  opera- 
 tion, and  any  person  within  the  fifth  degree 
 of  blood  from  the  manslayer  may  be  legally 
 killed  by  any  one  within  the  same  degree 
 of  consanguinity  to  the  victim.  The  right 
 to  blood-revenge  is  never  lost  except  as 
 annulled  by  compensation :  it  descends 
 to  the  latest  generation.  The  Mosaic 
 Law  contains  the  following  precise  regu- 
 lations of  the  custom  of  blood-revenge, 
 the  effect  of  which  was  to  modify  very 
 greatly  the  violence  of  passion  and  to 
 bring  the  whole  matter  of  manslaughter 
 under  the  salutary  control  of  public  jus- 
 tice :  1.  The  willful  murderer  was  to  be 
 put  to  death  without  permission  of  com- 
 pensation. The  nearest  relative  of  the 
 deceased  became  the  authorized  avenger 
 of  blood  (Num.  35  :  19).  2.  The  law  of 
 retaliation  was  not  to  extend  beyond  the 
 immediate  ofl^ender  (Deut.  24 :  16 ;  2  Kings 
 
94 
 
 BOANERGES— BOOK. 
 
 14:6;  2  Chron.  25  :  4 ;  Jer.  31  :  30).  3. 
 The  involunUiry  blood-shedder  was  per- 
 mitted to  flee  to  one  of  six  Levitical 
 cities  specially  appointed  as  cities  of  ref- 
 uge (Num.  35  :  11-28;  Deut.  19  :  4-10). 
 
 Bo-a-ner'ges  [ko7is  of  thunder],  a  sur- 
 name given  by  our  Lord  to  James  and 
 John  (Mark  3  :  17),  probably  on  account 
 of  their  fervid,  impetuous  spirit. 
 
 Boar.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  Ps.  80  :  13  is  in  every  otlier  pas- 
 sage rendered  Swine  (which  see).     In  the 
 
 -^^^-^  /' 
 
 Syrian  Boar. 
 
 wild  state  the  boar  is  a  very  ferocious  and 
 formidable  animal.  Its  common  haunt  is 
 the  deptlis  of  forest  and  jungle,  but  when 
 the  grain  is  nearly  ripe  or  when  the  grapes 
 are  maturing  it  commits  great  ravages  in 
 the  fields  and  vineyards,  ploughing  over 
 the  ground  with  its  snout  and  breaking 
 the  vines  with  its  sharp  tusks.  To  it  are 
 aptly  compared  the  powers  that  subverted 
 the  Jewish  nation. 
 
 Bo'az  [in  him  is  strength'],  a  wealthy 
 Bethlehemite  and  kinsman  of  the  first 
 husband  of  Ruth,  whom  he  afterward 
 married  (Ruth  2:1).  By  this  marriage 
 he  became  one  of  the  direct  ancestors  of 
 Christ  (Matt.   1  :  5).      His  character  ap- 
 
 pears to  great  advantage  in  the  book  of 
 Ruth. 
 
 BoAZ  was  also  the  name  given  to  the  left 
 hand  one  of  the  two  brazen  pillars  which 
 Solomon  erected  in  the  court  of  the  tem- 
 ple (1  Kings  7  :  21). 
 
 Bo'chiin[o/"<Aewe€pers],thenamegiven 
 to  a  place  where  "  an  angel  of  the  Lord  " 
 reproved  the  assembled  Israelites  for  their 
 disobedience  in  forming  alliances  with  the 
 heathen.  This  caused  profound  grief  and 
 weeping  among  the  people,  from  which 
 circumstance  the  place  took  its  name 
 ( Judg.  2 : 4, 5).  "An  angel "  is  thought 
 to  have  the  ordinary  sense  of  "  a  mes- 
 senger," and  he  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  a  im)phet. 
 
 Body.     In  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion this  word  is  the  rendering  of  sev- 
 eral Hebrew  words  and  of  one  Greek 
 word,  all  of  which  are  employed  to 
 designate  the  animal  frame  of  man  as 
 distinguished  from  his  spiritual  na- 
 ^_       ture  (1  Sam.  31  :  12;   Prov.   5  :  11 ; 
 Isa.  51  :  23 ;  Matt.  6  :  22 ;  2  Cor.  5 : 
 ^^      8 ;  James  2  :  26).     At  the  resurrec- 
 ti(m  the  body  is  to  be  changed  ( 1  Cor. 
 15  :  42,  51-53;  Phil.  3  :  21).     Tropi- 
 cally, the  body,  as  something  substan- 
 tial, is  opposed  to  shadow,  figure  (Col. 
 2  :  17),  and  as  an  organized  whole  it  is 
 used  to  image  the  Church  of  Christ  (Roin. 
 12  :  5;  1  Cor.  10  :  17  ;  Eph.  1 :  23 ;  Col.  3  : 
 15). 
 
 Boll'ed  (Ex.  9  :  31).  When  the  flax 
 was  in  the  pod,  or  nearly  ready  for  gath- 
 ering, it  was  said  to  be  boiled. 
 
 Book.  In  ancient  times  tablets  of 
 metal,  wood,  stone  and  bark  were  used 
 for  writing  upon.  The  law  from  Sinai 
 was  inscribed  on  stone.  A  tablet  was  of- 
 ten coated  over  with  a  thin  layer  of  wax, 
 to  facilitate  the  operation  of  writing  with 
 an  iron  style  or  pen.  The  thin  bark  of 
 the  maple,  ash,  beech  and  other  trees  was 
 also  used  instead  of  paper.  The  word 
 book  is  supposed  to  be  related  to  beech, 
 
BOOTH— BOOTY. 
 
 95 
 
 because  in  the  northern  countries  of  Eu- 
 rope books  were  anciently  made  of  the 
 bark  or  thin  smooth  slices  of  beech- 
 wood.     The   Latins   used   the  word  liber 
 
 Ancient  Rolls. 
 
 in  the  double  sense  of  inner  bark,  or 
 bast-fibre,  and  book.  Tliese  barks,  in- 
 stead of  being  made  into  leaves,  were 
 united  in  a  continuous  sheet,  and  from 
 their  being  rolled  up  were  called  voln- 
 men,  whence  our  word  volume.  One  of 
 the  most  ancient  materials  used  for  wri- 
 ting on  was  a  sheet  prepared  from  a  reed 
 called  the  pujiyrui^,  whence  our  name  of 
 paper.  At  still  later  periods  the  skins  of 
 animals  and  parchment  were  used.  The 
 invention   of  paper   made  of  linen   only 
 
 Method  of  Unrolling  Ancient  Manuscripts. 
 
 dates  back  to  A.  D.  1300,  but  of  cotton 
 to  A.  D.  1000  or  1100,  and  printing  was 
 not  introduced  until  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
 teenth century.     Wlien,  therefore,  we  read 
 
 of  books  used  in  Scripture  times,  we  are  not 
 to  suppose  they  were  like  the  convenient 
 volumes  now  used,  but  either  tablets  fas- 
 tened together  at  the  edges  by  rings, 
 through  which  a  stick  was  passed  for 
 convenience  in  carrying,  or  rolls  of  a 
 continuous  sheet,  which  were  unfolded 
 backward  or  forward  until  the  place  was 
 found  which  the  reader  wanted.  The 
 Book  of  the  Law  which  is  read  in  the 
 Jewish  synagogues  at  the  present  time  is 
 written  on  such  rolls.  In  some  nations 
 writings  took  tlie  form  of  pages  laid  to- 
 gether, but  not  bound. 
 
 A  sealed  book  (Rev.  5  :  1-3)  is  a  book 
 or  roll  whose  contents  are  not  made 
 known.  A  book  of  remembrance  (Mai. 
 3  :  16)  may  allude  to  the  custom  of  kings 
 in  registering  the  services  rendered  to 
 them  by  individuals.  The  book  of  life 
 (Rev.  21  :  27)  denotes  the  certainty  of 
 the  salvation  of  those  who  are  redeemed 
 by  Christ.  To  eat  a  book  ( Jer.  15  :  16 ; 
 Rev.  10  :  9,  10)  may  refer  to  the  careful 
 reading  of  it  and  digesting  its  contents. 
 The  names  of  men  are  registered  in  the 
 books  of  judgment  (Dan.  7:10;  Rev.  20  : 
 12),  and  they  are  judged  out  of  them  ac- 
 cording to  their  deeds,  whether  good  or 
 evil ;  by  which  we  are  to  understand  that 
 God  has  a  perfect  remembrance  of  the 
 character  and  acts  of  all  men,  and 
 will  judge  them  accordingly. 
 
 Booth,  a  hut  made  of  green 
 boughs  fixed  on  upright  poles,  and 
 thus  distinguished  from  a  tent,  in 
 which  the  Israelites  were  directed 
 to  celebrate  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
 (Lev.  23  :  40).  This  was  done  in 
 commemoration  of  their  abode  in 
 the  wilderness. 
 
 Boo'ty.  This  word  is  used  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  to  denote  tlie  cap- 
 tives of  both  sexes,  the  cattle  and  what- 
 ever a  captured  city  might  contain,  espe- 
 cially metallic  treasures  (Num.  31  :  32). 
 Within  the  limits  of  Canaan  no  captives 
 
96 
 
 BORROW— BOTTLE, 
 
 were  to  be  made  (Deut.  20  :  12-17) ;  be-  | 
 yond  these  limits,  in  case  of  warlike  re- 
 sistance, all  the  women  and  children  were 
 to  be  made  captives  and  the  men  put  to 
 death.  The  law  of  booty  is  given  in 
 Num.  31  :  26-47.  As  regarded  the  army, 
 David  added  a  regulation  that  the  baggage- 
 guard  should  share  equally  with  the  troops 
 engaged  (1  Sam.  30  :  24,  25). 
 
 Bor'row.  The  word  translated  bor- 
 row in  Ex.  11  :  2  has  the  general  sense 
 of  ask,  request,  demand,  and  does  not  im- 
 ply any  promise  to  return.  The  Hebrews 
 had  rendered  the  Egyptians  a  long  and  se- 
 vere servitude,  and  on  the  eve  of  leaving 
 the  country  they  demanded  compensation, 
 which,  in  the  panic,  was  promptly  given. 
 They  left  behind  them  much  real  proper- 
 ty in  the  houses  and  lands  they  had  occu- 
 pied. 
 
 Bos''om.  It  is  usual  with  the  West- 
 ern Asiatics  to  carry  various  sorts  of 
 things  in  the  bosom  of  their  dress,  which, 
 from  its  loose  construction  around  the 
 neck,  is  both  convenient  and  easy.  In 
 allusion  to  this  Christ  is  beautifully  rep- 
 resented as  carrying  the  lambs  in  his  bos- 
 om (Isa.  40  :  11).  To  be  pressed  to  the 
 bosom,  to  lie  in  the  bosom,  denotes  inti- 
 macy, affection,  security  and  confidence 
 (Gen.  16:5;  John  1  :  18  ;  13  :  23). 
 
 Boss'es,  tiie  projecting  points  on  the 
 face  of  a  buckler  or  shield  (Job  15  :  26). 
 Botch.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  (Deut. 
 28  :  27,  35)  is  elsewhere  rendered  "boil" 
 (Ex.  9  :  9,  10),  and  has  the  sense  of  a  cu- 
 taneous inflammatory  eruption. 
 
 Bot'tle.  It  was  and  is  still  customary 
 among  Eastern  nations  to  convert  the  skins 
 of  slaughtered  animals  into  vessels  for 
 holding  wine  or  water.  The  skin  being 
 stripped  off  without  any  incision  in  the 
 lower  part,  and  properly  dressed,  it  was 
 only  necessary  to  tie  up  those  parts 
 through  which  the  legs  passed,  and  leave 
 the  neck  open  for  the  mouth  of  the  vessel. 
 
 It  is  necessary  to  bear  this  in  mind  in  in- 
 terpreting those  scriptures  which  refer  to 
 bottles.  Thus,  the  Gibeonites,  in  pre- 
 tending to  Joshua  that  they  had  traveled 
 a  great  distance,  took  among  other  things 
 "  wine-bottles  old  and  rent,  and  bound 
 up"  (Josh.  9:4);  these  must  necessarily 
 have  been  skin-bottles.  Thus,  too,  ac- 
 cording to  Matt.  9:17,  men  do  not  put 
 
 Skin-Bottle. 
 
 new  and  fermenting  wine  into  old  skin- 
 bottles,  for  fear  of  their  bursting.  A  pas- 
 sage apparently  contradictory  to  this  is  the 
 word  of  p:iihu  (Job  32 :  19),  "  My  belly  is 
 as  wine  which  hath  no  vent;  it  is  ready  to 
 burst  like  neiv  bottles."  He  may  be  sup- 
 posed to  say  that,  although  new  wine  is 
 not  apt  to  burst  new  skins,  yet  it  may 
 do  even  this  when  there  is  no  vent  and 
 the  fermentation  is  powerful ;  so  with  me, 
 my  impatience  to  utter  the  fullness  of  my 
 mind  is  so  great  that  I  am  ready  to  burst. 
 In  Ps.  119  :  83,  David  compares  himself  to 
 a  bottle  in  the  smoke.  A  skin-bottle  hung 
 up  and  exposed  to  the  smoke  of  an  Arab 
 tent  would  become  dingy  and  shriveled, 
 and  so  would  properly  represent  the  ap- 
 pearance of  one  who,  by  distress,  had  be- 
 come sadly  altered.  Bottles  of  earthen- 
 ware are  also  spoken  of  (Jer.  19:1,  10). 
 Metaphorically,  the  clouds  are  called  "the 
 bottles  of  heaven"  (Job  38  :  37)  and  by  a 
 beautiful  figure  the  "tears"  of  suffering 
 
BOW— BRACELET. 
 
 saints  are  represented  as  preserved  in  the 
 treasure-bottle  of  Jehovah  (Ps.  56  :  8). 
 
 Bow.     See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Bow,  Rainbow.    See  Rainbow. 
 
 Bow^els  are  often  spoken  of  in  the 
 Scriptures  as  the  seat  of  certain  emotions, 
 and  as  we  speak  of  the  heart.  Thus  "  bow- 
 els of  mercies"  (Col.  3  :  12),  "bowels  of 
 compassion"  (1  John  3  :  17).  Sometimes, 
 also,  the  bowels  are  made  the  seat  of  wis- 
 dom and  understanding  (Job  38  :  36;  Ps. 
 51  :  10;  Isa.  16:  11). 
 
 Bow^'ing.  As  an  attitude  indicative 
 of  respect  and  reverence,  bowing  was  in 
 use  from  the  earliest  times  (Gen.  23  :  7 ; 
 33  :  3 ;  43  :  28),  and  is  still  in  use  among 
 
 ^^- 
 
 Three  Postures  in  Buwiiis. 
 
 the  peoples  of  the  East.  Tlie  attitude  is 
 more  or  less  profound,  in  accordance  Avith 
 the  dignity  and  station  of  the  person  sa- 
 luted and  the  feeling  of  homage  in  the 
 person  saluting.  Before  the  great  and 
 noble.  Eastern  people  of  to-day  incline 
 themselves  almost  to  the  earth;  before 
 princes  and  kings,  they  prostrate  them- 
 selves at  full  length  upon  the  ground. 
 Similar  were  the  customs  of  the  ancient 
 Hebrews  (Ex.  4  :  31  ;  1  Sam.  24  :  8 ;  1 
 Kings  1  :  53;  2  :  19).  In  addition  to  its 
 use  as  a  gesture  of  courtesy,  bowing  is  fre- 
 quently mentioned  in  Scripture  as  an  act 
 of  adoration  to  idols  (Josh.  23  :  7 ;  Judg. 
 7 
 
 2  :  19  ;  2  Kings  5:18;  Isa.  44  :  15,  17,  19  ; 
 46  :  6),  and  also  to  the  supreme  God  (Josh. 
 5  :  14 ;  Ps.  95  :  6 ;  Mic.  6:6;  Eph.  3  : 
 14). 
 
 Box  Tree.  This  tree  is  mentioned 
 but  twice  in  Scripture — in  Isa.  41  :  19  and 
 60  :  13.  The  Hebrew  name  for  it  has  the 
 sense  of  erectnexs,  (alhiess.  The  Talmud- 
 ical  and  Jewish  writers  generally  are  of 
 opinion  that  the  box  tree  is  intended,  but 
 the  more  probable  opinion  identifies  it 
 with  the  sherbin,  a  species  of  cedar. 
 
 Boz'rah  [^enclosure].  In  most  of  tlie 
 passages  in  which  this  place  is  mentioned 
 it  is  referred  to  as  a  city  of  Edom,  as  in 
 Isa.  34  :  6 ;  63  :  1,  but  in  Jer.  48  :  24  it  is 
 represented  as  a  city  of  Moab.  This  lias 
 given  rise  to  the  question  wliether  there 
 were  not  two  places  of  the  same  name. 
 Some  critics  contend  that  but  one  place  is 
 intended,  and  that  the  seeming  reference 
 to  two  places  has  been  occasioned  by  that 
 change  of  masters  which  war  so  often 
 brings  about.  The  weight  of  opinion, 
 however,  inclines  to  the  existence  of  fwo 
 places  bearing  the  same  name — the  one  in 
 Edom,  the  modern  el-Busmreh,  a  village 
 of  about  fifty  houses  standing  on  a  height 
 south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  halfway 
 between  the  sea  and  Petra  ;  the  other,  the 
 modern  Busrah,  in  Hauran,  the  J3(}stra  of 
 the  Greeks  and  Romans,  situated  in  an 
 open  plain  some  sixty  miles  south  of 
 Damascus,  and  once,  as  evidenced  to-day 
 by  extensive  ruins,  a  city  of  considerable 
 note. 
 
 Bracelet,  an  ornament  for  the  wrist 
 worn  by  both  sexes,  but  particulai-ly  by 
 women  (Gen.  24  :  30 ;  38  :  18).  Similar 
 ornaments  were  worn  on  the  arm  above 
 the  elbow  and  on  the  ankle.  Layard  says 
 of  the  Assyrian  kings  :  "  The  arms  were 
 encircled  by  armlets  and  the  wrists  by 
 bracelets."  Representations  of  bracelets 
 worn  by  the  Egyptians,  and  most  likely 
 by  the  Hebrews,  are  found  on  the  tombs 
 at  Thebes. 
 
98 
 
 BRA  MBLE— BRE  A  D. 
 
 BraTn''ble.  This  word  is  not  the  rep- 
 resentative of  a  trailing  plant,  but  of  a 
 tliorny  shrub.  Such  shrubs  are  abun- 
 dant in  Palestine  (Judg.  9  :  14,  15;  Luke 
 6  :  44).    iSee  Thorns  and  Thistles. 
 
 Branch.  As  trees  in  Scripture  often 
 denote  great  men  and  princes,  so  branches, 
 boughs,  sprouts,  plants,  denote  their  ofl- 
 spring.  In  conformity  with  this  mode  of 
 speaking,  Christ,  in  respect  of  his  human 
 nature,  is  styled  "  a  rod  out  of  the  stem  of 
 Jesse,  and  a  branch  out  of  his  roots"  (Isa. 
 11  :  1).  He  is  styled  also  the  Branch 
 in  Zech.  3:8.  As  only  a  vigorous  tree 
 can  send  forth  vigorous  branches,  a  branch 
 is  used  as  a  general  symbol  of  prosperity 
 (Job  8  :  16).  The  rejection  of  the  Jews  is 
 compared  to  branches  broken  off  (Rom. 
 11  :  17,  21).  "Putting  the  branch  to  the 
 nose"  was  a  ceremonial  act  in  the  wor- 
 ship of  the  ancient  fire  or  sun-worshipers, 
 and  is  referred  to  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
 (8:  16,  17). 
 
 Brass  [the  shlninf/  or  hni-d  or  Rlrong^. 
 The  Hebrew  word  rendered  thus  in 
 our  English  Bible  is  not  brass,  but 
 most  generally  copper,  sometimes  bronze, 
 a  compound  of  copper  and  tin  (Deut. 
 8:9:  33  :  25;  Job  28  :  2).  Copper 
 was  known  at  a  very  early  period 
 (Gen.  4  :  22),  and  bronze  is  frequently 
 found  in  ancient  tombs.  In  figure 
 the  word  brass  is  used  to  symbolize 
 strength  (Mic.  4  :  13),  obstinacy  (Isa. 
 48  :  4)  and  baseness  (Jer.  6  :  28).  The 
 "fine  brass"  of  Rev.  1  :  15;  2 :  18  is 
 a  brilliant  compound,  probably  of  gold 
 and  silver,  like  the  famous  "Corinthian 
 brass." 
 
 Brav^e-ry,  a  term  used  in  our  Eng- 
 lish Version  only  in  its  early  sense  of 
 finery  (Isa.  3  :  18). 
 
 Bra"wFer,  a  quarrelsome  man  ( 1  Tim. 
 3:3;  Tit.  3  :  2). 
 
 Bray,  the  peculiar  cry  of  an  ass  (Job 
 6:5).  It  means  also  to  beat  to  pieces  in 
 a  mortar  (Prov.  27  :  22).     Braying   in   a 
 
 mortar  is  a  punishment  still  in  use  among 
 Oriental  nations. 
 
 Bra'zen  Ser'pent.    See  Serpent. 
 
 Bread.  The  first  mention  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures of  the  preparation  of  bread  as  an  ar- 
 ticle of  food  is  in  Gen.  18  :  5,  6,  where 
 Abraham,  oflTering  refreshment  to  the 
 three  angels  on  the  plain  of  Mamre, 
 proposes  to  "  fetch  a  morsel  of  bread," 
 and  hastens  into  Sarah's  tent  to  say  to 
 her,  as  the  mistress  of  his  household, 
 "  Make  ready  quickly  three  measures  of 
 fine  meal  (wheaten  flour),  knead  it,  and 
 make  cakes  upon  the  hearth."  The  cakes 
 thus  quickly  made  were  obviously  unleav- 
 ened, l)nt  the  use  of  the  Avord  unleavened 
 in  the  account  of  Lot's  entertainment  of 
 two  angels  immediately  succeeding  the  in- 
 terview with  Abraham  (Gen.  19  :  3)  im- 
 plies that  in  those  early  times  the  two 
 great  classes  of  bread,  leavened  and  un- 
 leavened, were  known  and  used.  The 
 best  bread  was  made  of  wheat,  which, 
 after  being  ground,  produced  the  "flour" 
 or  "meal"  (Judg.  6  :  19;  1  Sam.  1  :  24; 
 1  Kings  4  :  22;  17  :  12,  14),  and  when 
 sifted  the  "fine  flour"  usually  employed 
 in  the  sacred  offerings  (Ex.  29  :  40;  Lev. 
 2:1;  Ezek.  46  :  14)  and  in  the  meals  of 
 the  wealthy  (1  Kings  4  :  22;  2  Kings  7  : 
 1 ;  Ezek.  16  :  13,  19 ;  Rev.  18  :  13).  The 
 process  of  making  bread  was  as  follows : 
 The  flour  was  first  mixed  with  water,  or 
 perhaps  milk ;  it  was  then  kneaded  with 
 the  hands  in  a  small  wooden  bowl  or 
 "  kneading-trough  "  until  it  became  dough 
 (Ex.  12  :  34,  39;  2  Sam.  13  :  8;  Jer.  7  : 
 18 ;  Hos.  7  :  4).  When  the  kneading  was 
 completed,  leaven  was  generally  added, 
 but  when  the  time  for  preparation  was 
 short  it  was  omitted,  and  unleavened 
 cakes,  hastily  baked,  were  eaten,  as  is 
 still  the  prevalent  custom  among  the  Be- 
 douin. The  leavened  mass  was  allowed 
 to  stand  for  some  time  (Matt.  13:33; 
 Luke  13  :  21).  The  dough  was  then  di- 
 vided   into    round    cakes   (Ex.  29  :  23; 
 
BREASTPLATE— BRICK. 
 
 99 
 
 Judg.  7  :  13;  8  :  5;  1  Sam.  10  :  3;  Prov. 
 6  :  26),  not  unlike  flat  stones  in  shape  and 
 appearance  (Matt.  7  :  9),  and  these  cakes 
 were  baked  in  an  oven  heated  with  wood 
 (1  Kings  17  :  12;  Isa.  44  :  15)  or  dried 
 grass  and  flower-stalks  (Matt.  6  :  30). 
 The  cakes  when  eaten  were  broken,  and 
 not  cut  with  a  knife.  From  this  circum- 
 stance arose  the  familiar  expression 
 "  breaking  of  bread,"  signifying  to  take 
 a  repast  (Luke  24  :  35).  Breaking  of 
 bread  also  denotes  the  celebration  of 
 the  Lord's  Supper  (Acts  2  :  42).  Bread 
 was  baked  in  the  ashes,  on  the  hearth, 
 on  metal  plates  and  in  ovens.  The 
 Arabs,  from  scarcity  of  fuel,  sometimes 
 bake  their  bread  with  fires  made  of  cow- 
 dung  (Ezek.  4  :  15),  but  oftener  with  the 
 dung  of  camels  and  asses.  The  "crack- 
 nels" mentioned  in  1  Kings  14  :  3  were 
 a  hard  kind  of  biscuit. 
 
 Shew-Bread. 
 
 The  SHEW-BREAD,  Or  bread  of  the  pres- 
 ence, is  described  in  Lev.  24  :  5-9.  It  was 
 presented  every  Sabbath  day  before  the 
 Lord,  the  stale  loaves  being  removed  as 
 the  fresh  ones  were  laid  on  the  table.  It 
 was  not  lawful  for  any  but  the  priests  to 
 eat  of  it  (Matt.  12  :  4). 
 
 Breast^plate,  a  terra  applied  in  our 
 English  Version  to  two  very  different 
 pieces  of  equipment. 
 
 1.  Sacerdotal. — This  was  a  beautiful 
 part  of  the  dress  of  the  Jewish  high  priest, 
 covering  his  breast  and  composed  of  rich- 
 ly embroidered  cloth,  in  which  were  set,  in 
 
 four  rows,  twelve  precious  stones,  whereon 
 were  engraved  the  names  of  the  twelve 
 tribes  of  Israel  (Ex.  28  :  15-29;  39  :  8- 
 21).      It  was   suspended  to  the  neck  by 
 
 Breastplate. 
 
 rich  chains  of  gold.  In  wearing  it  the 
 high  priest  became,  in  a  certain  sense, 
 the  representative  of  the  tribes  of  Israel 
 in  his  holy  ministrations,  and  was  thus  a 
 type  of  Christ,  the  great  High  Priest,  who, 
 in  his  continual  intercession  for  his  people, 
 carries  their  names  on  his  heart. 
 
 2.  Military. — This  was  a  piece  of  de- 
 fensive armor.     See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Brick,  a  kind  of  artificial  stone  made 
 of  baked  clay.  The  art  of  brickmaking 
 dates  from  the  earliest  times  (Gen.  11  :  3), 
 and  was  probably  the  invention  of  the  an- 
 cient inhabitants  of  the  alluvial  plain  of 
 Shinar.  The  bricks  of  Babylon  were 
 commonly  burned  in  kilns,  but  those  of 
 Nineveh  and  Egypt,  because  made  with 
 straw  to  prevent  cracking,  were  univer- 
 sally sun-dried.     Most  of  the  Babylonian 
 
100 
 
 BRICK. 
 
 bricks  now  found  bear  the  name  inscribed 
 in  cuneiform  characters  of  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar,  whose   buildings  doubtless   replaced 
 
 Egyptian  Brickmaking. 
 
 those  of  an  earlier  age.  A  similar  custom 
 of  stamping  bricks  -with  the  name  of  the 
 monarch  in  whose  reign  tliey  were  made 
 existed  in  Egypt,  and  Wilkinson  states 
 that  there  have  been  discovered  more 
 bricks  bearing  the  name  of  Thothmes 
 III.  (a  Pharaoh  who  reigned  a  short 
 time  before  the  Exodus)  than  of  any 
 other  period.  Lately-discovered  and  re- 
 cently-deciphered monuments  of  the  reign 
 of  Thothmes  III.  furnish  abundant  illus- 
 trations of  tlie  hard  bondage  of  the  He- 
 brews  in   Egypt.      Brickmaking,   as  the 
 
 work  of  prisoners  and  slaves,  and  as  the 
 source  whence  came  the  material  for  the 
 building  of  temples  and  storeliouses,  is  in 
 every  stage  of  the  work  viv- 
 idly picturetl  on  walls.  Some 
 of  the  unfortunate  workers 
 carry  water  in  jugs  from 
 the  tank  hard  by;  others 
 knead  and  cut  up  the  loamy 
 earth;  others,  again,  by  the 
 lielp  of  a  wooden  form,  make 
 the  bricks  or  place  them  care- 
 fully in  long  rows  to  dry. 
 Overseers  urge  the  workers 
 to  complete  their  tasks ;  one 
 of  these  overseers  is  repre- 
 sented as  speaking  to  the 
 workers  thus:  "The  stick 
 is  in  my  hand  ;  be  not  idle." 
 The  ancient  Egyptians  es- 
 teemed brickmaking  an  un- 
 healtliy  and  exhausting  em- 
 ployment, and  accordingly 
 imposed  it  upon  captives  and 
 slaves.  In  common  with 
 other  captives,  the  Israelites 
 in  Egypt  were  forced  to"  make 
 bricks  (Ex.  1  :  14;  5 :  6-19), 
 and  were  so  cruelly  oppressed 
 tliat  "  their  cry  came  up  unto 
 God  "  (Ex.  2 :  23),  and  Moses 
 was  sent  to  bring  them  out  of 
 the  house  of  bondage  ( Ex.  3  : 
 7-10).  The  Egyptian  monu- 
 ments of  the  period  contain  many  repre- 
 sentations of  light-colored  bondsmen  en- 
 
 Brick  stamped  with  Name  of  Thothmes  III. 
 
 gaged  in  brickmaking,  who,  possibly,  were 
 Hebrews,  but  who,  if  not  Hebrews,  resem- 
 
BRIDE— BULL. 
 
 101 
 
 bled  closely  God's  ancient  people  in  servi- 
 tude and  sufiering. 
 
 As  to  the  use  of  bricks  by  the  Hebrews 
 in  Palestine,  the  notices  in  Scripture  are 
 very  slight.  The  brick-kiln  is  referred 
 to  in  David's  time  (2  Sam.  12  :  31),  and 
 Isaiah  complains  that  the  people  built 
 altars  of  brick  instead  of  unhewn  stone, 
 as  directed  by  the  Law  (Isa.  65  :  3 ;  Ex. 
 20  :  25). 
 
 Bride,  Bride'groom.  See  Mar- 
 riage. 
 
 Bribers,     See  Thorns  and  Thistles. 
 
 Brig'an-dine,  a  coat-of-mail  (Jer. 
 46  :  4;  51  :  3).    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Brim'stone  [buming-stonel,  the  old 
 English  designation  of  sulphur,  a  higlily 
 inflammable  mineral  found  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  volcanoes,  and  one  of  the  in- 
 gredients used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
 powder. With  fire  and  brimstone  God 
 destroyed  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Go- 
 morrah (Gen.  19  :  24).  It  is  used  as  a 
 symbol  of  desolation :  "  brimstone  shall 
 be  scattered  upon  his  habitation"  (Job 
 18  :  15;  Deut.  29  :  23).  In  India  they 
 still  designate  a  barren  and  arid  soil  as 
 a  place  of  brimstone.  It  is  also  used  to 
 express  great  suffering  and  pain  (Ps.  11  : 
 6).  It  is  descriptive,  too,  of  the  torments 
 of  hell  (Rev.  21  :  8). 
 
 Brook,  the  rendering  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  four  Hebrew  words — the 
 first  denoting  a  violent  torrent  sweeping 
 through  a  mountain-gorge  (Ps.  42  :  1 ) ; 
 the  second,  an  Egyptian  word  applied 
 to  the  Nile  or  to  the  canals  by  which 
 Egypt  was  watered  (Isa.  19  :  6,  7,  8) ; 
 the  third,  occurring  but  once  and  sig- 
 nifying a  "rivulet"  or  small  stream  of 
 water  (2  Sam.  17  :  20) ;  the  fourth,  a  term 
 applied  to  the  dry  torrent-bed  and  ren- 
 dered "valley"  (Num.  21  :  12  ;  Judg.  16  : 
 4),  and  to  the  torrent  itself  (1  Kings  17  : 
 3). 
 
 Brother.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered   in   our  Authorized  Version   is 
 
 used  in  various  senses  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment: 1.  Any  kinsman,  and  not  a  mere 
 brother ;  for  example,  nephew  (Gen.  14  : 
 16),  husband  (Song  4:9);  2.  One  of  the 
 same  tribe  (2  Sam.  19  :  12,  13) ;  3.  Of  the 
 same  people  (Ex.  2  :  11),  or  even  of  a 
 cognate  people  (Num.  20  :  14) ;  4.  An  ally 
 (Amos  1  :  9) ;  5.  Any  friend  (Job  6:15); 
 
 6.  One  of  the  same  ofiice  (1  Kings  9  :  13) ; 
 
 7.  A  fellow-man  (Lev.  19  :  17) ;  8.  Meta- 
 phorically of  any  similarity,  as  in  Job  30  : 
 29.  The  Greek  word  rendered  "brother" 
 in  the  New  Testament  has  a  similar  range 
 of  meanings. 
 
 Bruit,  an  old  word  meaning  a  report 
 or  rumor  (Jer.  10  :  22 ;  Nah.  3:19). 
 
 Buck'ler.     See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Buffet,  to  beat,  to  harass  (1  Cor.  4  : 
 11;  2  Cor.  12:7). 
 
 Build.  This  word,  with  its  derivatives, 
 is  used  frequently  in  a  figurative  sense. 
 For  example,  the  saints  are  built  on  Christ 
 as  the  true  foundation  (Col.  2:7;  Eph.  2  : 
 20) ;  the  people  of  God  are  built  on  faith 
 (Jude  20) ;  the  apostles  are  called  wise 
 master-builders  (1  Cor.  3  :  10)  ;  to  build 
 up  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  is  to  give  se- 
 curity and  strength  to  the  Church  (Ps.  51 : 
 18).  In  its  figurative  use,  therefore,  it 
 denotes  security,  enlargement,  successful 
 enterprise. 
 
 Bui  [  products  OT  fruit],  the  eighth  month 
 of  the  Jewish  sacred  year  reckoning  and 
 second  of  their  civil,  corresponding  to  our 
 October  or  November  (1  Kings  6  :  38). 
 
 Bull,  Bullock.  These  terms,  used 
 synonymously  with  "ox,"  "oxen,"  in  our 
 Authorized  Version,  represent  several  He- 
 brew words  which  may  be  thus  describ- 
 ed: 1.  The  most  common  word  (bakar)  is 
 properly  a  generic  name  for  horned  cattle 
 when  of  full  age  and  fit  for  the  plough.  It 
 is  rendered  sometimes  bullock  (Isa.  65  :  25), 
 sometimes  coiv  (Ezek.  4  :  15)  and  some- 
 times oxen  (Gen.  12  :  16).  2.  The  next 
 most  common  word  (shor)  embodies  the 
 idea  of   size,   and    is    used    interchange- 
 
102 
 
 BULRUSH— BURI A  L. 
 
 ably  with  hakar  for  domestic  cattle  in  a 
 generic  sense  (Gen.  32  :  5,  7  ;  Ex.  22 :  1 ; 
 1  Kings  1  :  9,  19).  3.  Another  word  {par) 
 is  extensively  employed,  especially  in  the 
 
 Syrian  Bull. 
 
 directions  for  sacrifices,  and  appears  to 
 mean  specifically  a  young  bull  or  one  in 
 tlie  prime  of  his  vigor — a  "  bullock,"  but 
 not  emasculated  (Gen.  32  :  15 ;  Ps.  22  : 
 12).  4.  Still  another  word  {abbir')  has 
 the  general  sense  strong,  and  describes 
 those  ferocious,  semi-wild  bovine  races 
 which  roamed  through  tlie  forest-pastures 
 of  Western  Asia  (Ps.  50  :  13 ;  68  :  30 ;  Isa. 
 34  :  7;  Jer.  50  :  11).  5.  The  word  (to) 
 rendered  "  wild  bull "  in  Isa.  51  :  20  is 
 rendered  "  wild  ox "  in  Deut.  14:5,  and 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the  larger 
 species  of  antelope,  taking  its  name  from 
 its  swi/lness.  The  term  "  bulls  "  is  figura- 
 tively used  to  denote  ferocious  and  power- 
 ful enemies.  David  compares  his  enemies 
 to  the  bulls  of  Bashan,  which,  from  being 
 full  fed  in  their  rich  pastures,  exhibited 
 great  strength  and  ferocity  (Ps.  22  :  12). 
 Bul'rush,  a  species  of  reed  growing 
 in  the  marshy  places  of  the  Nile — the 
 papyruit,  out  of  the  bark  of  which  the 
 ancient  paper  was  made.  The  little  ark 
 in  which  Moses  was  exposed  in  the  river 
 
 by  his  mother  was  made  of  this  material 
 (Ex.  2  :  3).  The  bulrush  grew  to  the 
 height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  was  eas- 
 ily bowed  by  the  wind ;  hence  hanging 
 down  the  head  in  token  of  sorrow  is 
 compared  to  the  bending  of  the  bul- 
 rush (Isa.  58  :  5).    See  Reed. 
 
 Bun'dle.  Things  bound  together 
 constitute  a  bundle.  Thus  bundles  of 
 tares  represent  the  wicked  gathered  to- 
 gether to  be  ca.st  into  hell  (Matt.  13  : 
 30).  The  soul  bound  up  in  the  bundle 
 of  life  denotes  its  being  secured  and 
 preserved  ( 1  Sam.  25  :  29). 
 
 Bur'den.  The  word  in  Hebrew 
 thus  rendered  means  a  lifting  up  ;  that 
 is,  of  the  voice.  It  is  used  in  prophecy 
 k  to  indicate  the  prediction  of  heavy  judg- 
 ments ;  thus  the  burden  of  Moab  (Lsa. 
 15  :  1),  the  burden  of  Damascus  (Isa. 
 17  :  1),  the  burden  of  Egypt  (Isa.  19  : 
 
 1). 
 Bur'ial.     In  this  article  will  be  pre- 
 sented a  brief  notice  of  tlie  ancient  treat- 
 ment of  the  dead. 
 
 1.  When  a  person  died,  immediate 
 preparations  were  made  for  the  burial, 
 which  was  hastened  in  consequence  of 
 the  heat  of  the  climate.  The  eyes  being 
 closed,  the  near  relatives  aflectionately 
 kissed  the  corpse.  The  ceremony  of  clo- 
 sing the  eyes  by  a  near  kinsman  is  refer- 
 red to  in  Gen.  46  :  4 ;  and  in  Gen.  50  :  1 
 we  are  told  that  when  Jacob  died  "Jo- 
 seph fell  upon  his  father's  face,  and  wept 
 upon  him  and  kissed  him."  The  corjise 
 was  then  washed  with  water  and  laid  in 
 an  upper  room  (2  Kings  4  :  21 ;  Acts  9  : 
 37).  Then  the  body  was  wrajiped  round 
 with  many  folds  of  linen,  and  the  head 
 bound  up  in  a  separate  napkin,  as  in  tlie 
 case  of  Lazarus  (John  11  :  44).  So  also 
 in  the  burial  of  our  Lord  (John  20  :  6,  7). 
 
 2.  Embalming  the  Body. — Among  the 
 Egyptians  the  process  of  embalming  the 
 dead  was  committed  to  a  particular  class 
 of  persons,  whose  office  was  deemed  sa- 
 
BURIAL. 
 
 103 
 
 cred.  The  internal  and  soft  parts  of  the 
 body  were  removed,  and  the  cavities  filled 
 mth  aromatic  spices.  Many  folds  of  linen 
 were  wrapped  round  the  body,  enveloping 
 it  entirely,  and  were  glued  together  with 
 a  gum,  over  which  rich  perfumes  were 
 spread.  The  body  thus  embalmed  was 
 placed  in  a  carved  and  painted  mummy- 
 case  or  coffin.  These  preparations  cor- 
 responded to  the  wealth  of  the  deceased, 
 
 Mummy  and  Mummy-cases. 
 
 and  they  were  often  very  costly.  The  body 
 of  Jacob  was  thus  embalmed  in  Egypt 
 (Gen.  50  :  2,  3).  The  Hebrews,  it  would 
 seem,  did  not  adopt  this  very  difficult  and 
 expensive  mode  of  embalming,  but  a  sim- 
 pler though  less  efficacious  one.  They 
 wrapped  the  body  in  spices,  which  would 
 retard  the  progress  of  decay.  Thus,  Nic- 
 odemus  and  Joseph  of  Arimathea  brought 
 the  most  costly  spices,  with  which  in  linen 
 clothes  they  wound  up  the  body  of  Jesus 
 (John  19  :  38-40). 
 
 3.  Mourning  for  the  Dead. — The 
 death  of  friends  was  attended  with  great 
 lamentation  and  wailing,  as  in  the  case 
 of  the  daughter  of  Jairus  (Mark  5  :  38). 
 Grief  was  sometimes  expressed  by  shaving 
 the  head  and  plucking  out  the  hair  of  the 
 head  or  beard  (Ezra  9  :  3  ;  Job  1  :  20 ;  Jer. 
 7  :  29),  but  cutting  the  flesh,  a  custom  as- 
 sociated  with    idolatrous    practices,   was 
 
 strictly  prohibited  (Lev.  19  :  28).  It  was 
 an  abuse  of  this  natural  custom  of  ex- 
 pressing grief  at  the  death  of  friends 
 that  hired  mourners  were  employed  to  in- 
 crease the  appearance  of  it  (Jer.  9:17; 
 2  Chron.  35  :  25).  A  more  sincere  grief 
 was  evidenced  in  rending  the  clothes  and 
 sitting  in  sackcloth  (Gen.  37  :  34).  It  does 
 not  appear  that  any  period  was  fixed  for 
 the  continuance  of  this  mourning.  The 
 mourning  for  Jacob  was  threescore  and 
 ten  days  before  he  was  carried  to  the 
 place  of  sepulture,  and  seven  days  in  ad- 
 dition (Gen.  50  :  3,  10  .  That  for  Moses 
 and  Aaron  was  each  thirty  days  (Num. 
 20  :  29;  Deut.  34  :  8).  It  was  customary 
 also  to  go  to  the  grave  of  a  deceased 
 friend  to  mourn  there,  as  in  the  case  of 
 Mary  weeping  for  her  brother  Lazarus 
 (John  11  :  31).    See  Mourning. 
 
 4.  Carrying  to  the  Grave.— Tiie 
 dead  body  was  not  usually  placed  in  a  coffin, 
 although  sometimes  coffins  were  used,  es- 
 pecially for  the  rich  (Gen.  50  :  26),  but, 
 enveloped  in  its  grave-clothes,  it  was  laid 
 on  a  bier  or  bed,  and  thus  carried  to  the 
 gi'ave.  It  would  seem  that  Lazarus  was 
 not  enclosed  in  a  coffin,  for  at  the  com- 
 mand of  our  Lord  he  came  forth  "  bound 
 hand  and  foot  with  grave-clothes"  (John 
 11  :  44).  Thus,  too,  the  son  of  the  widow 
 of  Nain  at  the  command  of  Jesus  sat  up  on 
 the  bier  (Luke  7  :  14,  15).  The  funeral 
 procession  was  composed  of  relatives  and 
 friends.  When  the  widow  of  Nain  was 
 following  her  son  to  the  tomb  "much 
 people  of  the  city  were  with  her"  (Luke 
 7  :  12). 
 
 5.  Places  of  Burial. — The  places  of 
 sepulture  among  the  Jews,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  those  for  the  royal  family  and  per- 
 sons of  distinction,  were  always  beyond  the 
 limits  of  cities.  Affection  for  the  dead 
 prompted  the  desire  for  family  burying- 
 places.  Abraham  manifested  this  desire 
 in  his  treaty  with  the  sons  of  Heth  for 
 the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  23  :  20),  and 
 
BUKIAL. 
 
 105 
 
 Jacob  evinced  the  strength  of  the  feeling 
 when  he  charged  his  sons  to  bury  him 
 with  his  fathers  (Gen.  49  :  29-31).     To  be 
 
 Rolling  away  tlie  Stone. 
 
 left  unburied  was  esteemed  a  great  calam- 
 ity (Ps.  79  :  2,  3;  Isa.  14  :  20).  Various 
 were  the  situations  selected  for  tombs. 
 Deborah  Avas  buried  beneath  an  oak 
 (Gen.  35  :  8) ;  Abraham  and  Sarah,  Isaac 
 and  Eebekah,  Jacob  and  Leah,  were  buried 
 
 in  a  cave  (Gen.  49  :  31 ) ;  Manasseh  in  his 
 own  garden  (2  Kings  21 :  18) ;  our  Lord  in 
 a  tomb  excavated  from  the  solid  rock  (Matt. 
 27  :  GO).  An  ordinary  rock- 
 liewn  tomb  was  a  cavern  about 
 nine  feet  square,  or  nine  feet 
 by  twelve  feet,  from  three 
 sides  of  wiiich  were  recessed 
 longitudinally  several  shelf- 
 like vaults,  each  large  enough 
 for  a  corpse.  On  the  fourth 
 or  front  side  the  cavern  was 
 approached  through  a  small 
 open  covered  court  or  por- 
 tico, of  a  size  to  receive  the 
 bier  and  bearers.  The  entry 
 from  this  court  to  the  cavern 
 and  vaults  was  closed  by  a 
 large  round  stone  set  in  a 
 groove  and  capable  of  being 
 rolled.  Many  rock-hewn 
 tombs  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
 Palestine,  especially  around 
 Jerusalem.  Of  the  tombs  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  Jerusalem,  the  "Tombs  of 
 the  Kings"  are  quite  celebrated,  and  in 
 their  structure  quite  reujarkable.  They 
 are  excavated  out  of  the  rock.  The 
 traveler    passes    through    a    low    arched 
 
 ^^^'^     "^    ^  1-11  J  1^   II  l!| 
 
 '-«----^v^~!$-;Xv^ 
 
 ill 
 
 1^  ^ 
 
 I 1   r  1 
 
 b 
 
 Baa 
 
 VESTIBULE        I 
 
 OPETT        COURT 
 
 Plan  of  the  tombs  called  "Tombs  of  the  Kings." 
 
 doorway  into  a  court  ninety-two  feet  long 
 by  eighty-seven  feet  wide.  On  the  western 
 side  is  a  vestibule  or  porch  thirty -nine  feet 
 
 wide.  The  open  front  was  supported  by 
 two  columns  in  the  middle.  Along  the 
 fi-ont  extend  a  deep  frieze  and  cornice,  the 
 
106 
 
 BURNT-OFFERING— BUZ. 
 
 former  richly  ornamented.  At  the  south- 
 ern side  of  tlie  vestibule  is  tlie  entrance  to 
 the  tomb.  The  first  room  is  a  mere  ante- 
 chamber, eighteen  and  a  half  feet  by  nine- 
 teen feet.  On  the  south  side  are  two  doors 
 leading  to  other  chambers,  and  on  the  west, 
 one.  These  three  chambers  have  re- 
 cesses running  into  the  rock  at  right 
 angles   and   intended   for  bodies. 
 
 Sepulchres  were  sometimes  distinguished 
 by  a  column.  Thus,  .Jacob  erected  a  pillar 
 over  the  grave  of  Rachel  (Gen.  35  :  20). 
 It  was  a  practice  with  the  Jews  to  adorn 
 tlieir  tombs  (Matt.  23  :  29),  and  sometimes 
 to  whiten  them  (Matt.  23  :  27).  This  lat- 
 ter custom  was  intended,  it  is  thought,  to 
 warn  persons  coming  to  the  feasts  at  Je- 
 rusalem not  to  contract  ceremonial  defile- 
 ment by  too  near  approach  to  the  dead. 
 Sepulchres  were,  as  they  still  are  in  tlie 
 East,  situated  without  the  precincts  of 
 cities. 
 
 Burnt-Offering.    See  Offering. 
 
 Bush.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  occurs 
 only  in  those  passages  which  refer  to  Je- 
 hovah's appearance  to  Moses  "  in  the  flame 
 of  fire  in  the  bush"  (Ex.  3  :  2,  3,  4;  Deut. 
 33 :  16).  It  has  commonly  been  associated 
 with  the  thorny  acacia  of  the  Sinaitic  pen- 
 insula, but  it  more  properly  designates  a 
 brier  or  bramble. 
 
 Bushel  (Matt.  5  :  15).  The  word  so 
 translated  here  and  in  parallel  passages 
 (Greek,  modios)  was  a  dry  measure  of 
 nearly  one  peck. 
 
 But'ler,  an  oflftcer  in  the  house  of  a 
 king  or  noble,  who  had  the  charge  of 
 his  entertainments,  and  who  acted  as 
 cup-bearer  in  furnishing  the  wine  at 
 feasts  (Gen.  40:  21). 
 
 But'ter.  In  most  instances  in  which 
 butter  is  referred  to  in  Scripture,  curdled 
 milk  of  a  cheesy  consistence  is  to  be  un- 
 derstood (Gen.  18  :  8;  Judg.  5  :  25;  Job 
 20 :  17).  Indeed,  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
 
 it  denotes  butter  in  any  place  besides  Deut. 
 32  :  14  and  Prov.  30  :  33.  All  the  other 
 texts  will  apply  better  to  curdled  milk 
 than  to  butter.  And  yet  butter,  in  the 
 sense  which  we  associate  with  the  word, 
 was  known  to  the  Hebrews,  as  it  is  at 
 present  known  to  the  Arabs.  Hassel- 
 quist  describes  thus  the  method  which, 
 in  making  butter,  the  Arab  women  em-' 
 ploy :  "  They  made  butter  in  a  leather 
 bag,  hung  on  three  poles  erected  for  the 
 purpose  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  and  drawn 
 to  and  fro  by  two  women."  The  butter  of 
 the  Arabs,  having  the  consistency  of  lard, 
 and  of  the  same  color,  is  usually  rancid  and 
 quite  unpalatable  to  foreigners,  but  the  na- 
 tives of  the  wilderness  eat  it  in  large  quan- 
 tities and  with  relish.  It  is  eaten  with 
 bread;  not  spread  out  thinly  over  the 
 surface  as  with  us,  but  taken  in  ma.ss  with 
 the  separate  morsels  of  bread.  The  but- 
 ter of  the  Hebrews  was  sometimes  clari- 
 fied and  preserved  in  skins  or  jars,  as  at 
 the  present  day  in  Asia,  and  when  poured 
 out  it  resembled  rich  oil  (Job  20  :  17). 
 Butter  and  honey  were  used  together,  and 
 were  esteemed  among  the  richest  produc- 
 tions of  the  land  (Isa.  7  :  15).  The  Arabs 
 of  the  present  day  account  cream  or  new 
 butter  mixed  with  honey  a  princi2)al  deli- 
 cacy. 
 
 Butter  in  abundance  was  an  evidence  of 
 prosperity.  Thus,  Job,  in  expressing  the 
 al)undance  Avhich  once  was  his,  says,  "  I 
 washed  my  steps  with  butter"  (Job  29:6). 
 
 Buz  [contempt'],  the  second  son  of  Mil- 
 cah  and  Nahor  (Gen.  22:21).  Elihu 
 "the  Buzite"  (.Job  32  :  2)  was  probably  a 
 descendant  of  Buz.  Judgments  are  de- 
 nounced upon  tlie  tribe  of  Buz  by  Jere- 
 miah (25  :  23),  who,  as  he  coiniects  them 
 with  Dedan  and  Tenia,  apparently  locates 
 the  tribe  in  Arabia  Deserta.  Some  con- 
 nect the  territory  of  Buz  with  the  Roman 
 fort  Biisan  ;  others  with  Basta  in  Arabia 
 Petrsea. 
 
CAB— C^SAREA. 
 
 107 
 
 C. 
 
 Cab  \_hoUoiv'],  a  measure  for  things  dry, 
 mentioned  in  2  Kings  6  :  25.  Its  capacity 
 is  estimated  to  be  nearly  two  quarts,  English 
 measure. 
 
 Cab'ins  \_cdls].  Tlie  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  English  Version  occurs  in 
 Jer.  37  :  16,  and  refers  to  vaults  or  arched 
 apartments  within  a  dungeon  for  the  sepa- 
 rate confinement  of  prisoners.  The  idea 
 conveyed  is  that  the  prophet  suffered 
 the  most  severe  and  loathsome  imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 Ca^bul  [displeasing,  or  as  vanity},  the 
 name  which  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  applied 
 to  the  district  of  twenty  cities  in  Galilee 
 which  Solomon  had  given  him  for  services 
 rendered  in  erecting  the  temple,  and  with 
 which  he  was  dissatisfied  (1  Kings  9  :  13). 
 Josephus  locates  this  district  in  the  north- 
 west part  of  Galilee,  adjacent  to  Tyre. 
 
 C8B''sar,  a  name  assumed  by  or  con- 
 ferred upon  all  the  Roman  emperors  after 
 Julius  Caesar.  It  thus  became  a  sort  of 
 title,  like  Pharaoh,  and  as  such  is  usually 
 applied  to  the  emperors  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament as  the  sovereign  of  Judsea  (John 
 19  :  15;  Acts  17  :  7),  without  their  dis- 
 tinctive proper  names.  To  the  emperor 
 the  Jews  paid  tribute  (Matt.  22:17; 
 Luke  20  :  22) ;  to  him  such  Jews  as  were 
 Roman  citizens  had  the  right  of  appeal 
 (Acts  25  :  11  ;  2G  :  32;  28  :  19),  in  which 
 case,  if  their  cause  was  a  criminal  one, 
 they  were  sent  to  Rome  (Acts  25  :  12,  21), 
 where  was  the  emperor's  court.  The  Cse- 
 sars  mentioned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New 
 Testament  are  Augustus  (Luke  2:1),  Ti- 
 berius (Luke  3: 1 ;  20:  22),  Claudius  (Acts 
 11  :  28),  Nero  (Acts  25  :  8).  Caligula,  the 
 successor  of  Tiberius,  is  not  at  all  referred  to. 
 
 Region  about  Csesarea  Philippi. 
 Cses-a-re'a,  the  name  of  two  cele-  I      1.  C^sarea  Philippi,  a  city  at  the 
 brated  cities  in  Palestine.  I  source  of  the  Jordan.     Its  fii-st  name  was 
 
108 
 
 CAGE. 
 
 Paneas,  from  the  worsliip  of  the  heathen 
 god  Pan.  It  was  greatly  beautified  by 
 Herod  the  Great,  wlio  built  a  temple  to 
 Augustus.  Later,  it  was  enlarged  and 
 embellished  by  Philip  the  tetrarcli,  who 
 gave  it  the  name  of  OvHurea,  in  honor 
 of  the  emperor  Tiberius  Cajsar,  adding 
 Philippi  to  distinguish  it  from  Cffisarea 
 on  the  Mediterranean.  Later  still,  Agrip- 
 pa  IL  made  some  extensive  improvements 
 and  called  it  NeroniuK,  in  honor  of  the  em- 
 peror Nero.  But  the  oldest  name  survived 
 and  still  survives  in  the  modern  Baniax. 
 Its  site,  on  an  elevated  plain,  where  one 
 
 of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  gushes  in  a 
 profuse  spring  from  the  foot  of  a  rocky 
 hillock,  with  the  snowy  crown  of  Iler- 
 mon  towering  seven  thousand  feet  above 
 it,  is  singularly  beautiful  and  attractive. 
 Its  distance  from  Jerusalem  is  about  one 
 hundred  and  twenty  miles.  It  was  ap- 
 parently the  extreme  northern  limit  of 
 our  Lord's  travels  (Matt.  16:13;  Mark 
 8  :  27). 
 
 2.  CiESAREA,  a  city  on  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, about  thirty  miles  south-west  of 
 Acre  and  fifty-five  north-west  from  Jeru- 
 salem.    It  wa-s  built  by  Herod  the  Great, 
 
 Ruins  of  Csesarea  Palestina. 
 
 who  during  ten  years  spared  no  expense 
 to  make  it  a  city  of  equal  splendor  and 
 strength.  In  the  reigns  of  Herod  the 
 Great  and  Herod  Agrippa  it  was  the 
 capital  of  Judrea;  under  the  government 
 of  Rome  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Ro- 
 man procurator.  Now  it  is,  as  for  gener- 
 ations it  has  been,  a  desolation.  Its  ex- 
 tensive ruins  bear  the  modern  Arabic 
 name  Kaisariyeh,  but  their  only  inhabit- 
 ants are  wild  beasts  and  reptiles.  In  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Caesarea  is  very 
 frequently  alluded   to.     It   was   the   resi- 
 
 dence of  Philip  the  Evangelist  (Acts  8  : 
 40;  21  :  8,  16)  and  of  Cornelius  (10  :  1, 
 24;  11  :  11).  It  was  the  scene  of  Herod 
 Agrippa's  death  (12  :  19).  It  was  visited 
 by  Paul  (9  :  30;  18  :  22)  and  by  Peter 
 (10  :  24).  It  was  especially  the  scene 
 where,  before  Felix,  Paul  reasoned  of 
 righteousness,  temperance  and  judgment 
 to  come,  and  where,  subsequently,  in  the 
 presence  of  Festus  the  procurator  and 
 Agrippa  the  king,  Paul  made  his  noble 
 defence  (Acts  24  and  26). 
 
 Cage.     The  Hebrew  term  thus  ren- 
 
CAIAPHAS— CALEB. 
 
 109 
 
 dered  in  Jer.  5  :  27  is  more  properly  a 
 trap  in  which  decoy-birds  were  placed. 
 In  Rev.  18  :  2  the  Greek  term  thus  ren- 
 dered means  a  prison. 
 
 Cai'a-phas  [depression'],  called  by 
 Josephus  Joseph  Caiaphas,  was  high  priest 
 of  the  Jews  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Cae- 
 sar, at  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's  pub- 
 lic ministry  (Luke  3:2),  and  also  at  the 
 time  of  his  condemnation  and  crucifixion 
 (Matt.  26  :  3,  57  ;  John  11  :  49;  18  :  13, 
 14,  24,  28 ;  Acta  4  :  6).  He  was  son-in- 
 law  of  Annas,  who  had  formerly  been 
 high  priest,  and  who,  after  his  deposi- 
 tion from  the  office,  possessed  great  influ- 
 ence and  control  in  sacerdotal  matters. 
 Two  years  after  our  Lord's  crucifixion 
 Caiaphas  himself  was  deposed  from  the 
 high  priesthood. 
 
 Cain  Ipossession],  the  first-born  child 
 of  Adam  and  Eve,  the  first-born  oliild  of 
 the  human  race,  the  first  murderer  and 
 the  first  fratricide.  Tlie  historical  facts 
 in  his  life  are  recorded  in  Gen.  4,  and  are 
 briefly  these :  He  followed  the  business 
 of  agriculture ;  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  roused 
 by  the  rejection  of  his  own  sacrifice  and 
 the  acceptance  of  Abel's,  lie  committed  the 
 crime  of  murder,  for  which  he  was  expel- 
 led "  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  "  and 
 "  from  the  face  of  the  earth,"  and  made  "  a 
 fugitive  and  a  vagabond ;"  he  settled  in 
 the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of  Eden,  and 
 built  a  city  which  he  named  after  his  son 
 Enoch ;  his  descendants  are  enumerated, 
 together  with  the  inventions  for  whicli 
 they  were  remarkable.  To  Cain  occa- 
 sional references  are  made  in  the  New 
 Testament  (Heb.  11 :  4 ;  1  John  3:12;  Jude 
 11).  All  the  Scripture  accounts  agree  in 
 representing  him  as  proud,  petulant,  mo- 
 rose, malicious,  revengeful,  wicked.  See 
 Abel. 
 
 Cai'nan  [possessor  or  smith],  the  fourth 
 antediluvian  patriarch,  eldest  son  of  Enos. 
 He  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  ten 
 (Gen.  5  :  9-14).    The  name  occurs  again 
 
 in  Luke  3 :  36  as  the  son  of  Arphaxad  and 
 grandson  of  Shem.  As,  however,  it  is  not 
 found  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  only  in  the 
 Septuagint,  it  is  commonly  accounted  an 
 unreliable  addition  to  our  Lord's  geneal- 
 ogy- 
 
 Ca''lall  [strength  or  toughness],  one  of  the 
 most  ancient  cities  of  Assyria  (Gen.  10 :  11), 
 twenty  miles  south  of  Nineveh.  Rawlinson 
 regards  the  site  as  marked  by  the  Nimrud 
 ruins,  and  the  city  itself  as  at  one  time  the 
 capital  of  the  empire. 
 
 OaFa-mus  (thus  called  in  Song  4  : 
 14  and  Ezek.  27  :  19 ;  Sweet  Calamus 
 in  Ex.  30  :  23 ;  Sweet  Cane  in  Isa.  43  : 
 24;  Jer.  6  :  20),  a  plant  which  is  thought 
 to  be  identical  with  the  Acorns  calamus  of 
 Linnseus,  wliich  has  a  rush-like  stem,  and 
 which,  when  bruised,  is  exceedingly  fra- 
 grant. It  grows  in  moist  places  in  Egypt 
 and  Judrea.  It  was  an  article  of  Syrian 
 commerce  and  an  ingredient  in  the  rich- 
 est perfumes. 
 
 Oal'dron,  a  vessel  for  boiling  flesh, 
 either  for  ceremonial  or  domestic  use 
 (Job  41  :  20 ;  1  Sam.  2  :  14 ;  2  Chron. 
 35:  13;  Mic.  3:  3). 
 
 Ca'leb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  13  :  6).  He  was 
 commissioned  b}'  Moses,  in  company  with 
 Joshua  and  ten  others,  to  explore  the 
 Promised  Land,  and  to  report  wliat  they 
 should  see.  On  their  return  Caleb  and 
 Joshua  gave  a  most  favorable  report  of 
 the  land,  but  the  other  ten  gave  such  a 
 discouraging  account  of  the  difficulties 
 which  would  have  to  be  surmounted  be- 
 fore the  land  could  be  possessed  that  the 
 people  rebelled  against  Moses  and  deter- 
 mined to  proceed  no  farther.  For  this  in- 
 excusable unbelief  God  signally  punished 
 them  by  decreeing  that  none  over  twenty 
 years  of  age  should  enter  into  the  Prom- 
 ised Land,  and  tliat  their  whole  genera- 
 tion should  die  in  the  wilderness  except 
 Caleb  and  Joshua  (Num.  13,  14).  Forty- 
 five  years  afterward  Caleb  came  to  Joshua 
 
110 
 
 CALF— CALVARY. 
 
 and  claimed  as  his  portion  the  land  of  the 
 Anakim  or  the  hill-country  around  He- 
 bron (Josh.  14  :  6-15).  Ilis  claim  was  im- 
 mediately granted,  and  was  quickly  made 
 good  by  the  expulsion  of  the  ancient 
 owners. 
 
 Calf,  The  calf  was  an  object  of  idol- 
 atrous worship  among  the  Egyptians,  and 
 with  this  worship  the  Hebrews  whom 
 Moses  led  from  Egypt  must  liave  been  fa- 
 
 The  Egyptian  Apis. 
 
 miliar.  In  Ex.  32  :  4  we  are  told  that  Aa- 
 ron, constrained  by  the  people  in  the  ab- 
 sence of  Moses,  made  a  molten  calf  to  rep- 
 resent the  gods  which  brought  Israel  out  of  ' 
 Egypt.  This  calf  was  perhaps  a  wooden  ' 
 figure  plated  with  gold,  a  process  which  is  ! 
 known  to  have  existed  in  Egypt.  To  pun- 
 ish the  aj)ostasy,  Moses  burnt  the  calf,  and 
 then  grinding  it  to  powder  scattered  it  over 
 the  water,  which  he  made  the  people  drink. 
 Of  thethree  kinds  of  sacred  bulls  worshiped 
 in  Egypt,  Apis,  Basis  and  Mnevis,  Sir  G. 
 Wilkinson  fixes  on  the  latter,  the  repre-  ' 
 sentative  of  the  sun,  as  the  prototype  of 
 the  golden  calf.  This  figure  of  Mnevis 
 was  subsequently  set  up  by  Jeroboam, 
 the  first  king  of  the  divided  kingdom  of 
 Israel,  at  Dan  and  at  Bethel.  The  calf  at 
 Dan  was  carried  away  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
 and  that  at  Bethel  ten  years  after  by  his 
 son,  Shalmaneser. 
 
 As  calves  were  prominent  among  the 
 animals  oflfered    in   sacrifice,   by  a   bold 
 
 figure  of  speech  "the  calves  of  our  lips" 
 denoted  the  oflering  of  praise  and  thanks- 
 giving (IIcis.  14  :  2). 
 
 Call,  Calling.  The  Hebrew  and  Greek 
 words  thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion contain  the  same  root  as  their  English 
 equivalents,  and  are  used  in  the  following 
 seiLses:  1.  To  give  a  name  (Gen.  1:5;  2  : 
 19 ;  Luke  1 :  13, 31) ;  2.  To  cry  to  another 
 for  help,  hence  to  pray  (Gen.  4  :  26 ;  Acts 
 
 2  :  21) ;  3.  To  speak  to  any  one  in  order 
 that  he  may  come  or  go  anywhere  (Judg. 
 16  :  25;  Mark  1  :  20) ;  4.  To  send  for  (1 
 Sam.  16:3;  Matt.  2:7);  5.  To  summon 
 authoritatively  (I.sa.  48  :  13;  Eom.  4  :  17); 
 
 6.  To  invite  (Prov.  1  :  24 ;  Eev.  19  :  9) ; 
 
 7.  To  appoint  (Isa.  51 : 2 ;  Heb.  5 :  4).  The 
 most  important  sense  of  the  words  is  that 
 which  expresses  God's  call  in  the  gospel 
 to  the  souls  whom  he  chooses  to  become 
 the  heirs  of  salvation.  This  call  or  call- 
 ing is  according  to  God's  purpose  (Rom. 
 8  :  28-30;  2  Tim.  1  :  9),  is  sovereign  (1 
 Cor.  1 :  26-28),  is  high  and  heavenly  (Phil. 
 
 3  :  14;  Heb.  3:1),  is  holy  (2  Pet.  1  :  3), 
 and  is  certain  to  issue  in  eternal  life  (Rom. 
 11  :  29;  1  Tim.  6  :  12). 
 
 Cal'neh  [stronr/hold  ofAnu'\,a  city  built 
 by  Nimrod  in  the  land  of  Shinar  or  Bab- 
 ylonia (Gen.  10:10).  It  is  probably  the 
 same  with  Calno  (Isa.  10  :  9)  and  Canneh 
 (Ezek.  27  :  23).  Its  site  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates, sixty  miles  south-east  of  Baby- 
 lon. It  is  considered  to  be  identical  with 
 the  modem  Niffer,  where  extensive  ruins 
 exist. 
 
 CaFva-ry  [o  bca-e  skxll],  the  place 
 where  our  Lord  was  crucified  (Luke  23  : 
 33).  Its  name  is  the  Latin  equivalent  of  the 
 Hebrew  Golgotha.  It  was  so  named  either 
 because  it  was  the  place  of  public  execu- 
 tion, or  because  it  was  a  bare  round  spot 
 resembling  a  skull  in  shape.  Its  locality 
 is  much  disputed,  and  perhaps  will  never 
 be  determined.  Since  it  was  outside  the 
 city  gate   (Matt.  27  :  32;    Heb.  13  :  12), 
 
CAMEL. 
 
 Ill 
 
 yet  near  the  city  (John  19  :  20),  near  a 
 public  road  (Mark  15  :  21 ;  Luke  23  :  26), 
 and  near  Joseph's  garden  (John  19  :  41 ), 
 the  topographical  evidence  against  the 
 identification  of  its  site  with  that  of  the 
 modern  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
 is  apparently  very  strong.  The  whole 
 question,  so  far  as  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
 Sepulchre  is  concerned,  turns  upon  the  pre- 
 cise location  of  the  city-walls  at  the  time 
 our  Lord  was  crucified.  If  at  that  time 
 the  site  of  the  church  were  inside  the  city- 
 walls,  as  it  is  to-day  and  has  been  for  gen- 
 erations, then  it  could  not  have  been  the 
 spot  of  the  crucifixion.  But  were  we  cer- 
 tain that  the  site  of  the  church  was  not 
 the  site  of  the  crucifixion,  we  should  still 
 be  unable  to  determine  the  actual  site. 
 Arguments  more  or  less  plausible  for 
 three  other  sites  are  pressed  by  their 
 respective  advocates :  for  a  promontory  of 
 land  projecting  south-eastwardly  into  the 
 Kidron  Valley,  a  short  distance  above 
 Gethsemane ;  for  a  locality  on  the  north  of 
 Jerusalem,  not  far  from  the  Damascus  gate, 
 above  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah ;  and  for  a 
 spot  on  Mount  Moriah.  Careful  observa- 
 tions of  the  rock -levels  of  Jerusalem  and 
 military  considerations  bearing  on  the  lo- 
 cation of  the  ancient  second  wall  of  the 
 city  seem  to  justify  the  conclusion  that 
 the  site  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sep- 
 ulchre is  not,  and  could  not  have  been. 
 Calvary.  The  real  site  of  Calvary  will, 
 perhaps,  never  be  identified,  but  of  the 
 four  sites  named  we  incline  to  the  one 
 above  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,  which  is 
 a  rounded  knoll  with  a  precipice  on  its 
 south  side ;  it  was  the  ancient  place  of 
 execution,  and  is  still  denominated  "the 
 Place  of  Stoning." 
 
 Cam'el.  The  Hebrew  term  gamal 
 is  almost  the  same  in  pronunciation 
 with  the  English  word  camel,  and,  ac- 
 cording to  Gesenius,  has  the  sense  of  car- 
 rier.  Of  the  animal  there  are  two  spe- 
 cies— the  Bactrian  camel,  which  has  two 
 
 humps  or  protuberances  on  its  back,  and 
 the  Arabian  camel  or  dromedary,  which 
 has  a  single  hump.  Of  this  latter  species 
 there  are  two  races :  the  one  of  very  strong 
 frame  and  slow  pace,  used  chiefly  for  car- 
 rying burdens  ;  the  other  of  lighter  form 
 and  much  fleeter,  used  for  the  saddle  with 
 single  riders.  Their  adaptation  for  desert 
 life  is  striking  evidence  of  the  wisdom  of 
 Providence.  Without  them  there  could 
 be  no  traveling  or  commerce  across  those 
 
 The  Camel. 
 
 extended  and  arid  plains,  and  hence  they 
 have  been  appropriately  styled  "  the  ships 
 of  the  desert."  They  are  endowed  with 
 strength  and  docility  to  fit  them  for  the 
 service  of  man.  Their  structure  too,  es- 
 pecially the  conformation  of  the  cushioned 
 foot,  enables  them  to  travel  through  the 
 sands  with  facility ;  but  in  a  more  especial 
 manner  the  ease  with  which  they  are  sus- 
 tained adapts  them  for  the  particular  ser- 
 vice to  which  they  are  called.  A  pound 
 of  dates  or  barley  will  suffice  one  for  twen- 
 ty-four hours,  together  with  the  thistles  and 
 thorny  plants  it  may  snatch  up,  without 
 stopping,  while  traveling;  and  for  four 
 or  five  days  together  it  will  endure  fa- 
 tigue and  heat  without  drinking.  From 
 Gen.  12  :  16  it  is  evident  that  camels  were 
 early  known  to  the  Egyptians,  though  no 
 representation  of  the  animal  has  yet  been 
 discovered  in  the  paintings  or  hieroglyph- 
 ics.     The   Ethiopians    had    "camels    in 
 
112 
 
 CAMELEON— CAMPHIRE. 
 
 abundance"  (2  Chron.  14  :  15).  The 
 queen  of  Sheba  came  to  Jerusalem  "  with 
 camels  that  bare  spices  and  gold  and  pre- 
 cious stones"  (1  Kings  10  :  2).  The  men 
 of  Kedar  and  of  Hazor  possessed 
 camels  (Jer.  49  :  29,  32).  David 
 took  away  the  camels  from  tiie  /»._ 
 
 Geshurites    and    Amalekites    (1 
 Sam.  27  :  9;    30:  17).     Job  had 
 three  thousand  camels  before  his 
 affliction,  and  six  thousand  after-        '^'"° 
 ward    (Job   1:3;   42  :  12).     All 
 the  Scripture  notices  of  camels, 
 indeed,  imply  that  the  animal  was  an  im- 
 portant element  of  the  wealth  of  individ- 
 ual men  and  of  powerful  nations. 
 
 The  camel  has  a  line  hair,  which  is 
 wrought  into  beautiful  and  costly  fabrics. 
 Its  coarse  hair  is  also  woven  into  gar- 
 ments, which  are  worn  by  men  whose  em- 
 ployments expose  them  to  rough  and 
 changeful  weather.  The  raiment  of  John 
 the  Baptist  (Matt.  3 :  4)  was  of  this  coarse 
 kind,  for  it  is  put  in  opposition  to  soft  rai- 
 ment (Matt.  11:8;  Luke  7  :  25). 
 
 The  expression  in  Matt.  19  :  24,  of  a 
 camel  passing  through  the  eye  of  a  nee- 
 dle, is  a  proverbial  one,  denoting  an  im- 
 possibility. That  also  in  Matt.  23  :  24,  of 
 straining  at,  or  oui^  a  gnat  and  swallowing 
 a  camel,  is  of  similar  import,  since  it 
 sliows  the  glaring  inconsistency  of  one 
 who,  particular  about  a  trifle,  is  yet  not 
 particular  about  a  matter  of  real  moment ; 
 who  scrupulously  strains  out  of  the  wine 
 the  small  unclean  gnat,  but  takes  no  pains 
 to  strain  out  the  huge  unclean  camel ;  who 
 is  strictly  legal  in  little  things,  and  shock- 
 ingly lawless  in  great  things. 
 
 Ca-me'le-on  or  Cha-me'le-on,  a 
 species  of  lizard  of  very  singular  con- 
 struction and  appearance,  reckoned  in 
 the  Levitical  Law  among  unclean  ani- 
 mals (Lev.  11  :  30).  Its  tail  is  long 
 and  prehensile,  and,  being  wound  round 
 the  branches  of  trees,  assists  the  ani- 
 mal   in    retaining    its    hold.       It    feeds 
 
 on  insects,  which  it  catches  on  a 
 long  tongue  covered  with  a  glutinous 
 substance.  It  has  the  curious  proj)erty 
 of  changing  its  color,  which  is  supposed 
 
 The  Cameleon. 
 
 to  result,  not  from  the  color  of  the  object 
 on  which  the  animal  rests,  as  is  common- 
 ly believed,  but  from  the  respiratory  or- 
 gans acting  upon  a  transparent  skin  and 
 on  the  blood  of  the  animal. 
 
 Camp,  an  encampment,  whether  of 
 troops  or  nomads,  especially  of  the  Is- 
 raelites in  the  desert  (Ex.  16  :  13);  hence 
 also  put  for  troops  or  a  company  itself.  Of 
 the  Jewish  system  of  encampment  the  Mo- 
 saic books  contain  a  detailed  description. 
 From  the  period  of  the  sojourn  in  the 
 wilderness  to  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan 
 the  twelve  tribes  were  formed  into  four 
 great  armies,  which  encamped  in  as  many 
 fronts,  facing  the  cardinal  points  and  form- 
 ing a  square,  with  a  great  space  in  the  rear, 
 where  was  placed  the  tabernacle  of  the 
 Lord  surrounded  by  the  tribe  of  Levi 
 and  the  bodies  of  carriers,  by  the  stalls 
 of  the  cattle  and  the  baggage.  During 
 this  time  it  does  not  appear  that  Israel 
 ever  had  lines  of  defence  thrown  up ;  but 
 in  after  ages,  when  only  single  armies  came 
 into  the  field,  it  is  probable  that  the  castral 
 disposition  was  not  invariably  quadrangu- 
 lar, and  that  the  fronts  were  adapted  to  the 
 character  of  the  ground  and  to  the  space 
 necessary  to  be  occupied.  Tiie  rear  of 
 such  positions  was  enclosed  with  a  line 
 of  carts  or  chariots,  which,  from  the  re- 
 motest period,  was  a  practice  among  all 
 the  nomad  nations  of  the  North. 
 
 Cam'phire,  mentioned  in  Solomon's 
 
CANA  OF  GALILEE— CANAAN. 
 
 113 
 
 Song  1  :  14  and  4  :  13,  is  not  the  gum 
 camphor  of  the  apothecary,  but  the  cy- 
 press plant,  the  Laivsonia  alba  of  botanists 
 and  the  henna  of  Arabian  naturalists.  It 
 grows  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia  and  North 
 India,  and  is  from  four  to  six  feet  high. 
 It  resembles  the  myrtle,  has  small  and 
 beautiful  white  flowers  of  a  very  fragrant 
 odor  and  hanging  in  clusters.  Oriental 
 ladies  are  not  only  partial  to  the  flower 
 for  its  perfume,  but  of  the  dried  leaves 
 ground  to  powder  they  make  a  paste  with 
 which  they  dye  the  nails  of  their  fingers 
 and  toes  of  an  orange-brown  color. 
 
 Oa^na  of  Galilee  [once  in  Gali- 
 lee], the  native  place  of  Nathanael  (John 
 21  :  2)  and  the  scene  of  two  of  our  Lord's 
 miracles — that  of  converting  water  into 
 wine  (John  2  :  1-11),  and  that  of  curing 
 with  a  word  the  nobleman's  son  who  was 
 sick  at  Capernaum  (John  4  :  46-54).  Tra- 
 dition locates  the  site  at  the  modern  village 
 of  Ke/r  Kenna,  about  four  English  miles 
 north-east  of  Nazareth,  and  on  the  way 
 from  Nazareth  to  tlie  Sea  of  Galilee. 
 Dr.  Kobinson  preferred  the  now  deserted 
 village  of  Kana-el-Jelil,  about  eight  miles 
 north-east  of  Nazareth.  The  Scripture  text 
 does  not  afford  facts  by  which  the  claims 
 of  either  can  be  decisively  maintained. 
 
 Ca'naan  [loivlandl,  the  fourth  son  of 
 Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah  (Gen.  10  : 
 6 ;  1  Chron.  1:8).  He  was  connected  in 
 some  unknown  way  with  the  transgression 
 of  his  father  (Gen.  9  :  22-27),  and  brouglit 
 upon  his  descendants  that  doom  which 
 Noah  predicted,  and  which  in  after  ages 
 was  literally  and  most  arrestingly  fulfilled. 
 His  posterity  was  numerous.  His  eldest 
 son,  Zidon,  founded  the  city  of  that  name, 
 and  his  ten  other  sons  were  the  fathers  of 
 as  many  tribes  dwelling  in  Palestine  and 
 Syria  (Gen.  10  :  15-19;  1  Chron.  1  :  13). 
 It  is  believed  that  Canaan  lived  and  died 
 in  Palestine,  which  from  him  was  called 
 "the  land  of  Canaan." 
 
 Ca^naan,  Land  of  [low  land],  orig- 
 8 
 
 inally  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  Ca- 
 naan, but  subsequently  conquered  and 
 possessed  by  the  descendants  of  Abraham. 
 It  received  its  name  from  its  first  settler, 
 whose  eleven  sons  became  the  heads  of 
 separate  and  numerous  tribes  (Gen.  10  : 
 15-18).  The  land  of  Canaan  is  desig- 
 nated in  Scripture  by  various  other  names : 
 1.  The  land  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  13  :  19),  be- 
 cause of  the  name  given  by  Jehovah  to 
 Jacob.  2.  The  land  of  promise  (Heb.  11  : 
 9),  because  it  was  promised  to  Abraham 
 and  his  posterity.  3.  The  land  of  the  He- 
 brews (Gen.  40  :  15),  because  Heber  was 
 an  ancestor  of  Abraham.  4.  The  holy  land 
 (Zech.  2 :  12),  because  it  was  the  residence 
 of  God's  chosen  people.  5.  Pcdestine  (Ex. 
 15  :  14),  the  Greek  mode  of  writing  Phi- 
 listia,  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  At  pres- 
 ent this  and  the  Holy  Land  are  the  most 
 common  designations.  6.  The  land  of  J n- 
 dah  or  Judcea  (2  Chron.  9  :  11).  7.  hn- 
 manuel's  land  (Isa.  8  :  8). 
 
 The  precise  extent  of  the  country  inhab- 
 ited by  the  Israelites  is  not  easily  deter- 
 mined, in  consequence  of  the  variation 
 of  the  boundaries  at  different  periods  of 
 their  history.  These,  however,  were  its 
 general  boundaries:  the  Mediterranean 
 Sea  on  the  west;  the  mountains  of  Leb- 
 anon and  Syria  on  the  north  ;  Arabia  De- 
 serta,  land  of  the  Ammonites  and  Dead 
 Sea  on  the  east ;  and  the  Desert  of  Sin  on 
 the  south.  From  the  names  of  the  two 
 cities  on  the  extreme  north  and  south, 
 Dan  and  Beerslieba,  it  was  customary  to 
 express  the  lengtli  of  the  country  by  the 
 phrase,  "from  Dan  even  to  Beersheba" 
 (Judg.  20:1;  1  Sam.  3:20;  2  Chron. 
 30  :  5).  This  was  about  one  hundred  and 
 eighty  miles,  while  the  width  was  about 
 sixty  miles. 
 
 Joshua  divided  the  land,  when  he  took 
 possession  of  it,  among  the  twelve  tribes. 
 Solomon  divided  it  into  twelve  convenient 
 districts  (1  Kings  4  :  7-19) ;  and  on  the  ac- 
 cession of  King  Rehoboam  and  the  revolt 
 
114 
 
 CANAANITE,  THE— CANDLESTICK. 
 
 of  ten  tribes  it  was  divided  into  two  king- 
 doms, that  of  Judah,  embracing  the  tribes 
 of  Judali  and  Benjamin,  and  that  of  hrnel, 
 embracing  the  otlier  ten  tribes.  At  subse- 
 (juent  peri(xls  it  was  conquered  by  the  Bab- 
 ylonians, tlie  Syrians  and  the  Romans.  At 
 the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth  it  was  divided 
 into  five  Roman  provinces — Galilee,  Sa- 
 maria, Judaea,  Persea  and  Idumix-a.  Subse- 
 quently, the  whole  land  was  frequently  re- 
 ferred to  as  "  the  land  of  Judsea." 
 
 The  face  of  the  country  is  beautifully 
 diversified  with  mountains,  plains,  valleys 
 and  rivers.  The  chief  mountains  are  Leb- 
 anon, Carmel,  Tabor,  Hermon,  Ebal,  Geri- 
 zim,  Gilboa,  Olivet ;  the  principal  streams, 
 Jordan,  Arnon,  Kishon,  Jabbok.  Its  lakes 
 are  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  or 
 Sea  of  Galilee,  and  Lake  Merom. 
 
 While  some  portions  of  the  country  are 
 barren,  the  larger  part  is  susceptible  of  a 
 high  degree  of  cultivation.  As  it  once  sup- 
 ported a  large  population,  and  had  within 
 its  limits  numerous  towns  and  cities,  it  must 
 have  been  extremely  fertile,  justifying  its 
 ancient  description  as  a  land  flowing  with 
 milk  and  lioney.  Its  present  condition, 
 under  the  withering  curse  of  God  and  the 
 grinding  despotism  of  Turkey,  is  truly  de- 
 plorable. The  traveler  is  only  occasion- 
 ally reminded  of  what  the  land  once  was. 
 
 Ca'naan-ite,  The,  the  designation 
 of  the  apostle  Simon,  otlierwise  known  as 
 "  Simon  Zelotes."  The  word  does  not  sig- 
 nify a  descendant  of  Canaan,  as  from  its 
 form  it  might  be  understood.  It  occurs  in 
 Matt.  10  :  4;  Mark  3  :  18,  and  is  derived 
 from  a  Chaldee  or  Syriac  word  by  whicli 
 the  Jewish  sect  or  faction  of  "  the  Zealots  " 
 was  designated.  The  Greek  equivalent  to 
 the  word  rendered  Canaanite  is  zelotes  (Luke 
 6:  15;  Acts  1  :  13). 
 
 Ca'naan-ites,  The,  a  word  used  in 
 two  senses,  for  a  tri))e  and  for  the  non-Is- 
 raelite inhabitants  of  tlie  land  of  Canaan. 
 
 L  As  the  name  of  a  tribe  the  Canaan- 
 ites   were   the  dwellers   in   the   lowland. 
 
 The  whole  of  the  country  west  of  Jordan 
 was  a  "low  land"  as  compared  with  the 
 loftier  and  more  extended  tracts  on  tlie 
 east,  but  there  was  a  part  of  this  western 
 country  which  was  still  more  emphatically 
 a  "  low  land."  It  was  "  by  the  sea  and  by 
 the  side  of  Jordan"  (Num.  13  :  29).  In 
 Gen.  10  :  18-20  the  seats  of  the  Canaanite 
 tribe  are  given  as  on  the  sea-sliore  and  in 
 the  Jordan  Valley. 
 
 2.  As  the  general  name  of  the  non- 
 Israelite  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
 naan the  Canaanites  were  the  "  seven  na- 
 tions greater  and  mightier  than"  Israel, 
 whom  the  Lord  delivered  into  Israel's 
 hands.  Of  these  seven  nations,  the  tribe 
 of  "the  Canaanites"  is  one,  and  the  other 
 six  are  "  the  Hittites,  and  the  Girgashites, 
 and  the  Amorites,  and  the  Perizzites,  and 
 the  Plivites,  and  the  Jebusites"  (Deut.  7  : 
 1).  The  Canaanites,  especially  those  along 
 the  sea-shore,  were  largely  engaged  in  com- 
 merce, and  their  name  in  later  times  became 
 an  occasional  synonym  for  a  merchant  Mob 
 41  :  6;  Prov.  31  :  24). 
 
 Oan'da-ce,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia,  or 
 that  region  in  Upper  Nubia  wliicii  was 
 called  by  the  Greeks  Meroe.  She  is  men- 
 tioned in  Acts  8  :  27.  Candace  is  not  a 
 proper  name,  but  the  name  of  a  dynasty 
 of  Ethiopian  queens. 
 
 Oan^dle.  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 this  word  represents  a  word  in  Hebrew 
 and  also  a  word  in  Greek,  which  woidd 
 have  been  more  accurately  represented,  as 
 indeed  it  is  frequently  rendered,  by  the 
 word  Lamp  or  Li(;riT  (see  Lamp).  It  is 
 largely  used  in  Scripture  in  a  mctaplior- 
 ical  sense:  as  an  image  of  cnnsrietire  (Prov. 
 20  :  27),  of  prosperity  (Job  18  :  6 ;  21  :  17 ; 
 29  :  3;  Ps.  18  :  28;  Jer.  25  :  10;  Rev.  18: 
 23),  of  a  f/or1ly  example  (Matt.  5  :  15 ;  Mark 
 4  :  21 ;  Luke  8  :  16 ;  11  :  .33),  of  God's  om- 
 niscience (Zeph.  1  :  121,  of  heaven's  splen- 
 dor (Rev.  22  :  5). 
 
 Oan'dle-stick,  the  splendid  cande- 
 labrum wliich  Moses  wa.s  commanded   to 
 
CANE— CAPEENAUM. 
 
 115 
 
 make  for  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  25  :  31-37; 
 37  :  17-24).  With  its  various  appurte- 
 nances it  required  a  talent  of  "  pure 
 gold,"  and  it  was  not  moulded,  but  "of 
 beaten  work."     It  consisted  of  a  shaft  or 
 
 The  Golden  Candlestick. 
 
 stem  supposed  to  have  been  five  feet  high, 
 with  six  branches.  The  branches  came 
 out  from  the  shaft  at  three  points,  two  at 
 each  point,  and  the  width  of  the  whole 
 candlestick  across  the  top  was  about  three 
 and  a  half  feet.     It  was  I'ichly  adorned 
 
 with  raised  work  representing  flowers, 
 with  knops  or  knobs,  and  with  little 
 bowls  resembling  half  an  almond  shell. 
 At  the  extremity  of  each  branch  there 
 was  a  socket  for  the  lamp,  and  also  at 
 the  top  of  the  main  shaft,  making  in 
 all  seven  sockets  and  lamps  (Eev.  1  :  12, 
 13,  20).  It  was  placed  on  the  south  side 
 of  the  first  apartment  of  the  tabernacle, 
 opposite  the  table  of  shew-bread  (Ex.  25  : 
 37),  and  was  lighted  every  evening  and 
 dressed  every  morning  (Ex.  27  :  20,  21  ; 
 30  :  8 ).  Each  lamp  was  supplied  with 
 cotton  and  about  four  ounces  of  the  purest 
 olive  oil,  which  was  sufficient  to  keep  it 
 burning  during  a  long  night.  In  Solo- 
 mon's temple,  instead  of  this  candlestick, 
 there  were  ten  golden  candlesticks  simi- 
 larly embossed,  five  on  the  right  and  five 
 on  the  left  ( 1  Kings  7  :  49 ;  2  Chron.  4:7). 
 
 Cane.     See  Calamus,  Reed. 
 
 Cank'er-worm.     See  Locust. 
 
 Can'neh,  another  form  of  Calneh 
 (which  see). 
 
 Tell  Hum — Capernaum. 
 
 Oa-per''na-uin  [village  of  Nahum,  or  I  Gennesaret  (comp.  Matt.  14  :  34  with  John 
 of  com/or<],  a  city  in  or  near  the  district  of  I  6 :  17,  21,  24),  on  the  north-western  shore  of 
 
116 
 
 CAPHTOK— CAPTA  IN. 
 
 tlie  Sea  of  Galilee  and  on  the  borders  of  the 
 tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali.  In  our 
 Lord's  times  it  was  a  populous  and  prospe- 
 rous place.  It  lay  on  the  great  thoroughfare 
 between  Damascus  and  the  Mediterranean, 
 and  was  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  local 
 trade.  It  had  a  synagogue,  built  by  the 
 centurion  who  in  our  Lord's  times  com- 
 manded the  detachment  of  Roman  sol- 
 diers there  quartered  (Matt.  8  :  o-O ;  Luke 
 7  :  1-8) ;  it  had  also  a  customs  station, 
 where  the  dues  were  gathered  both  by 
 stationary  (Matt.  9:9;  Mark  2  :  14 ;  Luke 
 5  :  27)  and  by  itinerant  (Matt.  17  :  24)  of- 
 ficers. Here  during  his  public  ministry 
 our  Lord  chiefly  dwelt  (Matt.  4  :  13),  here 
 he  performed  some  of  his  most  wonderful 
 miracles  (Matt.  8  :  5,  14;  9:1;  Mark  1  : 
 33 ;  Luke  4  :  33 ;  John  4  :  46-54),  and 
 here  he  uttered  some  of  his  most  mem- 
 orable discourses  (John  6  :  59).  Its  in- 
 habitants, disbelieving  our  Lord's  words 
 and  works,  were  terribly  denounced  (Matt. 
 11  :  23;  Luke  10  :  15).  The  prophetic 
 doom  of  the  once-favored  city  has  been 
 so  literally  fulfilled  that  the  spot  where 
 Capernaum  stood  is  matter  of  controversy. 
 Two  localities,  Khan  MinyeJi  and  Tell  Hum, 
 lay  claim  to  its  site,  and  each  has  a  long 
 array  of  advocates.  Khan  Minyeh,  with  its 
 ruined  Saracenic  khan  or  caravanserai,  is 
 situated  close  upon  the  sea-shore  at  the 
 north-ea-stern  extremity  of  the  plain  of 
 Gennesaret.  Tell  Hum  is  a  larger  site, 
 some  three  miles  north  of  Khan  Minyeh, 
 where  ruins  of  houses,  walls  and  founda- 
 tions cover  a  space  of  half  a  mile  long  by 
 a  quarter  wide  on  a  point  of  the  shore  pro- 
 jecting into  the  lake  and  backed  by  a  very 
 gently  rising  ground.  Conspicuous  among 
 the  ruins  are  the  fragments  of  a  noble  syn- 
 agogue, which  many  scholars  hold  to  be 
 the  one  which  echoed  the  words  of  our 
 Lord.  Happily,  it  is  not  of  importance 
 that  this  question  be  settled. 
 
 Caph'tor    [PAo^w/ViVm],  the  original 
 seat  of  the  Philistines,  whence  they  came 
 
 to  the  land  of  Canaan  (Deut.  2  :  23;  Jer. 
 47  :  4 ;  Amos  9:7).  As  to  the  locality 
 indicated  by  the  word  Caphtor,  opinions 
 greatly  vary.  Cappadocia,  the  island  of 
 Cyprus,  the  island  of  Crete,  the  Egyptian 
 Delta  and  Upper  Egypt  have  their  advo- 
 cates, but  the  weight  of  evidence  connects 
 Caphtor  with  the  Phrenician  colonies  on 
 the  Delta  and  the  islands  and  coasts  of 
 the  Mediterranean. 
 Caph'to-rim.    See  Xations,  under 
 
 MiZRAIM. 
 
 Cap-pa-do'cia,  an  ancient  and  the 
 easternmost  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  Pontus,  on  the 
 east  by  the  Euphrates  and  Armenia  Mi- 
 nor, on  the  south  by  Blount  Taurus  ( beyond 
 which  are  Cilicia  and  Syria),  on  the  west 
 by  Phrygia  and  Galatia.  The  country  is 
 mountainous  and  abounds  in  water,  and 
 was  celebrated  for  its  production  of  wheat, 
 for  its  fine  pastures  and  for  its  excellent 
 horses,  asses  and  sheep.  In  Cappadocia, 
 Christianity  was  very  early  propagatetl,  for 
 the  apostle  Peter  names  it  in  addressing  the 
 Christian  churches  in  Asia  Minor  ( 1  Pet. 
 1:1).  Cappadocians  were  present  at  Je- 
 rusalem on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  : 
 9),  were  converted  to  the  faith  of  Christ, 
 and  were  the  agents,  doubtless,  through 
 whom  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  was 
 extended  over  the  province. 
 
 Cap'tain.  This  word  represents  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  several  Hebrew 
 and  Greek  words  of  variant  shades  of 
 meaning,  but  the  root-idea  of  tiiem  all 
 may,  with  sufficient  accuracy,  be  regarded 
 as  that  of  one  at  the  head,  whether  such 
 one  be  a  prince,  a  judge,  a  leader  of  an 
 army,  a  leader  of  a  military  company  or 
 a  leader  of  a  civil  guard.  In  Gen.  21  : 
 22 ;  Job  39  :  25;  Acts  28  :  16 ;  Rev.  19  : 
 18,  and  in  many  other  passages,  the  word 
 captain  designates  a  militai-y  officer;  in 
 Luke  22  :  4 ;  Acts  4:1;  5  :  24,  a  civil  of- 
 ficer. The  "captain  of  the  temple"  su- 
 perintended the  guard  of  priests  and  Le- 
 
CAPTIVITY— CARBUNCLE. 
 
 117 
 
 vites  who  kept  watch  by  night  in  the  tem- 
 ple. The  office  appears  to  have  existed 
 from  an  early  date  (2  Kings  12  :  9).  In 
 Heb.  2  :  10  our  Lord  is  designated  "the 
 Captain"  of  his  people's  salvation,  be- 
 cause he  is  the  Head  of  the  Church  and 
 the  Leader  of  the  sacramental  host  to  the 
 blessedness  and  glory  of  heaven. 
 
 Cap-tiv'i-ty,  that  state  of  bondage 
 to  which,  as  the  result  of  war,  an  individ- 
 ual or  a  nation  is  reduced.  In  ancient 
 warfare  the  inhabitants  of  a  conquered 
 country  were  made  captives,  and  almost 
 always  slaves.  This  was  done  for  the 
 purpose  of  effectually  destroying  the  power 
 of  an  enemy  and  preventing  any  future 
 hostile  organization  ;  probably,  too,  it  was 
 resorted  to  as  a  means  of  supplying  popu- 
 lation for  new  provinces  or  cities  under  the 
 control  of  the  conqueror.  The  wealthiest 
 and  most  distinguished  families,  and  the 
 best-skilled  artisans  of  every  kind,  would 
 be  among  the  first  thus  carried  away.  On 
 more  than  one  occasion  the  inhabitants  of 
 Palestine  were  subjected  to  this  treatment. 
 In  this  way  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah 
 and  Israel  were  several  times  almost  de- 
 populated ;  and,  as  used  in  Scripture,  the 
 term  captivity  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
 forced  expatriations  of  the  Israelites  by 
 foreign  conquerors.  God  expressly  threat- 
 ens his  people  (Deut.  28)  that  if  they  would 
 not  obey  his  word  he  would  deliver  them 
 into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  who  would 
 carry  them  as  captives  into  distant  lands. 
 The  disobedience  of  Israel  becoming  more 
 and  more  confirmed,  the  divine  threatening 
 was  at  length  terribly  fulfilled.  The  most 
 remarkable  of  these  captivities  are  these : 
 
 1.  Of  Israel.  In  the  year  b.  c.  740, 
 Tiglath-pileser  took  various  cities  and 
 carried  their  inhabitants  to  Assyria  (2 
 Kings  15  :  29).  About  twenty  years  af- 
 ter, Shalmaneser,  son  of  Tiglath-pileser, 
 destroyed  Samaria  and  carried  its  inhab- 
 itants captive  to  Assyria  (2  Kings  17  :  5, 
 6).     Some   are   of   opinion   that   the  ten 
 
 tribes  never  returned  from  this  captivity, 
 but  were  absorbed  by  intermarriages  with 
 their  conquei-ors,  and  thus  lost.  The  lan- 
 guage of  the  prophets,  in  the  opinion  of 
 others,  implies  that  many  of  them  did 
 actually  return  (Amos  9  :  14;  Isa.  11  :  12, 
 13 ;  Jer.  3:18;  Ezek.  37  :  16 ;  Hos.  1 :  10, 
 11 ;  Mic.  2  :  12  ;  Zech.  9  :  13). 
 
 2.  Of  Judah.  Three  captivities  of  Ju- 
 dah are  enumerated.  The  first  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzai*,  king  of  Babylon,  during  the 
 reign  of  Jehoiakim,  when  Daniel  and 
 others  were  carried  into  Babylon,  b.  c.  606 
 (Dan.  1  :  1,  2).  The  second,  also  under 
 Jehoiakim,  or  probably  during  the  reign 
 of  Jehoiachin,  b.  c.  598  (2  Kings  24  :  8- 
 16).  The  third  under  Zedekiah,  b.  c.  588 
 (2  Kings  25).  This  last  was  the  seventy 
 years'  caiitivity  (Jer.  25  :  9-11).  By  the 
 decree  of  Cyrus  and  Darius  Hystaspes, 
 the  exiles,  after  this  captivity,  were  per- 
 mitted to  return  and  rebuild  the  temple. 
 The  last  Jewish  captivity  was  under  the 
 Romans,  in  which  many  of  the  Jews,  af- 
 ter the  destruction  of  tlieir  nation,  were 
 sold  into  bondage.  At  the  present  time 
 the  Jews  are  scattered  among  all  nations, 
 where,  as  a  standing  miracle,  they  pre- 
 serve their  distinctive  character. 
 
 In  its  spiritual  application  the  term 
 "captivity"  denotes  two  opposite  condi- 
 tions, namely,  that  grievous  state  of  servi- 
 tude into  which  sin  brings  us  (Rom.  7  : 
 23 ;  2  Tim.  2  :  26),  and  that  gracious 
 state  of  freedom  into  which  the  gospel 
 introduces  us  (2  Cor.  10  :  5).  Our  Lord 
 is  said  to  lead  "  captivity  captive "  (Ps. 
 68  :  18 ;  Eph.  4  :  8),  in  the  sense  that  he 
 makes  captives  of  the  enemies  who  once 
 led  his  people  captive;  he  vanquishes 
 the  capturing  power  and  subdues  all  his 
 people's  spiritual  enemies. 
 
 Car'bun-cle,  a  precious  stone.  Two 
 different  words  in  Hebrew  are  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  English  Version,  but  neither 
 gives  us  such  exact  information  in  respect 
 to  the  character  of  the  stone  as  enables  us 
 
118 
 
 CARCHEMISH— CARPENTER. 
 
 to  identify  it  with  the  carbuncle  known  to 
 us.     The  fii-st  word  is  a  general  term  to 
 denote   any  bright,  sparkling   gem,  and    is 
 found  in  Isa.  54  :  12;  the  second  word  is 
 from  a  verbal  root  which  means  to  fash,  and 
 which  points  to  a  stone  of  a  bright 
 coruscant  color.     The  second  word  is 
 found  in  Ex.  28  :  17  ;  39  :  10;  Ezek. 
 28  :  13,  and  in  the  Septuagint  is  uni- 
 formly rendered  by  a  word  which  rep- 
 resents the  emerald. 
 
 Car'che-mish  [perhaps  fort  of 
 Chevtosh],  a  fortified  city  on  the  Eu- 
 phrates, conniianding  the  passage  of 
 the  river,  and  marking  the  scene  of 
 frequent  conflict  between  Egypt  and 
 Assyria  (Isa.  10:9;  Jer.  46  :  2).  It 
 is  usually  identified  with  the  place 
 which  the  Greeks  termed  Kirkesion, 
 the  modern  Kerkesiyeh,  but  Rawlinson 
 locates  it  higher  up  the  river,  near 
 Hierapolis.  The  Assyrian  monuments 
 show  that  before  its  conquest  by  As- 
 syria it  was  a  chief  city  of  the  Hit- 
 tites,  who  between  b.  c.  1100  and  850 
 were  the  masters  of  all  Syria,  from 
 the  borders  of  Damascus  to  the  Euphrates 
 at  Bir.  It  is  also  mentioned  on  the  Egyp- 
 tian hieroglyphical  sculptures. 
 
 Ca'ri-a,  the  southern  part  of  the  re- 
 gion wliich  in  the  New  Testament  is  call- 
 ed Asia,  and  the  south-western  part  of  the 
 peninsula  of  Asia  Minor.  The  name  does 
 not  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  but  two  of  the 
 cities  of  the  province,  Miletus  and  Cnidus, 
 are  mentioned  (Acts  20  :  15 ;  27  :  7). 
 
 Caramel  [garden'},  the  name  of  a  moun- 
 tain-range and  of  a  city. 
 
 1.  A  celebrated  mountain-range  running 
 inland  some  twenty-eight  miles,  in  a  south- 
 cast  direction,  from  the  bold  promontory 
 which  forms  the  southern  shore  of  tlie  Bay 
 of  Acre.  The  average  height  of  the  range 
 is  about  fifteen  hundred  feet.  It  separates 
 the  plain  of  Esdraelon  from  the  great  south- 
 ern coast-plain.  It  once  abounded  in  fruit 
 and  forest   trees,  and   the   Scriptures  are 
 
 crowded  with  allusions  to  its  productive- 
 ness and  beauty  ( Song  7:5;  Isa.  33  :  9 ; 
 35  :  2  ;  Jer.  40  :  18 ;  50  :  19 ;  Mic.  7  :  14 ; 
 Nah.  I  :  4;  2  Kings  19  :  23).  It  was  the 
 scene,  moreover,  of  the  remarkable  con- 
 
 Caimel  and  the  MediteriaiH'aii. 
 
 test  between  the  prophet  Elijah  and  the 
 priests  of  Baal,  and  of  the  prophet's  im- 
 portunate prayer  for  rain  (1  Kings  18). 
 Indeed,  tradition  has  so  connected  it  with 
 Elijah  tliat  its  modern  Arabic  name  is  Jchel 
 Mar  Elyas. 
 
 2.  A  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
 (Josh.  15  :  55).  Here  Saul  set  up  a  tro- 
 phy of  victory  over  Amalek  (1  Sam.  15  : 
 12).  Here  Abigail  and  Nabal  dwelt  (1 
 Sam.  25  :  2,  5,  7,  40) ;  and  from  her  asso- 
 ciation with  this  place  Abigail  was  termed 
 "the  Carmelitess"  (1  Sam.  27  :  3).  It  is 
 now  identified  with  Knrmul,  ten  miles 
 south-east  of  Hebron,  a  poor  village  amid 
 extensive  ruins. 
 
 Car'pen-ter.  The  original  word  thus 
 rendered  in  Matt.  13  :  55  ;  Mark.  6  :  3,  des- 
 ignates an  artisan  or  mechanic  or  builder, 
 and  is  generally  applied  to  a  worker  in 
 wood.    According  to  Justin,  our  Lord's  re- 
 
CARPUS— CATTLE. 
 
 119 
 
 puted  father  made  "  plouglis  and  yokes," 
 and  was  assisted  in  the  labor  by  our  Lord 
 himself.  The  Son  of  God,  in  becoming 
 man  and  in  earning  his  bread  by  the 
 sweat  ot  his  brow,  has  consecrated  those 
 manual  toils  which  are  the  lot  of  the 
 great  majority  of  mankind. 
 
 Car^pus,  a  disciple  of  Paul  who  dwelt 
 at  Troas  (2  Tim.  4  :  13). 
 
 Car^riag-es.  This  word,  as  used  in 
 Scripture,  does  not  mean  a  species  of  ve- 
 hicle, as  in  the  present  day,  but  that  load 
 or  burden  which  man  or  beast  carries  ( Isa. 
 10  :  28 ;  Acts  21  :  15).  We  call  such  a 
 load  lv,g(ja(je  or  baggage.  The  expression 
 in  Acts  21  :  15,  "took  up  our  carriages," 
 may  be  translated  "  having  packed  our 
 baggage." 
 
 Asiatic  Cart. 
 
 Cart,  or  Wag 'on,  a  vehicle  on  wheels 
 for  carrying  burdens,  drawn  by  cattle  in  dis- 
 tinction from  the  chariot  drawn  by  horses 
 (Gen.  45  :  1 9  ;  1  Sam.  6  :  7).  The  cart  now 
 used  in  Western  Asia  has  two  wheels  of 
 solid  wood,  and  is  an  exact  copy  of  that 
 used  in  Syria  from  the  earliest  times. 
 Carts  with  spokes  in  the  wheels  were  an- 
 ciently in  common  use  in  Egypt  and  As- 
 syria. The  expression  in  Isa.  5  :  18, 
 "Woe  unto  them  that  draw  iniquity 
 with  cords  of  vanity,  and  sin  as  [z.  e. 
 as  with]  a  cart-rope !"  expresses  in  strong 
 figure   the   determined    purpose   and   the 
 
 severe  labor  with  which  evil-workers  pur- 
 sue their  schemes  of  wickedness.  Resolv- 
 ed to  succeed,  these  evil-workers  employ 
 not  single  threads,  but  strongly-twisted  cart- 
 ropes. 
 
 Case^ment,  a  kind  of  barrier  of  open- 
 work placed  before  windows  in  the  East, 
 which,  being  open  in  summer  down  to  the 
 floor,  require  some  such  defence  (Prov.  7  : 
 6).  The  word  kiUice  represents  it  with 
 sufficient  exactness  (Judg.  5  :  28). 
 
 Cas'lu-him.      See    Nations,   under 
 
 MiZRAIM. 
 
 Cas'sia,  an  aromatic  but  unknown 
 shrub  or  tree  whose  bark  or  root  formed 
 an  ingredient  in  costly  unguents  (P^x.  30  : 
 24).  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
 koost  of  the  Arabs,  the  Costus  Arabicus, 
 of  the  ginger  tribe. 
 
 Cast,  "a  stone's  cast,"  the  distance  a 
 stone  is  thrown  (Luke  22  :  41).  To  cast 
 is  to  mould  melted  metal  (Ex.  25  :  12). 
 To  cast  out  of  the  synagogue  means  an 
 act  of  excommunication  (John  9  :  22  and 
 34).  God  casting  men's  sins  behind  his 
 back  or  into  the  depths  of  the  sea  denotes 
 his  forgiveness  of  them  (Isa.  38  :  17;  Mic. 
 7  :  19).  A  castaway  is  one  doomed  to  pei*- 
 dition  (1  Cor.  9  :  27). 
 
 Cas'tle,  a  fortified  tower  (1  Chron.  11 : 
 5,  7).  In  Acts  21  :  34  it  refers  to  the  fort- 
 ress Antonia,  the  quarters  of  the  Roman 
 soldiery  in  Jerusalem. 
 
 Cas'tor  and  Pol^lux,  two  heroes  of 
 Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  the  twin 
 sons  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.  They  were 
 regarded  as  the  tutelary  divinities  of 
 sailors.  The  ship  which  carried  Paul 
 (Acts  28  :  11)  bore  their  names,  and  at  its 
 bow,  most  likely,  were  their  sculptured 
 images. 
 
 Cat''er-pil'lar.  The  Hebrew  word 
 commonly  translated  thus  (1  Kings  8  : 
 37 ;  Isa.  33  :  4)  literally  signifies  a  strip- 
 per off  of  leaves,  and  is  supposed  to  indi- 
 cate a  locust. 
 
 Oat^tle,  a  general  word  for  tame  quad- 
 
120 
 
 CAUL— CEILING. 
 
 rupeds  employed  by  mankind,  as  oxen, 
 horses,  sheep,  camels,  goats  (Gen.  13  :  2; 
 Ex.  12  :  29  ;  34  :  19 ;  Num.  20  :  19 ;  32  : 
 16 ;  Ps.  50  :  10).  In  the  pastoral  countries 
 of  the  East  cattle  constituted  the  wealth 
 of  the  inhabitants  (Job  1:3;  42:12). 
 The  owners  themselves  superintended  the 
 feeding  of  them,  and  were  there- 
 fore exposed  to  all  vicissitudes  of 
 weather  (Gen.  31  :  40).  Moses  fed 
 the  flocks  of  his  father-in-law,  and 
 David  was  brought  from  the  sheep- 
 fold  to  the  throne  of  Israel.  Amos 
 the  prophet  was  a  herdsman,  and 
 from  the  same  occupation  Shamgar 
 was  raised  to  be  one  of  the  judges 
 or  deliverers  of  Israel  (Amos  1:1; 
 Judg.  3 :  31). 
 
 Caul,  a  membrane  of  network 
 covering  most  of  the  intestines,  and 
 called  by  anatomists  the  omentum 
 (Ex.  29:13;  Hos.  13:  8).  The 
 name  also  of  a  head-dress  of  net- 
 work Avorn  by  Jewish  women  ( Isa.  3 
 
 Cause 'way,  a  highroad  or  beaten 
 path  (1  Chron.  20  :  16,  18j. 
 
 Cave,  an  excavation  in  a  rock,  either 
 natural  or  artificial.  There  were  many 
 such  ic  Palestine,  as  in  all  countries  of 
 limestone  formation.  They  were  some- 
 times used  as  dwellings,  sometimes  as 
 places  of  concealment,  and  sometimes  as 
 the  resorts  of  banditti.  These  caves  are 
 still  used  at  the  present  day,  as  always, 
 as  human  abodes,  a.s  sheepfolds  and  as 
 stables.  The  capaciousness  of  the  cave  of 
 Adullam  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
 that  it  afforded  accommodation  for  Da- 
 vid and  four  hundred  followers  (1  Sam. 
 22  :  1,  2) ;  and  in  the  cave  of  Engedi  he 
 and  six  hundred  men  concealed  them- 
 selves (1  Sam.  23  :  13;  24  :  1-3). 
 
 Ce'dar.  The  word  in  Hebrew  ren- 
 dered thus  does  not  always  apply  to  the 
 same  tree,  but  is  a  generic  expression  for 
 the  class  of  evergreens.  In  most  of  the 
 passages,   however,  where  the  word  oc- 
 
 curs it  denotes  the  cedar  in  strict  sense, 
 the  "firmly-rooted  and  strong  tree,"  as 
 its  verbal  root  imports.  Of  the  cedars, 
 that  of  Lebanon  is  the  most  celebrated 
 for  beauty,  majesty  and  longevity  (Song  5  : 
 15).  At  the  present  time  the  cedar  trees 
 of  Lebanon  are   only  a  few  hundred   in 
 
 18). 
 
 The  Syrian  Cedar. 
 
 number,  but  some  of  them  are  very  large 
 and  old.  Maundrell  measured  one  which 
 was  thirty-six  feet  six  inches  in  the  girth 
 and  one  hundred  and  eleven  feet  in  the 
 spread  of  its  boughs.  The  wood  is  of  a 
 white  color  and  bitter  taste,  is  not  very 
 liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects  nor  much 
 affected  by  moisture,  and  is  so  durable 
 that  it  has  been  known  to  bust,  as  histo- 
 rians assert,  upward  of  two  thousand  years. 
 Solomon  used  it  for  rafters  and  beams  in 
 the  construction  of  the  temple  and  of  his 
 palace  (1  Kings  6:  36;  7  :  12). 
 
 Ce'dron.     See  Kidron. 
 
 Ceil'ing.  The  Oriental  ceiling  in 
 costly  buildings  was  generally  made  of 
 cedar  planks  applied  to  the  beams  or 
 joists  crossing  from  wall  to  wall,  prob- 
 ably with  sunk  panels,  edged  and  orna- 
 mented with  gold,  and  carved  with  in- 
 cised or  other  patterns,  and  painted  (1 
 Kings  6  : -9,  15;  7  :  3;  Jer.  22  :  14;  Hag. 
 1  :  4).  Ordinary  ceilings  were  of  fir  and 
 cheaper  woods.    The  Egyptian  monuments 
 
CELLAKS— CHAFF. 
 
 121 
 
 _j 
 
 furnish  many  of  the  richly-painted  patterns 
 which  were  used  in  ornamenting  them. 
 
 OeFlars.  This  word  occurs  but  once 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  (1  Chron.  27  : 
 27),  and  the  Hebrew  word  it  represents 
 does  not  designate  what  we  term  "cel- 
 lars," but  what  is  laid  up,  a  store,  stock 
 of  fruits,  produce,  provisions  and  the  like. 
 The  Hebrew  word  is  properly  rendered 
 "store"  in  2  Chron.  11  :  11,  but  is  more 
 commonly  rendered  "treasures." 
 
 Cen'chre-a,  a  port  on  the  south  east 
 of  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  about  nine 
 miles  from  the  city.  Paul  sailed  from  this 
 port  for  Ephesus  (Acts  18  :  18),  and  in 
 writing  subsequently  to  the  Romans  from 
 Corinth  alluded  to  a  Christian  church  as 
 then  existing  at  Cenchrea  (Kom.  16  :  1). 
 The  ruins  of  the  place  are  still  to  be  seen 
 at  the  modern  village  of  Kekchries,  which 
 occupies  the  ancient  site. 
 
 Oen'ser,  a  small  portable  vessel  of  met- 
 al fitted  to  receive  those  burning  coals  from 
 the  altar  on  which,  in  the  tabernacle  and 
 temple  service,  incense  was  sprinkled  (2 
 Chron.  26  :  19 ;  Luke  1:9).  The  word  ren- 
 dered censi-r  in  Heb.  9 :  4  means  the  altar  of 
 incense.  The  censer  was  sometimes  made 
 of  brass  (Num.  16  :  39),  and  sometimes  of 
 gold  (1  Kings  7  :  50).  The  form  of  the 
 ancient  Jewish  censer  is  not  known,  un- 
 less we  conclude  it  to  have  been  similar 
 to  those  figured  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
 ments, consisting  of  a  cup  attached  to  a 
 shaft  or  handle,  with  the  extremity  formed 
 into  the  shape  of  a  hand. 
 
 Cen-tu'ri-on,  a  Roman  military  cap- 
 tain having  originally  the  command  of  a 
 hundred  men.  With  scarcely  an  exception 
 the  centurions  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament are  favorably  noticed.  Their  pro- 
 motion to  the  command  of  one  hundred 
 men  was  usually  the  reward  of  that  good 
 conduct  which  is  the  result  of  thoughtful- 
 ness  and  self-restraint,  whilst  the  truthful- 
 ness and  straightforwardness  of  their  cha- 
 racter Avould   naturally   disjiose   them  to 
 
 be  fair-minded  and  just.  One  of  them  is 
 commended  by  our  Lord  for  the  greatness 
 of  his  faith  (Matt.  8  :  5-10) ;  another  cen- 
 turion, Cornelius,  is  described  as  "  devout, 
 fearing  God  with  all  his  house,  giving 
 much  alms  to  the  people  and  praying  to 
 
 Roman  Centurion. 
 
 God  always"  (Acts  10  :  2) ;  another  cen- 
 turion, Julius,  entreated  Paul  courteously, 
 and  saved  his  life  when  threatened  by  the 
 soldiers  (Acts  27  :  1,  3,  42,  43) ;  and  still 
 another  centurion,  Avhen  witnessing  our 
 Lord's  extraordinary  death  upon  the  cross, 
 exclaimed,  as  Luke  (23 :  47)  records,  "Cer- 
 tainly this  was  a  righteous  man,"  and  as 
 Matthew  (27:54)  records,  "Truly  this 
 was  the  Son  of  God." 
 
 Ce'phas,  a  surname  applied  by  our 
 Lord  to  Simon  Peter  (John  1  :  42).  It 
 is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Aramaic  word 
 Avhich  is  the  equivalent  to  the  Greek 
 petra,  "rock." 
 
 Cer^e-mo-nies,  the  rites  or  forms  of 
 worship  observed  by  the  Jews  (Num.  9  : 
 3;  Heb.  9:1).  These  have  now  given 
 way  to  the  simple,  spiritual  worship  of  the 
 Christian  Church  (Col.  2  :  17). 
 
 Chaff.  Two  words  in  Hebrew  are  thus 
 rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version.  One, 
 having  the  sense  of  dry  cjrass  or  hay,  occurs 
 twice  only  (Isa.  5  :  24;  33:  11)  and  here 
 
122 
 
 CHAIN— CHALD^A. 
 
 in  connection  with  burning;  the  other 
 is  what  we  commonly  denominate  chaff, 
 namely,  tlie  husk  of  the  wheat  separated 
 from  the  grain  l)y  winnowing.  The  car- 
 rying away  of  chaff  by  the  wind  is  an  or- 
 dinary Scripture  image  of  the  destruction 
 of  the  wicked  and  of  their  powerlessness 
 to  resist  God's  judgments  (Ps.  1  :  4;  Isa. 
 17  :  13;  Hos.  13:  3;  Zeph.  2  :  2). 
 
 Chain.  Chains  were  used  as  badges 
 of  office,  for  ornament  and  for  confining 
 prisoners. 
 
 1.  As  Badges  of  Office. — The  gold 
 chain  placed  about  Joseph's  neck  (Gen. 
 41  :  42)  and  that  promised  to  Daniel  (Dan. 
 5  :  7)  are  instances  of  this  use.  In  Ezek. 
 10:11  the  chain  is  mentioned  as  the  sym- 
 bol of  sovereignty. 
 
 2.  For  Ornament. — Chains  for  orna- 
 mental purposes  were  worn  by  men  as 
 well  as  women  in  many  countries,  and  the 
 like  custom  prevailed,  probably,  among 
 the  Hebrews  (Prov.  1  :  9).  The  necklace 
 consisted  of  pearls,  corals,  etc.,  threaded 
 on  a  string.  Besides  the  necklace,  other 
 chains  were  worn,  hanging  down  as  far 
 as  the  waist,  or  even  lower.  Some  were 
 adorned  with  pieces  of  metal  shaped  in 
 the  form  of  the  moon  (Isa.  3  :  18),  and 
 from  some  were  suspended  various  trink- 
 ets, as  scent-bottles  (Isa.  3  :  20)  and  mir- 
 rors (Isa.  3  :  23). 
 
 3.  For  confining  Prisoners. — These, 
 among  the  Jews,  Avere  fetters  similar  to  some 
 of  our  liandcufTs  (Judg.  16  :  21 ;  2  Sam.  3  : 
 34;  2  Kings  25  :  7  ;  Jer.  39  :  7).  Among 
 the  Romans  the  prisoner  was  handcuffed 
 to  one,  and  occasionally  to  two,  guards 
 (Acts  12:  G,  7;  21  :  33). 
 
 Ohal-ce-do'ny  or  Chal-ced'o-ny 
 [from  Ckalrechv^,  a  precious  stone,  men- 
 tioned in  Kev.  21  :  19  only.  In  modern 
 mineralogy  the  name  is  applied  to  one  of 
 the  varieties  of  agate,  and  if  it  were  not 
 so  applied  anciently,  the  kind  of  stone 
 meant  is  not  known. 
 
 Chal-dse'a,  at  first  a  small  district  in 
 
 the  southern  part  of  Babylonia,  on  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  but  after- 
 ward an  immense  country,  embracing  the 
 vast  alluvial  plain  between  the  Tigris  and 
 Euphrates  and  the  extensive  region  that 
 stretched  westward  from  the  Euphrates  to 
 the  desert  of  Arabia.  In  this  later  and 
 wider  sense  it  is  equivalent  to  the  Bab- 
 ylonian empire.  Its  early  limited  terri- 
 tory was  originally  called  Shinar,  and 
 upon  its  soil  Nimrod  built  the  four  most 
 ancient  cities  of  the  world,  "  Babel,  and 
 Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh"  (Gen. 
 10 :  10).  As  Nimrod,  the  builder  of  its  first 
 cities,  was  a  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  10  :  8),  its 
 first  inhabitants  were  undoubtedly  Cush- 
 ites,  as  the  earliest  inscriptions  found  in 
 the  country  indicate.  The  early  colonists 
 of  Chalda?a  were  thus  of  the  same  race  with 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  upi)er  Nile.  The 
 monumental  records  of  this  old  Cushite 
 empire  place  its  beginnings  about  twen- 
 ty-four centuries  b.  c.  The  empire  lasted 
 about  seven  centuries,  when  it  was  over- 
 turned by  a  foreign  Semitic  race,  suppo.sed 
 to  have  come  from  the  country  afterward 
 known  as  Arabia.  Their  old  language, 
 however,  was  preserved  by  a  learned  caste 
 noted  as  the  Chaldicans  among  the  sooth- 
 sayers and  astrologers  in  the  book  of  Dan- 
 iel. (See  Chald.eans.)  The  Arab  con- 
 querors ruled  for  about  two  centuries  and 
 a  half,  and  were  followed  by  the  Assyr- 
 ians, Shemites  also.  At  length,  what  is 
 commonly  known  as  the  Babylonian  em- 
 pire displaced  the  Assyrian  power.  The 
 Median  kingdom  had  for  some  time  been 
 coming  into  prominence  under  Cyaxares, 
 who,  in  alliance  with  Naliopolassar,  the 
 Assyrian  governor  of  Babylonia,  threw 
 off  the  yoke  of  Nineveh,  which  for  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  years  had  rested  heav- 
 ily on  "the  land  of  the  ("haldees."  Na- 
 bopolassar  then  became  the  actual  king 
 of  Babylon,  associating  with  him  in  the 
 government  of  the  country  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, iiis  son.     After  the  Babylonian  ride 
 
CHALDJi:  A  NS— CHAMBERLAIN. 
 
 123 
 
 came  successively  that  of  Persia,  that  of 
 Greece  and  that  of  Rome.  From  the  ear- 
 liest to  the  latest  ages  the  religion  of  Chal- 
 dsea  was  chiefly  Sabseism,  or  the  worship  of 
 the  heavenly  bodies,  and  naturally  tended 
 to  convert  astronomy  into  a  stupendous  sys- 
 tem of  astrology.  The  later  language  of  the 
 country,  the  Chaldee,  has  long  ceased  to 
 be  spoken,  but,  closely  related  to  the  He- 
 brew, it  is  represented  in  our  Scriptures 
 by  portions  of  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
 Daniel. 
 
 Chal-dae'ans,  Chardees,  in  early 
 times,  and  until  the  captivity  of  Judah, 
 the  people  of  the  country  which  is  termed 
 Shinar,  and  which  has  Babylon  for  its  cap- 
 ital. They  were  Karaites,  closely  related 
 to  the  Hamites  of  Upper  Egypt.  They 
 exhibited  a  fertility  of  invention,  a  ge- 
 nius and  an  energy  which  place  them 
 high  in  the  scale  of  nations,  and  more 
 es[)ecially  in  the  list  of  those  descended 
 from  an  Hamitic  stock.  It  is  an  arresting 
 fact  that  in  the  first  ages  the  world  was 
 mainly  indebted  for  its  advancement  to 
 Hamites.  Egypt  and  Babylon,  Mizraim 
 and  Cush,  both  descendants  of  Ham,  led 
 the  way,  and  acted  as  the  pioneers  of  man- 
 kind in  the  various  untrodden  fields  of  art, 
 literature  and  science.  Alphabetic  wri- 
 ting, astronomy,  history,  chronology,  ar- 
 chitecture, plastic  art,  sculpture,  naviga- 
 tion, agriculture,  textile  industry,  seem, 
 all  of  them,  to  have  had  their  origin  in 
 one  or  other  of  these  two  countries.  To 
 the  Chaldseans  esi^ecially  the  ancient  world 
 was  very  largely  indebted.  With  great  as- 
 siduity they  cultivated  the  sciences  and 
 developed  the  arts.  For  centuries  they 
 were  the  men  of  progress,  and  their  name 
 was  intimately  associated  with  all  the  in- 
 terests of  an  advanced  civilization. 
 
 But  during  the  captivity  of  Judah  in  Bab- 
 ylon another  sense  of  the  word  "  Chaldfe- 
 ans  "  begins  to  appear.  From  Daniel  (2:2) 
 we  learn  that  the  Chaldseans  are  classed 
 with  the  magicians  and  astrologers,  and 
 
 that  they  form  a  sort  of  priest-class  who 
 have  a  peculiar  "tongue"  and  "learning" 
 (Dan.  1  :  4),  and  whom  the  king  consults 
 on  religious  subjects.  As  the  type  of 
 speech  which  at  this  time  was  prevalent 
 in  Babylon  for  civil  purposes  was  She- 
 mitic,  the  Chaldseans  must  have  retained 
 their  ancient  Cushite  dialect  for  all  the 
 uses  of  science  and  religion.  Their  learn- 
 ing and  their  tongue  had  gradually  become 
 inaccessible  to  the  great  mass  of  the  people, 
 and  were  prized  and  pursued  by  studious 
 men,  who,  whatever  their  race,  were  de- 
 nominated Chaldseans.  In  this  sense  Dan- 
 iel himself,  the  "  master  of  the  Clialdseans  " 
 (Dan.  5  :  11),  would  no  doubt  have  been 
 reckoned  among  them.  It  may  be  doubted 
 whether  the  Chaldaians  at  any  time  were  all 
 priests,  though  the  priests  were  at  all  times 
 required  to  be  Chaldseans.  They  were  really 
 the  learned  class,  who  by  their  acquaint- 
 ance with  the  language  of  science  had  be- 
 come its  depositaries.  They  were  priests, 
 or  magicians,  or  astronomers,  as  their  pref- 
 erences for  one  or  other  of  tliose  occupa- 
 tions inclined  them ;  and  in  the  last  of 
 the  three  capacities  they  probably  effected 
 discoveries  of  great  importance.  In  later 
 times  they  seem  to  have  degenerated  into 
 mere  fortune-tellers,  but  this  reproach  is 
 not  justly  leveled  against  the  Chaldaeans 
 of  the  empire. 
 
 Cham^ber-lain,  a  term  in  Scripture 
 of  diverse  significations.  At  the  close  of 
 the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  16  :  23) 
 Erastus,  "the  chamberlain  of  the  city" 
 of  Corinth  unites  in  the  salutations.  His 
 office  was  that  of  public  treasurer,  an  in- 
 ferior magistrate  who  had  charge  of  the 
 public  chest  and  Avas  under  tlie  authority 
 of  the  senate.  His  employment  was  sim- 
 ply to  keep  the  accounts  of  the  public 
 revenues.  Viistly  different  from  tliis  of- 
 fice was  that  held  by  Blastus,  "  the  king's 
 chamberlain"  (Acts  12  :  20).  His  was  a 
 post  of  honor  involving  great  intimacy 
 and  influence  with  the  king.     The  mar- 
 
124 
 
 CHAMELEON— CHARIOT. 
 
 gin  of  our  English  Version  gives,  "that 
 wiis  over  the  king's  bed-chamber."  For 
 "chamberlain"  as  used  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament see  EuNUCii. 
 
 Cha-rae'le-on.    See  Cameleon. 
 
 Cham'ois,  the  translation  of  a  He- 
 brew word  occurring  only  in  Deut.  1-1:5. 
 There  is  no  evidence  that  the  chamois, 
 which  inhabits  the  Alpine  regions  of  Eu- 
 rope, has  ever  been  seen  in  Palestine  or  the 
 Lebanon.  It  is  probable  that  some  species 
 of  mountain-sheep  or  goat  is  referred  to. 
 
 Cham-paign',  a  flat,  open  country 
 (Deut.  11  :  30). 
 
 Cham'pi-on,  a  single  combatant  of 
 trusted  bravery.  Goliath,  who  cliallenged 
 the  army  of  Israel  to  select  their  most 
 noted  warrior  to  meet  him  in  single  com- 
 
 bat, was  such  a  champion  (1  Sam.  17  :  4). 
 In  this  instance  David  became  the  suc- 
 cessful champion  of  Israel,  and  struck 
 the  Philistines  with  panic  and  dismay  by 
 killing  Goliath,  whom  they  had  regarded 
 as  invincible. 
 
 Chan'cel-lor,  an  official  title  (Ezra 
 4:8,  17).  The  particular  duties  of  the 
 office  referred  to  are  not  known. 
 
 Chant,  a  style  in  singing  (Amos  6  :  5). 
 
 Chap'i-ters,  the  upper  part  of  a  col- 
 umn, or  what  is  styled  in  architecture  the 
 capital  (1  Kings  7  :  16). 
 
 Chap 'men,  merchants  or  traders  (2 
 Chron.  9  :  14). 
 
 Chapt,  cleft  with  fissui'es  or  openings 
 by  lieat  and  drought  (Jei*.  14  :  4). 
 
 Char'ger,  a  large,  shallow  vessel  for 
 receiving  water  or  blood,  and  for  present- 
 ing ofierings  of  fine  flour  with  oil  (Num. 
 7  :  13,  79).  Tlie  daughter  of  Ilerodias 
 brought  to  lier  mother  the  head  of  John 
 the  Baptist  in  a  charger  (Matt.  14:8), 
 probably  a  trencher  or  platter. 
 
 Egyptian  Chariot. 
 
 Char'iot,  a  veliicle  for  riding,  and 
 used  either  for  warlike  or  peaceful  pur- 
 poses, but  most  commonly  for  the  former. 
 The  earliest  mention  of  cliariots  in  Scrip- 
 ture is  in  Egypt,  wlicre  Joscpli,  as  a  mark 
 of  distinction,  was  placed  in  Pharaoh's  sec- 
 
 ond chariot  (Gen.  41  :  43),  and  later  when 
 he  went  in  his  OAvn  chariot  to  meet  his  fa- 
 ther on  the  arrival  of  Jacob  from  Canaan 
 (Gen.  46  :  29).  In  the  funeral  procession 
 of  Jacob  chariots  also  formed  a  part,  pos- 
 sibly by  way  of  escort  or  as  a  guard  of 
 
CHAEITY— CHEMAEIMS,  THE. 
 
 125 
 
 honor  (Gen.  50  :  9).  The  next  mention 
 of  Egyptian  chariots  is  for  a  warlike  pur- 
 pose (Ex.  14  :  7).  War-chariots,  in  ancient 
 times,  filled  the  place,  apparently,  of  heavy 
 artillery  in  modern  times,  and  indicated 
 the  military  power  of  a  nation.  Thus, 
 Pharaoh  in  pursuing  Israel  took  with  him 
 six  hundred  chariots.  The  Canaanites  of 
 the  valleys  of  Palestine  were  enabled  to 
 resist  the  Israelites  successfully  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  number  of  their  chariots  of 
 iron,  or  chariots  armed  with  iron  scythes 
 (Josh.  17  :  18 ;  Judg.  1:19).  Jabin,  king  of 
 Canaan,  had  nine  hundred  chariots  (Judg. 
 4  :  3).  The  Philistines  in  Saul's  time  had 
 thirty  thousand  (1  Sam.  13  :  5).  David 
 took  from  Hadadezcr,  king  of  Zobah,  one 
 thousand  chariots  (2  Sam.  8  :  4),  and  from 
 the  Syrians,  a  little  later,  seven  hundred  (2 
 Sam.  10 :  18),  who,  in  order  to  recover  their 
 ground,  collected  thirty-two  thousand  char- 
 iots (1  Chron.  19:7).  Among  the  Israelites 
 the  supplies  of  chariots  and  horses  were 
 mainly  drawn  from  Egypt  (2  Kings  18  : 
 24;  Isa.  31  :  1).  Commonly,  two  persons, 
 and  sometimes  three,  rode  in  the  chariot. 
 The  prophets  frequently  allude  to  char- 
 iots as  types  of  power  (Ps.  20  :  7  ;  104  :  3 ; 
 Jer.  51  :  21;  Zech.  6  :  1). 
 
 Ohar^i-ty,  one  of  the  three  chief  Chris- 
 tian graces,  and  the  old  English  word  for 
 love  (1  Cor.  13  :  1,  13). 
 
 Char'ran  (Acts  7  :  2,  4) ;  elsewhere 
 Haran  (which  gee). 
 
 Ohe'bar,  a  river  of  Mesopotamia 
 which  empties  into  the  Euphrates.  It  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Chahoras  of 
 the  Greek  geographers,  and  which  now 
 bears  the  name  of  Khabour ;  but  by  others 
 it  is  identified  with  the  Nalir  Mdlchn,  or 
 royal  canal  of  Nebucliadnezzar,  which  the 
 Jewish  exiles  assisted,  perhaps,  in  cutting, 
 and  on  the  banks  of  which  a  Jewish  col- 
 ony, among  whom  was  the  prophet  Eze- 
 kiel,  was  certainly  planted  (Ezek.  1:1). 
 Here  Ezekiel  saw  his  earlier  visions  (Ezek. 
 1:3;  3:  15,  23). 
 
 Ohed-or-la'o-mer,  a  king  of  Elam 
 in  the  time  of  Abraham,  who  with  three 
 other  chiefs  made  war  upon  the  cities  of 
 the  plain  and  reduced  them  to  servitude 
 (Gen.  14  :  17).  Upon  bricks  recently  dis- 
 covered in  Chaldaea  is  the  name  of  a  king 
 which  is  read  Kwlurlagamar  {servant  of 
 Lagamar,  a  Susianian  god),  and  which  is 
 identified  with  the  name  of  the  Elamite 
 king.  This  king  was  emphatically  a 
 great  conqueror.  Twenty  centuries  before 
 our  era  he  extended  his  dominion  over 
 Chaldsea  and  the  adjacent  regions,  and, 
 marching  an  army  twelve  hundred  miles, 
 from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
 held  Palestine  and  Syria  in  subjection  for 
 twelve  years  (Gen.  14  :  4),  thus  effecting 
 conquests  which  were  not  again  made  from 
 the  same  quarter  till  the  time  of  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, fourteen  hundred  years  later. 
 He  is  the  forerunner  and  prototype  of  all 
 those  great  Oriental  conquerors  who,  from 
 time  to  time,  have  built  up  vast  empires 
 in  Asia  out  of  such  heterogeneous  materials 
 as  necessitated,  sooner  or  later,  an  inevita- 
 ble crumbling  into  decay. 
 
 Cheese,  mentioned  only  three  times  in 
 the  Scriptures  (Job  10  :  10 ;  1  Sam.  17  :  18 ; 
 2  Sam.  17  :  29),  and  on  each  occasion  un- 
 der a  different  name  in  Hebrew.  These 
 three  words  express  various  'degrees  of 
 coagulation,  and  neither  of  them  gives 
 the  modern  and  common  notion  of  cheese. 
 The  Bedouin  Arabs  have  a  coagulated 
 buttermilk,  which  is  dried  until  it  be- 
 comes quite  hard,  and  which,  when  used, 
 is  ground  into  powder.  This  resembles 
 most  nearly  the  cheese  mentioned  in  the 
 two  books  of  Samuel  at  the  places  cited 
 above. 
 
 Ohem'arims,  The.  This  word,  trans- 
 ferred from  the  Hebrew  into  our  English 
 Version,  occurs  but  once  in  the  English 
 Old  Testament  (Zeph.  1:4).  In  2  Kings 
 23  :  5  the  word  is  rendered  "  idolatrous 
 priests,"  and  in  Hos.  10:5,"  jiriests."  In 
 Hebrew  usage  it  is  restricted  to  the  priests 
 
126 
 
 CH EMOSH— (  H  KRUB. 
 
 of  a  ftilse  worsliip,  and  in  all  probability 
 it  was  a  term  of  foreign  origin. 
 
 Che'mosh  [snbduer'\,  the  national 
 deity  of  the  Moabites  (Num.  21  :  39;  Jer. 
 48  :  7,  13,  46).  In  Judg.  11  :  24  he  also 
 appears  as  the  god  of  the  Ammonites. 
 Solomon  introduced  and  Josiah  abol- 
 ished t)ie  worship  of  Cheniosli  at  Jeru- 
 salem (1  Kings  11  :  7 ;  2  Kings  23  :  13). 
 
 Cher'ethites,  associated  most  gener- 
 ally with  the  Peletiiites,  and  supposed 
 to  be  King  David's  life-guards  (2  Sam.  8  : 
 18;  15  :  18;  20  :  7,  23;  1  Kings  1  :  38, 
 44;  1  Chron.  18  :  17).  These  royal  guards 
 were  sometimes  employed  as  executioners 
 (2  Kings  11:4)  and  as  couriers  (1  Kings 
 
 14  :  27).  They  are  thought  to  have  been 
 foreign  mercenaries.  They  are  connected 
 with  the  Gittites,  a  foreign  tribe  (2  Sam. 
 
 15  :  18) ;  and  the  Cherethites  are  men- 
 tioned as  a  nation  (1  Sam.  30  :  14)  dwell- 
 ing, apparently,  on  the  coast  (Zeph.  2  : 
 5),  and  therefore,  probably,  Philistines, 
 of  which  name  "  Pelethites "  may  be 
 only  another  form. 
 
 Che^th  [«  cutting'],  the  name  of  a 
 brook  or  winter-torrent  falling  into  the 
 Jordan,  the  precise  position  not  known. 
 The  argument  from  probability  has  been 
 thought  to  favor  its  being  on  the  east  of 
 Jordan,  but  learned  authorities  believe 
 that  it  is  to  be  identified  with  Wady 
 Kelt,  a  deep  ravine  opening  into  the 
 Jordan  plain  below  Jericho,  through 
 which  flows  a  jiurling  brook.  Within 
 its  deep  ravine  Elijah  hid  himself  from 
 King  Ahab  during  the  early  part  of  the 
 three  years'  drought  (1  Kings  17  :  3,  5). 
 
 Cher'ub,  plural  Cher'ubim.  The 
 word  "  cherubim  "  occurs  first  in  Gen.  3  : 
 24,  and  is  applied  to  that  guard  of  angelic 
 beings  which  was  ]>laced  over  Eden  after 
 the  expulsion  of  Adam  and  Eve.  From 
 the  ofiice  of  these  cherubim  as  the  guar- 
 dians of  Eden,  tlie  underlying  idea  of  the 
 word  has  been  tliought  to  be  tliat  of  grasp- 
 ing, guarding,  protecting,  and  the  conjec- 
 
 ture receives  strong  confirmation  from  tlie 
 fact  that  many  Semitic  and  Aryan  tongues 
 have  substantially  the  same  word  and  con- 
 nect with  it  the  like  sense.  Moses  was  di- 
 rected to  make  of  gold  two  cherubim,  or 
 symbolic  figures  of  composite  form,  and  to 
 place  them  on  the  mercy-seat,  so  that  their 
 wings  should  cover  it,  and  tlieir  faces.turned 
 the  one  to  the  other,  should  look  toward  it 
 (Ex.  25  :  18-20).  It  is  remarkal)le  tliat  no 
 minute  and  special  description  of  these 
 cherubim  is  given,  and  hence  it  is  infer- 
 red that  their  form  was  well  known  to 
 Bezaleel  and  to  the  whole  congregation 
 of  Israel.  Their  position  on  the  mercy- 
 seat  indicated  that  they  were  guardians 
 of  the  covenant  and  avengers  of  its 
 breach.  In  the  visions  of  Ezekiel  we 
 have  a  description  of  their  appearance 
 as  compound  figures,  unlike  any  living 
 animals  or  I'eal  object  in  Nature,  but  a 
 combination,  in  one  nondescript  artificial 
 image,  of  the  distinguishing  features  and 
 properties  of  several.  The  ox  as  chief 
 among  the  domestic  animals,  the  lion 
 among  the  wild  ones,  the  eagle  among 
 the  birds,  and  the  man  as  head  over  all, 
 were  the  animals  composing  the  cheru- 
 bic figure.  Each  cherub  had  four  dis- 
 tinct faces  on  one  neck — that  of  a  man 
 in  front,  that  of  a  lion  on  the  right  side, 
 that  of  an  ox  on  the  left,  and  that  of  an 
 eagle  behind.  Each  cherub,  too,  had 
 four  wings,  the  two  under  ones  covering 
 the  lower  extremities,  and  the  two  upper 
 ones  extended  as  in  flight.  But  whilst 
 tlic  cherubim,  as  Ezekiel  saw  them,  pre- 
 sented tliose  composite  creature-forms  of 
 which  tlie  man,  lion,  ox  and  eagle  were 
 the  elements,  they  represented,  probably 
 to  the  prophet's  mind  some  peculiar, 
 mystical  form  which  he,  being  a  priest, 
 knew  and  recognized  as  "  the  face  of  a 
 cherub"  (Ezek.  10  :  14),  but  which,  from 
 all  others,  was  kept  secret.  Wliat  this 
 peculiar  dierubic  form  was  is  jerhaps 
 an   impenetrable  mystery.      It   might  be 
 
CHESTNUT  TREE— CHIOS. 
 
 127 
 
 the  symbol  of  Him  whom  none  could 
 behold  and  live,  for  doubtless  the  true 
 conception  of  the  cherubim  is  of  them 
 not  as  representations  of  actual  beings, 
 but  as  symbols  of  divine  attributes,  om- 
 niscience, omnipotence,  omnipresence. 
 
 Chest'nut  Tree.  The  word  which 
 in  our  English  Version  is  translated  cliest- 
 nut  tree  (Gen.  30  :  37 ;  Ezek.  31  :  8)  is 
 not  the  tree  known  to  us  by  that  name, 
 but  the  plane  tree  of  the  East.  It  is  a 
 majestic  tree,  growing  to  a  great  height. 
 The  outer  bark  annually  peels  off. 
 
 Ohi^don.  The  threshing-floor  of  Chi- 
 don  was  the  place  where  Uzzah  was  struck 
 dead  for  touching  tlie  ark  (1  Chron.  13 :  9). 
 It  is  called  Nachon  in  2  Sam.  C  :  6.  It  is, 
 however,  uncertain  whether  these  names 
 are  apiilicd  to  the  owner  or  to  the  thresh- 
 ing-floor itself. 
 
 Child,  Ohirdren.  The  blessing  of 
 ofl!spring,  of  males  especially,  is  highly 
 valued  among  all  Eastern  nations,  while 
 their  absence  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
 severest  punishments  (Gen.  16:2;  Dent. 
 7  :  14;  2  Kings  4  :  14;  Ps.  127  :  ,3,  5;  Isa. 
 47  :  9).  Mothers  in  the  earliest  times  nursed 
 their  own  children,  but  in  cases  of  neces- 
 sity nurses  were  employed  (Ex.  2  :  9;  2 
 Sam.  4:4).  The  time  of  weaning  was 
 an  occasion  of  rejoicing  (Gen.  21  :  8). 
 Both  boys  and  girls  in  their  early  years 
 were  under  the  care  of  the  women  (Prov. 
 31  :  1).  Afterward  the  boys  were  taken 
 by  the  fatlier  under  his  char.o;e.  Tliose 
 in  wealthy  families  had  tutors  or  govern- 
 ors. Daughters  usually  remained  in  the 
 women's  apartments  till  marriage ;  among 
 the  lower  classes  they  were  employed  in 
 household  work  (1  Sam.  9  :  11 ;  Prov.  31 : 
 19,  23).  The  first-born  male  children  were 
 regarded  as  devoted  to  God,  and  were  to 
 be  redeemed  by  an  oflering  (Ex.  13  :  13; 
 Num.  18  :  15 ;  Luke  2  :  22).  The  author- 
 ity of  parents,  especially  of  the  father,  over 
 children  was  very  great,  as  was  also  the 
 reverence  enjoined  by  the  Law  to  be  paid 
 
 to  parents.  The  disobedient  child,  tlie 
 striker  or  reviler  of  a  parent,  was  liable 
 to  capital  punishment,  but,  before  such 
 punishment  could  be  inflicted,  the  sen- 
 tence of  the  father  must  be  confirmed  by 
 a  judge.  The  inheritance  was  divided 
 equally  between  all  the  sons  except  the 
 eldest,  who  received  a  double  portion 
 (Deut.  21 :  17  ;  1  Chron.  5  :  1,  2).  Daugh- 
 ters had  by  right  no  portion  in  the  in- 
 heritance, but  if  a  man  had  no  son  his 
 inheritance  passed  to  his  daughters, 
 who  were  forbidden  to  marry  out  of 
 their  father's  tribe  (Num.  27  :  1-7 ;  36  : 
 2,8). 
 
 Chim'ham,  a  follower,  probably  a  son, 
 of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite,  who  returned 
 from  beyond  Jordan  with  David  (2  Sara. 
 19  :  37,  38,  40).  David  appears  to  have 
 bestowed  on  liim  a  possession  at  Bethle- 
 hem, on  which,  in  later  times,  an  inn  or 
 khan  was  standing  (Jer.  41  :  17). 
 
 Ohim^ney.  The  word  rendered 
 "chimney"  (Hos.  13  :  3)  means  an  open- 
 ing covered  with  lattice-work,  through 
 which  the  smoke  passes  out.  The  same 
 word  is  elsewhere  rendered  window. 
 
 Ohin'ne-reth,  Cin'ne-reth, 
 Ohin'ne-roth,  Cin'ne-roth  (Num. 
 34  :  11 ;  Josh.  11:2;  13  :  27 ;  1  Kings 
 15  :  20),  the  Old  Testament  names  of  that 
 sea  or  lake  wliich  in  the  New  Testament 
 is  called  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  the  Sea  of 
 Galilee  (see  Galilee)  and  the  Lake  of 
 Gennesaret.  The  same  names  designated 
 also  one  of  tlie  fenced  cities  of  Naphtali 
 (Josh.  19  :  35),  but  whether  the  city  gave 
 its  name  to,  or  received  it  from,  the  lake 
 is  uncertain. 
 
 Ohi'os,  now  called  Scio,  a  mountainous 
 island  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  famous  in  ancient 
 times  for  its  figs,  vines  and  marbles.  It 
 was  passed  by  Paul  as  he  sailed  from  Mit- 
 ylene  to  Sanios  (Acts  20  :  15).  The  place 
 has  been  rendered  memorable  in  modern 
 times  by  the  horrible  massacre  there  per- 
 
128 
 
 CHISLEU— CHRIST. 
 
 petrated  by  the  Turks  on  the  Greeks  in 
 the  year  1822. 
 
 Ohis'leu,  the  ninth  month  of  the  Jew- 
 ish sacred  and  the  third  of  the  civil  year 
 reckoning  (Neh.  1:1).  It  corresponded 
 with  November  or  December,  according 
 to  some,  and  December,  according  to 
 others. 
 
 Chit'tim,  a  branch  of  the  descendants 
 of  Javan,  the  son  of  Japheth  (Gen.  10  : 
 4;  1  Chron.  1:7),  closely  related  to  the 
 Dodanim  and  remotely  to  the  other  de- 
 scendants of  Javan.  According  to  Jo- 
 sephus,  they  emigrated  from  Phoenicia  to 
 Cyprus,  and  their  name,  originally  applied 
 to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  afterward  became 
 a  general  name  for  the  maritime  countries 
 and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
 Scripture  notices  of  Chittim  have  evident 
 reference  to  lands  washed  by  the  sea. 
 Thus  (Num.  24  :  24),  "  ships  shall  come 
 from  the  coast  of  Chittim."  Thus,  too, 
 Ezekiel  (27  :  6)  speaks  of  "the  isles  of 
 Chittim,"  and  Daniel  (11:30)  of  "the 
 ships  of  Chittim."  The  best  explanation, 
 perhaps,  of  these  Scripture  notices  is  that 
 the  name  Chittim,  which  in  the  first  in- 
 stance had  applied  to  Phoenicians  only, 
 passed  over  to  the  islands  which  they  had 
 occupied,  and  thence  to  the  people  who 
 succeeded  the  Phoenicians  in  the  occupa- 
 tion of  them. 
 
 Chi'un,  an  idol  worshiped  by  the  Is- 
 raelites in  the  desert  (Amos  5  :  26).  It  is 
 conjectured  to  have  been  the  planet  Sat- 
 urn. Stephen  (Acts  7  :  43),  quoting  the 
 Septuagint,  gives  the  name  Remphan, 
 which  is  said  to  be  the  Coptic  appella- 
 tion of  Saturn.  Star-worship  was  a  very 
 early  form  of  idolatry.     See  Remphan. 
 
 Chlo'e,  a  Christian  woman  at  Corinth, 
 some  of  whose  family  had  informed  Paul 
 of  the  divisions  existing  in  the  church  at 
 that  place  (1  Cor.  1  :  11). 
 
 Chora'zin,  a  town  of  Galilee  men- 
 tioned with  Bethsaida  and  Capernaum  as 
 greatly    privileged    and    as    terribly   de- 
 
 nounced (Matt.  11:21;  Luke  10:13). 
 Its  site  is  disputed,  but  the  probabilities 
 point  to  Kerazeh,  two  miles  north  of  Tell 
 Hum,  which  it  equals  in  the  extent  of 
 ruins. 
 
 Christ  [Anointed'],  a  Greek  translation 
 of  the  Hebrew  Messiah,  the  official  title  of 
 our  Lord,  who  is  the  one  illustrious  per- 
 sonage fitted  by  the  plenary  unction  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit  for  the  work  of  redemption, 
 the  consecrated  Prophet,  I'ricst  and  Prince 
 of  his  people.  It  distinguishes  also  the 
 individual  Jesus,  our  Lord's  human  ap- 
 pellation, from  others  of  the  same  name. 
 Its  import,  as  given  in  Scripture,  can  only 
 be  stated  in  brief. 
 
 1.  Christ  is  the  same  person  as  "the 
 Seed  of  the  woman  "  who  was  to  "  bruise 
 the  head  of  the  serpent"  (Gen.  3  :  15) ; 
 "the  seed  of  Abraham,  in  whom  all  the 
 nations  of  the  earth  were  to  be  blessed  " 
 (Gen.  22  :  18)  ;  the  great  "prophet  to  be 
 raised  up  like  unto  Moses,"  whom  all  were 
 to  be  required  to  hear  and  obey  (Deut. 
 18:15);  the  "pr'est  forever  after  the 
 order  of  Melchizedek"  (Ps.  110  :  4) ;  the 
 "rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse  which 
 should  stand  for  an  ensign  of  the  people, 
 to  which  the  Gentiles  should  seek  "  ( Isa. 
 11:1,  10) ;  the  Virgin's  son  whose  name 
 was  to  be  "  Immanuel "  (Isa.  7:14);  "the 
 branch  of  Jehovah"  (Isa.  4:2);  "the 
 Angel  of  the  Covenant,"  "  the  Lord  of 
 the  temple"  (Mai.  3:1).  According  to 
 prophecy,  Christ  is  to  belong  to  the  very 
 highest  order  of  being,  and  yet  is  to  stoop 
 to  the  low  conditions  of  a  luiman  being. 
 He  is  to  be  one  who  has  a  right  to  the 
 incommunicable  name  Jehovah  (.Jer.  23  : 
 G),  who  is  essentially  eternal  (Mic.  5  :  2), 
 and  who  is  properly  denominated  "  Won- 
 derful, Counselor,  the  Mighty  God"  (Isa. 
 9  :  6).  He  is  to  assume  human  nature 
 and  become  "  a  child  born  "  (Isa.  9:6);  he 
 is  to  appear  thus  on  earth  for  the  salva- 
 tion of  mankind,  Jews  and  Gentiles  (Isa. 
 49  :  6) ;  he  is  to  be  "despised  and  reject- 
 
CHRISTIANS— CHRISTS,  FALSE. 
 
 129 
 
 ed  of  men,"  to  be  "  wounded  for  our  trans- 
 gressions and  bruised  for  our  iniquities," 
 to  be  "oppressed  and  afflicted,"  and  to  be 
 "  cut  off  out  of  the  land  of  the  living " 
 (Isa.  53  :  3,  5,  7,  8)  ;  he  is  to  be  "cut  off, 
 but  not  for  himself"  (Dan.  9  :  26),  and 
 after  his  vicarious  and  atoning  death  he 
 is  to  "  be  exalted  and  extolled  and  made 
 very  high  "  (Isa.  52  :  13),  and  is  to  receive 
 from  the  Ancient  of  Days  "  dominion  and 
 glory,  and  a  kingdom,  that  all  people  and 
 nations  and  languages  should  serve  him, 
 an  everlasting  kingdom  that  shall  not 
 pass  away,  a  kingdom  that  shall  not  be 
 destroyed"  (Dan.  7  :  14). 
 
 2.  Christ  is  the  name  distinguishing 
 Jesus,  the  Son  of  Mary,  from  all  other 
 persons  who  have  ever  appeared  in  our 
 world.  It  claims,  therefore,  that  Jesvis  is 
 both  God  and  man,  the  Son  of  God  and 
 the  Son  of  man,  the  infallible  Prophet, 
 the  sinless  and  sympathetic  Priest,  the 
 infinitely  mighty  and  merciful  Prince  of 
 Ills  people.  It  challenges  the  closest  com- 
 parison of  our  Lord's  person  and  work 
 with  the  requirements  of  prophecy,  and 
 affirms  that  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  "  Moses 
 in  the  law  and  the  prophets  did  write " 
 (John  1  :  45).  It  thus  makes  the  New 
 Testament  the  complement  of  the  Old. 
 Nor  is  that  testimony  of  history  to  which 
 it  appeals  different  from  that  testimony  of 
 prophecy  on  which  it  relies.  Jesus  the 
 Christ  is  vei'y  God :  the  names  and  titles 
 of  God  are  applied  to  him  (Rom.  9:5;  1 
 John  5  :  20 ;  Rev.  1  :  11);  the  peculiar 
 attributes  of  God  are  ascribed  to  him,  as 
 ETKRNiTY  (John  1:1;  8  :  58 ;  Rev.  22  : 
 13),  OMNISCIENCE  (Matt.  9:4;  John  16  : 
 30),  OMNIPOTENCE  (Phil.  3:  21;  Col.  2: 
 9,  10),  OMNIPRESENCE  (Matt.  18  :  20; 
 John  3  :  13\  unchangeableness  (Heb. 
 13  :  8).  The  distinctive  works  and  pre- 
 rogatives of  God  are  his,  for  he  creates 
 ali  things  (John  1:3;  Col.  1  :  16,  17); 
 he  preserves  all  things  (Heb.  1:3);  he 
 forgives  sins  (Matt.  9:2,  6;  Col.  3  :  i3) ; 
 
 he  raises  the  dead  (Matt.  9  :  25;  Luke  7  : 
 15 ;  John  11  :  44) ;  he  is  to  judge  the  world 
 (Matt.  25  :  31-33;  John  5  :  22-29  ;  Rom. 
 14  :  10;  2  Cor.  5  :  10);  the  worship  due 
 to  God  alone  is  yielded  to  him  (Phil.  2  : 
 10,  11 ;  Heb.  1:6;  Rev.  5  :  9-13).  Jesus 
 the  Christ  is  very  man.  He  is  born  of  a 
 virgin  (Matt.  1  :  25 ;  Luke  1  :  31  ;  2:7); 
 he  grows  in  stature  and  strength  (Luke  1  : 
 80 ;  2  :  52) ;  he  labors  as  a  man  (Matt.  14  : 
 55 ;  Mark  6:2);  he  journeys  as  a  man 
 (Matt.  9:1;  Mark  5:1;  Luke  7:11; 
 John  5:1);  he  teaches  as  a  man  (Matt. 
 5:1,  2;  Mark  4  :  1,  2) ;  he  loves  as  a 
 man  (John  11  :  5,  36) ;  he  dies  as  a  man 
 (Matt.  27  :  50 ;  Mark  15  :  37 ;  Luke  23  : 
 46 ;  John  19  :  30).  Jesus  the  Christ  is 
 the  infiillible  Teacher  (John  1:9;  3:2), 
 the  atoning  and  interceding  Priest  (Heb. 
 4  :  14;  7  :  25-27),  and  the  almighty  King 
 (Matt.  28  :  18;  Rev.  19  :  16)  of  his  peo- 
 ple. Jesus  the  Christ  is  the  sovereign 
 Saviour  of  an  innumerable  multitude  "  of 
 all  nations  and  kindr  ds  and  peoples  and 
 tongu-s"  (R-v.  7:9). 
 
 Chris'tians,  the  followers  and  disci- 
 ples of  Christ.  This  name  was  first  given 
 to  the  disciples  of  Christ  at  Antioch  (Acts 
 11  :  26)  about  A.  d.  43.  The  followers  of 
 Christ  were  also  contemptuously  called 
 Nazarenes  and  Galileans.  They  were  ac- 
 customed to  speak  of  each  other  as  breth- 
 ren, saints,  believers.  Christian  is  now  a 
 term  employed — 1.  In  contradistinction  to 
 pagans  and  Mohammedans ;  2.  To  denote 
 the  open  professors  of  religion  in  contrast 
 with  those  who  are  not  professors.  In  some 
 countries  it  is  still  a  term  of  bitter  reproach, 
 and  the  assumption  of  it,  at  least  by  certain 
 classes,  is  followed  by  persecution,  cruelty 
 and  death. 
 
 Ohrists,  False,  referred  to  by  our 
 Lord  (Matt.  24:24),  were  impostors  who, 
 taking  advantage  of  the  expectation  by 
 the  Jews  of  a  Messiah,  undertook  to  im- 
 pose upon  them  their  false  pretensions. 
 No  fewer  than  twenty-four  different  per- 
 
130 
 
 CHEONICLES— CHURCH. 
 
 sons  liave  appeared,  eucli  claiming  to  be 
 the  Christ.  They  have  appeared  at  dif- 
 ferent times,  from  an  early  date  in  tiie 
 second  century  till  1GS2.  The  first  was 
 called  Akiba,  but  after  his  pretensions 
 were  exposed,  Caziba,  son  of  a  lie.  The 
 name  he  assumed,  and  by  whicli  his  fol- 
 lowers designated  him,  was  Bar-Chocheba, 
 sort  of  a  star.  In  defence  of  his  claims 
 the  Jews  lost  between  five  and  six  hun- 
 dred thousand  souls.  The  last  who  gain- 
 ed any  considerable  number  of  converts  was 
 Mordecai,  a  Jew  of  Germany,  who  lived  in 
 1682. 
 
 Chron^i-oles.  This  is  the  name 
 given  to  two  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment. Some  suppose  that  Ezra  was  the 
 chief  compiler  of  these  annals,  but  this, 
 wliilst  probable,  is  by  no  means  certain. 
 Their  object  is  to  exhibit  the  genealogies, 
 rank  and  functions  of  the  Levites ;  to  show 
 how  the  lands  were  distributed  among  the 
 Israelites ;  to  present  a  condensed  history 
 of  the  kings  of  Judah  from  the  time  of 
 Solomon  to  the  return  from  the  Babylon- 
 ish captivity,  with  but  little  reference  to 
 the  kingdom  of  Israel.  In  some  parts  the 
 Chronicles  are  but  a  repetition  of  the  two 
 books  of  Kings,  and  in  others  they  are  sup- 
 plemental, embracing  further  particulars. 
 The  period  embraced  in  them  is  about 
 three  thousand  five  hundred  years. 
 
 Chrys'o-lite  [r/old-stone'],  (Rev.  21  : 
 20).  It  is  identical  with  the  modem 
 Oriental  topaz,  the  tarshish  of  the  Hebrew 
 Bible. 
 
 Chrys-o-pra^sus  [gold-leelc],  (Rev. 
 21  :  20).  In  other  scriptures  it  is  ren- 
 dered ber}'l.  It  is  a  precious  stone  of  a 
 greenish-golden  color,  and  is  probably  the 
 modern  beryl. 
 
 Chub,  a  country  mentioned  in  Ezek. 
 30  :  5  in  connection  with  Egypt  and  Cush, 
 and  conjectured  to  be  Nubia. 
 
 Chun,  a  Syrian  city  mentioned  in  con- 
 nection with  Tibhath  as  one  of  the  "  cities 
 of  Hadarezer,"  from  which   David   pro- 
 
 cured brass  for  building  the  temple  (1 
 Chron.  18:8).  In  2  Sam.  8  :  8  it  is  called 
 Berothai.     Site  unknown. 
 
 Church.  The  Greek  word  ecclesia, 
 translated  "  church,"  denotes  in  its  largest 
 signification  an  assembly  called  together 
 for  any  purpose,  civil  or  religious.  Whilst 
 it  is  once  employed  (Acts  19  :  32)  to  des- 
 ignate a  riotous  assembly,  and  once  (Acts 
 19  :  39)  to  designate  a  lawful  a^embly,  it 
 is  most  often  employed  to  designate  re- 
 ligious assemblies  met  together  for  wor- 
 ship. With  tliis  latter  sense  of  tlie  word 
 the  apostles  were  familiar,  for  in  the  Sep- 
 tuagint  the  word  ecclesui  is  the  equivalent 
 of  the  Hebrew  word  which  designates  "  the 
 congregation  of  Israel,"  whether  summon- 
 ed in  assembly  or  not.  The  New  Testa- 
 ment directly  inherits  ecclesia  as  the  word 
 for  the  whole  household  of  faith.  Thus 
 the  people  who  met  for  worship  in  the 
 house  of  Priscilla  and  Aquila  are  called 
 a  church  (Rom.  16  :  3-5).  In  a  larger 
 sense  the  religious  community  in  a  j)artic- 
 ular  city  is  denominated  a  church,  as  the 
 church  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  8:1),  the 
 church  in  Antioch  (Acts  11  :  26).  The 
 whole  body  of  believers  constitute  the 
 universal  Church  (1  Cor.  12  :  28;  Eph.  1  : 
 22).  The  visible  Church  is  made  up  of  the 
 professed  followers  of  Christ,  and  the  invis- 
 ible Church  of  all  true  believers,  wherever 
 they  are  found,  and  whose  names  are  writ- 
 ten'in  heaven  (Heb.  12  :  23). 
 
 As  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  the  corner- 
 stone and  the  sole  head  and  governor  of 
 the  true  Churcli  (Col.  1 :  18),  it  is  presump- 
 tuous, and  indeed  impious,  to  ascribe  the 
 headship  of  the  Cluircli  to  a  mere  mortal. 
 Nor  is  it  other  than  extremely  arrogant  for 
 any  one  ("hristian  denomination  to  set  up 
 an  exclusive  claim  to  be  the  true  Church. 
 The  possession  of  the  truth  "  as  it  is  in  Je- 
 sus "  (Eph.  4 :  21 )  is  essential  to  any  Churcli 
 claiming  to  be  a  Church  of  Christ.  In  re- 
 spect to  church-government,  however,  a 
 greater   latitude   of  opinion   may  obtain. 
 
CHURL— CIRCUIT. 
 
 131 
 
 Our  Lord's  faithful  and  devout  followers 
 belong  to  the  true  Church,  whether  the 
 government  be  episcopal,  presbyterial  or 
 congregational ;  and  yet  the  presbyterial 
 form  is  believed  to  approach  nearest  the 
 apostolic  model.  The  proper  officers  in 
 the  Christian  Church  are  pastors,  ruling 
 elders  and  deacons. 
 
 The  spirit  of  the  Church  is  in  such  de- 
 cided opposition  to  the  spirit  of  the  world 
 that  the  Church  has  ever  been  an  object 
 of  bitter  persecution.  Multitudes  of  true 
 believers  have  been  called  to  seal  with 
 blood  their  testimony  to  the  truth  of 
 Christ.  In  the  darkest  days  of  trial, 
 when  the  fagot  and  the  axe  have  been 
 busy  and  when  defections  and  apostasies 
 have  been  many,  there  has  always  been 
 a  remnant  of  sincere  believers.  The 
 preservation  of  the  Church  despite  the 
 malice  and  the  might  of  devils  and  men 
 is  conclusive  evidence  that  it  has  the  pe- 
 culiar protection  of  Almighty  God.  It 
 shall  eventually  triumph  and  overspread 
 the  world ;  and  when  the  design  of  its  es- 
 tablishment on  earth  is  accomplished  it 
 shall  become  the  Church  triumphant  in 
 heaven. 
 
 Ohurl.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  Isa.  32  :  5,  7  means  a  deceiver.  In 
 1  Sam.  25  :  3  churlish  is  the  representative 
 of  a  different  Hebrew  word,  descriptive  of 
 one  who  is  rough,  coarse,  ill-natured. 
 
 Churn'ing-,  the  method  of  producing 
 butter  from  milk  (Prov.  30  :  33). 
 
 Ohush'an-rish-a-tha'im,  a  king 
 of  Mesopotamia  who  oppressed  the  Israel- 
 ites for  eight  years,  until  the  deliverance 
 effected  by  Othniel  (Judg.  3  :  8-10). 
 
 Ciel'ing.    See  Ceiling. 
 
 Ci-lic^i-a,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  Cappadocia  and 
 Lycaonia,  south  by  the  Mediterranean,  east 
 by  Syria  and  west  by  Pamphylia.  An- 
 ciently, the  eastern  part  was  called  "  Ci- 
 licia  the  level,"  and  the  Avestern  part 
 "  Cilicia  the  rough,"  or  mountainous.     Its 
 
 capital  was  Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  Paul 
 (Acts  21  :  39).  Into  it  Christianity  was 
 early  and  effectively  introduced.  To  its 
 churches,  with  those  of  Antioch  and 
 Syria,  the  apostles  and  elders  sent  the 
 important  letter  respecting  circumcision 
 and  the  Jewish  Law  (Acts  15  :  23-29). 
 Upon  its  churches,  moreover,  Paul  be- 
 stowed much  labor  (Acts  15  :  41  ;  Gal. 
 1  :  21). 
 
 Oin'na-mon,  a  well-known  aromatic 
 substance,  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree  which 
 grows  chiefly  in  Ceylon.  The  tree  is  a 
 species  of  laurel ;  its  bai'k,  when  peeled 
 off  and  cut  into  strips,  curls  up  in  the 
 form  in  which  it  is  usually  seen.  It  is 
 mentioned  in  Ex.  30  :  23  as  one  of  the 
 component  parts  of  the  holy  anointing 
 oil  which  Moses  was  commanded  to  pre- 
 pare ;  in  Prov.  7  :  17  as  a  perfume  for  the 
 bed ;  and  in  the  Song  4  :  14  as  one  of  the 
 plants  of  the  garden  which  is  the  image 
 of  the  spouse.  In  Rev.  18  :  13  it  is  enu- 
 merated among  the  merchandise  of  the 
 great  Babylon. 
 
 Cin'ne-reth.     See  Chinnereth. 
 
 Cir'cle,  any  part  of  a  curve,  an  arch. 
 The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered  is  applied 
 in  Job  22  :  14  (where,  however,  it  is  trans- 
 lated circuit)  to  the  heavens,  which  the  an- 
 cients supposed  to  be  a  hollow  sphere. 
 They  imagined  that  the  sky  was  solid 
 and  extended  like  an  arch  over  the  earth. 
 The  word  is  also  referred  to  the  earth  in 
 Isa.  40  :  22,  and  to  the  surface  of  the 
 ocean  in  Prov.  8  :  27,  where  it  is  ren- 
 dered compass;  in  both  these  passages  it 
 apparently  means  the  celestial  vault  as 
 spanning  earth  and  ocean.  See  Cir- 
 cuit. 
 
 Cir''cuit,  the  act  of  going  round,  the 
 apparent  diurnal  revolution  of  the  sun 
 around  the  earth  (Ps.  19  :  6).  In  Job  22  : 
 14  the  word,  in  the  sense  of  circle,  is  applied 
 to  the  heavens,  and  is  used  to  represent  in 
 figure  the  foolish  conception  of  wicked 
 men,  who,  wishing  concealment  from  the 
 
132 
 
 CIRCUMCISION— CITY. 
 
 divine  omniscience,  persuade  themselves 
 that  God  confines  his  presence  to  the 
 realm  on  high.  The  word  is  also  used 
 to  describe  the  path  or  route  which  a 
 civil  judge  follows  in  going  his  annual 
 round  (1  Sam.  7  :  16). 
 
 Cir-cura-cis'ion  [cutting  around],  the 
 custom  of  many  Eastern  nations  of  cutting 
 off"  part  of  the  prepuce  as  a  religious  ceremo- 
 ny. The  Jews,  through  Abraham,  received 
 the  rite  from  Jehovah  (Gen.  17  :  10) ;  Mo- 
 ses established  it  as  a  national  ordinance 
 (Lev.  12  :  3);  and  Joshua  carried  it  into 
 effect  before  the  Israelites  entered  the 
 land  of  Canaan  (Josh.  5:2).  As  the 
 seal  of  the  Abrahamic  covenant  and  the 
 necessary  condition  of  Jewish  nationality 
 it  has  always  been  scrupulously  observed 
 by  the  Jews,  who  in  the  New  Testament 
 are  called  the  circumcision,  whilst  the 
 Gentiles  are  called  the  uncircumcision 
 (Rom.  4  :  9).  Under  the  Christian  dis- 
 pensation it  gave  way  to  that  more  gen- 
 eral and  more  significant  ordinance  of 
 baptism,  through  which  children  and 
 adults  are  introduced  into  the  visible 
 Church. 
 
 Cis,  the  father  of  Saul  (Acts  13  :  21), 
 usually  called  Kish. 
 
 Cis^tern,  a  receptacle  for  water,  con- 
 ducted thither  from  springs  or  gathered 
 there  from  rainfalls.  The  dryness  of  the 
 summer  months  between  May  and  Septem- 
 ber in  Syria,  and  the  scarcity  of  springs  in 
 many  parts  of  the  country,  make  it  neces- 
 sary to  collect  in  reservoirs  and  cisterns 
 the  rain-water,  of  which,  in  the  interme- 
 diate period,  an  abundance  falls.  The 
 larger  sort  of  public  tanks  or  reservoirs 
 are  usually  called  in  our  English  Vei'sion 
 "pools,"  while  for  the  smaller  and  more 
 private  it  is  convenient  to  reserve  the 
 name  "cistern."  Throughout  the  whole 
 of  Syria  and  Palestine  both  pools  and  cis- 
 terns are  frequent.  Jerusalem  depends 
 mainly  for  water  upon  its  ciste»ns,  of 
 which   almost  every  private  house  pos- 
 
 sesses one  or  more,  excavated  in  the  rock 
 on  which  the  city  is  built.  The  cisterns 
 have  usually  a  round  opening  at  the  top, 
 sometimes  built  up  with  stone-work  above, 
 and  furnished  with  a  curb  and  a  wheel  for 
 the  bucket  (Eccles.  12 : 6),  so  that  they  have 
 externally  much  the  appearance  of  an  or- 
 dinary well.  The  water  is  conducted  into 
 them  from  the  roofs  of  the  houses  during 
 the  rainy  season,  and  witli  care  remains 
 sweet  during  the  whole  summer  and  au- 
 tumn. In  tliis  manner  most  of  the  larger 
 houses  and  public  buildings  are  supplied. 
 Empty  cisterns  were  sometimes  used  as 
 prisons  and  places  of  confinement.  Jo- 
 seph was  cast  into  a  "  pit "  or  cistern 
 (Gen.  37:22),  and  his  "dungeon"  in 
 Egypt  is  called  by  the  same  name  (Gen. 
 41  :  14).  Jeremiali  was  thrown  into  a 
 miry  though  empty  cistern  (Jer.  38  :  6), 
 whose  depth  is  indicated  by  the  cords 
 used  to  let  him  down.  Broken  cisterns, 
 incapable  of  holding  water,  are  the  em- 
 blems of  that  common  folly  which  for- 
 sakes God  and  has  recourse  to  the  world 
 for  a  satisfying  happiness  (Jer.  2  :  13). 
 
 Cit'y,  ToAvn.  The  primary  tendency 
 of  men  was  to  distribute  themselves  over 
 a  large  extent  of  country,  since  thus  they 
 could  best  care  for  the  flocks  and  herds 
 which  constituted  their  main  subsistence 
 and  their  chief  source  of  wealth.  With  the 
 increase  of  population,  and  especially  for 
 the  purposes  of  mutual  protection,  safety 
 and  luxury,  men  became  aggregated  and 
 built  cities  and  towns  (Gen.  4  :  17;  11:4). 
 These  were  generally  situated  on  hills  or 
 elevations,  because  of  the  facilities  for  de- 
 fence which  sucli  positions  furnislied.  In 
 Palestine  there  were  many  of  tliese  forti- 
 fied cities,  the  sites  of  which  are  still 
 known,  and  still  adapted  to  repel  tlie 
 attacks  of  wandering  tribes.  More  or 
 less  populous,  tliey  were  all  built  for 
 strength,  with  liigh  walls  surmounted  by 
 towers,  with  heavy  gates  enclosing  smaller 
 ones,  with  narrow  streets,  and  with  flat- 
 
CITIES  OF  REFUGE— CLAY. 
 
 133 
 
 roofed  houses.  From  the  fixedness  of  cus- 
 toms in  Eastern  countries  it  may  fairly  be 
 presumed  that  a  modern  town  in  Palestine 
 is  often  a  good  general  model  of  an  an- 
 cient one ;  yet  the  many  changes  through 
 which  the  Holy  Land  has  passed  have 
 necessarily  thrown  into  obscurity  much 
 that  we  would  now  be  glad  to  know,  and 
 much  that,  because  we  cannot  know,  must 
 deprive  us  of  accurate  and  adequate  no- 
 tions respecting  the  size,  form,  government 
 and  resources  of  the  numerous  towns  which  j 
 dotted  the  surface  of  that  once  flourishing 
 region. 
 
 Cit'ies  of  Refuge.  It  was  a  law 
 of  God,  early  promulgated,  "Whosoever 
 sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his 
 blood  be  shed  "  (Gen.  9  :  6).  In  cases  of 
 homicide  it  appears  to  have  been  an  an- 
 cient custom  for  the  near  kinsman  of  the 
 slain  to  execute  summary  justice  on  the 
 murderer.  As  this  was  likely  to  be  done 
 in  the  heat  of  passion,  when  the  avenger 
 would  not  discriminate  between  willful 
 murder  and  unintentional  homicide,  the 
 establishment  of  cities  of  refuge,  to  which 
 the  slayer  might  flee,  and  where  he  should 
 be  safe  until  the  fiicts  in  his  case  were  de- 
 liberately and  judicially  determined,  was 
 a  proper  and  most  humane  provision.  A 
 loilljul  murderer,  although  he  should  reach 
 one  of  these  cities,  was  not  protected  against 
 the  doom  he  had  merited,  but  within  its 
 walls  the  man  who  had  accidentally  slain 
 his  neighbor  was  perfectly  secure.  Under 
 the  Levitical  Law  there  were  six  of  these 
 cities,  so  distributed  as  to  be  convenient  to 
 all  poi-tions  of  the  population ;  and  to  fa- 
 cilitate the  escape  of  the  slayer  the  roads 
 to  them  were  required  to  be  kept  always 
 in  repair  (Deut.  19  :  7-9  ;  Josh.  20).  The 
 law  on  the  subject  is  fully  recorded  in  Num. 
 35. 
 
 Oit'i-zen-ship.  The  use  of  this  term 
 in  Scripture  has  exclusive  reference  to  the 
 usages  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  privilege 
 of  Roman  citizenship  was  originally  acquir- 
 
 ed in  various  ways,  as  by  purchase  (Acts 
 22 :  28),  by  military  services,  by  favor  or  by 
 manumission.  The  right,  once  obtained, 
 descended  to  a  man's  children  (Acts  22  : 
 28).  Among  the  privileges  of  citizen- 
 ship were  these :  exemption  from  bonds 
 and  imprisonment  before  an  adjudgment 
 thereto  by  formal  trial  (Acts  22  :  29) ; 
 exemption  from  scourging  under  any  and 
 all  circumstances  (Acts  16  :  37) ;  the  right 
 of  appeal  from  a  provincial  tribunal  to  the 
 emperor  at  Rome  (Acts  25  :  11). 
 
 Olau'da,  a  small  island  off"  the  south- 
 west coast  of  Crete,  which  now  bears  the 
 name  of  Gozzo.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
 account  of  Paul's  stormy  voyage  to  Rome 
 (Acts  27  :  16). 
 
 Clau'di-a,  a  Christian  female  convert 
 in  Rome  referred  to  by  Paul  (2  Tim.  4  : 
 21).  She  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
 British  maiden  and  the  daughter  of  a 
 British  king.  Pudens,  mentioned  in  the 
 same  verse,  is  thought  to  have  become 
 her  husband. 
 
 Clau'di-us  Cse'sar,  the  fourth  Ro- 
 man emperor  and  successor  of  Caligula(  Acts 
 18  :  2).  He  reigned  from  41  to  54  A.  d. 
 During  his  reign  there  were  several  fam- 
 ines, arising  from  unfavorable  harvests, 
 and  one  such  occurred  in  Palestine  and 
 Syria  (Acts  11  :  28-30).  A  tumult  hav- 
 ing been  caused  by  the  Jews  in  Rome,  he 
 expelled  them  from  the  city  (Acts  18  :  2). 
 After  a  weak,  foolish  and  dissolute  reign 
 he  was  poisoned  by  his  fourth  wife,  Agrip- 
 pina,  the  mother  of  Nero. 
 
 Clau'di-us  Fe'lix.     See  Felix. 
 
 Clau^di-us  Lys'i-as.    See  Lysias. 
 
 Clay.  As  the  sediment  of  water  re- 
 maining in  pits  or  in  streets  the  word  is 
 frequently  used  in  the  Old  Testament 
 (Isa.  57:20;  Jer.  38:6;  Ps.  18:42), 
 and  in  the  New  Testament  (John  9:6) 
 the  word  is  applied  to  a  mixture  of  sand 
 or  dust  with  spittle.  It  is  also  found  in 
 the  common  sense  of  potter's  clay  (Isa. 
 41  :  25),   and   with   its    uses    in    making 
 
134 
 
 CLEAN— CLOTHES. 
 
 brick  and  pottery  the  Jews  were  evident- 
 ly acquainted  (Kx.  1  :  14;  Jer.  18:  3). 
 Clay  was  often  employed  for  sealing  (Job 
 38  :  14).  With  it  wine-jars,  granaries  and 
 mummy-pits  were  sealed  in  Egypt.  With 
 it  our  Lord's  tomb  was  probably  sealed 
 (Matt.  27  :  66),  and  with  it  that  earthen 
 vessel  which  contained  the  evidences  of 
 Jeremiah's  purchase  (Jer.  32  :  14). 
 
 Clean  and  Unclean.  The  Levitical 
 Law  (Lev.  11,  12,  13,  14,  15)  contained 
 specific  regulations  in  regard  to  ceremo- 
 nial cleanness.  As  these  related  to  per- 
 sons, animals  and  things,  they  were  signif- 
 icant in  a  religious  sense,  and  had  their 
 uses  in  promoting  health  and  comfort. 
 If  the  accepted  worshiper  was  to  be  free 
 from  ceremonial  defilement,  how  much 
 more  must  his  heart  be  pure  and  upright 
 in  the  sight  of  God !  The  one  implied 
 and  demanded  the  other.  We  may  not 
 be  able  precisely  to  see  the  reasons  of 
 the  distinction  between  clean  and  un- 
 clean animals,  yet  it  is  probable  that 
 such  distinction,  whilst  subserving  some 
 economical  purposes,  prompted  the  Jews 
 to  be  wary  of  familiar  intercourse  with 
 the  heathen,  and  guarded  them  against 
 that  vain  idolatry  which  found  gods 
 among  the  animals  which  they  were 
 permitted  to  eat  or  which  by  their  law 
 were  interdicted  as  unclean. 
 
 Clear,  bright  and  shining  as  the  sun 
 (Song  6  :  10) ;  innocent  or  blameless  (Ex. 
 34  :  7). 
 
 Cleave,  to  divide  a  thing  into  parts, 
 as  wood  (Gen.  22  :  3).  It  also  means  to 
 adhere  closely  (Gen.  2  :  24;  Acts  11  :  23). 
 
 Clefts  or  Clifts,  openings,  fissures  or 
 narrow  passages  in  a  rock  (Isa.  2  :  21 ;  Jer. 
 49  :  16). 
 
 Clem^en-cy,  mildness  or  mercifulness 
 (Acts  24  :  4). 
 
 Clem'ent,  a  fellow-laborer  of  Paul, 
 whose  piety  he  commends  (Pliil.  4  :  3). 
 It  was  generally  believed  in  the  ancient 
 Church   that   he  was   identical   with  the 
 
 bishop  of  Rome  who  afterward  became 
 so  celebrated,  and  who  wrote  an  Epistle  to 
 the  Corinthians,  still  extant. 
 
 Cle'o-pas  (Luke  24  :  18),  different, 
 probably,  from  Cle'o-phas ;  for  tlie  lat- 
 ter see  Alpheus. 
 
 Cl0S''et,  a  secret  place,  a  private  cham- 
 ber (Matt.  6  :  6). 
 
 Oriental  Dress,  Male. 
 
 Clothes.  The  costumes  of  the  Bedouin 
 Arabs  at  the  present  day  furnish  very  cor- 
 rect notions  of  what  those  costumes  were  in 
 ancient  times.  In  the  general  features  the 
 dress  of  both  sexes  was  similar;  that  of 
 the  female,  however,  was  of  finer  mate- 
 rial and  more  tasteful  in  form  and  finish. 
 Tli«  chief  garments  of  the  Hebrews  were 
 the  tunic,  or  inner  garment,  and  the  mantle, 
 or  outer  garment.  The  tunic  was  of  linen, 
 and  was  worn  next  the  skin,  supplying  the 
 place  of  the  modern  shirt.  It  had  armholes, 
 and  sometimes  sleeves,  and  extended  to  the 
 knees,  or,  in  the  case  of  females,  to  the  an- 
 kles. This  inner  garment  was  ordinarily 
 fitted  to  the  person  by  sewing  the  seams, 
 and  sometimes  was  woven  in  a  single  piece 
 without  seam.s,  like  that  worn  by  our  Lord 
 (John  19  :  23).  When  the  tunic  was  full 
 and  flowing  a  girdle  around  the  loins  kept 
 it  close  to  the  person,  and  prevented  the 
 wearer  from  being  impeded  by  it.  Hence 
 the  expression  "girding  up  the  loins"  de- 
 noted preparation  for  active  duty.     The 
 
CLOUD. 
 
 135 
 
 mantle  or  outer  garment  was  of  woolen 
 cloth,  nearly  square,  of  several  yards  in 
 length  and  breadth.  As  may  be  sup- 
 posed,   there    were    different    modes    of 
 
 Oriental  Dress,  Female. 
 
 wearing  it,  sometimes  as  a  cloak,  clasped 
 around  the  neck,  and  sometimes  as  a  sash 
 thrown  over  one  shoulder  and  brought 
 round  under  the  opposite  arm.  It  could 
 be  so  brought  round  the  waist  as  to 
 form  a  pouch  or  pocket  in  which  various 
 articles  could  be  carried.  This  article  of 
 dress  could  be  easily  detached  from  the 
 person,  and  it  was  often  used  as  the  only 
 covering  of  the  wearer  when  he  slept  by 
 being  so  wrapped  around  him  as  entirely 
 to  envelop  his  body.  To  the  poor  it  was 
 essential  to  comfort  and  health  as  a  bed- 
 covering  in  the  chilly  nights,  and  hence 
 the  law  of  Moses  humanely  enacted  that 
 if  a  man's  raiment  was  taken  in  pledge,  it 
 must  be  restored  to  him  at  the  going  down 
 of  the  sun  (Ex.  22  :  20).  The  girdle  was, 
 according  to  the  rank  of  the  wearer,  more 
 or  less  costly  in  material  and  ornament. 
 The  poniard  or  knife  was  secured  to  the 
 side  by  it,  and  its  folds  answered  the  pur- 
 poses of  a  purse.  These  were  the  ordina- 
 ry Hebrew  garments,  and  they  constituted 
 what  was  called  a  "  change  of  raiment." 
 
 Besides  these,  the  Hebrews  sometimes 
 wore  a  robe  of  cotton  or  linen  between  the 
 tunic  and  mantle  which  was  without  sleeves. 
 
 Asa  covering  for  the  head,  one  edge  of  the 
 mantle  could  be  thrown  over  to  shield  it 
 from  the  weather,  and  turbans  and  caps 
 were  probably  worn.  Mitres  or  bonnets 
 were  a  part  of  the  priest's  dress  ( Ex.  39  : 
 28).  The  females  wore  veils  in  different 
 styles  and  of  different  forms.  One  form 
 was  the  "muffler"  (Isa.  3  :  19),  covering 
 the  lower  part  of  the  face  from  the  eyes. 
 As  a  covering  for  the  feet  the  sandal  was 
 used,  which  was  either  simple  or  orna- 
 mented, and  wa.s  a  sole  of  various  mate- 
 rials for  the  bot- 
 tom of  the  foot, 
 and  strapped 
 over  the  upper 
 part.  It  may  be 
 presumed  that  in 
 constructing  and 
 arranging  these 
 general  articles 
 of  dress  the  He- 
 brews could,  ac- 
 cording to  their 
 taste  and  wealth, 
 obtain  variety  in 
 fashion,  although 
 it  is  evident  they 
 were  not  so  much 
 the  slaves  to  ca- 
 pricious changes 
 in  dress  as  mod- 
 ern Europeans  and  Americans.  It  was 
 a  custom  with  the  rich  to  have  their 
 wardrobes  well  stored  with  garments,  and 
 these  were  a  part  of  their  hoarded  treas- 
 ures which  were  subject  to  the  moth 
 (Matt.  6:19;  James.  5 : 1,  2).  White  rai- 
 ment was  held  in  high  estimation,  and 
 from  its  emblematic  purity  the  saints  and 
 angels  in  heaven  are  represented  as  thus 
 clothed  (Eev.  7  :  9,  13,  14).  Mourning 
 garments  were  of  coarse  fabric  and  som- 
 bre colors,  and  in  seasons  of  deep  grief  it 
 was  a  custom  to  tear  or  rend  the  garments 
 (Gen.  37  :  29). 
 
 Cloud.     The  shelter  afforded  and  the 
 
 Dress  of  Bedouin  Arabs. 
 
136 
 
 CLOUD,  PILLAR  OF— COCK. 
 
 rain  promised  by  clouds  give  them  their 
 peculiar  prominence  in  Oriental  imagery. 
 When  a  cloud  appears,  rain  is  ordinarily 
 expected,  and  thus  "the  cloud  without 
 rain  "  becomes  a  proverb  for  the  man  of 
 promise  without  performance  (Prov.  16  : 
 15  ;  Isa.  18:4;  25  :  5  ;  Jude  12).  The 
 cloud  is  an  emblem  of  transitoriness  (Job 
 30  :  15;  Hos.  6  :  4).  Being  the  least  sub- 
 stantial of  visible  forms,  it  is  that  among 
 material  things  which  suggests  most  eas- 
 ily spiritual  being.  Hence  it  uniformly 
 forms  part  of  the  machinery  by  which 
 supernatural  appearances  are  introduced 
 (Isa.  19  ;  1  ;  Ezek.  1:4;  Rev.  1  :  7).  A 
 bright  cloud  at  times  rested  on  the  mercy- 
 seat  (Ex.  29  :  42, 43 ;  1  Kings  8  :  10,  11  ;  2 
 Chron.  5  :  14 ;  Ezek.  43  :  4). 
 
 Cloud,  Piriar  of.  This  was  the  ac- 
 tive form  of  the  symbolical  glory-cloud, 
 betokening  God's  presence  with  his  ancient 
 people.  The  luminous  cloud  of  the  sanc- 
 tuary, or  the  Shechinah,  exhibited  the 
 same  under  an  aspect  of  repose.  The 
 cloud  which  became  a  pillar  when  the 
 host  of  Israel  moved  seems  to  Jiave  rest- 
 ed at  other  times  on  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
 33  :  9,  10 ;  Num.  12:5).  It  preceded  the 
 host,  apparently  resting  on  the  ark  which 
 led  the  way  (Ex.  13  :  21 ;  40  :  3G;  Num. 
 9:  15-23;  10:  34). 
 
 Clout'ed,  patched  (Josh.  9  :  5). 
 
 Cni'dus  [pronounced  nidus],  a  city  at 
 the  extreme  south-west  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
 Caria,  on  a  promontory  which  projects  be- 
 tween the  islands  of  Rhodes  and  Cos.  It 
 was  passed  by  Paul  in  his  voyage  to  Rome 
 (Acts  27  :  7)' 
 
 Coal.  This  word  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  the  Old  Testament  represents 
 two  Hebrew  words,  of  which  the  one  sig- 
 nifies an  ignited  or  live  coal  (2  Sam.  14:7; 
 22  :  9 ;  Job  41  :  21  ;  Ps.  18:8;  120  :  4 ; 
 Isa.  44  :  19;  47  :  14;  Ezek.  24  :  11),  and 
 the  other,  with  the  literal  meaning  black, 
 properly  signifies  a  coal  quenched  and  not 
 re-ignited,  or  what  we  term  charcoal  (Prov. 
 
 26  :  21 ).  In  the  New  Testament  the  "  fire 
 of  coals"  (John  18  :  18)  evidently  means 
 a  ma.ss  of  live  charcoal  in  a  chafing-dish. 
 See  Fuel. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 Cock,  Cock-crOAV'ing.  In  the  New 
 Testament,  the  "  cock "  is  mentioned  in 
 reference  to  Peter's  denial  of  our  Lord, 
 and  is  alluded  to  in  the  word  "  cock- 
 crowing"  (Matt.  26:34;  Mark  14:30). 
 As  in  the  Old  Testament  no  allusion  is 
 made  to  the  "  cock,"  it  ha.s  been  conjec- 
 tured that  the  bird  was  introduced  into 
 Judaea  by  the  Romans.  Cock-crowing  is 
 used  in  Scripture  to  denote  a  me;isure  of 
 time.  Tlie  ancient  Hebrews  divided  the 
 night  into  three  watches,  called  the  first 
 watch  (Lam.  2  :  19),  the  middle  or  second 
 watch  (Judg.  7  :  19),  and  the  morning  or 
 third  watch  (Ex.  14  :  24).  When  the  Jews 
 became  subject  to  the  Romans  they  appear 
 to  have  adopted  their  method  of  dividing 
 the  night  into  four  watches  of  three  hours 
 each — viz.,  from  six  in  the  evening  to 
 nine,  from  nine  to  twelve,  from  twelve  to 
 three,  and  from  three  to  the  morning. 
 That  from  twelve  to  three  was  called  the 
 cock-crowing,  because  in  that  interval  the 
 cock  was  accustomed  to  crow.  Our  Lord 
 alludes  to  this  division  when  (Mark  13  : 
 35)  he  speaks  of  "even,  or  at  midnight, 
 or  at  the  cock-crowing,  or  in  the  morn- 
 ing." There  is  evidence  also  that  the 
 Jews  were  accustomed  to  speak  of  the 
 second  cock-crowing — that  is,  from  three 
 o'clock    until    the    morning.      This   will 
 
COCK  ATEIC  E— COLOSSE. 
 
 137 
 
 serve  to  explain  an  apparent  discr^'pancy 
 between  Matt.  26  :  34,  where  it  is  said, 
 "before  the  cock  crow  thou  shalt  deny 
 me  thrice,"  and  Mark  14  :  30,  where  it 
 is  said,  "  before  the  cock  crow  twice  thou 
 shalt  deny  me  thrice."  The  first  evan- 
 gelist refers,  in  a  general  way,  to  the 
 period  in  which  the  denial  should  take 
 place ;  the  other  is  more  specific  in  say- 
 ing it  should  be  between  the  two  watches 
 or  cock-crowings.  Thus  the  cock-crowing 
 and  the  two  cock-crowings  were  well  un- 
 derstood as  embracing  the  same  periods  of 
 time  or  the  same  watches  of  the  night. 
 
 Oock'a-trice.    See  Adder. 
 
 Cock'le.  The  word  occurs  only  in  Job 
 31 :  40.  It  represents  a  Hebrew  word  which 
 means  an  offensive  plant,  and  is  supposed  to 
 be  a  general  expression  for  iveecis  and  tares. 
 
 Coffin.     See  Burial. 
 
 Ooiaeg-e,  The.  In  2  Kings  22 :  14, 
 Huldah  is  said  to  have  "  dwelt  in  a  college," 
 but  the  margin  has,  more  correctly.  "  in  the 
 second  part,"  that  is,  in  the  lower  city,  on 
 the  hill  Akra,  alluded  to  in  Zeph.  1:10. 
 
 CoFlops,  thick  pieces  of  flesh,  an  em- 
 blem of  prosperity  (Job  15  :  27). 
 
 Col'o-ny,  a  city  or  province  planted 
 or  occupied  by  Roman  citizens,  as  Philip- 
 pi  (Acts  16  :  12).  After  the  battle  of 
 Actium,  Augustus  assigned  to  his  vete- 
 rans those  parts  of  Italy  which  had  es- 
 poused the  cause  of  Antony,  and  trans- 
 ported many  of  the  expelled  inhabitants 
 to  Philippi  and  other  cities.  A  colony 
 thus  created  had  all  the  riglits  and  priv- 
 ileges of  an  Italian  city. 
 
 Col'or,  the  symbol  in  Scripture  of 
 the  nature  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is 
 applied.  Thus,  black  is  the  symbol  of 
 anguish  and  affliction  (Job  30 :  30 ;  Rev. 
 6  :  5-12) ;  pale,  of  mortal  disea.se  (Rev. 
 6:8);  red,  of  bloodshed  or  victory  (Zech. 
 6:2;  Rev.  12:3);  white,  of  beauty  and 
 holiness  (Eccles.  9:8;  Rev.  3:4).  The 
 red  color  is  spoken  of  as  if  in  a  pre-emi- 
 nent sense  the  fast  or  fixed  one  (Isa.  1  : 
 18).  White  and  shining  was  the  Jewish 
 royal  and  priestly  color,  as  purple  was  the 
 Roman. 
 
 Modern  Colosse. 
 
 Co-los'se,  a  'city  of  Phrygia,  in  Asia 
 Minor,  not  far  from  the  junction  of  the 
 
 Lycus  with  the  Meander,  and  nearly  equi- 
 distant from  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis.    A 
 
138 
 
 COMFORTER— CONFESSION. 
 
 Christian  church  was  formed  here  at  an 
 early  period,  to  whicli  Paul  addressed  an 
 Ejjistle;  and  shortly  after,  according  to 
 Eusebius,  the  city  Wiis  destroyed  or  great- 
 ly injured  by  an  earthquake,  about  A.  D.  Go. 
 A  few  ruins  alone  remain  of  the  ancient  city, 
 and  the  village  now  occupying  its  site  is 
 called  Cliomts.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
 lossians  was  written  from  Rome  about 
 A.  D.  62,  and  the  occasion  of  it  seems  to 
 have  been  the  report  of  certain  disorders 
 which  had  arisen  there  through  the  agen- 
 cy of  false  teachers  (Col.  1 :  7,  8  ;  2  :  8-23). 
 From  Col.  2  :  18  it  has  been  inferred  that 
 angel-worship  was  one  of  the  errors  which 
 the  apostle  sought  to  correct. 
 
 Oom'fort-er.  This  word  is  the  ren- 
 dering of  a  Greek  word  which  signifies, 
 literally,  one  called  to  the  side  of  another 
 as  an  advocate.  It  is  descriptive  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost  (John  14:16,  26;  15:26; 
 16:7);  once  it  is  applied  to  our  Lord 
 (1  John  2:1),  where  it  is  translated  Ad- 
 vocate. 
 
 Cora-mand^ments.  See  Law  and 
 Ten  Commandments. 
 
 Com'mon.      The    Greek   word   thus 
 rendered  in  Acts  10  :  14  jiroperly  signifies 
 ivhat  belongs  to  all ;  hence,  what  is 
 of  promiscuous   use   or   not   holy; 
 and  hence,  with  reference  to  meats, 
 what  is  forbidden  or  unclran. 
 
 Com-mun^ion,  intimate  fel- 
 lowship and  communication  (1  Cor. 
 10:16;  2  Cor.  13:14).  As  the  or- 
 dinance of  the  Lord's  Supper  fur- 
 nishes both  the  opportunity  and 
 the  motive  to  this  mutual  love  and 
 confidence  (John  13: 34;  lo:  12),  it  is  called, 
 by  way  of  distinction,  "  the  communion." 
 
 Con-cis'ion  [cutting  dmvn'],  a  con- 
 temptuous term  used  by  Paul  in  Phil.  3  : 
 2  to  designate  the  zealots  for  circumcision. 
 The  apostle  means  to  say  that,  since  the 
 reality  of  circumcision  has  passed  over 
 into  those  who  believe  in  Christ  and  are 
 renewed  in  the  spirit  of  their  minds,  to 
 
 insist  on  the  rite  as  on  something  of  per- 
 petual obligation  is  to  stickle  for  a  mere 
 concision,  a  profitless  flesh-cutting. 
 
 Con'cu-bine.  In  the  Old  Testament 
 the  word  denotes  a  woman  conjugally 
 united  to  a  man  in  a  relation  inferior 
 to  that  of  the  regular  wife  (Gen.  22  :  24 ; 
 Judg.  20  :  4).  Such  a  woman  was  not  be- 
 trothed or  wedded  with  the  solemnities  and 
 ceremonies  usual  upon  marriage,  and  she 
 could  be  dismissed  without  a  bill  of  di- 
 vorce. She  had  no  share  in  the  family 
 government,  and  her  children  wei-e  not 
 entitled  to  inherit  with  the  children  of 
 the  wife.  The  custom  of  concubinage  was 
 opposed  to  the  original  law  of  marriage, 
 and  was  exceedingly  liable  to  abuse.  The 
 Law  of  Moses  corrected  many  of  its  evils, 
 and  the  gospel  of  Christ  gives  it  no  tole- 
 ration whatever.  Under  the  Christian  dis- 
 pensation one  man  is  to  have  but  one  wife, 
 and  one  woman  but  one  husband  ( Matt.  19 : 
 5 ;  1  Cor.  7  :  2-4). 
 
 Con'duit,  the  aqueduct  made  by  King 
 Hezekiah  for  conveying  the  waters  from 
 the  upper  jiool  in  the  valley  of  Gihon 
 into  the   western   part   of   Jerusalem   (2 
 
 Kings  18 
 
 Coney — JJyrax  Syriacus. 
 
 Co^ney,  a  small  gregarious  animal 
 (Ps.  104  :  18;  Prov.  30  :  26)  erroneously 
 identified  with  the  rabbit.  It  lives  in  the 
 caves  and  clefts  of  the  rocks.  It  is  mild 
 and  timid  in  its  deportment,  and  is  gentle 
 and  esisily  tamed.  It  is  known  in  natural 
 history  as  the  Hi/i-ax  Syriacus. 
 
 Con-fes'sion,  the  hearty  acknow- 
 ledgment of  sin   (1  John   1  :  9)  and  the 
 
CONFIRMATION— CONVERSION. 
 
 139 
 
 public  profession  of  Christ  (Luke  12  :  8). 
 As  the  acknowledgment  of  sin,  confession 
 is  to  be  made  to  God,  who  only  can  for- 
 give (Ps.  51  :  3,  4).  Auricular  confession, 
 or  confession  to  a  priest,  has  no  sanction  in 
 Scripture. 
 
 Con-flr-ma^tion,  the  strengthening 
 and  establishing  the  faith  of  believers  by 
 gospel  ministrations  (Acts  14:22;  15: 
 32).  The  rite  of  confirmation,  as  prac- 
 ticed in  some  churches,  has  no  scriptu- 
 ral warrant. 
 
 Con-gre-ga'tion,  the  Hebrew  peo- 
 ple in  its  collective  capacity  as  a  holy 
 community,  held  together  by  religious 
 rather  than  by  political  bonds  (Num.  15  : 
 15).  In  the  Septuagint  the  Hebrew  word 
 for  congregation  is  rendered  generally  by 
 ecdesia,  the  New  Testament  word  for 
 "church,"  and  thus  the  visible  Church 
 among  the  Israelites  is  the  true  parent 
 and  original  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 When  Stephen  s])oke  of  "the  church  in 
 the  wilderness"  (Acts  7  :  38)  he  used  no 
 different  term  or  meaning  than  that  gene- 
 rally im[)lied  in  the  "congregation;"  and 
 as  the  congregation  was  also  governed  by 
 elders,  the  Jews  were  the  original  Presby- 
 terians. Every  circumcised  Hebrew  was  a 
 member  of  the  congregation,  and  took  part 
 in  its  proceedings  probably  from  the  time 
 that  he  bore  arms.  Under  the  theocracy 
 the  congregation  was  invested  with  legis- 
 lative and  judicial  powers,  each  house, 
 family  and  tribe  being  represented  by  its 
 head  or  father.  The  number  of  these  rep- 
 resentatives being  inconveniently  large  for 
 ordinary  business,  a  selection  was  made  by 
 Moses  of  seventy,  who  formed  a  kind  of 
 standing  committee  (Num.  11  :  16).  Oc- 
 casionally the  whole  body  of  the  people 
 was  assembled  at  the  door  of  the  taberna- 
 cle, hence  usually  called  the  tabernacle  of 
 the  congregafion  (Num.  10  :  3).  The  people 
 were  strictly  bound  by  the  acts  of  their 
 representatives,  even  in  cases  where  they 
 disapproved  of  these  acts  (Josh.  9  :  18). 
 
 After  the  occupation  of  Canaan  the  con- 
 gregation was  assembled  only  on  matters 
 of  the  highest  importance.  In  the  later 
 periods  of  Jewish  history  the  congrega- 
 tion was  represented  by  the  Sanhedrim. 
 Co-ni'ah,  Jec-o-ni'ah,    See  J  eho- 
 
 lACHIN. 
 
 Con'science,  that  within  us  which 
 judges  the  moral  character  of  our  actions, 
 comparing  tliem  with  the  precepts  of  the 
 moral  law,  and  approving  or  censuring  us 
 as  these  actions  are  consciously  right  or 
 wrong  (Acts  24  :  16;  Rom.  2  :  15).  This 
 moral  sense  may  be  weakened,  perverted, 
 stupefied,  defiled  and  hardened  in  various 
 ways;  hence  its  decisions  are  more  or  less 
 clear,  just  and  imperative  according  to  the 
 degree  of  improvement  in  the  understand- 
 ing and  lieart,  and  especially  according  to 
 the  degree  in  which  its  purity  and  sensi- 
 tiveness have  been  preserved  and  culti- 
 vated (John  8:9;  Acts  23  :  1 ;  Rom.  9  : 
 1 ;  1  Tim.  1  :  5). 
 
 Consecrate,  Consecration.  The 
 verbal  idea  in  the  Hebrew  is  to  "  fill  the 
 hands" — /.  e.  with  authority  and  special 
 ap[)roi)riation,  and  so,  "to  consecrate" 
 is  to  set  apart  or  devote  a  person  or 
 a  thing  to  the  service  of  God  (Ex. 
 32  :'  29 ;  Lev.  7  :  37).  Thus,  the  tribe  of 
 Levi  was  consecrated  to  the  priesthood 
 with  the  most  solemn  and  imposing  cere- 
 monies (Ex.  28  :  29).  Thus,  too,  vessels 
 (Josh.  6  :  19),  fields  (Lev.  27  :  28),  cattle 
 (2  Chron.  29  :  33)  and  other  things  were 
 set  apart  or  devoted  to  sacred  uses. 
 
 Con-ver-sa'tion.  This  word,  as 
 used  in  Gal.  1  :  1.3,  Phil.  1  :  27,  does  not 
 mean,  as  now,  colloquial  intercourse,  but 
 the  course  and  tenor  of  one's  life.  In 
 Phil.  3  :  20  it  has  the  sense  of  rilizen- 
 ship,  or  the  acting  of  Christians  as  citi- 
 zens. 
 
 Con-ver'sion,  the  turning  of  a  sinner 
 to  God  (Acts  15  :  3).  As  regeneration  is 
 the  renewment  of  the  soul's  nature  by  the 
 power  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  so  conversion  is 
 
140 
 
 CONVOCATION— CORBAN. 
 
 the  forthpiitting  in  act  of  that  new  nature, 
 a  positive  turning  "from  darkness  to  light, 
 and  from  tlie  power  of  Satan  unto  God" 
 (Acts  2G  :  18).  In  common  usage  it  de- 
 notes the  change  of  heart  and  life  experi- 
 enced by  one  who  becomes  a  true  believer. 
 The  institution  of  the  ministry  and  em- 
 ployment of  the  various  means  of  grace 
 have  as  their  principal  aim  the  produc- 
 tion of  this  great  change,  without  which 
 no  one  can  be  saved.  And  since  the  con- 
 vert has  new  feelings,  new  principles  and 
 new  pleasures,  so  he  has  new  objects  of 
 pursuit  and  leads  a  new  life.  With  him 
 "old  things  are  passed  away,  behold,  all 
 things  are  become  new"  (2  Cor.  5  :  17). 
 
 Con-vo-ca'tion.  This  term  is  ap- 
 plied invariably  to  meetings  of  a  relUjious 
 character  in  contradistinction  to  congrega- 
 tion. It  is  the  congregation  in  anHembly, 
 whereas  congregation  alone  means  the 
 body  of  members,  whether  in  assembly 
 or  not.  With  one  exception  (Isa.  1  :  13) 
 the  word  convocation  is  peculiar  to  the 
 Pentateuch. 
 
 Co'OS,  otherwise  Cos,  now  called  Stan- 
 cAio,  asmall  and  fertile  island  in  the  jEgean 
 Sea,  near  the  coast  of  Caria  in  Asia  Minor. 
 It  was  celebrated  for  its  wines,  ointments 
 and  beautiful  stuffs  of  silk  and  cotton.  It 
 was  the  birthplace  of  Hippocrates,  and  in 
 its  chief  city  (bearing  the  same  name)  was 
 a  famous  temple  of  iEsculapius.  Paul 
 passed  it  in  his  voyage  to  Jerusalem 
 (Acts  21  :  1). 
 
 Copingr,  the  top-finishing  of  a  wall  (1 
 Kings  7  :  9). 
 
 Cop'per,  a  primitive  metal,  very  duc- 
 tile and  niallea])le.  In  our  English  Ver- 
 sion the  Hebrew  word  which  designates 
 it  is  uniformly  and  incorrectly  rendered 
 "brass."  In  two  passages  (2  Sam.  22  :  35 
 and  Jer.  15  :  12)  it  is  rendered  "steel ;"  in 
 one  passage  only  (Ezra  8  :  27)  is  it  prop- 
 erly rendered  "copper."  By  the  ancients 
 it  was  almost  exclusively  used  for  common 
 purposes.     The  vessels   in  the  tabernacle 
 
 and  temple  were  made  of  it  (Num.  16 :  39). 
 Chains  (Judg.  10  :  21),  pillars  ( 1  Kings  7  : 
 15-21),  lavers  (2  Kings  25:  13),  mirrors 
 (Ex.  38:8;  Job  37  :  18),  and  even  arms, 
 helmets,  spears,  etc.  (1  Sam.  17  :  5,  G,  38), 
 were  made  of  it. 
 
 Cor,  a  liquid  measure  containing,  ac- 
 cording to  Josephus,  eighty-nine  gallons 
 (Ezek.  45  :  14). 
 
 Cor''al,  a  hard  cretaceous  marine  pro- 
 duction, of  which  there  are  many  beauti- 
 ful varieties.  It  arises  from  the  deposit 
 of  calcareous  matter  by  a  minute  animal 
 known  as  the  coral  insect.  The  extent 
 of  the  labors  of  these  minute  animals  may 
 be  judged  from  the  fact  that  coral  forms  the 
 basis  of  many  large  islands.  Coral  reefs 
 and  coral  islands  abound  in  the  Red  Sea, 
 whence  the  Hebrews  readily  obtained  it. 
 The  more  beautiful  and  rarer  kinds  of 
 coral  are  formed  into  ornamental  articles 
 of  jewelry.  In  Job  28  :  18  and  Ezek.  27  : 
 16  (the  only  two  passages  in  which  the  word 
 occurs  in  our  English  Version)  coral  is 
 ranked  among  precious  stones. 
 
 Cor'ban,  a  gift  or  offering  to  God  in 
 fulfillment  of  a  vow.  The  Jews  often  con- 
 secrated a  portion  of  their  property  to  the 
 service  of  religion,  and  what  was  thus  de- 
 voted became  sacred,  and  could  not  be  taken 
 for  ordinary  uses.  The  custom  was  liable 
 to  great  abuses.  A  person  might  thus  ex- 
 empt himself  from  any  inconvenient  obli- 
 gation under  plea  of  corban,  or  devoted  to 
 God.  A  debtor  might  deprive  his  cred- 
 itor of  his  just  rights  by  declaring  his 
 property  corban;  and  our  Lord  refers  to 
 another  and  still  more  heartless  abuse,  by 
 which  an  unnatural  son  might,  under  the 
 pretence  of  having  devoted  his  property 
 to  God,  evade  his  obligation  to  mainta'n 
 his  parents  (Mark  7:11).  Should  the 
 parents,  under  the  pressure  of  necessity, 
 ask  the  son  for  pecuniary  aid  which  he 
 was  unwilling  to  give,  their  claim  could 
 be  successfully  resisted  and  his  obligation 
 effectually  annulled  if  lie  affirmed  of  his 
 
CORE— CORMOEANT. 
 
 141 
 
 property,  "  It  is  corban ;  it  is  consecrated 
 to  the  service  of  God." 
 
 Co're  (Jude  11),  the  same  as  Ko^rah 
 (which  see). 
 
 Co-ri-an'der,  the  small,  round,  white 
 seed  of  an  aromatic  plant.  The  form  and 
 color  of  the  manna  which  fell  in  the  wil- 
 derness are  compared  to  coriander-seed 
 (Ex.. 16:  31;  Num.  11  :  7). 
 
 Oor^inth,  a  noted  city  of  Greece,  sit- 
 uated on  the  narrow  isthmus  which  con- 
 nects the  Morea  or  Peloponnesus  with  the 
 mainland.  According  to  Homer,  its  ear- 
 liest name  was  Ephyrii.  It  had  two  har- 
 bors,- Cenchrea,  on  the  south-eastern  side, 
 eight  miles  distant,  and  Lechseum,  on  the 
 north-western  side,  a  mile  and  a  half  dis- 
 tant. Situated  thus  advantageously,  it 
 took  high  rank  as  a  commercial  city,  and 
 became  exceedingly  populous  and  wealthy. 
 It  was  celebrated  for  the  architectural  ele- 
 gance of  its  public  buildings,  and  still  more 
 for  the  dissolute  habits  of  its  people.  Its 
 citadel  stood  upon  the  Acrocorinthus, 
 which  rose  nearly  two  thousand  feet 
 above  the  city,  and  was  itself  a  gigantic 
 natural  fortress.  In  the  year  b.  c.  146 
 this  beautiful  city  was  destroyed  by 
 the  Romans,  who  for  a  century  pre- 
 vented its  rebuilding.  In  the  year 
 B.  c.  46,  Julius  Csesar  restored  it,  and 
 made  it  the  Roman  capital  of  the 
 province  of  Achaia.  It  was  repeo- 
 pled  in  part  by  freedmen  from  Rome. 
 Its  former  splendor  and  licentious- 
 ness soon  returned.  Magnificent  tem- 
 ples, palaces,  baths,  altars  and  statues 
 adorned  it.  Its  fortress  was  thought  to 
 be  the  strongest  in  Greece.  This  new 
 city  was  the  Corinth  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament. About  a  century  after  its  restora- 
 tion, in  A.  D.  52,  Paul  visited  it,  and,  from 
 its  heterogeneous  population  of  Romans, 
 Greeks  and  Jews  gathered  a  Christian 
 church  (Acts  18  :  1-11). 
 
 To  this  church,  between  a.  d.  56  and  58, 
 the  apostle  addressed  two  Epistles,  which 
 
 set  in  strong  light  the  peculiar  social  con- 
 dition of  the  city.  The  design  of  the  Epis- 
 tles was  threefold :  to  correct  some  errors 
 in  doctrine  which  false  teachers  had  per- 
 suaded the  church  to  embrace ;  to  coun- 
 teract a  spirit  of  schism  which  was  sepa- 
 rating the  church  into  parties ;  and  to 
 condemn  certain  irregular  and  immoral 
 practices  which,  without  proper  rebuke 
 from  the  Church,  were  injuriously  affect- 
 ing its  growth  and  power  for  good. 
 
 Subsequently,  disaster  and  change  came 
 to  Corinth.  For  more  than  a  dozen  cen- 
 turies now  the  once  splendid  city  has  been 
 a  miserable  ruin.  Amid  the  sad  and  shat- 
 tered remnants  of  its  ancient  architectural 
 glory  a  wretched  village  called  Gortho,  in- 
 habited by  a  few  forlorn  families,  is  all  that 
 marks  the  site. 
 
 Oor^mo-rant.  Two  Hebrew  words 
 are  thus  rendered  in  our  English  Ver- 
 sion. 
 
 1.  Shalak,  that  which  cas.'.s  itself  down, 
 occurring  only  in  Lev.  11  :  17  ;  Deut.  14>: 
 17.  According  to  the  passages  where  the 
 term   occurs,  the  i^halak  was   an   unclean 
 
 Cormorant. 
 
 bird.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  spe- 
 cies of  "  tern  "  or  sea-swallow,  and  to  have 
 had  the  habit  of  rising  high  into  the  air, 
 and,  after  partially  closing  its  wings,  fall- 
 ing straight  as  an  arrow  on  its  prey,  and 
 in  a  few  seconds  emerging  again  from  the 
 water. 
 
142 
 
 CORN— COUNSEL. 
 
 2.  Kaafh,  rendered  "cormorant"  in  Isa. 
 34  :  11 ;  Zeph.  2  :  14,  is  elsewhere  trans- 
 lated "pelican."  It  belongs  to  the  pelican 
 family,  and  lives  on  fish.  It  is  remark- 
 ably voracious,  and  has  such  a  quick  di- 
 gestion that  its  appetite  appears  insati- 
 able. It  is  trained  to  fish  for  man's  use 
 in  China.  It  is  common  on  the  coasts  of 
 Syria  and  Palestine. 
 
 Corn.  This  word,  in  the  English  Scrip- 
 tures as  still  in  England,  is  the  general 
 name  for  all  sorts  of  grain,  including 
 even  some  species  of  pulse  (Gen,  27  :  28- 
 37  ;  Num.  18  :  27).  Palestine  was  a  corn- 
 exporting  country,  and  her  grain  was 
 largely  taken  by  her  commercial  neigh- 
 bor. Tyre  (Ezek.  27  :  17). 
 
 Oor-ne'li-us,  a  Roman  centurion  of 
 the  Italian  cohort  stationed  in  Csesarea 
 (Acts  10  :  1-8),  a  man  full  of  good  works 
 and  alms-deeds.  With  his  household  he 
 was  baptized  by  the  apostle  Peter,  and 
 thus  became  the  first-fruits  of  the  Gentile 
 world  to  Christ. 
 
 Coroner,  an  angle  (Prov.  7:8);  the 
 extreme  boundary  (Isa.  11  :  12;  Jer.  48  : 
 45) ;  a  secret  place  (Acts  26  :  26) ;  a  pow- 
 erful ruler  or  leader  (Zech.  10  :  4;  Num. 
 24  :  17,  19). 
 
 Cor'ner-Stone,  a  principal  stone  in 
 the  foundation  of  a  building  (Job  38  :  fi ) 
 or  at  the  front  angle  (Ps.  1 18  :  22).  Some 
 of  the  corner-stones  in  the  ancient  work 
 of  the  temple  foimdations  are  nineteen 
 feet  long  and  seven  and  a  half  feet  thick. 
 Our  Lord,  as  the  foundation  of  the  Church, 
 is  denominated  the  chief  Corner-stone  (Isa. 
 28  :  16  ;  Eph.  2  :  20 ;  1  Pet.  2  :  6,  7). 
 
 Cor'net  [Hebrew  shdphdr],  a  loud- 
 sounding  instrument  of  music,  made  of 
 the  horn  of  a  ram  or  of  a  chamois 
 (sometimes  of  an  ox),  and  used  by  the 
 ancient  Hebrews  for  signals  ;  for  proclaim- 
 ing the  jubilee  year  (Lev.  25  :  9) ;  for  an- 
 nouncing the  approach  of  an  enemy  (Ezek. 
 33 :  4,  5) ;  for  use  in  war  (Jer.  4  :  5, 19).  The 
 word  thus  rendered  in  our  English  Ver- 
 
 sion is  commonly  rendered  "trumpet," 
 but  its  rendering  as  "cornet"  occurs  in  1 
 Chron.  15  :  28 ;  2  (Jiron.  15  :  14 ;  Ps.  98  : 
 6  ;  Hos.  5  :  8. 
 
 Cotes,  properly  cribs,  hence  pens  or  en- 
 closures for  flocks  (2  Chron  32 :  28).  The 
 word  is  still  preserved  in  dovecote.  It  is 
 the  root  of  our  common  terms  cot,  cottage. 
 Cot''tag'e,  the  rendering  in  our  Eng- 
 lish Version  of  tiiree  Hebrew  words. 
 The  first  Hebrew  word  (sukkul/)  signifies 
 a  hut  made  of  boughs  (Isa.  1  :  8),  and  is 
 usually  translated  booth.  The  second  He- 
 brew word  {mehniah')  signifies  a  lodghuj- 
 place,  and  occurs  in  Isa.  24  :  20,  where  it 
 denotes  a  hanging  bed  or  hammock  sus- 
 pended from  trees,  in  which  travelers,  and 
 especially  the  watchmen  in  gardens,  were 
 accustomed  to  sleep  in  summer,  so  as  to  be 
 out  of  the  reach  of  wild  beasts.  The  third 
 Hebrew  word  {keroth')  signifies  pits  for 
 holding  water,  and  occurs  in  Zeph.  2  :  6, 
 where,  instead  of  the  rendering  "dwellings 
 and  cottages  for  shepherds,"  the  rendering 
 should  be  "  fields  full  of  shepherds'  cisterns  " 
 for  the  purpose  of  watering  flocks. 
 
 Couch,  something  spread  (Gen.  49 : 4) ; 
 something  to  lie  upon  (Job  7  :  13) ;  a  little 
 bed  { Luke  5  :  19,  24) ;  a  pallet  (Acts  5  :  15). 
 The  verb  "  to  couch  "  has  the  sense  of  to 
 lie  (Gen.  49  :  9;  Deut.  33  :  13;  Job  38  : 
 40). 
 
 Coult'er,  the  fore-iron  of  a  plough  that 
 cuts  the  earth  (1  Sam.  13  :  20). 
 
 Ooun'cil,  an  assembly  of  men  convened 
 for  consultation  and  deliberation  (John  11 : 
 47).  The  word  in  the  Gospels  refere,  first, 
 to  the  Sanhedrim  or  supreme  council  of 
 the  Jews  (Matt.  5  :  22  ;  Mark  15  :  1 1 ;  and, 
 second,  to  the  smaller  tribunals  in  the 
 cities  of  Palestine  subordinate  to  the  San- 
 hedrim (Matt.  10  :  17  ;  Mark  13  :  9). 
 
 Coun'sel.  This  word,  besides  its  com- 
 mon signification  as  advice  or  opinion  giv- 
 en upon  deliberation  or  consultation,  is  used 
 to  denote  the  secret  purpose  and  determi- 
 nation of  God.    Thus,  our  Lord  was  deliv- 
 
COUNSELLOR— COVENANT. 
 
 143 
 
 ered  up  "  by  the  determinate  counsel  and 
 foreknowledge  of  God  "  (Acts  2  :  23 ;  4  : 
 28).  Thus,  too,  our  Lord's  followers  are 
 said  to  obtain  in  him  "an  inheritance, 
 being  predestinated  according  to  the  pur- 
 pose of  Him  who  worketh  all  things  after 
 the   counsel   of  his  own  will"  (Eph.  1  : 
 
 11). 
 
 Coun^sel-lor,  one  who  from  his  wis- 
 dom and  experience  is  supposed  to  be  able 
 to  give  judicious  advice  (2  Sam.  15  :  12). 
 Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  with  the  Fa- 
 ther devised  the  plan  of  salvation,  and 
 who  is  possessed  of  all  knowledge  and 
 wisdom,  is  called  Counsellor  (Isa.  9  : 
 6). 
 
 Coun'te-nance.    See  Face. 
 
 Coup'ling',  a  connecting  loop,  chain 
 or  bar  (Ex.  26  :  4;  2  Chron.  34  :  11). 
 
 Course.     See  Asia. 
 
 Court,  an  open  enclosure,  applied  in 
 our  English  Version  most  commonly  to 
 the  enclosures  of  the  tabernacle  and  the 
 temple  (Ex.  27  :  9 ;  Lev.  6  :  16 ;  Jer.  19  : 
 14).  It  also  designates  the  quadrangular 
 area  in  Eastern  houses  denominated  in 
 the  New  Testament  "  the  midst "  or  centre 
 (Luke  5  :  19).  This  court  was  frequently 
 paved  with  marble,  was  sometimes  orna- 
 mented with  a  fountain  and  sometimes 
 was  roofed  (Luke  7:6).     See  House. 
 
 Cov'e-nant,  a  mutual  contract  or 
 agreement  between  two  parties,  each  of 
 which  is  bound  to  fulfill  certain  engage- 
 ments to  the  other.  An  ancient  mode  of 
 ratifying  a  covenant  was  the  passing  of 
 the  contracting  parties  between  the  di- 
 vided parts  of  a  slain  animal,  and  is  re- 
 ferred to  in  Jer.  34  :  18. 
 
 The  word  teslamentirm,. in  Latin,  is  often 
 used  to  express  the  Hebrew  word  which 
 means  covenant,  and  hence  we  have  the 
 Old  and  New  Testaments,  instead  of  the 
 more  proper  designations,  Old  and  New 
 Covenants. 
 
 Of  the  various  special  covenants  into 
 which,  in  the  history  of  our  race,  God  has 
 
 entered,  the  two  most  prominent  and  most 
 significant  are  the  covenant  of  works  and 
 the  covenant  of  grace. 
 
 1.  The  Covenant  OF  Works. — This  is 
 well  described  in  the  answer  to  the  twelfth 
 question  of  the  Sliorter  Catecliism  :  "  When 
 God  had  created  man,  he  entered  into  a 
 covenant  of  life  with  him,  upon  condition 
 of  perfect  obedience ;  forbidding  him  to 
 eat  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and 
 evil,  upon  the  pain  of  death."  As  this 
 covenant  was  not  between  equals,  the 
 terms  being  proposed  by  a  sovereign  Law- 
 giver, it  is  also  called  the  law  and  the  law 
 of  ivorka  (Rom.  3  :  27  ;  Gal.  2  :  19).  In 
 this  transaction  are  all  the  essential  parts 
 of  a  covenant.  (1)  There  are  covenant- 
 ing parties — viz.  God  and  Adam.  (2) 
 There  is  the  condition — viz.  perfect  obe- 
 dience, upon  which  Adam  is  to  secure  life, 
 the  blessing  of  the  covenant.  (3)  There 
 are  the  sanctions  or  confirmations  of  the 
 covenant  engagements.  The  result  of  dis- 
 obedience in  Adam  is  to  be  death ;  the  re- 
 ward of  obedience  in  Adam  is  to  be  life. 
 God  proposes  a  simple  test  of  obedience ; 
 Adam  is  fully  able  to  comply.  God  binds 
 himself  by  promise ;  Adam  binds  himself 
 under  penalty.  And  as  Adam  is  the  rep- 
 resentative of  the  human  race,  his  obedi- 
 ence or  disobedience  is  to  affect  beneficial- 
 ly or  disastrously  the  whole  of  his  descend- 
 ants. Adam  disobeys  and  transmits  the 
 curse  to  all  his  children  (Rom.  5  :  12 ;  1 
 Cor.  15  :  21).  His  breach  of  covenant  has 
 rendered  salvation  by  obedience  to  the  law 
 an  utter  impossibility.  Pluman  nature  is 
 now  corrupt,  "being  alienated  from  the 
 life  of  God"  (Eph.  4  :  18). 
 
 2.  The  Covenant  of  Grace. — This 
 is  also  well  described  in  the  answer  to 
 the  twentieth  question  of  the  Shorter 
 Catechism,  "  God,  having,  out  of  his  mere 
 good  pleasure,  from  all  eternity,  elected 
 some  to  everlasting  life,  did  enter  into  a 
 covenant  of  grace,  to  deliver  them  out  of 
 the  estate  of  sin  and  misery,  and  to  bring 
 
144 
 
 COVENANT  OF  SALT— CRAFT. 
 
 them  into  an  estate  of  salvation  by  a  Re- 
 deemer." In  this  covenant  the  parties 
 contracting  are  the  Father  on  the  one 
 side,  and  the  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 on  tlie  other.  The  Father  engages  to  save 
 his  elect  people,  and  for  them  our  Lord 
 engages  to  satisfy  the  law.  In  fulfill- 
 ing his  covenant  engagements  our  Lord 
 assumes  human  nature,  and  as  the  second 
 Adam  becomes  the  representative  of  his 
 people.  He  obeys  the  law's  precepts  and 
 suffers  the  law's  penalty.  He  "makes 
 reconciliation  for  iniquity  and  brings  in 
 everlasting  righteousness"  (Dan.  9  :  24). 
 He  thus  becomes  "  the  mediator  of  a  bet- 
 ter covenant"  (Heb.  8  :  6). 
 
 Cov^e-nant  of  Salt.  As  salt  is  an 
 emblem  of  incorruptibility  and  permanence, 
 so  a  covenant  of  salt  is  an  everlasting  cov- 
 enant. The  phrase  occurs  in  Num.  18  : 
 19 ;  2  Chron.  13:5;  comp.  Lev.  2  :  13. 
 
 Cov^ert.  This  word  does  not  occur 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  of  the  New 
 Testament,  but  in  that  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment it  occurs  nine  times,  and  is  the  ren- 
 dering of  several  Hebrew  words.  In  1  Sam. 
 25:20;  Job 40:21;  Ps.  61:4;  Isa.  16:4;  32; 
 2,  it  represents  a  Hebrew  word  which  has 
 the  general  sense  of  something  hidden,  pri- 
 vate, secret,  and  is  used  to  designate  a  secret 
 place  or  shelter.  In  Isa.  4  :  6  it  represents 
 a  Hebrew  word  which  has  the  general 
 sense  of  protection.  In  Job  38  :  40 ;  Jer. 
 25  :  38,  it  represents  a  Hebrew  word  which 
 has  the  general  sense  of  a  booth  or  hut,  and 
 which  is  figuratively  applied  to  the  thicket 
 or  lair  where  wild  beasts  hide.  In  2  Kings 
 16  :  18  we  read  that  Aliaz,  when  spoiling 
 the  temple,  "  took  down  the  covert  for  the 
 Sabbath  that  they  had  built  in  the  house." 
 The  word  covert  in  this  j)assage  represents 
 a  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  which  means  a 
 booth,  and  evidently  designates  a  covered 
 place,  a  platform  or  hall,  in  the  fore-court 
 of  the  temple,  set  apart  for  the  king  when 
 he  visited  the  temple  with  his  retinue 
 on  the  Sabbaths  or  feast-davs. 
 
 Cov'e-tous-ness,  in  a  general  sense 
 an  inordinate  desire  of  worldly  possessions; 
 in  a  more  restricted  sense,  the  desire  of 
 increasing  one's  substance  by  appropria- 
 ting that  of  others.  Closely  allied  to  sel- 
 fishness and  readily  degenerating  into 
 avarice,  it  is  strongly  condemned  and 
 denounced  in  Scripture,  where  it  is  al- 
 most always  associated  with  vices  of 
 bodily  impurity  (1  Cor.  6  :  10;  Eph.  5  : 
 5;  CoL3:  5;  1  Tim.  6  :  10). 
 
 Crack'nels,  a  species  of  hard  cake  or 
 bread  (1  Kings  14  :  3). 
 
 Craft.  This  word  is  used  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures in  two  senses. 
 
 I.  Cunning,  deceit,  guile  (Dan.  8  :  25 ; 
 Mark  14:1). 
 
 II.  Trade,  occupation,  business  (Acts 
 18:3;  19:25,27;  Rev.  18:22).  A 
 slight  sketch  of  the  principal  trades  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  is  subjoined. 
 
 1.  Metal- WORKING. — The  preparation 
 of  iron  for  use  either  in  war,  in  agriculture 
 or  for  domestic  purposes,  and  the  work- 
 ing in  bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin 
 ("brass"  in  our  Authorized  Version),  were 
 among  the  earliest  applications  of  labor 
 (Gen.  4  :  22).  In  the  construction  of  the 
 tabernacle  copper,  not  iron,  was  employed, 
 although  at  the  time  the  use  of  iron  must 
 have  been  familiar  to  the  Jews  (Ex.  20  : 
 25;  27  :  19).  After  the  conquest  the  oc- 
 cupation of  a  smith  was  recognized  as  a 
 distinct  employment  (1  Sam.  13  :  19,  20). 
 The  smith's  work  and  its  results  are  often 
 mentioned  in  Scripture  (2  Sam.  12  :  31 ;  1 
 Kings  6  :  7  ;  2  Chron.  26  :  14 ;  Isa.  44  :  12 ; 
 54  :  16).  The  worker  in  gold  and  silver 
 must  have  found  employment  botli  among 
 the  Hebrews  and  the  neighboring  nations 
 in  very  early  times,  as  appears  from  the 
 ornaments  sent  by  Abraham  to  Rebekah, 
 and  from  numerous  other  facts  (Gen.  24  : 
 22,  53 ;  35  :  4 ;  38  :  18 ;  Deut.  7  :  25). 
 
 2.  Wood -WORKING.  —  The  carpenter 
 and  his  work  have  frequent  mention  in 
 Scripture  (Gen.  6:14;  Ex.  37 ;  Isa.  41 :  7  ; 
 
CRAG— CRETE. 
 
 145 
 
 44  :  13).  The  references  in  Isaiah  are 
 proofs  that  the  Jewish  carpenters  were 
 able  to  carve  with  some  skill.  In  the 
 New  Testament  the  occupation  of  a  car- 
 penter is  mentioned  in  connection  with 
 Joseph,  and  by  way  of  reproach,  or  per- 
 haps of  wonder,  is  ascribed  to  our  Lord 
 (Matt.  13:  55;  Mark  6  :  3). 
 
 3.  Stone-working. — The  masons  em- 
 ployed by  David  and  Solomon,  at  least 
 the  chief  of  them,  were  Phoenicians  (1 
 Kings  5:18;  1  Chron.  22  :  2).  The  larger 
 stones  used  in  Solomon's  temple  are  said 
 by  Josephus  to  have  been  fitted  together 
 exactly  without  mortar  or  cramps,  but 
 the  foundation-stones  to  have  been  fas- 
 tened with  lead.  For  ordinary  buildings 
 mortar  was  used;  sometimes  bitumen,  as 
 was  the  case  at  Babylon  (Gen.  11  :  3). 
 The  lime,  clay  and  straw  of  which  mortar 
 is  generally  composed  in  the  East  require 
 to  be  very  carefully  mixed  and  united  so  as 
 to  resist  storms.  The  wall  "  daubed  with 
 untempered  mortar"  of  Ezek.  13  :  10  was 
 perhaps  a  wall  of  mud  or  clay  without 
 lime,  which  under  heavy  rain  would  give 
 way.  These  mud  walls  are  only  common 
 where  rains  are  infrequent. 
 
 4.  Spinning  and  Weaving. — The  arts 
 of  spinning  and  weaving  wool  and  flax 
 were  carried  on  in  early  times,  as  now 
 among  the  Bedouin,  by  women.  The 
 good  housewife  was  noted  for  her  skill 
 and  industry  in  these  arts  (Ex.  35  :  25, 
 26;  Lev.  19  :  19;  Deut.  22  :  11 ;  2  Kings 
 23  :  7;  Prov.  31  :  13,  24;  Ezek.  16  :  16). 
 When  the  loom,  with  its  beam  (1  Sam. 
 17  :  7),  pin  (Judg.  16  :  14)  and  shuttle 
 (Job  7:6),  was  introduced  we  do  not 
 know,  but  pictures  of  it  older  than  the 
 P^xodus  are  now  found  in  Egypt.  To- 
 gether with  weaving  we  read  also  of  em- 
 broidery, in  which  gold  and  silver  threads 
 were  interwoven  with  the  body  of  the  stuff, 
 sometimes  in  figure-patterns  or  with  pre- 
 cious stones  set  in  the  needlework  (Ex. 
 26:  1;  28:4;  39:6-13). 
 
 10 
 
 5.  Dyeing  and  Dressing  Cloth,  Tan- 
 ning AND  Dressing  Leather. — These 
 arts  and  trades  were  extensively  followed 
 in  Palestine  (Josh.  2  :  15-21 ;  2  Kings  1  : 
 8 ;  Matt.  3:4;  Acts  9  :  43). 
 
 6.  Tent-making. — This  was  a  common 
 occupation,  and  in  the  Roman  empire  fur- 
 nished a  livelihood  to  many  Jews  (Acts 
 18:3). 
 
 7.  Boat  and  Ship-building. — Fish- 
 ing-boats were  largely  used  on  the  Sea  of 
 Galilee  (Matt.  8  :  23;  9:1;  John  21  :  3, 
 8).  Solomon  built  at  Ezion-Geber  ships 
 for  his  foreign  trade,  which  were  manned 
 by  Phoenician  crews — an  experiment  which 
 Jehoshaphat  endeavored  in  vain  to  renew 
 (1  Kings  9  :  26,  27  ;  22  :  48 ;  2  Chron.  20  : 
 36,  37). 
 
 In  addition  to  the  above,  there  were 
 shoemakers,  tailors,  barbers,  perfumers, 
 plasterers,  glaziers,  painters,  potters,  brick- 
 makers,  butchers,  bakers,  cheesemongers. 
 
 Crag,  the  top  or  pinnacle  of  a  rock 
 (Job  39  :  28) ;  literally,  "the  tooth  of  the 
 clifl^" 
 
 Crane.  The  word  so  translated  is 
 found  only  in  Isa.  38  :  14  and  Jer.  8  :  7, 
 and  critics  are  not  agreed  whether  the 
 term  is  rightly  appropriated.  It  cannot 
 well  be  the  crane,  for  while  this  bird  is 
 migratory,  it  is  not  a  chatterer,  as  one  of 
 the  above  passages  intimates.  According 
 to  the  testimony  of  most  of  the  ancient 
 versions,  it  is  a  "swallow." 
 
 Crave,  to  desire  earnestly  (Prov.  16  : 
 26). 
 
 Cre-a'te,  to  call  into  being  what  never 
 existed  in  any  form  or  manner  before  (Gen. 
 1:1;  Col.  1  :  16).  It  is  also  employed  in 
 Scripture  to  express  the  reproduction  in 
 the  human  soul  of  those  holy  qualities 
 and  dispositions  which  sin  destroyed  (Ps. 
 51  :  10;  Eph.  2:  10;  4:  24). 
 
 Cres'cens,  one  of  Paul's  fellow-labor- 
 ers (2  Tim.  4  :  10),  said  to  have  been  one 
 of  the  seventy  disciples. 
 
 Crete,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the 
 
146 
 
 CRIB— CROSS. 
 
 Mediterranean,  now  called  Candia,  and  by 
 the  Turks,  Kirid.     It  is  about  one  hundred 
 and  sixty  miles  long  and  from  six  to  thirty- 
 live  miles  wide.     Although  mountainous, 
 it  yet  has   many  fruitful  valleys.      It  is 
 particularly  productive  in  olives,  grapes, 
 tigs   and   pistachio-nuts.     Its    inhabitants 
 were    represented    in    the    great    throng 
 which  heard  the  gospel  in  Jerusalem  on 
 the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  11).     The 
 Cretans  claim  a  very  ancient  ancestry,  and 
 from  time  immemorial  have  been  intelli- 
 gent, active,  enterprising,  skillful.     Their 
 moral  characteristics,  however,  have  ever 
 been  much  inferior  to  their  mental.     To- 
 day, as  in  every  past  age,  tliey  illustrate 
 the   quotation  from  Epimenides,  one  of 
 their  own  poets,  which  Paul  gives :  "  The 
 Cretans  are  always  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow 
 bellies"  (Tit.  1  :  12).     A  Christian  church 
 was  established  in  Crete,  of  which  Titus 
 was  the  minister  (Tit.  1:5).     In  Paul's 
 voyage  to  Italy  the  vessel  which  bore  him 
 was  driven  out  of  its  course,  and  sailing 
 "under  Crete,  over  against  Salmone,"  a 
 promontory   on   the   eastern   side   of  the 
 island,   "came    unto  a  place  called  the 
 Fair    Havens,  nigh  whereunto  was  the 
 city  of   Lasea"    (Acts  27  :  7,   8).    Here 
 Paul  advised  the  centurion  who  had  him 
 and   other   prisoners   in   charge,  and  the 
 master  and  owner  of  the  ship,  to  winter. 
 His   advice  was  disregarded,  and  in  at- 
 tempting to  make  the  harbor  of  Phenice, 
 one  of  the  best  in  Crete,  the  vessel  was  to- 
 tally wrecked  (Acts  27).    Since  the  New 
 Testament   times   the    fortunes    of   Crete 
 liave  been  diverse,  and,  in  the  main,  dis- 
 iistrous.     In    1866  the   Cretans   made  an 
 unsuccessful  effort  to  throw  off  the  Turk- 
 ish  yoke    and   to    secure    annexation   to 
 Greece.     Though  defeated  then,  they  liave 
 the  conviction  that  they  will  not  always  be. 
 They  bide  their  time,  and  from  present  ap- 
 pearances their  time  is  not  distant. 
 
 Crib,  the  rack  or  manger  in  a  cattle- 
 stall  (Prov.  14:  4;  Isa.  1  :  3). 
 
 Crim'son,  a  well-known  and  admired 
 
 shade  of  red  (2  Chron.  2:7),  thus  called 
 from  kermes,  the  Arabian  name  of  the  in- 
 sect that  produces  the  dye.  Some  shades 
 of  crimson  and  scarlet  are  such  fast  colors 
 that  they  cannot,  by  any  processes  known  to 
 modern  chemistry,  be  washed  out.  Hence 
 the  propriety  and  beauty  of  the  figure  in 
 Isa.  1:18,  where  God  offers  the  most  free 
 and  perfect  forgiveness  to  guilt  of  the 
 deepest  stain. 
 
 Orisp'ing-Pms  (Isa.  3 : 22),  supposed 
 to  be  a  female  ornament,  like  the  modern 
 reticule,  richly  ornamented  and  attached  to 
 the  girdle.  The  equivalent  word  in  Ara- 
 bic means  a  money-purse. 
 
 Cris'pus,  the  chief  of  the  Jewish 
 synagogue  at  Corinth  (Acts  18  :  8),  who 
 after  his  conversion  was  baptized  by  Paul 
 (1  Cor.  1  :  14). 
 
 Cross,  a  gibbet  made  of  two  beams  of 
 wood  placed  transversely  in  the  shape  of 
 a  T  or  X  or  +,  on  which  criminals  were 
 executed.  This  mode  of  punishment  was 
 not  practiced  by  the  Jews  ;  among  the  Ro- 
 mans it  was  reserved  for  slaves  or  the  most 
 atrocious  criminals.  The  victim,  with  out- 
 stretched arms,  was  either  bound  with  cords 
 or  nailed  through  the  hands  and  feet  to  the 
 cross  as  it  lay  on  the  ground,  and  from  the 
 uplifting  of  the  upright  beam,  and  the 
 thrusting  it  into  the  hole  prepared  for  it, 
 was  made  to  suffer  the  acutest  agony. 
 Death-pains  thus  inflicted  were  not  only 
 excruciating,  but  lingering,  the  unhappy 
 person  often  surviving  for  several  days. 
 In  the  narrative  of  our  Saviour's  endur- 
 ing this  ignominious  death  the  various 
 circumstances  are  mentioned  which  it  is 
 supposed  were  the  usual  attendants  of  the 
 punishment.  He  was  scourged  ;  compel- 
 led to  bear  the  transverse  beam  of  his  cross 
 to  the  place  of  execution ;  his  garments 
 I  were  distributed  among  his  executioners; 
 I  a  stupefying  drink  was  offered  to  him ; 
 I  and  a  title  or  superscription,  indicating 
 i  the  accusation  against  him,  was  placed 
 
CEOWN— CUP. 
 
 147 
 
 at  the  top  of  the  cross.  By  this  humil- 
 iating, painful  and  accursed  death  the 
 Son  of  God  made  expiation  for  sin ;  and 
 hence  the  cross  is  used  to  designate  the 
 great  work  of  redemption  (1  Cor.  1  :  17, 
 18  ;  Col.  1  :  20 ;  Gal.  6  :  14).  The  cross  is 
 also  figuratively  used  as  expressive  of  the 
 reproaches  and  trials  which  the  followers 
 of  Christ  must  endure  (Matt.  IG  :  24). 
 
 OrO"Wn,  the  top  of  the  head  ( Jer.  2  : 
 16).  Also  an  ornament  for  the  head, 
 chiefly  worn  by  royal  personages  as  a 
 symbol  of  their  power.  Anciently  it  was 
 a  simple  fillet  bound  round  the  head,  but 
 afterward  assumed  various  and  expensive 
 forms  (2  Sam.  12  :  30).  Upon  the  head 
 of  our  blessed  Lord,  in  cruel  mockery  of 
 his  kingly  claim,  a  crown  of  thorns  was 
 placed  (Matt.  27  :  29). 
 
 Oru^ci-fy.    See  Cross. 
 
 Cruse,  a  small  vessel  or  flask  for  hold- 
 ing water  and  other  liquids  (1  Sam.  26  : 
 11;  1  Kings  19:  6). 
 
 Orys^'tal,  a  beautifully  clear  and  trans- 
 parent stone,  a  colorless  quartz,  found  un- 
 der regular  forms  or  in  masses.  In  Job 
 38  :  29  the  word  is  translated  ice,  to  which 
 the  rock-crystal  bears  a  strong  resemblance. 
 The  ancients  indeed  supposed  rock-crystal 
 to  be  merely  ice  congealed  by  intense  cold. 
 Its  transparency  is  referred  to  in  Rev.  4  : 
 6.  The  Greek  word  thus  rendered  in  the 
 New  Testament  means  originally  ice,  and 
 then  any  substance  equally  transparent. 
 
 Cu'bit,  a  measure  of  length  not  accu- 
 rately determined,  because  its  standard,  the 
 length  of  the  lower  arm,  is  a  variable  one. 
 Under  the  name  two  measures  of  length 
 seem  to  be  referred  to — the  ordinary  one, 
 eighteen  inches;  the  longer  one,  twenty- 
 one  inches. 
 
 Ouck'oo.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  occurs  twice  only  (Lev.  11  :  16; 
 Deut.  14  :  15)  as  the  name  of  some  un- 
 clean bird,  and  probably  indicates  some 
 of  the  larger  petrels  wliich  abound  in 
 the  east  of  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 Ou^cum-ber.  This  word  first  occurs 
 in  Num.  11  :  5,  as  one  of  the  good  things 
 of  Egypt  for  which  the  Israelites  in  the 
 wilderness  longed.  Cucumbers  and  mel- 
 ons were,  and  still  are,  abundant  in  Egypt. 
 The  cucumber  is  especially  refreshing,  and 
 is  possessed  of  so  much  nutritive  property 
 as  to  make  it  a  general  favorite.  The 
 "  lodge  in  a  garden  of  cucumbers  "  ( Isa.  1  : 
 8)  is  a  rude  temporary  shelter  erected  in 
 the  open  grounds  where  vines,  cucumbers, 
 gourds,  etc.  are  grown,  in  which  some  lone- 
 ly man  or  boy  is  set  to  watch,  either  to 
 guard  the  plants  from  robbers  or  to  scare 
 away  the  foxes  and  jackals. 
 
 Oud.  Animals  that  chew  their  cud  are 
 referred  to  in  Lev.  11  :  3-7  ;  Deut.  14  :  6- 
 8.  By  a  wonderful  contrivance  some  ani- 
 mals are  provided  with  several  stomachs. 
 When  grazing  their  food  is  swallowed 
 without  mastication,  and  when  at  rest 
 they  can  throw  up  from  one  of  their 
 stomachs  to  their  mouth  round  balls  of 
 tliis  food,  which  they  can  then  chew  at 
 their  leisure.  An  observer  can  see  in  a 
 ruminating  or  cud-chewing  animal  the 
 muscular  impulse  in  its  throat  by  which 
 the  cud  is  thrown  up. 
 
 Oum'rain,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  the 
 seeds  of  which  contain  an  oil  of  a  grate- 
 ful and  stimulating  nature,  used  medicinal- 
 ly and  as  a  condiment.  It  seems  to  have 
 been  extensively  cultivated  in  ancient  times 
 in  the  East  (Isa.  28:  25),  as  it  is  at  present. 
 It  is  one  of  the  articles  which  the  self-right- 
 eous Pliarisees  tithed,  while  they  neglected 
 the  weightier  matters  of  the  Law  (Matt.  23 : 
 23). 
 
 Oup.  The  cups  of  the  Jews,  whether 
 of  metal  or  earthenware,  were  similar, 
 most  likely,  to  tliose  of  Egypt,  as  pictured 
 on  the  monuments  or  seen  in  specimens 
 dug  from  the  ruins  of  cities.  They  were 
 various  in  shape,  material  and  embellish- 
 ment. In  Solomon's  time  all  his  drink- 
 ing-vessels  were  of  gold,  none  of  silver  (1 
 i  Kings  10  :  21).     Figuratively,  the  cup  is 
 
148 
 
 CUPBEARER— CUTH. 
 
 used  to  denote  blessing  or  misfortune. 
 Thus,  "my  cup  runneth  over"  (Ps.  23:5) 
 is  eloquent  of  abundant  mercy  ;  and  thus, 
 too,  "the  cup  of  trembling"  (Isa.  ol  :  17) 
 is  equally  eloquent  of  sore  judgment.  In 
 like  manner  the  Psalmist  speaks  of  "  the 
 
 Egyptian  Cups. 
 
 cup  of  salvation"  (Ps.  116  :  13),  and  the 
 apostle  Paul  of  "the  cup  of  ble,ssing"  (1 
 Cor.  10  :  16).  In  like  manner  also  the 
 bitter  sufferings  of  our  Lord  in  the  gar- 
 den and  on  the  cross  are  spoken  of  as  a 
 "cup"  of  which  it  was  necessary  for  him 
 to  drink  (Matt.  26:  39). 
 
 Oup''bear-er,  an  officer  of  high  rank 
 with  Egyptian,  Persian,  Assyrian,  as  well 
 as  Jewish  monarchs  (1  Kings  10  :  -5). 
 The  chief  cupbearer  or  butler  to  the 
 king  of  Egypt  was  the  means  of  raising 
 Joseph  to  his  high  position  (Gen.  40  :  1, 
 21  ;  41  :  9).  Rabshakeh,  from  his  name 
 which  is  properly  that  of  his  title,  and 
 signifies  chief  cupbearer,  filled  a  like 
 office  in  the  Assyrian  court  (2  Kings  IS  : 
 17).  Nehemiah  was  cupbearer  to  Artax- 
 erxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia  (Neh. 
 1  :  11;  2:  1). 
 
 Curse.  In  Scripture  the  word  curse  is 
 the  opposite  of  the  word  bless.  The  sense 
 of  the  word  is  to  imprecate  evil  upon  any 
 one  (Gen.  9:25;  27:12;  Neh.  13:2; 
 Matt.  5  :  44 ;  John  7  :  49 ;  James  3:9). 
 
 The  curses  pronounced  by  Noah,  Mose.s, 
 Joshua,  David  and  otliers,  as  recorded  in 
 Scripture,  are  not  the  utterances  of  pas- 
 sion or  the  suggestioas  of  revenge.  They 
 were  pronounced  under  the  immediate  in- 
 fluence of  God's  Spirit,  and  are  to  be  re- 
 garded as  predictions  of  evil  in 
 the  form  of  imprecation.  The 
 "curse  of  the  law"  indicates 
 that  state  of  condemnation  in 
 which  every  human  being  is 
 found,  and  from  which  our 
 Lord  redeems  us  by  "being 
 made  a  curse  for  us"  (Gal.  3  : 
 13). 
 
 Custa.,  the  name  of  a  region 
 inhabited  by  tribes  of  the  Ham- 
 ite  family  (Gen.  10:6-8;  1 
 Chron.  1  :  8-10;  Isa.  11  :  11). 
 In  the  majority  of  instances  in 
 which  the  word  occurs,  Cush  is 
 associated  with  Egypt  in  Africa, 
 but  is  sometimes  found  in  close  connection 
 with  Elam  in  Asia.  Hence  the  conjectures 
 as  to  its  precise  geographical  position  have 
 been  many  and  conflicting.  The  transla- 
 tors of  our  Version  make  it  most  gener- 
 ally the  equivalent  of  Etliiopia.  In  tlie 
 ancient  Egyptian  inscriptions  Ethiopia, 
 above  Egypt,  is  denominated  Kush  Inin- 
 dreds  of  times,  as  Ebers,  the  Egyptologist, 
 says,  and  its  territory  corresponds,  beyond 
 a  doubt,  with  the  African  Cush  of  our 
 Scriptures. 
 
 Cush^an  (Hab.  3:7),  the  same,  jiroba- 
 bly,  as  Cush.    See  Ethiopia. 
 
 Cus'toms.  The  word  means  repeated 
 acts  which  acquire  the  power  of  law,  and 
 is  specially  given  to  Jewish  ceremonial 
 observances  so  tenaciously  observed  (Acts 
 21  :  21).  It  also  .signifies  tax  or  revenue 
 (Ezra  4  :  20;  Matt.  17  :  25;  Rom.  13  :  7). 
 Cuth  or  Cu'thah,  one  of  the  cities 
 whence  Shalmaneser  introduced  colonists 
 into  Samaria  (2  Kings  17  :  24,  30).  Its 
 position  was  long  undetermined,  but  an 
 ancient  Babvlonian  citv  of  the  name  has 
 
CUTTINGS— CYRENIUS. 
 
 149 
 
 recently  been  discovered  at  the  distance 
 .  of  about  fifteen  miles  from  Babylon  it- 
 self. 
 
 Cut'tings  in  the  Flesh,  The  pro- 
 hibition (Lev.  19  :  28)  against  marks  or 
 cuttings  in  the  flesh  for  the  dead  must  be 
 taken  in  connection  with  the  parallel  pas- 
 sages (Lev.  21  :  5;  Deut.  14  :  1),  in  which 
 shaving  the  head  with  the  same  view  is 
 equally  forbidden.  The  ground  of  the 
 prohibition  will  be  found  in  the  super- 
 stitious or  inhuman  practices  prevailing 
 among  heathen  nations.  The  priests  of 
 Baal  cut  themselves  with  knives  to  pro- 
 pitiate the  god  "after  their  manner"  (1 
 Kings  18  :  28).  The  prohibition,  there- 
 fore, is  directed  against  practices  prevail- 
 ing not  among  the  Egyptians,  whom  the 
 Israelites  were  leaving,  but  among  the 
 Syrians,  to  whom  they  were  about  to  be- 
 come neighbors.  Another  usage  contem- 
 plated, probably,  by  the  prohibition  was 
 that  of  printing  marks  (tattooing)  to  indi- 
 cate allegiance  to  a  deity,  in  the  same  man- 
 ner as  soldiers  and  slaves  bore  tattooed 
 marks  to  indicate  allegiance  or  adscrip- 
 tion.  This  is  evidently  alluded  to  in 
 Rev.  13  :  16 ;  17  :  5 ;  19  :  20,  and  (al- 
 though in  a  contrary  direction)  in  Ezek. 
 9:4;  Gal.  6  :  17;  Eev.  7  :  3. 
 
 CyrQ''bal,  a  musical  instrument  con- 
 sisting of  two  convex  pieces  of  brass, 
 which  are  struck  together  to  mark  the 
 rliythm  or  time,  and  which  can  produce 
 a  loud  clanging  or  a  tinkling,  soft  sound 
 (2  Sam.  6:5;  Ps.  150  :  5). 
 
 Cy^press.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  is  found  only  in  Isa.  44  :  14.  It 
 points  to  some  tree  with  a  hard  grain,  and 
 this  is  all  that  can  be  positively  said  of  it. 
 
 Cy 'prus,  a  large  and  well-known  island 
 in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the  coast  of  Syria. 
 Its  length  is  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
 miles ;  its  width  varies  from  five  to  fifty 
 miles.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  fertility, 
 abounding  in  corn,  wine  and  oil ;  it  was 
 equally  celebrated  for  its  mineral  products. 
 
 In  early  times  it  was  closely  connected 
 commercially  with  Phoenicia,  and  there  is 
 little  doubt  that  it  is  referred  to  in  such  pas- 
 sages of  the  Old  Testament  as  Ezek.  27  :  6. 
 Its  inhabitants  were  luxurious  and  licen- 
 tious. In  Paphos,  one  of  its  principal 
 cities,  stood  a  far-famed  temple  dedicated 
 to  Venus.  The  island  and  its  principal 
 cities,  Salamis  and  Paphos,  are  mentioned 
 several  times  in  the  New  Testament.  Cy- 
 prus was  the  native  place  of  Barnabas 
 (Acts  4  :  36).  The  Christians  who  were 
 dispersed  during  the  persecution  which 
 arose  after  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen 
 carried  the  gospel  to  the  Jews  of  Cyprus 
 (Acts  11  :  19).  Paul  and  Barnabas  began 
 with  Cyprus  their  first  missionary  journey, 
 so  grandly  rewarded  by  the  conversion  of 
 Sergius  Paulus,  the  Roman  deputy  (Acts 
 13  :  4-13).  Hither  Barnabas,  after  he 
 had  separated  from  Paul,  came  again  in 
 company  with  Mark  (Acts  15  :  39).  Its 
 history  for  many  centuries  now  has  been 
 one  of  oppression  and  struggle,  but  its 
 recent  cession  by  Turkey  to  England  is 
 perhaps  the  opening  of  a  new  era  of  prog- 
 ress and  prosperity.  Its  present  popula- 
 tion numbers  about  one  hundred  thousand 
 souls,  of  whom  one-third  are  Mohamme- 
 dans. 
 
 Cy-re'ne,  a  city  in  Upper  Libya,  in 
 Africa,  and  the  capital  of  a  district  called 
 from  it  Cyrenaica.  It  was  founded  by  a 
 Greek  colony  about  b.  c.  632.  After  the 
 death  of  Alexander  the  Great  it  became 
 a  dependency  of  Egypt  and  the  residence 
 of  many  Jews.  Simon,  a  Cyrenian  Jew, 
 bore  our  Lord's  cross  to  the  place  of  exe- 
 cution (Mark  15  :  21).  Men  of  Cyrene 
 were  present  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
 Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  10).  Cyrenian  Jews 
 had  a  synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  and  were 
 prominent  in  persecuting  the  early  Chris- 
 tians (Acts  6  :  9-13).  The  city  is  now  an 
 utter  desolation,  frequented  only  by  wild 
 beasts  and  wandering  Arabs. 
 
 Cy-re^ni-us  (Luke  2  :  2),  the  literal 
 
150 
 
 CYRUS. 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN     s  j. 
 
 '^^  I  :-.B-.:.r  •■A  •:-::■;•.=  ■■.■..::--\    n 
 
 "^o-     .    "^ti?^ — >~  V*  if'  '  'Jiipiterl  ••'■'Amtnon  :  •  \ 
 
 ^y  .Jmfflut&^^^^^^A  MM  o  N 
 
 Map  of 
 English  translation  of  the  Greek  name, 
 which  is  itself  the  Greek  form  of  the 
 Roman  name  Quirinus.  The  full  name 
 is  Publius  Sulpicius  Quirinus.  He  was 
 consul  B.  c.  12,  and  made  governor  of 
 Syria  after  the  banishment  of  Archelaus 
 in  A.  D.  6.  He  was  sent  to  make  an  en- 
 rollment of  property  and  people  in  Syria. 
 As  an  enrollment  took  place  at  the  time 
 of  our  Lord's  birth,  some  difficulty  in 
 settling  the  chronology  has  arisen,  but  it 
 disappears  when  we  consider  that  there  is 
 good  reason  for  believing  that  Quirinus, 
 or  Cyrenius,  was  twice  governor  of  Syria, 
 and  that  his  first  governorship  extended 
 from  B.  c.  4  (the  year  of  our  Lord's  birth) 
 to  B.  c.  1,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  M. 
 Lollius. 
 
 Cy'rus  \_the  brilliancy  of  the  suri],  a 
 jjrince,  conqueror  and  statesman  of  great 
 renown,  and  an  instrument  chosen  by  Je- 
 hovah to  execute  his  purposes  of  mercy 
 toward  the  Jews  (Isa.  44  :  28  ;  45  :  1 ;  Dan. 
 6  :  28).  The  early  life  of  Cyrus  is  involved 
 in  obscurity.  According  to  the  common  le- 
 gend, he  was  the  son  of  Mandane,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Astyages,  the  last  king  of  Media,  and 
 Cambysea,  a  Persian  of  the  royal  family  of 
 Achsemenidae.  In  consequence  of  a  dream, 
 Astyages,  it  is  said,  designed  the  death  of 
 
 Cyrene. 
 
 his  infant  grandson,  but  the  child  was 
 spared  by  those  whom  he  charged  with 
 the  commission  of  the  crime,  and  was 
 reared  in  obscurity  under  the  name  of 
 Agradates.  When  he  grew  up  to  man- 
 hood his  courage  and  genius  placed  him 
 at  the  head  of  the  Persians.  The  tyranny 
 of  Astyages  had,  at  that  time,  alienated 
 a  large  faction  of  the  Medes,  and  Cyrus 
 headed  a  revolt  which  ended  in  the  de- 
 feat and  capture  of  the  Median  king,  B.  c. 
 559.  After  consolidating  the  enqire  which 
 he  had  thus  gained,  Cyrus  entered  on  that 
 career  of  conquest  which  has  made  him 
 the  hero  of  the  East.  His  conquests  ex- 
 tended over  all  Western  Asia,  but  the  most 
 brilliant  of  them  was  that  of  Babylon,  B.C. 
 538.  After  the  reduction  of  Babylon  he 
 ordered  a  return  to  their  own  land  of  the 
 Jews,  who  had  been  seventy  years  in  cap- 
 tivity, and  furnished  them  very  liberally 
 with  the  means  of  rebuilding  their  tem- 
 ple (Ezra  1  :  1-4).  Hitherto,  the  great 
 kings  with  whom  the  Jews  had  been 
 brought  into  contact  had  been  open  ojj- 
 pressors  or  seductive  allies,  but  Cyrus  was 
 a  generous  liberator  and  a  just  guardian 
 of  their  rights.  He  fell  in  battle  B.  c.  529, 
 and  his  tomb  is  still  shown  at  Pasargadse, 
 the  scene  of  his  victory  over  Astyages. 
 
DABEEATH— DAMASCUS. 
 
 151 
 
 D. 
 
 Dab'e-rath.  {earners  hump"],  or  Dab'- 
 a-reh,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
 near  the  boundary  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  19  : 
 12;  21  :  28).  It  was  assigned  to  the  Le- 
 vites.  Under  the  name  of  Debarieh  it 
 still  lies  at  the  western  foot  of  Tabor. 
 
 Dag^ger,  a  short  sword,  usually  made 
 with  a  double  edge  and  suspended  from 
 the  girdle  (Judg.  3  :  16,  21,  22).  See 
 Arms. 
 
 Da^gon  [a  great  fish],  the  national  god 
 of  the  Philistines.  He  was  represented 
 with  tlie  face  and 
 hands  of  a  man 
 and  the  tail  of  a 
 fish  (I  Sam.  5:5). 
 The  fish-like  form 
 was  a  natural  em- 
 blem of  fruitful- 
 ness,  and  as  such 
 was  likely  to  be 
 adopted  by  seafar- 
 ing tribes.  His  most  famous  temi)les  were 
 at  Gaza  (Judg.  16  :  21-30)  and  Ashdod  (1 
 Sam.  5  ;  5,  6 ;  1  Chron.  10  :  10). 
 
 Dal-ma-nu'tha.  This  place  is  men- 
 tioned in  Mark  8  :  10  as  "  the  parts  of 
 Dalmanutha,"  and  in  the  corresponding 
 passage  in  Matt.  15  :  39  we  find  the  place 
 referred  to  as  "the  coast  of  Magdala." 
 These  were  probably  neighboring  towns 
 on  the  western  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
 nesaret.  Mary  Magdalene  was  a  native 
 of  the  latter  place,  hence  her  name,  Mary 
 Magdalene,  or  Mary  of  Magdala. 
 
 Dal-ma^tia,  a  province  of  Europe  on 
 the  east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  forming  part 
 of  Ulyricum  and  contiguous  to  Macedo- 
 nia. Paul  sent  Titus  there  to  spread  the 
 gospel  (2  Tim.  4  :  10). 
 
 Dam'a-ris,  an  Athenian  woman  con- 
 verted to  Christianity  by  Paul's  preaching 
 (Acts    17  :  34).      Chrysostom   and   others 
 
 held  her  to  have  been  the  wife  of  Dionys- 
 ius  the  Areopagite. 
 
 Da-mas^cus,  a  city  of  Syria,  and  one 
 of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world.  It  is  men- 
 tioned in  Gen.  15  :  2  as  the  native  place 
 of  Eliezer,  the  steward  of  Abraham.  It 
 is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment and  in  the  New.  On  his  way  to  this 
 city  Saul  of  Tarsus  was  converted,  and  from 
 it  he  subsequently  made  a  remarkable  es- 
 cape (Acts  9 ;  2  Cor.  11  :  32,  33).  To  the 
 great  apostle  belongs  the  unquestioned 
 honor  of  introducing  Chx'istianity  into 
 Damascus  (Acts  9  :  20;  Gal.  1  :  12).  At 
 the  time  of  Paul's  conversion  many  Jews 
 were  residing  in  the  city  (Acts  9  :  2),  and 
 many  became  Christians  (Acts  11 :  19j,  but 
 the  larger  proportion  of  converts  was  from 
 the  Gentiles.  So  rapidly  did  the  gospel 
 spread  among  the  population  that  in  the 
 time  of  Constantine  the  great  temple  of 
 the  city  was  converted  into  a  cathedral 
 church.  Now,  as  always,  in  regard  to 
 beauty  of  site  Damascus  is  one  of  the 
 most  delightful  and  attractive  spots  in 
 the  East.  As  you  approach  it  you  trav- 
 erse a  parched  and  desolate  country  where 
 nothing  refreshes  the  eye;  "but,"  to  use 
 the  language  of  a  traveler,  "  how  changed 
 is  the  scene  when,  dazzled  with  the  glare 
 of  the  sun  and  oppressed  by  heat,  yon 
 clamber  up  the  rocks  to  seek  a  moment's 
 rest  and  shade  under  a  small  arched  build- 
 ing called  Kobbet-el-Nazzar,  which  crowns 
 the  summit  of  the  hill !  The  instant  you 
 reach  it  one  of  the  most  magnificent  pros- 
 pects in  the  world  bursts  suddenly  upon 
 you.  You  look  directly  down  from  an 
 elevation  of  a  thousand  feet  on  the  city 
 of  Damascus  and  its  unrivaled  plain  with 
 a  revulsion  of  feeling  almost  amounting  to 
 ecstasy.  ...  In  the  foreground  an  unbroken 
 expanse  of  gardens  and  orchards  advances 
 
DAMNATION— DAN. 
 
 153 
 
 up  to  the  very  foot  of  the  cliff  on  which  you 
 stand,  forming  a  circuit  of  more  tlian  fifty 
 miles ;  in  the  midst  of  it,  about  two  miles 
 from  the  western  hills,  is  the  beautiful  city, 
 with  its  picturesque  minarets,  its  domes  and 
 glittering  crescents,  like  a  fleet  riding  at  an- 
 chor upon  a  little  sea  of  the  most  richly-va- 
 riegated foliage."  Although  such  is  the  ex- 
 ternal view,  the  traveler  is  disappointed  on 
 his  entrance  into  the  city  with  its  narrow 
 streets  and  not  very  inviting  houses.  The 
 public  buildings  are,  however,  very  splen- 
 did. One  of  the  streets,  a  mile  in  length, 
 is  still,  as  in  the  days  of  Paul,  "call- 
 ed Straight"  (Acts  9  :  11).  The  popula- 
 tion is  estimated  at  one  hundred  and  forty 
 thousand,  Jews,  Christians  and  Mohamme- 
 dans. The  latter  are  very  fanatical,  and  in 
 1860  rose  against  the  defenceless  Chris- 
 tians, murdering  six  thousand  of  them  in 
 cold  blood.  The  plain  of  Damascus  is  in- 
 debted for  its  fertility  to  the  river  Barada, 
 the  Abana  to  which  Naamanthe  Syrian  re- 
 ferred (2  Kings  5  :  12). 
 
 Dam-na'tion.  This  word  is  com- 
 monly employed  to  denote  the  final  loss 
 of  the  soul,  but  in  this  sense  it  is  not 
 always  to  be  understood  in  Scripture. 
 Thus  it  is  said  in  Eom.  13:2,"  They  that 
 resist  shall  receive  to  themselves  damna- 
 tion" (that  IS,  judgment)  "from  the  rulers, 
 who  are  not  a  terror  to  good  works,  but 
 to  the  evil."  Again,  in  1  Cor.  11  :  29, 
 "He  that  eateth  and  drinketh  unworthily 
 eateth  and  drinketh  damnation  to  himself" 
 (that  is,  judgment) ;  he  exposes  himself  to 
 severe  temporal  judgments  from  God  and 
 to  the  judgment  and  censure  of  the  wise 
 and  good.  Again,  Rom.  14  :  23,  "He  that 
 doubteth  is  damned  if  he  eat "  (that  is,  he 
 is  condemned  both  by  his  own  conscience 
 and  the  word  of  God). 
 
 Dan  \^ judge'],  the  name  of  a  son  of  Ja- 
 cob, of  one  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  and  of  a 
 city  in  Northern  Palestine. 
 
 1.  Dan  was  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and 
 the  first  of  Bilhah,  Rachel's  maid   (Gen. 
 
 30  :  6).  The  origin  of  the  name  is  given 
 in  the  exclamation  of  Rachel,  "  God  hath 
 judged  me  and  given  me  a  son,  therefore 
 she  called  his  name  Dan,"  that  is,  "  judgp." 
 In  the  blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen.  49  :  IG)  this 
 play  on  the  name  is  repeated,  "  Dan  shall 
 judge  his  people."  The  records  of  Dan 
 are  unusually  meagre.  Only  one  son  is 
 attributed  to  him  (Gen.  46  :  23) ;  but  when 
 the  people  were  numbered  in  the  wilder- 
 ness of  Sinai  his  tribe  was,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  Judah,  the  most  numerous  of 
 all,  containing  sixty-four  thousand  four 
 hundred  able-bodied  men  fit  for  military 
 service  (Num.  26  :  43). 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Dan  had  their  allotment 
 in  the  south-western  part  of  Palestine,  in 
 the  neighborhood  of  the  Amorites  and 
 Philistines,  whom  they  could  not  dispos- 
 sess. Their  portion  was  the  smallest  of 
 any  of  the  twelve  tribes.  Their  great 
 representative  warrior  was  Samson,  whose 
 feats  of  strength  and  conflicts  with  the 
 Philistines  form  tlie  materials  of  an  in- 
 teresting cliapter  in  the  story  of  ancient 
 Israel  (Judg.  13-16).  Finding  the  terri- 
 tory assigned  them  too  limited  for  their 
 number  or  too  securely  held  by  their  ene- 
 mies to  be  availing,  the  Danites  marched 
 northward,  and,  seizing  the  rich  and  flour- 
 ishing city  of  Laish,  at  the  sources  of  the 
 Jordan,  with  the  adjacent  country,  settled 
 themselves  in  new  and  more  desirable 
 homes.  They  changed  the  name  of  Laish 
 to  Dan,  which  is  often  mentioned  in  con- 
 nection with  Beersheba,  on  the  southern 
 extremity  of  Palestine,  to  indicate  the 
 extent  of  the  country  (Judg.  20  :  1). 
 
 3.  The  city  of  Dan,  the  ancient  Laish, 
 was  not  only  the  capital  of  the  tribe  of 
 Dan,  but  also  the  centre  of  an  influential 
 image-worship.  When  the  Danites  were 
 marching  to  the  conquest  of  Laish  they 
 robbed  Micah  the  Ephraimite  of  some 
 graven  images,  and  persuaded  a  Levite 
 who  had  been  serving  Micah  as  priest  to 
 join  them.     At  Laish  (or  Dan)  they  set 
 
154 
 
 DANCE. 
 
 up  these  graven  images  as  objects  of  wor- 
 ship, establishing  a  priesthood  and  insti- 
 tuting a  ritual  (Judg.  18).  Subsequently, 
 Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  the  separate 
 kingdom  of  Israel,  chose  Dan  as  the  shrine 
 of  one  of  the  calves  which  he  had  conse- 
 crated to  religious  uses  (1  Kings  12  :  29, 
 30).  The  site  of  Dan  is  identified  with  a 
 place  now  called  Tell  el-Kady,  "  tlie  judge's 
 mound,"  near  one  of  the  fountains  or 
 sources  of  the  Jordan. 
 
 Dance,  tiie  motion  of  one  or  more 
 persons  in  steps  regulated  by  music,  and 
 the  name  of  a  musical  instrument  of  per- 
 cussion. 
 
 1.  Four  words  in  Hebrew  are  rendered 
 in  our  English  Version  by  the  word  dance, 
 in  tlie  sense  of  motion  regulated  by  music. 
 The  first  and  most  frequently-employed 
 word  is  some  form  of  the  verbal  root, 
 which  literally  signifies  to  twist,  and  which 
 refers  most  likely  to  the  whirling  motions 
 of  the  Oriental  sacred  dances  (Ex.  15  :  20 ; 
 Judg.  21 :  21 ;  1  Sam.  18  :  6).  The  second 
 word  embodies  the  idea  of  moving  in  a 
 circle  (1  Sam.  30  :  16).  The  third  word 
 (Eccles.  3:4;  Job  21  :  11 ;  Isa.  13:  21; 
 1  Chron.  15  :  29)  simply  means  to  skip  or 
 leap  for  joy,  as  it  is  elsewhere  rendered, 
 and  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  fourth 
 word  (2  Sam.  C^  :  14,  16),  which  has  the 
 radical  sense  of  jumping  or  springing. 
 The  verbal  root  of  the  words  in  the 
 New  Testament  translated  to  dance  and 
 dartcinfj  literally  means  to  leap  by  rule, 
 and  its  derivatives  are  used  to  denote  a  reg- 
 ular dance,  either  in  concert  (Matt.  11:17; 
 Luke  7  :  32)  or  by  a  single  person,  espe- 
 cially in  the  elaborate  pantomime  dance  of 
 Roman  times  (Matt.  14  :  6;   Mark  6  :  22). 
 
 The  Jewish  dances  were  generally  ex- 
 pressions of  religious  joy  and  gratitude. 
 Sometimes  they  were  practiced  in  honor  of 
 a  conqueror  (1  Sam.  18:6,  7).  In  the  re- 
 ligious service  the  timbrel  or  tambourine 
 regulated  the  dance,  which  wius  led  by 
 some  individual,  whom  the  rest  followed 
 
 with  measured  step  and  devotional  song 
 (Ps.  150  :  4).  When  the  Hebrews  had 
 cros.sed  the  Red  Sea,  and  had  seen  the 
 returning  waves  overwhelm  their  proud 
 pursuers,  the  women,  headed  by  Miriam, 
 expressed  the  exultant  feeluig  of  gratitude 
 "with  timbrels  and  with  dances"  (Ex.  15  : 
 20,  21) ;  and  in  after  times  the  women,  to 
 whom  the  dance  seems  to  have  been 
 largely  left,  made  it  the  especial  means 
 of  expressing  joyous  emotions.  From  a 
 collection  of  the  pa.ssages  in  Scripture  re- 
 lating to  the  dance  the  following  inferences 
 are  warranted ; 
 
 (1.)  That  in  true  and  idolatrous  wor- 
 ship dancing  was  a  religious  act. 
 
 (2.)  That  on  joyful  occasions,  such  as 
 national  festivals,  great  victories  or  fam- 
 ily festivities,  dancing  was  resorted  to  as 
 an  exi)ression  of  rejoicing. 
 
 (3.)  That  on  public  occasions  dancing 
 was  performed  only  by  one  of  the  sexes. 
 
 (4.)  That  dancing  was  i)erformed  usually 
 in  the  daytime,  in  tlie  open  air,  in  high- 
 ways, fields  and  groves. 
 
 (5.)  That  no  instances  of  dancing  are 
 found  upon  record  in  which  the  two  sexes 
 united  in  the  exercise,  either  in  worship  or 
 amusement. 
 
 (6.)  That  no  instances  of  social  dancing 
 for  mere  amusement  are  found  upon  record, 
 except  that  of  the  "vain  fellows"  void  of 
 ^hame  alluded  to  by  Michal,  David's  wife 
 (2  Sam.  6  :  20);  that  of  the  wicked  (Job 
 21  :  11-13^,  which  produced  impiety  and 
 ended  in  destruction ;  and  that  of  Hcrodias 
 (Mark  6  :  24-28),  which  terminated  in  the 
 ra.sh  vow  of  Herod  and  the  murder  of  John 
 the  Baptist. 
 
 2.  The  word  dance  is  the  rendering,  in 
 our  English  Version,  of  a  Hebrew  word 
 which  denotes  a  musical  instrument  of 
 percussion,  and  which  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  used  by  the  Hebrews  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod of  their  history.  In  the  grand  halle- 
 lujah psalm  (150)  the  sacred  poet  exhorts 
 mankind  to  praise  Jehovah  in  his  sanctu- 
 
DANIEL— DARIUS. 
 
 155 
 
 ary  with  all  kinds  of  music,  and  he  enu- 
 merates among  the  instruments  (vs.  3-5) 
 one  which  in  the  fourth  verse  is  trans- 
 lated "  dance."  This  instrument  is  gener- 
 ally believed  to  have  been  made  of  metal, 
 open  like  a  ring ;  it  had  many  small  bells 
 attached  to  its  border,  and  at  weddings  and 
 merrymakings  was  played  by  women,  who 
 accompanied  it  with  the  voice. 
 
 Dan'iel  [God  is  my  Judge},  the  name 
 of  three  persons  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  The  second  son  of  David  by  Abigail 
 the  Carmelitess  (1  Chron.  3.1).  In  2  Sam. 
 3  :  3  he  is  called  Chileab. 
 
 2.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Ithamar, 
 who  returned  from  the  exile  in  the  time 
 of  "  Artaxerxes,"  b.  c.  469  (Ezra  8  :  2). 
 
 3.  The  fourth  of  "  the  greater  prophets." 
 Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  parent- 
 age and  family,  but  he  appears  to  have 
 been  of  royal  or  noble  descent  (Dan.  1  : 
 3).  In  his  early  youtli  he  was  carried 
 captive  from  Jerusalem  to  Babylon,  to- 
 gether with  three  other  Hebrew  youths 
 of  rank,  Hananiah,  Mishael  and  Azariah 
 (Dan.  1  :  6).  This  occurred  "  in  the  third 
 year  of  Jehoiakim,"  king  of  Judah,  b.  c. 
 604.  He,  together  with  his  companions, 
 was  selected  for  his  personal  qualities  to 
 reside  at  the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and,  liaving  received  the  Chaldsean  name 
 of  Belteshazzar,  he  was  thoroughly  in- 
 structed in  all  the  learning  of  the  Chal- 
 dseans  (Dan.  1:4).  The  prophet  Ezekiel 
 (14  :  14;  28  :  3)  speaks  of  him  as  distin- 
 guished for  his  piety  and  wisdom.  His 
 conscientiousness  and  firmness  of  charac- 
 ter were  fully  tested  in  his  bold  and  pos- 
 itive refusal  to  receive  his  supplies  from 
 the  royal  table,  which,  according  to  his 
 strict  notions  as  a  Jew,  might  have  been 
 ceremonially  unclean  or  prepared  for  idol- 
 atrous banquets  (Dan.  1  :  8).  This  was  a 
 remarkable  instance  of  the  strength  of  vir- 
 tue in  one  who  had  been  removed  at  so 
 early  an  age  from  the  salutary  influences 
 of   home   and    exposed   to  the   powerful 
 
 temptations  of  a  luxurious  court.  On  an- 
 other occasion  (Dan.  6  :  4-23),  rather  than 
 abandon  or  conceal  his  religious  principles, 
 he  exposed  himself  to  the  horrors  of  a  cruel 
 and  violent  death.  God,  however,  was 
 with  liim,  and  even  ferocious  beasts  of 
 prey  had  no  power  to  injure  him.  Hav- 
 ing the  Spirit  of  God  in  him,  he  was  en- 
 abled to  interpret  several  remarkable 
 dreams  and  visions  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
 and  Belshazzar,  and  thus  to  show  his 
 superiority  to  all  the  learned  magicians 
 and  astrologers  of  Chaldsea.  For  these 
 services  lie  was  rewarded  witli  the  high- 
 est offices  of  state.  The  powerful  combi- 
 nations formed  for  his  destruction  were 
 signally  defeated,  and  a  happy  illustra- 
 tion furnished  of  the  security  of  those 
 who  maintain  unshaken  confidence  in 
 God.  Of  the  time  and  place  of  his  death 
 we  have  no  authentic  account.  He  lived, 
 most  likely,  to  a  good  old  age,  for  he  re- 
 tained his  Iiigli  lionors  after  Babylon  had 
 been  subdued  by  the  Medes  and  Persians 
 under  Cyaxares  and  Cyrus. 
 
 Dan'i-el,  Book  of.  This  book  was 
 undoubtedly  written  by  Daniel.  Besides 
 the  deeply  interesting  historical  narratives 
 which  it  contains,  it  embraces  the  most  re- 
 markable prophecies  on  record,  some  of 
 which  have  been  literally  fulfilled,  while 
 others  refer  to  times  still  future.  These 
 relate  to  the  fate  of  monarchies,  the  ad- 
 vent and  death  of  the  Messiah,  the  resto- 
 ration of  the  Jews  and  the  conversion  of 
 the  Gentiles.  Part  of  this  book  is  written 
 in  the  Chaldee,  and  the  rest  in  the  Hebrew 
 language. 
 
 Da-ri''us,  the  name  of  several  kings 
 of  Media  and  Persia. 
 
 1.  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  11  :  1),  a 
 Median  noble  entrusted  by  Cyrus  with  the 
 government  of  Babylon.  He  succeeded 
 Belshazzar,  king  of  the  Chaldaeans  (Dan. 
 5:  30,  31). 
 
 2.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  the 
 founder  of  the  Perso-Arian  dynasty.   Upon 
 
156 
 
 DARKNESS— DAVID. 
 
 the  usurpation  of  the  Magian  Smerdis  he 
 conspired  with  six  other  Persian  chiefs  to 
 overthrow  the  impostor,  and  on  the  suc- 
 cess of  his  plot  was  placed  upon  the  tlirone, 
 B.  c.  521.  With  regard  to  the  Jews  he 
 pursued  the  same  policy  as  Cyrus,  and  re- 
 stored to  them  the  privileges  they  had  lost 
 (Ezra  6  :  1-12;  Hag.  1:1;  Zech.  7:1). 
 
 3.  Darius  the  Persian  (Neh.  12:  22). 
 He  is  commonly  identified  with  Darius  II., 
 surnamed  NoTiius,  who  died  b.  c.  405. 
 
 Dark'ness,  the  opposite  of  light.  It 
 enshrouded  the  chaotic  mass  on  the  first 
 day  of  creation  (Gen.  1  :  2).  It  also  en- 
 shrouded the  land  of  Egypt  with  a  gloom 
 so  dense  that  it  might  be  felt  (Ex.  10 :  21- 
 23).  It  enshrouded,  moreover,  our  Lord 
 upon  the  cross,  emblem  of  the  blindness 
 and  malice  and  cruelty  which  wrought 
 his  death  (Luke  23  :  44).  It  has  in  Scrip- 
 ture an  extended  figurative  use.  It  denotes 
 adversity  (Ps.  107  :  10),  iniquity  (Eph.  5: 
 11),  the  state  of  the  dead  (Job  10  :  21),  ig- 
 norance, error,  unbelief  (John  3  :  19),  the 
 place  of  future  punishment  (Matt.  8  :  12). 
 
 Dart.    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Da^than,  a  Reubenite  chieftain,  son 
 of  Eliab,  who  joined  the  conspiracy  of 
 Korah  the  Levite  against  Moses  and  Aa- 
 ron, and  who,  with  all  the  conspirators, 
 was  fearfully  punished  (Num.  16  :  1 ;  26  : 
 9;  Deut.  11:6;  Ps.  106  :  17). 
 
 Daugh'ter,  a  word  used  in  Scripture 
 in  a  variety  of  senses. 
 
 1.  It  is  used  not  only  for  a  daughter 
 proper,  but  for  granddaughter  or  other 
 female  descendant,  much  in  the  same 
 way  and  like  extent  with  "son"  (Gen. 
 24  :  48 ;  31  :  43). 
 
 2.  The  female  inhabitants  of  a  city,  of  a 
 country  and  of  a  particular  race  are  called 
 daughters  (Gen.  6:2;  27  :  46  ;  28  :  6 ;  36  : 
 2 ;  Num.  25  :  1 ;  Deut.  23  :  17  ;  Isa.  3:16; 
 Jer.  46 :  11  ;  49  :  2,  3,  4;  Luke  23  :  28). 
 
 3.  The  same  notion  of  descent  explains 
 the  phrase  "  daughters  of  music,"  that  is, 
 singing  birds  (Eccles.  12  :  4) ;  the  use  of 
 
 the  word  for  branches  of  a  tree  (Gen.  49  : 
 22)  and  for  the  pupil  of  the  eye  (Lam. 
 2:18;  Ps.  17:8);  and  the  expression 
 "  daughter  of  ninety  years  "  to  denote  the 
 age  of  Sarah  (Gen.  17  :  17). 
 
 4.  It  is  also  used  of  cities,  either  as  a 
 personification  or  in  the  sense  of  suburbs 
 ( Isa.  10  :  32 ;  23  :  12 ;  Jer.  6  :  2,  26 ;  Zech. 
 9:9). 
 
 5.  More  specifically,  it  is  used  of  de- 
 pendent towns  or  hamlets,  while  to  the 
 principal  city  the  correlative  "mother" 
 is  applied  (Num.  21  :  25  ;  Josh.  17  :  11,  16; 
 Judg.  1  :  27  ;  1  Chron.  7  :  28). 
 
 Da'vid  [the  beloved],  the  youngest  son 
 of  Jesse  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the  second 
 and  most  prominent  of  the  line  of  Jewish 
 kings.  His  life  is  commonly  divided  into 
 three  portions — namely,  his  youth  before 
 his  introduction  to  the  court  of  Saul,  his 
 relations  with  Saul  and  his  reign. 
 
 1.  David's  Youth.  He  was  the  young- 
 est son,  probably  the  youngest  child,  of  a 
 family  of  ten.  His  mother's  name  is  un- 
 known. When  he  was  still  young  his  fa- 
 ther was  of  a  great  age  (1  Sam.  17  :  12). 
 His  parents  both  lived  till  after  his  final 
 rupture  with  Saul  (1  Sam.  22  :  3).  His 
 great-grandmother  was  Ruth  the  Moab- 
 itess,  and  the  connection  with  Moab  which 
 thus  was  formed  he  remembered  and  rec- 
 ognized when,  embarrassed  by  difficulties 
 and  environed  by  foes,  he  escaped  thither 
 and  entrusted  his  aged  parents  to  the  care 
 of  the  king  (1  Sam.  22  :  3).  His  birth- 
 place was  Bethlehem,  and  for  it  he  re- 
 tained through  life  the  strongest  affection  ; 
 his  recollection  of  the  well  at  its  gate  is 
 one  of  the  most  touching  incidents  of  his 
 later  years  (1  Chron.  11  :  17).  The  fact 
 that  he  was  the  youngest  of  his  family 
 may  possibly  have  prompted  his  parents 
 to  give  him  the  name  David,  or  the  he- 
 loved,  and  possibly,  too,  his  youth  and  his 
 name  may  have  reared  those  insurmount- 
 able barriers  against  intimacy  with  his 
 brothers  which   beyond  question  existed. 
 
DAVID. 
 
 157 
 
 He  had  from  his  nephews,  however,  the 
 confidence  and  esteem  which  his  brothers 
 withheld.  The  three  sons  of  his  sister 
 Zeruiah  and  the  one  son  of  his  sister  Abi- 
 gail were  probably  near  his  own  age,  and 
 were  numbered  among  his  best  friends. 
 When  Samuel  appeared  at  Bethlehem  to 
 anoint  that  son  of  Jesse  as  successor  to 
 Saul  whom  the  Lord  should  indicate  (1 
 Sam.  16  :  1),  David  was  a  lad  of  fifteen 
 years,  and,  after  the  rejection  by  the 
 prophet  of  all  his  brothers,  was  summon- 
 ed from  the  sheepfold  to  receive  the  con- 
 secrating oil.  He  was  of  short  stature, 
 with  a  ruddy  countenance,  such  as  is  not 
 unfrequently  seen  in  his  covmtrymen  of  the 
 East  at  the  present  day.  His  bright  eyes 
 are  especially  mentioned  (1  Sam.  16  :  12), 
 and  generally  he  was  remarkable  for  the 
 grace  of  his  figure  and  countenance,  well 
 made  and  of  immense  strength  and  agil- 
 ity. His  swiftness  and  activity  made  him 
 like  a  wild  gazelle,  his  feet  like  harts'  feet 
 and  his  arms  strong  enough  to  break  a  bow 
 of  steel  (Ps.  18  :  .33,  34).  His  consecration 
 brought  no  immediate  change  in  his  em- 
 ployments. He  pursued  the  life  of  a  shep- 
 herd, developing  that  extraordinary  genius 
 for  music  and  poetry  which  was  afterward 
 enshrined  in  the  Psalms,  and  that  daring 
 and  courage  which  frequent  contests  with 
 wild  beasts  demanded,  and  which  subse- 
 quently were  so  conspicuously  shown  in 
 his  contest  with  Goliath.  The  splendid 
 victory  which  crowned  this  contest  was 
 the  turning-point  of  his  career.  At  the 
 age  of  twenty  he  became  a  member  of 
 Saul's  family  and  an  officer  of  Saul's 
 army,  and  his  peculiar  and  painful  rela- 
 tions with  the  king  began. 
 
 2.  David's  Relations  with  Saul. 
 David  had  not  been  long  a  resident  at 
 court  before  his  prowess  and  popularity 
 laid  the  foundation  in  Saul's  heart  of  an 
 unhappy  jealousy.  The  king's  dislike  to 
 him  assumed  on  several  occasions  the  form 
 of  violence.    He  was  no  longer  safe  in  the 
 
 king's  presence,  and  accordingly,  under 
 cover  of  night,  he  fled  from  the  court,  and 
 thenceforward,  until  Saul's  death,  a  period 
 of  about  seven  years,  was  a  fugitive  and  an 
 outlaw.  This  portion  of  his  life  abounded 
 in  hardshii^s  and  hairbreadth  escapes,  and 
 was  an  important  preparation  for  his  after 
 career  as  king.  It  developed  in  him  three 
 admirable  qualities — namely,  prudence,  for- 
 bearance and  a  sense  of  dependence  on  God's 
 help.  It  qualified  him,  as  perhaps  nothing 
 else  could  have  done,  for  the  responsibilities 
 of  the  throne  when  to  it  the  death  of  Saul 
 and  his  three  sons  in  the  disastrous  battle 
 of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  31  :  6)  opened  the  way. 
 3.  David's  Reign.  David  was  thirty 
 years  old  wlien  the  single  tribe  of  Judah 
 proclaimed  him  king.  Over  this  tribe  he 
 reigned  at  Hebron  seven  and  a  half  years, 
 and  over  all  Israel  he  reigned  at  Jerusa- 
 lem thirty-three  years ;  the  whole  length 
 of  his  reign  was  therefore  something  more 
 than  forty  years  (2  Sam.  .5  :  4,  5).  The 
 prominent  events  of  his  reign  were  these : 
 the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  mak- 
 ing it  the  capital  of  the  whole  land  (2 
 Sam.  5:9);  the  founding  of  an  imperial 
 dominion,  which  for  the  first  time  realized 
 the  prophetic  description  of  the  bounds  of 
 the  chosen  people  (Gen.  15  :  18-21 ) ;  the 
 organization  of  the  army  and  the  estab- 
 lishment of  social  and  religious  institu- 
 tions (2  Sam.  23  :  8-39;  1  Chron.  24  :  3; 
 25  :  1-31  ;  26  :  1-28) ;  the  subjection  of 
 numerous  hostile  peoples,  the  Philistines 
 on  the  west  (2  Sam.  8  :  1),  the  Moabites 
 on  the  east  (2  Sam.  8  :  2),  the  Syrians  on 
 the  north-east  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  (2 
 Sam.  8 :  3),  the  Edomites  on  the  south  (2 
 Sam.  8 :  14),  and  the  Ammonites,  who  had 
 broken  their  ancient  alliance  and  had  made 
 one  grand  resistance  to  the  advance  of  his 
 empire  (2  Sam.  10:1-19;  12:26-31);  the 
 crimes  of  adultery  and  murder  wJiich  black- 
 ened his  character  and  plagued  his  family 
 (2  Sam.  12  :  10) ;  the  rebellion  and  death 
 of  his  son  Absalom  (2  Sam.  18 : 9-17) ;  the 
 
158 
 
 DAY— DEACON. 
 
 preparation  for  building  the  temple  in  Je- 
 rusalem (1  Chron.  29  :  2) ;  the  nomination 
 of  his  son  Solomon  to  be  his  successor  and 
 the  proclamation  of  Solomon  as  king  (1 
 Chron.  29  :  22-24). 
 
 The  character  of  David  presents  many 
 diverse  features,  yet,  on  the  whole,  is  noble 
 and  true.  In  the  complexity  of  its  ele- 
 ments, passion,  tenderness,  generosity, 
 fierceness ;  the  soldier,  the  shepherd,  the 
 poet,  the  statesman,  the  priest,  the  proph- 
 et, the  king ;  the  romantic  friend,  the  chiv- 
 alrous leader,  the  devoted  father, — no  cha- 
 racter in  the  Old  Testament  can  be  at  all 
 compared  to  it.  To  his  own  people  his 
 was  the  name  most  dearly  cherished  after 
 their  first  ancestor  Abraham.  "  The  city 
 of  David,"  "the  house  of  David,"  "the 
 throne  of  David,"  "the  seed  of  David," 
 "the  oath  sworn  unto  David,"  are  ex- 
 pressions whicli  pervade  the  whole  of  the 
 ( Hd  Testament  and  all  the  figurative  lan- 
 guage of  the  New.  In  a  very  peculiar 
 sense  David  is  tlie  type  and  the  prophecy 
 of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Our  Lord  is 
 not  called  the  son  of  Abraham  or  the  son 
 of  Jacob,  but  he  is  called  "the  Son  of 
 David  "  (Matt.  9  :  27  ;  15  :  22 ;  22  :  42 ; 
 Mark  10  :  47,  48 ;  Rom.  1  :  3 ;  2  Tim. 
 2  :  8). 
 
 Day,  a  measure  of  time,  and  the  earli- 
 est of  which  we  have  any  account  (Gen. 
 1  :  5).  The  day  is  distinguished  into  nat- 
 ural and  civil.  The  variable  length  of  the 
 natural  day  at  different  seasons  led  in  the 
 very  earliest  times  to  the  adoption  of  the 
 civil  day,  or  one  revolution  of  the  sun,  as 
 the  standard  of  time.  The  beginning  of 
 the  civil  day  varies  in  different  nations. 
 The  Babylonians  reckoned  it  from  sunrise 
 to  sunrise;  the  Umbrians,  from  noon  to 
 noon  ;  the  Athenians,  from  sunset  to  sun- 
 set ;  the  Romans,  from  midnight  to  mid- 
 night. The  Hebrews  naturally  adopted 
 the  reckoning  from  sunset  to  sunset  (Lev. 
 23  :  32).  After  the  ca;  tivity  in  Babylon 
 the  Jews    divided    the  day  into  twelve 
 
 hours.  To  this  (John  11:9)  our  Lord 
 refers:  "Are  there  not  twelve  hours  in 
 the  day?"  According  to  this  computa- 
 tion, the  first  hour  of  the  day  began  at 
 sunrise ;  hence  the  sixth  hour  was  at  noon 
 and  the  twelfth  hour  at  sunset.  These 
 hours  were  of  course  variable  in  length 
 according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  being 
 longer  in  summer  than  in  winter.  The 
 days  of  the  week  had  no  proper  names 
 among  the  Hebrews,  but  were  distin- 
 guished in  their  numerical  order,  as 
 the  first  day  of  the  week,  the  second 
 day,  etc. 
 
 In  prophetic  language  a  day  is  put  for  a 
 year,  and  so  a  week  is  put  for  seven  years 
 (Ezek.  4:  5). 
 
 A  day  sometimes  indicates  an  indeter- 
 minate period  of  time.  Thus  "  the  day  of 
 temptation  in  the  wilderness"  was  forty 
 years.  As  God's  existence  is  not  marked 
 by  a  succession  of  years,  it  is  said,  "  One 
 day  is  with  the  Lord  as  a  thousand  years, 
 and  a  thousand  years  as  one  day"  (2  Pet. 
 3:8). 
 
 "The  day  of  the  Lord"  (Isa.  2  :  12)  de- 
 notes the  time  when  he  afflicts  by  his  judg- 
 ments. Signal  judgments  against  the  wick- 
 ed are  spoken  of  as  the  great  day  of  God's 
 wrath  (Rev.  6  :  17). 
 
 "  The  Lord's  day  "  is  the  Christian  Sab- 
 bath (Rev.  1  :  10). 
 
 Days^man,  an  old  English  term  mean- 
 ing umpire  or  arbitrator  (Job  9  :  33),  but  the 
 Hebrew  word  which  it  represents  means  or- 
 (juer  or  reprover. 
 
 Day-spring  signifies  the  first  streaks 
 of  daylight,  the  daybreak,  the  dawn  (Job 
 38  :  12).  In  Luke  1  :  78  the  word  is,  in 
 beautiful  figure,  applied  to  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 Dea'con  [a  servantl,  the  term  applied 
 to  those  office-bearers  in  the  Christian 
 Church  (Acts  6  :  1-4)  who  were  appoint- 
 ed over  the  business  of  serving  tables,  in 
 order  that  the  apostles  might  be  at  lib- 
 erty  to    give   themselves    continually   to 
 
DEAD  SEA— DEBIR. 
 
 159 
 
 prayer  and  the  ministry  of  the  word. 
 Although  two  of  the  seven  in  the  first 
 appointment,  Stephen  and  Philip,  are 
 afterward  mentioned  as  evangelists,  or  as 
 doing  the  work  of  evangelists,  the  deacon, 
 as  such,  was  not  a  preacher,  but  simply 
 an  alms-distributer.  Deaconesses  were  also 
 employed  in  attending  upon  those  of  their 
 own  sex  (Rom.  16  :  6,  12 ;  Phil.  4  :  2,  3 ;  1 
 Tim.  3:11;  Tit.  2  :  3),  the  seclusion  of  fe- 
 males in  the  East  making  such  an  arrange- 
 ment especially  necessary. 
 
 Dead  Sea.  This  name  nowhere  oc- 
 curs in  the  Scriptures,  and  was  not  in  use 
 until  the  second  century  after  Christ.  In 
 the  Old  Testament  the  lake  is  called  "  the 
 Salt  Sea  "  and  "  the  Sea  of  the  Plain."  See 
 Sea,  the  Salt. 
 
 Death,  the  termination  of  life.  It  is 
 affirmed  of  the  body  and  of  the  soul. 
 
 1.  As  respects  the  body,  death  is  a  ces- 
 sation of  its  appropriate  functions  and  a 
 dissolution  of  its  structure.  When  it  oc- 
 curs, the  immaterial,  immortal  part  is  sep- 
 arated from  the  material  and  mortal ;  "  the 
 dust  returns  to  the  earth  as  it  was,  and  the 
 spirit  returns  unto  God  who  gave  it" 
 (Eccles.  12  :  7).  It  is  described  as  a  dis- 
 solving of  the  earthly  house  of  this  tab- 
 ernacle (2  Cor.  5:1);  as  a  departure  from 
 the  world  (Job  10  :  21) ;  as  a  sleep  (John 
 11  :  11).  It  is  an  inevitable  and  universal 
 doom ;  out  of  the  millions  of  men  that 
 have  lived  on  the  earth,  two  only,  Enoch 
 and  Elijah,  have  escaped  it.  Its  cause  is 
 sin  (Kom.  5  :  12),  and  its  dread  power  is 
 wielded  by  the  devil  (Heb.  2  :  14),  who 
 was  the  instigator  of  the  sin  which  intro- 
 duced it,  and  who  is  the  constant  tempter 
 to  that  which  perpetuates  it. 
 
 2.  As  respects  the  soul,  death  is  the  loss 
 of  holiness,  and  so  the  loss  of  happiness. 
 It  is  described  as  carnal-mindedness  (Rom. 
 8:6);  as  alienation  from  the  life  of  God 
 (Eph.  4  :  18) ;  as  a  subjection  to  the  power 
 of  darkness  (Col.  1  :  13) ;  as  an  ignorance 
 of  God  and  a  disobedience  to  the  gospel  of 
 
 our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (2  Thess.  1:8).  It 
 also  is  universal ;  "  there  is  none  righteous, 
 no,  not  one ;  there  is  none  that  understand- 
 eth,  there  is  none  that  seeketh  after  God  ; 
 they  are  all  gone  out  of  the  way,  they  are 
 together  become  unprofitable ;  there  is  none 
 that  doeth  good,  no,  not  one  "  (Rom.  3:10- 
 12).  This  spiritual  death,  unless  remedied 
 before  the  death  of  the  body  occurs,  results 
 in  eternal  death,  or  the  soul's  eternal  un- 
 holiness  and  unhappiness.  This  is  em- 
 phatically the  second  death  (Rev.  21  :  8). 
 Now,  the  work  of  our  Lord  in  the  gospel 
 is  to  abolish  death  (2  Tim.  1  :  10).  To 
 them  who  trust,  love  and  obey  him  he 
 makes  the  death  of  the  body  the  gate  of 
 heaven ;  substitutes  for  the  death  of  the 
 soul,  or  spiritual  death,  the  grandest  spir- 
 itual life ;  and,  raising  the  dead  body  and 
 uniting  with  it  the  glorified  soul,  intro- 
 duces body  and  soul  into  an  unending 
 blessedness  (Rom.  8  :  10-23). 
 
 De'bir  [oracfe],  the  name  of  three 
 places. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah. 
 Its  earlier  name  was  Kirjath-sepher,  "city 
 of  the  book"  (Josh.  15  :  15;  Judg.  1  :  11). 
 It  was  also  called  Kirjath-sannah,  "  city  of 
 the  palm  "  (Josh.  15  :  49).  It  was  taken 
 by  Joshua  (Josh.  10  :  38,  39),  and  after- 
 ward retaken  by  the  Canaanites.  Caleb, 
 to  whom  it  was  assigned,  gave  his  daugh- 
 ter Achsah  in  marriage  to  Othniel  for  his 
 bravery  in  subduing  it  (Josh.  15  :  16,  17). 
 It  was  one  of  the  cities  given  with  their 
 "suburbs"  to  the  priests  (Josh.  21  :  15). 
 Its  ancient  site  is  supposed  to  be  on  a 
 spur  running  from  a  long  ridge  about 
 three  miles  west  from  Hebron.  It  was 
 one  of  the  towns  of  the  Anakim. 
 
 2.  A  place  on  the  north  boundary  el 
 Judah,  near  the  "  valley  of  Achor "  (Josh. 
 15  :  7),  and  therefore  somewhere  in  the 
 complications  of  hills  and  ravines  behind 
 Jericho. 
 
 3.  The  "  border  of  Debir  "  is  named  as 
 forming    part   of   the   boundary   of   Gad 
 
160 
 
 DP:B0RAH— DEDICATION. 
 
 (Josh.  13  :  26),  and  as  apparently  not  far 
 from  Malianaim. 
 
 Deb'o-rah  [a  bee],  the  name  of  two 
 women. 
 
 1.  The  nurse  of  Rebekah,  whom  she 
 accompanied  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  She 
 died  at  an  advanced  age  near  Bethel,  and 
 with  great  lamentation  was  buried  under 
 an  oak  which  was  called  Allon-bachuth, 
 the  oak  of  weeping  (Gen.  35  :  8). 
 
 2.  A  prophetess  who  judged  Israel,  and 
 dwelt  under  a  palm  tree  between  Ramah 
 and  Bethel  (Judg.  4  :  4,  5).  Her  hus- 
 band's name  was  Lapidoth.  She  pos- 
 sessed great  authority  and  influence  with 
 the  people,  and  was  the  honored  instru- 
 ment of  delivering  them  from  grievous 
 oppression.  She  summoned  Barak  to  lead 
 the  forces  against  Jabin,  the  head  of  the 
 Canaanitish  confederacy,  but  he,  discour- 
 aged by  the  prospect,  refused  to  go  unless 
 she  accompanied  him.  To  this  she  con- 
 sented, apprising  him  at  the  same  time 
 that  he  would  thus  lose  the  credit  of  the 
 victory.  Under  her  direction  Barak  en- 
 camped on  the  broad  summit  of  Tabor, 
 and  gained  over  Sisera.  Jabin's  general, 
 and  the  immense  army  which  S'sera  led, 
 a  victory  which  secured  to  Israel  a  rest 
 of  forty  years.  Deborah's  title  of  proph- 
 etess includes  the  notion  of  inspired  poetry, 
 and  in  this  sense  the  glorious  triumphal 
 ode  (Judg.  5)  well  vindicates  her  claim  to 
 the  ofRce. 
 
 Debt,  Debtor.     See  Loan. 
 
 De-cap'o-lis  [ten  cities],  a  region  con- 
 taining ten  cities,  from  which  great  num- 
 bers of  the  inhabitants  came  to  hear  our 
 Lord's  words  and  to  see  our  Lord's  works 
 (Matt.  4  :  25  ;-  Mark  5  :  20 ).  These  cities 
 were  situated  in  the  north-eastern  part  of 
 Palestine,  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  on 
 both  sides  of  the  Jordan.  Their  inhabit- 
 ants are  supposed  to  have  been  Gentiles 
 chiefly.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
 as  to  their  enumeration ;  the  following, 
 however,   is   most  generally  agreed    on : 
 
 viz.  1.  Scytliopolis  or  Bethshan ;  2.  Ga- 
 dara;  3.  Gerasa;  4.  Pella;  5.  Hippos;  6. 
 Kanatha ;  7.  Dion  or  Dios ;  8.  Pliiladel- 
 phia;  9.  Raphana;  10.  Capitolias.  It  is 
 possible  that  Decapolis,  as  the  name  of  a 
 region,  may  have  been  retained  after  the 
 actual  number  of  cities  in  it  had  been  in- 
 creased ;  and  this  may  account  for  discrep- 
 ancies in  the  list,  one  ancient  writer  enu- 
 merating not  less  than  fourteen  Decapoli- 
 tan  cities.  The  whole  region  in  the  times 
 of  our  Lord  was  exceedingly  populous  and 
 prosperous.  It  is  now  an  uninhabited  wil- 
 derness. 
 
 Decrees  of  God.  See  Elect,  Elec- 
 tion, Predestination. 
 
 De'dan,  the  name  of  two  tribal  pro- 
 genitors. 
 
 1.  A  son  of  Raamah,  son  of  Cush  (Gen. 
 10:7;  1  Chron.  1  :  9).  His  descendants 
 are  supposed  to  have  settled  on  the  shores 
 of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  to  have  been  car- 
 avan-merchants between  that  coast  and  Pal- 
 estine. 
 
 2.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Abraham 
 by  Keturah  (Gen.  25  :  3;  1  Chron.  1  :  32). 
 His  descendants  are  supposed  to  have  in- 
 termarried with  the  descendants  of  the 
 Cushite  Dedan,  to  have  formed  a  tribe 
 of  the  same  name,  to  have  had  their  ciiief 
 settlement  in  the  borders  of  Idimisea  and 
 to  have  led  a  pastoral  life. 
 
 The  passages  in  the  Scriptures  in  which 
 Dedan  is  mentioned  (besides  the  genealo- 
 gies cited  above)  are  Isa.  21  :  13 ;  Jer.  25  : 
 23  ;  49  :  8;  Ezek.  25  :  13;  27  :  15,  20;  38  : 
 13,  and  are  in  every  case  obscure. 
 
 Ded-i-ca'tion,  a  religious  ceremony 
 whereby  anything  is  dedicated  or  conse- 
 crated to  tiie  service  of  God.  It  orig- 
 inated, most  likely,  in  the  desire  to  com- 
 mence witli  peculiar  solemnity  the  prac- 
 tical use  and  application  of  whatever  had 
 been  set  apart  to  the  divine  service.  Thus 
 Moses  dedicated  tlie  tabernacle  in  the  wil- 
 derness (Ex.  40;  Num.  7),  Solomon  his 
 temple  (1  Kings  8),  the  returned  exiles 
 
DEDICATION,   FEAST  OF  THE— DEKBE. 
 
 161 
 
 their  rebuilt  house  of  God  (Ezra  6  :  16, 
 17). 
 
 Ded-i-ca^tion,  Feast  of  the,  the 
 festival  instituted  to  commemorate  the 
 purging  of  the  temple  and  the  rebuilding 
 of  the  altar  after  Judas  Maccabseus  had 
 driven  out  the  Syrians,  B.  c.  164.  It  is 
 named  only  once  in  the  Scriptures  (John 
 10  :  22).  It  began  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
 Chisleu,  the  anniversary  of  tlie  pollution 
 of  the  temple  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
 B.  c.  167.  Like  the  great  Mosaic  feasts, 
 it  lasted  eight  days,  but  did  not  require 
 attendance  at  Jerusalem. 
 
 Deep,  tlie  renderingsometimes  of  words 
 in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  which  des- 
 ignate a  mea.surable  depth  ( Gen.  7:11; 
 Job  41  :  31  ;  Luke  5  :  4;  2  Cor.  11  :  25), 
 but  sometimes  of  a  Hebrew  word  and  of 
 its  Greek  equivalent  which  literally  mean 
 without  bottom.  In  the  latter  sense  it  is  used 
 to  designate — 1.  Hell,  the  place  of  punish- 
 ment, the  bottomless  pit  (Luke  8  :  31 ;  Rev. 
 9 : 1 ;  11  :  7) ;  2.  Tlie  common  receptacle  of 
 the  dead,  the  grave,  the  deep  or  depths 
 of  the  earth  under  which  the  body  is  de- 
 posited (Rom.  10  :  7) ;  3.  The  deepest  parts 
 of  the  sea  (Ps.  69  :  15 ;  107  :  26 ;  Jon.  2  : 
 3) ;  4.  The  chaos  which  in  the  beginning 
 of  the  world  was  unformed  and  vacant 
 (Gen.  1:2).    See  Pit. 
 
 De-file'.  Under  the  Mosaic  law  many 
 blemishes  of  person  and  conduct  were  es- 
 teemed defilements,  which  rendered  those 
 upon  whom  they  were  found  unclean,  and 
 which  subjected  them  to  many  civil  and 
 religious  disabilities  (Mark  7  :  2).  Some 
 of  these  defilements  were  voluntary,  others 
 involuntary ;  some  originated  with  the  in- 
 dividual, othei-s  were  received  by  him ; 
 some  were  inevitable  because  the  effect 
 of  nature,  others  were  the  consequences  ' 
 of  personal  transgression.  Under  the  gos- 
 pel, defilements  are  those  of  the  heart,  of 
 the  mind,  the  temper  and  the  conduct. 
 Moral  defilements  are  as  numerous  and  i 
 as  thoroughly  prohibited  under  the  gos- 
 11 
 
 pel  as  ever,  but  ceremonial  defilements 
 no  longer  require  any  religious  rites  to 
 remove  them  (Matt.  15  :  18;  James  3  :  6). 
 
 De-grees^,  Songs  of,  a  title  given 
 to  fifteen  psalms,  120  to  134  inclusive. 
 Four  of  them  are  attributed  to  David,  one 
 to  Solomon,  and  the  other  ten  give  no  in- 
 dication of  their  author.  With  respect  to 
 the  term  "  degrees "  a  great  diversity  of 
 opinion  prevails,  but  the  most  probable 
 opinion  is  that  they  were  pilgrim-songs, 
 sung  by  the  people  as  they  went  up  to  Je- 
 rusalem. 
 
 De-li'lah  l^lavr/uishing  with  desirel,  a 
 Philistine  courtesan  who  dwelt  in  the 
 valley  of  Sorek,  and  who,  ensnaring 
 Samson,  betrayed  him  to  his  enemies 
 (Judg.  16  :  4-18). 
 
 De'mas,  a  companion  of  tl.e  apostle 
 Paul  during  his  first  imprisonment  at 
 Rome  (Col.  4  :  14).  At  a  later  period  he 
 is  mentioned  as  having  deserted  the  apos- 
 tle through  love  of  this  {^resent  world  (2 
 Tim.  4  :  10). 
 
 De-me'tri-us,  the  name  of  two  per- 
 sons mentioned  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  A  maker  of  silver  shrines  at  Ephesus 
 (Acts  19  :  24).  The  shrines  were  usually 
 .small  models  of  the  great  temple  of  the 
 Ejihesian  Diana,  with  the  statue  of  the 
 goddess,  which  the  purchasers  carried  on 
 journeys  and  affixed  to  houses  as  charms. 
 Demetrius,  becoming  alarmed  at  the  prog- 
 ress of  the  gospel  under  the  preaching  of 
 Paul,  assembled  his  fellow-craftsmen  and 
 excited  a  tumult  by  haranguing  them  on 
 the  danger  that  threatened  the  worship  of 
 the  great  goddess  Diana,  and  consequently 
 their  own  craft  as  silversmiths,  A.  D.  52. 
 
 2.  A  Christian  mentioned  with  com- 
 mendation in  3  .John  12,  about  A.  D.  90. 
 
 Dep'u-ty,  the  uniform  rendering  in 
 our  English  Version  of  the  Greek  word 
 which  signifies  "proconsul"  (Acts  13  :  7, 
 8,  12;  19:  38).     See  Province. 
 
 Der'be,  a  town  of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia 
 Minor.     Its  exact  position  has  not  yet  been 
 
162 
 
 DESERT— DEVIL. 
 
 ascertained,  but  its  general  situation  is  un- 
 doubted. It  was  in  the  eastern  part  of 
 the  great  upland  plain  of  Lycaonia,  which 
 stretches  from  Iconiuni  eastward  along  the 
 north  side  of  the  chain  of  Taurus.  It  must 
 have  been  somewhere  near  the  place  where 
 the  pass  called  the  Cilician  Gates  opened 
 a  way  from  the  low  plain  of  Cilicia  to  the 
 table-land  of  the  interior ;  probably  it  was 
 a  stage  upon  the  great  road  which  passed 
 this  way.  Here  Gains,  Paul's  fellow-trav- 
 eler (Acts  20  :  4),  wa.s  born,  and  hither 
 Paul  and  Barnabas  fled  (Acts  14  :  6)  when 
 driven  from  Iconium. 
 
 Des'ert,  a  word  in  Scripture  nearly 
 synonymous  with  Wilderness,  but  dif- 
 ferent from  tlie  modern  acceptation  of  both. 
 With  us,  a  desert  always  implies  barren- 
 ness ;  with  the  Hebrews,  it  sometimes  in- 
 dicated a  barren,  but  most  generally  an  un- 
 cultivated, waste.  Pasture-lands  and  for- 
 ests were  denominated  deserts  (Ps.  65: 12; 
 Ezek  13  :  4;  Acts  8  :  26;  Heb.  11  :  38). 
 The  various  deserts  or  wildernesses  men- 
 tioned are  these:  the  Arabian  or  great 
 desert ;  the  deserts  of  Beth-Aven,  Beer- 
 sheba,  Carmel,  Damascus,  Edom,  En-Gedi, 
 Gibeon,  Judasa,  Jeruel,  Kedemoth,  Ka- 
 desh,  Maon,  Paran,  Shur,  Sin,  Sinai, 
 Ziph,  Zin ;  the  desert  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
 the  desert  near  Gaza. 
 
 Deu-ter-on'o-ray  [second  Jmw'],  the 
 Greek  name  given  to  the  fifth  book  of 
 Moses,  and  meaning  tlie  repetition  of  the 
 Law,  because  it  contains  a  recapitulation 
 of  the  ordinances  or  laws  found  in  the 
 preceding  books.  As  the  greater  part  of 
 tlie  Israelites  who  had  come  out  of  Egypt 
 had  died  in  the  wilderness,  Moses,  in  the 
 fortieth  year  of  their  journeyings  (Deut. 
 1  :  3)  made  this  restatement  of  God's  ordi- 
 nances, previously  recorded,  with  some  ad- 
 ditional ones,  accompanying  tliem  with  ex- 
 planations and  exhortations  well  calculated 
 to  impress  them  on  the  minds  of  the  new 
 generation  that  had  risen  up.  Few  books 
 in  the  Old  Testament  can  be  read  with 
 
 more  spiritual  profit  than  this,  as  it  un- 
 folds the  spiritual  import  of  the  diflerent 
 parts  of  the  Law.  The  last  chapter  of 
 the  book  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  supple- 
 ment, which  wa.s  probably  added  by 
 Josluia. 
 
 Dev'il,  the  English  form  of  the  Greek 
 word  (hafioAo;-  {diabolos).  It  means  s/a(t- 
 derer,  calumniator,  false-accuser,  and  in  tlie 
 New  Testament  is  employed  to  designate 
 the  chief  of  the  fallen  angels.  The  same 
 evil  spirit  is  referred  to  under  the  names 
 of  Satan,  Beelzebub,  Adversary,  Prince  of 
 Darkness,  etc.  It  is  manifest,  from  the 
 whole  tenor  of  Scripture,  that  the  Devil 
 is  a  real  being,  and  not  a  mere  personifi- 
 cation of  an  evil  principle ;  that  since  his 
 apostasy  from  God  he  is  malignant  in  his 
 hatred  to  God  and  man ;  that  his  ceaseless 
 object  is  to  frustrate  the  designs  of  God 
 and  to  seduce  mankind  into  sin  and  ruin  ; 
 that  he  has  many  otlier  wicked  spirits  un- 
 der his  direction  and  control,  which  are  al- 
 ways engaged  in  prompting  men  to  evil ; 
 that  he  possesses  great  power  and  subtlety, 
 but  yet  cannot  force  men  to  sin  against 
 their  will ;  that  his  power  is  restrained  by 
 Christ,  who  hath  conquered  him ;  and, 
 finally,  that  he  is  destined  to  be  confined  in 
 hell,  wliere  he  is  to  be  tormented  day  and 
 niglit  for  ever  and  for  ever  (Rev.  20  :  10). 
 Those  who  by  their  wicked  works  oppose 
 God  are  stigmatized  as  the  children  of  tlie 
 Devil  (John  8  :  44;  Acts  13  :  10). 
 
 The  word  "devil"  is  also  employed  in 
 the  New  Testament,  generally  in  the  plural, 
 to  translate  the  Greek  word  M/kov  (do'mon), 
 an  impure  spirit  from  the  other  world  act- 
 ing upon  a  human  being.  In  the  Gospels 
 generally,  in  James  2:19  and  in  Rev.  16  : 
 14,tliedemons  are  spoken  of  as  spiritual  be- 
 ings at  enmity  with  God,  and  liaving  power 
 to  afflict  men,  not  only  with  disease,  but,  as  is 
 marked  by  tlie  frequent  epithet  "  unclean," 
 with  spiritual  pollution  also.  In  the  times 
 of  our  Lord  many  persons  were  sufl'erers 
 from  possession  by  demons  or  devils,  tlie 
 
DEW— DIBON. 
 
 163 
 
 possession  generally  showing  itself  visibly 
 in  bodily  disease  or  mental  derangement. 
 The  evil  influence  exercised  by  demons 
 is  distinguislied  from  the  ordinary  power 
 of  corruption  and  temptation  wielded  by 
 Satan  througli  the  permission  of  God. 
 The  distinguishing  feature  of  possession 
 is  the  complete  or  incomplete  loss  of  the 
 sufierer's  reason  or  power  of  will ;  his  ac- 
 tions, his  words,  and  almost  his  thoughts, 
 are  mastered  or  supplanted  by  those  of 
 the  evil  spirit  (Mark  1  :  24;  5:7;  Acts 
 19:  15). 
 
 De'W,  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  con- 
 densed by  coming  in  contact  with  the  sur- 
 face of  the  earth,  which  has  been  cooled 
 by  the  radiation  of  its  heat.  In  Palestine, 
 where  rains  at  certain  seasons  are  unusual, 
 this  precipitation  of  vapor  during  the  night 
 is  very  great,  and  proves  highly  refresliing 
 to  the  parched  earth.  It  is  said,  however, 
 that  the  dew  is  deposited  chiefly  late  in  the 
 spring  and  early  in  the  autumn.  In  Arabia 
 Petrsea  the  dews  are  so  abundant  as  to  wet 
 to  the  skin  those  exposed  to  them,  although 
 soon  after  sunrising  they  are  entirely  evap- 
 orated. Many  beautiful  allusions  are  made 
 to  the  dew  by  the  sacred  writers.  Its  co- 
 pious deposition  images  God's  blessing 
 (Ps.  133  :  3 ;  Hos.  14  :  5) ;  its  entire  with- 
 drawal, God's  curse  (2  Sam.  1  :  21  ;  Hag. 
 1  :  10) ;  its  speedy  evanescence,  the  false 
 and  fleeting  goodness  of  the  hypocrite 
 (Hos.  6:4;  13:  3). 
 
 Di^a-dem  [something  surrounding 
 the  head],  spoken  of  a  royal  tiara  (Isa. 
 28  :  5).  In  the  Old  Testament  the  dis- 
 tinction between  diadem  as  the  badge  of 
 royalty,  and  crown  as  the  symbol  of  dis- 
 tinction in  private  life,  is  neglected,  but 
 in  the  New  Testament  it  is  careftilly  ob- 
 served. 
 
 Di'al,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
 time  by  the  sun.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  an  invention  of  the  Babylonians,  and 
 was  very  serviceable  to  the  ancients.  It  is 
 now  superseded  by  the  more  perfect  inven- 
 
 tion of  modern  chronometers.  The  reces- 
 sion of  the  shadow  on  the  dial  of  Ahaz 
 (2  Kings  20  :  11)  is  miraculous,  and  can- 
 not be  otherwise  explained. 
 
 Di'a-mond.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  probably  is  not  the  modern  "dia- 
 mond," with  which  the  Hebrews  seem  to 
 have  been  unacquainted,  but  a  precious 
 stone,  either  the  emerald  or  emery.  On 
 the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest  the 
 place  of  the  stone  rendered  "diamond" 
 was  the  third  in  the  second  row  (Ex.  28  : 
 18  ;  39  :  11).  The  same  stone  is  mention- 
 ed by  Ezekiel  (28  :  13)  among  the  pre- 
 cious stones  of  the  king  of  Tyre. 
 
 Di-a'na.  In  our  English  Version  this 
 Latin  word,  properly  denoting  a  Roman 
 divinity,  is  the 
 representative 
 of  the  Greek 
 Artemis,  the  tu- 
 telary goddess 
 of  the  Ephe- 
 sians,  who  plays 
 so  important  a 
 part  in  the  nar- 
 rative of  Acts  19. 
 The  Ephesian 
 Diana,  however, 
 differs  widely  in 
 attributes  from 
 the  Roman  Di- 
 ana, and  is  to  be 
 regarded  as  identical  with  Astarte  and  other 
 female  divinities  of  the  East.  Her  wor- 
 ship in  Ephesus  was  exceedingly  splendid 
 and  the  source  of  vast  wealth. 
 
 Dib'lath,  properly  Dib^lah,  a  place 
 mentioned  only  in  Ezek.  6  :  14,  as  if  sit- 
 uated at  one  of  the  extremities  of  the  land 
 of  Israel.  It  is  perhaps  only  another  form 
 of  RiBLAH  (which  see). 
 
 Di'bon  [pining'],  the  name  of  two 
 towns. 
 
 1.  A  town  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan,  in 
 the  rich  pastoral  country,  which  was  taken 
 possession  of  and  rebuilt  by  the  children 
 
 The  Ei^hesian  Diana. 
 
164 
 
 DIDYMUS— DISPERSED,  THE. 
 
 of  Gad  (Num.  32  :  3,  34).  From  this  cir- 
 cumstance, possibly,  ii  received  tlie  name 
 of  Dibon-Gad  (Num.  33:  43,  40).  In  Isa. 
 lo :  9  it  is  called  Dimon.  Its  site  has  been 
 identified  at  a  place  named  Bliibdn,  three 
 miles  north  of  the  ancient  Arnon.  In  1868 
 a  black  ba-salt  stone  block  was  discovered 
 among  the  ruins,  with  a  curious  inscription 
 reciting  the  deeds  of  Mesha,  a  Moabite 
 king,  and  giving  the  history  of  his  warfare 
 with  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  and  .Jehosha- 
 phat,  king  of  Judah.     See  Mesha. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  towns  which  were  re-in- 
 habited by  the  men  of  Judah  after  the  re- 
 turn from  the  Captivity  (Neh.  11  :  25), 
 identical  with  Dimonah  (Josh.  15  :  22). 
 
 Did'y-mus  [a  twiii'\,  the  surname  of 
 the  apostle  Thomas  (John  11  :  IG). 
 
 Di'nah  [jndging'],  the  daugliter  of  Ja- 
 cob and  Leah  (Gen.  30  :  21),  who,  while 
 her  father's  camp  was  tarrying  in  the 
 neighborhood  of  Shecheni,  thi-ough  cu- 
 riosity and  love  of  pleasure  mingled  with 
 the  young  women  of  the  place,  and  was 
 violated  by  the  son  of  Hamor,  the  chief- 
 tain of  Shechem.  The  son  of  Hamor 
 offered  the  reparation  of  marriage,  which 
 the  sons  of  Jacob  conditionally  accepted, 
 but  only  to  make  more  sure  an  utter 
 slaughter  of  the  Shechemites.  The  con- 
 duct of  Simeon  and  Levi  on  this  occa- 
 sion wa-s  strongly  reprobated  by  their  fa- 
 ther (Gen.  34:  30;  49:5-7). 
 
 Din^ner.  In  our  English  Scriptures 
 this  word  is  used  for  both  the  early  and 
 later  meal  of  the  .Jews.  The  principal 
 meal  was  the  supper,  in  the  early  part 
 of  the  evening,  when  the  heat  of  the 
 day  wa-s  gone.  The  word  rendered  "  din- 
 ner," however,  is  sometimes  associated 
 Avith  a  large  and  formal  entertainment,  as 
 in  Matt.  22  :  4,  where  our  Lord  likens  the 
 kingdom  of  heaven  to  the  marriage  dinner 
 of  a  king's  son,  and  as  in  Luke  14  :  12, 
 where  a  feast  is  indicated  by  the  alterna- 
 tive phr.ase,  "a  dinner  or  a  supper."  See 
 Meal-time. 
 
 Di-o-nys'i-us    the     Ar-e-op'a- 
 
 gite,  an  eminent  Athenian  converted  to 
 Christianity  by  the  preaching  of  Paul 
 (Acts  17:34).  He  is  called  "  Areopa- 
 gite,"  as  a  member  of  the  high  court  of 
 the  Areopagus  at  Athens.  See  Areop- 
 agus. 
 
 Di-ot're-phes  (3  John  9),  a  member, 
 and  perhaps  an  officer,  of  the  church  of 
 Corinth.  John's  third  Epistle  is  address- 
 ed to  Gains  of  this  church  (Rom.  IG  :  23; 
 1  Cor.  1  :  14),  and  in  the  course  of  it  a  se- 
 vere rebuke  is  given  to  Diotrephes,  who 
 seems  to  have  cjuestioned  the  apostle's  au- 
 thority, and  to  have  claimed  for  himself 
 a  most  officious  and  unwarrantable  pre- 
 eminence. 
 
 Dis-ci'ple  [a  scholarl.  The  term  is 
 applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  fol- 
 lowers of  Jolin  the  Baptist  (Matt.  9  :  14), 
 and  particularly  to  our  Lord's  followers 
 (Matt.  26  :  17;  Luke  9:1).  It  is  still 
 used  to  designate  a  professed  believer  in 
 Christ.  Our  Lord,  to  guard  against  ftilse 
 expectations,  explicitly  stated  that  no  man 
 could  be  his  disciple  who  was  not  willing 
 to  renounce  the  world  and  to  encounter 
 hardship  and  self-denial  (Luke  14  :  26. 
 27). 
 
 Dis-pen-sa'tion,  a  method  or  scheme 
 devised  and  pursued  by  the  wisdom  and 
 goodness  of  God  in  order  to  manifest  his 
 perfections  and  will  to  mankind  for  the 
 purpose  of  their  instruction,  discipline,  ref- 
 ormation and  progress  in  holiness  and  hap- 
 piness. Three  of  these  dispensations  are 
 especially  noticeable — ^the  Patriarchal,  the 
 Jewish  and  the  Christian.  The  Christian 
 dispensation  is  described  in  Eph.  3:2; 
 Col.  1  :  25 ;  1  Cor.  9  :  17.  The  dispensa- 
 tions of  Providence  are  another  thing — 
 namely,  those  providential  occurrences 
 which  indicate  the  divine  pleasure. 
 
 Dis-pers^ed,  The  (John  7  :  35; 
 James  1:1;  1  Pet.  1:1),  those  Jews 
 who  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  and 
 especially   after    the   destruction    of   the 
 
DITCH— DOCTRINE. 
 
 165 
 
 Holy  City  by  the  Eoman  power,  remain- 
 ed scattered  among  the  nations.  These  dis- 
 persed Jews,  or  Jews  of  the  Dispersion,  as 
 they  are  called,  aided  very  materially  the 
 rapid  promulgation  of  the  gospel  in  the 
 first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
 
 Ditch.  Several  words  in  the  Hebrew 
 and  Greek  texts  of  the  Scriptures  are  thus 
 rendered,  but  none  of  them  represent  the 
 idea  which  in  our  times  is  uniformly  as- 
 sociated with  a  "  ditch."  One  of  them  is 
 translated  "pits"  in  Jer.  14  :  3;  another, 
 translated  "  ditch "  in  Isa.  22  :  11,  has  the 
 sense  of  a  "  pool ; "  and  another,  translated 
 "ditch"  in  Job  9  :  31,  has  the  sense  of  a 
 hole  in  the  ground,  either  for  holding  sur- 
 plus water  or  for  catching  animals.  The 
 third  of  these  senses,  or  that  of  a  liole  in 
 the  ground,  is  the  sense  of  Matt.  15  :  14 
 and  of  Luke  6  :  39.     See  Cistern. 
 
 Div-i-na'tion,  a  general  term  descrip- 
 tive of  the  various  arts  anciently  practiced 
 for  the  discovery  of  things  secret  or  future 
 (Dent.  18  :  10;  1  Sam.  28  :  8 ;  Ezek.  21  : 
 21).  The  arts  were  very  many,  the  prin- 
 cipal being  tliese :  divination  by  rods  ( Hos. 
 4  :  12) ;  divination  by  cups  (Gen.  44  :  5) ; 
 divination  by  teraphim  (Zech.  10 :  2) ;  div- 
 ination by  the  liver  ( Ezek.  21  :  21 ) ;  divi- 
 nation by  dreams  (Deut.  13  :  3;  Jer.  23  : 
 32).  Moses  forbade  every  species  of  div- 
 ination, but,  despite  the  prohibition,  the 
 various  arts  had  for  the  Israelites  a  very 
 strong  fascination.  Superstition  goes  hand 
 in  hand  witli  skepticism,  and  amid  the  gen- 
 eral infidelity  prevalent  throughout  tlie 
 Roman  empire  at  our  Lord's  coming  im- 
 posture was  rampant.  Hence,  the  lucra- 
 tive trades  of  such  men  as  Simon  Magus 
 (Acts  8  :  9),  Bar-jesus  (Acts  13  :  6,  8),  the 
 slave  with  the  spirit  of  Python  (Acts  16  : 
 16),  the  vagabond  Jews,  exorcists  (Luke 
 11  :  19;  Acts  19  :  13)  and  others  (2  Tim. 
 3  :  13;  Rev.  19  :  20),  as  well  as  the  noto- 
 rious dealers  in  magical  books  at  Ephesus 
 (Acts  19  :  19). 
 
 Divorce,  the  dissolution  by  legal  pro- 
 
 cess of  the  marriage-bond.  The  Mosaic 
 Law  regulating  divorce  is  found  in  Deut. 
 24  :  1-4.  In  the  times  of  our  Lord  the 
 Jewish  doctors  differed  widely  in  respect 
 to  the  ground  of  divorce.  The  school  of 
 Shammai  limited  it  to  a  moral  delinquency 
 in  the  woman ;  the  school  of  Hillel  extend- 
 ed it  to  every  trifling  cause — for  example, 
 if  the  wife  over-roasted  or  over-salted  the 
 food  she  was  cooking  for  her  Imsband. 
 The  Pharisees,  wishing,  doubtless,  to  em- 
 broil our  Lord  with  these  rival  schools, 
 asked  him  if  it  were  "  lawful  for  a  man  to 
 put  away  his  wife  for  every  cause"  (Matt. 
 19  :  3).  The  reply  of  our  Lord  states  the 
 original  law  of  marriage,  and  limits  the 
 ground  of  divorce  to  conjugal  infidelity 
 alone. 
 
 Doctor  of  the  La^w,  one  whose  pro- 
 fession it  was  to  give  instruction  in  the 
 Law  of  Moses  and  to  solve  difficult  ques- 
 tions in  relation  to  it  (Luke  2  :  46). 
 
 Doctrine.  Tliis  word  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  represents  several  Hebrew 
 and  Greek  words  which  denote  some- 
 times knowledge  and  innlruction  (Deut.  32  : 
 2;  Prov.  4:2);  sometimes  what  one  holds 
 to  be  true  (Job  11:4);  and  sometimes 
 what  is  taught:  1.  Generally  (Matt.  16  : 
 12 ;  Acts  17  :  19 ;  Rom.  6  :  17 ;  Heb.  6  : 
 2 ;  13  :  9).  2.  Specifically,  by  man  (Matt. 
 15  :  9 ;  Mark  7:7;  Eph.  4:14;  Col.  2  : 
 22;  1  Tim.  4:1);  by  the  Son  of  man 
 (John  7:16,  17;  Tit.  2:10);  by  the 
 apostles  (Acts  2  :  42 ;  2  Tim.  3:10);  by 
 God  (1  Tim.  1  :  10,  11 ;  4:6;  6  :  1,  3 ;  2 
 Tim.  4:3;  Tit.  1  :  9).  In  its  most  gen- 
 eral and  best  sense  doctrine  is  system- 
 atized knowledge,  or  what  ought  to  be 
 taught  In  this  sense  the  system  of  doc- 
 trine taught  in  Scripture  by  those  "  holy 
 men  of  God  wlio  spake  as  they  were 
 moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost"  (2  Pet.  1  : 
 21),  is  connected  and  consistent  through- 
 out, and  comprises  a  complete  "form  of 
 sound  words."  The  doctrines  in  this  sys- 
 tem relate  to  the  perfections  and  purposes 
 
166 
 
 DODANIM— DORCAS. 
 
 of  God,  to  the  offices  of  Christ  and  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit,  and  to  the  cliaracter  and  des- 
 tiny of  man.  They  are  promotive  of  god- 
 liness, honorable  to  God  and  humbling  to 
 the  pride  of  man.  By  wicked  men  they 
 may  be  perverted  and  corrupted,  yet  they 
 can  never  be  utterly  subverted.  Tliey 
 should  be  devoutly  studied,  for  they  are 
 the  proper  basis  of  all  intelligent  worship 
 and  of  all  holy  obedience.  They  who  de- 
 preciate the  importance  of  doctrines  assail 
 one  of  tlie  chief  safeguards  of  the  Church. 
 An  admirable  summary  of  the  system  of 
 doctrine  taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  is 
 contained  in  the  Westminster  Catechisms 
 and  Confession  of  Faith. 
 
 Do'da-nim,  a  family  or  race  descend- 
 ed from  Javan,  the  son  of  Japheth  ( Gen.  1 0 : 
 4 ;  1  Chron.  1:7).  The  name  is  sometimes 
 read  Rodanim,  and,  so  read,  is  referred  to 
 the  Greek  inhabitants  of  the  island  of 
 Rhodes  ;  if  read  Dodanim,  it  refers,  prob- 
 ably, to  the  Dardani,  who  in  historical 
 times  were  found  in  Illyricura  and  Troy. 
 
 Do'eg,  an  Idumcean  or  Edomite,  and 
 King  Saul's  chief  herdsman.  He  was  at 
 Nob  when  Ahimelech,  the  high  priest, 
 gave  David  the  sword  of  Goliath,  and  he 
 not  only  carried  the  information  to  Saul, 
 but  when  others  declined  the  office  he 
 himself  executed  the  king's  order  to  de- 
 stroy the  priests  of  Nob  with  their  fami- 
 lies, to  the  number  of  eighty-five  persons, 
 together  with  all  their  property  (1  Sam. 
 21  :  7  ;  22  :  9-19 ;  Ps.  52). 
 
 Dog,  an  animal  frequently  mentioned 
 in  Scripture.  It  was  used  by  the  Hebrews 
 as  a  watch  for  their  houses  ( Isa.  56  :  10) 
 and  for  guarding  their  flocks  (Job  30  :  1). 
 Tlien  also,  as  now,  troops  of  hungry  and 
 semi-wild  dogs  used  to  wander  about  the 
 fields  and  streets,  devouring  dead  bodies 
 and  other  offiil  (1  Kings  14  :  11  ;  16  :  4; 
 21  :  19,  23;  22  :  38 ;  2  Kings  9  :  10,  36; 
 Jer.  15  :  3 ;  Ps.  59  :  6,  14),  and  thus  be- 
 came such  objects  of  dislike  that  fierce 
 and  cruel   enemies  are  poetically  styled 
 
 "dogs"  in  Ps.  22:16,  20.  The  dog, 
 moreover,  being  an  unclean  animal,  the 
 terms  do;/,  dead  dog,  doy's  head  were  used 
 as   terms   of  reproach   (1  Sam.  24  :  14;  2 
 
 Syrian  Dog. 
 
 Sam.  3:8;  9:8;  16  :9;  2  Kings  8:13). 
 Dean  Stanley  mentions  that  he  saw  on 
 the  very  site  of  Jezreel  the  descendants 
 of  the  dogs  that  devoured  Jezebel  prowl- 
 ing on  the  mounds  without  the  walls  for 
 offiil  and  carrion  thrown  out  to  them  to 
 consume. 
 
 Door.    See  House. 
 
 Dor  IdweUimj],  an  ancient  royal  city 
 of  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  12  :  23),  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and,  according 
 to  Jerome,  nine  Roman  miles  north  of 
 Cajsarea.  It  appears  to  have  been  with- 
 in the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
 though  allotted  to  Manasseh  (.Josh.  17  : 
 11  ;  Judg.  1  :  27).  The  original  inhabit- 
 ants were  never  expelled,  but  during  the 
 prosperous  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon 
 they  were  made  tributary  (1  Kings  4  :  11). 
 A  town  named  Tantuva,  a  collection  of 
 fifty  wretched  huts,  occupies  its  supposed 
 site. 
 
 Dor'cas,  a  Greek  name,  having  the 
 same  signification  as  Tabitha  in  Syro- 
 Chaldaic,  and  designating  a  pious  and 
 benevolent  female  disciple  of  Joppa,  wlio. 
 "  full  of  good  works  and  alms-deeds,"  made 
 garments  for  tlie  poor  widows.  Peter  was 
 sent  for  at  the  time  of  her  death,  and,  wit- 
 nessing the  general  lamentation  occasioned 
 
DOTHAN— DRAGON. 
 
 167 
 
 by  her  decease,  he  recalled  her  to  life,  to 
 the  great  joy  of  her  friends  and  to  the 
 conversion  of  many  souls  (Acts  9  :  36- 
 42). 
 
 Do'than  [^two  c/s<e?-m-],  a  place  first 
 mentioned  (Gen.  37  :  17)  in  connection 
 with  the  history  of  Joseph,  and  apparent- 
 ly as  in  the  neighborhood  of  Shechem.  It 
 next  appears  as  the  residence  of  Elisha 
 (2  Kings  6  ;  13).  It  was  known  to  Eu- 
 sebius  (in  the  fotuth  century  of  the  Chris- 
 tian era),  who  places  it  twelve  miles  to  the 
 north  of  Sebaste  (Samaria),  and  here,  in 
 our  own  times,  it  has  been  discovered 
 with  its  cisterns,  still  beai-iag  unimpaired 
 its  ancient  name. 
 
 Do'ting-,  "  about  questions  "  (1  Tim.  6 : 
 4),  signifies  an  excessive  and  sickly  fond- 
 ness for  questions  and  strifes  respecting 
 mere  words. 
 
 Dove.  The  first  mention  of  this  bird 
 in  Scripture  is  in  Gen.  8,  where  Noah  is 
 represented  as  sending  one  forth  from  the 
 ark  to  ascertain  if  the  waters  of  the  del- 
 uge were  assuaged.  The  dove's  rapidity 
 of  flight  is  alluded  to  in  Ps.  55  :  6 ;  the 
 beauty  of  its  plumage,  in  Ps.  68  :  13 ;  its 
 dwelling  in  the  rocks  and  valleys,  in  Jer. 
 48  :  28 ;  Ezek.  7  :  16;  its  mournful  voice, 
 in  Isa.  38  :  14 ;  59  :  11 :  Nah.  2:7;  its 
 simplicity,  in  Hos.  7:11;   its  comeliness, 
 
 in  the  Song  1  :  15  ;  2  :  14 ;  and  its  harm- 
 lessness,  in  Matt.  10  :  16.  The  associa- 
 tions with  it  are  such  as  to  justify  its 
 selection  as  the  emblem  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit  (Matt.  3:16).  Under  the  Mosaic 
 Law,  the  poor,  who  could  not  present 
 a  more  costly  offering,  were  directed  to 
 offer  doves  or  pigeons  (Lev.  5:7;  14: 
 21,  22).  Such  was  the  offering  of  our 
 Lord's  mother  (Luke  2  :  22-24).  To  ac- 
 commodate the  poor,  doves  were  sold  in 
 the  courts  of  the  temple,  but  the  practice 
 had  degenerated  into  such  abuse  in  our 
 Lord's  times  that  he  sternly  rebuked  it 
 (Matt.  21  :  12). 
 
 Doves  are  kept  in  a  domesticated  state 
 in  many  parts  of  the  East.    In  Pereia,  and 
 still  more  in  Egypt,  large  dovecotes  or  pig- 
 eon-houses are  built ;  and  Morier  says, "  The 
 extraordinary  flights  of  pigeons  which  I 
 have  seen   upon  one  of  these  buildings 
 afford  perhaps  a  good  illustration  of  tlie 
 passage  in  Isa.  60  :  8, '  Who  are  these  that 
 fly  as  a  cloud,  and  as  the  doves  to  their 
 windows  ?' " 
 
 Dove's  Dung.     In  a  description  of 
 a  great  famine  in  Samaria  (2  Kings  6  : 
 25)  it  is  said  that  "an  ass's  head  was 
 sold  for  fourscore  pieces  of  silver,  and 
 the  fourth  part  of  a  cab  of  dove's  dung 
 for  five  pieces  of  silver."     This  is  in- 
 tended to  denote  the  extremity  of  the 
 famine,  during  which  the  highest  prices 
 were  given    for  what   might  allay  the 
 pangs    of    hunger.     It    is    thought    by 
 many  commentators  and  most  lexicog- 
 raphers that  "dove's  dung"  is  to  be  taken 
 as  a  proper  name  for  such  plants  and  veg- 
 etable productions  as  resembled  in  appear- 
 ance the  excrement  of  the  pigeon. 
 
 Dow^ry,  the  price  paid  for  a  wife 
 (Gen.  29  :  18;  34  :  12 ;  1  Sam.  18  :  25; 
 Hos.  3  :  2).  The  word  has  thus  a  sense 
 the  very  opposite  to  that  which  it  has 
 among  Western  nations. 
 
 Dragoon.  This  word,  in  our  English 
 Version  of  the  Old  Testament,  is  the  len- 
 
168 
 
 DRAM— DREAM. 
 
 dering  of  two  Hebrew  words  which  are 
 (juite  distinct  in  meaning;  in  the  New 
 Testament  it  is  an  almost  literal  transfer 
 of  the  Greek  (^paKuv  (dracvn,  Hltarp-siykt- 
 ed),  a  fabulous  and  frightful  monster 
 which  went  about  devouring  and  devas- 
 tating all  before  it. 
 
 1.  The  first  Hebrew  word,  always  in  the 
 plural,  is  found  in  Job  30  :  29 ;  Isa.  34  : 
 13  ;  43  :  20 ;  Jer.  10  :  22 ;  49  :  33 ;  Mic. 
 1  :  8 ;  Ps.  44  :  19.  It  is  uniformly  applied 
 to  some  creatures  inhabiting  the  desert, 
 and  points  to  wild  beasts  rather  than  to 
 serpents.  Tlie  Syrian  Version  renders 
 it  by  a  word  which  means  a  "jackal." 
 
 2.  Tlie  second  Hebrew  word  rendered 
 dragon  seems  to  refer  to  any  great  mon- 
 ster, whether  of  the  land  or  of  the  sea, 
 but  is  more  usually  applied  to  some  kind 
 of  serpent  or  reptile.  When  we  examine 
 special  passages,  we  find  the  word  used  in 
 Gen.  1  :  21  of  the  great  sea-monsters,  the 
 representatives  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 deep.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Ex.  7:9.  10, 
 12;  Deut.  32  :  33;  Ps.  91  :  13  it  refers  to 
 land-serpents  of  a  powerful  and  deadly 
 kind. 
 
 3.  In  the  New  Testament  the  word 
 dragon  is  found  only  in  the  Apocalypse 
 (Rev.  12  :  3,  4,  7,  9,  16,  17,  etc.),  and  is  j 
 applied  metaphorically  to  "the  old  ser- 
 pent called  the  devil  and  Satan."  The 
 description  of  it  is  dictated  by  the  sym- 
 bolical meaning  of  the  image  rather  than 
 by  any  reference  to  an  actually-existing 
 creature.  The  reason  of  this  scriptural 
 symbol  is  to  be  sought,  most  probably,  in 
 that  union  of  gigantic  power  with  craft 
 and  malignity  of  which  the  serpent  is 
 the  natural  emblem,  and  in  that  record 
 of  the  serpent's  agency  in  the  temptation 
 (Gen.  3)  which  introduces  and  explains 
 the  gospel  scheme  of  redemption. 
 
 It  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  the 
 dragon-idea,  as  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment and  the  New,  had  a  basis  of  fact  in 
 the  survival  to  the  creation  of  the  human 
 
 family  of  some  lingering  specimens  of  an 
 ancient  and  formidable  but  now  extinct 
 race  of  reptiles.     M.  Bory  de  St.  Vincent 
 observes :  "  The  figure  of  the  pterodactyl 
 seems  to  represent  with  sufficient  exact- 
 ness the   figure  which  antiquity  gave  to 
 those  formidable  diagons  we  now  regard 
 as  fabulous.     Yet  they  may  not  impossibly 
 j  have  existed  toward  the  epoch  of  the  pe- 
 riod immediately  preceding  the  so-called 
 I  pre-historic.     It  may  even  be  that  drag- 
 j  ons  of  this  kind,  pterodactyls,  far  larger 
 I  than  those  which  have  recently  been  dis- 
 covered, lingered  until  the  time  when  man 
 appeared  upon  the  earth — until  the  time 
 when  he  began  to  carve  upon  wood  and 
 stone   the   most   striking   objects    around 
 him.     When  the  models  had  disappeared, 
 and   when  their   memory  was  preserved 
 only  in  the  hieroglyphics  of  tribes   who 
 knew  not  how  to  write,  though  knowing 
 how  to  carve,  this  memory  became  myth- 
 ologized.     To  the  image  of  the  lost  drag- 
 on some  fentastic  features  were  added,  so 
 disguising  it  that  it  could   not  be   recog-. 
 nized  if  even   any  remains  were  discov- 
 ered." 
 
 Dram,  a  gold  coin  cun-ent  in  Palestine 
 in  the  period  after  the  return  from  Baby- 
 Ion  (Ezra  2  :  69;  8  :  27 ;  Neh.  7  :  70-72; 
 1  Chron.  29  :  7).  At  these  times  there 
 was  no  large  issue  of  gold  except  by  the 
 Persian  kings.  The  value  of  the  dram  or 
 daric,  so  called  after  Dariiis,  is  said  to  have 
 been  about  five  dollai-s. 
 
 Draught  [pronounced  draft].  The 
 word  is  used  in  two  senses  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures: 1.  A  vault  or  drain  for  the  recep- 
 tion of  filth  (2  Kings  10  :  27 ;  Matt.  15  : 
 17) ;  2.  A  haul  of  fishes  by  one  sweep  or 
 drawing  of  the  net  (Luke  5:9). 
 
 Dream.  Scripture  declares  that  the 
 influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon  the 
 soul  extends  to  its  sleeping  as  well  as  to 
 its  waking  thoughts.  It  declares  that  God 
 communicates  with  the  spirit  of  man  di- 
 rectly in  dreams,  and  it  furnislies  numer- 
 
DKEGS— DROUGHT. 
 
 169 
 
 ous  remarkable  instances.  Thus,  by  a 
 dream  God  encouraged  Jacob  at  Bethel 
 (Gen.  28  :  10-19),  and  thus,  too,  by  a 
 dream  Laban  was  prevented  from  inflict- 
 ing injury  on  Jacob  (Gen.  31  :  24).  Jo- 
 seph received  through  dreams  the  inti- 
 mation tliat  lie  was  to  be  exalted  above  his 
 brethren  (Gen.  37  :  5-9).  Moreover,  his 
 interpretation  of  the  significant  dreams 
 of  Pharaoh  and  of  his  chief  butler  and 
 baker  led  the  way  to  his  elevation  (Gen. 
 40,  41).  It  was  in  a  dream  that  the  Lord 
 gave  Solomon  the  promise  of  that  remark- 
 able wisdom  and  understanding  which  af- 
 terward characterized  him  (1  Kings  3  : 
 5-15).  The  skill  of  Daniel  in  interpret- 
 ing the  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar  led  to 
 his  advancement  in  the  court  of  Babylon 
 (Dan.  2).  In  a  dream  Joseph,  the  reputed 
 father  of  our  Lord,  was  warned  not  to  put 
 away  Mary,  his  wife  (Matt.  1 :  20).  These 
 instances  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  this 
 was  one  of  the  methods  of  divine  com- 
 munication with  man.  As  might  be  sup- 
 posed, the  significancy  of  some  dreams 
 led  the  Jews  into  a  superstitious  regard 
 for  all  dreams,  and  the  abuse  called  forth 
 a  special  rebuke,  particularly  when  the 
 dream  or  its  interpretation  seemed  to 
 favor  the  practice  of  idolatry  (Deut.  13  : 
 1-3). 
 
 The  fact  that  divine  intimations  have 
 come  through  the  medium  of  dreams 
 affords  no  ground  for  vulgar  supersti- 
 tions. Although  it  is  quite  possible  that 
 directions  and  warnings  may  in  special 
 cases  be  still  thus  communicated,  it  is  cer- 
 tainly wrong  for  those  who  have  the  com- 
 plete written  revelation  of  God's  will  to 
 depend  on  dreams  as  a  means  of  informa- 
 tion, and  it  is  an  especial  impiety  in  any 
 uninspired  person  to  pretend  to  a  skill  in 
 the  interpretation  of  them. 
 
 A  vision  is  distinguished  from  a  dream 
 by  the  fact  that  it  was  a  supernatural  rep- 
 resentation made  to  a  person  awake  and 
 in  the  conscious  possession  of  his  facul- 
 
 ties. The  Lord  appeared  in  a  vision  to 
 Saul  on  his  way  to  Damascus  (Acts  26  : 
 13),  and  in  a  vision  the  glories  of  the 
 heavenly  world  were  exhibited  to  him 
 (2  Cor.  12  :  1-4). 
 
 Dregs,  the  sediment  of  liquors.  When 
 in  Scripture  the  wrath  of  God  upon  tlie 
 wicked  is  represented  by  a  cup,  the  drink- 
 ing of  that  cup  and  its  dregs  expresses  the 
 full  measure  in  which  the  judgment  is  in- 
 flicted (Ps.  75:  8;  Isa.  51  :  17). 
 Dress.  See  Clothes. 
 Drink,  Strong.  The  Hebrew  word 
 thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version 
 applies  to  any  liquor  possessed  of  intoxica- 
 ting qualities,  whether  brewed  from  grain 
 or  made  of  honeycomb,  dates  or  boiled 
 fruits.  The  phrase  "wine  and  strong 
 drink"  (Lev.  10:9;  Num.  6:3  and 
 many  other  passages)  means  wine  and 
 every  otlier  intoxicating  liquor.  Among 
 the  intoxicating  liquors,  other  than  wine, 
 known  to  the  Hebrews,  were  these :  1. 
 Beer,  made  of  barley,  certain  herbs,  such 
 as  lupin  and  skirrett,  being  used  as  substi- 
 tutes for  hops ;  2.  Cider,  which  is  noticed 
 in  the  Mishna  as  apple-wine;  3.  Honey- 
 wine,  of  which  there  were  two  sorts,  one  a 
 mixture  of  wine,  honey  and  pepper,  the 
 other  a  decoction  of  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
 termed  debash  (honey)  by  the  Hebrews  and 
 dibs  by  the  modern  Syrians ;  4.  Date-wine, 
 made  by  mashing  the  fruit  in  water  in  cer- 
 tain proportions ;  5.  Home-made  ivinea  from 
 figs,  millet,  the  carob-fruit,  raisins  and  the 
 like. 
 
 Drink- Offering.     See  Offering. 
 
 Drom^e-da-ry.     See  Camel. 
 
 Drought  (pronounced  drout),  dryness, 
 absence  of  water  or  rain,  referring  partic- 
 ularly to  that  state  of  the  weather  when 
 there  is  not  sufficient  moisture  to  promote 
 the  growth  of  plants.  Eastern  countries 
 are  particularly  subject  to  drought.  Pal- 
 estine during  the  summer  months  is  ex- 
 posed to  a  scorching  heat,  and,  no  rain 
 falling,  the  earth  becomes  chapped,  vege- 
 
170 
 
 DRUNKENNESS— DWELLING. 
 
 tation  withers  and  man  and  beast  suffer 
 very  greatly.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
 metaphors  of  Scripture  are  drawn  from 
 falling  showers,  from  wells  and  springs 
 and  rivers,  from  shade  trees  and  cool  re- 
 treats (Ps.  .32  :  4;  72  :  6;  Isa.  32  :  2). 
 
 Drunk'en-ness,  intoxication  from 
 the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  (Deut.  29  : 
 19;  Eccles.  10  :  17).  Its  effects,  physical 
 and  moral,  on  the  human  family,  have  in 
 all  ages  been  disastrous.  It  is  in  Scrip- 
 ture the  suggestive  symbol  of  the  folly 
 of  sin  (Jer.  51  :  7)  and  of  the  stupidity 
 produced  by  divine  judgments  (Isa.  29  : 
 9). 
 
 Dru-siFla,  youngest  daughter  of 
 Herod  Agrippa  I.,  celebrated  for  her 
 beauty  and  notorious  for  her  profligacy. 
 She  abandoned  her  husband  Azizus  to 
 live  with  Felix,  the  governor  of  Judsea. 
 Paul  a])propriately  reasoned  before  her 
 and  Felix  of  "  righteousness,  temperance, 
 and  judgment  to  come"  (Acts  24  :  24, 
 25). 
 
 Duke,  a  title  applied  to  the  chiefs  of 
 Edom  (Gen.  36  :  15).  The  word  simply 
 means  a  chief  or  leader,  and  is  not  to  be 
 understood  in  its  modern  acceptation. 
 
 DuPci-mer,  a  musical  instrument, 
 which  the  rabbins  describe  as  a  species 
 of  bagpipe  (Dan.  3  :  5).  The  modern 
 dulcimer  is  a  stringed  instrument. 
 
 Du'mah,  a  tribe  and  country  of  the 
 Ishmaelites  in  Arabia  (Gen.  25  :  14 ;  Isa. 
 21  :  11).  It  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
 with  the  place  still  called  by  the  Arabs 
 Doomed  el-Jendcl,  or  Dumah  of  the  Stones, 
 on  the  confines  of  the  Arabian  and  Syrian 
 deserts. 
 
 Dung.  Besides  its  common  use  for 
 manure,  dung  in  Palestine  and  the  adja- 
 cent countries,  from  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
 curing fire-wood,  was  and  is  largely  used 
 for  fuel.  It  makes  an  equable  heat,  which 
 adapts  it  peculiarly  to  the  heating  of  ovens 
 and   the   baking  of  cakes    (Ezek.  4  :  15). 
 
 The  dung  of  cows  and  camels  is  most 
 prized.  The  Arabs,  Syrians  and  lOgyp- 
 tians  of  to-day,  as  did  their  forefathers, 
 carefully  collect  it,  dry  it  and  pile  it  in 
 conical  heaps  or  stacks. 
 
 Du'ra,  the  plain  on  which  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar set  up  his  golden  image  (Dan.  3  : 
 1),  and  probably  the  same  in  which  Bab- 
 ylon is  situated.  M.  Oppert,  however, 
 locates  the  lAain  on  the  south-east  of  Bab- 
 ylon, in  the  vicinity  of  the  mound  Duair, 
 where  he  discovered  the  pedestal  of  a  co- 
 lossal statue. 
 
 Dust.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  indicates 
 earth  that  is  dry;  its  Greek  equivalent, 
 earth  that  is  easUy  7-aised  or  volatile.  The 
 word  "  dust "  is  used  figuratively  to  denote 
 death  and  the  grave  (Gen.  3:19;  Job  7  : 
 21) ;  also  a  mean  condition  (1  Sam.  2:8); 
 also  a  great  multitude  (Num.  23 :  10).  "  Sit- 
 ting in  the  dust,"  "putting  dust  on  the 
 head,"  "  putting  the  mouth  in  the  dust," 
 were  signs  of  mourning  and  humiliation 
 (Josh.  7:6;  Isa.  47  :  1 ;  Lam.  3  :  29).  To 
 shake  off'  the  dust  from  the  feet  in  leaving 
 a  place  is  an  expressive  sign  of  renouncing 
 all  intercourse  with  it  for  the  future  (Matt. 
 10:14;  Acts  13:51).  To  say  that  an  ene- 
 my shall  "  lick  the  dust "  is  to  predict  his 
 defeat  and  destruction  (Ps.  72  :  9).  To 
 throw  dust  into  the  air  seems  to  have 
 been  a  mode  of  expressing  contempt  and 
 execration  (Acts  22  :  23).  The  Jews  were 
 threatened,  as  a  punishment  of  disobedi- 
 ence, that  the  rain  should  be  powder  and 
 dust  (Deut.  28  :  24),  which  is  exemplified 
 even  to  the  present  time  by  the  clouds  of 
 dry,  hot  sand  which  in  the  deserts  are 
 raised  by  the  winds,  and  overwhelm  man 
 and  beast  by  penetrating  the  mouth,  eyes 
 and  nostrils,  or  which  in  the  towns  cover 
 every  object  and  penetrate  into  the  most 
 sheltered  places,  at  once  an  annoyance  and 
 a  calamity. 
 
 Dwell 'ing.    See  Housk. 
 
EAGLE— EAE-KINGS. 
 
 171 
 
 E. 
 
 Ea^gle,  a  well-known  and  ferocious 
 bird  of  prey,  unclean  by  the  Levitical 
 Law  (Lev.  11  :  13;  Deut.  14:12).  Its 
 Hebrew  generic  name  denotes  other  rav- 
 enous birds,  as  vultures  (Mic.  1 :  16),  but 
 it  commonly  designates  a  particular  spe- 
 cies of  the  eagle  proper — namely,  the 
 golden  eagle,  a  large,  strong  and  very 
 courageous  bird.     The  characteristics  of 
 
 the  eagle  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures  are 
 its  swiftness  of  flight  (Deut.  28:49;  2 
 Sam.  1  :  23;  Jer.  4:13;  49:22);  its 
 mounting  high  into  the  air  (Job  39  :  27 ; 
 Prov.  23  :  5 ;  30  :  19  ;  Isa.  40  :  31 ;  Jer. 
 49  :  16) ;  its  strength  and  vigor  (Ps.  103  : 
 5) ;  its  predaceous  habits  (Job  9  :  26 ; 
 Prov.  30  :  17) ;  its  setting  its  nest  in  high 
 places  (Jer.  49  :  16) ;  its  care  in  training 
 its  young  to  fly  (Ex.  19:4;  Deut.  32  :  11) ; 
 its  powers  of  vision  (Job  39  :  29) ;  and  its 
 moulting  (Ps.  103  :  5).  As  king  of  birds, 
 the  eagle  naturally  became  an  emblem  of 
 powerful  empires  (Ezek.  17  :  3,  7).  In 
 Matt.  24  :  2S  and  Luke  17  :  37  the  Jew- 
 
 ish nation  is  compared  to  a  tempting  bodv 
 exposed  in  the  open  field  and  inviting  the 
 Roman  army,  whose  standards  bore  tlie 
 eagle,  to  come  and  devour  it.  Before  the 
 Romans,  the  Persians  had  adopted  the 
 eagle  as  their  military  ensign,  and  before 
 the  Persians,  the  Assyrians  had  done  the 
 same. 
 
 Ear,  Earing,  an  old  English  agricul- 
 tural term  for  ploughing  or  tiUiiig.  It 
 occurs  in  Gen.  45  :  6;  Ex.  34  :  21  ; 
 Deut.  21  :  4;  1  Sam.  8:  12;  Isa.  30: 
 24.  It  is  etymological ly  connected 
 with  the  Latin  aro,  "to  plough." 
 What  we  call  arable  land  was  origi- 
 nally written  earable  land. 
 
 Earnest,  something  given  in  ad- 
 vance as  a  pledge  or  assurance  of 
 more,  or  of  good  faith  in  a  bargain 
 or  of  binding  a  bargain.  It  is  a  mer- 
 cantile term  adopted  by  the  Greeks 
 and  Romans  from  the  Phoenicians,  who 
 were  the  founders  of  commerce,  and  is 
 still  good  legal  English.  The  word  is 
 used  three  times  in  the  New  Testament 
 (2  Cor.  1  :  22 ;  5:5;  Eph.  1 :  14),  and 
 imports  that  the  gifts  and  graces  which 
 the  Holy  Spirit  confers  on  our  Lord's 
 followers  are  so  many  pledges  of  the  grand- 
 er gifts  and  graces  whicli  are  to  be  theirs  in 
 heaven.  This  use  of  the  term,  whilst  di- 
 rectly asserting  the  pledged  faithfulness  of 
 God,  finely  illustrates  the  fully-warranted 
 conception  of  the  future  state  as  one  of 
 augmented  powers  and  greatly-enlai  ged 
 capacities. 
 
 Ear-Rings.  The  material  of  wJiich 
 ear-rings  were  made  was  generally  gold 
 (Ex.  32 :  2),  and  their  form  circular.  They 
 were  worn  by  women  and  by  youth  of  both 
 sexes.  They  seem  to  have  been  regard- 
 ed with  superstitious  reverence  as  amulets. 
 On  this  account  they  were   surrendered, 
 
172 
 
 EARTH— EATING. 
 
 along  with  the  idols,  by  Jacob's  household 
 (Gen.  35  :  4).    See  Jewel. 
 
 Earth.  The  word  in  Scripture  is  used 
 in  two  widely  diflerent  senses — namely,  for 
 the  material  of  which  the  earth's  surface  is 
 composed,  and  as  the  name  of  the  planet  on 
 which  man  dwells.  The  Hebrew  language 
 discriminates  between  these  two  by  the  use 
 of  separate  terms,  adamah  for  the  former, 
 erets  for  the  latter. 
 
 1.  Adamah  is  the  earth  in  the  sense  of 
 soil  or  ground,  particularly  as  being  sus- 
 ceptible of  cultivation.  Tlie  earth  sup- 
 plied the  elementary  substances  of  which 
 man's  body  was  formed,  and  the  terms 
 Adam  and  adamah  are  brought  into  jux- 
 taposition, implying  an  etymological  con- 
 nection (Gen.  2:7). 
 
 2.  Erets  is  applied  in  a  more  or  less  ex- 
 tended sense  to  the  whole  world  (Gen.  1  : 
 1 ) ;  to  land  as  opposed  to  sea  (Gen.  1  :  10) ; 
 to  a  country  (Gen.  21  :  32) ;  to  a  plot  of 
 ground  (Gen.  23  :  15) ;  to  the  ground  on 
 which  a  man  stands  (Gen.  33  :  3) ;  to  the 
 inhabildnla  of  the  earth  (Gen.  6  :  11 ;  11  : 
 1 ) ;  to  heathen  countries  as  distinguished 
 from  the  land  of  Israel — that  is,  all  the 
 rest  of  the  world  excepting  Israel  ( 2  Kings 
 18  :  25 ;  2  Chron.  13  :  9) ;  to  Judsea,  in  the 
 New  Testament  especially,  where  its  Greek 
 equivalent  would  have  been  more  appro- 
 priately rendered  "the  land"  (Matt.  23  : 
 35 ;  James  5  :  17) ;  and  in  figure  to  things 
 earthly  and  carnal,  as  contrasted  with 
 things  heavenly  and  spiritual  (John  3  : 
 31 ;  Col.  3  :  2). 
 
 Earth'quake,  In  Palestine,  as  might 
 be  expected  from  tlie  numerous  traces  of 
 volcanic  agency  which  the  country  shows, 
 earthquakes,  more  or  less  violent,  are  of 
 frequent  occurrence.  The  recorded  in- 
 stances, however,  are  few,  the  most  re- 
 markable being  that  which  occurred  in 
 the  reign  of  King  ITzziah  (Amos  1:1; 
 Zech.  14:5).  The  earthquake  is  in  Scrip- 
 ture tlie  symbol  of  violent  agitation  (Joel 
 2:  10;  Hag.  2:  21;  Rev.  6:  12). 
 
 East,  properly  the  quarter  of  the  heav- 
 ens in  wliich  the  sun  rises,  but  according 
 to  Hebrew  usage  the  term  designated  the 
 countries  lying  east  of  Judaea,  a.s  Moab, 
 Ammon  (Gen.  25  :  6),  and  Arabia  gener- 
 ally, and  those  of  the  far  East,  as  Armenia, 
 Mesopotamia,  Chaldaea,  Persia  (Isa.  41: 
 2  ;  46  :  11).  So  also,  in  speaking  of  the 
 quarters  of  the  heavens,  the  Jews  sup- 
 posed the  face  to  be  turned  to  the  east,  and 
 hence  called  the  east  before  ov  forward,  the 
 west  behind,  the  south  the  right  hand,  and 
 the  north  the  left  hand  (Job  23  :  8,  9). 
 
 Easter,  The  occurrence  of  this  word 
 in  our  English  Version  (Acts  12  :  4)  is 
 chiefly  noticeable  as  an  example  of  in- 
 consistency in  the  translators.  In  every 
 other  pa.ssage  the  word  passover  is  prop- 
 erly used. 
 
 East  Sea  (Num.  34  :  3 ;  Ezek.  47  :  18 ; 
 Joel  2  :  20),  the  Dead  Sea.    See  Sea. 
 
 East  Wind.     See  Wind. 
 
 Eat'ing.  The  Hebrews  in  our  Lord's 
 time  did  not  sit  upright  at  table,  as  is  the 
 present  custom,  but  reclined  on  couches 
 placed  near  the  table,  resting  on  the  left 
 elbow,  with  their  feet  thrown  back,  and 
 using  their  right  hands  to  carry  the  food 
 to  their  mouths.  This  peculiarity  of  pos- 
 ture explains  how  the  woman  could  wash 
 our  Lord's  feet  with  her  tears  by  coming 
 behind  him  as  he  sat  at  meat  (Luke  7  :  37, 
 38).  It  explains,  too,  the  manner  in  which 
 our  Lord  washed  the  disciples'  feet  at  sup- 
 per-time (John  13:4,5).  It  explains, 
 moreover,  how  John  leaned  on  our  Lord's 
 bosom  (John  13  :  23).  It  was  customary 
 to  eat  without  knives  and  forks,  and  each 
 guest  used  liis  fingers,  dipping  his  bread 
 into  the  dish  and  taking  up  a  portion  of 
 tlie  food.  Sometimes  the  principal  per- 
 son at  a  feast  would  thus  dip  liis  hand 
 into  the  dish,  and,  making  a  sop,  put  it 
 to  the  mouth  of  a  guest.  Tliis  illustrates 
 our  Lord's  dipping  into  the  dish  and 
 handing  the  sop  to  .ludas  (John  13  :  26). 
 Such  free  use  of  the  fingers  would  justi- 
 
EBAL— ECCLESIASTES. 
 
 173 
 
 fy  the  scrupulous  care  with  which  the 
 Jews  washed  their  hands  before  eating 
 (Mark  7  :  2,  3)  ;  but,  however  much  the 
 act  of  washing  might  be  demanded  by 
 personal  cleanliness,  it  could  not  properly 
 
 Eating  with  the  Hand. 
 
 be  magnified  into  one  of  moral  meritori- 
 ousness.  The  Hebrews  also  were  partic- 
 ularly strict  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  their 
 food  and  the  character  of  the  persons  with 
 whom  they  took  a  meal.  They  distin- 
 guished between  meats  that  were  clean 
 and  meats  that  were  unclean  (Lev.  11). 
 They  declined  to  eat  with  persons  of  bad 
 reputation,  as  publicans  and  sinners  ( Matt. 
 9  :  11),  or  with  uncircumcised  (Acts  11:3). 
 And  so  far  as  sitting  at  meat  with  wicked 
 and  profane  persons  should  imply  famil- 
 iarity and  close  intimacy  with  them,  it  was 
 forbidden  by  the  apostle  Paul  (1  Cor.  5  : 
 11).  The  act  of  eating  is,  in  Scripture, 
 the  symbol  of  meditation  on  and  commu- 
 nion with  truth  (Isa.  55  :  1,  2),  of  results 
 of  previous  conduct  (Ezek.  18  :  2),  of  de- 
 struction of  a  man's  peace  or  prosperity 
 (Kev.  17  :  16 ;  Ps.  27  :  2).     See  Meal. 
 
 E'bal  [bare  of  follaf/e],  a  mountain  in 
 Palestine  opposite  Mount  Gerizim,  and, 
 
 with  the  latter,  forming  the  valley  of 
 Shechem  (Deut.  11  :  29  ;  Josh.  8  :  33).  On 
 Mount  Ebal  was  built  the  first  altar  which 
 the  Israelites  erected  after  they  had  enter- 
 ed Canaan.  Here  also  six  tribes  of  Israel 
 stood  and  responded  Amen  to  the  curses 
 pronounced  by  the  Levites  upon  such  of  the 
 people  as  should  transgress  the  law  of  the 
 Lord,  whilst  on  Mount  Gerizim,  just  across 
 the  narrow  valley,  the  other  six  tribes  stood 
 and  responded  Amen  to  the  blessings  pro- 
 nounced by  the  Levites  upon  such  of  the 
 people  as  should  obey  (Deut.  27  :  12,  13; 
 Josh.  8  :  30-35).    See  Gerizim. 
 
 E'bed-Me'lech  [xen-anl  of  the  king], 
 an  Ethiopian  eunuch  in  the  service  of 
 King  Zedekiah,  through  whose  interfer- 
 ence Jeremiah  was  released  from  prison 
 (Jer.  38  :  7-13).  His  humanity  in  this 
 particular  was  rewarded  by  the  preserva- 
 tion of  his  life  when  .Jerusalem  was  taken 
 by  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon  (Jer. 
 39  :  15-18). 
 
 Eb-en-e'zer  \_the  stone  of  help},  a  stone 
 set  up  by  Samuel  after  a  signal  defeat  of 
 the  Philistines  as  a  memorial  of  the 
 "  help "  received  on  the  occasion  from 
 Jehovah  (1  Sam.  7  :  12).  Its  position  is 
 carefully  defined  as  between  Mizpeh,  the 
 "  watch-tower,"  one  of  the  conspicuous  emi- 
 nences a  few  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and 
 Shen,  the  "  tooth  "  or  "  crag,"  apparently 
 some  isolated  landmark. 
 
 E'ber,  son  of  Salah,  great-grandson  of 
 Shem  and  the  ancestor  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
 10  ;  24).  In  Luke  3  :  35  his  name  is  An- 
 glicized Heber.     See  Heber. 
 
 Eb^O-ny  [slone-woorll,  a  very  hard 
 wood,  dark  in  color  and  susceptible  of  a 
 high  polish.  The  word  occurs  but  once 
 in  Scripture  (Ezek.  27  :  15),  where  it  is 
 mentioned  as  one  of  the  valuable  com- 
 modities imported  into  Tyre  by  the  men 
 of  Dedan. 
 
 Ec-cle-si-as'tes,  the  title  of  a  book 
 of  the  Old  Testament,  believed  to  have 
 been  written  bv  Solomon  at  an  advanced 
 
174 
 
 ED— EDREI. 
 
 period  of  his  life.  It  is  an  impressive  dis- 
 course on  the  vanity  and  unsatisfying  na- 
 ture of  all  merely  temporal  pleasures  and 
 possessions  (Eccles.  1  :  2),  and  is  tlie  more 
 impressive  in  that  it  embodies  the  deliber- 
 ate judgment  of  one  who  indulged  freely 
 and  unreservedly  in  all  that  the  world 
 has  to  offer,  and  whose  means  of  indul- 
 gence were  unlimited  (Eccles.  2:  1-11). 
 While  sensual  enjoyments  and  temporal 
 good  are  represented  as  "  vanity  of  vani- 
 ties/' true  wisdom  or  religion  is  extolled 
 as  the  only  satisfying  portion  (Eccles.  12  : 
 13). 
 
 Ed  [wilness'],  the  name  of  an  altar  reared 
 in  peculiar  circumstances  (Josh.  22  :  34). 
 
 E'dar  [flock],  the  name  of  a  tower  be- 
 yond which  Jacob  first  halted  betAveen 
 Bethlehem  and  Hebron  (Gen.  35  :  21). 
 
 E'den  [pleasure,  deliijht],  the  name  of 
 a  province  in  which  was  situated  tlie 
 earthly  Paradise,  or  the  garden  in  which 
 our  first  parents  had  their  early,  happy 
 home.  It  is  impossible  to  designate  its 
 position  after  so  great  a  lapse  of  time  and 
 so  many  changes  on  the  earth's  surface. 
 Perhaps  every  trace  of  it  was  obliterated 
 in  the  Deluge.  The  most  probable  opin- 
 ion is,  that  it  was  in  or  near  Armenia. 
 No  practical  purpose  would  be  effected 
 were  we  able  to  locate  it  beyond  dispute. 
 It  was  a  delightful  place,  where  the  pro- 
 genitoi*s  of  our  race  were  happy  until 
 tlieir  sin  marred  its  beauty  and  made  it 
 a  scene  of  sorrow  (Gen.  2  :  8 ;  3  :  24).  In 
 the  prophetic  writings  the  garden  of  Eden 
 is  a  general  figurative  expression  for  the 
 beauty  and  blessedness  which  God's  grace 
 secures  in  redeemed  human  souls  (Isa.  51  : 
 3;  Ezek.  36:  35). 
 
 E'dom  [the  red'],  the  same  country  as 
 that  designated  Idiimcea  by  the  Greeks 
 and  Romans  (Judg.  11  :  17).  Edom  was 
 one  of  the  names  of  Esau  (Gen.  25  :  30), 
 by  whose  descendants  this  region  was  peo- 
 pled. It  extends  from  the  Dead  Sea  to 
 the  Elanitic  Gulf,  a  brancli  of  tlie  Red 
 
 Sea.  It  was  anciently  called  Mount  Seir, 
 and  was  inhabited  by  the  Horim  until 
 they  were  expelled  by  Esau  ( Deut.  2  : 
 12).  Tlie  Ilorim  were  so  called  because 
 tliey  dwelt  in  caves,  like  those  probably 
 of  which  many  traces  are  still  to  be 
 seen  at  Petra,  their  renowned  metrop- 
 olis. The  Edomites  were  the  implac- 
 able enemies  of  Israel,  and  various  con- 
 flicts occurred  between  them  (1  Sam.  14: 
 47;  1  Chron.  18  :  12;  2  Chron.  25  :  11). 
 Tlie  Israelites  generally  held  them  in  sub- 
 jection, and  about  the  year  b.  c.  125  tliey 
 were  attacked  by  tlie  Maccabees,  and  finally 
 subdued  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  compelled 
 them  to  submit  to  circumcision  and  other 
 Jewish  rites.  Subsequently,  they  were 
 incorporated  with  other  tribes  and  lost 
 their  national  distinction.  Burckhardt 
 was  the  first  modern  traveler  who  passed 
 tlirough  the  land  of  Edom ;  this  was  in 
 the  year  1812.  Other  travelers  have 
 since  accomplished  the  journey,  and  their 
 descriptions  of  the  country  and  its  wonder- 
 ful ruins  possess  unusual  interest.  Edom 
 was  the  subject  of  many  prophetic  denun- 
 ciations which  have  been  accomplished  to 
 the  letter  (Joel  3  :  19;  Isa.  34  :  5 ;  Ezek. 
 25  :  12-14). 
 
 Ed're-i  [strength,  stronghold],  the  name 
 of  two  towns. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  metropolitan  or  royal 
 towns  of  the  kingdom  of  Bashan,  beyond 
 Jordan.  Here  Og,  the  gigantic  king  of 
 Bashan,  was  utterly  defeated  by  the  Is- 
 raelites, who  "smote  him  and  his  sons 
 and  all  his  people,  until  there  was  none 
 left  him  alive"  (Num.  21  :  3,3-.35).  It 
 was  in  the  territory  of  the  half-tribe  of 
 Manasseli  (Num.  32  :  33).  No  allusion 
 is  made  to  it  in  subsequent  Bible  history, 
 although  it  was  an  important  city  down  to 
 the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  Its  ruins 
 bear  the  name  Edra,  and  are  nearly  three 
 miles  in  circuit.  A  number  of  the  old 
 liouses  remain,  low,  massive,  gloomy  struc- 
 tures, some  of  tlie:ii  half  buried  in  rubbish. 
 
EGLON— EGYPT. 
 
 175 
 
 2.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  near 
 Kedesh  (Josh.  19  :  37). 
 
 Eg'lon,  tlie  name  of  a  king  and  of  a 
 city. 
 
 1.  A  king  of  the  Moabites  ( Jndg.  3  :  12), 
 who,  aided  by  the  Ammonites  and  Amal- 
 ekites,  crossed  the  J  ordan  and  took  "  the 
 city  of  palm  trees."  After  a  cruel  oppres- 
 sion of  the  Israelites  for  eighteen  years, 
 he  was  assassinated  by  Ehud  (Judg.  3  : 
 21). 
 
 2.  A  city  in  tlie  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. 
 15  :  39).  Its  king  formed  an  alliance 
 with  Adoni-zedek,  king  of  Jerusalem, 
 against  Gibeon,  but  was  utterly  overtlirown 
 by  Joshua  (.Josh.  10 : 1-11 ). 
 
 E'gypt,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  in- 
 teresting countries  of  the  world.  Egypt  is 
 the  name  by  which  it  was  known  to  the 
 Greeks,  but  whence  derived  and  what 
 tlie  precise  meaning  are  matters  of  dis- 
 
 pute. The  Hebrews  called  it  Mizraim, 
 from  the  second  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  10  :  6). 
 It  is  an  extended  and  mostly  a  narrow  val- 
 ley, stretching  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
 Assouan,  the  ancient  Syene,  and  giving  a 
 channel  to  the  Nile  from  south  to  north. 
 It  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Upper  and 
 Lower  Egypt.  Upper  Egypt  is  quite  nar- 
 row, and  is  defined  by  limestone  and  sand- 
 stone hills  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  wind- 
 ing Nile.  Lower  P^gypt,  however,  is  a  vast 
 and  most  productive  plain.  The  Nile 
 branches  into  several  streams,  the  two 
 largest  of  which  give  the  country  the 
 form  of  a  triangle  and  suggest  its  mod- 
 ern name  Delta,  from  its  resemblance  to 
 A  (delta),  tlie  fourth  letter  of  the  Greek 
 alphabet.  The  Delta,  owing  its  existence 
 to  the  deposits  of  mud  brought  down  by 
 the  great  river,  owes  also  its  fertility  to 
 the   river's   annual   overflow.     The  Nile, 
 
 Gateway  of  an  Egyptian  Temple. 
 
 indeed,  is  the  glory  and  the  life  of  the  I  of  very  rare  occurrence,  but  the  lack  of  it 
 whole  country.     A  fall  of  rain  is  an  event  I  is  abundantly  supplied  by  the  periodic  in- 
 
176 
 
 EHUD— ELAH. 
 
 undation.  The  river  begins  its  rise  in  the 
 Delta  in  early  June,  and  reaches  its  high- 
 est flood  about  the  middle  of  September, 
 when,  having  leaped  its  banks,  it  over- 
 spreads the  entire  valley,  and  on  the  sur- 
 face of  the  land  leaves  nothing  visible  but 
 date  trees  and  villages.  Upon  its  subsi- 
 dence, toward  the  close  of  November,  it 
 deposits  a  coating  of  black,  slimy  mud, 
 which  for  seed-time  is  all  the  preparation 
 that  is  needed.  The  cultivator  has  little 
 more  to  do  now  than  to  sow  his  grain. 
 With  surprising  rapidity  tlie  richest  vege- 
 tation springs  into  growth,  and  the  whole 
 country  is  converted  into  a  beautiful  and 
 fruitful  garden.  To  the  fertility  of  Egypt 
 the  Scriptures  bear  emphatic  testimony. 
 Thither  Abraham  went  when  "famine 
 was  grievous  in  the  land"  of  Canaan 
 (Gen.  12  :  10).  Thither,  too,  the  sons  of 
 Jacob  went  "to  buy  corn"  when  "in  all 
 lands  the  famine  was  sore"  (Gen.  42  :  1-3). 
 Thither,  moreover,  the  Israelites  turned 
 with  regretful  longings  when  in  the  wil- 
 derness they  recollected  the  varied  plenty 
 which  once  was  theirs,  and  looked  with  dis- 
 dain upon  the  manna  which  was  their  sole 
 subsistence  (Num.  11  :  4-6).  Egypt  is  a 
 land  of  wonder,  not  alone  for  the  river 
 which  gives  it  existence  and  keeps  it  fer- 
 tile, but  also  for  the  monuments  of  its 
 ancient  extraordinary  civilization.  Its 
 pyramids,  temples,  colossal  statues  and 
 wellnigh  innumerable  tombs  with  the 
 mummied  remains  of  departed  genera- 
 tions, have  nothing  elsewhere  to  surpass 
 or  equal  them.  These,  for  thousands  of 
 years,  have  attracted  the  curiosity  and 
 have  challenged  the  admiration  of  the 
 world,  and  for  thousands  of  years  to  come, 
 doubtless,  will  continue  to  do  so.  Egypt 
 fills  a  large  space  in  Scripture  history 
 and  prophecy.  It  was  the  residence  of 
 the  patriarchs,  the  house  of  bondage  to 
 the  Hebrews,  the  scene  of  the  Exodus 
 and  the  shelter  of  the  holy  child  Jesus. 
 It  was  denounced  by  Isaiah,  Jeremiali, 
 
 Ezekiel,  Joel  and  Zechariah,  and  its  pres- 
 ent condition  is  one  of  many  proofs  that  in 
 uttering  predictions  these  prophets  "  spake 
 as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 
 E'hud  [un/o/i],  son  of  Gera  of  the  tribe 
 of  Benjamin  ( Judg.  3 :  lo),  the  second  judge 
 of  the  Israelites.  As  a  Benjamite,  he  was 
 specially  chosen  to  destroy  Eglon,  king  of 
 the  Moabites,  who  had  established  himself 
 in  Jericho.  He  was  a  left-handed  man 
 and  very  strong. 
 
 Ek^ron  [barren],  the  chief  and  most 
 northerly  of  the  five  Philistine  cities 
 (Josh.  13  :  3).  In  the  first  distribution 
 of  the  land  it  was  assigned  to  Judah 
 (Josh.  15  :  45),  but  afterward  to  the  tribe 
 of  Dan  (Josh.  19  :  43).  From  thence  the 
 ark  was  sent  home  in  a  new  cart  ( 1  Sam. 
 5 :  10 ;  6  :  10, 11 ).  Dr.  Robinson  has  iden- 
 tified the  place  with  a  small  Moslem  vil- 
 lage five  miles  south  of  Eamleh,  named 
 'Alcir,  and  situated  near  a  long  sandy  swell 
 reaching  to  the  sea-coast.  The  proximity 
 of  the  ancient  city  to  this  dry,  barren  spur 
 seems  to  have  originated  its  name.  The 
 modern  site  shows  no  ruins.  The  proph- 
 ecy of  Zephaniah  has  been  literally  ful- 
 filled:  "Ekron  shall  be  rooted  up" 
 (Zeph.  2  :  4). 
 
 E'lah  [terebinth'],  the  name  of  a  valley 
 and  of  a  king. 
 
 1.  The  valley  in  which  David  sIcav  Go- 
 liath (1  Sam.  17  :  19).  Dr.  Robinson  iden- 
 tifies it  with  the  Wddy  es-Siimt,  or  Valley 
 of  Acacias,  some  fourteen  miles  south-west 
 from  Jerusalem,  on  the  way  to  Gaza.  It 
 presents  an  open  space  of  a  mile  in  width, 
 with  a  torrent-bed  strewed  with  roimd  peb- 
 bles in  the  centre. 
 
 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha, 
 king  of  Israel  (1  Kings  16  :  8-10).  His 
 reign  lasted  for  little  more  tlian  a  year. 
 He  was  killed  while  drunk  by  Zimri,  who, 
 usurping  the  throne  and  slaying  "all  the 
 house  of  Baasha,"  brought  about  the  ac- 
 complishment of  the  prophet  Jehu's  ter- 
 rible predictions  (1  Kings  16  :  11-13). 
 
ELAM— ELDER 
 
 177 
 
 E^'lam,  so  called  from  a  descendant  of 
 Shem  (Gen.  10  :  22),  was  the  region  of 
 country  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
 denominated  Elymais,  and  which  formed 
 a  part  of  the  ancient  Snsiana,  the  present 
 Shusistan.  It  embraced  the  country  on 
 the  east  of  the  river  Tigris,  including 
 most  of  the  plain  south  of  the  mountains 
 and  a  considerable  district  in  the  moun- 
 tains. In  later  times  it  was  a  prominent 
 and  powerful  province,  and  under  its  name 
 the  sacred  writers  comprehended  the  coun- 
 try of  the  Persians  in  general.  It  is  men- 
 tioned as  a  distinct  kingdom  as  early  as  the 
 times  of  Abraham,  when  Chedorlaomer  is 
 referred  to  as  its  king  (Gen.  14  :  1).  The 
 cuneiform  inscriptions  record  an  Elamite 
 conquest  of  Babylon,  b.  c.  2280,  and  refer 
 very  often  to  Elamite  struggles  for  suprem- 
 acy, with  the  Babylonians  on  the  one  hand 
 and  the  Assyrians  on  the  otlier.  In  Elam 
 the  city  Shushan  of  which  Daniel  speaks 
 (8  :  2)  was  situated.  Allusions  to  Elam 
 may  also  be  found  in  several  of  the  proph- 
 ets. Elamites,  or  exile  Jews  who  had  set- 
 tled there,  were  in  Jerusalem  at  the  feast 
 of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  9). 
 
 E'lath.  [(/rove'],  a  city  of  Edom  or  Idu- 
 msea,  and  a  seaport  on  the  eastern  or  Elan- 
 itio  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  now  the  Gulf  of 
 Akaba,  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Deut.  2  : 
 8,  and  it  became  commercially  a  place  of 
 considerable  importance  (1  Kings  9  :  26). 
 
 El-Beth'el  [God  of  Bethel],  the  nam* 
 given  by  Jacob  to  the  altar  which,  upon 
 his  return  to  Canaan  from  Padan-Aram, 
 he  erected  on  the  spot  where  God  appear- 
 ed to  him  when  he  fled  from  the  face  of 
 his  brother  (Gen.  35  :  7). 
 
 EPdad  [loved  of  God].  He  and  Medad 
 were  two  of  the  seventy  elders  whom  Moses 
 appointed  to  assist  in  tlie  government,  and 
 to  whom  God  imparted  the  power  of  proph- 
 ecy (Num.  11  :  16,  26).  When  the  elders, 
 at  the  time  of  their  appointment,  were  as- 
 sembled around  the  tabernacle,  Eldad  and 
 Medad  remained  in  the  camp,  yet  received 
 12 
 
 the  same  prophetic  spirit  which  their 
 brethren  received ;  they  began  to  proph- 
 esy. When  Moses  was  asked  to  prohibit 
 them  he  declined,  saying  that  he  desired 
 all  the  Lord's  people  to  be  prophets  and 
 to  have  upon  them  the  Lord's  Spirit 
 (Num.  11  :  29). 
 
 EFder.  The  term  elder  {old  man,  as 
 the  original  word  thus  rendered  imports) 
 was  one  of  extensive  use  among  the  lle- 
 ))rews  and  the  surroimding  nations.  It 
 had  reference  to  various  offices  (Gen.  24  : 
 2;  50  :  7;  2  Sara.  12  :  17).  Wherever  a 
 patriarchal  system  was  in  force  the  office 
 of  the  elder  was  the  keystone  of  the  social 
 and  political  fabric ;  it  is  so  at  the  present 
 day  among  the  Arabs,  where  the  sheikh 
 (literally,  the  old  man)  is  the  highest  au- 
 thority in  the  tribe.  The  earliest  notice 
 of  the  elders  acting  in  concert  as  a  polit- 
 ical body  is  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus. 
 They  were  the  representatives  of  the 
 people — so  much  so  that  elders  and  peo- 
 ple are  occasionally  used  as  equivalent 
 terms  (comp.  Josh.  24  :  1  witli  2,  19,  21 ; 
 1  Sam.  8  :  4  with  7,  10,  19).  Their  author- 
 ity was  undefined,  and  extended  to  all 
 matters  concerning  the  public  weal.  When 
 the  tribes  became  settled  tlie  elders  were 
 distinguished  by  different  titles,  according 
 as  they  were  acting  as  national  representa- 
 tives, as  district  governors  over  the  several 
 tribes  (Deut.  31  :  28 ;  2  Sam.  19  :  11)  or  as 
 local  magistrates  in  the  provincial  towns, 
 whose  duty  it  was  to  sit  in  the  gate  and  ad- 
 minister justice  (Deut.  19  :  12 ;  Ruth  4  :  9, 
 11 ;  1  Kings  21  :  8).  They  retained  their 
 position  under  all  the  political  changes 
 which  the  Jews  underwent  under  the 
 judges  ( Judg.  2  :  7 ;  1  Sam.  4:3);  under 
 the  kings  (2  Sam.  17:4);  during  the  Cap- 
 tivity ( Jer.  29 : 1 ;  Ezek.  8:1);  subsequent- 
 ly to  the  Return  (Ezra  5:5;  6 :  7,  14 ;  10  : 
 8,  14) ;  under  the  Maccabees,  when  they 
 were  described  sometimes  as  the  senate, 
 sometimes  by  their  ordinary  title;  and, 
 lastly,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 
 
178 
 
 ELEALEH— ELECT,  ELECTION. 
 
 tian  era,  when  they  are  noticed  as  a  dis- 
 tinct body  from  the  Sanhedrim  (Luke  22  : 
 66  ;  Acts  22  :  5).  These  elders  in  tlie  Jew- 
 ish commonwealtli  were  the  prototypes  of 
 the  elders  in  the  Jewish  Church.  After 
 tlie  return  from  the  Captivity  synagogues 
 or  congregations  were  formed  in  tlie  cities 
 and  towns  of  Palestine,  and  wherever  also 
 Jews  might  be  found,  for  the  reading  of 
 the  Law  and  of  prayers.  The  govern- 
 ment of  each  synagogue  was  committed 
 to  a  college  of  elders  (Luke  7  :  3),  pre- 
 sided over  by  one  who  was  the  chief  of 
 the  synagogue  (Luke  8  :  41,  49;  13  :  14; 
 Acts  18  :  8,  17)  and  the  officiating  minis- 
 ter. As  the  Christian  Church  had  its  be- 
 ginning among  Jews,  so  its  government 
 was  modeled  after  the  government  of  the 
 synagogue.  In  every  church  a  chief  elder 
 was  the  minister,  and  with  a  college  of  el- 
 ders exercised  governmental  control.  It 
 is  to  be  observed,  too,  that  in  the  early 
 Christian  Church  the  elders  or  presbyters 
 held  an  office  which  was  identical  with 
 that  of  bishops  (Acts  20  :  17,  28;  Tit.  1  : 
 5,  7).  In  the  organization  of  the  Presby- 
 terian Church  the  primitive  pattern  in  the 
 designation  of  officers  has  been  strictly  ad- 
 liered  to.  The  scriptural  bishop  or  preach- 
 ing elder  is  the  ordinary  minister  of  the 
 gosi>el,  who,  with  the  ruling  elders,  has 
 the  charge  or  oversight  of  a  church  (1 
 Tim.  o  :  17).  The  ruling  elders  are  re- 
 ferred to  in  1  Cor.  12  :  28  under  the  des- 
 ignation of  "governments;"  in  Rom.  12  : 
 8  they  are  described  as  ruling  with  diligence. 
 See  Bishop. 
 
 E-le-a'leh  \^God  hnx  ascendedl,  a  city 
 of  the  Amorites  on  the  east  of  the  Jor- 
 dan, assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  who 
 possessed  it  and  rebuilt  it  (Num.  32  :  3, 
 37).  It  is  denounced  in  the  prophecies 
 as  a  Moabite  town  (Isa.  15:4;  16:9; 
 Jer.  4S  :  34).  It  is  usually  mentioned  in 
 connection  with  Heshbon,  and  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  that  phice  there  are  the  ruins  of 
 a  town  still  called  el-Aal,  "  the  high." 
 
 Ele-a'zar  [God  has  helped},  a  very 
 common  name  among  the  Hebrews.  Three 
 persons  who  bore  it  need  only  be  men- 
 tioned. 
 
 1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron,  and  his  suc- 
 cessor in  the  office  of  the  high  priesthood 
 (Ex.  6  :  23  ;  Num.  20  :  2.5-28).  In  con- 
 junction with  Mose^  he  superintended  the 
 census  of  the  people  (Num.  26  :  3).  After 
 the  conquest  of  Canaan  he  took  part  in  the 
 distribution  of  the  land  (.Josh.  14:1).  He 
 was  succeeded  in  the  high  priesthood  by 
 his  son  Phinehas,  the  office  continuing  in 
 his  line  through  seven  successions,  when 
 it  passed  into  the  line  of  Ithamar  in  the 
 person  of  Eli. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Abinadab,  who  was  ap- 
 pointed to  attend  the  ark  while  it  was 
 in  his  father's  house  (1  Sam.  7  :  1). 
 
 3.  The  son  of  Dodo,  one  of  three  dis- 
 tinguished warriors  who  aided  David  in 
 withstanding  the  Philistines  after  the  men 
 of  Israel  had  retired  (2  Sara.  23  :  9,  10). 
 
 Elect,  E-lec'tion.  These  terms  are 
 of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Scriptures, 
 and  when  used  in  a  religious  sense  desig- 
 nate the  sovereign  act  of  God  in  choosing 
 from  eternity  some  men  to  salvation.  In 
 relation  to  those  who  shall  be  saved,  God 
 is  represented  as  purposing,  decreeing,  or- 
 daining, electing,  choosing,  predestinating 
 (Mark  13  :  27  ;  Luke  18:7;  Acts  13  :  48 ; 
 Rom.  8  :  28-33;  9  :  10-26;  Eph.  1  :  4,  5, 
 11 ;  Col.  3:12;  1  Thess.  1 :  4 ;  2  Thess.  2  : 
 13;  2  Tim.  1:9;  Tit.  1:1-3;  1  Pet.  1:2; 
 2  Pet.  1  :  10).  By  a  comparison  of  the 
 various  passages  it  is  manifest  that  God's 
 election  is  of  mere  grace ;  that  it  is  unin- 
 fluenced by  any  foreseen  works  in  the 
 creature;  that  it  cannot  be  defeated  by 
 any  possible  circumstances ;  that  it  is  the 
 only  security  of  the  believer ;  that  it  is 
 infinitely  just  as  well  as  merciful ;  and 
 that  it  is  in  conformity  with  it  that  the 
 elect  are  inspired  with  faith,  enabled  to 
 trust  in  Christ  and  to  render  a  holy  obe- 
 dience.    So  clearly  is  this  doctrine  taught 
 
ELECT  LADY— ELIAB. 
 
 179 
 
 in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  so  completely  does 
 it  pervade  them,  and  so  inwrought  is  it 
 with  their  whole  texture,  that  the  attempt 
 to  dissever  it  from  the  system  of  revealed 
 truth  not  only  does  violence  to  the  ex- 
 plicit language  in  which  it  is  set  forth, 
 but  mars  the  whole  fabric  and  threatens 
 to  overturn  it  from  its  very  foundation. 
 To  affirm  that  it  exhibits  God  as  a  par- 
 tial and  unjust  being,  and  that  it  encour- 
 ages the  sinner  in  his  impenitence,  is  to 
 chai-ge  God  foolishly. 
 
 Elect  Lady.  John  directs  his  second 
 Epistle  to  the  elect  lady — that  is,  to  one  so 
 distinguished  by  her  piety  as  to  be  thus 
 styled  (2  John  1).  Grotius,  Wetstein  and 
 other  interpreters  contend,  however,  that 
 the  address  of  the  Epistle  should  be  "  The 
 presbyter  to  the  Lady  Electa." 
 
 El-El'o-he-Is-ra'el  [Mighty  One, 
 God  of  Israel],  the  name  bestowed  by  Ja- 
 cob on  the  altar  which  he  erected  facing 
 the  city  of  Shechem  (Gen.  33 :  20).  It  des- 
 ignates God  as  the  Being  who  can  do  what- 
 ever seems  good  to  him,  and  who  in  the  re- 
 cent experience  of  Jacob  had  peculiarly 
 manifested  his  power  in  overcoming  the 
 deep-rooted  enmity  of  Esau. 
 
 El-e^ments,  the  first  principles  of 
 which  other  things  are  composed  or 
 whence  they  proceed,  according  to  the 
 ancient  belief  that  all  bodies  consist  of 
 certain  constituents,  into  which  they  are 
 resolvable.  The  word  occurs  in  its  pri- 
 mary sense  in  2  Pet.  3  :  10,  "  the  elements 
 shall  melt  with  fervent  heat,"  and  is  obvi- 
 ously used  to  designate  that  of  which  the 
 outward  form  of  nature  is  composed.  The 
 word  occurs  in  a  secondary  sense  in  Gal. 
 4  :  3-9,  where  the  apostle  Paul  character- 
 izes "  the  elements  of  the  world  "  as  "  weak 
 and  beggarly  elements,"  and  where  }^  "the 
 elements  of  the  world  "  he  evidently  means 
 that  state  of  religious  knowledge  which  had 
 subsisted  in  the  world  among  Jews  and 
 Gentiles  before  Christ,  and  which  was  too 
 weak  to  sanctify  and  save  the  human  soul 
 
 (Heb.  7  :  18,  19;  Kom.  1  :  20-32).  The 
 same  word,  with  a  similar  sense,  is  ren- 
 dered rudiments  in  Col.  2  :  8,  20. 
 
 E^li  [ascent'],  a  high  priest  of  the  Jews 
 and  a  descendant  of  Aaron  through  Ith- 
 amar,  the  fourth  and  youngest  of  Aaron's 
 sons  (Lev.  10  :  1,  2,  12).  He  is  generally 
 supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  line  of 
 Ithamar  who  held  the  office  of  high  priest, 
 but  why  the  office  was  transferred  from  the 
 line  of  Eleazar  to  that  of  Ithamar  is  not 
 known.  In  addition  to  the  office  of  high 
 priest,  lie  held  that  of  judge.  He  was  an 
 eminently  pious,  yet  a  singularly  wavering 
 and  weak  man.  His  sons,  Hophni  and 
 Phinehas,  whom  he  invested  with  author- 
 ity, misconducted  themselves  so  outrage- 
 ously as  to  excite  deep  disgust  among  the 
 people  and  render  the  services  of  the  tab- 
 ernacle odious  in  their  eyes  (1  Sam.  2  :  22- 
 36).  Of  this  misconduct  Eli  was  aware, 
 but,  instead  of  repressing  it  by  prompt 
 and  proper  punishment,  he  contented 
 himself  with  a  mild  and  ineffectual  re- 
 monstrance. For  this  culpable  weakness 
 and  very  grave  error  the  judgment  of 
 God  was  denounced  upon  his  house 
 through  the  young  Samuel,  who  under 
 peculiar  circumstances  had  been  attached 
 from  childhood  to  his  person  (1  Sam.  3  : 
 11-15).  The  denunciation  was  unfulfilled 
 for  years,  but  at  length  it  came  in  a  ter- 
 rible crash  which  broke  the  old  man's 
 heart.  In  one  day  his  sons  were  slain  in 
 battle,  the  ark  of  the  Lord  captured,  and 
 he  himself  so  overwhelmed  with  the  sad 
 intelligence  that  he  fell  from  his  seat  and 
 expired  (1  Sam.  4  :  17,  18).  The  doom 
 on  his  house  was  completed  in  the  re- 
 moval, by  Solomon,  of  Abiathar,  his  de- 
 scendant, from  the  office  of  high  priest, 
 and  the  restoration  of  it  to  the  line  of 
 Eleazar  (1  Kings  2  :  27). 
 
 E-li'ab  [my  God  is  father'],  the  name  of 
 several  men,  of  whom  one  only,  the  eldest 
 son  of  Jesse  and  brother  of  David  (1  Sam. 
 16  :  6 ;  17  :  13,  28 ;  1  Chron.  2  :  13),  need 
 
180 
 
 ELIAKIM— ELIJAH. 
 
 be  mentioned.  From  his  treatment  of 
 his  brother  David  when  the  latter  pro- 
 posed to  fight  Goliath,  he  seems  to  have 
 been  a  man  of  an  envious,  irascible  tem- 
 per, and  of  a  haughty,  contemptuous  bear- 
 ing. 
 
 E-li'a-kira  \_my  God  will  raise  i/p],  the 
 name  of  several  men,  of  whom  two  only 
 need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Hilkiah,  master  of  Hezekiah's 
 household  (2  Kings  18  :  18,  26,  37).  He 
 was  a  good  man,  and  acted  as  a  "father 
 to  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  and  to 
 the  house  of  Judah"  (Isa.  22  :  21). 
 
 2.  The  original  name  of  Jehoiakim, 
 king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  23 :  34;  2  Chron. 
 36  :  4). 
 
 E-li'as,  the  form  in  which  the  name 
 of  Elijah  is  given  in  our  English  Ver- 
 sion of  the  New  Testament. 
 
 E-li'a-shib  [my  Ood  will  reMore'],  the 
 high  priest  of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Ne- 
 liemiah  (Neh.  13  :  28),  who,  rebuilding  the 
 eastern  city  wall  adjoining  the  temple,  des- 
 ecrated the  holy  house  by  preparing  in  it 
 a  chamber  for  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh. 
 13  :  5).  This  and  other  acts  of  impiety 
 were  resented  and  punished  by  Nehemiah 
 (13:  8,  28). 
 
 E-li-e^zer  \_my  God  is  help],  the  name 
 of  eleven  persons  in  Scripture,  of  whom 
 three  only  need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  The  steward  and  probably  a  relative 
 of  Abraham  (Gen.  15 :  2,  3).  His  office  in 
 Abraham's  household  and  his  special  rela- 
 tions to  the  patriarch  have  occasioned  much 
 conjecture  and  cannot  be  determined. 
 
 2.  The  second  of  the  two  sons  of  Moses 
 and  Zipporah,  born  during  the  exile  in 
 Midian  (Ex.  18  :  4). 
 
 3.  A  prophet,  the  son  of  Dodavah,  who 
 foretold  to  Jehoshaphat  tliat  the  merchant 
 fleet  he  had  fitted  out  in  partnership  with 
 Ahaziah  should  be  wrecked  (2  Chron.  20  : 
 37),  and  who  thus  prevented  the  sailing  to 
 Tarshish. 
 
 E-li'hu  [God  is  He,  that  is,  Jehovah], 
 
 one  of  Job's  friends  and  a  supposed  rela- 
 tive of  Abraham  (Job  32  :  2 ;  Gen.  22  :  21 ). 
 He  was  present  during  the  controversy 
 between  Job  and  the  three  illustrious 
 men  touching  the  cause  of  Job's  calami- 
 ties, and  at  its  close  made  an  eloquent 
 and  effective  address,  in  which  he  rebuked 
 Job  for  justifying  himself,  and  the  three 
 men  for  their  unfair  and  unsatisfactory 
 mode  of  answering  the  afflicted  patri- 
 arch. 
 
 E-li''jah  [my  God  is  Jehovah],  a  distin- 
 guished prophet,  of  whose  parentage  and 
 early  life  the  Scriptures  are  silent.  He 
 was  called  the  Tishbite,  either  from  the 
 place  in  which  he  was  born  or  tliat  cha- 
 racter of  "the  wanderer"  he  was  called 
 to  sustain  (1  Kings  17  :  1).  liis  career 
 was  a  remarkable  one.  With  great  bold- 
 ness he  rebuked  the  wickedness  of  Ahab, 
 king  of  Israel,  who,  togetlier  with  the 
 greater  portion  of  the  people,  was  sunk 
 in  gross  idolatry.  In  answer  to  his 
 prayers  a  drought  of  three  years  and  six 
 months'  continuance,  which  brought  the 
 extremest  misery  on  the  nation,  was  sent 
 and  removed  (James  5  :  17,  18).  Despite 
 the  indefatigable  efforts  of  King  Ahab 
 and  his  infamous  wife,  Jezebel,  to  destroy 
 him,  he  was  so  protected  by  Jehovah's 
 miraculous  interposition  that  he  uniform- 
 ly and  always  escaped.  While  concealed 
 in  the  deep  and  desolate  ravine  of  the 
 brook  Cherith  the  ravens  brought  him 
 food  (1  Kings  17  :  6).  At  Zarephath,  a 
 Phoenician  town  lying  between  Tyre  and 
 Sidon,  he  was  sheltered  by  a  poor  widow, 
 whose  handful  of  meal  and  cruse  of  oil 
 were  made  unfailing,  and  whose  dead  son 
 was  restored  to  life  (1  Kings  17  :  10-24). 
 At  the  close  of  the  drought  he  reappeared 
 to  King  Ahab,  and  summoned  him  and 
 the  nation  to  meet  him  at  Mount  Carmel. 
 Here  transpired  one  of  the  strangest  and 
 sublimest  scenes  of  history.  Elijah  alone 
 began  a  contest  with  eight  hundred  and 
 fifty  prophets  of  Baal  and  Ashtaroth  to 
 
ELIM— ELLASAE. 
 
 181 
 
 determine  whether  Jehovah  or  Baal  were 
 God.  The  contest  ended  in  the  triumph 
 of  Jeliovah,  the  slaughter  of  the  prophets 
 of  Baal  and  Ashtaroth  by  Elijah's  own 
 hand,  the  oncoming  of  the  long-with- 
 held rain,  the  rage  and  threatened  ven- 
 geance of  Jezebel,  the  queen,  against  the 
 Lord's  prophet,  and  his  flight  to  the  rocky 
 fastnesses  of  Sinai.  When  his  marvelous 
 ministry  was  accomplished  he  was  trans- 
 lated to  heaven  in  a  fiery  chariot,  being 
 exempted  from  the  pains  of  death  (2 
 Kings  2  :  11).  A  further  and  more  glo- 
 rious distinction  awaited  him.  In  com- 
 pany with  Moses  he  appeared  on  the 
 Mount  of  Transfiguration  and  com- 
 muned with  our  Lord  "of  his  decease, 
 which  he  should  accomplish  at  Jerusa- 
 lem" (Luke  9:31). 
 
 E'lim  [trees'],  the  second  station  of  the 
 Hebrew  host  after  they  had  crossed  the 
 Red  Sea.  It  had  twelve  wells  of  water 
 and  seventy  palm  trees  (Ex.  1.5  :  27). 
 
 E-lim^e-lech  [my  God  is  king'],  a  na- 
 tive of  Bethlehem  and  husband  of  Naomi, 
 Ruth's  mother-in-law  (Ruth  1  :  2). 
 
 Eri-phaz  [my  Goc^/ss^renr/Z/i],  the  lead- 
 ing one  of  the  three  friends  who  visited  Job 
 on  the  occasion  of  his  sudden  and  sore  trial. 
 What  he  said  is  recorded  in  Job  4,  5,  15, 
 22. 
 
 E-lis^a-beth  [same  name  as  Elish- 
 eba],  the  wife  of  Zacharias  and  mother 
 of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  1:5).  She 
 was  a  descendant  of  Aaron  and  a  devout 
 woman. 
 
 E-li''sha  [my  Ood  is  salvation],  a  distin- 
 guished prophet  of  the  Lord,  the  successor 
 of  Elijah,  whose  translation  he  witnessed 
 and  whose  mantle  rested  on  him.  His 
 history  is  equally  remarkable  with  that 
 of  his  predecessor.  He  was  at  the  head 
 of  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  performed 
 miracles  in  attestation  of  his  divine  mis- 
 sion, uttered  predictions  which  were  lit- 
 erally fulfilled  and  was  a  faithful  witness 
 for  God.     As  in  the  case  of  Elijah,  a  bless- 
 
 ing attended  those  who  hospitably  enter- 
 tained him.  He  raised  the  dead  to  life, 
 denounced  curses  which  were  fearfully 
 executed,  and  promised  blessings  which 
 were  fully  realized.  After  a  long  life,  he 
 died  in  peace.  His  remarkable  life  is  best 
 portrayed  in  the  language  of  Scripture  (1 
 Kings  19  :  16-21;  2  Kings  2-9;  13  :  14- 
 21). 
 
 E-li'shah,  the  oldest  of  the  four 
 sons  of  Javan  (Gen.  10:4;  1  Chron. 
 1:7).  He  seems  to  have  given  name 
 to  certain  countries  on  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, "the  isles  (or  shores)  of  Elisha," 
 which  are  described  as  exporting  fabrics 
 of  purple  and  scarlet  to  the  markets  of 
 Tyre  (Ezek.  27  :  7).  The  most  probable 
 conjecture  respecting  the  people  inhabit- 
 ing these  countries  or  isles  identifies 
 them  with  those  ^Eolians  who  emigrat- 
 ed from  Greece  into  Asia  Minor,  and 
 who  in  Ezekiel's  time  occupied  the  north- 
 west of  that  region,  named  after  them  ^o- 
 lis,  together  with  the  islands  of  Lesbos  and 
 Tenedos. 
 
 E-lisll''a-ma  [my  God  has  heard],  son 
 of  Ammihud,  the  "  prince  "  or  "  captain  "  of 
 the  tribe  of  Ephraim  in  the  wilderness  of 
 Sinai  (Num.  1:10;  2  :  18 ;  7  :  48  ;  10  :  22). 
 From  1  Chron.  7  :  26  we  find  that  he  was 
 grandfather  to  the  great  Joshua. 
 
 E-lish'e-ba  [my  God  hath  sworn],  the 
 wife  of  Aaron  (Ex.  6  :  23).  She  was  the 
 daughter  of  Amminadab  and  sister  of 
 Naashon,  the  captain  of  the  host  of  Ju- 
 dah  (Num.  2  :  3). 
 
 El-ka^nah  [God  has  created],  a  Ko- 
 hathite  Levite,  and  the  father  of  Sam- 
 uel, the  illustrious  judge  and  prophet  (1 
 Sam.  1  :  1,  20). 
 
 El'kosh,  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet 
 Nahum  (Nah.  1:1).  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  a  small  village  of  Galilee. 
 
 EFla-sar,  a  city  with  contiguous  ter- 
 ritory in  ancient  Shinar  or  Chaldsea,  whose 
 king,  Arioch,  in  the  time  of  Abraham  was 
 one  of  the  confederates  of  Chedorlaomer  in 
 
182 
 
 ELM— EMMAUS. 
 
 the  invasion  of  Canaan  (Gen.  14  : 1).  Some 
 erroneously  suppose  it  to  be  the  same  with 
 Thelasar,  mentioned  in  2  Kings  19:12.  It 
 is  the  modern  Senkereh,  on  tlie  left  bank  of 
 the  Euplirates.  Inscriptions  found  here 
 import  that  the  place  is  more  ancient  than 
 Babylon. 
 
 Sim.  The  original  of  this  word  YHos. 
 4  :  13)  is  elsewhere  and  uniformly  ren- 
 dered Oak  (which  see). 
 
 El-na^than  [God  has  given],  the  ma- 
 ternal grandfather  of  King  Jehoiachin  (2 
 Kings  24  :  8),  and  tlie  same  man,  doubt- 
 less, with  Elnathan  the  son  of  Achbor 
 ( Jer.  26  :  22 ;  36  :  12,  25). 
 
 E'loi  [my  God],  the  Syro-Chaldaic  form 
 of  the  Plebrew  E'li  (Mark  15  :  34).  Our 
 Lord  quotes  Ps.  22  :  1. 
 
 E'lon  [oak],  the  name  of  a  place  and 
 of  tliree  men. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  the  boi-der  of  the  tribe  of 
 Dan  (Josh.  19  :  43),  more  fully  called  (1 
 Kings  4  :  9)  Elon-beth-Hanan. 
 
 2.  A  Hittite,  whose  daughter  was  one 
 of  Esau's  wives  (Gen.  26  :  34 ;  36  :  2). 
 
 3.  The  second  of  the  three  sons  of  Zeb- 
 ulun  (Gen.  46  :  14),  and  father  of  the 
 fomily  of  the  Elonites  (Num.  26  :  26). 
 
 4.  A  native  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun, 
 who  judged  Israel  for  ten  years,  and  was 
 buried  in  Aijalon  in  Zebulun  (Judg.  12  : 
 11,  12). 
 
 E'loth  [<j-ees],  another  form  of  Elath 
 (1  Kings  9  :  26;  2  Chron.  8  :  17). 
 
 El-to'lad,  one  of  the  cities  in  the 
 south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  30)  allotted  to 
 Simeon  (Josh.  19  :  4),  and  in  possession 
 of  that  tribe  until  the  time  of  David  (1 
 Chron.  4  :  29). 
 
 E'lul,  a  Hebrew  month,  the  twelfth  of 
 the  civil  and  sixth  of  the  sacred  year 
 reckoning  (Neh.  6  :  15).  It  began  with 
 the  new  moon  of  our  August  or  Septem- 
 ber, and  consisted  of  twenty-nine  days. 
 
 Ery-mas,  the  Arabic  name  of  the 
 Jewish  magus  or  sorcerer  Bar-jesus  (Acts 
 13  :  6-8). 
 
 Em-balm'ing',  the  process  by  which 
 dead  l)odies  were  preserved  from  putrefac- 
 tion and  decay.   It  was  most  general  among 
 
 Embalming. 
 
 the  Egyptians,  and  it  is  in  connection  with 
 this  people  that  the  two  instances  which  we 
 meet  with  in  the  Old  Testament  are  men- 
 tioned (Gen.  50  :  2,  26).    See  Burial. 
 
 Em-broi^de-ry  and  Nee'dle- 
 work.  The  Egyptians  were  celebrated 
 for  their  skill  in  this  kind  of  work,  and 
 from  them,  doubtless,  the  Hebrew  women 
 learned  the  art,  which  was  put  to  good  use 
 in  the  preparation  of  the  tabernacle  and 
 the  sacerdotal  robes  (Ex.  26  :  36 ;  27  :  16 ; 
 28  :  39). 
 
 Em'er-ald,  a  precious  stone  of  a  bril- 
 liant green  color  (Ex.  28  :  18 ;  Rev.  21  : 
 19).  It  was  the  first  in  the  second  row  on 
 the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest.  The 
 rainbow  round  the  throne  (Rev.  4  :  3)  is 
 compared  to  an  emerald. 
 
 Em'e-rods,  a  painful  disease  with 
 which  the  Philistines  were  afflicted  (1 
 Sam.  5:6,  9,  12;  6:4,  5,  11),  probably 
 hemorrhoidal  tumors  or  bleeding  piles. 
 
 E'mims  [terrors],  a  numerous  and  gi- 
 gantic race  of  people  who  in  the  time  of 
 Abraham  occupied  the  country  beyond  the 
 Jordan,  afterward  possessed  by  the  Moab- 
 ites  (Gen.  14  :  5;  Deut.  2  :  10,  11). 
 
 Em-man'u-el  (Matt.  1  :  23).  See 
 Immanukl. 
 
 Em'maus  [hoi  springs],  the  village 
 about  seven  and  a  half  miles  from  Jeru- 
 salem whither  were  going  the  two  disci- 
 
EN— EN-GEDI. 
 
 183 
 
 pies  to  whom  our  Lord,  after  his  resur- 
 rection, appeared  (Luke  24  :  13).  Its  site 
 is  one  of  the  vexed  questions  of  biblical 
 geography.  In  the  absence  of  any  notice 
 in  Scripture  or  elsewhere  of  its  direction 
 from  Jerusalem,  conjecture  has  located  it, 
 now  on  the  north-west  of  the  city,  now  on 
 the  west,  and  now  on  the  south-west.  It 
 has  been  recently  suggested  that  Khamasa, 
 the  name  of  a  ruin  about  eight  miles  from 
 Jerusalem,  near  the  Roman  road  which 
 runs  south-west  by  Solomon's  Pools  to 
 Beit  Jibrin,  is  an  Arabic  corruption  of 
 Hammath  or  Ammaus,  and  may  there- 
 fore be  regarded  as  mai'king  the  site  of 
 the  ancient  Emmaus.  Near  the  ruin  are 
 a  spring  of  clear  water  and  a  little  pool, 
 with  the  remains  of  a  small  church. 
 
 En  lafountainl.  It  is  found  in  compo- 
 sition with  names  of  certain  places.     See 
 
 AiN. 
 
 En-chant'm.ents.  The  Scriptures 
 refer  to  enchanters,  magicians,  sorcerers, 
 wizards,  diviners,  necromancers,  with  spe- 
 cial condemnation  (Deut.  18  :  9-12).  It 
 is  difficult  to  tell  the  precise  diflerence 
 between  them.  They  alike  pretended  to 
 a  secret  power  or  art  of  unfolding  the  fu- 
 ture, seeing  into  things  hidden,  perform- 
 ing supernatural  works.  Their  success  is 
 jirincipally  to  be  ascribed  to  the  credulity 
 of  those  on  whom  they  practiced.  Among 
 savage  nations  persons  with  like  preten- 
 sions are  still  to  be  found,  and  even  in 
 civilized  nations  the  ignorant  are  imposed 
 on  by  similar  artifices. 
 
 En'dor  [fountain  of  the  dwelling'],  a 
 town  of  Galilee  assigned  to  Manasseh 
 (Josh.  17  :  11),  and  noted  as  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  witch  whom  Saul  consulted 
 on  the  eve  of  the  battle  in  which  he  per- 
 ished (1  Sam.  28  :  7).  In  the  time  of 
 Eusebius  there  still  existed  a  large  vil- 
 lage of  the  name  four  miles  south  of 
 Mount  Tabor.  It  was  visited  and  iden- 
 tified by  Dr.  Robinson,  who  describes  it 
 as  "a  most  wretched -looking  place." 
 
 E^ne-as  or  ^'neas,  a  paralytic  on 
 whom  Peter  performed  a  miracle  of  heal- 
 ing at  Lydda  (Acts  9  :  33,  34). 
 
 En-Eg-la'im  [fountain  of  two  heifers], 
 a  town  of  Moab,  which  Jerome  places  on 
 the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the 
 influx  of  the  Jordan  (Ezek.  47  :  10). 
 
 En-Gan'nim  [fountain  of  gardens],  a 
 town  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh.  19  : 
 21)  and  allotted  to  Gerslionite  Levites.  It 
 is  believed  to  be  the  modern  Jenin,  the 
 first  village  met  on  the  ascent  from  the 
 great  plain  of  Esdraelon  to  the  hills  of 
 the  central  country.  It  is  a  picturesque 
 town  of  three  thousand  inhabitants,  still 
 surrounded  with  gardens.  It  abounds  in 
 palm  trees,  and  near  by  is  a  noted  spring. 
 The  leading  road  from  Jezreel  and  the 
 north  to  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  passes 
 Jenin. 
 
 En-Ge'di  [fountain  of  the  kid^,  a  town 
 in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  62), 
 on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea 
 (Ezek.  47  :  10).  Its  original  name  was 
 Hazazon-tamar  {pruning  of  the  palm  tree), 
 from  the  palm-groves  which  surrounded  it 
 (2  Chron.  20  :  2).  It  gave  name  to  a  part 
 of  the  neighboring  desert,  tlie  wilderness 
 of  En-Gedi,  one  of  David's  retreats  and 
 the  scene  of  David's  magnanimity  toward 
 his  persecutor  Saul  (1  Sam.  24:1-22). 
 The  place  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs 
 Ain-jidy.  Dr.  Robinson  found  there  the 
 beautiful  fountain  from  which  it  derives 
 its  name.  This  fountain,  at  an  elevation 
 of  some  four  hundred  feet  above  the  plain, 
 bursts  forth  at  once  in  a  fine  stream  upon 
 a  sort  of  narrow  terrace  or  shelf  of  the 
 mountain,  having  an  abrupt  margin  to- 
 ward the  Dead  Sea.  The  water  is  sweet, 
 but  warm  and  strongly  impregnated  with 
 lime.  The  stream  rushes  down  the  steep 
 descent  of  the  mountain,  and  its  course  is 
 hidden  by  a  luxuriant  thicket  of  trees 
 and  shrubs  belonging  to  a  more  southern 
 clime.  Near  this  fountain  are  the  re- 
 i  mains    of   several    buildings,   apparently 
 
184 
 
 ENGINES— ENOCH. 
 
 En-Gedi,  the  Dead  Sea 
 ancient,  although  the  main  site  of  tlie 
 town  seems  to  have  beeir  farther  below. 
 Dr.  Robinson  found  also  in  the  wilder- 
 ness of  En-Gedi  "  caverns  which  might 
 serve  as  lurking-places  for  David  and  his 
 men,  as  they  do  for  outlaws  of  the  present 
 day."  En-Gedi,  according  to  Josephus,  was 
 celebrated  for  its  palm  trees ;  its  vineyards 
 are  referred  to  in  the  Song  ]  :  14. 
 
 En'gines,  warlike  instruments  for 
 tlirowing  stones,  battering  down  walls, 
 etc.  (2  Chron.  26  :  15;  Ezek.  26  :  9). 
 
 En-grav'ing.  The  only  notices  of 
 tlie  art  in  Scripture  are  in  connection  with 
 the  high  priest's  dress,  the  two  onyx  stones, 
 the  twelve  jewels  and  the  raitre-plate  hav- 
 ing inscriptions  on  them  (Ex.  28  :  11,  21, 
 .36).  The  art  was  widely  spread  through- 
 out the  nations  of  antiquity,  particularly 
 among  tlie  Egyptians. 
 
 En-Mish'pat.     See  Kadesh. 
 
 E'noch  [dedicated],  the  name  of  seve- 
 ral men. 
 
 1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain  (Gen.  4:17), 
 
 and  Mountains  of  Moab. 
 who  called  the  city  which  he  built  after  his 
 name. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Jared  and  father  of  Me- 
 thuselah (Gen.  5  :  21).  He  was  an  emi- 
 nently godly  man,  and  "was  translated 
 that  he  should  not  see  death"  (Heb.  11  : 
 5).  Before  his  translation  he  uttered  a 
 prophecy  which  the  apostle  Jude  (14, 
 15)  has  recorded,  and  wliich  is  substan- 
 tially contained  in  the  apocryphal  "  Book 
 of  Enoch."  It  has  been  much  debated 
 whether  Jude,  witli  a  tacit  sanction  of  the 
 authority  and  value  of  tlie  "  Book,"  quoted 
 tlie  propliecy  therefrom,  or  whether  he  re- 
 ceived it  from  tradition  alone.  Whichever 
 way  tlie  question  may  be  answered  is  im- 
 material. Tlie  propliecy  is  evidently  a 
 traditional  one,  and,  on  common  grounds, 
 must  have  had  an  insertion  in  tlie  canon- 
 ical Epistle  and  tlie  apocryplial  Book.  If 
 tlie  Book  antedate  the  Epistle,  as  is  gener- 
 ally believed,  tliere  is  no  evidence,  aside 
 from  the  close  similarity  of  the  prophecy 
 in  tlie   latter  with  the   prophecy  in  tlie 
 
ENON— EPAPHEODITUS. 
 
 185 
 
 former,  that  Jude  ever  saw  the  Book ;  yet, 
 were  it  certain  tliat  Jude  liad  seen  the  Book, 
 and  that  he  actually  copied  the  prophecy 
 therefrom,  he  would  no  more  sanction  the 
 authority  and  value  of  a  confessedly  unin- 
 spired treatise  than  Paul,  by  his  quotations 
 from  the  Greek  poets,  would  justify  the 
 placing  of  all  that  these  poets  had  writ- 
 ten among  the  accredited  Scriptures.  The 
 apostle's  sanction  extends  not  beyond  the 
 passage  which  he  quotes,  if,  indeed,  he  did 
 quote  it.  All  that  can  be  reasonably  in- 
 ferred from  the  fact  of  quotation,  if  the 
 fact  be  unquestioned,  is  to  the  effect  that 
 the  inspired  writer  endorses  as  true  what 
 he  quotes,  irrespective  of  the  truth  or 
 falsehood  of  what  he  does  not  quote. 
 
 3.  The  third  son  of  Midian  and  grand- 
 son of  Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  2o  :  4 ; 
 1  Chron.  1  :  33)-. 
 
 4.  The  eldest  son  of  Reuben  (Gen.  46  : 
 9 ;  Ex.  6:14;  1  Chron.  5:3),  from  whom 
 came  the  family  of  the  Hanochites  (Num. 
 26  :  5). 
 
 E'non  or  j^''non  [springs,  fountains'], 
 a  place  near  Salim  where  John  baptized 
 (John  3  :  23).  It  was  the  scene  of  John's 
 baptizing,  because  it  afforded  plenty  of  water 
 for  the  multitude  to  drink.  A  comparison 
 of  John  3 :  22  with  John  3 :  26  and  1 :  28  jus- 
 tifies the  inference  that  the  site  was  west  of 
 the  Jordan,  and  the  recent  survey  by  the 
 Palestine  Exploration  Fund  is  probably 
 correct  in  placing  the  site  at  the  head  of 
 the  great  Far' ah  Valley,  tlie  open  highway 
 from  the  Ddniieh  foi'd  of  Jordan  to  Shechem. 
 Conder  says :  "  The  head-springs  are  found 
 in  an  open  valley  surrounded  by  desolate 
 and  shapeless  hills.  The  water  gushes  out 
 over  a  stony  bed,  and  flows  rapidly  down 
 in  a  fine  stream  surrounded  by  bushes  of 
 oleander.  The  supply  is  perennial,  and  a 
 continual  succession  of  little  springs  occurs 
 along  the  bed  of  the  valley,  so  that  the  cur- 
 rent becomes  the  principal  western  affluent 
 of  Jordan  south  of  the  Vale  of  Jezreel. 
 The  name  of  Salim  occurs  in  the  village 
 
 three  miles  south  of  the  valley,  and  the 
 name  ^non  is  recognizable  at  the  vil- 
 lage of  'Ainun,  four  miles  north  of  the 
 stream." 
 
 En-Ro''gel  [fuller's  fountain'],  a  spring 
 on  the  boundary  between  Judah  and  Ben- 
 jamin, near  Jerusalem.  It  is  frequently 
 mentioned  (Josh.  15  :  7 ;  18  :  16;  2  Sam. 
 17  :  17),  but  the  best  authorities  differ  as 
 to  its  site. 
 
 En-she^mesh  [fountain  of  the  sun],  a 
 spring  which  formed  one  of  the  landmarks 
 on  the  north  boundary  of  Judah  and  the 
 south  boundary  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  15  : 
 7;  18:  17). 
 
 En'sign.  See  Banner,  Ensign, 
 Standard. 
 
 Ensue  (1  Pet.  3  :  11),  an  obsolete  verb 
 meaning  "  to  follow  after  and  overtake." 
 
 Ep-aen'e-tus  [Authorized  Version, 
 Epen'etus,  commendable],  a  Christian 
 at  Rome  who  is  designated  by  Paul  (Rom. 
 16  :  5)  as  his  beloved  and  the  first-fruit  of 
 Asia  unto  Christ.  In  the  Received  Text 
 he  is  spoken  ^){  as  "the  first-fruits  of 
 Achaia,"  but  the  best  manuscripts,  with 
 unquestionable  correctness,  have  "Asia" 
 instead  of  "Achaia." 
 
 Ep'a-phras,  an  eminent  teacher  in 
 the  church  at  Colosse,  denominated  by 
 Paul  "his  dear  fellow-servant"  and  "a 
 faithful  minister  of  Christ"  (Col.  1:7;  4  : 
 12).  He  is  mentioned  also  in  the  Epistle 
 to  Philemon. 
 
 E-paph-ro-di'tus,  a  messenger  of 
 the  church  at  Philippi  to  the  apostle  Paul 
 during  his  imprisonment  at  Rome,  who  was 
 entrusted  with  their  contributions  for  his 
 support  (Phil.  2:25;  4:18).  Paul's 
 high  estimate  of  his  character  is  shown 
 by  an  accumulation  of  honorable  epithets 
 and  by  fervent  expressions  of  gratitude 
 for  his  recovery  from  a  dangerous  illness, 
 brought  on  in  part  by  a  generous  disregard 
 of  his  personal  welfare  in  ministering 
 to  the  apostle  (Phil.  2  :  30).  Epaphro- 
 ditus,  on  his  return  to  Philippi,  was  the 
 
186 
 
 EPHAH— EPHESUS. 
 
 bearer  of  the  Epistle  which  forms  part 
 of  tlie  Canon. 
 
 Eph'ah  [pronounced  ef/ah],  a  He- 
 brew dry  measure  (Ruth  2  :  17),  sup- 
 posed to  be  something  more  than  one 
 bushel.    See  Weights  and  Measures. 
 
 Eph'e-sus,  a  celebrated  and  magnif- 
 icent city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the 
 river  Cayster,  about  forty  miles  south  of 
 Smyrna.  In  New  Testament  times  it 
 was  the  centre  of  a   vast   trade  and  the 
 
 seat  of  wealth  and  culture  and  luxury. 
 Here  stood  the  temple  of  Diana,  one 
 of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Tliis  tem- 
 ple was  built  by  the  most  eminent  archi- 
 tects and  of  the  choicest  marble,  the  cost 
 being  defrayed  by  all  the  Greek  cities, 
 with  the  aid  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia. 
 In  its  erection  many  years  were  spent; 
 for  its  destruction  a  single  night  sufficed. 
 The  splendid  structure  Wi\s  fired  by  an 
 obscure  person  named  Eratostratus,  who 
 
 Restoration  of  Ancient  Ephesus.    Theatre  in  the  foreground. 
 
 sought  thus  to  render  his  name  immortal. 
 Its  rebuilding  was  straightway  begun,  and, 
 from  the  widespread  interest  in  it  occa- 
 sioned by  its  burning,  it  was  finished 
 with  still  greater  magnificence.  Tliis 
 was  the  temple  which  Paul  saw.  In  it 
 was  deposited  the  wealth  of  Western  Asia. 
 In  it,  too,  was  enshrined  that  sacred  image 
 of  Diana  which  was  believed  to  have  fallen 
 from  heaven.  The  silver  shrines  of  which 
 we  read  in  the  Acts  were  probably  small 
 models  of  this  image  and  that  part  of  the 
 temple  in  which   it  stood.     These  shrines 
 
 were  eagerly  purchased  by  visitors,  and 
 their  manufacture  was  a  lucrative  branch 
 of  business  (Acts  19  :  24-27). 
 
 The  ruins  of  Diana's  temple  have  recent- 
 ly been  brought  to  light,  consisting  of  sec- 
 tions of  Hutod  columns  of  tiie  finest  white 
 marble  nearly  seven  feet  in  diameter,  and 
 other  remains  of  a  great  and  costly  build- 
 ing. Some  of  the  capitals  and  drums  of 
 these  columns,  elaborately  carved  with  hu- 
 man figures,  and  other  ornamentation  taken 
 from  the  excavations,  are  now  in  the  Brit- 
 ish Museum,  London. 
 
EPHOD— EPHEAIM. 
 
 187 
 
 Another  very  celebrated  structure  of 
 Ephesus  was  that  magnificent  theatre 
 into  which  "Paul  would  have  entered" 
 (Acts  19  :  30)  when  a  vast  and  excited 
 throng  of  the  city's  population  were 
 ^there  shouting,  "Great  is  Diana  of  the 
 Ephesians !"  This  theatre  is  said  to  have 
 been  capable  of  seating  twenty-four  thou- 
 sand persons,  and  to  have  been  the  most 
 capacious  audience-room  ever  built  by 
 the  Greeks.  It  is  now  a  vast  and  deeply 
 interesting  ruin.  As  the  result  of  recent 
 excavations,  some  of  the  steps  and  seats  of 
 the  building  are  visible,  whilst  its  front  is 
 still  traceable  in  its  whole  plan.  A  res- 
 toration of  it  is  shown  in  the  accompa- 
 nying picture. 
 
 On  his  second  missionary  journey  Paul 
 visited  Ephesus.  His  stay  was  brief,  but, 
 returning  soon,  he  devoted  himself  for 
 the  long  term  of  three  years  to  tlie  work 
 of  preaching  (Acts  20  :  31).  The  result 
 of  his  labors  was  tlie  formation  of  a  large 
 and  influential  church,  to  which  he  sub- 
 sequently addressed  an  important  Epistle. 
 Tliis  church  was  also  one  of  the  seven 
 to  which  epistles  were  addressed  in  the 
 Apocalypse  (Rev.  2  and  3).  At  that  time 
 it  had  declined  in  Christian  love  and  zeal, 
 and  was  threatened  with  the  loss  of  privi- 
 lege if  it  failed  to  heed  the  exhortation  to 
 repent.  This  threatening  has  long  since 
 become  an  accomplished  fact.  Centuries 
 ago  the  candlestick  of  the  Ephesian  church 
 was  removed  out  of  its  place.  Ephesus  it- 
 self, consecrated  at  first  to  paganism,  then 
 converted  to  Christianity,  and  then  given 
 over  to  Mohammedanism,  is  now  a  desola- 
 tion. Even  the  sea,  which  brought  to  its 
 port  ships  richly  freighted  from  every  land, 
 has  retired  from  the  city's  ruins,  and  a  pes- 
 tilential marsh  now  occupies  the  place  of 
 the  harbor  where  rode  vessels  freighted 
 with  the  Avealth  of  the  nations.  Its  glory 
 is  utterly  gone. 
 
 Eph'od,  a  sacred  vestment,  originally 
 appropriated  to  the  high  priest  (Ex.  28  : 
 
 4),  but  afterward  worn  by  ordinary  priests 
 (1  Sam.  22  :  18),  and  deemed  characteristic 
 of  the  oflfice  (1  Sam.  2  :  28 ;  14  :  3;  Hos. 
 3:4).  A  kind  of  ephod  was  worn  by 
 Samuel  (1  Sam.  2  :  18)  and  by  David 
 when  he  brought  the  ark  to  Jerusalem 
 (2  Sam.  6  :  14;  1  Chron.  15  :  27) ;  it  dif- 
 fered, however,  from  the  priestly  ephod 
 in  material,  being  made  of  ordinary  linen, 
 whereas  the  other  was  of  fine  linen.  It 
 consisted  of  two  parts — one  covering  the 
 back,  and  the  other  the  breast,  and  both 
 united  upon  the  two  slioulders.  It  was 
 without  sleeves,  and  was  worn  over  the 
 tunic  and  outer  garment.  On  each  shoul- 
 der of  the  high  priest,  where  the  two  parts 
 of  the  epliod  Avere  brought  together,  was 
 a  large  precious  stone  upon  which  were 
 engraved  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes. 
 Attached  to  the  high  priest's  ephod  in 
 front  was  the  breastplate  with  the  Urim 
 and  Thummim;  this  was  the  ephod,  by 
 eminence,  which  Abiathar  carried  oflT  (1 
 Sam.  23  :  6)  from  the  tabernacle  at  Nob 
 (1  Sam.  21  :  9),  and  which  David  con- 
 sulted (1  Sam.  23  :  9;  30  :  7).  The  im- 
 portance of  the  ephod  as  the  receptacle  of 
 the  breastplate  led  to  its  adoption  in  the 
 idolatrous  forms  of  worship  instituted  in 
 the  time  of  the  judges  ( Judg.  8  :  27 ;  17  : 
 5;  18  :  14). 
 
 Eph^ra-im  [very  fruitful'},  the  name 
 of  a  man,  of  a  tribe,  of  a  mountain-range, 
 of  a  wood  and  of  a  city. 
 
 1.  The  second  son  of  Joseph,  who  took 
 precedence  of  his  elder  brother,  Manasseh, 
 in  consequence  of  the  blessing  of  his  grand- 
 father Jacob  (Gen.  48).  Each  of  Joseph's 
 two  sons  was  head  of  a  tribe,  while  Jacob's 
 other  sons  were  the  heads  of  one  tribe  each. 
 Thus  there  were  actually  thirteen  tribes  of 
 Israel,  although  the  number  twelve  is  re- 
 tained by  dropping  Levi  (which  had  no 
 territory),  when  Ephraira  and  Manasseh 
 are  mentioned  separately ;  or  by  naming 
 Joseph  instead  of  his  sons,  when  Levi  is 
 included  in  the  enumeration. 
 
188 
 
 EPHRATA— EPISTLES. 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Ephraim  at  the  census 
 in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Num.  1  :  32, 
 33;  2  :  19)  numbered  forty  thousand  five 
 hundred,  but  its  power  among  the  other 
 tribes  w;us  due  not  so  much  to  popuhition 
 as  to  the  prowess  and  popularity  of  Joshua, 
 its  great  hero.  Upon  the  conquest  of  Ca- 
 naan it  received  as  its  tribal  territory  one 
 of  the  most  fruitful  parts  of  Palestine,  in 
 the  very  centre  of  the  country.  This  ter- 
 ritory was  bounded  on  tlie  north  by  that 
 of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseli,  and  on  the 
 south  by  that  of  Benjamin  and  Dan ;  it 
 extended  from  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
 west  to  the  Jordan  on  the  east,  an  area  of 
 about  forty  miles  in  length  and  from  six  to 
 twenty  miles  in  breadth.  This  fine  coun- 
 try included  most  of  what  was  afterward 
 called  Samaria,  as  distinguished  from  Ju- 
 daea on  the  one  hand  and  Galilee  on  the 
 other.  The  Ephraimites,  anxious  to  re- 
 tain the  ascendency  which  in  Joshua's 
 times  had  been  freely  accorded  them,  be- 
 came exceedingly  jealous  of  the  growing 
 importance  of  Judah,  and  to  this  feeling 
 may  be  traced  the  eventual  rupture  which 
 resulted  in  the  erection  of  the  two  king- 
 doms of  Judah  and  Israel.  In  the  latter 
 J^pliraim  was  so  prominent  that  the  king- 
 dom itself  was  sometimes  called  by  the 
 tribal  name. 
 
 3.  Mount  Ephraim  was  the  designation 
 of  a  mountain-range  which  ran  through 
 the  territory  of  the  tribe,  from  Bethel  and 
 Ramah  on  the  south  to  the  great  plain  on 
 the  north  (Josh.  17  :  15 ;  1  Kings  4  :  8). 
 Its  soil  was  fertile,  and  anciently  its  sur- 
 face was  well  wooded. 
 
 4.  The  wood  or  forest  of  Ephraim  was 
 the  place  where  Absalom  was  slain  (2 
 Sam.  18  :  6-14).  This  forest  was  not  in 
 the  territory  of  Ephraim,  but  on  the  east 
 of  the  Jordan,  not  far  from  Mahanaim. 
 It  received  its  name,  possibly,  from  the 
 Ephraimites  using  it  as  a  place  of  pastur- 
 age for  their  flocks. 
 
 5.  A  considerable  city  eight  miles  north- 
 
 east of  Jerusalem,  on  the  way  to  Jericho, 
 to  which  our  Lord,  with  his  disciples,  re- 
 tired to  avoid  the  persecution  consequent 
 upon  the  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the 
 dead  (John  11  :  54). 
 
 Eph'ra-ta,  the  same  as  Bethlehem 
 (which  see). 
 
 Eph'ron,  the  Ilittite  from  whom  Abra- 
 ham bought  the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen. 
 23  :  16-18). 
 
 Ep-i-cu-re'ans,  The,  a  sect  of  Greek 
 philosophers  deriving  their  name  from  Epi- 
 curus, a  native  of  the  island  of  Samos,  but 
 through  many  years  a  resident  and  lec- 
 turer in  Athens.  He  was  a  materialist. 
 He  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
 and  affirmed  that  pleasure  was  the  aim 
 and  end  of  existence.  He  maintained 
 that  the  object  of  philosophy  was  to  find 
 a  practical  guide  to  happiness ;  that  true 
 plea-sure,  and  not  absolute  truth,  was  the 
 proper  aim  of  man ;  that  experience,  and 
 not  reason,  was  the  sole  test  of  all  things. 
 His  doctrines  met  with  wide  acceptance  in 
 Asia  Minor  and  Alexandria,  and  at  Rome 
 they  had  the  brilliant  advocacy  of  the  poet 
 Lucretius,  three  quarters  of  a  century  B.  c. 
 His  system  degenerated,  of  necessity,  into 
 luxurious  living  and  unbridled  licentious- 
 ness, and  these  precisely  were  the  charac- 
 teristics of  the  popular  philosophy  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  To  "cer- 
 tain philosophers  of  the  Epicureans  and 
 of  the  Stoics "  Paul  at  Athens  "  preached 
 Jesus  and  the  resurrection"  (Acts  17  :  18), 
 
 E-pis'tles,  the  letters  which  the  apos- 
 tles, under  the  prom[)tings  of  inspiration, 
 wrote  to  churches  and  individuals,  and 
 which  are  included  in  the  Canon  of  tlie 
 New  Testament  Scriptures  (2  Pet.  3:16). 
 Although  they  were  i)rimarily  designed 
 for  the  rebuke,  instruction,  guidance  and 
 encouragement  of  those  to  whom  they 
 were  addressed,  they  yet  are  adapted  to 
 all  churches  and  Christians  through  all 
 time.  Tliey  are  especially  rich  in  the 
 statement  of  doctrine  and  the  outline  of 
 
ER— ESAU. 
 
 189 
 
 duty.  They  number  twenty-one,  of  which 
 Paul  wrote  fourteen ;  .James,  one ;  Peter, 
 two ;  John,  three ;  and  Jude,  one.  They 
 cover  a  period  of  less  than  twenty  years. 
 
 Er  [ivatchful'],  the  firgt-born  of  Judah 
 (Gen.  38:7).  He  "was  wicked  in  the 
 sight  of  the  Lord,  and  the  Lord  slew 
 him."  What  the  nature  of  his  sin  was 
 does  not  appear  in  the  record,  but  from 
 the  fact  that  his  mother  was  a  Canaanite, 
 his  wickedness,  most  likely,  was  some  out- 
 growth from  the  abominable  idolatries  of 
 Canaan  (Num.  26  :  19). 
 
 E-ras'tus  [belovedl,  a  Corinthian  and 
 one  of  Paul's  disciples,  "the  chamberlain," 
 or  treasurer,  "  of  the  city  "  of  Corinth  ( Rom. 
 16  :  23).  He  was  one  of  Paul's  attendants 
 at  Ephesus,  and  witli  Timothy  was  sent 
 forward  into  Macedonia  while  the  apostle 
 himself  remained  in  Asia  (Acts  19  :  22). 
 He  is  again  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  4  :  20. 
 
 E'rech  [length},  one  of  Nimrod's  cities 
 in  Southern  Babylonia  (Gen.  10  :  10).  It 
 is  beyond  a  doubt  the  Orchoe  of  Ptolemy, 
 now  known  as  Irka  or  Wurka,  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  Euphrates,  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  miles  south-east  of  Babylon,  a  site 
 covered  with  mounds  and  ruins.  So  many 
 tombs  and  coffins  have  been  found  here 
 that  the  place  is  thought  to  have  been 
 the  necropolis  of  the  ancient  kings  of 
 the  country. 
 
 E-sa'ias,  the  Greek  form  of  I-sa'iah, 
 constantly  used  in  tlie  New  Testament. 
 
 E^sar-had^don  [  Assur  granted  a  broth- 
 er'}, son  of  Sennacherib  and  grandson  of  Sar- 
 gon  (2  Kings  19 :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38).  He  was 
 one  of  the  greatest  of  the  kings  of  Assyria. 
 He  carried  his  arms  over  all  Asia  between 
 the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Armenian  mountains 
 and  the  Mediterranean.  He  is  the  only 
 Assyrian  monarch  who  actTially  reigned 
 at  Babylon,  where  he  built  himself  a  pal- 
 ace, from  which  bricks  bearing  his  name 
 have  been  recently  recovered.  As  a  build- 
 er of  great  works  he  is  particularly  distin- 
 guished.   Besides  his  palace  at  Babylon, 
 
 he  built  three  others  in  different  parts  of 
 his  dominions.  The  south-west  palace  at 
 Nimrfld  is  the  best  preserved  of  his  con- 
 structions. During  his  reign  at  Babylon, 
 Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  was  brought  be- 
 fore him  a  prisoner,  and  was  kept  in  con- 
 finement until  he  "  humbled  himself  great- 
 ly before  the  God  of  his  fathers"  (2  Chron. 
 33  :  11-13). 
 
 E'sau  [hairy},  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac 
 and  twin-brother  of  Jacob.  His  singular 
 appearance  at  birth  originated  his  name 
 (Gen.  25  :  25).  He  was  a  wild  and  Avay- 
 ward  man,  a  son  of  the  desert,  a  thorough 
 Bedouin,  who  delighted  to  roam  free  as 
 the  wind,  and  who  was  impatient  of  the 
 restraints  of  settled  life.  His  aged  father, 
 by  a  caprice  of  affection  not  uncommon, 
 loved  him  for  the  impulsiveness  of  his 
 nature  and  the  skill  and  daring  he  dis- 
 played in  hunting.  His  brother  Jacob, 
 as  selfish  and  grasping  as  Esau  was  prod- 
 igal and  reckless,  took  advantage  of  his 
 distress  from  hunger  to  rob  him  of  his 
 birthright,  and  subsequently  to  deprive 
 him,  tlirough  fraud,  of  liis  father's  cov- 
 enant-blessing. So  furious  was  his  anger 
 against  his  brother  and  against  his  mother, 
 whose  craft  had  been  employed  in  his  broth- 
 er's interest,  that  Jacob  fled  to  Padan- 
 Aram,  and  he  himself  left  his  parents 
 and  formed  alliances  by  marriage  with 
 the  idolaters  of  Canaan  and  with  roving 
 Ishmaelites.  He  was  residing  in  Mount 
 Seir  when,  after  the  lapse  of  twenty-one 
 years,  Jacob  returned  from  Padan-Aram, 
 and,  although  he  made  a  show  of  hostil- 
 ity, he  was  yet  so  restrained  by  divine  in- 
 fluence that  he  took  no  effective  steps  to 
 avenge  the  wrongs  he  had  sustained. 
 The  brothers  probably  did  not  meet 
 again  for  another  score  of  years,  when, 
 upon  the  death  of  Isaac,  they  united  in 
 burying  the  body  in  the  cave  of  Mach- 
 pelah.  Of  Esau's  subsequent  history 
 nothing  is  known.  For  that  of  his  de- 
 scendants see  Edom. 
 
190 
 
 ESDRAELON— ETHAM. 
 
 Es-dra-e^lon,  Valley  of,  the  Greek 
 form  of  Jezreel,  and  not  found  in  our  Ver- 
 sion.   See  Jezreel. 
 
 Esh-Ba'al,  the  same  as  Ishbosheth 
 (which  see). 
 
 Esh'col  [a  cluster'\,  a  valley  of  Canaan 
 near  Hebron,  with  a  brook  flowing  through 
 it,  from  which  tlie  spies  brought  a  cluster 
 of  grapes  as  a  specimen  of  the  fruits  of  the 
 land  (Num.  13  :  23,  24 ;  32  :  9;  Deut.  1  : 
 24).  The  name,  long  before  the  visit  of 
 the  spies,  had  existed  in  the  neighbor- 
 hood, for  when  Abram  dwelt  in  Mamre 
 an  Aniorite  chief  named  Eshcol  was  his 
 friend  and  ally  (Gen.  14  :  13). 
 
 Esh^ta-ol,  a  jjlace  in  the  low  country 
 of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  33)  assigned  to  Dan 
 (Josh.  19  :  41).  In  its  neighborhood  Sam- 
 son spent  his  boyhood ;  here  he  first  man- 
 ifested his  wonderful  strength,  and  between 
 it  and  Zorah  he  was  buried  ( Judg.  13  :  25 ; 
 16:  31). 
 
 Esh-te-nao'a  [obedience'],  a  city  in  the 
 mountains  of  Judah  allotted  to  the  priests 
 (Josh.  21  :  13,  14).  It  was  one  of  David's 
 haunts  (1  Sam.  30:  26-31). 
 
 Es'ther  [slca-l,  the  Persian  name  of 
 Hadassah  (myrtle),  a  beautiful  Jewish 
 maiden,  the  daughter  of  Abihail,  the  son 
 of  Shimei,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite 
 (Esth.  2  :  5,  7 ;  9  :  29).  She  was  an  or- 
 phan, and  was  adopted  and  reared  by  her 
 cousin  Mordecai,  who  held  an  office  in  the 
 household  of  Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia. 
 When  Vashti  was  dismissed  from  being 
 queen,  and  all  the  fairest  virgins  of  the 
 kingdom  were  collected  at  Shushan  for 
 the  king  to  choose  a  successor,  the  royal 
 choice  fell  upon  Esther.  The  king,  how- 
 ever, was  not  aware  of  her  race  and  pa- 
 rentage, and  so,  on  the  representation  of 
 Haman  the  Agagite  that  the  Jews  scat- 
 tered through  his  empire  were  a  perni- 
 cious race,  he  gave  him  full  power  and 
 authority  to  kill  them  all,  young  and  old, 
 women  and  children,  and  take  possession  of 
 their  property.  Esther  took  effective  means 
 
 to  avert  from  her  people  and  kindred  this 
 great  calamity.  Her  character,  as  brought 
 to  view  in  the  Scriptures,  is  that  of  a  woman 
 of  deep  piety,  faith,  courage,  patriotism  and 
 caution,  combinetl  with  resolution;  a  duti- 
 ful daughter  to  her  adoptive  father,  docile 
 and  obedient  to  his  counsels,  and  sharing 
 with  him  every  risk  for  the  good  of  the 
 Jewish  people. 
 
 Es'ther,  Book  of,  one  of  the  latest 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon,  hav- 
 ing been  written  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes, 
 the  Ahasuerus  who  made  Esther  queen, 
 or  in  that  of  his  son,  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
 manus.  The  author  is  not  known,  but 
 may  have  been,  and  most  probably  was, 
 Mordecai  himself.  Some  ascribe  the  au- 
 thorship to  Ezra,  who  most  likely  edited 
 and  added  it  to  the  sacred  books.  Its 
 style  is  singularly  chaste  and  simple. 
 The  language  is  very  like  that  of  Ezra 
 and  parts  of  the  Chronicles — generally 
 pure,  but  mixed  with  some  words  of  Per- 
 sian origin  and  some  of  Chulduic  affinity. 
 Although  the  name  of  God  does  not  once 
 occur  in  it,  the  illustration  of  God's  prov- 
 idential care  of  his  people  which  it  gives 
 is  exceedingly  striking  and  suggestive. 
 
 E'tam  \_eijrie,  that  is,  place  of  ravenous 
 b'rcl.t'],  a  town  in  Judah  six  miles  south  of 
 Jerusalem,  fortified  and  garrisoned  by  Re- 
 hoboam  (2  Chron.  11  :  6).  Here,  accord- 
 ing to  the  statements  of  Josephus,  were  the 
 sources  of  the  water  from  which  Solomon's 
 gardens  and  pleasure-grounds  were  fed  and 
 Bethlehem  and  the  temple  supplied. 
 
 E'tam,  the  Rock,  a  cliff  near  Zorah, 
 into  a  cleft  of  which  Samson  retired  after 
 the  slaughter  of  the  Philistines  (Judg.  15  : 
 8,  11).  The  cleft  or  chasm  in  the  rock  is 
 a  long,  narroAV  cavern  two  hundred  and 
 fifty  feet  long,  eighteen  feet  wide  and  five 
 to  eight  feet  high,  such  as  Samson  might 
 well  have  "  gone  down  "  into.  The  spring 
 'Aitan  near  the  modern  Urtas  marks  its 
 locality. 
 
 E'tham,  the  second  camping-place  of 
 
ETHAN— EUPHRATES. 
 
 191 
 
 the  Israelites  when  leaving  Egypt,  on  the 
 edge  of  the  wilderness  (Num.  33  :  6).  It 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  near  neigh- 
 borhood of  Lake  Timsah,  probably  not  far 
 from  the  site  of  the  modern  Ismailia. 
 
 E'than  [perpetuity],  the  name  of  sev- 
 eral men,  two  of  whom  only  need  be  men- 
 tioned. 
 
 1.  The  Ezrahite,  one  of  the  four  sons  of 
 Mahol,  whose  wisdom  was  only  excelled  by 
 that  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  4  :  31 ;  1  Chron. 
 2  :  6).     His  name  is  in  the  title  of  Ps.  89. 
 
 2.  Son  of  Kishi  or  Kushaiah,  a  Merarite 
 Levite,  head  of  that  family  in  the  time  of 
 King  David,  and  si)oken  of  as  a  "singer" 
 (1  Chron.  6  :  44).  With  Heman  and 
 Asaph,  the  heads  of  the  other  two  fam- 
 ilies of  Levites,  Ethan  was  appointed  to 
 sound  with  cymbals  (1  Chron.  15  :  17, 
 19). 
 
 Eth^a-nim  [continual  floods'],  another 
 name  for  the  month  Tisri,  so  called  from 
 the  fullness  of  the  brooks,  swelled,  at  that 
 time  of  the  year,  with  the  autumnal  rains 
 (1  Kings  8  :  2).  It  corresponded  with  part 
 of  September  and  part  of  October.  It  was 
 the  seventh  month  of  the  sacred  and  the 
 first  of  the  civil  year  reckoning. 
 
 Eth-ba'al  [u'ith  Baal,  that  is,  evjoyiiu/ 
 Ins  favor  and  help],  a  king  of  Sidon,  father 
 of  the  infamous  Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Ahab 
 (1  Kings  16  :  31).  Josephus  represents 
 him  as  king  of  the  Tyrians  as  well  as 
 of  the  Sidonians.  He  is  to  be  identified, 
 most  probably,  with  Eithobalus,  a  priest  of 
 Astarte,  who,  having  assassinated  Pheles, 
 usurped  the  throne  of  Tyre  for  thirty-two 
 years.  The  date  of  Ethbaal's  reign  may 
 be  given  as  about  B.  c.  940-908. 
 
 E-thi-o'pi-a  [sun-burnt  faces].  The 
 country  which  the  Greeks  and  Eomans 
 thus  denominated  was  called  by  the  He- 
 brews Cush.  In  the  classical  writers  the 
 word  Ethiopia  was  used  to  designate  not 
 so  much  an  accurately-defined  country  as 
 a  region  of  indefinite  extent,  inhabited  by 
 nations  of  a  swarthy  complexion.     In  its 
 
 scriptural  application  it  is  much  more  re- 
 stricted. Sometimes  it  refers  to  Southern 
 Arabia  (Num.  12  :  1),  where  Moses  found 
 liis  wife.  More  frequently,  however,  the 
 reference  is  to  the  African  Ethiopia,  which 
 embraced,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  the 
 modern  Kubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan  and 
 Northern  Abyssinia,  and  in  its  more  re- 
 stricted sense  the  kingdom  of  Meroe, 
 from  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and  White 
 branches  of  the  Nile  to  the  border  of  Egypt. 
 Queen  Candace,  mentioned  in  Acts  8  :  27, 
 was  the  reigning  sovereign  of  that  portion 
 of  Ethiopia  which  corresponds  with  the 
 kingdom  of  Meroe,  and  in  her  dominions 
 some  knoAvledge  of  the  Jewish  religion 
 evidently  prevailed.  Ebedmelech,  an  of- 
 ficer under  Zedekiah,  who  showed  kind- 
 ness to  Jeremiah,  was  an  Ethiopian  ( Jer. 
 38  :  7).  The  references  to  Ethiopia  in  the 
 Old  Testament  are  numerous. 
 
 Eu'nice  [cjood.  victory],  the  mother  of 
 Timothy,  a  believing  Jewess  and  a  woman 
 of  exemplary  piety  (Acts  16:1;  2  Tim.  1 : 
 5). 
 
 Eu'nuch  [bed-keeper],  an  officer  hav- 
 ing charge  originally  of  the  beds  and 
 bed-chambers  of  an  Eastern  palace.  In 
 later  times  eunuchs  were  entrusted  with 
 important  offices  of  state,  and  in  our 
 English  Version  of  the  Scriptures  are 
 called  sometimes  officers  and  sometimes 
 chamberlains  (2  Kings  8:6;  23  :  11;  25  : 
 19 ;  Esth.  2  :  15,  21).  From  2  Kings  20  : 
 17,  18;  Isa.  39  :  7 ;  Dan.  1:3,  7,  it  has 
 been  inferred  that  Daniel  and  his  compan- 
 ions belonged  to  this  class. 
 
 Eu-O'di-as  [of  a  good  journey],  a  Chris- 
 tian woman  at  Philippi  (Phil.  4  :  2).  The 
 name  is  properly  EuoDiA. 
 
 Eu-phra^tes,  the  longest,  largest  and 
 most  important  river  of  Western  Asia.  Its 
 most  frequent  name  in  Scripture  is  "the 
 river"  (1  Kings  4  :  21  ;  Ezra  4  :  10, 
 16);  it  is  denominated  by  Moses  "the 
 great  river"  (Deut,  1  :  7).  It  has  two 
 principal  sources  in  the  Armenian  moun- 
 
192 
 
 EUROCLYDON— EXODUS. 
 
 tains.  The  most  northern  branch  rises 
 about  twenty-five  miles  north-east  of 
 Erzeroum;  the  other  and  larger  rises  not 
 far  from  Ararat.  These  branches  meet  at 
 Kebban,  Maden,  in  longitude  39°  P:.  The 
 combined  stream  is  here  about  one  hun- 
 dred and  twenty  yards  wide.  It  is  joined 
 by  the  Tigris  at  Kurnah,  and  finally  flows 
 into  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  entire  length  is 
 about  seventeen  hundred  miles,  more  than 
 two-thirds  of  which  are  navigable  for  small 
 steam-vessels.  To  this  river  the  allusions 
 in  Scripture  are  many.  It  is  first  men- 
 tioned as  the  fourth  river  of  Eden  (Gen. 
 2  :  14).  In  the  covenant  with  Abraham 
 it  is  named  as  the  eastern  boundary  of 
 the  Promised  Land  (Gen.  15  :  18),  and 
 in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  such 
 it  was  (2  Sam.  8:3-8;  1  Kings  4  :  21). 
 
 Eu-roc'ly-don  [.<outh-east  billow],  the 
 name  given  to  the  gale  of  wind  which  off 
 the  south  coast  of  Crete  seized  the  ship  in 
 which  Paul  was  ultimately  wrecked  on  the 
 coast  of  Malta  (Acts  27  :  14).  It  came 
 down  from  the  island,  and  therefore  must 
 have  blown  more  or  less  from  the  north- 
 ward. It  is  now  known  under  the  name 
 of  a  Levanter,  from  Levant,  the  eastern 
 part  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  danger 
 results  from  the  violence  and  uncertainty 
 of  its  course. 
 
 Eu'ty-chus  \_fjoo(J-fortune],  a  young 
 man  at  Troas,  who,  sitting  in  a  window 
 and  falling  asleep  while  Paul  was  dis- 
 coursing far  into  the  night,  fell  from  the 
 third  stoi-y,  and  being  taken  up  dead  was 
 miraculously  restored  to  life  by  the  apos- 
 tle (Acts  2o':  7-12). 
 
 E-van'gel-ist  \_the  publisher  of  glnd 
 tidings'],  a  name  appropriated  to  a  class 
 of  Christian  teachers  in  the  early  Church 
 who  were  not  fixed  to  any  particular  spot, 
 but  traveled  eitlier  independently  or  under 
 the  direction  of  one  or  other  of  the  apos- 
 tles for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the 
 gospel  (Acts  21  :  8;  Eph.  4:11).  The 
 name  denoted  a  tcork  rather  than  an  order 
 
 — the  proclamation  of  the  glad  tidings  to 
 those  who  have  not  known  them,  rather 
 than  the  instruction  and  pastoral  care  of 
 those  who  have  believed  and  been  bap- 
 tized. In  this  sense  the  name  is  still  rec- 
 ognized and  used  in  the  Presbyterian 
 Church.  (See  Form  of  Government,  chap. 
 XV.,  sect.  15). 
 
 Eve  [life  or  living],  the  name  given  by 
 Adam  to  his  wife,  tlie  first  woman  and  the 
 mother  of  all  the  human  family  (Gen.  2  : 
 21,  22 ;  3  :  20).  The  Scripture  account 
 of  Eve's  creation  is  designed  to  teach, 
 most  likely,  tlie  foundation  uj)on  which 
 the  union  between  man  and  wife  is  built 
 — namely,  identity  of  nature  and  oneness 
 of  origin.  P>y  providing  for  Adam  a  suit- 
 able companion  God  manifestly  gave  his 
 sanction  to  marriage  and  to  monogamy. 
 Through  the  subtlety  of  the  serpent  Eve 
 was  beguiled  into  a  violation  of  the  one 
 commandment  which  had  been  imposed 
 u])on  her  and  Adam  (Gen.  3  :  1-6). 
 
 Eve'riing.  Tlie  Hebrew  word  and  its 
 Greek  equivalent  tluis  rendered  have  the 
 sense  of  dmk  or  the  period  following  sun- 
 set, the  beginning  of  the  Jewish  day  (Gen. 
 1:5;  Ps.  59  :  6;  Matt.  14:  23;  Mark  14: 
 17).  The  Jews  were  accustomed  to  reckon 
 two  evenings — one  commencing  at  sunset, 
 and  embracing  the  period  of  twilight ;  the 
 other  commencing  at  dark.  In  the  inter- 
 val between  the  two  evenings  the  passover 
 was  to  be  killed  (marginal  reading  of  Ex. 
 12  :  6  ;   Num.  9  :  3). 
 
 E'vil-Mer'o-dach,  the  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  delivered 
 Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  out  of  prison, 
 and  treated  him  with  marked  kindness  and 
 consideration  (2  Kings  25  :  27-30).  After 
 a  reign  of  two  years  he  was  murdered 
 by  his  brother-in-law,  Neriglissar,  who 
 succeeded  him. 
 
 Ex-o'dus  [a  going  out,  i.  e.  of  Egypt, 
 an  exit],  the  second  book  of  the  Law  or 
 Pentateuch,  so  called  from  the  principal 
 event  recorded  in  it — namely,  the  departure 
 
EXORCIST— EZEKIEL. 
 
 193 
 
 of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  (Ex.  12  :41). 
 It  begins  the  proper  history  of  the  Israel- 
 ites, and  continues  it  until  their  arrival  at 
 Sinai  and  the  solemn  establishment  of  the 
 theocracy.  It  presents  the  nation  under 
 three  arresting  aspects :  first,  as  a  nation 
 enslaved ;  next,  as  a  nation  redeemed ; 
 and  lastly,  as  a  nation  set  apart,  and, 
 through  the  blending  of  its  political  and 
 religious  life,  consecrated  to  the  service 
 of  God. 
 
 The  history  of  the  Exodus  itself  begins 
 with  the  close  of  that  of  the  ten  plagues. 
 In  the  night  in  which,  at  midnight,  the 
 first-born  were  slain  (Ex.  12:29)  Pha- 
 raoh urged  the  departure  of  the  Israelites 
 (Ex.  12  :  31,  32).  They  at  once  set  forth 
 from  Rameses  (Ex.  12  :  37,  39),  apparent- 
 ly during  the  night  (Ex.  12  :  42),  but 
 toward  morning,  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
 the  first  month  (Num.  33 :  3).  They  made 
 three  journeys  of  as  many  days,  encamp- 
 ing at  Succoth  (Ex.  12  :  37  ;  13  :  20  ;  Num. 
 33  :  5,  6),  at  Etham  (Ex.  13  :  20;  Num. 
 33  :  6,  7)  and  at  Pi-hahiroth  (Ex.  14  :  2) 
 by  the  Red  Sea.  Here  they  were  over- 
 taken by  Pharaoh,  and  here  was  wrought 
 for  them  that  great  miracle  by  which  they 
 were  saved,  while  the  pursuer  and  his  army 
 were  destroyed  (Ex.  14  :  10-31 ). 
 
 Ex-or'cist,  the  designation  of  those 
 who,  by  the  use  of  the  name  of  God,  at- 
 tempted to  expel  evil  spirits  from  possess- 
 ed places  or  persons.  Exorcism  was  not 
 an  uncommon  profession  among  the  Jews 
 (Matt.  12  :  27  ;  Mark  9  :  38).  The  profane 
 use  of  the  name  of  Jesus  as  a  mere  charm 
 or  spell  led  to  the  disastrous  issue  recorded 
 in  Acts  19  :  13-16.  To  the  Christian  mir- 
 acle of  casting  out  devils,  whether  as  per- 
 formed by  our  Lord  himself  or  by  his  fol- 
 lowers, the  New  Testament  writers  never 
 apply  tlie  term  "exorcise"  or  "exorcist." 
 
 Ex-pi-a'tion.  See  Atoxement  and 
 Sacrifice. 
 
 Eyes  or  Eyelids,  Painting  of  the. 
 See  Paint. 
 13 
 
 E-ze'ki-el  l_God  will  strengthen'],  one 
 of  the  four  greater  prophets.  He  was  the 
 son  of  a  priest  named  Buzi,  and  was  taken 
 captive  in  the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin, 
 eleven  years  before  the  destruction  of  Je- 
 rusalem. He  was  a  member  of  a  commu- 
 nity of  Jewish  exiles  who  settled  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Chebar,  a  "river"  or  stream 
 of  Babylonia.  It  was  by  this  river,  "in 
 the  land  of  the  Chaldieans,"  that  God's 
 message  first  reached  him  (Ezek.  1:3). 
 His  call  took  place  "  in  the  fifth  year  of 
 King  Jehoiachin's  captivity,"  B.  c.  595 
 (Ezek.  1  :  2).  The  only  references  he 
 makes  to  his  personal  history  are  two 
 incidental  allusions  (8  :  1  and  24  :  17), 
 from  wliich  it  appears  that  he  had  a 
 house  in  his  place  of  exile,  that  he  was 
 married,  and  that  he  lost  his  wife  by  a 
 sudden  and  unforeseen  stroke.  He  lived 
 in  the  highest  consideration  among  his 
 companions  in  exile,  and  their  elders  con- 
 sulted him  on  all  occasions  (11  :  25;  14  : 
 1;  20  :  1).  His  mission  appears  to  have 
 extended  over  twenty-two  years,  during 
 part  of  which  period  Daniel  was  probably 
 living  and  already  famous  ( 14  :  14 ;  28  : 
 3).  He  was  distinguished  by  his  stern 
 and  inflexible  energy  of  will  and  charac- 
 ter, and  by  a  devoted  adherence  to  the 
 rites  and  ceremonies  of  his  national  re- 
 ligion. He  was  controlled,  moreover,  by 
 such  an  absorbing  recognition  of  his  high 
 prophetic  calling  that  he  cheerfully  bore 
 any  privation  or  misery  (except,  indeed, 
 ceremonial  pollution,  from  which  he  shrank 
 with  characteristic  loathing,  4 :  14),  if  there- 
 by he  might  give  any  warning  or  lesson  to 
 his  people  (4  :  4-6),  whom  he  so  ardently 
 loved  (9:8;  11  :  13).  On  one  occasion 
 only,  in  one  single  expression,  the  feelings 
 of  the  man  burst  through  the  self-devotion 
 of  the  prophet  (24  :  15-18) ;  and  while  even 
 then  his  obedience  is  unwavering,  yet  the 
 inexpressible  depth  of  submissive  pathos 
 in  the  brief  words  which  tell  how  in  one 
 day  "  the  desire  of  his  eyes  was  taken  from 
 
194 
 
 EZION-GEBER— EZRA,  BOOK  OF. 
 
 him,"  shows  what  well-springs  of  the  ten- 
 derest  human  emotion  were  concealed  un- 
 der his  uncompromising  opposition  to  every 
 form  of  sin. 
 
 Tlie  prophetic  book  of  which  he  was  the 
 undoubted  author  consists  of  nine  sections, 
 distinguished  by  their  superscriptions  a.s 
 follows:  1.  Ezekiel'scall(l,  2;  3:1-15); 
 2.  The  general  carrying  out  of  the  com- 
 mission (3  :  16-27  ;  4-7) ;  3.  The  rejection 
 of  the  people  because  of  their  idolatrous 
 worship  (8-1 1 ) ;  4.  The  sins  of  the  age  re- 
 buked in  detail  (12-19) ;  5.  The  nature  of 
 the  judgment  and  the  guilt  which  caused 
 it  (20-23) ;  6.  The  meaning  of  the  now 
 commencing  punishment  (24) ;  7.  God's 
 judgment  denounced  on  seven  heathen 
 nations  (Amnion,  25  :  1-7;  Moab,  8-11  ; 
 Edom,  12-14  ;  the  Philistines,  15-17  ;  Tyre, 
 26;  28: 1-19  ;  Sidon,  20-26 ;  Egypt,  29-32) ; 
 8.  Prophecies,  after  the  destruction  of 
 Israel,  concerning  the  future  condition  of 
 Israel  (33-39);  9.  The  glorious  consum- 
 mation (40-48).  In  the  utterance  of  his 
 prophecies  he  was  favored  with  sublime 
 visions  of  the  divine  glory,  and  his  pro- 
 phetic book,  as  a  whole,  is  characterized 
 by  great  force,  glowing  imagery,  and  as 
 much  perspicuity  as  the  occasionally 
 marvelous  nature  of  his  matter  will  al- 
 low. 
 
 E'zi-on-Ge'ber  ^mcnts  bacLbone],  a 
 very  ancient  city  near  Elath,  on  the  east- 
 em  arm  of  the  Red  Sea  ( Num.  33  ;  35 ; 
 Deut.  2:8).  It  was  the  last  station  named 
 for  the  encampment  of  the  Israelites  be- 
 fore they  came  to  the  wilderness  of  Zin. 
 From  its  port  Solomon  sent  a  fleet  to 
 Ophir  (1  Kings  9  :  26-28).  Here  also 
 Jelioshaphat  built  a  fleet,  which  before 
 it  sailed  was  destroyed  (1  Kings  22  :  48). 
 No  trace  of  the  city  is  now  to  be  found. 
 
 Ez'ra  [help],  the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  head  of  one  of  the  twenty-two 
 courses  of  priests  which  returned  from 
 captivity  with  Zerubbabel  and  .Jeshua 
 (Neh.  12:  1). 
 
 2.  The  celebrated  Jewish  scribe  and 
 priest  who,  in  the  year  B.  c.  459,  led  the 
 second  expedition  of  Jews  back  from  the 
 Babylonian  exile  into  Palestine.  He  was 
 descended  from  Hilkiah,  the  high  priest  in 
 Josiah's  reign,  and  was  the  son  of  Seraiah, 
 the  high  priest  in  Zedekiah's  time,  whom 
 Nebuchadnezzar  slew  at  Riblah  (2  Kings 
 25  :  18-21).  From  Artaxerxes  Longima- 
 nus  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Jenisalem, 
 and  to  take  with  him  a  company  of  Israel- 
 ites, together  with  priests,  Levites,  singers, 
 porters  and  Nethinim.  The  journey  of 
 Ezra  and  his  companions  from  Baltylon  to 
 Jerusalem  took  just  four  months,  and  they 
 brought  up  with  them  a  large  free-will  of- 
 fering of  gold  and  silver  and  silver  ves- 
 sels, contributed  not  only  by  the  Babylo- 
 nian Jews,  but  by  the  king  himself  and 
 his  counselors.  These  offerings  were  to 
 beautify  the  house  of  God  and  to  pur- 
 chase bullocks,  rams  and  whatever  else 
 might  be  required  for  the  temple-service. 
 Ezra  executed  his  commission  with  great 
 fidelity,  reforming  abuses  and  appointing 
 competent  judges  and  magistrates.  Sub- 
 sequently, under  Nehemiah's  government, 
 his  functions  were  purely  priestly  and  ec- 
 clesiastical. He  was  a  man  of  extraor- 
 dinary intellectual  force  and  of  the  most 
 exemplary  piety.  He  is  belit'ved  to  have 
 written  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra  and 
 Nehemiah,  to  have  aided  in  the  writing 
 of  Esther,  and  to  have  settled  and  edited 
 the  Canon  of  Old  Testament  Scripture. 
 To  him  also  is  a.scribed  the  establishment 
 of  synagogues. 
 
 Ezra,  Book  of,  a  continuation  of  the 
 books  of  Chronicles.  Like  these  books, 
 it  consists  of  the  contemporary  historical 
 journals  kept  from  time  to  time,  which 
 were  afterward  abridged  or  added  to 
 as  the  ca.se  required.  The  period  cov- 
 ered by  the  book  is  eighty  years,  from 
 the  first  of  Cyrus,  B.  c.  536,  to  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  eighth  of  Artaxerxes, 
 B.  c.  456. 
 
FABLE— FACE. 
 
 195 
 
 F. 
 
 Fa^ble.  This  word,  the  rendering  in 
 the  New  Testament  of  the  Greek  inr^og 
 (myth),  has  tlie  sense  of  a  legend  or  fic- 
 titious story,  and  is  applied  to  the  Jewish 
 traditions  and  speculations  which  were 
 prevalent  in  apostolic  times,  and  which 
 were  afterward  embodied  in  the  Talmud 
 (1  Tim.  1:4;  4:7;  2Tim.  4:4;  Tit.  1 : 
 14 ;  2  Pet.  1  :  16).  As  a  figure  of  speech 
 distinct  from  the  parable,  the  foble  appears 
 also  in  Scripture,  but  without  any  formal 
 designation.  The  distinction  between  it 
 and  the  parable  is  this :  the  fable  states 
 occurrences  which  from  their  very  nature 
 could  not  have  happened,  as  the  speaking 
 of  trees  in  illustration  of  the  supposed 
 speaking  of  men ;  the  parable  states  oc- 
 currences which  may  have  taken  place, 
 and  which  therefore  have  the  air  of  strict 
 historic  probability.  Of  the  fable,  as  dis- 
 tinguished from  the  parable,  there  are  but 
 two  examples  in  the  Scriptures — namely, 
 that  of  the  trees  choosing  their  king,  ad- 
 dressed by  Jotham  to  the  men  of  Shechem 
 (.Judg.  9  :  8-15),  and  that  of  the  cedar  of 
 Lebanon  and  the  thistle,  as  the  answer  of 
 Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  to  the  challenge  of 
 Amaziah,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  14 :  9). 
 
 Face.  This  word  is  the  rendering  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  of  a  Hebrew  word 
 and  of  its  Greek  equivalent,  both  prop- 
 erly the  strict  equivalent  of  the  word 
 "face,"  and  which,  like  it,  denote  what- 
 ever of  a  thing  is  most  exposed  to  view. 
 Hence  we  read  of  the  face  of  the  deep  (Gen. 
 1 :  2),  of  the  face  of  the  country  (2  Sam.  18 : 
 8),  of  the  face  of  the  sky  (Luke  12 :  56)  and 
 the  like.  As  a  prominent  and  conspicu- 
 ous part  of  the  human  body,  in  which  the 
 thought  and  feeling  of  a  living  person 
 have  expression,  the  term  "  face  "  is  often 
 employed  to  denote  presence  (Ex.  2  :  15; 
 Luke  2  :  31),  and  when,  with  this  sense, 
 
 it  is  associated  with  the  Almighty,  it  in- 
 dicates such  a  complete  manifestation  of 
 the  divine  Presence  as  to  be  equivalent, 
 in  vividness  of  impression,  to  the  seeing 
 of  a  fellow-creature  "face  to  face"  (Gen. 
 32  :  30;  Num.  14  :  14).  It  was  expressly 
 said  by  God  himself  to  Moses  (Ex.  33:  20) 
 that  no  one  could  see  the  Almiglity's  face 
 and  live,  and  yet  Jacob  (Gen.  32  :  30)  at 
 an  earlier  period  had  declared  of  himself, 
 thougli  with  a  feeling  of  astonishment, 
 that  he  had  actually  "seen  God  face  to 
 face,"  and  notwithstanding  had  lived. 
 This  apparent  discrepance  is  to  be  ex- 
 plained by  the  different  respects  in  which 
 the  expression  is  used  in  the  two  cases. 
 The  fiice  of  God,  as  involving  the  fiill 
 blaze  of  his  manifested  glory,  no  mortal 
 man  could  see  and  live,  for  by  the  sight 
 his  frame  would  be  overpowered  and  shat- 
 tered ;  but  when  veiled  in  the  attractive 
 form  and  appearing  with  the  softened 
 radiance  of  tlie  human  countenance  for 
 the  purpose  of  inspiring  confidence  and 
 hope,  as  in  the  case  of  Jacob,  then  not 
 only  life,  but  revived  and  quickened  life, 
 would  be  the  result.  Moreover,  as  the 
 faces  of  men  reflect  the  pleasure  or  dis- 
 pleasure, the  favor  or  disfavor,  with 
 which  they  contemplate  the  persons  and 
 acts  of  others,  so  the  face  of  God  is  the 
 frequent  Scripture  symbol  of  the  kind- 
 ness, compassion  and  grace  which  he 
 shows  to  his  friends  (Num.  6  :  25 ;  Dan. 
 9  :  17),  and  of  the  anger,  indignation 
 and  wrath  which  he  shoM's  to  his  ene- 
 mies (Ps.  34  :  16;  Jer.  21  :  10).  These 
 few  examples  sufficiently  indicate  how  nu- 
 merous are  the  figurative  uses  of  the  word 
 "face,"  and  how  suggestive,  in  especial, 
 are  the  many  associations  of  the  word 
 with  the  providence  and  grace  of  the 
 high  and  holy  Lord  God. 
 
196 
 
 FAIR  HAVENS— FAMILY. 
 
 Fair  Ha'vens,  a  harbor  or  roadstead 
 on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Crete, 
 mentioned  in  Paul's  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts 
 27  :  8).  It  is  identified  with  a  small  bay 
 a  little  to  the  north-east  of  Cape  Matala. 
 It  is  a  fair  winter-harbor,  but  inferior  to 
 that  of  Phenice  or  Phoenix,  about  forty 
 miles  further  westward. 
 
 Fairs.  This  word  occurs  only  in 
 Ezek.  27,  and  there  no  loss  than  seven 
 times  (vs.  12,  14,  16,  19,  22,  27,  33).  In 
 the  last  of  these  verses  the  original  He- 
 brew word  is  rendered  "  wares,"  but  it 
 properly  means  "superfluities,"  in  the 
 sense  of  things  produced  for  sale  only 
 or  for  export.  This  is  unquestionably 
 the  true  meaning  of  tlie  word  through- 
 out. 
 
 Faith.  The  root-idea  of  the  word  is 
 trust.  The  two  leading  senses  in  which 
 the  word  is  used  in  Scripture  are  these : 
 
 1.  An  objective  body  of  truth,  "the  faith," 
 or  that  in  the  truth  of  which  the  firmest 
 trust  may  be  reposed  (Acts  24  :  24;  Gal. 
 
 I  :  23 ;  1  Tim.  3  :  9 ;  4  :  1  ;  Jude,  verse  3). 
 
 2.  A  subjective  exercise,  quality  or  habit 
 of  soul,  in  which,  under  the  illuminations 
 and  persuasions  of  the  divine  Spirit,  the 
 truth  of  revelation  is  trustfully  received, 
 and  the  work  of  Christ,  as  the  ground  of 
 pardon  and  the  means  of  holiness,  is  con- 
 fidently relied  on  (Mark  16  :  15,  16  ;  John 
 3  :  16,  36 ;  Acts  10  :  43;  Rom.  4:5;  10  : 
 4;   Gal.  2  :  16;   2  Thess.  2  :  10-12;   Heb. 
 
 II  :  6;  1  John  5:  10-13). 
 Faith'ful-ness,  an  attribute  of  God, 
 
 in  the  sense  of  trustworthiness  (Ps.  89  :  1, 
 33  ;  Heb.  10  :  23). 
 
 FaFlow  Deer.  The  Hebrew  word 
 thus  rendered  is  found  only  in  Deut.  14:5 
 and  1  Kings  4  :  23.  The  animal  meant 
 is  a  question  in  dispute.  It  is  usually 
 considered  to  be  the  roebuck. 
 
 Fa-mil'iar  Spir'it,  the  rendering 
 of  a  Hebrew  word  which  signifies  "one 
 who  is  inflated  by  a  demon,"  and  who, 
 swelling  under  the  demoniacal  influence, 
 
 pours  forth  declarations  touching  the  fu- 
 ture (Lev.  19  :  31 ;  20  :  27).  Conjurers, 
 necromancers,  sorcerers,  wizards,  and  even 
 ventriloquists,  were  supposed  to  be  inflated 
 and  inspired  by  such  spirits  (Deut.  18:11: 
 2  Kings  21  :  6;  2  Chron.  33  :  6;  Isa.  8  : 
 19;  19  :  3;  29  :  4).  The  Pythoness  men- 
 tioned in  Acts  16  :  16  furnishes  a  good 
 example  of  the  wellnigh  imiversal  belief 
 in  the  ancient  world,  that  one  could  be  so 
 possessed  by  an  imp  of  divination  as  to  be 
 able  to  read  and  tell  the  future  with  accti- 
 racy  and  certainty. 
 
 Fam'i-ly.  This  word,  of  Latin  ori- 
 gin, is  derived  from  a  root  (/nmulus)  which 
 means  a  household  sl<tve.  Originally  desig- 
 nating, among  the  Romans,  the  slaves  be- 
 longing to  one  master,  it  came  to  designate 
 all  who  were  in  the  power  of  a  palerj'mnilias, 
 as  his  sons,  daughters,  grandchildren  and 
 slaves.  In  process  of  time  the  word  im- 
 derwent  a  further  modification,  and  came 
 to  be  the  equivalent  of  our  Saxon  word 
 "  household,"  the  general  expression  for 
 all  those  who  live  in  one  house  under 
 one  head. 
 
 The  idea  of  servitude  which  underlies 
 the  Latin  word  familia  underlies  also  the 
 Greek  word  which  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  the  New  Testament  is  render- 
 ed sometimes  "  house "  and  sometimes 
 "  household."  But  whilst  the  idea  of 
 servitude  enters  the  Greek  and  Roman 
 conception  of  the  family,  a  very  different 
 idea  enters  the  Hebrew  conception.  The 
 Hebrew  word  which  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment Scriptures  is  rendered  "family" 
 represents  the  idea  which  we  associate 
 with  the  word  "clan"  or  the  subdivision 
 of  a  tribe  (Josh.  7  :  16,  17).  Its  ground- 
 idea  is  that  of  spreading  out,  extending,  as 
 a  tribe  spreads  out  and  extends  from  nat- 
 ural generation  and  growth.  It  occurs 
 very  frequently  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and 
 always  involves  the  idea  of  kinship,  never 
 the  idea  of  servitude. 
 
 In  the  New  Testament  the  word  "  fam- 
 
FAMINE. 
 
 197 
 
 ily  "  occurs  but  once  (Eph.  3  :  15),  and  in 
 this  one  passage  the  Greek  word  thus  ren- 
 dered is  not  that  which  is  commonly  ren- 
 dered "house"  or  "household,"  but  that 
 which  designates  those  who  have  a  com- 
 mon father  and  are  of  the  same  lineage. 
 Blood-relationship,  therefore,  is  the  dom- 
 inant idea  associated  with  the  word  "  fam- 
 ily "  in  the  Hebrew  mind.  Accordingly, 
 we  find  that  the  family  relation,  as  we 
 commonly  understand  it,  was  developed 
 among  the  Hebrews  long  before  it  exist- 
 ed in  other  parts  of  the  world.  To  them, 
 indeed,  we  owe  that  beautiful  and  pi-oper 
 conception  of  the  family  which  regards  it 
 as  the  union  of  kinsmen  under  a  common 
 roof  and  around  a  common  head,  who, 
 though  supreme,  is  moved  by  love.  So 
 early  as  the  time  of  the  patriarchs  the 
 true  condition  of  a  family  was  realized 
 in  Palestine ;  and  when  the  gospel  trans- 
 ferred to  a  higher  and  wider  sphere  of 
 influence  whatever  was  good  and  durable 
 in  the  Law,  the  family  relation  assumed 
 tliat  elevated,  pure  and  delightful  charac- 
 ter which  makes  it  God's  best  instrument 
 on  earth  for  the  furtherance  of  the  moral 
 and  religious  interests  of  man.  In  a  Chris- 
 tian family  the  mother  is  the  source  of  the 
 greatest  and  best  influence.  This  fact  was 
 practically  recognized  among  the  Hebrews, 
 who  were  very  far  from  imitating  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  Arabs  and  the  Orientals  in  de- 
 grading the  wife  into  the  head  of  the  ha- 
 rem. She  was  of  one  flesh  with  her  hus- 
 band, and  a  help  meet  for  him  (Gen.  2  : 
 1€,  23). 
 
 In  Prov.  31  a  beautiful  picture  of  the 
 Hebrew  wife  is  drawn.  The  reality  there 
 portrayed  could  scarcely  have  existed  in  a 
 state  of  gross  polygamy,  to  which,  as  we 
 have  abundant  reason  to  believe,  the  Is- 
 raelites in  general  were  not  degraded, 
 whatever  may  have  been  customary  in 
 bad  times  or  with  rich  and  powerful  men. 
 The  family  life  is  based  upon  the  wants 
 and  necessities  of  our  nature,  and  is  es- 
 
 sentially fitted  to  develop  and  foster  those 
 habits  and  affections  on  which  the  hap- 
 piness and  welfare  of  mankind  depend. 
 Under  the  gospel  this  family  life  begins 
 in  the  union  of  one  man  to  one  woman, 
 and  reaches  its  grand  and  gracious  end 
 when  husband  and  wife  and  offspring  are 
 trained  and  fitted  for  heaven.  The  early 
 baptism  of  the  children  is  to  be  followed 
 by  careful  and  continuous  instruction  in 
 the  doctrines  and  duties  of  religion.  The 
 parents  who  desire  theirs  to  be  a  real 
 Christian  family  must  from  the  first  in- 
 culcate on  their  children  (aside  from  the 
 habit  of  absolute,  unquestioning  obedi- 
 ence to  the  parental  authority  as  divinely 
 instituted)  the  true  ground  of  obedience,  as 
 laid  in  that  obedience  to  God  which  springs 
 from  love  to  God.  Nor  in  the  Christian 
 family  are  the  servants  to  be  excluded 
 from  participation  in  the  spiritual  bless- 
 ings of  the  household.  They  are  to  be 
 taught  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,  and  are 
 to  be  privileged  to  take  an  active  part  in 
 the  family  worship.  The  more,  indeed, 
 they  personally  enter  into  the  life  of  the 
 family,  its  interests,  its  joys,  its  griefs,  and 
 the  more  they  receive  from  the  family  that 
 sympathy  and  help  which  for  body  and 
 soul  they  require,  the  more  will  the  en- 
 tire family  be  enabled  to  lead  a  really 
 Christian  life. 
 
 Fam'ine.  The  watersheds  of  Palestine 
 and  Arabia  have  few  large  springs,  and 
 the  small  rivers  are  not  sufficient  for  the 
 irrigation  of  even  the  level  lands.  Hence 
 without  copious  rains  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
 cannot  be  matured  ;  hence,  too,  if  the  heavy 
 showers  of  November  and  December  fail, 
 the  sustenance  of  the  people  is  cut  off",  and 
 famine,  more  or  less  severe,  prevails.  As, 
 moreover,  the  fertility  of  Egypt  is  owing 
 altogether  to  the  annual  overflow  of  the 
 Nile,  the  failure  of  that  overflow,  espe- 
 cially through  several  successive  seasons, 
 is  certain  to  bring  about  a  scarcity  of  food. 
 The  first  famine  recorded  in  the  Scriptures 
 
198 
 
 FAN— FAST. 
 
 was  that  encountered  by  Abraliam  when 
 sojourning  in  the  pasture-lands  east  of 
 Bethel  (Gen.  12  :  10).  To  escape  it  the 
 patriarch  went  down  to  Egypt.  In  the 
 times  of  Isaac  another  grievous  famine 
 afl'ected  Canaan  (Gen.  26  :  1).  The  next 
 recorded  time  of  scarcity  was  the  great 
 famine  of  Egypt,  which  "was  over  all 
 the  face  of  the  earth"  (Gen.  41  :  56). 
 This  famine  differed  from  others  in  the 
 providential  recurrence  of  seven  years 
 of  plenty,  whereby  Joseph,  who  inter- 
 preted the  predictive  dreams  of  Pharaoh, 
 was  enabled  to  provide  against  the  coming 
 dearth,  and  to  supply  with  corn  not  only 
 the  population  of  Egypt,  but  the  peoples 
 of  the  surrounding  countries.  The  mod- 
 ern history  of  Egypt  throws  some  curious 
 light  on  these  ancient  records  of  famines. 
 Between  the  years  a.  d.  1064  and  1071  a 
 famine  of  seven  years'  continuance  op- 
 pressed Egypt  even  more  sorely  than  the 
 famine  in  Joseph's  time,  since  for  it  no 
 effective  provision  had  been  made.  The 
 terrible  drought,  and  a  still  more  terrible 
 pestilence,  reduced  the  people  to  such 
 straits  that  they  ate  corpses  and  the  bod- 
 ies of  animals  which  died  of  starvation. 
 The  famine  of  Samaria  resembled  it  in 
 many  particulars  (2  Kings  6  :  24-30),  and 
 a  subsequent  famine  in  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
 rael (2  Kings  8:1)  afforded  another  in- 
 stance of  a  seven  years'  term  of  scarcity. 
 
 Fan,  a  mnnowing  shovel,  with  which 
 grain  was  thrown  up  against  the  wind  in 
 order  to  cleanse  it  from  the  broken  straw 
 and  chaff  (Tsa.  30  :  24 ;  Jer.  15:7;  Matt. 
 3  :  12;  Luke  3  :  17).  At  the  present  day, 
 in  Syria,  the  instrument  used  is  a  large 
 wooden  fork.  Both  kinds  of  instruments 
 are  pictured  on  the  Egyptian  monuments. 
 
 Far'thing,  the  rendering  in  our  Eng- 
 lish Version  of  the  names  of  two  Roman 
 coins  which  differed  in  value. 
 
 1.  The  ossrtWow,  mentioned  Matt.  10: 
 29  ;  Luke  12:6.  In  the  texts  cited  it  is 
 put  (like  our  term  "a  copper")  for  any 
 
 trifling  amount.  It  was  a  copper  coin, 
 and  had  a  value  of  about  one  and  a  half 
 cents. 
 
 2.  The  quadrans,  mentioned  Matt.  5  : 
 26;  Mark  12  :  42.  It  was  a  small  copper 
 coin,  and  had  a  value  of  about  two-lifths 
 of  a  cent.  As  the  widow's  two  mites  made 
 a  farthing  (quadrans),  the  value  of  the  mite 
 was  one-fifth  of  a  cent. 
 
 Fast,  an  abstinence  from  food  which 
 has  its  religious  value  only  so  far  as,  in 
 the  sacrifice  of  personal  will,  it  afflicts  the 
 sow/  (Lev.  16  :  29-31 ;  23  :  27  ;  Num.  30  : 
 13).  The  sole  fast  required  by  Moses  was 
 on  the  great  day  of  annual  atonement  (Lev. 
 16  :  29-31),  but  during  the  Captivity  four 
 other  annual  fasts  were  observed  (Zecli.  7  : 
 5 ;  8  :  19).  The  number  of  annual  fasts  in 
 the  present  Jewish  calendar  is  twenty- 
 eight.  Public  fa.sts  were  occasionally 
 proclaimed  to  express  national  humilia- 
 tion and  to  supplicate  divine  favor  (1 
 Sam.  7  :  6 ;  2  Chron.  20  :  3 ;  Jer.  36  :  6- 
 10;  Nell.  9:1).  Numerous  allusions  oc- 
 cur in  the  Scriptures  to  the  private  fasts 
 of  individuals  under  the  influence  of 
 grief  or  vexation  or  anxiety.  After  the 
 Exile  private  fasts  became  very  frequent. 
 The  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  Publi- 
 can (Luke  18  :  9-14)  shows  how  much 
 the  Pharisees  were  given  to  voluntary 
 and  private  fasts.  The  semi-weekly  fasts 
 of  the  Pharisees  were  on  Thui-sday  and 
 Monday. 
 
 The  Jewish  fasts  were  observed  with 
 various  degrees  of  strictness.  Sometimes 
 there  was  entire  abstinence  from  food  for 
 a  long  term  (Esth.  4:16);  sometimes 
 there  appears  to  have  been  a  restriction 
 simply  to  a  very  plain  diet  (Dan.  10  :  3). 
 Frequently,  those  who  fasted  dressed  in 
 sackcloth  or  rent  their  clothes,  put  ashes 
 on  their  heads  and  went  barefoot  (1  Kings 
 21  :  27 ;  Neh.  9:1;  Ps.  35  :  13).  In  the 
 New  Testament,  whilst  our  Lord  sternly 
 rebuked  the  Pharisees  for  their  outward 
 and  hypocritical  fasts  (Matt.  6  :  16),  and 
 
FAT— FEAST. 
 
 199 
 
 actually  abstained  from  appointing  any  fast 
 whatever  as  a  part  of  Christianity,  he 
 evidently  recognized  the  religious  value 
 of  fasting,  and  subjected  the  practice  to 
 proper  regulation.  In  his  Sermon  on  the 
 Mount  (Matt.  6  :  17)  he  distinctly  rec- 
 ognizes fasting,  but  leaves  its  frequency, 
 extent  and  occasion  to  the  conscience  of 
 the  individual  Christian. 
 
 Fat.  A  distinction  was  made  in  the 
 Old  Testament  Scriptures  between  the 
 pure  fat  or  suet  of  an  animal  and  the  fat 
 which  was  intermixed  with  the  lean. 
 The  pure  fat  was  interdicted  as  an  arti- 
 cle of  food  (Lev.  3  :  3,  9,  17;  7  :  3, 
 23) ;  the  fat  intermixed  with  the  lean 
 was  not  interdicted.  The  ground  of 
 the  interdiction  was  that  the  fat  was  the 
 richest  part  of  the  animal,  and  therefore 
 was  "  the  Lord's  "  (Lev.  3  :  16).  The  ha- 
 bitual observance  of  the  interdiction  taught 
 the  Jew  what  every  Christian  should  learn, 
 that  the  choicest  part  of  every  gift  which 
 God  confers  is  claimed  by  himself,  and  is 
 to  be  scrupulously  and  willingly  devoted 
 to  him.  For  the  interdiction  of  fat  as  an 
 article  of  food  there  were  also,  it  is  likely, 
 good  sanitary  reasons.  The  Jews,  as  most 
 Eastern  peoples,  were  prone  to  leprosy  and 
 other  cutaneous  disorders,  which  would  be 
 aggravated  by  an  indulgence  in  rich  diet. 
 
 Fat,  in  the  sense  of  Vat.  The  word 
 occurs  in  Joel  2  :  24 ;  3  :  13 ;  Hag.  2  :  16. 
 The  "  vats "  contained  the  material  from 
 which  were  pressed  oil  and  wine,  and  were 
 often  excavated  out  of  the  native  rock  of 
 the  hills  on  which  the  vineyards  and  olive- 
 orchards  lay. 
 
 Fa'ther.  This  word,  besides  its  ob- 
 vious and  primary  sense,  bears  in  Scrip- 
 ture a  number  of  other  applications.  It 
 is  applied  to  any  ancestor,  near  or  remote, 
 or  to  ancestors  ("fathers")  in  general. 
 Thus,  Abraham  was  the  father  of  the 
 Jews  (Deut.  1:8;  John  8:39).  It  is 
 also  applied,  as  a  title  of  respect,  to  any 
 head,  chief,  ruler  or  elder,  and  especially 
 
 to  kings,  prophets  and  priests  (Judg.  17  : 
 10 ;  2  Kings  2:12;  Acts  7  :  2 ;  1  Cor.  4  : 
 15).  It  is  further  applied  to  the  author, 
 source  or  beginner  of  anything.  Thus, 
 Jabal  is  called  "  the  father  of  those  who 
 dwell  in  tents  and  have  cattle"  (Gen.  4  : 
 20),  and  Jubal,  "the  father  of  all  such  as 
 handle  the  harp  and  organ"  (Gen.  4  :  21). 
 As  an  extension  of  all  the  foregoing  senses 
 the  term  "Father"  is  very  often  applied  to 
 God  himself  (Deut.  32  :  6 ;  2  Sam.  7  :  14; 
 Ps.  89  :  26,  27 ;  Isa.  63  :  16;  64  :  8).  Our 
 Lord,  in  speaking  to  his  disciples,  calls 
 God  their  Father  (Matt.  6:4,  8,  15,  18; 
 10  :  20,  29 ;  13  :  43),  and  the  apostles,  for 
 themselves  and  other  Christians,  also  call 
 him  Father  (Eom.  1 : 7  ;  1  Cor.  1:3;  Gal. 
 1:4). 
 
 As  the  head  of  the  family  and  as  the 
 likeness  of  God's  supremacy  over  men, 
 the  father  has  in  Scripture  an  expressly- 
 recognized  position  and  a  plainly-sanc- 
 tioned authority.  His  blessing  was  re- 
 garded as  conferring  special  benefit,  but 
 his  malediction  special  injury,  on  those  on 
 whom  it  fell  (Gen.  9  :  25,  27;  27  :  27-40; 
 48  :  15,  20;  49).  So  also  the  sin  of  a  fa- 
 ther was  held  to  affect  in  certain  cases 
 the  welfare  of  his  descendants  (2  Kings 
 5  :  27).  The  command  to  honor  parents 
 is  noticed  by  the  apostle  Paul  as  "the 
 first  commandment  with  promise"  (Ex. 
 20  :  12;  Eph.  6:2).  Disrespect  toward 
 parents  was  condemned  by  the  Law  as 
 one  of  the  worst  of  crimes  (Ex.  21  :  15, 
 17;  1  Tim.  1:9).  It  is  to  this  well-rec- 
 ognized theory  of  parental  supremacy  that 
 the  very  various  uses  of  the  term  "  father  " 
 in  Scripture  are  due. 
 
 Fath'om,  a  nautical  measure  of  about 
 six  feet  in  length  (Acts  27  :  28). 
 
 Feast,  the  rendering  in  our  English 
 Version  of  two  different  words  in  the 
 original,  the  one  meaning  a  hospitable 
 entertainment,  the  other  a  religious  fes- 
 tival. 
 
 1.  The  feast,  in  the  sense  of  a  hospi- 
 
200 
 
 FEET. 
 
 table  entertainment,  is  referred  to  very 
 early  in  tlie  history  of  the  human  fam- 
 ily (Gen.  19  :  1-3).  It  was  usual  not 
 only  thus  to  receive  persons  with  choice 
 viands,  but  also  to  dismiss  them  in  a  sim- 
 ilar manner  (Gen.  24  :  54 ;  2  Sam.  3  :  20 : 
 2  Kings  6  :  23).  This  practice  explains 
 the  reason  wliy  the  Prodigal  on  his  return 
 was  welcomed  by  a  feast  (Luke  15  :  23). 
 Occasions  of  domestic  joy  were  hailed 
 with  feasting  (Gen.  21  :  8).  Birthdays 
 were  thus  celebrated  (Gen.  40  :  20 ;  Job 
 1:4;  Matt.  14  :  6).  Marriage-feasts  were 
 also  common  (Gen.  29  :  22;  Judg.  14  :  10). 
 The  season  of  sheep-shearing  and  tlie  sea- 
 son of  vintage  were  celebrated  with  festive 
 eating  and  drinking  (2  Sam.  13 :  23;  Judg. 
 9  :  27).  Feasting  at  funerals  was,  more- 
 over, not  uncommon  (2  Sam.  3  :  35).  In 
 short,  all  the  important  events  of  social 
 life  were  linked  with  entertainments.  The 
 usual  time  of  the  feast  was  the  evening,  and 
 tlie  room  in  which  it  was  held  would  ordi- 
 narily be  filled  with  the  odors  of  perfumed 
 oils  and  of  flowers  loosely  disposed  or  ar- 
 ranged in  garlands.  The  posture  at  table 
 was,  in  early  times,  sitting  (1  Sam.  16 :  11 ; 
 20  :  5,  18) ;  in  later  times,  reclining  (Luke 
 7  :  38 ;  John  13  :  23).  The  guests  were 
 ranged  in  order  of  dignity  (Gen.  43  :  33; 
 1  Sam.  9  :  22),  and  were  entertained  with 
 songs  or  amused  with  riddles  and  jests  (2 
 Sam.  19:  35;  Judg.  14  :  12). 
 
 2.  The  feast,  in  the  sense  of  a  religious 
 festival,  had  a  close  and  controlling  con- 
 nection with  the  social  and  national  life 
 of  the  Hebrews.  The  Sabbath  was  a 
 weekly  feast  (Lev.  23  :  2,  3),  and  with  it 
 were  associated  the  monthly  feast,  other- 
 wise called  the  feast  of  the  new  moon 
 and  the  feast  of  trumpets  (Num.  28  :  11- 
 15),  the  sabbatical  year  (Lev.  25  :  4)  and 
 the  year  of  jubilee  (Lev.  25  :  10).  The 
 great  annual  historical  fea.sts  were  three 
 (Ex.  23:14^17):  the  feast  of  passover, 
 commemorative  of  God's  mercy  in  spar- 
 ing the  Hebrews  from  death  and  in  de- 
 
 livering them  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt 
 (Ex.  12  :  14) ;  the  feast  of  weeks,  other- 
 wise called  the  feast  of  tlie  first-fruits  and 
 the  feast  of  the  wheat-harvest  and  the 
 feast  of  Pentecost,  commemorative  of  the 
 birthday  of  the  Jewish  nation  at  Sinai 
 (Ex.  34  :  22;  Lev.  23  :  10;  Num.  18  :  12; 
 Acts  2:1);  and  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
 or  the  feast  of  ingathering,  commemora- 
 tive of  God's  goodness  in  giving  tlie  fruits 
 of  the  earth  and  in  leading  Israel  from  the 
 tent-life  of  the  desert  to  the  permanent 
 homes  of  Canaan  ( Lev.  23  :  34 ;  Dent.  1 6  : 
 13-15).  On  tliese  tliree  fea.sts  every  male 
 Israelite  was  commanded  "  to  appear  be- 
 fore the  Lord  " — that  is,  to  attend  in  the 
 court  of  the  tabernacle  or  the  temple — 
 and  to  make  his  offering  with  a  joyful 
 heart  (Deut.  27  :  7 ;  Neh.  8  :  9-12).  The 
 attendance  of  women  was  voluntary,  but 
 tlie  zealous  and  devout  often  went  up  to 
 the  passover  (1  Sam.  1:7;  Luke  2  :  41). 
 On  all  the  days  of  holy  convocation  there 
 was  to  be  an  entire  suspension  of  ordinary 
 labor  of  all  kinds  (Ex.  12  :  16;  Lev.  16  : 
 29  ;  23  :  21,  24,  25,  35).  Besides  their  re- 
 ligious purpose,  the  great  feasts  must  have 
 had  an  important  bearing  on  tlie  mainte- 
 nance of  a  feeling  of  national  unity.  They 
 had,  too,  an  obvious  agricultural  signifi- 
 cance, and  their  times  were  ordered  so  as 
 to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  in- 
 dustry of  the  people. 
 
 Feet.  It  was  an  ancient  custom  to 
 wash  the  feet  of  strangers  who  stojjped 
 on  a  journey  to  partake  of  one's  hospi- 
 tality (Gen.  18:4;  19:2;  24:32;  43: 
 24).  This,  in  a  hot  climate,  was  both 
 necessary  and  refreshing,  especially  as 
 the  sandals  universally  worn  were  an  im- 
 perfect protection  to  the  feet  from  dust 
 (Luke  7  :  44;  1  Tim.  5  :  10).  Our  Lord 
 washed  the  feet  of  his  disciples  to  display 
 his  own  condescension  and  to  inculcate 
 lessons  of  kindness  and  humility  (John 
 13:  14).  Nakedness  of  feet  was  a  sign 
 of  mourning  (Ezek.  24  :  17) ;  it  was  like- 
 
FELIX— FIG. 
 
 201 
 
 wise  a  mark  of  great  reverence  (Ex.  3:5). 
 The  land  of  Egypt  is  characterized  in 
 Deut.  11  :  10  as  a  land  watered  with  the 
 foot ;  that  is,  for  the  purpose  of  artificial 
 irrigation  a  kind  of  treadwheel  was  turned 
 by  the  foot,  by  which  water  was  raised  and 
 poured  into  the  trenches.  The  foot  is  also 
 directly  used  in  opening  and  closing  the 
 small  channels  which  conduct  water  to 
 the  plants.  Koberts  says :  "  He  speaketh 
 with  his  feet"  (Prov.  6  :  13)  is  illustrated 
 by  a  custom  in  the  East,  in  which  per- 
 sons sitting  in  a  house  with  bare  feet  make 
 with  them,  as  people  make  with  their  fin- 
 gers, significant  motions  to  each  other. 
 Job  describes  his  own  kindness  to  the 
 helpless  by  saying  he  "was  feet  to  the 
 lame"  (.Job  29  :  15).  To  "cover  the 
 feet"  (Judg.  3:24)  is  equivalent  to  at- 
 tending to  the  calls  of  nature.  "  Under 
 the  feet"  denotes  subjection  to  a  superior 
 (Ps.  8  :  6). 
 
 Fe'lix  \_happy'],  Claudius,  a  Roman 
 procurator  or  governor  of  Judaea,  ap- 
 pointed by  the  emperor  Claudius,  whose 
 freed  man  he  was.  He  ruled  the  prov- 
 ince in  a  mean,  cruel  and  profligate  man- 
 ner. His  period  of  office  was  full  of  trou- 
 bles and  seditions.  Before  him,  in  Csesa- 
 rea,  the  apostle  Paul  was  brought,  and  by 
 him,  in  the  hope  of  extorting  money,  the 
 apostle  was  kept  in  prison  two  years  (Acts 
 24  :  26,  27).  At  the  end  of  that  time  Por- 
 cius  Festus  was  appointed  to  supersede 
 Felix,  who,  on  his  return  to  Rome  was 
 accused  by  the  Jews  in  Csesarea,  and 
 would  have  suffered  the  penalty  due  to 
 his  atrocities  had  not  his  brother  Paleas 
 prevailed  with  the  emperor  Nero  to 
 spare  him.  The  wife  of  Felix  was  Dru- 
 silla,  daughter  of  the  first  Herod  Agrip- 
 pa  and  the  former  wife  of  Azizus,  king 
 of  Emesa. 
 
 Fer''ret,  one  of  the  unclean  creeping 
 things  mentioned  in  Lev.  11  :  30.  The 
 animal  referred  to  was  probably  a  rep- 
 tile of  the  lizard  tribe. 
 
 Pes''tus  [/estoi],  Porcius,  the  suc- 
 cessor of  Felix  as  procurator  of  Judaea 
 (Acts  24 :  27).  A  few  weeks  after  Festus 
 had  reached  his  province  he  heard  the 
 cause  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  had  been 
 left  a  prisoner  by  Felix,  in  the  })resence 
 of  Herod  Agrippa  II.  and  Bernice,  his 
 sister  (Acts  25  :  11,  12).  Not  finding  any- 
 thing in  the  apostle  worthy  of  death  or  of 
 bonds,  and  being  confirmed  in  this  view 
 by  his  guests,  he  would  have  set  his  pris- 
 oner free  had  not  Paul,  in  order  to  protect 
 himself  from  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  ap- 
 pealed to  Csesar.  J  udsea  was  as  much  dis- 
 turbed during  the  procuratorship  of  Fes- 
 tus as  during  that  of  his  predecessor.  He 
 ruled  the  province  less  than  two  years. 
 
 Fet^ters,  shackles  for  binding  prison- 
 ers, properly  for  the  ankles  (2  Sam.  3  :  34 ; 
 Ps.  105 :  18),  yet  sometimes,  under  the  gen- 
 eral designation  of  "  chains,"  applied  to  the 
 wrists  ( Jer.  39  :  7 ;  Nah.  3  :  10). 
 
 Field.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  desig- 
 nates land  which  is  cultivated,  but  imen- 
 dosed  (Gen.  29  :  2;  31  :  4).  The  Hebrew 
 conception  embodied  in  the  word  is  some- 
 times more  fully  expressed  by  the  phrase 
 "the  open  field"  (Lev.  14  :  7,  53;  Num. 
 19:  16;  2  Sam.  11  :  11). 
 
 Figr.  The  fig  tree  flourishes  in  sandy 
 and  barren  places,  where  other  fruit  trees 
 will  not  so  readily  grow.  It  was  common 
 in  Palestine,  and  its  fruit  much  esteem- 
 ed. Although  cultivated  in  many  parts 
 of  Europe,  and  recently  in  the  United 
 States,  it  is  a  native  of  the  East,  where 
 it  grows  luxuriantly  and  becomes  a  large 
 tree.  There  are  varieties  of  figs,  ripen- 
 ing from  June  to  September.  The  fig  tree 
 is  frequently  referred  to  in  Scripture.  The 
 first  reference  is  to  its  leaves,  sewed  together 
 by  our  first  parents  for  aprons  (Gen.  3  :  7). 
 It  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  valuable  pro- 
 ductions of  Palestine:  "a  land  of  wheat 
 and  barley,  and  vines,  and  fig  trees,  and 
 pomegranates"  (Deut.  8  :  8).     It   is   also 
 
202 
 
 FIGURE— FIRE. 
 
 referred  to  as  a  sign  of  national  prosperity : 
 "  And  Judah  and  Israel  dwelt  safely,  every 
 man  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig  tree" 
 (1  Kings  4  :  25).  We  read  also  of  "cakes 
 of  ligs"  (1  Sam.  25  :  18),  wliich  were  prob- 
 ably the  figs  dried  and  pressed,  in  the  man- 
 ner in  which  they  are  at  present  i)repared 
 for  export.  In  Mark  11  :  13,  14  we  are 
 told  that  our  Lord,  seeing  a  fig  tree  hav- 
 
 Leaf  and  Fruit  of  the  Fig  Tree. 
 
 ing  leaves,  came  to  it  to  see  if  it  had  fruit 
 on  it,  and  finding  none,  for  the  time  of 
 figs  was  not  yet,  he  cursed  it  for  its  bar- 
 renness, and  it  withered.  It  is  to  be  con- 
 sidered that  the  fruit  appears  before  the 
 leaf,  so  that  if  the  tree  had  leaves  and  no 
 figs,  it  must  have  been  barren,  especially  a.s 
 the  time  of  figs — that  is,  the  time  of  gather- 
 ing them — had  not  yet  arrived.  An  unfruit- 
 
 ful professor  is  referred  to  in  the  parable  of 
 the  barren  fig  tree  (Luke  13  :  6-9). 
 
 Fig'ure,  the  likeness  of  one  pei-son 
 or  thing  to  another.  Thus,  Adam  wa«  the 
 figure  of  Christ  (Rom.  5  :  14). 
 
 FiFlet,  in  architecture  a  band  sur- 
 rounding a  column  or  pillar,  and  gener- 
 ally placed  at  the  top  for  ornament  (Ex. 
 27  :  10,  17). 
 
 Fine,  Finer,  Fining,  now 
 refine,  refiner,  refining,  occur  in  Job 
 28  :  1 ;  Prov.  25  :  4 ;  27  :  21,  and 
 relate  to  the  separation  of  the 
 precious  metals  from  their  dross 
 by  melting  them. 
 
 Fir,  the  name  of  an  extensive 
 family   of   coniferous  evergreens, 
 and    in   our  English   Version   of 
 the   Scriptures   the   rendering  of 
 words  which  represent,  it  is  sup- 
 posed,  what   we  denominate   the 
 Scotch     fir    and     tlie     cypress. 
 These  trees  are  found  in  the  Leb- 
 anon mountains.     The  fir  is  rep- 
 resented as  a  tall,  straight  tree  of 
 fine  appearance,  in    the  tops    of 
 which  the  storks  Iniild  their  nests 
 (Ps.  104:17).      Hence  it  is  useil 
 to   illustrate    power  or  grandeur 
 (2  Kings  19:23;  Isa.  14:8;  37: 
 24).      The  wood   of  the   fir   was 
 used  for  shipbuilding  (Ezek.  27  : 
 5),  for  making  musical   instru- 
 ments (2  Sam.  6:5)  and  for  the 
 fine    work    of   costly   edifices    (1 
 Kings    5:8,    10;    6:  15,    34;    2 
 Chron.  2:8;  3:5;  Song  1  :  17). 
 Fire.      Tlie    leading    applica- 
 tions of  fire  in  Scripture  are  as  follows : 
 I.  Religious.     1.  That  which  consum- 
 ed the  burnt-sacrifice  and  the  incense-oflbr- 
 ing,  beginning  with  the  sacrifice  of  Noah 
 (Gen.  8  :  20),  and  continued  in  the  ever- 
 burning  fire  on   the   altar,   first   kindled 
 from  heaven  (Lev.  6  :  9,  13;  9  :  24),  and 
 rekindled  at  the  dedication  of  Solomon's 
 temple  (2  Chron.  7  :  1,  3).     2.  The  sym- 
 
FIRE-PAN— FIRMAMENT. 
 
 203 
 
 bol  of  Jehovah's  presence,  and  the  in- 
 strument of  his  power  in  the  way  either 
 of  approval  or  of  destruction  (Ex.  3:2; 
 19  :  18;  Num.  11  :  1-3;  1  Kings  18  :  38; 
 2  Kings  1  :  10).  Parallel  with  this  ap- 
 plication of  fire  is  the  fact  that  in  many 
 of  the  ancient  religions  fire  was  a  sacred 
 emblem,  the  representative  of  the  Sun. 
 The  worshipers  of  Moloch  made  their 
 children  pass  through  the  fire  (2  Kings 
 17:  17). 
 
 II.  Domestic.  Besides  its  ordinary  use 
 for  cooking  purposes,  fire  is  often  requir- 
 ed in  Palestine  for  warmth  (Jer.  36  :  22 ; 
 Mark  14  :  54;  John  18  :  18).  The  com- 
 mon custom  is  to  place  on  the  floor  pans 
 of  burning  charcoal.  On  the  Sabbath 
 the  Law  forbade  any  fire  to  be  kindled, 
 even  for  cooking  (Ex.  35  :  3 ;  Num.  15  : 
 32j. 
 
 III.  Penal.  Punishment  of  death  by 
 fire  was  awarded  by  the  Law  only  in  the 
 cases  of  incest  with  a  mother-in-law  and 
 of  unchastity  on  the  part  of  the  daughter 
 of  a  priest  (Lev.  20  :  14;  21  :  9).  Cap- 
 tives in  war  were  sometimes  burned  (2 
 Sam.  12  :  31 ;  Jer.  29  :  22).  In  certain 
 cases  the  bodies  of  executed  criminals 
 and  of  infamous  persons  were  burned 
 (Josh.  7  :  25 ;  2  Kings  23  :  16).  The 
 Jews  were  expressly  ordered  to  destroy 
 the  idols  of  the  heathen  nations,  and  es- 
 pecially any  city  of  their  own  relapsed 
 into  idolatry  (Ex.  32  :  20 ;  2  Kings  10  : 
 26;  Deut.  7:5;  12  :  3;  13  :  16).  In 
 some  cases  the  cities,  and  in  the  case  of 
 Hazor  the  chariots  also,  were,  by  God's 
 order,  consumed  with  fire  (Josh.  6  :  24 ; 
 8:  28;  11  :  6,  9,  13). 
 
 IV.  Metallurgical.  The  use  of  fire 
 in  metallurgy  was  well  known  to  the  He- 
 brews at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (Ex.  32  : 
 24  ;  35  :  32 ;  37  :  2,  6,  17  ;  38  :  2,  8  ;  Num. 
 16  :  38,  39). 
 
 V.  Metaphorical.  Fire  or  flame  is 
 used  in  a  metaphorical  sense  to  express 
 excited   feeling    and    divine    inspiration, 
 
 and  also  to  describe  temporal  calamities 
 and  future  punishments  (Ps.  66  :  12 ;  Jer. 
 20  :  9 ;  Joel  2  :  30 ;  Mai.  3:2;  Matt.  25  : 
 41;  Mark  9:  43;  Rev.  20  :  15). 
 
 Fire-Pan,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
 temple-service  (Ex.  27  :  3 ;  38  :  3  ;  2  Kings 
 25  :  15;  Jer.  52  :  19).  The  same  word  is 
 elsewhere  rendered  "  snuff-dish  "  (Ex.  25  : 
 38  ;  37  :  23 ;  Num.  4  :  9)  and  "  censer  " 
 (Lev.  10  :  1 ;  16  :  12;  Num.  16  :  6).  It  ap- 
 pears, therefore,  that  two  articles  were  so 
 called:  one,  like  a  chafing-dish,  used  to 
 carry  live  coals  for  the  burning  of  in- 
 cense; another,  like  a  snuffer-dish,  used 
 in  trimming  the  lamps,  for  carrying  the 
 snuffers  and  conveying  away  the  snuflf. 
 
 Fir'kin,  a  measure  for  liquids,  con- 
 taining about  eight  and  two-thirds  gal- 
 lons, mentioned  only  in  John  2  :  6. 
 
 Fir'ma-ment.  The  Hebrew  word 
 thus  rendered  has  the  sense  of  expansion. 
 The  verbal  root  means  to  expand  by  beat- 
 ing, whether  by  the  hand,  the  foot  or  any 
 instrument.  It  is  especially  used  of  beat- 
 ing out  metals  into  thin  plates  (Ex.  39  :  3 ; 
 Num.  16 :  39).  Accordingly,  the  term  com- 
 bines the  ideas  of  expansion  and  tenuity. 
 In  Ezek.  1  :  22-26  the  "  firmament,"  as 
 the  floor  on  which  the  throne  of  the  Most 
 High  is  placed,  involves  the  idea  of  f^o- 
 lidity.  The  office  of  the  firmament  in  the 
 economy  of  the  world  demanded  strength 
 and  substance.  It  was  to  serve  as  a  divis- 
 ion between  the  waters  above  and  the 
 waters  below  (Gen.  1:7).  In  keeping 
 with  this  view,  the  firmament  was  pro- 
 vided with  "windows"  (Gen.  7  :  11 ;  Isa. 
 24:18;  Mai.  3:  10)  and  "doors"  (Ps. 
 78  :  23),  through  which  the  rain  and  the 
 snow  might  descend.  A  secondary  pur- 
 pose which  the  firmament  served  was  to 
 support  the  heavenly  bodies,  sun,  moon 
 and  stars  (Gen.  1  :  14),  in  which  they 
 were  fixed  as  nails,  and  from  which,  con- 
 sequently, they  might  be  said  figuratively 
 to  drop  off"  (Isa.  14  :  12 ;  34  :  4 ;  Matt.  24 : 
 29).     Hence  it  is  plain  that  the  writers  of 
 
204 
 
 FIRST-BORN— FISH. 
 
 Scripture  describe  things  as  they  appear 
 rather  than  as  they  are. 
 
 First-bom.  Under  the  Law,  to  per- 
 petuate the  remembrance  of  the  death  of 
 Egypt's  tii-st-born  and  of  the  preservation 
 of  Israel's  first-born  at  the  Exodus,  the 
 Hrst-born  males  of  liuman  beings  and  of 
 animals  were  regarded  as  devoted  to  God 
 for  the  priesthood  and  for  sacrifice,  yet  as 
 capable,  under  certain  regulations,  of  re- 
 demption therefrom  (Ex.  13 :  12-15 ;  Num. 
 8  :  17).  The  eldest  son  of  a  family  with- 
 in one  month  from  birth  was  to  be  re- 
 deemed by  an  offering  of  five  silver  shek- 
 els of  the  sanctuary — about  three  dollars 
 (Num.  18  :  10).  The  first-born  male  of 
 clean  animals  was  not  to  be  redeemed; 
 it  was  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice  (Num.  18  : 
 17).  The  first-born  male  of  unclean 
 animals  could,  however,  be  redeemed 
 by  the  offering  of  its  valuation  by  the 
 priest,  with  the  addition  of  one-fifth 
 of  its  estimated  value  ( Lev.  27  :  11- 
 131,  and  if  not  so  redeemed  its  neck 
 was  to  be  broken  (Ex.  13  :  13;  34  : 
 20.  These  regulations  explain  the 
 fact  why  the  plague  of  the  first-born 
 of  the  Egyptians  was  so  terribly  felt ; 
 it  was  the  destruction  of  the  objects 
 most  dear  and  sacred  to  them,  whilst 
 the  first-bom  of  the  Hebrews — that  is,  their 
 [)riests  and  sacrifices — were  spared.  These 
 regulations,  moreover,  show  the  import  of 
 the  consecration  enjoined  in  Ex.  13  :  2. 
 Hitherto,  it  had  been  optional  witli  the 
 Hebrews  to  devote  the  first-born  to  the 
 Lord ;  now  the  Lord,  by  virtue  of  hav- 
 ing so  signally  interposed  for  their  de- 
 liverance, claims  the  public  consecration 
 of  the  first-born  of  man  as  his  priests, 
 and  of  the  first-born  of  animals  as  sacri- 
 fices. 
 
 First-Fruits.  The  first-fruits  of  the 
 harvest,  of  tlie  vintage,  tlie  thresliing-floor, 
 the  wine-press,  the  oil-]iress,  the  first  baked 
 bread  of  the  new  crop  and  the  first  fleeces 
 of  the  flock,  were  required  by  God  to  be 
 
 given  for  the  use  of  his  ministers,  the 
 
 priests  (Ex.  23  :  19;  Num.  15  :  19-21 ;  18  : 
 11-13).  No  particular  quantity  was  desig- 
 nated, but  custom  made  it  between  one- 
 thirtieth  and  one-sixtieth  of  the  whole. 
 Significant  references  to  first-fruits  are 
 found  in  the  New  Testament  (Rom.  8  : 
 23;  11  :  16;  1  Cor.  15:  20,  23). 
 
 Fish.  The  Hebrews  had  no  classifica- 
 tion of  fish  beyond  the  broad  divisions  of 
 clean  and  unclean,  great  and  small.  The 
 Law  pronounced  unclean  such  fish  as  were 
 devoid  of  fins  and  scales  (Lev.  11  :  9-12). 
 These  were  and  are  regarded  as  unwhole- 
 some food  in  Egypt.  In  Palestine  the  Sea 
 of  Galilee  was  and  still  is  well  stored  with 
 fish.  Jerusalem  derived  its  supply  chiefly 
 from  the   Mediterranean   (Ezek.  47  :  10). 
 
 Fish  of  tlie  Sea  of  Galilee. 
 
 The  existence  of  a  regular  fish-market 
 is  implied  in  the  notice  of  the  fish-gate, 
 which  was  probably  contiguous  to  it  (2 
 Chron.  33  :  14;  Neh.  3:3;  12  :  39;  Zeph. 
 1  :  10).  In  no  ordinance  of  the  laws  of 
 Moses  are  fishes  prescribed  as  religious 
 offerings.  In  this  respect,  as  in  many 
 others,  these  laws  were  opposed  to  the 
 heathen  rituals,  which  appointed  fish- 
 offerings  to  various  deities.  Consecrated 
 fishes  were  kept  in  reservoirs,  with  rings 
 of  gold  or  silver  or  brass  attaciied  to 
 them.  It  was  perhaps  as  an  image  of 
 fecundity  that  the  fisli  was  selected  as  an 
 object  of  idolatry ;  the  worship  of  it  was 
 widely  spread  from  Egypt  to  Assyria,  and 
 even  India.    Among  the  Philistines,  Da- 
 
FITCHES— FLESH. 
 
 205 
 
 gon  [great  fishi  was  represented  by  a  fig- 
 ure half  man  and  half  fish  (1  Sam.  5:4). 
 From  remote  ages  the  form  of  a  fish  was 
 a  type  of  protective  dominion.  In  early 
 Christian  times  the  fish,  from  its  Greek 
 name  tx^^'Q  (an  acrostic  formed  from  the 
 Greek  initials  of  a  sentence  meaning 
 "Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  Saviour"),  was 
 an  emblem  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
 Jesus  Christ. 
 
 Fitch^es,  the  rendering  of  two  He- 
 brew words  in  our  English  Version  of 
 the  Scriptures,  but  of  neither  is  the  sense 
 certain.  The  word  thus  rendered  in 
 Ezek.  4:9  is  rendered  "rye"  in  Ex. 
 9  :  32.  The  word  thus  rendered  in  Isa. 
 28  :  25,  27  (where  only  it  occurs)  has  the 
 general  sense  of  seed,  and  is  identified 
 with  the  seed  of  the  Nigella  sativa,  com- 
 mon fennel  flower,  an  herbaceous  annual 
 plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ea- 
 nunculacese.  These  seed  are  very  black 
 in  color,  but  of  a  pleasant  smell  and  a 
 sharp  taste,  not  unlike  pepper,  and  in 
 the  East  at  the  present  day,  as  in  former 
 times,  are  largely  used  both  as  a  condi- 
 ment and  as  a  medicine. 
 
 Flag.  The  representative  of  two  He- 
 brew words  in  our  English  Version  of  the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 1.  The  word  thus  rendered  in  Ex.  2  : 
 3,  5  and  in  Isa.  19  :  6  appears  to  be  used 
 in  a  very  wide  sense  to  denote  "  weeds  of 
 any  kind." 
 
 2.  The  word  thus  rendered  in  Job  8:11 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  Cyperus  eaculeMns,  a 
 species  of  coarse  grass  which  needs  for  its 
 growth  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  Ac- 
 cording to  Jerome,  the  word  is  of  Egyptian 
 origin,  and  denotes  "  any  green  and  coarse 
 herbage,  such  as  rushes  and  reeds,  which 
 grows  in  marshy  places."  This  is  con- 
 firmed by  the  readings  of  the  Egyptian 
 hieroglyphics.  The  word  occurs  once 
 again  in  Gen.  41  :  2,  18,  where,  in  our 
 Authorized  Version,  it  is  incorrectly  ren- 
 dered "meadow,"  but  where  it  evidently 
 
 indicates  the  fringe  of  greenness  along 
 the  river's  bank. 
 
 Flag'on,  a  word  employed  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  to  render  two  dis- 
 tinct  Hebrew  terms.     In  2  Sam.  6  :  19; 
 
 1  Chron.  16:3;  Song  2:5;  Hos.  3  :  1,  it 
 means  a  cake  of  pressed  raisins ;  in  Isa.  22  : 
 24  it  designates  a  bottle  or  vessel. 
 
 Flax,  a  well-known  plant  which  fur- 
 nishes the  material  of  linen  stufi's  of  every 
 variety.  It  was  produced  of  the  best  qual- 
 ity in  Egypt,  and  entered  largely  into  the 
 trade  of  that  country  (Isa.  19  :  9).  It  was 
 grown  in  Palestine  even  before  the  conquest 
 by  the  Israelites  (Josh.  2  :  6).  That  it  was 
 one  of  the  most  important  crops  in  Pales- 
 tine appears  from  Hos.  2  :  5,  9. 
 
 Flea,  an  insect  mentioned  but  twice  in 
 Scripture — namely,  in  1  Sam.  24  :  14 ;  26  : 
 20.  It  abounds  in  the  East,  and  affords 
 the  subject  of  many  proverbial  expres- 
 sions. 
 
 Flesh,  a  word  of  extensive  application 
 in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Its  gen- 
 eral application  is  to  the  whole  animal 
 creation,  whether  man  or  beast — that  is, 
 to  all  beings  whose  material  substance  is 
 flesh  (Gen.  6  :  13,  17,  19;  7  :  15,  16,  21  ; 
 8  :  17).  Its  specific  applications  are  these: 
 1.  All  men,  the  human  race,  mankind  (Gen. 
 6:12;  Ps.  65 :  2;  Isa.  40  :  5,  6 ;  Luke  3:6; 
 John  17  :  2 ;  Acts  2:17;  Kom.  3  :  20 ;  Gal. 
 
 2  :  16 ;  1  Pet.  1  :  24).  2.  The  body  as  dis- 
 tinguished from  soul  or  spirit  (Job  14  :  22; 
 19  :  26;  Prov.  14  :  30;  John  6  :  52;  1  Cor. 
 5  :  5;  2  Cor.  4  :  11 ;  7:1;  Col.  2  :  5;  1  Pet. 
 4  :  6).  3.  Human  nature,  man  (Gen.  2 :  23, 
 24 ;  Matt.  19  :  5,  6  ;  1  Cor.  6:16;  Eph.  5  : 
 29-31) ;  spoken  also  of  the  incarnation  of 
 Christ  (John  1  :  14 ;  6  :  51 ;  Rom.  1:3; 
 Eph.  2  :  15;  Col.  1  :  22 ;  1  Tim.  3  :  16 ; 
 Heb.  5:7;  10  :  20;  1  Pet.  3  :  18;  1  John 
 4  :  2,  3;  2  John  7).  4.  Human  nature  as 
 opposed  to  the  Spirit  of  God  (Gen.  6:3; 
 Job  10:4;  Matt.  16:17;  2  Cor.  10  :  3,  4 ; 
 Gal.  1:16);  the  unregenerate  nature,  the 
 seat  of  carnal  appetites  and  desires,  whether 
 
206 
 
 FLINT— FOOD. 
 
 physical  or  moral  (Rom.  7:5;  8  :  1,  4,  5, 
 8 ;  Gal.  5  :  16,  17  ;  Eph.  2:3);  as  imply- 
 ing weakness,  frailty,  imperfection,  both 
 physical  and  moral  (Ps.  78  :  39 ;  Matt. 
 26  :  41  ;  Mark  14  :  38;  John  3:6;  Rom. 
 6  :  19;  1  Cor.  15  :  50;  Enh.  6  :  12). 
 
 Flint,  any  hard  stone,  as  quartz  or  gran- 
 ite. The  "rock  of  flint"  (Deut.  8  :  15) 
 whence  God  brought  water  was  probably 
 one  of  the  granites  so  common  in  the  pe- 
 ninsula of  Sinai.  The  figurative  use  of  the 
 word  in  Deut.  32 :  13  represents  the  great 
 abundance  of  oil  in  an  unlooked-for  place. 
 
 Floats,  the  rafts  by  which  Hiram, 
 king  of  Tyre,  conveyed  to  Jaffa  the  ce- 
 dars and  firs  he  had  contracted  to  furnish 
 Solomon  for  use  in  the  construction  of  the 
 temple  (1  Kings  5  :  9 ;  2  Chron.  2  :  16). 
 
 Flood.     See  Noah. 
 
 Flour.     See  Bread. 
 
 Flute,  a  wind  instrument  of  music, 
 mentioned  among  othere  as  used  at  tlie 
 worship  of  the  golden  image  which  Neb- 
 uchadnezzar had  set  up  (Dan.  3  :  5,  7,  10). 
 It  resembled  the  flageolet,  and  was  used  both 
 on  mournful  and  on  festive  occasions.  See 
 Musical  Instruments. 
 
 Flux,  Bloody  (Acts  28  :  8),  the  same 
 as  our  dysentery,  which  is  common  in  the 
 Ea.st. 
 
 Fly,  the  rendering  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  two  Hebrew  words. 
 
 1.  One  of  these  words,  zebtib,  occurs  only 
 in  two  passages  (Eccles.  10:1  and  Isa.  7  : 
 18),  and  is  probably  a  generic  name  for 
 any  winged  insect.  It  enters  as  an  ele- 
 ment into  the  name  originally  appropri- 
 ated to  an  idol  worshiped  at  Ekron  (2 
 Kings  1  :  2),  but  interchangeable  in  our 
 Lord's  times  with  "Satan"  (Matt.  12  : 
 24,  26,  27). 
 
 2.  The  other  of  these  words,  arob,  is  the 
 name  of  tlie  insect  or  insects  which  God 
 sent  to  punish  Pharaoh  (Ex.  8  :  21-31  ; 
 Ps.  78  :  45;  105  :  31),  Our  Authorized 
 Version  correctly  renders  it  "swarms  of 
 flies,"  "divers  sorts  of  flies." 
 
 Food.  The  diet  of  Eastern  nations 
 has  been  in  all  ages  light  and  simple. 
 As  compared  with  our  own  habits,  the 
 chief  points  of  contrast  are  tJie  small 
 amount  of  animal  food  consumed,  the  va- 
 riety of  articles  used  as  accompaniments 
 to  bread,  the  substitution  of  milk  in  va- 
 rious forms  for  our  liquors,  and  the  com- 
 bination of  what  we  should  deem  hetero- 
 geneous elements  in  the  same  dish  or  the 
 same  meal.  The  chief  point  of  agreement 
 is  the  large  consumption  of  bread,  the  im- 
 portance of  which  in  the  eyes  of  the  He- 
 brew is  testified  by  the  common  Scripture 
 expression  "staff  of  bread"  (Lev.  26  :  26; 
 Ps.  105  :  16  ;  Ezek.  4  :  16  ;  14  :  13).  Sim- 
 pler preparations  of  corn  were,  however, 
 common.  Sometimes  the  fresh  green  ears 
 were  eaten  in  a  natural  state,  the  husks  be- 
 ing rubbed  off  by  the  hand  (Lev.  23  :  14; 
 Deut.  23  :  25 ;  2  Kings  4  :  42 ;  Matt.  12  : 
 1 ;  Luke  6:1);  more  frequently,  the  grains, 
 after  being  carefully  picked,  were  roasted 
 in  a  pan  over  a  fire  (Lev.  2  :  14)  and  eaten 
 as  "  parched  corn,"  in  which  form  they 
 were  an  ordinary  article  of  diet,  partic- 
 ularly among  laborers  or  others  who  had 
 not  the  means  of  dressing  food  (Ruth  2  : 
 14;  1  Sam.  17  :  17;  25  :  18;  2  Sam.  17  : 
 28).  Sometimes  the  grain  was  bruised 
 and  then  dried  in  the  sun ;  it  was  eaten 
 either  mixed  Avith  oil  (Lev.  2  :  15),  or 
 made  into  a  soft  cake  called  "dough" 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  (Num.  15  : 
 20 ;  Neh.  10  :  37 ;  Ezek.  44  :  30). 
 
 Milk  and  its  preparations  hold  a  con- 
 spicuous place  in  Eastern  diet;  the  most 
 common  preparation  was  that  of  sour 
 milk,  called  "butter"  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  (Gen.  18  :  8 ;  Judg.  5  :  25 ;  2  Sam. 
 17  :  29).  The  same  term  includes  also 
 cheese,  butter,  etc. 
 
 Fruit  was  another  source  of  subsistence. 
 Figs  stand  first  in  point  of  importance ; 
 they  were  generally  dried  and  pressed 
 into  cakes.  Grapes  were  eaten,  both  fresh 
 and  in  a  dried  state  as  raisins. 
 
FOOL— FOREST. 
 
 207 
 
 Of  vegetables  we  have  most  frequent 
 notice  of  lentils  (Gen.  25  :  34;  2  Sam.  17  : 
 28;  23  :  11 ;  Ezek.  4:9);  beans  (2  Sam. 
 17  :  28;  Ezek.  4:9);  leeks,  onions  and 
 garlic,  which  were,  and  still  are,  of  a 
 superior  quality  in  Egypt  (Num.  11  :  5). 
 
 Other  important  articles  of  food  were 
 honey  (1  Sam.  14  :  25;  Matt.  3:4);  grape- 
 juice  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of  syr- 
 up, the  dibs  of  the  Syrians  and  Arabians 
 (Gen.  43  :  11 ;  Ezek.  27  :  17) ;  eggs  (Isa. 
 10  :  14;  59  :  5;  Luke  11  :  12) ;  meats,  or 
 the  flesh  of  animals,  of  which,  because  of 
 the  heat  of  the  climate  and  because  of 
 the  ritual  regulations  of  the  laws  of  Mo- 
 ses, sparing  use  was  made  (Gen.  18:7; 
 Luke  15  :  29,  30) ;  birds  of  various  kinds, 
 and  fish,  excepting  such  as  were  with- 
 out scales  and  fins  (Lev.  11:9;  Deut. 
 14  :  9). 
 
 Fool,  the  representative  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  several  Hebrew  and  Greek 
 words  which  designate,  not  an  idiot,  but 
 an  absurd  person ;  not  one  who  does  not 
 reason  at  all,  but  one  who  reasons  wrong- 
 ly ;  any  one  whose  conduct  is  not  regu- 
 lated by  the  dictates  of  reason  and  relig- 
 ion (Ps.  14  :  1).  Foolishness,  therefore, 
 is  not  a  negative  condition,  but  a  condi- 
 tion of  wrong  action  in  the  intelligence 
 or  heart,  or  both.  The  phrase  "thou 
 fool"  (Matt.  5  :  22)  implies  not  only  an 
 angry  temper,  by  which  such  severe  lan- 
 guage is  prompted,  but  a  scornful,  con- 
 temptuous feeling,  utterly  inconsistent 
 with  the  love  and  meekness  of  our 
 Lord's  disciples. 
 
 Poot^man,  a  word  employed  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  in  two  senses :  1 .  Gener- 
 ally to  distinguish  those  of  the  people  or 
 fighting  men  who  went  on  foot  from  those 
 who  were  on  horseback  or  in  chariots  ( Jer. 
 12  :  5) ;  but,  2.  In  a  special  sense  to  desig- 
 nate a  body  of  swift  runners  in  attendance 
 on  the  king  (1  Sam.  22  :  17).  This  body, 
 although  distinct  from  the  king's  body- 
 guard, is  yet  rendered  "  guard  "  ( 1  Kings 
 
 14  :  27,  28 ;  2  Kings  11  :  4,  6,  11,  13,  19), 
 but  in  the  margin  of  the  passages  just  cited 
 the  translators  have  correctly  placed 
 "  runners." 
 
 Fore'head,  the  noblest  and  most  con- 
 spicuous part  of  the  body,  the  seat  of  the 
 understanding.  As  upon  it  the  worshipers 
 of  idols  frequently  branded  the  symbol  of 
 the  idol  whom  each  adored,  so  upon  it  God 
 is  represented  as  placing  the  mark  or  seal 
 which  witnesses  that  one,  in  pre-eminent 
 sen.se,  is  his  (Ezek.  9:4;  Rev.  7  :  3). 
 
 Fore-know'ledge.  See  Predesti- 
 nation. 
 
 Fore-Ordain'ed.  See  Predestina- 
 tion. 
 
 Fore-run'ner,  in  Scripture  usage  one 
 who  not  only  goes  before  to  a  particular 
 place  to  lead  or  prepare  the  way,  but  who 
 makes  arrangements  for  those  that  follow. 
 In  this  sense  the  term,  in  accordance  with 
 the  general  meaning  of  Mark  1  :  2,  3,  is 
 usually  appropriated  to  John  the  Baptist, 
 the  precursor  or  forerunner  of  our  Lord. 
 But  in  Heb.  6  :  20,  the  only  passage  where 
 the  word  "  forerunner "  occurs,  our  Lord 
 himself,  the  High  Priest  of  the  Christian 
 dispensation,  is  described  as  entering  into 
 the  heavenly  sanctuary  before  his  follow- 
 ers, and  as  preparing  for  them  there  the 
 pure  and  perfect  joys  into  which  he  re- 
 ceives them. 
 
 Forrest,  a  dense  wood,  a  luxuriant  and 
 abundant  growth  of  trees.  Although  Pal- 
 estine has  not  in  recent  times  been  a  wood- 
 ed country,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
 there  was  much  more  wood  formerly  than 
 there  is  at  present,  and  that  in  the  earli- 
 est historical  age  large  forests  were  com- 
 mon. Tracts  of  woodland  are  mention- 
 ed by  travelers  in  Palestine,  but  rarely 
 what  we  should  call  a  forest.  Some 
 remnants  of  ancient  oak  forests  still  ex- 
 ist on  the  mountains  of  Bashan,  Gilead, 
 Hermon  and  Galilee.  One  solitary  grove 
 of  cedars  is  found  on  Lebanon,  but  fir  trees 
 are  there  abundant.     The  other  forests  of 
 
208 
 
 FORGIVENESS— FOWL. 
 
 Palestine  (1  Sam.  14  :  25;  2  Kings  2  :  24) 
 have  almost  disappeared.  Yet  here  and 
 there,  in  every  district  of  the  country, 
 north  and  south,  east  and  west,  one  meets 
 with  a  solitary  oak  or  terebinth  of  huge 
 dimensions,  as  at  Hebron,  the  valley  of 
 P^lah,  Shiloli  and  Dan.  These  are  the 
 last  trees  of  the  forests,  and  serve  to  in- 
 dicate what  the  forests  of  Palestine  once 
 were. 
 
 For-give'ness,  the  act  of  remitting 
 an  offence  and  of  treating  the  offender  as 
 not  guilty.  Forgiveness  of  sin  is  the  act 
 of  God,  and  is  the  great  blessing  of  the 
 gospel  (Mark  2:7;  Acts  5  :  31  ;  Eph.  1  : 
 7).  The  duty  of  mutual  forgiveness  is 
 urged  in  the  Scriptures  l)y  the  most  sol- 
 emn and  impressive  considerations  (Matt. 
 6  :  14,  15;  18  :  15-35  ;  Luke  17  :  3,  4). 
 The  possession  of  a  forgiving  spirit  is  a 
 proof  that  we  have  been  forgiven  our- 
 selves. 
 
 Form.  The  verbal  root  of  the  He- 
 brew word  thus  rendered  means  "to  mark 
 out,"  "  to  delineate,"  and  so  represents  the 
 "  form  "  of  a  thing  as  its  well-defined  out- 
 line or  shape.  In  tliis  sense  the  word  is 
 used  in  1  Sam.  28  :  14 ;  Isa.  52  :  14 ;  Ezek. 
 10:8;  Dan.  3  :  19,  and  in  other  passages. 
 In  the  New  Testament  the  Greek  equiv- 
 alent to  the  Hebrew  word  has  a  similar 
 sense  (Mark  16  :  12  ;  Rom.  2  :  20 ;  2  Tim. 
 3  :  5).  In  Phil.  2  :  6  our  Lord,  when  be- 
 coming man,  is  represented  as  laying  aside 
 "the  form  of  God"  and  as  taking  "the 
 form  of  a  servant,"  by  which  we  under- 
 stand that  he  did  not  come  into  our  world 
 with  those  majestic  manifestations  of  God- 
 head which  attended  his  person  in  the  pre- 
 existent  state,  but  with  the  lowliness  and 
 undemonstrativeness  of  a  humble  human 
 being. 
 
 For-ni-ca'tion,  illicit  sexual  inter- 
 course, and  the  frequent  figurative  desig- 
 nation in  Scripture  of  the  abominations 
 of  idolatry  (2  Chron.  21  :  11  ;  Ezek.  16  : 
 26;  Rev."l7:4). 
 
 For-tu-na'tus,  a  disciple  of  Corinth 
 who  visited  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  return- 
 ed, along  with  Stephanas  and  Achaicus, 
 in  charge  of  the  apostle's  First  Epistle 
 to  the  Corinthian  church  (1  Cor.  16 : 
 17). 
 
 Foun'tain.  Among  the  attractive 
 features  presented  by  the  Land  of  Prom- 
 ise to  the  nation  migrating  from  Egyj^t 
 by  way  of  the  desert  none  would  be  more 
 striking  than  the  natural  gush  of  watei^s 
 from  the  ground.  Instead  of  watering  his 
 field  or  garden,  as  in  Egypt,  with  his  foot, 
 the  Hebrew  cultivator  was  taught  to  look 
 forward  to  a  land  "drinking  water  of  the 
 rain  of  heaven,  a  land  of  brooks  of 
 water,  of  fountains  and  depths  spring- 
 ing from  valleys  and  hills"  (Dent. 
 8:7;  11:11).  The  springs  of  Pales- 
 tine are  remarkable  for  their  abundance 
 and  beauty,  especially  those  which  fall 
 into  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes  throughout 
 its  whole  course.  The  spring  or  fountain 
 of  living  water,  tlie  "eye"  of  the  land- 
 scape, as  the  Hebrew  name  for  it  imports, 
 is  distinguished  in  all  Oriental  languages 
 from  the  artificially  sunk  and  enclosed 
 well.  Jerusalem  possessed  more  than 
 one  perennial  spring,  the  existence  of 
 which  is  echoed  in  the  names  En-Rogel 
 (2  Sam.  17:  17),  the  "dragon-well"  or 
 fountain,  and  the  "gate  of  the  fountain" 
 (Neh.  2  :  13,  14). 
 
 Fo'wl,  Fowl'er.  The  word  foivl  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  represents  four 
 distinct  Hebrew  words,  and,  in  English, 
 is  the  general  term  for  all  kinds  of  birds. 
 Allusions  to  fowling,  or  the  catching  of 
 birds,  the  much-practiced  art  of  the  an- 
 cient fowler,  occur  in  Prov.  7  :  23 ;  Eccles. 
 9:12.  In  1  Kings  4  :  23,  among  the  daily 
 provisions  for  Solomon's  table,  "  fatted 
 fowl" — gefse,  probably — are  included.  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  word  translated 
 "fowls"  is  a  general  term  inclusive  of 
 many  species  of  birds ;  in  Luke  1 2  :  24  it 
 includes  ravens. 
 
FOX— FUEL. 
 
 209 
 
 Fox.  In  almost  all  the  passages  in  the 
 Old  Testament  where  this  word  occurs  the 
 original  Hebrew  term  designates  the  "jack- 
 al." In  Judg.  15  :  4  "jackals,"  and  not 
 "foxes,"  are  certainly  meant,  for  the  for- 
 
 Syrian  Fox. 
 
 mer  animal  is  gregarious,  Whereas  the 
 latter  is  solitary  in  its  habits.  In  the 
 New  Testament  the  notices  of  the  fox 
 apply  equally  well  to  the  "jackal." 
 
 Frankin^cense,  an  odorous  resin, 
 mostly  imported  from  Arabia  (Isa.  60  : 
 6 ;  Jer.  6  :  20),  and  used  for  perfume 
 (Song  3:6),  but  more  especially  for  sac- 
 rificial fumigation  (Lev.  2  :  2,  16;  5  :  11 ; 
 Isa.  43  :  23 ;  66  :  3 ;  Luke  1  :  9).  It  also 
 was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the  perfume 
 which  wa.s  to  be  prepared  for  the  sanctu- 
 ary (Ex.  30  :  34).  Its  use  as  an  accom- 
 paniment of  the  meat-offering  ( Lev.  2:1; 
 6:15;  24  :  7)  arose  from  its  fragrant  odor 
 when  burnt,  in  which  respect  the  incense 
 was  a  symbol  of  the  divine  name  and  its 
 diffusion  an  emblem  of  the  publishing 
 abroad  of  that  name  (Mai.  1:11).  Hence, 
 as  prayer  is  a  calling  on  God's  name,  the 
 incense  came  to  be  an  emblem  of  prayer 
 (Ps.  141  :  2 ;  Luke  1:10;  Eev.  5:8;  8  : 
 3).  In  this  symbolical  representation  the 
 frankincense  especially  set  forth  holiness, 
 14 
 
 as  characteristic  of  the  divine  attributes, 
 so  that  the  burning  of  it  was  a  celebration 
 of  the  holiness  of  Jehovah.  Frankincense 
 was  also  used  in  the  religious  services  of 
 the  heathen.  The  substance  itself  seems 
 to  have  been  similar  to  tliat  now  known 
 in  commerce — namely,  a  vegetable  res- 
 in, brittle,  glittering  and  of  a  bitter 
 taste,  obtained  by  successive  incisions 
 in  the  bark  of  a  tree  called  the  Arbor 
 thuris.  The  principal  country  pro- 
 ducing it  is  India,  whence,  through 
 the  port  of  Bombay,  it  is  exported 
 in  chests  and  casks.  It  is  chiefly 
 used  in  the  rites  of  the  Greek  and 
 Roman  churches;  its  only  medical 
 application  at  present  is  as  a  perfume 
 in  sick  rooms. 
 
 Frog,  the  well-known  amphibious 
 animal,  selected  by  God  as  an  instru- 
 ment for  humbling  the  pride  of  Pha- 
 raoh. Frogs  came  in  prodigious  num- 
 bers from  the  canals,  the  rivers  and 
 the  marshes;  they  filled  the  houses,  and 
 even  entered  the  ovens  and  kneading- 
 troughs.  When,  at  the  command  of 
 Moses,  tlie  frogs  died,  the  people  gath- 
 ered them  in  heaps,  and  from  the  cor- 
 ruption of  the  bodies  "the  land  stank." 
 The  mention  of  this  animal  in  the  Old 
 Testament  is  confined  to  the  passage  in 
 Ex.  8 :  2-14  in  which  the  plague  of  frogs 
 is  described,  and  to  the  two  allusions  to 
 that  event  in  Ps.  78  :  45 ;  105  :  30.  In  the 
 New  Testament  the  word  occurs  once  only, 
 (Rev.  16  :  13).  There  is  no  question  as  to 
 the  animal  meant. 
 Front'lets.  See  Phylacteries. 
 Fuel,  anything  which  serves  to  feed 
 fire  (Isa.  9  :  19;  Ezek.  21  :  32).  From 
 the  extreme  scarcity  of  wood  in  many 
 places  in  Palestine,  the  people  were  ac- 
 customed to  use  for  fuel  almost  every 
 kind  of  combustible  matter:  the  with- 
 ered stalks  of  herbs  and  flowers  (Matt.  6  : 
 28,  30) ;  thorns  (Ps.  58  :  9  ;  Eccles.  7:6); 
 animal  excrement   (Ezek.  4  :  15).      The 
 
210 
 
 FULLER— FURXITURE. 
 
 chief  dependence  for  fwel,  liowever,  was 
 on  wood  or  charcoal. 
 
 FuU'er,  one  who  scours,  cleanses  and 
 thickens  cloth.  The  trade  of  tlie  fuller, 
 so  far  as  it  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  ap- 
 pears to  have  consisted  chiefly  in  cleans- 
 ing garments  and  whitening  them.  The 
 process  of  cleansing  was  accomplished 
 either  by  stamping  on  the  garments  with 
 the  feet  or  by  beating  them  with  bats  in 
 troughs  of  water  in  which  some  alkaline 
 substance,  answering  the  purpose  of  soap, 
 had  been  dissolved.  The  substances  used 
 for  this  purpose  which  are  mentioned  in 
 Scripture  are  nitre,  i.  e.  natron,  carbonate  of 
 soda  (Prov.  25  ;  20) ;  and  soap  (Jer.  2  :  22). 
 Fuller's  soap  (Heb.  borith,  a  vegetable  lye) 
 had  such  powerful  cleansing  properties 
 that  Malachi  (3  :  2)  uses  it  to  image  how 
 real  is  the  soul's  need  of  a  spiritual  wash- 
 ing in  order  to  abide  the  day  of  Messi- 
 ah's coming.  The  process  of  whitening 
 garments  was  performed  by  pressing  or 
 rubbing  on  them  some  kind  of  earth.  At 
 the  Transfiguration  our  Lord's  "raiment 
 became  shining,  exceeding  white  as  snow, 
 so  as  no  fuller  on  earth  could  white  them  " 
 (Mark  9:3).  From  the  mention  of  the 
 fuller's  field,  a  spot  near  Jerusalem  (2 
 Kings  18:17;  Isa.  7:3;  36:2),  the 
 trade  of  the  fullers,  as  requiring  space  for 
 drying  clothes,  appears  to  have  been  car- 
 ried on  outside  the  city. 
 
 Fur'long',  a  measure  of  length,  exact- 
 ly one-eighth  of  a  mile  (Luke  2-4  :  13). 
 
 Fur^nace,  a  place  where  a  vehement 
 fire  and  heat  may  be  made  and  main- 
 tained. Various  kinds  of  furnaces  are 
 noticed  in  the  Scriptures,  such  as  a 
 smelting  or  calcining  furnace  (Gen.  19  : 
 28),  perhaps  also  a  brick-kiln  (Ex.  9  :  8, 
 10;  19:18),  but  especially  a  lime-kiln, 
 the  use  of  which  was  evidently  well 
 known  to  the  Hebrews  (Isa.  33:12; 
 Amos  2:1);  a  refining  furnace  (Prov. 
 17  :  3 ;  27  :  21 ;  Ezek.  22  :  18-22) ;  a  large 
 furnace,  with  a  wide  opening  at  the  top 
 
 to  cast  in  the  materials,  and  a  door  at 
 the  ground  by  which  the  metal  might 
 be  extracted  (Dan.  3  :  19-26).  The  Bab- 
 ylonians were  in  the  habit  of  using 
 the  furnace  as  a  means  of  capital  punish- 
 ment (Dan.  3  :  21  ;  Jer.  29  :  22).  This 
 Oriental  use  of  the  furnace  for  punish- 
 ment gives  an  awful  impressiveness  to  our 
 Lord's  words  respecting  the  fire  of  hell 
 (Matt.  13:40,42,50). 
 
 Pur'ni-ture,  the  rendering  in  one  pas- 
 sage of  our  Authorized  Version  (Gen.  31  : 
 34)  of  a  Hebrew  word  which  designates 
 a  camel's  litter  or  canopied  saddle,  in 
 which  females  were  accustomed  to  travel ; 
 in  other  passages  (Ex.  31  :  7-9;  Nah.  2  : 
 9)  of  a  Hebrew  word  which  is  a  general 
 term  for  vessels,  utensils  or  implements 
 of  any  sort.  The  furniture  of  Oriental 
 dwellings,  as  we  use  the  word,  was  in 
 the  early  ages  very  simple.  That  of  the 
 poorer  classes  consisted  of  but  few  arti- 
 cles, and  those  such  only  as  were  abso- 
 lutely necessary.  Instead  of  chairs,  they 
 sat  on  mats  or  skins,  and  the  same  arti- 
 cle, on  which  they  laid  a  mattress,  served 
 them  instead  of  a  bedstead,  while  their  up- 
 per garment  was  used  for  a  covering.  The 
 wealthy  had  (as  those  in  the  East  still 
 have)  fine  carpets,  couches  cr  divans 
 and  sofas,  on  which  they  sat,  lay  and 
 slept  (2  Sam.  17  :  28 ;  2  Kings  4  :  10). 
 Among  the  articles  of  necessary  fur- 
 niture possessed  by  poor  and  rich 
 alike  were  the  hand-mill  or  mortar  for 
 pounding  corn,  the  kneading-trough  and 
 the  oven.  Apartments  were  lighted  by 
 means  of  lamps  fed  with  olive  oil  and 
 commonly  placed  upon  elevated  stands 
 (Matt.  5  :  15).  The  lamps  of  the  wise 
 and  foolish  virgins  (Matt.  25  :  1-10)  were 
 of  a  sort  different  from  those  used  in  houses ; 
 they  were  a  kind  of  torch  or  flambeau, 
 made  of  iron  or  earthenware,  wrapped 
 about  with  old  linen,  moistened  from 
 time  to  time  with  oil,  and  suitable  for 
 being  carried  out  of  doors. 
 
GAAL— GAD. 
 
 211 
 
 G. 
 
 Ga''al,  the  son  of  Ebed  and  the  leader 
 of  a  revolt  against  Abimelech,  king  of  the 
 Shechemites  (Judg.  9  :  26-41).  He  was, 
 however,  defeated,  and  his  partisans  were 
 scattered  and  destroyed. 
 
 Ga^ash  [a  shaking  or  earthquake^,  a  hill 
 or  mountain  in  the  territory  of  Ephraim, 
 near  which  was  Timnath-serah,  where 
 Joshua  lived  and  died.  On  its  north 
 side  Joshua  was  buried  (Josh.  24  :  29, 
 30).  The  "brooks"  or  valleys  of  Gaash 
 (2  Sam.  23  :  30)  were  probably  in  the 
 same  neighborhood. 
 
 Ga''ba,  the  same  name  as  Geba.  It 
 is  found  in  our  Authorized  Version  in 
 Josh.  18  :  24;  Ezra  2  :  26 ;  Neh.  7  :  30. 
 
 G-ab'ba-tha,  an  elevated  place,  like 
 the  bench  of  the  judges  in  modern  court- 
 rooms (John  19  :  13).  The  floor  of  this 
 raised  platform,  and  perhaps  the  whole 
 apartment,  Avas  paved  with  tesselated  or 
 mosaic  stones;  hence  the  judgment-seat 
 itself  was  sometimes  called  "the  Pave- 
 ment." Here  Pilate  delivered  our  Lord 
 to  death. 
 
 Ga'bri-el  [hero  of  God],  the  name 
 of  an  angel  of  superior  order  and  dignity, 
 who  explained  to  Daniel  the  visions  which 
 were  vouchsafed  to  him  (Dan.  8  :  16),  and 
 who  announced  the  births  of  John  the  Bap- 
 tist and  of  our  Lord  (Luke  1  :  19,  26-33). 
 
 Gad  [a  troop,  and,  perhaps,  qood-for- 
 tnne'],  the  name  of  a  son  of  .Jacob,  of  one 
 of  the  Hebrew  tribes,  of  the  territory  which 
 the  tribe  possessed,  of  a  prophet  and  of  a 
 heathen  divinity. 
 
 1.  Gad  was  the  seventh  son  of  Jacob, 
 the  first  born  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  and 
 whole  brother  to  Asher  (Gen.  30  :  10-13). 
 Of  his  childhood  and  life  we  know  nothing. 
 At  the  time  of  his  descent  into  Egypt  sev- 
 en sons  are  ascribed  to  him  (Gen.  46  :  16), 
 the  most  of  whose  names  have  plural  ter- 
 
 minations, as  if  they  belonged  to  families 
 rather  than  to  persons.  With  a  slight  va- 
 riation, the  list  of  Gad's  sons  is  again  given 
 on  the  occasion  of  the  census  in  the  plains 
 of  Moab  (Num.  26  :  15-17). 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Gad  at  the  first  census 
 in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  had  forty-five 
 thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty  men  fit 
 for  military  service  (Num.  1  :  24,  25) ;  at 
 the  second  census,  in  the  plains  of  Moab, 
 forty  thousand  and  five  hundred  (Num. 
 26  :  18).  The  Gadites  and  Reubenites  re- 
 tained in  Egypt  their  love  of  the  pastoral 
 life,  and  on  the  eve  of  the  Conquest  were 
 led  by  the  similarity  of  their  pursuits  to 
 desire  a  close  association.  Observing  that 
 the  lands  east  of  the  Jordan  were  well 
 adapted  to  pasturage,  these  two  tribes  pe- 
 titioned Moses  to  allot  them  their  inherit- 
 ance in  that  section.  Moses  granted  their 
 request  on  the  condition,  which  they  ac- 
 cepted and  fulfilled,  that  they  assisted 
 their  brethren  in  the  war  of  the  Con- 
 quest. 
 
 3.  The  territory  of  Gad  lay  in  Gilead, 
 north  of  Reuben.  It  was  a  wide  table- 
 land, clothed  with  rich  grass  throughout 
 and  watered  by  the  Yarmfik,  the  Jabbok 
 and  the  Arnon  rivers.  It  was  for  a  time 
 the  seat  of  the  sovereignty  of  Ishbosheth, 
 Saul's  son,  who  in  Mahanaim  was  assas- 
 sinated (2  Sam.  2  :  8-10;  4  :  6).  In  the 
 subsequent  division  of  the  kingdom  it 
 fell  to  Israel,  and  was  the  scene  of  many 
 of  the  battles  between  Israel  and  Syria  (1 
 Kings  22 ;  2  Kings  8  :  28,  29 ;  9  :  14). 
 
 4.  Gad,  "the  seer,"  a  prophet  and  a  spe- 
 cial friend  of  David  (1  Sam.  22  :  5 ;  2  Sam. 
 24:  11-19). 
 
 5.  Gad,  with  the  article  "  the  Gad,"  ren- 
 dered troop  in  Isa.  65  :  11,  refers  to  some 
 heathen  divinity,  either  the  goddess  of 
 Fortune  or  the  god  Bel. 
 
212 
 
 GADARA— GALILEE. 
 
 Gad'a-renes  (Mark  5:1;  Luke  8  : 
 26),  Ger'ge-senes  (Matt.  8 :  28), Coun- 
 try of,  a  district  east  and  south-ea.st  of  the 
 Sea  of  Galilee,  in  which  were  the  cities 
 Gadara  and  Gergesa.  Gadara,  about  sev- 
 en miles  south-east  of  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  was  the 
 larger  city ;  its  extensive  and  remarkable 
 ruins  are  now  called  Um-Keis.  Gergesa  j 
 was  obliquely  across  the  sea  from  Caper- 
 naum, immediately  on  the  shore;  it  is 
 now  represented  by  ruins  called  by  the 
 Arabs  Gersa.  Gergesa  was  evidently  the 
 scene  of  our  Lord's  miraculous  cure  of  the 
 demoniacs.  Gadara  was  miles  away  from 
 the  Sea  of  Galilee,  whilst  Gergesa  was  on 
 the  shore.  Near  Gergesa,  moreover,  im- 
 mediately back  of  the  narrow  beach,  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  Wddy  Sewiakh,  is  a  bluff  so 
 high  and  precipitous  that  the  swine  rush- 
 ing down  it  would  be  carried  by  the  impe- 
 tus into  the  water.  In  this  region,  as  ev- 
 erywhere in  Palestine,  rock -tombs  are  nu- 
 merous. 
 
 Ga'i-us,  the  name  of  three  or  four 
 men  in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  A  Macedonian  and  fellow-traveler 
 of  Paul,  who  was  seized  by  the  populace 
 at  Ephesus  (Acts  19  :  29). 
 
 2.  A  man  of  Berbe,  who  accompanied 
 Paul  in  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem 
 (Acts  20  :  4). 
 
 3.  An  inhabitant  of  Corinth,  with  whom 
 Paul  lodged,  and  in  whose  house  the  Chris- 
 tians were  accustomed  to  assemble  (Rom. 
 1 6  :  23 ;  1  Cor.  1  :  14).  He  was  the  same, 
 most  likely,  as  the  Macedonian  mentioned 
 first. 
 
 4.  A  Christian,  probably  of  Asia  Minor, 
 to  whom  John  addressed  his  Third  Epistle 
 (3  John  1).  There  is  no  good  reason  for 
 regarding  him  as  identical  with  either  of 
 the  foregoing. 
 
 Ga-la'ti-a,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  Paphlagonia  and 
 Bithynia,  west  by  Bithynia  and  Phrygia, 
 south  by  Lycaonia  and  east  by  Pontus  and 
 
 Cappadocia.  It  derived  its  name  from  the 
 Gauls,  several  of  whose  tribes,  in  the  great 
 Celtic  migration  from  the  East  to  the  West 
 in  the  third  century  before  Christ,  had  over- 
 run Macedonia  and  Thrace,  and  had  crossed 
 into  Asia,  where,  strengthened  by  fresh 
 hordes  from  Europe,  they  had  permanent- 
 ly settled  themselves.  From  the  inter- 
 mixture of  Gauls  and  Greeks  it  was  also 
 called  Gallo-Gra?cia.  In  the  year  B.  c.  25, 
 Galatia  became  a  Roman  province.  It  re- 
 ceived the  gospel  from  Paul,  who  visited 
 it  twice  (Acts  16:6;  18  :  23),  and  who 
 addressed  to  its  church  one  of  his  inval- 
 uable Epistles.  The  occasion  of  the 
 Epistle  lay  in  the  disturbances  caused 
 by  Judaizing  teachers. 
 
 Gal'ba-num,  one  of  the  perfumes 
 employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  sa- 
 cred incense  (Ex.  30  :  34).  It  is  a  resin- 
 ous gum  of  a  brownish  color  and  strong, 
 disagreeable  smell,  u.sually  met  with  in 
 ma.sses,  but  sometimes  found  in  yellowish, 
 tear-like  drops.  Though  galbanum  itself  is 
 well  known,  the  plant  which  yields  it  has 
 not  been  exactly  determined. 
 
 Gal-i'lee  [a  circle,  ciVcuiV],  tiie  name 
 of  a  section  and  of  a  sea. 
 
 1.  As  associated  with  a  section,  the 
 name,  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  given  to 
 a  small  "circuit"  among  the  mountains 
 of  Naphtali  (Josh.  21  :  32 ;  1  Kings  9  : 
 11),  and  in  the  New  Testament  to  a  large 
 province  embracing  the  whole  of  Northern 
 Palestine  (Mark  1  :  14).  The  province  of 
 Galilee,  according  to  Josephus,  was  divid- 
 ed into  Upper  and  Lower.  Upper  Galilee 
 embraced  the  whole  mountain-range  lying 
 between  the  upper  Jordan  on  the  east  and 
 Phoenicia  on  the  west.  Lower  Galilee  in- 
 cluded the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  with 
 its  offshoots  running  down  to  the  Jordan 
 and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  whole  of 
 the  adjoining  hill-country  to  the  foot  of 
 the  mountain-range.  This  was  one  of  the 
 richest  and  most  beautiful  sections  of  Pal- 
 estine.    On  its  territory  were  many  of  the 
 
(This  sea,  or 
 
 The  Sea  of  Galilee  and  surrounding  Country, 
 rather  lake,  lies  682  feet  helow  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  the  ocean.) 
 
214 
 
 GALL— GALLIC. 
 
 towns  and  cities  mentioned  in  New  Testa- 
 ment history.  Here  were  Chorazin  and 
 Bethsaida,  and  Nazareth  and  Nain,  and 
 Cana  and  Capernaum.  Here  our  Lord, 
 for  tlie  most  part  of  his  earthly  life,  re- 
 sided, and  here,  during  his  public  minis- 
 try, he  wrought  many  of  his  mighty 
 works.  From  this  region  our  Lord  se- 
 lected his  immediate  followers,  who,  ac- 
 cordingly, were  called  Galileans.  The 
 province  was  very  populous.  Josephus, 
 who  knew  it  well,  speaks  of  "  two  hun- 
 dred and  four  towns  and  villages,  the 
 smallest  of  them  containing  above  fifteen 
 thousand  inhabitants."  This  would  make 
 the  population,  in  our  Lord's  times,  some 
 three  millions,  and,  coupled  with  the  life 
 and  bustle,  which  in  Galilee  were  greater 
 than  in  Judaea,  may  account  for  our  Lord's 
 selection  of  Galilee  as  the  principal  scene 
 of  his  ministry. 
 
 2.  As  associated  with  a  sea,  the  name 
 Galilee  is  comparatively  modern,  being 
 thus  found  in  the  New  Testament  only. 
 The  Old  Testament  name  of  the  Sea  of 
 Galilee  was  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (Num. 
 34  :  11)  or  Cinneroth  (Josh.  12  :  3),  from 
 a  town  of  that  name  on  or  near  its  shore. 
 The  Sea  of  Galilee  lies  in  the  northern 
 part  of  Palestine,  in  the  province  of  Gali- 
 lee. It  is  oval  in  shape,  being  about 
 fourteen  miles  long  and,  at  the  widest, 
 seven  miles.  The  river  Jordan  enters  it 
 at  its  northern  end  and  passes  out  at  its 
 southern  end,  the  bed  of  the  lake  being 
 simply  a  lower  section  of  the  great  Jor- 
 dan Valley.  Near  this  beautiful  sheet 
 of  water  our  Lord  spent  most  of  his  pub- 
 lic life,  and  on  it,  in  passing  from  its  west- 
 ern to  its  eastern  shore,  he  frequently  sail- 
 ed. Beside  it  our  Lord,  after  his  resurrec- 
 tion, had  that  touching  interview  with 
 Peter  which  John  records  (John  21  :  15- 
 23).  At  the  present  time  all  around  this 
 sea  silence  and  desolation  reign,  saving 
 where  stands  the  old  town  of  Tiberias 
 and  where  Mejdel's   huts   mark  the  site 
 
 of  Magdala.    The  cities  are  in  ruins ;  the 
 people  are  few  and  poor  and  wretched. 
 
 Gall,  the  representative  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  two  Hebrew  words  and  of 
 one  Greek  word. 
 
 1 .  The  first  Hebrew  word  has  the  gen- 
 eral sense  of  "  bitterne&s,"  and  is  applied 
 to  the  "  bile  "  or  "  gall,"  the  intensely  bit- 
 ter fluid  secreted  by  the  liver  (Job  16  :  13). 
 The  term  also  stands  for  the  gall-bladder 
 or  vitals  (Job  20  :  25).  It  is  also  used  for 
 the  poLson  of  serpents  (Job  20  :  14)  which, 
 as  the  ancients  erroneously  believed,  was 
 their  gall. 
 
 2.  The  second  Hebrew  word,  generally 
 translated  "  gall,"  is  in  Has.  10  :  4  render- 
 ed "hemlock,"  whilst  in  Deut.  32  :  33  and 
 Job  20  :  16  it  is  employed  to  denote  the 
 "  poison  "  or  "  venom  "  of  serpents.  From 
 a  collection  of  all  the  passages  where  the 
 word  occurs,  it  would  seem  that  the  term 
 was  applied  to  some  bitter  and  perhaps 
 poisonous  plant.  What  the  plant  was 
 cannot  be  determined,  but  the  most  prob- 
 able conjecture  identifies  it  with  the  pop- 
 py. A  steeped  solution  of  poppy-heads 
 may  have  been  "  the  water  of  gall "  ( Jer. 
 8  :  14),  or  the  expression  may  refer  to 
 some  fluid  form  of  opium,  the  poisonous 
 extract  from  the  poppy.  F"iguratively, 
 the  word  is  always  used  to  represent 
 sin. 
 
 3.  The  Greek  word  is  properly  the  bit- 
 ter secretion  "  gall,"  but  is  used  to  desig- 
 nate any  intensely  bitter  substance.  In 
 describing  what  drink  the  Roman  sol- 
 diers gave  our  Lord  upon  the  cross,  Mat- 
 thew calls  it  "vinegar  mingled  with  gall" 
 (Matt.  27  :  34) ;  Mark,  "  wine  mingled  with 
 myrrh"  (Mark  15:23),  by  which  they 
 meant,  probably,  that  the  dratight  was  a 
 liquor  characterized  by  both  sourness  and 
 bitterness. 
 
 Gal'ley,  a  species  of  boat  propelled 
 by  oars  (Isa.  33  :  21). 
 
 Q-al'li-o,  Junius  Ann.'EUS,  the  Roman 
 proconsul  of  Achaia,  under  the  emperor 
 
GAMALIEL— GAMES. 
 
 215 
 
 Claudius,  when  the  apostle  Paul  first  visit- 
 ed Corinth  (Acts  18  :  12).  He  was  brother 
 to  Lucius  Annseus  Seneca,  the  philosopher. 
 Jerome  says  that  he  committed  suicide,  but 
 Dion  Cassius,with  greater  probability,  states 
 that  he  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Nero. 
 Ga-ma^li-el  [God  reioards  me'],  the 
 name  of  two  men  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Pedahzur,  prince  or  captain 
 of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  at  the  census  at 
 Sinai  (Num.  1  :  10 ;  2  :  20 ;  7  :  54,  59)  and 
 at  starting  on  the  march  through  the  wil- 
 derness (Num.  10  :  23). 
 
 2.  A  Pharisee  and  celebrated  doctor  of 
 the  Law,  who  gave  prudent  advice  in  the 
 Sanhedrim  respecting  the  treatment  of  the 
 followers  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (Acts  5  : 
 34-39).  From  Acts  22  :  3  it  appears  that 
 he  was  Paul's  preceptor.  He  is  generally 
 and  properly  identified  with  the  very  cel- 
 ebrated Jewish  doctor  Gamaliel.  This 
 Gamaliel  was  the  son  of  Eabbi  Simeon 
 and  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Hiilel ; 
 he  was  president  of  the  Sanhedrim  under 
 Tiberius,  Caligula  and  Claudius,  and  is 
 reported  to  have  died  eighteen  years  be- 
 fore the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
 
 Gaines,  public  contests  of  strength 
 and  skill.  They  were  an  outgrowth 
 from  the  Greek  civilization,  and,  al- 
 though they  are  not  mentioned  by  name 
 in  the  New  Testament,  they  are  yet  so 
 often  alluded  to,  especially  by  Paul  in 
 his  Epistles,  that  some  knowledge  of 
 them  is  indispensable  to  the  student  of 
 Scripture.  The  Greeks  had  such  a  pas- 
 sion for  spectacles  and  shows  that  each  of 
 their  cities  possessed  its  theatre  and  sta- 
 dium. At  Ephesus  an  annual  contest  was 
 held  in  honor  of  Diana.  It  is  probable 
 that  the  apostle  Paul  was  present  when 
 these  games  were  proceeding,  for  to  the 
 exhibitions  that  took  place  on  such  occa- 
 sions he  makes  a  direct  reference  (1  Cor. 
 15  :  32).  His  Epistles  abound  with  al- 
 lusions to  the  Greek  contests,  borrowed, 
 probably,  from   the   Isthmian   games,   at 
 
 which,  during  his  first  visit  to  Corinth, 
 he  may  have  been  present.  These  con- 
 tests (1  Tim.  6  :  12;  2  Tim.  4  :  7)  were 
 divided  into  two  classes,  the  one  consist- 
 ing of  boxing  and  wrestling,  the  other 
 consisting  of  leaping,  running,  quoiting, 
 hurling  the  spear  and  wrestling.  The 
 competitors  (1  Cor.  9  :  25 ;  2  Tim.  2:5) 
 required  a  long  and  severe  course  of  pre- 
 vious training  (1  Tim.  4  :  8),  during  which 
 a  particular  diet  and  discipline  were  en- 
 foi-ced  (1  Cor.  9  :  25,  27).  In  the  Olympic 
 contests  these  preparatory  exercises  extend- 
 ed over  a  period  of  ten  months,  during  the 
 last  of  which  they  were  conducted  under  the 
 supervision  of  appointed  officers.  The  con- 
 tests took  place  in  the  presence  of  a  vast 
 multitude  of  spectators  (Heb.  12  :  1),  the 
 competitors  being  the  spectacle  (1  Cor.  4  : 
 9;  Heb.  10 :  33).  The  games  M^ere  opened 
 with  the  proclamation  of  a  herald  ( 1  Cor. 
 9  :  27),  whose  office  it  was  to  give  out  the 
 name  and  country  of  each  candidate,  and 
 especially  to  announce  the  name  of  the 
 victor  before  the  assembled  multitude. 
 The  judge  was  selected  for  his  spotless 
 integrity  (2  Tim.  4:8);  his  office  was  to 
 decide  any  disputes  (Col.  3  :  15)  and  to 
 give  the  prize  (1  Cor.  9  :  24;  Phil.  3:  14), 
 consisting  of  a  crown  (2  Tim.  2  :  5 ;  4 :  8)  of 
 wild-olive  leaves  at  the  Olympian  games, 
 and  of  pine  or  ivy  leaves  at  the  Isthmian 
 games.  Paul  alludes  to  but  two  of  the 
 five  contests,  boxing  and  running,  most 
 frequently  to  the  latter.  In  boxing  (1 
 Cor.  9  :  26)  the  hands  and  arms  were 
 bound  with  the  cestufi,  a  band  of  leather 
 studded  with  nails.  The  foot-race  (2 
 Tim.  4:7)  was  run  in  the  stadium  (1 
 Cor.  9  :  24),  an  oblong  area,  open  at  one 
 end  and  rounded  in  a  semicircular  form 
 at  the  other,  along  the  sides  of  which 
 were  the  raised  tiers  of  seats  on  which 
 the  spectators  sat.  The  judge  was  sta- 
 tioned by  the  goal  (Phil.  3  :  14),  which 
 was  clearly  visible  from  one  end  of  the 
 stadium  to  the  other. 
 
216 
 
 GAMMADIMS— GATE. 
 
 Gam^'ina-diins  [Hebrew,  Gam'ma- 
 dim],  the  name  of  a  class  of  men  men- 
 tioned in  Ezek.  27  :  11  as  defenders  of 
 the  towers  of  Tyre  in  connection  with  the 
 mercenaries  from  Arad.  Various  expla- 
 nations of  the  term  have  been  given,  tlie 
 most  plausible  being  that  wliioh  makes  it 
 tlie  designation  of  the  brave  warriors  who 
 performed  garrison  service. 
 
 Gar'den,  The  sense  of  the  Hebrew 
 word  thus  rendered  is  a  park  or  orchard 
 enclosed  and  planted.  Gardens  in  the 
 East  were  on  the  outskirts  of  towns, 
 and  were  planted  with  various  trees  and 
 shrubs.  They  were  surrounded  with 
 hedges  of  thorn  (Isa.  5:5)  or  walls  of 
 stone  (Prov.  24  :  31 ).  For  further  pro- 
 tection, lodges  (Isa.  1:8;  Lam.  2  :  6)  or 
 watch-towers  (Mark  12  :  1)  were  built  in 
 them,  in  which  sat  the  keeper  (Job.  27  : 
 IS)  to  drive  away  the  wild  bea.sts  and  rob- 
 bers, as  is  the  case  to  this  day.  The  gar- 
 dens of  the  Hebrews  were  planted  with 
 flowers  and  aromatic  shrubs  (Song  6:2; 
 4  :  16),  besides  olives,  fig  trees,  nuts  or 
 walnuts  (Song  6:11),  pomegranates,  and 
 others  for  domestic  use  (Ex.  23  :  11 ;  Jer. 
 29  :  5;  Amos  9  :  14).  Gardens  of  herbs, 
 or  kitchen-gardens,  are  mentioned  in 
 Deut.  11  :  10  and  1  Kings  21  :  2.  Cu- 
 cumbers were  grown  in  them  (Isa.  1:8), 
 and  probably  also  melons,  leeks,  onions 
 and  garlic.  Of  all  the  gardens  of  Pales- 
 tine, none  is  possessed  of  associations 
 more  sacred  and  imperishable  than  the 
 garden  of  Gethsemane.  Here  our  Lord 
 was  accustomed  to  retire  for  devotion 
 (Matt.  26:36;  John  18:  1,  2);  here, 
 "being  in  an  agony,  he  prated,  and  his 
 sweat  was  as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood 
 falling  down  to  the  ground"  (Luke  22: 
 44) ;  and  here  he  was  betrayed  and  ar- 
 rested and  bound  (Matt.  26  :  47  ;  Mark 
 14:43;  Luke  22  :  47;  John  18  :  12). 
 Gardens  were  used  as  places  of  burial. 
 Manasseh  and  his  son  Anion  were  buried 
 in  the  garden  of  their  palace  (2  Kings 
 
 21  :  18,  26).  Our  Lord  was  buried  in  the 
 garden  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  (John  19: 
 41).  In  the  degenerate  times  of  the  He- 
 brew monarchy  gardens  were  selected  as 
 the  scenes  of  idolatrous  worship  (Isa.  1  : 
 29;  65:3;  66:17),  and  images  of  tlie 
 idols  were  probably  erected  in  them. 
 
 Gar'lands  (Acts  14  :  13),  the  wreaths 
 of  leaves  or  flowers  or  plants  with  wliicii 
 the  heathen  adorned  the  victims  about  to 
 be  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  the  heads  of 
 the  idols  before  which  the  sacrifices  were 
 offered. 
 
 Gar 'lie  (Num.  11  :  5),  a  well-known 
 vegetable,  very  abundant  in  Egypt  and 
 much  esteemed  by  the  Hebrews. 
 
 Gar'ments.    See  Clothes. 
 
 G-ar'ri-son,  a  post  held  by  a  military 
 force  for  protection  or  defence  (1  Sam.  10: 
 5;  2  Sam.  8:  6). 
 
 Gate.  Walled  cities  had  of  necessity 
 gates  or  doors  of  entrance.     These  gates 
 
 A  City  Gate. 
 
 and  gateways  anciently  held,  as  they  still 
 hold  in  the  East,  an  important  relation, 
 not  only  to  the  defence,  but  also  to  the 
 public  economy,  of  the  place.  They  are 
 thus  sometimes  taken  as  representing  the 
 
GATH— GEBA. 
 
 217 
 
 city  itself  (Gen.  22  :  17 ;  24  :  60 ;  Deut. 
 12  :  12;  Judg.  5:8;  Ruth  4  :  10;  Ps. 
 87:2;  122:2).  They  were  places  of 
 public  resort  (Gen.  19:1;  23  :  10 ;  34  : 
 20.  24;  1  Sam.  4  :  18) ;  places  for  public 
 deliberation,  administration  of  justice  or 
 of  audience  for  kings  and  rulers  or  am- 
 bassadors (Deut.  16  :  18;  21  :  19;  25  :  7 ; 
 Josh.- 20  :  4;  Judg.  9  :  35) ;  market-places 
 (2  Kings  7:1;  Prov.  22  :  22) ;  places  for 
 idolatrous  sacrifices  (2  Kings  23  :  8  ;  Acts 
 14  :  13).  Regarded,  therefore,  as  positions 
 of  great  importance,  the  gates  of  cities  were 
 carefully  guarded  and  closed  at  nightfall 
 (Deut.  3:5;  Josh.  2:5,  7 ;  Judg.  9  :  40, 
 44).  As  the  possession  of  the  gates  of  a 
 city  was  a  possession  of  the  city  itself,  the 
 word  is  sometimes  used  to  signify  power 
 (Isa.  24  :  12;  Matt.  10  :  18).  Criminals 
 were  always  punished  without  the  gates 
 (1  Kings  21  :  13 ;  Acts  7  :  59),  which  ex- 
 plains the  passage  in  Heb.  13  :  12. 
 
 Qath  [a  wine-press'\,  one  of  the  five  prin- 
 cipal cities  of  the  Philistines,  west  of  Je- 
 rusalem, to  which  the  ark  was  carried  (1 
 Sam.  5  :  8).  The  giant  Goliath  was  a  na- 
 tive or  resident  of  this  place  (1  Sam.  17  : 
 4).  To  Achish,  its  king,  David  fled  when 
 persecuted  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  21  :  10).  He 
 afterward  subdued  it  (1  Chron.  18  :  1). 
 It  is  subsequently  mentioned  as  forti- 
 fied by  Rehoboam,  conquei-ed  by  Hazael 
 and  destroyed  by  Uzziah.  Altliough  de- 
 scribed by  Jerome  as  a  large  village  in 
 his  time,  its  site  is  now  a  matter  of  dis- 
 pute. Dr.  Porter  and  Lieutenant  Conder 
 of  the  English  Survey  locate  it  on  a  hill 
 now  called  Tell  es-Safieh,  a  commanding 
 site  capable  of  being  made  the  key  of 
 Philistia.  Its  inhabitants  were  called 
 Gittites  (2  Sam.  15  :  18). 
 
 Gath-He'pher  [winepress  of  the  welll, 
 a  town  in  Galilee,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
 of  Zebulun,  and  the  same  as  Giltah-hepker 
 (Josh.  19  :  10,  13).  It  was  tlie  birthplace 
 of  the  prophet  Jonah  (2  Kings  14  :  25). 
 
 Gath-Rim^naon  [  press  of  the  pome- 
 
 granate^. Three  places  of  this  name  seem 
 to  be  referred  to ;  one  in  the  tribe  of  Dan 
 (Josh.  19  :  45)  ;  another  in  the  half-tribe 
 of  Manasseh  (Josh.  21  :  25) ;  and  a  third 
 in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  6  :  69). 
 
 Ga^za  [the  strong'},  the  most  prominent 
 of  the  five  principal  Philistine  cities,  the 
 capital  and  the  stronghold  of  Philistia. 
 It  was  an  important  city  before  the  time 
 of  Abraham  (Gen.  10  :  19).  It  fell  to  the 
 lot  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  47),  but  its  inhab- 
 itants were  neither  exterminated  nor  ex- 
 pelled (Judg.  1  :  18;  3  :  3).  It  was  situ- 
 ated on  the  southern  border  of  Canaan, 
 about  sixty  miles  south-west  from  Jeru- 
 salem. It  was  rendered  famous  by  the 
 exploits  of  Samson  (Judg.  16  :  1-3,  21- 
 30).  On  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
 Gaza,  Philip  the  evangelist  had  his  inter- 
 esting interview  with  the  Ethiopian  eu- 
 nuch and  treasurer  of  Queen  Candace 
 (Acts  8  :  26-40).  Against  Gaza  the 
 prophets  uttered  terrible  predictions, 
 wliich  have  been  remarkably  fulfilled. 
 It  has  been  utterly  destroyed  quite  a 
 number  of  times,  and  has  as  often  been 
 rebuilt.  A  considerable  city,  bearing  the 
 modern  name  Ghuzzah  and  containing 
 about  eigliteen  thousand  inhabitants,  is 
 yet  to  be  found  in  the  neigliborhood  of 
 the  ancient  Gaza. 
 
 Ge'ba  [hill],  called  also  Gaba  and 
 Gibeah,  a  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18  : 
 24)  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh.  21  :  17). 
 Its  site  is  thus  described  by  Conder :  "  West 
 of  Ai  a  great  valley  has  its  liead,  and  curv- 
 ing round  eastward  runs  to  Jericho.  About 
 two  miles  south-east  of  Ai  this  valley  be- 
 comes a  narrow  gorge,  with  vertical  preci- 
 pices some  eight  hundred  feet  high,  a  great 
 crack  or  fissure  in  the  country.  On  the 
 south  side  of  this  great  chasm,  the  true 
 head  of  the  Kelt  valley,  stands  Geba  of 
 Benjamin  on  a  rocky  knoll.  On  the  op- 
 posite side,  considerably  lower  than  Geba, 
 is  the  little  village  of  Michmash,  on  a  sort 
 of  saddle,  backed  by  an  open  and  fertile 
 
218 
 
 GEBAL— GENEALOGY. 
 
 corn-valley."  In  the  vicinity  of  Geba, 
 Saul's  son  Jonathan,  accompanied  by  an 
 armor-bearer,  attacked  an  army  of  Phil- 
 istines, who,  seized  with  panic,  fought 
 among  themselves  and  fled  in  confusion 
 ( 1  Sam.  14 : 1-23).  The  expression  "  from 
 Geba  to  Beersheba"  (2  Kings  23  :  8)  de- 
 noted the  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  Judali 
 from  north  to  south,  as  that  of  "  from  Dan 
 to  Beerslieba"  expressed  the  whole  length 
 of  Palestine. 
 
 Ge'bal  Imountainl,  the  name  of  two 
 places. 
 
 1.  A  district  of  country  referred  to  in 
 Ps.  83  :  7,  and  supposed  to  be  the  moun- 
 tainous tract  extending  from  the  Dead 
 Sea  to  Petra.  This  district  bears  the 
 modern  name  Jehdl. 
 
 2.  A  city  in  Phoenicia,  associated  witli 
 Tyre  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  27  : 
 9).  Its  Greek  name  was  Byblos;  its  mod- 
 ern name  is  Jehad.  Its  site  is  about  seven- 
 teen miles  north  of  the  city  of  Beyroot.  Its 
 ruins  are  extensive,  immense  numbers  of 
 granite  columns  being  strewn  over  the 
 surrounding  fields.  Once  the  chief  seat 
 of  the  cruel  worship  of  Adonis  and  the 
 busy  mart  of  a  lucrative  commerce,  it 
 must  have  been  a  city  of  much  import- 
 ance. 
 
 Ged-a-li'ah  [^Jehovah  has  made  great^, 
 son  of  Ahikam,  Jeremiah's  protector  (Jer. 
 26  :  24),  and  grandson  of  Shaphan,  the 
 secretary  of  King  Josiah.  After  the  de- 
 struction of  the  temple,  b.  c.  588,  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar left  Gedaliah  with  a  Chal- 
 dfean  guard  (.Jer.  40  :  5)  at  Mizpah  to  gov- 
 ern the  vinedressers  and  husbandmen 
 (Jer.  52  :  16),  who  were  not  carried  into 
 captivity.  Jeremiah  joined  Gedaliah,  and 
 Mizpah  became  the  resort  of  Jews  from  va- 
 rious quarters  (Jer.  40  :  6,  11).  Although 
 the  government  of  Gedaliah  was  adapted 
 to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  country, 
 yet  within  two  months  after  his  appoint- 
 ment Ishmael,  a  member  of  the  royal  fam- 
 ily, and  other  princes,  consj)ired  against 
 
 him,  and,  whilst  sharing  his  hospitality, 
 treacherously  murdered  him  (Jer.  41  : 
 1,2). 
 
 Ge'der  [a  wall],  the  name  of  a  town  of 
 the  Canaanites,  in  the  plain  country  of  Ju- 
 dah  (Josh.  12  :  13).  Probably  the  same 
 with  Gederah  (Josh.  15  :  36)  and  Beth- 
 gader  (1  Chron.  2  :  51). 
 
 Ged'e-roth,  a  city  in  the  plain  of 
 Judah  (Josh.  15  :  41),  as  was  Gederothaim 
 (Josh.  15  :  36). 
 
 Ge'dor,  a  city  in  the  mountains  of 
 Judah  (Josh.  15  :  58).  Dr.  Kobinson 
 found,  on  a  mountain-ridge  between  Je- 
 rusalem and  Gaza,  a  place  called  Jedur, 
 which  he  identifies  with  Gedor. 
 
 Ge-ha'zi  [ilenier'],  the  servant  or  boy 
 of  Elisha.  He  was  sent  as  the  prophet's 
 messenger  on  two  occasions  to  the  good 
 Shunanimite  (2  Kings  4),  obtained  fraudu- 
 lently money  and  garments  from  Naaman, 
 was  miraculously  smitten  with  incurable 
 leprosy,  and  was  dismissed  from  the  proph- 
 et's service  (2  Kings  5).  Later  in  the  his- 
 tory he  is  mentioned  as  the  relator  to  King 
 Joram  of  all  the  great  things  which  Elisha 
 had  done  (2  Kings  8). 
 
 Ge-hen'na.     See  Hinnom. 
 
 Gem-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  has  made  per- 
 fect], the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Shaphan  the  scribe  and  father 
 of  Micliaiah.  He  was  one  of  tlie  nobles 
 of  Judah,  and  had  a  chamber  in  the  house 
 of  the  Lord,  from  which  Baruch  read  Jer- 
 emiah's alarming  prophecy  in  the  ears  of 
 all  the  people  (Jer.  36). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Hilkiah,  who  with  Elasah, 
 son  of  Shaphan,  was  sent  to  Babylon  by 
 King  Zedekiah  with  the  tribute-money  for 
 Nebuchadnezzar.  He  also  took  charge  of 
 a  letter  from  .Jeremiah  to  the  Jewish  cap- 
 tives at  Babylon  warning  them  against  the 
 false  prophets  who  deluded  them  by  prom- 
 ises of  a  speedy  return  to  their  own  land 
 (Jer.  29  :  3,  4). 
 
 Ge-ne-aPo-gy,  the  record  of  a  ped- 
 igree  (1  Chron.  5:1).     In   Hebrew  the 
 
GENEKATION— GENESIS. 
 
 219 
 
 term  for  genealogy  or  pedigree  is  "the 
 book  of  the  generations"  (Gen.  5  ■  1 ;  Matt. 
 1:1).  To  the  Jew  many  things  conspired 
 to  make  such  a  book  transcendently  im- 
 portant. The  promise  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
 naan to  the  seed  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and 
 Jacob ;  the  separation  of  the  Israelites 
 from  the  Gentiles ;  the  expectation  of 
 Messiah,  as  to  spring  from  the  tribe  of 
 Judah  ;  the  exclusively  hereditary  priest- 
 hood of  Aaron,  with  its  dignity  and  emol- 
 uments ;  tlie  long  succession  of  kings  in 
 the  line  of  David ;  the  division  and  occu- 
 pation of  the  land  upon  genealogical  prin- 
 ciples by  tribes,  families  and  houses, — ev- 
 erything bound  up  in  the  memories  of  the 
 past,  the  possessions  of  the  present  and  the 
 hopes  of  the  future  constrained  every  de- 
 scendant of  the  patriarchs  to  assert  and 
 maintain  his  place  in  the  national  line. 
 Hence  "the  book  of  the  generation  of 
 Jesus  Christ,  the  son  of  David,  the  son 
 of  Abraham"  (Matt.  1:1)  became  an  in- 
 valuable testimony  to  our  Lord's  Mes- 
 siahship.  Two  evangelists,  Matthew  and 
 Luke,  give  our  Lord's  genealogy,  which 
 they  must  have  copied  from  the  public 
 registers,  and  which  they  could  not  have 
 falsified  without  detection.  When  these 
 public  registers  had  served  the  great  of- 
 fice for  which  they  had  been  made  and 
 kept— that,  namely,  of  witnessing  to  great 
 David's  greater  Son — they  perished  from 
 the  earth  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
 Gen-e-ra^tion.  Considerable  obscu- 
 rity attends  the  use  of  this  word  in  our 
 Authorized  Version,  the  translators  hav- 
 ing merged  the  various  meanings  of  the 
 same  original  word,  and  even  of  several  dif- 
 ferent words,  in  the  one  common  term  "gen- 
 eration." The  principal  senses  in  which 
 the  word  is  to  be  understood  are  these :  Or- 
 igin, history,  genealogy  (Gen.  2:4;  5:1; 
 Matt.  1:1);  age  (Gen.  7:1);  class,  order, 
 description  (Ps.  73  :  15 ;  Prov.  30  :  11-14) ; 
 succession  from  the  same  stock  (Matt.  1  : 
 17;  3:7);  persons  living  contemporane- 
 
 ously (Matt.  24  :  34;  Luke  16  :  8) ;  chosen 
 people  ( 1  Pet.  2:9).  As  a  measure  of  time 
 a  generation  in  the  long-lived  patriarchal 
 age  was  computed  at  about  one  hundred 
 years  (Gen.  15  :  16;  Ex.  12  :  40),  but  sub- 
 sequently it  was  reckoned  as  one-third  of 
 a  century  (Job  42  :  16),  the  computation 
 which  now  obtains. 
 
 Gen'e-sis  \_generation,  production,  cre- 
 ation'\,  the  name  of  the  first  book  of  the 
 Old  Testament.  This  book,  if  not  abso- 
 lutely the  oldest  in  the  world,  is  certainly 
 the  oldest  which  has  any  claim  to  being 
 a  trustworthy  history.  It  is  not  only  a 
 history,  but  in  pre-eminent  sense  a  relig- 
 ious history.  The  earlier  portion  of  the 
 book,  so  far  as  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
 chapter,  may  be  properly  termed  a  history 
 of  the  world ;  the  latter  portion  is  a  history 
 of  the  fathers  of  the  Jewish  race.  But 
 from  first  to  last  it  is  a  religious  history. 
 It  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  world 
 and  of  man ;  it  tells  of  the  early  happi- 
 ness of  a  paradise  in  which  God  spake 
 with  man ;  of  the  first  sin  and  its  conse- 
 quences ;  of  the  promise  of  redemption ; 
 of  the  gigantic  growth  of  sin  and  the 
 judgment  of  the  Flood  ;  of  a  new  earth 
 and  a  new  covenant  with  man,  its  un- 
 changeableness  typified  by  the  bow  in 
 the  heavens ;  of  the  dispersion  of  the 
 human  race  over  the  world.  Then  it 
 passes  to  the  story  of  redemption,  to  the 
 promise  given  to  Abraham  and  renewed 
 to  Isaac  and  to  Jacob,  and  to  all  that 
 chain  of  circumstances  which  paved  the 
 way  for  the  great  symbolic  act  of  redemp- 
 tion when  Avith  a  mighty  hand  and  an 
 outstretched  arm  Jehovah  brought  his 
 people  out  of  Egypt. 
 
 The  book  of  Genesis  has  thus  a  charac- 
 ter at  once  special  and  universal.  It  em- 
 braces the  world ;  it  speaks  of  God  as 
 the  God  of  the  whole  human  race.  But, 
 as  the  introduction  to  Jewish  history,  it 
 makes  the  universal  interest  subordinate 
 to  the   national.     Its   design   is   to  show 
 
220 
 
 GENNESARET,   LAND  OF— GERGESENES. 
 
 how  Grod  revealed  himself  to  the  first 
 fathers  of  the  Jewish  race  in  order  that 
 he  might  make  to  himself  a  nation  who 
 should  be  his  witnesses  in  the  midst  of  the 
 earth.  This  is  the  inner  principle  of  unity 
 which  pervades  the  book.  Its  external 
 framework  consists  of  the  lives  of  five 
 principal  persons — Adam,  Noah,  Abra- 
 ham, Isaac  and  Jacob.  To  these  wan- 
 dering sheikhs  attach  a  grandeur  and  an 
 interest  greater  than  those  of  the  Babels 
 and  Nimrods  of  the  world.  The  minutest 
 circumstances  of  their  lives  are  worthier 
 to  be  chronicled  than  the  rise  and  fall  of 
 empires.  Accordingly,  a  specific  plan  is 
 preserved  throughout.  The  main  purpose 
 of  the  book  is  never  forgotten.  God's  rela- 
 tion to  Israel  holds  the  first  place  in  the 
 writer's  mind.  It  is  this  which  it  is  his 
 object  to  convey.  He  begins  with  the 
 creation  of  the  world,  because  the  God 
 who  created  the  world  and  the  God  who 
 revealed  himself  to  tlie  fathers  is  the  same 
 God.  He  shows  that  when  man  had  fall- 
 en, the  (iod  who  visited  him  in  mercy  and 
 gave  him  a  promise  of  redemption  and  vic- 
 tory is  the  God  who  sent  Moses  to  deliver 
 his  people  out  of  Egypt.  He  shows  further 
 that  tlie  God  who  made  a  covenant  with 
 Noah,  and  through  him  with  "all  the  fam- 
 ilies of  the  earth,"  is  the  God  who  also 
 made  himself  known  as  the  God  of  Abra- 
 Jiam,  of  Isaac  and  of  Jacob. 
 
 Thus  creation  and  redemjttion  are  eter- 
 nally linked  together.  Tluis,  too,  the  his- 
 tory of  that  chosen  seed,  who  were  the  heirs 
 of  the  promise  and  the  guardians  of  the 
 divine  oracles,  is  tlie  only  history  which 
 interprets  man's  relation  to  God.  By  its 
 light  all  others  shine,  and  may  be  read 
 when  tlie  time  shall  come.  Meanwhile, 
 Jis  the  different  families  drop  off  here  and 
 there  from  the  principal  stock,  their  course 
 is  briefly  indicated.  A  hint  is  given  of 
 their  parentage  and  their  migrations,  and 
 then  the  narrative  returns  to  its  regular 
 channel. 
 
 Gen-nes'a-ret,  Land  of,  a  small 
 district  of  Galilee,  lying  on  the  western 
 shore  of  the  sea  near  Capernaum  (Matt. 
 14  :  34 ;  Mark  6  :  53).  It  is  a  green,  cres- 
 cent-shaped plain,  now  called  el-Ghuweir, 
 extending  along  the  shore  for  three  miles, 
 its  greatest  breadth  being  about  one  mile. 
 Its  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  tiie  melons 
 and  cucumbers  grown  here  being  the 
 best  and  earliest  in  Palestine,  but  only 
 small  patches  of  it  are  now  cultivated. 
 Its  climate  is  almost  tropical. 
 
 Gen-nes'a-ret,  Sea  of  (Luke  5:1). 
 See  CiiiNNERETH  and  Galilee. 
 
 Gen'tiles.  In  the  Old  Testament  the 
 Hebrew  word  rendered  Gentiles  or  nations 
 signified  the  surrounding  nations,  foreign- 
 ers as  opposed  to  Israel  (Neh.  5:8),  and 
 was  used  with  an  invidious  meaning.  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  word  Gentiles  is 
 used  as  equivalent  to  the  word  Greeks 
 (Rom.  1  :  16;  1  Cor.  1  :  22-24),  a  strong 
 proof  of  the  almost  universal  adoption  of 
 tlie  Greek  language. 
 
 Ge'ra  [a  grain],  one  of  the  "sons," 
 tli.it  is,  descendants,  of  Benjamin,  enu- 
 merated in  Gen.  46  :  21  as  already  living 
 at  the  time  of  Jacob's  migration  into  Egypt. 
 He  was  son  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  8:3). 
 
 G-e'rah  [«  berry  or  grannie'],  the  small- 
 est weight,  and  likewise  the  smallest  piece 
 of  money,  among  the  Hebrews,  equivalent 
 to  the  twentieth  part  of  a  shekel  ( Ex.  30  : 
 13;  Lev.  27  :  25),  and  worth  about  three 
 cents. 
 
 Ge'rar  {lodging-place],  a  city  and  dis- 
 trict on  the  southern  border  of  Palestine, 
 not  far  from  Gaza  (Gen.  10:19).  It  was 
 visited  by  Abraham  after  the  destruction 
 of  Sodom  (Gen.  20  : 1),  and  by  Isaac  when 
 there  was  a  dearth  in  the  rest  of  Canaan 
 (Gen.  26  :  1).  It  was  the  seat  of  the  first 
 Philistine  kingdom  that  we  read  of,  and 
 gave  name  to  it  (Gen.  26  :  26).  Its  site 
 has  been  diligently  sought,  but  as  yet  has 
 not  been  satisfactorily  determined. 
 
 Q-er^ge-senes.    See  Gadarenes. 
 
GERIZIM— GESHUR. 
 
 221 
 
 Gerizira,  with  Nablus  at  its  foot. 
 
 Ger''i-zim,  the  mountain  of  Ephraira, 
 opposite  Ebal,  on  which,  after  the  en- 
 trance of  the  Israelites  into  the  Promised 
 Land,  six  tribes  stood  and  responded  Amen 
 to  the  blessings  pronounced  by  the  Levites 
 upon  such  of  the  people  as  should  obey 
 the  Law  of  the  Lord  (Deut.  11  :  29).  See 
 Ebal.  The  valley  between  Ebal  and  Ger- 
 izim  is  narrow,  and  about  three  miles  long. 
 It  is  bountifully  watered  and  fertile.  Ger- 
 izim  was  greatly  venerated  by  the  Samar- 
 itans, who  on  it  built  a  temple  for  worship 
 (John  4  :  20).  It  is  still  accounted  a  holy 
 mountain,  the  inhabitants  of  NablUx,  the 
 city  at  its  foot,  which  replaces  the  an- 
 cient Shechem,  visiting  it  every  year  at 
 the  times  corresponding  to  the  four  an- 
 cient annual  festivals. 
 
 Ger 'shorn  [expulsion^,  the  elder  of 
 the  two  sons  (the  second  being  Eliezer) 
 who  were  born  to  Moses  in  the  land  of 
 Midian  by  Zipporah  (Ex.  2  :  22;  18  :  4). 
 These  sons  of  the  great  lawgiver  held  no 
 other  rank  than  that  of  simple  Levites, 
 while  the  sons  of  their  uncle  Aaron  en- 
 joyed all  the  privileges  of  the  priesthood 
 (1  Chron.  23  :  15,  16 ;  26  :  24),  a  proof  of 
 the  rare  disinterestedness  of  Moses. 
 
 Ger'shon,  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons 
 of  Levi,  apparently  born  before  the  migra- 
 
 tion of  Jacob's  family  into  Egypt  (Gen.  46 : 
 11 ;  Ex.  6  :  16).  But,  though  the  eldest 
 born,  the  families  of  Gershon  were  out- 
 stripped in  fame  by  their  younger  breth- 
 ren of  Koliath,  from  whom  sprang  Moses 
 and  the  priestly  line  of  Aaron.  The  sons 
 of  Gershon  (the  Gershonites)  had  charge 
 of  the  fabrics  of  the  tabernacle,  the  cover- 
 ings, curtains,  hangings,  cords  (Num.  3  : 
 25,  26 ;  4  :  25,  26) ;  for  the  transport  of 
 these  they  had  two  covered  wagons  and 
 four  oxen  (Num.  7  :  3,  7).  In  the  en- 
 campment their  station  was  behind  the 
 tabernacle,  on  the  west  side  (Num.  3  :  23). 
 In  the  appointment  of  the  Levitical  cities 
 thirteen  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Gershonites. 
 These  were  in  the  northern  tribes — two  in 
 Manasseh  beyond  Jordan,  four  in  Issa- 
 char,  four  in  Aslier  and  three  in  Naph- 
 tali. 
 
 Ge^shem,  an  Arabian  (Neh.  2  :  19 ; 
 6:1),  and  one  of  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
 on  their  return  from  the  exile,  especially 
 in  the  plots  against  the  life  of  Nehemiah 
 (Neh.  6  :  2). 
 
 Ge'shur  [a  bridge],  a  district  of  coun- 
 try in  Syria  (2  Sam.  15  :  8),  on  the  east 
 side  of  Jordan,  adjoining  the  northern 
 border  of  the  Hebrew  territory,  and  ly- 
 ing between  Hermon,  Maachah  and  Ba- 
 
222 
 
 GETHER— GIBEAH. 
 
 shan  (Josh.  12  :  5).  The  Geshurites  were 
 not  expelled  by  the  Israelites  under  Josh- 
 ua (Josh.  13  :  13).  In  the  time  of  David, 
 Talmai  was  their  king,  whose  daughter  be- 
 came the  wife  of  David  and  the  mother  of 
 Absalom  (2  Sam.  3  :  3).  As  the  word  Ge- 
 shur  means  a  bridge,  and  as  at  the  present 
 time  in  that  region  there  is  an  ancient 
 stone  bridge  over  the  upper  Jordan,  it  is 
 probable  that  from  a  bridge  in  the  same 
 place  Geshur  took  its  name. 
 
 Geth''er,  one  of  the  sons  of  Aram  and 
 grandson  of  Shem.  See  Nations,  under 
 Shemites. 
 
 Geth-sein'a-ne  [oil-press],  the  name 
 of  a  small  field  or  garden  in  the  immedi- 
 ate neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  foot 
 of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Here  our  Lord 
 "ofttimes  resorted  with  his  disciples" 
 (John  18  :  2) ;  here  the  night  before  his 
 crucifixion  he  suffered  his  great  agony 
 (Mark  14  :  32-41)  ;  and  here  he  was  be- 
 trayed by  Judas  into  the  hands  of  his 
 murderers  (Matt.  26  :  36-50).  Whether 
 or  not  the  spot  now  pointed  out  as  the 
 Garden  of  Gethsemane  be  its  true  site  it 
 is  impossible  to  say.  But  that  the  gar- 
 den to  which  our  Lord  resorted  was  here- 
 about is  highly  probable.  This  tradition- 
 al site  is  enclosed  by  a  stone  wall,  and  is 
 neatly  kept  by  Latin  monks.  Though  its 
 eight  gnarled  olive  trees  could  not  have 
 stood  there  in  the  days  of  Christ,  yet  their 
 venerable  appearance  and  great  age  cannot 
 fail  to  impress  the  serious  traveler. 
 
 Ge'zer,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
 on  the  south-western  border  of  the  tribe 
 of  Ephraim.  The  Canaanites  were  not 
 expelled  from  it,  but  dwelt  there  with 
 the  Israelites  (Josh.  16  :  10).  It  was  the 
 scene  of  many  fierce  contests  between  the 
 Philistines  and  Israelites  (2  Sam.  5  :  25 ; 
 1  Chron.  20  :  4).  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt, 
 afterward  conquered  and  gave  it  to  his 
 daughter,  Solomon's  Avife  (1  Kings  9 :  16), 
 and  Solomon  rebuilt  it  (1  Kings  9  :  17). 
 
 Ghost,  an  old  English  word  of  Saxon 
 
 origin  (Germ,  geist),  equivalent  to  soul  or 
 spirit  (Job  11  :  20 ;  Jer.  15  :  9 ;  Matt.  27  : 
 50 ;  John  19 :  30).  It  frequently  occurs  in 
 the  New  Testament  in  the  sacred  name 
 "  Holy  Ghost."  To  "  give  up  the  ghost " 
 is  a  common  Scripture  expression  for  to 
 "die"  (Gen.  25  :  17;  Job  3  :  11;  Acts  5  : 
 10;  12:  23). 
 
 Gi'ants,  men  remarkable  either  for 
 extraordinary  cruelty  and  crime  or  for  ex- 
 traordinary size  and  strength.  Both  of 
 these  senses  appear  to  be  combined  in  the 
 antediluvian  giants  mentioned  in  Gen.  6  : 
 4.  These  giants  were  men  of  daring  im- 
 piety and  of  immense  muscular  force,  re- 
 sembling the  Titans  of  Greek  mythology. 
 After  the  Flood  the  leading  race  of  giants 
 was  that  of  the  Rephaim.  The  earliest 
 mention  of  them  is  the  record  of  their  de- 
 feat by  Chedorlaomer  and  the  allied  kings 
 at  Ashteroth-Karnaim,  east  of  the  Jordan 
 (Gen.  14  :  5).  Driven  from  the  east  of 
 Palestine,  they  long  found  a  home  in  the 
 west  (2  Sam.  21  :  15-22;  1  Chron.  20  :  4- 
 8).  It  is  probable  that  in  early  times  they 
 had  possessed  districts  west  of  the  Jordan, 
 since  the  "valley  of  Rephaim"  (2  Sam. 
 5  :  18;  1  Chron.  11  :  15;  Isa.  17  :  5),  a 
 rich  valley  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  de- 
 rived its  name  from  them.  They  were 
 probably  the  aboriginal  giant-race  of 
 which  the  Zuzim  and  Emim  (Gen.  14  : 5), 
 the  Anakim  (Num.  13  :  28)  and  the  Zam- 
 zuramim  (Deut.  2  :  20,  21)  were  branches. 
 Og,  king  of  Bashan  (Deut.  3  :  10,  11),  is 
 the  representative  in  Scripture  of  the 
 Rephaim;  Goliath  of  Gath  (1  Sam.  17  : 
 4-7),  o4"  the  Anakim. 
 
 Gib'be-thon  [a  height],  a  city  of  the 
 Philistines,  included  within  the  territory 
 of  Dan  (Josh.  21  :  23).  While  Nadab, 
 the  king  of  Israel,  was  besieging  this 
 city,  he  was  slain  by  Baasha,  one  of  his 
 own  oflScers  (1  Kings  15  :  25,  27).  Its 
 site  is  not  known. 
 
 Gib'e-ah  [a  hill].  Several  places,  sit- 
 uated probably  on  a  kill,  bore  this  name. 
 
GIBEON— GIHON. 
 
 223 
 
 1.  GiBEAH  OF  Benjamin,  called  also 
 GiBEAH  OF  Saul.  Its  siege  and  the 
 painful  story  of  the  Levite  are  recorded 
 in  Judg.  19  and  20.  It  was  the  birthplace 
 and  residence  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  15  :  34). 
 Here  the  Amorites  hanged  seven  of  Saul's 
 sons  (2  Sam.  21  :  6). 
 
 2.  GiBEAH  OF  JuDAH,  a  city  in  the 
 mountains  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  57). 
 
 3.  GiBEAH  IN  THE  FiELD,  named  in 
 Judg.  20  :  31  as  the  place  to  which  one 
 of  the  highways  led  from  Gibeah  of  Ben- 
 jamin. 
 
 Gib'e-on,  a  celebrated  city  of  the  Ca- 
 naanites,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  fore- 
 seeing that  Joshua  would  subdue  the 
 whole  country,  practiced  a  deception  by 
 which  he  was  induced  to  make  a  league 
 with  them.  Notwithstanding  it  was  by 
 artifice  they  obtained  Joshua's  promise 
 that  they  should  not  be  destroyed,  he 
 fulfilled  his  word,  but  subjected  them 
 to  menial  employments  (Josh.  9  :  3-27). 
 Afterward,  when  they  were  attacked  by 
 the  five  Canaanitish  kings,  Joshua  de- 
 fended them,  and  during  the  great  battle 
 that  followed  "  the  sun  stood  still  on  Gib- 
 eon"  (Josh.  10  :  12).  The  city  afterward 
 fell  to  the  lot  of  Benjamin,  and  became  a 
 Levitical  city  (Josh.  18  :  25;  21  :  17). 
 Here  the  tabernacle  was  set  up  for  many 
 years  under  David  and  Solomon  (1  Chron. 
 16  :  39 ;  2  Chron.  1  :  3).  Its  site  is  iden- 
 tified with  that  of  the  modern  village  of 
 el- Jib,  about  six  miles  north-west  of  Jeru- 
 salem. The  whole  appearance  of  el-Jib 
 is  that  of  antiquity.  It  is  situated  on  the 
 summit  of  a  hill,  and  near  it  are  a  fine 
 fountain  and  a  large  reservoir  of  water, 
 which  correspond  with  the  "  pool  of  Gib- 
 eon"  (2  Sam.  2  :  13)  and  "the  great  wa- 
 ters that  are  in  Gibeon"  (Jer.  41  :  12). 
 The  "wilderness  of  Gibeon"  (2  Sam.  2  : 
 24)  was  probably  in  the  same  neighbor- 
 hood, taking  its  name  from  the  city. 
 
 Gid'e-on  \_iree-feller,  that  is,  ivarrior'], 
 a  Manassite,  youngest  son  of  Joash  of  the 
 
 Abiezrites,  an  undistinguished  family  who 
 lived  at  Ophrah,  a  town  probably  on  the 
 west  of  Jordan  (Judg.  6  :  11-15).  He 
 was  the  fifth  recorded  judge  of  Israel, 
 and  for  many  reasons  the  greatest  of 
 them  all.  Aided  by  miraculous  interpo- 
 sition, he  signally  defeated  the  Midian- 
 ites  and  won  for  his  countrymen  forty 
 years  of  peace  and  prosperity  (Judg.  7  : 
 19-25;  8:28).  The  memory  of  this 
 splendid  deliverance  took  deep  root  in 
 the  national  traditions  (1  Sam.  12:11; 
 Ps.  83  :  11 ;  Isa.  9:4;  10  :  20 ;  Heb.  11  : 
 32).  Gideon  was  a  man  of  princely  ap- 
 pearance (Judg.  8  :  18),  and  to  this  he 
 owed,  most  probably,  something  of  his 
 popularity  and  power.  He  nobly  declin- 
 ed, on  theocratic  grounds,  the  monarchy 
 (Judg.  8  :  22,  23),  but  he  ignobly  dedi- 
 cated to  religious  uses  a  jeweled  ephod 
 formed  out  of  the  rich  spoils  of  Midian, 
 which  proved  to  tlie  Israelites  a  tempta- 
 tion to  idolatry  (Judg.  8  :  24-27). 
 
 Gift,  the  rendering  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  quite  a  number  of  Hebrew  and 
 Greek  words,  each  having  a  distinct  and 
 special  meaning  indicative  of  the  relation 
 of  giver  and  receiver,  or  of  the  motive  and 
 object  of  the  presentation.  The  most  com- 
 mon senses  connected  with  the  word  are 
 these:  1.  A  gratuity  of  any  kind  (Prov. 
 19  :  6;  Matt.  7  :  11) ;  2.  A  money-dona- 
 tion (Esth.  9  :  22;  Luke  21  :  1)  ;  3.  A 
 votive  oflTering  (2  Sam.  8  :  2,  6;  Matt.  5  : 
 23,  24) ;  4.  A  bribe  (Ex.  23  :  8 ;  Prov.  6  : 
 35)  ;  5.  A  hope  of  eternal  life  (Rom.  5  : 
 15,17;  Eph.  4:7);  6.  A  spiritual  be- 
 stowment  (1  Tim.  4  :  14 ;  1  Pet.  4  :  10). 
 
 Gi'hon  {^serpentine,  winding'\,  the  name 
 of  the  second  of  the  four  rivers  of  Eden 
 (Gen.  2 :  13) ;  the  name  also  of  a  fountain, 
 and  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  anoint- 
 ing and  proclamation  of  Solomon  as  king 
 (1  Kings  1  :  33,  34).  Subsequently  it  is 
 said  that  Hezekiah  "  stopped  the  upper 
 water-course  of  Gihon,  and  brought  it 
 straight  down  to  the  west    side  of   the 
 
224 
 
 GILBOA— GIRDLE. 
 
 city  of  David"  (2  Chron.  32  :  30).  Dr. 
 Robinson  conjectures  that  on  the  west  of 
 Jerusalem  tiiere  was  anciently  a  fountain 
 of  this  name  which  was  arched  over  by 
 Ilezekiah,  and  its  waters  conducted  into 
 the  city  by  a  subterranean  channel  whicli 
 is  not  now  seen. 
 
 Mountains  of  Gilboa. 
 
 Gil-bO''a  [boiling  ffpriiKj'],  a  mountain- 
 ous tract  with  several  ridges  running  from 
 north-west  to  south-east,  from  the  ancient 
 Jezreel  to  the  brow  of  the  Jordan  Valley, 
 a  distance  of  ten  miles.  Here  Saul  and 
 his  three  sons  were  slain  (1  Sara.  28  :  4; 
 31  :  1-8  ;  2  Sam.  1  :  6-21). 
 
 Gil'e-ad.  [hard,  rough],  a  mountain- 
 ous region  east  of  the  Jordan,  extend- 
 ing from  nearly  the  south  end  of  the  Sea 
 of  Galilee  to  the  north  end  of  the  Dead 
 Sea,  about  sixty  miles,  with  the  aver- 
 age breadth  of  twenty.  Tliis  region  was 
 the  territory  of  Sihon  and  Og  (Josh.  12  : 
 2,  5)  and,  conquered  by  the  Israelites,  it 
 was  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and 
 Gad  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  (Deut. 
 3  :  12,  13).  It  was  celebrated  for  its  rich 
 pastures  (Num.  32  :  1),  a  characteristic 
 which  still  remains.  It  was  also  celebra- 
 ted for  its  balm  (Gen.  37  :  25  ;  Jer.  40  :  11). 
 Its  fertility  made  it  a  tempting  prize  to 
 many  peoples,  who  for  its  possession  en- 
 
 gaged in  fierce  and  frequent  contests.  One 
 of  its  cities,  Ramoth-Ciilead,  wa.s  a  city  of 
 refuge  (Josh.  20  :  8). 
 
 Gil'gal   [rolling  thinfj],  a  place  in  the 
 Jordan   Valley  near  Jericho,  where   the 
 Israelites    made  their   first   encampment 
 in  Palestine,  and  where  they  set  up  the 
 twelve  stones  they  had   taken  from 
 the  bed  of  the  river  (Josh.  4:19- 
 24).     Here  Samuel  judged   (1  Sam. 
 7  :  16),  and   here  the    kingdom    wa.s 
 confirmed  to  Saul   (1   Sam.  11  :  15). 
 Although  associated  with   numerous 
 interesting   Scripture   events,  it   has 
 no  mention  after  the  Captivity.     Its 
 site  is  thought  to  be  a  mound,  with 
 ruins  scattered  around  it,  still  known 
 as  Tell  Jeljtil,  about  one  English  mile 
 east  of  ancient  Jericho.     There  was 
 another    Gilgal   in    the   vicinity   of 
 Dor,  subdued  by  Joshua  (.Josh.  12  : 
 23).       This   is   supposed   to   be   the 
 Galgala  which   Eusebius   speaks   of 
 as  being  six  Roman  miles  north  of 
 Antipatris,  and  where  there  is  still  a  vil- 
 lage called  Jiljulieh. 
 
 G-i'loh  [exile  or  circuit],  a  town  in  the 
 mountains  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  51),  the 
 birthplace  and  residence  of  Ahithophel  (2 
 Sam.  15  :  12),  and  the  scene  of  Ahithophel's 
 suicide  (2  Sam.  17  :  23). 
 
 Gim'zo,  a  town  in  the  low  country  of 
 Judah,  captured  with  Ajalon  and  other 
 places  by  the  Philistines  in  the  reign  of 
 Ahaz  (2  Chron.  28  :  18).  It  is  perhaps 
 identical  with  Jimzu,  a  village  on  an 
 eminence  about  three  miles  south-east 
 from  Lydda. 
 
 Gin,  an  old  English  word  for  trap, 
 stands  in  our  Authorized  Version  as  the 
 rendering  of  two  Hebrew  words,  the  one 
 meaning  a  noose  or  "snare"  (Ps.  140  :  5; 
 141  :  9 ;  Amos  3  :  5),  the  other  meaning  a 
 net  or  trap  (Job  18  :  9 ;  Isa.  8  :  14). 
 
 Gir'dle,  an  essential  article  of  dress 
 in  the  East,  and  worn  by  both  men  and 
 women.     The  poorest  girdle  was  made 
 
GIRGASHITES— GLASS. 
 
 225 
 
 of  leather  (2  Kings  1:8;  Matt.  3  :  4), 
 like  that  worn  by  the  Bedouin  of  the 
 present  day.  Coarser  ones  were  of  cloth. 
 A  finer  girdle  was  made  of  linen  (Jer. 
 13  :  1 ;  Ezek.  16  :  10),  embroidered  with 
 silk  and  sometimes  with  gold  and  silver 
 thread  (Dan.  10  :  5;  Rev.  1  :  13;  15  :  6), 
 and  frequently  studded  with  gold  and 
 precious  stones  or  pearls.  The  manufac- 
 ture of  these  girdles  formed  part  of  the 
 employment  of  women  (Prov.  31  :  24). 
 The  girdle  was  fastened  by  a  clasp  of 
 gold  or  silver,  or  tied  in  a  knot  so  that 
 the  ends  hung  down  in  front.  It  was 
 worn  by  men  about  the  loins  (Isa.  5  : 
 27;  11  :  5).  The  girdle  of  the  women 
 was  generally  looser  than  that  of  the 
 men,  and  was  worn  about  the  hips,  ex- 
 cept when  they  were  actively  engaged 
 (Prov.  31  :  17).  The  military  girdle  was 
 worn  about  the  waist ;  the  sword  or  dag- 
 ger was  suspended  from  it  (Judg.  3  :  16; 
 
 2  Sara.  20  :  8 ;  Ps.  45  :  3).  Hence  gird- 
 ing up  the  loins  denotes  preparation  for 
 battle  or  for  active  exertion.  In  times  of 
 mourning  girdles  of  sackcloth  were  worn 
 as  marks  of  humiliation  and  sorrow  (Isa. 
 
 3  :  24;  22  :  12).  Girdles  being  made  of 
 costly  materials,  they  were  frequently 
 given  as  presents  (1  Sam.  18  :  4;  2  Sam. 
 18  :  11).  They  were  used  as  pockets  (the 
 Arabs  still  use  them  thus)  and  as  purses, 
 one  end  of  the  girdle  being  folded  back 
 for  the  purpose  (Matt.  10:9;  Mark  6  : 
 8).    See  Clothes. 
 
 G-ir'gash-ites,  The  [dwelling  in  a 
 clayey  or  marshy  soil],  one  of  the  nations 
 which  were  in  possession  of  Canaan  before 
 the  entrance  thitlier  of  the  children  of  Is- 
 rael (Gen.  10  :  16 ;  15  :  21  ;  Deut.  7:1; 
 Josh.  3  :  10 ;  24  :  11 ;  1  Chron.  1:14;  Neh. 
 9:8).  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
 a  part  of  the  large  family  of  Hivites,  as 
 they  are  omitted  in  nine  out  of  ten  places 
 in  which  the  nations  or  families  of  Canaan 
 are  mentioned,  wliile  in  the  tenth  they  are 
 mentioned  and  the  Hivites  omitted. 
 15 
 
 Grit'tites,  the  inhabitants  or  natives 
 of  tlie  Philistine  city  of  Oath  (Josh.  13  : 
 3).  Obed-edom,  in  whose  house  the  ark 
 was  for  a  time  placed  (2  Sam.  6  :  10),  is 
 called  a  Gittite,  possibly  because  he  had 
 been  with  David  when  at  Gath,  but  much 
 more  probably  from  his  being  a  native  of 
 Gath-Rimmon,  which  was  a  city  of  that 
 family  of  the  Levites  to  which  he  be- 
 longed (Josh.  21  :  24).  The  six  hundred 
 men  who  followed  David  from  Gath,  and 
 who,  under  the  leadership  of  Ittai  (2  Sam. 
 15  :  18,  19),  were  called  Gittites,  formed, 
 most  probably,  a  foreign  troop  of  expe- 
 rienced warriors,  chiefly,  if  not  wholly, 
 from  Gath,  in  the  pay  and  service  of 
 David. 
 
 Git''tith,  a  musical  instrument  referred 
 to  in  the  inscriptions  to  Ps.  8,  81,  84,  of 
 which  we  know  nothing. 
 
 Glass.  The  Hebrew  word  which  des- 
 ignates glass  occurs  only  in  Job  28  :  17, 
 where,  in  our  Authorized  Version,  it  is 
 rendered  "crystal."  In  spite  of  the  ab- 
 sence of  specific  allusion  to  glass  in  the 
 Old  Testament,  the  Hebrews  must  have 
 been  aware  of  the  invention.  Paintings 
 representing  the  processes  of  glass-blow- 
 ing, and  found  in  tombs  as  old  as  the 
 times  of  Joseph,  prove  the  antiquity  of 
 the  invention.  Fragments  too,  of  wine- 
 vases  as  old  as  the  Exodus  have  been 
 discovered  in  Egypt.  Glass  therefore, 
 could  not  have  been  unknown  to  the 
 Hebrews.  It  was  not  used,  however,  for 
 lighting  dwellings,  a  semi-transparent  sub- ' 
 stance,  such  as  talc,  being  employed  for 
 this  purpose.  Through  this  semi-trans- 
 parent substance  a  degree  of  light  would 
 be  admitted,  but  external  objects  would 
 be  very  indistinctly  seen ;  hence  tlie 
 beauty  and  the  force  of  tlie  apostle's 
 illustration  of  the  present  and  tlie  future 
 of  God's  people  (1  Cor.  13  :  12).  Look- 
 ing-glasses among  the  ancients  were  made 
 of  polished  metal  (Ex.  38;  .Job  37  :  18 ; 
 James  1  :  23).     In  the  Revelation  (4:6; 
 
GLEANING— GOAT. 
 
 15  :  2;  21  :  18)  glass  is  alluded  to  as  the 
 emblem  of  clearness. 
 
 Glean'ing,  gathering  the  grain  or  the 
 fruit  left  in  the  fields  and  orchards.  The 
 Law  of  Moses  directed  a  liberal  treatment 
 of  the  poor  at  the  seasons  of  harvest  and 
 ingathering.  The  corners  of  the  field 
 were  not  to  be  reaped;  the  owner  was 
 not  to  glean  his  own  fields,  and  a  sheaf 
 accidentally  left  behind  was  not  to  be 
 fetched  away.  Equally  liberal  regula- 
 tions were  made  in  respect  to  vineyards 
 and  olive-yards  (Lev.  19  :  9,  10;  Deut. 
 24  :  19,  20).  These  regulations  have  a 
 fine  illustration  in  the  book  of  Ruth. 
 
 Glede,  the  old  English  name  for  the 
 common  kite.     It   occurs   only  in    Deut. 
 14  :  13  among  the   unclean   birds   of 
 prey. 
 
 Qlo'ry.  This  Latin  word  is  closely 
 related  to  the  word  clear,  and  its  primary 
 sense  is  that  of  brightness  or  splendor. 
 Its  Hebrew  equivalent,  which  etymolo- 
 gically  means  iveiyht,  is  always  figura- 
 tively used  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
 is  employed  to  denote  wealth,  honor, 
 splendor,  majesty  (Ps.  49  :  17  ;  Job  19  : 
 9 ;  Ex.  24  :  16, 17  ;  Ezek.  1 :  26-28) ;  its 
 Greek  equivalent  involves  the  notion 
 of  some  appearance  which  by  its  lustre, 
 brightness,  dazzling  liglit,extraordinary 
 excellence  and  the  like,  attracts  and  en- 
 gages the  thought  of  the  intelligent  ob- 
 server ( 1  Pet.  5  :  4 ;  2  Ck)r.  3:7;  Acts 
 22  :  11 ;  John  1  :  14).  The  common 
 expression  for  the  dignity  and  splen- 
 dor of  external  condition  and  for  the  holi- 
 ness and  happiness  of  internal  character, 
 the  word  "glory"  appropriately  desig- 
 nates that  exalted  state  of  blissful  per- 
 fection which  is  the  portion  of  those  who 
 dwell  with  God  in  heaven  (2  Tim.  2  :  10; 
 Heb.  2  :  10).  It  also  designates  with  great 
 propriety  the  Author  or  Procurer  of  eter- 
 nal salvation  (Luke  2  :  32). 
 
 Gnat,  a  very  small  but  troublesome  in- 
 sect common  in  hot  countries.    It  is  men- 
 
 tioned only  by  our  Lord  in  the  proverbial 
 expression  in  Matt.  23  :  24.  In  this  pro- 
 verbial expression  strain  at  is  a  typograph- 
 ical error  for  strain  out,  which  better  ex- 
 presses the  gross  inconsistency  which  our 
 Lord  reproves. 
 
 Goad,  a  rod  or  pole  about  eight  feet 
 long,  armed  at  the  larger  end  with  a  piece 
 of  iron  like  a  spade  to  free  the  ploughshare 
 from  clods,  and  at  the  smaller  end  with  a 
 small  spike  to  urge  on  the  oxen  (Judg.  3  : 
 31;  1  Sam.  13  :  21).  The  expression  to 
 "kick  against  the  goads"  (Acts  26  :  14) 
 was  proverbially  used  by  the  Greeks  for 
 unavailing  resistance  to  superior  power. 
 
 Goat,  an  animal  found  in  every  part 
 of  the  world,  and  in  the  early  ages  a  priu- 
 
 The  Wild  Goal. 
 
 cipal  source  of  wealth  (Gen.  27  :  9;  1  Sam. 
 25  :  2;  2  Chron.  17  :  11).  It  was  a  clean 
 animal  by  the  Jewish  law  (Deut.  14  :  4), 
 and  was  much  used  in  sacrifices  (Lev.  3  : 
 12;  Num.  15:27;  Ezra  6:17).  There 
 were  in  Syria  several  varieties,  of  which, 
 at  the  present  time,  the  most  marked  are 
 the  Syrian  goat,  and  the  Angora  goat  with 
 fine  long  hair.  The  "wild  goats"  men- 
 tioned in  1  Sam.  24  :  2 ;  Job  39  :  1 ;  Ps. 
 104  :  18  are  a  species  of  ibex. 
 
GOAT,  SCAPE— GOLD. 
 
 227 
 
 Goat,  Scape.   See  Atonement,  Day 
 
 OF. 
 
 Gob,  a  place  mentioned  only  in  2  Sam. 
 21  :  18,  19  as  the  scene  of  two  encounters 
 between  David's  warriors  and  the  Philis- 
 tines. In  the  parallel  account  in  1  Chron. 
 20  :  4  the  name  is  given  as  Gezer.  ., 
 
 God.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  employ 
 two  chief  names  to  designate  the  divine 
 Being — namely,  Elohim,  commonly  trans- 
 lated God  in  our  Authorized  Version,  and 
 Jehovah,  translated  Lord.  The  primary 
 idea  of  Elohim  is  that  of  strength,  poiver, 
 and  the  name  properly  describes  God  in 
 that  character  in  which  he  is  exhibited  to 
 all  men  in  his  works  as  the  Creator,  Sus- 
 tainer  and  Supreme  Governor  of  the  world 
 (Gen.  1:1).  Jehovah  denotes  specif- 
 ically the  one  true  God,  who  called  Abra- 
 ham and  his  seed  to  be  a  peculiar  people, 
 and  who  made  the  Jews  the  guardians  of 
 revealed  truth  (Gen.  12  :  1-4;  Rom.  3  :  2). 
 The  primary  idea  of  Jehovah  is  that  of  se//"- 
 existence,  and  the  name  forcibly  expresses 
 God's  essential,  eternal  and  unchange- 
 able beiny.  But  the  name  Jehovah  is 
 not  so  much  the  simple  expression  of  an 
 absolute  truth  as  the  practical  revelation  by 
 name  of  God  in  his  covenant-relation  to 
 his  chosen  people.  Jehovah  is  the  God 
 of  the  covenant  ( Ex.  6 : 4-8),  "  the  Lord,  the 
 Lord  God,  merciful  and  gracious,  long-suf- 
 fering, and  abundant  in  goodness  and  truth, 
 keeping  mercy  for  thousands,  forgiving  in- 
 iquity and  transgression  and  sin  "  (Ex.  34 : 
 6,  7).  Jehovah,  therefore,  is  the  revealed 
 Elohim,  the  Manifest,  Only,  Personal, 
 Holy  Lord  God.  Whilst  Elohim  is  the 
 Creator  and  Sustainer,  Jehovah  is  the 
 Redeemer. 
 
 Gods.  This  \4»ord  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  has  usually  the  sense  of  deities  in 
 general,  whether  true  or  false  (Gen.  35  : 
 2,  4 ;  Ex.  12  :  12 ;  Deut.  29  :  18 ;  32  :  17 ; 
 Ps.  86 :  8).  The  attribute  of  deity  is  else- 
 where, however,  expressly  denied  to  idols, 
 and  ascribed  to  Jehovah  alone  (Isa,  44 :  6 ; 
 
 45  :  5,  14,  21 ;  46  :  9).  Idols  are  even 
 called  "no  gods"  (2  Chron.  13  :  9).  Oc- 
 casionally, the  word  "gods"  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  is  used  to  designate  mag- 
 istrates, since  they  are  the  representatives 
 of  God's  judicial  sovereignty  (Ex.  22  : 
 28;  Ps.  82  :  1,  6;  138  :  1;  John  10  :  34, 
 35).  The  principal  idol-divinities  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  are  these :  Adramme- 
 lech  and  Anammelech,  of  Sepharvaim  (2 
 Kings  17:31);  Ashima,  of  Hamath  (2 
 Kings  17  :  30) ;  Ashtoreth,  of  the  Sido- 
 nians  (1  Kings  11  :  33);  Baal,  of  Tyre 
 (Judg.  2:13);  Baal-berith,  of  the  She- 
 chemites  (Judg.  8  :  33) ;  Baal-Peor,  of 
 Moab  (Num.  25  :  3) ;  Baal-zebub,  of  Ek- 
 ron  (2  Kings  1:2);  Bel  and  Nebo,  of  the 
 Babylonians  (Isa.  46: 1);  Chemosh,  of  the 
 Moabites  (1  Kings  11  :  7) ;  Dagon,  of  the 
 Philistines  (Judg.  16 :  23) ;  Diana,  of  Eph- 
 esus  (Acts  19  :  24) ;  Jupiter  and  Mercury, 
 of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (Acts  14  :  12) ; 
 Milcom  and  Moloch,  of  the  Ammonites 
 (1  Kings  11  :  5,  7);  Nergal,  of  Cuth  (2 
 Kings  17  :  30) ;  Nibhaz  and  Tartak,  of 
 the  Avites  (2  Kings  17  :  31) ;  Nisroch,  oT 
 the  Assyrians  (2  Kings  19:37);  Chiun 
 or  Remphan  (Amos  5  :  26 ;  Acts  7  :  43) ; 
 Rimmon,  of  the  Syrians  of  Damascus  (2 
 Kings  5 :  18) ;  Succoth-benoth,  of  the  Bab- 
 ylonians (2  Kings  17  :  30) ;  Tammuz,  of 
 the  Syrians  (Ezek.  8  :  14).    See  Idolatry. 
 
 Gog.    See  Magog. 
 
 Go'lan,  a  city  of  Bashan,  in  the  half- 
 tribe  of  Manasseh,  assigned  to  the  Levites, 
 and  appointed  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
 (Deut.  4:43;  Josh.  20:8;  21:27;  1 
 Chron.  6  :  71).  It  gave  its  name  to  the 
 district  east  of  the  Jordan  called  Gau- 
 lonitis. 
 
 Gold,  one  of  the  precious  metals,  and 
 from  its  color,  lustre,  weight,  ductility  and 
 other  useful  properties  exceedingly  valu- 
 able. Hence  it  is  used  as  an  emblem  of 
 purity  (Job  23 :  10)  and  of  nobility  (Lam. 
 4:1).  In  our  Authorized  Version  "  gold  " 
 is  the  rendering  of  six  different  Hebrew 
 
228 
 
 GOLGOTHA— GOSHEN. 
 
 words:  one  indicating  its  color;  another, 
 its  fineness;  another,  descriptive  of  the 
 small  particles  or  (jold-dust  in  which  it  is 
 found ;  another,  descriptive  of  it  as  what 
 is  cut  or  dug  out  of  mines,  ore;  another, 
 descriptive  of  it  as  what  is  hoarded;  and 
 another,  descriptive  of  it  as  what  is  cov- 
 eted. These  several  terms  well  express  the 
 high  estimation  in  which  gold  was  held. 
 It  was  known  from  tlie  very  earliest  times 
 (Gen.  2:11).  At  first  it  was  chiefly  used 
 for  ornaments  (Ge«.  24  :  22).  Coined 
 money  was  not  known  till  a  comparative- 
 ly late  period  ;  on  the  Egyptian  tombs  gold 
 is  represented  as  being  weighed  in  rings  for 
 commercial  purposes.  Gold  was  extremely 
 abundant  in  ancient  times  ( 1  Chron.  22 :  14 ; 
 2  Cliron.  1 :  15 ;  9:9;  Nah.  2:9;  Dan. :  3 
 1),  but  this  did  not  depreciate  its  value, 
 because  of  tlie  enormous  quantities  con- 
 sumed by  the  wealthy  in  furniture  and 
 jewelry  (1  Kings  6  :  22;  Song  3  :  9,  10; 
 Esth.  1:6;  Jer.  10  :  9).  The  chief  coun- 
 tries mentioned  as  producing  gold  are 
 Arabia,  Sheba  and  Ophir  (1  Kings  9  :  28; 
 10:  2;  Job  28:  16). 
 
 GrOrgO-tha  [a  skull],  the  Hebrew 
 name  of  the  sjjot  where  our  Lord  was 
 crucified  (Matt.  27:33;  Mark  15:22; 
 John  19  :  17).     See  Calvary. 
 
 Go-li'ath,  a  famous  giant  of  Gath,  who 
 "morning  and  evening  for  forty  days"  de- 
 fied the  armies  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  17). 
 He  was  descended  from  the  old  Rephaira 
 [giants),  of  whom  a  scattered  remnant  took 
 refuge  with  the  Philistines  after  their  dis- 
 persion by  the  Ammonites  (Deut.  2  :  20, 
 21 ;  2  Sam.  21  :  22).  His  height  was 
 "six  cubits  and  a  span,"  which,  taking 
 the  cubit  at  twenty-one  inches,  would 
 make  him  ten  and  a  half  feet  high.  The 
 scene  of  his  combat  with  David  was  the 
 valley  of  Elah  or  of  the  terebinth,  be- 
 tween Shochoh  and  Azekah,  which  has 
 been  identified  as  the  AVady  es-Sumt, 
 about  fourteen  miles  south-west  of  Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Go''iner  {yanishing,  or  finishing],  the 
 eldest  son  of  Japheth  and  tlie  father  of 
 Aslikenaz,  Riphath  and  Togarmah  (Gen. 
 10 :  2, 3).  His  name  is  subsequently  noticed 
 but  once  (Ezek.  38  :  6),  as  an  ally  or  sul>- 
 ject  of  the  Scythian  king  Gog.  He  is  gen- 
 erally recognized  as  the  progenitor  of  the 
 early  Cimmerians,  of  the  latter  Cimbri 
 and  the  other  branches  of  the  Celtic 
 family,  and  of  the  modern  Gael  and 
 Cymry,  the  latter  preserving,  with  very 
 slight  deviation,  the  original  name. 
 
 Go-mor'rah  [cidtivation,  dwelling'],  one 
 of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  near  the  head  of 
 the  Dead  Sea,  destroyed  for  their  wicked- 
 ness (Gen.  19  :  24).     See  Sodom. 
 
 Go'pher  {^pitch'],  a  kind  of  tree,  the 
 wood  of  which  is  mentioned  only  once 
 in  Scripture,  as  the  material  of  which 
 Noah  was  directed  to  build  the  ark  (Gen. 
 6  :  14).  What  the  tree  was  has  been 
 much  disputed,  but  the  weight  of  opin- 
 ion inclines  to  the  cypress. 
 
 Go'shen,  the  name  of  three  localities 
 mentioned  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  A  part  of  Egypt  assigned  to  Jacob 
 and  his  family  on  the  recommendation  of 
 Joseph  (Gen.  45  :  10 ;  46  :  28,  29).  For 
 pa.sturage  it  was  the  choice  part  of  Egypt 
 (Gen.  47  :  11).  There  the  family  of  Ja- 
 cob remained  and  greatly  increased  until 
 their  exodus  under  the  leadership  of 
 Moses.  The  Scriptures  do  not  speak  pre- 
 cisely of  the  location  of  Goshen,  but  from 
 various  intimations  given  and  compari- 
 sons made  it  is  generally  sup^wsed  to 
 have  been  an  eastern  frontier  province 
 of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  eastern  extreme 
 of  the  Nile  Delta.  Its  boundary  on  the 
 west  and  north-west  was  probably  the 
 Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile.  Its  area  in- 
 cluded the  modern  province  of  es-Shurki- 
 zeh,  still  "  the  best  of  the  land  "  of  Egypt. 
 
 2.  A  district  of  Palestine,  apparently 
 lying  between  Gaza  and  Gibeon  (Josh. 
 10:41;  11:16).  It  probably  included 
 some  of  the  rich  low  country  of  Judah, 
 
GOSPEL— GRAFF. 
 
 229 
 
 and  the  Israelites  may  have  named  it 
 thus  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to 
 Goshen  in  Egypt. 
 
 3.  A  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
 (Josh.  15  :  51). 
 
 Gos^pel  [^good  tidingsl.  This  word  is 
 used  to  signify — 1 .  The  message  or  iieivs  of 
 salvation  as  brought  to  the  world  by  our 
 Lord  and  his  apostles ;  2.  Each  of  the 
 four  histories  of  our  Lord's  life,  published 
 by  those  who  are  therefore  called  "  evan- 
 gelists," or  writers  of  the  Gospels;  3.  A 
 collective  expression  for  the  gospel  doc- 
 trines; the  teaching  men  how  to  avail 
 themselves  of  the  offer  of  salvation ;  the 
 declaring  of  all  the  truths,  precepts, 
 promises  and  threatenings  of  Christian- 
 ity. As  thus  used,  the  gospel  is  describ- 
 ed as  "  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God " 
 (Acts  20  :  24),  because  it  flows  from  God's 
 free  love  and  goodness ;  as  "  the  gospel 
 of  the  kingdom"  (Matt.  4  :  23),  because 
 it  treats  of  the  kingdom  of  grace,  and 
 shows  the  way  to  the  kingdom  of  glory  ; 
 as  "the  gospel  of  Christ"  (Rom.  1  :  16), 
 because  he  is  the  Author  and  great  Sub- 
 ject of  it ;  as  "  the  gospel  of  peace  and 
 salvation"  (Rom.  10:  15;  Eph.  1:13), 
 because  it  publishes  peace  with  God  to 
 the  penitent  and  believing,  gives  to  such 
 peace  of  conscience  and  peaceable  dispo- 
 sitions, and  is  the  means  of  their  salva- 
 tion, present  and  eternal.  As  it  displays 
 the  glory  of  God  and  of  Christ,  and  en- 
 sures to  our  Lord's  followers  eternal  glory, 
 it  is  entitled  "the  glorious  gospel "  (2  Cor. 
 4:4)  and  "the  everlasting  gospel"  (Rev. 
 14:  6). 
 
 Gourd,  a  climbing  vine  of  quick 
 growth,  allied  to  the  family  of  the  cu- 
 cumber, melon,  squash.  The  pulp  is 
 eatable,  and  the  lower  classes  in  Egypt 
 and  Arabia  boil  it  in  vinegar  or  make  it 
 into  a  sort  of  pudding.  In  a  wild  state 
 some  species  were  poisonous  (2  Kings  4  : 
 38-41).  The  gourd  of  Jonah  (Jon.  4  :  6- 
 10)  was  the   castor-oil   plant,  formerly  a 
 
 native  of  Asia,  but  now  naturalized  in 
 America,  Africa  and  the  south  of  Eu- 
 rope. The  leaves  are  large  and  palmate, 
 with  serrated  lobes,  and  must  have  form- 
 ed an  excellent  shelter  for  the  sun-stricken 
 prophet. 
 
 GrOv'ern-or.  This  word  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  the  New  Testament  is 
 applied  to  the  ofiicer  who  presided  over  the 
 imperial  province  of  .Judsea.  It  is  used  of 
 Pontius  Pilate  (Matt.  27),  of  Felix  (Acts 
 23,  24)  and  of  Festus  (26  :  30).  It  cor- 
 responds to  the  Latin  procurator,  as  "  dep- 
 uty" corresponds  to  the  Latin  proconsul. 
 See  Province. 
 
 Qo'zan,  a  district  of  Mesopotamia, 
 through  which  the  Habor  (the  modern 
 Khabour)  flowed  (2  Kings  17  :  6  :  18  :  11 ; 
 19  :  12;  1  Chron.  5  :  26;  Isa.  37  :  12).  To 
 this  region  the  cajJtive  Israelites  were  car- 
 ried by  the  Assyrian  monarchs  Pul,  Tig- 
 lath-pileser  and  Sargon. 
 
 G-race,  a  word  of  frequent  occurrence 
 in  the  Scriptures,  and  of  various  import. 
 Its  principal  senses  are  these :  1 .  Physical 
 beauty,  </race  of  form  and  person  (Prov.  1 : 
 9  ;  3  :  22 ;  31  :  30 ;  Ps.  45  :  2) ;  2.  Favor, 
 kindness,  goodness,  benevolence,  friendship 
 of  God  toward  men  or  of  men  toward  one 
 another  (Gen.  6:8;  18:3;  19  :  19 ;  2 
 Sam.  10  :  2 ;  2  Tim.  1  :  9) ;  3.  God's  for- 
 giving mercy,  as  gratuitous  and  opposed 
 to  merit  (Rom.  11:6;  Eph.  2:5;  Col.  1 : 
 6) ;  4.  The  gospel  generally,  as  contradis- 
 tinguished from  the  law  (John  1  :  17; 
 Rom.  6  :  14 ;  1  Pet.  5:12);  5.  Certain 
 gifts  of  God  freely  bestowed — miracles, 
 prophecy,  tongues  (Rom.  15  :  15 ;  1  Cor. 
 15  :  10 ;  Eph.  3:8);  6.  Christian  virtues, 
 charity,  liberality,  holiness  (2  Cor.  8:7; 
 2  Pet.  3  :  18) ;  7.  The  glory  to  be  reveal- 
 ed, or  eternal  life  (1  Pet.  1  :  13) 
 
 Graff.  To  graff  or  graft  is  to  insert  a 
 shoot  or  bud  of  a  valuable  tree  into  the 
 branch  of  an  inferior  tree,  and  so,  through 
 the  nourishment  of  the  latter,  to  secure  the 
 good  fruit  of  the  former.     The  apostle  Paul 
 
230 
 
 GRAIN— GUR-BAAL. 
 
 makes  use  of  the  process  of  grafting  to  il- 
 lustrate the  union  between  Christ  and  the 
 Gentiles  (Rom.  11  :  17-24). 
 
 Grain.    See  Corn. 
 
 Grape.    See  Vine. 
 
 Grass,  a  general  expression  for  green 
 herbage  (1  Kings  18  :  5;  Job  40  :  15:  Ps. 
 104  :  14;  Isa.  15  :  G).  As  the  herbage  rap- 
 idly fades  under  the  parching  heat  of  the 
 sun  of  Palestine,  it  has  afforded  to  the 
 sacred  writers  an  image  of  the  fleeting 
 nature  of  human  fortunes  (Job  8:12;  Ps. 
 37  :  2),  and  also  of  the  brevity  of  human 
 life  (Ps.  90:  5,  6;  Isa.  40  :  6,  7). 
 
 Grasshopper.    See  Locust. 
 
 Grave.    See  Burial. 
 
 Great  Sea  (Num.  34  :  6;  Josh.  15  ; 
 12 1,  the  Mediterranean.    See  Sea. 
 
 Greece  (Zech.  9:13;  Acts  20  :  2), 
 called  also  Grecia  (Dan.  8  :  21),  a  country 
 in  the  south-east  of  Europe.  In  the  Old 
 Testament  it  is  sometimes  called  Javan 
 (Isa.  66  :  19),  from  Javan,  that  fourth  son 
 of  Japheth  (Gen.  10  :  2)  whose  name  re- 
 appears in  Ionia,  the  western  region  of 
 Asia  Minor.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
 settle  the  boundaries  of  the  country  as 
 referred  to  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ments. Between  Greece  and  Palestine 
 there  was  little  early  communication  or 
 intercourse.  The  Greeks  and  Hebrews 
 met  for  the  first  time  in  the  slave-market. 
 The  medium  of  communication  seems  to 
 have  been  the  Tyrian  slave-merchant. 
 About  B.  c.  800  Joel  speaks  of  the  Tyr- 
 ians  as  selling  the  children  of  Judah  to 
 the  Grecians  (Joel  3:6);  and  in  Ezek. 
 27  :  13  the  Greeks  are  mentioned  as  bar- 
 tering tlieir  brazen  vessels  for  slaves. 
 
 Prophetical  notice  of  Greece  occurs  in 
 Dan.  8  :  5-25,  where  the  history  of  Alex- 
 ander and  his  successors  is  rapidly  sketched. 
 Zechariah  (9  :  13)  foretells  how  the  Jews 
 shall  triumph  over  the  sons  of  Greece,  a 
 prophecy  fulfilled  by  the  Maccabees  in 
 their  successful  assertion  of  Jewish  inde- 
 pendence against  the  Grseco-Syrian  em- 
 
 pire, while  Isaiah  (66  :  19)  looks  forward 
 to  the  conversion  of  the  Greeks,  amongst 
 other  Gentiles,  through  the  instrumental- 
 ity of  Jewish  missionaries. 
 
 In  the  New  Testament  the  word  "Greeks" 
 is  often  used  in  an  indefinite  sense  to  de- 
 note all  who  were  not  Jews  (Acts  20  :  21). 
 In  consequence  of  Alexander's  conquests 
 in  Asia,  three  centuries  before  our  Lord's 
 birth,  the  Greek  language,  the  most  perfect 
 tongue,  perhaps,  that  man  has  ever  de- 
 veloped, was  widely  diffused,  and,  becom- 
 ing the  common  language  of  almast  tlie 
 whole  of  the  East,  was  tlie  admirable  ve- 
 hicle of  conveying  to  the  world  those 
 facts  and  doctrines  of  the  gospel  which 
 form  the  subject-matter  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 Grey  'hound.  The  two  words  together 
 thus  rendered  in  Pro  v.  30 :  31 ,  the  only  pas- 
 sage where  they  occur,  has  the  sense  of  "one 
 girt  about  the  loins."  Various  are  the  opin- 
 ions as  to  the  animal  intended.  Some  think 
 a  "leopard;"  others,  "an  eagle;"  others, 
 "a  man  girt  with  armor;"  others,  "a 
 zebra ;"  othei"s,  "  a  war-horse  girt  with 
 trappings,"  or  "  the  beast  whose  loins  are 
 girt  about." 
 
 Grove.     Tliis  word  is  improperly  used 
 
 by  the  translators  of  our  Authorized  Version 
 
 j  as  the  representative  of  the  Hebrew  word 
 
 1  AsHERAH,  which  was  the  jiroper  name 
 
 of  a  Phoenician  goddess   and  the  desig- 
 
 I  nation  of  an  idol  or  image  of  Ashtoreth 
 
 '  (Judg.  3:7;   6  :  25 ;    1   Kings    18  :  19). 
 
 But  in  the  religions  of  the  ancient  liea- 
 
 then   world    groves    played  a  prominent 
 
 part.     From  the  earliest  times  groves  are 
 
 mentioned   in   connection   with   religious 
 
 worsliip   (Gen.   12  :  6,  7  ;    13  :  18  ;    Deut. 
 
 11  :  30).     Their  silence  and  solitude  are 
 
 fitted  to  inspire  the  soul  with  awe. 
 
 Gur-Ba'al,  a  place  inhabited  by  Ara- 
 bians, against  whom  God  helped  ITzziah 
 (2  Chron.  26  :  7).  It  was  probably  be- 
 tween Palestine  and  the  Arabian  penin- 
 sula, but  its  site  is  unknown. 
 
HABAKKUK— HADADEZEK. 
 
 231 
 
 H. 
 
 Hab-'ak-kuk  [embracedl,  the  eighth  in 
 order  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets  of  the 
 Old  Testament.  Of  the  facts  of  his  life  we 
 liave  no  certain  information.  He  lived, 
 probably,  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  His 
 memorial  is  his  prophecy,  which,  indeed, 
 is  one  of  the  noblest  monuments  of  sanc- 
 tified genius.  He  begins  his  prophecy 
 by  announcing  his  office  and  important 
 mission  (1:1).  He  bewails  the  corrup- 
 tion and  social  disorganization  by  which 
 he  is  surrounded,  and  cries  to  Jehovah 
 for  help  (1  :  2-4).  Then  follows  the  re- 
 ply of  Jehovah,  threatening  swift  ven- 
 geance (1  :  5-11).  The  prophet,  trans- 
 ferring himself  to  the  near  future  fore- 
 shadowed in  the  divine  threatenings,  sees 
 the  rapacity  and  boastful  impiety  of  the 
 Chaldffian  hosts,  but,  confident  that  God 
 has  only  employed  them  as  the  instru- 
 ments of  correction,  assumes  an  attitude 
 of  hopeful  expectancy  and  waits  to  see  the 
 issue  (1  :  12-17;  2:1).  He  receives  the 
 divine  command  to  write  in  an  enduring 
 form  the  vision  of  God's  retributive  justice 
 as  revealed  to  his  prophetic  eye  (2:2,  3). 
 The  doom  of  the  Chaldjeans  is  first  fore- 
 told in  general  terms,  and  the  announce- 
 ment is  followed  by  a  series  of  denuncia- 
 tions pronounced  upon  them  by  the  na- 
 tions which  have  sufTered  from  their  op- 
 pression (2  :  4-20).  These  denunciations 
 are  arranged  in  strophes,  and  constitute 
 a  very  remarkable  and  very  impressive 
 feature  of  the  prophecy.  The  whole  con- 
 cludes with  the  magnificent  psalm  in  ch. 
 3,  a  composition  unrivaled  for  boldness 
 of  conception,  sublimity  of  thought  and 
 majesty  of  diction. 
 
 Ha-ber'ge-on,  an  old  English  word 
 for  breastplate.  In  ancient  armor  it  was  a 
 coat-of-mail  covering  the  neck  and  breast. 
 See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Ha''bor,  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  the 
 modern  Khabour.  See  Chebar  and  Go- 
 ZAN.  The  district  through  which  it  flows 
 was  one  of  the  countries  into  which  the  ten 
 tribes  were  carried  captive.  It  empties 
 into  the  Euphrates  at  Karkesia,  the  an- 
 cient Circesium. 
 
 Hach'i-lah  [darksovie'],  a  hill  in  the 
 wilderness  of  Ziph,  south  of  Jeshimon, 
 which  became  a  stronghold  of  David 
 when  a  fugitive  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  23  : 
 19).  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  long  ridge 
 called  el-Kolah,  running  out  of  the  Ziph 
 plateau  toward  Jeshimon,  the  Dead  Sea 
 desert. 
 
 Ha'dad  [the  smi],  the  common  official 
 title  of  the  royal  house  of  Edom.  It  is 
 found  occasionally  in  the  altered  form 
 Hadar  (Gen.  25  :  15 ;  36  :  39).  The  only 
 one  of  the  name  having  prominence  in- 
 Scripture  is  the  prince  who,  when  David 
 conquered  Edom  and  slew  all  the  males 
 of  the  country,  was  secreted  by  his  fath- 
 ei-'s  servants,  and  at  length  was  carried 
 by  them  into  Egypt.  He  was  received 
 with  great  favor  by  the  king  of  Egypt, 
 who  provided  for  him,  and  in  process  of 
 time  gave  him  in  marriage  the  sister  of 
 the  queen.  When  David  died  Hadad 
 returned  to  Edom  and  became  "an  ad- 
 versary unto  Solomon"  (1  Kings  11  : 
 14-22). 
 
 Ha^dad-e'zer  [Hadad,  the  divinity, 
 is  help],  (2  Sam.  8:3),  otherwise  Hadar- 
 EZER  (2  Sam.  10:  16),  the  king  of  the 
 Aramite  state  Zobah  and  a  powerful  op- 
 ponent of  David.  He  was  defeated  by 
 David  in  several  sanguinary  battles,  los- 
 ing in  one  twenty  thousand  footmen  and 
 seven  hundred  horsemen,  with  very  many 
 war-chariots ;  in  another,  twenty-two  thou- 
 sand men  and  a  thousand  "  shields  of  gold  " 
 (2  Sam.  8  :  3-5).    The  golden  weapons  cap- 
 
232 
 
 HADAD-RIMMON— HAIL. 
 
 t'jred  on  this  second  occasion  were  taken 
 by  David  to  Jerusalem  and  dedicated  to 
 Jehovah  (1  Chron.  18  :  7).  Some  years 
 afterward  Hadadezer  and  three  other  Syr- 
 ian princes  formed  an  alliance  to  assist  the 
 Ammonites  against  David,  but  the  whole 
 Syrian  army  was  defeated  on  the  east 
 bank  of  the  Jordan  by  the  Israelites, 
 under  the  command,  first  of  Joab,  and 
 tiien  of  David  himself.  Between  forty 
 and  fifty  thousand  of  the  allied  forces 
 were  slain,  including  their  principal  gen- 
 eral. Thenceforward,  the  servants  of  Ha- 
 dadezer became  tributary  to  David  (1 
 Chron.  19  :  8-19). 
 
 Ha'dad-Rim'mon,  a  place  in  the 
 valley  of  Megiddo,  the  scene  of  a  disas- 
 trous battle  between  good  King  Josiah 
 and  the  king  of  Egypt,  in  which  the  for- 
 mer was  slain.  The  event  produced  con- 
 sternation and  loud  lamentations  among 
 the  people  of  Judaea  (2  Chron.  35  :  20-27). 
 This  mourning  is  referred  to  by  Zechariah 
 as  an  example  of  great  distress  and  grief 
 (Zech.  12  :  11). 
 
 Ha-das'sah  \_myrtle'],  the  earlier  Jew- 
 ish name  of  P^sther  (Esth.  2:7). 
 
 Hangar  [Jliyht],  an  Egyptian  woman 
 of  Abraham's  household  whom  the  patri- 
 arch, at  the  suggestion  of  Sarah,  took  as 
 his  secondary  wife,  and  who  became  the 
 mother  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  16:  1-3,  11,  15). 
 That  she  was  a  bondwoman  is  stated  both 
 in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  (Gen. 
 16  :  4-6;  21  :  13;  Gal.  4  :  22-31),  and  in 
 the  latter  she  is  referred  to  as  the  type  of 
 Judaism.  She,  with  her  son,  was  expel- 
 led from  Abraham's  household  after  the 
 birth  of  Isaac,  and  dwelt  in  the  wilderness 
 (Gen.  21  :  9-21). 
 
 Ha'gar-enes,  Ha'gar-ites,  a  peo- 
 ple dwelling  to  the  east  of  Palestine,  with 
 whom  the  tribe  of  Reuben  made  war  in  the 
 time  of  Saul  (1  Chron.  5  :  10,  18-20).  The 
 same  people,  as  confederate  against  Israel, 
 are  mentioned  in  Ps.  83  :  6.  It  is  gener- 
 ally believed  that  they  were  named  after 
 
 Hagar,  and  that  the  important  town  and 
 district  formerly  called  Hnjer,  now  Ihihrein, 
 on  the  borders  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  repre- 
 sent them. 
 
 Hag'ga-i  [feslire'],  the  tenth  in  order 
 of  the  minor  prophets,  and  first  of  those 
 who  prophesied  after  the  Captivity.  With 
 regard  to  his  tribe  and  parentage  history 
 and  tradition  are  alike  silent ;  it  is  more 
 than  probable,  however,  that  he  was  one 
 of  the  exiles  who  returned  witii  Zerub- 
 babel  and  Jeshua.  The  rebuilding  of  the 
 temple,  which  was  begun  in  the  reign  of 
 Cyrus  (b.  c.  535),  was  suspended  during 
 the  reigns  of  his  successors,  Cambyses 
 and  Pseudo-Smerdis,  in  consequence  of 
 the  determined  hostility  of  the  Samari- 
 tans. On  the  accession  of  Darius  Hystas- 
 pes  (b.  c.  521 )  the  prophets  Ilaggai  and 
 Zechariah  urgetl  tiie  renewal  of  the  un- 
 dertaking, and  obtained  the  permission 
 and  assistance  of  the  king  (Ezra  5:1; 
 6  :  14).  According  to  tradition,  Haggai 
 was  born  in  Babylon,  was  a  young  man 
 when  he  came  to  Jerusalem,  and  was  bur- 
 ied with  honor  near  the  sepulchres  of  the 
 priests.  The  style  of  his  pi-ophecies  is 
 not  remarkable  for  fervor,  yet  occasion- 
 ally rises  to  the  dignity  of  severe  invec- 
 tive. But  the  brevity  of  the  prophecies 
 and  the  i)rosaic  character  of  their  expres- 
 sion have  given  rise  to  a  conjecture  that 
 in  their  present  form  they  are  but  the  out- 
 line or  s\mimary  of  the  original  discourses. 
 They  were  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
 Darius  Hystaspes  (b.  c.  520),  at  intervals 
 from  the  first  day  of  the  sixth  montli  to 
 the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month 
 in  the  same  year. 
 
 Hag'gith  [festive],  one  of  David's 
 wives,  the  mother  of  Adonijah  (2  Sam. 
 3  :  4  ;  1  Kings  1  :  5,  11  ;  2  :  13  ;  1  Chron 
 3:  2). 
 
 Hail !  or  All  Hail !  a  salutation,  im- 
 porting a  wish  for  the  liealth  and  welfare 
 of  the  person  addressed  (Luke  1  :  28).  It 
 was  spoken  in  mockery  by  the  Roman  sol- 
 
HAIL— HAM. 
 
 233 
 
 diers  to  our  Lord  (Matt.  27  :  29).  Though 
 this  English  word  is  seldom  used  now,  it 
 was  customary  among  our  ancestors. 
 
 Hail,  congealed  rain,  and  the  symbol 
 in  Scripture  of  the  divine  vengeance  upon 
 kingdoms  and  nations,  the  enemies  of  God 
 and  of  his  people.  As  a  hail-storra  is  or- 
 dinarily accompanied  by  vivid  lightning, 
 so  hail  and  fire,  intense  cold  and  intense 
 heat,  are  generally  mentioned  together 
 (Ex.  9  :  23,  24;  Ps.  105  :  32;  78  :  48 ; 
 148  :  8  ;  18  :  13).  The  terrific  hail-storm 
 which  was  one  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt  is 
 occasionally  repeated  in  the  East.  Such 
 a  storm  swept  over  Beth-horon  in  Central 
 Palestine  during  the  wars  of  the  Conquest, 
 and  did  more  hurt  to  the  armies  of  the  five 
 Amoritish  kings  than  the  swords  of  the  Is- 
 raelites under  Joshua  (Josh.  10  :  11).  Such 
 a  storm  occurred  on  the  Bosphorus  on  Oc- 
 tober 5,  1831.  It  is  described  by  Com. 
 Porter  {Letters  from  Constantinople  and  its 
 EnviroiiH)  as  appallingly  furious  and  fright- 
 ftil.  Hail  falls  frequently  in  Jerusalem 
 and  on  other  exposed  spots  in  Pales- 
 tine. The  hail-storm,  therefore,  is  an 
 appropriate  symbol  of  God's  judgments 
 upon  the  wicked  (Isa.  28:2;  30:30; 
 Hag.  2:17;  Rev.  8:7;  11  :  19 ;  16  :  21). 
 
 Hair.  The  Hebrews  accounted  the 
 hair  an  important  element  of  personal 
 beauty,  whether  as  seen  in  the  "curled 
 locks,  black  as  a  raven,"  of  youth  (Song 
 5  :  11),  or  in  the  "crown  of  glory"  that 
 encircled  the  head  of  old  age  (Prov.  16  : 
 31).  Hence  they  encouraged  the  growth 
 of  the  hair,  but  observed  the  natural  dis- 
 tinction between  the  sexes  by  frequent 
 clippings  of  it  in  the  case  of  males,  and 
 by  the  custom  of  wearing  it  long  in  the 
 case  of  females  (1  Cor.  11  :  14,  15;  Luke 
 7  :  38 ;  John  11:2).  In  times  of  afflic- 
 tion the  hair  was  altogether  cut  off  (Isa. 
 3  :  17,  24 ;  15  :  2  ;  Jer.  7  :  29).  Tearing 
 the  hair  (Ezra  9  :  3)  was  a  similar  token 
 of  grief.  With  regard  to  the  mode  of 
 dressing  the  hair  we  have  no  precise  in- 
 
 formation. The  terms  used,  both  in  the 
 Old  Testament  and  the  New,  are  of  a 
 general  character  (2  Kings  9  :  30 ;  1  Tim. 
 
 2  :  9  ;  1  Pet.  3:3).  The  Hebrews,  like 
 other  nations  of  antiquity,  anointed  the 
 hair  profusely  with  ointments,  which  were 
 generally  compounded  of  various  aromatic 
 ingredients  (Ruth  3  :  3  ;  2  Sam.  14  :  2 ;  Ps. 
 23  :  5 ;  45  :  7  ;  92  :  10 ;  Eccles.  9:8;  Isa. 
 
 3  :  24),  more  especially  on  occasions  of  fes- 
 tivity or  hospitality  (Matt.  6  :  17  ;  26  :  7 ; 
 Luke  7  :  46).  In  our  Lord's  time  the  Jews 
 swore  by  the  hair  (Matt.  5  :  36);  Egyp- 
 tian women  still  swear  by  the  side-lock, 
 and  Syrian  and  Egyptian  men  by  their 
 beards. 
 
 Ha'lah,  a  place  in  Assyria  to  which 
 the  ten  tribes  were  carried  captive  (2 
 Kings  17  :  6;  18  :  11 ;  1  Chron.  5  :  26). 
 It  is  a-ssociated  with  Habor  and  Gozan, 
 and  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
 Calah. 
 
 Hal-le-lu'jah  [praise  ye  the  Lord],  in 
 its  Greek  form,  Ali^eluia,  the  word  with 
 which  many  of  the  Psalms  begin.  From 
 its  frequent  occurrence  in  this  position  it 
 grew  into  a  formula  of  praise,  and  was 
 chanted  as  such  on  solemn  days  of  re- 
 joicing. Its  literal  meaning  indicates 
 that  the  Psalms  in  which  it  occurs  are 
 psalms  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  These 
 psalms  were  intended  for  use  in  the  temple- 
 service,  the  word  "  hallelujah  "  being  taken 
 up  by  the  full  chorus  of  Levites.  In  the 
 great  hymn  of  triumph  in  heaven  over 
 all  the  forms  of  evil  on  earth  the  word 
 "hallelujah"  is  to  be  prominent  (Rev. 
 19  :  1-6). 
 
 Ham  [su'arthinessi,  the  name  of  one  of 
 the  three  sons  of  Noah  (Gen.  10 : 1).  It  is 
 the  equivalent  to  the  Egyptian  word  Kem 
 (Egypt),  which  signifies  "black,"  and  im- 
 plies both  warmth  and  blackness.  Of  the 
 history  of  Ham  nothing  is  related  except 
 his  irreverence  to  his  father  and  the  con- 
 sequent curse  which  the  patriarch  pro- 
 nounced.     Of    Noah's    three     sons,    his 
 
234 
 
 HAMAN— HANANEEL. 
 
 name  alone,  so  far  as  we  kno^,  was  given 
 to  a  country.  In  the  Scriptures,  Egypt  is 
 recognized  as  the  "land  of  Ham"  (Ps.  78  : 
 51 ;  105  :  23  ;  106  :  22).  The  nations  de- 
 scending from  Ham  were  numerous  and 
 powerful,  but  an  inquiry  into  their  his- 
 tory is  embarrassed  by  difficulties.  Tliey 
 were  the  founders  of  the  first  organized 
 governments  and  the  pioneers  of  the 
 world's  material  civilization.  Their  ar- 
 chitecture, as  we  see  it  in  Egypt,  has  a 
 solid  grandeur  unequaled  by  that  of  any 
 other  race. 
 
 Ha'man  [mac/nificent'],  the  chief  min- 
 ister or  vizier  of  King  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
 3:1).  Failing  in  his  wicked  scheme  to 
 destroy  the  Jews  in  the  Persian  empire, 
 he  was  hanged  on  the  gallows  which  he 
 had  erected  for  the  hanging  of  Mor- 
 decai. 
 
 Ha 'math  \_  for  tress,  citadel],  one  of  the 
 most  important  cities  of  Syria  from  very 
 early  times,  and  ranking  among  the  old- 
 est in  the  world.  It  was  situated  on  the 
 Orontes,  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Libanas  (Josh. 
 13  :  5  ;  Judg.  3  :  3).  It  was  the  chief  city 
 on  the  highway  from  Plioenicia  to  the  Eu- 
 phrates. Originally,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
 Canaanite  colony  (Gen.  10  :  18),  but  af- 
 terward it  was  taken  by  the  Syrians  and 
 became  the  metropolis  of  a  kingdom  (2 
 Kings  23  :  33).  The  kingdom  of  Hamath 
 was  the  northern  boundary  of  the  land  of 
 Israel  (Num.  13 :  21 ;  34 :  8).  Wlien  David 
 subdued  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah,  Toi, 
 the  king  of  Hamath,  sent  his  son  Joram 
 with  rich  presents  to  David,  congratu- 
 lating him  on  his  victories,  and  particu- 
 larly because  he  was  himself  thus  re- 
 lieved of  a  very  troublesome  enemy  (2 
 Sam.  8  :  3-11).  Hamath  was  conquered 
 by  Solomon  (2  Chron.  8  :  3,  4),  became 
 independent  probably  under  Jeroboam 
 I.,  and  was  again  reduced  by  Jeroboam 
 II.  (2  Kings  14  :  28).  In  the  time  of 
 Hezekiah  the  Assyrians  conqiiered  Ham- 
 ath (2  Kings  17  :  24;  18 :  34).   Afterward  it 
 
 was  in  the  possession  of  the  Chaldaeans  ( Jer. 
 39  :  5).  In  the  time  of  Amos  the  city  was 
 called  "Hamath  the  great"  (Amos  6  :  2). 
 Its  present  name  is  Humah,  and  it  is  still 
 a  place  of  considerable  importance,  with 
 a  population  of  about  thirty  thousand. 
 Its  principal  trade  is  with  the  Arabs,  who 
 buy  here  their  tent-furniture  and  clothes. 
 It  was  called  Epiphania  by  the  Greeks, 
 but  its  ancient  name  was  never  lost. 
 
 Ham'math  [hot  baths'],  one  of  the 
 fortified  cities  in  the  territory  allotted  to 
 Naphtali  (Josh.  19  :  35).  It  was  one  mile 
 distant  from  Tiberias. 
 
 Hara'mer,  a  tool  for  striking  blows. 
 The  word  is  found  in  the  Old  Testament 
 only,  and  is  the  representative  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  several  Hebrew  terms. 
 1.  A  term  derived  from  a  verb  meaning  to 
 strike,  and  indicating  the  heaviest  instru- 
 ment of  the  kind  for  hard  blows  (Isa.  41  : 
 7  ;  Jer.  23  :  29) ;  2.  A  term  properly  desig- 
 nating a  tool  for  hollowing,  and  so  applied 
 to  a  stone-cutter's  mallet  (1  Kings  6  :  7) 
 and  to  any  workman's  hammer  (Judg.  4  : 
 21 ;  Isa.  44  :  12;  Jer.  10  :  4) ;  3.  A  term 
 employed  to  indicate  a  kind  of  hammer 
 used  as  a  weapon  of  war  (Jer.  51  :  20), 
 where  our  Authorized  Version  has  "  bat- 
 tle-axe;" (Prov.  25  :  18),  where  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  has  "maul."  Figura- 
 tively, the  word  "  hammer "  is  used  for 
 any  overwhelming  power,  whetlier  secu- 
 lar (Jer.  50  :  23)  or  spiritual  (Jer.  23  : 
 29). 
 
 Ha'mor,  a  Hivite,  who  at  the  return 
 of  Jacob  to  Palestine  was  prince  of  tlie 
 land  and  city  of  Shechem  (Gen.  33  :  19; 
 34  :  2,  4,  6,  8,  13,  18,  20,  24,  26). 
 
 Han-am'e-el,  son  of  Shallum  and 
 cousin  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  32  :  7-9,  12). 
 
 Han-an'eel  [God  has  been  propitious], 
 a  tower  of  Jerusalem,  situated  on  the  ex- 
 terior wall  beyond  the  tower  of  Meah  in 
 going  from  the  sheep-gate  toward  the  fish- 
 gate  (Neh.  3:1;  12:39;  Jer.  31:38; 
 Zech.  14  :  10).      Its  position  appears  to 
 
HANANI— HANES. 
 
 235 
 
 have  been  at  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
 the  present  mosque  enclosure. 
 
 Han'a-ni  \_God  has  been  favorable  to 
 me],  the  name  of  two  persons. 
 
 1.  A  prophet  who  was  sent  to  rebuke 
 King  Asa  for  his  want  of  faith  in  subsi- 
 dizing the  king  of  Syria  against  his  rival, 
 King  Baasha,  when  he  should  have  seized 
 the  occasion  to  triumph  over  both  (2  Cliron. 
 16  :  1-10).  His  fidelity  and  boldness  en- 
 raged the  king,  who  arrested  and  impris- 
 oned him. 
 
 2.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah,  who,  going 
 from  Jerusalem  to  Shushan,  sent  probably 
 by  Ezra,  brought  that  information  respect- 
 ing the  miserable  condition  of  the  returned 
 Jews  which  led  to  Nehemiah's  mission 
 (Nell.  1  :  2).  He  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
 and  with  Hananiah  was  appointed  to  take 
 charge  of  the  city-gates,  to  open  and  close 
 them  morning  and  evening  at  the  appointed 
 time  (Neh.  7  :  2,  3).  The  circumstances  of 
 the  city  rendered  this  an  important  and 
 responsible  duty,  not  unattended  with 
 danger. 
 
 Han-a-ni''ah.  \_Jehovah  has  been  gra- 
 cious'], the  name  of  a  number  of  men, 
 of  whom  three  only  need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Azur,  a  Benjamite  of  Gibeon 
 and  a  false  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Zede- 
 kiah,  king  of  Judah.  In  the  fourth  year 
 of  his  reign  (b.  c.  595)  Hananiah  with- 
 stood Jeremiah  the  prophet,  and  publicly 
 prophesied  in  the  temple  that  within  two 
 years  Jeconiah  and  all  his  fellow-captives, 
 with  the  vessels  of  the  Lord's  house  which 
 Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken  away  to  Bab- 
 ylon, should  be  brought  back  to  Jerusa- 
 lem (Jer.  28) — a  prophecy  based  on  the 
 recent  accession  to  the  throne  of  Egypt 
 of  Pharaoh-Hophra,  who  was  relied  on 
 to  resist  the  Babylonian  power,  and  on  a 
 league  then  forming  to  assist  Pharaoh  be- 
 tween Judah  and  the  neighboring  nations 
 of  Edom,  Amnion,  Moab,  Tyre  and  Zidon. 
 He  was  rebuked  by  Jeremiah,  who  closed 
 with  this  terrible  sentence:    "This  year 
 
 thou  shalt  die,  because  thou  hast  taught 
 rebellion  against  the  Lord"  (Jer.  28  :  16). 
 Jeremiah's  prediction  was  fulfilled :  "  Han- 
 aniah the  prophet  died  the  same  year  in 
 the  seventh  month"  (Jer.  28  :  17).  The 
 interesting  and  very  suggestive  facts  thus 
 briefly  recited  give  us  a  glimpse  of  the 
 adroitness  with  which  certain  politicians 
 of  the  times  employed  the  machinery  of 
 false  prophecies  to  create  and  sustain  a 
 public  sentiment  favorable  to  their  proj- 
 ects. 
 
 2.  The  original  name  of  one  of  Daniel's 
 youthful  companions,  and  one  of  the  "  three 
 Hebrew  children,"  better  known  by  his  Bab- 
 ylonian name,  Shadrach  (Dan.  1  :  6,  7). 
 
 3.  The  "  ruler  of  the  palace "  who  was 
 associated  with  Nehemiah's  brother  Han- 
 ani  in  the  charge  of  the  gates  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. LTpon  him  is  bestowed  the  high 
 eulogy  that  "  he  was  a  faithful  man  and 
 feared  God  above  many"  (Neh.  7  :  2). 
 
 Hand,  the  principal  organ  of  feeling 
 and  the  instrument  of  instruments.  It 
 distinguishes  man  from  other  terrestrial 
 beings ;  it  enables  man  to  conquer  the  ex- 
 ternal world.  In  Scripture  the  right  hand 
 is  the  symbol  of  power  and  strength  (Ps. 
 44  :  3 ;  137  :  5;  Matt.  5  :  30;  Col.  3:1). 
 From  this  general  symbol  come  many  fig- 
 urative expressions.  To  lift  the  hand  is  to 
 swear  (Rev.  10  :  5,  6) ;  to  give  the  hand 
 is  to  pledge  friendship  (2  Kings  10  :  15) ; 
 to  join  hand  with  hand  is  to  become  con- 
 federate with  another  (Prov.  11  :  21);  to 
 lay  on  the  hand  is  to  confer  authority 
 (Num.  27  :  18,  19 ;  Acts  6  :  6 ;  13  :  3).  The 
 right  hand  of  God  is — 1.  The  place  of 
 honor  (Ps.  110 : 1) ;  2.  The  place  of  power 
 (Matt.  26  :  64) ;  3.  The  place  of  happiness 
 (Ps.  16:11). 
 
 Hand-breadth,  the  palm,  used  as  a 
 measure  of  four  fingers  ( Ex.  25  :  25 ;  37  : 
 12 ;  1  Kings  7  :  26 ;  2  Chron.  4:5;  Jer. 
 52  :  21).  In  Ps.  39  :  5  it  is  an  image  of 
 the  exceeding  shortness  of  life. 
 
 Ha'nes,  a  city  in  Egypt,  mentioned  in 
 
236 
 
 HANGING— HARE. 
 
 Isa.  30  :  4,  and  to  be  identified,  probably, 
 with  Tahpaniies  (which  see). 
 
 Hang^ing.  This  is  named  as  one  of 
 the  modes  of  punishment  (see  Punish- 
 ment), but  it  is  probable  that  death  was 
 actually  inflicted  before  the  hanging  took 
 place.  In  Deut.  21  :  22,  23  a  limit  is  set 
 to  the  term  of  suspension,  and  this  for  the 
 special  rea.son  "that  the  land  might  not  be 
 defiled."  The  restriction  has  respect  to  the 
 treatment  of  the  dead  rather  than  the  pun- 
 ishment of  the  living.  The  touch  of  the 
 dead  defiled,  and  a  special  defilement 
 could  not  but  be  regarded  as  attaching  to 
 the  dead  body  of  a  criminal  hung  up  be- 
 fore heaven  and  earth  as  an  accursed  thing. 
 The  Law  required  that  if  a  body  were  ex- 
 posed thus  at  all,  it  should  be  but  for  a 
 brief  space ;  the  polluting  spectacle  was  to 
 be  removed  and  buried  out  of  sight  before 
 the  close  of  day.  As  a  commentary  on  the 
 terms  of  the  Law,  which  seem  to  intimate 
 that  the  putting  to  death  is  to  precede  the 
 hanging  on  a  tree,  the  case  of  the  five 
 kings  who  were  vanquished  by  Joshua 
 may  be  cited.  These  kings  Joshua  first 
 smote  and  slew,  and  then  hanged  tliem  on 
 five  trees  until  the  evening  (.Josh.  10  :  26). 
 Such  seems  to  have  been  always  the  pro- 
 cedure when  hanging  was  resorted  to ; 
 death  by  the  sword  or  by  stoning  was 
 first  inflicted,  and  as  a  mark  of  public 
 reprobation  the  corpse,  in  certain  cases, 
 was  exposed  to  open  shame  and  igno- 
 miny. 
 
 Hang'ings.  This  word  is  used  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  to  designate  the  cur- 
 tains or  coverings  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex. 
 27  :  9,  11,  12,  14,  15).  Two  words  in  He- 
 brew, however,  are  rendered  "  hangings" — 
 the  one  denoting  the  curtains  for  the  tab- 
 ernacle door  and  for  the  door  of  the  outer 
 court,  and  meaning  what  hides  fiom  pub- 
 lic view;  the  other,  used  only  in  the  plu- 
 ral, denoting  the  curtains  which  surround- 
 ed and  enclosed  the  court  of  the  taber- 
 nacle. 
 
 Han''nah  [^graciousness^,  one  of  the 
 wives  of  Elkanah  and  mother  of  Samuel 
 (1  Sam.  1,  2).  Her  hymn  of  thanks- 
 giving (1  Sam.  2  :  1-10)  is  in  the  highest 
 style  of  Hebrew  poetry. 
 
 Ha'nun  Ijavoiiny],  son  and  successor 
 of  Nahiish  (2  Sam.  10:  1,  2;  1  Chron.  19- 
 1,  2),  king  of  Ammon,  who  dishonored  the 
 amba-ssadors  of  David  (2  Sam.  10  :  4)  and 
 involved  the  Ammonites  in  a  most  disas- 
 trous war  (2  Sam.  12  :  31 ;  1  Chron.  19  : 
 6). 
 
 Har'a  [mountainous],  a  place  in  As- 
 syria a.ssociated  with  Ha'i^ah,  Ha'bor 
 and  Go''zan  (which  see),  whither  the  Is- 
 raelites were  carried  captive  ( 1  Chron.  5  : 
 26). 
 
 Ha^ran  [parched,  dry],  (Gen.  11  :  31), 
 Greek  form  Charran  (Acts  7  :  2,  4),  the 
 name  of  the  place  to  which  Abraham  and 
 his  family  migrated  from  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
 dees,  and  where  the  descendants  of  his 
 brother  Nahor  established  themselves.  It 
 is  said  to  be  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  24: 10), 
 and  more  definitely  in  Padan-Aram  (Gen. 
 25  :  20).  Here  Abraham  sojourned  (Gen. 
 11  :  31),  here  his  father  Terah  died  (Gen. 
 11  :  32),  and  here  liis  grandson  Jacob  re- 
 sided with  Laban  (Gen.  29  :  18  et  seq.). 
 It  is  identified  with  the  modern  Arabic 
 village  of  Harrdn,  which  stands  on  the 
 banks  of  a  small  river  called  Belik,  a  trib- 
 utary to  the  Euphrates. 
 
 Ha'ran  [mountaineer'],  eldest  son,  prob- 
 ably, of  Terah,  brother  of  Abraham  and 
 Nahor,  and  father  of  Lot,  Milcah  and  Is- 
 cah  (Gen.  11  :  26,  27,  29,  31).  He  wjis 
 born  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  died 
 there  while  his  father  was  still  living 
 (Gen.  11  :  28). 
 
 Hare.  The  Hebrew  word  designating 
 this  animal  occurs  only  in  Lev.  11:6 
 and  Deut.  14:7,  where  the  animals  for- 
 bidden by  the  Mosaic  Law  to  be  eaten  are 
 named.  The  animal  itself  is  widely  ex- 
 tended over  the  earth,  and  is  known  to  us 
 as  the  rabbit. 
 
HAKETH— HAEROW. 
 
 237 
 
 Ha'reth  Irough].  According  to  1  Sam. 
 22  :  5,  David,  fleeing  from  Saul,  con- 
 cealed himself  in  the  forest  of  Hareth. 
 The  word  rendered  "  forest "  means  not  a 
 woodland  of  timber  trees,  but  a  rank 
 growth  of  bushes,  shrubs,  briers  and  the 
 like.  The  locality  is  in  the  rough,  un- 
 tilled  country  of  Southern  Judah,  and  is 
 supposed  to  be  the  edge  of  the  mountain- 
 chain  where  Kharas  now  stands,  and  where 
 the  thickets  are  still  to  be  seen. 
 
 Harriot.  This  term,  though  generally 
 applied  to  an  abandoned  woman  (Prov. 
 29  :  3),  is  used  figuratively  by  the  sacred 
 writers  to  denote  the  wicked  and  unfaith- 
 ful conduct  of  the  Israelites  in  forsaking 
 their  covenant  with  God  and  giving  them- 
 selves up  to  idolatry  and  impurity  (Isa.  1 : 
 21). 
 
 Hardness,  This  word  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  represents  several  distinct  He- 
 brew words  and  has  several  distinct  senses : 
 1.  It  designates  the  act  of  fastening  horses 
 to  a  chariot  (Jer.  46  :  4)  ;  2.  It  is  taken  in 
 the  old  English  sense  for  urmor  (2  Chron. 
 9  :  24 ;  18  :  33) ;  3.  It  describes  the  equip- 
 ped or  full-armed  condition  of  the  Israel- 
 ites when  they  went  forth  from  Egypt  (Ex. 
 13  :  18). 
 
 Ha 'rod,  a  fountain  or  well  near  Mount 
 Gilboa,  where  Gideon  encamped  in  his  ex- 
 pedition against  the  Midianites,  and  where 
 the  men  who  were  appointed  to  go  with 
 him  to  the  war  were  ascertained  by  their 
 mode  of  drinking  (Judg.  7  :  1,  5-7).  It 
 is  probably  the  fountain  and  pool  now 
 known  as  '  Ain  JaMd,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel 
 Duhy. 
 
 Ha-ro^'sheth  of  the  Gen'tiles 
 [workshop  of  the  nations,  i.  e.  city  of  hand- 
 icrafts'], a  city  thus  called  from  the  mixed 
 races  that  inhabited  it.  It  was  the  resi- 
 dence of  Sisera,  captain  of  the  host  of 
 Jabin,  king  of  Hazor  (Judg.  4  :  2),  and 
 the  scene  of  Deborah's  and  Barak's  vic- 
 tory (Judg.  4  :  14-16).  It  is  now  a  mis- 
 erable village  {el-Harishiyeh),  named  from 
 
 the  beautiful  woods  above  the  Kishon  at 
 the  point  where,  through  a  narrow  gorge, 
 the  stream,  hidden  among  oleander-bushes, 
 enters  the  plain  of  Acre. 
 
 Harp,  the  national  musical  instrument 
 of  the  Hebrews.    Its  invention  is  ascribed 
 
 Harp. 
 
 by  Moses  to  the  antediluvian  period  (Gen. 
 4  :  21).  It  had,  according  to  Josephus,  ten 
 strings,  which  were  struck  either  by  a  key 
 or  by  the  hand.  Its  most  skillful  player 
 was  David,  whose  performances  upon  it 
 are  represented  as  marvelous  (1  Sam.  16  : 
 23).  A  triangular  harp  was  also  used  by 
 the  Assyrians  and  Egyptians,  and  forms 
 of  the  lute  or  guitar  appear  upon  the 
 monuments  of  the  latter  nation. 
 
 Har'ro'W.  The  word  thus  rendered 
 2  Sam.  12  :  31 ;  1  Chron.  20  :  3  is  prob- 
 ably a  threshing-machine.  The  word 
 rendered  "to  harrow"  (Job  39  :  10;  Isa. 
 28  :  24;  Hos.  10:  11)  expresses,  apparent- 
 ly, the  breaking  of  the  clods,  and  so  far  is 
 analogous  to  our  harrowing,  but  whether 
 done  by  any  such  machine  as  we  call  "  a 
 harrow"  is  very  doubtful.  Probably  it 
 was,  as  still  in  Egypt,  merely  a  board 
 which  was  dragged  over  the  fields  to 
 level  the  lumps.  In  modern  Palestine 
 oxen  are  sometimes  turned  in  to  trample 
 the  clods,  and  in  some  parts  of  Asia  a 
 bush  of  thorns  is  dragged  over  the  sur- 
 face. 
 
238 
 
 HART— HAURAN. 
 
 Hart,  properly  a  stag  or  male  deer,  but 
 sometimes  used  by  the  Hebrews  to  denote 
 all  the  various  species  of  deer  and  ante- 
 lopes which  resemble  large  rams.  The 
 hart  is  reckoned  among  the  clean  animals 
 
 The  Hart. 
 
 (Deut.  12:15;  14  :  5 ;  15  :  22),  and  seems 
 ♦rora  the  passages  quoted,  as  well  as  from 
 1  Kings  4  :  23,  to  have  been  commonly 
 killed  for  food.  Its  activity  furnishes  an 
 apt  comparison  in  Isa.  35 :  6,  though  in 
 
 this  respect  the  hind  was  more  commonly 
 selected  by  the  sacred  writers. 
 
 Har'vest,  the  season  of  gathering 
 grain  or  fruits.  It  began,  as  now,  in 
 Palestine,  about  the  first  of  April  and 
 terminated  in  June.  Beginning  with  the 
 barley  and  with  the  festival  of  the  p;issover 
 (Lev.  23  :  9-14;  2  Sam.  21  :  9,  10;  Ruth 
 
 2  :  23),  the  harvest  ended  with  the  wheat 
 (Gen.  30  :  14 ;  Ex.  34  :  22),  and  with  the 
 festival  of  pentecost  (Ex.  23  :  16).  The 
 grain  was  cut  by  the  sickle,  and  threshed 
 and  winnowed  in  the  open  air.  Gleanings 
 and  corners  were  left  for  the  poor  (Lev.  19  : 
 9 ;  23  :  22).  The  season  was  one  of  hard 
 work,  but  of  prevailing  mirthfulness ;  the 
 "joy  of  harvest"  was  proverbial  (Isa.  9  : 
 3;  16  :  10).  The  wheat  was  collected  into 
 granaries,  but  the  chaff  was  burned  ( Matt. 
 
 3  :  12 ;  Luke  3:17;  Isa.  5  :  24).  The  har- 
 vest is  the  Scripture  symbol  of  the  time  of 
 judgment  (Joel  3  :  13  ;  Rev.  14 :  15).  The 
 time  when  the  gospel  triumphs  over  human 
 hearts  is  also  represented  as  a  harvest  (Matt. 
 9 :  37  ;  John  4  :  35). 
 
 Interior  of  Stone  House  in  the  Hauran. 
 
 Hau'ran,  a  region  of  country  in  Syria, 
 south  of  Damascus,  a  porticm  of  the  ancient 
 kingdom  of  Bashan,  referred  to  in  Ezek. 
 
 47  :  16,  18.  The  name  is  probably  de- 
 rived from  the  word  Hur,  "a  hole  or 
 cave ;"  the  whole  district  still  abounds  in 
 
HAVEN— HAY. 
 
 239 
 
 caves,  which  the  old  inhabitants  excavated 
 partly  to  serve  as  cisterns  for  the  collec- 
 tion of  water,  and  partly  for  granaries  in 
 which  to  secure  their  grain  from  plun- 
 derers. Under  the  Eomans  it  was  called 
 Auranitis,  and  its  limits  were  consider- 
 ably enlarged.  At  present  it  reaches  from 
 twenty  miles  south  of  Damascus  to  a 
 little  below  Bozra,  including  Trachonitis 
 and  Ituraea.  It  is  represented  by  Burck- 
 hardt  as  a  volcanic  region,  composed  of 
 porous  tufa,  pumice  and  basalt,  with  the 
 remains  of  a  crater  on  the  Tell  Shoba, 
 which  is  on  its  eastern  border.  It  pro- 
 duces, however,  abundant  crops  of  corn, 
 and  has  many  patches  of  luxuriant  herb- 
 age, for  its  soil  is  among  the  richest  in 
 Syria.  The  surface  is  perfectly  flat,  and 
 not  a  stone  is  to  be  seen  save  on  the  few 
 low,  volcanic  tells  that  rise  up  here  and 
 there  like  islands  in  a  sea.  It  contains 
 upward  of  a  hundred  towns  and  villages, 
 most  of  them  now  deserted,  but  not 
 ruined.  The  buildings  in  many  of  these 
 are  remarkable,  the  walls  are  of  great 
 thickness,  the  roofs,  doors,  and  even  the 
 window-shutters,  are  of  stone,  and  evi- 
 dently are  of  very  remote  antiquity. 
 
 Ha'ven,  a  seaport  in  which  ships  lie. 
 Zebulun,  from  its  situation  on  the  sea-coast, 
 was  represented  as  a  haven  for  ships  (Gen. 
 49  :  13).  Fair  Havens,  mentioned  in  Acts 
 27  :  8,  was  a  harbor  of  Crete,  identified 
 with  a  small  bay  a  short  distance  north- 
 east of  Cape  Matala. 
 
 Hav^i-lah,  the  name  of  a  land  and  of 
 a  people. 
 
 1.  The  land  is  associated  with  Eden,  and 
 cannot  be  definitely  located.  It  abounded 
 in  gold  (Gen.  2:  11). 
 
 2.  The  people,  descending  from  Havi- 
 lah,  a  son  of  Cush,  are  supposed  to  be 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  Arabian  tract 
 known  as  Khawldn,  in  the  north-western 
 portion  of  the  Yemen.  The  district  of 
 Khmddn  is  a  fertile  territory,  embracing 
 a    large    part    of  myrrh  iferous    Arabia, 
 
 mountainous,  well-watered  and  support- 
 ing a  large  population.  It  is  a  tract  of 
 Arabia  better  known  to  the  ancients  and 
 moderns  than  the  eastern  and  central 
 provinces,  or  than  the  rest  of  the  Yemen. 
 Apparently  against  this  identification  of 
 Havilah  and  Khaivldn,  a  Havilah  is  men- 
 tioned on  the  border  of  the  Ishmaelites 
 (Gen.  25  :  18),  and  also  on  that  of  the 
 Amalekites  (1  Sam.  15  :  7) ;  but  this  lat- 
 ter Havilah,  from  the  rendering  of  its 
 name  in  the  Septuagint,  is  connected  with 
 the  Havilah  named  in  the  description  of 
 the  rivers  of  the  garden  of  Eden. 
 
 Ha'voth-Ja^ir,  the  name  given  to 
 certain  villages  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  in 
 Gilead  or  Bashan,  taken  by  Jair,  a  de- 
 scendant of  Manaseeh,  and  held  in  pos- 
 session by  his  thirty  sons  (Num.  32  :  41 ; 
 Judg.  10  :  4). 
 
 Hawk,  a  fierce  and  rapacious  bird  of 
 the  falcon  tribe,  unclean  by  the  Levitical 
 Law  (Lev.  11:16;  Deut.  14:15).  Its 
 migratory   habits   are  alluded  to   in  Job 
 
 The  Hawk. 
 
 39  :  26,  and  it  is  curious  to  note  that  of 
 the  ten  or  twelve  species  found  in  Pales- 
 tine, all  but  one  are  migrants  from  the 
 south. 
 
 Hay,  This  word  occurs  twice  in  the 
 Old  Testament  (Prov.  27  :  25;  Isa.  15  :  6) 
 and  once  in  the  New  (1  Cor.  3  :  12).  In 
 the  Old  Testament  the  Hebrew  word  thus 
 
240 
 
 HAZAEL— HEAD. 
 
 rendered  means  "tall  stems  of  grass,"  hay 
 being  almost  unknown  in  Palestine.  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  Greek  word  thus 
 rendered  means  "  grass." 
 
 Haz'a-el  [whom  God  beholds,  that  is, 
 cares  for],  an  officer  of  Benhadad,  king 
 of  Syria,  wliose  eventual  accession  to  the 
 throne  of  tliat  kingdom  was  revealed  to 
 Elijah  (1  Kings  19  :  15),  and  who,  when 
 Elisha  was  at  Damascus,  was  sent  by  his 
 master,  then  ill,  to  consult  the  prophet 
 respecting  his  recovery  (2  Kings  8:8). 
 Elisha's  answer,  like  warm  rain  on  spring- 
 ing grass,  stimulated  into  rapid  growth  the 
 germs  of  ambition  long  hidden  in  his  heart, 
 and  the  next  day  after  the  interview  he 
 murdered  the  king  and  usurped  the 
 throne.  He  soon  engaged  in  hostilities 
 with  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Jeho- 
 ram,  king  of  Israel.  Toward  the  close 
 of  the  reign  of  Jehu,  king  of  Israel, 
 Hazael  led  the  Syrians  against  the  Israel- 
 ites, whom  he  "smote  in  all  their  coasts"  (2 
 Kings  10 :  32),  thus  accomplishing  Elisha's 
 propliecy  of  enormous  and  wanton  cruelties 
 (2  Kings  8  :  12).  His  main  attack  fell 
 upon  the  eastern  provinces,  where  he 
 ravaged  "  all  the  land  of  Gilead,  the  Gad- 
 ites,  and  the  Reubenites,  and  the  Manas- 
 sites,  from  Aroer,  which  is  by  the  river 
 Arnon,  even  Gilead  and  Bashan  "  (2  Kings 
 10  :  33i.  After  this  he  seems  to  have  held 
 the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  a  species  of  sub- 
 jection (2  Kings  13  :  3-7,  22) ;  and  toward 
 the  close  of  his  life  he  even  threatened  the 
 kingdom  of  .Judah.  Having  taken  Gath 
 (2  Kings  12  :  17),  he  proceeded  to  attack 
 Jerusalem,  defeated  the  Jews  in  an  en- 
 gagement (2  Chron.  21 :  24),  and  was  about 
 to  assault  the  city,  when  .Joash  the  king 
 induced  him  to  retire  by  presenting  him 
 with  "  all  the  gold  that  was  found  in  the 
 treasures  of  the  house  of  the  Lord  and  in 
 the  king's  house"  (2  Kings  12  :  18).  Haz- 
 ael appears  to  have  died  about  the  year 
 B.  c.  840,  having  reigned  forty-six  years. 
 He  left  his  crown  to  his  son  Benhadad,  who. 
 
 I  unable  to  cope  with  Jehoash,  soon  lost  all 
 the  conquests  in  Israel  his  father  had  made 
 (2  Kings  13  :  24,  25). 
 
 Ha'zar-E'nan  [village  of  fountains'], 
 the  junction  of  the  north  and  east  boun- 
 daries of  the  Promised  Land  ( Num.  34  : 
 9,  10).  It  is  mentioned  also  as  a  boun- 
 dary-place in  Ezek.  47  :  17 ;  48  :  1. 
 
 Haz'a-zon-Ta'mar,  the  same  as 
 En-Gedi  (which  see). 
 
 Ha'zel.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  occurs 
 but  once  (Gen.  30  :  37),  where  it  is  coupled 
 with  tlie  words  rendered  "poplar"  and 
 "  cliestnut."  Authorities  are  divided  as 
 to  whether  it  designates  the  hazel  or  the 
 almond  tree,  but  the  more  probable  opin- 
 ion inclines  to  the  latter. 
 
 Haz^e-roth  [yillageif],  an  encampment 
 of  the  Israelites  during  their  journey  from 
 Sinai  through  the  wilderness  (Num.  11  : 
 35).  The  name  survives  in  that  of  Ain 
 JJudherah. 
 
 Ha'zor  [village],  the  name  of  several 
 towns,  the  principal  one  of  which  appears 
 to  have  been  that  of  which  Jabin  was  king 
 (.Josh.  11:1),  and  which  Joshua  conquered 
 and  then  burned  (Josh.  11  :  11).  It  was 
 afterward  rebuilt  by  the  Canaanites,  and 
 was  the  residence  of  the  king  of  Canaan, 
 whose  name  also  wiis  Jabin,  and  who  op- 
 pressed the  Israelites  until  their  deliver- 
 ance under  Deborah  and  Barak  ( Judg.  4  : 
 2-16).  It  was  afterward  enlarged  by  Sol- 
 omon (1  Kings  9  :  15),  and  was  finally 
 taken  by  the  Assyrians  under  Tiglath- 
 pileser,  and  its  inhabitants  carried  away 
 as  captives  (2  Kings  15  :  29). 
 
 Head,  the  topmost  part  of  the  liuman 
 body.  The  English  word  is  from  the  same 
 root  as  heave,  and  signifies  what  is  meta- 
 phorically lifted  up  or  exalted.  While  the 
 heart  has  been  accounted  the  seat  of  the 
 afl'ections,  the  head  has  generally  been 
 considered  as  the  abode  of  intelligence 
 (Gen.  3 : 1 5 ;  Ps.  3  :  3 ;  Eccles.  2:14).  The 
 head  also  denotes  sovereignty  (1  Cor.  11  : 
 
HEART— HEBREWS. 
 
 241 
 
 3).  Covering  the  head  and  cutting  off  the 
 hair  were  signs  of  mourning  and  tokens  of 
 distress,  which  was  enhanced  by  throwing 
 ashes  on  the  head  and  covering  one's  self 
 with  sackcloth  (Job  1  :  20;  Amos  8  :  10; 
 Lev.  21  :  5 ;  Deut.  14  :  1 ;  2  Sam.  13  :  19 ; 
 Esth.  4:1).  Anointing  the  head  was  prac- 
 ticed on  festive  occasions,  and  was  consid- 
 ered an  emblem  of  felicity  ( Eccles.  9:8; 
 Ps.  23  :  5 ;  Luke  7  :  46). 
 
 Heart,  tlie  seat  of  the  affections,  desires 
 and  motives  (Ps.  24  :  4;  51 :  10;  Matt.  15  : 
 19) ;  sometimes  the  representative  of  all 
 the  powers  and  faculties  of  man  as  a 
 moral,  intellectual  and  accountable  being 
 (Prov.  16  :  9 ;  Acts  16  :  14;  2  Cor.  4  :  6). 
 i^ccording  to  Scripture,  the  heart  by  na- 
 ture is  totally  alienated  from  the  life  of 
 God  (Gen.  8  :  21 ;  Matt.  12  :  34),  and  is  to 
 be  renewed,  if  at  all,  by  the  special  grace 
 and  power  of  the  merciful  Lord  God  (Jer. 
 32  :  40;  Ezek.  36  :  26;  John  6  :  44;  1  Cor. 
 6:9-11;  Eph.  2  :  4-6). 
 
 Heath,  a  plant  found  on  wild  and 
 barren  wastes  (Jer.  17  :  6;  48  :  6),  and 
 supposed  to  be  a  species  of  juniper. 
 
 Hea'then,  equivalent,  mostly,  to  Gen- 
 tiles or  the  nations  (Neh.  5:8;  Ps.  2  :  Ij, 
 but  sometimes  applied  to  unbelievers  (Jer. 
 10:  25;  Matt.  18:  17). 
 
 Heav^en,  what  is  heaved  up  or  high 
 (Gen.  49  :  25).  The  English  word  repre- 
 sents four  Hebrew  words:  1.  The  word 
 used  in  the  expression  "the  heaven  and 
 the  earth"  (Gen.  1:1),  and  having  a 
 sense  akin  to  that  of  the  word  trans- 
 lated "firmament;"  2.  The  word  ren- 
 dered "above"  (Ps.  18  :  16)  and  "on 
 high"  (Isa.  24  :  18;  Jer.  25  :  30),  prop- 
 erly a  mountain  (Ps.  102  :  19 ;  Ezek. 
 17  :  23),  but  grandly  descriptive  of  the 
 sublime  heaven  (Ps.  68  :  18;  93  :  4) ;  3. 
 The  word  designating  the  region  of  cloud 
 (Deut.  33  :  26 ;  Job  35  :  5),  and  signifying 
 "expanses"  with  reference  to  the  extent  of 
 heaven  (Job  38 :  37  ;  Ps.  36 : 5 ;  Prov.  3 :  20) ; 
 4.  The  word  translated  "firmament"  (Gen. 
 16 
 
 1:6),  and  synonymous  with  sky  or  the  gener- 
 al heavens  ( Isa.  40 :  22 ;  48 :  13 ;  Jer.  31 :  37). 
 Some  of  the  later  Jews  held  that  there 
 were  three  heavens — namely,  the  air  or 
 atmosphere,  where  clouds  gather ;  the  fir- 
 mament, in  which  the  sun,  moon  and  stars 
 are  fixed  ;  and  the  upper  heaven,  the  abode 
 of  God  and  his  angels.  Paul  represents 
 himself  as  "  caught  up  to  tlie  third  heav- 
 en" (2  Cor.  12  :  2),  which  probably  cor- 
 responds to  the  "upper  heaven"  of  Jew- 
 ish thought.  This  third  or  upper  heaven 
 is  the  home  of  God's  glorified  people  (John 
 14  :  2,  3 ;  Rev.  22  :  1-5). 
 
 He'ber  [society'],  grandson  of  Asher 
 (Gen.  46  :  17  ;  1  Chron.  7:31;  Num.  26  : 
 45),  from  whom  came  the  Heberites.  The 
 name  of  the  patriarch  Eber  (Luke  3  :  35) 
 is  anglicised  lleber. 
 
 He 'brew  ^dwellers  on  the  other  sidel. 
 This  word  first  occurs  as  given  to  Abram 
 by  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  14  :  13),  perhaps 
 because  he  had  crossed  the  Euphrates.  It 
 may  express  a  distinction  between  the 
 races  east  and  west  of  the  Euphrates. 
 The  term  Israelite  was  used  by  the  He- 
 brews among  themselves;  the  term  He- 
 brew was  the  name  by  which  they  were 
 known  to  foreigners.  All  the  books  of  the 
 Old  Testament  are  written  in  the  Hebrew 
 language  with  the  exception  of  the  follow- 
 ing passages,  which  are  in  Chaldee :  Dan. 
 2  :  4-49 ;  and  chs.  3  to  7  :  28 ;  Ezra  4  :  8 
 to  ch.  6  :  18 ;  7  :  12-26  ;  Jer.  10 :  11.  He- 
 brew and  Chaldee  are  sister  dialects  of  a 
 great  family  of  languages  to  which  the 
 name  Shemitie  is  usually  given,  from  the 
 real  or  supposed  descent  of  the  peoples 
 speaking  them  from  the  patriarch  Shem. 
 
 He'brews,  Epistle  to  the.  The 
 authorship  of  this  Epistle  is  commonly 
 and,  we  believe  correctly,  ascribed  to  the 
 apostle  Paul.  It  was  addressed  to  the 
 Jews  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine.  Its 
 argument  is  such  as  could  be  used  with 
 most  effect  to  a  Church  consisting  exclu- 
 sively of  Jews  by  birth,  personally  famil- 
 
242 
 
 HEBRON. 
 
 iar  with  and  attached  to  the  temple-ser- 
 vice. It  was  evidently  written  before  the 
 destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  70.  The 
 date  which  best  agrees  with  all  the  facts 
 and  circumstances  of  the  case  is  A.  D.  63, 
 about  the  end  of  Paul's  lirst  imprisonment 
 at  Rome.  If  written  by  the  apostle  near 
 the  close  of  his  life,  it  is  one  of  his  grand- 
 est legacies  to  the  Church.  It  is  an  insight 
 into  Judaism  and  an  illustration  of  the  su- 
 periority of  Christianity,  which,  under  the 
 inspiration  of  God's  Spirit,  the  great  apos- 
 tle to  the  Gentiles  was  altogether  the  fittest 
 man  to  furnish,  and  which  through  all  the 
 ages  will  demonstrate  the  substantial  iden- 
 tity of  revelation,  whether  given  through 
 the  prophets  or  through  the  Son. 
 
 He^bron,  the  oldest  town  of  Palestine 
 and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  referred 
 to  in  the  Bible.  It  was  originally  called 
 Kirjath-Arha  [the  city  of  Arba,  Jndg.  1  :  10), 
 from  Arba,  the  father  of  the  Anakim,  or 
 giants,  who  dwelt  there  (Josh.  14  :  15). 
 It  was  sometimes  called  Mamre  (Gen. 
 23  :  2,  19),  from  Abraham's  friend  and 
 ally,  Mamre  the  Amorite.  It  is  sit- 
 uated among  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
 twenty  Roman  miles  south  of  Jerusalem 
 and  the  same  distance  north  of  Beersheba. 
 Here  the  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac  and 
 Jacob  lived  and  Avere  buried  (Gen.  49  : 
 29-33).  From  Hebron,  .lacob  sent  Jo- 
 seph in  search  of  his  brethren  (Gen.  37  ; 
 12-14),  and  from  it  the  patriarchal  family 
 went  out  on  their  journey  to  Egypt  (Gen. 
 46  :  1).  When  the  Israelites  subdued  Ca- 
 naan, Hebron  was  assigned  to  Caleb  (Josh. 
 14  :  13, 14).  It  was  also  selected  as  one  of 
 the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  20  :  7).  David 
 made  it  his  royal  residence  for  a  time  (2 
 Sam.  2  :  1-4),  and  there  Absalom  raised 
 the  standard  of  rebellion  (2  Sam.  15  :  9, 
 10.)  Hebron  is  not  referred  to  in  the 
 New  Testament.  Its  modern  Arabic  name 
 is  el-KhuUI,  "the  friend,"  an  undoubted 
 reference  to  Abraham,  "the  friend  of 
 God  "  (James  2  :  23).     Its  population  is 
 
 placed  at  ten  thousand  Mohammedans  and 
 six  hundred  Jews.  The  town  is  the  cen- 
 tre of  commerce  for  the  southern  Arabs, 
 who  bring  their  wool  and  camel's  hair  to 
 its  market.  The  houses  are  all  of  stone, 
 solidly-built  and  flat-roofed,  and  cover  a 
 part  of  the  western  slope  of  a  bare  ter- 
 raced hill.  Among  the  buildings,  the 
 Harain,  containing  the  sepulchres  of  the 
 patriarchs,  is  the  most  prominent.  Of  the 
 Haram,  President  Bartlett,  a  recent  visitor, 
 thus  writes:  "The  most  attractive  object 
 in  the  ancient  town,  that  is  seven  years 
 older  than  '  Zoan  of  I'gypt,'  is  the  Haram, 
 the  building  Avhich  by  joint  consent  of 
 Christian,  Mohammedan  and  Jewish  tra- 
 dition, supported  by  the  conclusions  of 
 modern  scholarship,  enclosed  the  cave 
 of  Machpelah,  the  last  resting-place  of 
 Abraham  and  Sarah,  Isaac  and  Rebekah, 
 Jacob  and  Leah.  It  stands  high  up  the 
 slope  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley, 
 conspicuous  at  a  distance  for  its  size.  It 
 bears  not  quite  the  same  proportion  to 
 the  small  surrounding  buildings  as  do 
 the  great  cathedrals  of  Europe,  but  it  in- 
 stantly arrests  the  eye.  The  dimensions 
 are  two  hundred  by  one  hundred  and 
 fifteen  feet,  and  its  windowlcss  walls  are 
 about  sixty  feet  high,  relieved  somewhat 
 by  shallow  pilasters  without  capitals.  Two 
 modern  minarets  and  a  Saracen  addition  to 
 the  height  of  the  walls  do  not  essentially 
 injure  the  solenm  and  striking  character 
 of  the  structure.  Its  smoothly-wrought, 
 almost  polished,  massive  stones,  some 
 of  them  thirty-eight  feet  in  length,  with 
 the  peculiar  marginal  draught  (wrongly 
 termed  bevel),  are  matched  by  no  others 
 in  Palestine  except  in  the  substructure 
 of  the  temple-area  at  Jerusalem.  There 
 seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  to  question 
 the  conclusion  of  Robinson  that  the  re- 
 markable external  structure  of  the  Ha- 
 ram is  indeed  the  work  of  Jewish  hands, 
 erected  long,  long  before  the  destruction 
 of  the  nation  around  the  sepulchre  of  their 
 
244 
 
 HEIFER— HEM  AN. 
 
 revered  progenitor,  the  friend  of  God,  and 
 his  descendants;  or  the  still  more  distinct 
 persuasion  of  Tristram,  that  it  is  '  the  one 
 remaining  work  of  the  royal  Solomon,  or 
 perhaps  of  his  greater  father;'  confirmed 
 l)y  Stanley,  who  had  the  rare  privilege 
 of  visiting  the  interior,  and  who  is  con- 
 vinced tliat  witliin  the  Mussulman  mosque, 
 '  within  the  Christian  church,  within  the 
 massive  stone  enclosure  built  by  the  kings 
 of  Judah,  is,  beyond  any  reasonable  ques- 
 tioning, the  last  resting-place  of  the  great 
 patriarchal  family.' " 
 
 Heifer,  a  young  cow ;  but,  contrary  to 
 our  usage,  the  Hebrew  equivalents  are  ap- 
 jilied  to  cows  that  have  calved  (1  Sam.  6  : 
 7-12;  Isa.  7  :  21).  The  heifer  was  used 
 in  sacrifice  on  a  particular  occa.sion  (Num. 
 19 : 1-10 ;  Heb.  9 :  13, 14),  the  manner  and 
 design  being  quite  significant.  The  ani- 
 mal offered  was  of  red  color,  because, 
 probably,  without  bloodshedding  sin 
 could  not  be  remitted.  The  animal  was 
 then  slain,  its  body  burned  without  the 
 camp,  and  the  ashes,  mingled  with  water, 
 were  sprinkled  on  tlie  people.  As  an  im- 
 pressive sin-offering  this  sacrifice  of  the 
 red  heifer  not  only  pointed  to  our  Lord's 
 "  one  offering  "  (Heb.  10 :  14),  but  also  pro- 
 claimed the  superior,  because  infinitely 
 availing,  efficacy  of  "the  blood  of  Christ" 
 (Heb.  9  :  14). 
 
 Heir.    See  Inheritance. 
 
 Hel'bon  [fat,  fei-tile'],  a  place  noted  for 
 excellent  wines,  which  were  conveyed  to 
 Tyre  from  Damascus  (P^zek.  27  :  18).  It 
 has  been  thought  to  be  the  modern  Alep- 
 po, but  more  probably  it  is  Helban  in  Anti- 
 Lebanon,  near  Damascus. 
 
 He'li,  the  father  of  Joseph,  the  hus- 
 l)and  of  Mary,  our  Lord's  motlier  (Luke 
 3  :  23).  Lord  Ilervey,  the  latest  investi- 
 gator of  our  Lord's  genealogy,  maintains 
 that  Heli  was  the  real  brother  of  Jacob, 
 the  Virgin's  father. 
 
 Hel'kath,  a  border  city  of  the  tribe 
 of  Asher,  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the 
 
 family  of  Gershom  (.Josh.  19  :  25;  21  : 
 31). 
 
 Herkath-Haz'zu-rira  [the  portion 
 of  strong  vien],  a  place  near  Gibeon,  so 
 called  from  a  fatal  contest  between  twelve 
 men  selected  from  David's  army  and  twelve 
 from  that  of  Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  2:15, 
 16). 
 
 Hell  [the  hidden  under-world],  the  des- 
 ignation sometimes  of  the  gi-ave  (2  Sam. 
 22  :  6),  always  of  the  covered  or  vnseen 
 realm  (Ps.  16  :  10),  and  sometimes  of  the 
 place  of  future  punishment  (Ps.  9:  17; 
 Luke  16  :  23).  Great  ingenuity  has  been 
 displayed  in  the  effort  to  separate  from 
 Scripture  statements  the  notion  of  future 
 punishment,  but  these  statements  are  too 
 precise  to  allow  the  effort  to  be  successful. 
 The  leading  passages  which  teach  this 
 awful  and  arresting  truth  are  these: 
 Matt.  25  :  41 ;  Mark  9  :  44 ;  Luke  16:19 
 -31;  2  Thess.  1:7-10;  Jude  13;  Rev. 
 14:  10,  11;  19:20;  21  :  8. 
 
 Hel'met.    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Help-meet  for  him  (Adam),  that 
 is,  an  aid  suitable  and  supplementary  to 
 him,  the  delicate  and  beautiful  designa- 
 tion of  a  wife  which  admirably  expresses 
 her  relation  (Gen.  2  :  18-20). 
 
 Hem  of  Garment.  The  later  Jews, 
 especially  the  Pharisees  (Matt.  23  :  5),  at- 
 tached great  importance  to  the  hem  or 
 fringe  of  their  garments  because  of  tlie 
 regulation  in  Num.  15  :  38,  39,  whicli  as- 
 cribed a  symbolical  meaning  to  it.  Pop- 
 ularly, the  hem  or  fringe  had  associated 
 with  it  a  special  sanctity  (Matt.  9:20; 
 14  :  36 ;  Luke  8  :  44),  of  which  the  punc- 
 tilious Pharisees  availed  themselves. 
 
 Herman  [faithful],  the  name  of  two 
 men. 
 
 1.  A  man  named  with  three  others  cel- 
 ebrated for  their  wisdom,  to  which  that  of 
 Solomcm  is  compared  (1  Kings  4:31); 
 probably  the  same  as  the  son  of  Zerah 
 and  grandson  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  2  :  6). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Joel  and  grandson  of  Samuel, 
 
HEMLOCK— HEROD. 
 
 245 
 
 a  Kohathite  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  one 
 of  the  leaders  of  the  temple-music  as  or- 
 ganized by  David  (1  Chron.  6  :  33;  15  : 
 17;  16  :  41,  42).  To  him,  perhaps,  the 
 eighty-eighth  Psalm  is  inscribed. 
 
 Hem'lock.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  in  two  passages  (Hos.  10:4; 
 Amos  6  :  12)  is  elsewhere  rendered  Gall 
 (which  see). 
 
 Hen,  the  female  of  the  common  do- 
 mestic fowl.  It  is  nowhere  noticed  in 
 Scripture  except  in  Matt.  23  :  37 ;  Luke 
 13  :  34.  That  a  bird  so  common  in  Pal- 
 estine should  receive  such  slight  notice  is 
 certainly  singular,  and  would  imply  that 
 it  was  not  known  to  the  Hebrews  of  the 
 Old  Testament. 
 
 He^na,  a  city  mentioned  in  connection 
 with  Sepharvaira  and  Ivah  as  one  of  those 
 overthrown  by  Sennacherib  before  his  in- 
 vasion of  Judsea  (2  Kings  18  :  34 ;  19:13; 
 Isa.  37  :  13).  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
 as  the  modem  Ana,  and  to  have  been  in 
 ancient  times  an  important  town  on  the 
 Euphrates,  not  far  from  Sippara. 
 
 Heph'zi-bah  [my  delight  is  in  her'\,  a 
 real  and  a  symbolical  name. 
 
 1.  Tlie  mother  of  King  Manasseli  (2 
 Kings  21  :  1). 
 
 2.  A  figurative  title  ascribed  to  Zion  in 
 token  of  Jehovah's  favor  when,  after  the 
 predicted  desolation  (Isa.  62  :  4),  there 
 should  be  the  return  from  the  Captivity 
 and  the  advent  of  the  Messiah. 
 
 Her'esy  [Gr.  hairesis'\  is  rendered  sect 
 in  Acts  5  :  17  ;  15  :  5  ;  24 :  5 ;  26  :  5 ;  28  :  22 ; 
 means  sect  in  Acts  24  :  14 ;  1  Cor.  11  :  19 ; 
 denotes  factions  in  Gal.  5 :  20 ;  signifies 
 false  doctrines  in  2  Pet.  2:1. 
 
 Her-mog'e-nes.    See  Phygellus. 
 
 Her'mon,  a  high  mountain  ridge  be- 
 longing to  Anti-Lebanon,  and  constituting 
 the  most  northern  boundary  of  the  land 
 which  the  Hebrews  wrested  from  the 
 Amorites  (Deut.  3  :  8).  The  Sidonians 
 called  it  Sirion,  from  a  word  signifying 
 "to   glitter,"    and   the   Amorites    Shenir, 
 
 from  a  word  signifying  "to  clatter," 
 both  words  meaning  "breastplate,"  to 
 which  it  was  not  unlike  when  upon  its 
 rounded  top  the  smooth  and  perpetual 
 snow  lay  glittering  in  the  sunbeams 
 (Deut.  3:9).  It  was  also  called  Sion 
 (Deut.  4  :  48),  "the  elevated,"  because  it 
 towered  over  all  the  neighboring  peaks. 
 Rising  to  the  height  of  near  ten  thou- 
 sand feet,  it  was  the  great  landmark 
 of  the  Israelites.  It  is  visible  from 
 Tyre  and  from  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  dews, 
 commemorated  by  the  Psalmist  (Ps. 
 133  :  3),  are  the  vapors  condensed  by  its 
 snowy  crown  into  fine  fertilizing  showers. 
 The  top  of  Hermon  consists  of  three  rocky 
 peaks  —  two,  north  and  south,  of  equal 
 height,  the  third  to  the  west  considerably 
 lower.  In  the  accounts  of  our  Lord's 
 Transfiguration  we  read  that,  wliilst  stay- 
 ing at  Cfesarea  Philippi,  he  retired  with 
 his  disciples  to  "  a  high  mountain  apart ;" 
 and  the  very  great  probability  is  that  some 
 part  of  Hermon  is  intended.  From  the 
 earliest  period  the  mountain  has  been  a 
 sacred  place.  This  lofty,  lonely  peak 
 seems  wonderfully  appropriate  for  the 
 scene  of  so  important  an  event.  See 
 Tabor. 
 
 Her'od.  \_liern-like\,  the  name  of  several 
 persons  of  the  royal  family  of  Judsea  in  the 
 times  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles. 
 
 1.  Herod  the  Great  was  the  second 
 son  of  Anti  pater,  an  Idumsean,  who  was 
 appointed  procurator  of  Judsea  by  Julius 
 Caesar,  B.  c.  47.  Ten  years  afterward, 
 when  Herod  was  twenty-five  years  old, 
 he  was,  by  vote  of  the  Roman  senate  and 
 by  submission  of  the  Jewish  people,  the 
 acknowledged  king  of  Judsea.  His  reign 
 was  characterized  by  great  sagacity  and 
 success,  but  his  domestic  life  was  embit- 
 tered by  an  almost  uninterrupted  series 
 of  injuries  and  cruel  acts  of  vengeance. 
 At  the  time  of  his  last  illness  he  caused 
 the  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem 
 (Matt.  2  :  16-18),   and   a  little  later,   in 
 
246 
 
 HERODIANS. 
 
 keeping  with  this  act  of  fearful  cruelty, 
 he  ordered  the  nobles  whom  he  had 
 called  to  hiin  in  his  last  moments  to 
 be  executed  immediately  after  his  de- 
 cease, that  liis  death  might  be  attended 
 by  universal  mourning.  He  adorned  Je- 
 rusalem with  many  splendid  monuments 
 of  his  taste  and  magnificence.  The  tem- 
 ple, which  he  rebuilt  with  scrupulous 
 care,  was  the  greatest  of  these  works. 
 Tiie  restoration  was  begun  b.  c.  20,  and 
 the  temple  itself  was  completed  in  a  year 
 and  a  lialf.  But  in  succeeding  years  fresh 
 additions  were  constantly  made,  so  that 
 from  the  beginning  of  tlie  work  to  the 
 completion  of  the  latest  addition  "forty 
 and  six  years  passed"  (.John  2  :  20). 
 
 2.  Her'od  An'ti-pas  was  the  son  of 
 Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace,  a  Samari- 
 tan. By  his  father's  will  he  became  "  te- 
 trarch  of  Galilee  and  Persea"  (Matt.  14  : 
 1 ;  Luke  3 : 1, 19 ;  9:7;  Acts  13 : 1).  He 
 first  married  a  daughter  of  Aretas,  "  king 
 of  Arabia  Petraea,"  but  he  soon  repudiated 
 her  to  effect  a  marriage  with  Herodias,  the 
 wife  of  his  lialf-brother,  Herod  Philip.  He 
 murdered  John  the  Baptist  (Mark  6  :  16- 
 29 1  and  mocked  our  Lord  (Luke  23 :  8-11). 
 Subsequently,  the  ambition  of  Herodias, 
 who  urged  him  to  seek  from  the  Roman 
 emperor  the  title  and  dignity  of  king, 
 proved  the  cause  of  his  ruin.  He  was  con- 
 demned to  perpetual  banishment,  which 
 Herodias  shared.  The  city  of  Tiberias, 
 wliich  Antipas  founded  and  named  in 
 honor  of  the  emperor,  was  the  most  con- 
 spicuous monument  of  his  long  reign. 
 
 3.  Her'od  Phil'ip  I.  (Mark  6  :  17) 
 was  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and  Ma- 
 riamne,  and  must  be  carefully  distin- 
 guislied  from  the  tetrarch  Philip.  He 
 married  Herodias,  the  sister  of  Agrippa 
 I.,  by  whom  lie  had  a  daughter,  Salome. 
 Herodias,  however,  left  him,  and  made 
 an  infamous  marriage  with  his  half- 
 brother,  Herod  Antipas  (Matt.  14  :  3; 
 Mark  6  :  17 ;  Luke  3  :  19).     He  was  ex- 
 
 cluded from  all  share  in  his  father's  pos- 
 sessions in  consequence  of  his  mother's 
 treachery,  and  lived  afterward  in  a  pri- 
 vate station. 
 
 4.  Her'od  Phil'ip  II.  was  tlie  son  of 
 Herod  the  Great  and  Cleopatra.  Like 
 his  half-brothers,  Antipas  and  Archelaus, 
 lie  was  brought  up  at  home.  He  received 
 as  his.own  government  Batanea,  Traclioni- 
 tis,  Auranitis,  and  some  parts  about  Jam- 
 nia,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch  ( Luke  3:1). 
 He  married  Salome,  the  daughter  of  Herod 
 Philip  I.  and  Herodias. 
 
 5.  Her'od  A-grip'pa  I.  was  the  son  of 
 Aristobulus  and  Berenice  and  grandson 
 of  Herod  the  Great.  He  was  brought  up 
 at  Rome,  and,  after  various  vicissitudes, 
 received  from  the  emperor  Caligula  the 
 governments  formerly  held  by  the  te- 
 trarchs  Philip  and  Lysanias,  the  title 
 of  king  and  numerous  other  munificent 
 marks  of  favor.  Subsequently,  in  conse- 
 quence of  successive  additions,  his  king- 
 dom embraced  all  Palestine.  He  was  a 
 strict  observer  of  the  Law,  and  he  souglit 
 with  success  the  fovor  of  the  Jews,  kill- 
 ing the  apostle  James  and  imprisoning 
 the  apostle  Peter  (Acts  12  :  1-19).  His 
 sudden  death  interrupted  his  ambitious 
 projects.  He  died  at  Csesarea  in  the 
 manner  related  in  Acts  12  :  21-23. 
 
 6.  Her'od  A-grip'pa  II.  was  the  son 
 of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  and  Cypros,  a  grand- 
 niece  of  Herod  the  Great.  At  the  time  of 
 his  father's  death,  a.  d.  44,  he  was  at  Rome. 
 He  received  from  the  emi)eror  first  the  king- 
 dom of  Chalcis  and  then  the  tetrarchies 
 formerly  held  by  Philip  and  Lysaniivs, 
 with  the  title  of  king  (Acts  25  :  13). 
 The  relation  in  which  he  stood  to  his 
 sister  Berenice  was  the  cause  of  grave 
 suspicion.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  he 
 retired  with  Berenice  to  Rome,  where  he 
 died  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan,  a.  d. 
 100. 
 
 He-ro'di-ans,  a  Jewish  sect  or  party, 
 ,  originating  probably  in  a  political  partial- 
 
HERODIAS— HIDDEKEL. 
 
 247 
 
 ity  toward  the  Roman  emperor  and  Herod 
 his  deputy  (Matt.  22  :  16;  Mark  12  :  13). 
 Many  Jews  in  our  Lord's  time  saw,  prob- 
 ably, in  the  power  of  the  Herodian  fam- 
 ily the  pledge  of  the  preservation  of  their 
 national  existence  in  the  face  of  the  am- 
 bition and  power  of  Rome.  Two  distinct 
 classes  might  thus  unite  in  supporting 
 what,  in  contrast  with  Roman  absolutism, 
 was  really  a  domestic  tyranny :  those  who 
 saw  in  tlie  Herods  a  jirotection  against  di- 
 rect heathen  rule,  and  those  who  were  in- 
 clined to  look  with  satisfaction  upon  such 
 a  compromise  between  the  ancient  faith 
 and  heathen  civilization  as  Herod  the 
 Great  and  his  successors  aimed  to  real- 
 ize, as  the  truest  and  highest  consum- 
 mation of  Jewish  hopes. 
 
 He-ro^di-as,  granddaughter  of  Herod 
 tlie  Great  and  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
 She  first  married  Herod  Pliilip  I. ;  then 
 she  eloped  from  him  to  marry  Herod 
 Antipas,  her  step-uncle,  who  had  been  long 
 married  to,  and  was  still  living  with,  the 
 daughter  of  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia.  The 
 consequences  both  of  the  crime  and  of  the 
 reproof  it  incurred  are  well  known  (Matt. 
 14  :  8-11  ;  Mark  0  :  24-28).  Her  daugh- 
 ter, through  whom  she  secured  the  murder 
 of  John  the  Baptist,  was  named  Salome. 
 
 He-ro'di-on,  a  relative  of  the  apostle 
 Paul,  to  whom,  among  the  Christians  of 
 the  Roman  church,  he  sends  his  saluta- 
 tion (Rom.  16  :  11). 
 
 Hereon,  an  unclean  bird,  but  of  what 
 species  is  quite  uncertain  (Lev.  11  :  19; 
 Deut.  14  :  18).  The  name  thus  rendered 
 is  probably  a  generic  name  for  some  well- 
 known  class  of  birds.  The  only  point  on 
 which  any  two  commentators  seem  to  agree 
 is  that  it  is  not  the  heron. 
 
 Hesh'bon  [inteUifipnce'l,  a  town  about 
 twenty  miles  east  of  the  point  where  the 
 Jordan  River  enters  the  Dead  Sea.  Si- 
 hon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  dwelt  there, 
 and  was  dispossessed  by  Moses  (Num.  21  : 
 24-26).     It  was  afterward  a  Levitical  city 
 
 (Josh.  21  :  39).  In  later  times  the  Moab- 
 ites  gained  possession  of  it,  and  as  a  Mo- 
 abitish  town  it  is  denounced  by  the  proph- 
 ets (Isa.  15  :  4;  Jer.  48  :  2,  34,  45).  It  is 
 at  present  known  by  the  name  of  Hesban, 
 where  extensive  ruins  are  still  found. 
 
 Heth  [d?ead],  a  descendant  of  Canaan 
 and  the  ancestor  of  the  Hittites  (Gen.  10  : 
 15;  Deut.  7:1;  Josh.  1  :  4),  who  dwelt  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Hebron  (Gen.  23  :  3,  7 ;  25 : 
 10). 
 
 Hez-e-ki^ah  [strength  of  Jehovah},  son 
 and  successor  of  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah.  He 
 was  one  of  the  most  perfect  kings  that 
 ever  sat  on  the  Jewish  throne.  His  first 
 act  was  to  purge  and  repair  and  reopen 
 with  splendid  sacrifices  and  appropriate 
 ceremonial  the  temple,  whicli  had  been  de- 
 spoiled and  neglected  during  the  careless 
 and  idolatrous  reign  of  his  father.  This 
 consecration  was  accompanied  by  a  re- 
 vival of  the  theocratic  spirit,  so  strict  as 
 not  even  to  spare  "the  high  places," 
 which  had  been  profaned  by  the  worship 
 of  images  and  Asherahs  (2  Kings  18  :  4). 
 A  still  more  decisive  act  was  the  destruc- 
 tion of  the  brazen  serpent  used  by  Moses 
 in  the  miraculous  healing  of  the  Israelites 
 (Num.  21 :  9),  which  had  become  an  object 
 of  superstitious,  if  not  idolatrous,  adora- 
 tion. He  succeeded  in  uniting  his  peo- 
 ple and  in  making  them  victorious  over 
 many  of  their  enemies,  but  when  threat- 
 ened by  Assyria,  he  listened  to  overtures 
 from  Babylon  which  proved  ensnaring, 
 and  ultimately  brought  about  the  ruin 
 of  his  country.  The  overthrow  came 
 not,  however,  in  his  reign,  which  ended 
 in  peace  and  seeming  prosperity.  He  re- 
 sembled David  more  nearly  in  piety  and 
 patriotism  than  any  of  David's  line.  He 
 hon®red  God  and  faithfully  served  his 
 country,  laboring  at  once  to  purify  and 
 restore  the  temple-worship  and  to  carry 
 to  successful  completion  numerous  pub- 
 lic works  of  national  utility. 
 
 Hid^de-kel,  one  of  the  rivers  of  Eden, 
 
248 
 
 HIEL— HINNOM. 
 
 identified  with  the  Tigris,  the  Arabic  name  j 
 of  whicli  is  Dijleh  (Gen.  2  :  14).  ! 
 
 Hi'el  [God  liveth],  a  native  of  Bethel 
 who  rebuilt  Jericho  in  the  reign  of  Ahab  ! 
 (1  Kings  IG  :  34),  and  in  whom  was  ful-  j 
 filled   the   curse   pronounced   by   Joshua 
 (Josh.  6  :  26).  i 
 
 Hi'e-rap^O-lis  [sacreci  city'],  a  city  of 
 Plirygia,  not  far  from  Colosse  and  Lao-  ' 
 dicea.  Paul  commends  the  zeal  of  Epa- 
 phras,  who  labored  in  the  gospel  in  these 
 three  neighboring  cities  (Col.  4  :  12,  13). 
 Ilierapolis  was  celebrated  for  the  warm 
 mineral  springs,  which  have  formed  those 
 beautiful  calcareous  incrustations  described 
 by  travelers.  This  once  elegant  city  is 
 now  a  heap  of  ruins,  among  which  can 
 be  traced  the  principal  street,  a  capacious 
 theatre  and  a  gymnasium  about  four  hun- 
 dred feet  square,  tlie  two  latter  still  in  re- 
 markable preservation.  Remains  also  of 
 Christian  churches  and  a  great  variety 
 of  sepulchres  are  yet  visible.  A  Turko- 
 man village  is  situated  among  the  ruins, 
 which  is  called  Pambouk- Kcdessi,  or  Cot- 
 ton Castle,  from  the  white  or  chalky  ap- 
 pearance of  the  neighboring  cliffs. 
 
 Hig-ga'ion,  a  word  which  occurs 
 three  times  in  the  Psalms  (9:  16;  19: 
 14;  92  :  3),  and  which  lias  two  mean- 
 ings :  one  of  a  general  character,  imply- 
 ing thought,  reflection,  as  in  the  second 
 of  the  above  passages;  the  other,  of  a 
 technical  nature,  the  precise  meaning  of 
 which  cannot  at  this  distance  of  time  be 
 determined. 
 
 High  Places.  From  the  earliest 
 times  it  was  customary  among  all  na- 
 tions to  erect  altars  and  places  of  wor- 
 ship on  lofty  and  conspicuous  spots.  To 
 this  general  custom  constant  allusion  is 
 made  in  the  Scriptures  (Isa.  65  :  7  ;  Jer. 
 3:6;  Ezek.  6  :  13;  18  :  6;  Hos.  4  :  13\ 
 and  it  is  especially  attributed  to  the  Mo- 
 abites  (Isa.  15  :  2;  16  :  12;  Jer.  48  :  .35). 
 As  a  custom  readily  perverted  to  the  ex- 
 tension of  idolatry,  it  was  strictly  forbid- 
 
 den by  the  Law  of  Moses  (Deut.  12  :  11- 
 14),  which  also  added  a  positive  and  pre- 
 parative injunction  to  destroy  the  Canaan- 
 itish  high  places  when  the  conquest  of 
 the  land  had  been  achieved.  The  law  for 
 several  centuries  was  either  forgotten  or 
 ignored,  for  Jehovistic  high  places  ex- 
 isted until  Hezekiah  inaugurated  that 
 sweeping  reformation  which  Josiah  final- 
 ly consummated  (2  Kings  18  :  4,  22;  23  : 
 3-20). 
 
 High  Priest.    See  Priest. 
 
 Hil-ki'ah  [portion  of  Jehovdh],  the 
 name  of  a  number  of  persons  mentioned 
 in  the  Scriptures,  of  whom  one  only,  the 
 high  priest  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kings 
 18  :  37),  need  be  singled  out.  According 
 to  the  genealogy  in  1  Chron.  6:13,  he  was 
 the  son  of  Shallum,  whilst  from  Ezra  7  : 1, 
 it  appears  that  he  was  the  ancestor  of  Ezra 
 the  scribe.  His  higli  priesthood  was  ren- 
 dered particularly  illustrious  by  the  great 
 reformation  effected  under  it  by  King  Josi- 
 ah, by  the  solemn  passover  kept  at  Jerusa- 
 lem in  the  eighteenth  year  of  that  king's 
 reign,  and,  above  all,  by  the  discovery 
 which  he  made  of  the  book  of  the  Law 
 of  Moses  in  the  temple. 
 
 Hill  of  Zi'on  (Ps.  2  :  6),  the  same  as 
 Mount  Zion  (Ps.  48  :  1,  2),  meaning  .Jeru- 
 salem and  the  eminence  on  which  the  tem- 
 ple was  built. 
 
 Hin,  a  Hebrew  liquid  measure  of  about 
 five  quarts  (Ex.  29  :  40;  Num.  15  :  4). 
 
 Hind,  the  female  of  the  common  stag. 
 It  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  poetical 
 parts  of  Scripture  as  emblematical  of  ac- 
 tivity (Gen.  49  :  21  ;  2  Sam.  22  :  34 ;  Ps. 
 18  :  33;  Hab.  3  :  19),  gentleness  (Prov.  5  : 
 19),  feminine  modesty  (Song  2:7;  3:5), 
 earnest  longing  (Ps.  42  :  1),  and  maternal 
 affection  (Jer.  14  :  5).  Its  shyness  and 
 remoteness  from  the  haunts  of  men  are 
 also  alluded  to  (Job  39  :  1),  and  its  timid- 
 ity, causing  it  to  cast  its  young  at  the  sound 
 of  thunder  (Ps.  29  :  9). 
 
 Hin^nom     [superflnous,    vabi],    the 
 
HIRAM— HIVITES. 
 
 249 
 
 name  of  the  valley  on  the  south  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, mentioned  in  connection  with  the  hor- 
 rid rites  of  Moloch,  which  were  there  cel- 
 ebrated by  the  idolatrous  Jews  causing 
 their  children  to  pass  through  the  fire 
 (Jer.  7  :  31).  King  Josiah,  in  order  to 
 render  this  place  odious,  defiled  it  by 
 making  it  a  depository  of  filth  and  of 
 the  dead  bodies  of  animals  (2  Kings  23  : 
 10) ;  and  tliis  became  a  common  practice 
 afterward.  To  prevent  the  sjjread  of  the 
 unhealthy  effluvia  from  so  much  filth  a 
 perpetual  fire  was  kept  up  to  consume  the 
 offensive  matter.  The  inhuman  rites  an- 
 ciently practiced  in  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
 caused  the  later  Jews  to  regard  it  with 
 feelings  of  horror  and  detestation,  and  to 
 apply  the  name  given  to  the  valley  to  the 
 place  of  eternal  torment.  From  similar 
 associations  with  tlie  valley,  our  Lord 
 figuratively  employs  the  Hinnom  or  Ge- 
 henna of  fire,  to  express  the  terrible 
 doom  which  awaits  the  wicked  after 
 death  (Matt.  5:29;  10:28;  Mark  9: 
 43,  45,  47;  Luke  12:5).  Hinnom  was 
 also  called  Tophet  (2  Kings  23  :  10;  Isa. 
 30 :  33).  Some  derive  this  last  name  from 
 a  word  signifying  a  drum,  with  the  sound 
 of  which  instrument  the  horrid  rites  of 
 Moloch  were  celebrated ;  otliers  from  a 
 word  signifying  to  spit  out,  as  expressive 
 of  disgust  and  loathing. 
 
 Hi'ram  \_hujh-born'],  generally  written 
 HuRAM,  the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  king  of  Tyre  who  sent  workmen 
 and  materials  to  Jerusalem,  first  to  build 
 a  palace  for  David  (2  Sam.  5:11;  1  Chron. 
 14  :  1),  and  next  to  build  a  temple  for  Sol- 
 omon, with  whom  he  had  a  treaty  of  peace 
 and  commerce  (1  Kings  5  :  10-12  ;  7  :  13  ; 
 2  Chron.  2  :  14,  16). 
 
 2.  A  man  of  mixed  race  (1  Kings  7:13, 
 40),  the  principal  architect  and  engineer 
 sent  by  King  Hiram  to  Solomon. 
 
 Hire'ling',  a  laborer  who  is  employed 
 on  hire  for  a  limited  time  (Job  7:1;  14  : 
 6 ;  Mark  1 :  20).     By  the  Mosaic  Law  such 
 
 an  one  was  to  be  paid  his  wages  so  soon  as 
 his  work  was  done  (Lev.  19  :  13).  The 
 little  interest  which  would  be  felt  by 
 such  a  temporary  laborer  compared  with 
 that  of  the  shepherd  or  permanent  keeper 
 of  the  flock  furnishes  a  striking  illustration 
 in  one  of  our  Lord's  discourses  (John  10  : 
 12,  13).     See  Wages. 
 
 Hit'tites,  the  nation  descended  from 
 Heth,  the  second  son  of  Canaan.  Abra- 
 ham bought  from  "  the  cliildren  of  Heth  " 
 the  field  and  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  be- 
 longing to  Ephron  the  Hittite  (Gen.  23  : 
 10, 17, 18).  They  were  settled  at  the  town 
 which  then  bore  the  name  of  Kirjath-Arba, 
 but  which  afterward,  under  its  new  name  of 
 Hebron,  became  one  of  the  most  famous 
 cities  of  Palestine  (Gen.  23 :  2, 19).  When 
 the  Israelites  entered  the  Promised  Land 
 the  Hittites,  in  equal  alliance  with  the 
 other  Canaanite  tribes,  took  their  part 
 against  the  invader  (.Josh.  9:1;  11  :  3). 
 Henceforward  the  notices  of  the  Hittites 
 are  very  few  and  faint.  "  Ahimelech  the 
 Hittite,"  one  of  David's  trusted  servants 
 (1  Sam.  26  :  6),  and  "Uriah  the  Hittite," 
 one  of  the  thirty  composing  David's  body- 
 guard (2  Sam.  23 :  39),  come  into  view  from 
 their  association  with  David's  person. 
 
 Hi'vites.  In  the  genealogical  tables 
 of  Genesis  "the  Hivite"  is  named  as  one 
 of  the  descendants,  the  sixth  in  order,  of 
 Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  10  :  17  ;  1 
 Chron  1  :  15).  We  first  encounter  the  ac- 
 tual people  of  the  Hivites  at  the  time  of 
 Jacob's  return  to  Canaan.  Shechera  was 
 then  in  their  possession,  Hamor  the  Hivite 
 being  "the  prince  of  the  land"  (Gen.  34  : 
 2).  We  next  meet  with  the  Hivites  dur- 
 ing the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Josh.  9:7; 
 11  :  19).  The  main  body  of  the  Hivites 
 were  at  this  time  living  on  the  nortliern 
 confines  of  Western  Palestine,  "  under  Her- 
 mon  in  the  land  of  Mizpeh"  (Josh.  11  : 
 3),  "in  Mount  Lebanon,  from  Mount 
 Baal-Hermon  to  the  entering  in  of  Ha- 
 math"   (Judg.  3  :  3). 
 
250 
 
 HOBAB— HONEY. 
 
 HC'bab  [bdoved],  the  son  of  Raguel 
 
 the  Midianite,  a  kinsman  of  Moses  (Num. 
 10  :  29;  Jiidg.  4:  11).  Tlie  notice  of  him 
 in  tlie  first  passage  cited  seems  to  repre- 
 sent him  as  the  experienced  Bedouin 
 slieikh  to  whom  Moses  looked  for  the 
 safe  guidance  of  his  cumbrous  caravan 
 on  the  desert-way  to  Canaan. 
 
 Ho'bah  [kiding-place],  the  place  to 
 which  Abraham  pursued  the  confederate 
 kings  (Gen.  14  :  15).  It  lay  north  of  Da- 
 mascus, but  where  is  not  certainly  known. 
 
 Hold  [ft  fortress'],  a  term  especially  ap- 
 plied to  the  lurking-places  of  David  (1 
 Sam.  22:4,  5;  24:22). 
 
 Ho'ly.  The  word  holy  denotes  whole- 
 ness, entireness,  perfection  in  a  moral  sense. 
 1.  God  is  the  infinitely  Holy  One  (Isa.  6  : 
 3;  47  :  4;  57  :  15;  Eev.  4:8).  2.  Chris- 
 tians are  holy,  because  they  have  within 
 them  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  13:  52;  Rom. 
 15  :  16;  1  Cor.  6  :  19),  and  because  they 
 are  consecrated  to  God's  service  (Eom.  12  : 
 1 ;  1  Cor.  3:17;  Col.  3:12;  1  Thess.  5  : 
 27).  3.  Persons,  places  and  things  are 
 holy  where  they  are  dedicated  to  God 
 (Ex.  19  :  6;  28  :  29;  Ps.  5  :  7  ;  89  :  20; 
 1  Cor.  9  :  13). 
 
 Holy  Ghost.    See  Spirit. 
 
 Ho'mer,  a  Hebrew  liquid  measure 
 equal,  according  to  Josephus,  to  eighty- 
 nine  gallons,  the  same  as  the  cor  (Ezek. 
 45  :  14).  It  was  also  a  Hebrew  dry  meas- 
 ure, equal,  according  to  Josephus,  to  eleven 
 bushels  and  four  quarts. 
 
 Hon^ey,  represented  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament Scriptures  by  four  diflferent  Hebrew 
 terms;  in  the  New  Testament  Scriptures 
 by  a  single  Greek  term. 
 
 1.  a.  In  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures 
 the  strict  term  for  honey  (clebnsh)  indicates 
 primarily  the  color  yellow  ;  hence  honey  as 
 yellow-colored.  It  is  used  to  designate  the 
 honey  of  bees  (Lev.  2  :  11  ;  Judg.  14  :  8, 
 18  ;  1  Sam.  14  :  25,  26  ;  Piov.  16  :  24),  and 
 the  honey  of  grapes  or  synip — that  is,  the 
 newly-expressed   juice  of   grapes    boiled 
 
 down  to  the  half  or  third  part  (Gen.  43 
 11  ;  Ezek.  27  :  17).  '  At  the  present  day 
 this  syrup  is  still  common  in  Palestine 
 under  its  equivalent  Arabic  name  dibs, 
 and  forms  now,  a.s  anciently,  an  article  of 
 commerce  in  the  Ea.st. 
 
 6.  The  second  term  for  lioney  {ya'ar) 
 means  redundance  or  overflow,  and,  associ- 
 ated with  debusli,  is  used  to  express  honey 
 as  what  flows  or  drops  of  its  own  accord 
 from  the  comb.  It  is  sometimes  rendered 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  "  honey-comb  " 
 (1  Sam.  14  :  27). 
 
 c.  The  third  term  for  honey  {no'pheth) 
 means  a  sprinkling,  dropping,  and  Ls  used  to 
 express  honey  dropping  from  the  combs. 
 In  Prov.  24  :  13  it  is  rendered  "  honey- 
 comb." 
 
 d.  The  fourth  term  for  honey  (tsuph) 
 designates  honey  as  overflowing  from  the 
 comb,  liqtdd  honey.  In  its  plural  form  it 
 is  commonly  associated  with  no'phelh  and 
 the  two  in  Ps.  19 :  10  are  rendered  "  honey- 
 comb." 
 
 2.  The  single  Greek  term  for  honey  in 
 the  New  Testament  Scriptures  (mcli)  is 
 the  usual  equivalent  for  the  first  Hebrew 
 term  debash,  and  is  found  in  Matt.  3:4; 
 Mark  1  :  6  (where  it  is  qualified  by  a  word 
 rendered  wild,  and  meaning  either  honey 
 from  wild  bees  or  honey-dew,  a  deposit  on 
 the  leaves  of  certain  trees),  and  in  Rev. 
 10  :  9,  10.  In  Luke  24  :  42  "honey- 
 comb" is  the  rendering  of  two  Greek 
 woi-ds  meaning  bee-comb. 
 
 Tlie  numerous  terms  for  honey  in  use 
 among  the  Hebrews  justify  the  ancient  de- 
 scription of  Canaan  as  "a  land  flowing 
 with  honey"  (Ex.  3  :  8).  Though  wa.ste 
 and  desolate,  Palestine  is  such  a  land  to- 
 day. Bees  in  the  East  are  abundant  even  in 
 the  remote  parts  of  the  wilderness,  where 
 they  deposit  their  honey  in  the  crevices 
 of  the  rocks  or  in  hollow  trees.  In  some 
 parts  of  Northern  Arabia  the  hills  are  so 
 well  stocked  with  bees  that  no  sooner  are 
 hives  placed  there  than  they  are  occupied. 
 
HOOK— HOEITES. 
 
 251 
 
 Hook,  a  ring  inserted  in  the  nostrils 
 of  animals,  to  which  a  cord  was  fastened 
 in  order  to  lead  them  about  or  tame  tliera 
 (2  Kings  19  :  28 ;  Isa.  37  :  29 ;  Ezek.  29  : 
 4;  38  :  4).  In  the  first  two  of  the  above 
 passages  Jehovah  affirms  his  absolute  con- 
 trol over  Sennacherib,  the  mighty  monarch 
 of  Assyria,  and  so  his  complete  supremacy 
 over  every  creature,  however  proud  and 
 powerful. 
 
 Hope,  a  term  used  in  Scripture  to  de- 
 
 note, generally,  the  desire  and  expectation 
 of  some  good  (1  Cor.  9:  10);  specially, 
 the  assured  expectation  of  salvation,  with 
 all  included  minor  blessings,  for  this  life 
 and  the  life  to  come,  through  the  merits 
 of  our  Lord  Christ.  It  is  one  of  the  three 
 great  elements  of  Christian  life  and  cha- 
 racter (1  Cor.  13  :  13). 
 
 Hoph^ni  and  Phin'e-has,  Eli's 
 wicked  sons.     See  Eli. 
 
 Hor  [</te  mountain,  i.  e.  the  mountain  of 
 
 Mount 'Hor. 
 
 mountains],  a  mountain  of  Arabia  Petrsea, 
 on  the  borders  of  Idumsea  or  Edom,  and 
 forming  part  of  the  mountain-district  which 
 bears  the  general  name  of  Seir.  The  Is- 
 raelites were  encamped  near  it  when  the 
 intimation  was  received  from  the  Lord 
 that  Aaron  was  to  die  there.  Accordingly, 
 Aaron,  accompanied  by  his  son  Eleazar  and 
 by  Moses,  ascended  to  the  top,  and  the  priest- 
 ly vestments  of  Aaron  being  put  on  his  son, 
 he  died  there  (Num.  20  :  22-29).  In 
 Deut.  10  :  6  it  is  said  Aaron  died  at  Mo- 
 sera,  which  was  probably  the  name  of  the 
 station  near  Hor.  The  traditional  Mount 
 Hor  is  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  whole 
 range    of    the    sandstone    mountains    of 
 
 Edom,  having  close  beneath  it  on  its 
 eastern  side  the  mysterious  city  of  Petra. 
 Its  height,  according  to  the  latest  meas- 
 urements, is  four  thousand  eight  hun- 
 dred feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and 
 more  than  six  thousand  above  the  Dead 
 Sea. 
 
 Ho'reb  \_dry,  deserQ,  the  general  name 
 of  the  Sinaitic  range,  including  mountains, 
 peaks,  valleys,  and  designating,  occasion- 
 ally, some  particular  summit  (Ex.  17  :  6; 
 Deut.  4:  10,  11).     See  Sinai. 
 
 Ho'rites  and  Ho'rims,  the  aborig- 
 inal inhabitants  of  Mount  Seir  (Gen.  14  : 
 6),  and  probably  allied  to  the  Emims  and 
 Rephaims.     The  name  Horite  appears  to 
 
252 
 
 HORMAH— HORSE. 
 
 have  been  derived  from  their  habits  as 
 "  cave  dwellers."  Their  excavated  dwell- 
 ings are  still  found  in  hundreds  in  the 
 sandstone  cliffs  and  mountains  of  Edom, 
 and  es{)ec'ially  in  Petra. 
 
 Hor'mah,  tlie  city  of  a  Canaanitisli 
 king  who  attacked  the  Israelites,  on 
 which  they  voweJ  that  if  they  succeeded 
 in  defeating  their  assailants  they  would 
 utterly  destroy  the  city  (Num.  21  :  1-3). 
 It  had  before  been  called  Zephath,  but, 
 as  a  doomed  and  desolated  place,  it  now 
 received  the  name  Hormah  (Judg.  1  : 
 17).  Subsequently,  it  was  rebuilt  (1  Sam. 
 30:  30;  1  Chron.  4  :  30). 
 
 Horn.  This  word  has  in  Scripture  a 
 large  latitude  of  meaning. 
 
 1.  Its  literal  use.  As  horns  are  hollow, 
 so  they  can  be  sounded  or  used  for  signal- 
 ing, and  can  be  filled  or  used  to  hold  liq- 
 uids. At  first  trumpets  were  merely  horns 
 perforated  at  the  top,  such  as  are  now  used 
 in  rural  districts  to  summon  laborers  at 
 meal-time  (Ex.  19  :  13;  Josh.  6:  4,  5). 
 Convenient  too  for  holding  liquids,  the 
 horn  became  a  general  designation  for 
 flask  (1  Sam.  16  :  1,  13;  1  Kings  1  :  39). 
 Among  our  Saxon  ancestors  the  drinking- 
 horn  was  common,  and  to  this  day,  with 
 certain  persons,  the  invitation  to  drink 
 spirituous  liquors  is  an  invitation  to  take 
 "  a  horn." 
 
 2.  Its  metaphorical  use.  The  projecting 
 corners  of  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  and 
 of  the  altar  of  incense  are  called  "  horns  " 
 (Ex.  37  :  25  ;  38  :  2) ;  the  peak  or  sammit 
 of  a  hill  is  called  a  "  horn,"  as  in  Isa.  5  : 
 1,  where  the  words  rendered  "a  very  fruit- 
 ful hill"  mean  "the  horn  of  the  son  of 
 oil ;"  the  rays  of  light  outstreaming  from 
 Jehovah's  hand  are  called  "horns"  (Hab. 
 3:4). 
 
 3.  Its  symbolical  use.  As  horns  are  the 
 chief  means  of  attack  and  defence  with 
 the  animals  which  have  them,  so  they 
 serve  in  Scripture  as  the  symbols  of 
 power,  dominion,  glory,  fierceness  (Dan. 
 
 8  :  5,  9;  Ps.  75  :  5,  10;  132  :  17  ;  Mic.  4  : 
 13 ;  Jer.  48  :  25 ;  Ezek.  29  :  21  ;  Amos  6  : 
 13;  Luke  1  :  69).  This  symbolical  use  of 
 the  word  horns  led,  doubtless,  to  the  an- 
 cient representation  of  the  gods  as  wear- 
 
 Abyssinian  Chief  and  Druse  Woman. 
 
 ing  horns,  and  to  the  modern  ornamental 
 use  of  horns  on  the  head  among  many 
 peoples  of  the  East,  and  notably  by  the 
 Druse  women  of  Mount  Lebanon.  It  is 
 well  to  note,  too,  that  tlie  English  word 
 "  crown,"  the  applications  of  whicli  are 
 so  many  and  varied,  is  but  another  form 
 of  the  word  "  liorn." 
 
 Hor'net.  In  Scripture  the  hornet  is 
 referred  to  only  as  the  means  which  Je- 
 hovah employed  for  the  extirpation  of  the 
 Canaanites  (Ex.  23  :  28;  Deut.  7  :  20; 
 Josh.  24  :  12).  Some  commentators  regard 
 the  word  as  used  in  its  literal  sense,  but 
 more  probably  it  expresses,  imder  a  vivid 
 image,  the  consternation  and  panic  with 
 which  .Jehovali  would  inspire  the  enemies 
 of  Israel  as  the  latter,  with  the  swiftness 
 and  tlie  sting  of  hornets,  should  move  for- 
 ward in  the  conquest. 
 
 Hor-O-na'im  [two  caveriis'],  a  Moabit- 
 ish  city,  south  of  the  Arnon,  near  Zoar, 
 Ltihith,  Nimrim,  etc.,  on  a  declivity  along 
 the  route  of  the  invading  Assyrians  (Isa. 
 15:5;  .Jer.  48  :  3,  5,  34). 
 
 Horse.  The  most  striking  feature  in 
 the  biblical   notices  of  the  horse   is  the 
 
HORSE-LEECH— HOUGH. 
 
 253 
 
 exclusive  application  of  it  to  warlike 
 operations  ;  in  no  instance  is  that  useful 
 animal  employed  for  the  purposes  of  ordi- 
 nary locomotion  or  agriculture,  if  we  ex- 
 cept Isa.  28  :  28,  where  "  hoi-semen "  are 
 represented  as  employed  in  threshing, 
 that  is,  as  driven  about  wildly  over  tlie 
 strewed  grain.  The  animated  description 
 of  the  horse  in  Job  39  :  19-25  applies 
 solely  to  the  war-horse.  The  Hebrews  in 
 the  patriarchal  age,  as  a  pastoral  race,  did 
 not  stand  in  need  of  the  services  of  the 
 horse,  and  for  a  long  period  after  their 
 settlement  in  Canaan  they  dispensed  with 
 it,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  hilly  na- 
 ture of  the  country,  which  only  permitted 
 the  use  of  chariots  in  certain  localities 
 (Judg.  1  :  19),  and  partly  in  consequence 
 of  the  prohibition  in  Deut.  17  :  16,  which 
 would  be  held  to  apply  at  all  times.  Da- 
 vid first  established  a  force  of  cavalry  and 
 chariots  after  the  defeat  of  Hadadezer  (2 
 Sam.  8  :  4).  But  the  great  supply  of 
 horses  was  subsequently  efTected  by  Solo- 
 mon through  his  connection  with  Egypt 
 (1  Kings  4  :  26).  Horses  in  general  were 
 not  shod. 
 
 Horse-leech.  The  word  thus  ren- 
 dered occurs  but  once  only  (Prov.  30  :  15). 
 It  denotes,  perhaps,  some  species  of  leech, 
 or  it  may  be  the  generic  term  for  any 
 blood-sucking  annelid. 
 
 Ho-san'na  {^mve,  ive  proyi,  the  cry  of 
 the  multitude  as  they  thronged  our  Lord 
 in  the  triumphal  procession  into  Jerusa- 
 lem (Matt.  21  :  9,  15;  Mark  11  :  9,  10; 
 John  12  :  13).  The  one  hundred  and 
 eighteenth  Psalm,  from  wliich  it  was 
 taken,  was  one  with  which  the  people 
 were  familiar  from  being  accustomed  to 
 recite  the  twenty-fifth  and  twenty-sixth 
 verses  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  On 
 that  occasion  the  Hallel,  consisting  of  Ps. 
 113-118  was  chanted  by  one  of  the  priests, 
 and  at  certain  intervals  tlie  multitudes 
 joined  in  the  responses,  waving  their 
 branches  of  willow  and  palm,  and  shout- 
 
 ing as  they  waved  them,  "  Hallelujah,"  or 
 "  Hosanna,"  or  "  O  Lord,  I  beseech  thee, 
 send  now  prosperity." 
 
 Ho-se'a  [^deliverance'],  son  of  Beeri  and 
 first  of  the  minor  prophets.  The  title  of 
 the  book  gives  for  the  beginning  of  Ho- 
 sea's  ministry  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king 
 of  Judah,  but  limits  this  vague  statement 
 by  reference  to  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Is- 
 rael ;  it  therefore  yields  a  date  not  later 
 than  B.  c.  783.  The  pictures  of  social  and 
 political  life  which  Hosea  draws  so  forci- 
 bly are  rather  applicable  to  the  interreg- 
 num which  followed  the  death  of  Jero- 
 boam (b.  c.  781-771),  and  to  the  reign  of 
 the  succeeding  kings.  The  prophecies  were 
 delivered  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
 were  extended  over  the  long  period  of 
 fifty-nine  years.  They  were  directed  spe- 
 cially against  the  people  whose  sins  had 
 brought  the  sore  disasters  of  prolonged 
 anarchy  and  final  captivity.  The  style 
 is  at  times  abrupt  and  involved,  but  at 
 other  times  is  remarkably  vivid  and  pic- 
 turesque and  powerful.  The  book  is  fre- 
 quently qtioted  in  the  New  Testament 
 (Matt.  9:13;  12  :  7  ;  Luke  23  :  30 ;  Rom. 
 9  :  25,  26 ;  1  Cor.  15:4;  Ileb.  13  :  15 ;  1 
 Pet.  2:10;  Rev.  6:16). 
 
 Ho 'sen,  an  old  English  plural  of  hose 
 (Dan.  3  :  21) ;  not  of  our  modern  hose,  but 
 the  ancient  trunk-hose  or  breeches. 
 
 Ho-she'a,  the  son  of  Nun,  that  is, 
 Joshua  (Deut.  32  :  44). 
 
 Ho-she'a,  the  nineteenth  and  last 
 king  of  Israel.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his 
 reign  the  Assyrian  king,  provoked  by  an 
 attempt  which  Hoshea  made  to  form  an 
 alliance  with  Egypt,  and  so  throw  off"  the 
 Assyrian  yoke,  marched  against  Samaria, 
 and,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  took  it 
 and  carried  the  people  away  into  Assyria. 
 Such  was  the  melancholy  end  of  the  ten 
 tribes  of  Israel  as  a  separate  kingdom  (2 
 Kings  17  :  1-6;  Hos.  13  :  16;  Mic.  1  :  6). 
 
 Hough  [pronounced  hoc/c],  a  method 
 employed  by  the  ancient  Israelites  to  ren- 
 
254 
 
 HOUR— HOUSE. 
 
 der  useless  the  captured  horses  of  an  ene- 
 my (Josh.  11  :  6).  It  consisted  in  hum- 
 stringing,  that  is,  severing  tlie  principal  ten- 
 don of  the  hind  legs,  which  effectually  dis- 
 abled the  animal. 
 
 Hour,  a  division  of  time  known  among 
 us  SIS  the  twenty-fourth  part  of  a  day.  One 
 of  the  earliest  divisions  of  the  day  was 
 into  morning,  heat  of  tlie  day,  mid-day 
 and  evening ;  and  of  the  night  into  first, 
 second  and  third  watcli.     The  first  use  of 
 
 the  word  hour  by  the  sacred  writers  occurs 
 in  Dan.  3  :  6,  but  the  length  of  the  time 
 denoted  by  it  was  not  a  fixed  period.  The 
 third,  sixth  and  ninth  hours  of  the  day, 
 counting  from  6  A.  M.,  were  especially 
 hours  of  prayer.  The  hours  varied  with 
 the  length  of  the  day,  as  they  were  mea- 
 sured from  sunrise  to  sunset.  Tlie  Egyp- 
 tians had  twelve  hours  of  the  day  and 
 twelve  hours  of  tlie  night. 
 
 House.    The  most  accurate  conception 
 
 Tlie  Inner  Court  of  an  Eastern  House. 
 
 we  can  form  of  a  Hebrew  dwelling  must  be 
 derived  from  the  pictures  on  the  Egyptian 
 monuments  and  from  modern  Oriental 
 dwellings,  which  probably  preserve  the 
 general  features  of  the  more  ancient  ar- 
 cliitecture.  In  forming  some  just  idea  of 
 a  house  in  Palestine,  we  are  to  conceive, 
 first,  a  front  of  wall  whose  blank  and 
 mean  appearance  is  relieved  only  by  the 
 door  and  a  few  latticed  and  projecting 
 windows.  Witliin  this  is  a  quadrangular 
 court  enclosed  by  tlie  buildings  which  form 
 tlie  house,  and  sometimes  defined  by  a  wide 
 veranda  which  runs  around  it.  Into  this 
 court  the  apartments  look  ;  over  it  an  awn- 
 ing is  sometimes  drawn  ;  and  on  festive  oc- 
 casions its  floor  is  strewn  with  carpets.     It 
 
 is  commonly  paved  with  blocks  of  stone, 
 and  is  often  adorned  by  a  fountain  in  tlie 
 centre.  Standing  in  this  court  and  look- 
 ing round,  we  see  doors  and  windows 
 opening  into  it  on  all  sides  from  tlie  dif- 
 ferent rooms.  Persons  coming  out  of 
 these  rooms  enter  the  court  or  hollow 
 square ;  and  if  the  house  be  more  than 
 one  story  high  the  upper  stories  have  bal- 
 conies defended  in  front  by  balustrades. 
 Frequently  there  is  no  communication  be- 
 tween tlie  rooms,  excei)t  by  passing  from 
 door  to  door  from  the  court  or  along  the 
 balconies.  From  the  court  a  stairway 
 conducts  to  the  upper  stories  and  to  the 
 roof  of  the  house.  Tlie  roof  is  flat,  and 
 covered  with  earth  or  plaster  to  exclude 
 
HOUSEHOLD— HUNTING. 
 
 255 
 
 the  rains.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  or 
 parapet,  whicli  protects  one  from  falling 
 into  the  street  and  separates  the  house 
 from  those  adjoining.  That  part  of  the 
 roof  which  overlooks  the  court  is  gener- 
 ally furnished  with  a  parapet  or  a  wooden 
 railing. 
 
 Such  is  the  general  description  of  an 
 Oriental  house.  It  may  serve  to  illus- 
 trate various  passages  of  Scripture.  The 
 square  inner  court,  was  the  place  for  hold- 
 ing festivals  (Esth.  1 :  5).  The  temporary 
 covering  of  it  was  probably  the  roof,  through 
 which  the  paralytic  was  let  down  into  the 
 court,  and  which  could  be  easily  removed 
 (Mark  2  :  4). 
 
 The  flat  roofs  were  resorted  to  for 
 privacy  or  to  enjoy  the  evening  air,  and 
 even  for  sleeping ;  they  are  referred  to  in  1 
 Sam.  9  :  25 ;  2  Sam.  11  :  2;  16  :  22 ;  Neh. 
 8:16;  Mark  13  :  15.  The  battlements 
 around  the  roof  were  enjoined  by  special 
 law  (Deut.  22  :  8).  In  the  shallow  soil  on 
 the  roofs,  in  a  season  of  warm  rain,  would 
 sometimes  appear  a  growth  of  grass  which 
 a  day  of  hot  sunshine  would  wither  (Ps. 
 129:6).  It  was  probably  "through  the 
 lattice"  of  the  balcony  overlooking  the 
 court  that  Ahaziah  fell  (2  Kings  1  :  2). 
 Sometimes  a  small  chamber  was  built  out 
 from  the  wall  (2  Kings  4:10).  No  ancient 
 houses  had  chimneys ;  the  word  so  trans- 
 lated in  Hos.  13  :  3  means  a  hole  through 
 which  the  smoke  escaped.  The  windows 
 had  no  glass  ;  they  were  only  latticed,  and 
 thus  gave  free  passage  to  the  air  and  light. 
 In  winter  the  cold  air  was  kept  out  by  veils 
 over  the  windows  or  by  shutters  with  suf- 
 ficient holes  in  them  to  admit  light  ( 1  Kings 
 7:4;  Song  2  :  9).  The  material  of  wliich 
 houses  were  built  and  their  furniture  when 
 built  differed  according  to  the  wealth  of  the 
 owner  (1  Kings  22  :  39 ;  Jer.  22  :  14).  Poor 
 houses  with  clay  walls  illustrate  Matt.  6  : 
 19;  Ezek.  12:  5. 
 
 House'hold,  The  word  thus  render- 
 ed is  usually,  in  the  original  Scriptures, 
 
 the  same  word  which  is  rendered  "  house," 
 and  denotes  the  members  of  a  family  re- 
 siding in  the  same  abode,  including  sei-- 
 vants  and  dependants  (Gen.  18  :  19;  Lev. 
 16:17;  Acts  16  :  15 ;  1  Cor.  1  :  16).  See 
 Family. 
 
 Hul,  a  grandson  of  Shem.  See  Na- 
 tions, under  Shemites. 
 
 HuFdah,  a  prophetess  who  in  the  times 
 of  Josiah  was  consulted  respecting  the  de- 
 nunciations contained  in  tlie  book  of  the 
 Law,  then  recently  discovered,  and  who 
 gave  a  response  of  commingled  judgment 
 and  mercy  (2  Kings  22  :  14-20).  She  is 
 only  known  from  this  circumstance. 
 
 Hunt'ing.  As  a  matter  of  necessity, 
 whether  for  the  extermination  of  danger- 
 ous beasts  or  for  procuring  sustenance, 
 hunting  betokens  a  rude  and  semi-civil- 
 ized state ;  as  an  amusement  it  betokens 
 an  advanced  state.  In  the  former,  per- 
 sonal prowess  and  physical  strength  are 
 the  qualities  wliich  elevate  a  man  above 
 his  fellows  and  fit  him  for  dominion,  and 
 hence  one  of  the  greatest  heroes  of  antiq- 
 uity is  described  as  a  "mighty  hunter  be- 
 fore the  Lord"  (Gen.  10  :  9),  while  Ish- 
 mael,  the  progenitor  of  a  wild  race,  was 
 famed  as  an  archer  (Gen.  21  :  20),  and 
 Esau,  holding  a  similar  position,  was  "  a 
 cunning  hunter,  a  man  of  the  field  "  (Gen. 
 25  :  27).  Tlie  wealthy  in  Egypt  and  As- 
 syria followed  the  sports  of  the  field  with 
 great  zest,  and  from  hunting-scenes  they 
 drew  subjects  for  decorating  the  walls  of 
 their  buildings  and  even  the  robes  they 
 wore  on  state  occasions. 
 
 The  Hebrews  as  a  pastoral  and  agricul- 
 tural people  were  not  given  to  the  sports 
 of  the  field.  They  caught  the  larger  ani- 
 mals, lions,  bears,  jackals,  foxes,  when  they 
 became  dangerous  to  human  life  or  destruc- 
 tive to  growing  crops ;  they  also  caught  the 
 hart,  the  roebuck  and  the  fallow-deer,  whicli 
 formed  a  regular  source  of  sustenance. 
 The  manner  of  catching  these  animals 
 was  either  by  digging  a  pitfall  (2  Sam.  23  : 
 
256 
 
 HUR— HYSSOP. 
 
 20),  or  by  setting  a  trap  (Job  18  :  10),  or 
 by  spreading  a  net  (Isa.  51  :  20).  They 
 caught,  moreover,  sucli  birds  as  formed  a 
 portion  of  their  food.  The  most  approved 
 methods  of  catching  birds  were  the  trap 
 (Ps.  69 :  22),  the  snare  (Ps.  140 :  5),  tlie  net 
 (Prov.  1:17)  and  the  decoy  ( Jer.  5 :  26,  27). 
 
 Hur,  the  name  of  the  man  who  is  men- 
 tioned with  Moses  and  Aaron  on  the  occa- 
 sion of  the  battle  with  Amalek  at  Rephi- 
 dim  (Ex.  17  :  10-12),  when  with  Aaron  he 
 stayed  up  the  hands  of  Moses.  He  is  men- 
 tioned again  (Ex.  24  :  14)  as  being,  with 
 Aaron,  left  in  charge  of  the  people  by  Moses 
 during  his  ascent  of  Sinai.  The  Jewish  tra- 
 dition is  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Miriam, 
 and  that  he  was  identical  with  the  grand- 
 father of  Bezaleel,  the  chief  artificer  of  the 
 tabernacle  (Ex.  31  :  2). 
 
 Hus'band-raan,  one  engaged  in  cul- 
 tivating the  ground,  an  ancient  and  hon- 
 orable employment  (Gen.  9  :  20). 
 
 Hu'shai  the  Archite,  a  friend  of 
 David,  whom  he  materially  served  during 
 Absalom's  rebellion  in  defeating  the  coun- 
 sel of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  chs.  16,  17). 
 
 Husks,  a  term  applied  in  this  country 
 to  the  outward  covering  of  the  ears  of  In- 
 dian corn,  but  in  Luke  15  :  16  to  the  pods 
 of  the  carob  tree  ( Ceratonia  siliqua),  a  coarse 
 food  usually  given  to  swine  and  cattle,  but 
 sometimes  eaten  by  the  children  of  the 
 poor.  It  is  sold  in  our  cities  as  "  St.  John's 
 Bread,"  from  the  mistaken  idea  that  it  is 
 referred  to  when  John  the  Baptist  is  said 
 to  have  eaten  "  locusts  and  wild  honey." 
 
 Hy-men-e'us,  a  professor  of  Chris- 
 tianity at  Ephesus,  who,  with  Alexander  ( 1 
 Tim.  1  :  20)  and  with  Philetus  (2  Tim.  2: 
 17,  18),  asserted  that  the  resurrection  was 
 past.  Paul,  in  vindication  of  the  truth, 
 "delivered"  him  "unto  Satan"  (1  Tim. 
 1  :  20),  wliich  may  mean  not  only  an  ex- 
 clusion from  the  Church,  but  the  inflic- 
 tion of  some  bodily  infirmity  to  teach 
 him  "not  to  blaspheme." 
 
 Hymn.     This  word  is  not  found  in  our 
 
 Authorized  Version  of  the  Old  Testament ; 
 and  in  the  New  Testament  it  occura  in  four 
 pa.ssages  only  ( Matt.  26 :  30 ;  Mark  14 :  20 ; 
 Eph.  5:19;  Col.  3:  16).  In  Acts  16  :  25;' 
 Heb.  2  :  ]  2  it  is  represented  by  the  word 
 "  praise."  The  term  is  a  general  and  some- 
 what indefinite  one  for  a  kind  of  devotion- 
 al exercise  in  which  either  several  psalms 
 were  chanted  successively  or  some  out- 
 bursts of  Christian  sentiment  in  metrical 
 form  were  sung,  such  as  tliose  which  we 
 find  in  Eph.  5:14;  James  1:17;  Rev.  1  : 
 8 ;  15  :  3,  and  which  are  thought  by  many 
 to  be  fragments  of  ancient  hymns.  The 
 "  hymn "  which  our  Lord  sang  with  his 
 disciples  at  the  Last  Supper  was  the  Hal- 
 lel,  or  Ps.  113-118;  Ps.  113  and  114  being 
 sung  before  and  the  rest  after  the  passover. 
 Hyp'o-crite,  one  who  feigns  to  be 
 what  he  is  not ;  in  especial,  one  who  puts 
 on  the  cloak  of  religion  to  hide  some 
 wicked  scheme  which  he  proposes  to 
 achieve.  According  to  our  Lord,  the 
 Pharisees,  with  all  their  decorous  moral- 
 ities, were  really  "hypocrites"  (Matt.  6  : 
 16;  Luke  11  :  39;  42-44). 
 
 Hys'sop,  a  plant  wliich  is  often  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  as 
 used  in  ceremonial 
 sprinklings  (Ex.  12  : 
 22 ;  Heb.  9  :  19).  In 
 John  19:29  it  is  said 
 a  soldier  filled  a 
 sponge  with  vinegar 
 and  put  it  upon  hys- 
 sop, probably  the  stem 
 of  the  {)lant,  and  of- 
 fered it  to  the  sufl'er- 
 ing  Saviour.  Noth- 
 ing satisfactory  has 
 been  determined  as  to 
 the  particular  plant 
 intended  under  this 
 name.  The  prepon- 
 derant opinion,  how- 
 ever,    is     toward     a 
 
 Hyssop. 
 
 l)lant  of  the  marjoram  tribe. 
 
IBLEAM— IDOLATEY. 
 
 257 
 
 I. 
 
 Ib^le-am  [people-waster},  a  city  of  Ma- 
 nasseh,  but  territorially  belonging  to  an- 
 other tribe — to  Issachar  or  to  Asher  (Josh. 
 
 17  :  11 ;  Judg.  1  :  27 ;  2  Kings  9  :  27). 
 Ib'zan  [?7/Msir('oM.s],  a  native  of  Beth- 
 lehem of  Zebnlun,  who,  after  Jephthah, 
 judged  Israel  for  seven  years.  His  pros- 
 perity is  indicated  by  the  number  of  his 
 children,  thirty  sons  and  thirty  daughters 
 (Judg.  12  :  8-io). 
 
 Ich^a-bod  [  Where  is  the  glory  ?  that  is, 
 there  is  no  glory],  the  son  of  Phinehas  and 
 grandson  of  Eli,  born  at  the  moment  his 
 mother  heard  of  her  husband's  death  and 
 the  ark's  seizure  by  the  Philistine  enemies 
 of  her  country  (1  Sam.  4  :  19-22). 
 
 I-co'ni-um,  formerly  the  capital  of 
 Lycaonia,  and  at  present,  under  the  name 
 of  Konieh,  the  capital  of  Caramania  in 
 Asia  Minor,  at  the  base  of  Mount  Tau- 
 rus. About  A.  D.  45  it  was  visited  by 
 Paul  and  Barnabas,  whose  success  in 
 preaching  the  gospel  so  exasperated  Jews 
 and  Gentiles  as  to  put  their  lives  in  dan- 
 ger ;  accordingl)^  tJiey  fled  to  Lystra  and 
 Derbe  (Acts  14:1-6).  In  company  with 
 Silas,  Paul  visited  it  a  second  time  (Acts 
 16  :  1-6),  and  possibly  a  third  time  (Acts 
 
 18  :  23).  To  the  persecution  he  confront- 
 ed here  Paul  toward  the  close  of  his  life 
 touchingly  refers  (2  Tim.  3:11).  The  mod- 
 ern Konieh  is  a  large  Turkish  town  of  about 
 thirty  thousand  inhabitants. 
 
 Id'do,  the  name  of  several  men. 
 
 1.  A  seer  or  prophet  who  recorded  nu- 
 merous events  in  the  reigns  of  Solomon, 
 Eehoboam  and  Abijah  (2  Chron.  9  :  29; 
 12  :  15;  13  :  22).  His  writings  are  lost, 
 but  they  may  have  formed  part  of  the  ma- 
 terial for  the  existing  books  of  Chroni- 
 cles. 
 
 2.  The  grandfather  of  the  prophet  Zech- 
 ariah  (Zech.  1  :  1,  7);    he  returned  from 
 
 17 
 
 Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  (Neh. 
 12  :  4). 
 
 3.  The  chief  of  those  who  assembled  at 
 Casiphia  at  the  time  of  the  second  caravan 
 from  Babylon.  He  was  one  of  the  Nethi- 
 nim  (Ezra  8  :  17,  20). 
 
 I-doFa-try,  the  woi-ship  of  Deity  in 
 a  visible  form,  whether  the  images  to  which 
 homage  is  paid  are  symbolical  representa- 
 tions of  the  true  God  or  of  the  false  divin- 
 ities which  have  been  made  the  objects  of 
 worship  in  his  stead. 
 
 The  fii^st  allusion  in  the  Scriptures  to 
 idolatry  or  idolatrous  customs  is  in  the  ac- 
 count of  Rachel's  stealing  her  father's  ter- 
 aphim  (Gen.  31  :  19),  a  relic  of  the  wor- 
 ship of  other  gods,  whom  the  ancestors  o1' 
 the  Israelites  served  "  on  the  other  side  of 
 the  river,  in  old  time"  (Josh.  24  :  2). 
 
 During  their  long  residence  in  Egypt, 
 the  country  of  symbolism  in  pre-eminence, 
 the  Israelites  defiled  themselves  with  the 
 idols  of  the  land.  To  these  idol-gods 
 Moses,  the  herald  of  Jehovah,  flung  down 
 the  gauntlet  of  defiance,  and  the  plagues 
 of  Egypt  smote  their  symbols  (Num.  33  : 
 4).  Yet  with  the  memory  of  their  deliv- 
 erance fresh  in  their  minds  the  Israelites 
 clamored,  at  Sinai,  for  some  visible  shape 
 of  the  God  who  had  brought  them  out  of 
 Egypt  (Ex.  32  :  4),  and  received  from 
 Aaron,  as  the  symbol  of  Deity,  what  they 
 had  long  been  familiar  with — namely,  the 
 calf,  embodiment  of  Apis  and  emblem  of 
 the  productive  power  of  Nature.  For  a 
 while  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  and 
 the  establishment  of  the  worship  which 
 accompanied  it  satisfied  that  craving  for 
 an  outward  sign  which  the  Israelites  con- 
 stantly exhibited ;  but  after  the  conquest 
 and  the  death  of  Joshua  their  strong  and 
 overpowering  tendency  toward  visible  ob- 
 jects of  worship  asserted  itself  in  numer- 
 
258 
 
 IDUM^A— IMMORTALITY. 
 
 0U8  and  most  injurious  forms.  The  his- 
 tory of  the  two  kingdoms  is  a  sad  recital 
 of  the  prevalence  and  power  of  idolatry, 
 which  terminated  at  length  in  the  utter 
 overthrow  of  Israel  and  tlie  seventy  years' 
 captivity  of  Judah. 
 
 As  to  the  objects  which  idolatry  pre- 
 sented to  men's  minds  for  adoration  and 
 worship,  a  few  sentences  will  suffice  to 
 state  tliem.  In  the  old  religion  of  the 
 Shemitic  races  the  Deity  was  conceived 
 of,  in  accordance  with  human  analogy, 
 as  male  and  female — the  one  represent- 
 ing the  active,  the  other  the  passive,  prin- 
 ciple of  Nature ;  the  former  tlie  source  of 
 spiritual,  the  latter  of  physical,  life.  The 
 sun  and  moon  were  early  selected  as  out- 
 ward symbols  of  this  all-pervading  power, 
 and  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
 was  not  only  the  most  ancient,  but  also 
 the  most  prevalent,  system  of  idolatry. 
 Taking  its  rise  in  the  plains  of  Chaldaea, 
 it  spread  through  Syria  and  Egypt  (Deut. 
 4  :  19;  17  :  3;  Job  31 :  26-28),  and,  as  we 
 learn  from  otlier  sources  than  the  Scrip- 
 tures, extended  to  Greece,  Scythia,  and  even 
 Mexico  and  Ceylon.  It  is  probable  that 
 the  Israelites  learned  their  first  lessons  in 
 sun-worship  from  the  Egyptians,  in  whose 
 religious  system  that  luminary  held  a 
 prominent  place.  The  Phoenicians  wor- 
 shiped him  under  the  title  of  Baal, 
 "Lord  of  heaven."  As  Moloch  or  Mil- 
 com  the  sun  was  worshiped  by  the  Am- 
 monites, and  as  Chemosh  by  the  Moab- 
 ites.  The  Hadad  of  the  Syrians  is  tlie 
 same  deity.  The  Assyrian  Bel  or  Belus 
 is  another  form  of  Baal.  The  moon,  wor- 
 shiped by  the  Phoenicians  under  the  name 
 of  Astarte,  the  passive  power  of  Nature  as 
 Baal  was  the  active,  and  known  to  the 
 Hebrews  as  Ashtaroth  or  Ashtoreth,  the 
 tutelary  godd.ss  of  the  Zidonians,  ap- 
 pears early  among  the  objects  of  Israel- 
 itish  idolatry.  Later,  the  worship  of 
 the  planets  received  a  full  share  of  pop- 
 ular attention  (2  Kings  23  :  5). 
 
 I-du-mae'a,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
 Hebrew  name  Edom  (which  see). 
 
 Il-lyr'i-cum,  a  country  lying  north- 
 west of  Macedonia,  and  answering  nearly 
 to  what  is  now  called  Dalmatia,  by  which 
 name  its  southern  part  was  anciently 
 called.  Titus  visited  this  country  (2 
 Tim.  4  :  10)  and  Paul  came  to  its  fron- 
 tier, if,  indeed,  he  did  not  enter  its  ter- 
 ritory (Rom.  15  :  19). 
 
 Iin''age.  The  word  is  commonly  em- 
 ployed to  designate  a  visible  representa- 
 tion of  deity,  whether  true  or  false  (Ex. 
 20  :  4-6 ;  Lev.  26  :  1 ;  Deut.  4:16;  Ps. 
 97  :7).  But  when  man  is  said  to  have 
 been  created  in  God's  "image"  (Gen.  1  : 
 27),  and  when  our  Lord  Christ  is  de- 
 scribed as  the  "image  of  the  invisible 
 God"  (Col.  1  :  15)  and  as  the  "express 
 image  of  God's  person"  (Heb.  1  :  3),  the 
 word  evidently  ha.s  a  different  sense.  It 
 imports  a  complete  and  exact  likeness, 
 such  as  that  which  exists  between  a  seal 
 and  its  impression  when  the  one  is  the 
 faithful  counterpart  of  the  other.  Orig- 
 inally, man  bore  the  image  of  God  in 
 mental  power  and  moral  purity ;  and  al- 
 though the  higher  sjiiritual  features  of 
 this  image  liave  been  defaced  by  sin,  suf- 
 ficient remains  in  intellect,  personality,  do- 
 minion over  the  lower  orders  of  creation 
 and  a  profound  sense  of  immortality  to 
 attest  the  grandeur  of  his  being.  As  to 
 our  Lord  Christ,  he  is  "  God  manifest 
 in  the  flesh"  (1  Tim.  3  :  16),  "in  whom 
 dwelleth  all  the  fullness  of  the  Godhead 
 bodily"  (Col.  2:  9). 
 
 Im-man'u-el  [God  with  ns],  a  pro- 
 phetic distinctive  title  of  Messiah,  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Isa.  7  :  14 ;  lilatt.  1  : 
 23). 
 
 Im-mor-taPi-ty,  the  perpetuity  of 
 existence  after  it  has  once  begun.  Whether 
 the  doctrine  can  or  cannot  be  proved  apart 
 from  revelation,  it  has  in  revelation  itself 
 an  emphatic  and  authoritative  statement 
 (1  Cor.  15  :  54,  55;  2  Tim.  1  :  10). 
 
IMPUTATION— INK,   INKHORN. 
 
 259 
 
 Iin-pu-ta''tion,  placing  to  one's  ac- 
 count (Ps.  32  :  2;  Kom.  4  :  5-13;  5  :  12- 
 19;  Philemon  18).  The  spiiitual  unity 
 of  Adam  and  each  of  his  descendants  is 
 such  that  to  every  human  being  sin  is 
 imputed.  This  imputed  sin  may  be  for- 
 given, and  is  forgiven  to  every  human 
 being  who  by  faith  is  united  to  the  sec- 
 ond Adam,  "the  Lord  from  heaven." 
 The  spiritual  unity  of  our  Lord  Christ 
 and  his  people  is  such  that  every  be- 
 liever in  him  through  the  imputation 
 of  his  spotless  righteousness  is  delivered 
 from  the  guilt  and  power  and  misery  of 
 sin,  and  is  entitled  "to  an  inheritance  in- 
 corruptible and  undefiled,  and  that  fadeth 
 not  away"  (1  Pet.  1  :  4). 
 
 In''cense,  the  compound  of  frankin- 
 cense and  other  aromatic  gums  wliich  in 
 the  worship  of  Jehovah,  on  the  morning 
 and  evening  of  each  day,  was  burned  on 
 the  "altar  of  incense"  in  the  tabernacle, 
 and  afterward  the  temple  (Ex.  30  :  7,  8, 
 34,  35).  .  The  preparation  of  it  for  com- 
 mon use  was  positively  forbidden,  neither 
 could  any  other  composition  be  ofFeied  as 
 incense  on  the  golden  altar,  nor  could  the 
 prescribed  incense  be  offered  by  any  but 
 the  priest.  The  morning  incense  was  of- 
 fered when  the  lamps  were  trimmed  in  the 
 Holy  Place,  and  before  the  sacrifice,  when 
 the  watchman  set  for  the  purpose  announced 
 the  dawn  of  day.  When  the  lamps  were 
 lighted  "  between  the  evenings,"  after  the 
 evening  sacrifice  and  before  the  drink-of- 
 ferings were  offered,  incense  was  again 
 burnt  on  the  golden  altar,  which  stood 
 before  the  veil  separating  the  Holy  Place 
 from  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  throne  of  God 
 (Rev.  8  :  4).  When  the  priest  entered  the 
 Holy  Place  with  the  incense,  all  the  people 
 were  removed  from  the  temple  and  from 
 between  the  porch  and  the  altar.  Pro- 
 found silence  was  observed  among  the 
 congregation  who  were  praying  without 
 (Luke  1  :  10).  At  a  signal  from  the  pre- 
 fect the  priest  cast  the  incense  on  the  fire, 
 
 and  bowing  reverently  toward  the  Holy 
 of  Holies  retired  slowly  backward.  The 
 offering  of  "incense  has  formed  a  part  of 
 the  religious  ceremonies  of  most  ancient 
 nations. 
 
 In'di-a.  This  word  occurs  twice  in 
 the  book  of  Esther,  and  nowhere  else  in 
 the  Scriptures  (Esth.  1:1;  8:9).  The 
 king  "Ahasuerus  reigned  from  India  to 
 Ethiopia."  The  India  here  spoken  of  in- 
 cluded no  more  of  the  present  India  than 
 the  districts  around  the  Indus — the  Pun- 
 jab and,  it  may  be,  Scinde. 
 
 In-gath^er-ing,  Feast  of.  See 
 Feast. 
 
 In-her'it-ance.  In  Eastern  coun- 
 tries the  portions  of  children  were  often 
 distributed  to  them  by  the  father  during 
 his  lifetime.  Abraham  gave  all  he  had 
 to  Isaac  (Gen.  24  :  36).  The  father  in 
 the  parable  divided  his  living  with  his 
 two  sons,  as  if  the  practice  were  not  un- 
 common (Luke  15  :  12).  The  laws  of 
 inheritance  among  the  Hebrews  were 
 very  simple.  Land  might  be  mortgaged, 
 but  could  not  be  alienated  ;  the  only  per- 
 manent right  to  real  estate  was  by  lineal 
 succession.  The  eldest  son  had  a  double 
 portion.  Females  had  not  territorial  pos- 
 session ;  if  a  man  left  no  sons,  his  daugh- 
 ters inherited,  but  on  condition  of  not 
 marrying  out  of  that  family  of  the  tribe 
 to  which  the  deceased  father  belonged. 
 If  a  man  left  no  children  at  all,  his  heirs 
 were  determined  by  the  statute  in  Num. 
 27  :  8-11.  Personal  property  only  could 
 be  distributed  at  will.  Real-estate  being 
 so  strictly  tied  up,  the  notion  of  heirship, 
 as  we  understand  it,  was  hardly  known  to 
 the  Jews.  Succession  was  a  matter  of  riglit 
 and  not  of  favor.  The  references  to  wills 
 in  the  New  Testament  (Heb.  9  :  17)  are 
 borrowed  from  the  usages  of  Greece  and 
 Rome,  whence  the  custom  was  introduced 
 into  Judsea. 
 
 In-iq^ui-ty.    See  Sin. 
 
 Ink,  Inkhorn.    See  Writing. 
 
260 
 
 INN— ISAAC. 
 
 Eastern  Caravanserai  or  Inn. 
 
 Inn.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered 
 literally  signifies  "a  lodging-plaoe  for  the 
 night."  Inns,  in  our  sense  of  the  term, 
 were,  as  they  still  are,  unknown  in  the 
 East,  where  hospitality  is  religiously  prac- 
 ticed. The  khans  or  caravanserais  nre  the 
 representatives  of  European  inns,  and  tiiese 
 were  established  but  gradually.  The  halt- 
 ing-place of  a  caravan  was  selected  orig- 
 inally on  account  of  its  proximity  to 
 water  or  pasture,  by  which  the  travelers 
 pitched  their  tents  and  passed  the  night. 
 Such  was  undoubtedly  the  "  inn  "  at  which 
 occurred  the  incident  in  the  life  of  Moses 
 narrated  in  Ex.  4  :  24.  On  the  more  fre- 
 quented routes,  remote  from  towns  (Jer. 
 9:2),  caravanserais  were  in  course  of 
 time  erected,  often  at  the  expense  of  the 
 Avealthy.  These  caravanserais  were  large 
 and  substantial  buildings,  Avhich  furnished 
 lodging-places  for  men  and  animals,  but 
 not  provisions. 
 
 In-spi-ra^tion  [a  breothinf}  rntol,  the 
 term  expressive  of  the  special  influence  of 
 God's  Spirit  upon  the  minds  of  the  writers 
 in  the  production  of  the  Scriptures  of  truth 
 (2  Tim.  3  :  16;  2  Pet.  1  :  20,  21).  Such 
 an  origin  of  the  Scriptures  invests  them 
 with  an  absolute  certainty  and  an  inftilli- 
 ble  atithority. 
 
 In-ter-ces'sion,  the  act  of  interpos- 
 ing in  behalf  of  another,  to  plead  for  him 
 
 (Isa.  53  :  12;  Rom.  8  :  34).  The  inter- 
 cession of  our  Lord  Christ,  the  "great 
 High  Priest  that  is  passed  into  the  hea- 
 vens" (Heb.  4  :  14),  is  righteous,  or  found- 
 ed on  justice  and  truth  (Heb.  7  :  26),  com- 
 passionate (Heb.  2  :  17),  perpetual  (Hel). 
 7  :  25),  efficacious  (1  John  2:1). 
 
 Iron,  mentioned  with  brass  (copper) 
 as  the  earliest  of  known  metals  (Gen. 
 4  :  22).  As  it  is  generally  found  in 
 combination  with  oxygen,  the  working 
 or  forging  of  it  by  Tubal-Cain  implies 
 a  knowledge  of  smelting.  The  natural 
 wealth  of  Canaan  is  indicated  by  de- 
 scribing the  land  as  "  a  land  whose  stones 
 are  iron  "  (Deut.  8  :  9).  The  book  of  Job 
 indicates  that  iron  was  a  metal  well  known 
 (Job  28  :  2;  40  :  18).  The  furnace  of  iron 
 (Deut.  4  :  20;  1  Kings  8  :  51)  is  a  figure 
 which  vividly  expresses  hard  bondage  as 
 represented  by  the  severe  labor  attendant 
 upon  the  operation  of  smelting. 
 
 Ir-She'mesh  [city  of  the  Sun],  a  city 
 of  Dan,  near  Zorah  and  Eshtaol  (Josh. 
 19:41\  idi-ntical  with  Beth-Shemesh 
 (which  see). 
 
 I'saac  [laughter],  the  son  whom  Sarah, 
 in  accordance  with  the  divine  promise,  bore 
 to  Abraham  in  the  hundredth  year  of  his 
 age,  at  Gerar.  In  his  infancy  he  became 
 the  object  of  Ishmael's  jealousy,  and  in 
 his   vouth    the   victim,    in    intention,   of 
 
ISAIAH— ISHMAEL. 
 
 261 
 
 Abraliam's  great  sacrificial  act  of  faith. 
 When  forty  years  old  he  married  Re- 
 bekah,  his  cousin,  by  whom,  wlien  he 
 was  sixty,  he  had  two  sons,  Esau  and 
 Jacob.  In  his  seventy-fiftli  year  he  and 
 his  brother  Isiimael  buried  their  father 
 Abraham  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah.  He 
 became  immensely  wealthy  in  flocks  and 
 herds.  At  tlie  age  of  one  liundred  and 
 eighty  years  he  died,  and  was  buried  by 
 his  two  sons  in  the  same  capacious  sepul- 
 clire  where  his  father  and  niotlier  and 
 wife  had  already  been  laid  to  rest.  Isaac, 
 in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  was  a  quiet  and 
 peaceful  man.  Retiring  in  habit  and  gen- 
 tle in  disposition,  he  lived  a  secluded  and 
 meditative  life.  To  him  ambition  seems 
 to  have  been  unknown ;  in  him  appear 
 the  mild  and  modest  qualities  of  submis- 
 sion, docility,  resignation. 
 
 I-sai'ah  \_salvation  of  Jehovali],  son  of 
 Amoz,  the  great  prophet  who  prophesied 
 "  concerning  Judah  and  .Jerusalem  in  the 
 days  of  Uzziah,  Jotliam,  Ahaz  and  Heze- 
 kiah,  kings  of  Judah"  (Isa.  1:1).  At 
 the  close  of  Hezekiah's  reign  and  the  be- 
 ginning of  Manasseh's,  Isaiah  must  have 
 been  an  old  man,  between  eighty  and 
 ninety  years.  According  to  tradition,  he 
 was  sawn  asunder  in  a  trunk  of  a  tree  by 
 order  of  Manasseh,  to  which  a  reference 
 is  supposed  to  be  made  in  Heb.  11  :  37. 
 The  book  of  his  prophecies  consists  of 
 two  great  sections — the  first  embracing 
 the  first  tliirty-nine  chapters,  and  reflect- 
 ing the  prophet's  relations  to  public  af- 
 fairs ;  the  second  embracing  the  last  twen- 
 ty-seven chapters,  and  containing  a  close- 
 ly-connected series  of  the  most  spiritual 
 disclosures  touching  the  future  history  of 
 God's  people  under  the  Messiah.  This 
 second  part  is  analogous  to  the  last  speeches 
 of  Moses  in  the  fields  of  Moab,  and  to  the 
 last  speeches  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples 
 as  related  by  John.  Above  all  other 
 prophets  Isaiah  stands  pre-eminent,  as 
 well  in  the  contents  and  spirit  of  his  pre- 
 
 dictions as  also  in  their  form  and  style. 
 Simplicity,  clearness,  sublimity  and  fresh- 
 ness are  the  never-failing  characters  of  his 
 prophecies.  The  spiritual  riches  of  the 
 prophet  are  strikingly  apparent  in  the 
 variety  of  his  style,  which  always  befits 
 the  subject.  When  he  rebukes  and  threat- 
 ens, his  language  resembles  the  rush  and 
 roar  of  a  storm ;  when  he  comforts  and 
 soothes,  his  words  are  as  soft  and  persua- 
 sive as  a  mother's  to  her  frightened  child. 
 He  is  a  born  and  a  thorouglily-tx-ained 
 poet. 
 
 Ish-bo'sheth  [waji  of  sliame],  the 
 youngest  of  Saul's  four  sons,  and  liis  legit- 
 imate successor,  being  the  only  son  who 
 survived  him  (2  Sam.  2-4).  He  was  thirty- 
 five  years  of  age  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  but 
 for  five  years  Abner  was  engaged  in  re- 
 storing the  dominion  of  the  house  of 
 Saul  (2  Sam.  3:10).  The  death  of  Ab- 
 ner deprived  the  house  of  Saul  of  its  last 
 remaining  support.  Ishbosheth  was  as- 
 sassinated by  two  Beerothites,  Baana  and 
 Rechab,  who  took  liis  head  to  David  in 
 hope  of  reward,  but  who  received  there- 
 for a  stern  rebuke  and  an  instant,  igno- 
 minious death  (2  Sam.  4  :  5-12). 
 
 Isli'ma-el  \_heard  of  God],  the  name 
 of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Abraham  by  Hagar  the 
 Egyptian,  born  when  Abraham  was  eighty- 
 six  yeare  old  (Gen.  16  :  15,  16).  When 
 some  sixteen  years  of  age,  for  disrespect 
 to  the  child  Isaac,  and  perhaps  to  the 
 child's  mother,  he  was  sent  away  with 
 his  mother  from  Abraham's  household, 
 and  became  a  roamer  of  the  desert.  "  His 
 mother,"  we  are  told,  "  took  him  a  wife  out 
 of  the  land  of  Egypt "  (Gen.  21 :  21 ).  This 
 wife  was  the  mother  of  twelve  sons  and  a 
 daughter  (Gen.  25  :  12-18;  28  :  9).  The 
 daughter  became  tlie  wife  of  Esau,  and  the 
 twelve  sons  the  progenitors  of  the  Arab 
 nation.  The  term  Ishmaelite  occurs  in 
 Gen.  37  :  25,  27,  28 ;  39  :  1 ;  Judg.  8  :  24 ; 
 Ps.  83  :  6. 
 
262 
 
 ISLAND,  ISLE— ITHAMAR. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Nethaniah,  a  perfect  mar- 
 vel of  craft  and  villainy,  whose  treachery 
 forms  one  of  the  chief  episodes  of  the  pe- 
 riod immediately  succeeding  the  first  fall 
 of  Jerusalem.  His  exploits  are  related 
 in  Jer.  40  :  7-16  ;  41  :  1-18.  His  full  de- 
 scription is,  "  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Netha- 
 niah, the  son  of  Elishama,  of  the  seed- 
 royal  "  of  Judah  (Jer.  41  :  1 ;  2  Kings 
 25  :  25). 
 
 Isl'and,  Isle.  The  geographical  def- 
 inition of  an  island  is  a  tract  of  land  de- 
 tached from  the  main  land  and  entirely 
 surrounded  by  water.  In  this  sense  the 
 word  is  probably  used  in  Esth.  10  :  1, 
 where  the  "isles  of  the  sea"  are  put  in 
 opposition  to  the  continent  or  main  land. 
 The  word  translated  "  island "  will  not 
 always  bear  this  strict  geographical  mean- 
 ing. It  often  denotes  simply  dry  land,  in 
 opposition  to  water,  as  in  the  phrase,  "  I 
 will  make  the  rivers  islands"  (Isa.  42  : 
 15) ;  and  the  coast-country  of  Tyre  is 
 meant  by  "the  isle"  in  Isa.  23  :  2,  6.  The 
 word  was  also  used  by  the  Hebrews  to  de- 
 note all  the  countries  divided  from  them 
 by  the  sea.  Thus  in  Isa.  11  :  11,  after  an 
 enumeration  of  the  countries  on  their  own 
 continent,  all  foreign  ones  are  included  in 
 the  expression,  "  the  islands  of  the  sea ;" 
 so  also  Isa.  42  :  10 ;  59  :  18,  and  various 
 other  places. 
 
 Is''ra-el  \_prince  or  prevailer  ivUh  Godi, 
 the  name  given  to  Jacob  after  his  success- 
 ful wrestle  with  the  angel  at  Mahanaim, 
 or  Peniel  (Gen.  32:  1,  2,  24-30).  This 
 name  of  the  patriarch  has  other  applica- 
 tions. The  Hebrews  were  called  Israel 
 (Ex.  4  :  22)  and  Israelites  (Josh.  3  :  17), 
 as  descending  from  Jacob.  In  later  times, 
 when  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  two,  the 
 kingdom  which  embraced  the  ten  tribes 
 was  called  Israel  to  distinguish  it  from 
 the  kingdom  of  Judah  (1  Kings  12 :  19-24). 
 The  kingdom  of  Israel  lasted  two  hundred 
 and  fifty-four  years,  from  b.  c.  975  to  b.  c. 
 721,  about  two-thirds  of  the  duration  of 
 
 its  more  compact  neighbor,  Judah.  It 
 had  nineteen  kings,  one  less  than  the 
 kingdom  of  Judah.  In  the  New  Testa- 
 ment the  name  Israel  is  applied  to  all 
 true  believers  (Gal.  6  :  16). 
 
 Is^sa-char  Ireward],  the  fifth  son  of 
 Jacob  and  Leah  (Gen.  30  :  17,  18),  and 
 the  head  of  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel. 
 The  only  incident  of  his  pci^sonal  history 
 recorded  in  Scripture  is  the  fact  that  he 
 was  the  father  of  four  sons  (Gen.  46  :  13). 
 The  tribe  of  Issachar  when  it  left  Egypt 
 was  the  fifth  in  numerical  force,  but  by 
 its  increase  in  the  wilderness  it  became 
 the  third,  Judah  and  Dan  alone  outrank- 
 ing it  (Num.  1,  26).  The  allotment  of 
 territory  to  this  tribe  in  Palestine  em- 
 braced the  most  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
 and  the  neighboring  districts,  the  finest 
 agricultural  section  of  the  country,  bound- 
 ed on  the  ea.st  by  the  Jordan,  on  the  north 
 by  Zebulun,  on  the  west  and  south  by  Ma- 
 nasseh.  Among  its  towns  were  Megiddo, 
 Taanach,  Shunem,  Jezreel,  Bethshan,  and 
 the  villages  of  Endor,  Apliek  and  Ibleam, 
 all  historical  names.  Witli  so  fertile  a  ter- 
 ritory the  tribe  was  naturally  attracted  to 
 agriculture,  and  its  descriptive  prophecy 
 by  the  dying  Jacob  (Gen.  49  :  14,  15)  was 
 fulfilled  in  its  patient  industry  and  pro- 
 ductive toil.  The  tribe  is  commended 
 for  its  wisdom  and   prudence   (1   Chron. 
 
 12  :  32),  and,  although  fond  of  peaceful 
 pursuits,  never  shrank  from  any  military 
 service  to  which  it  was  properly  sum- 
 moned (Judg.  5  :  15). 
 
 It'a-ly.  This  word  is  used  in  the 
 New  Testament  (Acts  18:2;  27  :  1 ;  Heb. 
 
 13  :  24)  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  period — 
 that  is,  in  its  true  geographical  sense,  as 
 denoting  the  whole  natural  peninsula  be- 
 tween the  Alps  and  the  Straits  of  Mes- 
 sina. 
 
 Ith'a-mar,  the  youngest  son  of  Aaron 
 (Ex.  6  :  23).  After  the  deatlis  of  Nadab 
 and  Abihu  (Lev.  10  :  1)  he  and  his  broth- 
 er Eleazar  succeeded  to  the  priestly  office 
 
ITTAI— IZHAR. 
 
 263 
 
 (Ex.  28  :  1,  40,  43 ;  Num.  3  :  3,  4 ;  1  Chron. 
 24  :  2). 
 
 Ittai,  the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  "  Ittai  the  Gittite,"  a  native  of  Gath 
 and  a  Philistine  in  the  array  of  King  Da- 
 vid (2  Sam.  15  :  19).  At  the  outbreak  of 
 Absalom's  rebellion  he  gave  a  conspicu- 
 ous proof  of  his  loyalty  to  King  David, 
 and  was  entrusted  with  the  command 
 of  a  third  part  of  the  king's  forces  (2 
 Sam.  18  :  2,  5,  12). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Ribai,  from  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
 min, one  of  the  thirty  heroes  of  David's 
 guard  (2  Sam.  23  :  29).  | 
 
 It-u-rsB^a,  a  small  province  of  Syria,  j 
 on  the  northern  border  of  Bashan,  deriv- 
 ing its  name,  as  is  supposed,  from  Itur  or 
 Jetur,  one  of  Ishmael's  sons  (Gen.  25  :  15 ; 
 1  Chron.  1 :  31).  It  became  the  possession 
 of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh.  The  name 
 seems  still  to  be  preserved  in  the  present 
 Jedur,  which,  lying  south  of  Damascus 
 and  north  of  the  Huuran,  occupies  the 
 same  portion  of  country,  and  consists  of 
 table-land  with  an  undulating  surface, 
 covered  in  the  northern  part  with  jagged 
 basaltic  rocks.  At  the  beginning  of  our 
 Lord's  ministry  it  belonged  to  the  te- 
 trarchy  of  Philip,  son  of  Herod  the 
 Great  (Luke  3:1). 
 
 I^vah,  a  city  in  Babylonia,  mentioned 
 as  having  been  subdued,  in  spite  of  its 
 gods,  by  the  Assyrian  power  (2  Kings 
 18  :  34 ;  19:13;  Isa.  37  :  13).  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  with  the  Ahava  of 
 Ezra  (Ezra  8  :  15,  21,  31),  the  modern  Hit. 
 See  Ahava. 
 
 I^vory,  the  substance  of  the  tusk  of 
 the  elephant.  It  is  remarkable  that  no 
 word  in  biblical  Hebrew  denotes  an  ele- 
 phant, unless  the  latter  portion  of  the  woi'd 
 rendered  "ivory"  [shen-habbim,  found  in  1 
 Kings  10  :  22  and  2  Chron.  9  :  21)  be  sup- 
 posed to  have  this  meaning.  Sir  Henry 
 Rawlinson  mentions  a  word  habba,  which 
 he  met  with  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions, 
 and  which  he  understands  to  mean  "  the 
 
 large  animal,"  the  term  being  applied 
 both  to  the  elephant  and  the  camel. 
 There  is,  however,  an  old  Egyptian  term 
 ebii  (apparently  the  same  as  the  Coptic 
 ebros,  "an  elephant"),  which  in  the  plural 
 and  with  the  Hebrew  article  before  it 
 would  be  ha-ebbim  or  kabbim,  "elephants." 
 The  Assyrians  appear  to  have  carried 
 on  a  great  traffic  in  ivory.  Their  early 
 conquests  in  India  had  made  them  famil- 
 iar with  it,  and  (according  to  one  render- 
 ing of  Ezek.  27  :  6)  their  artists  supplied 
 the  luxurious  Tyrians  with  carvings  in 
 ivory  from  the  isles  of  Chittim.  Many 
 specimens  of  Assyrian  carving  in  ivory 
 have  been  found  in  the  excavations  at 
 Nimrud,  and  among  the  rest  some  tablets 
 richly  inlaid  with  blue  and  opaque  glass, 
 lapis  lazuli  and  the  like.  Part  of  an  ivory 
 staff,  apparently  a  sceptre,  and  several  en- 
 tire elephants'  tusks  were  discovered  by 
 Mr.  Layard.  Among  the  merchandise  of 
 Babylon,  enumerated  in  Rev.  18  :  12,  are 
 included  "  all  manner  vessels  of  ivgry." 
 
 The  skilled  workmen  of  Hiram,  king 
 of  Tyre,  fashioned  the  great  ivory  throne 
 of  Solomon  and  overlaid  it  with  pure 
 gold  (1  Kings  10:18;  2  Chron.  9: 
 17).  The  ivory  thus  used  was  supplied 
 either  by  the  caravans  of  Dedan  (Isa.  21  : 
 13;  Ezek.  27  :  15)  or  by  the  navy  of  Tar- 
 shish  (1  Kings  10  :  22).  The  ivDry  house 
 of  Ahab  (1  Kings  22  :  39)  was  probably  a 
 palace,  the  walls  of  which  were  paneled 
 with  ivory,  like  the  palace  of  Menelaus 
 described  by  Homer  in  the  Odyssey.  Beds 
 inlaid  or  veneered  with  ivory  were  in  use 
 among  the  Hebrews  (Amos  6  :  4),  and,  ac- 
 cording to  Wilkinson,  among  the  Egyp- 
 tians. 
 
 Iz'har  [or/],  son  of  Kohath,  grandson 
 of  Levi,  uncle  of  Aaron  and  Moses  and 
 father  of  Korah  (Ex.  6  :  18,  21 ;  Num.  3  : 
 19 ;  16  :  1 ;  1  Chron.  6  :  2, 18).  Izhar  was 
 the  head  of  the  family  of  the  Izharites  or 
 Izeharites  (Num.  3  :  27 ;  1  Chron.  26  :  23, 
 29). 
 
264 
 
 JAAZER— JABEZ. 
 
 J. 
 
 Ja'a-zer,  more  commonly  Ja'zer,  a 
 tity  of  tlie  Amorites,  eiist  of  Jordan,  in  or 
 nearGilead  (Num.  21 :  32).  It  was  conquer- 
 ed and  assigned  to  Gad,  and  afterward  allot- 
 ted to  the  Merari  Levites  (Josh.  21  :  39). 
 In  later  times,  Jaazer  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Moabites,  and  is  repeatedly  men- 
 tioned in  the  prophetic  denunciations 
 against  Moab  (Isa.  16  :  8,  9;  Jer.  48  :  32). 
 Its  site  is  supposed  to  be  the  modern  .SVr, 
 eight  miles  west  of  Ammdn  and  fifteen 
 north  of  Hesbdn. 
 
 Ja^bal  [a  sb'eam],  the  son  of  Lamech 
 and  Adah  (Gen.  4  :  20)  and  brother  of 
 Jubal.  He  is  described  as  the  father  of 
 such  as  dwell  in  tents  and  have  cattle. 
 
 Jabbok. 
 
 Jab''bok  [pouring'],  a  stream  of  water 
 on  the  east  of  Jordan,  taking  its  rise  in 
 the  mountains  of  Gilead,  and  after  a 
 course  of  about  sixty  miles  falling  into 
 the  Jordan  about  midway  between  the 
 Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is 
 first  mentioned  in  Gen.  32  :  22,  and  after- 
 ward lus  the  boundary  between  the  Amor- 
 
 ites and  Ammonites  (Num.  21  :  23,  24).  It 
 is  now  called  Zerkci,  the  Blue  River.  Its 
 voliune  of  water  is  nmch  smaller  in  sum- 
 mer than  in  winter,  and  it  is  not  more 
 than  thirty  feet  broad.  It  has  cut  through 
 Gilead  a  narrow  channel-way,  and  as  it 
 nears  the  Jordan  plunges  into  a  very  deep 
 ravine,  whose  high  banks  are  fringed  with 
 thickets  of  cane  and  oleander. 
 
 Ja'besh  [dry],  or  Ja'besh-Gir- 
 e-ad,  a  city  of  Gilead  belonging  to  the 
 half-tribe  of  Mana.sseh,  situated  on  a 
 mountain  east  of  the  Jordan.  Because 
 its  inhabitants  would  not  join  in  the  cru- 
 sades against  Benjamin,  the  whole  male 
 population  was  destroyed,  and  four  hun- 
 dred virgins  were  seized  in  order  to 
 be  given  in  marriage  to  the  renmant 
 of  the  Benjamites  ( Judg.  21 :  8-14). 
 It  subsequently  sustained  a  memo- 
 rable siege  by  the  Ammonites,  and 
 when  nearly  reduced  to  extremity 
 was  released  by  Saul,  who  brought 
 a  sufficient  force  to  raise  the  siege. 
 This  exploit  confirmed  Saul's  sover- 
 eignty (1  Sam.  11 :  12),  and  strongly 
 attached  the  inhabitants  of  Jabcsh- 
 Gilead  to  Saul's  person.  After  the 
 disastrous  battle  of  Gilboa,  when  the 
 bodies  of  the  dead  king  and  liis  three 
 sons  were  nailed  to  the  wall  of  Bcth- 
 shan,  a  bold  troop  of  its  people  made 
 a  forced  night-march,  took  down  the 
 bodies  and  with  every  demonstration 
 of  grief  gave  them  burial  ( 1  Sam.31  : 
 8-13). 
 
 Ja'bez  [afflicter],  a  descendant  of  Ju- 
 dah  who  is  described  as  "  more  honorable 
 than  his  l)rethrcn  "  (1  Chron.  4:  9),  though 
 who  they  were  is  not  ascertainable.  He 
 "  called  on  the  God  of  Israel "  in  a  prayer 
 which  is  recorded,  and  which  was  fully  an- 
 swered.     Jabez   is,   also,  the   name  of  a 
 
JABIN— JACOB. 
 
 265 
 
 place  inhabited  by  scribes  (Kenites  and 
 Rechabites),  1  Chron.  2  :  55. 
 
 Ja'bin  [discemer],  the  name  of  two 
 kings. 
 
 1.  A  king  of  the  Canaanitish  city  of 
 Hazor,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all 
 the  princes  who  reigned  in  Canaan  at  the 
 time  of  the  Conquest  (Josh.  11  :  1-14). 
 He  organized  a  confederacy  of  the  north- 
 ern princes  against  the  Israelites,  but  the 
 allied  forces  were  surprised  by  Josliua  at 
 the  waters  of  Merom  and  utterly  routed. 
 During  the  wars  that  followed  his  city  was 
 burned  by  Joshua. 
 
 2.  A  king  of  Hazor  whose  general,  Si- 
 sera,  was  defeated  by  Barak  ( Judg.  4  :  2, 
 13-16). 
 
 Jab^neel  ^God  builds'},  a  town  on  the 
 border  of  .Judah,  occupied  by  the  Philis- 
 tines, and  under  the  name  of  Jabneh 
 dismantled  by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  26  :  6). 
 It  is  now  called  Jebna.  Its  site  is  on  a 
 hill  two  miles  from  the  sea  and  eleven 
 south  of  Jaffii. 
 
 Jab^neh,  the  same  as  Jabneel. 
 
 Ja'chin  [iTe  estaUishetK]  and  Boaz 
 [  in  Him  is  strength'} ,  the  names  of  two  bronze 
 columns,  the  former  on  the  south,  the  latter 
 on  the  north,  set  up  in  the  porcli  of  Solo- 
 mon's temple  (1  Kings  7  :  15-22 ;  2  Chron. 
 3  :  17),  and  doubtless  of  symbolical  import. 
 At  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar these  pillars  were  broken  to 
 pieces,  and  their  material  was  carried  to 
 Babylon  (2  Kings  25  :  13;  Jer.  52  :  17). 
 
 Ja'cinth,  a  precious  stone  forming  one 
 of  tlie  foundations  of  the  walls  of  the  New 
 Jerusalem  (Rev.  21  :  20).  It  is  a  red  va- 
 riety of  zircon,  which  is  found  in  square 
 prisms  of  a  white,  gray,  red,  reddish- 
 brown,  yellow  or  pale-green  color.  The 
 expression  "  of  jacinth "  in  Rev.  9:17, 
 applied  to  the  breastplate,  is  descriptive 
 simply  of  a  hyacinthine  or  dark-purple 
 color. 
 
 Ja''cob  [siipplanterl,  the  second-born 
 of  the  twin  sons   of  Isaac  by  Rebekah. 
 
 He  was  born  when  his  father  was  fifty- 
 nine  and  liis  grandfather  one  hundred  and 
 fifty-nine  years  old.  He  bought  the  birth- 
 right from  his  brother  Esau,  and  after- 
 ward, at  his  mother's  instigation,  acquired 
 the  blessing  intended  for  Esau  by  prac- 
 ticing a  well-known  deceit  on  Isaac. 
 Hitherto,  the  two  sons  had  shared  the 
 wanderings  of  their  father  in  the  south 
 country,  but  now  Jacob,  in  his  seventy- 
 eighth  year,  was  sent  from  the  family 
 home  to  avoid  his  brother  and  to  seek  a 
 wife  among  his  kindred  in  Padan-Aram. 
 As  he  passed  through  Bethel,  God  ap- 
 peared to  him.  After  the  lapse  of  twen- 
 ty-one years  he  returned  from  Padan- 
 Aram  with  two  principal  wives,  two  sub- 
 ordinate wives,  eleven  sons  and  a  daugh- 
 ter, and  a  very  large  property.  By  the 
 interposition  of  God  lie  escaped  from  the 
 angry  pursuit  of  Laban,  from  a  hostile 
 meeting  with  Esau  and  from  the  ven- 
 geance of  the  Canaanites  provoked  by 
 the  murder  of  Shechem ;  and  in  sign  of 
 God's  grace,  won  in  a  night  of  wrestling 
 prayer,  his  name  was  changed  at  Jabbok 
 into  Israel.  At  Hebron,  in  the  one  hun- 
 dred and  twenty-second  year  of  his  age, 
 he  and  Esau  buried  their  fatlier  Isaac. 
 Joseph,  his  favorite  son,  had  been  sold 
 into  Egypt  eleven  years  before  the  death 
 of  Isaac,  and  had  passed  in  Egypt  the 
 long  interval  of  twenty  years  before  Ja- 
 cob, in  the  one  hundred  and  thirtieth  year 
 of  his  age,  was  summoned  to  the  banks  of 
 the  Nile.  In  the  land  of  Goshen  he  led  a 
 prosperous  and  peaceful  life  for  seventeen 
 years ;  and  then,  after  pronouncing  on  Jo- 
 seph's children  a  remarkable  prophetic 
 blessing,  died  in  his  one  hundred  and 
 forty-seventli  year.  His  body  was  em- 
 balmed, carried  with  great  pomp  into  the 
 land  of  Canaan  and  buried  in  the  cave  of 
 Machpelah  with  the  remains  of  his  fathers. 
 In  natural  gifts  Jacob  seems  to  have  been 
 less  richly  endowed  than  his  brother  Esau, 
 but  in  his  later  years  he  was  converted  by 
 
266 
 
 JADDUA— JAMES. 
 
 the  grace  of  God  into  a  fine  specimen  of 
 the  disciplined,  enlightened,  conscientious, 
 prayerful,  trusting  man.  lie  who  in  early 
 life  had  been  known  as  a  practicer  of  sub- 
 tle devices,  as  a  timid  and  treacherous 
 "  supplanter,"  confronted  death  at  last  as 
 a  "  princely  prevailer  with  God "  and  as 
 a  prophet  commissioned  to  utter  the  mes- 
 sages of  God  to  his  remotest  posterity. 
 
 Jad'du-a  [known'],  the  son  of  Jona- 
 than, and  the  last  high  priest  mentioned 
 in  the  Old  Testament  (Neh.  12  :  11,  22). 
 
 Ja'el,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite. 
 In  the  headlong  rout  which  followed  the 
 defeat  of  the  Canaanites  by  Barak,  Sisera, 
 abandoning  his  chariot  the  more  easily  to 
 avoid  notice,  fled  unattended  to  the  tent 
 of  the  Kenite  chieftainess.  He  accepted 
 Jael's  invitation  to  enter,  and  she  flung  a 
 mantle  over  him  as  he  lay  wearily  on  the 
 floor.  He  asked  for  water,  and  was  served 
 with  a  preparation  of  curdled  milk,  a  favor- 
 ite beverage  to  this  day  with  the  Arab  tribes. 
 With  a  feeling  of  perfect  security  he  resign- 
 ed iiimself  to  a  sound  sleep,  when  Jael  took 
 one  of  the  great  wooden  pins  wliich  fasten- 
 ed down  the  cords  of  the  tent,  and,  grasp- 
 ing in  her  right  hand  the  mallet  used  to 
 drive  it  into  the  ground,  with  one  terri- 
 ble blow  dashed  it  through  Sisera's  tem- 
 ples deep  into  the  earth  (Judg.  5  :  27). 
 She  then  waited  to  meet  the  pursuing 
 Barak,  and  led  him  into  her  tent,  that 
 she  might  in  his  presence  claim  the  glory 
 of  the  deed. 
 
 Jah,  a  contraction  for  Jehovah  (Ps. 
 68  :  4). 
 
 Ja'haz  [trodden  down},  called  elsewhere 
 Jahaza,  Jaliazah  and  .Jahzah,  a  (^ity  beyond 
 tlie  Jordan  and  north  of  the  Arnon,  where 
 Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  was  defeated 
 by  the  Israelites  (Num.  21  :  23,  24).  It 
 was  afterward  a  Levitical  city  (.Tosh.  21  : 
 36).  It  is  mentioned  in  the  denunciation 
 of  Moab  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  (15  :  4) 
 and  liy  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (48  :  34). 
 
 Ja'ir  [He  enlightens],  the  name  of  seve- 
 
 ral men,  of  whom  two  only  need  be  men- 
 tioned. 
 
 1.  A  man  who  on  his  father's  side  was 
 descended  from  Judah,  and  on  his  mother's 
 from  Manasseh.  During  the  Contjuest  he 
 took  the  whole  of  the  tract  of  Argou  ( Deut. 
 3  :  14),  and  in  addition  possessed  himself 
 of  some  nomad  villages  in  Gilcad,  which 
 he  called  after  liis  own  name  IIavoth- 
 Jair  (Num.  32  :  41  ;  1  Chron.  2  :  23). 
 
 2.  "  Jair  the  Gileadite,"  who  judged  Is- 
 rael for  two-and-twenty  years  (-Judg.  10  : 
 3-5).  He  had  thirty  sons,  who  rode  thir- 
 ty asses  and  possessed  thirty  cities  in  tlie 
 land  of  Gilead,  which,  like  those  of  their 
 namesake,  were  called  Havoth-.Jair. 
 
 Jai'rus,  an  otherwise  unknown  ruler 
 of  the  synagogue  at  Capernaum,  whose 
 only  daughter  our  Lord  restored  to  life 
 (Mark  5:  22;  Luke  8  :41). 
 
 Jam'bres.    See  Jan'nes  and  Jam'- 
 
 BRES. 
 
 James,  the  name  of  two,  and  perhaps 
 three,  persons  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  James  the  son  of  Zebedee,  one  of 
 the  twelve  apostles.  We  first  hear  of  him 
 in  a.  d.  27,  when  Zebedee,  a  fisherman 
 (Mark  1  :  20),  was  out  on  the  Sea  of 
 Galilee  with  his  two  sons,  James  and 
 John,  and  some  boatmen.  He  was  en- 
 gaged in  his  customary  occupation  of 
 fishing,  and  near  him  was  another  boat 
 belonging  to  Simon  and  Andrew,  witli 
 whom  he  and  his  sons  were  in  partner- 
 ship. Finding  themselves  unsuccessful, 
 the  occupants  of  both  boats  came  a-shore 
 and  began  to  wash  their  nets.  At  this 
 time  Jesus,  the  new  Teacher,  appeared 
 uj)on  the  beach,  and  at  his  call  they  left 
 boats  and  nets  and  became  once  and  for 
 ever  his  disciples  and  fishers  of  men.  In 
 the  spring  of  A.  d.  28,  James  wsis  called 
 to  the  apostleship  (Matt.  10  :  2;  Mark  3  : 
 17  ;  Luke  0:14;  Acts  1  :  13).  With  one 
 exception  (Luke  9 :  28),  the  name  of  James 
 is  put  before  that  of  John,  and  twice  (Mark 
 5  :  37 ;  Matt.  17  :  1)  John  is  described  as 
 
JAMES,  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF— JAPHETH. 
 
 267 
 
 "the  brother  of  James,"  implying  that 
 James  was  the  elder.  On  the  night  be- 
 fore our  Lord's  crucifixion  he  was  pres- 
 ent at  the  agony  in  the  garden.  On  the 
 day  of  the  ascension  he  is  mentioned  as 
 persevering  with  the  rest  of  the  apostles 
 in  prayer  (Acts  1  :  13).  Shortly  before 
 the  passover  in  A.  d.  44  he  was  put  to 
 death  by  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  12  : 
 1,2). 
 
 2.  James  the  son  of  Alph^us,  one 
 of  the  twelve  apostles  (Matt.  10:  3;  Mark 
 3:18;  Luke  6:15;  Acts  I  :  13).  His 
 motlier's  name  was  Mary  (Matt.  27  :  56 ; 
 Mark  15  :  40).  He  is  called  James  TftE 
 Less,  or  Little,  either  as  being  younger 
 than  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  or  on  ac- 
 count of  his  low  stature  (Mark  16  :  1 ; 
 Luke  24  :  10).  It  is  much  disputed 
 whether  this  James  is  the  same  with 
 "James  the  Lord's  brother"  (Gal. 
 1  :  19),  but  the  express  title  of  apostle 
 given  to  him  in  tliis  last  passage,  as  well 
 as  in  1  Cor.  15  :  7,  seems  decisive  as  to 
 their  identity,  no  other  James,  except 
 "James  the  brother  of  John,"  being 
 mentioned  among  the  twelve.  At  some 
 time  in  the  forty  days  that  intervened  be- 
 tween the  resurrection  and  the  ascension 
 our  Lord  appeared  to  him  (1  Cor.  15  :  7). 
 He  succeeded  James  the  brother  of  John 
 in  the  care  of  the  church  in  Jerusalem. 
 According  to  tradition,  lie  was  thrown 
 down  from  the  temple  by  the  scribes  and 
 Pharisees ;  he  was  then  stoned  and  his 
 brains  dashed  out  by  a  fuller's  club. 
 
 3.  James  the  brother  of  the  Lord 
 (Gal.  1  :  19).  This  .James  is  supposed  by 
 many  to  be  distinct  from  James  the  son 
 of  Alphseus.  In  the  preceding  section  the 
 chief  argument  for  the  identity  of  the  two 
 is  stated. 
 
 James,  the  General  Epistle  of, 
 written  by  James  the  son  of  Alphseus, 
 otlierwise  James  the  Less  and  .James  the 
 brother  of  the  Lord.  It  was  written  from 
 Jerusalem,  which  the  author  seems  never 
 
 to  have  left,  and  to  Christians  in  general, 
 mayliap  to  Jewish  Christians  in  especial, 
 with  design  to  teach  the  great  essential 
 principles  of  a  sound  morality.  It  has 
 often  been  alleged  that  between  the  teach- 
 ings of  this  Epistle  and  those  of  the  apos- 
 tle Paul  in  resiaect  to  justification  by  faith 
 there  is  an  irreconcilable  difference,  but 
 the  allegation  becomes  altogether  pointless 
 wlien  the  objects  of  the  two  writers  are 
 considered.  Paul,  in  his  Epistles,  opposes 
 the  Judaizing  party  which  claimed  to  earn 
 the  divine  accejrtance  by  good  works.  H§ 
 maintains  that  the  divine  acceptance  can- 
 not be  earned  by  man  at  all,  but  is  God's 
 free  gift  to  the  Christian  man  for  the  sake 
 of  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  appropriated 
 by  each  individual  and  made  his  own  by 
 the  instrumentality  of  faith.  On  the  other 
 hand,  James  opposes  the  old  Jewish  tenet 
 that  to  be  a  child  of  Abraham  was  all  in 
 all — that  if  one's  belief  was  correct,  godli- 
 ness was  not  necessary.  He  teaches  that 
 faith  is  a  thoroughly  active  and  energetic 
 principle,  and  vindicates  its  reality  and 
 God's  grace  in  the  gift  of  it  by  doing,  and 
 not  simply  hearing  the  word  (.James  1 :  22, 
 27  ;  2  :  15-18). 
 
 Jan^nes  and  Jam'bres,  the  names 
 of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who  opposed 
 Moses.  Of  the  sacred  writers  Paul  alone 
 mentions  them  by  name,  and  says  no  more 
 than  that  they  "withstood  Moses,"  and 
 that  their  folly  in  doing  so  became  mani- 
 fest (2  Tim.  3  :  8,  9).  Whether  they  were 
 named  in  some  book,  now  lost,  relating 
 to  the  early  history  of  the  Israelites,  or 
 whether  they  sur'«fived  in  some  veritable 
 oral  tradition  respecting  them,  cannot  be 
 determined. 
 
 Ja'pheth  [unde-spreading],  one  of  the 
 three  sons  of  Noah,  mentioned  last  in  or- 
 der (Gen.  5  :  32 ;  6  :  10 ;  7:13;  9  :  18 ; 
 10  :  1 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  4),  yet  not  the  young- 
 est, whicli  Ham  seems  to  have  been  (Gen. 
 9  :  24) ;  but  either  the  eldest,  according  to 
 our  Authorized  Version  (Gen.  10  :  21),  or 
 
268 
 
 JAPHO— JEALOUSY. 
 
 the  second-born,  as  most  interpreters  of 
 Scripture  liold.  lie  was  born  one  hun- 
 dred years  before  tlie  Flood.  Tlie  de- 
 scendants of  Japlietli  occupied  the  "  isles 
 of  the  (Jentiles"  (Gen.  10:5) — that  is, 
 the  coast-lands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
 in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  whence  they 
 spread  northward  over  the  whole  conti- 
 nent of  Europe  and  a  considerable  por- 
 tion of  Asia. 
 
 Ja^pho  (Josh.  19  :  46).     See  Joppa. 
 
 Ja'reb,  mentioned  in  Hos.  5  :  13;  10: 
 6  as  a  "  king,"  but  more  likely  the  name 
 of  some  city  of  jVssyria,  or  another  name 
 of  Assyria  itself.  The  verbal  root  of  the 
 word  means  "  to  fight,"  and,  as  the  Assyr- 
 ian inscriptions  show,  the  history  of  As- 
 syria was  a  perpetual  warfare. 
 
 Ja'red  [^descent'\,  one  of  the  antedi- 
 luvian patriarchs,  the  fifth  from  Adam, 
 son  of  Mahalecl  and  father  of  Enoch 
 (Gen.  5:15,  16,  18,  19,  20;  Luke  3: 
 37). 
 
 Jar^muth  [lieiciht],  a  town  in  the  low 
 country  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  35).  Its 
 king,  PiRAM,  was  one  of  the  five  who 
 conspired  to  punish  Gibeon  for  having 
 made  alliance  with  Israel  (Josh.  10:3,  5), 
 and  who  were  routed  at  Bethhoron  and 
 put  to  death  by  Joshua  at  Makkedah 
 (Josh.  10  :  23).  Its  site  is  probably  the 
 modern  Yarmuk. 
 
 Ja^sher,  Book  of  (that  is,  "the  book 
 of  the  upright"),  a  record  alluded  to  in 
 two  idissages  only  of  the  Old  Testament 
 (Josh.  10  :  13  and  2  Sam.  1 :  18),  and  con- 
 sequently the  subject  of  much  discussion. 
 It  was  probably  an  anthology  of  ancient 
 songs  written  in  praise  of  upright  men. 
 
 Ja-sho'be-am  \_lhe  people  returnl, 
 one  of  David's  worthies  (2  Sam.  23  : 
 8;  1  Chron.  11:11).  He  came  to  David 
 at  Ziklag.  His  distinguishing  exploit  was 
 that  he  slew,  according  to  one  account, 
 three  hundred,  according  to  another  eight 
 hundred,  men  at  one  time. 
 
 Ja^SOn,  that  Thessalonian  who  enter- 
 
 tained Paul  and  Silas,  and  who  in  conse- 
 quence was  attacked  by  the  Jewish  mob 
 (Acts  17  :  5,  6,  7,  9).  He  is  probably  the 
 same  as  the  Jason  mentioned  in  Eom.  16: 
 21  as  a  companion  of  the  apostle,  and  one 
 of  his  kinsmen  or  fellow-tribesmen.  It  is 
 conjectured,  too,  that  Jason  and  Secundus 
 (Acts  20  :  4)  were  the  same. 
 
 Jas'per,  a  precious  stone  frequently 
 noticed  in  Scripture.  It  was  the  last  of 
 the  twelve  inserted  in  the  high  priest's 
 breastplate  (Ex.  28  :  20;  39  :  13),  and  the 
 first  of  the  twelve  used  in  the  foundations 
 of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Kev.  21 :  19).  The 
 characteristics  of  the  stone,  so  far  as  they 
 are  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Rev.  4:3; 
 21:11),  correspond  more  nearly  to  those  of 
 the  chalcedony,  a  dark-green  stone  of  the 
 quartz  family. 
 
 Javan,  the  name  of  the  fourth  son  of 
 Japhet  (Gen.  10  :  2),  geographically  used 
 as  follows : 
 
 1.  A  designation  sometimes  for  Ionia 
 (Isa.  66:19;  Ezek.  27:13);  sometimes 
 for  the  Macedonian  empire  (Dan.  8  :  21 ; 
 10:20;  11  :  2,  where  the  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion renders  it  Grsecia) ;  and  sometimes 
 for  the  Grseco-Syrian  empire  (Zech.  9:13, 
 where  our  Authorized  Version  renders  it 
 Greece).  It  thus  signifies  Grajcia,  Greece, 
 or  the  Greek  race  generally. 
 
 2.  A  town  in  Southern  Arabia  whence 
 the  Phoenicians  brought  "  bright  iron,"  or 
 steel  for  sword-blades  (Ezek.  27  :  19).  The 
 reference  in  Joel  3  :  6  is  probably  to  this 
 place. 
 
 Jave'lin.    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Ja'zer.     See  Jaazkr. 
 
 JeaPous-y,  in  its  common  accepta- 
 tion, denotes  a  strong  and  intense  feeling 
 awakened  by  suspicion  of  infidelity  or  un- 
 faithfulness in  one  beloved.  Tlic  Orientals 
 appear  to  have  been  particularly  suscepti- 
 ble of  this  feeling,  and  among  them  espe- 
 cially it  was  "the  rage  of  a  man"  (Prov. 
 6  :  34).  The  word  is  frequently  em- 
 ployed to  express  God's  indignation  and 
 
JEBUS— JEHOAHAZ. 
 
 269 
 
 wrath  against  such  as  defraud  him  of  the 
 glory  due  to  his  majesty.  He  is  a  jealous 
 God,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  dis- 
 honor done  to  his  name  by  idolatry  (Ex. 
 20  :  3-5).  So  also  the  prophets  were  jeal- 
 ous for  God's  honor  (1  Kings  19  :  10),  and 
 the  apostle  Paul  expresses  himself  as  jeal- 
 ous lest  the  Corinthians  should  be  seduced 
 from  their  faithfulness  to  Christ  (2  Cor.  11  : 
 2,3). 
 
 The  "jealousy-offering"  (Num.  5  :  18), 
 or  water  of  jealousy,  refers  to  a  very  sin- 
 gular ordeal  through  which  a  woman  was 
 compelled  to  pass  who  was  under  suspi- 
 cion of  adultery,  the  particulars  of  which 
 are  recorded  in  Num.  5  :  11-31.  Unlike 
 the  ordeals  which  have  been  adopted  by 
 half-civilized  or  barbarous  nations  to  de- 
 tect guilt,  and  which  subjected  the  inno- 
 cent as  well  as  the  guilty  to  extreme  suf- 
 fering, this  was  under  divine  direction, 
 and  it  affected  none  but  those  who  were 
 pointed  out  as  guilty  by  a  manifest  mir- 
 acle. 
 
 Je'bus,  the  name  of  the  ancient 
 Canaanitish  city  which  stood  on  Mount 
 Zion,  one  of  the  hills  on  which  Je- 
 rusalem was  built  (Josh.  15  :  8 ;  18: 
 16,  28).  In  Judg.  19  :  10  it  is  identified 
 with  Jerusalem,  and  in  1  Chron.  11  :  4,  5, 
 the  only  other  passage  in  which  the  name 
 occurs,  it  is  identified  with  the  castle  of 
 Zion,  subsequently  called  the  Castle  or 
 City  of  David. 
 
 Je'bu-sites,  The,  were  descended 
 from  the  third  son  of  Canaan  (Gen.  10  ; 
 16;  1  Chron.  1  :  14).  The  actual  people 
 first  appear  in  the  report  of  the  spies 
 (Num.  13  :  29).  When  Jabin  organized 
 his  rising  against  Joshua  he  sent  amongst 
 others  "to  the  Amorite,  the  Hittite,  the 
 Perizzite,  and  the  Jebusite  in  the  moun- 
 tain" (Josh.  11  :  3).  A  mountain-tribe 
 they  were,  and  a  mountain-tribe  they  re- 
 mained. "Jebus,  which  is  Jerusalem," 
 lost  its  king  in  the  slaughter  of  Bethhoron 
 (Josh.  10 : 1,  5,  26),  was  sacked  and  burned 
 
 by  the  men  of  Judah  (Judg.  1  :  21 ),  and 
 its  citadel  finally  scaled  and  occupied  by 
 David  (2  Sam.  5  :  6).  After  this  the  Jeb- 
 usites  emerge  from  the  darkness  but  once 
 in  the  person  of  Araunah  tlie  Jebusite, 
 "Araunah  the  king,"  who  appears  be- 
 fore us  in  true  kingly  dignity  in  his  well- 
 known  transaction  with  David  (2  Sam. 
 24:  23;  1  Chron.  21  :  15-27). 
 
 Jec'o-ni'ah.    See  Jehoiachin. 
 
 Jed-i-di'ah  l^darlimj  of  Jehovali],  the 
 name  bestowed,  through  Nathan  the 
 prophet,  on  David's  son  Solomon  (2 
 Sam.  12  :  25). 
 
 Jed^u-thun,  a  Levite  of  Merari's  fam- 
 ily, and  one  of  the  four  great  masters  of 
 the  temple  music  appointed  by,  David  (1 
 Chron.  16:38;  Neh.  11  :  17). 
 
 Je^gar-Sa-ha-du^tha  {the  heap  of 
 wUness],  the  name  given  to  the  heap  of 
 stones  erected  by  Laban  and  Jacob  as  an 
 evidence  of  their  covenant  that  neither 
 the  one  nor  the  other  should  pass  that 
 heap  to  his  brother's  harm.  Laban,  using 
 the  Aramaic  dialect,  gave  it  this  name,  sig- 
 nifying the  "  lieap  of  witness  ;"  Jacob  called 
 it  in  Hebrew  Galeed,  which  has  the  same 
 signification  (Gen.  31  :  47). 
 
 Je-ho'a-haz  \_Jehnvah  is  his  holder, 
 that  is,  possessor],  the  name  of  three  kings. 
 
 1 .  One  of  the  names  of  the  youngest  son 
 of  Jehoram  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  21  :  17) 
 and  father  of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  25  :  23), 
 usually  called  Ahaziah. 
 
 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehu,  the 
 twelfth  separate  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings 
 10  :  35).  He  reigned  seventeen  yeai's. 
 His  inglorious  history  is  given  in  2 
 Kings  13  :  1-9.  Throughout  his  reign 
 he  was  kept  in  subjection  by  Hazael, 
 king  of  Damascus.  He  maintained  the 
 idolatry  of  Jeroboam,  but  in  the  extrem- 
 ity of  his  humiliation  he  besought  Jeho- 
 vah, who  gave  Israel  a  deliverer,  either 
 Jehoash  (2  Kings  13  :  23,  25)  or  Jero- 
 boam II.  (2  Kings  14  :  24,  25). 
 
 3.  The  third  of  the  four  sons  of  Josiah 
 
270 
 
 JEHOASH— JEHONADAB. 
 
 by  Hamutal,  originally  called  Shallum, 
 seventeenth  separate  king  over  Judah  for 
 three  months  only.  He  was  chosen  by 
 the  people  in  preference  to  his  elder 
 brother,  but  was  deposed  by  Pharaoh- 
 Necho,  king  of  Egypt  (2  Kings  23  : 
 31-33). 
 
 Je-hO^ash,  the  uncontracted  form  of 
 JoASH  (which  see). 
 
 Je-hoi^a-chin  [Jehovah  establishesl, 
 called  also  Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  3  :  17) 
 and  CoNiAH  (Jer.  22  :  24),  was  the  son 
 and  successor  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Ju- 
 dah. His  reign  was  for  the  brief  period 
 of  three  months  and  ten  days.  He  came 
 to  the  throne  when  Jerusalem  was  de- 
 fenceless and  quite  unable  to  ofi'er  any 
 effective  resistance  to  Nebuchadnezzar's 
 army  (2  Kings  24  :  10,  11),  In  a  very 
 short  time  Jehoiachin  surrendered,  and 
 with  his  servants  and  dependants  was 
 carried  to  Babylon  (Jer.  29  :  2;  Ezek. 
 17  :  12;  19  :  9).  There  he  remained  a 
 prisoner,  actually  in  prison  and  wearing 
 prison-garments,  for  thirty-six  years,  till 
 the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  when  Evil- 
 Mcrodach,  succeeding  to  the  throne  of 
 Babylon,  brought  him  out  of  prison  and 
 made  him  sit  at  his  own  table.  Whether 
 Jehoiachin  outlived  the  two  years  of  Evil- 
 Merodach's  reign  does  not  appear,  nor 
 have  we  any  particulars  of  his  life  at 
 Babylon. 
 
 Je-hoi'a-da  \_Jehovah  acknowle(]ges],t\iQ 
 high  priest  at  the  time  of  Athaliah's  usur- 
 pation of  the  throne  of  Judah  and  during 
 the  greater  portion  of  the  forty  years'  reign 
 of  Joash.  He  married  Jehosiieba  or  Je- 
 hashebath,  daughter  of  King  Jehoram  and 
 sister  of  King  Ahaziah  (2  Chron.  22  :  11), 
 and  when  Athaliah  slew  all  the  seed-royal  of 
 Judah,  after  Ahaziah  had  been  put  to  death 
 by  Jehu,  he  and  his  wife  stole  Joash  from 
 among  the  king's  sons,  and  hid  him  for  six 
 years  in  the  temple,  and  eventually  re- 
 placed him  on  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
 tors.     Having    divided   the    priests  and 
 
 Levites  into  three  bands,  which  were 
 posted  at  the  principal  entrances,  he  pro- 
 duced the  young  king  before  the  whole 
 assembly,  and  crowned  and  anointed  him. 
 Athaliah  was  slain  amid  the  rejoicings  of 
 the  people  (2  Chron.  23  :  12-15).  The 
 destruction  of  Baal-worship  and  the  res- 
 toration of  the  temple  were  among  the 
 great  works  effected  by  Jehoiada. 
 
 Je-hoi'a-kim  [Jehovah  seln  up], 
 called  also  Eliakim,  the  second  son  of 
 Josiah  and  eighteenth  king  of  the  sepa- 
 rate kingdom  of  Judah  for  a  period  of 
 eleven  years.  After  deposing  Jehoahaz, 
 Pharaoh-Necho  set  Eliakim,  his  elder 
 brother,  upon  tlie  throne,  and  changed 
 his  name  to  Jehoiakim.  His  reign  was 
 wicked  and  inglorious ;  oppressive,  cruel, 
 exacting,  he  made  the  yoke  of  the  people 
 heavy  (2  Kings  24  :  4;  Jer.  22  :  13-19). 
 In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  he  was 
 forced  to  submit  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who 
 carried  many  of  the  people  ( among  them 
 Daniel)  and  much  spoil  to  Babylon  (Dan. 
 1  :  1,  2).  He  vainly  attempted  to  defeat 
 the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  against  him 
 by  cutting  with  a  jienknife  the  roll  on 
 which  they  were  written,  and  by  casting 
 the  pieces  into  the  fire  on  the  hearth  be- 
 fore him.  Rebelling  against  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar and  fighting  the  forces  sent  against 
 him,  he  came  to  a  violent  death  in  the 
 eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  either  in  a 
 skirmish  or  by  the  hand  of  his  own  op- 
 pressed subjects,  who  thought  to  concil- 
 iate the  Babylonians  by  the  murder  of 
 tiieir  king.  His  body  was  cast  out  igno- 
 miniously  on  the  ground,  and,  after  ex- 
 posure for  some  time,  was  dragged  away 
 and  buried  "  with  the  burial  of  an  ass," 
 without  pomp  or  lamentation,  "  beyond 
 the  gates  of  Jerusalem"  (Jer.  22  :  18,  19; 
 36  :  30). 
 
 Je-hon'a-dab  [Jehovah  indies'],  con- 
 tracted form  JoNADAB,  the  son  of 
 Rechab,  founder  of  the  Rechabites, 
 who   held   themselves   bound   by   a   vow 
 
JEHOEAM— JEHOSHAPHAT. 
 
 271 
 
 to  abstain  from  wine  and  never  to  re- 
 linquish the  nomadic  life  (Jer.  35  :  6- 
 19).  Eechab  belonged  to  a  branch  of 
 the  Kenites,  the  Arabian  tribe  which 
 entered  Palestine  with  the  Israelites  (1 
 Chron.  2  :  55).  One  settlement  of  them 
 was  established  at  or  near  the  town  of 
 Jabez  in  Judah.  To  these  last  belonged 
 Rechab  and  his  son  .Tehonadab.  The 
 Bedouin  habits,  which  were  kept  up  by 
 the  other  branches  of  the  Kenite  tribe, 
 were  inculcated  by  Jehonadab  with  the 
 utmost  minuteness  on  his  descendants 
 (Jer.  35  :  6).  Bearing  in  mind  this  gen- 
 eral character  of  Jehonadab  as  an  Arab 
 chief  and  the  founder  of  a  half-religious 
 sect,  we  are  the  better  able  to  under- 
 stand the  single  historical  occasion  on 
 which  he  appears  before  us.  After  the 
 slaughter  of  the  shearing-house  (2  Kings 
 10  :  14),  Jehu  was  advancing  on  the  city 
 of  Samaria  when  he  suddenly  met  the 
 austere  Bedouin  coming  toward  him  (2 
 Kings  10  :  15).  The  king  was  in  his 
 chariot,  the  Arab  was  on  foot.  After 
 friendly  greeting,  Jehu  whispered  to  Je- 
 honadab his  secret  purpose  to  destroy  tlie 
 worshipers  of  Baal,  and  asked  the  co-ope- 
 ration of  the  chief,  which  was  promptly 
 granted.  He  acted  in  concert  with  Jehu 
 throughout,  but  the  only  occasion  on  Avhich 
 he  is  expressly  mentioned  is  when  (prob- 
 ably from  his  previous  knowledge  of  the 
 secret  worshipers  of  Jehovah)  he  went 
 with  Jehu  through  the  temjile  of  Baal 
 to  turn  out  any  that  there  might  Iiappen 
 to  be  in  the  mass  of  pagan  worshipers  (2 
 Kings  10  :  23). 
 
 Je-ho'ram  [Jehovah-exalted'],  con- 
 tracted form  JoBAM,  the  name  of  two 
 kings. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  who 
 succeeded  his  brother  Ahaziah,  B.  c.  896, 
 and  died  b.  c.  884.  The  alliance  between 
 the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  enter- 
 ed into  by  his  father  and  Jelioshaphat 
 was  very  close  throughout  his  reign.    He 
 
 was  a  weak  and  wicked  man  (2  Kings  3  : 
 1-3).  After  an  inglorious  and  troubled 
 reign  he  was  slain  by  Jehu,  the  general 
 of  his  army,  at  Jezreel,  and  on  the  very 
 plot  of  ground  which  Ahab  his  father, 
 instigated  by  his  infamous  mother  Jeze- 
 bel, had  wrested  from  Naboth,  thus  ful- 
 filling to  the  letter  the  prophecy  of  Elijah 
 (1  Kings  21  :  21-29;  2  Kings  9  :  25). 
 
 2.  Eldest  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  succeeded 
 his  father  on  the  throne  of  Judah  at  the 
 age  of  thirty-two,  and  reigned  eight  years, 
 from  B.  c.  893-2  to  885-4.  As  soon  as  he 
 was  settled  on  the  throne  he  put  his  six 
 brothers  to  death,  with  many  of  the  chief 
 nobles  of  the  land.  Then,  at  the  instance, 
 jjrobably,  of  his  wife  Athaliah,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Ahab,  he  proceeded  to  establish  the 
 worship  of  Baal.  Ilis  whole  reign  was  a 
 series  of  calamities.  First,  the  Edomites, 
 who  had  been  tributary  to  Jehoshaphat, 
 revolted  and  established  their  permanent 
 independence.  Next,  Libnah,  one  of  the 
 strongest  fortified  cities  in  Judah  ( 2  Kings 
 19  :  8),  rebelled  against  him.  Then  fol- 
 lowed invasions  of  armed  bands  of  Phil- 
 istines and  of  Arabians,  who  stormed  his 
 palace,  slew  all  his  wives  and  all  his  chil- 
 dren except  Ahaziah  (2  Chron.  22  : 1),  and 
 plundered  all  his  treasures.  He  died  of  a 
 terrible  disease  (2  Chron.  21 :  19,  20)  early 
 in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  brother-in-law 
 Jehoram's  reign  over  Israel. 
 
 Je-hosh'a-phat  [Jehopah-jndged], 
 the  fourth  separate  king  of  Judah,  son 
 and  successor  of  Asa.  He  ascended  the 
 throne  B.  c.  914,  at  the  age  of  thirty-five, 
 and  he  reigned  twenty-five  years.  He  was 
 contemporary  with  Ahab,  Ahaziah  and 
 Jehoram.  At  first  he  strengthened  him- 
 self against  Israel  by  fortifying  and  gar- 
 risoning the  cities  of  Judah  and  the 
 Ephraimite  conquests  of  Asa.  But  soon 
 afterward  the  two  Hebrew  kings,  perhaps 
 appreciating  the  common  danger  from 
 Damascus  and  the  tribes  on  their  eastern 
 frontier,   formed  an  alliance.      Jehosha- 
 
272 
 
 JEHOSHAPHAT,   VALLEY  OF— JEHU. 
 
 phat's  eldest  son,  Jehoram,  married  Atha-  [ 
 liah,  the  daugliter  of  Aliab  and  Jezebel. 
 In  his  own  kingdom  Jeliosliaphat  ever 
 showed  himself  a  zealous  follower  of  the 
 commandments  of  God.  Riches  and  hon- 
 ors increased  around  him.  He  received 
 tribute  from  the  Philistines  and  Arabians, 
 and  kept  up  a  large  standing  army  in  Je- 
 rusalem. He  attempted,  without  success, 
 to  institute  a  foreign  commerce,  but  most 
 of  his  plans  to  advance  his  country's  in- 
 terests and  most  of  his  wars  were  emi- 
 nently successful.  His  history  in  a  con- 
 tinuous narrative  is  found  in  2  Chron. 
 17-21. 
 
 Je-hosh^a-phat,  VaPley  of,  the 
 name  given  to  the  valley  east  of  Jerusa- 
 lem which  separates  the  city  from  the 
 Mount  of  Olives,  and  which  is  properly 
 the  Valley  of  the  Kidron.  The  only  ref- 
 erence in  Scripture  to  "  the  valley  of  Je- 
 hoshaphat"  is  in  Joel  3  :  2,  12;  and  the 
 identification  of  this  valley  with  the  nar- 
 row valley  or  rocky  ravine  along  which 
 the  Kidron  flows  has  no  better  ground 
 than  the  tradition  widely  spread  in  the 
 East,  among  Jews,  Christians  and  Mo- 
 hammedans, that  the  Last  Judgment  is 
 to  be  held  here.  The  sense  of  the  pas- 
 sage in  Joel  is  simply  an  affirmation  that 
 Jehovah  will  certainly  judge  the  nations 
 who  have  injured  and  oppressed  his  peo- 
 ple. 
 
 Je-hosh'e-ba  [Jehovah  is  his  oalhl, 
 daughter  of  Joram  king  of  Israel  and  wife 
 of  Jehoiada,  the  high  priest  (2  Kings  11  : 
 2).  Her  marriage  is  tlie  only  recorded  in- 
 stance of  the  marriage  of  a  princess  of  the 
 royal  house  with  a  high  priest. 
 
 Je-hosh'u-a  [Jehovah  is  scdvation]. 
 In  this  form  is  given  the  name  of  Joshua 
 in  Num.  13  :  16. 
 
 Je-ho'vah  [self-exi4ence],  a  Scrip- 
 ture name  of  the  Supreme  Being,  com- 
 monly rendered  Lord  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version.  The  word  was  held  in  pe- 
 culiar veneration  by  the  Jews,  who,  in  the 
 
 reading  of  the  sacred  book,  never  pro- 
 nounced it,  but  substituted  for  it  wher- 
 ever it  occurred  the  term  Adonai.  See 
 God. 
 
 Je-ho'vah-Ji'reh  [Jehovah  will  see 
 or  provide^  the  name  given  by  Abraham 
 to  the  place  on  which  he  had  been  com- 
 manded to  offer  Isaac,  to  commemorate  the 
 interposition  of  the  Angel  of  Jehovah,  who 
 appeared  to  prevent  the  sacrifice,  and  who 
 provided  another  victim  (Gen.  22:  14). 
 
 Je-ho'vah-Nis'si  [Jehovah  is  my 
 banner],  tlie  name  given  by  Moses  to  the 
 altar  which  he  built  in  commemoration 
 of  tlie  discomfiture  of  the  Amalekites  by 
 Joshua  and  his  chosen  warriors  at  Reph- 
 idim  (Ex.  17  :  1.5).  The  significance  of 
 the  name  is  probably  contained  in  the  al- 
 lusion to  the  stafT  which  Moses  held  in 
 his  hand  as  a  banner  during  the  engage- 
 ment. 
 
 Je-hc'vah-ShaPom  [Jehovah  gives 
 peace'},  the  altar  erected  by  Gideon  in 
 Ophrah,  and  so  called  in  memory  of  the 
 salutation  addressed  to  him  by  the  angel 
 of  Jehovah,  "Peace  be  unto  thee"  (Judg. 
 i  6  :  24). 
 
 Je-ho-vah-Sliain'mah  [Jehovah  is 
 ;  there],  the  symbolical  title  conferred  by 
 Ezekiel  upon  the  spiritual  Jerusalem  seen 
 in  vision  (Ezek.  48  :  35). 
 
 Je-ho'vah-Tsid-Ken'u  [Jehovah  is 
 our  righteousness'],  an  epithet  applied  by 
 the  prophet  Jeremiah  to  the  Messiah,  and 
 likewise  to  Jerusalem,  as  symbolical  of  the 
 spiritual  prosperity  of  God's  people  in  the 
 Christian  dispensation  (Jer.  23  :  6;  33  : 
 16). 
 
 Je'hu  [Jehovah  is  he],  the  name  of 
 a  king  and  of  a  prophet. 
 
 1.  The  eleventh  king  of  the  separate 
 kingdom  of  Israel  and  the  founder  of  the 
 fifth  dynasty.  He  reigned  twenty-eight 
 years  (2  Kings  9  :  2  ;  2  Chron.  22  :  7-9). 
 In  his  youth  he  had  been  one  of  tlie  guards 
 of  Ahab.  His  first  appearance  in  history 
 is  when,  with  a  comrade-in-arms,  Bidkar, 
 
JEPHTHAH. 
 
 27S 
 
 Jie  rode  behind  Ahab  on  the  fatal  journey 
 from  Samaria  to  Jezreel,  and  heard  the 
 warning  of  Elijah  against  the  murderer 
 of  Naboth  (2  Kings  9  :  35).  He  had  al- 
 ready been  known  to  Elijah  as  a  youth  of 
 promise,  and  accordingly  in  the  vision  of 
 Horeb  he  is  mentioned  as  the  future  king 
 of  Israel,  whom  Elijah  is  to  anoint  as  the 
 minister  of  vengeance  on  Israel  ( 1  Kings 
 19  :  16,  17).  This  injunction,  for  reasons 
 unknown  to  us,  Elijah  never  fulfilled;  it 
 was  reserved  for  his  successor,  Elisha. 
 Meantime,  in  the  reigns  of  Ahaziah  and 
 Jehoram,  Jehu  had  risen  to  prominence. 
 Under  the  last-named  king  he  was  captain 
 of  tlie  host  in  the  siege  of  Ramoth-Gilead. 
 Whilst  in  the  midst  of  the  officers  of  the 
 besieging  army  a  youth  of  wild  appear- 
 ance suddenly  entered  (2  Kings  9  :  4-10) 
 and  insisted  on  a  private  interview  with 
 him.  They  retired  into  a  secret  chamber. 
 The  youth  uncovered  a  vial  of  the  sacred 
 oil,  which  he  iiad  brought  with  him,  poured 
 it  over  Jehu's  head,  and  after  announcing 
 to  him  the  message  from  Elisha  that  he 
 was  appointed  to  be  king  of  Israel  and 
 destroyer  of  the  house  of  Ahab,  rushed 
 out  of  the  house  and  disappeared.  Jehu's 
 countenance,  as  he  re-entered  the  assembly 
 of  officers,  showed  that  some  strange  tid- 
 ings had  reached  him.  He  tried  at  first 
 to  evade  their  questions,  but  then  revealed 
 the  situation  in  which  he  found  himself 
 placed  by  the  prophetic  call.  In  a  mo- 
 ment the  enthusiasm  of  the  army  took 
 fire.  They  threw  their  garments  under 
 his  feet,  so  as  to  form  a  rough  carpet  of 
 state,  placed  him  on  the  top  of  the  stairs 
 as  on  an  extempore  throne,  blew  the  royal 
 salute  on  their  trumpets,  and  thus  ordained 
 him  king.  He  instantly  took  measures  to 
 establish  his  authority,  killed  the  king  with 
 his  own  hand  (2  Kings  9  :  24),  swept  away 
 as  with  a  whirlwind  all  the  descendants 
 of  Ahab,  together  with  tlie  officers  of  the 
 court  and  hierarchy  of  Astarte,  and  in 
 Samaria,  by  a  general  massacre  of  the 
 18 
 
 j  heathen  population  of  the  land,  fulfilled 
 I  the  predicted  doom  of  an  idolatrous  house 
 j  and  vindicated  the  majesty  of  Jehovah's 
 worship.     The  reign  thus  begun  in  vio- 
 lence  and  blood  was    in   the   main  pros- 
 perous, but  not  as  eventful  a.s  might  have 
 \  been  supposed.    He  was  buried  in  state  in 
 Samaria,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Je- 
 hoahaz   (2  Kings  10  :  35).     His  name  is 
 the  first  of  all  the  Israelite  kings  which 
 appears  in  the  Assyrian  monuments,  on 
 which  he  is  named  as  submitting  to  Shal- 
 maneser  II.  and  as  paying  a  tribute  con- 
 I  sisting  of  gold,  silver,  buckets  of  gold,  cups 
 I  of  gold,  bottles  of  gold,  lead  and  rods  of 
 wood  for  maces. 
 
 2.  Son  of  Hanani,  a  prophet  of  Judah, 
 but  whose  ministrations  were  chiefly  di- 
 rected to  Israel.  His  lather  was  prob- 
 ably the  seer  who  reproved  Asa,  king  of 
 Judah,  for  relying  on  the  king  of  Syria, 
 and  not  on  the  Lord  (2  Chron.  16  :  7). 
 He  must  have  begun  his  career  as  a 
 prophet  when  very  young.  He  first  de- 
 nounced Baasha  (1  Kings  16  :  1,  7),  and 
 then,  after  an  interval  of  thirty  years,  re- 
 appears to  denounce  .Jehoshaphat  for  his 
 alliance  with  Ahab  (2  Chron.  19  :  2,  3). 
 He  survived  Jehoshaphat  and  wrote  his 
 life  (2  Chron.  20  :  34). 
 
 Jeph'thah  [he,  i.  e.  God,  shall  open  or 
 deUverl,  the  ninth  judge  of  the  Israelites, 
 for  a  period  of  six  years.  He  was  an  illegit- 
 imate son  of  Gilead,  a  Manassite,  and  wa'; 
 deprived  by  his  half-brothers  of  all  share  in 
 the  inheritance  after  his  father's  death,  and 
 was  expelled  from  the  paternal  home.  He 
 retired  to  the  land  of  Tob,  beyond  the  fron- 
 tier of  the  Hebrew  territories.  Before  this 
 he  had  evidently  distinguished  himself  for 
 daring  and  skill  in  arms,  for,  when  his 
 withdrawal  from  Manasseh  was  known, 
 he  was  joined  by  a  great  number  of  des- 
 perate men,  and  he  became  their  chief. 
 His  fame  as  the  successful  leader  of  a 
 freebooting  band  reached  his  native  coun- 
 try, and  so  engaged  the  attention  of  his 
 
274 
 
 JEPHUNNEH— JERICHO. 
 
 countrymen  that  when  Israel  was  threat- 
 ened by  the  Ammonites  he  was  selected 
 to  head  the  army  gathered  to  repel  them. 
 He  consented  to  accept  the  trust  on  con- 
 dition that  if  he  were  victorious  he  should 
 be  recognized  and  obeyed  as  the  chief  of 
 his  people.  He  undertook  the  hazardous 
 enterprise  with  the  strange  vow  that  when 
 he  returned  in  triumph  he  would  offer  to 
 the  Lord  whatever  met  him  first.  He 
 succeeded  in  routing  tlie  Ammonites  with 
 great  slaughter,  and,  returning  to  Mizpeh, 
 was  met  by  his  daughter  and  only  child. 
 Whether  he  sacrificed  her  as  Agamemnon 
 sacrificed  Iphigenia,  or  whether  he  sepa- 
 rated her  from  human  society,  has  been 
 much  debated,  and  cannot,  perhaps,  be 
 determined.  Before,  however,  his  domes- 
 tic grief  because  of  his  daughter  was  as- 
 suaged the  proud  tribe  of  Ephraim,  on 
 the  other  side  of  the  Jordan,  challenged 
 liis  right  to  go  to  war  with  Ammon,  as  he 
 had  done,  without  their  concurrence.  He 
 defeated  them  signally,  and  at  the  fords 
 of  the  Jordan  arrested  and  slew  forty- 
 two  thousand  fugitives.  His  history  is 
 contained  in  Judg.  11  :  1-40;  12  :  1-7. 
 
 Je-phun'neh  [having  his  way  marked 
 out],  the  father  of  Caleb  the  spy.  He  ap- 
 pears to  have  belonged  to  an  Edomitish 
 tribe  called  Kenezites,  from  Kenaz  their 
 founder  (Num.  13  :  6;  32  :  12 ;  Josh.  14  : 
 14  ;  1  Chron.  4  :  15). 
 
 Jer-e-in.i''ah  [Jehovah  eslablishesi , 
 "the  son  of  Hilkiah  of  the  priests  that 
 were  in  Anathoth"  (Jer.  1:1).  He 
 was  a  child  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (Jer. 
 1  :  6).  In  his  youth  he  was  called  to  the 
 prophetic  office,  but  during  the  eight- 
 een years  between  his  call  and  Josiah's 
 death,  or  during  the  short  reign  of  Je- 
 hoahaz,  we  hear  little  of  him.  Under 
 Jehoiakim,  b.  c.  607-597,  he  opposed  the 
 Egyptian  party  then  dominant  in  Jerusa- 
 lem, and  maintained  that  the  only  way  of 
 safety  lay  in  accepting  the  supremacy  of 
 the  Chaldseans.     He  was  accordingly  ac- 
 
 cused of  treachery,  and  men  claiming  to 
 be  prophets  had  their  "  word  of  Jeho- 
 vah" to  set  against  his  (Jer.  14  :  13;  23  : 
 7).  In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 
 the  battle  of  Carchemish  overtlirew  the 
 hopes  of  the  Egyptian  party  (Jer.  40  :  2), 
 and  the  armies  of  Nebuchadnezzar  drove 
 those  who  had  no  defenced  cities  to  take 
 refuge  in  Jerusalem  (Jer.  35  :  11).  As 
 the  danger  from  the  Chaldjeans  became 
 more  threatening,  the  persecution  against 
 Jeremiah  grew  more  bitter  (Jer.  18).  The 
 people  sought  his  life;  his  voice  rose  up  in 
 prayer  that  God  would  deliver  and  avenge 
 him.  He  went  on,  however,  in  his  work, 
 reproving  king  and  nobles  and  people. 
 After  a  period  of  delay,  and  as  the  cul- 
 mination of  national  disaster,  the  long- 
 predicted  blow  came.  The  city  of  Jeru- 
 salem was  carried  by  storm,  the  temple 
 was  burned,  and  the  people  were  borne 
 away  into  a  foreign  land  to  experience 
 all  the  ills  of  seventy  years'  captivity. 
 Where  and  when  Jeremiah  died  is  quite 
 uncertain.  One  tradition  represents  that 
 he  was  murdered  in  Tahpanhes,  Egypt, 
 by  the  Jews  who  had  escaped  thither  and 
 whom  he  had  irritated  by  rebukes ;  an- 
 other tradition  has  it  that  he  escaped  to 
 Babylon  and  died  in  peace.  His  prophe- 
 cies embrace  a  period  of  forty  years,  and 
 embody  much  of  his  personal  history. 
 The  style  is  not  so  beautiful  or  so  com- 
 pact as  that  of  Isaiah.  The  spirit  per- 
 vading all  his  utterances  is  one  of  sad- 
 ness and  sorrow.  He  sees  the  ruin  of 
 his  country  at  hand,  and  he  contemplates 
 it  with  a  breaking  heart.  But  his  eye, 
 although  at  all  times  filled  with  tears, 
 glances  occasionally  into  tlie  future,  and 
 beholds  the  glory  and  prosperity  wliich 
 are  sure  to  come  again  through  the  om- 
 nipotent grace  and  agency  of  "the  Lord 
 our  Righteousness"  (Jer.  33  :  15,  16). 
 
 Jer'i-cho  [place  of  fraffvance],  an  an- 
 cient city  in  the  Jordan  Valley  called 
 "the  city  of  palm  trees"  (Deut,  34  :  3). 
 
JEROBOAM. 
 
 275 
 
 It  lay  about  twenty  miles  north-east  from 
 Jerusalem,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan, 
 and  not  far  from  the  point  where  the  river 
 enters  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  site  was  a  fertile 
 plain,  which  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  was, 
 according  to  Josephus,  an  earthly  paradise. 
 It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
 in  connection  with  the  record  of  the  en- 
 campment of  the  Israelites  in  the  plains 
 of  Moab  over  against  it.  Then  it  was  a 
 strongly-fortified  place  with  thick  walls 
 (Josh.  2  :  15),  and  the  royal  residence  of 
 a  powerful  Canaanitish  king  (Josh.  2  :  2, 
 3).  It  was  the  first  city  in  Canaan  whicli 
 Joshua,  aided  by  a  miracle,  captured  and 
 destroyed  (Josh.  6  :  24).  Its  territory  was 
 assigned  to  Benjamin  (Josh.  16  :  7).  Here 
 Elijah  spent  his  last  days,  and  here  was  a 
 school  of  the  prophets  (2  Kings  2:4,  5, 
 15).  In  New  Testament  times  it  was 
 greatly  enlarged  and  adorned  by  Herod 
 the  Great  and  his  son  Archelaus.  It  was 
 visited  by  our  Lord,  who  wrought  here 
 the  miracle  of  restoring  two  blind  men  to 
 sight,  and  the  greater  miracle  of  recovering 
 the  soul  of  Zaccheus,  "the  chief  among  the 
 publicans,"  from  spiritual  blindness  (Luke 
 18  :  35-43 ;  19:1-9).  The  present  condi- 
 tion of  Jericho  (modern  name,  Eriha)  is 
 one  of  wretchedness  and  ruin.  The  foun- 
 tain of  Elislia  still  sends  forth  its  sweet 
 waters,  but  the  once  fertile  plain  is  a 
 waste.  The  palm  trees  have  disappeared, 
 and  where  the  proud  city  once  stood  stands 
 to-day  a  mean,  dirty  village  of  mud-hovels 
 and  black  tents  among  low  vineyards. 
 
 Jer-o-bo^am  [^advocate  of  the  people], 
 the  name  of  two  of  the  kings  of  the  sep- 
 arate kingdom  of  Israel. 
 
 1.  The  first  king  of  the  divided  king- 
 dom of  Israel.  He  was  the  son  of  Nebat, 
 an  Ephraimite.  He  was  employed  by  Sol- 
 omon in  the  fortifications  of  Millo  under- 
 neath the  citadel  of  Zion,  and  was  raised 
 to  the  rank  of  superintendent  over  the 
 taxes  and  labors  exacted  from  the  tribe  of 
 Ephraim    (1   Kings  11  :  28).      He   made 
 
 the  most  of  his  position,  ingratiating  him- 
 self with  all  whom  he  had  business  with, 
 and  especially  encouraging  the  growing 
 disaffection  toward  Solomon  of  the  great 
 and  powerful  tribe  to  which  he  belonged. 
 He  was  meditating  various  schemes  of  am- 
 bition which  floated  impalpably  and  indis- 
 tinctly before  his  mind  when  an  arresting 
 incident  gave  shape  and  strength  to  his 
 thoughts  and  plans.  Leaving,  one  day, 
 the  city  of  Jerusalem,  he  encountered  on  a 
 byway  the  prophet  Ahijah.  The  prophet 
 was  dressed  in  a  new  outer  garment,  and, 
 stripping  it  from  his  person,  he  tore  it  into 
 twelve  shreds,  ten  of  which  he  gave  to  Jer- 
 oboam, with  the  assurance  that,  on  condi- 
 tion of  his  obedience  to  the  divine  precepts, 
 God  would  establish  for  him  a  kingdom  and 
 a  dynasty  equal  to  David's  (1  Kings  11 :  29- 
 40).  Not  content  to  wait  patiently  for  the 
 death  of  Solomon,  he  began  now  to  form 
 plots  and  conspiracies  which,  prematurely 
 discovered  and  divulged,  made  it  neces- 
 sary for  him  to  flee  in  liaste  into  Egypt. 
 There  he  remained  during  the  rest  of  Sol- 
 omon's reign.  In  Egypt  he  effected  a  mar- 
 riage with  a  princess,  who  was  at  once  the 
 sister  of  Pharaoh's  queen  and  the  sister  of 
 the  wife  of  Hadad,  the  Edomite  chief,  thus 
 allying  himself,  with  admirable  political 
 sagacity,  with  the  rulers  of  such  neighbor- 
 ing nations  as  would  be  glad,  by  furthering 
 his  designs,  to  weaken  the  kingdom  which 
 under  David  and  Solomon  had  grown  al- 
 together too  formidable. 
 
 When  Solomon  died,  the  ten  northern 
 tribes,  which  had  suffered  greatly  from 
 the  late  king's  exactions,  called  Jeroboam 
 from  Egypt,  and  commissioned  him  to 
 head  a  deputation  to  Rehoboam,  Solo- 
 mon's son,  with  the  demand  for  relief 
 from  oppressive  taxes  and  for  new  secu- 
 rities against  the  evils  and  wrongs  which 
 the  people  complained  of.  The  haughty 
 and  imperious  answer  of  Rehoboam  to 
 this  deputation  made  revolt  and  revolu- 
 tion inevitable.     The  ten  tribes  by  accla- 
 
276 
 
 JERUBBAAL— JERUSALEM. 
 
 niation  chose  Jeroboam  to  be  their  sove- 
 reia^n,  and  thereupon  he  was  raised  to  the 
 throne  with  the  title  "king  of  Israel" 
 (1  Kings  12:1-20).  The  political  dis- 
 ruption of  the  late  kingdom  was  now 
 complete,  but  as  yet  its  religious  unity 
 was  unimpaired.  Jeroboam,  fearing  that 
 the  yearly  i>ilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  would 
 undo  all  the  work  he  had  accomplished, 
 established  sanctuaries  at  Dan  and  Bethel, 
 and  with  golden  calves  set  up  at  each  sanc- 
 tuary ordained  an  imposing  ritual  of  wor- 
 ship. These  sanctuaries  and  this  worship 
 continued  until  the  end  of  the  northern 
 kingdom,  and  had  the  effect  which  the 
 politic  king  desired  and  designed.  He 
 was  at  constant  war  with  the  southern 
 kingdom,  or  that  of  Judah,  but  the  only 
 battle  distinctly  recorded  was  one  with 
 Al)ijah,  son  of  Rehoboam,  in  which  Jer- 
 oboam was  signally  defeated.  lie  never 
 recovered  from  the  blow,  and  soon  after, 
 in  the  twenty-second  year  of  his  reign, 
 died  and  Avas  buried  (1  Kings  14  :  20;  2 
 Chron.  13  :  20). 
 
 2.  Jeroboam  II.,  the  son  of  Joash,  the 
 fourth  of  the  dyna.sty  of  Jehu  and  the 
 most  prosj^erous  of  the  kings  of  Israel. 
 He  repelled  the  .Syrian  invaders,  took 
 their  capital  city,  Damascus  (2  Kings  14  : 
 28 ;  Amos  1 :  3-5),  and  recovered  the  whole 
 of  the  ancient  dominion,  from  Hamath  to 
 the  Dead  Sea  (2  Kings  14  :  25;  Amos  6  : 
 14).  Ammon  and  Moab  were  reconquered 
 (Amos  1  :  13;  2  :  1-3) ;  the  trans-Jordanic 
 tribes  Avere  restored  to  their  territory  (2 
 Kings  13  :  5;  1  Chron.  5  :  17-22).  But 
 it  was  merely  an  outward  restoration. 
 Jeroboam  and  his  house,  according  to 
 the  prophecy  of  .-^mos  (7  :  9,  17),  were 
 destroyed,  and  Israel  wont  into  a  return- 
 less  captivity. 
 
 Je-rub-ba'al  [contender  with  Baal], 
 a  surname  of  Gideon,  the  judge  of  Israel, 
 given  him  in  consequence  of  his  over- 
 throw of  Baal's  altar  ( Judg.  6  :  32 ;  7  :  1 ; 
 1  Sam.  12  :  11). 
 
 Je-ru'sa-lem  [home  of  penre^,  the 
 capital  of  the  Holy  Land,  situated  on 
 the  central  chain  of  limestone  mountains 
 running  north  and  south  through  Pales- 
 tine. It  has  had,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
 several  names  and  has  received  from 
 Scripture  writers  a  number  of  descrip- 
 tive appellations. 
 
 Its  names  have  been  these:  Salem, 
 peace  (Gen.  14  :  18) ;  Jebisi,  otherwise 
 Jebus,  city  of  the  Jebumle  (Josh.  18  :  28; 
 Judg.  19  :  10) ;  Jerusalem,  foundation  or 
 habitation  of  peace  (2  Sam.  5:5);  .^LIA 
 Capitolina,  after  it  w;is  rebuilt  by  the 
 Roman  emperor  Hadrian,  from  his  own 
 name,  Publius  ^lius,  and  Capitolinus, 
 one  of  the  specific  names  of  Jupiter; 
 EL-KuDS,  the  holy,  since  its  conquest 
 and  possession  by  Mohammedan  pow- 
 ers. 
 
 Its  descriptive  appellations  by  Scripture 
 writers  have  been  these:  Ziox,  elevated 
 (Ps.  76 : 2) ;  City  of  David  (2  Sam.  5:9); 
 Ariel,  lion  of  God  (Isa.  29  :  1) ;  City  of 
 God  (Ps.  46  :  4) ;  City  of  the  Great 
 King  (Ps.  48  :  2) ;  City  of  Judah  (2 
 Chron.  25  :  28) ;  Holy  City  (Neli.  11  : 
 1) ;  City  of  Solemnities  (Isa.  33  :  20). 
 
 Of  these  names  and  descriptive  appel- 
 lations, Jerusalem  and  The  Holy  City 
 are  the  two  Avhich  have  reached  pre-emi- 
 nence and  which  have  survived  all  changes. 
 In  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
 taments the  name  Jerusale.m  is  used  eight 
 hundred  and  eighteen  times. 
 
 Jerusalem  stands  in  latitude  31°  46' 
 35'^  north,  and  longitude  35°  18^  30" 
 east  of  Greenwich.  It  is  thirty-tAvo 
 miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
 eighteen  from  the  Jordan,  tAventy  from 
 Hebrim  and  thirty-six  from  Samaria. 
 "  In  several  respects,"  says  Dean  Stanley, 
 "  its  situation  is  singular  among  the  cities 
 of  Palestine.  Its  eleA'ation  is  remarkable, 
 occasioned,  not  from  its  being  on  the  sum- 
 mit of  one  of  the  numerous  hills  of  Ju- 
 djea,  like  most  of  the  towns  and  villages. 
 
JERUSALEM. 
 
 277 
 
 Ancient  Jerusalem 
 but  because  it  is  on  the  edge  of  one  of 
 tlie  highest  table-lands  of  the  country. 
 Hebron,  indeed,  is  higher  still  by  some 
 hundred  feet,  and  from  tlie  south,  ac- 
 cordingly (even  from  Bethlehem)  the  ap- 
 proach to  Jerusalem  is  by  a  slight  descent. 
 But  from  any  other  side  the  ascent  is  per- 
 petual, and  to  the  traveler  approaching  the 
 city  from  the  east  or  west,  it  must  always 
 have  presented  the  appearance  beyond  any 
 other  capital  of  the  then  known  world — 
 we  may  say  beyond  any  important  city 
 that  has  ever  existed  on  the  earth — of  a 
 mountain-city ;  breathing,  as  compared 
 with  the  sultry  plains  of  Jordan,  a  moun- 
 tain-air; enthroned,  as  compared  with 
 Jericho  or  Damascus,  Gaza  or  Tyre,  on  a 
 mountain-fastness."  The  elevation  of  Je- 
 rusalem is  a  subject  of  constant  reference 
 and  exultation  by  the  Jewish  writers. 
 Their  fervid  poetry  abounds  with  allu- 
 sions to  its  height,  to  the  ascent  thither 
 of  the  tribes  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
 
 irora  tne  south-east, 
 try.  It  was  the  habitation  of  Jehovah 
 from  which  "  lie  looked  upon  all  the  in- 
 habitants of  tlie  world"  (Ps.  33  :  14) ;  its 
 ,  kings  were  "  higher  than  the  kings  of  the 
 I  earth"  (Ps.  89:27).  Jerusalem,  if  not 
 actually  in  the  centre  of  Palestine,  was 
 yet  virtually  so.  "  It  was  on  the  ridge," 
 says  Stanley,  "the  broadest  and  most 
 strongly-marked  ridge,  of  the  backbone 
 of  the  complicated  hills  which  extend 
 through  the  whole  country  from  the 
 plain  of  Esdraelon  to  the  desert.  Every 
 wanderer,  every  conqueror,  every  traveler, 
 who  has  trod  tlie  central  route  of  Pales- 
 tine from  north  to  south  must  have  passed 
 through  tlie  table-land  of  Jerusalem.  It 
 was  the  water-shed  between  the  streams, 
 or  rather  the  torrent-beds,  which  find  their 
 way  eastward  to  the  Jordan  and  those  which 
 pass  westward  to  the  Mediterranean." 
 
 To  convey  an  idea  of  the  position  of 
 Jerusalem  we  may  say  roughly,  and  with 
 reference  to  the  accompanying  plan,  that 
 
'I'opugiuiihy  1)1'  .loru.saleiu. 
 
 1.  Mount  Zion.  2.  Moriah.  3.  Temple.  4.  Antonia.  6.  Ophel.  7.  Bezetha.  S.  Cfitirch  of  the  Holi/ 
 Sepulchre.  9,  10.  Upper  and  Lower  Pools  of  Gihon.  11.  Bir  JEh/itb  (?  En-Rogel).  l'.'.  Pool  of  lleze- 
 kiah.  13.  MurUain  of  the  Virgin.  14.  Siloam.  15.  Pool  of  Betiiesda  (?).  16.  Mount  of  Olives.  17. 
 Gethsemane. 
 
 N.  B.— Modern  titles  are  in  Italics. 
 
JEKUSALEM. 
 
 279 
 
 the  city  occupies  the  southern  termination 
 of  a  table-land  which  is  cut  off  from  the 
 country  round  it  on  the  west,  south  and 
 east  sides  by  ravines  more  than  usually 
 deep  and  precipitous.  These  ravines 
 leave  the  level  of  the  table-land,  the  one 
 on  the  west  and  the  other  on  the  north- 
 east of  the  city,  and  fall  rapidly  until 
 they  form  a  junction  below  its  south-east 
 corner.  The  eastern  one,  the  valley  of 
 the  Kedi'on,  commonly  called  the  Valley 
 
 of  Jehoshaphat,  runs  nearly  straight  from 
 north  to  soutli.  But  the  western  one,  the 
 Valley  of  Hinnom,  runs  south  for  a  time 
 and  then  takes  a  sudden  bend  to  the  east  un- 
 til it  meets  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  after 
 which  the  two  rush  off  as  one  to  the  Dead 
 Sea.  How  sudden  is  their  descent  may  be 
 gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  level  at  the 
 point  of  junction  (about  a  mile  and  a  quar- 
 ter from  the  starting-point  of  each)  is  more 
 than  six  hundred  feet  below  that  of  the 
 
 Dome  of  the  Rock,  kuowu 
 upper  plateau  from  which  they  commen- 
 ced their  descent.  Thus,  while  on  the  north 
 there  is  no  material  difference  between  the 
 general  level  of  the  country  outside  the 
 walls  and  that  of  the  highest  parts  of  the 
 city,  on  the  other  three  sides  the  ravines 
 have  so  steep  a  fall,  are  so  trench-like  in 
 their  character  and  keep  so  close  to  the 
 promontory  at  whose  feet  they  run,  that 
 one  looking  at  them  is  more  inclined  to 
 account  them  ditches  dug  around  a  for- 
 tress than  valleys  formed  by  Nature.  The 
 promontory  thus  encircled  is  itself  divi- 
 ded by  a  longitudinal  ravine  running  up 
 it  from  south  to  north  called  the  valley 
 of  the  Tyropoeon,  which,  rising  gradually 
 
 as  ibe  Mosque  of  Oiuar. 
 from  the  south  like  the  external  ones, 
 reaches  at  last  the  level  of  the  upper 
 plateau  and  separates  the  central  mass 
 into  two  unequal  portions.  Of  these  two, 
 that  on  the  west  is  the  higher  and  more 
 massive,  and  forms  what  is  now  called 
 Mount  Zion.  The  hill  on  the  east  is  con- 
 siderably lower  and  smaller,  and  is  the  an- 
 cient Moriah.  Here  was  the  temple,  and 
 here  stands  now  the  mosque  of  Omar,  or, 
 as  Mohammedans  term  it,  the  Dome  of  the 
 Kock.  Westward  of  Moriah  and  north- 
 ward of  Zion  was  the  hill  Acra,  on  which, 
 in  the  time  of  Josephus,  stood  the  "  lower 
 city  ;"  northward  of  Moriah  and  separated 
 from  it  by  an  artificial  ditch  was  the  hill 
 
280 
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 Bezetha,  on  which,  in  the  time  of  Josephus, 
 stood  the  "  new  city." 
 
 This  rough  topographic  sketch  of  Jeru- 
 salem enables  us  to  appreciate  the  two  great 
 advantages  of  its  position.  On  the  one 
 hand  the  ravines  which  entrench  it  on  the 
 west,  south  and  east,  out  of  which  the  rocky 
 slopes  of  the  city  rise  like  the  walls  of  a  for- 
 tress out  of  its  ditches,  must  on  those  quar- 
 ters have  rendered  it  impregnable  to  the 
 warfare  of  the  Old  World.  On  the  other 
 hand,  its  junction  with  the  more  level 
 ground  on  its  north  and  north-west  sides 
 afforded  an  opportunity  of  expansion,  of 
 which  we  know  advantage  was  taken,  and 
 which  gave  it  remarkable  superiority  over 
 other  cities  of  Palestine. 
 
 Jerusalem  has  had  a  more  eventful  his- 
 tory than  any  other  city  of  the  world. 
 Coming  into  view  in  the  times  of  Abra- 
 ham, it  precedes  the  founding  of  Rome 
 by  nearly  twelve  centuries,  and  liolds  its 
 existence  through  all  the  political  con- 
 vulsions and  changes  of  thirty-eight  hun- 
 dred years.  The  residence  of 
 Melchizedek  in  remote  antiqui- 
 ty and  the  home  of  the  Jebusite 
 in  later  times,  it  was  for  twenty 
 generations  the  royal  seat  of  Da- 
 vid's line,  and  then,  with  brief, 
 occasional  intervals  of  independ- 
 ence, the  possession  successively 
 of  Babylonian,  Greek,  Roman, 
 Pei^sian,  Saracen,  Frank  and 
 Turk.  When  Rome  was  its 
 master  our  Lord  was  crucified 
 without  its  walls,  and  rising 
 from  the  dead  the  third  day  ap- 
 peared to  his  disciples  assem- 
 bled in  the  upper  room  of  one 
 of  its  houses.  Here,  in  obedi- 
 ence to  our  Lord's  command, 
 the  disciples  tarried  until  they 
 were  endued  with  power  by  the 
 descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  1  :  4,  8 ; 
 2:1-4);  here,  the  first  Christian  church 
 was  gathered  and  organized  (Acts  2  :  41- 
 
 47 ) ;  and  here  the  sword  of  persecution 
 unsheathed  against  the  Church  drove  its 
 members  abroad,  that  everywhere  and  to 
 every  creature  they  might  piiblisii  the 
 glad  tidings  of  salvation  (Acts  8  :  1-5; 
 11  :  19-21). 
 
 Of  the  city's  distinguishing  features  at 
 various  periods  of  its  history  ;  of  its  walls, 
 gates,  towers,  streets,  palaces ;  of  its  an- 
 cient splendid  temple  built  by  Solomon, 
 destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  rebuilt  by 
 Zerubbabel,  enlarged  and  adorned  by 
 Herod  the  Great,  and  again  destroyed  by 
 the  Romans  under  Titus;  of  its  modern 
 church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  first  built 
 by  Constantino  in  the  fourth  century  of 
 our  era,  destroyed  and  rebuilt  many  times 
 since ;  of  its  mosque  of  Omar  built  on  the 
 site  of  Solomon's  temple,  converted  by  the 
 Crusaders  into  a  Christian  church,  but  for 
 many  centuries  now  venerated  by  the  Mo- 
 hammedans as  one  of  the  world's  holiest 
 spots ; — of  these  and  many  other  interesting 
 particulars  it  Ls  needless  to  speak. 
 
 A  Street  in  Modern  Jerusalem. 
 
 The  Jerusalem  of  to-day  is  quite  a  small 
 town,  the  circumference  of  its  walls  being 
 only  two  and  three-quarter  miles,  and  its 
 
JERUSHA— JESUS. 
 
 281 
 
 population  about  twenty-five  thousand 
 souls.  Ten  sects  or  religions  are  estab- 
 lished in  it,  more  than  half  of  which  are 
 Christian.  As  a  city  Jerusalem  now  pre- 
 sents little  that  is  beautiful  or  attractive. 
 Its  buildings  are  of  stone,  poorly  construct- 
 ed and  perched  on  the  slope  of  the  water- 
 shed; its  flut-roofed  houses  and  dirty, 
 over-arched  lanes  are  neither  pleasing 
 nor  healthy,  and  the  hills  surrounding  it 
 are  barren  and  shapeless.  Its  eventful 
 history  and  its  ancient  glory  alone  make 
 it  what  every  Christian  traveler  confesses 
 it  to  be — the  most  fascinating  place  not 
 only  in  Palestine,  but  also  in  the  world. 
 
 Je-ru'sha  [possession],  the  wife  of 
 Uzziah  and  mother  of  Jotham,  kings  of 
 -Judah  (2  Kings  15:  32,  33). 
 
 Jesh'i-mon  [waste],  a  name  which 
 occurs  in  Num.  21  :  20  and  23  :  28  in  des- 
 ignating the  position  of  Pisgah  and  Peor, 
 both  being  described  as  "  facing  the  Jesh- 
 imon."  It  designates  the  dreary,  barren 
 waste  of  hills  lying  immediately  on  the 
 west  of  the  Dead  Sea  where  David,  when 
 a  fugitive  from  Saul,  took  refuge  for  a 
 time  (1  Sam.  23  ;  19). 
 
 Jesh'u-a  (another  form  of  the  name 
 Joshua  or  Jesus),  son  of  Jehozadak,  first 
 high  priest  of  those  after  the  Babylonish 
 captivity,  and  ancestor  of  the  fourteen 
 high  priests  who  succeeded  him  in  un- 
 broken order.  Like  his  contemporary, 
 Zerubbabel,  Jeshua  was  probably  born  in 
 Babylon,  whither  his  father  had  been 
 taken  captive  (1  Chron.  6  :  15).  He 
 came  up  from  Babylon,  in  the  first  year 
 of  Cyrus  with  Zerubbabel,  and  took  a 
 leading  part  with  him  in  rebuilding  the 
 tem{>le  and  restoring  the  Jewish  common- 
 wealth (Ezra  4:3;  5:2).  The  two 
 prophecies  concerning  him  in  Zech.  3  : 
 1-10  and  6  :  9-15  point  him  out  as  an 
 eminent  type  of  Christ. 
 
 Jesh^U-run  [dear  vpright  people],  a 
 poetical  appellation  of  Israel,  a  diminutive 
 term  of  affection  and  tenderness  fDeut.  32  : 
 
 15,  Isa.  44  :  2),  to  remind  Israel  that  up- 
 rightness in  his  people  was  what  God  de- 
 sired. 
 
 Jes'se,  the  father  of  David,  the  son 
 of  Obed  and  grandson  of  Boaz  and  the 
 Moabitess  Ruth.  Nor  was  Ruth's  the 
 only  foreign  blood  that  ran  in  his  veins, 
 for  his  great-grandmother  was  no  less  a 
 person  than  Rahab  the  Canaanite  of 
 Jericho  (Matt.  1  :  5).  Jesse  is  an  "old 
 man"  when  we  first  meet  with  him  (1 
 Sam.  17  :  12),  with  eight  sons  (1  Sam.  16: 
 10;  17:12),  residing  at  Bethlehem  (1 
 Sam.  16  :  4,  5).  When  David's  rupture 
 with  Saul  had  finally  driven  him  from 
 the  court,  and  he  was  in  the  cave  of 
 Adullam,  "his  brethren  and  all  his  fa- 
 ther's house"  joined  him  (1  Sam.  22  :  1). 
 Anxious  for  their  safety,  he  took  his  fa- 
 ther and  his  mother  into  the  country  of 
 Moab,  and  left  them  in  the  care  of  the 
 king ;  there  they  disappear  from  the  rec- 
 ords of  Scripture.  Who  the  wife  of  Jesse 
 was  we  are  not  told. 
 
 Je'sus  [Saviour],  the  Christ.  The 
 name  Jesus  is  the  proper  name  of  our 
 Lord ;  the  Cheist,  the  Messiah,  the  An- 
 ointed is  his  official  designation.  Accoi'd- 
 ing  to  the  received  chronology,  which  in 
 fact  is  that  of  Dionysius  Exiguus  in  the 
 sixth  century,  the  birth  of  Christ  occurred 
 in  the  year  of  Rome  754  (A.  d.  1) ;  but 
 from  various  considerations  it  is  now  re- 
 garded as  almost  certain  that  the  Nativity 
 took  place  some  time  before  the  month  of 
 April,  750  (b.  c.  4),  or  four  years  earlier 
 than  the  Dionysian  reckoning. 
 
 The  salutation  of  the  angel  to  Mary  his 
 mother,  "  Hail !  thou  art  highly  favored !" 
 was  the  prelude  to  a  new  act  of  divine  cre- 
 ation. Mary  received  the  announcement 
 of  a  miracle,  the  full  import  of  which  she 
 could  not  have  understood,  with  the  sub- 
 mission of  one  who  knew  that  the  message 
 came  from  God.  The  prophet  Micah  (5  : 
 2)  had  foretold  that  the  future  King  should 
 be  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judaea,  the  place 
 
282 
 
 JETHRO. 
 
 where  the  house  of  David  had  its  origin  ;  ' 
 but  Mary  dwelt  in   Nazareth.     Augustus 
 CsEsar,   however,   had   ordered   a   general  ', 
 census  or  enrollment  of  the  Roman  era-  i 
 pire,  and  in  obedience  to  this  order  Jo- 
 seph, the  future   husband   of  Mary,  and 
 Mary  herself,  both  members  of  the  house 
 of  David,  came  to  Bethlehem,  and  whilst 
 there   Mary  gave    birth   to  the   virgin's  ; 
 Son.     As  there  was  no  room  in  the  inn,  j 
 a  manger  was  the  cradle  of  the  King  of 
 kings.     But  signs  were  not  wanting  of  the  J 
 greatness  of  Him  who  in  these  lowly  cir- 
 cumstances entered  our  world.     An  angel 
 proclaimed  to  the  Bethlehem  shepherds 
 the  advent  of  the  Child-King,  and  a  great 
 choir  of  angels  broke  the  stillness  of  night 
 with  the  grand  words,  "  Glory  to  God  in 
 the   liighest,  and   on   earth  peace,  good- 
 will toward  men"  (Luke  2  :  8-20). 
 
 In  due  time  the  child  Jesus  was  circum- 
 cised and  brought  to  the  temple.  Simeon 
 and  Anna,  taught  from  God  that  the  ob- 
 ject of  their  earnest  longings  was  before 
 them,  prophesied  of  his  divine  work ;  the 
 one  rejoicing  that  his  eyes  had  seen  the 
 salvation  of  God,  and  the  other  speaking 
 of  him  "to  all  that  looked  for  redemption 
 in  Jerusalem"  (Luke  2:28-38).  Thus 
 recognized  amongst  his  own  people,  Jesus 
 the  Christ  was  not  without  witness  amongst 
 the  nations.  "  Wise  men  from  the  East " 
 — that  is,  Persian  Magi  of  the  Zend  relig- 
 ion, in  which  the  idea  of  a  coming  Re- 
 deemer was  incorporated — guided  mirac- 
 ulously by  a  star,  came  to  the  young  child 
 and  offered  him  homage.  The  visit  of  the 
 Magi  so  excited  and  exasperated  Herod  the 
 king  that  to  defeat  the  predicted  greatness 
 of  Jesus  he  ordered  the  slaughter  of  all 
 the  children  in  Bethlehem  "from  two 
 years  old  and  under;"  but  before  the  is- 
 suance of  the  order  the  wonderful  child 
 was  safe  in  Egypt,  whither,  by  divine  direc- 
 tion, his  reputed  father  had  fled  with  him. 
 
 After  the  death  of  Herod,  in  less  than 
 a  year,  Jesus  returned  with  his  parents  to 
 
 their  own  land,  and  went  to  Nazareth, 
 where  they  abode.  With  the  exception 
 of  one  event,  the  appearance  of  Jesus  in 
 the  temple  among  the  doctors  at  the  age 
 of  twelve,  we  know  nothing  of  the  first 
 thirty  years  of  his  life.  In  tliat  time 
 great  changes  had  come  over  the  Jewish 
 people.  Herod  the  Great  had  united  un- 
 der him  almost  all  the  original  kingdom 
 of  David,  but  after  his  death  that  king- 
 dom was  dismembered  for  ever.  John  the 
 Baptist,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  em- 
 peror Tiberius,  began  his  ministry,  the 
 chief  design  of  which  was  to  revive  the 
 almost  forgotten  expectation  of  the  Mes- 
 siah, and  to  bear  authoritative  testimony 
 to  "Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  son  of  Joseph," 
 as  to  Him  "of  whom  Moses  in  the  law  and 
 the  prophets  did  write"  (John  1:45). 
 John  inaugurated  our  Lord's  ministry  by 
 a  public  baptism,  and  then  disappeared 
 from  view  and  from  earth. 
 
 Our  Lord's  ministry,  if  regard  be  had 
 to  the  words  or  the  works  which  charac- 
 terized it,  was  so  manifestly  superhuman 
 as  to  be  emphatically  divine.  It  closed 
 in  the  marvelous  death  on  Calvary — that 
 crowning  act  in  which  our  merciful  and 
 faithful  High  Priest  made  "his  soul  an 
 offering  for  sin"  (Isa.  53  :  10).  On  the 
 third  day  after  his  crucifixion  he  reap- 
 peared to  his  friends  and  followers,  and 
 furnished  the  most  incontestable  evidences 
 of  his  resurrection.  After  ten  appear- 
 ances to  his  disci |)les  and  repeated  in- 
 structions as  to  their  future  life-work,  he 
 ascended  in  their  view  to  heaven,  there  to 
 abide  till  he  comes  again  to"judge  the  quick 
 and  the  dead  "  (2  Tim.  4  :  1 ;  1  Pet.  4  :  5). 
 
 Jeth'ro  [f/a/w],  a  priest  or  prince  of 
 Midian  (Ex.  3 : 1  ;  18  :  I ),  perhaps  a  priest 
 and  prince,  for  his  official  designation  car- 
 ries both  meanings,  and  both  these  offices 
 were  united  in  the  patriarchal  sheikhs  of 
 Arabia.  With  him  Moses  spent  forty 
 years  of  his  exile  from  Egypt,  and  during 
 the  time  married  his  daughter  Zipporah. 
 
JEW— JEWEL. 
 
 283 
 
 Jew.  This  name  was  properly  applied 
 to  a  subject  of  the  separate  kingdom  of 
 Judah. ,  The  term  first  makes  its  appear- 
 ance just  before  the  captivity  of  the  ten 
 tribes  (2  Kings  16  :  6).  After  the  Return 
 the  word  received  a  larger  application. 
 Partly  from  the  predominance  of  the 
 members  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Judah 
 among  those  who  returned  to  Palestine, 
 partly  from  the  identification  of  Judah 
 with  the  religious  ideas  and  hopes  of  the 
 people,  all  the  members  of  the  new  state 
 were  called  .Jews  ( Judaeans),  and  the  name 
 was  extended  to  the  remnants  of  the  race 
 scattered  throughout  the  nations  (Dan.  3  : 
 8,  12 ;  Ezra  4  :  12,  23 ;  Neh.  1:2;  2:16; 
 5:1;  Esth.  3  :  4).  Under  the  name  of 
 "Judajans"  the  people  of  Israel  were 
 known  to  classical  writers.     The  force  of 
 
 the  title  "Jew"  is  seen  particularly  in 
 the  Gospel  of  John,  who  rarely  uses  any 
 other  term  to  describe  our  Lord's  oppo- 
 nents. Indeed,  at  the  close  of  John's 
 life  the  name  appeared  to  be  the  true 
 antithesis  to  Christianity,  as  describing 
 the  limited  and  definite  form  of  a  na- 
 tional religion  ;  but  at  an  earlier  stage  of 
 the  progress  of  the  fiiith  it  was  contrasted 
 with  "Greek,"  as  implying  an  outward 
 covenant  with  God  (Eom.  1  :  16 ;  2:9, 
 10;  Col.  3  :  11),  and  marked  a  division 
 of  language  subsisting  within  the  entire 
 body.  Of  wider  application  than  Hebrew, 
 the  correlative  of  Hellenist,  it  was  yet  less 
 expressive  than  Israelite,  which  brought  to 
 view  with  special  clearness  the  privileges 
 and  hopes  of  the  children  of  Jacob  (2 
 Cor.  11  :22;  John  1  :  47). 
 
 Egyptian  Jewelry. 
 
 Jew'' el.  This  word  is  not  found  in 
 the  New  Testament  of  our  Authorized 
 Version,  but  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  its 
 singular  or  plural  form,  is  of  frequent  oc- 
 currence. It  is  the  representative  of  four 
 Hebrew  terms  which  may  be  thus  describ- 
 ed :  1.  A  term  (ne^zem)  which  has  the  gen- 
 eral sense  of  ring  (Judg.  8  :  24-26;  Job 
 
 42  :  11  ;  Prov.  25  :  12,  where  the  trans- 
 lators of  our  Authorized  Version  have 
 improperly  rendered  it  ear-ring),  and  is 
 applied  sometimes  to  a  nose-ring  (Gen.  24  : 
 47 ;  Prov.  11  :  22;  Isa.  3  :  21 ;  Ezek.  16  : 
 12),  and  sometimes  to  an  ear-ring  (Gen. 
 35  :  4;  Ex.  32  :  2,  3).  2.  A  term  ^cltali') 
 which   properly  designates   what    ^  pol- 
 
284 
 
 JEWRY— JEZREEL. 
 
 ished,  and  which  is  translated  in  Prov. 
 25  :  12  "an  ornament  of  fine  gold;"  in 
 Hos.  2  :  13  "jewels,"  with  the  sense,  prob- 
 ably, of  necklace;  and  in  Song  7:1,  "jew- 
 els," as  expressive  of  that  which  displays 
 fine  workmanship.  3.  A  term  [keli^) 
 which  describes  an  implement  or  vessel 
 of  any  kind,  as  an  article  of  silver-ware 
 or  other  precious  material  (Gen.  24  :  o3 ; 
 Ex.  3  :  22  ;  11:2;  12  :  35 ;  Num.  31  :  50, 
 51 ;  1  Sam.  6  :  8,  15;  Job  28  :  17;  Prov. 
 20  :  15),  or  as  any  elegant  trapping  or 
 piece  of  finery  in  dress  (Isa.  Gl  :  10; 
 Ezek.  16  :  39 ;  23  :  26),  4.  A  term  {segHl- 
 lah)  which  indicates  property,  treasure, 
 wealth,  as  in  Mai.  3  :  17,  but  wliich  else- 
 where (Ex.  19  :  5;  Ps.  135  :  4)  is  usually 
 rendered  "  peculiar  treasure." 
 
 Je"W^ry,  the  land  of  Judfea  is  so  call- 
 ed (Luke  23:  5). 
 
 Jez'e-bel  [c/(a.s<c],  wife  of  Ahab,  king 
 of  Israel,  and  mother  of  Athaliah,  queen 
 of  Judah,  and  of  Ahaziah  and  Joram, 
 kings  of  Israel.  She  was  a  Phoenician 
 princess,  daughter  of  "  Ethbaal,  king  of 
 the  Zidonians."  In  her  hands  her  hus- 
 band became  a  mere  puppet  (1  Kings  21  : 
 25).  The  first  effect  of  her  influence  was 
 the  immediate  establishment  of  the  Phoe- 
 nician worship  on  a  grand  scale  in  the 
 court  of  Ahab.  At  her  table  were  sup- 
 jiorted  no  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty 
 prophets  of  Baal  and  four  hundred  of  As- 
 tarte  (1  Kings  16  :  31,  32;  18  :  19).  The 
 prophets  of  Jehovah,  who  up  to  this  time 
 had  found  their  chief  refuge  in  the  north- 
 ern kingdom,  were  attacked  by  her  orders 
 and  put  to  the  sword  (1  Kings  18  :  13 ;  2 
 Kings  9  :  7).  When  at  last  the  people,  at 
 the  instigation  of  Elijah,  rose  against  lier 
 ministers  and  slaughtered  them  at  the  foot 
 ofCarmel,and  when  Ahab  was  terrified  into 
 submission,  she  was  openly  defiant  and  re- 
 lentless. In  the  afllair  of  Naboth  she  took 
 the  matter  into  her  own  hands,  wrote  a  war- 
 rant in  Ahab's  name  and  sealed  it  with  his 
 seal,  and  when  her  wicked  scheme   was 
 
 accomplished  bade  her  weak  husband 
 seize  the  vacant  property  (livings  21: 
 1-24).  She  survived  Ahab  for  fourteen 
 years,  and  still,  as  queen-mother,  was  a 
 great  personage  in  the  court  of  her  sons, 
 and  as  such  became  the  special  mark  for 
 the  vengeance  of  Jehu.  She  w;i.s  looking 
 out  from  the  window  of  the  palace  whicli 
 stood  by  the  gate  of  the  city  as  Jehu  ap- 
 proached. The  new  king  looked  up  from 
 his  chariot.  Two  or  three  eunuchs  of  the 
 royal  harem  showed  their  faces  at  the  win- 
 dows, and  at  his  command  daslied  the  proud 
 and  lately  powerful  wonum  down  from  the 
 chamber.  She  fell  in  front  of  the  con- 
 queror's chariot.  Tlie  merciless  man 
 passed  on,  and  the  last  remains  of  life 
 were  trampled  out  by  the  horses'  hoofs. 
 The  body  was  left  in  the  ojien  space 
 where  offal  is  thrown  from  the  city-walls. 
 The  dogs  of  Easteni  cities,  which  prowl 
 around  tliese  localities,  pounced  upon  the 
 mutilated  cori)se,  and,  tearing  it  to  pieces, 
 devoured  it  all  save  "the  skull  and  the 
 feet  and  the  palms  of  her  hands"  (2  Kings 
 9  :  .30-37). 
 
 Jez'reel  [Ciod  hath  planted^,  an  ancient 
 Canaanitish  city  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
 Issachar  (Josh.  19  :  18),  but  from  it  the 
 original  inhabitants  were  not  driven.  It 
 stood  on  the  summit  of  a  rocky  hill  near 
 the  western  foot  of  Mount  Gilboa,  over- 
 looking the  great  plain  to  which  it  gave 
 its  name,  and  which  is  now  called  the 
 plain  of  Esdraelon.  On  the  northern  side 
 of  the  city,  between  the  parallel  ridges  of 
 Gilboa  and  Moreh,  lies  a  rich  valley,  an 
 offshoot  of  Esdraelon,  declining  eastward 
 to  the  .Jordan.  This  was  the  valley  of 
 Jezreel  (Judg.  6  :  33).  In  the  time  of 
 Ahab,  who  chose  it  as  a  royal  residence, 
 Jezreel  gained  its  greatest  pre-eminence. 
 Here,  near  the  palace  of  Ahab,  resided 
 that  unfortunate  Nabotli  whose  vineyard 
 was  coveted  by  the  king  (1  Kings  21  : 
 1-4).  Here,  too,  Jehu  executed  on  the 
 liouse  of  Ahab  the  judgments  of  God  (2 
 
JOAB— JOASH. 
 
 285 
 
 Kings  9  :  14-37).  Its  modern  represent- 
 ative is  Zerin,  a  cluster  of  wretched  huts. 
 
 Jo'ab  [Jehovah  w  his  father'},  the  most 
 remarkable  of  the  three  nephews  of  David, 
 the  children  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister. 
 He  first  appears  after  David's  accession 
 to  the  throne  at  Hebron.  Abner  slew  in 
 battle  Asahel,  the  younger  brother  of  .Joab, 
 and  when  afterward  David  received  Abner 
 into  favor  Joab  treacherously  murdered 
 him.  No  rival  now  stood  in  the  way  of 
 Joab's  advancement,  and  at  the  siege  of 
 Jebus  he  was  appointed  "captain  of  the 
 host,"  the  same  office  that  Abner  had 
 held  under  Saul,  and  after  the  king  the 
 highest  in  the  state  (1  Chron.  11  :  6;  2 
 Sam.  8  :  16).  In  the  wars  which  David 
 undertook  Joab  was  the  acting  general, 
 displaying  great  ability  and  achieving  high 
 distinction.  For  his  failure  to  save  Absa- 
 lom's dangerous  life  he  incurred  the  resent- 
 ment of  the  king,  who  transferred  the  chief 
 command  of  his  armies  to  Amasa ;  but  Joab 
 rid  himself  of  Amasa  as  he  had  previously 
 rid  himself  of  Abner  (2  Sam.  20  :  8-13). 
 When  Solomon  came  to  the  throne,  Joab 
 espoused  the  cause  of  Adonijah,  and  with 
 that  presumptuous  jjrince  lost  his  life.  He 
 had  fled  for  refuge  to  the  altar  at  Gibeon, 
 but  the  altar  did  not  save  him ;  whilst 
 clinging  to  it  he  was  put  to  death  at 
 Solomon's  command  (1  Kings  2  :  28-34). 
 
 Jo-an'na,  the  name  of  a  woman,  oc- 
 curring twice  in  Luke  (8:3;  24  :  10),  but 
 evidently  denoting  the  same  person.  In 
 the  first  passage  she  is  expressly  stated 
 to  have  been  "wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of 
 Herod,"  that  is,  of  Herod  Antipas,  te- 
 trarch  of  Galilee. 
 
 Jc'ash  [Jehovah  gave],  contracted 
 from  Jehoash,  the  name  of  two  kings. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and 
 the  only  one  of  his  children  who  escaped 
 the  murderous  hand  of  Athaliah.  He 
 was  hid  for  six  years  in  the  chambers  of 
 the  temple.  In  the  seventh  year  of  his 
 age  and  of  his  concealment  a  successful 
 
 revolution,  conducted  by  Jehoiada  the 
 high  priest,  placed  him  on  the  throne 
 of  his  ancestors  and  freed  the  country 
 from  Athaliah's  tyrannies  and  idolatries. 
 Whilst  Jehoiada  lived,  for  the  period  of 
 twenty-three  years,  the  reign  was  prosper- 
 ous, but  when  Jehoiada  died  .Joash  fell 
 under  the  influence  of  bad  advisers,  at 
 whose  suggestion  he  revived  the  worship 
 of  Baal  and  Ashtaroth.  When  for  this 
 he  was  rebuked  by  Zechariali,  Jehoiada's 
 son,  Joash  caused  him  to  be  stoned  to 
 deatii  in  the  very  court  of  the  Lord's 
 house  (2  Cliron.  24  :  20-22 ;  Matt.  23  :  35). 
 The  divine  judgments  were  not  long  de- 
 layed. Tiiat  very  year  Hazael,  king  of 
 Syria,  came  up  against  Jerusalem,  and  as 
 the  price  of  his  departure  carried  off  a 
 vast  booty.  Scarcely  had  Joash  escaped 
 this  danger  when  he  fell  into  another  and 
 fatal  one.  Two  of  his  servants,  taking  ad- 
 vantage of  his  severe  illness,  the  result 
 probably  of  wounds  received  in  battle, 
 conspired  against  him,  and  slew  him  in 
 his  bed  in  tlie  fortress  of  Millo  (2  Chron. 
 24  :  25).  His  reign  lasted  forty  years, 
 from  878  to  838  b.  c. 
 
 2.  Son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz  on  the 
 throne  of  Israel,  from  b.  c.  840  to  825,  and 
 for  two  full  years  a  contemporary  sovereign 
 with  the  preceding  (2  Kings  14: 1).  When 
 he  succeeded  to  the  crown  the  kingdom 
 was  in  a  deplorable  state  from  the  dev- 
 astations of  Hazael  and  Benhadad,  kings 
 of  Syria.  On  occasion  of  a  friendly  visit 
 paid  by  Joash  to  Elisha  on  his  deathbed 
 the  prophet  promised  him  deliverance 
 from  the  Syrian  yoke  in  Aphek  (1  Kings 
 20  :  26-30).  He  bade  the  king  smite  upon 
 the  ground,  and  the  king  smote  thrice  and 
 stayed.  The  prophet  rebuked  him  for 
 staying,  and  limited  to  three  his  victories 
 over  Syria  (2  Kings  13  :  19).  Accord- 
 ingly, Joash  did  defeat  Benhadad  tliree 
 times  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  recovered 
 from  him  tlie  cities  wliich  Hazael  had 
 taken  from  Jehoahaz.     He  waged  also  a 
 
286 
 
 JOB. 
 
 successful  war  with  Amaziah,  king  of 
 Judah.  The  grounds  of  this  war  are 
 given  fully  in  '2  Chron.  25.  The  two  ar- 
 mies met  at  Bethshemesh ;  that  of  Joash 
 was  victorious,  put  the  army  of  Amaziah 
 to  the  rout,  took  him  prisoner,  brought 
 him  to  Jerusalem  and  plundered  the  city. 
 He  died  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Amaziah, 
 king  of  Judah,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
 son,  Jeroboam  II. 
 
 Job  [persecuted'],  an  Arabian  patriarch 
 and  hero  of  the  book  that  bears  his  name, 
 mentioned  elsewhere  only  in  Ezek.  14 :  14, 
 20;  James  5  :  11.  His  residence  in  the 
 land  of  Uz,  which  took  its  name  from  a 
 son  of  Aram  (Gen.  10  :  23)  or  Nahor 
 (Gen.  22  :  21),  marks  him  as  belonging 
 to  a  branch  of  the  Aramaean  race  which 
 had  settled  in  a  district  of  Northern  Ara- 
 bia (probably  in  Idumsean  Arabia,  to  the 
 south  or  south-east  of  Palestine)  adjacent 
 to  the  Saba^ans  and  Chaldseans.  He  is 
 represented  as  a  chieftain  of  immense 
 wealth  and  high  rank,  blameless  in  all  the 
 relations  of  life.  One  question  could  be 
 raised  by  envy :  May  not  the  goodness 
 which  secures  such  direct  and  tangible 
 rewards  be  a  refined  form  of  selfishness? 
 Satan,  the  accusing  angel,  suggests  the 
 doubt :  "  Doth  Job  fear  God  for  naught  ?" 
 and  asserts  boldly  that  if  those  external 
 blessings  were  withdrawn  Job  would  cast 
 off  his  allegiance  and  would  curse  God  to 
 his  face  (.Job  1  :  9-11).  The  problem  is 
 thus  distinctly  propounded  which  the 
 book  of  Job  is  intended  to  discuss  and 
 solve :  Can  goodness  exist  irrespective  of 
 reward  ?  The  accuser  receives  permission 
 to  make  the  trial.  He  destroys  Job's 
 property,  then  his  children,  and  after- 
 ward, to  leave  no  possible  opening  for 
 cavil,  is  allowed  to  inflict  upon  him  a 
 painful  disease,  supposed  by  some  to  have 
 been  elephantiasis,  or  black  leprosy.  Job's 
 wife  breaks  down  entirely  under  the  trial ; 
 Job  remains  steadfast,  repelling  his  wife's 
 suggestions  to  curse  God  with  the  simple 
 
 yet  sublime  words,  "  What !  shall  we  re- 
 ceive good  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and 
 shall  we  not  receive  evil?"  (Job  2  :  9, 
 10).  Thus  the  question  raised  by  Satan 
 was  answered. 
 
 But  if  the  matter  had  ended  here  many 
 points  of  deep  interest  would  have  been 
 left  in  obscurity.  Entire  as  was  the  sub- 
 mission of  Job,  he  must  have  been  in- 
 wardly perplexed  by  events  to  the  solu- 
 tion of  which  he  had  no  clue.  An  oppor- 
 tunity for  the  discussion  of  the  providen- 
 tial government  of  the  world  is  afforded 
 by  the  introduction  of  three  men,  repre- 
 senting the  wisdom  and  experience  of  the 
 age,  who  came,  on  hearing  of  Job's  mis- 
 fortunes, to  condole  with  him.  After  a 
 long  discussion  between  Job  and  his  three 
 friends,  in  which  little  progress  had  been 
 made,  but  in  which  an  extraordinary  dia- 
 lectic skill  had  been  displayed,  Elihu,  a 
 young  man  who  had  listened  in  indignant 
 silence  to  the  arguments  of  his  elders 
 (Job  32  :  7),  addressed  himself  to  both 
 parties  in  the  discussion,  and  especially 
 to  Job.  He  shows  that  the  three  friends 
 have  accused  Job  upon  false  or  insufficient 
 grounds,  and  have  failed  either  to  convict 
 him  or  to  vindicate  God's  justice.  He 
 shows  that  Job  has  assumed  his  entire  in- 
 nocence and  has  arraigned  the  divine  jus- 
 tice (Job  33:  9-11). 
 
 But  whilst  he  shows  that  the  positions 
 of  the  three  friends  are  untenable,  and 
 that  Job's  views  are  imperfect,  he  fails 
 to  clear  up  the  mystery.  Like  all  the 
 interlocutors,  he  never  recognizes  the  spe- 
 cial object  of  calamity — namely,  the  trial 
 of  sincerity  and  the  demonstration  that 
 integrity  of  life  and  devout  faith  in  God 
 can  exist  independent  of  external  circum- 
 stances. Jehovah  himself  now  appears. 
 From  the  midst  of  a  terrific  storm,  in 
 language  of  incomparable  grandeur,  the 
 Lord  reproves  and  silences  the  murmurs 
 of  Job.  He  also  rebukes  Job's  opponents 
 and  vindicates  the  patriarch's  integrity. 
 
JOCHEBED— JOHN  THE  APOSTLE. 
 
 287 
 
 He  does  not  argue,  but  he  asserts,  with 
 such  clearness  and  force  as  to  resolve  all 
 questions,  his  absolute  power  and  his  im- 
 mutable justice.  The  restoration  of  Job's 
 external  prosperity,  which  is  the  result  of 
 God's  personal  manifestation,  symbolizes 
 the  ultimate  compensation  of  the  right- 
 eous for  all  sufferings  undergone  upon 
 earth.  The  total  absence  of  any  allusion 
 not  only  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  but  to  the 
 events  of  the  Exodus,  the  fame  of  which, 
 if  they  had  occurred  previously,  must  have 
 reached  the  country  of  Job,  is  a  strong  ar- 
 gument for  the  early  age  both  of  the  patri- 
 arch and  of  the  book. 
 
 Joch'e-bed  [Jehovah  is  her  glory],  the 
 wife  of  Amram  and  mother  of  Miriam, 
 Aaron  and  Moses  (Num.  26  :  59). 
 
 Jo'el  [Jehovah  is  his  God'},  the  second 
 01  the  twelve  minor  prophets  in  the  order 
 of  our  Authorized  Version,  the  son  of 
 Pethuel.  He  probably  prophesied  in 
 Judah  in  the  reign  of  Joash.  The  prox- 
 imate event  to  which  his  prophecy  related 
 was  a  public  calamity  then  impending  on 
 Judah,  of  a  twofold  character — want  of 
 water  and  a  plague  of  locusts  continuing 
 for  several  years.  The  prophet  exhorts 
 the  people  to  turn  to  God  with  penitence, 
 fasting  and  prayer,  and  then,  he  says,  the 
 plague  shall  cease  and  the  rain  descend 
 and  the  Spirit  extend  the  blessings  of  true 
 religion  to  heathen  lands.  The  prophecy 
 is  referred  to  in  Acts  2  :  16-21.  The  style 
 is  remarkable  for  the  blending  of  strength 
 and  tenderness.  In  vividness  of  descrip- 
 tion it  rivals  that  of  Nahum,  and  in  sub- 
 limity and  majesty  is  scarcely  inferior  to 
 those  of  Isaiah  and  Habakkuk. 
 
 JO-han^an  [Jehovah  is  bountiful],  one 
 of  the  Jewish  chiefs  who  rallied  around 
 Gedaliah  (2  Kings  25  :  23 ;  Jer.  40  :  8), 
 and  who,  after  Gedaliah's  assassination, 
 carried  the  remnant  of  the  people  and 
 their  effects  to  Egypt,  although  the 
 prophet  Jeremiah  forbade  the  movement 
 (Jer.  43  :  2,  4,  5-7). 
 
 John,  contracted  form  of  Johanan; 
 the  name  of  several  men. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  high  priest's  family,  who, 
 with  Annas  and  Caiaphas,  sat  in  judgment 
 upon  the  apostles  Peter  and  John  (Acts 
 4:6). 
 
 2.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  evangelist 
 Mark  (Acts  12  :  12,  25;  13  :  5,  13;  15  : 
 37). 
 
 3.  John  the  Apos^tle,  the  son  of 
 Zebedee,  a  fisherman  on  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
 lee. He  was  probably  younger  than  his 
 brother  James  (Matt.  4  :  21  ;  10  :  2;  17  : 
 1),  younger  than  his  friend  Peter,  possi- 
 bly younger  than  his  divine  Master.  Peter 
 and  James  and  John  come  within  the  in- 
 nermost circle  of  their  Lord's  friends. 
 Peter  is  the  leader  of  the  disciples,  but 
 to  John  belongs  the  yet  more  memorable 
 distinction  of  being  the  disciple  whom 
 Jesus  loved.  His  most  prominent  traits 
 of  character  appear  to  have  been  an  ar- 
 dent temperament  and  a  delicacy  of  sen- 
 timent. These  combined  to  produce  that 
 devoted  attachment  to  his  Master  which 
 leads  him  to  detail  all  his  discourses  and 
 vindicate  his  character  on  all  occasions. 
 Yet  with  all  his  mildness  and  amiability 
 of  temper  he  was  not  feminine  in  dispo- 
 sition, but  possessed  an  energy  and  force 
 of  mind  which  gave  him  the  title  of 
 '•son  of  thunder"  (Mark  3  :  17).  It  was 
 these  traits  of  character  that  enabled 
 him  to  take  so  profound  and  compre- 
 hensive a  view  of  the  nature  and  office 
 of  the  incarnate  Son  of  God,  evident  in  all 
 his  writings,  and  especially  manifest  in  the 
 introduction  to  his  Gospel.  He  outlived 
 all  the  other  apostles,  residing  chiefly  at 
 Ephesus,  but  spending  some  time  in  ban- 
 ishment on  the  island  of  Patmos,  whither 
 the  imperial  government  under  Domitian 
 sent  him  to  labor  in  the  mines,  and  where 
 he  had  the  remarkable  visions  recorded  in 
 the  Revelation.  The  date  of  his  death  ia 
 supposed  to  have  been  at  or  near  the  close 
 of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
 
288 
 
 JOHN  THE  BAPTIST— JOHN,  GOSPEL  OF. 
 
 4.  John  the  Baptist,  of  the  priestly- 
 order,  Jiis  father,  Zacliaria.s,  being  a  priest 
 of  the  course  of  Abia  or  Abijah  (1  Chron. 
 24  :  10),  and  his  mother,  Elisabeth,  being 
 a  daughter  of  Aaron  (Luke  1  :  5).  His 
 birth  was  foretold  by  an  angel  sent  from 
 God,  and  is  related  at  length  in  the  first 
 chapter  of  Luke's  Gospel.  It  preceded  by 
 six  months  that  of  our  Lord.  John  was 
 ordained  to  be  a  Nazarite  from  his  birth 
 (Luke  1 :  15).  He  dwelt  by  himself  in  the 
 wild  and  thinly-peopled  region  westward 
 of  the  Dead  Sea  ;  his  dress  was  that  of  tiie 
 old  |>rophets,  a  garment  woven  of  camel's 
 hair  (2  Kings  1  :  8),  attached  to  the  body 
 by  a  leathern  girdle ;  his  food  was  such  as 
 the  desert  afforded,  locusts  (Lev.  11  :  22) 
 and  wild  honey  (Ps.  81  :  16).  And  when 
 he  came  forth  to  begin  his  wonderful 
 work  as  the  herald  of  the  Christ  he  at- 
 tracted universal  attention  and  awakened 
 tlie  profoundest  interest.  His  foreannoun- 
 ced  birth,  his  hard,  ascetic  life,  his  repu- 
 tation for  extraordinary  sanctity,  and  the 
 widely  prevalent  expectation  that  some 
 great  one  was  about  to  appear,  sufficiently 
 account  for  the  multitudes  that  thronged 
 to  him  from  "  Jerusalem  and  all  Judsea, 
 and  all  the  region  round  about  Jordan " 
 (Matt.  3  :  5).  He  preached  the  doctrine 
 and  administered  the  baptism  of  repent- 
 ance, whilst  bearing  tlie  clearest  testimony 
 to  the  superiority  of  that  baptism,  accom- 
 panied with  tlie  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 which  our  Lord  afterward  ordained  (Matt. 
 3  :  11,  12). 
 
 When  he  baptized  our  Lord  he  noted 
 the  remarkable  attestations  of  the  Mes- 
 siah— the  symbolical  descent  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit  and  the  recognition  from  heaven 
 of  the  divine  Son  (Matt.  3  :  16,  17) — and 
 he  inferred  therefrom  that  his  work  and 
 mission  were  accomplished.  Such,  in- 
 deed, proved  to  be  the  fact.  In  daring 
 disregard  of  the  divine  laws,  Herod  An- 
 tipas  had  taken  to  himself  Herodias,  tlie 
 wife  of  his  brother  Philip;    and  when 
 
 John,  with  a  noble  fidelity  to  truth,  re- 
 proved him  for  this  and  other  sins  ( Luke 
 3  :  19),  Herod  cast  him  into  prison.  The 
 place  of  his  confinement  was  the  castle  of 
 Machserus,  a  fortress  on  the  eastern  shore 
 of  the  Dead  Sea.  At  tiiis  castle  a  court- 
 festival  wius  kept  ill  honor  of  Herod's 
 birthday.  After  supper  Salome,  tlie 
 daughter  of  Herodias,  came  in  and 
 danced  before  the  company,  and  by  her 
 grace  of  manner  and  beauty  of  person 
 so  charmed  Herod  that  he  promised  witii 
 an  oath  to  give  her  whatsoever  slie  sliould 
 ask.  Salome,  prompted  by  her  vicious 
 and  vindictive  mother,  demanded  the 
 head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Herod  gave 
 the  order  to  an  officer  of  his  guard,  who 
 went  immediately  to  the  prison-vault 
 where  John  was  confined,  and  soon  re- 
 turned bearing  on  a  large  dish  the  gha.st- 
 ly  face  and  head  of  the  murdered  man. 
 His  death  is  supposed  to  have  occurred 
 just  before  the  tliird  passover  in  tlie 
 course  of  our  Lord's  ministry,  A.  D.  28. 
 His  life  is  marked  throughout  with  the 
 characteristic  graces  of  self-denial,  hu- 
 mility, and  holy  courage.  Upon  him 
 our  Lord  pronounces  the  noblest  eulogy 
 ever  pronounced  on  man  (Luke  7  :  28). 
 
 John,  Gospel  of.  Ephesus  and  Pat- 
 mos  are  the  two  places  mentioned  by  early 
 writere  as  the  place  where  John's  Gospel 
 was  written,  and  the  weight  of  evidence 
 seems  to  preponderate  in  favor  of  Eph- 
 esus. The  time  of  writing  is  uncertain, 
 but  is  usually  placed  about  A.  D.  78. 
 After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Eph- 
 esus probably  became  the  centre  of  the 
 active  life  of  Eastern  Christendom.  It 
 contained  a  large  church  of  faitlifui 
 Christians,  a  multitude  of  zealous  Jews, 
 an  indigenous  population  devoted  to  the 
 worship  of  a  strange  idol  whose  image 
 was  borrowed  from  the  East,  its  name 
 from  the  West.  The  Gospel  was  evi- 
 dently addressed  primarily  to  Christians. 
 The  main  object  of  John,  who  wrote  after 
 
JOHN,   FIRST,  SECOND  AND  THIRD  EPISTLES— JONAH. 
 
 289 
 
 the  other  evangelists,  is  to  supplement 
 their  narratives,  which  were  almost  con- 
 fined to  our  Lord's  life  in  Galilee.  The 
 events  narrated  are  grouped  about  eight 
 of  our  Lord's  journeys,  and  are  illustrative 
 of  the  dominant  thought  with  which  the 
 Gospel  begins — namely,  the  essential  di- 
 vinity of  Jesus,  the  Christ.  The  dis- 
 courses of  our  Lord  with  which  the 
 Gospel  abounds  are  among  its  richest 
 treasures. 
 
 John,  First,  Second  and  Third 
 Epistles.  These  three  Epistles  are 
 fine  exemplifications  of  the  spirit  of  the 
 man  and  of  the  Clu-istianity  which  he 
 taught.  The  first  is  general,  and  contains 
 much  to  edify  the  Church,  especially  to 
 develop  holiness,  obedience,  purity,  faith, 
 and,  above  all,  love.  The  second  is  ad- 
 dressed to  a  lady  of  eminent  piety,  called 
 "  the  elect  lady,"  or,  as  some  read  it,  the 
 Lady  Electa,  and  others  the  elect  Cyria. 
 The  third  is  addressed  to  Gaius,  eminent 
 for  piety  and  particularly  distinguLshed  for 
 his  hospitality. 
 
 Jok'shan  [bird-snuj-erl,  the  second  son 
 of  Abraham  and  Keturah,  whose  sons,  She- 
 ba  and  Dedan,  appear  to  have  been  the  an- 
 cestors of  the  Sabseans  and  Dedanites  that 
 peopled  a  part  of  Arabia  Felix  (Gen.  25  : 
 2,  3 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  32,  33). 
 
 Jok^'tan  [liltle'],  son  of  Eber  (Gen.  10: 
 25 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  19),  and  the  father  of  the 
 Joktanite  Arabs.  Scholars  are  agreed  in 
 placing  tlie  settlements  of  Joktan  in  the 
 south  of  the  peninsula. 
 
 Jok'theel. 
 
 1.  The  name  which  Amaziah,  king  of 
 Judah,  gave  to  Sela  or  Selah,  an  Ara- 
 bian city  which  he  had  conquered  (2 
 Kings  14  :  7).  This  Selah  was  Petra,  an 
 ancient  stronghold  of  Edom,  hewn  out  of 
 the  rocks,  the  ruins  of  which  are  among 
 the  most  striking  and  magnificent  remains 
 of  ancient  architecture.     See  Sela. 
 
 2.  The  name  of  a  city  of  Judah,  in  tlie 
 plain  of  Philistia,  not  far  from  Lachish 
 
 19 
 
 (Josh.  15  :  38),  on  the  road  between  Beit- 
 Jibrin  and  Gaza. 
 
 Jon^a-dab,  the  contracted  form  of 
 Jehonadab  (which  see). 
 
 Jo'nah  [«  dove],  the  fifth  of  the  mi- 
 nor prophets  in  the  order  of  our  Author- 
 ized Version,  the  son  of  Amittai  and  a 
 native  of  Gath-hepher,  a  town  of  Lower 
 Galilee,  in  Zebulun  (2  Kings  14  :  25). 
 He  lived  after  the  reign  of  Jehu,  when 
 the  losses  of  Israel  began  (2  Kings  10  : 
 32),  and  probably  not  till  the  latter  part 
 of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  He  is  rep- 
 resented by  many  commentators  as  the 
 first  of  the  prophets  whose  prophecies  in 
 written  form  have  come  down  to  us,  but 
 the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  he  yields 
 priority  to  Joel.  Who  was  the  king  of 
 Nineveh  in  Jonah's  time  is  not  known. 
 When  the  prophet  was  bidden  by  Jehovah 
 to  "go  to  Nineveli"  and  to  "cry  against 
 it"  (Jon.  1  :  2),  lie  refused  and  attempted 
 to  escape  to  Tarshish.  The  providence 
 of  God,  however,  watched  over  him,  fiist 
 in  a  storm,  and  then  in  his  being  swal- 
 lowed by  a  large  fish  for  the  space  of  three 
 days  and  nights.  The  fish  is  by  some  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  white  shark,  which 
 sometimes  attains  the  length  of  thirty  feet, 
 and  is  abundantly  able  to  swallow  a  man 
 whole.  After  his  deliverance  Jonah  execu- 
 ted his  commission  ;  and  the  king,  believ- 
 ing him  to  be  a  minister  from  the  supreme 
 deity  of  the  nation,  and  having  heard  of 
 his  miraculous  deliverance,  ordered  a  gen- 
 eral fast  and  averted  the  threatened  judg- 
 ment. But  the  prophet,  not  from  personal 
 but  political  reasons,  grudged  the  mercy 
 shown  to  a  nation  which  was  the  foe 
 of  his  own  country.  He  was  therefore 
 taught  by  the  significant  lesson  of  the 
 "  gourd,"  whose  growth  and  decay  brought 
 the  truth  at  once  home  to  him,  that  he  was 
 sent  to  testify  by  deed,  as  other  prophets 
 would  afterward  testify  by  word,  the  ca- 
 pacity of  Gentiles  for  salvation,  and  the 
 design  of  God  to  make  them    partakers 
 
290 
 
 JONATHAN— JORDAN. 
 
 of  it.  This  was  "  the  sign  of  the  prophet 
 Jonas"  (Luke  11  :  29,  30),  as  was  also  our 
 Lord's  resurrection  (Matt.  12  :  39,  41 ;  16  : 
 
 Jon^a-than  [^Jekovak  has  given^,  the 
 name  of  several  persons. 
 
 1.  The  eldest  son  of  King  Saul.  He 
 was  regarded  in  his  father's  lifetime  as 
 the  heir  to  the  throne.  Like  Saul,  he 
 was  a  man  of  great  strength  and  activity 
 (2  Sam.  1  :  23).  He  was  also  famous  for 
 archery  and  slinging,  the  peculiar  mar- 
 tial exercises  in  which  his  tribe  excelled 
 (1  Chron.  12  :  2).  He  was  a  bold  and 
 successful  soldier,  but  the  chief  interest  of 
 his  career  is  derived  from  his  friendship 
 with  David,  which  began  on  the  day  of 
 David's  return  from  the  victory  over  the 
 champion  of  Gath  and  continued  till  his 
 death.  Their  last  meeting  was  in  the  for- 
 est of  Ziph  during  Saul's  pursuit  of  David 
 ( 1  Sam.  23  :  16-18).  From  this  time  forth 
 we  hear  no  more  of  him  till  the  battle  of 
 Gilboa.  In  the  battle  he  fell  with  his  two 
 brothers  and  his  father,  and  his  corpse 
 shared  their  fate  (1  Sam.  31  :  2,  8).  His 
 ashes  were  buried  first  at  Jabesh-Gilead, 
 but  were  afterward  removed  with  those 
 of  his  father  to  Zelah  in  Benjamin  (2 
 Sam.  21  :  12-14). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Shimeah,  brother  of  Jonadab 
 and  nephew  of  David  (2  Sam.  21  :  21). 
 
 3.  Son  of  Abiathar,  the  high  priest, 
 and  the  last  descendant  of  Eli  of  whom 
 we  hear  anything.  He  appears  on  the 
 day  of  David's  flight  from  Absalom  (2 
 Sam.  15  :  36)  and  on  the  day  of  Sol- 
 omon's inauguration  (1  Kings  1  :  42, 
 43). 
 
 4.  Son  or  descendant  of  Gershom  the 
 son  of  Moses  (Judg.  18  :  30). 
 
 5.  Son  of  Joiada,  and  his  successor  in 
 the  high  priesthood  (Neh.  12  :  11,  22, 
 23). 
 
 Jop'pa  Ibeatdy'],  a  verj'  ancient  and 
 important  seaport  town  of  Palestine,  on 
 the  Mediterranean  coast,  about  forty  miles 
 
 north-west  of  Jerusalem.  Although  its 
 harbor  was  and  is  an  extremely  unsafe 
 one,  it  became  the  port  of  Jerusalem  when 
 the  latter  had  become  the  capital  of  Da- 
 vid's kingdom,  and  the  port  of  Jerusalem 
 it  now  is.  Here  the  timber  from  Leijanon 
 used  in  building  the  temple  was  landed  (2 
 Chron.  2  :  16).  Hither  Jonah  Hed  when 
 he  sought  a  ship  in  which  to  escape  from 
 the  presence  of  the  Lord  (Jon.  1 :  3).  Here 
 in  New  Testament  times  Peter  restored  to 
 life  the  dead  Tabitha  or  Dorcas  (Acts  9  : 
 36-43),  and  here  Peter  had  that  remark- 
 able vision  which  convinced  him  that  the 
 distinction  between  Jew  and  Gentile  had 
 no  existence  in  the  gospel  (Acts  10  :  9-18). 
 Its  modern  name  is  Yd/a  or  Jaflii.  Visit- 
 ors to  Jerusalem  by  way  of  the  Maliter- 
 ranean  usually  land  here.  Its  site  is  ele- 
 vated and  picturesque,  but  the  internal 
 appearance  of  the  town  is  wholly  unin- 
 teresting. No  imposing  buildings,  or 
 even  ruins,  arrest  attention.  Its  popula- 
 tion is  estimated  at  eight  thousand  souls. 
 The  environs  of  the  place  are  adorned 
 with  orchards  and  gardens,  in  which  the 
 pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  fig  and  other 
 fruits  are  cultivated. 
 
 Jo'ram.     See  Jehoraim. 
 
 Jor'dan  [Ihe  descender],  the  far-famed, 
 and  properly  the  only,  river  of  Palestine. 
 It  has  its  source  in  three  fine  fountains 
 on  the  slopes  of  Anti-Lebanon.  In  its  flow 
 it  widens  into  two  lakes,  that  of  HiVeh  the 
 ancient  Merom  (.Josh.  11  :  5),  and  that 
 of  Gennesaret  (Luke  5  :  1).  Flowing 
 out  from  the  southern  end  of  the  latter, 
 it  descends  with  great  speed  to  its  point 
 of  entrance  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Although 
 the  direct  distance  from  its  source  to  its 
 mouth  is  not  more  than  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  miles,  yet  so  many  are  its  short 
 windings  and  so  crooked  is  its  channel 
 that  the  actual  distance  of  its  flow  is 
 about  two  hundred  miles.  The  great  speetl 
 of  its  current  and  the  equally  great  crook- 
 edness of  its  channel  can  be  well  understood 
 
i!ii!H:i,iiiii«ii:ii:;iii!ii!ii!'i 
 
 \ir-^  I      1    p^  If " 
 
 IH        ^ 
 
 'iialiiliiijili'ilj "''''' 
 
 ill 
 
292 
 
 JOSEPH. 
 
 Fords  of  Jordan. 
 
 if  we  consider  that  its  source  is  about 
 one  tliousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
 ^Mediterranean ;  that  in  the  short  dis- 
 tance of  twelve  miles,  which  brings  it 
 to  the  Huleh  Lake,  it  falls  not  less  than 
 one  thousand  feet ;  that  in  passing  through 
 Lake  Hfilch  and  in  reaching  the  north  end 
 of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  a  distance  of  fourteen 
 and  a  half  miles,  it  falls  six  hundred  and 
 eiglity-two  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
 Mediterranean ;  and  that  thus  in  twenty- 
 six  and  a  half  miles  it  has  a  fall  of  six- 
 teen hundred  and  eighty-two  feet,  or  more 
 than  sixty  feet  to  the  mile.  Below  the  Sea 
 of  Galilee  the  fall  is  not  so  great  per  mile, 
 and  yet  sufficiently  great  to  make  the  Jor- 
 dan a  very  rapid  and  very  tortuous  stream. 
 The  first  notice  of  it  in  Scripture  occurs 
 in  the  story  of  the  separation  of  Abra- 
 liam  and  Lot  (Gen.  13  :  10).  It  was 
 crossed  miraculously  by  the  Israelites 
 when  they  entered  Canaan  (Josh.  3  :  14- 
 17).  In  its  waters  Naaman  was  cured  of 
 his  leprosy  (2  Kings  5  :  14) ;  in  its  waters 
 John  baptized  the  multitudes  who  came 
 to  him  from  .Jerusalem  and  all  ,Juda>a 
 (Matt.  3  :  5,  6),  and  in  its  waters  John 
 baptized  Him  "of  whom    Moses   in   the 
 
 law  and  the  prophets  did  write,  Jesus 
 of  Nazareth"  (.John  1  :  45).  The  precise 
 locality  of  our  Loi-d's  baptism  cannot  be 
 determined,  but  most  probably  it  was 
 near  the  mouth, 
 
 Jo'seph  [he  shall  add],  the  name  of 
 several  persons  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  The  elder  of  the  two  sons  of  Jacob 
 by  Kachel,  first  mentioned  when  a  youth 
 seventeen  years  old.  He  incurred  the 
 hatred  of  his  brethren  because  his  father 
 manifested  a  decided  preference  for  him 
 by  giving  him  a  dress  of  rich  material, 
 apparently  a  long  tunic  with  sleeves, 
 worn  by  the  youths  and  maidens  of  the 
 richer  class  (Gen.  37  :  3).  This  hatred 
 was  increased  by  his  telling  of  a  dream 
 foreshadowing  that  they  would  bow  down 
 to  him,  which  was  followed  by  another 
 dream  of  similar  import.  These  brethren 
 had  gone  to  Shechem  to  feed  their  flocks, 
 and  Joseph  was  sent  thither  from  Hebron 
 by  his  father  to  bring  him  word  of  their 
 welfare.  They  were  not  at  Shechem,  but 
 were  gone  to  Dothan,  which  appears  to 
 have  been  not  far  distant,  pasturing  their 
 flocks,  like  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day, 
 wherever  the  wild  country  was  unowned. 
 
JOSEPH. 
 
 293 
 
 On  Joseph's  approach  his  brethren,  except 
 Reuben,  resolved  to  kill  him  ;  but  Reuben 
 saved  him,  persuading  them  to  cast  him 
 into  a  dry  pit  and  intending  to  restore 
 him  to  his  father.  Subsequently,  when 
 Reuben  was  not  witli  them,  liis  brethren 
 sold  him  to  a  company  of  Ishmaelite  tra- 
 ders, who  took  him  to  Egypt  and  resold 
 him  to  an  Egyptian  master.  But  "  God 
 was  with  him,  and  delivered  him  out  of 
 uU  his  afflictions  "  (Acts  7  :  10).  Through 
 a  series  of  remarkable  providences  the 
 Hebrew  youth  passed  from  slavery  to 
 sovereignty,  and  became  at  once  the  sa- 
 vior of  his  family  and  the  benefactor  of 
 millions.  His  two  sons,  Ephraim  and 
 Manasseh,  born  in  Egypt,  were  adopted 
 by  Jacob  as  his  own,  and  were  made  each 
 the  head  of  a  tribe.  He  died  at  the  age 
 of  one  hundred  and  ten  years;  his  em- 
 balmed remains  were  sacredly  guarded, 
 and  at  the  Exodus  were  transported  to 
 Canaan,  and  at  length  were  put  in  their 
 final  resting-place  "  in  Sliechem,  in  a  par- 
 cel of  ground  which  Jacob  bought  of  the 
 sons  of  Hamor  "  (.Josh.  24  :  32).  The 
 character  of  Joseph  is  one  of  the  finest 
 in  history.  It  is  a  noble  combination 
 of  faith  in  God  and  of  firm  adherence 
 to  right.  In  it  appear  in  remarkable 
 perfection  an  unshaken  confidence  in 
 the  ultimate  triumph  of  truth  and  good- 
 ness, a  clear  discrimination  of  what  was 
 good  and  what  evil,  a  strong  sense 
 of  duty,  a  singular  modesty,  a  thorough 
 self-command,  a  patient  endurance  of  ills, 
 a  moderation  and  justice  in  the  exercise 
 of  authority,  an  equal  generosity  in  the 
 forgiveness  of  injuries  and  the  conferment 
 of  benefits,  and,  with  all,  an  exquisite  sen- 
 sibility and  tenderness.  It  types  more 
 nearly  perhaps  than  any  other  man's  the 
 faultless  character  of  our  Lord  Christ. 
 
 2.  Son  of  Heli  and  reputed  father  of 
 our  Lord.  All  that  is  told  us  of  Joseph 
 in  the  New  Testament  may  be  summed 
 up  in  few  words.    He  was  a  just  man,  and 
 
 of  the  house  and  lineage  of  David.  He 
 lived  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  and  it  is 
 probable  that  his  family  had  been  settled 
 there  for  at  least  two  generations,  possi- 
 bly from  the  time  of  Matthat,  the  com- 
 mon grandfather  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
 since  Mary  lived  there  too  (Luke  1  :  26, 
 27).  He  espoused  Mary,  the  daughter 
 and  heir  of  his  uncle  Jacob,  and  before 
 he  took  her  home  as  his  wife  received 
 the  angelic  comnmnication  recorded  in 
 Matt.  1  :  20.  When  Jesus  was  twelve 
 years  old  Joseph  and  Maiy  took  him 
 with  them  to  keep  the  passover  at  Jeru- 
 salem, and  when  they  returned  to  Naza- 
 reth he  continued  to  act  as  father  to  the 
 child  Jesus,  and  indeed  was  reputed  to 
 be  such.  That  he  died  before  our  Lord's 
 crucifixion  is  nowhere  stated,  but  is  the 
 fair  inference  from  John  19  :  27  and  Mark 
 6  :  3.  But  where,  when,  or  how  he  died 
 we  know  not. 
 
 3.  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  a  rich  and 
 pious  Israelite,  is  denominated  by  Mark 
 (15  ;  43)  an  honorable  counselor,  by  which 
 we  are  probably  to  understand  that  he  was 
 a  member  of  the  Great  Council  or  Sanhe- 
 drim. He  is  further  characterized  as  "  a 
 good  man  and  a  just"  (Luke  23  :  50),  one 
 of  those  who,  bearing  in  their  hearts  the 
 words  of  tlieir  old  prophets,  were  waiting 
 for  the  kingdom  of  God  (Mark  15  :  43 ; 
 Luke  2  :  25,  38).  We  are  expressly  told 
 that  he  did  not  "consent  to  the  counsel 
 and  deed  "  of  his  colleagues  in  conspiring 
 to  bring  about  the  death  of  Jesus,  but  he 
 seems  to  have  lacked  the  courage  to  pro- 
 test against  their  judgment.  At  all  events, 
 we  know  that  he  shrank,  through  fear  of 
 his  countrymen,  from  professing  himself 
 openly  a  disciple  of  our  Lord.  The  cru- 
 cifixion seems  to  have  wrought  in  him  the 
 same  clear  conviction  that  it  wrought  in 
 the  centurion  who  stood  by  the  cross  ;  for 
 on  the  very  evening  of  that  dreadful  day, 
 when  the  triumph  of  the  chief  priests  and 
 rulers  seemed  complete,  Joseph  "went  in 
 
294 
 
 JOSES— JOSIAH. 
 
 boldly  unto  Pilate  and  craved  the  hotly  of 
 Jesus"  (Mark  lo  :  43).  Pilate  gave  him 
 the  body,  wliioh  he,  assisted  by  Nicodemus, 
 wra])ped  in  a  linen  shroud  and  placed  in 
 liis  own  new  rock-hewn  tomb,  where  pre- 
 viously no  corpse  had  ever  been  laid. 
 
 4.  Joseph,  called  Barsabas  and  sur- 
 named  Justus,  one  of  the  two  persons 
 chosen  by  the  assembled  Church  (Acts  1  : 
 23)  as  worthy  to  fill  the  place  in  the  apos- 
 tolic company  fiom  which  Judas  had  fall- 
 en. 
 
 Jc'ses,  the  name  of  two  or  three  per- 
 sons in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Eleazar  and  father  of  Er, 
 among  the  maternal  ancestors  of  our  Lord. 
 In  Luke  3 :  29  the  name  is  erroneously 
 written  "  Jose." 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Mary  and  Cleopas,  and 
 brother  of  James  the  Less,  of  Simon  and 
 of  Jude,  and  consequently  one  of  those 
 who  are  called  "the  brethren  of  our  i 
 Lord"  (Matt.  13  :  55;  27  :  56;  Mark  6  :  j 
 3 ;  15  :  40,  47).  He  was  the  only  one  of 
 these  brethren  who  was  not  an  apostle. 
 
 3.  A  Levite  of  the  country  of  Cyprus,  1 
 sumamed  Barnabas  (which  see). 
 
 Josll''u-a  [Jehovah  is  mlvation'],  the 
 son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (1 
 Chron.  7  :  27).  His  name  appears  in  the 
 various  forms  of  Hoshea,  Oshea,  Jehosh- 
 UA,  Jeshua  and  Jesus.  He  was  nearly 
 forty  years  old  when  he  shared  in  the  hur- 
 ried triumph  of  the  Exodus.  He  is  men- 
 tioned first  in  connection  with  the  fight 
 against  Amalek  at  Eephidim,  when  he 
 was  chosen  by  Moses  to  lead  tlie  Israel- 
 ites (Ex.  17  :  9).  When  Moses  ascended 
 Mount  Sinai  to  receive  for  the  first  time 
 the  two  tables,  Joshua,  who  is  called  his 
 minister  or  servant,  accompanied  him  part 
 of  the  way,  and  was  the  fii"st  to  accost  him 
 in  his  descent  (Ex.  32  :  17).  Soon  after- 
 ward he  was  one  of  the  twelve  chiefs  who 
 were  sent  (Num.  13  :  17)  to  explore  the 
 land  of  Canaan,  and  one  of  the  two  (Num. 
 14  :  6)  who  gave  an  encouraging  report  of 
 
 their  journey.     Moses,  shortly  before  his 
 death,  was  directed  to  invest  Joshua  sol- 
 emnly and  publicly  with  definite  autlior- 
 ity,  in  connection  with  Eleazar  the  high 
 priest,   over   the   people   (Num.  27  :  18;. 
 Joshua  assumed  the  command,  sent  spies 
 into  Jericho,  crossed  the  Jordan,  fortified 
 a  camp  at  Gilgal,  circumcised  the  people, 
 kept  the  passover,  was  visited  by  the  Cap- 
 tain of  the   Lord's  host,  and    began  that 
 series  of  extraordinary  military  exploits 
 which  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
 and  the  partition  of  the  country  among 
 tlie  tribes  and  families.     He  died  at  the 
 age  of  one  hundred  and  ten  years,  and 
 was   buried   in    his   own   city,   Timnath- 
 Serah.     In  addition  to  his  fame  as  a  war- 
 rior IS  his  fame  as  a  writer.     The  book 
 which  bears  his  name  is  written  with  the 
 unconscious  vivid   power  of  an   eye-wit- 
 ness.    It  is  an  invaluable  contribution  to 
 the  history  of  his  times,  and  an  indispen- 
 sable   portion    of   those   oracles   of   God 
 which  were  conmiitted  unto  his  peo[)le. 
 Jo-si''ah     [Jehovah    heats'},    the    son 
 and  successor  of  Amon,  king  of  Judah. 
 He  came  to  the  throne  B.  c.  641,   in  the 
 eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  reigned  thirty- 
 one  years.     His  history  is  contained  in  2 
 Kings  22-24  ;    2  Chron.  34,  35 ;   and  tiie 
 first  twelve  chapters  of  Jeremiah  throw 
 much  light  upon  the  general  character  of 
 the  Jews  in  his  days.     He  began  in  the 
 eighth  year  of  his  reign,  at  the  age  of  six- 
 teen, to  seek  the  Lord,  and  in  the  twelfth 
 year,  when  twenty,  and  for  six  years  after- 
 ward, in  a  personal  progress  throughout 
 all  the  land  of  Judah  and  Israel,  he  de- 
 stroyed everywhere  high  places,  groves, 
 images  and  all  outward  signs  and  relics  of 
 idolatry.     The  temple  was  restored  under 
 I  a  special  commission,  and  in  the  course  of 
 the  repairs  Hilkiah  the  jiricst  found  that 
 book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  which  quick- 
 j  ened  so  remarkably  the  young  king's  ar- 
 dent zeal.     The  great  day  of  Josiah's  life 
 was  the  day  of  the  passover  in  the  eight- 
 
JOT— JUDiEA. 
 
 295 
 
 eentli  year  of  his  reign.  But  tlie  time  of 
 his  death,  which  had  been  indicated  by'Hul- 
 dah  (2  Kings  22  :  20),  at  lengtli  drew  near. 
 When  Pharaoh-Necho  went  from  Egypt  to 
 Carchemish  to  carry  on  liis  war  against 
 Assyria,  Josiah  opposed  his  march  along 
 the  sea-coast.  Necho  reluctantly  paused, 
 and  gave  him  battle  in  the  valley  of  Es- 
 draelon.  Josiah  was  mortally  wounded, 
 and  died  before  he  could  reach  Jerusa- 
 lem. He  was  buried  with  extraordinary 
 honors. 
 
 Jot,  or  ratlier  Iota,  the  smallest  letter 
 of  the  Greek  alphabet  (')  derived  from 
 the  Hebrew  yod  ( '),  and  answering  to  the 
 I  of  European  languages.  Its  name  was 
 employed  metaphorically  to  express  the 
 minutest  trifle.  When  in  Matt.  5  :  18  our 
 Lord  says  that  "  one  jot "  of  the  law  shall 
 not  fail  of  fulfillment,  he  means  to  affirm 
 that  every  particle  of  the  law,  however 
 slight,  shall  certainly  be  accomplished. 
 
 Jo^tham  \_Jehnvah  is  perfecti,  the 
 name  of  several  men,  of  whom  two  only 
 need  b^  mentioned. 
 
 1.  The  youngest  son  of  Gideon  (Judg. 
 9  :  5),  who  escaped  from  the  massacre  of 
 his  brethren.  His  fable  of  the  reign  of 
 the  bramble  (Judg.  9  :  8-15)  is  the  earliest 
 example  of  that  kind  of  figurative  speech. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  King  Uzziah  of  Judah. 
 After  administering  the  kingdom  for  some 
 years  during  his  father's  leprosy,  he  suc- 
 ceeded to  tlie  throne  B.  c.  758,  when  he 
 was  twenty-five  years  old,  and  reigned  six- 
 teen years  in  Jerusalem.  He  was  contem- 
 porary with  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 
 with  the  propliet  Isaiah.  His  history  is 
 contained  in  2  Kings  15  and  2  Chron. 
 27. 
 
 Ju'bal,  a  son  of  Lamech  by  Adah,  and 
 the  inventor  of  the  "  harp  and  organ " 
 (Gen.  4  :  21),  probably  general  terms  for 
 stringed  and  wind  instruments. 
 
 Ju'bi-lee,  The  Year  of,  the  fiftieth 
 year  after  the  succession  of  seven  sabbat- 
 ical years,  in  which  all  the  land  which  had 
 
 been  alienated  returned  to  the  families  of 
 those  to  whom  it  had  been  allotted  in  the 
 original  distribution,  and  all  bondsmen  of 
 Hebrew  blood  were  liberated.  The  rela- 
 tion in  which  it  stood  to  the  sabbatical 
 year  and  the  general  directions  for  its  ob- 
 servance are  given  in  Lev.  25  :  8-16,  23- 
 55.  There  is  no  mention  of  the  jubilee 
 in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  the  only 
 other  reference  to  it  in  the  Pentateuch  is 
 in  Num.  36 : 4.  The  year  was  inaugurated 
 on  the  day  of  atonement  witli  the  blowing 
 of  trumjiets  throughout  the  land  and  by  a 
 proclamation  of  universal  liberty.  It  was 
 observed,  it  is  said,  till  the  destruction  of 
 the  first  temple,  but  there  is  no  historical 
 notice  of  its  observance  on  any  one  occa- 
 sion, either  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment or  in  any  other  records. 
 
 Ju'da,  a  Greek  form  of  Judah  (Matt. 
 2:6;  Luke  1  :  39). 
 
 Ju-dse'a,  the  Latin  form  of  Judah, 
 but  with  a  larger  signification,  a  province 
 of  Palestine  rather  than  the  territory  of  a 
 tribe.  Before  our  Lord's  birth  Palestine 
 was  divided  into  three  distinct  provinces 
 — Galilee  on  the  north,  Samaria  in  the 
 middle,  and  Judsea  on  the  south  (John 
 4  :  3-5).  The  latter  province  is  usually 
 meant  by  the  term  Judcea  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament (Matt.  4  :  25;  Luke  5  :  17  ;  John 
 4  :  47),  but  the  term  is  sometimes  used  in 
 a  wider  sense.  Thus,  in  Luke  1  :  5,  Herod 
 is  called  king  of  Judsea,  that  is,  the  gen- 
 eral name  Judsea  is  given  to  his  whole 
 kingdom,  which  included  the  country  east 
 and  west  of  the  Jordan.  The  trans-Jor- 
 danic  provinces  are  referred  to  as  belong- 
 ing to  Judsea  in  Matt.  19:1;  Mark  10  : 1 ; 
 Luke  23  :  5.  The  "  hill  country  "  of  Ju- 
 dsea (Luke  1  :  65)  embraced  the  mountain- 
 ranges  around  Jerusalem  and  southward. 
 This  was  the  native  country  of  John  the 
 Baptist  (Luke  1  :  39).  The  "wilderness 
 of  Judaea,"  or  "  the  wilderness,"  as  in  Matt. 
 4:1  it  is  called,  was  that  desolate  and 
 dreary  region  which  stretches  along  the 
 
296 
 
 JUDAH— JUDAS. 
 
 western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  runs 
 to  tlie  tops  of  the  hills,  also  north  of  the 
 Dead  Sea  line. 
 
 Judah  [praise],  the  name  of  a  son  of 
 Jacob,  of  a  Hebrew  tribe  and  its  territory, 
 and  of  a  kingdom. 
 
 1.  The  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  the 
 fourth  of  Leah.  His  name  is  explained 
 as  having  originated  in  Leah's  exclama- 
 tion of  "praise"  at  the  fresh  gift  of  Jeho- 
 vah (Gen.  29  :  35).  Of  the  individual  Ju- 
 dah more  traits  are  preserved  than  of  any 
 other  of  the  patriarchs,  witli  the  exception 
 of  Joseph.  In  the  matter  of  the  sale  of 
 Joseph  he  and  Keuben  stand  out  in  fa- 
 vorable contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  broth- 
 ers. When  a  second  visit  to  Egypt  for 
 corn  had  become  inevitable  it  was  Judah 
 who,  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  rest,  headed 
 the  remonstrance  against  the  detention  of 
 Benjamin  by  Jacob,  and  finally  imdertook 
 to  be  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  lad 
 (Gen.  43  :  3-10).  And  when  through  Jo- 
 seph's artifice  the  brothers  were  brought 
 back  to  the  palace,  he  is  again  the  leader 
 and  spokesman  of  the  band.  So  too  it  is 
 Judah  who  is  sent  before  Jacob  to  smooth 
 the  way  for  him  in  the  land  of  Goshen 
 (Gen.  46  :  28).  This  ascendency  over  his 
 brethren  is  reflected  in  the  last  words  ad- 
 dressed to  him  by  his  father  (Gen.  49  :  8). 
 He  was  the  father  of  five  sons  (Gen.  40  : 
 12). 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Judah  at  the  first  cen- 
 sus, in  the  wilderness,  numbered  seventy- 
 four  thousand  six  hundred  adult  males 
 (Num.  1  :  26,  27);  at  the  second  census, 
 in  the  plains  of  Moab,  seventy-six  thou- 
 sand five  hundred  (Num.  26  :  22).  Thus 
 it  was  numerically  the  largest  tribe,  and 
 this  superiority  it  always  retained.  The 
 tribal  territory  included  one-third  of  the 
 whole  of  Palestine,  but  only  about  one- 
 third  of  the  allotment  was  available  for 
 actual  settlement.  Its  eastern  boundary 
 was  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Arabah,  and 
 its  western  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     On 
 
 the  north  the  border  ran  from  the  mouth 
 of  the  Jordan  by  Jericho,  Jerusalem,  Kir- 
 jath-jearim,  Beth-Shemesh,  Ekion  and 
 Jabneel  to  the  coast.  Its  southern  line, 
 traversing  a  desert  country,  was  indefinite. 
 The  western  portion  of  Judah's  allotted  ter- 
 ritory was  the  celebrated  plain  of  Philis- 
 tia,  called  the  Shephelah,  or  "low  coun- 
 try." It  extended  from  Joppa  on  the 
 north  to  Gaza  on  tlie  south,  and  was  the 
 richest  part  of  their  inlieritance.  But  as 
 they  were  never  able  to  dispossess  the 
 Pliilistines,  their  real  domain  consisted 
 only  of  the  central  mountain-range,  or 
 the  hill-country,  with  its  slopes  and  glens 
 and  valleys.  In  the  person  of  David  the 
 tribe  grasped  the  sceptre;  but  inasmuch 
 as  they  elevated  him  to  the  throne  with- 
 out consulting  the  other  tribes,  they  sowed 
 the  seeds  of  that  j'  alousy  and  alienation 
 which  subsequently  yielded  their  bitter 
 fruit  in  the  formation  of  two  kingdoms, 
 and  in  the  long-continued  struggle  for 
 supremacy  between  Ephraim  and  Judah. 
 
 3.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
 is  the  history  of  its  successive  kings  from 
 Rehoboam  to  Zedekiah,  the  latter  of  whom 
 and  his  people  became  the  captives  of  Neb- 
 uchadnezzar. To  this  kingdom  of  Judah, 
 in  opposition  to  that  of  Israel,  belongs  the 
 peculiar  and  glorious  distinction  of  perpet- 
 uating tiie  true  religion,  of  maintaining 
 the  succession  of  the  priesthood  and  of 
 continuing  those  ceremonial  observances 
 which  typified  so  clearly  the  facts  and  doc- 
 trines of  the  gospel.  In  the  fullness  of 
 time  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  the 
 house  of  David  came  our  Lord,  the  Son 
 of  man  and  the  Son  of  God. 
 
 Ju'das,  the  Grecised  form  of  the  He- 
 brew name  Judah.  It  is  associated  with 
 a  number  of  names  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 1.  Judas,  surnamed  Barsabas,  a  lead- 
 ing member  of  the  apostolic  Church  at  Je- 
 rusalem (Acts  15 :  22),  endued  with  the  gift 
 of  prophecy  (ver.  32),  chosen  with  Silas  to 
 
JUDAS— JUDGES. 
 
 297 
 
 accompany  Paul  and  Barnabas  as  delegates 
 to  the  Church  at  Antioch,  to  make  known 
 the  decree  concerning  the  terms  of  admis- 
 sion of  the  Gentile  converts  (ver.  27). 
 
 2.  Judas  of  Galilee,  the  leader  of  a 
 popular  revolt  "  in  the  days  of  the  taxing  " 
 (that  is,  the  census  under  Quirinus),  re- 
 ferred to  by  Gamaliel  in  his  speech  before 
 the  Sanhedrim  (Acts  5  :  37). 
 
 3.  Judas  Iscariot,  sometimes  called 
 "  the  son  of  Simon  "  (John  6  :  71 ;  13:2, 
 26),  but  more  commonly  Iscariot  (Matt. 
 10  :  4;  Mark  3  :  19 ;  Luke  6  :  16).  In 
 the  three  lists  of  the  Twelve  there  is  add- 
 ed in  each  case  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
 betrayer.  Of  the  life  of  Judas  before  the 
 appearance  of  his  name  in  the  lists  of 
 the  apostles  we  know  absolutely  nothing. 
 What  that  appearance  implies,  however, 
 is  that  he  had  previously  declared  him- 
 self a  disciple.  He  was  drawn,  as  the 
 others  were,  by  the  preaching  of  the  Bap- 
 tist, or  his  own  Messianic  hopes,  or  the 
 "  gracious  words  "  of  the  new  Teacher,  to 
 leave  his  former  life  and  to  obey  the  call 
 of  the  prophet  of  Nazareth.  When  our 
 Lord  and  his  disciples  began  to  travel 
 hither  and  thither,  receiving  money  and 
 other  offerings,  and  redistributing  wJiat 
 they  received,  it  became  necessary  that 
 some  one  should  act  as  the  steward  and 
 almoner  of  the  small  society,  and  this  fell 
 to  Judas  (John  12:6;  13  :  29).  The 
 Galilean  or  Judaean  peasant  found  him- 
 self entrusted  with  larger  sums  of  money 
 than  before,  and  with  this  there  came  cov- 
 etousness,  unfaithfulness,  embezzlement. 
 After  this  it  was  impossible  that  he  could 
 feel  at  ease  with  One  who  asserted  so  clear- 
 ly and  sharply  the  laws  of  fidelity,  duty, 
 unselHshness.  With  the  hope  of  gain  he 
 lent  himself  to  the  furtherance  of  the 
 schemes  of  our  Lord's  enemies,  and  con- 
 summated the  betrayal  in  circumstances 
 which  made  his  treachery  the  more  ap- 
 parent and  appalling.  When  tlie  deed 
 was  done  he  realized  the  enormity  of  his 
 
 crime,  and,  returning  the  money  to  his 
 employers,  confessed  his  guilt  and  shame. 
 With  the  heartlessness  which  chai-ac- 
 terized  the  priests  and  rulers  of  the  time, 
 they  threw  upon  him  the  responsibil- 
 ity of  his  act,  and  unable  longer  to  bear 
 the  reproaches  of  conscience,  he  cast  the 
 thirty  silver  pieces  on  the  temple  pave- 
 ment and  went  and  hanged  himself  His 
 name  was  dismissed  from  the  list  of  the 
 apostles  with  the  prayer  of  the  survivors 
 that  God  would  show  which  of  two  men, 
 Justus  and  Matthias,  he  had  chosen  to 
 take  the  "ministry  and  apostleship  from 
 which  Judas  by  transgression  fell  that  he 
 might  go  to  his  own  jjlace"  (Acts  1  :  25). 
 
 4.  Judas  the  Brother  of  James, 
 otherwise  Jude,  and  otherwise  Lebbeus, 
 whose  surname  was  Thaddeus  (Luke  6  : 
 16  ;  John  14  :  22 ;  Jude  1 ;  Matt.  10  :  3  ; 
 Mark  3  :  18),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles. 
 Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  later 
 history. 
 
 5.  Judas  the  Lord's  Brother. 
 Among  the  brethren  of  our  Lord  men- 
 tioned by  the  people  of  Nazai-eth  (Matt. 
 13  :  55;  Mark  6  :  3)  occurs  a  Judas  who 
 has  been  sometimes  identified  with  the 
 apostle  of  the  same  name.  It  has  been 
 considered  with  more  probability  that  he 
 was  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  which  bears 
 the  name  of  "  Jude  the  brother  of  .James." 
 
 Jud'ges,  temporary  and  special  de- 
 liverers sent  by  God  to  deliver  the  Is- 
 raelites from  their  oppressors.  Their 
 power  only  extended  over  portions  of  the 
 country,  and  some  of  them  were  contem- 
 poraries. Though  their  first  work  was 
 that  of  deliverers  and  leaders  in  war,  yet 
 after  a  deliverance  they  administered  jus- 
 tice to  the  people,  and  their  authority  sup- 
 plied the  want  of  a  regular  government. 
 The  book  of  Judges  contains  their  his- 
 tory from  Joshua  to  Samson.  The  time 
 commonly  assigned  to  the  period  contain- 
 ed in  this  book  is  two  hundred  and  ninety- 
 nine  years.     The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
 
298 
 
 JUDGES— JUDGMENT-HALL. 
 
 judges,  wliose  liistory  is  given  under  their 
 respective  names : 
 
 First  Servitude,  to  Mesopotamia: 
 
 1.  Othniel. 
 
 Second  Servitude,  to  Moab : 
 
 2.  P^hud; 
 
 3.  Shamgar. 
 
 Third  Servitude,  to  Jal>in  and  Sisera : 
 
 4.  Deborah  and  Barak. 
 Fourth  Servitude,  to  Midian  : 
 
 5.  Gideon  ; 
 
 6.  Abimelech  ; 
 
 7.  Tola  ; 
 
 8.  Jair. 
 
 Fifth  Servitude,  to  A  mmon : 
 
 9.  Jephthah  ; 
 
 10.  Ibzan; 
 
 1 1 .  P>LON  ; 
 
 12.  Abdon. 
 
 Sixth  Servitude,  to  the  Fliilistines  : 
 
 13.  Samson; 
 
 14.  Eli; 
 
 15.  Samuel. 
 
 But  wliilst  the  judges  in  the  above  list 
 were  men  raised  up  in  extraordinary  emer- 
 gencies and  invested  with  extraordinary 
 powers,  they  did  not  supersede  tlie  class 
 of  magistrates  termed  judges,  which  were 
 originally  appointed  by  Moses  in  the  wil- 
 derness, soon  after  the  departure  from 
 Egypt.  We  are  told  that  Moses,  at  the 
 suggestion  of  Jethro,  his  father-in-law, 
 and  in  order  to  relieve  himself  of  a  por- 
 tion of  the  onerous  duties  of  the  chief 
 magistracy,  "  chose  able  men  out  of  all 
 Israel,  and  made  them  heads  over  the 
 people,  rulers  of  tliousands,  rulers  of  hun- 
 dreds, rulers  of  fifties  and  rulers  of  tens : 
 and  they  judged  the  people  at  all  sea- 
 sons ;  the  hard  causes  they  brought  unto 
 Moses,  but  every  small  matter  they  judged 
 themselves"  (Ex.  18  :  13-20).  Subsequent 
 legislation  |irovided  tliat  judges  or  magis- 
 trates should  be  ajipointed  in  every  city 
 (Deut.  16  :  18),  and  that  a  court  of  appeal 
 should  be  constituted  of  priests,  with  the 
 
 high  priest  at  its  head  (Deut.  17  :  8-13). 
 When  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  their 
 respective  districts  of  the  Promised  Land, 
 the  judiciary  system  outlined  by  Moses 
 went  into  effect.  For  the  cities  and  towns 
 judges  were  then  appointed,  but  how  ap- 
 pointed, and  whether  there  was  a  regular 
 succession  of  them,  we  are  not  informed. 
 As  the  law  to  be  administered  was  most  fa- 
 miliar to  the  Levites,  and  as  they  by  the 
 force  of  circumstances  were  more  conver- 
 sant with  such  subjects  than  any  other 
 class  of  the  people,  it  is  probable  that  on 
 them  cliiefly  the  judicial  office  devolved. 
 Judgement,  Day  of  (Matt.  10  :  15), 
 that  momentous  day  which  is  to  terminate 
 the  present  dispensation  of  grace  and  to 
 fix  unalterably  the  eternal  state  of  all 
 men.  That  such  a  day  is  appointed  is 
 abundantly  evident  from  Scripture  ( Matt. 
 12  :  36 ;  Acts  17  :  31 ;  2  Thess.  1  :  7-10 ; 
 Heb.  9  :  27  ;   2  Pet.  2  :  9  ;  3  :  7 ;  1  John 
 
 4  :  17).  On  that  day  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  will  officiate  as  judge  (Matt.  25  : 
 31,  32;  John  5  :  22;  Rom.  2  :  IG;  2  Cor. 
 
 5  :  10).  The  decisions  of  the  Judge  will 
 be  final  and  irreversible,  admitting  the 
 righteous  to  the  joys  of  Christ's  kingdom 
 and  dooming  the  wicked  to  the  outer  dark- 
 ness of  eternal  despair  (Matt.  25  :  34-46; 
 1  Thess.  4 :  14-17  ;  2  Pet.  3  :  7).  The  day 
 is  hidden  from  man's  knowledge,  and  is 
 known  to  God  only  (Matt.  24  :  36). 
 
 Judg'ment-Hall.  The  word  Prcpto- 
 rium  is  so  translated  five  times  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  the  New  Testament, 
 and  in  those  five  passages  it  denotes  two 
 different  places. 
 
 1.  In  John  18  :  28,  33;  19  :  9  it  is  the 
 residence  which  Pilate  occupied  when  lie 
 visited  Jerusalem.  The  site  of  Pilate's 
 prsetorium  in  Jerusalem  has  given  rise  to 
 much  dispute,  some  supposing  it  to  be  the 
 palace  of  King  Herod,  others  the  tower 
 of  Antonia ;  but  it  was  probably  the  lat- 
 ter, which  was  then  and  long  afterward 
 the  citadel  of  Jerusalem. 
 
JULIA— JUTTAH. 
 
 299 
 
 2.  In  Acts  23  :  35,  Herod's  judgment- 
 hall  or  prsetorium  in  Csesarea  was  doubt- 
 less a  part  of  tliat  magnificent  range  of 
 buildings,  the  creation  of  which  by  King 
 Herod  is  described  in  .Tosephus.  The  word 
 "  palace  "  or  "  Cfesar's  court  "  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  Phil.  1  :  13  is  a  transla- 
 tion of  the  same  word  prcelorium.  It  may 
 here  have  denoted  the  quarter  of  that  de- 
 tachment of  the  praetorian  guards  which  was 
 in  immediate  attendance  upon  the  emperor. 
 
 JuFi-a,  a  Christian  woman  at  Rome 
 whom  Paul  salutes  in  connection  with 
 Philologus,  whose  sister  or  wife  she  prob- 
 ably was  (Rom.  16  :  15). 
 
 Ju'li-us,  the  centurion  of  "  Augustus' 
 band "  to  whose  charge  the  apostle  Paul 
 was  delivered  when  he  was  sent  prisoner 
 from  Cfesarea  to  Rome  (Acts  27  :  1,  3). 
 
 Ju^ni-per.  The  word  thus  rendered 
 in  1  Kings  19  :  4,  5  ;  Ps.  120  :  4 ;  Job  30  : 
 4  is  beyond  doubt  the  retem  or  white  broom. 
 It  is  very  abundant  along  tlie  Jordan  Val- 
 ley and  in  the  desert  of  Sinai,  and  affords 
 to  travelers  a  grateful  shade  in  the 
 time  of  heat  and  comfortable  warmth 
 in  the  time  of  cold.  Of  the  retem 
 President  Bartlett,  when  traversing  the 
 desert  of  wandering,  writes  thus :  "  We 
 put  on  a  quantity  of  retem,  and  watched 
 with  interest  for  the  coals  of  juniper  (Ps. 
 120  :  4).  They  appeared  to  be  like  the 
 best  hard -wood  coals,  giving  out  a  strong 
 heat,  and  brightening  up  when  separately 
 exposed.  The  next  morning  (Feb.  27th) 
 we  went  early  to  the  place  of  our  last 
 night's  fire,  and  found  good  juniper  coals 
 beneath  the  ashes,  enough  to  kindle  it  up 
 again  easily." 
 
 Ju'pi-ter,  the  name  of  the  chief  father 
 of  the  gods  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythol- 
 ogy. It  is  mentioned  in  one  passage  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testament 
 (Acts  14  :  12,  13)  in  connection  with  Paul's 
 visit  to  Lystra.  The  expression  "  Jupiter 
 which  was  before  their  city  "  means  that 
 liis  temple  was  outside  the  city. 
 
 Jus''tice,  practical  righteousness  or  eq- 
 uity, by  which  one  renders  to  another  what 
 is  his  due.  God's  justice  or  attributive  right- 
 eousness is  that  essential  jjerfection  of  his 
 nature  which  leads  him  to  render  to  every 
 one  his  due  (Ps.  89  :  14;  2  Tim.  4  :  8). 
 This  justice  in  God  requires  the  condem- 
 nation of  every  sinner,  and  were  it  not 
 for  the  i)lan  of  redemption,  in  which  jus- 
 tice is  satisfied  in  the  person  of  Christ, 
 and  is  brought  into  harmony  with  mercy, 
 the  whole  race  of  men  would  die  in  their 
 sins  (Rom.  5:6;  Heb.  9  :  26,  28  ;  1  Pet. 
 3:  18). 
 
 Jus-ti-fl-oa'tion  "  is  an  act  of  God's 
 free  grace,  wherein  he  pardoneth  all  our 
 sins,  and  accepteth  us  as  righteous  in  his 
 sight,  only  for  the  righteousness  of  Christ 
 imputed  to  us  and  received  by  faith  alone." 
 Hence  the  ground  of  a  sinner's  justification 
 is  not  his  own  personal  merit,  but  Christ's 
 perfect  righteousness.  This  righteousness 
 because  of  the  believer's  vital  union  with 
 Christ  is  imputed  to  him  or  set  to  his  ac- 
 count. The  justified  person  is  not  only 
 pardoned,  but  in  the  eye  of  God's  law  lie 
 is  contemplated  as  righteous — as  righteous, 
 indeed,  as  if  he  had  rendered  to  the  law  in 
 his  own  person  a  full,  complete  and  sinless 
 obedience.  Justification  by  faith  is  a  car- 
 dinal doctrine  of  the  Christian  religion, 
 and  affords  the  only  ground  of  hope  to  the 
 penitent  (Acts  13  :  39;  Rom.  3  :  24-31; 
 5:1;  Gal.  2  :  16  ;  3  :  11  ;  2  Cor.  5  :  21). 
 
 Jus'tus.  1.  The  surname  of  Joseph 
 Barsabas  (Acts  1  :  23) ;  2.  A  Christian  at 
 Corinth  with  whom  Paul  lodged  (Acts 
 18  :  7) ;  3.  A  believing  Jew,  who,  also 
 called  Jesus,  was  with  Paul  at  Rome 
 when  he  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
 sians  (Col.  4:11). 
 
 Jut'tah  [er^e?)f/e(/],  an  ancient  town  in 
 the  mountains  of  Judah,  mentioned  in  the 
 group  with  Maon  and  Carmel  (Josh.  15  : 
 55).  It  was  allotted  to  the  priests  (Josh. 
 21  :  16).  It  is  now  called  Yuituh,  and  is 
 five  English  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
 
300 
 
 KABZEEL— KEDESH. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kab''zeel,  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  21),  the  native 
 I)hice  of  Benaiali,  son  of  Jehoiada,  one  of 
 David's  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  23  :  20;  1 
 Chron.  11  :  22).  After  the  Captivity  it 
 was  reinhabited  by  tlie  Jews,  and  ap- 
 pears as  Jekabzeel. 
 
 Ka'desh  [mncUiary],  the  site,  perliaps, 
 of  some  ancient  oracle,  thus  named  in  Num. 
 13  :  26,  otherwise  called  Kadesh-barnea 
 (Num.  32  :  8;  Deut.  1  :  2,  19),  but  orig- 
 inally named,  as  in  Gen.  14  :  7,  En-Mish- 
 pat  (fountain  ofjuch/menl),  from  a  remark- 
 able spring  or  well  of  water  found  there. 
 Its  site  has  been  much  disputed,  but  re- 
 cent studies  place  it  at  Ain  Kadees,  about 
 Lat.  31°  35'  N.  and  Long.  34°  50'  W., 
 70  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Hebron.  This  place 
 was  remarkable  as  that  from  which  Moses 
 proposed  to  enter  the  Promised  Land, 
 and  from  which  he  sent  a  message  to 
 the  king  of  Edom  asking  permission  to 
 pass  through  his  territory,  which  was  re- 
 fused (Num.  20  :  14-21).  Here  too  Mir- 
 iam died,  and  on  the  murmuring  of  the 
 people  for  water  Moses  was  permitted  by 
 miracle  to  increase  the  supply  (Num.  20  : 
 1-11). 
 
 Kad'mi-el  [^standing before  God,  that  is, 
 his  xervantl,  one  of  the  Levites  who  with 
 his  family  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ze- 
 rubbabel  (Neh.  12  :  8)  and  a.ssisted  in  the 
 various  reforms  of  that  period,  being  al- 
 ways named  in  connection  with  Jeshua 
 (Ezra  3:9;  Neh.  7:43).  He  and  his 
 house  are  prominent  in  history  on  three 
 occasions  (Ezra  3:9;  Neh.  9  :  4,  5;  10  : 
 9). 
 
 Kad'mon-ites,  The,  a  people  named 
 in  Gen.  15: 19only,oneoftlienationswhich 
 at  that  time  occupied  the  land  promised 
 to  the  descendants  of  Abraham.  The 
 name    is    probably   a   synonym    for    the 
 
 Bene-Kedem,    the    "children    of    the 
 East." 
 Ka'nah  [reeds]. 
 
 1.  The  name  of  a  brook,  the  boundary 
 between  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  fall- 
 ing into  the  Mediterranean  a  little  south 
 of  the  ruins  of  Csesarea  (Josh.  10:8;  17  : 
 
 9)- 
 
 2.  The  name  of  a  city  in  the  tribe  of 
 Asher  (Josh.  19  :  24,  28),  and  supposed  to 
 be  the  same  as  the  New  Testament  Cana 
 (John  2  :  1). 
 
 3.  One  of  the  fortified  cities  of  the  tribe 
 of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19 :  37),  called  Kadesh- 
 Napiitali  ;  that  is,  the  sanctuaiy  or  holy 
 place  of  Naphtali.  It  was  the  a.sylum  of 
 all  Northern  Palestine  and  the  residence 
 of  Barak,  the  deliverer  of  Israel  (Judg. 
 4:6). 
 
 Ka-re'ah  [bald-headi,  the  father  of 
 Johanan  and  Jonathan  Avho  supported 
 Gedaliah's  authority  and  avenged  his 
 murder  (Jer.  40  :  8,'  13,  15,  16;  41  :  11, 
 13,  14,16;  42:  1,8;  43:  2,4,5). 
 
 Ke'dar  [blnck'],  the  second  son  of  Ish- 
 mael,  and  founder  of  the  tribe  that  bore 
 his  name  (Gen.  25  :  13;  1  Chron.  1  :  29). 
 Like  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  present 
 day,  the  Kedarites  appear  to  have  been 
 "archers"  and  "mighty  men"  (Isa.  21  : 
 17).  The  tribe  seems  to  have  been  one 
 of  the  most  conspicuous  of  all  the  Ish- 
 maelite  tribes. 
 
 Ked'e-moth  [beginnings'],  a  city  in 
 the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  13  :  15,  18), 
 given  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh.  21  : 
 37  ;  1  Chron.  6  :  79).  It  possibly  conferred 
 its  name  on  the  "  wilderness "  or  pasture- 
 land  near  it,  from  which  Moses  sent  mes- 
 sengers to  Sihon,  king  of  Heshbon  ( Deut. 
 2  :  26). 
 
 Ke'desh  [sancluary],  the  name  of  two 
 towns  in  Palestine:  1.  A  town  in  the  ex- 
 
KEDRON— KID. 
 
 301 
 
 treme  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  23) ;  2. 
 A  city  of  Issachar,  allotted  to  the  Gersho- 
 nite  Levites  (1  Chron.  6  :  72),  whose  king 
 was  probably  slain  by  Joshua  (12:7,  22). 
 It  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  on  the 
 west  of  Jordan  (Josh.  20  :  7). 
 
 Ke'dron.    See  Kidron. 
 
 Kei^lah  [fortress],  a  city  of  the  tribe 
 of  Judah,  lying  in  the  Sliephelah  or  plain 
 of  Philistia  south-west  from  Jerusalem 
 (Josh.  15  :  44).  When  attacked  by  the 
 Philistines  it  was  relieved  by  David,  who 
 afterward  discovered  that  its  inhabitants 
 were  plotting  to  deliver  him  into  the 
 hands  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  23  :  1-13).  The 
 place  is  mentioned  in  the  times  of  Ne- 
 hemiah  (Neh.  3:17),  and  its  site  is  still 
 shown  on  a  steep  hill  above  the  rich 
 corn-valley  of  Elah.     It  is  now  Kila. 
 
 Ke'nath  [possession],  a  strong  city  of 
 Baslian,  in  the  province  of  Argob,  con- 
 quered in  the  time  of  Moses  by  Nobah, 
 one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
 and  called  after  his  name  (Num.  32  :  42). 
 It  retained  the  name  of  Nobah  two  hun- 
 dred years.  Its  site  is  supposed  to  be 
 identical  with  that  of  the  modern  Kan- 
 awdt,  a  ruined  town  at  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  Lejah,  about  twenty  miles 
 north  of  Busrah.  The  ruins  cover  consid- 
 erable space,  and  are  among  the  finest  of 
 the  Hauran. 
 
 Ke'naz  [hunter'],  the  last  named  of  the 
 sons  of  Eliphaz,  the  son  of  Esau,  and  one 
 of  the  dukes  of  Edom  (Gen.  36  :  15,  42 ;  1 
 Chron.  1  :  53). 
 
 Ke'nite,  The,  and  Reunites,  The, 
 a  tribe  or  nation  first  mentioned  in  com- 
 pany with  the  Kenizzites  and  Kadmon- 
 ites  (Gen.  15  :  19).  Their  origin  is  not 
 recorded,  but  we  may  infer  that  they  were 
 a  branch  of  the  larger  nation  of  Midian. 
 Jethro,  who  in  Ex.  2  :  15,  16;  4  :  18,  19  is 
 represented  as  dwelling  in  the  land  of 
 Midian,  and  as  priest  or  prince  of  that 
 nation,  is  in  Judg.  1:16;  4:11  distinctly 
 declared  to  be  a  Kenite.     The  important 
 
 services  rendered  by  the  sheikh  of  tlie 
 Kenites  to  Moses  during  a  time  of  great 
 pressure  and  difficulty  were  rewarded  by 
 the  latter  with  a  promise  of  firm  friend- 
 ship between  the  two  peoples.  The  con- 
 nection then  begun  lasted  as  firmly  as  a 
 connection  could  last  between  a  settled 
 people  like  Israel  and  one  whose  tenden- 
 cies were  so  decidedly  nomadic  as  those 
 of  the  Kenites.  The  most  remarkable 
 development  of  this  people  is  to  be  found 
 in  the  sect  or  family  of  the  Rechabites, 
 
 Ke^niz-ite  or  Kenizzite,  an  Edom- 
 itish  tribe  (Gen.  15  :  19;  Num.  32  :  12; 
 Josh.  14  :  6, 14). 
 
 Ke'ri-oth,  a  strong  city  of  the  land  of 
 Moab  ( Jer.  48  :  24,  41 ;  Amos  2:2).  Its 
 site  has  not  been  satisfactorily  identified. 
 
 Ke-tu''rah  [perfume],  the  second  wife 
 of  Abraham,  by  whom  he  had  six  sons 
 (Gen.  25  :  1-6).  Five  of  these  sons  evi- 
 dently crossed  the  desert  to  the  Persian 
 Gulf  and  occupied  the  whole  intermedi- 
 ate country,  where  traces  of  their  names 
 are  frequent,  while  the  sixth  (Midian)  ex- 
 tended south  into  the  peninsula  of  Arabia 
 proper. 
 
 Key,  an  instrument  for  opening  a  lock, 
 frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and 
 often  used  in  a  figurative  sense.  It  is 
 the  symbol  of  government,  power,  authority 
 (Isa.  22:22;  Rev.  1  :  18;  9:1;  20  :  1). 
 Even  in  modern  times,  when  the  govern- 
 ment of  a  city  is  transferred  to  a  mayor  or 
 governor,  the  keys  of  the  gates  are  deliver- 
 ed as  an  emblem  of  authority. 
 
 Kib'roth-hat-ta^a-vah  [graves  of 
 lust  or  longing],  one  of  the  encampments 
 of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  where 
 the  people  lusted  for  meat  and  murmured. 
 The  Lord  sent  them  vast  numbers  of 
 quails,  and  while  the  flesh  was  yet  be- 
 tween their  teeth,  ere  it  was  chewed, 
 smote  them  with  a  very  great  plague 
 (Num.  11  :  34;  Ps.  78  :  30,31). 
 
 Kid,  tlie  young  of  the  goat  (Gen.  27  : 
 9;  Judg.  6  :  19j. 
 
302 
 
 KIDEON— KING. 
 
 Kidron. 
 
 Kid'ron  [turbid],  (Cedron  in  John 
 18  :  1),  the  narrow  bed  of  a  winter-torrent 
 between  Jerusalem  and  the  Mount  of 
 Olives.  It  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  one 
 arch,  leading  to  the  garden  of  Gethsem- 
 ane.  Over  the  brook  Kidron,  David, 
 when  fleeing  from  Absalom,  sorrowfully 
 passed  (2  Sam.  15  :  23),  and  over  it  our 
 Lord,  on  the  night  of  his  betrayal  and 
 arrest,  went  to  his  Gethsemane  agony 
 (John  18  :  1-9).  The  outlet  of  Kidron 
 is  into  the  Dead  Sea,  which  it  enters  not 
 far  from  its  north-west  corner,  about 
 fourteen  miles  from  Jerusalem. 
 
 Kine,  the  plural  of  cow,  not  often  used 
 (Gen.  41  :  2). 
 
 King,  a  title  of  dignity  and  authority, 
 as  applied  to  God  the  universal  Ruler,  or 
 to  Christ  as  the  head  of  the  mediatorial 
 government,  or  to  man  exercising  do- 
 minion over  his  fellow-men.  In  its  later 
 application  it  often  in  Scripture  means 
 
 mere  chieftainship.  Many  of  the  kings 
 mentioned  in  its  historical  records  were 
 no  more  than  the  governors  of  towns  or 
 the  leaders  of  tribes.  Thus  there  were 
 thirty  kings  in  Canaan  that  were  sub- 
 dued by  the  Israelites  (Josh.  12  :  9-24); 
 and  Adonibezck  acknowledged  that  he 
 had  subdued  and  cruelly  mutilated  sev- 
 enty kings  (Judg.  1:7).  These  were  cer- 
 tainly officers  of  very  limited  dominion. 
 The  government  which  God  originally 
 appointed  for  the  Israelites  was  not  a 
 monarchy,  but  a  theocracy,  that  is,  a 
 government  of  whicli  God  was  tlie  Head. 
 In  many  of  its  features  it  bore  a  strong 
 resemblance  to  a  republic.  After  the 
 decease  of  Moses  and  Josluia  the  people 
 were  governed  by  judges  for  a  series  of 
 years;  but  in  tlie  time  of  Samuel  the 
 people  became  dissatisfied  with  the  cor- 
 rupt and  mercenary  conduct  of  his  sons, 
 who  had  been  appointed  judges,  and  de- 
 
KINGDOM  OF  GOD— KIE-HAEASETH. 
 
 303 
 
 manded  a  king.  The  suggestion  was  dis- 
 pleasing to  Samuel,  and  he  asked  coun- 
 sel of  God.  The  answer  he  received  was, 
 "  Hearken  unto  the  voice  of  the  people  in 
 all  that  they  say  unto  thee ;  for  they  have 
 not  rejected  thee,  but  they  have  rejected 
 me  that  I  should  not  reign  over  them"  (1 
 Sam.  8:7).  This  concession,  accompanied 
 as  it  was  by  a  warning  of  all  the  evils  the 
 people  would  certainly  suffer  under  this 
 new  government,  plainly  showed  that  the 
 monarchy  was  conceded,  not  as  a  blessing, 
 but  as  a  curse  (1  Sam.  8 :  10-18).  A  curse 
 they  soon  found  it  to  be.  They  had  the 
 pomp  and  pageantry  of  royalty,  but  they 
 had  the  exaction  and  exasperation  as 
 Avell.  After  the  reigns  of  three  kings  the 
 kingdom  itself  was  divided,  and  tlien  fol- 
 lows the  history  of  the  kings  of  Juduh 
 and  of  Israel.  The  records  of  those  times 
 are  contained  in  the  first  and  second  books 
 of  Samuel,  the  first  and  second  books  of 
 Kings,  and  the  first  and  second  books  of 
 Chronicles.  The  books  of  Chronicles  are 
 confined  to  the  history  of  the  kings  of 
 Judah. 
 
 A  table   of  the   Hebrew  monarchy   is 
 subjoined : 
 
 HEBREW  MONARCHY. 
 The  dates  conform  to  the  calculations 
 of  Usher.     They  indicate  the  year  of  ac- 
 cession to  the  throne,  and  are  those  which 
 are  commonly  found  in  reference  Bibles. 
 
 I.  Tribes  United. 
 
 B.  C.     Kings. 
 
 1095.  Saul. 
 1055.  David. 
 1015.  Solomon. 
 
 II.  Tribes  Divided. 
 
 B.C.  Kings  of  Judah. 
 975.  Rehoboam. 
 958.  Abijah. 
 955.  Asa. 
 
 B.  C.  Kings  of  Israel. 
 975.  Jeroboam  T. 
 954.  Nadab. 
 953.  Baasha. 
 930.  Elah. 
 929.  Zimri. 
 929.  Omri, 
 
 914. 
 892. 
 
 885. 
 884. 
 878. 
 839. 
 810. 
 
 758. 
 742. 
 726. 
 698. 
 
 643. 
 641. 
 610. 
 610. 
 599. 
 599. 
 588. 
 
 Jehoshaphat.  918.  Ahab. 
 
 Jehoram.  898.  Ahaziah. 
 
 Ahaziah.  896.  Jehoram. 
 
 Athaliah  (queen).  884.  Jehu. 
 Joash.  856.  Jehoahaz. 
 
 Amaziah.  841.  Jehoash. 
 
 AzariahorUzziali.  825.  Jeroboam  II. 
 
 773.  Zechariah. 
 
 772.  Shallum  (one 
 month). 
 
 772.  Menahem, 
 Jotham.  761.  Pekahiah. 
 
 Ahaz.  759.  Pekah. 
 
 Hezekiah.  730.  Hoshea. 
 
 Manasseh.  721.  Captivity  and 
 
 deportation. 
 Anion. 
 Josiah. 
 
 Jehoahaz  (three  months). 
 Jehoiachim. 
 
 Jehoiachin  (tributary  prince). 
 Zedekiah  (tributary  prince). 
 Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  temple ; 
 complete  captivity. 
 
 King'dom  of  God,  the  universal 
 dominion  which  God  exercises  over  all 
 the  works  of  his  hands  (1  Chron.  29  :  11). 
 The  KINGDOM  OF  HEAVEN  is  an  expres- 
 sion descriptive  of  the  gospel  dispensation 
 (Matt.  3:2;  13  :  47 ;  Col.  1  :  13).  It  is 
 descriptive  also  of  the  future  state  of  glory 
 (Matt.  7  :  21;  8  :  11). 
 
 Kir  [a  walled  town],  the  place  to  which 
 the  inhabitants  of  Damascus  were  carried 
 captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings 
 16  :  9).  Kir  is  named  with  Elam  (Isa. 
 22  :  6),  and  hence  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
 tiguous to  Persia,  having  its  site  on  the 
 territory  of  ancient  Media.  Of  it,  how- 
 ever, nothing  is  certainly  known. 
 
 Kir-Har^a-seth  [city  of  potsherds'],  (2 
 Kings  3  :  25) ;  Kir-Ha^resh  (Isa.  16  : 
 11) ;  Kir-Har^e-seth  (Isa.  16 : 7) ;  Kir- 
 He'res  (Jer.  48  :  31,  36) ;  and  Kir  of 
 Moab  (Isa.  15  :  1),  a  strongly-fortified 
 city  of  ancient  Moab.     With  the  excep- 
 
304 
 
 KIRJATH— KITE. 
 
 tion  of  the  walls,  it  was  destroyed  by 
 Joram,  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  3  :  25). 
 It  is  now  called  Kerak,  and  is  a  town 
 of  about  three  thousand  inhal)itants.  It 
 stands  on  the  top  of  a  rocky  hill  about 
 ten  miles  from  the  soutli-east  corner  of 
 the  Dead  Sea  and  near  the  southern  fron- 
 tier of  Moab. 
 
 Kir'jath.  This  word  means  a  city  or 
 town,  and  is  frequently  found  in  composi- 
 tion as  follows : 
 
 1.  Kir-jath'aim  [double  city'],  one  of 
 tlie  most  ancient  towns  east  of  Jordan, 
 early  in  possession  of  the  gigantic  Emims 
 (Gen.  14  :  5),  where  it  is  called  Kiriathaim. 
 The  Emims  were  dispossessed  by  the  Mo- 
 abites  (Deut.  2  :  9-11).  It  was  afterward 
 in  possession  of  Reuben  (Num.  32  :  37  ; 
 Josh.  13  :  19).  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah 
 (48  :  1)  it  was  one  of  the  four  cities  that 
 formed  the  glory  of  Moab.  A  town  of 
 the  same  name  was  within  the  tribe  of 
 Naphtali  (1  C'hron.  6  :  76). 
 
 2.  Kir'jath-Ar'ba  [city  of  Arba,  or, 
 according  to  tlie  later  Jews,  city  of  Jour,  be- 
 cause, as  they  held,  in  addition  to  Abraham, 
 Isaac  and  Jacob,  Adam  was  buried  there], 
 the  same  as  Hebron.     See  Hebron. 
 
 3.  Kir'jath-Ba'al  [city  of  Baal],  same 
 as  Kirjatli-jearim.    See  Kirjath-jearim. 
 
 4.  Kir'jatii-hu'zoth  [city  of  streets], 
 a  town  in  Moab  (Num.  22  :  39). 
 
 6.  Kir'jatii-je'a-kim  [city  of  forests], 
 called  Kiijath-Baal  (Josh.  15  :  60),  was 
 one  of  the  four  cities  of  the  Gibeonites 
 which  was  saved  by  the  craft  and  cun- 
 ning of  the  inhabitants  (.Josh.  9  :  17). 
 Here  the  ark,  after  its  restoration  by  the 
 Philistines,  remained  until  it  was  removed 
 to  Jerusalem  by  David  (1  Sam.  7 ;  1  Chron. 
 13).  It  is  probably  identical  with  the  mod- 
 ern Arabic  village  Soba. 
 
 6.  Kir'jath-san'nah  (Josh.  15  :  49), 
 also  called  Kir'jath-se'pher  [the  book 
 city],  (Judg.  1  :  11),  also  called  Debir. 
 
 Kish,  the  father  of  Saul,  a  Benjamite 
 (1  Sam.  10  :  21). 
 
 Si^'shou  [torttwus,  winding],  a  river 
 which  drains  nearly  the  whole  plain  of 
 Esdraelon,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterra- 
 nean near  the  northern  base  of  Mount  Car- 
 mel.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
 Sisera  and  his  host  were  defeated,  and  by 
 the  waters  of  which  many  of  them  were 
 swept  away  (Judg.  4  :  13;  5  :  21).  It  is 
 also  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  destruc- 
 tion of  Baal's  prophets  by  Elijah  ( 1  Kings 
 18  :  40).  Although  comparatively  a  small 
 stream  in  the  dry  season,  yet  in  the  wet  sea- 
 son or  after  heavy  rains  it  is  a  swollen  and 
 impetuous  flood.  It  is  now  called  Nahr 
 Mukalta,  the  river  of  slaughter. 
 
 Kiss.  Kissing,  by  way  of  affectionate 
 salutation,  was  customary  amongst  near 
 relatives  of  both  sexes  both  in  patriarchal 
 and  in  later  times  (Gen.  29  :  11;  Song  8  : 
 1).  In  the  early  Christian  Church  the 
 kiss  of  charity  was  practiced  not  only  as 
 a  friendly  salutation,  but  as  an  act  sym- 
 bolical of  love  and  brotherhood  (Rom.  16  : 
 16;  1  Cor.  16  :  20;  2  Cor.  13  :  12;  1  Thess. 
 5  :  26;  1  Pet.  5  :  14).  Kissing  idols  was 
 an  ancient  mode  of  adoring  and  worship- 
 ing them  (1  Kings  19  :  18;  IIos.  13  :  2). 
 Reverence  for  God's  Messiah  is  to  be  ex- 
 pressed l)y  a  kiss  (Ps.  2  :  12). 
 
 Kite. 
 
 Kite.    The  Hebrew  word   thus    ren- 
 dered occurs  in  three  passages  (Lev.  11  : 
 
KITTIM— KOEAH. 
 
 305 
 
 14;  Deut.  14  :  13,  and  Job  28  :  7).  In 
 the  first  two  it  is  translated  "kite"  in 
 our  Authorized  Version ;  in  the  third, 
 "vulture."  It  is  enumerated  among  the 
 twenty  names  of  birds  mentioned  in  Deut. 
 14  which  were  considered  unclean  by  the 
 Mosaic  Law,  and  forbidden  to  be  used  as 
 food  by  the  Israelites. 
 
 Kit'tim.  Twice,  and  more  correctly, 
 written  in  our  Authorized  Version  for 
 Chittim  (Gen.  10  :  4;  1  Chron.  1:7). 
 See  Chittim. 
 
 Knead^ing-trough,  the  vessel  in 
 which  the  materials  of  the  bread,  after 
 being  mixed  and  leavened,  are  left  to  rise 
 or  ferment  (Ex.  8:3;  12  :  34).  It  prob- 
 ably resembled  the  wooden  bowl  used  by 
 the  modern  Arabs  for  the  same  purpose. 
 With  the  dough  in  it,  it  is  quite  poit- 
 able,  and  by  the  Arabs  is  frequently 
 carried  on  their  shoulders  wrapped  in  a 
 cloak. 
 
 Knife,  Knives.  Various  terms  in 
 the  Hebrew  Scriptures  are  thus  rendered 
 in  our  Authorized  Version.  The  most 
 common  one  is  a  derivative  of  the  root 
 "to  eat  or  devour,"  and  means  an  eating 
 instrument,  a  meat-cutter  (Gen.  22  :  6,  10  ; 
 Judg.  19  :  29 ;  Prov.  30  :  14).  The  usual 
 term  for  "  sword  "  when  used  with  respect 
 to  an  instrument  for  cutting  smaller  objects 
 is  also  rendered  knife  (Josh.  5:2,  3; 
 1  Kings  18  :  28  ;  Ezek.  5  :  1,  2).  The 
 knives  mentioned  in  Ezra  1  :  9  among  the 
 articles  of  the  temple-furniture  brought 
 back  from  Babylon,  and  which  were  doubt- 
 less used  chiefly  in  killing  and  dissecting 
 the  sacred  victims,  have  their  name  in 
 Hebrew  from  a  word  which  points  to  the 
 passing  through  or  piercing  the  objects  to 
 which  it  was  applied,  and  which,  therefore, 
 appropriately  designates  slitting  or  cleav- 
 ing instruments.  Another  word  for  knife 
 is  from  a  root  meaning  to  cut,  divide  be- 
 tween ;  this  word  is  used  but  once  (Prov. 
 23  :  2),  and  in  a  figui-ative  sense.  In 
 none  of  the  passages  in  Scripture  is  there 
 20 
 
 any  indication  of  the  form  or  material  of 
 the  several  kinds  of  knives. 
 
 Knop.  A  word  employed  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  to  translate  two  terms 
 which  refer  to  some  architectural  or  orna- 
 mental object,  but  which  have  nothing  in 
 common.  Tlie  first  term  occurs  in  the 
 description  of  the  candlestick  of  the  sa- 
 cred tent  in  Ex.  25  :  31-36  and  37  :  17- 
 22.  The  second  is  found  only  in  1  Kings 
 6  :  18  and  7  :  24.  The  word  signifies, 
 doubtless,  some  globular  thing  resembling 
 a  small  gourd  or  an  egg,  though  as  to  the 
 character  of  the  ornament  we  are  quite  in 
 the  dark. 
 
 Ko^hath  {^asxembly'},  the  second  son  of 
 Levi  and  fatlier  of  Amram,  Izhar,  Hebron 
 and  Uzziel  (Gen.  46  :  11;  Num.  3  :  19). 
 As  the  father  of  Amram,  who  was  the 
 father  of  Aaron,  Kohath  was  the  ances- 
 tor of  all  the  priests,  and  those  of  his  de- 
 scendants who  were  not  priests  were  of  the 
 highest  rank  of  the  Levites.  In  the  jour- 
 neyings  of  the  tabernacle  the  sons  of  Ko- 
 hath had  charge  of  the  most  holy  portions 
 of  tlie  vessels  (Num.  4).  Of  the  personal 
 history  of  Kohath  we  know  nothing,  ex- 
 cept that  he  came  down  to  Egypt  with 
 Levi  and  Jacob  (Gen.  46  :  11),  that  his 
 sister  was  Jochebed  (Ex.  6  :  20),  and  that 
 he  lived  to  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
 thirty-three  years  (Ex.  6  :  18). 
 
 Ko'rah  [ice],  the  name  of  several 
 men. 
 
 1.  The  third  son  of  Esau  by  his  second 
 Canaanitish  wife,  Aholibamah  (Gen.  36  : 
 14;  1  Chron.  1  :  35).  He  became  tlie 
 head  of  a  petty  Edomite  tribe. 
 
 2.  Another  Edomite  duke,  sprung  from 
 Eliphaz,  Esau's  son  by  Adah  (Gen.  36  : 
 16). 
 
 3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Izhar,  the  brother 
 of  Amram,  who  was  the  father  of  Moses 
 and  Aaron.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
 famous  rebellion  against  his  cousins  Moses 
 and  Aaron  in  the  wilderness,  for  which 
 he  paid  the  penalty  of  perishing  with  his 
 
306 
 
 KORAHITE. 
 
 followers  by  an  earthquake  and  flames  of 
 fire  (Num.  16,  and  2G :  9-11).  The  partic- 
 ular grievance  which  rankled  in  the  minds 
 of  Korah  and  his  company  was  tlieir  exclu- 
 sion from  the  office  of  the  priesthood,  and 
 their  being  confined  (those  among  them 
 who  were  Levites)  to  the  inferior  service 
 of  the  tabernacle.  Korah's  position  as 
 leader  in  this  rebellion  was  evidently  the 
 result  of  his  personal  character,  wliich 
 was  that  of  a  bold,  haughty  and  ambitious 
 man.  This  appears  from  his  address  to 
 Moses  in  ver.  3,  and  especially  from  his 
 conduct  in  ver.  19,  where  both  liis  daring 
 and  his  influence  over  the  congregation  are 
 very  apparent.  ^Vere  it  not  for  this,  one 
 would  have  expected  the  Gershonites,  as 
 the  elder  branch  of  the  Levites,  to  have 
 supplied  a  leader  in  conjunction  with  the 
 sons  of  Reuben  rather  than  the  family 
 of  Izhar,  who  was  Amram's  younger 
 brother.  From  some  cause,  which  does 
 not  clearly  appear,  the  children  of  Korah 
 were  not  involved  in  the  destruction  of 
 their  father  (Num.  26  :  11).  Perhaps  tlie 
 fissure  of  the  ground  which  swallowed  up 
 the  tents  of  Dathan  and  Abiram  did  not  ex- 
 tend beyond  those  of  the  Reubenites.  From 
 Num.  16  :  27  it  seems  clear  that  Korah 
 himself  was  not  with  Dathan  and  Abiram 
 at  the  moment.  His  tent  may  have  been 
 one  pitched  for  Iiimself,  in  contempt  of  tlie 
 orders  of  Moses,  by  tlie  side  of  his  fellow- 
 rebels,  wliile  Iiis  family  continued  to  reside 
 in  their  proper  camp  nearer  the  tabernacle ; 
 or  it  must  have  been  separated  by  a  consid- 
 erable space  from  those  of  Datlian  and 
 Abiram.  Or  even  if  Korah's  family  re- 
 sided amongst  the  Reubenites,  they  may 
 have  fled  at  Moses'  warning  to  take  ref- 
 uge in  the  Koliathite  camp,  instead  of  re- 
 maining as  the  wives  and  children  of  Da- 
 than and  Abiram  did  (ver.  27).  Korah 
 himself,  doubtless,  was  witli  tlie  two  liun- 
 dred  and  fifty  men  who  bore  censers  nearer 
 the  tabernacle  (ver.  19),  and  perished  with 
 them  by  the  "  fire  from  Jehovah  "  which 
 
 accompanied  the  earthquake.  It  is  no- 
 where said  that  he  was  one  of  those  who 
 "went  down  quick  into  the  pit"  (com- 
 j)are  Ps.  106  :  17,  18),  and  it  is  natural 
 that  he  should  have  been  with  the  censer- 
 bearers.  That  he  was  so  is  indeed  clearly 
 implied  by  Num.  16  :  16-19,  35,  40,  com- 
 I)ared  with  26  :  9,  10.  In  the  New  Tes- 
 tament (Jude  ver.  11)  Korah  is  coupled 
 with  Cain  and  Balaam,  and  apparently  is 
 held  out  as  a  warning  to  those  who  "  de- 
 spise dominion  and  speak  evil  of  digni- 
 ties," of  whom  it  is  said  that  they  "  per- 
 ished in  the  gainsaying  of  Core." 
 
 Ko'rah-ite,  Kor'hite,  or  Ko'ra- 
 thite  (1  Chron.  9  :  19,  31),  tliat  portion 
 of  the  Kohathites  who  were  descended 
 from  Korah.  They  are  frequently  styled 
 sons  of  Korah.  The  offices  filled  by  the 
 sons  of  Korah,  so  far  as  we  are  informed, 
 were  the  following.  They  were  an  import- 
 ant branch  of  the  sinc/ent  in  the  Koliath- 
 ite division,  Haman  himself  being  a  Ko- 
 rahite  (1  Chron.  6  :  33),  and  the  Korahites 
 being  among  those  who,  in  Jelioshaphat's 
 reign,  "  stood  up  to  jiraise  the  Lord  God 
 of  Israel  with  a  loud  voice  on  high"  (2 
 Chron.  20  :  19).  Hence  we  find  eleven 
 psalms  (or  twelve  if  Ps.  43  be  included 
 under  the  same  title  sis  Ps.  42)  dedicated 
 or  assigned  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  namely 
 —Psalms  42,  44-49,  84,  85,  87.  88.  These 
 psalms  in  poetic  expression  and  higli  lyric 
 tone  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
 collection. 
 
 Others  again  of  the  sons  of  Korah  were 
 "  porters  " — that  is,  doorkeepers  in  the  tem- 
 ple, an  office  of  considerable  dignity.  In 
 1  Chron.  9  :  17-19  we  learn  that  Shallum, 
 a  Korahite  of  the  line  of  Ebiasaph,  was 
 chief  of  the  doorkeepers,  and  that  he  and 
 his  brethren  were  keepers  of  the  gates  of 
 the  tabernacle  apparently  after  the  return 
 from  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  yet  in  1 
 Chron.  ch.  26  we  find  that  this  official  sta- 
 tion of  the  Korahites  dated  from  the  time 
 of  David. 
 
LABAN— LAMECH. 
 
 307 
 
 L. 
 
 La'ban  [ivhite],  son  of  Bethuel,  brother 
 of  Kebekah,  and  father  of  Leah  and  Rachel. 
 The  elder  branch  of  the  family  remained 
 at  Haran  when  Abraham  removed  to  the 
 land  of  Canaan,  and  it  is  there  that  we  first 
 meet  with  Laban,  as  taking  the  leading 
 part  in  the  betrothal  of  his  sister  Rebekah 
 to  her  cousin  Isaac  (Gen.  24  :  10,  29-60; 
 27  :  43;  29  :  4).  The  next  time  Laban 
 appears  in  the  sacred  narrative  it  is  as  the 
 host  of  his  nephew  Jacob  at  Haran  (Gen. 
 29 :  13, 14).  With  him  Jacob  spent  twenty- 
 years,  marrying  his  two  daughters  and  su- 
 perintending his  flocks  and  herds.  When 
 Jacob,  with  his  family  and  stock,  stealthily 
 left  Padan-Aram,  Lalian  pursued  the  fugi- 
 tives, but  was  reconciled,  and  with  his  son- 
 in-law  entered  into  a  solemn  treaty  of  amity 
 that  should  mutually  bind  their  posterity 
 (Gen.  chs.  30,  31). 
 
 La''chish  [6oas(/'((/],  an  ancient  royal 
 city  of  the  Canaanites,  in  the  Sheph- 
 elah  or  plain  of  Philistia,  bordering  on 
 the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  :  39). 
 It  was  captured  by  Joshua  and  allotted  to 
 the  tribe  of  Judah.  In  2  Kings  18  :  13- 
 17  the  record  implies  that  Lachish  was 
 besieged  and  captured  by  Sennacherib, 
 the  king  of  Assyria.  This  record  is  re- 
 markably confirmed  by  the  tablets  and 
 sculptures  discovered  at  Nineveh  by  Mr. 
 Layard.  In  the  palace  of  Sennacherib  is 
 a  drawing  or  sketch  of  the  siege,  with  this 
 inscription  above  the  king's  head :  "  Sen- 
 nacherib, the  mighty  king,  king  of  the 
 country  of  Assyria,  sitting  on  the  throne 
 of  judgment  before  the  city  of  Lachish,  I 
 give  permission  for  the  slaughter."  The 
 ancient  city  is  identified  with  the  deso- 
 late ruin  which  now  bears  the  name  Um 
 Ldhis. 
 
 Lavish  [lioii'\,  the  original  name  of  the 
 citv  of  Dan.    See  Dan. 
 
 Lakes.    See  Canaan. 
 
 Lamb,  the  offspring  of  the  sheep.  The 
 lamb  was  largely  used  in  the  sacrifices  pre- 
 scribed by  God  to  his  ancient  people  (Ex. 
 29  :  38-41 ;  Num.  28  :  9-11 ;  29  :  2,  13- 
 40),  for  which  purpose,  of  all  the  domes- 
 tic animals,  it  is  evidently  the  most  suit- 
 able. In  the  symbolical  language  of  Scrip- 
 ture the  lamb  is  the  type  of  meekness  and 
 innocence  (Isa.  11  :  6;  65  :  25;  Luke  10  : 
 3),  and  so  is  the  very  apijropriate  symbol 
 of  Christ  the  Lamb  of  God  (Gen.  4:4; 
 Ex.  12  :  3;  John  1  :  29,  30;  1  Pet.  1  :  19; 
 Rev.  13  :  8).  As  the  blood  of  the  divine 
 Sacrifice  is  that  alone  which  has  an  aton- 
 ing efficacy  for  the  sin  of  the  world,  so  the 
 dignity  of  the  Lamb  of  God  is  acknow- 
 ledged in  heaven.  In  the  symbolic  scen- 
 ery, the  central  object  of  heaven's  wonder 
 and  worship,  .John  beheld  "  a  Lamb  as  it 
 had  been  slain,  having  seven  horns  and 
 seven  eyes"  (Rev.  5  :  6) — that  is,  invested 
 with  the  attributes  of  God,  omnipotence 
 and  omniscience,  raised  to  the  throne  of 
 universal  empire  and  receiving  the  hom- 
 age of  the  universe. 
 
 La^mech,  the  name  of  two  antedilu- 
 vian patriarchs. 
 
 1.  The  fifth  lineal  descendant  from  Cain 
 (Gen.  4  :  18-24),  and  the  only  one,  except 
 Enoch,  of  the  posterity  of  Cain  whose  his- 
 tory is  related  with  some  detail.  He  is  the 
 first-recorded  polygamist  of  the  world.  His 
 two  wives,  Adah  and  Zillah,  and  his  daugh- 
 ter, Naamah,  are,  with  Eve,  the  only  ante- 
 diluvian women  whose  names  are  men- 
 tioned by  Moses.  His  three  sons,  Jabal, 
 JuBAL,  and  Tubai.-Cain,  are  celebrated 
 in  Scripture  as  the  authors  of  useful  in- 
 ventions. 
 
 2.  The  seventh  lineal  descendant  from 
 Seth,  son  of  Methuselah  and  father  of 
 Noah   (Gen.   5  :  25-31).      His    character 
 
308 
 
 LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH— LAPWING. 
 
 appears  to  have  been  very  different  from 
 tliat  of  his  Cainite  namesake. 
 
 Lara-en- ta'tions  of  Jer-e-rai'ah, 
 tlie  propliet's  utterance  of  sorrow  upon  the 
 capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction 
 of  the  temple.  The  book  consists  of  live 
 chapters,  each  of  which,  however,  is  a 
 separate  poem  complete  in  itself  and  hav- 
 ing a  distinct  subject,  but  brought  at  the 
 same  time  under  a  plan  which  includes 
 them  all.  The  book  has  supplied  thou- 
 sands with  the  fullest  utterance  for  tlieir 
 sorrows  in  the  critical  periods  of  national 
 or  individual  suflerin<r. 
 
 Ancient  Lamps. 
 
 Lamp,  a  term  of  frequent  occurrence 
 in  the  Scriptures,  both  literally  and  meta- 
 phorically. Literally,  it  designates  two 
 things:  1.  That  part  of  the  golden  can- 
 dlestick belonging  to  the  tabernacle  which 
 bore  the  light;  also  of  each  of  the  ten  can- 
 dlesticks placed  by  Solomon  in  the  temple 
 before  the  Holy  of  Holies  (Ex.  25  :  37 ;  1 
 Kings  7:49;"2  Chron.  4:20;  13:11; 
 Zech.  4  :  2).  These  lamps  were  lighted 
 every  evening  and  cleansed  every  morn- 
 ing (Ex.  .30  :  7,  8).  Olive  oil  was  burned 
 exclusively  in  them  (Ex.  27  :  20).  2.  A 
 torch  or  flambeau,  such  as  was  carried  by 
 the  soldiers  of  Gideon  (Judg.  7  :  16,  20), 
 or  such  as  was  borne  in  marriage-proces- 
 sions (Matt.  25:1).  Metaphorically,  the 
 lamp  is  used  to  indicate  life,  welfare,  guid- 
 ance (2  Sam.  21  :  17 ;  Prov.  13:9;  Ps. 
 119  :  105). 
 
 Laud^mark,  a  boundary,  or  a  stake. 
 
 stone  or  other  monument  which  indicated 
 the  boundary-line  (Deut.  19  :  14  ;  27  :  17  ; 
 Prov.  22  :  28  ;  23  :  10  ;  Job  24  :  2). 
 
 Language.  See  Tongues,  Confu- 
 sion OF. 
 
 La-o-di-ce'a,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
 situated  in  the  western  part  of  Phrygia,  on 
 the  borders  of  Lydia  and  about  forty  miles 
 east  of  Ephesus.  One  of  the  seven  churches 
 of  Asia  was  planted  here,  which,  on  account 
 of  its  lukewarmness  subjected  itself  to  the 
 heavy  judgment  pronounced  against  it 
 (Rev.  3  :  14-18).  The  earlier  name  of 
 this  city  was  Diospolis ;  but  after  being 
 enlarged  by  Antiochus  II.,  king  of  Syria, 
 it  was  called  Laodicea,  after  his  wife  Lao- 
 dice.  About  A.  D.  65  it,  together  with  Co- 
 losse  and  other  places,  was  destroyed  by  an 
 earthquake.  Although  afterward  rebuilt, 
 it  is  now  the  scene  of  utter  desolation. 
 The  Turks  call  the  poor  village  which 
 occupies  its  site  Eski-Hissar,  old  castle. 
 Extensive  ruins,  overspreading  six  or 
 seven  hills  and  covering  a  large  extent 
 of  ground,  indicate  a  city  of  considerable 
 size  and  magnificence.  The  remains  of 
 an  immense  circus  and  of  three  theatres, 
 one  of  them  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
 in  diameter,  are  still  visible,  but  its  only 
 inhabitants  are  wolves  and  jackals. 
 
 The  Hoopoe  {Ijmpa). 
 
 Lap'^wing,  a  word  which,  occurring  as 
 the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  onlv  in  Lev. 
 
Ruins  of  Laoilicea— now  Eski-Hissar. 
 
310 
 
 LASEA— LAW. 
 
 11  :  19  and  Deut.  14  :  18,  affords  no  inter- 
 nal or  collateral  evidence  in  the  Scriptures 
 to  establish  the  propriety  of  the  translation. 
 It  is  generally  believed,  and  with  good  rea- 
 son, that  the  hoopoe  is  intended. 
 
 La-se'a,  a  maritime  city  of  Crete,  near 
 which  Paul  sailed  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
 (Acts  27  :  8).  It  lies  about  the  middle  of 
 the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  some  five  miles 
 east  of  Fair  Havens,  close  to  Cape  Leonda. 
 It  still  retains  the  ancient  name. 
 
 La''sha  \^  fissure],  a  place  which  marked 
 the  utmost  border  of  the  ancient  Canaan- 
 ites  (Gen.  10  :  19).  Its  site  wa.s  probably 
 east  or  north-east  of  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
 and  so  beyond  the  Dead  Sea.  It  derived 
 its  name,  probably,  from  the  fissure  or 
 deep  gorge  where  buret  forth  those  hot 
 springs  which,  called  by  Josephus  Callir- 
 hoe,  are  believed  to  identify  the  place. 
 
 Latch 'et,  the  thong  or  fastening  by 
 which  the  sandal  was  attached  to  the  foot. 
 It  occurs  in  the  proverbial  expression  in 
 Gen.  14  :  23,  and  is  there  used  to  denote 
 something  trivial  or  worthless.  Another 
 semi-proverbial  expression  in  Matt.  3:11 
 and  Luke  3  :  16  points  to  the  fact  that  the 
 office  of  bearing  and  unfastening  the  shoes 
 of  great  personages  was  that  of  slaves. 
 
 Lat'tice,  the  rendering  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  three  Hebrew  words. 
 
 1.  A  word  which  occurs  but  twice 
 ( Judg.  5  :  28  and  Prov.  7  :  6).  In  the 
 latter  passage  it  is  translated  "  casement," 
 and  in  both  instances  it  stands  in  parallel- 
 ism with  "window."  It  has  the  general 
 sense  of  something  that  darkens  a  room. 
 
 2.  A  word  synonymous  apparently  with 
 the  preceding,  yet  of  later  date  (Song  2  : 
 9),  and  indicating  the  nehvorkoi  a  window. 
 
 3.  A  word  which  has  the  sense  of  inter- 
 weaving, and  which  indicates  the  "  network  " 
 ])laced  before  a  window  or  balcony.  The 
 network  or  "  lattice  "  through  which  Aha- 
 ziah  fell  and  received  his  mortal  injury 
 was  probably  on  the  parapet  of  his  palace 
 (2  Kings  1  :  2). 
 
 La'ver,  a  basin  to  contain  the  water 
 used  by  the  priests  in  their  ablutions  dur- 
 ing their  sacred  ministrations.  This  in 
 different  periods  was  of  two  sorts. 
 
 1.  In  the  time  of  the  tabernacle  the 
 laver  was  of  bra.ss  (bronze),  and  stood  in 
 the  court  between  the  altar  and  the  taber- 
 nacle-door (Ex.  30  :  18-21).  It  rested  on 
 a  basis  or  foot  which,  as  the  laver  itself, 
 was  made  from  the  mirrors  of  the  women 
 who  assembled  at  the  door  of  the  taber- 
 nacle-court (Ex.  38  :  8).  The  form  of  the 
 laver  is  not  specified,  but  most  probably 
 it  was  circular. 
 
 2.  In  Solomon's  temple,  when  the  num- 
 ber of  both  priests  and  victims  had  greatly 
 increased,  tea  lavers  were  used  for  wa.shing 
 the  animals  to  be  offered  in  burnt-ofierings, 
 and  a  molten  sea  for  the  personal  ablutions 
 of  the  priests  (2  Chron.  4  :  6).  These  la- 
 vers and  the  sea  were  of  brass. 
 
 Law,  a  rule  prescribed  by  the  supreme 
 authority,  especially  by  the  one  Supreme 
 God.  For  the  sake  of  convenient  distinc- 
 tion it  is  associated  with  several  qualifying 
 terms  which,  in  idea  if  not  in  form,  are 
 found  in  Scripture. 
 
 1.  Natural  Law.  This  indicates  the 
 connection  between  cause  and  effect  in  in- 
 animate nature  (Acts  14  :  17).  As  an  ex- 
 pression for  a  power  of  Nature,  it  is  really 
 nothing  other  than  God's  power  exerted  in 
 a  certain  direction.  It  may  at  any  time  be 
 suspended  by  God,  or  its  direction  changed, 
 when  the  higher  interests  of  his  spiritual 
 kingdom  require  it.  Hence  miracles  are 
 not  only  possible,  but  highly  probable,  when 
 the  divine  economy  of  salvation  is  thereby 
 to  be  furthered  (John  2  :  11). 
 
 2.  Moral  Law.  This  indicates  the 
 duties  which  arise  from  moral  relations, 
 and  which  all  intelligent  creatures  owe  to 
 God  and  to  each  other.  At  one  with  the 
 moral  law  impressed  at  creation  upon  the 
 soul  of  man,  it  was  solemnly  proclaimed 
 by  Go<l  himself  at  Sinai  (Rom.  2  :  15). 
 It  is   denominated    perfect    (Ps.  .19  :  7) ; 
 
LAWYER— LEAF,   LEAVES. 
 
 311 
 
 perpetual  (Matt.  5  :  17,  18) ;  holy,  just  and 
 good  ( Rom.  7:12);  spiritual  ( Rom.  7:14); 
 exceeding  broad  (Ps.  119  :  96).  It  there- 
 fore directs  and  binds  men  in  every  cen- 
 tury and  clime.  It  is  the  authoritative 
 and  irrepealable  rule  of  conduct.  Whilst 
 to  the  believer  in  Christ  it  is  the  source 
 neither  of  justification  (Rom.  5:1;  Gal. 
 2  :  16)  nor  of  terror  (Rom.  8:1;  Eph.  2  : 
 8,  9),  it  is  to  him,  nevertheless,  the  unal- 
 terable text  of  duty  (Rom.  3  :  31 ;  Eph.  2  : 
 10). 
 
 3.  Ceremonial  Law.  This  prescribes 
 the  rites  of  worship  under  the  01<1  Testa- 
 ment economy.  These  rites  were  typical 
 of  Christ,  and  ceased  to  be  obligatory 
 when  Christ  had  finished  his  work  of 
 teaching  and  atoning  (Heb.  7  :  9,  11 ;  10  : 
 1 ;  Eph.  2  :  16;  Col.  2  :  14;  Gal.  5  :  2,  3). 
 
 4.  Civil,  Law.  This  is  that  form  of 
 law  which  is  found  in  the  Mosaic  insti- 
 tutes, and  which  directed  tlie  policy  of  the 
 Jewish  nation  under  the  peculiar  dominion 
 of  God  as  their  Supreme  Magistrate.  Ex- 
 cept in  things  relating  to  moral  equity,  it 
 never  was  binding  on  any  but  the  Israel- 
 ites (Deut.  33  :  4;  Ps.  147  :  19;  Mai.  4  : 
 4). 
 
 Law'yer,  one  skilled  in  the  Law  (Tit. 
 3  :  13).  Among  the  Jews  a  lawyer  was 
 one  versed  in  the  Law  of  Moses,  which 
 he  taught  in  the  schools  and  synagogues 
 (Matt.  22  :  35 ;  Luke  10  :  25).  Hence  the 
 term  is  equivalent  to  teacher  or  "doctor 
 of  the  Law"  (Acts  5  :  34). 
 
 Laz^a-rus  {God  has  helped],  an 
 abridged  form  of  the  Hebrew  name  FAe- 
 azar,  with  a  Greek  termination.  It  is 
 the  name  of  two  persons  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 1.  An  inhabitant  of  Bethany,  brother 
 of  Mary  and  Martha,  honored  with  the 
 friendship  of  .lesus,  by  wliom  lie  was 
 raised  from  the  dead  after  lie  had  been 
 four  days  in  the  tomb  (John  11  :  1,  39; 
 12  :  1).  All  that  we  know  of  him  is  de- 
 rived from  the  Gospel  of  John,  in  which 
 
 the  notices  are  exceedingly  scanty,  but 
 from  which  we  may  infer  that  he  was 
 younger  than  the  two  sisters,  and  that 
 the  wealth  and  social  position  of  the  fam- 
 ily were  above  the  average.  His  sickness 
 and  death,  and  resurrection  at  the  word  of 
 Christ,  are  minutely  related  in  the  eleventh 
 chapter  of  John's  Gospel. 
 
 2.  A  beggar  named  in  the  well-known 
 parable  (Luke  16  :  19-31)  as  suffering  the 
 most  abject  poverty  in  this  life,  but  whose 
 humble  piety  was  rewarded  with  ultimate 
 bliss  in  the  other  world.  The  history  of 
 this  Lazarus  has  produced  a  deep  impres- 
 sion on  the  thought  of  the  world,  for  the 
 terms  lazai-  and  lazaretto  have  passed  into 
 very  many  modern  languages. 
 
 Lead,  one  of  the  most  common  of 
 metals,  found  generally  in  veins  of  rocks, 
 and  usually  in  combination  with  sulphur. 
 It  was  early  known  to  flie  ancients,  and 
 the  allusions  to  it  in  Scripture  indicate 
 that  the  Hebrews  were  well  acquainted 
 with  its  uses.  The  rocks  in  the  neigh- 
 borhood of  Sinai  yielded  it  in  large 
 quantities,  and  it  was  found  in  Egypt. 
 Its  heaviness,  to  which  allusion  is  made 
 in  Ex.  15  :  10,  caused  it  to  be  used  for 
 weights,  which  were  either  in  the  form 
 of  a  round  flat  cake  or  a  rough,  un- 
 fashioned  lump  (Zech.  5  :  7,  8).  In  Job 
 19  :  24  the  allusion  is  supposed  to  be  to 
 the  practice  of  carving  inscriptions  upon 
 stone  and  pouring  molten  lead  into  the 
 cavities  of  the  letters,  to  render  them  legi- 
 ble and  at  the  same  time  preserve  them 
 from  the  action  of  the  air. 
 
 Leaf,  Leaves.  The  word  occurs  in 
 our  Authorized  Version,  either  in  the 
 singular  or  plural  number,  in  three  dif- 
 ferent senses. 
 
 1.  Leaf  of  a  Tree.  The  olive-leaf 
 is  mentioned  in  Gen.  8  :  11.  Fig-leaves 
 formed  the  first  covering  of  our  parents 
 in  Eden-  The  barren  fig  tree  (Matt.  21  : 
 19;  Mark  11  :  13)  on  the  road  between 
 Bethany  and  Jerusalem  "  had  on  it  noth- 
 
312 
 
 LEAGUE— LEBANON. 
 
 ing  but  leaves."  The  oak-leaf  is  men- 
 tioned in  Isa.  1  :  30  and  6  :  1 3.  The  right- 
 eous are  often  compared  to  green  leaves 
 (Jer.  17  :  8). 
 
 2.  Leavks  of  Doors.  The  Hebrew 
 word,  which  occurs  many  times  in  the 
 Bible  (1  Kings  6  :  32,  34),  signifies  6ea??J8, 
 ribs,  sideK. 
 
 3.  Leaves  of  a  Book,  or  roll,  occurs 
 in  this  sense  only  in  Jer.  36  :  23,  where 
 the  word  means  "  doors,"  probably  mean- 
 ing chapters  or  sections,  as  does  the  Ara- 
 bic "  bab,"  door. 
 
 League,  a  political  confederacy  or 
 treaty.  The  Israelites  in  Palestine  were 
 forbidden  as  a  nation  to  enter  into  any 
 leagues  with  the  nations  inhabiting  the 
 land  at  the  Conquest  (Judg.  2  :  2),  but 
 they  were  allowed  to  make  treat"es  with 
 all  other  nations,  provided  such  treaties 
 were  promotive  of  the  public  welfare. 
 Accordingly,  David  maintained  a  friend- 
 ly national  intercourse  with  the  kings  of 
 Tyre  and  Hamath  ( 2  Sam.  5:11;  8:9-11), 
 and  Solomon  with  the  kings  of  Tyre  and 
 Egypt  (1  Kings  5:12;  7:8)  and  with  the 
 queen  of  Sheba  (1  Kings  10:  13;  2Chron. 
 9  :  12). 
 
 Le'ah  [^wearied],  the  daughter  of  Laban 
 and  wife  of  Jacob.  She  was  imposed  upon 
 Jacob,  wlio  had  chosen  her  sister  Rachel, 
 by  the  ftxther,  who  alleged  that  the  mar- 
 riage-customs of  the  country  forbade  the 
 younger  sister  to  be  taken  before  the  elder 
 (Gen.  29  :  16-30).  .  She  was  the  mother  of 
 six  sons  and  of  a  daughter. 
 
 Lea'sing  [fcdsehood^,  an  obsolete  word, 
 retained  in  our  Authorized  Version  of  Ps. 
 4:2;  5:6  from  the  older  English  versions. 
 The  Hebrew  word  of  which  it  is  the  ren- 
 dering is  elsewhere  almost  uniformly  trans- 
 lated "lies"  (Ps.  40:4;  58:3). 
 
 Leath'er.  The  notices  of  leather  in 
 the  Bible  are  singularly  few.  Indeed,  the 
 word  occurs  but  twice  in  our  Authorized 
 Version,  and  in  each  instance  refers  to  the 
 same  object,  a  girdle  (2  Kings  1:8;  Matt. 
 
 3 : 4).  There  are,  however,  other  instances 
 in  which  the  word  "  leather "  might  with 
 propriety  be  substituted  for  "skin"  (Lev. 
 11  :  32;'l3:48;  Num.  31  :  20). 
 
 Leaven.  Various  substances  were 
 known  to  have  fermenting  qualities,  but 
 the  ordinary  leaven  consisted  of  a  lump 
 of  old  dough  in  a  high  state  of  fermenta- 
 tion, which  was  inserted  into  the  mtuss  of 
 dough  prepared  for  baking.  The  use  of 
 leavon  was  strictly  forbidden  in  all  offer- 
 ings made  to  the  Lord  by  fire.  The  rea- 
 son of  the  prohibition  doubtless  lay  in  the 
 process  of  decay  comnumicated  by  leaven, 
 through  fermentation,  to  bread.  To  this 
 property  of  leaven  our  Lord  points  when 
 he  speaks  of  the  "  leaven,"  that  is,  the  cor- 
 rupt doctrine,  "  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the 
 Sadducees"  (Matt.  16  :  6).  The  apostle 
 Paul,  with  a  similar  idea,  speaks  of  the 
 "old  leaven"   (1  Cor.  5:7). 
 
 Leb'a-non  [the  white],  a  long  chain 
 of  limestone  mountains  on  the  northern 
 border  of  Palestine.  The  name  refei's  ei- 
 ther to  the  color  of  the  rock  of  which  its 
 mass  is  composed  or  to  the  snow  which 
 glistens  on  its  peaks  most  of  the  year. 
 It  consists  of  two  main  ranges,  both  in- 
 cluded under  the  general  name  of  Leb- 
 anon in  Scripture.  The  westerly  range 
 has  the  classic  Latin  name  of  Libanns, 
 and  the  easterly  one  that  of  Anti-Lihanus 
 (or  opposite  to  Lebanon).  Between  the 
 two  ranges  lies  a  long  valley  from  five  to 
 eight  miles  in  width,  well  watered  by  the 
 river  Litdvy,  the  ancient  Leonte^  and 
 exceedingly  fertile.  This  valley,  termed 
 in  Scripture  "the  valley  of  Lebanon" 
 (Josh.  11  :  17),  Wfis  known  to  the  Greeks 
 and  Romans  as  Ccele-Syria,  or  Hollow 
 Syria,  but  is  now  known  by  the  name  of 
 d-Bitkau,  the  rrdleij.  It  is  a  northern  pro- 
 longation of  the  .Jordan  Valley.  The 
 western  range,  or  that  of  Libanus,  is  nmch 
 more  elevated  than  the  eastern,  yet  one 
 peak  of  Anti-Libanus,  the  Hermon  of 
 Scripture,  overtops  the  whole  chain.  These 
 
LEBBEUS— LEBONAH. 
 
 313 
 
 The  (jrand  Range  of  LebauoD 
 
 mountain-ranges  were  famous  for  cedars  (Ps. 
 29 :  5  ;  92 : 1 2  ;  Isa.  14  :  8),  for  flowers  (Nah. 
 1  :  4),  for  wine  (Hos.  14  :  7),  for  fountains 
 and  streams  (Song  4  :  15).  Its  cedars  and 
 firs  and  stones  furnished  the  material  of 
 which  Solomon  built  the  royal  palaces 
 and  the  holy  temple  of  Jerusalem  ( 1  Kings 
 5  :  8-10, 13-18  ;  7:2-12).  When  the  sec- 
 ond temple  was  built  men  were  employed 
 "  to  bring  cedar  trees  from  Lebanon  "  (Ezra 
 3:7).  Indeed,  its  richness  and  grandeur 
 were  such  that  it  became  to  tlie  Hebrew 
 mind  the  emblem  of  all  that  is  excellent 
 and  glorious  (Ps.  72  :  16  ;  Isa.  35  :  2  ;  Song 
 5  :  15).  And  although  in  our  times  it  is 
 changed  very  much  and  wears  an  aspect 
 of  desolation,  yet  it  still  retains  much  of 
 that  which  justified  its  ancient  designation 
 as  the  "goodly  mountain"  (Deut.  3  :  25). 
 It  is  terraced  and  cultivated  to  a  great 
 height,  and  along  its  sides  numerous  vil- 
 lages and  convents  are  scattered.  It  fur- 
 nishes views  of  exceeding  beauty  and  pic- 
 
 turesqueness.  Portions  of  the  chain  are 
 celebrated  for  vineyards  and  olive-planta- 
 tions and  luxuriant  fields.  The  renowned 
 cedars,  numbering  now  about  four  hundred 
 and  fifty  trees,  are  found  in  a  vast  recess  in 
 the  central  ridge,  about  eight  miles  in  di- 
 ameter. They  stand  alone,  with  not  an- 
 otlier  tree  in  sight,  at  an  elevation  of  six 
 thousand  feet  above  tlie  Mediterranean. 
 The  present  population  of  Lebanon,  con- 
 sisting mostly  of  Druses  who  are  Moham- 
 medans, and  Maronite  Christians  who  are 
 papists,  is  variously  estimated  at  from  one 
 to  two  hundred  thousand  souls.  Tlie  Druses 
 are  most  numerous  in  the  southern  and 
 south-western  portions  of  the  mountains  ; 
 the  Maronite  Christians  in  the  northern. 
 
 Leb-be'us  (Lebbrens)  and  Thad-de'- 
 us  ( Tiinddceus),  surnames  of  the  apostle 
 Jude  (Matt.  10  :  3;  Mark  3  :  18). 
 
 Le-bC'nali  [frankincense],  a  town  be- 
 longing to  the  tribe  of  Ejahraim,  near 
 Shiloh  (Judg.  21  :  19).     The  site  is  sup- 
 
314 
 
 LEECH— LENTI LES. 
 
 posed  to  be  occupied  by  the  present  vil- 
 lage of  Lubban,  nineteen  miles  north  of 
 Jeriisalein. 
 
 Leech.    See  Horse-Leech. 
 
 Leeks,  The  Hebrew  word,  whicli  in 
 Is  urn.  11:5  is  translated  lee/cx,  oecui-s 
 twenty  times  in  the  Old  Testament.  It 
 is  derived  from  a  root  signifying  "  to  be 
 green,"  and  properly  denotes  grass.  It 
 may  stand  for  any  green  food,  and  may 
 be  used  very  much  as  we  use  the  term 
 "greens."  It  is  a  fact,  suggestive  per- 
 haps of  the  true  sense  of  the  word  ren- 
 dered leeks,  that  the  common  people  of 
 Egypt  to  this  day  eat  with  special  relish 
 a  kind  of  legume  similar  to  clover. 
 
 Lees.  The  ground  idea  of  the  word 
 thus  rendered  is  preservation.  It  refers 
 to  the  custom  of  allowing  wine  to  stand 
 on  the  lees,  that  the  color  and  body  might 
 be  better  preserved  (Isa.  25  :  6).  Wine 
 strained  off  from  the  lees  was  wine  well 
 refined  (Isa.  25  :  6).  To  drink  the  lees 
 or  dregs  was  an  expression  for  the  endur- 
 ance of  extreme  punishment  (Ps.  75  :  8). 
 
 Le'gion,  the  chief  subdivision  of  the 
 Roman  army,  containing  about  six  thou- 
 sand infantry,  with  a  contingent  of  cav- 
 alry. The  term  is  not  used  in  the 
 Scriptures  in  its  primary  sense,  but  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  adopted  in  order  to 
 express  any  large  number,  with  the  ac- 
 cessory ideas  of  order  and  subordination 
 (Matt.  26  :  53;  Mark  5  :  9). 
 
 Le-ha'bim,  the  name  of  a  Mizraite 
 people  or  tribe  (Gen.  10  :  13).  They  ap- 
 pear to  be  the  same  as  the  Re  BU  or  Le  BU 
 of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  and  to  have 
 given  their  name  to  LiVjya  and  the  Lib- 
 yans. These  primitive  Libyans  seem  to 
 have  inhabited  the  northern  part  of  Africa 
 to  the  west  of  Egypt,  and  to  have  been 
 driven  from  the  coa.st  by  the  Greek  colo- 
 nists of  the  Cyrenaica. 
 
 Le''hi  [jawbone^,  a  place  in  Judah,  on 
 the  confines  of  Philistia,  where  Samson 
 performed  his  great  exploit  in  slaying  a 
 
 thousand  Philistines  with  the  jawl)one 
 of  an  ass  ( Judg.  15  :  9-19).  As  Lehi 
 means  jawbone,  and  as  the  exploit  was 
 with  a  jawbone,  the  translation  of  the 
 nineteenth  verse  has  become  confused. 
 The  word  Lehi  should  there  be  left  un- 
 translated, so  as  to  read,  "  God  clave  a 
 hollow  place  in  Lehi,  and  there  came 
 water  thereout."  This  place  or  fountain 
 Samson  "  called  PInhakkore  [or  the  tvell 
 of  him  who  ccdkd^,  whicli  is  in  Lehi  unto 
 this  day." 
 
 Lem'u-el  [6?/  God,  that  is,  created  by 
 him],  an  unknown  prince  to  whom  the  ad-, 
 monitory  apothegms  of  Prov.  31 : 2-9  were 
 originally  addressed  by  his  mother.  He 
 is  identified  by  some  rabbins  with  Solomon. 
 He  is  regarded  by  others  as  the  king  or 
 chief  of  an  Arab  tribe  dwelling  on  th6 
 borders  of  Palestine,  and  elder  brother 
 of  Agur,  whose  name  stands  at  the  head 
 of  I'rov.  30. 
 
 Len  tiles. 
 
 Len'tiles,  a  species  of  pulse,  not  un- 
 like the  pea  in  its  general  appearance, 
 but  with  a  lens-shaped  seed.  One  sort,  the 
 'oddis,  is  still  a  common  article  of  food  in 
 Egypt,  being  dressed  like  beans  or  stewed 
 with  oil  and  garlic,  and  forming  what  is 
 
LEOPAED— LEVI. 
 
 315 
 
 called  "red  pottage"  (Gen.  25:29,30). 
 Perhaps  lentiles  grew  wild  and  were  found 
 in  fields  of  grain  (2  Sam.  23  :  11). 
 
 Leop^ard,  the  rendering  of  a  He- 
 brew word  which  means  "spotted,"  and 
 which  designates  that  great  spotted  fe- 
 line which  anciently  infested  the  Syrian 
 mountains  (Song  4  :  8),  and  whicli 
 now  is  found  in  Lebanon.  In  Dan.  7  : 
 6  the  third  stage  of  the  prophetical 
 vision  is  symbolized  under  the  form  of 
 a  leopard  with  wings,  representing  the 
 rapidly-formed  Macedonian  empire,  its 
 four  heads  corresponding  to  the  division 
 of  Alexander's  dominions  among  his  four 
 generals.  In  Rev.  13 :  2  the  same  animal 
 is  made  a  type  of  the  spiritual  power  of 
 the  Roman  hierarchy,  supported  by  the 
 secular  power  in  maintaining  paganism 
 in  opposition  to  Christianity. 
 
 Lep'er,  Lep'ro-sy.  The  root-idea 
 of  the  Hebrew  equivalents  of  these  words 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  is  a  smiting, 
 because  the  disease  was  supposed  to  be  a 
 direct  visitation  of  Heaven.  The  Greek 
 designation  of  the  disease,  lepra,  as  found 
 in  the  New  Testament  and  as  transferred 
 to  our  English  text,  is  descriptive  of  that 
 scali.ness  which  is  one  of  its  marked  cha- 
 racteristics. In  Lev.,  chs.  13,  14,  there  is 
 an  accurate  account  of  the  appearances 
 which  give  rise  to  the  suspicion  of  lep- 
 rosy— namely,  spots  of  an  inflammatory 
 character,  nodules  like  boils,  ulcerations, 
 and  changes  in  the  hair  of  the  diseased 
 parts.  In  such  cases,  the  Jewish  law  re- 
 quired seclusion  of  the  patient  and  exam- 
 ination by  the  priest  from  time  to  time, 
 till  the  absence  or  existence  of  the  disease 
 could  be  positively  determined.  After  iso- 
 lation, and  before  returning  to  the  world, 
 the  suspected  person — or  the  cured,  if  lep- 
 rosy had  existed — was  required  to  make 
 a  most  thorough  and  scrupulous  cleansing 
 of  his  body,  even  to  removing  all  the  hair 
 by  shaving,  joined  with  certain  ceremonial 
 observances,  in  order  to  obviate  the  dan- 
 
 ger of  communicating  to  others  the  dis- 
 ease, which  may  have  been  contagious — 
 though  the  form  now  known  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  be  so. 
 
 Leprosy,  in  its  extreme  ravages,  caused 
 destruction  not  only  of  parts  of  the  skin, 
 but  of  the  deeper  structures  and  even  the 
 bones,  so  that  fingers,  toes,  hands  and  feet, 
 or  parts  of  the  face  might  rot  off,  leaving 
 the  patient  in  an  utterly  deplorable  and 
 disgusting  condition.  Leprosy  was  ex- 
 tremely hard  to  cure,  and  when  cured  left 
 ineflTaceable  traces  of  its  power.  For  these 
 and  other  reasons  it  came  to  be  regarded 
 by  the  Jews  as  an  emblem  of  sin,  and  is 
 often  so  alluded  to  by  the  Scripture  wri- 
 ters (Job  2  :  7,  8 ;  Isa.  1:6;  Matt.  8 :  2, 
 3;  Luke  5:  12,  13). 
 
 Le'shem  [«  gem],  (Josh.  19  :  47),  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  place  that  was  called 
 Laish  (Judg.  18  :  7),  and  afterward  Du7i. 
 See  Dan. 
 
 Let,  an  old  English  word,  meaning  to 
 obstruct  or  hinder  ( Isa.  43  :  13;  Rom.  1  : 
 13). 
 
 Le'vi,  the  name  of  several  men,  of 
 whom  two  only  need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  The  third  son  of  Jacob  by  his  wife 
 Leah.  As  the  name  is  derived  from  a 
 verb  meaning  to  twine,  and  hence  to  ad- 
 here, it  gave  utterance  to  the  hope  of  the 
 mother  that  the  affections  of  her  husband, 
 which  had  hitherto  rested  on  the  favored 
 Rachel,  would  at  last  be  drawn  to  her 
 (Gen.  29  :  34).  The  only  recorded  fact 
 of  his  life  in  which  he  was  prominent 
 was  his  association  with  his  brother  Sim- 
 eon in  avenging  the  outrage  upon  their 
 sister  Dinah  by  a  cruel  slaughter  of  the 
 Shechemites  (Gen.  34  :  25-29).  Levi, 
 with  his  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath 
 and  Merari,  went  down  to  Egypt  with 
 his  father  Jacob  (Gen.  47  :  11).  When 
 Jacob's  death  drew  near,  and  the  sons 
 were  gathered  round  him,  Levi  and  Sim- 
 eon were  summoned  to  hear  the  old 
 crime  brought  up  again,  and  to  receive 
 
316 
 
 LEVIATHAN— LEVITES. 
 
 its  sentence.  Tliey  with  Reuben  liad  for- 
 feited the  privileges  of  their  birthright 
 (Gen.  49  :  5-7). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Alphseus  (Mark  2  :  14;  Luke 
 5 :  27, 29),  elsL-where  called  Matthew  (Matt. 
 9  :  9),  one  of  the  apostles. 
 
 Le-vi^a-than  is  a  Hebrew  word  trans- 
 ferred to  our  Authorized  Version,  and  has 
 three  distinct  significations :  1.  A  serpent, 
 especially  a  large  one  (Job  3  :  8  margin),  a 
 symbol  of  the  hostile  kingdom  of  Babylon 
 (Isa.  27  :  1);  2.  Specially  the  crocodile 
 (Job  41 : 1-34) ;  3.  A  sea-monster  (Ps.  104  : 
 26),  tropically,  for  a  cruel  enemy  (Ps.  74  : 
 14).  The  Hebrew  word  which  denotes 
 any  animal  twisted  in  folds  is  especially 
 applicable  to  every  great  tenant  of  the 
 waters,  such  as  marine  serpents  and  croc- 
 odiles ;  it  may  be  applicable  also  to  the 
 colossal  serpents  of  the  desert.  In  gen- 
 eral it  points  to  the  crocodile,  and  Job 
 41  is  an  undoubted  description  of  that 
 saurian. 
 
 Le'vites,  the  sons  of  Levi.  The  title, 
 whilst  denoting  all  the  descendants  of 
 Levi,  and  so  equivalent  to  the  tribal  name 
 (Ex.  6  :  25 ;  Lev.  25  :  32 ;  Josh.  21  :  3,  4), 
 is  yet  the  distinctive  title  of  those  who 
 were  set  apart  for  the  subordinate  offices 
 of  the  sanctuary  to  assist  the  other  and 
 smaller  portion  of  their  own  tribe  in- 
 vested with  the  superior  functions  of  the 
 hierarcliy  (1  Kings  8:4;  Ezra  2  :  70 ; 
 John  1  :  19);  and  this  is  the  meaning 
 which  has  perpetuated  itself 
 
 There  is  no  trace  of  the  consecrated  cha- 
 racter of  the  Levites  till  the  institution  of 
 an  hereditary  priesthood  in  the  family  of 
 Aaron  during  the  first  withdrawal  of 
 Moses  to  the  solitude  of  Sinai  (Ex.  28  : 
 1).  The  next  extension  of  the  idea  of 
 the  priesthood  grew  out  of  the  terrible 
 crisis  brought  on  by  the  calf-worship  at 
 Sinai,  and  recorded  in  Ex.  32.  The 
 tribe  on  that  occasion  stood  forth  separate 
 and  apart,  recognizing  in  the  stern  work 
 of  the  day  the  spiritual  as   higher  than 
 
 the  natural.  From  this  time  the  sons  of 
 Levi  occupied  a  distinct  position.  The 
 tribe  was  to  take  the  place  of  that  earlier 
 priesthood  of  the  first-born  as  rei)resenta- 
 tives  of  the  holiness  of  the  people.  As 
 the  tabernacle  was  the  sign  of  the  pres- 
 ence among  the  people  of  their  unseen 
 King,  so  the  Levites  were,  among  the 
 other  tribes  of  Israel,  as  the  royal  guard 
 that  waited  exclusively  on  hira.  When 
 the  people  were  at  rest  they  encamped  as 
 guardians  round  the  sacred  tent  (Num. 
 1  :  51  ;  18  :  22).  When  on  the  march  no 
 hands  but  theirs  might  strike  the  tent  at 
 the  connnencement  of  the  day's  journey, 
 or  carry  the  parts  of  its  structure  whilst 
 the  movement  lasted,  or  pitch  the  tent 
 once  again  when  the  place  of  halting 
 was  reached. 
 
 For  such  a  work  it  was  obviously  essen- 
 tial that  there  should  be  a  fixed  assignment 
 of  duties,  and  now,  accordingly,  we  meet 
 with  the  first  outlines  of  the  organization 
 which  afterward  became  permanent.  The 
 division  of  the  tribe  into  the  throe  sections 
 that  traced  their  descent  from  the  thrqe 
 sons  of  Levi  formed  the  groundwork  of 
 it.  The  work  which  they  all  had  to  do 
 required  a  man's  full  strength,  and  there- 
 fore, though  twenty  was  the  starting-point 
 for  military  service  (Num.  1  :  18),  they 
 were  not  to  enter  on  their  active  service 
 till  they  were  thirty  (Num.  4  :  3,  23,  30,  35, 
 43).  At  fifty  they  were  to  be  free  from  all 
 duties  but  those  of  superintendence  (Num. 
 8  :  25,  26). 
 
 The  Levites  were  to  have  no  territorial 
 possessions.  In  place  of  them  they  were 
 to  receive  from  the  other  tribes  the  tithes 
 of  the  produce  of  the  land,  from  which 
 they  in  their  turn  oflered  a  tithe  to  the 
 priests  as  a  recognition  of  their  higher 
 consecration  (Num.  18  :  21,  24,  26;  Neh. 
 10  :  37).  When  the  wanderings  of  the 
 people  should  be  over  and  the  tabernacle 
 have  a  settled  place,  a  great  part  of  the 
 labor  that  had  fallen  on  them  would  come 
 
LEVITICUS— LIBYA. 
 
 317 
 
 to  an  end,  and  they  too  would  need  a  fixed 
 abode.  Distinctness  and  diffusion  were 
 both  to  be  secured  by  the  assignment  to 
 the  whole  tribe  of  forty-eight  cities,  with 
 an  outlying  "suburb"  (Num.  35  :  2)  of 
 meadow-land  for  the  pasturage  of  their 
 flocks  and  herds.  The  reverence  of  the 
 people  for  them  was  to  be  heightened 
 by  the  selection  of  six  of  these  as  cities 
 of  refuge. 
 
 After  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  did 
 what  he  could  do  to  convert  the  outline 
 which  the  great  lawgiver  had  sketched 
 into  a  grand  reality.  The  submission  of 
 the  Gibeonites  enabled  him  to  relieve  the 
 tribal  divisi(Mis  of  Gershon  and  Merari  of 
 tlie  most  burdensome  of  their  duties.  The 
 conquered  Hivites  too  became  "liewers  of 
 wood  and  drawers  of  water"  for  the  house 
 of  Jehovah  and  for  the  congregation  (Josh. 
 9  :  27).  So  soon  as  the  conquerors  had  ad- 
 vanced far  enough  to  proceed  to  a  parti- 
 tion of  the  country  the  forty- eight  cities 
 were  assigned  to  the  Levites.  As  Samuel 
 was  a  Levite,  his  rule  tended  to  give  the 
 Levites  the  position  of  a  ruling  caste,  but 
 the  reign  of  Saul,  especially  in  its  later 
 period,  was  the  assertion  of  a  self-willed 
 power  against  the  priestly  order.  David, 
 however,  wrought  for  them  a  gi'ateful 
 change.  When  his  kingdom  was  estab- 
 lished he  effected  a  fuller  and  better  or- 
 ganization of  the  whole  tribe.  The  effect 
 of  David's  arrangements  was  to  cause  them 
 to  leave  the  cities  assigned  to  them  in  the 
 territory  of  Israel  and  to  gather  them 
 round  the  metropolis  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
 11  :  13,  14).  Henceforward  in  the  king- 
 dom of  J  udah  they  were  a  powerful  body 
 politically  as  well  as  ecclesiastically.  Af- 
 ter the  Captivity  the  Levites  took  their 
 old  places  in  the  temple  and  in  the  vil- 
 lages near  Jerusalem  (Neh.  12  ;  29).  The 
 two  prophets  who  were  active  at  the  time 
 of  the  Return,  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  if 
 they  did  not  belong  to  the  tribe,  helped 
 it  forward    in   the   work   of   restoration. 
 
 With  the  priests  the  Levites  formed  the 
 majority  of  the  permanent  Sanhedrim, 
 and  as  such  had  a  large  share  in  the  ad- 
 ministration of  justice.  In  tlie  history  of 
 the  New  Testament  they  appear  but  sel- 
 dom. Where  we  meet  with  their  names 
 it  is  as  the  type  of  a  heartless,  formal  wor- 
 ship, without  symjoathy  and  without  love 
 (Luke  10  r  32). 
 
 Le-vit'i-cus,  the  third  book  of  Moses. 
 It  contains  twenty-seven  chapters,  and  is 
 divided  into  four  principal  sections:  1. 
 Tlie  laws  concerning  sacrifices ;  2.  The 
 consecration  of  the  high  priests ;  3.  Puri- 
 fication ;  4.  Sacred  festivals.  It  is  called 
 Leviticus  because  the  Levites  were  the  di- 
 vinely-appointed ministers  by  wliom  those 
 saci'ed  services  were  conducted. 
 
 Lib'er-tines  [freedmeu'].  This  word, 
 which  occurs  once  only  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment (Acts  6  :  9),  is  the  Latin  libertini, 
 "freedmen."  They  were  probably  Jews 
 who,  liaving  been  taken  prisoners  by 
 Pompey  and  other  Eoman  generals  in 
 the  Syrian  wars,  had  been  reduced  to 
 slavery,  and  had  afterward  been  eman- 
 cipated and  returned,  permanently  or  for 
 a  time,  to  the  country  of  their  fathers. 
 
 Lib'nah  [whitenessl,  the  name  of  two 
 places. 
 
 1 .  A  city  of  Canaan  in  the  lowlands  of 
 Judah,  captured  by  Joshua  after  the  de- 
 feat of  the  confederate  kings  at  Gibeon 
 (Josh.  10  :  29,  30).  It  became  one  of  the 
 Levitical  cities  (Josh.  21  :  13).  In  the 
 reign  of  Joram  this  city  revolted  from 
 him  on  account  of  his  idolatries  (2  Chron. 
 21  :  10).  It  was  besieged  by  Sennacherib, 
 king  of  Assyria,  whose  army,  while  lying 
 before  it,  vras  smitten  by  the  angel  of  tlie 
 Lord,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty-five 
 thousand  men  died  (2  Kings  19  :  35). 
 Its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  encampments  of  the  Is- 
 raelites (Num.  33  :  20). 
 
 Lib'ya.  So  the  whole  of  Africa  except 
 Egypt  was  denominated  by  the  Greeks ;  but 
 
318 
 
 LICE— LILY. 
 
 Libya  proper,  which  is  that  mentioned  in 
 the  New  Testament,  was  an  extensive  tract 
 of  country  lying  along  the  Mediterranean 
 west  of  Egypt  (Acts  2  :  10).  It  was  the 
 country  of  the  LuBiM  or  Lehabim,  cel- 
 ebrated for  their  chariots  (2  Chron.  16  : 
 8).  The  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens  and 
 Turks  have  successively  possessed  it. 
 See  Lehabim. 
 
 Lice.  In  our  Authorized  Version  tliis 
 word  occurs  only  in  Ex.  8  :  16-18  and  in 
 Ps.  105  :  31,  both  passages  referring  to  the 
 tliird  great  plague  of  Egypt.  Its  Hebrew 
 equivalent  is  supposed  by  many  modern 
 writers  to  be  a  general  term  for  gnat.-<, 
 but  the  correctness  of  its  rendering  by 
 the  English  word  lice  is  maintained  by 
 Josephus  and  the  Jewish  rabbis. 
 
 Life,  a  term  generally  expressive  of 
 physical  existence  as  opposed  to  physical 
 death  (Gen.  2:7;  25  :  7  ;  Luke  16  :  25; 
 Acts  17  :  25;  1  Cor.  3  :  22;  15  :  19;  Heb. 
 7:3;  James  4  :  14;  Rev.  11  :  11;  16:3). 
 But  it  is  also  used,  more  or  less  figura- 
 tively, in  tlie  following  acceptations:  1. 
 For  existence,  life,  absolutely  and  with- 
 out end,  immortality  (Heb.  7  :  16).  In 
 this  sense  we  find  the  descriptive  expres- 
 sions (ree  of  life  (Rev.  2:7;  22  :  2,  14 ; 
 Gen.  2:9;  3  :  22),  bread  of  life  (John  6  : 
 35,  51),  way  of  life  (Ps.  16  :  11 ;  Acts  2  :  28), 
 wafer  of  life  (Rev.  7 :  17),  crown  of  life  (James 
 1  :  12;  Rev.  2  :  10).  2.  The  manner  of 
 life,  conduct,  in  a  moral  respect  (2  Tim. 
 3  :  10).  In  this  sense  we  read  of  neiimess 
 of  life  (Rom.  6:4);  of  the  life  of  God,  that 
 is,  the  life  which  God  requir.  s,  a  godly  life 
 (Eph.  4  :  18;  2  Pet.  1  :  3).  3.  Spiritual 
 life,  or  the  holiness  and  happiness  of  sal- 
 vation procured  by  our  Lord's  death.  In 
 this  sense  life  or  eternal  life  is  the  antithe- 
 sis of  death  or  condemnation.  As  the  image 
 of  all  good,  life  is  not  an  inappropriate  ex- 
 pression for  spiritual  blessedness  (Deut.  30 : 
 15;  .John  3  :  16-18,  36;  5  :  24,  39,  40;  6  : 
 47;  8  :  51 ;  11  :  26;  Rom.  5  :  12,  18;  1 
 John  5  :  11).     4.  Eternal  life,  that  is,  the 
 
 life  of  bliss  and  glory  in  the  kingdom  of 
 God  which  awaits  the  true  disciples  of 
 Christ  (Matt.  19  :  16,  17;  John  3  :  15;  1 
 Tim.  4:8;  Acts  5  :  20 ;  Rom.  6  :  17  ;  1 
 Pet.  3  :  7 ;  2  Tim.  1:1).  5.  The  term  life 
 is  also  used  of  God  and  Christ,  or  tlie  Word, 
 as  the  absolute  source  and  cause  of  all  life 
 (John  1:4;  5  :  26,  39 ;  11  :  25 ;  12  :  50 ; 
 14  :  6 ;  17  :  3 ;  Col.  3  :  4 ;  1  John  1:1,2; 
 5  :  20). 
 
 Lig'ht.  This  is  represented  in  the 
 Scriptures  as  the  immediate  result  and 
 offspring  of  a  divine  command  (Gen.  1  : 
 3).  Its  tropical  use  is  quite  extensive. 
 All  the  more  joyous  emotions  of  the 
 mind,  all  the  pleasing  sensations  of  the 
 frame,  all  the  happy  hours  of  domestic 
 intercourse,  were  habitually  described 
 among  the  Hebrews  under  imagery  de- 
 rived from  light  (1  Kings  11:36;  Isa. 
 58  :  8;  Esth.  8  :  16  ;  Ps.  97  :  11).  But 
 as  light  not  only  comes  from  God,  but 
 also  makes  man's  way  clear  before  him, 
 so  it  was  employed  to  signify  moral  truth, 
 and  pre-eminently  that  divine  system  of 
 truth  which  is  set  forth  in  the  Scriptures 
 (Isa.  8  :  20 ;  Matt.  4  :  16  ;  Ps.  119  :  105  ;  2 
 Pet.  1  :  19;  Eph.  5  :  8;  2  Tim.  1  :  10;  1 
 Pet.  2  :  9). 
 
 Lign-Al'oes.     See  Aloes. 
 
 Lig'ure,  a  precious  stone  mentioned 
 in  Ex.  28  :  19 ;  39  :  12  as  the  first  in  the 
 third  row  of  the  high  priest's  breastplate. 
 The  Hebrew  term  thus  rendered  is  lexhcm, 
 but  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  any  cer- 
 tainty what  stone  the  term  denotes ;  per- 
 haps tourmaline,  or,  more  definitely,  the 
 red  variety  known  as  rubellite,  has  better 
 claims  than  any  other  mineral.  The  word 
 liyure  is  the  English  form  of  the  Greek  li- 
 guria  (hyi'p/ov),  a  species  of  jacinth  deriv- 
 ing its  name  from  Liguria,  a  region  in  the 
 north  of  Italy,  where  the  gem  abounded. 
 
 Lil'y,  a  beautiful  flower,  but  the  spe- 
 cies producing  it  so  varied  that  one  can- 
 not easily  say  what  plant  is  designated  by 
 the  original   Hebrew  term.      The  plant 
 
LINEAGE— LION. 
 
 319 
 
 must  have  been  a  conspicuous  object  on 
 the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Matt. 
 6  :  28 ;  Luke  12  :  27) ;  it  must  have  flour- 
 ished in  the  deep  broad  valleys  of  Pales- 
 tine (Song  2:1),  among  the  thorny  shrubs 
 (Song  2 : 2)  and  pastures  of  the  desert  (Song 
 
 Lillum  Chalcedonicum,  or  Scarlet  INIartagon. 
 
 2  :  16 ;  4  :  5 ;  6:3);  and  it  must  have  been 
 remarkable  for  its  rapid  and  luxuriant 
 growth  (Hos.  14  :  5).  That  its  flowers 
 were  brilliant  in  color  would  seem  to  be 
 indicated  in  Matt.  6  :  28,  where  it  is  com- 
 pared with  the  gorgeous  robes  of  Solomon  ; 
 and  that  this  color  was  scarlet  or  purple  is 
 implied  in  Song  5:13.  No  species  of  lily 
 apiiears  to  answer  so  completely  all  these 
 requirements  as  the  Lilium  Chalcedonicum, 
 or  scarlet  martngon,  which  grows  profusely 
 in  Syria.  It  resembles  our  tiger-lily  in 
 form  and  size.  It  is  in  bloom  at  the  time 
 our  Lord  is  supposed  to  have  delivered  the 
 Sermon  on  the  Mount.  It  abounds  in  Gal- 
 ilee, and  its  fine  showy  scarlet  flowers  give 
 brightness  and  beauty  to  the  landscajie. 
 It  is  described  by  Dr.  Thomson  in  The 
 Land  and  the  Book  thus :  "  It  is  very 
 large,  and  the  three  inner  petals  meet 
 above  and  form  a  gorgeous  canopy  such 
 as  art  never  approached  and  king  never 
 
 sat  under,  even  in  his  utmost  glory.  And 
 when  I  met  this  incomparable  flower,  in 
 all  its  loveliness,  among  the  oak  woods 
 around  the  northern  base  of  Tabor  and 
 on  the  hills  of  Nazareth,  where  our  Lord 
 spent  his  youth,  I  felt  assured  that  it  was 
 to  this  he  referred."  The  Phoenician  ar- 
 chitects of  Solomon's  temple  decoi-ated  the 
 capitals  of  the  columns  with  "  lily-work," 
 that  is,  with  Ic  aves  and  flowers  of  the  lily 
 (1  Kings  7  :  19,  22). 
 
 Lin^e-age,  a  family  or  race  (Luke  2  : 
 4).   _ 
 
 Linden,  a  cloth  made  of  flax  (Lev.  13  : 
 47).  It  was  much  valued  and  used  in  an- 
 cient as  it  is  in  modern  times.  Fine  white 
 linen  is  in  Scripture  the  emblem  of  inno- 
 cence or  moral  purity  (Rev.  15  :  6 ;  19  : 
 8).  The  great  centre  of  the  linen  manu- 
 facture of  antiquity  was  Egypt,  and  in 
 connection  with  that  country  we  find  the 
 first  allusion  to  it  in  Scripture  (Gen.  41  : 
 42). 
 
 Lin'tel,  the  head-piece  of  a  door  or  the 
 horizontal  beam  covering  the  side-posts  or 
 jambs  (Ex.  12  :  22,  23).  This  the  Israel- 
 ites were  commanded  to  mark  with  the 
 blood  of  the  paschal  lamb  on  the  memor- 
 able occasion  in  Egypt  when  the  passover 
 was  instituted. 
 
 Li'nus,  a  Christian  at  Rome  whose 
 salutations  Paul  sent  to  Timothy  (2  Tim. 
 4:  21). 
 
 Iji''on,  the  most  powerful  and  daring 
 of  all  the  carnivorous  animals,  the  most 
 magnificent  in  aspect  and  awful  in  voice. 
 In  Hebrew  five  words  are  used  to  desig- 
 nate the  lion :  1,  the  generic  term,  mean- 
 ing "  the  puller  in  pieces ;"  2,  a  term 
 meaning  "  fierce ;"  3,  a  term  meaning 
 "  strong ;"  4,  a  term  meaning  "  roaring ;" 
 5,  a  poetic  term  having  the  sense  of  No. 
 4,  The  whole  five  occur  in  Job  4  :  10,  11. 
 In  early  times  the  lion  was  common  in 
 Syria,  and  naturally  supplied  many  forci- 
 ble images  to  the  poetical  language  of 
 Scripture,  and  not  a  few  historical  inci- 
 
320 
 
 LIPS— LIZARD. 
 
 dents  in  its  narratives  (Gen.  49  :  9 ;  Deut. 
 33  :  20,  22;  Jer.  51  :  3S ;  Ezek.  19  :  2,  3, 
 5,  6;  Nah.  2  :  11,  12;  1  Sara.  17  :  32-38; 
 1  Kings  13  :  23-32).  Among  the  He- 
 brews and  throughout  tlie  Old  Testament, 
 the  lion,  because  of  its  courage  and  vic- 
 tory over  antagonists,  was  the  emblem  of 
 the  princely  tribe  of  Judali ;  accordingly, 
 
 fiance;  to  "cover  the  lips"  with  the  corner 
 of  one's  garment  (Ezek.  24  :  17,  22)  wa.s  the 
 universally  recognized  sign  of  mourning. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 in  tlie  New  Testament,  the  lion  is  not  an 
 unapt  designation  of  our  Lord  Christ,  the 
 illustrious  descendant  of  that  tribe  (Eev. 
 5  :  5).  On  the  other  hand,  the  lion's 
 fierceness  and  cruelly  rendered  it  an  ap- 
 propriate metaphor  for  a  fierce  and  malig- 
 nant enemy  (Ps.  7  :  2;  22  :  21 ;  57  :  4 ;  2 
 Tim.  4  :  17),  and  therefore  for  the  arch- 
 fiend himself  (1  Pet.  5  :  8). 
 
 Lips.  Besides  its  literal  sense,  the 
 word  has  in  Scripture  an  extensive  trop- 
 ical use.  Unclean  lips  (Isa.  6:5)  are 
 those  which  are  polluted  by  sinful  words ; 
 lying  lips  (Prov.  10  :  18)  are  those  which 
 utter  falsehood;  burning  lips  (Prov.  26: 
 23)  are  those  through  which  the  expres- 
 sions of  malice,  envy  and  other  malig- 
 nant passions  are  constantly  outflaming 
 (Acts  9  :  1),  or  they  are  those  which  blaze 
 with  false  professions  of  piety  and  friend- 
 ship. To  "  shoot  out  the  lip  "  (Ps.  22  :  7) 
 at  any  one,  that  is,  to  make  mouths,  was 
 an  expression  of  the  utmost  scorn  and  de- 
 
 Litter. 
 
 Lifter,  a  covered  sedan  or  palanquin 
 for  the  conveyance  of  a  princely  person- 
 age, borne  by  hand  or  upon  the  shoul- 
 ders, or  perhaps  on  the  backs  of  ani- 
 mals (Isa.  66  :  20). 
 
 Liv'er,  an  important  organ  in  the 
 animal  body,  so  called  as  being  the 
 heaviest  of  the  viscera  or  as  the  chief  seat 
 of  the  passions.  It  is  frequently  mentioned 
 in  Scripture  (Ex.  29  :  13,  22 ;  Lev.  3 :  4,  10, 
 15;  Prov.  7  :  23 ;  Ezek.  21  :  21).  It  was 
 supposed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  seat  of 
 the  passions  pride,  love,  grief  (Lam.  2:11). 
 The  passage  in  Ezek.  21  :  21  contains  an 
 interesting  reference  to  one  of  the  most 
 ancient  of  all  modes  of  divination — name- 
 ly, by  the  inspection  of  the  viscera  of  ani- 
 mals, and  even  of  men  sacrificially  slaugh- 
 tered for  the  purpose. 
 
 Liz'ard.  This  word  occurs  but  once 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  (Lev.  11  :  30), 
 and  the  term  thus  rendered  gives  no  inti- 
 mation of  the  species  intended.  Lizards 
 of  various  kinds  abounded  in  Egypt,  Pal- 
 estine and  Arabia.  Probably  the  species 
 named  was  the  "  fan-foot  lizard,"  which  was 
 and  is  very  common.  It  is  a  reddish-brown, 
 spotted  with  white.  It  lives  on  insects  and 
 worms,  which  it  swallows  whole.  It  was 
 unclean  bv  the  ceremonial  law. 
 
LO-AMMI— LOIN. 
 
 321 
 
 Lo-Ammi  [not  my  people'],  the  figura- 
 tive name  given  by  the  prophet  Hosea  to 
 his  second  son  (Hos.  1  :  9),  to  denote  the 
 rejection  by  Jehovah  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Israel. 
 
 Loan.  The  Law  strictly  forbade  any 
 interest  to  be  taken  for  a  loan  to  any  poor 
 person.  The  prohibition  was  afterward 
 limited  to  the  Hebrews,  from  whom,  of 
 whatever  rank,  not  only  was  no  usury  on 
 any  pretence  to  be  exacted,  but  relief  to 
 the  poor  by  way  of  loan  was  enjoined, 
 and  excuses  for  evading  this  duty  were 
 forbidden  (Ex.  22  :  25 ;  Lev.  25  :  o5,  37  ; 
 Deut.  15:3,  7-11 ;  23  :  19,  20).  As  com- 
 merce increased,  the  practice  of  usury  and 
 so  also  of  suretyship  grew  up;  but  the 
 exaction  of  it  from  a  Hebrew  appears  to 
 have  been  regarded  to  a  late  period  as 
 discreditable  (Prov.  6  :  1,  4;  11  :  15;  17  : 
 18 ;  20  :  16  ;  22  :  26 ;  Ps.  15  :  5 ;  109  :  11 ; 
 Jer.  15:10;  Ezek.  18:13;  22  :  12).  The 
 money-changers,  who  had  seats  and  tables 
 in  the  temple,  were  traders  whose  profits 
 arose  chieft}'  from  the  exchange  of  money 
 with  those  who  came  to  pay  thtir  annual 
 half-shekel. 
 
 Loaves.    See  Bread. 
 
 Lock.  The  ancient  locks  were  bars 
 of  wood  or  metal  made  to  slide  back  and 
 forth.  These  were  fastened  or  unfastened 
 from  without  by  means  of  an  instrument 
 or  key  inserted  into  an  orifice  for  the  pur- 
 pose (Judg.  3  :  24).  There  were  smaller 
 contrivances  for  inner  doors. 
 
 Locust. 
 
 Lo''cust,  a  well-known  insect  which 
 commits  terrible  ravages  on  vegetation  in 
 the  countries  which  it  visits.  In  the  He- 
 brew Scriptures  there  are  nine  or  ten 
 words  which  are  supposed  to  denote  dif- 
 21 
 
 ferent  varieties  or  species  of  this  family. 
 Locusts  occur  in  great  numbers  and  some- 
 times obscure  the  sun  (Ex.  10  :  15;  Jer. 
 46  :  23 ;  Judg.  6:5;  7  :  12 ;  Joel  2:10; 
 Nah.  3  :  15).  Their  voracity  is  alluded 
 to  in  Joel  1  :  4,  7,  12  and  2:3;  Deut.  28  : 
 38;  Ps.  78  :  46;  105  :  34  ;  Isa.  33  :  4. 
 They  are  compared  to  horses  (Joel  2:4; 
 Rev.  9:7).  They  make  a  fearful  noise 
 in  their  flight  (Joel  2:5;  Rev.  9:9). 
 Locusts  were  used  for  food  (Lev.  11  :  21, 
 22  ;  Matt.  3:4;  Mark  1:6).  They  were 
 prepared  in  difl!erent  ways :  sometimes 
 they  were  ground  and  pounded,  and 
 mixed  with  flour  and  water,  and  made 
 into  cakes ;  sometimes  they  were  simply 
 salted  and  then  eaten ;  sometimes  they 
 were  smoked,  sometimes  boiled  or  roast- 
 ed, and  sometimes  stewed  or  fried  in 
 butter. 
 
 Led,  a  town  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron. 
 8  :  12;  Ezra  2  :  33;  Neh.  7  :  37).  See 
 Lydda. 
 
 Lo'-De-bar  [ivithout  pasturel,  a  town 
 of  Gilead,  beyond  Jordan  (2  Sam.  9:5; 
 17  :  27).  It  was  probably  situated  near 
 Mahanaim. 
 
 Lodge.    See  Garden. 
 
 Log,  a  Hebrew  liquid  measure,  in  ca- 
 pacity nearly  a  pint. 
 
 Loin,  the  part  of  the  back  and  side  be- 
 tween the  hip  and  the  ribs,  whicli,  as  the 
 pivot  of  the  body,  is  most  sensibly  afl^ected 
 by  pity  or  terror  (Deut.  33  :  11  ;  Job  12  : 
 18 ;  Ps.  38  :  7  ;  Isa.  21  :  3).  This  part  of 
 the  body,  in  token  of  mourning,  was  girt 
 with  sackcloth  (Gen.  37  :  34 ;  Ps.  66  :  11 ). 
 As  it  was  encompassed  by  the  girdle, 
 which  held  up  the  loose  and  flowing 
 robes  and  allowed  one  to  walk  or  to 
 work  without  impediment,  to  "gird  up 
 the  loins"  became  a  phrase  which  mennt 
 to  prepare  for  vigorous  efl^ort,  either  lit- 
 erally (1  Kings  18  :  46;  2  Kings  4  :  29 ; 
 Prov.  31  :  17)  or  metaphorically  (Job  38  : 
 3 ;  Jer.  1:17;  Luke  12  :  35 ;  1  Pet.  1  : 
 13). 
 
322 
 
 LOIS— LORD'S  SUPPER. 
 
 Lo'is,  the  grandmother  of  Timothy, 
 and  doubtless  the  motlier  of  his  mother 
 Eunice  (2  Tim.  1  :  5).  It  seems  likely 
 that  Lois  had  resided  long  at  Lystra;  it 
 is  wellnigh  certain  that  from  lier  as  well 
 as  from  Eunice,  Timothy  obtained  his  in- 
 timate knowledge  of  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
 tures (2  Tim.  3:  15). 
 
 Looking'-Glass.    See  Mirrok. 
 
 Lord.     See  God. 
 
 Lord's  Day,  The,  the  weekly  festi- 
 val of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  identified 
 with  the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  ex- 
 pression occurs  in  Rev.  1:10  only,  and  is 
 there  unaccompanied  by  any  other  words 
 which  might  tend  to  explain  its  meaning. 
 It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the  same 
 phrase  was,  in  after  ages  of  the  Christian 
 Church,  used  to  signify  that  first  day  of 
 the  week  on  which  our  Lord's  lesurrec- 
 tion  was  commemorated.  It  has,  there- 
 fore, been  inferred  that  during  the  time 
 of  the  apostles,  and  by  their  authority, 
 the  first  day  of  the  week  was  called  "  the 
 Lord's  day,"  and  was  referred  to  by  the 
 apostle  John  as  to  an  institution  so  uni- 
 versally recognized  that  no  explanatory 
 statement  was  needed.  It  is  certain  that 
 the  apostles,  by  practice  and  by  precept, 
 marked  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  a  day 
 for  meeting  together  to  break  bread,  for 
 communicating  and  receiving  instruction, 
 for  laying  up  ofierings  in  store  for  chari- 
 itable  purposes,  for  occupation  in  holy 
 thought  and  prayer  ( Acts  20:7;  1  Cor. 
 16  :  1,  2)  ;  it  is  equally  certain  that  by  the 
 apostles  and  early  Christians  the  day  for 
 celebrating  the  communion,  for  united 
 prayer,  for  instruction,  for  almsgiving, 
 was  never  confounded  with  the  seventh 
 day  of  the  week,  or  the  Jewisli  Sabbath, 
 but  was  carefully  distinguished  from  it 
 (Gal.  4  :  10;  Col.  2:16).  Hence  we  con- 
 clude that  the  Lord's  day  is  none  other 
 than  the  first  day  of  the  week,  and  that, 
 iis  commemorative  of  our  Lord's  resur- 
 rection, it  is  a  purely  Christian  institu- 
 
 tion, sanctioned  by  apostolic  practice, 
 mentioned  in  apostolic  writings,  and  so 
 possessed  of  whatever  divine  authority 
 any  apostolic  ordinance  or  doctrine  can 
 be  possessed  of. 
 
 Lord's  Sup'per.  This  is  the  com- 
 mon English  name  of  the  ordinance  in- 
 stituted by  our  Lord  in  commemoration 
 of  his  death  and  sufferings,  and  a  literal 
 translation  of  the  Greek  phrase  in  the 
 New  Testament.  The  expression  occurs 
 but  once  in  the  New  Testament  (1  Cor. 
 11  :  20),  and  apparently  intimates  that 
 the  reason  for  denominating  the  ordi- 
 nance a  "  supper "  is  the  fact  that  it  was 
 instituted  at  supper-time.  Synonymous 
 phrases,  however,  are  found,  such  as  "the 
 Lord's  table"  (1  Cor.  10  :  21),  "the  cup 
 of  the  Lord"  (1  Cor.  10  :  21),  "the  com- 
 munion of  the  blood  of  Christ,"  and  "  the 
 communion  of  the  body  of  Christ"  (1 
 Cor.  10  :  16).  The  institution  of  the  or- 
 dinance, which  through  all  time  is  to  be 
 observed  by  tiie  Churcii,  is  recorded  by 
 Matthew  (26  :  26-29),  Mark  (14  :  22-25), 
 Luke  (22  :  19.  20),  Paul  (1  Cor.  11 :  24-26). 
 The  nature  of  the  ordinance  is  not  sacri- 
 ficial, but  commemorative  (1  Cor.  11  :  17- 
 34 ;  ]\Iatt.  26  :  26-30 ;  Acts  2  :  42-47 ;  20  : 
 7).  It  is  not,  therefore,  a  conversion  of 
 the  sensible  elements  into  the  body  and 
 blood  of  Christ,  nor  is  it  the  literal  and 
 corporeal  presence  of  our  Lord's  body  and 
 blood  in  a  miraculous  manner,  m,  irith  and 
 under  the  sensible  elements.  Yet  it  is 
 something  more  than  a  mere  sign.  Whilst 
 as  a  sign  it  sets  forth  the  virtue  of  our 
 Lord's  body  as  broken  and  of  our  Lord's 
 blood  as  shed,  it  also  as  a  seal  confirms  the 
 title  of  the  true  believer  in  Christ  to  all  the 
 benefits  of  the  covenant  of  grace.  Hence 
 the  efficacy  of  the  ordinance  is  to  lie  re- 
 ferred neither  to  any  virtue  in  it,  nor  to 
 any  virtue  in  him  who  administers  it,  but 
 solely  to  the  virtue  of  Christ's  atoning  sac- 
 rifice, and  to  that  gracious  work  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit  within  the   soul   which   en- 
 
LO-RUH  AM  A  H— LUCIFER. 
 
 323 
 
 ables  the  worthy  receiver  to  "  discern  the 
 Lord's  body"  (1  Cor.  11  :  28,  29). 
 
 Lo-Ru-ha'mah  [tiot  pitied],  the  sym- 
 bolical name  given  to  the  ideal  daughter 
 of  Hosea,  in  whom  was  meant  to  be  em- 
 bodied the  solemn  truth  that  God  had 
 meanwhile  withdrawn  the  exercise  of 
 mercy  from  liis  rebellious  people  (Hos. 
 1  :  6).     See  Ammi  and  Lo-Ammi. 
 
 Lot  [a  coveringi,  the  son  of  Haran 
 and  nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  11  :  27^ 
 31).  Haran  died  before  the  emigration 
 of  Terah  and  his  family  from  Ur  of  the 
 Chaldees ;  hence  Ur  was  Lot's  birthplace. 
 Upon  the  death  of  his  grandfather  Terah, 
 Lot  identified  himself  with  Abraham, 
 whom  he  accompanied  to  Canaan   (Gen. 
 
 12  :  5),  thence  into  Eg_vpt  (Gen.  12  :  10), 
 and  back  again,  by  the  way  of  the  Philis- 
 tines (Gen.  20  :  1),  to  the  southern  part  of 
 Canaan.  Their  united  substance,  consist- 
 ing chiefly  of  cattle,  was  not  then  too 
 large  to  prevent  them  from  living  to- 
 gether in  one  encampment.  Eventually, 
 however,  their  possessions  were  so  great- 
 ly increased  that  they  were  obliged  to 
 separate,  and  to  Lot,  with  rare  generosity, 
 Abraham  conceded  the  choice  of  pasture- 
 grounds.  Lot  chose  the  fertile  and  well- 
 watered   neighborhood    of    Sodom    (Gen. 
 
 13  :  5-13),  but  soon  he  had  abundant 
 reason  to  regret  this  choice.  He  exposed 
 himself  and  his  family  to  great  moral 
 evils  and  to  fearful  physical  dangers.  The 
 inhabitants  of  Sodom  were  "  sinners  before 
 the  Lord  exceedingly"  (Gen.  13  :  13),  and 
 were  punished,  first  by  their  reduction  to 
 the  condition  of  slaves  by  Chedorlaomer, 
 in  which  fate  Lot  was  involved  and  from 
 which  he  was  rescued  by  Abraham,  and 
 next  by  their  utter  overthrow  in  a  rain  of 
 fire  from  the  Almighty,  in  which  most  of 
 Lot's  family  were  destroyed,  but  from  which 
 he  and  his  two  daughters  were  miraculous- 
 ly saved  (Gen.  19  :  1-26).  The  time  and 
 place  of  Lot's  death  are  unknown.  That 
 he  was  a  good  man  is  evidenced  by  his  de-  ' 
 
 liverance  from  among  the  guilty,  and  is 
 affirmed  by  an  apostle  (2  Pet.  2:7).  His 
 history,  however,  is  an  arresting  illustra- 
 tion of  the  peril  and  the  punishment  of 
 worldliness. 
 
 Lot.  The  custom  of  deciding  doubtful 
 questions  by  lot  is  one  of  great  extent  and 
 high  antiquity.  The  instances  referred  to 
 in  Scripture  are  chiefly  these:  1.  Choice 
 of  men  for  an  invading  force  ( Judg.  1:1; 
 20  :  9,  10) ;  2.  Partition  of  the  soil  of 
 Palestine  among  the  tribes  (Num.  26  :  55 ; 
 Josh.  18  :  10;  Acts  13 :  19) ;  of  Jerusalem, 
 that  is,  probably,  its  spoil  or  captives 
 among  captors  (Ob.  ver.  11);  of  spoil  to 
 foreigners  or  captors  (Joel  3:3;  Nah.  3  : 
 10;  Matt  27  :  35) ;  3.  Settlement  of  doubt- 
 ful questions  (Prov.  16  :  33;  18  :  18) ;  de- 
 tection of  a  criminal  (Josh.  7  :  14,  18); 
 selection  of  the  scapegoat  on  the  day  of 
 atonement  (Lev.  10  :  8,  10). 
 
 Love,  an  attachment  of  the  affections 
 to  any  object,  accompanied  with  an  ardent 
 desire  to  promote  its  happiness  by  abstain- 
 ing from  all  that  can  prove  injurious  to 
 it,  and  by  doing  all  that  can  promote  its 
 welfare,  comfort  or  interest.  The  renewed 
 man  loves  God  supremely,  and  his  fellow- 
 men  sincerely.  Love  to  God  and  love  to 
 man  fulfill  the  whole  law  (Matt.  22  :  37- 
 40;  Rom.  13  :  8-10;  1  John  4  :  7-11). 
 
 Low'er  parts  of  the  Earth,  piop- 
 erly  valleys  (Isa.  44  :  23);  hence  the 
 under-world,  either  as  the  place  of  de- 
 parted spirits  (Ps.  63  :  9)  or  as  the  grave 
 (Eph.  4  :  9),  and,  figuratively,  any  hidden 
 place  (Ps.  139  :  15). 
 
 Lu^bim.    See  Libya. 
 
 Lu'ci-fer.  This  word  is  found  only 
 in  Isa.  14  :  12,  where  it  is  coupled  with 
 the  epithet  "son  of  the  morning,"  and 
 evidently  means  a  "  bright  star,"  probably 
 what  we  call  the  morning  star.  In  this 
 passage  it  is  a  symbolical  representation 
 of  the  king  of  Babylon  in  his  splendor 
 and  in  his  fall.  Its  application,  from 
 Jerome  downward,  to  Satan   in   his   fall 
 
324 
 
 LUCIUS  OF  CYRENE— LUKE,  GOSPEL  OF. 
 
 from  heaven,  arises  probably  from  the 
 fact  that  the  Babylonian  empire  is  rep- 
 resented in  Scripture  as  the  type  of  tyran- 
 nical and  self-idolizing  power,  and  espe- 
 cially connected  with  the  empire  of  the 
 Evil  One  in  the  Apocalypse. 
 
 Lu'ci-us  of  Cy-re'ne,  first  mentioned 
 in  the  New  Testament  in  company  with 
 Barnabas,  Simeon  called  Niger,  Manaen 
 and  Saul,  who  are  described  as  prophets 
 and  teachei-s  of  the  church  at  Antioch 
 (Acts  13  :  1).  Whether  Lucius  was  one 
 of  the  seventy  disciples  is  quite  a  matter 
 of  conjecture,  but  it  is  highly  probable 
 that  he  formed  one  of  the  congregation 
 to  which  Peter  preached  on  the  day  of 
 Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  10) ;  and  there  can 
 hardly  be  a  doubt  that  he  was  one  of 
 "the  men  of  Cyrene"  who,  being  "scat- 
 tered abroad  upon  the  persecution  that 
 arose  about  Stephen,"  went  to  Antioch 
 preaching  the  Lord  Jesus  (Acts  11  :  19, 
 20).  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  Lu- 
 cius is  the  kinsman  of  Paul  mentioned  by 
 that  apostle  as  joining  with  him  in  his  sal- 
 utation to  the  Koman  brethren  (Rom.  16  : 
 21),  and  who  is  said  by  tradition  to  have 
 been  ordained  bishop  of  the  church  of 
 Cenchrefe. 
 
 Liud,  the  fourth  son  of  Shem  ((Jen.  10  : 
 22),  and  the  ancestor  of  a  people  dwelling 
 north  of  Palestine,  in  the  near  vicinity 
 of  Mesopotamia  (see  Nations,  under  She- 
 mites).  The  common  identification  of  Lud 
 with  "the  Lydians"  is  unreliable,  being 
 based  wholly  on  the  similarity  of  the 
 names,  and  from  the  geographic  position 
 of  Lud's  descendants  being  quite  improb- 
 able. 
 
 Liu'dim,  a  Mizraite  people  or  tribe 
 (Gen.  10  :  13).  From  their  position  at 
 the  head  of  the  Mizraites,  it  is  probable 
 that  they  were  settled  to  the  west  of  Egypt, 
 perhaps  farther  than  any  other  Mizraite 
 tribe.  Lud  and  the  Ludim  are  mentioned 
 in  four  passages  of  the  prophets  (Isa.  66  : 
 19  ;  Jer.  46  :  9 ;  Ezek.  27  :  10  ,•  38  :  5).  In 
 
 these  passages  but  one  nation  is  obviously 
 intended,  and  the  preponderant  evidence 
 is  in  favor  of  the  Mizraite  Ludim. 
 
 Luke,  or  Lu'cas,  an  abbreviated  form 
 of  Lucanus.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded 
 with  Lucius  (Acts  13  :  1 ;  Rom.  16  :  21), 
 which  name  belongs  to  a  different  person. 
 The  name  Luke  occurs  three  times  in  the 
 New  Testament  (Col.  4  :  14 ;  2  Tim.  4:11; 
 Phile.  ver.  24),  and  probably  in  all  three 
 the  third  evangelist  is  the  person  spoken 
 of.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  born  at 
 Antioch  in  Syria,  and  to  have  been  taught 
 the  science  of  medicine.  The  date  of  his 
 conversion  is  uncertain.  He  accompanied 
 Paul  on  several  journeys,  and  remained  at 
 his  side  during  the  first  imprisonment  (Col. 
 4:14;  Phile.  ver.  24).  If  it  be  supposed 
 that  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  was 
 written  during  the  second  imprisonment, 
 then  the  testimony  of  that  EpLstle  (4  :  11) 
 shows  that  lie  continued  fiiithful  to  the 
 apostle  to  the  end  of  his  afflictions.  Af- 
 ter the  death  of  Paul,  Luke's  acts  are 
 hopelessly  obscure  to  us.  Nor  do  we 
 know  anything  of  the  place  or  time  of 
 his  death.  He  probably  died  a  martyr 
 between  A.  d.  75  and  A.  D.  100.  He  wrote 
 the  third  Gospel,  and  also  the  Acts  of  the 
 Apostles. 
 
 Luke,  Gos'pel  of.  The  third  Gos- 
 pel is  ascribed  by  the  general  consent  of 
 ancient  Christendom  to  "the  beloved 
 phj'sician "  Luke,  the  friend  and  com- 
 panion of  the  apostle  Paul.  It  w.os  writ- 
 ten before  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Acts 
 1:1),  but  how  much  earlier  is  uncertain. 
 The  preface  contained  in  the  first  four 
 verses  of  the  Gospel  describes  the  object 
 of  its  writer.  Several  narratives  of  our 
 Lord's  life  were  evidently  current  when 
 Luke  wrote  his  Gospel.  The  ground  of 
 fitness  for  his  task  he  places  in  his  having 
 carefully  followed  out  the  whole  course 
 of  events  from  the  beginning.  He  does 
 not  claim  the  character  of  an  eye-witness 
 from  the  first,  but  possibly  he  may  have 
 
LUNATIC— LYDIA. 
 
 325 
 
 been  a  witness  of  some  part  of  our  Lord's 
 doings.  Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Origen  and 
 Eusebius  maintain  that  Luke  wrote  his 
 Gospel  under  the  influence  of  Paul,  but 
 the  language  of  the  preface  is  scarcely 
 consistent  with  the  notion  that  Paul  was 
 his  only  authority.  The  truth  appears  to 
 be  that  Luke,  seeking  information  from 
 every  quarter,  found  it  in  the  preaching 
 of  his  beloved  ma^ster  Paul,  and  that  the 
 apostle  in  his  turn  employed  the  know- 
 ledge acquired  from  other  sources  by  his 
 disciple.  It  has  never  been  doubted  that 
 the  Gospel  was  written  in  Greek.  Wliilst 
 Hebraisms  are  frequent,  classical  idioms 
 and  Greek  compound  words  also  abound. 
 The  number  of  words  used  by  Luke  only 
 is  unusually  great,  and  many  of  tlieni  are 
 compound  words  for  which  there  is  clas- 
 sical authority.  On  comparing  the  Gos- 
 pel with  the  Acts  it  is  found  that  the 
 style  of  the  latter  is  more  pure  and  free 
 from  Hebrew  idioms. 
 
 LiU^na-tic  [one  tvho  is  moon-Ktruckl. 
 The  word  is  used  twice  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament (Matt.  4  :  24;  17  :  15).  It  evi- 
 dently refers  to  some  disease  affecting 
 both  the  body  and  the  mind,  which  might 
 or  might  not  be  a  sign  of  possession.  By 
 the  description  of  Mark  (9  :  17-26)  it 
 has  been  thought  that  the  disease  was 
 epilepsy. 
 
 Lusts.  This  word  represents  in  Scrip- 
 ture those  desires  and  passions  which  are 
 unlawful  (1  Cor.  10  :  6 ;  1  Pet.  2:11;  4  : 
 2;  2  Pet.  2  :  10),  and  that  corruption  of 
 the  heart  which  inclines  to  evil,  and  which 
 is  at  once  the  effect  and  cause  of  sin  (James 
 1  :  14,  15). 
 
 Luz,  the  original  name  of  the  place 
 afterward  called  Bethel  (Gen.  28  :  19). 
 See  Bethel. 
 
 Ly-ca-o'ni-a,  a  small  province  of 
 Asia  Minor,  bounded  by  Cappadocia  on 
 the  east,  Galatia  on  the  north,  Phrygia 
 on  the  west  and  Cilicia  on  the  south. 
 From  the  soil  being  strongly  impregnated 
 
 with  salt  it  afforded  good  pasturage  for 
 sheep.  It  was  a  Roman  province  when 
 Paul  visited  it  (Acts  14  :  6),  and  its  chief 
 towns  were  Iconium,  the  capital,  Lystra 
 and  Derbe.  "The  speech  of  Lycaonia" 
 (Acts  14  :  11)  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
 corrupt  Greek  intermingled  with  Syriac. 
 
 Lyc^i-a,  a  province  in  the  south-west 
 of  Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  island  of 
 Rhodes,  bounded  by  Pamphylia  on  the 
 east,  Phrygia  on  the  north,  Caria  on  the 
 west  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south. 
 It  is  mountainous  and  well  watered.  The 
 Lycians  were  a  warlike  people,  and  suc- 
 cessfully asserted  tlicir  independence  for 
 many  generations,  but,  falling  at  length 
 before  the  colossal  power  of  Rome,  their 
 country  was  made  a  province  of  the  Ro- 
 man empire  by  Claudius.  Of  its  towns  only 
 two  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
 Patara  (Acts  21  :  1,  2)  and  iliyra  (Acts 
 27  :  5). 
 
 Lyd^da  (Acts  9  :  32),  the  Greek  form 
 of  LoD  (Neh.  7  :  37).  It  seems  to  have 
 been  built  by  the  Benjamites  (1  Chron. 
 8  :  12),  and  was  possessed  by  them  after 
 the  Captivity  (Neh.  11 :  31,  35).  It  was 
 twelve  miles  east  of  Joppa,  on  the  road 
 between  that  place  and  Jerusalem.  Un- 
 der the  Romans  it  was  called  Dinspolis, 
 but  its  ancient  name  still  exists  in  the 
 modern  Ludd.  Here  Peter  performed  a 
 miracle  of  healing  (Acts  9  :  32-35).  It 
 has  been  honored  in  modern  times  as  the 
 reputed  birthplace  and  burial-place  of  St. 
 George.  See  illustration  on  next  page.  It 
 should  be  noted,  however,  that  tlie  ruined 
 church  of  St.  George,  an  arch  of  which  is 
 given  in  the  illustration,  has  been  recently 
 restored. 
 
 Lyd'i-a,  the  name  of  a  country  and 
 of  a  person  in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  A  province  in  Asia  Minor,  which  is 
 supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
 Lud,  the  son  of  Shem.  This  Lydia  is  not 
 noticed  by  name  in  the  Scriptures,  but  its 
 principal  towns,  Sardis,  Thyatira  and  Phila- 
 
326 
 
 LYSANIAS— LYSTRA. 
 
 Modern 
 
 delphia,  have  a  conspicuous  place.  It  was 
 the  centre  of  that  dominion  of  whicli  Croj- 
 8US  was  the  last  king.  In  Ezek.  30  :  5  it 
 is  incorrectly  put  for  Lud,  with  which  it 
 has  no  connection. 
 
 2.  The  first  European  convert  of  Paul, 
 and  afterward  his  hostess  during  his  first 
 stay  at  Philippi  (Acts  16  :  14,  15,  40). 
 She  was  a  Jewish  proselyte  at  tlie  time 
 of  the  apostle's  coming,  and  it  was  at  tlie 
 Jewish  Sabbath-worship  by  tlie  side  of  a 
 stream  (Acts  16  :  13)  that  the  preaching 
 of  the  gospel  reached  her  heart.  Her 
 native  place  was  Thyatira,  in  the  prov- 
 ince of  Asia  (Acts  16  :  14;  Eev.  2  :  18). 
 Thyatira  was  famous  for  its  dyeing-works, 
 and  Lydia  was  connected  with  this  trade, 
 either  as  a  seller  of  dye  or  of  dyed  goods. 
 It  is  likely  that  she  possessed  considerable 
 wealth. 
 
 Ly-sa'ni-as,  a  tetrarch  of  Abilene 
 mentioned  by  Luke  (3:1). 
 
 Lys'i-as,  Clau''di-us,  the  "chief 
 captain"  who  commanded  the  Roman 
 troops  in  Jerusalem  during  the  latter  part 
 
 Lydaa. 
 
 of  the  procuratorship  of  Felix.  He  res- 
 cued Paul  from  the  infuriated  Jews  and 
 sent  him  under  gtiard  to  Feli-x:  at  Caesarea 
 (Acts  21  :  31-38  ;  22  :  24-30 ;  23  :  17-30; 
 24  :  7-22).  Nothing  more  is  known  of 
 him  than  what  is  stated  in  these  pas- 
 sages. 
 
 Lys'tra,  a  city  of  Lycaonia  in  Asia 
 Minor,  near  to  Derbe,  to  which  Paul  and 
 Barnabas  fled  when  endangered  at  Ico- 
 niimi.  Here  Paul  healed  a  cripple,  and  the 
 miracle  so  impressed  the  superstitious  peo- 
 ple that  they  were  with  difiiculty  restrain- 
 ed from  rendering  him  divine  honors.  Af- 
 terward, however,  with  the  usual  caprice 
 of  a  mob,  these  same  jjpople  attempted  to 
 stone  Paul  to  death  (Acts  14  :  6-20).  Lys- 
 tra  w;is  the  home  of  Timotheus  and,  in  the 
 early  times,  the  centre  of  a  remarkably  suc- 
 cessful Christian  work  (Acts  16:1;  2  Tim. 
 3  :  10,  11).  Its  site  has  been  identified 
 with  the  ruins  called  Bin-bir-Kilisneli,  at 
 the  ba.se  of  a  conical  mountain  of  volcanic 
 structure,  named  the  Knradarjh.  Here  are 
 the  remains  of  a  great  number  of  churches. 
 
MAACAH— MACEDONIA. 
 
 327 
 
 M. 
 
 Ma''a-cali  [dtpressiori],  the  name  of  a 
 place  and  of  several  persons. 
 
 1.  A  city  and  small  kingdom  east  of 
 Argob  and  Bashan  (Deut.  3  :  14;  Josh. 
 12  :  5;  2  Sam.  10  :  6,  8),  called  also  Maa- 
 chah  and  Syria-Maachah  (1  Chron.  19  :  G, 
 7).  Its  people  were  descended  from  Nahor 
 (Gen.  22  :  24),  and  were  not  driven  out  by 
 the  Israelites  (Josh.  13  :  13).  To  the  Syr- 
 ian alliance  against  David  (2  Sam.  10  :  6) 
 its  king  contributed  one  thousand  warriors. 
 
 2.  The  principal  persons  bearing  the 
 name,  indifferently  spelled  Maacah  and 
 Maachah  and  appropriated  to  both  males 
 and  females,  are  these:  (1)  The  father  of 
 Achish,  king  of  Gath  (1  Kings  2  :  39) ;  (2) 
 The  father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's  wor- 
 thies (1  Chron.  11  :  43) ;  (3)  The  father  of 
 Shephatiah,  the  military  chief  of  the  Sim- 
 eonites  (1  Chron.  27  :  16) ;  (4)  One  of  the 
 ofispring  of  Keumah,  Nahor's  concubine 
 (Gen.  22  :  24);  (5)  Caleb's  concubine  (1 
 Chron.  2  :  48) ;  (6)  The  wife  of  Machir  (1 
 Chron.  7:16);  (7)  Daughter  of  Talmai, 
 king  of  Geshur,  wife  of  David  and  mother 
 of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  3:3);  (8)  Daughter 
 of  Abishalom,  wife  of  King  Eehoboam 
 and  mother  of  King  Abijam  or  Abijah  (1 
 Kings  15  :  1,  2;  2  Chron.  11  :  22;  13  :  1). 
 She  is  also  called  "mother,"  that  is, 
 "  grandmotlier,"  of  King  Asa  (1  Kings 
 15  :  10),  and  for  a  time  seems  to  have  oc- 
 cupied at  Asa's  court  the  high  position  of 
 "  king's  mother."  It  is  probable  that  at  Abi- 
 jah's  death  after  a  short  reign  of  three 
 years  Asa  was  left  a  minor,  and  Maachah 
 acted  as  regent.  This  conjecture,  if  cor- 
 rect, would  seem  to  explain  the  influence 
 by  which  she  promoted  the  practice  of 
 idolatrous  worship  (1  Kings  15  :  13). 
 
 Ma'a-leh-A-crab'bim  [ascent  of  the 
 scorplovf>'\.  Tlie  name  is  found  only  in 
 Josh.  15  :  3.     It  was  a  pass  south  of  the 
 
 Dead  Sea,  the  same  as  Akrabbim  (which 
 see). 
 
 Ma-as-ei'ah  [the  ivork  of  Jeliovah], 
 the  name  of  several  men :  1 .  The  son  of 
 Adaiah,  a  nobleman  of  Judah  who  as- 
 sisted in  establishing  King  Joash  on  the 
 throne  (2  Chron.  23  :  1) ;  2.  The  son  of 
 King  Aliaz,  who  was  slain  by  Zichri,  "  a 
 mighty  man  of  Ephraim"  (2  Chron.  28  : 
 7 ) ;  3.  The  "  governor  of  the  city,"  one 
 of  those  sent  by  King  Josiali  to  repair 
 the  temple  (2  Chron.  34  :  8). 
 
 Ma-ce-do'ni-a,  a  country  lying  to 
 the  north  of  Greece  proper,  between  the 
 ^Egean  and  Adriatic  seas,  and  the  first 
 part  of  Eurojie  to  receive  the  gospel.  It 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  peopled  by  Chit- 
 tim  or  Kittim,  son  of  Javan  (Gen.  10  :  4). 
 It  had  little  political  importance  before 
 the  times  of  Philip  and  his  son  Alexan- 
 der. Under  Philip  it  rose  to  great  power ; 
 under  Alexander  it  conquered  most  of  the 
 then  known  world.  Daniel  sees  in  vision 
 the  remarkable  career  of  Alexander,  and 
 under  the  figure  of  the  one-horned  goat 
 which  comes  from  the  West  and  touches 
 not  the  ground  describes  the  rapidity  of 
 his  conquests  and  the  vastness  of  his 
 empire  with  the  graphic  minuteness  of 
 an  eye-witness  (Dan.  8  :  5-8,  21).  Mace- 
 donia fell  at  length  under  the  imperial 
 sovereignty  of  Rome,  and  in  New-Testa- 
 ment times  it  and  Achaia  comjirehended 
 the  whole  of  Greece  (Rom.  15  :  26;  2  Cor. 
 9 :  2 ;  1  Thess.  1  :  8).  Paul,  while  at  Troas, 
 was  summoned  in  a  vision  to  preach  the 
 gospel  in  Macedonia,  and,  proceeding 
 thither,  founded  the  churches  of  Thes- 
 salonica  and  Philippi  (Acts  16  :  9).  In 
 subsequent  missionary  journeys  he  made 
 several  visits  to  the  country,  and  to  the 
 Tliessalonian  and  Philippian  Christians 
 addressed   two   of    his   valuable    Epistles 
 
328 
 
 MACHIR— MAGDALA. 
 
 (Acts  20 : 1 ;  2  Cor.  2  :  13 ;  1  Tim.  1  :  3  ;  1 
 Thess.  1:1;  Phil.  1:1).  The  cities  of 
 Macedonia  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment are  Amphipolis,  Apollonia,  Thessa- 
 h)nica,  Berea,  Philippi,  Neapolis.  Its  soil 
 is  extremely  productive,  but  under  the 
 hligliting  despotism  of  Turkey  is  wretch- 
 edly tilled. 
 
 Mach'ir  [seZ/e/],  the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  oldest  son  of  Mana.sseh  (Josh. 
 17  :  1),  who  had  children  bom  to  him 
 during  the  lifetime  of  Joseph  (Gen.  50  : 
 23).  At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the 
 family  of  Machir  had  become  very  pow- 
 erful, and  a  large  part  of  the  country  on 
 the  east  of  Jordan  was  subdued  by  them 
 (Num.  32:  39;  Deut.  3:  1.5). 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Ammiel,  a  powerful  sheikh 
 of  one  of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  who 
 maintained  Mephibosheth,  the  lame  son 
 of  Jonathan,  until  provision  was  made 
 for  him  by  David  (2  Sam.  9  :  4,  5),  and 
 who  afterward  extended  his  hospitality 
 to  the  fugitive  monarch  himself  (2  Sam. 
 17  :  27). 
 
 Mach-pe''lah  [double  cave},  the  name 
 of  the  field  adjoining  ancient  Hebron,  in 
 which  was  the  cave  purchased  by  Abra- 
 ham from  the  sons  of  Heth  for  a  place  of 
 burial  (Gen.  23 :  17-20).  In  this  cave  were 
 deposited  in  succession  the  bodies  of  Sarah, 
 Abraham,  Isaac,  Rebekah,  Leah  and  Jacob 
 (Gen.  23  :  19;  25  :  9;  35  :  29;  49  :  31 ;  50 : 
 13).  It  still  exists,  but  is  invisible  to  all 
 persons  except  Mohammedans.  Of  this 
 cave  itself,  strange  to  say,  we  have  no  de- 
 tailed account,  though  it  must  have  been 
 visited  before  the  Moslem  conquest  of  Pal- 
 estine and  during  the  Christian  occupation 
 at  the  period  of  the  Crusades.  It  is  en- 
 closed within  a  very  ancient  structure 
 standing  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  above 
 Hebron.  Over  it  is  a  building,  once  un- 
 doubtedly a  Christian  church,  but  now  a 
 Mohammedan  mosque.  In  this  mosque, 
 under  the  dome,  are  six  tombs,  said  to  be 
 over  the  places  where  the  actual  sarcoph- 
 
 agi lie  in  the  cave  below.  The  inte- 
 rior of  this  mosque,  although  jealously 
 guarded,  has  of  late  years  been  inspected 
 by  a  few  distinguished  Europeans,  but 
 into  the  cave  underneath  no  one  has  been 
 permitted  to  enter.  A  description  of  the  in- 
 terior of  the  mosque  may  be  found  in  Stan- 
 ley's Sinai  and  Pulealine.  As  the  body  of 
 Jacob  was  embalmed,  some  remains  of  it 
 may  still  exist ;  but  the  mystery  which 
 enwraps  the  cave  is  not  likely  to  be  dis- 
 pelled so  long  as  the  Moslem  holds  it 
 as  a  sacred  possession.     See  Hebron. 
 
 Mad'a-i,  the  third  son  of  Jajiheth  (Gen. 
 10  :  2)  and  the  progenitor  of  the  Modes. 
 
 Ma'di-an  (Acts  7  :  29),  the  Greek 
 form  of  MiDiAN  (which  see). 
 
 Mad-man'nah  [dumjhiU],  a  city  of 
 Simeon  (.Josh.  15  :  31 ;  1  Chron.  2  :  49). 
 Eusebius  in  his  time  identified  it  with  a 
 town  called  Menois,  near  the  city  of  Gaza. 
 
 Mad-rae'nah  [dunyhiU],  a  place  in 
 Benjamin  north  of  Jerusalem,  the  inhab- 
 itants of  which  were  frightened  away  by 
 the  ai)proach  of  Sennacherib's  army  (Isa. 
 10:  31). 
 
 Ma^don  [.s<r//e],  one  of  the  principal 
 Can;uinitish  cities  before  the  Conquest,  sit- 
 uated, probably,  in  the  north  of  Palestine. 
 Its  king  joined  Jabin  and  his  confeder- 
 ates in  their  attempt  against  Joshua  at 
 the  waters  of  Merom,  and  like  the  rest 
 was  killed  (Josh.  11:1;  12  :  19). 
 
 Mag'da-la  [a  (owerl,  a  town  on  the 
 western  shore  of  Lake  Gennesaret  (Matt. 
 15  :  39).  Instead  of  Magdala,  the  chief 
 manuscripts  and  versions  give  Maf/^dan, 
 which,  as  Alford  observes,  "a|)pears  to 
 have  been  the  original  reading,  but  the 
 better  known  name  Magdala  was  substi- 
 tuted for  it."  Into  the  limits  of  Magdala 
 or  Magadan  our  Lord  came  by  boat  over 
 the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  after  liis  miracle 
 of  feeding  the  four  thousand  oti  the  moun- 
 tain of  the  eastern  side,  and  from  thence, 
 after  a  short  encounter  witii  the  Pharisees 
 and  Sadducees,  he  returned   in  the  same 
 
MAGICIANS— MAGOR-MISSABIB. 
 
 329 
 
 boat  to  the  opposite  shore.  Magdala  and 
 Dalmanutha  were  evidently  neighboring 
 places.  See  Dalmanutha.  Magdala  was 
 probably  the  ancient  Migdal-el  of  Josh. 
 19  :  38.  It  derives  its  chief  interest  to 
 us  from  its  association  with  Mary  Mag- 
 
 Miigdala. 
 
 dalene  or  Mary  of  Magdala,  who  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  a  native  of  it.  The 
 small  modern  village  el-Mejdel,  a  wretch- 
 ed little  cluster  of  huts  situated  on  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  plain  of  Gen- 
 nesaret,  about  a  league  and  a  half  north 
 from  Tiberias,  is  supposed  to  occupy  its 
 site.  From  el-Mejdel  a  striking  view  is  ob- 
 tained of  the  northern  part  of  the  Lake. 
 
 Ma-glc'ians,  the  claimants  of  the 
 power  or  art  of  working  wonders  beyond 
 the  range  of  science  or  natural  skill  (Gen. 
 41  :  8;  Ex.  7  :  11,  22;  Dan.  1  :  20;  2:2; 
 4:7).  As  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia  the 
 cultivators  of  the  more  recondite  depart- 
 ments of  learning  and  science  were  priests, 
 there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  magi- 
 cians, as  a  class,  belonged  to  some  branch 
 of  the  priesthood.  See  Chald.eans  and 
 Wise  Men. 
 
 Ma'gOg  [regio7i  of  Gog'].  In  Gen. 
 10  :  2  Magog  appears  as  the  second  son 
 of  Japheth  in  connection  with  Gomer  (the 
 Cimmerians)  and  Madai  (the  Medes) ;  in 
 Ezek.  38  :  2 ;  39 : 1,  6  it  appears  as  a  coun- 
 try or  people,  of  which  Gog  was  the  prince 
 in  conjunction  with  Meshach 
 (the  Moschici),  Tubal  (the 
 Tibareni)  and  Bosh  (the 
 Roxolani).  In  the  latter  of 
 these  senses  there  is  evi- 
 dently implied  an  etymolog- 
 ical connection  between  Gog 
 and  Magog,  the  Ma  being  re- 
 garded by  Ezekiel  as  a  prefix 
 significant  of  a  country.  In 
 this  case  Gog  contains  the 
 original  element  of  the  name, 
 which  may  possibly  have  its 
 origin  in  some  Persian  root. 
 The  notices  of  Magog  would 
 lead  us  to  fix  a  northern  lo- 
 cality ;  it  is  expressly  stated 
 by  Ezekiel  that  he  was  to 
 come  up  from  "  the  sides  of 
 the  north"  (Ezek.  39:2), 
 from  a  country  adjacent  to 
 that   of  Togarmah,    or   Armenia    (Ezek. 
 
 38  :  6),  and  not  far  from  "the  isles,"  or 
 maritime  regions  of  Europe  (Ezek.  39: 
 6).  The  people  of  Magog  further  appear 
 as  having  a  force  of  cavalry  ( Ezek.  38 : 
 15),  and  as  armed  with  the  bow  (Ezek. 
 
 39  :  3).  From  the  above  data  we  may 
 conclude  that  Magog  represents  the  im- 
 portant race  of  the  Scythians,  the  ances- 
 tors of  the  Slavic  nations  now  existing. 
 In  Eev.  20  :  8,  9  the  terms  Gog  and  Ma- 
 gog are  evidently  used  in  a  tropical  sense, 
 as  the  names  of  the  enemies  of  Christian- 
 ity, who  will  endeavor  to  extirpate  it  from 
 the  earth,  but  who  thereby  will  bring  upon 
 themselves  a  signal  destruction. 
 
 Ma^g'Or-Mis''sa-bib  {terror  from 
 round  obon/],  an  epithet  applied,  at  the 
 divine  instance,  by  Jeremiah  to  the  perse- 
 cuting Pasliur  as  emblematical  of  his  ap- 
 
330 
 
 MAHALALEEL— MALCHUS. 
 
 proaching  captivity  and  death  in  Babylon 
 (Jer.  20  :  1-6). 
 
 Ma-ha'la-leel  [p?-«i.se  oj  GuJ],  the 
 fourtli  in  (lescent  from  Adam  according  to 
 the  Setliite  genealogy,  and  son  of  Cainan 
 (Gen.  5  :  12,  13,  15-17 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  2). 
 
 Ma'ha-lath  [a  lute],  the  title  of  Ps. 
 53;  Mahalatii-Leannoth  is  the  title 
 of  Ps.  88.  The  meaning  of  these  words 
 is  uncertain.  The  conjecture  is  that  Ma- 
 halath  is  a  lute  or  guitar,  and  tliat  Lean- 
 noth  has  reference  to  the  character  of  the 
 psalm,  and  might  be  rendered  "to  hum- 
 l)le  or  afHict,"  in  wliich  sensj  the  root  oc- 
 curs in  Ps.  88  :  7. 
 
 Ma-ha-na'im  [camps],  a  place  east 
 of  .Jord:m  and  nortli  of  the  river  Jabbok, 
 so  named  by  Jacob  because  he  there  met 
 "  the  angels  of  God  "  (Gen.  32  :  1,  2).  It 
 was  situated  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and  be- 
 came a  Levitical  city  (Josh.  21  :  38).  It 
 was  there  that  Ishboshetli,  the  son  of  Saul, 
 fixed  his  capital  in  opposition  to  David  (2 
 Sam.  2  :  8,  9).  When  David  in  his  turn 
 was  fleeing  before  his  son  Absalom,  he 
 took  refuge  in  Mahanaim  (2  Sam.  17:24). 
 The  precise  site  of  tliis  place  lias  not  been 
 ascertained,  but  by  many  travelers  is  be- 
 lieved to  be  identical  with  Mahneh,  the 
 name  of  an  extensive  ruin  among  the 
 villages  of  the  region. 
 
 Ma'her-Sha-larHash-Baz  [/ia.s- 
 ten  honttj,  .speed-spoil],  a  syml)olical  name 
 given  by  divine  direction  to  indicate  tliat 
 Damascus  and  Samaria  were  soon  to  be 
 plundered  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Isa.  8  : 
 1-4). 
 
 Mah'lon  [.s/cA/?/],  the  first  husband  of 
 Ruth.  He  and  his  brother  Chilion  were 
 sons  of  Elimelech  and  Naomi,  and  are  de- 
 scribed as  "  Ephrathites  of  Bethlehem-Ju- 
 dah"  (Ruth  1  :  2,  5;  4:9,  10). 
 
 Mak-ke'dah  [henlxman's  •place'],  a 
 royal  city  of  tlie  Canaanites  in  the  low 
 country  of  Judah  (Josh.  12  :  Ifi).  In  its 
 neighborhood  was  a  remarkable  cave  in 
 which  the  five  confederate  kings  concealed 
 
 themselves  after  their  defeat  by  Joshua 
 (10  :  10-29).  A  cave  answering  to  tliis  is 
 now  found  in  the  hills  whicli  in  the  plain 
 country  of  Judah  define  the  valley  of  Sorek, 
 and  from  its  name,  el-Mughdr  ("the cave"), 
 is  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Makkcdah. 
 
 Mak'tesh  [a  mortar],  a  place  in  or 
 near  Jerusalem  mentioned  as  inhabited 
 apparently  by  silver-merchants  (Zeph. 
 1  :  11).  Ewald  conjectures  that  it  was 
 the  "Phoenician  quarter"  of  the  city,  in 
 which,  after  the  custom  of  Oriental  towns, 
 the  traders  of  that  nation  resided.  Gese- 
 nius  regards  it  as  the  name  of  a  valley,  so 
 called  from  its  mortar-like  sliape. 
 
 Mal'a-chi  Imessenrjer],  tlie  last  of  the 
 minor  jirophcts  and  tlie  latest  writer  in 
 the  canon  of  tlie  Old  Testament.  Of  his 
 personal  history  nothing  is  known.  From 
 the  striking  parallelism  between  the  state 
 of  things  indicated  in  Malachi's  prophe- 
 cies and  that  actually  existing  on  Nehe- 
 miali's  return  from  tlie  court  of  Artax- 
 erxes,  we  conclude  that  the  prophet  ut- 
 tered his  messages  from  Jehovah  after 
 the  second  return  of  Nehemiah  from  Per- 
 sia (Neh.  13  :  6).  The  wliole  prophecy 
 naturally  divides  itself  into  three  sections, 
 in  the  first  of  which  Jehovali  is  represented 
 as  tlie  loving  Father  and  Ruler  of  his  peo- 
 ple (1  :  2-14;  2  :  1-9) ;  in  the  second,  as 
 the  supreme  God  and  Father  of  all  (2  : 
 10-16) ;  and  in  the  third,  as  their  right- 
 eous and  final  Judge  (2:17;  3:1-18;  4 : 
 1-6).  The  prophecy  of  Malachi  is  several 
 times  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament 
 (Matt.  11  :  10;  Mark  1  :  2;  9  :  11,  12; 
 Luke  1  :  17;  Rom.  9:  13). 
 
 Mal'chus  [rider],  tlie  name  of  the 
 servant  of  the  liigli  priest  whose  right  ear 
 Peter  cut  ofT  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  ar- 
 rest in  the  garden  (Matt.  26  :  51  ;  Mark 
 14  :  47  ;  Luke  22  :  49-51  ;  John  18:10). 
 He  was  the  personal  servant  of  the  higli 
 priest,  and  not  one  of  the  bailifls  or  ap- 
 paritors of  the  Sanhedrim.     It  is  notice- 
 
MALLOWS— MAN. 
 
 331 
 
 able  that  Luke  the  physician  is  the  only, 
 one  of  the  evangelists  who  mentions  the 
 act  of  healing. 
 
 ManO"WS.  The  Hebiew  word  occurs 
 only  in  the  passage  where  Job  complains 
 that  he  is  subjected  to  the  contumely  of 
 the  meanest  people,  those  "who  cut  up 
 malloivs  by  the  bushes  for  their  meat" 
 (Job  30  :  4).  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  salt- 
 wort, the  young  leaves  of  which  are  gath- 
 ered and  boiled  by  the  poor  as  food. 
 
 Mam^raon,  an  Aramaic  word  signi- 
 fying wealth  or  riches,  and  bearing  that 
 sense  in  Luke  16  :  9,  11,  but  also  used 
 by  our  Lord  in  Matt.  6  :  24  and  Luke 
 IG  :  13  as  a  personification  of  the  god 
 of  riches. 
 
 Mam're  [fatness],  an  ancient  Amorite 
 wlio,  with  his  brothers  Eshcol  and  Aner, 
 was  in  alliance  with  Abram  (Gen.  14  :  13, 
 24),  and  under  the  shade  of  whose  oak- 
 grove  the  patriarch  dwelt  in  the  interval 
 between  his  residence  at  Bethel  and  at 
 Beersheba  (Gen.  13  :  18;  18  :  1).  This 
 was  one  of  the  patriarch's  favorite  places 
 of  residence.  Here  he  entertained  the 
 three  angels,  and  here  he  received  the 
 first  distinct  promise  of  a  son  (Gen.  18  : 
 2,  10,  14).  In  the  subsequent  chapters 
 Mamre  is  a  mere  local  appellation  (Gen. 
 23:  17,  19;  25  :  9;  49:  30;  50:  13). 
 
 Man.  In  our  Authorized  Version  four 
 Hebrew  and  two  Greek  words  are  thus  ren- 
 dered. 
 
 The  first  Hebrew  word  [ndam')  has  sev- 
 eral senses :  it  is  the  proper  name  of  the 
 first  man  (Gen.  3  :  20 ;  Luke  3  :  38) ;  it  is 
 the  generic  name  of  the  human  race  as 
 originally  created  (Gen.  1  :  26,  27 ;  5:2; 
 8  :  21 ;  Deut.  8:3);  it  denotes  man  in 
 opposition  to  woman  (Gen.  3:12);  it  des- 
 ignates one  who  maintains  the  dignity  of 
 liuman  nature — a  man,  as  we  say,  that  de- 
 serves the  name  (Eccles.  7  :  28). 
 
 The  second  Hebrew  word  {ish)  is  the 
 man  in  the  distinguished  sense — a  warrior 
 (1  Sam.  17  :  8,  25,  33),  a  husband  (Gen.  3 : 
 
 16 ;  Hos.  2  :  16),  one  possessed  of  excel- 
 lent qualities,  mental  and  moral  (Jer. 
 5:1). 
 
 The  third  Hebrew  word  {geh'er)  is  a 
 man  in  regard  to  strength — as  distinguish- 
 ed from  a  woman  (Deut.  22  :  5),  as  distin- 
 guished from  a  child  (Ex.  12  :  37),  as  dis- 
 tinguishing a  male  from  a  female  child  (Job 
 3:  3). 
 
 The  fourth  Hebrew  word  {enosh')  is  de- 
 scriptive of  man  as  liable  to  sickness,  per- 
 ishable, transient,  mortal  (2  Chron.  14  : 
 11  ;  Job  25  :  6 ;  Ps.  9  :  19,  20;  103  :  15 ; 
 Isa.  51  :  7,  8). 
 
 Of  the  two  Greek  words,  one  (anthropos) 
 denotes  man  in  the  sense  of  a  human  be- 
 ing, and  the  other  (an'er)  denotes  man  in 
 that  distinguished  sense  which  belongs  to 
 the  second  Hebrew  word  above.  To  man, 
 as  thus  defined,  the  Scriptures  ascribe  a 
 tripartite  nature:  that  of  a  body,  or  the 
 animal  frame ;  that  of  a  soul,  or  the  ani- 
 mating life;  and  tliat  of  a  spirit,  or  the 
 organ  of  God-consciousness  (1  Thess.  5  : 
 23).  The  third  of  these  particulars,  or 
 the  spirit,  separates  man  by  an  impassa- 
 ble gulf  from  the  lower  animal  creation. 
 
 In  the  New  Testament  there  are  some 
 peculiar  uses  of  the  word  man.  "The 
 Son  of  man,"  applied  to  our  Lord  only  by 
 himself  (Matt.  9:6;  Mark  2  :  10;  Luke 
 5  :  24)  and  the  martyr  Stephen  (Acts  7  : 
 56),  is  the  Messiah  in  human  form. 
 
 "The  old  man"  and  "the  new  man" 
 (Eph.  4  :  22,  24)  denote,  respectively  the 
 native,  unsanctified  disposition  of  the  hu- 
 man heart,  and  the  new,  gracious  disposi- 
 tion created  and  cherished  by  the  gospel. 
 
 "  The  outward  man,"  that  is,  the  exter- 
 nal, visible  man,  is  opposed  to  "the  inward 
 man,"  or  the  invisible,  immortal  soul  (2 
 Cor.  4:16;  Kom.  7  :  22 ;  Eph.  3  :  16). 
 
 "  To  speak  as  a  man  "  (Rom.  3  :  5 ;  1  Cor. 
 9:8)  and  "to  speak  after  the  manner  of 
 men"  (Gal.  3  :  15)  is  to  speak  popularly, 
 in  accordance  with  human  views  and  on 
 a  level  with  common  apprehensions.  "  The 
 
332 
 
 MANAEN— MANASSEH. 
 
 number  of  a  man  "  (Rev.  13 :  18)  is  an  ordi- 
 nary number,  such  as  is  in  general  use  among 
 men ;  "  the  measure  of  a  man  "  (Rev.  21  : 
 17)  is  an  ordinary  niea-sure,  one  that  is  in 
 common  use. 
 
 The  "Man  of  Sin"  (2  Thess.  2:3)  is 
 such  an  impersonation  of  sinful  princi- 
 ples as  will  justify  the  applying  to  him 
 of  the  descriptive  appellations  apostate, 
 son  of  perdition,  persecutor,  blasphemer. 
 The  passage  in  which  the  plirase  occurs 
 is  believed  to  indicate  that  at  its  writing 
 there  was,  and  perhaps  still  is,  a  future 
 effort  on  the  part  of  some  liostile  power 
 to  overthrow  Christianity  and  induce  its 
 professors  to  renounce  it.  Such  a  peril  is 
 clearly  intimated  in  several  other  passages 
 of  the  New  Testament  (Mark  13  :  22;  2 
 Tim.  3:1,13;  Rev.  20  :  7,  8).  The  proph- 
 ecy is  not  to  be  confined,  perhaps,  to  any 
 one  type  of  Antichrist.  Whoever  reveals 
 the  distinctive  features  of  the  Man  of  Sin  ; 
 whoever  wields  the  temporal  or  spiritual 
 power  in  any  degree  similar  to  that  in 
 which  the  Man  of  Sin  is  described  as 
 wielding  it, — he,  whether  pope  or  poten- 
 tate, is  beyond  doubt  a  type  of  Antichrist. 
 
 Man''a-en,  a  Christian  teacher  at  An- 
 tioch  (Acts  13  :  1).  He  is  said  to  have 
 "been  brought  up  with  Herod  the  te- 
 trarch"  (Herod  Antipas),  and  the  expres- 
 sion "brought  up"  may  indicate  either  a 
 playmate  or  a,  foster-brother  ;  most  probably 
 it  indicates  the  latter. 
 
 Ma-nas'seh  \_forgetting'],  the  name 
 of  Joseph's  first-born  son,  of  a  Hebrew 
 tribe  and  of  a  king  of  Judah. 
 
 1.  Manasseh,  son  of  Joseph  and  Asenath, 
 was  born  in  Egypt  before  the  beginning  of 
 the  great  famine  (Gen.  41  :  50).  He  re- 
 ceived his  name  in  consequence  of  his 
 birth  being  the  first  thing  wiiich  had  oc- 
 curred since  Joseph's  banishment  from 
 Canaan  to  relieve  the  painful  sense  of 
 loneliness  and  separation  from  home. 
 Upon  seeing  the  child  Josepli  said,  "God 
 hath  made  me  f  jrget  all  my  toil  and  all 
 
 my  father's  house"  (Gen.  41  :  51),  and  so 
 he  named  the  boy  "  Manasseh."  When 
 Jacob  was  nearing  death  he  adopted  Jo- 
 seph's two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
 constituting  them  with  his  own  sons  the 
 heads  of  tribes.  At  this  time  Manasseh 
 was  about  twenty-two  years  of  age.  Of 
 his  personal  history  no  fact  is  stated  in 
 the  Scriptures. 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Manasseh  during  the 
 march  to  Canaan  was  posted  with  Ephraim 
 and  Benjamin  on  the  west  side  of  the  tab- 
 ernacle. When  the  tribe  left  Egypt  it  num- 
 bered thirty-two  thousand  two  hundred 
 male  adults  (Num.  1  :  3-3),  but  in  the  sec- 
 ond census,  on  the  plains  of  Moab,  it  had 
 increased  to  fifty-two  thousand  seven  hun- 
 dred (Num.  20  :  34).  In  the  division  of 
 the  Promised  Land  half  of  the  tribe  set- 
 tled Cixst  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  district  em- 
 bracing the  hills  of  Gilead  with  their  in- 
 accessible heiglits  and  impassable  ravines, 
 and  the  almost  impregnable  tract  of  Ar- 
 gob  (Josh.  13  :  29-33).  Here  they  in- 
 creased and  prospered  greatly,  pushing 
 their  way  northward  over  the  rich  plains 
 of  Jauldn  and  JedUr  to  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Hermon  (1  Chron.  5  :  23).  But  they  grad- 
 ually fell  into  the  ways  of  the  old  heathen 
 inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  on  them 
 descended  the  inevitable  punishment  of 
 such  apostasy.  They,  first  of  all  Israel, 
 were  carried  away  by  Pul  and  Tiglath- 
 pileser,  and  settled  in  the  territories  of 
 Assyria  (1  Chron.  5  :  25,  26).  The  other 
 half-tribe  settled  west  of  the  Jordan,  north 
 of  Ephraim  (Josh.  17).  The  territory  of 
 this  half-tribe  is  not  very  accurately  de- 
 fined, but,  from  its  location  north  of  Eph- 
 raim, it  must  have  been  productive  and 
 valuable.  It  was  never,  however,  fully 
 possessed,  the  Canaanites  maintaining  at 
 all  times  a  stubborn  resistance.  In  ac- 
 cordance with  Jacob's  prophetic  benedic- 
 tion (Gen.  48  :  19),  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
 was  always  inferior  to  that  of  Ephraim. 
 
 3.  The  thirteenth  king  of  Judah,  son 
 
MANASSITES— MARAH. 
 
 333 
 
 and  sucessor  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  21  : 
 1).  He  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
 of  twelve,  and  his  accession  was  the  sig- 
 nal for  an  entire  change  in  the  religious 
 administration  of  the  kingdom.  Idolatry 
 was  again  established,  and  idolatrous  al- 
 tars were  reared  in  the  sanctuary  itself  (2 
 Chron.  33  :  4).  Every  faith  was  tolerated 
 but  the  old  faith  of  Israel.  The  aged 
 Isaiah,  according  to  tradition,  was  put  to 
 death.  But  retribution  came.  Judeea  was 
 overrun  by  the  Assyrian  armies.  Manas- 
 seh  was  made  prisoner,  and  was  carried 
 off  to  Babylon  (2  Chron.  33  :  11).  There 
 he  came  to  see  the  enormity  of  his  sin ; 
 there  he  repented  and  turned  to  the  Loid 
 with  prayer ;  and  there  Jehovah  heard 
 and  delivered  him  (2  Chron.  33  :  12,  13). 
 He  addressed  himself  now  to  repair  the 
 mischief  he  had  wrought.  He  restored 
 the  old  worship  and  encouraged  the  old 
 faith,  but  he  never  regained  the  confidence 
 of  his  people.  After  a  reign  of  fifty-five 
 years  he  died,  and  was  buried  not  with  the 
 burial  of  a  king,  but  in  the  garden  of  Uzza 
 (2  Kings  21  :  18). 
 
 Ma-nas'sites,  The,  members  of  the 
 tribe  of  Manasseh.  The  word  occurs  but 
 thrice  in  our  Authorized  Version — name- 
 ly, Deut.  4  :  43 ;  Judg.  12:4;  2  Kings  10  : 
 33. 
 
 Man'drakes,  mentioned  only  in  Gen. 
 30  :  14-16  and  in  Song  7:13.  It  is  un- 
 certain what  plant  is  intended  by  the  He- 
 brew word  thus  rendered,  but  the  weight 
 of  opinion  inclines  to  what  we  term  the 
 mandrake  {Atropa  mandragora),  closely 
 allied  to  the  well-known  deadly  night- 
 shade, and  bearing  a  fruit  called  the 
 May  apple. 
 
 Ma^neh  (Ezek.  45  :  12),  a  weight  of  a 
 hundred  shekels,  rendered  pounds  in  1 
 Kings  10  :  17 ;  Ezra  2  :  69. 
 
 Manager.  This  word  occurs  only  in 
 connection  with  our  Lord's  birth  in  Luke 
 2  :  7,  12,  16.  The  original  Greek  terra 
 is  found  but  once  besides  in  the  New  Tes- 
 
 tament (Luke  13  :  15),  where  it  is  ren- 
 dered "stall."  Its  ordinary  meaning  is 
 a  manger  or  feeding-trough,  but  it  is  also 
 used  for  a  stall. 
 
 Man^na,  the  name  given  to  the  mirac- 
 ulous food  upon  which  the  Israelites  were 
 fed  for  forty  years  during  their  wandering.s 
 in  the  desert  (Ex.  16  :  14-36;  Num.  11  : 
 7-9  ;  Deut.  8  :  3, 16 ;  Josh.  5:12;  Ps.  78  : 
 24,  25;  John  6  :  49).  The  Hebrew  word 
 mdn,  by  which  this  substance  is  always 
 designated  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  is 
 the  neuter  interrogative  pronoun  whatf 
 and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  in- 
 quiry (mdn  hu,  What  is  this?)  which  the 
 Hebrews  made  when  they  first  saw  it 
 upon  the  ground.  In  form  it  was  small 
 and  round,  like  coriander-seed ;  in  taste 
 it  resembled  wafers  made  with  honey. 
 It  was  not  a  product  of  Nature,  but  a 
 miraculous  gift  directly  from  God. 
 
 Ma-no'ah  [rest],  the  father  of  Sam- 
 son, a  Danite  of  the  town  of  Zorah  (Judg. 
 13:  2). 
 
 Man'slay-er.  See  Cities  of  Ref- 
 roE. 
 
 Man^tle.    See  Clothes. 
 
 Ma^on  [habita(ion'\,  a  town  in  Judah 
 (.losh.  15  :  55),  the  residence  of  the  chur- 
 lish Nabal  and  of  his  discreet  and  excel- 
 lent wife,  Abigail  (1  Sam.  25  :  2,  3).  In 
 a  wilderness  in  the  neighborhood  of  this 
 town,  and  bearing  the  same  name,  David 
 hid  himself  when  fleeing  from  Saul  (1 
 Sam.  23  :  24,  25).  The  site  of  the  town 
 was  the  great  hump  of  rock  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Carmel,  south  from  Hebron  about 
 seven  miles,  where  Nabal's  possessions 
 Avere.  On  or  near  this  same  site  is  the 
 present  village  of  Main. 
 
 Ma'o-nites,  an  Arabian  tribe  men- 
 tioned in  connection  with  the  Amalekites, 
 Sidonians,  Philistines  and  others  as  op- 
 pressors of  the  Hebrews  (Judg.  10  :  11, 
 12). 
 
 Ma'rah  [bitterness],  a  place  near  the 
 Red  Sea  at  which  the  Israelites  stopped 
 
334 
 
 MARANATHA— MARK,  GOSPEL  OF. 
 
 on  the  third  day  of  their  journey  in  the 
 wilderness.  It  was  tlius  named  from  the 
 bitterness  or  brackishness  which  made  its 
 waters  unsuitable  for  drinking.  Moses,  at 
 God's  direction,  cast  into  the  well  the 
 branches  of  a  tree  pointed  out  to  him, 
 and  at  once  the  waters  were  rendered 
 palatable  (Ex.  15  :  23-25).  It  is  identi- 
 fied with  'Ain  Ilnwamh,  which  is  reached 
 to-day,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  on 
 the  third  day  of  the  desert  journey  to 
 Sinai. 
 
 Mar'an-ath.''a.    See  Anathema. 
 
 Mar'cus.    See  Mark. 
 
 Ma-re'shah  [n/  the  head],  a  town  in 
 the  low  country  of  Judali  (.Josh.  15  :  44). 
 It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron. 
 11:8).  In  the  valley  of  Zephathah,  near 
 this  place,  Asa,  king  of  Judah,  signally 
 defeated  Zerah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  with 
 his  numerous  army  (2  Chron.  14  :  8-12). 
 Eusebius  places  it  within  two  miles  of 
 Eleutheropolis,  and  Dr.  Robinson  discov- 
 ered an  artificial  hill  in  that  neighbor- 
 hood, upon  which  are  ruins,  and  which 
 he  supposes  was  the  site  of  the  fortified 
 Mareshah. 
 
 Mark,  the  evangelist,  no  doubt  the 
 same  as  "  John  whose  surname  was 
 Mark"  (Acts  12  :  12,  25).  John  was  the 
 Jewish  name,  and  Mark  (Marcus)  a  name 
 of  frequent  use  among  the  Romans,  was 
 adopted  afterward,  and  gradually  super- 
 seded the  other.  The  form  "Marcus" 
 appears  in  Col.  4:10;  Philem.  ver.  24 ;  1 
 Pet.  5:13.  John  Mark  was  the  son  of 
 a  certain  Mary  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem, 
 and  was  therefore  probably  born  in  that 
 city.  He  was  the  cousin  of  Barnabas. 
 He  was  probably  converted  to  Christ 
 through  the  preaching  of  Peter,  for  his 
 mother's  house  appears  to  have  been  a 
 meeting-place  for  the  early  disciples  (Acts 
 12  :  12),  and  Peter  calls  him  his  "son"  (1 
 Pet.  6  :  13).  Anxious  to  work  for  Christ, 
 he  went  with  Paul  and  Barnabas  as  their 
 "  minister  "  on  their  first  journey,  but  at 
 
 Perga  he  turned  back  (Acts  12  :  25;  13  : 
 13).  On  the  second  journey  Paul  would 
 not  accept  him  again  as  a  companion,  but 
 Barnabas  his  kinsman  was  more  indul- 
 gent ;  and  thus  lie  became  the  occasion  of 
 the  memorable  "sharp  contention"  be- 
 tween them  (Acts  15  :  36-40 1.  Whatever 
 was  the  cause  of  Mark's  vacillation,  it  did 
 not  separate  him  for  ever  from  Paul,  for  we 
 find  him  by  the  side  of  that  apostle  in  the 
 first  imprisonment  at  Rome  (Col.  4  :  10; 
 Philem.  ver.  24).  When  Paul  wrote  to 
 Timothy  during  the  second  imprisonment, 
 Mark  seems  to  have  been  with  the  latter 
 at  Ephesus  (2  Tim.  4:  11).  What  was 
 his  exact  relation  to  Peter  it  is  diflScult  to 
 tell.  Ancient  writers  make  him  the  inter- 
 preter of  Peter.  Some  explain  this  word 
 to  mean  that  the  office  of  Mark  was  to 
 translate  into  the  Greek  tongue  the  Ara- 
 maic discoTirses  of  the  apostle;  others 
 adopt  the  more  probable  view  that  Mark 
 wrote  a  Gospel  which  conformed  more  ex- 
 actly than  the  others  to  Peter's  preaching, 
 and  thus  "  interpreted "  it  to  the  Church 
 at  large.  According  to  tradition,  he  died 
 a  martyr's  death  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  in 
 the  eighth  year  of  the  emperor  Nero. 
 
 Mark,  Gospel  of.  This  is  the  short- 
 est of  the  four  inspired  records  of  our  Lord's 
 life,  and  has  some  noticeable  characteris- 
 tics. 
 
 In  the  first  place,  it  has  certain  peculiar- 
 ities which  are  best  explained  by  the  sup- 
 position that  the  writer  was  in  close  commu- 
 nication with  the  apostle  Peter.  Whilst 
 Mark  goes  over  the  same  ground  for  the 
 most  part  as  the  other  evangelists,  and  es- 
 pecially Matthew,  there  are  many  facts 
 thrown  in  which  prove  that  we  are  listen- 
 ing to  an  independent  witness.  Thus  the 
 humble  origin  of  Peter  is  made  known 
 through  him  (1  :  16-20),  and  his  connec- 
 tion with  Capernaum  (1  :  29) ;  he  tells  us 
 that  Levi  was  "the  son  of  Alphseus"  (2  : 
 14) ;  that  Peter  was  the  name  given  by  our 
 Lord  to  Simon  (3  :  16),  and  Boanerges  a 
 
MAEKETS,   MARKET-PLACE— MARRIAGE, 
 
 335 
 
 surname  added  by  him  to  the  names  of 
 two  others  (3  :  17) ;  he  assumes  the  exist- 
 ence of  another  body  of  disciples  wider 
 than  the  twelve  (3  :  32 ;  4  :  10,  36  ;  8  :  34 ; 
 14  :  51,  52).  We  owe  to  him  the  name 
 of  Jairus  (5  :  22),  the  word  "carpenter," 
 applied  to  our  Lord  (6  :  3),  the  nation  of 
 the  "  Syro-Phoenician "  woman  (7:2(3); 
 he  substitutes  Dalmanutha  for  the  "  Mag- 
 dala"  of  Matthew  (8 :  10) ;  he  names  Bar- 
 timeus  (10  :  46) ;  he  alone  mentions  that 
 our  Lord  would  not  suffer  any  man  to 
 carry  any  vessel  through  the  temple  (11  : 
 16),  and  that  Simon  of  Cyrene  was  the 
 father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus  (15  :  21). 
 All  these  are  tokens  of  an  independent 
 writer,  different  from  Matthew  and  Luke, 
 and,  in  tlie  absence  of  all  traditions  as  to 
 the  sources  of  Mark's  Gospel,  Peter  is  not 
 unnaturally  associated  with  it. 
 
 In  the  next  place,  Mark's  Gospel  fur- 
 nishes evidence  in  itself  that  it  was  pri- 
 marily written  for  Gentiles.  The  evan- 
 gelist scarcely  refers  to  the  Old  Testament 
 in  his  own  person.  The  word  Law  does 
 not  once  occur.  The  genealogy  of  our 
 Lord  is  likewise  omitted.  Other  matters 
 interesting  chiefly  to  the  .Jews  are  also 
 omitted,  such  as  the  references  to  the  Old 
 Testament  and  Law  in  Matt.  1 2  :  5-7,  the 
 reflections  on  the  request  of  the  scribes  and 
 Pharisees  for  a  sign  in  Matt.  12 :  38-45,  the 
 parable  of  the  king's  son  in  Matt.  22 : 1-14, 
 and  the  awful  denunciation  of  the  scribes 
 and  Pharisees  in  Matt.  23.  Explanations 
 are  given  in  some  places  which  Jews  did 
 not  require :  tlius,  Jordan  is  a  "  river " 
 (Mark  1:5;  Matt.  3:6);  the  Pharisees 
 "  used  to  fast "  (Mark  2:18;  Matt.  9  :  14), 
 and  other  customs  of  theirs  are  described 
 (Mark  7:1-4;  Matt.  15  :  1,  2) ;  "  the  time 
 of  figs  was  not  yet,"  that  is,  at  the  season 
 of  the  passover  (Mark  11  :  13;  Matt.  21  : 
 19) ;  the  Sadducees'  worst  tenet  is  men- 
 tioned (Mark  12:18);  the  Mount  of  Olives 
 is  "over  against  the  temple"  (Mark  13  : 
 3;  Matt.  24  ;  3) ;  at  the  passover  men  ate 
 
 "unleavened  bread"  (Mark  14  :  1,  12; 
 Matt.  26  :  2,  17),  and  explanations  are 
 given  which  Jews  would  not  need  (Mark 
 15  :  6,  16,  42;  Matt.  27  :  15,  27,  57), 
 
 As  to  the  time  when  Mark's  Gospel  was 
 written  we  have  no  certain  information. 
 In  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (4  :  10) 
 Mark  is  mentioned  as  a  relative  of  Bar- 
 nabas, as  if  this  were  his  greatest  distinc- 
 tion; he  could  not  then  (a.  D.  62)  have 
 been  known  and  recognized  as  the  writer 
 of  a  life  of  our  Lord.  On  the  other  hand, 
 the  Gospel  was  certainly  written  before  the 
 destruction  of  .Jerusalem  (Mark  13  :  14, 
 24-30,  33) ;  its  date  must  therefore  be 
 placed  between  A.  v.  63  and  a.  d.  70.  Its 
 language  was  unquestionably  the  Greek ; 
 its  tttyle  is  singularly  vivid  and  pictur- 
 resque. 
 
 Mar'kets,  Mar'ket-Place.  These 
 two  words  indicate  the  same  locality  (Matt. 
 11 :  16  ;  Luke  7  :  32).  The  (Greek)  agora, 
 or  "  market-place,"  was  the  resort  not  only 
 for  sales,  but  also  for  jmblic  purposes.  It 
 was  the  place  of  general  concourse.  Hence 
 the  force  of  the  expression  concerning  the 
 scribes,  tliat  they  "  love  salutations  in  the 
 market-places"  (Mark  12  :  38).  Courts  of 
 justice  were  held  here  (Acts  16  :  19) ;  here 
 public  disputations  were  carried  on  (Acts 
 17 :  17, 18) ;  and  here  day-laborers  resorted 
 to  obtain  employment  (Matt.  20  :  3). 
 
 Mar'riage.  The  institution  of  mar- 
 riage, or  the  union  of  one  man  and  one 
 woman,  dates  from  the  creation  of  the 
 first  human  pair  (Gen.  2  :  24).  The  cir- 
 cumstances attendant  upon  the  formation 
 of  Eve,  and  the  words  uttered  by  Adam 
 thereupon  in  recognition  of  God's  will  as 
 to  man's  social  condition,  form  the  basis 
 of  the  following  general  principles  witli 
 which  all  the  teachings  of  Scripture  in 
 respect  to  marriage  agree:  1.  The  unity 
 of  man  and  wife  (compare  Matt.  19:5); 
 2,  The  indissolubleness  of  the  marriage- 
 bond  except  upon  the  ground  of  positive 
 infidelity  thereto  (compare  Matt.  19:9); 
 
336 
 
 MARROW— MART. 
 
 3.  Monogamy,  as  the  original  law  of  mar- 
 riage (compare  Matt.  19  :  G;  1  Cor.  6  :  16) ; 
 
 4.  The  social  equality  of  man  and  wife 
 (compare  Epli.  5  :  28,  29,  31 ) ;  5.  The 
 subordination  of  the  wife  to  the  husband 
 (compare  1  Cor.  11  :  8,  9;  Col.  3  :  18) ;  6. 
 The  respective  duties  of  man  and  wife,  each 
 being  tlie  exact  correlative  of  the  other 
 (compare  Gen.  2  :  18,  20;  Eph.  5  :  33). 
 
 In  the  patriarchal  age  polygamy  pre- 
 vailed (Gen.  16  :  4;  25  :  1,  6;  28  :  9;  29  : 
 23,  28),  but  divested,  to  a  great  extent,  of 
 the  degradation  which  in  modern  times 
 attaches  to  that  practice.  Divorce  also 
 prevailed  in  the  patriarchal  age,  though 
 but  one  instance  of  it  is  recorded  (Gen. 
 21  :  14).  The  Mosaic  legislation  respect- 
 ing marriage  aimed  to  mitigate  rather 
 than  to  remove  the  evils  which  in  that  day 
 were  inseparable  from  the  state  of  society. 
 Polygamy  was  discouraged,  the  injustice 
 consequent  upon  the  undue  exercise  of  the 
 rights  of  a  father  or  master  was  discounte- 
 nanced, divorce  was  placed  under  restric- 
 tion, and  purity  during  the  maintenance 
 of  the  matrimonial  bond  was  enforced. 
 The  customs  of  the  Hebrews  and  of  Ori- 
 ental nations  in  regard  to  marriage  differ 
 in  many  respects  from  those  with  which 
 we  are  familiar.  In  the  first  place,  the 
 choice  of  the  bride  devolved  not  on  the 
 bridegroom  himself,  but  on  his  relations 
 or  on  a  friend  deputed  by  the  bridegroom 
 for  this  purpose.  Tlie  consent  of  the 
 maiden  was  sometimes  asked  (Gen.  24  : 
 58),  but  this  appears  to  have  been  subor- 
 dinate to  the  previous  consent  of  the 
 father  and  the  adult  brothers  (Gen.  24  : 
 51;  34  :  11).  Occasionally  the  whole 
 business  of  selecting  the  wife  was  left 
 in  the  hands  of  a  friend.  The  selection 
 of  the  bride  was  followed  by  the  espousal, 
 which  was  a  formal  proceeding  undertaken 
 by  a  friend  or  legal  representative  on  the 
 part  of  the  bridegroom  and  by  the  parents 
 on  the  part  of  the  bride ;  it  was  confirmed 
 by  oaths  and  accompanied  with  presents 
 
 to  the  bride.  The  act  of  betrothal  was 
 celebrated  by  a  feast,  and  between  it  and 
 the  marriage  an  interval  elapsed  varying 
 from  a  few  days  to  a  full  year.  The  es- 
 sence of  the  marriage  ceremony  consisted 
 in  the  removal  of  the  bride  from  her 
 father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom 
 or  his  father.  When  the  fixed  hour  ar- 
 rived, which  was  generally  late  in  the 
 evening,  the  bridegroom  set  forth  from 
 his  house,  attended  by  his  groomsmen 
 ("companions,"  Judg.  14  :  11 ;  "children 
 of  the  bride-chamber,"  Matt.  9  :  15),  pre- 
 ceded by  a  band  of  musicians  or  singers 
 (Gen.  31  :  27 ;  Jer.  7  :  34 ;  16  :  9),  and  ac- 
 companied by  persons  bearing  flambeaux. 
 Having  reached  the  house  of  the  bride, 
 who  with  her  maidens  expected  his  arri- 
 val (Matt.  25  :  6,  7),  he  conducted  the 
 whole  party  back  to  his  own  or  his  fath- 
 er's liouse  with  every  demonstration  of 
 gladness  (Ps.  45  :  15).  At  the  house  a 
 feast  was  prepared,  to  which  all  the 
 friends  and  neighbors  were  invited  (Gen. 
 29  :  22;  Matt.  22  :  1-10;  Luke  14:8;  .John 
 2 : 2),  and  the  festivities  were  protracted  for 
 seven  or  even  fourteen  days  (Judg.  14 :  12). 
 The  marriage-union  is  often  employed  to 
 illustrate,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  spirit- 
 ual relationship  between  God  and  his  peo- 
 ple (Isa.  1  :  21 ;  Jer.  3:1,  6,  8) ;  in  the  New 
 Testament  the  union  of  Christ  and  liis 
 Church  (John  3  :  29 ;  Rev.  19  :  7-9;  21  : 
 2,9). 
 
 Mar'rO'W,  the  oily  substance  contained 
 in  the  hollow  of  the  bones  of  animals  (Job 
 21  :  24),  used  figuratively  for  the  delicate 
 and  most  satisfactory  provisions  of  the 
 gospel  (Ps.  63  :  5;  Isa.  25  :  6),  and  like- 
 wise in  the  New  Testament  for  the  most 
 secret  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  soul 
 (Heb.  4  :  12). 
 
 Mars'  Hill.     See  Areopagus. 
 
 Mart,  a  trading-place  or  emporium 
 (Isa.  23  :  3).  The  root  of  the  word  thus 
 rendered  signifies  to  travel  about  as 
 traders,   buying  and   selling,  thus    indi- 
 
MAKTHA— MAKY. 
 
 337 
 
 eating  the  general  character  of  the  com- 
 merce of  the  East  from  the  earliest  ages 
 to  the  present. 
 
 Mar 'tha,  the  sister  of  Mary  and  Laz- 
 arus. The  two  sisters  and  the  brother 
 formed  that  honored  household  in  Beth- 
 any whom  our  Lord  so  loved  and  with 
 whom  he  so  often  sojourned  (Luke  10  : 
 38-42;  John  11  :  1-3;  12  :  2).  The  facts 
 recorded  of  the  two  sisters  bring  out  in 
 strong  contrast  the  active  solicitude  of 
 Martha  to  serve  our  Loid  with  the  best 
 she  could  give,  and  the  quiet  earnestness 
 of  Mary  to  sit  at  om-  Lord's  feet  as  a 
 listener  and  learner.  Whilst  both  sis- 
 ters revealed  to  our  Lord  a  love  Avhich 
 he  thoroughly  recognized  and  fully  re- 
 turned, the  love  of  Martha  was  not  so 
 perfect  in  form  or  so  spiritual  in  expres- 
 sion as  the  love  of  Mary.  The  piety  of 
 Martha  was  as  genuine,  doubtless,  as  Ma- 
 ry's, but  with  its  activity  it  needed  the 
 blending  of  a  profounder  thought  and  a 
 purer  sympathy. 
 
 Mar'tyr,  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 of  the  New  Testament  this  word,  a  literal 
 transfer  of  the  original  Greek  (fiaprvr)^  oc- 
 curs but  thrice  (Acts  22  :  20  ;  Eev.  2:13; 
 17  :  6),  but  its  English  equivalent,  a  wit- 
 ness, occurs  very  frequently  (Matt.  18  :  16; 
 Mark  14  :  63 ;  Luke  24  :  48 ;  Acts  1  :  8,  22 ; 
 Eom.  1  :  9 ;  2  Cor.  13:1;  1  Thess.  2  :  5, 
 10 ;  1  Tim.  6:12;  Heb.  10  :  28  ;  1  Pet.  5  : 
 1 ;  Rev.  1 :  5,  and  elseAvhere).  In  the  three 
 passages  where  it  is  left  untranslated  it  is 
 used  to  designate  one  who  by  his  death 
 bears  witness  to  the  truth,  and  in  this 
 exclusive  sense  the  word  is  now  em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Ma^ry  [Greek,  Maria  and  Mariam; 
 Hebrew,  Miriam'],  the  name  of  several 
 females  in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 1.  The  wife  of  Joseph  and  a  lineal  de- 
 scendant of  David  (Matt.  1  :  16),  "the 
 mother  of  Jesus"  (Acts  1  :  14),  and 
 "Mary  his  mother"  (Matt.  2  :  11).  Of 
 this  highly-favored  woman  little  is  known, 
 22 
 
 but  in  her  was  fulfilled  the  first  prophecy 
 made  to  man  (Gen.  3  :  15). 
 
 2.  Mary  Magdalene.  Different  expla- 
 nations have  been  given  of  this  name, 
 but  the  most  natural  is  tliat  which  asso- 
 ciates her  with  the  town  of  Magdala.  In 
 the  Scripture  records  she  first  appears  to 
 view  among  those  women-disciples  of  our 
 Lord  who  "ministered  unto  him  of  their 
 substance"  (Luke  8  :  2,  3).  Of  her  it  is 
 said  specially  that  "  seven  devils  went  out 
 of  her,"  meaning,  most  likely,  that  hers 
 was  a  posnession  of  more  than  ordinary 
 malignity.  She  has  by  some  been  iden- 
 tified with  the  "sinner"  who  anoints  our 
 Lord's  feet  (Luke  7  :  36-50) ;  by  others 
 with  the  sister  of  Martha  and  Lazarus 
 (John  11  :  2) ;  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
 est Scripture  authority  for  such  identifi- 
 cation. To  her  was  granted  the  imperish- 
 able honor  of  first  seeing  our  Lord  after 
 his  resurrection  (Mark  16:  9;  John  20: 
 11-18). 
 
 3.  Mary,  the  sister  of  Martha  and  Laz- 
 arus. The  facts  strictly  personal  to  her 
 are  but  few.  She  and  her  sister  Martha 
 appear  in  Luke  10  :  38-42  as  receiving 
 our  Lord  into  their  house  at  Bethany. 
 She  witnessed  the  miracle  of  her  broth- 
 er's resurrection  from  tlie  dead,  and  at 
 the  subsequent  feast  where  Lazarus  was 
 a  guest  she  expressed  her  joy  and  love 
 by  pouring  upon  our  Lord's  feet  "a 
 pound  of  ointment  of  sjiikenard,  very 
 costly"  (John  12  :  3). 
 
 4.  Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas  (Clopas 
 more  accurately,  and  the  same  as  Alphse- 
 us).  From  a  comparison  of  the  passages 
 in  which  she  is  named  (Matt.  27  :  56; 
 Mark  15  :  40;  John  19  :  25)  it  appears 
 that  she  was  the  sister  of  our  Lord's 
 mother  and  tlie  mother  of  several  sons, 
 two  of  whom,  James  the  son  of  Alphseus 
 and  Jude,  became  enrolled  among  the 
 twelve  apostles.  She  was  perhaps  the 
 elder  sister  of  our  Lord's  mother,  and  be- 
 fore our  Lord's  ministry  commenced  had 
 
338 
 
 MASCHII^MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF. 
 
 become  a  widow.  She  is  brought  into 
 view  for  the  first  time  on  the  day  of  the 
 crucifi.xion,  wlien  witli  our  Lord's  mother, 
 then  also  a  widow,  she  "  stood  by  the  cross." 
 In  the  evening  of  that  same  day  she  sat 
 desolately  at  the  tomb  with  Mary  Mag- 
 dalene (Matt.  27  :  61 ;  Mark  15  :  47) ;  at 
 the  dawn  of  the  resurrection  morning  she 
 was  again  at  the  tomb  with  (lie  sweet 
 spices  she  had  prepared  (Matt.  28  :  1 ; 
 Mark  16  :  1 ;  Luke  23  :  56),  and  she  was 
 one  of  those  who  had  "a  vision  of  angels 
 which  said  that  he  was  alive"  (Luke  24  : 
 23).  These  are  all  the  glimpses  of  her 
 we  have  in  Scripture. 
 
 5.  Mary,  the  mother  of  John,  surnamed 
 Mark  (Acts  12  :  12).  The  woman  known 
 by  this  description  must  have  been  among 
 the  earliest  disciples.  We  learn  from  Col. 
 4  :  10  that  she  was  sister  to  Barnabas,  and 
 from  Acts  4  :  37  ;  12  :  12  we  are  justified 
 in  the  inference  that  while  the  brother 
 gave  up  his  land  and  brought  the  pro- 
 ceeds of  the  sale  into  the  common  treas- 
 ury of  the  church,  the  sister  gave  up  her 
 house  to  be  used  as  one  of  the  church's 
 chief  places  of  meeting. 
 
 6.  A  woman  at  Rome  whom  Paul  men- 
 tions as  one  who  treated  him  with  special 
 kindness  (Rom.  16  :  6). 
 
 Mas'chil  [instructingl,  the  title  of  tiiir- 
 teen  Psalms,  32,  42,  44,  45,  52-55,  74,  78, 
 88,  89,  1 42.  Its  most  probable  meaning  is 
 a  poem  or  song  which  enforces  wisdom  or 
 piety,  that  is,  a  didactic  poem. 
 
 Mash,  the  last  named  of  the  four  sons 
 of  Aram,  and  the  father  of  a  tribe  who 
 gave  their  name  to  a  region  (Gen.  10  : 
 23)  which  is  probably  to  be  sought  in 
 Mesopotamia.  In  1  Chron.  1  :  17  the 
 name  appears  as  Mcshech. 
 
 Ma8-re''kah,  an  ancient  city,  the  na- 
 tive place  of  Samlah,  one  of  the  old  kings 
 of  the  Edomites  (Gen.  36  :  36 ;  1  Chron. 
 1  :  47). 
 
 Mas'sa,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael 
 and  the  father  of  ^n  Arab  tribe  (Gen.  25  : 
 
 14;  1  Chron.  1 :  30).  The  tribe  were  per- 
 haps the  Manani,  placed  Ijv  Ptolemy  in  the 
 east  of  Arabia  near  the  borders  of  Baby- 
 lonia. 
 
 Mas'sah  [temptation'],  a  name  given 
 to  the  spot,  also  called  Meribah,  where 
 the  Israelites  tempted  Jehovah  (Ex.  17  : 
 7;  Ps.  95:8,9;  Heb.  3:8).  To  the  events 
 at  Maseah  Moses  frequently  refers  (Deut. 
 6:  16;  9:  22;  33:  8). 
 
 Mat-ta-ni'ah  [rjlft  of  Jehovah'],  the 
 name  of  several  men,  of  whom  two  only 
 need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  The  original  name  of  Zedekiah,  the 
 last  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  24: 17),  which 
 was  changed  when  Nebuchadnezzar  placed 
 him  on  the  throne. 
 
 2.  A  Levite  singer  of  the  sons  of  Asaph 
 (1  Chron.  9 :  15),  who  after  the  return  from 
 Babylon  lived  in  the  villages  of  the  Neto- 
 phathites  whicli  the  singers  had  built  in  the 
 neighborhood  of  Jerusalem.  As  leader  of 
 the  temple  choir  after  its  restoration  (Neh. 
 11  :  17  ;  12:8)  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah, 
 he  took  part  in  the  musical  service  which 
 accompanied  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of 
 Jerusalem  (Neh.  12  :  25,  35). 
 
 Mat'the-W  [(jift  of  Jehovah'],  one  of  the 
 evangelists  and  an  apostle.  He  was  the 
 son  of  a  certain  Alpiia?us  I'not  the  father 
 of  .James  the  Less),  and  bore  also  the  name 
 of  Levi  (Mark  2  :  14;  Luke  5  :  27-29). 
 He  was  a  native  of  Galilee  and  a  publi- 
 can or  tax-collector  (Matt.  9:9;  10  :  3). 
 While  engaged  in  his  duties  he  received 
 our  Lord's  call  and  instantly  obeyed  it. 
 Of  his  life  after  our  Lord's  resurrection 
 and  a.scension  nothing  is  known  with 
 certainty. 
 
 Mat^thew,  Grospel  of.  Of  this  Gos- 
 pel, the  first  of  the  four  memoirs  of  our 
 Lord,  Matthew  the  apostle,  according  to  the 
 testimony  of  all  antiquity,  was  the  writer. 
 Written  evidently  for  Jewish  converts,  it  is 
 pervaded  by  one  princi[»le,  the  fulfillment 
 of  the  Law  and  of  the  Messianic  i)ropliecies 
 in  the  person  of  Jesus.     It  is  emphatically 
 
MATTHIAS— MEAT. 
 
 339 
 
 the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom.  It  portrays 
 the  kingly  character  of  our  Lord,  and 
 marshals  the  most  conclusive  proofs  that 
 he  is  the  true  heir  of  David's  throne.  Its 
 tone  throughout  is  majestic  and  kingly. 
 Its  riarrative  proceeds  with  a  noble  sim- 
 plicity, regardless  of  time  and  place,  ac- 
 cording to  another  and  deeper  order,  ready 
 to  sacrifice  mere  chronology  or  locality  to 
 the  development  of  its  dominant  idea.  It 
 brings  together  events  separated  sometimes 
 by  considerable  intervals,  yet  connected 
 always  by  the  unity  of  their  nature  or 
 purpose,  and  with  a  grand  but  simple 
 power  accumulates  in  groups  our  Lord's 
 discourses  and  parables  and  miracles. 
 
 Mat-thi'as,  the  apostle  elected  to  fill 
 the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  1 :  26). 
 Beyond  this,  all  that  we  know  of  him  for 
 certainty  is  that  he  had  been  a  constant 
 attendant  upon  our  Lord  during  the  whole 
 course  of  his  ministry,  such  being  the  ne- 
 cessary qualification  of  one  who  was  ft)  be 
 a  witness  of  the  resurrection.  According 
 to  tradition,  he  pi'eached  the  gospel  and 
 sufl^ered  martyrdom  in  Ethiopia. 
 
 Maz'za-roth.  The  word  occurs  but 
 once  (Job  38  :  32) ;  it  is  an  astronomical 
 term,  meaning,  probably,  the  twelve  signs 
 of  the  zodiac. 
 
 Me'ah,  The  To"wer  of,  one  of  the 
 towers  of  the  wall  of  .Jerusalem  when  re- 
 built by  Kehemiah  (Neh.  3:1;  12  :  39), 
 probably  at  th.e  north-eastern  angle  of  the 
 temple  enclosure. 
 
 Meal-time,  the  s^easnn  of  eating.  The 
 word  occurs  but  once  (Ruth  2  :  14),  but 
 the  words  dinver  and  supper  often.  There 
 is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  hours  at 
 which  meals  were  taken ;  the  Egyptians 
 undoubtedly  took  their  principal  meal  at 
 noon  (Gen.  43  :  16),  but  the  .Tews,  follow- 
 ing the  custom  that  still  prevails  in  Syria, 
 made  their  principal  meal  after  sunset, 
 having  made  a  lighter  meal  at  about  9  or 
 10  A.  M.  The  posture  at  meals  varied  at 
 various  periods.     The  old  Hebrews  were 
 
 in  the  habit  of  sitting  (Gen.  27  :  19 ;  Judg. 
 19 :  6 ;  1  Sam.  20 :  5,  24),  but  not  on  chairs ; 
 they  probably  squatted  on  mats  on  the 
 ground,  as  was  the  occasional,  though  not, 
 perhaps,  the  general,  custom  of  the  ancient 
 Egyptians.  The  table  was,  in  this  case, 
 but  slightly  elevated  above  the  ground. 
 As  luxury  increased,  the  practice  of  sit- 
 ting was  exchanged  for  that  of  reclining ; 
 the  first  intimation  of  this  occurs  in  the 
 prophecies  of  Amos  3  ;  12 ;  6  :  4.  In  the 
 time  of  our  Lord  reclining  was  the  uni- 
 versal custom.  As  several  guests  reclined 
 on  the  same  couch,  each  overlapped  his 
 neighbor  and  rested  his  head  on  or  near 
 the  breast  of  the  one  who  lay  behind  him ; 
 he  was  then  said  to  "  lean  on  the  bosom  " 
 of  his  neighbor  (John  13  :  23).  Before 
 commencing  the  meal  the  guests  washed 
 their  hands,  for  not  only  was  the  hand  the 
 substitute  for  our  knife  and  fork,  but  the 
 hands  of  all  the  guests  were  dipped  into 
 one  and  the  same  dish.  Another  prelim- 
 inary step  was  the  grace  or  blessing,  of 
 which  we  have  but  one  instance  in  the 
 Old  Testament  (1  Sam.  9  :  13),  but  in  the 
 New  Testament  several  (Matt.  15  :  36 ; 
 Luke  9  :  16;  John  6  :  11).  At  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  meal  grace  was  again  said, 
 in  conformity  with  Dent.  8:10.  At  feasts 
 more  ceremony  was  used  than  at  the  ordi- 
 nary meal.     See  Feast. 
 
 Measures.  See  Weights  and  Meas- 
 ures. 
 
 Meat.  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 this  word  is  not  used  in  that  sense  of  ani- 
 mal food  whicli  it  now  almost  exclusively 
 bears,  but  in  the  sense  of  food  in  general. 
 Animal  food,  when  intended  to  be  partic- 
 ularly specified,  except  in  two  passages 
 (Gen.  27  :  4 ;  45  :  23),  is  uniformly  denoted 
 by  the  word  "  flesh."  The  only  real  and  in- 
 convenient ambiguity  caused  by  the  change 
 in  the  meaning  of  the  word  since  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  was  made  is  in  the  case 
 of  the  "meat-offering,"  which  consisted 
 solely  of  fine  flour  seasoned  with  salt  and 
 
340 
 
 MEAT-OFFERING— MEEKNESS. 
 
 mixed  witli  oil  and  frankincense  (Lev.  2  : 
 1  ;  6  :  14-23). 
 
 Meat-OiFering'.    See  Meat. 
 
 Medad.     See  Eldad. 
 
 Me^dan  [contention],  the  third  son  of 
 Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  25  :  2).  He 
 and  his  l)rother  Midian  are  supposed  to 
 have  peopled  the  country  of  Midian  east 
 of  the  Dead  Sea. 
 
 Med'e-ba,  a  city  of  Moab  (Num.  21  : 
 30).  In  the  allotment  to  the  two  and  one- 
 half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  this  city  fell 
 within  the  territory  of  Reuben  (Josh.  13  : 
 1 6  ),but  its  Moabitish  inhabitants  were  never 
 driven  out.  In  its  vicinity  Joab,  the  re- 
 nowned leader  of  David's  armies,  totally 
 defeated  a  vast  host  of  Ammonites  and 
 Syrians  (1  Chron.  19  :  7-15).  In  the  pro- 
 phetic curse  upon  Moab,  Medeba  is  men- 
 tioned as  one  of  its  chief  cities  (Isa.  15  : 
 2).  Its  ruins  still  exist  mider  the  Ara- 
 bic name  Madeba.  They  lie  about  four 
 miles  south-east  of  Heshbon,  with  which 
 they  are  connected  by  an  ancient  paved 
 road.     Not  a  building  remains  standing. 
 
 Me''dia,  a  large  country  in  Asia  in- 
 habited by  the  Medes,  the  descendants  of 
 Madai,  the  son  of  Japlieth  (Gen.  10  :  2). 
 It  was  separated  from  Persia  on  the  south 
 by  a  desert,  and  from  Assyria  on  the  west 
 by  the  high  range  of  the  Zagros  mountains, 
 the  modern  Kurdistan  ;  it  reached  north- 
 w^ard  to  the  river  Araxes  and  eastward  to 
 the  mountains  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
 Its  dimensions,  according  to  Rawlinson, 
 were  five  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from 
 north  to  south,  and  from  two  hundred 
 and  fifty  to  three  hundred  miles  from 
 east  to  west.  Its  political  fortunes  were 
 various.  At  one  time  subject  to  Assyria, 
 at  another  time  an  independent  and  jsow- 
 erful  monarchy,  it  was  subsequently  united 
 with  Persia  by  Cyrus,  and  became  an  im- 
 portant part  of  tlie  ancient  Medo-Persian 
 empire.  With  the  whole  of  Western  Asia 
 it  yielded  at  length  to  the  invincible  power 
 of  Alexander,  and  at  a  later  date  was  in- 
 
 corporated into  the  territory  of  the  Par- 
 thian kingdom.  It  is  now  included  in  the 
 realm  of  the  shah  of  Persia. 
 
 Me-di-a'tor,  one  who  stands  between 
 two  parties  at  variance  in  order  to  recon- 
 cile them.  The  doctrine  of  some  special 
 mediation  between  God  and  man  is  in- 
 corporated in  all  religions  and  is  the  pe- 
 culiar glory  of  Christianity.  In  the  lat- 
 ter God  is  represented  as  unapproachable 
 except  in  and  through  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ.  By  the  constitution  of  our  Lord's 
 person  as  the  God-man  he  was  peculiarly 
 qualified  for  such  an  oflSce,  since  his  jeal- 
 ousy for  the  divine  honor  and  his  practi- 
 cal sympatliy  with  the  sinning  and  suffering 
 were  alike  infinite ;  accordingly,  in  effecting 
 reconciliation  he  satisfied  all  the  demands 
 of  the  law  and  engaged  to  overcome  all 
 the  enmities  of  the  depraved  human  soul. 
 Of  this  intervention  the  ordinances  and 
 services  of  the  Mosaic  Law  were  typical. 
 The  total  alienation  of  man's  heart  from 
 the  life  of  holiness  rendered  liis  return  to 
 God  impossible ;  his  own  dispositions  were 
 opposed  to  it  and  the  divine  justice  resist- 
 ed it.  These  formidable  obstacles  are  re- 
 moved by  Christ,  who  by  his  death  atones 
 for  sin,  and  by  his  Spirit  imparts  to  his  peo- 
 ple both  the  willingness  and  the  ability  to 
 return.  His  work  on  earth  accomplished, 
 he  prosecutes  it  still  in  heaven  by  contin- 
 ual intercession.  Vitally  important  is  it, 
 therefore,  to  recognize  the  sole,  exclusive 
 mediatorship  of  Jesus  Christ:  "There  is 
 one  God  and  one  Mediator  between  God 
 and  men,  the  man  Christ  Jesus"  (1  Tim. 
 2  :  5).  That  monstrous  system  of  media- 
 tion incorporated  witli  popery,  which  puts 
 the  Virgin  Mary  and  dead  saints  on  a 
 level  with,  if  not  above,  Jesus  Christ,  is 
 one  of  the  strongest  evidences  of  its  anti- 
 christian  character. 
 
 Med-i'cine.    See  Physician. 
 
 Meek'ness,  in  its  evangelical  .sense,  is 
 equivalent  to  gentleness,  humility,  forbear- 
 ance under  injuries,  submission  to  the  di- 
 
MEGIDDO— MELITA. 
 
 341 
 
 vine  will  (Gal.  6:1;  2  Tim.  2  :  25).  It 
 is  an  estimable  trait  of  character  exempli- 
 fied in  Christ  (2  Cor.  10 :  1),  and  produced 
 in  the  Christian  by  the  operation  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost  (Gal.  5  :  22,  23). 
 
 Me-gid'do  [place  of  troops'],  Megid- 
 DON  in  Zech.  12  :  11,  an  ancient  royal  city 
 of  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  12  :  21).  Al- 
 though within  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
 it  was  yet  assigned,  with  several  other  cit- 
 ies similarly  circumstanced,  to  Manasseh 
 (Josh.  17  :  11).  It  was  the  scene  of  Ba- 
 rak's victory  (Judg.  5  :  19)  and  of  King 
 Josiah's  defeat  and  death  (2  Kings  23: 
 29).  It  has  usually  been  identified,  and 
 perhaps  correctly,  with  the  modern  el- 
 Lejjun. 
 
 Mel-chiz^e-dek  [king  of  righteousness, 
 i.  e.  righteous  king],  the  "priest  of  the  most 
 high  God  "  and  king  of  Salem,  who  went 
 forth  to  meet  Abraham  on  his  return  from 
 that  pursuit  of  the  confederate  kings  in 
 which  he  had  rescued  his  nephew  Lot 
 (Gen.  14  :  18-20).  He  is  mentioned  in 
 one  other  passage  in  the  Old  Testament 
 (Ps.  110  :  4)  as  the  priest  whose  "order" 
 typifies  that  of  Messiah.  In  the  Epistle 
 to  the  Hebrews  (chs.  5,  6,  7)  the  two  pas- 
 sages of  the  Old  Testament  in  which  his 
 name  occurs  are  quoted,  and  his  typical 
 relation  to  our  Lord  is  stated  at  great 
 length.  His  "order"  as  a  priest  is  his 
 exalted  dignity  as  priest  and  king.  The 
 points  of  analogy  between  Melchizedek 
 and  Messiah  are  these :  1 .  Both  are  priests 
 of  an  underived  and  untransferred  order ; 
 2.  Both  are  independent  of  the  priestly 
 tribe  of  Levi ;  3.  Both  are  superior  to  the 
 patriarch  Abraham  ;  4.  Both  unite  the  of- 
 fices of  priest  and  king ;  5.  The  official 
 term  of  both  is  indefinite  or  unlimited. 
 The  argument  which  the  Epistle  to  the 
 Hebrews  bases  on  the  typical  relation  of 
 Melchizedek  to  our  Lord  Christ  is  this : 
 If  Abraham,  whom  the  Hebrews  regard- 
 ed so  highly,  and  who  was  the  ancestor  of 
 the  sons  of  Levi,  acknowledged  the  digni- 
 
 ty and  superiority  of  Melchizedek,  the  type 
 of  Messiah,  then  the  Christ,  the  great 
 High  Priest  passed  into  the  heavens,  Je- 
 sus the  son  of  God,  is  worthy  of  a  similar, 
 yea,  of  a  greater,  homage ;  and  if  Abra- 
 ham, the  ancestor  of  Levi,  rendered  em- 
 phatic homage  to  Melchizedek,  the  type 
 of  our  Lord  Christ,  the  priesthood  which 
 was  filled  by  the  sons  of  Levi  is  to  be 
 regarded  as  far  inferior  in  dignity  and 
 worth  to  the  priesthood  of  our  Lord 
 Christ  himself. 
 
 Mel'i-ta,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
 ranean on  which  was  wrecked  tlie  vessel 
 conveying  Paul  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome 
 (Acts  28  : 1).  Its  identification  with  Malta, 
 about  sixty  miles  south  of  Cape  Passaro  in 
 Sicily,  has  been  disputed,  but  is  now  uni- 
 versally accepted.  St.  Paul's  Bay  is  agreed 
 to  be  the  scene  of  the  wreck  of  the  apostle. 
 This  island  is  twenty  miles  in  length  and 
 twelve  in  breadth.  Although  naturally  a 
 barren  rock,  the  industry  of  man  has  con- 
 verted many  parts  of  it  into  fertile  fields. 
 Having  no  high  lands,  it  does  not  present 
 a  very  imposing  aspect  to  ships  approach- 
 ing it.  From  its  position  in  the  Mediter- 
 ranean and  the  excellence  of  its  harbors, 
 Melita  has  always  been  important  both  in 
 commerce  and  war.  It  was  a  settlement 
 of  the  Phoenicians  at  an  early  period,  and 
 their  language,  in  a  corrupted  form,  con- 
 tinued to  be  spoken  there  in  Paul's  day. 
 It  was  famous  for  its  honey  and  fruits,  for 
 its  cotton  fabrics  and  for  excellent  build- 
 ing-stone. A  few  years  before  Paul's 
 visit,  corsairs  from  his  native  province 
 of  Cilicia  made  Melita  a  frequent  re- 
 sort ;  and  through  subsequent  periods 
 of  its  history  it  was  often  associated  with 
 piracy.  From  its  Phoenician  colonists 
 it  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  Romans  and 
 Arabs.  From  the  Arabs  it  was  wrest- 
 ed by  the  Normans  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
 tury. It  was  afterward  in  the  posses- 
 sion of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  known 
 
342 
 
 MELONS— MEMPHIS. 
 
 St.  Paul's  Bay,  Malta. 
 
 also  as  the  Knights  of  Malta,  under  whom 
 for  a  time  it  flourished  and  became  dis- 
 tinguished. It  was  surrendered  to  the 
 French  in  1798,  but  two  years  later  it 
 was  seized  by  the  English,  who  still  hold 
 it.  Its  inhabitants,  principally  Roman 
 Catholics,  number  about  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  thousand. 
 
 Mel'ons.  The  word  thus  rendered  oc- 
 curs only  in  Num.  11  :  5,  and  designates 
 the  melon  of  the  country,  somewhat  like 
 our  muskmelon  and  watermelon.  Melons 
 were  and  are  extensively  cultivated  in 
 Egypt  and  in  all  the  hot  countries  of 
 the  East. 
 
 Mem'bers.  The  word  denotes  prop- 
 erly the  parts  of  the  human  body  (1  Cor. 
 12  :  12-26),  but  is  used  figuratively  to  des- 
 ignate true  believers  who  are  members  of 
 Christ's  body  (Rom.  12:5;  1  Cor.  12: 
 27). 
 
 Mem'phis,  mentioned  in  IIos.  9  :  6, 
 where  the  Hebrew  word  is  Moph,  called 
 in  Isa.  19  :  13  and  Ezek.  30  :  13  Noph,  an 
 ancient  and  very  celebrated  city  of  Lower 
 Egypt,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile.     Ac- 
 
 cording to  tradition,  it  was  founded  by 
 Menes  before  authentic  history  had  fur- 
 nished the  evidence  for  determining  the 
 date.  It  was  the  capital  of  those  Pha- 
 raohs who  reigned  in  Lower  Egypt  in  the 
 times  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  and 
 the  Israelitish  sojourn.  It  reached,  in  the 
 progress  of  centuries,  great  size  and  extra- 
 ordinary magnificence.  It  had  a  circuhi- 
 ference  of  nineteen  miles,  numerous  gar- 
 dens and  public  grounds  being  intersperse<l 
 with  its  buildings.  Its  temples  and  palaces 
 and  gateways  and  colonnades,  its  colossal 
 statues  and  marvelous  catacombs  for  the 
 sacred  bulls,  its  gigantic  pyramids  in  its 
 near  neighborhood,  especially  claimed  and 
 called  forth  the  unstinted  admiration  of 
 the  early  historians.  Its  importance,  how- 
 ever, was  much  diminislied  by  the  Ptole- 
 mies, who  transferred  their  royal  favor  to 
 Alexandria.  And  when,  at  length,  Cairo 
 rose  near  it  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile, 
 its  glory  was  rapidly  extinguished.  Its 
 ruin,  as  {iredictcd  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
 (46  :  19),  has  been  for  centuries  and  now  is 
 complete. 
 
MENAHEM— MERCHANT. 
 
 343 
 
 Men^a-hem  [coviforting'],  son  of  Gadi, 
 conspirator  against  the  usurper  Shallum, 
 whom  he  murdered,  and  usurper  in  turn 
 of  the  throne  of  Israel  (2  Kings  15  :  14). 
 His  reign  of  ten  years  was  marked  by 
 great  cruelty  and  oppression  (2  Kings  15  : 
 16-20). 
 
 Me'ne  [^numbei'edl,  the  first  word  of 
 that  mysterious  inscription  written  upon 
 the  wall  of  Belshazzar's  palace  in  which 
 Daniel  read  the  doom  of  the  king  and 
 his  dynasty  (Dan.  5  :  25,  2G). 
 
 Me-pha'ath  Ibeauty'],  a  Levitical 
 city  (Josh.  21  :  37  ;  1  Chron.  6  :  79)  of  the 
 tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  13  :  18),  originally 
 (like  Ileshbon,  of  which  it  formed  a  de- 
 pendency) in  the  hands  of  the  Amorites 
 (Num.  21 :  26),  but  afterward  belonging  to 
 Moab  (Jer.  48  :  21).     Its  site  is  uncertain. 
 
 Me-phib'o-sheth  [exterminator  of  the 
 shame,  that  is,  idols  or  Baal],  the  name 
 borne  by  two  members  of  King  Saul's 
 family. 
 
 1.  Saul's  son  by  his  concubine  Rizpah, 
 the  daughter  of  Aiah  (2  Sam.  21  :  8).  He 
 and  liis  brother  Armoni  were  among  the 
 seven  victims,  all  sons  of  Saul,  whom 
 David  surrendered  to  the  Gibeonites,  and 
 whom  tlie  Gibeonites  crucified  "before 
 the  Lord"  to  atone  for  the  blood  of  their 
 slaughtered  kindred  and  to  avert  a  fam- 
 ine from  which  the  country  was  sufTer- 
 ing  (2  Sam.  21  :  1-9). 
 
 2.  Saul's  grandson,  the  son  of  Jonathan 
 (2  Sam.  4 :  4),  called  also  by  the  equivalent 
 name  of  Merib-Baal  (1  Chron.  9  :  40).  At 
 the  time  his  father  and  grandfather  were 
 slain  on  Gilboa  he  was  but  five  years  old. 
 When  the  tidings  of  the  disastrous  battle 
 reached  the  royal  household  his  nurse 
 fled,  carrying  him  on  her  shoulder.  In 
 her  panic  and  hurry  she  stumbled,  and 
 Mephibosheth  was  precipitated  to  the 
 ground  with  such  force  as  to  deprive  him 
 of  the  use  of  both  feet  for  life.  After  the 
 accident  he  was  carried  with  the  rest  of 
 his   family  beyond  Jordan  to  the  moun- 
 
 tains of  Gilead,  where  he  found  a  refuge 
 in  the  house  of  Machir,  son  of  Ammiel. 
 Here  he  was  reared,  here  he  was  married, 
 and  here  he  was  living  when  David,  from 
 affection  to  his  dead  father  Jonathan,  in- 
 vited him  to  Jerusalem  and  treated  him 
 and  his  son  Micah  or  Micha  with  the 
 greatest  kindness  (2  Sam.  9  :  3-13). 
 
 Me^rab  [uicreose],  the  eldest  daughter 
 of  King  Saul  (1  Sam.  14  :  49).  She  was 
 betrothed  by  her  father  to  David  after  the 
 victory  over  Goliath  (1  Sam.  18  :  17) ;  but 
 before  the  marriage,  in  consequence  of 
 the  discovery  that  her  younger  sister  Mi- 
 chal  was  attached  to  the  brave  and  hand- 
 some son  of  Jesse,  she  became  the  wife  of 
 Adriel  the  Meliolathite  (1  Sam.  18  :  19) 
 and  the  mother  of  five  sons.  These  five 
 sons,  with  the  two  sons  of  Rizpah,  were  the 
 victims  given  up  by  David  to  the  Gibeon- 
 ites, who,  as  a  propitiation  to  Jehovah, 
 crucified  them  on  the  sacred  hill  of  Gib- 
 eah.  In  2  Sam.  21  :  8,  by  the  mistake  of 
 a  transcriber,  "  Michal "  has  been  written 
 for  "  Mcrab." 
 
 Me-ra'ri  [bitter],  third  son  of  Levi  and 
 head  of  the  third  great  division  of  the 
 Levites,  the  Mera kites.  He  was  born 
 in  Canaan  before  the  descent  of  Jacob  into 
 Egypt,  and  was  one  of  the  seventy  who  ac- 
 companied Jacob  thither  (Gen.  46  :  11). 
 After  the  Exodus  and  during  the  march 
 through  the  wilderness  the  charge  of  the 
 Merarites  was  that  of  tlie  boards,  bars, 
 pillars,  sockets,  pins  and  cords  of  the  tab- 
 ernacle and  the  court,  and  all  the  tools  con- 
 nected with  setting  them  up.  In  the  di- 
 vision of  the  land  by  Joshua  the  Merarites 
 had  twelve  cities  assigned  to  them  out  of 
 Reuben,  Gad  and  Zebulun,  of  which  one 
 was  Ramoth-Gilead,  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
 21  :  7,  38),  and  in  later  times  a  frequent 
 occasion  of  war  between  Israel  and  Syria 
 (1  Kings  22  :  3;  2  Chron.  18  :  3). 
 
 Mer^chant.  The  verbal  root  of  the 
 word  thus  rendered  means  to  travel  about, 
 and  the  word  itself  indicates  the  early  cus- 
 
344 
 
 MERCUEIUS— MEROZ. 
 
 torn  of  the  East  to  conduct  trade  and  com- 
 merce by  traveling  caravans.  To  a  com- 
 pany of  journeying  merchants  Joseph  was 
 sold  (Gen.  37  :  28).  Commercial  inter- 
 course was  also  maintained  by  sliij)s,  in 
 which  the  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians 
 were  prominent. 
 
 Mer-cu'ri-us,  the  Latin  rendering  of 
 Hermes,  a  Greek  deity,  the  companion  of 
 Jupiter  when  wandering  upon  earth  and 
 the  herald  of  the  gods.  He  was  ac- 
 counted the  inventor  of  letters,  of  music 
 and  of  the  arts.  In  Acts  14  :  12  the  peo- 
 ple of  Lystra  identify  Barnabas  willi  Ju- 
 piter, and  Paul  with  Hermes  "because  he 
 was  the  chief  speaker." 
 
 Mersey,  that  pitiful  regard  for  misery 
 which  touches  the  heart  and  prompts  re- 
 lief. It  is  an  essential  attribute  of  Jeho- 
 vah, and  for  the  knowledge  of  how  it  is 
 exercised  toward  man  in  consistency 
 with  the  claims  of  justice  we  are  wholly 
 indebted  to  revelation.  The  propitia- 
 tory sacrifice  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 has  made  it  possible  for  mercy  and  truth 
 to  meet  together  in  the  salvation  of  every 
 penitent  believing  soul  (Ps.  85  :  10;  Rom. 
 3:  24-26;  Heb.  4  :  16). 
 
 Mer''cy-Seat,  the  cover  of  tJie  box  or 
 ark  containing  the  tables  of  the  Law  given 
 at  Sinai,  and  overspread  by  the  clierubini, 
 between  which  appeared  the  visible,  lumi- 
 nous symbol  of  the  divine  presence  (Ex. 
 25  :  17,  20 ;  Heb.  9  :  5).  Upon  it  the 
 blood  of  the  yearly  atonement  was  sprin- 
 kled by  the  high  priest.  Hence  the  idea 
 with  which  it  was  linked  wa.s  not  simply 
 one  of  mercy,  but  one  of  atonement  for 
 sin  as  well.  It  tlius  served  to  typify  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Clirist,  who,  as  Atoncr  and 
 Intercessor,  opens  the  way  for  every  pen- 
 itent soul  to  approach  (iod,  and  justifies 
 God  in  extending  to  every  penitent  soul 
 the  amplest  forgiveness  and  the  largest 
 favor; 
 
 Mer'i-bah  [strife],  the  name  given  to 
 the  place  in  Eephidim,  which  was   also 
 
 called  Massah,  where  the  people  mur- 
 mured for  water  (Ex.  17  :  1-7).  It  was 
 also  the  name  of  another  fountain  pro- 
 duced by  striking  the  rock  under  similar 
 circumstances  in  the  desert  of  Zin,  near 
 Kadesh  (Num.  20  :  13,  24).  In  Deut.  33  : 
 8  this  i)lace  is  mentioned  witli  Massah,  and 
 in  distinction  from  it.  The  Meribah  near 
 Kadesh  is  wellnigh  uniformly  indicated 
 by  the  expression,  "water"  or  "waters 
 of  Meribah"  (Num.  20  :  13;  Ps.  81  :  7). 
 
 Mer'o-dach,  a  Babylonian  god,  sup- 
 posed by  some  to  represent  the  planet 
 Mars,  by  others  the  planet  Jupiter,  but 
 more  probably  the  deified  Nimrod  (Jer, 
 50  :  2). 
 
 Mer'o-d.ach-Bara-d.an,  a  king  of 
 Babylon  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah,  king  of 
 Judah  (2  Kings  20  :  12;  Isa.  39  :  1).  In 
 2  Kings,  by  mistake  of  a  copyist  most 
 probably  he  is  called  Berodach-Baladan. 
 His  name  has  been  recognized  in  the  As- 
 syrian inscriptions,  where  it  appears  as 
 Mcird uk-bal-i(ldan.  His  reign  was  a  check- 
 ered one.  After  twelve  years  he  was  de- 
 posed, and  for  eight  years  was  an  exile 
 from  his  country.  By  a  favoring  change 
 of  circumstances  he  recovered  his  throne, 
 but  lost  il  again  at  the  end  of  six  months 
 in  a  disastrous  battle  witli  Sennacherib, 
 king  of  Assyria,  and  spent  the  remainder 
 of  liis  days  in  exile  and  obscurity. 
 
 Me'rom,  "Waters  of,  the  place  at 
 whidi  Joshua  defeated  Jabin  and  his  al- 
 lies (Josh.  11  :  1-8).  This  is  the  only 
 passage  in  which  these  waters  are  men- 
 tioned, and  in  it  there  is  no  clear  indication 
 of  their  geographical  position.  They  are 
 commonly  identified,  however,  witli  the 
 lake  which  Josephus  calls  Jamochinilix, 
 the  modern  el-Hidrh,  and  which  is  the 
 upper  or  highest  lake  of  the  Jordan. 
 
 Me'roz,  a  place  in  the  northern  part 
 of  Palestine,  whose  inhabitants  were  placed 
 under  a  curse  because  they  refused  to  take 
 part  in  the  war  against  Sisera  ( Judg.  5  : 
 23).     The   site  of  it  is  not  now  known, 
 
MESECH— MESOPOTAMIA. 
 
 345 
 
 but  it  must  have  been  in  the  neighbor- 
 hood of  tlie  Kishon. 
 
 Me^sech(Ps.  120:5).    SeeMESHECH. 
 
 Me^sha,  the  name  of  a  place  and  of  a 
 king. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  geographical  limits  of  the 
 Joktanites  when  tliey  first  settled  in  Ara- 
 bia (Gen.  10  :  30).  Its  site  has  not  been 
 satisfactorily  determined,  but  probably  was 
 somewhere  in  Northern  Yemen. 
 
 2.  A  king  of  Moab  in  the  reigns  of  Ahab 
 and  his  sons  Ahaziah  and  Jehorara,  kings 
 of  Israel  (2  Kings  3  :  4),  and  tributary  to 
 the  first.  The  death  of  Ahab  and  the  fee- 
 ble reign  of  Ahaziah  gave  him  the  oppor- 
 tunity to  free  himself  from  a  burdensome 
 tribute.  When  Jehoram  came  to  the 
 throne  the  forces  of  Israel,  in  alliance 
 witli  those  of  Judah  and  Edom,  under- 
 took his  subjection, ,  and  in  a  great  battle 
 defeated  the  Moabites.  Mesha  took  refuge 
 in  Kir-PIaraseth,  his  last  stronghold,  and 
 
 The  Moabite  Stone. 
 
 defended  himself  with  the  energy  of  de- 
 spair. With  seven  hundred  fighting  men 
 he  made  a  vigorous  attempt  to  cut  his  way 
 
 through  the  beleaguering  army,  and  when 
 beaten  back  lie  withdrew  to  the  wall  of  the 
 city,  and  there,  in  sight  of  the  allied  host, 
 oflfered  liis  first-born  son,  his  successor  in 
 the  kingdom,  as  a  burnt-offering  to  Che- 
 mosh,  the  fire-god  of  Moab  (2  Kings  3  : 
 21-27).  On  beholding  this  fearful  spec- 
 tacle the  besiegers  withdrew  in  horror, 
 as  if  they  feared  that  tlie  guilt  of  this 
 monstrous  crime  might  somehow  attach 
 to  them  and  bring  upon  them  a  terrible 
 vengeance.  The  exploits  of  Mesha  are 
 recorded  in  tlie  Moabite  inscription  re- 
 cently discovered  on  a  block  of  black  basalt 
 at  Dibon  in  Moab.  The  text  of  this  in- 
 scription, carved  about  nine  centuries  B.  c, 
 furnishes  a  very  remarkable  confirmation 
 of  the  liistorical  and  geographical  accu- 
 racy of  such  Scripture  records  as  pertain 
 to  the  times  it  commemorates.  A  cut  of 
 this  monumental  stone,  taken  from  a  pho- 
 tograph, is  given.  The  reunited  frag- 
 ments of  this  stone  are  in  the  Louvre  at 
 Paris. 
 
 Me'shach,  the  Chaldasan  name  given 
 to  Mishael,  one  of  the  three  friends  of 
 Daniel  miraculously  saved  from  the  fiery 
 furnace  (Dan.  1  :  6,  7 ;  3  :  1-30). 
 
 Me^shech,  a  son  of  Japheth  (Gen.  10  : 
 2),  and  the  jirogenitor  of  a  race  frequently 
 noticed  in  Scripture  in  connection  with  Tu- 
 bal, Magog  and  other  northern  nations. 
 They  appear  as  allies  of  Gog  (Ezek.  38  : 
 2,  3 ;  39  :  1 ),  and  as  supplying  the  Tyrians 
 with  copper  and  slaves  (Ezek.  27  :  13).  In 
 Ps.  120  :  5  they  are  noticed  as  one  of  the 
 remotest  and  rudest  nations  of  the  world. 
 They  are  commonly  identified  with  the 
 Moschi,  a  people  on  the  borders  of  Col- 
 chis and  Armenia. 
 
 Mes-O-po-ta'mi-a  \hetween  the  riv- 
 ers], the  district  lying  between  the  Tigris 
 and  Euphrates,  and  from  this  circumstance 
 deriving  its  name.  It  is  nearly  seven  hun- 
 dred miles  long  and  from  twenty  to  two 
 hundred  and  fifty  miles  broad.  Of  the 
 district  thus  described   the   Mesopotamia 
 
346 
 
 MESSIAH— MICAH. 
 
 of  Scripture  is  the  north-western  part, 
 corresponding  very  nearly  with  the  Scrip- 
 ture Piidan-Aram  (Gen.  28  :  2).  Nahor 
 and  his  family,  quitting  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
 decs,  settled  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  24  : 
 10),  and  thither  Abraham  sent  his  ser- 
 vant to  fetch  Isaac  a  wife  (Gen.  24  :  34- 
 38).  Hither,  also,  a  century  later,  came 
 Jacob  to  seek  a  wife  in  the  families  of 
 liis  kindred,  and,  finding  Leah  and  Ra- 
 chel, tarried  twenty  years.  It  is  frequent- 
 ly mentioned  in  Scripture  (Deut.  23:4; 
 Judg.  3  :  8,  10 ;  1  Chron.  19  :  6 ;  Acts  2  : 
 9 ;  7:2),  and  from  its  connection  with  the 
 powerful  monarchies  of  the  ancient  woi'ld 
 has  been  the  theatre  of  some  of  the  most 
 interesting  events  in  human  history.  Its 
 modern  name  is  el-Jesireh. 
 
 Mes-si'ah,  the  special  title  of  the  Sa- 
 viour promised  to  the  world  through  the 
 Abrahamic  family.  The  word  is  Hebrew, 
 and,  like  its  Greek  equivalent,  Christ,  has 
 tlie  sense  of  anointed.  In  the  New  Testa- 
 ment it  is  twice  applied  to  Jesus  (John  1 : 
 41 ;  4  :  25),  but  its  Greek  equivalent  is 
 constantly  applied,  at  first  with  the  article, 
 as  a  title,  the  Christ,  the  anointed  One ;  later, 
 witliout  the  article,  as  a  proper  name,  Jeaus 
 Christ.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  Mes- 
 sianic idea  has  a  remarkable  development, 
 which  cannot  be  explained  except  on  the 
 supposition  of  special  successive  revela- 
 tions from  God.  At  first  it  is  fore-an- 
 nounced that  the  Messiah  is  to  be  a 
 prophet  like  unto  Moses  (Deut.  18  :  18), 
 then  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of 
 Melchizedek  (Ps.  110:4),  and  then  a 
 king,  great  David's  greater  Son  (Isa.  11  : 
 1-10).  In  his  threefold  office  he  is  to 
 irce  his  people  from  sin,  and  is  to  teach 
 them  the  ways  of  God  (Isa.  53  :  10-12; 
 61  :  1-3) ;  his  power,  also,  is  to  reach  be- 
 yond the  Jews  and  is  to  embrace  all  the 
 Gentiles  (Isa.  60:3-11).  Tliese  proph- 
 ecies have  in  our  Lord  a  complete  fulfil- 
 ment ;  accordingly,  the  great  burden  of 
 apostolic  preaching  was  "  showing  by  tlie 
 
 Scriptures  that  Jesus  was  Christ"  (Acts 
 
 18  :  28). 
 
 Me'theg-Arn'mah  [bridle  of  the  fore 
 arm],  a  figurative  term  for  a  chief  city.  It 
 occurs  in  2  Sam.  8:1,  and,  according  to  the 
 parallel  passage  in  1  Chron.  18  :  1,  it  des- 
 ignates Galh. 
 
 Me-thu'sa-el  [inan  of  God],  the  son 
 of  Mehujael  and  father  of  Lamech,  of  tlie 
 family  of  Cain  (Gen.  4  :  18). 
 
 Me-thu'se-lah  [man  of  the  dart],  the 
 son  of  Enoch  and  father  of  Lamech,  of 
 the  family  of  Seth  (Gen.  5  :  21,  25).  He 
 died  in  the  year  of  the  Flood  at  the  ex- 
 treme age  of  nine  hundred  and  sixty- 
 nine  years  (Gen.  5  :  27). 
 
 Mi'cah.  [a  contracted  form  of  Micalah, 
 who  is  like  Jehovah  ?],  the  name  of  several 
 men. 
 
 1.  An  Ephraimite,  who,  in  contraven- 
 tion of  the  Law,  which  allowed  but  one 
 place  of  sacrifice  and  ceremonial  service, 
 set  up  in  his  own  house  an  idolatrous  im- 
 age-worship and  an  unauthorized  priest- 
 hood (Judg.  17  :  4-13).  His  story,  as  re- 
 corded in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
 chapters  of  Judges,  illustrates  the  prev- 
 alent ignorance  of  God's  requirements, 
 the  low  condition  of  the  Levites  and  the 
 terrible  anarchy  of  the  times. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Mephibosheth  (son  of 
 Jonathan  and  grandson  of  King  Saul), 
 and  the  father  of  several  sons  (1  Chron. 
 8  :  34,  35;  9  :  40,  41). 
 
 3.  A  prophet  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
 and  contemporary  with  Isaiah  (Mic.  1:1). 
 To  distinguish  him  from  a  former  prophet 
 of  the  same  name  (1  Kings  22  :  8),  he  is 
 called  "  the  Morasthite,"  from  Monisheth- 
 gath,  his  birthplace.  He  exerci.sed  his 
 office  during  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz 
 and  Ilezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and  if  the 
 time  be  reckoned  from  the  accession  of  the 
 former  to  the  death  of  the  latter,  for  the 
 long  term  of  fifty-nine  years.  His  diction 
 is  vigorous  and  forcible,  sometimes  obscure 
 from  the  abruptness  of  its  transitions,  but 
 
MICAIAH— MIDIAN. 
 
 347 
 
 varied  and  rich  in  figures  derived  from 
 the  pastoral  and  rural  life  of  the  lowland 
 country.  The  language  of  Micah  is  quot- 
 ed in  Matt.  2  :  5,  6,  and  his  prophecies  are 
 alluded  to  in  Matt.  10  :  35,  36;  Mark  13  : 
 12;  Luke  12:  53;  John  7  :  42. 
 
 Mi-ca'iah  [same  name  as  Micah,  with 
 same  meaning],  the  son  of  Imlah  and  a 
 prophet  of  Samaria  (1  Kings  22  :  8).  He 
 predicted  the  defeat  and  death  of  Ahab, 
 king  of  Israel  (1  Kings  22  :  17,  28). 
 
 Mi'cha-el  [who  is  like  Godfl,  the  name 
 in  Scripture  of  ten  men,  who  are  connect- 
 ed with  no  historic  events  which  justify  the 
 special  mention  of  any  of  them,  and  the 
 name  of  a  chief  angel. 
 
 The  archangel  Michael  is  described  in 
 Dan.  10:21  as  the  "prince"  of  Israel, 
 and  in  Dan.  12:1  as  "  the  great  prince 
 which  standetli "  in  time  of  conflict  "for 
 the  children  of  thy  people."  He  and  the 
 archangel  Gabriel  are  represented  in  the 
 book  of  Daniel  as  taking  distinct  parts  in 
 angelic  offices.  Michael,  in  God's  name 
 and  strength,  leads  the  angels  in  their 
 battlings  with  the  power  of  Satan ;  Ga- 
 briel, at  God's  command,  superintends  the 
 gracious  ministrations  of  the  angels  to 
 man.  In  the  Old  Testament,  therefore, 
 Michael  is  the  guardian  of  the  Jewish 
 people  in  their  antagonism  to  godless 
 power  and  heathenism ;  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament (Rev.  12  :  7)  Michael  fights  in 
 heaven  against  the  dragon,  "  that  old  ser- 
 pent called  the  devil  and  Satan,  which  de- 
 ceiveth  the  whole  world,"  thus  taking  part 
 with  the  work  of  God's  Church  on  earth. 
 In  Jude  9,  Michael  the  archangel  is  rep- 
 resented as  disputing  with  the  devil  "  about 
 the  body  of  Moses,"  a  symbolical  phrase, 
 most  probably,  for  the  Mosaical  Law  and  in- 
 stitutions, in  accordance  with  that  form  of 
 speech  which  characterizes  the  Christian 
 (Church  as  "the  body  of  Christ"  (1  Cor. 
 12  :  27). 
 
 Mi'chal,  the  younger  of  King  Saul's 
 two  daughters  (1  Sam.  14  :  49).     She  be- 
 
 came the  wife  of  David  in  the  stead  of  her 
 elder  sister  Merab  (1  Sam.  18  :  17,  19,  20, 
 27),  but  when  the  rupture  between  Saul 
 and  David  had  become  open  and  incur- 
 able she  was  given  by  her  father  to  an- 
 other man  (1  Sam.  25  :  44).  She  was  sub- 
 sequently reclaimed  by  David  (2  Sam.  3  : 
 13-16),  but  seemingly  she  had  lost  her 
 afiection  for  him  (2  Sam.  6  :  16).  Taunt- 
 ing David  for  his  extravagant  demonstra- 
 tions of  joy  at  bringing  the  ark  from  its 
 temporary  resting-place  to  its  home  in  the 
 newly-acquii-ed  city  of  Jerusalem,  the  king 
 retorted  in  words  which  caused  all  inter- 
 course between  her  and  him  to  cease 
 from  that  date  (2  Sam.  6  :  20-23). 
 
 Mich'mas,  or  Mich^mash,  a  town 
 belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Ezra 
 2  :  27 ;  Neh.  7:31),  nine  miles  from  Je- 
 rusalem on  the  road  to  Kamah.  Dr.  Rob- 
 inson identifies  it  with  a  place  still  bear- 
 ing the  name  of  Mnkhmasi,  on  the  slope 
 of  a  steep  and  precipitous  valley,  which 
 wsis  probably  the  "  pass  of  Michmash " 
 mentioned  in  1  Sam.  13  :  23,  and  referred 
 to  in  Isa.  10  :  28,  29,  as  the  place  where 
 Sennacherib  left  his  heavy  camp-equip- 
 ments when  invading  Judoea.  Its  neigh- 
 borhood was  signalized  by  the  remarkable 
 exploit  of  Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer 
 in  defeating  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  14). 
 See  Geba.  The  country  around  is  now 
 rocky  and  desolate. 
 
 Mich'tam,  the  title  of  six  Psalms  (16, 
 56-60),  denoting  perhaps  their  musical 
 character,  but  beyond  this  everything  is 
 obscure. 
 
 Mid^i-an,  the  country  of  the  Midian- 
 ites,  lying  at  first  on  the  east  side  of  the 
 Elanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  afterward 
 on  both  sides  of  the  gulf  It  embraced  the 
 region  south  and  east  of  Edom  and  Moab 
 and  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  When  Moses 
 had  killed  the  Egyptian  he  fled  to  "the 
 land  of  Midian  "  (Ex.  2  :  15),  the  vicinity 
 of  which  to  Horeb  (Ex.  3:1)  identifies  it 
 with  the  Sinaitic  peninsula.   A  ruined  city, 
 
348 
 
 MIDIANITES— MILCOM. 
 
 called  by  the  Arabs  Madyan,  is  said  to  ex- 
 ist on  the  east  shore  of  the  Elanitic  Gulf, 
 and  the  whole  region,  stretching  e;istward 
 into  the  desert,  is  also  said  to  be  thickly 
 studded  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  castles 
 and  cities.  Captain  Burton,  wlio  has  quite 
 lately  returned  from  an  exploration  of  this 
 locality,  reports  the  discovery  of  signs  of 
 an  abundant  former  population — ruins  of 
 stone-built  towns,  roads,  aqueducts,  forts 
 and  artificial  lakes ;  also  mining-works, 
 dams,  furnaces,  scnrlce  and  other  traces 
 of  busy  life  in  a  land  full  of  mineral 
 wealth.  The  Egyptian  records  show  tliat, 
 in  part,  tliese  were  places  of  Egyptian  penal 
 punishment. 
 
 Mid'i-an-ites,  the  descendants  of 
 Midian,  the  fourth  son  of  Abraham  and 
 Keturah  (Gen.  25  :  2).  They  constituted 
 a  very  powerful  Arab  tribe  and  wielded 
 for  many  generations  an  immense  influ- 
 ence. Fierce  warriors  and  unscrupulous 
 robbers,  tliey  were  also  shepherds  and 
 traders.  Tliey  carried  on  witli  Egypt, 
 in  especial,  a  profitable  trade  in  spices 
 and  perfumes.  To  one  of  their  caravans, 
 passing  through  Palestine  from  Gilead  to 
 Egypt,  Josepli  was  sold  by  his  brethren 
 (Gen.  37  :  25-28).  The  historian  calls 
 these  traders  both  hhnadites  and  Midian- 
 ites,  the  two  names  being  used  synonymous- 
 ly. When  tlie  Israelites,  marching  to  Ca- 
 naan, appeared  on  the  borders  of  Moab,  the 
 Midianites  joined  with  the  Moabites  in  re- 
 sisting tlieir  progress.  Their  first  endea- 
 vor was  to  lay  upon  the  Israelites  a  curse, 
 both  as  a  means  of  intimidating  the  stran- 
 gers and  of  stimulating  and  strengthening 
 themselves.  Balaam,  their  hired  prophet, 
 was  willing  to  pronounce  the  curse,  but, 
 restrained  by  the  Lord,  he  was  compelled 
 to  utter  a  blessing  instead.  Foiled  in  this 
 attempt,  the  Midianites  and  Moabitrs 
 adopted  another  and  most  efl^ectual  mode 
 of  injuring  the  Israelites.  They  set  their 
 women  to  ensnare  and  induce  the  strangers 
 to  attend  the  licentious  festivals  of  their 
 
 idol-gods,  supposing  that  thus  the  curse 
 of  Heaven  would  be  ensured.  They  led 
 the  Israelites,  indeed,  into  sin  and  suffer- 
 ing, but  the  Midianites,  because  probably 
 the  most  guilty,  met  the  terrible  ven- 
 geance of  Jehovah.  Their  cities  and  cas- 
 tles were  burned,  all  the  males  that  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors  and  all 
 tlie  married  females  were  put  to  death, 
 and  the  young  women  and  children  were 
 reduced  to  slavery.  A  powerful  remnant 
 of  the  tribe,  however,  still  remained,  and 
 in  time  grew  into  commanding  strength. 
 These,  in  conjunction  with  the  Amalekites, 
 overran  all  Palestine,  penetrating  to  the 
 plain  of  Philistia,  and  coming  with  their 
 cattle  and  tents  as  if  to  establish  them- 
 selves in  permanent  homes.  Seven  years 
 they  prevailed  against  Israel,  and  then 
 Gideon  was  raised  up  as  a  deliverer. 
 They  were  defeated  and  destroyed  so  en- 
 tirely that  their  name  disappears  from 
 Scripture  history  (Judg.  chs.  6,  7,  8). 
 
 Migr'dol  [a  tower],  a  place  between 
 which  and  the  Red  Sea  the  Israelites 
 were  directed  to  encamp  on  their  exit 
 from  Egypt  (Ex.  14  :  2).  It  is  referred 
 to  in  Jer.  44 : 1  as  an  Egyptian  possession, 
 and,  as  its  name  suggests,  was  probably  a 
 fortified  place  on  the  frontier  of  Egypt. 
 God  seems  to  have  placed  the  Israelites 
 in  this  perilous  position,  with  an  enemy's 
 fortress  on  one  side  and  an  apparently  ini- 
 pavSsable  sea  on  the  other,  that  they  might 
 see  the  necessity  for  a  divine  interposition 
 in  their  deliverance. 
 
 Mig"'ron  [precipice.'],  supposed  to  have 
 been  situated  south  of  Ai  and  north  of 
 Michmash  (Isa.  10  :  28).  In  1  Sam.  14  :  2 
 it  is  placed  on  the  border  of  the  district 
 to  whicli  Gibeali  gave  its  name.  While 
 its  neighborhood  is  thus  determined,  no 
 trace  has  been  discovered  of  its  precise 
 site,  and  indeed  no  evidence  exists  to 
 settle  conclusively  whether  it  was  a  tower 
 or  a  rock. 
 
 Mil'com    [ilteir  kirKj],   the   principal 
 
MILE— MILL. 
 
 349 
 
 deity  of  the  Ammonites  (1  Kings  11  :  5), 
 for  whose  worship  Solomon  erected  altars 
 on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  hence  called  the 
 Hill  of  Offence  (2  Kings  23 :  13).  In  .Jer. 
 49  :  1,  3  "  their  king "  should  have  been 
 rendered  Milcom.  In  Zeph.  1 :  5  the  name 
 is  written  Makham,  a  dialectical  variation. 
 Milcom  is  usually  regarded  as  tlie  same  as 
 Molech  or  Moloch,  although  the  latter  was 
 worshipped  in  a  different  place  and  man- 
 ner— namely,  by  the  offering  of  children 
 in  the  flames  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom. 
 
 Mile,  a  Roman  measure  of  lengtli, 
 equal  to  sixteen  hundred  and  eighteen 
 English  yards,  or  one  hundred  and  forty- 
 two  yards  less  than  the  English  statute 
 mile.  The  word  is  from  m.ille,a,  thousand  [pas- 
 sumn,  paces],  asthe  Roman  mile  was  athou- 
 sand  paces.  The  word  occurs  but  once  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  (Matt.  5  :  41). 
 
 Mi-le'tiis,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Ionia 
 in  Asia  Minor,  lying  south  of  Ephesus. 
 Paul  in  his  voyage  from  Greece  to  Syria 
 touched  at  this  port,  and  delivered  to  the 
 elders  of  Ephesus,  who  had  met  him  there, 
 an  affecting  address  (Acts  20  :  15-38).  It 
 was  the  ancient  capital  of  Ionia,  celebrated 
 as  the  birthplace  of  some  distinguished  men 
 and  for  its  famous  temple  of  Apollo.  It 
 had  an  evil  reputation  for  licentiousness 
 and  luxury.  Although  we  have  no  ac- 
 count in  Scripture  of  the  introduction  of 
 Christianity  into  Miletus,  yet  in  ecclesi- 
 astical history  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighth 
 centuries  mention  is  made  of  its  bishops 
 attending  several  councils.  After  its  con- 
 quest by  the  Saracens  it  fell  into  decay, 
 and  its  site  is  supposed  to  be  occupied  by 
 the  present  insignificant  Turkish  town  of 
 Melas. 
 
 Milk,  the  rendering  of  two  distinct  He- 
 brew words. 
 
 1.  The  first  of  these  words  {chalab,  fat, 
 that  is,  rich)  denotes  new  or  sweet  milk. 
 This  was  very  largely  used  among  the  He- 
 brews, and  was  regarded  as  substantial 
 food,  adapted  alike  to  all  ages  and  classes. 
 
 Not  only  the  milk  of  cows,  but  of  sheep 
 (Deut.  32  :  14),  of  camels  (Gen.  32  :  15) 
 and  of  goats  (Prov.  27  :  27),  was  used ;  the 
 latter  appears  to  have  been  most  highly 
 prized. 
 
 2.  The  second  of  these  words  {cheviah, 
 from  a  verb  meaning  to  coagulate)  is  always 
 translated  "butter"  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion, but  in  every  case  (except,  perhaps, 
 Prov.  30  :  33)  the  term  indicates  curdled 
 or  sour  milk.  Curdled  milk  is  still  highly 
 esteemed  in  the  East  as  a  refreshment,  and 
 this  it  was  which  Abraham  set  before  the 
 angels  (Gen.  18  :  8),  and  which  Jael  gave 
 to  Sisera  ( Judg.  5  :  25). 
 
 Women  at  the  Mill. 
 
 Mill.  The  mill  common  among  the 
 Hebrews  differed  little  from  that  which  is 
 in  use  now  throughout  Western  Asia  and 
 Northern  Africa.  It  consisted  of  two  cir- 
 cular stones  about  two  feet  in  diameter  and 
 half  a  foot  thick.  The  lower  is  called  the 
 "nether  millstone"  (Job  41 :  24),  and  was 
 usually  fixed  to  the  floor  or  lay  upon  the 
 ground;  it  had  a  slight  elevation  in  the 
 centre,  or,  in  other  words,  was  slightly 
 convex  on  the  upper  surface.  The  upper 
 stone  had  a  concave  surface  answering  to 
 the  convexity  of  the  lower,  a  hole  in  the 
 top  through  which  the  grain  was  intro- 
 duced by  handftils  at  a  time,  and  an  up- 
 right stick  fixed  in  it  as  a  handle  by 
 which  it  was  made  to  turn  upon  tlie  lower 
 stone.  It  was  worked  by  women,  some- 
 times singly  and  sometimes  two  together, 
 
350 
 
 MILLET— MIRACLES. 
 
 who  were  usually  seated  on  the  ground  (Isa. 
 47  :  1,  2).  With  the  movable  upper  stone 
 of  the  hand-mill  the  woman  of  Thebez 
 broke  Abimelech's  skull  (Judg.  9  :  53). 
 
 Mil'let.  This  word  occurs  but  once  in 
 our  Autliorized  Version  (Kzek.  4  :  9),  and 
 designates,  beyond  a  question,  tlie  common 
 millet,  a  small  grain  cultivated  from  the 
 middle  of  Europe  to  the  most  southern 
 part  of  India.  The  name  milled  is  said  to 
 have  been  applied  to  this  grain  because  of 
 the  quantity  which  one  stalk  will  produce, 
 as  if  a  single  stalk  actually  bore  a.  thousand 
 seeds. 
 
 Mil'lo  IramparQ,  probably  refers  to  the 
 rampart  of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  5:9;  2 
 Chron.  32  :  5).  In  Hebrew  the  definite 
 article  is  always  prefixed :  "  the  Millo." 
 Its  repair  was  one  of  the  great  works  of 
 King  Solomon  (1  Kings  9  :  15,  24;  11  : 
 27).  The  references  to  "the  house  of 
 Millo"  in  Judg.  9  :  6  and  2  Kings  12  :  20 
 are  uncertain. 
 
 Ming'led  Peo'ple  (,Jer.  25  :  20; 
 I^zek.  30  :  5),  an  alien  jiopulation,  appa- 
 rently, in  the  midst  of  another  people. 
 They  may  have  been  mercenary  soldiers 
 or  trading  adventurers. 
 
 Min'is-ter.  This  word  is  used  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  to  describe  various 
 officials  of  a  religious  and  civil  charac- 
 ter. In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  applied — 
 1.  To  an  attendant  upon  a  person  of  high 
 rank  (Ex.  24  :  13  ;  Josh.  1:1);  2.  To  the 
 attaches  of  a  royal  court  ( 1  Kings  10:  5 ; 
 2  Chron.  22  :  8) ;  3.  To  the  priests  and 
 Levites  (Ezra  8  :  17  ;  Neh.  10  :  36  ;  Isa. 
 61  :  6 ;  Ezek.  44  :  11  ;  Joel  1  :  9,  13).  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  word  viinisler  rep- 
 resents three  terms,  each  having  a  distinc- 
 tive meaning.  The  first  term  betokens  a 
 subordinate  public  administrator  (Eom. 
 13  :  6  ;  15  :  16  ;  Ileb.  8:2);  the  second 
 terra  contains  the  idea  of  actual  and  per- 
 sonal attendance  upon  a  superior  (Luke 
 1:2;  4  :  20 ;  Acts  26  :  16)  ;  the  third 
 term  relates  to  the  ministry  of  the  gos- 
 
 pel, and  is  applied  to  the  ministration  of 
 tables  and  to  the  higher  ministration  of 
 the  word  (Acts  6:1,4;  1  Cor.  3:5;  Eph. 
 6  :  21 ;  Col.  1  :  7  ;  1  Thess.  3  :  2). 
 
 Mln'ni,  a  province  or  kingdom  of  Ar- 
 menia, summoned  by  the  proi)het  Jere- 
 miah, with  other  provinces  or  kingdoms, 
 to  war  against  Babylon  (Jer.  51  :  27).  It 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  province  near  the 
 centre  of  Armenia. 
 
 Min'nitll  [allotment],  a  town  east  of 
 the  Jordan,  named  as  the  point  to  which 
 Jephthah's  slaughter  of  the  Ammonites 
 extended  (Judg.  11  :  33).  It  was  cele- 
 brated for  the  excellence  of  the  wheat  it 
 exported  to  Tyre  (Ezek.  27  :  17).  In  the 
 time  of  Eusebius  it  still  existed  as  a  town 
 four  miles  from  Heshbon,  on  the  road  to 
 Phihidelphia. 
 
 Min'strel,  a  player  upon  a  stringed 
 instrument  like  the  harp  (2  K^ngs  3  :  15). 
 In  Matt.  9  :  23  the  "  minstrels  "  were  flute- 
 players  employed  as  professional  mourn- 
 ers. 
 
 Mint.  This  word  occurs  only  in  Matt. 
 23 :  23  and  Luke  11  :  42  as  the  designation 
 of  one  of  those  herljs  the  tithe  of  which 
 the  Pharisees  were  scrupulously  exact  in 
 paying.  The  horse-mint  is  very  common 
 in  Syria. 
 
 Mir^a-cles.  In  the  Old  and  New 
 Testaments  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words, 
 which  literally  mean  "signs,"  and  which 
 in  very  many  passages  of  our  Authorized 
 Version  are  thus  rendered,  are  also  ren- 
 dered in  very  manj'  other  passages  by  the 
 word  "miracles."  It  would  have  been 
 well  if  in  our  Authorized  Version  the 
 word  signs  rather  than  the  word  miracles 
 had  been  uniformly  employed ;  for  the 
 word  miracles,  as  expressive  of  the  won- 
 derful or  marvelous,  has  tended  to  fix  at- 
 tention too  much  on  the  physical  strange- 
 ness of  the  facts  thus  described.  That 
 which  constitutes  a  miracle  in  the  Scrip- 
 ture sense  of  the  term  is  not  its  wonder 
 or  exception  to  common  experience,  but 
 
MIKIAM. 
 
 351 
 
 its  purpose  to  signify  a  mission  from  God. 
 The  evangelist  John  calls  the  water 
 changed  into  wine  at  Cana  "the  begin- 
 ning of  signs"  (John  2  :  11),  and  the 
 healing  of  the  centurion's  son  "  the  sec- 
 ond sign"  (John  4:  54),  because  they 
 were  the  first  and  second  indications  of 
 Christ's  wielding  those  powers  which  be- 
 long to  God  as  the  Creator  and  Author  of 
 Nature,  and  which,  therefore,  pledged  the 
 God  of  Nature  to  the  truth  of  any  one's 
 teaching  who  came  armed  with  them 
 (John  3  :  2).  Accordingly,  John  tells  us 
 that  the  people  assembled  at  Jerusalem  for 
 the  passover  believed  Jesus  "  when  they 
 saw  the  signs  which  he  did"  (John  2  :  23). 
 Now,  a  sign  is  more  and  means  more  than 
 a  miracle  or  wonder,  for  it  does  not  stand 
 alone,  but  is  a  token  and  indication  of 
 something  else.  Our  Lord's  tvnrks  had  a 
 definite  purpose.  The  Old  Testament  had 
 always  represented  the  Jews  as  holding  a 
 peculiar  position  toward  the  Godhead. 
 They  were  a  chosen  people,  endowed  with 
 liigh  privileges  and  blessings,  but  so  en- 
 dowed because  tlsey  were  intended  to  sub- 
 serve a  determinate  end.  They  were  the 
 depositaries  of  revelation,  and  in  due 
 time  their  revealed  law  was  to  go  forth 
 out  of  Zion  (Isa.  2:3)  to  lighten  the 
 whole  Gentile  world  (Isa.  42  :  6).  This 
 promise  of  a  revelation  extending  to  the 
 whole  world  was  furtlier  connected  with 
 the  coming  of  a  special  descendant  of 
 Abraham  (Gen.  22  :  18 ;  Deut.  18  :  15), 
 and  prophecy  had  gradually  so  filled  up 
 the  outline  that  a  complete  sketch  had 
 been  given  of  the  person,  the  office,  the 
 work  and  the  preaching  of  the  great  Son 
 of  David,  to  whose  line  the  promise  had 
 subsequently  been  confined  (Isa.  11  :  1  ; 
 Jer.  23  :  5  ;  Hos.  3:5;  Mic.  5:2).  Hence, 
 inasmuch  as  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment looked  forward  to  the  manifestation 
 of  a  Divine  Person,  it  was  necessary  that 
 this  Divine  Person  when  he  came  should 
 be  attested  by  supernatural  signs.    Our 
 
 Lord  was  so  attested.  Our  Lord's  works 
 were  simply  the  signs  of  his  almighty 
 power  and  of  his  absolute  sovereignty. 
 To  his  disciples  our  Lord  gave  so  much 
 of  his  own  power  as  was  needed  to  attest 
 their  mission,  and  when  thus  their  mission 
 was  attested  he  withdrew  the  power.  A 
 miracle,  therefore,  is  not  a  wonder  contra- 
 ry to  Nature,  but  a  sign  above  Nature.  It 
 is  God's  finger  pointing  to  the  Christ, 
 whilst  God's  voice  speaks  "  out  of  the 
 cloud,"  saying,  "  This  is  my  beloved  Son  ; 
 hear  him"  (Luke  9  :  35). 
 
 Mir^i-am  [Iheirrebellion'],  the  sister  of 
 Aaron  and  Moses,  and  the  eldest  of  the 
 family.  She  first  appears  as  a  young  girl 
 watching  her  infant  brother's  cradle  in 
 the  Nile  (Ex.  2  :  4),  and  suggesting  her 
 mother  as  a  nurse  (Ex.  2:7).  When  the 
 Israelites  left  Egypt,  Miriam  naturally  be- 
 came the  leading  woman  among  them. 
 "The  sister  of  Aaron"  is  her  biblical 
 distinction,  and  "  Miriam  the  prophetess  " 
 her  acknowledged  title  (Ex.  15  :  20).  Her 
 prophetic  power  revealed  itself  in  poetry, 
 accompanied  with  music  and  processions. 
 After  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  she  took 
 a  cymbal  in  her  hand,  and  went  forth  fol- 
 lowed by  the  whole  female  population  of 
 Israel,  also  beating  their  cymbals.  The 
 arrival  of  Moses'  Cushite  wife  in  the 
 camp  seems  to  have  created  in  her  an 
 unseemly  dread  of  losing  her  influence 
 and  position,  and  prompted  her  to  make 
 disparaging  complaints  and  reflections,  in 
 which  Aaron  joined.  To  her  and  to  Aa- 
 ron, in  front  of  the  sacred  tent,  a  stern  re- 
 buke came  forth  from  the  Lord,  but  upon 
 Miriam,  as  the  chief  oflTender,  the  divine 
 punishment  in  the  form  of  leprosy  fell 
 (Num.  12  :  1-10).  This  stroke  and  its 
 removal  through  the  prayer  of  Moses, 
 which  took  place  at  Hazeroth  ( Num.  1 2  : 
 13-16)  form  the  last  public  event  of  Mir- 
 iam's life.  She  died  at  Kadesh  toward  the 
 close  of  the  wanderings,  and  was  buried 
 there  (Num.20  :  1). 
 
352 
 
 MIRROR— MIZPAH. 
 
 Mir'ror.    Two  Hebrew  words  in  Ex. 
 
 38  :  8  and  Job  37  :  18  are  rendered  "look- 
 ing-glass "  in  our  Authorized  Version,  but 
 from  tlie  context  evidently  denote  a  mir- 
 ror of  polished  metal.  The  Hebrew  wo- 
 men coming  out  of  Egypt  probably  brought 
 with  them  mirrors  like  those  which  were 
 used  by  the  Egyptians,  and  which  were 
 made  of  a  mixed  metal,  chiefly  copper, 
 wrought  with  admirable  skill  and  suscep- 
 tible of  a  bright  lustre.  These  mirrors 
 needed  to  be  kept  bright.  The  inferiority 
 of  the  image  in  the  metal  mirror  to  direct 
 vision  is  alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  13  :  12. 
 
 Mi'sha-el  [mho  is  like  God],  one  of 
 Daniel's  fellow-captives  in  Babylon,  whose 
 name  was  there  changed  to  Meshach 
 (which  see). 
 
 Mite,  the  smallest  coin  current  in  Pal- 
 estine in  the  time  of  our 
 Lord  (Mark  12:41-44; 
 Luke  21  :  1-4),  estima- 
 ted to  be  worth  about 
 one-fifth  of  a  cent.  See 
 Farthing. 
 
 Mith'cah  \_sweetness],  one  of  the  en- 
 campments of  the  Israelites  in  the  wil- 
 derness (Num.  33  :  28).  Its  site  is  un- 
 known. 
 
 Mi''tre,  the  turbmi  or  head-dress  of  the 
 high  priest  (Ex.    28  :  4,   36-39;    29:  6; 
 
 39  :  28,  30,  31;  Lev.  8  :  9;  16:4J|. 
 Mit-y-le'ne,  the  capital  of  the  island 
 
 of  Lesbos,  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  near  the 
 coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  visited  by 
 Paul  on  his  voyage  from  Corinth  to  Ju- 
 daea (Acts  20  :  14).  It  was  the  birthplace 
 of  some  distinguished  persons,  among 
 whom  are  Sappho,  Alcaius,  Pittacus  and 
 Theophrastns.  It  still  exists,  but  has  lit- 
 tle importance.  From  it  the  whole  island 
 is  now  called  Mitelino. 
 
 Mixed  Multitude.  "With  the  Is- 
 raelites departing  from  Egypt  at  the 
 Exodus  there  went  a  "mixed  multitude" 
 (Ex.  12  :  38 ;  Num.  11  :  4).  They  were 
 persons  of  low  caste,  outcasts  from  society 
 
 perhaps,  and  perhaps  the  offspring  of  mar- 
 riages between  Hebrews  and  Egyptians. 
 They  were  of  no  service,  but  a  serious 
 disadvantage  to  the  Hebrews. 
 
 Mi'zar  [ntnallneKs],  "the  hill  Mizar," 
 that  is,  "the  little  hill"  (Ps.  42  :  6),  the 
 spot  whence  King  David,  exiled  from  the 
 Holy  City  by  some  sad  event,  perhaps  the 
 rebellion  of  Absalom,  sends  his  disquieted 
 thought  to  God's  sanctuary.  Its  position 
 is  not  known,  but  from  its  connection  in 
 the  text  with  "  the  land  of  the  Hermon- 
 ites  "  is  supposed  to  have  been  near  Mount 
 Hermon,  in  the  north  part  of  trans-Jor- 
 danic  Palestine. 
 
 Miz'pah  and  Miz'peh  [look-out, 
 watch-tower],  a  name  borne  by  a  number 
 of  places  in  ancient  Palestine. 
 
 1 .  A  town  in  Gilead,  east  of  the  Jordan, 
 called  Mizpeh  of  Gilead  in  Judg.  11  :  29. 
 It  was  named  by  Laban  from  the  heap  of 
 stones  set  up  by  him  and  Jacob  to  serve 
 as  a  witness  of  their  covenant  and  as  a 
 landmark  of  the  boundary  between  them 
 (Gen.  31  :  48-52).  It  was  the  home  of 
 Jephthah  (Judg.  11 :  34),  and  a  gathering- 
 place  of  the  eastern  tribes  of  Israel  (Judg. 
 20:  1,3;  21  :  1,5,8). 
 
 2.  A  town  of  Moab,  whither  David 
 brought  his  parents  to  commit  tliem  to 
 the  protection  of  the  king  of  the  Moabites 
 (1  Sam.  22  :  3).  Its  site  is  unknown,  but 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  Kir- 
 Moab,  the  modern  Kcrak. 
 
 3.  A  land  somewhere  in  the  north  of 
 Palestine,  the  residence  of  those  Hivites 
 who  joined  the  northern  confederacy 
 against  Israel  (Josh.  11  :  3).  This  land 
 is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  "  the  val- 
 ley of  Mizpeh "  mentioned  in  the  eighth 
 verse  of  the  eleventh  chapter  of  .loshua, 
 and  with  the  great  country  of  Coele-Syria, 
 between  the  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
 Lebanon. 
 
 4.  A  city  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
 15  :  38),  of  which  nothing  is  known  but 
 its  name. 
 
MIZRAIM— MOAB. 
 
 353 
 
 5.  A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18  :  26). 
 It  was  a  general  gathering-place  of  the 
 tribes  of  Israel  (Judg.  20  :  1 ;  1  Sam,  7  : 
 5-7),  and  one  of  the  cities  in  which  Sam- 
 uel judged  Israel  (1  Sam.  7:6).     Here 
 Saul  was  elected  king  (1  Sam.  10  :  17- 
 21),    and    here   Gedaliah   was   assassi- 
 nated (2  Kings  25  :  23,  25;  Jer.  41 :  2). 
 It    is   commonly   identified    with    the 
 modern   village   of  Neby   Sarnwil    (the 
 pro])het   Samuel),   four  or   five   miles 
 north  by  west  from  Jerusalem,  stand- 
 ing on  a  peak  which  rises  three  thou- 
 sand feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  which 
 is  the  most  conspicuous  object  in  the 
 whole  region. 
 
 Miz'ra-im  [the  two  Egypti\,  some- 
 times Land  of  Mizraim,  the  name  by 
 which  Egypt  is  generally  designated  in 
 the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 It  was  the  name  of  that  son  of  Ham 
 (Gen.  10  :  6)  who  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  the  progenitor  of  the  Egyptians. 
 Usually  employed  to  designate  the  whole 
 of  Egypt,  it  is  once  employed  (Isa.  11 : 
 n )  to  designate  Lower  Egypt  as  distinct 
 from  Pathros  or  Upper  Egypt.  See 
 Egypt. 
 
 Mna'son,  honorably  mentioned  in 
 Scripture,  like  Gains,  Lydia  and  others, 
 as  one  of  the  hosts  of  the  apostle  Paul 
 (Acts  21 :  16).  He  was  a  native  of  Cyprus, 
 and  perhaps  a  friend  of  Barnabas  (Acts  4 : 
 36).  The  designation  of  him  as  "an  old 
 disciple  "  has  led  to  the  conjecture  that  he 
 was  one  of  our  Lord's  followers,  and  per- 
 haps one  of  the  seventy. 
 
 Mo'ab,  the  name  of  Lot's  son  by  his 
 eldest  daughter  (Gen.  19  :  37) ;  of  the  coun- 
 try where  Moab's  descendants  dwelt  (Ruth 
 1:1),  and  of  the  well-known  nation  of 
 which  Moab  was  the  progenitor  (Num.  22 : 
 3,4). 
 
 1.  Moab,  the  progenitor  of  the  Moab- 
 ites,  was  the  elder  brother  of  Ben-Ammi, 
 the  progenitor  of   the  Ammonites.     His 
 early  life  was  passed  at  Zoar  (Gen.  19 :  I 
 23 
 
 20),  which   was   the   cradle   of  the  race 
 of  Lot. 
 
 2.  The  country  of  Moab  lay  on  the  east 
 of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  as  far 
 
 El  Mojib— The  Aruou. 
 
 north  as  the  river  Jabbok.  This  country, 
 some  fifty  miles  in  length  and  ten  in  breadth, 
 was  originally  the  possession  of  the  Emim 
 a  race  of  giants,  but  became  the  possession 
 of  the  Moabites  after  a  protracted  and  ex- 
 terminating struggle  (Deut.  2  :  10,  11).  It 
 was  subsequently  coveted  by  the  warlike 
 Amorites,  who,  crossing  the  Jordan  from 
 the  west,  overran  the  richer  portion  of  the 
 territory  on  the  north  and  forced  back  the 
 Moabites  behind  the  Arnon  (Num.  21 :  26). 
 The  depth  of  the  ravine  in  which  the  Ar^ 
 non  flows,  the  precipitous  steeps  which 
 form  its  banks,  the  huge  masses  of  dis- 
 rupted and  disjointed  rocks  which  lie  con- 
 fusedly above  its  channel,  and  the  impos- 
 sibility of  ascending  from  its  bed  except 
 by  artificial  and  easily-defended  roadways, 
 combined  to  make  this  impetuous  stream 
 
354 
 
 MOLE. 
 
 the  bulwark  of  Moab.  The  Moab  which 
 the  Israelites  approached  on  their  way  to 
 Canaan  was  the  comparatively  small  ter- 
 ritory left  to  the  Moabites  after  the  Amor- 
 ite  conquests.  It  was  well  watered,  with 
 fertile  valleys  and  wide  plains  among  its 
 hills,  and  especially  with  rich  pasture- 
 lands  on  its  downs  (2  Kings  3:4).  Its 
 capital  was  Ar  or  Kabbath-Moab,  and  one 
 of  its  strongest  fortresses  was  Kir  or  Kir- 
 Hareseth.  The  name  of  Moab,  however, 
 was  still  used  to  designate  the  country 
 north  of  the  Arnon  whicli  once  they  had 
 owned.  Within  this  territory  Moses  made 
 a  covenant  with  Israel  (Deut.  29  :  1),  and 
 here  tlie  great  lawgiver  died  and  was  bur- 
 ied (Deut.  34  :  5,  6). 
 
 3.  The  nation  of  Moab  or  the  Moabites 
 early  took  a  position  of  great  prominence 
 among  the  peoples  east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
 They  held  their  territorial  possessions  by 
 the  right  of  conquest,  and,  rapidly  grow- 
 ing in  number,  successfully  asserted  their 
 sovereignty  over  an  extensive  and  produc- 
 tive territory.  Their  first  check  came 
 from  the  Amorites,  who,  driving  them 
 south  of  the  Arnon,  seized  some  of  the 
 finest  portions  of  their  country.  When 
 Israel,  on  the  march  to  Canaan,  neared 
 their  land,  the  contest  between  themselves 
 and  tlie  Amorites  had  so  recently  and  so 
 disastrously  occurred  that  the  prospect  of 
 a  contest  with  the  strangers  on  their  bor- 
 ders was  contemplated  with  much  dread. 
 The  Israelites,  however,  instead  of  attack- 
 ing them,  waged  a  devastating  war  against 
 their  old  enemies  the  Amorites,  and,  tak- 
 ing possession  of  the  territory  which  once 
 was  theirs,  assigned  part  of  it  to  the  tribe 
 of  Gad  and  part  of  it  to  the  tribe  of  Reu- 
 ben. Tliis  circumstance,  so  far  from  allay- 
 ing, greatly  augmented  their  fears  (Num. 
 22  :  4).  They  naturally  supposed  that 
 they  would  be  the  next  to  fall  beneath 
 the  strong  arm  of  the  conquerors,  and,  to 
 prevent  such  a  catastrophe  they  resorted 
 to  a  strange  expedient.      In  conjunction 
 
 with  the  Midianites  they  hired  Balaam  to 
 utter  prophetic  curses  against  Israel,  wliicii, 
 however,  the  Lord  turned  into  blessings  in 
 his  mouth  (Num.  24  :  1-10).  Failing  ni 
 this,  they  undertook  with  tlie  Midianites 
 to  debauch  Israel,  and  succeeded  too  well 
 in  enticing  the  covenant-people  into  idol- 
 atry and  immorality.  After  the  settlement 
 in  Palestine,  Moab,  in  conjunction  witli 
 Ammon  and  Amalek,  subjected  the  south- 
 ern tribes  of  Israel,  which,  after  a  servi- 
 tude of  eighteen  years,  were  delivered  by 
 Ehud  (Judg.  3  :  12-30).  Subsequently 
 Moab  and  Israel  for  a  long  period  seem 
 to  have  been  friendly,  many  Hebrews  find- 
 ing temporary  homes  among  their  Moabite 
 neighbors  (Ruth  1  :  1;  1  Sam.  22  :  3,  4). 
 These  peaceful  relations  were  changed  in 
 the  times  of  Saul,  who  waged  a  successful 
 war  against  Moab  (1  Sam.  14  :  47),  and 
 David  made  it  tributary  (2  Sam.  8  :  2,  12). 
 On  the  death  of  Ahab,  INIoab  refused  to 
 pay  the  customary  tribute  of  lambs  and 
 rams  (2  Kings  1:1;  3:4).  War  ensued, 
 but  Moab  remained  unconquered  until  the 
 time  of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings  3 :  6-27 ;  14 : 
 25,  26).  After  the  carrying  away  into  cap- 
 tivity of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  of  Israel, 
 the  Moabites  occupied  the  depopulated  ter- 
 ritory, and  were  then  in  possession,  prob- 
 ably, of  all  that  had  formerly  been  wrested 
 from  them  by  the  Amorites.  They  beheld 
 with  malicious  satisfaction  the  destruction 
 of  Judali  (Ezek.  25  :  8-11),  and  were  bit- 
 terly denounced  therefor  by  the  prophets. 
 The  predicted  desolation  of  their  country 
 (Zeph.  2  :  8-11)  has  long  since  been  lit- 
 erally fiilfilled.  Although  the  sites,  the 
 ruins  and  the  names  of  many  of  Moab's 
 ancient  cities  can  be  traced,  not  one  of 
 them  to-day  is  tenanted  by  man. 
 
 Mole.  This  word  occurs  but  twice  in 
 the  Scriptures,  once  in  the  singular  (Lev. 
 11 :  30)  and  once  in  the  plural  (Isa.  2  :  20). 
 In  the  fii"st  passage  tlie  Hebrew  word  is 
 thought  to  point  to  some  species  of  lizard, 
 perhaps  the  chameleon ;  in  the  second  pas- 
 
MOLECH,  MOLOCH— MONTH. 
 
 355 
 
 sage  the  allusion  is  supposed  to  be  to  bur- 
 rowers  or  rats. 
 
 Mo 'lech,  Mo'loch  Iklng],  the  sun- 
 god  of  the  children  of  Animon,  and  essen- 
 tially identical  with 
 the  Moabitish  Che- 
 mosh.  Sun-gods  ap- 
 pear to  have  been 
 common  to  all  the 
 Canaanite,  Syrian 
 and  Arab  tribes, 
 who  worshiped  the 
 destructive  element 
 under  an  outward 
 symbol  with  very 
 cruel  rites,  among 
 wluch  human  sacri- 
 fices were  prominent. 
 The  first  direct  his- 
 torical allusion  to 
 Molech-worship  is  in  the  description  of 
 Solomon's  idolatry  in  his  old  age  ( 1  Kings 
 11  :  7).  The  tabernacle  of  Moloch  (Acts 
 7  :  43)  was  probably  a  shrine  or  ark  in 
 which  the  figure  of  a  god  was  carried  in 
 processions.  See  also  2  Kings  23  :  10,  13  ; 
 16:3;  Jer.  7  :  31 ;  32  :  35. 
 
 Money.  Of  the  use  of  coined  money 
 there  is  no  evidence  in  Scripture  before 
 the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captiv- 
 ity, but  silver  in  quantities  determined  by 
 weight  was  used  as  early  as  the  time  of 
 Abraham  (Gen.  17  :  12,  13;  23  :  15,  16). 
 The  shekel-weight  of  silver  was  the  unit 
 of  value  through  the  whole  age  of  He- 
 brew history  down  to  the  Captivity.  See 
 Weights  and  Measures.  After  the 
 Captivity  we  have  the  earliest  mention 
 of  coined  money  in  allusion  to  the  Persian 
 coinage  (Ezra  2 :  69 ;  8 :  27  ;  Neh.  7 :  70-72). 
 The  oldest  Jewish  silver  coins  date  from 
 about  140  B.  c.  In  our  Lord's  time  coins 
 of  gold,  silver  and  copper  circulated  in  Pal- 
 estine (Matt.  10  :  9).  These  coins,  with 
 their  estimated  value  in  our  currency, 
 are  exhibited  at  one  view  in  the  follow- 
 ing table: 
 
 Name  of  Coins.  Nation 
 
 Lepton  ("  mite "),  Greek,  Copper,       1.9 
 Quadrans  ("farthing "),  Koman,  "             3.8 
 Assarion  ("farthing"),           "  "  1  5.4 
 Denarius  ("penny "),              "  Silver,    15  4.7 
 Drachma  ("  piece  of  sil- 
 ver "),  Greek,  "        17  5.9 
 Didrachm      ("  tribute- 
 money"),                             "  "        35  1.9 
 Stater  ("piece  of  mon- 
 ey"),                                    "  "        70  3.7 
 Shekel  ("shekel"),  Jewish,  "        60 
 Daric  ("dram"),  Persian,  Gold,  So.OO 
 
 In  addition  to  the  above  coins  the  Greek 
 mina  ("  pound  " )  and  the  Greek  talent  were 
 used  to  specify  weights  of  silver,  the  former 
 having  an  estimated  value  of  $17.59,  the 
 latter  an  estimated  value  of  $1058.59. 
 
 Mon'ey-chang'ers.  Men  of  this 
 occupation  are  mentioned  in  Matt.  21 :  12; 
 Mark  11  :  15;  John  2  :  15.  According  to 
 Ex.  30  :  13-15,  every  Israelite  who  had 
 reached  or  passed  the  age  of  twenty  must 
 pay  into  the  sacred  treasury,  whenever  the 
 nation  was  numbered,  a  half-shekel  as  an  of- 
 fering to  Jehovah.  The  money-changers 
 whom  our  Lord  for  their  impiety,  avarice 
 and  fraudulent  dealing  expelled  from  the 
 temple  were  the  dealers  who  supplied 
 half-shekels,  for  such  a  premium  as  they 
 might  be  able  to  exact,  to  the  Jews  from 
 all  parts  of  the  world  who  assembled  at 
 Jerusalem  during  the  great  festivals,  and 
 who  were  required  to  pay  their  tribute  or 
 ransom  money  in  the  Hebrew  coin.  See 
 Weights  and  Measures  and  the  sev- 
 eral coins. 
 
 Month.  In  the  Hebrew  language  the 
 terms  for  "month"  and  "moon"  have  the 
 same  close  connection  as  in  our  own. 
 From  the  time  of  the  institution  of  the 
 Mosaic  Law  downward  the  month  was  a 
 lunar  one.  The  commencement  of  the 
 month  was  generally  decided  by  obser- 
 vation of  the  new  moon.  The  usual 
 number  of  months  in  a  year  was  twelve 
 (1  Kings  4  :  7 ;  1  Chron.  27  :  1-15) ;  but 
 inasmuch  as  the  Hebrew  months  coin- 
 cided   with    the    seasons,    an    additional 
 
356 
 
 MOON— MORTAR. 
 
 month  must  have  been  inserted  about 
 every  third  year.  Of  this  intercalation 
 no  notice  is  taken  in  the  Scriptures.  In 
 the  modern  Jewish  calendar  the  intercal- 
 ary month  is  introduced  seven  times  in 
 every  nineteen  years.  The  identification 
 of  the  .Jewish  months  with  our  own  can- 
 not be  effecteil  with  precision  on  account 
 of  the  variations  that  must  inevitably  exist 
 between  the  lunar  and  the  solar  months. 
 See  Year. 
 
 Moon.  Tlie  worship  of  the  moon  was 
 extensively  practiced  by  the  nations  of  the 
 East,  and  under  a  variety  of  aspects.  In 
 Egypt  the  moon  was  honored  under  the 
 form  of  Isis,  and  was  one  of  the  only  two 
 deities  which  commanded  tlie  reverence  of 
 all  the  Egyiitians.  In  Syria  it  was  repre- 
 sented by  that  one  of  the  Ashtaroth  sur- 
 named  "  Karnaim,"  from  the  horns  of  the 
 crescent  moon  by  which  she  was  distin- 
 guished. The  first  notice  we  have  in 
 Scripture  of  the  direct  homage  of  the 
 heavenly  bodies — sun,  moon  and  stars — is 
 in  .Job  31  :  26,  27,  and  it  is  observable  that 
 the  warning  of  Moses  (Dent.  4  :  19)  is  di- 
 rected against  this  nature-worship  rather 
 than  against  the  form  of  moon-worship 
 which  the  Israelites  must  have  witnessed 
 in  Egypt.  In  the  figurative  language  of 
 Scripture  the  moon  is  frequently  noticed 
 as  presaging  events  of  the  greatest  im- 
 portance through  the  temporary  or  per- 
 manent withdrawal  of  its  light  (Isa.  13  : 
 10 ;  Joel  2  :  31 ;  Matt.  24  :  29 ;  Mark  13  : 
 24). 
 
 Moon,  New.     See  New  Moon. 
 
 Mo^ras-thite,  The,  that  is,  a  na- 
 tive of  a  place  named  Moresheth.  It  oc- 
 curs twice  (.Jer.  20  :  18  ;  Mic.  1:1),  each 
 time  as  the  description  of  the  prophet 
 Micah. 
 
 Mor'de-cai  [lltUe  man'],  the  deliverer 
 under  divine  providence  of  the  .Jews  from 
 the  destruction  ])lotted  against  them  by 
 Haman,  the  chief  minister  of  Ahasuerus 
 or  Xerxes  (Esth.  4  :  13).     In  the  book  of 
 
 Esther  three  things  are  predicated  of  Mor- 
 decai:  1.  That  he  lived  in  Shushan ;  2. 
 That  he  was  son  of  Jair,  son  of  Shimei, 
 son  of  Kish  the  Benjaniite,  and  one  of  the 
 captives  transported  to  Babylon  with  Je- 
 hoiachin;  3.  That  he  was  the  uncle  of 
 Esther,  and  brought  her  up.  In  memory 
 of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  the  feast 
 of  Purim  was  instituted,  and  is  celebrated 
 to  this  day.  Mordecai  was  probably  the 
 author  of  the  book  of  Esther. 
 
 Mo'reh  [plain],  the  name  of  a  plain 
 near  Shechem,  the  first  recorded  halting- 
 place  of  Abram  after  his  entrance  into 
 Canaan  (Gen.  12  :  6).  Moreh  is  again 
 mentioned  on  the  entrance  of  the  Israel- 
 ites into  Canaan  (Deut.  11  :  30).  The 
 "  hill  of  Moreh,"  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel, 
 was  a  hill  at  wliose  luise  the  Midian- 
 ites  whom  Gideon  routed  were  encamped 
 (.Judg.  7  :  1-23). 
 
 Mo-ri'ah,  one  of  the  hills  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, the  supposed  scene  of  Abraham's 
 sacrifice  of  his  son  (Gen.  22  :  2),  and  the 
 undoubted  site  of  Solomon's  temple  (2 
 Chron.  3:1).  Around  it,  in  preparation 
 for  the  building  of  the  temple,  a  large 
 area  was  formed  by  walling  up  and  fill- 
 ing in.  The  mosque  of  Omar  now  occu- 
 pies the  site  of  the  temple. 
 
 Mor'tar.  The  simj)lest  and  i)robably 
 the  most  ancient  method  of  preparing  corn 
 for  food  was  by  pounding  it  between  two 
 stones.  In  the  desert  the  Israelites  ajipear 
 to  have  possessed  mortars  and  handmills 
 among  their  necessary  domestic  utensils. 
 When  the  manna  fell  they  gathered  it, 
 and  either  ground  it  in  the  mill  or  pound- 
 ed it  in  the  mortar  with  a  pestle  till  it  was 
 fit  for  use  (Num.  11  :  8).  At  the  present 
 day  the  Arabs  use  stone  mortars  to  pound 
 meat  as  well  as  other  substances. 
 
 Mor'tar  (for  building),  the  represen- 
 tative in  our  Authorized  Version  of  two 
 Hebrew  words — one  meaning  cement  of 
 lime  and  sand  (Gen.  11  :  3;  Ex.  1  :  14), 
 the  other  mud  or  clay  (Lev.  14  :  42,  45), 
 
M08LRA— MOTH. 
 
 357 
 
 used  as  a  cement  in  the  walls  of  build- 
 ings. 
 
 Mo'se-ra  and  Mo^se-roth  [bond, 
 bonds],  the  name  of  a  place  near  Mount 
 Hor,  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites 
 and  the  scene  of  Aaron's  death  (Num.  33  : 
 30;  Deut.  10  :  6). 
 
 Mouses  ldraiv)i  out  or  saved  from  the 
 water],  the  leader  and  the  legislator  of 
 the  Israelites.  He  was  the  son  of  Amram 
 and  Jochebed  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  He 
 was  born  in  Egypt,  was  secreted  three 
 months  to  avoid  the  general  destruction 
 by  the  government  of  the  male  children 
 of  Israel,  was  committed  to  the  care  of 
 Providence  in  a  small  boat  or  basket  of 
 papyrus  among  the  reeds  of  the  Nile, 
 and  was  found  by  Pharaoh's  daughter, 
 who,  pitying  the  weeping  boy  and  pur- 
 posing to  save  him,  entrusted  him  to  the 
 guardianship  of  his  own  mother,  after- 
 ward adopted  him,  and  surrounded  him 
 with  the  best  educational  advantages  of 
 tlie  then  most  cultured  nation  of  the 
 world  (Ex.  2  :  1-10;  Acts  7  :  20-22).  His 
 life  ran  through  the  long  period  of  one 
 liundred  and  twenty  years,  of  which  the 
 first  forty  were  spent  in  Egypt,  the  second 
 forty  in  Midian  and  the  third  forty  in  the 
 desert,  whither  he  led  the  Israelites,  and 
 where  he  trained  them  for  the  conquest 
 of  Canaan  (Deut.  34  :  7  ;  Ex.  2  :  11-22 ; 
 Acts  7  :  23,  30,  36).  When  commissioned 
 to  deliver  his  people  from  Egyptian  bond- 
 age he  was  associated  with  his  elder 
 brother  Aaron  (Ex.  4  :  14-16,  27-31).  In 
 the  Exodus  he  took  the  decisive  lead  on 
 the  night  of  the  departure  (Ex.  12  :  31, 
 35;  13  :  19),  and  in  the  desert  journey  he 
 was  the  acknowledged  leader  and  the 
 great  prophet  of  Israel  (Ex.  17  :  2;  20  : 
 19;  Deut.  34:  10). 
 
 According  to  Num.  12:3  the  pre-emi- 
 nent characteristic  of  the  man  was  meek- 
 ness, h\it  the  word  "meek"  is  hardly  an 
 adequate  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  terra 
 which  has  the  sense  of  "  much  enduring," 
 
 or  "afflicted."  All  that  is  told  of  him 
 indicates  a  sacrifice  of  self,  a  pref- 
 erence of  tlie  cause  of  his  nation  to  his 
 own  interests,  which  makes  him  the  most 
 complete  example  of  Jewish  patriot- 
 ism. In  exact  conformity  with  his  life  is 
 the  account  of  his  death.  The  book  of 
 Deuteronomy  is  tlie  long  last  farewell  of  the 
 prophet  to  his  people.  After  the  farewell 
 comes  the  mysterious  close  of  his  life.  As 
 if  to  carry  out  to  the  last  the  idea  that  the 
 prophet  was  to  live  not  for  himself  but  for 
 his  [leople,  he  is  told  that  he  is  to  see  the 
 good  land  beyond  the  Jordan,  but  is  not  to 
 possess  it  himself  (Deut.  34  :  4).  He  as- 
 cends a  mountain  in  the  range  which  rises 
 above  the  Jordan  Valley,  and,  after  sur- 
 veying so  much  of  tlie  Promised  Land  as 
 could  be  discerned  from  that  height,  sinks 
 into  the  peaceful  sleep  of  death,  and  is  bur- 
 ied by  Jehovah's  own  hand  in  a  grave 
 which  "  no  man  knoweth,"  in  a  valley  or 
 ravine  "  in  tlie  land  of  Moab,  over  against 
 Beth-Peor"  (Deut.  34  :  5,  6).  His  name 
 is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  human 
 history.  He  is  the  prophet  who  in  the 
 fullest  measure  types  the  Christ.  He  is 
 the  lawgiver  whose  inspired  institutes  are 
 the  basis  of  the  world's  highest  civiliza- 
 tion. He  is  the  representative  of  that 
 justice  which  underlies  the  Law,  and 
 which,  through  the  work  of  the  Prophet 
 greater  than  he,  is  at  one  with  the  mercy 
 which  glorifies  the  gospel. 
 
 Mote,  chaff,  and  so  any  small  dry 
 particle  (Matt.  7:3-5;  Luke  6  :  41, 
 42).  Persons  who  are  censorious  or  hy- 
 percritical readily  discover  and  absurd- 
 ly exaggerate  the  smallest  faults  in  those 
 around  them,  whilst  they  themselves  are 
 insensible  to  the  grosser  blemishes  which 
 disfigure  their  own  character.  He  who 
 has  the  ugly  "  beam  "  in  liis  own  eye  has 
 no  reason  to  look  askance  at  him  who  has 
 caught  unconsciously  some  flying  "  mote." 
 
 Moth,  the  name  of  a  well-known  in- 
 sect, which  in  its  caterpillar  state  is  very 
 
358 
 
 MOTHER— MOURNING. 
 
 destructive  to  clothing.  The  egg  of  the 
 moth,  being  deposited  on  the  fur  or  cloth, 
 produces  a  very  small,  shining  worm, 
 which  eats  away  the  nap,  weakens  or  de- 
 stroys the  thread,  and  finally  ruins  the 
 fabric.  Its  destructiveness  is  frequently 
 referred  to  (Job  13  :  28  ;  Isa.  50  :  9  ;  51  : 
 8  ;  IIos.  5:12;  Matt.  6  :  19,  20 ;  Luke  12  : 
 33 ;  James  5:2).  Being  easily  crushed, 
 the  moth  is  an  emblem  of  man's  frailty 
 (.Job  4:  19;  Ps.  39:  11). 
 
 Moth'er.  The  superiority  of  tlie  He- 
 brew over  all  contemporaneous  systems  of 
 legislation  and  of  morals  is  strongly  shown 
 in  the  higher  estimation  of  the  mother  in 
 the  .Jewish  family,  as  contrasted  with  mod- 
 ern Oriental  as  well  as  ancient  Oriental  and 
 classical  usage.  The  mother's  claim  to  re- 
 spect and  reverence  was  equal  to  that  of 
 the  father's  (Ex.  20  :  12;  Lev.  19  :  3; 
 Deut.  5  :  16;  21  :  18-21) ;  the  king's  mo- 
 ther was  treated  with  especial  honor  (1 
 Kings  2  :  19).  The  word  "mother"  was 
 also  employed  by  the  Hebrews  in  a  wider 
 sense  than  is  usual  with  us.  It  is  used  of 
 a  grandmother  (1  Kings  15  :  10),  and  even 
 of  any  female  ancestor  (Gen.  3  :  20) ;  of  a 
 benefactress  (Judg.  5:7),  and  as  expres- 
 sive of  intimate  relationship  (Job  17  :  14). 
 In  Hebrew,  as  in  English,  a  nation  is  con- 
 sidered as  a  mother  and  individuals  as  her 
 children  (Isa.  50  :  1  ;  Jer.  50  :  12 ;  Ezek. 
 19:2;  Hos.  4:5).  Large  and  important 
 cities  are  also  called  mothers  with  refer- 
 ence to  the  dependent  towns  and  villages 
 (2  Sam.  20  :  19),  or  even  to  the  inhabitants, 
 who  are  called  her  children  (Isa.  3  :  12; 
 49  :  23).  In  Job  1  :  21  the  earth  is  indi- 
 cated as  the  common  mother,  to  whose 
 bosom  all  mankind  must  return.  The 
 Church,  as  the  bride,  is  spoken  of  as  the 
 mother  of  believers  (Isa.  49  :  14-22 ;  66  : 
 8-13  ;  Gal.  4  :  26),  and  the  sympathy  which 
 unites  the  mother  to  her  child  is  often  al- 
 luded to  in  illustration  of  the  love  of  God 
 to  his  people  (Isa.  49  :  15;  66  :  13;  1  Cor. 
 3  :  1,  2). 
 
 Mount,  Moun'tain.  The  Hebrew 
 word  tlms  rendered,  like  the  English  word 
 "mountain,"  is  employed  both  for  single 
 eminences  more  or  less  isolate<l,  such  as 
 Sinai,  Gerizim,  Ebal,  Zion,  Olivet,  and 
 for  ranges,  such  as  Lebanon,  Gilead,  Aba- 
 rim.  The  mountainous  regions  of  Pales- 
 tine not  only  served  the  inhabitants  as 
 places  of  defence  against  hostile  incur- 
 sions and  of  refuge  from  oppressive  mas- 
 ters, but  the  hills  by  careful  cultivation 
 and  terracing  nearly  doubled  the  arable 
 soil  (Ps.  147  :  8;  Prov.  27  :  25;  Jer.  31  : 
 5;  Ezek.  34:  14;  .Joel  3  :  18). 
 
 Mourning  Women. 
 
 Moiirn^ing.  A  studied  publicity  and 
 a  careful  observance  of  prescribed  forms 
 have  in  all  ages  marked  Oriental  mourn- 
 ing (Gen.  23  :  2 ;  Job  1  :  20 ;  2:8;  Isa. 
 15  :  3).  The  more  prominent  particular 
 forms  were  these  :  1 .  Rending  the  clothes 
 (Gen.  37  :  29,  34);  2.  Dressing  in  sack- 
 cloth (2  Sam.  3  :  31) ;  3.  Sprinkling  earth, 
 dust  or  ashes  on  the  person  (2  »Sam.  13  : 
 19;  15  :  32) ;  4.  Shaving  the  head,  pluck- 
 ing out  the  hair  of  the  head  or  the  beard 
 (Ezra  9:  3;  Jer.  7  :  29) ;  5.  Fasting  (2 
 Sam.  1  :  12 ;  Neh.  1:4);  6.  Sitting  or 
 lying  in  silence  (Judg.  20  :  26  ;  2  Sam. 
 12 :  16).  The  period  of  mourning  varied. 
 For  Jacob  it  was  seventy  days  (Gen.  50  : 
 3) ;  for  Aaron  and  Moses  it  was  thirty  days 
 
MOUSE— MUEDER. 
 
 359 
 
 (Num.  20  :  29  ;  Deut.  34  :  8) ;  for  Saul  and 
 his  sons  it  was  seven  days  (1  Sam.  31  :  13). 
 Nazarites  and  the  high  priests  were  for- 
 bidden to  mourn  even  for  a  father  or  mo- 
 ther (Lev.  21  :  10,  11 ;  Num.  6:7);  infe- 
 rior priests  were  allowed  to  mourn  for 
 near  relatives  (Lev.  21  :  1-5). 
 
 Field-Mice. 
 
 Mouse.  The  word  occurs  in  Lev.  11  : 
 29  ;  1  Sam.  6  :  4,  5  ;  Isa.  66  :  17,  and  is  the 
 rendering  of  a  word  in  Hebrew  which  is 
 probably  generic  and  not  intended  to  de- 
 note any  particular  species  of  mouse.  The 
 short-tailed  field-mice  are  very  abundant 
 in  Syria  and  cause  great  destruction  to  the 
 corn-lands. 
 
 Mouth.  This  word  occurs  in  a  num- 
 ber of  conventional  phrases.  To  speak 
 "mouth  to  mouth"  is  to  speak  without 
 the  intervention  of  an  interpreter  (Num. 
 12  :  8;  Jer.  32  :  4).  To  be  "in  the 
 mouth"  is  to  be  often  or  always  talked 
 of,  used  of  the  Law  (Ex.  13  :  9).  To  lay 
 "  the  hand  upon  the  mouth "  is  to  be 
 silent  (Job  21  :  5).  To  "sVnite  the  earth 
 with  the  rod  of  his  mouth  "  is  to  exercise 
 a  sovereign  authority  (Isa.  11  :  4). 
 
 Mo'w'ing.  As  the  great  heat  of  the 
 climate  in  Palestine  soon  dries  up  the  her- 
 bage, haymaking  in  our  sense  of  the  term 
 is  not  in  use.  The  term  "  hay,"  therefore, 
 in  Prov.  27  :  25  and  Isa.  15  :  6,  is  incor- 
 
 rect and  should  be  "  grass."  The  "  king's 
 mowings"  (Amos  7:1)  refers  perhaps  to 
 some  royal  right  of  early  pasturage  for  the 
 use  of  the  cavalry. 
 
 Muff'ler.  The  word  occurs  in  Isa.  3  : 
 19  among  articles  of  female  apparel  or  or- 
 nament, and  is  thought  by  Gesenius  to  de- 
 note a  veil. 
 
 Mul'ber-ry  Trees.  The  term  occurs 
 only  in  2  Sam.  5  :  23,  24  and  1  Chron.  14  : 
 14.  What  kind  of  tree  is  denoted  by  the 
 Hebrew  word  thus  rendered  has  never 
 been  determined.  It  is  thought  by  some 
 to  be  the  poplar,  by  others  to  be  the 
 aspen,  and  by  others  still  to  be  the  pear 
 tree. 
 
 Mule.  We  do  not  read  of  mules  till 
 the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  13  :  29 ;  18  :  9  ; 
 1  Kings  1  :  33)  ;  after  his  time  they  are 
 frequently  mentioned  with  horses.  The 
 word  "  mules  "  in  Gen.  36  :  24  is  an  incor- 
 rect rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word,  which 
 should  have  been  translated  "warm 
 springs." 
 
 Mu-ni'tion.  This  word  occurs  in  Isa. 
 29  :  7  and  Nah.  2:1;  in  its  plural  form  in 
 Isa.  33  :  16.  It  denotes  a  fortress  on  a 
 rocky  eminence,  such  as  those  to  which 
 David  resorted  for  safety  from  Saul  (1 
 Sam.  23  :  14). 
 
 Mur^der,  the  act  of  killing  a  human 
 being  with  premeditated  malice  by  a  per- 
 son of  sound  mind  (Ps.  10  :  8 ;  Mark  15  : 
 7).  For  this  crime  there  was  no  pardon; 
 the  city  of  refuge  and  even  the  altar  fur- 
 nished no  asylum,  nor  might  money  be 
 taken  in  satisfaction  (Ex.  21  :  14;  Num. 
 35  :  30-32).  Regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
 odious  and  abominable  crimes  (Deut.  19  : 
 1 1-13  ;  Num.  35  :  33),  murder  was  the  sub- 
 ject of  early  and  severe  legislation.  Moses 
 carefully  distinguished  between  voluntary 
 homicide  or  murder  and  involuntary  or  un- 
 intentional homicide  (Num.  35 :  16-25).  In 
 case  of  the  inadvertent  killing  of  another, 
 provision  was  made  for  the  protection  of 
 the  offender  by  cities  of  refuge.     When  a 
 
360 
 
 MUKRAIN— MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 corpse  was  found  on  which  were  marks  of 
 a  violent  death  and  tlie  murderer  could 
 not  be  discovered,  a  solemn  and  public  in- 
 quest was  lield  in  the  district  where  the 
 crime  was  committed  (Deut.  21  :  1-9).  The 
 impressive  ceremonial  prescribed  for  such 
 an  occasion  (the  sacrifice  of  a  heifer,  the 
 priests  washing  their  hands  over  the  slain 
 animal,  the  disclaimer  of  any  connection 
 with  the  deed  of  blood  and  the  earnest 
 prayer  to  God  that  he  would  be  merciful 
 to  liis  i)eople  Israel)  represented  very  stri- 
 kingly the  heinousness  of  murder,  the  hor- 
 ror with  which  the  crime  was  to  be  viewed, 
 and  the  dread  of  the  people  lest  the  land 
 should  be  so  polluted  as  to  call  down  the 
 avenging  wrath  of  Jehovah. 
 
 Mur'rain  [^deslruclion,  especially  by  a 
 pestilence],  that  sudden  and  terrible  mor- 
 tality among  the  domestic  animals  of  the 
 Egyptians  which  constituted  the  fifth 
 plague  (Ex.  9  :  3). 
 
 Mu'sic.  The  inventor  of  musical  in- 
 struments, like  the  first  poet  and  the  first 
 forger  of  metals,  was  a  Cainite  (Gen.  4  : 
 21).  The  first  mention  of  music  in  the 
 times  after  the  Deluge  is  in  the  record 
 of  Laban's  interview  with  Jacob  (Gen. 
 31  :  27).  Some  musical  service  was  prob- 
 ably part  of  the  worship  of  the  taberna- 
 cle, for  in  the  worship  of  the  temple  the 
 choir  which  David  had  previously  form- 
 ed and  trained  held  a  prominent  place  ( 1 
 Chron.  23  :  5  ;  Pe.  68  :  25).  In  the  pri- 
 vate as  well  as  in  the  religious  life  of  the 
 Hebrews  music  was  much  employed.  The 
 kings  had  their  court-musicians  (Eccles.  2 : 
 8),  who  bewailed  their  death  (2  Chron.  35  : 
 25),  and  in  the  luxurious  times  of  the  later 
 monarchy  the  effeminate  gallants  of  Israel, 
 reeking  with  perfumes  and  stretched  upon 
 couches  of  ivory,  were  wont  at  their  ban- 
 quets to  accompany  the  song  with  the  tink- 
 ling of  the  psaltery  or  guitar  (Amos  6  :  4- 
 6).  But  while  music  was  thus  made  to 
 minister  to  debauchery  and  excess,  it  was 
 the   legitimate   expression   of  mirth   and 
 
 gladness,  and  the  indication  of  peace  and 
 prosj)erity.  Bridal  processions  as  they 
 passed  through  the  streets  were  accompa- 
 nied with  nmsic  and  song  (Jer.  7  :  34),  and 
 these  ceased  only  when  the  land  was  deso- 
 late (Ezek.  2G  :  13)  ;  the  grape-gatherers 
 sang  as  they  gathered  in  the  vintage, 
 and  the  wine-presses  were  trodden  with 
 the  shout  of  a  song  (Isa.  16  :  10 ;  Jer.  48  : 
 33) ;  the  women  sang  as  they  toiled  at  the 
 mill ;  and  on  every  occasion  the  land  of  the 
 Hebrews  during  their  national  prosperity 
 was  a  land  of  mirth  and  melody. 
 
 Mu^si-cal  In'stru-ments.  The 
 musical  instruments  mentioned  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  were  of  three  kinds — 
 stringed,  wind  and  instruments  of  percussion. 
 
 1.  The  principal  stringed  instruments 
 were :  that  which  is  rendered  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  "  the  harp "  (Gen.  4 :  21 ; 
 31  :  27  ;  1  Chron.  16:5;  25  :  3 ;  2  Chron. 
 20:28),  that  which  is  rendered  "the 
 psaltery"  (1  Sam.  10  :  5;  Ps.  71  :  22), 
 and  that  which  is  rendered  "  the  sackbut" 
 (Dan.  3  :  5,  7,  10,  15).  The  harp  varied 
 greatly  in  shape  and  size  and  in  the  num- 
 ber of  strings,  and  was  played  upon  with 
 an  ivory  plectrum  or  with  the  hands.  The 
 psaltery  resembled  the  guitar,  and  some- 
 times had  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  strings. 
 
 Stringed  Instruments. 
 wliich  were  played  upon  with  the  hands. 
 The  sackbut  was  probably  a  triangle  witli 
 four  strings,  shrill  and  high  in  key. 
 
MUSTAKD— MYEA. 
 
 361 
 
 2.  The  wind  instruments  were:  "the 
 organ"  (Gen.  4  :  21),  "the  trumpet" 
 (Judg.  3  :  27),  "the  cornet"  (Ps.  98  :  6), 
 "the  pipe"  or  flute  (1  Sam.  10  :  5),  and 
 " the  dulcimer"  (Dan.  3  :  7,  10,  15).  The 
 organ  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  collection 
 
 Musical  Instruments. 
 
 of  reeds  or  pipes  of  unequal  lengtli  fasten- 
 ed together  with  wax,  stopped  at  one  end 
 and  blown  into  at  the  other ;  it  was  used 
 on  occasions  of  domestic  festivity  and  joy 
 (Job  21 :  12 ;  30  :  31).  The  trumpet  was  a 
 curved  or  straight  horn,  and  then  a  metallic 
 or  wooden  tube  of  the  same  sliape,  and  was 
 used  for  signals  and  alarms  in  war  ( 1  Sam. 
 13 : 3).  The  cornet  was  a  straight  horn,  used 
 mostly  in  religious  services  (1  Cliron.  15  : 
 28 ) .  The  pipe  or  flute  was  originally  formed 
 from  the  reed  ;  it  was  sometimes  single 
 and  sometimes  double,  the  two  pipes  unit- 
 ing at  the  top  in  a  single  mouthpiece ;  it 
 was  a  favorite  instrument  on  public  occa- 
 sions and  for  domestic  use  (Isa.  5 :  12 ;  Jer. 
 48.:  36).  The  dulcimei^  was  similar  to  the 
 modern  bagpipe,  consisting  of  two  shrill- 
 toned  fifes  pressed  through  a  leathern  bag. 
 3.  The  instruments  of  percussion  were : 
 "  the  timbrel"  or  tambourine  (Ex.  15 :  20), 
 "the  cymbals"  (Ps.  150  :  5),  and  the  ma- 
 chol,  translated  "dance"  in  (Ps.  150  :  4). 
 The  timbrel  and  the  machol  were  chiefly 
 used   by  women.      The  cymbals,  clashed 
 
 together,  yielded  a  powerful  and  pene- 
 trating metallic  sound,  which  easily  con- 
 trolled tlie  time  of  a  musical  performance. 
 
 Mus'tard,  a  well-known  pod-bearing, 
 shrub-like  plant  that  sometimes  grows  wild, 
 and  at  other  times  is  raised  from  the  seed, 
 which  is  used  as  a  condiment  (Matt.  13  : 
 31  ;  17  :  20;  Mark  4  :  31 ;  Luke  13  :  19 ; 
 17  :  6).  The  round  kernels  passed  in  Jew- 
 ish phrase  as  an  emblem  for  a  small,  in- 
 significant object,  being  the  smallest  seed 
 commonly  gathered  in  Palestine,  although 
 not  literally  the  most  diminutive  known. 
 Irby  and  Mangles  mention  the  large  size 
 which  the  mustard-plant  attains  in  Pales- 
 tine. In  the  Jordan  Valley  they  crossed 
 a  small  plain  very  thickly  covered  with 
 the  mustard-plant,  which  reached  as  high 
 as  their  horses'  heads.  The  growth  of 
 the  plant,  comparatively  large  from  a 
 seed  so  small,  furnishes  our  Lord  with 
 an  illustration  of  the  development  of 
 Christian  character  in  the  believer  and 
 of  the  majestic  expansion  of  God's  king- 
 dom in  the  earth. 
 
 Muth-Lab^ben,  the  title  of  Ps.  9. 
 Whether  the  reading  be  correct,  and  wliat 
 is  its  sense,  are  points  of  debate  and  con- 
 jecture. It  is,  most  likely,  the  commencing 
 word  of  some  Hebrew  song  or  melody. 
 
 Muz'zle.  In  the  East  grain  is  usually 
 threshed  by  sheaves  being  spread  out  quite 
 thick  on  a  level  spot,  over  which  oxen,  cows 
 and  younger  cattle  are  driven  till,  by  con- 
 tinued treading,  they  press  out  the  grain. 
 One  of  the  benevolent  ordinances  of  the 
 Mosaic  code  forbade  the  muzzling  or  clos- 
 ing of  the  mouths  of  the  cattle  which 
 thus  trod  out  the  corn  (Deut.  25  :  4). 
 
 My'ra,  a  city  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor, 
 three  miles  from  the  sea,  on  a  navigable 
 river  with  a  good  harbor  at  its  mouth. 
 When  Paul  was  on  his  voyage  from  Cee- 
 sarea  to  Rome  lie  and  his  fellow-prisoners 
 were  landed  here,  and  were  transferred  to 
 another  vessel  (Acts  27  :  5,  6\  It  is  now 
 in  ruins.     Its  tombs,  enriched  with  orna- 
 
362 
 
 MYRRH— MYSTERY. 
 
 ment  and  many  of  them  liaving  inscrip- 
 tions in  the  ancient  L}'cian  characters, 
 show  that  it  must  have  been  wealthy  in 
 early  times.  Its  enormous  theatre  attests 
 its  considerable  population  in  what  may 
 be  called  its  Greek  age.  In  the  deep 
 gorge  which  leads  into  the  mountains  is 
 a  large  Byzantine  church,  a  relic  of  the 
 Christianity  which  may  have  begun  with 
 Paul's  visit. 
 
 Myrrh,  the  gum  yielded  by  a  thorny 
 tree  (Balsamodendron  myrrha)  found  in 
 Arabia  which  grows  eight  or  nine  feet 
 high.  The  tree  has  a  wood  and  bark 
 which  emit  a  strong  odor ;  the  gum  which 
 exudes  from  the  bark  is  at  first  oily,  but 
 becomes  hard  by  exposure  to  the  air.  At 
 a  very  early  period  myrrh  was  an  article  of 
 commerce  (Gen.  43:11);  it  was  an  ingre- 
 dient of  the  holy  ointment  (Ex.  30  :  23) 
 and  of  the  preparation  used  in  embalm- 
 ing (John  19  :  39).  It  was  accounted  an 
 agreeable  perfume  (Esth.  2  :  12;  Ps.  45  : 
 8;  Prov.  7:17),  and  a  proper  gift  to 
 nobles  and  kings  in  token  of  respect  and 
 reverence  (Matt.  2  :  11).  The  "wine 
 mingled  with  myrrh"  which  the  Roman 
 soldiers  presented  to  our  Lord  on  the 
 cross  (Mark  15  :  23)  was  given,  according 
 to  some  commentators,  in  order  to  render 
 him  less  sensitive  to  pain ;  but  as  myrrh 
 has  no  narcotic  properties,  tlie  true  expla- 
 nation lies  most  probably  in  the  fact  that 
 the  drink  in  question  was  an  ordinary  bev- 
 erage of  the  Romans,  who  were  in  the  habit 
 of  seasoning  their  various  wines  with  spices, 
 drugs  and  perfumes,  such  as  myrrh,  cassia, 
 pepper,  myrtle  and  the  like. 
 
 Myr'tle,  a  beautiful,  fragrant  and  or- 
 namental evergreen.  It  is  mentioned  in 
 Neh.  8  :  15;  Isa.  41  :  19;  55  :  13;  Zech. 
 1  :  8,  10,  11.  Its  Hebrew  name  (hadas) 
 is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  the  beauti- 
 ful queen  Hadassah  or  Esther  (Esth.  2  : 
 7).  It  grows  abundantly  in  some  parts  of 
 Judtea  and  corresponding  latitudes.  The 
 captives  who  returned  from  Babylon,  when 
 
 celebrating  their  first  feast  of  tabernacles 
 at  Jerusalem,  formed  their  booths  and 
 sheds  of  branches  of  the  palm,  olive,  pine 
 and  myrtle  cut  from  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
 The  myrtle  is  not  now  found  on  the  Mount 
 of  Olives,  though  Tristram  met  with  it  in 
 many  of  the  neighboring  glens.  The  mod- 
 ern Jews  of  every  land,  in  their  observ- 
 ance of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  still  make 
 large  use  of  the  myrtle  wiienever  they  can 
 obtain  it. 
 
 My'si-a,  a  province  in  the  north-west 
 angle  of  Asia  Minor,  separated  from  Eu- 
 rope by  the  Propontis  and  Ilellaspont,  and 
 bounded  on  the  east  by  Bithynia.  It  was 
 once  exceedingly  fertile,  and  is  even  now 
 a  fine  tract  of  country,  although  under  poor 
 cultivation.  Paul,  on  his  first  voyage  to 
 Europe,  passed  through  this  province  and 
 embarked  at  Troas  (Acts  16  :  7-12). 
 
 Mys'te-ry.  The  term  properly  indi- 
 cates what  is  hidden  or  concealed,  and  not 
 necessarily  that  which  is  incomprehensible. 
 Christ  tells  his  disciples  that  to  them  it  was 
 "  given  to  know  the  mystery  of  the  kingdom 
 of  God"  (Mark4: 11).  Thus  a  mystery  or 
 hidden  thing  might  be  made  known.  The 
 calling  of  the  Gentiles  was  a  mystery  to 
 the  Jews,  but  a  thing  known  to  the  apos- 
 tles (Eph.  3  :  1-6).  The  revealed  gospel 
 is  called  "  the  mystery  of  the  faith "  ( 1 
 Tim.  3  :  9).  The  great  mystery  of  god- 
 liness is  a  condensed  expression  for  the 
 grand  peculiarities  of  our  Lord's  person 
 and  work — the  One  who  "was  manifest  in 
 the  flesh,  justified  in  the  spirit,  seen  of 
 angels,  preached  unto  the  Gentiles,  be- 
 lieved on  in  the  world,  received  up  into 
 glory"  (1  Tim.  3  :  16).  But  while  a  mys- 
 tery often  means  that  which  without  rev- 
 elation could  never  have  been  known,  it  is 
 none  the  less  true  that  doctrines  may  be 
 revealed  which  human  reason  cannot  fully 
 comprehend.  Among  these  doctrines  are 
 the  being  of  God,  the  tri-personality  of 
 the  Godhead,  the  incarnation  of  Christ 
 and  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
 
NAAMAH— NABOTH. 
 
 363 
 
 N. 
 
 Na''a-inah  [_ pleasant],  the  name  of 
 two  women,  and  also  of  a  city. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  four  women  whose  names 
 are  preserved  in  the  records  of  the  world 
 before  the  Flood — all  except  Eve  being 
 Cainites.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
 Cainite  Lamech  and  Zillah,  and  the  sister 
 of  Tubal-Cain  (Gen.  4  :  22). 
 
 2.  Mother  of  King  Rehoboam  ( 1  Kings 
 14  :  21,  31 ;  2  Chron.  12  :  13).  In  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  she  is  called  an  "Ammon- 
 itess,"  but  the  Hebrew  text  designates  her 
 as  "  the  Ammonite."  She  was  therefore  one 
 of  the  foreign  women  whom  Solomon  took 
 into  his  establishment  (1  Kings  11  :  1). 
 
 3.  One  of  the  cities  in  the  plain  of  Ju- 
 dah  (Josh.  15  :  41).  Its  site  is  supposed 
 to  be  identical  with  Naamah,  six  miles 
 north-east  of  Yebna. 
 
 Na^a-man  \_ pleasantness],  the  name 
 of  two  men. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  family  of  Benjamin  who 
 came  down  to  Egypt  with  Jacob  (Gen.  46 : 
 21).  He  was  the  son  of  Bela  and  head  of 
 the  family  of  the  Naamites  (Num.  26  :  40; 
 1  Chron.  8  :  3,  4). 
 
 2.  The  commander  of  the  armies  of  Ben- 
 hadad  II.,  king  of  Damascus,  in  the  time 
 of  Joram,  king  of  Israel.  Through  his 
 valor  and  ability  he  had  won  place  and 
 power.  He  was,  however,  the  subject  of 
 leprosy,  which  Elisha  the  prophet  mir- 
 aculously healed  (2  Kings  5  :  1-14).  His 
 cure  is  instanced  by  our  Lord  as  a  showing 
 of  mercy  to  one  who  wa§  not  of  Israel 
 (Luke  4  :  27). 
 
 Na-am'a-thite,  the  gentilic  name  of 
 one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  2  :  11 ;  11:1; 
 20 : 1 ;  42  :  9).  In  the  Scriptures  no  other 
 trace  of  this  name  is  found,  and  the  town 
 whence  it  is  derived  is  unknown. 
 
 Na'bal  [fool],  a  descendant  of  Caleb, 
 and  a  sheepmaster  on  the  confines  of  Ju- 
 
 dah  and  the  desert  (1  Sam.  25  :  2,  3).  He 
 was  a  man  of  large  wealth,  but  of  an  ex- 
 ceedingly churlish  and  illiberal  temper. 
 Although  his  flocks  had  been  protected  by 
 David  and  his  followers,  he  rudely  and  in- 
 sultingly refused  an  application  for  mate- 
 rial aid  (1  Sam.  25 :  5-12).  His  wife  Abi- 
 gail undertook  to  avert  the  peril  to  which 
 his  conduct  exposed  him.  Loading  with 
 provisions  the  asses  of  Nabal's  large  estab- 
 lishment, she  herself  mounted  one  of  them, 
 and,  with  her  attendants  running  before 
 her,  rode  down  the  hill  toward  David's  en- 
 campment. David  had  already  made  the 
 fatal  vow  of  extermination  (1  Sam.  25  :  21, 
 22).  Then  it  was  that  Abigail  appeared, 
 threw  herself  on  her  face  before  him,  and 
 poured  forth  her  petition  in  language 
 which,  in  form  and  expression,  has  the 
 impress  of  impassioned  poetry  (1  Sam.  25  : 
 24-31).  David  was  powerfully  moved, 
 and  at  once  recalled  his  vow.  When  Na- 
 bal  was  informed  of  the  narrow  escape  he 
 had  made,  "  his  heart  died  within  him. 
 and  he  became  as  a  stone"  (1  Sam.  25  : 
 37).  Soon  after,  and  as  if  a  stroke  of  apo- 
 plexy or  paralysis  had  fallen  upon  him,  he 
 died  (1  Sam.  25  :  38). 
 
 Na'both  [fruit],  an  Israelite  of  the 
 town  of  Jezreel  in  the  time  of  Ahab,  king 
 of  Israel  (1  Kings  21  :  1).  He  was  the 
 owner  of  a  small  vineyard  adjoining  the 
 king's  palace  and  coveted  by  the  king  for 
 a  pleasure-garden.  Declining  to  sell  his 
 patrimony,  he  was  accused  of  a  capital 
 crime  at  the  instigation  of  Jezebel,  Ahab's 
 wicked  wife,  and  with  his  sons  was  stoned 
 to  death  (2  Kings  9  :  26).  As  he  suffered 
 for  the  alleged  crime  of  blasphemy,  his 
 property,  it  is  supposed,  was  forfeited  to 
 the  crown ;  at  any  rate,  it  became  Ahab's 
 possession  and  Ahab's  plague  (1  Kings  21 : 
 19). 
 
364 
 
 NACHON'S  THRESHING-FLOOK^NAHUM. 
 
 Na'chon's  Threshing-Floor,  the 
 place  at  wliicli  tlie  ark  liad  arrived  in  the 
 progress  from  Kirjatli-jeariiu  to  Jerusalem, 
 when  Uzziah  lost  his  life  in  his  too  hasty 
 zeal  for  its  safety  (2  Sam.  6  :  6,  7). 
 
 Na'dab  [liberal],  the  name  of  four 
 men,  of  whom  two  only  need  be  men- 
 tioned. 
 
 1.  Tlie  eldest  son  of  Aaron  and  Elisheba 
 (Ex.  6:23;  Num.  3:2).  He  and  his 
 brother  Abiliu,  for  the  offence  of  offering 
 to  the  Lord  incense  which  was  burned 
 with  "strange"  or  common  fire,  and  not 
 with  that  which,  miraculously  kindled, 
 was  kept  perpetually  burning  on  the  altar 
 of  burnt-oflerings,  were  suddenly  consumed 
 by  a  fire  from  the  presence  of  God  (Lev. 
 10:  1,2;  Num.  3:4;  26:  61). 
 
 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam, 
 king  of  Israel  (1  Kings  15  :  25).  His 
 reign  of  two  years  was  exceedingly  cor- 
 rupt. At  the  siege  of  Gibbethon  he  was 
 assassinated  by  Baasha,  wlio  usurped  the 
 throne  (1  Kings  15  :  27,  28). 
 
 Nag''ge,  one  of  our  Lord's  ancestors 
 in  the  maternal  line  (Luke  3  :  25).  In  1 
 Chron.  3  :  7  the  name  is  written  Nogah. 
 
 Na'hal-al,  Na-hal'lal  and  Na'- 
 hal-ol  [pmtitrea'],  a  town  in  Zebulun  as- 
 signed to  the  Merari  Levites  (Josh.  19  : 
 15 ;  21  :  35 ;  Judg.  1  :  30). 
 
 Na-ha'li-el  [volleys  of  God^,  a  station 
 of  the  Israelites,  north  of  tlie  Arnon  and 
 not  far  from  Pisgah  (Num.  21  :  19). 
 
 Na'hash  [serpent'],  the  name  of  two 
 persons. 
 
 1.  A  king  of  the  Ammonites,  near  the 
 beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  who  dictated  to 
 the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh-Gilead  that  cruel 
 condition  of  their  acceptance  of  his  suprem- 
 acy which  consisted  in  allowing  him  to 
 pluck  out  all  their  right  eyes  as  a  reproach 
 to  Israel,  and  which  so  roused  the  vehe- 
 ment wrath  of  King  Saul  that  he  sudden- 
 ly led  a  great  army  against  the  Ammonite 
 forces  and  utterly  overwhelmed  them  (1 
 Sam.  11  :  Ml). 
 
 2.  A  person  mentioned  once  only  (2  Sam. 
 17  :  25)  in  stating  the  parentage  of  Amasa, 
 the  cominander-in  chief  of  Absalom's  army. 
 Amasa  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
 Ithra  by  Abigail,  "  daughter  of  Nahash 
 and  sister  to  Zeruiah."  By  the  genealogy 
 of  1  Chron.  2  :  16  it  appears  that  Zeruiah 
 and  Abigail  were  sisters  of  David  and  the 
 other  children  of  Jesse.  This  has  been 
 explained  on  the  supposition  that  Nahash 
 was  the  name  of  Jesse's  wife  and  the  mo- 
 ther of  David  and  of  his  brothers  and  sis- 
 ters, but  the  more  probable  explanation  is 
 that  David's  mother  before  she  became  the 
 wife  of  Jesse  had  been  the  wife  of  some 
 one  named  Nahash,  to  whom  she  had 
 borne  Abigail  and  Zeruiah,  half-sisters  to 
 David. 
 
 Na'hor  [snortinr/],  the  name  of  two 
 men. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Serug,  father  of  Terah  and 
 grandfather  of  Abraham  (Gen.  11  :  22- 
 26). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Terah  and  brother  of  Abra- 
 ham and  Haran  (Gen.  11  :  27).  He  mar- 
 ried Milcah,  the  daughter  of  his  brother 
 Haran  ;  and  when  Abraham  and  Lf)t  mi- 
 grated to  Canaan,  Nahor  remained  behind 
 in  the  land  of  his  birth,  on  the  eastern  side 
 of  the  Euphrates. 
 
 Nah'shon  [ivizard],  son  of  Amniina- 
 dab  and  prince  of  the  children  of  Judah 
 at  the  time  of  the  first  numbering  in  the 
 wilderness  (Ex.  6  :  23;  Num.  1:7;  1 
 Chron.  2  :  10).  His  sister  Elisheba  was 
 wife  to  Aaron,  and  his  son  Salmon  was 
 husband  to  Raliab  after  tlie  taking  of  Jer- 
 icho. He  died  in  tlie  wilderness,  accord- 
 ing to  Num.  26  :  64,  65. 
 
 Na'hum  [comoled],  the  seventh  in 
 order  of  the  minor  prophets.  He  is  call- 
 ed "the  Elkoshite"  (Nah.  1  :  1),  but  the 
 site  of  Elkosh,  his  native  place,  is  disput- 
 ed, and  of  his  personal  history  nothing  is 
 known.  The  date  of  his  prophecy  is  quite 
 as  much  disputed  as  the  site  of  his  birth- 
 place.    Certain   it   is,   however,  that   the 
 
NAIL— NAME. 
 
 365 
 
 prophecy  was  written  before  the  downfall 
 of  Nineveh  and  its  capture  by  the  Medes 
 and  Chaldseans  about  b.  c.  625.  The  allu- 
 sions to  the  Assyrian  power  (1 :  12 ;  2 :  12, 
 13  ;  3  :  15-17)  imply  that  it  was  still  un- 
 broken. Nahura  flourished,  most  prob- 
 ably, in  the  second  half  of  the  reign  of 
 Hezekiah,  and  wrote  his  prophecy  either 
 in  Jerusalem  or  its  neighborhood.  The 
 subject  of  the  prophecy  is  "the  burden 
 of  Nineveh,"  the  destruction  of  which 
 Nahum  predicts  in  language  that  com- 
 bines a  singular  clearness  of  description 
 with  an  extraordinary  fervor  of  imagina- 
 tion. 
 
 Nail,  the  rendering  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  two  Hebrew  words.  The  first 
 word  usually  denotes  a  wooden  peg  or  pin, 
 sometimes  a  pin  of  any  material  as  driven 
 into  a  wall  (Ezek.  15  :  3;  Isa.  22  :  25), 
 more  especially  as  driven  into  the  earth, 
 like  a  tent-pin  driven  down  by  a  mallet 
 to  fasten  the  tent  (Ex.  27  :  19 ;  35  :  18 ;  38  : 
 31;  Isa.  33  :  20;  54  :  2).  One  of  these 
 tent-pins  Jael  used  in  fastening  to  the 
 ground  the  temples  of  Sisera  (Judg.  4  :  21, 
 22).  The  second  word  is  ai)plied  to  ordi- 
 nary and  ornamental  nails  ( 1  Chron.  22  : 
 3;  Isa.  41  :  7 ;  Jer.  10  :  4).  The  golden 
 nails  of  the  temple  are  denoted  by  this 
 word.  These  nails  are  referred  to  in 
 Eccles.  12  :  11,  where,  with  significant  pro- 
 verbial application,  "the  words  of  the 
 wise  are"  likened  to  "nails  fastened,"  in 
 the  sense  that  they  sink  deeply  and  remain 
 firmly  in  the  heart  of  man. 
 
 Na'in  [piecson<n(?s.s],  a  small  town  of 
 Galilee,  mentioned  only  in  Luke  7  :  11, 
 but  memorable  as  the  place  where  our 
 Lord  performed  one  of  his  greatest  mira- 
 cles, that  of  restoring  to  life  the  widow's 
 son.  It  still  bears  the  name  of  Nein.  It 
 is  situated  on  the  north-western  edge  of 
 the  "  Little  Ilermon,"  where  the  ground 
 falls  into  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  may 
 be  seen  to  the  south  from  Mt.  Tabor.  The 
 site  is  very  beautiful,  but  the  village,  con- 
 
 sisting of  some  twenty  poor  huts,  is  small 
 and  mean. 
 
 Nai'oth  Inhabitations^,  a  place  in  or 
 near  Ramah,  where,  under  Samuel,  there 
 was  a  school  of  the  prophets,  and  whither, 
 to  Samuel,  David  fled  for  protection  from 
 Saul  (1  Sam.  19  :  18-24;  20  :  1). 
 
 Na'ked.  This  word  in  Scripture  of- 
 ten means  not  without  clothing,  but  with- 
 out the  upper  garment  (1  Sam.  19  :  24; 
 Isa.  20  :  2;  John  21  :  7).  The  term  is 
 also  used  of  one  poorly  clothed  (Isa.  58  :  7  ; 
 2  Cor.  11  :  27  ;  James  2  :  15).  Figura- 
 tively, the  word  sometimes  means  poor 
 and  defenceless  (Gen.  42  :  9),  and  some- 
 times open,  manifest,  uncovered  (Job  26  : 
 6;  Heb.  4  :  13).  It  is  also  used  by  the 
 prophets  to  represent  the  degradation  and 
 exposure  which  apostasy  and  idolatry 
 bring  about  (Ezek.  16  :  36;  Rev.  16: 
 15). 
 
 Name.  The  Hebrew  word  which  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment is  rendered  "  name  "  denotes  a  sign 
 or  token.  Hence,  in  Hebrew  usage  a  name 
 is  that  which  betokens  or  distinguishes  a 
 person,  place  or  thing.  The  Greek  word 
 rendered  "  name  "  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion of  the  New  Testament  has  a  sense 
 substantially  similar,  since  it  denotes  that 
 which  makes  something  knoivn.  Among  the 
 Hebrews  names  were  given  to  children, 
 first  immediately  after  birth,  and  then  at 
 the  time  of  their  offering  to  God  in  the 
 rite  of  circumcision  (Gen.  29  :  32-35;  Ex. 
 2  :  22;  Luke  1  :  59).  The  name  was  often 
 determined  by  circumstances  attending  the 
 birth  (Gen.  25 :  25;  35  :  18;  1  Sam.  4  :  21). 
 Names  of  expressive  import  were  held  in 
 favor  (Gen.  3  :  20 ;  4:1;  5  :  29 ;  16:11; 
 1  Sam.  1  :  20).  Symbolical  names  were 
 given  to  their  children  by  projihets  (Isa. 
 8:3;  Hos.  1:4).  To  girls  sometimes  were 
 given  names  denoting  beauty  (Job  42 :  13, 
 14 ;  Acts  9 :  36).  Family  names  were  pre- 
 served (Isa.  56  :  5 ;  Luke  1  :  61);  sons, 
 for  the  sake  of  more  complete  distinction, 
 
366 
 
 NAME  OF  GOD— NAPHTALI. 
 
 added  to  their  own  name  that  of  their 
 father  (2  Sam.  23  :  1 ;  1  Kings  12  :  2), 
 sometimes  that  of  the  grandfather  ( Jiidg. 
 20  :  28;  Jer.  39  :  14j,  and  sometimes  tliat 
 of  the  mother  if  she  had  become  distin- 
 guished (2  Sam.  2  :  13;  1  Chron.  3  :  1-3). 
 In  the  East  a  person  often  bears  more 
 names  than  one,  either  because  originally 
 several  were  given  to  him,  or  because  sub- 
 sequently, under  peculiar  circumstances, 
 lie  acquired  them.  In  the  time  of  our 
 Lord,  Jews,  in  their  intercourse  with 
 Greeks  and  Romans,  were  accustomed  to 
 take  names  diflerent  from  those  they  had 
 previously  borne  (Acts  1  :  23;  4  ;  36). 
 Sometimes,  however,  the  heathen  name 
 was  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  one. 
 Thomas  bears  also  the  name  of  Didymus, 
 the  latter  being  Greek  for  the  former,  and 
 both  signifying  "twin"  (John  11:16). 
 The  name  is  often  used  to  denote  the  per- 
 son himself  (1  Sam.  18  :  30;  Matt.  6  :  9). 
 "  To  come  in  the  name  of"  another  is  to 
 come  in  the  authority  of  another  (Matt. 
 24  :  5 ;  John  5  :  43).  "  To  call  on  the 
 name"  is  to  invoke  (Acts  2  :  21 ;  9  :  14; 
 Eom.  10  :  13). 
 
 Name  of  God.  This  phrase  desig- 
 nates—]. God  himself  (Ps.  20  :  1) ;  his 
 titles  peculiar  to  himself  (Ex.  3  :  13,  14) ; 
 his  word  (Ps.  5  :  11  ;  Acts  9  :  lo) ;  his 
 works  (Ps.  8:1);  his  worship  (Ex.  20  : 
 24) ;  his  perfections  and  excellences  (Ex. 
 34:  5-7;  John  17  :  26). 
 
 Na-o'mi  [my  deliyht],  a  woman  of 
 Bethlehem  in  the  days  of  the  early  judges 
 (Ruth  1  :  2,  3),  wife  of  Elimelech,  mother 
 of  Mahlon  and  Chilion  and  mother-in- 
 law  of  Ruth. 
 
 Naph'ta-li  [my  wrest! infj},  the  name 
 of  one  of  Jacob's  sons,  of  one  of  the  He- 
 brew tribes  and  of  the  territory  which 
 the  tribe  possessed. 
 
 1.  Naphtali  was  Jacob's  son  by  Bilhah 
 (Gen.  30  :  8 ;  Num.  1  :  42).  Of  his  per- 
 sonal history  no  incidents  are  recorded. 
 He  is  described  by  Jacob  as  "  a  hind  let 
 
 loose"  and  as  one  who  "giveth  goodly 
 words"  (Gen.  49  :  21).  This  description 
 outlines  not  more  the  characteristics  of 
 the  tribe  than  those  of  the  man.  It  pic- 
 tures Naphtali  the  man  a.s  timid  and  dif- 
 fident; as  disposed  to  flee  from  danger, 
 yet  fierce  and  formidable  when  brought  to 
 bay;  as  possessing  a  soul  of  quick  sensi- 
 bility and  lively  imagination,  and  as  de- 
 lighting especially  in  beautiful  thoughts 
 and  graceful  forms  of  speech. 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Naphtali  at  the  first 
 census  after  leaving  P^gypt  numbered 
 fifty-three  thousand  four  hundred  (Num. 
 1  :  43),  but  at  the  second  census,  in  the 
 plains  of  Moab,  it  had  diminished  to 
 forty-five  thousand  four  hundred  (Num. 
 26  :  48-50).  During  the  march  through 
 the  wilderness  it  occupied  a  position  on 
 the  north  of  the  tabernacle,  with  Dan 
 and  with  Asher.  The  three  formed  the 
 "camp  of  Dan"  (Num.  2  :  25). 
 
 3.  The  tribal  territory  is  described  in 
 Josh.  19  :  32-39.  It  was  at  the  northern 
 angle  of  Palestine,  the  Jordan  and  the 
 Sea  of  Galilee  being  on  the  east,  the 
 tribe  of  Zebulun  on  the  south  and  the 
 tribe  of  Asher  on  the  west.  Within  this 
 territory  there  was  a  greater  variety  of 
 soil,  season  and  scenery  than  within  the 
 territory  of  any  other  tribe.  The  south- 
 ern section,  embracing  the  plain  along 
 the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  was  the 
 garden-spot  of  the  whole  country.  Ac- 
 cording to  Josephus,  it  was  an  earthly 
 paradise,  where  grew  luxuriantly  the 
 choicest  fruits  and  where  reigned  an  eter- 
 nal spring-time.  The  position  of  Naph- 
 tali exposed  it  to  the  shock  of  foreign  war, 
 and  accordingly  it  was  the  first  tribe  cap- 
 tured by  the  Assyrians  under  Tiglath- 
 pileser  (2  Kings  15  :  29 ;  Isa.  9:1).  The 
 tribe,  borne  away  to  the  cities  of  the 
 Medes,  never  returned,  but  its  territory 
 was  too  attractive  to  remain  long  unin- 
 habited. After  the  captivity  in  Babylon 
 many  Jews  settled  in  Naphtali,  and  in 
 
NAPHTUHIM— NATIONS. 
 
 367 
 
 time  its  southern  section  was  the  most 
 densely  populated  district  in  Palestine. 
 Here,  too,  was  the  principal  scene  of  our 
 Lord's  ministry  (Matt.  4  :  13-16).  Here 
 our  Lord  spoke  the  greater  number  of  his 
 parables  and  performed  the  greater  num- 
 ber of  his  miracles,  for  here  were  the  cities 
 of  Capernaum,  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Mag- 
 dala  and  Tiberias. 
 Naph^tu-him.     See  Nations,  under 
 
 MiZRAIM. 
 
 Nar-cis'sus,  a  dweller  at  Rome,  some 
 members  of  whose  household,  known  as 
 Christians  to  Paul,  are  by  the  apostle 
 saluted  (Rom.  16  :  11). 
 
 Na'than  [He,  that  is,  God,  has  given}, 
 the  name  of  five  men  in  Scripture,  of  whom 
 two  only  need  be  mentioned. 
 
 1.  An  eminent  Hebrew  prophet  in  the 
 reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  He  first 
 appears  in  the  consultation  with  David 
 about  the  building  of  the  temple  (2  Sam. 
 7  :  2,  3,  17).  He  next  comes  forward  as 
 the  reprover  of  David  for  the  sin  with 
 Bathsheba;  and  his  famous  apologue  on 
 the  rich  man  and  the  ewe  lamb,  the  only 
 direct  example  we  have  of  his  prophetic 
 power,  shows  that  power  to  have  been  of 
 a  very  high  order  (2  Sam.  12  :  1-12).  On  j 
 the  birth  of  Solomon  he  was  either  spe- 
 cially charged  with  giving  him  his  name, 
 Jedidiah,  or  else  with  his  education  (2 
 Sam.  12  :  25).  In  the  last  years  of  Da- 
 vid, Nathan  took  the  side  of  Solomon  and 
 turned  the  scale  in  his  favor.  He  advised 
 Bathsheba,  he  himself  ventured  to  enter 
 the  royal  presence  with  a  remonstrance 
 against  the  king's  apathy,  and  at  Da- 
 vid's request  he  assisted  in  the  inaugu- 
 ration of  Solomon  (1  Kings  1  :  8-45). 
 
 2.  A  son  of  David,  one  of  the  four  who 
 were  born  to  him  by  Bathsheba  (1  Chron. 
 3:5).  He  appears  to  have  taken  no  part 
 in  the  events  of  his  father's  or  his  broth- 
 er's reign.  From  him  the  evangelist  Luke 
 has  reckoned  the  genealogy  of  Mary  the 
 mother  of  Jesus  (Luke  3  :  31). 
 
 Na-than'a-el  [God  has  given},  one  of 
 the  earliest  disciples  of  our  Lord,  concern- 
 ing whom  we  learn  from  Scripture  little 
 more  than  his  birthplace,  Cana  of  Galilee 
 (John  21  :  2),  and  his  simple,  truthful  cha- 
 racter. It  is  commonly  believed,  however, 
 that  Nathanael  and  Bartholomew  are  the 
 same  person.  John,  who  twice  mentions 
 Nathanael,  never  introduces  the  name  of 
 Bartholomew  at  all.  Matthew  (10  :  3), 
 Mark  (3  :  18)  and  Luke  (G  :  14),  all 
 speak  of  Bartholomew,  but  never  of  Na- 
 thanael. Bartholomew  (son  of  Tolmai) 
 was  probably  the  surname  and  Nathan- 
 ael the  proper  name  of  the  same  disci- 
 ple. 
 
 Na^tions.  The  tenth  chapter  of  Gen- 
 esis is  an  invaluable  statement  of  "the 
 families  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  after  their 
 generations,  in  their  nations"  (Gen.  10  : 
 32).  The  enumeration  comprises  only 
 the  nations  existing  in  the  age  of  Moses, 
 and  of  them  those  only  which  were  the 
 most  conspicuous  and  the  most  intimately 
 connected  with  the  history  of  the  Israel- 
 ites. The  proper  names  which  the  regis- 
 ter contains  are  to  be  understood  origin- 
 ally of  individuals,  but  derivatively  of 
 tribes,  peoples,  nations,  and  in  some  in- 
 stances of  lands  and  countries.  The  facts 
 it  embodies  are  interwoven  into  the  tradi- 
 tions of  all  the  Eastern  nations.  The  peo- 
 ple of  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  China  believe 
 in  an  early  tripartite  occupation  of  the 
 world,  and  substantially  the  same  as  that 
 which  is  here  recorded.  The  following 
 table,  whilst  making  no  claim  to  absolute 
 certainty,  presents  in  one  view  and  with 
 approximate  accuracy,  the  leading  partic- 
 ulars embraced  in  the  scriptural  account 
 of  the  origin  and  dispersion  of  nations : 
 
 JAPHETHITES. 
 
 I.  Go'mer  :   Cimmerians,  north  of  the 
 
 Black   Sea.     By  a  common  transposition 
 
 of  letters  the  name  may  be  detected  in 
 
 the  modern  Crimea.    The  Cimbri  of  an- 
 
368 
 
 NATIONS. 
 
 cient  Jutland  and  the  Celtic  nations,  who 
 denominate  themselves  Cymri,  have  the 
 same  common  ancestor.  Related  to  them 
 are — 1.  Ashkenaz,  between  Armenia  and 
 the  Black  Sea;  2.  Riphalh,  the  inhabit- 
 ants of  the  Ripha?an  mountains;  3.  To- 
 gai-viah,  Armenia  (Ezek.  38  :  6). 
 
 II.  Ma'gog:  Caucasus  and  vicinity. 
 Scythians,  or  the  Mongolian  tribes.  In 
 the  word  Gog  (Ezek.  38  :  2),  pronounced 
 gutturally,  we  have  the  first  syllable  of 
 Caucasus. 
 
 III.  Ma^dai  :  the  Medes. 
 
 IV.  JA'vANorloN:  lonians  or  Greeks. 
 The  similarity  of  Javan  to  the  elder  form 
 in  which  the  Greek  name  Ionian  appears 
 ('Idwv)  amply  justifies  tlie  conjecture  that 
 Javan  is  tlie  representative  of  the  Greek 
 race.  Allied  to  the  lonians  are — 1.  EUshuh, 
 EUs  or  Hellas,  possibly  the  ffiolians,  one  of 
 the  principal  Grecian  tribes,  inhabiting  the 
 "islands"  or  maritime  districts  of  ancient 
 Greece  (Ezek.  27  :  7);  2.  Tarshiah,  com- 
 monly identified  with  Tartessus  in  the 
 south  and  east  of  Spain,  the  region  where 
 the  Phoenicians  early  planted  colonies  and 
 whence  the  "sliips  of  Tarshish"  derived 
 their  name.  This  identification,  however, 
 is  not  certain.  Moses,  in  enumerating  the 
 Japhethites,  groups  Tarshish  among  the 
 Greeks,  and  accordingly  Josephus  and  the 
 Jewish  rabbins  identified  the  Tarshisli 
 which  Moses  mentions  with  Tarsus  in  Cili- 
 cia,  or  rather  with  the  Grack  element  in  the 
 population  of  that  country.  This  view  is 
 also  held  by  Canon  Rawlinson ;  3.  Kit- 
 tim,  the  inhabitants  of  Cyprus  and  other 
 Greek  islands ;  4.  Dodanim  or  Rhodnnim, 
 the  Rhodians  or  the  Greek  inhabitants 
 of  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
 
 V.  Tu'eal  ;  the  Tibareni  in  Pontus. 
 
 VI.  Me'shecu  :  the  ^loschi  in  the 
 Moschian  mountains,  between  Iberia,  Ar- 
 menia and  Colchis. 
 
 VII.  Ti'ras:  the  Thracians;  or  per- 
 haps the  dwellers  on  the  river  Tiras,  the 
 Dniester. 
 
 HAMITES. 
 
 I.  Cusii:  thesouthern  Arabians  in  Asia 
 and  the  Ethiopians  in  Africa.  The  de- 
 scendants of  Cush  are — 1.  Aimrod,  the 
 first  king  of  Shinar,  or  Southern  Babylo- 
 nia. The  account  of  him  in  Scripture 
 seems  to  imply  that  when  a  part  of  liis 
 race  went  south-westward  into  Arabia  and 
 Africa  he  went  south-eastward  to  found  a 
 kingdom  for  himself,  and  at  Babel  estab- 
 lished a  central  monarchy.  Conjecturally, 
 liLs  date  is  about  b.  c.  2234,  not  many  hun- 
 dred years  before  Abraham's  time;  2. 
 Seba,  Meroe,  joined  with  Cush  and  Egypt 
 in  Isa.  43  :  3 ;  3.  Harilnh,  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  Arabian  tract  known  as  Klicmldn, 
 in  the  north-western  portion  of  tlie  Yemen ; 
 
 4.  Sabtiih,  Sabola  in  Southern  Arabia;  5. 
 Mcutmah,  Rhegma,  in  the  soutli-ea.st  of 
 Arabia,  witli  his  two  sons,  Shcbn,  a  tribe 
 in  South  Arabia,  and  Dedan,  on  the  shores 
 of  the  Persian  Gulf;  6.  Snbtecah,  a  people 
 whose  settlements  were  probably  near  the 
 Persian  Gulf. 
 
 II.  Miz'ra-im  :  the  Egyptians.  Allied  to 
 them  by  blood  and  descent  are — 1.  Ludlvi, 
 an  East-African  people  dependent  on  the 
 Egyptians  and  dwelling  near  them  ;  asso- 
 ciated with  Cush  and  Purr  in  Jer.  46  :  9, 
 and  in  our  Authorized  Version  improper- 
 ly rendered  "Lydians;"  2.  Aiuimlm,  an 
 East-African  tribe  contiguous  to  Egypt, 
 but  exact  position  unknown ;  3.  Lehubim 
 or  Liibim,  the  Libyans  ;  4.  Naphtuhivi,  the 
 inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Neplitys ; 
 
 5.  Pathrusim,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Egyp- 
 tian nome  of  Patluiras ;  6.  Crtsluhim,  j)osi- 
 tion  unknown,  probably  Upjier  Egyjit ; 
 with  his  oflfspring  Philistim,  the  Philis- 
 tines, and  Coplitorim,  the  Phoenician  colo- 
 nies on  the  Egyptian  Delta  and  the  islands 
 and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 III.  Phut:  a  people  called  by  the 
 Egyptians  Pet,  whose  emblem  was  the 
 unstrung  bow,  and  who  dwelt  between 
 Egypt  and   Ethiopia  proper,  in  the  re- 
 
 !  gion  now  called  Nubia. 
 
NAZARENE— NAZARETH. 
 
 369 
 
 IV.  Ca'na-an:  the  country  between 
 the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Jordan. 
 The  offspring  or  colonies  of  Canaan  are — 
 1.  The  Sidonians,  on  the  northern  borders 
 of  Palestine ;  2.  The  Hittites,  in  the  coun- 
 try about  Hebron  south  of  Jerusalem  ;  3. 
 The  Jebusites,  in  and  around  Jerusalem ; 
 4.  The  Amorites,  on  the  east  and  west 
 sides  of  the  Dead  Sea;  5.  The  Oirgasites, 
 in  the  middle  of  the  country ;  6.  The  Hi- 
 vites,  on  the  river  Hermon  and  in  the  val- 
 leys of  Lebanon ;  7.  The  Arkites,  at  the 
 foot  of  Lebanon ;  8.  The  Sinites,  in  the 
 district  of  Lebanon ;  9.  The  Arvadites,  on 
 the  Phoenician  island  of  Aradus  and  the 
 opposite  coast;  10.  The  ZemarUes,  the  in- 
 habitants of  the  Phoenician  town  of  Sim- 
 yra;  11.  The  Hamathitea,  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  town  replaced  at  a  later  date  by  the 
 Syrian  town  of  Epiphania  on  tlie  Orontes, 
 the  eastern  limit  of  Northern  Palestine. 
 
 SHEMITES. 
 
 I.  E'lam  :  the  inhabitants  of  the  prov- 
 ince of  Elymais,  on  the  left  or  east  bank 
 of  the  Tigris,  opposite  Babylonia  and  be- 
 tween Babylonia  and  Persia  proper. 
 
 II.  As'sHUR :  the  Assyrians. 
 
 III.  Ar-phax'ad:  the  inhabitants  of 
 some  district  of  Assyria,  perhaps  on  the 
 northern  frontier,  but  precise  locality  not 
 known.  One  of  his  descendants  was  Salah, 
 from  whom  sprung  Eber,  progenitor  of  the 
 Hebrews,  and  from  him  Peleg  and  Joktan. 
 The  latter  was  the  ancestor  of  tliirteen 
 Arab  tribes  mentioned  in  Gen.  10  :  26- 
 29. 
 
 IV.  Lud:  a  people  dwelling  north  of 
 Palestine  in  the  near  vicinity  of  Mesopo- 
 tamia, and,  according  to  the  Egyptian  in- 
 scriptions, frequently  engaged  in  war  with 
 the  great  Pharaohs  of  the  thirteenth,  four- 
 teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  B.  c,  under 
 one  of  whom  Moses,  it  is  probable,  wrote 
 the  book  of  Genesis. 
 
 V.  A^RAM :  Syria  and  Mesopotamia. 
 Claiming   affinity   of   blood   and   descent 
 
 24 
 
 are — 1.  Uz,  the  inhabitants  of  a  district 
 nearly  in  the  middle  of  North  Arabia, 
 not  very  far  from  the  famous  district  of 
 Nejd;  2.  Hid,  the  inhabitants,  most  likely, 
 of  the  tract  about  the  waters  of  Merom,  now 
 the  lake  of  el-Huleh  at  the  head  of  the  Jor- 
 dan ;  3.  Gether,  unknown,  but  probably  con- 
 tiguous to  the  people  of  Hul,  the  inhabit- 
 ants, perhaps,  of  Coele-Syria;  4.  il/asA  or 
 Meshech,  the  inhabitants  of  a  part  of  the 
 Gordisean  mountains,  the  Mons  Masius  of 
 classical  writers,  a  range  forming  the 
 northern  boundary  of  Mesopotamia  be- 
 tween the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
 
 Naz'ar-ene,  an  inhabitant  of  Naza- 
 retli  and  an  epithet  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  2: 
 23 ;  Mark  1  :  24 ;  Luke  4 :  34).  Its  appli- 
 cation to  our  Lord,  in  consequence  of  the 
 providential  arrangements  by  which  his 
 parents  were  led  to  take  up  their  abode  in 
 Nazareth,  was  the  filling  out  of  the  predic- 
 tions in  which  the  promised  Messiah  is  de- 
 scribed as  a  Nezer,  that  is,  a  shoot-sprout  of 
 Jesse,  a  humble  and  despised  descendant 
 of  the  decayed  royal  family  (Isa.  11:1; 
 Jer.  23  :  5  ;  Zech.  3  :  8).  Whenever  men 
 spoke  of  Jesus  as  the  Nazarene  they  ei- 
 ther consciously  or  unconsciously  pro- 
 nounced one  of  the  names  of  the  pre- 
 dicted Messiah,  a  name  indicative  both 
 of  his  royal  descent  and  his  humble  con- 
 dition. Once  (Acts  24  :  5)  the  term  Naz- 
 arene is  applied  to  the  followers  of  our 
 Lord  by  way  of  contempt.  The  name 
 still  exists  in  Arabic  as  the  ordinary  des- 
 ignation of  Christians. 
 
 Naz^a-reth  [separated],  a  small 
 town  in  Galilee,  the  residence  of  Joseph 
 and  Mary,  and,  after  the  return  from 
 Egypt,  the  home  of  our  blessed  Lord 
 until  he  entered  upon  his  ministry  (Luke 
 1  :  26,  27  ;  2:4,  39).  Its  reputation  may 
 have  been  bad  (John  1 :  46),  but  its  small- 
 ness  and  seclusion  made  it,  probably,  a  de- 
 sirable place  for  tlie  youth  and  early  man- 
 hood of  the  world's  Redeemer.  It  is  not 
 mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  by 
 
370 
 
 JJAZARITE— NEBAIOTH. 
 
 Nazareth. 
 
 iiny  writer  before  our  Lord's  birth.  It 
 still  exists  under  the  modern  Arabic  name 
 eii-Ndslrah.  It  stands  in  an  upland  vale 
 amid  the  hills  of  Galilee,  two  miles  from 
 the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and  six  west  of 
 Mount  Tabor.  A  girdle  of  rounded  hills, 
 fourteen  in  number,  encircles  it,  giving 
 that  air  of  quiet,  peaceful  seclusion  which 
 con.stitutes  its  chief  charm.  The  houses 
 are  substantially  built  of  white  limestone, 
 are  plain  and  neat,  and  stand  close  togeth- 
 er in  narrow  streets  which  climb  the  hill- 
 side. The  population  is  about  six  thou- 
 sand souls,  of  whom  one-third  only  are 
 Moslems. 
 
 Naz''a-rite  [one  separated  by  a  roic], 
 the  name  given  to  those  Israelites,  whether 
 male  or  female,  who  consecrated  themselves 
 to  Jehovah  by  the  peculiar  vow  prescribed 
 in  Num.  6.  The  consecration  might  be 
 for  life,  but  was  usually  for  a  specific 
 time.  During  the  term  of  consecra- 
 tion the  Nazarite  was  bound  to  abstain 
 from  wine  and  grapes,  from  every  product 
 of  the  vine,  and  indeed  from  every  kind 
 of  intoxicating  drink  ;  to  let  the  hair  grow 
 
 without  any  cutting  whatever ;  and  to 
 avoid  contact  with  a  dead  body — even  that 
 of  the  nearest  relation.  The  ceremonies 
 in  connection  with  the  fulfillment  of  the 
 vow  and  the  release  therefrom  are  de- 
 scribed in  Num.  6  :  13-21.  The  meaning 
 of  such  a  vow  is  indicated  nowhere  in 
 Scripture,  but,  most  probably,  the  vow 
 was  a  typical  representation  of  life  sepa- 
 rated from  the  world  and  consecrated  to  the 
 Lord. 
 
 Ne-ap'o-lis  [new  city],  the  seaport- 
 town  of  Macedonia  where  Paul  first  land- 
 ed in  Europe  (Acts  16  :  11).  Its  site  is 
 now  occupied  by  the  Turkish  village  Ku- 
 valla,  situated  on  a  rocky  promontory  and 
 containing  about  five  thousand  inhabit- 
 ants. The  ruined  remains  of  Neapolis 
 are  extensive.  Besides  an  aqueduct  near- 
 ly ten  miles  long,  there  are  Ionic  columns 
 and  hewn  stones,  fragments  of  sculpture 
 and  marble  sarcophagi. 
 
 Ne-bai'oth  Ihciyhts  or  height],  the 
 "fii-st-born  of  Ishmael"  (Gen.  25  :  13;  1 
 Chron.  1  :  29)  and  father  of  a  pa.storal  tribe 
 named  after  him  (Isa.  60 :  7).    The  tribe  is 
 
NEBAT— NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 
 
 371 
 
 believed  to  have  been  identical  with  the  I 
 Nabathseans,  whose  capital  was  Petra. 
 
 NTe'bat,  the  father  of  Jeroboam,  the 
 first  king  of  revolting  Israel  (1  Kings  11 : 
 26 ;  12  :  2,  15).  He  is  described  as  an 
 Ephratliite,  or  Ephraimite,  of  Zereda. 
 
 Ne'bo,  the  name  of  a  god,  of  a  mount 
 and  of  a  town. 
 
 1.  Nebo  was  one  of  the  Babylonian  and 
 Assyrian  gods  (Isa.  46  :  1 ;  Jer.  48  :  1). 
 He  was  the  Oriental  Mercury,  or  the  in- 
 terpreter of  the  gods.  Whether  Nebo  was 
 worshiped  in  the  first  Chaldsean  empire 
 is  doubtful,  but  his  worship  was  certainly 
 of  early  date  in  the  Assyrian  empire.  In 
 the  later  Babylonian  empire,  however,  his 
 shrine  enjoyed  a  peculiar  pre-eminence. 
 His  principal  temple  was  at  Borsippa,  now 
 the  famous  Birs-Nimr&d.     It  was  rebuilt 
 
 and  adorned  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who,  as 
 being  under  Nebo's  special  protection, 
 often  names  him  with  many  high-sound- 
 ing epithets.  In  the  Sabsean  and  Men- 
 dasan  mythology  Nebo  was  the  planet  Mer- 
 cury, allied  to  the  Greek  Hermes. 
 
 2.  Nebo,  Mount,  a  peak  of  the  range 
 called  Abarim  (which  see).  Its  name 
 may  come  from  a  root  signifying  io  be  high, 
 or  from  the  god  Nebo,  the  planet  Mercury. 
 This  was  the  mount  in  Moab  "  over  against 
 Jericho,"  up  into  which  the  Lord  com- 
 manded Moses  to  go  "  and  behold  the  land 
 of  Canaan"  (Deut.  32  :  49).  Its  precise 
 position  is  disputed,  but  the  most  probable 
 conjecture  identifies  it  with  Jebel-Nebd, 
 south  of  Wady-Hesban.     See  PiSGAH. 
 
 3.  Nebo,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  the 
 tribe  of  Gad,  east  of  the  Jordan,  grouped 
 with  Heshbon,  Elealeh  and  Baal-Meon 
 (Num.  32  :  3,  38  ;  33  :  47).  In  later  times 
 it  was  captured  by  the  Moabites,  and  Isa- 
 iah joins  it  with  Dibon  and  Medeba  in 
 the  curse  pronounced  upon  Moab  (Isa.  15: 
 2).  Nebo  was  also  the  name  of  a  town  in 
 the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
 where  dwelt  some  who  returned  from 
 Babylon  (Ezra  2  :  29  ;  Neh.  7  :  33).  Sev- 
 en of  them  had  foreign  wives  whom  they 
 were  compelled  to  discard  (Ezra  10  :  43, 
 44). 
 
 Neb-u-chad-nez^zar  or  Neb-u- 
 chad-rez'zar,  the  greatest  and  most 
 powerful  of  the  Babylonian  kings  (2 
 Kings  25  :  22;  Ezek.  26  :  7;  Dan.  1  :  1). 
 His  name  is  explained  to  mean  "Nebo 
 protect  the  crown."  He  was  the  son 
 and  successor  of  Nabopolassar,  the  found- 
 er of  the  Babylonian  empire.  In  the 
 lifetime  of  his  father  Nebuchadnezzar 
 led  an  army  against  Pharaoh-Necho,  king 
 of  Egypt,  defeated  him  at  Carchemish 
 in  a  great  battle  (Jer.  46  :  2-12),  re- 
 covered Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia  and  Pales- 
 tine, took  Jerusalem  (Dan.  1:1,2),  pressed 
 forward  to  Egypt,  and  was  engaged  in  that 
 country  or  upon  its  borders  when  the  death 
 
372 
 
 NEBUSHASBAN— NEHEMIAH. 
 
 of  his  father  recalled  him  to  Babylon.  Be- 
 cause of  repeated  rebellions  against  him 
 by  the  kings  of  Judah,  Jehoiakim,  Je- 
 hoiachin  and  Zedekiah,  Nebuchadnezzar 
 besieged  and  stormed  Jerusalem  several 
 times ;  the  last  time  he  utterly  destroyed 
 city  and  temple,  and  carried  the  popula- 
 tion into  a  captivity  of  seventy  years.  Re- 
 nowned as  a  conqueror,  he  was  not  less  re- 
 nowned as  a  builder.  He  greatly  strength- 
 ened and  beautified  Babylon,  building  walls 
 and  fortifications  and  palaces  and  temples, 
 and  constructing  the  celebrated  "  hanging 
 gardens."  Nor  did  he  confine  his  efforts 
 to  the  ornamentation  and  improvement  of 
 his  capital.  Throughout  the  emi^ire,  at 
 Borsippa,  Sippara,  Cutha,  Chilmad,  Du- 
 raba,  Teradon  and  a  multitude  of  other 
 places,  he  built  or  rebuilt  cities,  repaired 
 temples,  constructed  quays,  reservoirs,  ca- 
 nals and  aqueducts  on  a  scale  of  grandeur 
 and  magnificence  surpassing  everything  of 
 the  kind  recorded  in  history.  The  wealth, 
 greatness  and  general  prosperity  of  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar are  strikingly  placed  before  us 
 in  the  book  of  Daniel.  Toward  tlie  close 
 of  his  reign  his  glory  suffered  a  temporary 
 eclipse.  As  a  punishment  for  his  pride 
 and  vanity  he  was  seized  by  that  strange 
 form  of  madness  which  is  termed  lycan- 
 thropy,  and  in  which  the  sufferer  imagines 
 himself  to  be  a  beast,  and,  quitting  the 
 abodes  of  men,  insists  on  leading  the  life 
 of  a  beast  (Dan.  4  :  33).  After  an  inter- 
 val of  some  years  his  reason  was  restored. 
 He  died  at  an  advanced  age  (eighty-three 
 or  eighty-four),  having  reigned  forty-three 
 years. 
 
 Neb'u-shas'ban  [Nebo  rescue  me], 
 one  of  tlie  officers  of  Nebuchadnezzar  at 
 the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He 
 was  Rabsaris — that  is,  chief  of  the  eunuchs 
 (Jer.  39  :  13). 
 
 Neb'u-zar-a'dan,  a  high  oflticer  in 
 the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  was 
 literally  "the  chief  of  the  slaughterers" 
 (in  our  Authorized  Version  "  the  captain 
 
 of  the  guard").  On  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
 salem he  was  left  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
 charge  of  the  city  (Jer.  39  :  11).  Four 
 years  later  he  was  again  in  Judah  and 
 carried  off"  more  captives  (Jer.  52  :  30). 
 
 Ne'cho.     See  Piiakaoh-Necho. 
 
 Nec'ro-man-cer  [one  who  inquires  of 
 the  dead].  In  most  ancient  nations  jug- 
 glers claimed  the  ability  to  call  up  by  in- 
 cantations the  dead  from  the  under-world, 
 chiefly  to  consult  them  on  the  mysteries  of 
 the  present  or  future.  The  Eastern  Magi 
 were  especially  famed  for  necromantic 
 skill.  Among  the  Israelites  necroman- 
 cers were  patronized,  especially  when 
 idolaters  were  on  the  throne  (2  Kings  21  : 
 6  ;  2  Chron.  33  :  6  ;  Isa.  8:19;  29  :  4).  In 
 the  Law  the  consultation  of  necromancers 
 was  forbidden  (Lev.  19 :  31),  and  they  who 
 disobeyed  were  threatened  with  death  (Lev. 
 20  :  6 ;  Deut.  18  :  11).  Saul  in  his  distress 
 applied  to  an  enchantress  to  summon  Sam- 
 uel from  Sheol  (1  Sam.  28  :  7-20).  Mod- 
 ern Spiritualism  is  a  revival  of  one  phase 
 of  necromancy,  and  the  source  of  much 
 fanaticism  and  infidelity. 
 
 Nees'ing,  an  obsolete  word  for  sneez- 
 ing.    It  is  found  only  in  Job  41  :  18. 
 
 Neg'i-nah  (singular),  Neg'i-noth 
 (plural),  a  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of 
 a  number  of  Psalms,  and  the  general  term 
 by  which  all  stringed  instruments  are  de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Ne-he-mi'ah  [Jehovah  comforts'],  son 
 of  Hachaliah  (Neh.  1:1)  and  brother 
 of  Hanani  (Neh.  7  :  2).  He  was  appar- 
 ently of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Neh.  2  :  3). 
 We  first  find  Iiim  at  Sliuslian,  the  winter 
 residence  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  in  high 
 office  as  the  cupbearer  of  King  Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus.  By  consent  of  the  king  he 
 went  to  Jerusalem  to  better  the  condition 
 of  his  countrymen  who  had  returned 
 thither  after  the  captivity.  His  great 
 work  was  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  walls, 
 the  restoring  of  Jerusalem  to  its  former  state 
 and  dignity  as  a  fortified  town.     In  this 
 
NEHILOTH— NEAV  MOON. 
 
 373 
 
 work  he  encountered  formidable  difficulties, 
 but  at  length  succeeded.  During  his  gov- 
 ernment he  firmly  repressed  the  exactions 
 of  the  nobles  and  the  usury  of  the  rich, 
 and  rescued  the  poor  Jews  from  spoliation 
 and  slavery.  He  refused  to  receive  his 
 lawful  allowance  as  governor  from  the 
 people,  in  consideration  of  their  poverty, 
 during  the  twelve  years  he  was  in  office, 
 but  kept  at  his  own  charge  a  table  for  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  Jews,  at  which  any  who 
 returned  from  captivity  were  welcome. 
 Beyond  the  thirty-second  year  of  Artax- 
 erxes,  to  which  Nehemiah's  own  narrative 
 extends,  we  have  no  account  of  him  what- 
 ever. The  book  which  bears  his  name 
 contains  a  full  and  very  important  history 
 of  his  labors,  reforms  and  difficulties. 
 
 Ne-hi^loth  [Jlutes  or  pipes'\,  the  gene- 
 ral term  for  perforated  wind  instruments 
 of  all  kinds,  as  Neginoth  denotes  all 
 manner  of  stringed  instruments.  It  oc- 
 curs in  the  title  of  the  fifth  Psalm. 
 
 Ne-hush'tan  [a  piece  of  brass,  i.  e. 
 of  copperl,  the  contemptuous  name  given 
 by  King  Hezekiah  to  the  copper  ("bra- 
 zen " )  serpent  which  Moses  had  made  dur- 
 ing th?  plague  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  21 : 
 4-9),  and  which  the  Israelites  had  convert- 
 ed into  an  object  of  idolatrous  worship  (2 
 Kings  18:4). 
 
 Neph-to'ah  [opened],  a  spring  and  its 
 streamlet  in  the  border  between  Judah  and 
 Benjamin  (Josh.  15  :  9;  18  :  15).  Its  site 
 is  the  modern  Lifteh,  where  there  is  yet 
 quite  a  spring. 
 
 Ne're-us,  a  Christian  at  Rome  to 
 whom,  with  his  sister,  the  apostle  Paul 
 sent  his  salutation  (Rom.  16  :  15). 
 
 Ner'gal  [lion-god],  one  of  the  chief 
 Assyrian  and  Babylonian  deities  (2  Kings 
 17  :  30),  who  seems  to  have  corresponded 
 closely  to  the  classical  Mars. 
 
 Ner^gal-Shar-e'zer,  a  name  found 
 only  in  Jer.  39  :  3,  13,  and  apparently  the 
 designation  of  two  "princes  of  the  king 
 of  Babylon  "  who  accompanied  Nebuchad- 
 
 nezzar on  his  last  expedition  against  Jeru- 
 salem. One  of  these  is  not  marked  by  any 
 additional  title,  but  the  other  has  the  hon- 
 orable distinction  of  Rab-Mag,  and  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  personage  as  the  sub- 
 sequent monarch  Neriglissar,  who  murder- 
 ed Evil-Merodach,  the  son  of  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, and  succeeded  him  upon  the 
 throne. 
 
 Neth'in-ira  [given,  that  is,  devoted  to 
 the  service  of  God],  the  name  of  a  subject 
 and  servile  caste.  They  were  first  a  portion 
 of  the  conquered  Gibeonites  (Josh.  9  :  3- 
 27)  and  to  them  were  added  subsequently 
 the  remnants  of  the  undestroyed  Amorites, 
 Hittites,  Perizzites,  Hivites  and  Jebusites 
 (1  Kings  9  :  20-22).  Their  condition  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  easy.  They  were  not 
 called  Nethinim  till  after  the  Captivity 
 (Neh.  3 :  26 ;  7  :  46,  60,  73 ;  10  :  28 ;  11  : 
 3,  21). 
 
 Ne-tO''phah  [a  dropping,  distillation'], 
 a  place  apparently  in  Judah  and  near 
 Bethlehem,  mentioned  among  the  towns 
 occupied  after  the  Captivity  ( Ezra  2:22; 
 Neh.  7  :  26),  but  existing  much  earlier  (2 
 Sam.  23  :  28,  29  ;  2  Kings  25  :  23 ;  1  Chron, 
 2  :  54).     Site  unknown. 
 
 Net'tle.  The  Hebrew  word  so  trans- 
 lated in  Job  30  :  7  ;  and  Prov.  24 :  31  is  de- 
 rived from  a  root  meaning  to  burn  or  sting, 
 and  is  not  an  unapt  designation  of  the  net- 
 tle, although  this  sense  is  disputed.  A 
 different  Hebrew  word  is  found  in  Isa. 
 34 :  13 ;  Hos.  9  :  6,  but  that  it  designates 
 some  species  of  nettle  is  undisputed. 
 
 Ne-w  Moon.  The  first  day  of  the 
 lunar  month  was  observed  as  a  holy  day. 
 In  addition  to  the  daily  sacrifice,  there 
 were  offered  two  young  bullocks,  a  ram 
 and  seven  lambs  of  the  first  year  as  a 
 burnt-offering,  with  the  proper  meat-offer- 
 ings and  drink-offerings,  and  a  kid  as  a  sin- 
 offering  (Num.  28  :  11-15).  As  on  the 
 Sabbath,  trade  and  handicraft  work  were 
 stopped  (Amos  8  :  5),  and  the  temple  was 
 opened  for  public  worship  (Ezek.  46  :  3; 
 
ii74 
 
 NEW  TESTAMENT— NIMRIM. 
 
 Isa.  66  :  23).  The  trumpets  were  blown 
 at  the  offering  of  the  special  sacrifices  for 
 the  day  as  on  the  solemn  festivals  (Num. 
 10  :  10 ;  Ps.  81  :  3).  It  was  an  occasion 
 for  state  banquets  (1  Sam.  20  :  5-24).  In 
 later  if  not  in  earlier  times  fasting  was 
 intermitted  at  the  new  moons,  which  are 
 generally  mentioned  so  as  to  show  that 
 they  were  a  peculiar  class  of  holy  days, 
 distinguished  from  the  solemn  feasts  and 
 the  Sabbaths  (Ezek.45: 17  ;  Neh.  10:  33). 
 Ne-w    Tes'ta-ment.      See    Sckip- 
 
 TURES. 
 
 New  Year.  See  Trumpets,  Feast  of. 
 
 Nib''liaz  [^barker,  probably]  a  deity  of 
 the  Avites,  introduced  by  them  into  Samaria 
 in  thetimeof  Shalmaneser  (2  Kings  17 :  31). 
 There  is  no  certain  information  of  the  cha- 
 racter of  the  deity  or  the  form  of  the  idol, 
 but  from  the  signification  of  the  name 
 Nibhaz  is  commonly  identified  with  the 
 Egyptian  Anubis,  the  dog-headed  man. 
 
 Ni-ca''nor  [conqueror],  one  of  the  first 
 seven  deacons  appointed  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
 6  :  1-6). 
 
 Nic-0-d.e''niUS  \^conqueroi'  of  the  peo- 
 ple], a  ruler  of  the  Jews  and  a  Pharisee 
 (John  3:1),  whose  secret  visit  to  our  Lord 
 occasioned  the  discourse  recorded  only  by 
 the  evangelist  John.  In  his  character  a 
 constitutional  timidity  is  discernible.  The 
 few  words  which  he  interposed  against  the 
 rash  injustice  of  his  colleagues  (John  7  : 
 50,  51 )  are  cautiously  rested  on  a  general 
 j)rinciple.  Even  when  the  power  of  Christ's 
 love,  manifested  on  the  cross,  had  made  the 
 most  timid  disciple  bold,  Nicodemus  did 
 not  come  forward  with  his  splendid  gifts 
 of  affection  until  the  example  had  been  set 
 by  one  of  his  own  rank  and  wealtli  and 
 station  in  society  (John  19  :  39).  Yet  in 
 him,  notwithstanding  his  hesitation  and 
 fear  of  man,  a  noble  candor  and  a  simple 
 love  of  truth  shine  out.  His  performance 
 of  the  last  offices  to  the  body  of  the  cruci- 
 fied Jesus  was  a  triumph  of  moral  courage 
 over  natural  timidity. 
 
 Nic-O-la'i-tans,  the  disciples  of  one 
 Nicolas,  an  early  heretical  sect  which  in 
 Rev.  2  :  G,  15  our  Lord  denounces.  They 
 held  (Rev.  2  :  14)  that  it  was  lawful  "to 
 eat  things  sacrificed  unto  idols  and  to  com- 
 mit fornication." 
 
 Nic'O-las  [conquering  llie  na/t07i],  a  na- 
 tive of  Antioch  and  a  proselyte  to  the  Jew- 
 ish faith.  He  was  chosen  to  be  one  of  the 
 first  seven  deacons  (Acts  6:5).  Except  the 
 similarityof  name  there  is  no  reason  for  iden- 
 tifying him  with  the  sect  of  Nicolaitans. 
 
 Ni-cop'o-lis  [city  of  viclory],  the  name 
 of  several  ancient  cities.  To  one  of  them 
 Paul  refers  in  Tit.  3:12,  but  which  one 
 he  does  not  designate.  One  Nicopolis  w:is 
 in  Thrace,  near  the  border  of  Macedonia ; 
 another  was  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
 Cilicia  ;  a  tliird  was  the  celebrated  Nicop- 
 olis in  Epirus.  Each  of  these  has  its  ad- 
 vocates as  the  city  referred  to  by  Paul,  but 
 the  one  last  named  seems  to  be  the  one  in- 
 dicated. This  city  was  built  by  Augustus 
 to  commemorate  the  battle  of  Actium. 
 Ruins  of  great  extent  still  remain  to  attest 
 its  ancient  size  and  splendor. 
 
 Ni'ger  [black],  the  additional  or  dis- 
 tinctive name  given  to  the  Simeon  wlio 
 was  one  of  the  teachers  and  prophets  in 
 the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  13  :  1). 
 
 Night,  tlie  period  of  darkness  from 
 sunset  to  sunrise.  It  is  opposed  to  "day," 
 the  period  of  light  (Gen.  1 :  5).  The  word 
 has  a  frequent  metaphoric  sense  denoting 
 now  ignorance  (Mic.  3  :  6),  now  affliction 
 (Rom.  13  :  12),  and  now  death  (John  9  : 
 
 4). 
 
 Night-Hawk.  The  Hebrew  word  so 
 translated  (Lev.  11:16;  Deut.  14 :  15)  de- 
 notes probably  some  kind  of  owl. 
 
 Nile,  the  great  river  of  Egypt.  This  name 
 is  not  found  in  the  Scriptures,  but  the  river 
 is  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Sihor. 
 See  Sihor  and  Egypt. 
 
 Nirn'rim  [limpid  wala-s] .  Isaiah  (15:6) 
 and  Jeremiah  (48  :  34),  in  denouncing 
 Moab,  speak  of  the  waters  of  Nimrim  as 
 
Excavations  at  Nineveh. 
 
376 
 
 N I M  ROD— N ISROCH. 
 
 desolate.  Near  the  ruins  of  Belh-Nlmrah, 
 east  of  the  Jordan  in  Moab,  are  copious 
 springs  wiiicli  answer  to  tliese  waters,  and 
 which  send  their  streams  into  the  Jordan 
 about  ten  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
 
 Nim'rod  [lord],  a  son  of  Cush  and 
 trrandson  of  Ham.  The  events  of  his  life 
 are  recorded  in  Gen.  10 :  8-12,  from  which 
 we  learn — 1,  That  he  was  a  Cushite ;  2, 
 that  he  established  an  empire  in  Shinar ; 
 3,  that  he  extended  this  empire  north- 
 ward along  the  course  of  the  Tigris  over 
 Assyria.  These  events  represent  the  sa- 
 lient historical  facts  connected  with  the 
 earliest  stages  of  the  great  Babylonian 
 empire. 
 
 Nim'shi  [drawn  onl] .  The  grandfather 
 of  Jehu,  who  is  generally  called  "  the  .son 
 of  Nimshi"  (1  Kings  19  :  16;  2  Kings  9  : 
 2,  14,  20;  2Chron.  22:  7). 
 
 Nin'e-veh  [dwellinc/o/Ni'n,  not  the  Nin- 
 us  of  history,  but  the  god  Nin],  one  of 
 the  ancient  capitals  and  the  most  splendid 
 city  of  the  kingdom  and  empire  of  Assyria. 
 It  stood  upon  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris 
 opposite  the  place  where,  on  the  western 
 l)ank,  Mosul  now  stands.  It  was  founded  by 
 Nimrod  (Gen.  10  :  11,  margin),  and  hence 
 was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world.  Its 
 name  is  found  on  the  f^gyptian  monuments 
 of  Thothmes  III.,  about  b.  c.  1400.  Its 
 size  is  represented  by  the  old  historians  to 
 have  been  very  great.  According  to  Cte- 
 sias  (not  indeed  the  most  reliable  author- 
 ity) it  had  a  circumference  of  four  hun- 
 dred andeighty  stadia  (twenty -four  leagues), 
 an  area  ten  times  that  of  London.  If  this 
 statement  have  even  an  approximate  basis 
 of  truth,  the  whole  of  this  vast  space  was 
 certainly  not  built  upcm  and  thickly  inhab- 
 ited. Within  the  city  walls  there  may  have 
 been  fortified  royal  residences,  each  com- 
 bining palaces,  temples,  [)ropyl8ea,  gar- 
 dens and  parks,  yet  all  forming  parts  of 
 one  great  city  built  and  added  to  at  difier- 
 i'ut  periods.  Thus,  Nineveh  would  be  a 
 general   name   for  several    distinct  quar- 
 
 ters, scattered  over  an  extended  surface  and 
 frequently  distant  the  one  from  the  other. 
 Careful  examinations  of  the  site,  however, 
 have  failed  to  discover  the  signs  of  any 
 continuous  town  over  such  a  large  area,  :ind 
 Rawlinson  places  the  circuit  of  the  walls 
 at  something  less  than  eight  miles.  After 
 the  brief  allusion  to  it  in  Genesis,  Nine- 
 veh is  not  again  mentioned  in  Scrijjture  un- 
 til the  time  of  Jonah,  about  B.  c.  800,  when 
 the  prophet  was  commanded  by  God  to  go 
 to  that  "  great  city  and  cry  against  it "  (Jon. 
 1  :  2).  Then  it  was  the  capital  of  a  power- 
 ful inonarchy,  a  city  of  vast  extent  and 
 prodigious  population  (Jon.  3:3).  The 
 preaching  of  Jonah  had  a  marked  and 
 marvelous  effect  in  humbling  its  inhabit- 
 ants and  in  bringing  them  to  repentance, 
 but  the  reformation  was  temporary  and  the 
 return  to  enormous  wickedness  universal. 
 Then  the  prophet  Nahum  was  commis- 
 sioned to  utter  against  it  those  fearful  pre- 
 dictions which  the  later  prophets  amjili- 
 fied,  and  which,  long  since,  were  exactly 
 fulfilled.  So  complete  was  its  destruction 
 that  for  ages  it  was  wellnigh  forgotten  and 
 its  site  unknown.  There  is  no  mention  of 
 it  in  the  Pei-sian  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
 the  Acha^menid  dynasty.  Herodotus  speaks 
 of  the  Tigris  as  "the  river  upon  which  the 
 town  of  Nineveh  formerly  stood."  Had 
 he  observed  any  ruins  of  importance  ex- 
 isting there  he  would  certainly  have  men- 
 tioned them.  Not  two  centuries  had  then 
 elapsed  since  the  fall  of  the  city.  Nin- 
 eveh was  literally  buried,  but  recently  it 
 has  been  dug  from  its  grave,  and  has  given 
 the  amplest  and  most  remarkable  confir- 
 mation of  our  Scripture  records.  See 
 Assyria. 
 
 Ni'san,  a  Hebrew  month,  the  first  of 
 the  sacred  and  seventh  of  the  civil-year 
 reckoning. 
 
 Ni8''roch,  an  idol  of  Nineveh,  in  whose 
 temple  Sejinacberib  was  worshiping  when 
 a.'^sassinated  by  his  sons  Adrammelech  and 
 Sharezer  (2  Kings  19  :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38).    It 
 
NITRE— NOAH. 
 
 377 
 
 is  identified  with  the  eagle-headed  human 
 figure  which  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
 on  the  earliest  Assyrian  monuments,  and  is 
 
 Nisroch. 
 
 always  represented  as  contending  with  and 
 conquering  the  lion  or  the  bull. 
 
 Ni'tre.  The  word  occurs  in  Prov.  2-5  : 
 20  and  in  Jer.  2  :  22.  The  substance  de- 
 noted is  not  that  which  we  now  under- 
 stand by  the  term  nitre,  that  is,  nitrate  of 
 potassa  or  saltpetre,  but  the  nitrum  of  the 
 Latins,  and  the  natron  or  native  carbonate 
 of  soda  of  modern  chemistry.  As  between 
 vinegar  and  natron  there  is  a  decided  con- 
 trariety, so  the  singing  of  songs  to  a  heavy 
 heart. 
 
 No  and  No-Amon  [the  portion,  or 
 place,  of  Amon  {the  god),  that  is,  the  chief 
 seat  of  his  worship'],  a  large  and  celebrated 
 city  in  Egypt.  It  is,  beyond  a  question, 
 identical  with  Thebes,  the  Diospolis  Mag- 
 na of  the  Greeks,  the  ancient  and  splen- 
 did metropolis  of  Upper  Egypt.  It  lay 
 on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  and  was  cele- 
 brated for  its  "hundred  gates"  and  for  the 
 multitude  and  splendor  of  its  temples, 
 obelisks  and  statues.  Its  ruins  are  the  ad- 
 miration of  travelers,  and  take  rank  with 
 the  most  magnificent  remains  of  early  art 
 and  civilization.     In  the  days  of  its  pride 
 
 and  power  it  was  denounced  by  Jeremiah 
 and  Ezekiel,  and  its  predicted  doom  came 
 upon  it  to  the  letter  (Jer.  46  :  25;  Ezek. 
 30 :  14-16).  It  was  overthrown  b.  c.  86  by 
 Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  and  what  of  it  remained 
 dwindled  till  the  time  of  the  Saracens,  af- 
 ter which  its  name  does  not  appear  in  his- 
 tory. Two  or  three  contemptible  villages 
 now  stand  amid  its  magnificent  ruins  on 
 both  sides  of  the  Nile. 
 
 No^ah  [jcii],  son  of  Lamech  and 
 grandson  of  Methuselah,  in  the  line  of 
 Seth  (Gen.  5  :  25-29).  Of  Noah  himself 
 we  hear  nothing  till  he  is  five  hundred 
 years  old,  when  it  is  said  he  begat  three 
 sons,  Shem,  Ham  and  Japheth.  Because 
 of  the  grievous  and  hopeless  wickedness 
 of  the  world  at  this  time,  God  resolved  to 
 destroy  it  by  a  flood,  and  communicated 
 his  purpose  to  Noah,  who  was  bidden  to 
 construct  an  ark  for  the  saving  of  himself 
 and  his  family.  Since  he  was  "  a  just  man  " 
 (Gen.  6  :  9),  we  cannot  doubt  that  from  the 
 day  he  began  the  ark  to  the  day  he  entered 
 it  he  wa.s  engaged  in  active  but,  as  it  proved, 
 unavailing  efforts  to  win  his  contempora- 
 ries from  their  wickedness  and  unbelief. 
 Hence  Peter  calls  him  "a  preacher  of 
 righteousness"  (2  Pet.  2  :  5).  When  six 
 hundred  years  old,  with  his  wife,  with  his 
 sons  and  their  wives,  eight  souls,  and  with 
 a  sufficient  number  of  the  animal  creation 
 to  preserve  the  several  tribes  he  went  into 
 the  ark  and  "the  Lord  shut  him  in"  (Gen. 
 7  :  16).  Then  came  the  awful  flood;  then 
 "  were  all  the  fountains  of  the  great  deep 
 broken  up,  and  the  windows  of  heaven 
 were  opened,  and  the  rain  was  upon  the 
 earth  forty  days  and  forty  nights"  (Gen. 
 7  :  11,  12).  For  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 days,  or  five  months,  of  overwhelming  des- 
 olation the  flood  prevailed,  "and  every 
 living  substance  was  destroyed  which  was 
 upon  the  face  of  the  ground,  both  man  and 
 cattle,  and  the  creeping  things,  and  the 
 fowl  of  the  heaven ;  and  they  were  de- 
 stroyed from  the  earth ;   and  Noah  only 
 
378 
 
 NOB— NORTH. 
 
 remained  alive,  and  they  that  were  with 
 liim  in  the  ark"  (Gen.  7  :  23).  A  year 
 pa.ssed  before  Noali  and  his  family  emerg- 
 ed from  tlie  ark,  wliich  had  grounded  on 
 the  liigh  hinds  of  Armenia.  His  first  act 
 after  leaving  the  ark  was  to  build  an  altar 
 and  to  offer  sacrifices— the  first  altar  and 
 the  first  sacrifice  we  read  of  in  Scripture 
 (Gen.  8  :  20).  Becoming  a  husbandman, 
 "Noah  lived  after  the  flood  three  hundred 
 and  fifty  years ;  and  all  the  days  of  Noah 
 were  nine  hundred  and  fifty  years;  and  he 
 died"  (Gen.  9  :  28,29). 
 
 The  truth  of  the  })iblical  narrative  of 
 the  Deluge  is  confirmed  by  the  numerous 
 traditions  of  other  nations  which  liave 
 preserved  the  memory  of  a  great  and  de- 
 structive flood.  These  traditions  point 
 back  to  a  common  centre,  whence  they 
 were  carried  by  the  different  families  of 
 man  as  they  wandered  east  and  west. 
 There  is  a  medal  of  Apamea  in  Phrygia, 
 struck  as  late  ;us  the  reign  of  Septimius 
 Severus,  in  which  the  Phrygian  deluge  is 
 commemorated.  This  medal  i-epresents  a 
 square  vessel  floating  in  the  water.  Through 
 an  opening  in  it  are  seen  two  persons,  a 
 man  and  a  woman.  Upon  the  top  of  this 
 vessel  is  perched  a  bird,  wliilst  another 
 flies  toward  it  carrying  a  branch  between 
 its  feet. 
 
 Nob  [hi(/h  place'],  a  priests'  city  in  Ben- 
 jamin, in  sight  of  Jerusalem  ( 1  Sam.  22  : 
 19 ;  Isa.  10  :  32  ;  Neh.  11  :  31,  32).  Here, 
 in  the  time  of  Saul,  were  the  tabernacle 
 and  tiie  ark  of  the  covenant.  Here  came 
 David  when  fleeing  from  Saul  "to  Ahim- 
 elech,  the  priest,"  who  gave  him  bread 
 and  a  sword  (1  Sam.  21  :  1,  4).  Doeg  the 
 Edomite  informed  Saul  against  Ahime- 
 lech,  and  the  enraged  king  slew  all  the 
 priests  who  dwelt  in  Nob,  with  their  fam- 
 ilies and  domestic  animals  (1  Sam.  22  : 
 9-19). 
 
 No'bah,  an  Israelite  warrior  (Num. 
 32  :  42),  who  during  the  conquest  of  the 
 territory  on  the  east  of  Jordan  possessed 
 
 himself  of  tlie  town  of  Kenatli  and  the 
 villages  or  hamlets  dependent  upon  it, 
 and  gave  them  his  own  name.  For  a 
 certain  period  after  the  establishment  of 
 the  Israelite  rule  the  new  name  remained 
 (Judg.  8  :  11).  But  it  is  not  again  heard 
 of,  and  the  original  appellation,  as  is  usual 
 in  such  cases,  appears  to  have  recovered  its 
 hold,  which  it  has  since  retained  ;  for  in  the 
 slightly  modified  form  of  Kanawdl  or  Kun- 
 uwdl  it  is  the  name  of  the  place  to  the 
 present  day.     See  Kenatii. 
 
 Nod  IwandeHnfjl  has  not  been  identi- 
 fied with  a  country,  and  is  usually  regarded 
 as  not  designating  any  particular  spot. 
 Accordingly,  the  "  land  of  Nod  "  in  which 
 Cain  dwelt  is  believed  to  be  the  wide  re- 
 gion of  his  wanderings  (Gen.  4  :  10). 
 
 Noe,  the  patriarch  Noah  (Matt.  24  :  37, 
 38;  Luke  3:  36;  17  :  26,  27). 
 
 Noph,  mentioned  in  Lsa.  19  :  13;  Jer. 
 2  :  16;  Ezek.  30  :  13,  16,  is  satisfactorily 
 identified  with  the  ancient  Memphis  in 
 Egypt,  mentioned  in  Hos.  9  :  G.  See  Mem- 
 phis. 
 
 North,  one  of  the  four  quarters,  wheth- 
 er of  the  earth,  the  air  or  the  heavens. 
 From  the  local  relation,  however,  in  which 
 the  covenant  people  stood  to  certain  na- 
 tions in  a  northerly  direction  from  them, 
 the  term  is  frequently  employed  by  the 
 prophets  to  designate  those  nations  them- 
 selves. Thus  in  Jer.  1  :  13  the  secthing- 
 pot  which  symbolized  the  trouble  and  dis- 
 aster which  was  preparing  to  burst  on  Jeru- 
 salem was  turned  toward  the  north,  because 
 the  Babylonians,  whose  march  would  be 
 from  that  direction,  were  to  be  the  in.stru- 
 ments  of  inflicting  it  (compare  Jer.  3:12; 
 4  :  6;  6  :  1).  In  like  manner,  in  Ezekiel's 
 vision  of  the  abominations  which  were 
 practiced  at  Jerusahm,  it  was  toward  the 
 north  that  the  image  of  jealousy  appeared, 
 and  also  toward  the  north  that  the  women 
 who  wept  for  Tammuz  were  sitting  (Ezek. 
 8  :  3,  14),  because  it  was  from  the  countries 
 of  Sidon  and  Byblus,  to   the  north,  that 
 
NOSE-JEWEL— NYMPHAS. 
 
 379 
 
 those  corruptions  had  made  their  way 
 amongst  the  covenant  people.  The  threat- 
 enings  of  judgment  also  which  in  later 
 prophecy  were  denounced  against  those 
 countries  themselves  sometimes  took  the 
 form  of  utterances  against  the  north  ( Jer. 
 46:  10;  Zeph.  2:  13). 
 
 Nose-Jew'el,  a  ring  of  metal,  some- 
 times of  gold  or  silver,  passed  usually 
 through  the  right  nostril  and  worn  by 
 way  of  ornament  by  women  in  the  East 
 (Isa.  3  :  21).  In  Gen.  24  :  22  and  Ex.  35  : 
 22  it  is  improperly  rendered  an  "ear-ring ;" 
 in  Ezek.  16  :  12  it  is  designated  "a  jewel 
 on  the  forehead."  Upon  it  are  strung 
 beads,  coral  or  jewels.  In  Egypt  it  is 
 now  almost  confined  to  the  lower  classes. 
 See  Jewel. 
 
 Num'ber.  The  Hebrews,  like  most 
 Oriental  nations,  used  the  letters  of  the 
 alphabet  for  numbers.  The  variation  of 
 copyists  in  writing  the  letters  used  for 
 numbers  explains  many  of  the  inconsist- 
 encies in  numerical  statement  found  in 
 the  historical  portions  of  Scripture.  But 
 besides  their  numerical  value,  numbers  in 
 Scripture  have  a  symbolical  or  typical 
 value.  Three  is  regarded  as  a  specially 
 complete  number  (Num.  6  :  24-23 ;  Isa.  6  : 
 3;  Acts  10:16).  Four,  from  the  four 
 cardinal  points,  symbolizes  universalUy 
 (Dan.  7:2;  Kev.  7  :  1).  Seve^i  (3+4) 
 is  associated  in  a  very  special  sense  with 
 entireness  (Lev.  26  :  24 ;  Matt.  12  :  45 ;  Eev. 
 4:5).  Twelve  (3x4)  is  connected  quite  re- 
 markably with  the  history  of  human  re- 
 demption (Gen.  35  :  22 ;  49  :  28  ;  Matt.  10  : 
 2 ;  Kev.  21  :  14,  21  ;  22  :  2).  Other  num- 
 bers than  these  have  in  Scripture  a  sig- 
 nificant, symbolical  value,  but  what  that 
 value  really  is  may  not  be  always  clear. 
 Upon  such  a  subject  there  is  great  danger 
 of  overstraining  truth  and  of  degenerat- 
 ing into  subtle  trifling. 
 
 Num^bers,  Book  of,  the  fourth  in 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 It  takes  its  name  in  the  Septuagint  and 
 
 Vulgate  (whence  our  "Numbers")  from 
 the  double  numbering  or  census  of  the  Is- 
 raelites, the  first  of  which  is  given  in  chap- 
 ters 1-4,  and  the  second  in  chapter  26.  The 
 book  may  be  said  to  contain  generally  the 
 liistory  of  the  Israelites  from  the  time  of 
 their  leaving  Sinai,  in  the  second  year 
 after  the  Exodus,  till  their  arrival  at  the 
 borders  of  the  Promised  Land  in  the  fif- 
 teenth year  of  their  journeyings.  It  con- 
 sists of  the  following  principal  divisions  : 
 1.  The  preparations  for  the  departure  from 
 Sinai  (ch.  1  to  ch.  10  :  10).  2.  The  jour- 
 ney from  Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Canaan 
 (ch.  10  :  11  to  ch.  14 :  45).  3.  A  brief  no- 
 tice of  laws  given  and  events  which  tran- 
 spired during  the  thirty -seven  years'  wan- 
 dering in  the  wilderness  (ch.  15  to  ch.  19 : 
 22).  4.  The  history  of  the  last  year,  from 
 the  second  arrival  of  the  Israelites  in  Ka- 
 desh  till  they  reach  "  the  plains  of  Moab 
 by  Jordan  near  Jericho  "  (ph.  20  to  ch.  36  : 
 13). 
 
 Nun,  the  father  of  Joshua  (Ex.  33  :  11 ). 
 His  descent  from  Ephraim  is  recorded  in 
 
 I  Chron.  7.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life, 
 which,  doubtless,  was  spent  in  Egypt. 
 
 Nvirse.  In  ancient  times  the  position 
 of  the  nurse  was  one  of  much  honor  and 
 importance  (Gen.  24  :  59  ;  35  :  8 ;  2  Sam. 
 4  :  4;  2  Kings  11  :  2).  The  same  term  is 
 applied  to  a  foster-father  or  mother  (Num. 
 
 II  :  12;  Ruth  4:  16;  Isa.  49  :  23). 
 Nuts.     The   Hebrew  word  translated 
 
 thus  in  Gen.  43  :  11  denotes  the  fruit  of 
 the  pistachio  tree,  for  which  Syria  and 
 Palestine  have  been  long  famous.  In  the 
 Song  (6:11)  a  different  Hebrew  word  is 
 rendered  "nuts,"  and  is  supposed  to  des- 
 ignate walnuts.  According  to  Josephus  the 
 walnut  tree  was  formerly  common,  and  grew 
 most  luxuriantly  around  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
 nesaret. 
 
 Nsrm'phas,  a  wealthy  and  zealous 
 Christian  in  Laodicea  (Col.  4  :  15).  His 
 house  was  used  as  a  place  of  assembly  for 
 the  church. 
 
380 
 
 OAK— OBED-EDOM. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak,  Six  Hebrew  words,  which  appear 
 to  be  various  forms  of  the  same  root,  occur 
 in  the  Old  Testament  as  tlie  names  of  sev- 
 eral varieties  of  the  oak.  There  is  much 
 difficulty  in  determining  the  exact  mean- 
 ings of  these  words.  Some  of  them  are 
 thought  to  indicate  the  terebinth  or  turpen- 
 tine tree,  which  abounds  in  Syria  and  Pal- 
 estine ;  others  of  them  unquestionably  in- 
 dicate the  oak  proper,  but  without  such  de- 
 scriptive particulars  as  would  enable  one 
 to  state  the  specific  differences.  As  the 
 terebinth  and  the  oak  are  large,  wide- 
 gpreading,  majestic  trees,  they  were  notice- 
 able landmarks  and  served  to  fix  the  lo- 
 cality of  important  events  (Gen.  35  :  8 ; 
 Josh.  24  :  26;  Judg.  6  :  11  ;  2  Sam.  18  : 
 9;  1  Kings  13  :  14;  1  Chron.  10  :  12). 
 
 Oath,  a  solemn  affirmation,  with  an  ap- 
 peal to  God  for  the  truth  of  what  is  affirm- 
 ed (Heb.  6  :  16).  The  forms  of  adjuration 
 mentioned  in  Scripture  are  these :  1 .  Lift- 
 ing up  the  hand  (Gen.  14  :  22 ;  Deut.  32  : 
 40) ;  2.  Putting  the  hand  under  the  thigh 
 of  the  person  to  whom  the  promise  was 
 made  (Gen.  24  :  2,  3  ;  47  :  29)  ;  3.  Stand- 
 ing before  the  altar  or  in  a  position  look- 
 ing toward  the  temple  (1  Kings  8  :  31  ;  2 
 Chron.  6  :  22) ;  4.  Dividing  a  victim  and 
 pjjssing  between  or  distributing  the  pieces 
 (Gen.  15  :  10,  17  ;  Jer.  34  :  18).  The  sanc- 
 tity of  the  oath  was  carefully  inculcated  by 
 the  Law,  and  the  crime  of  perjury  was  vis- 
 ited with  the  same  punishment  which  was 
 due  to  the  crime  respecting  which  the  false 
 witness  testified  (Lev.  19  :  12;  Deut.  19  : 
 16-19 ;  Ezek.  16  :  59  ;  Zech.  8  :  17).  Friv- 
 olous oaths,  which  in  our  Lord's  time  had 
 become  common,  were  by  him  strongly  con- 
 demned (Matt.  5  :  33-37  ;  23  :  16-22).  The 
 stringent  nature  of  the  Roman  military 
 oath  and  the  penalties  attached  to  the  in- 
 fraction of  it  are  alluded  to  in  the  New 
 
 Testament  (Acts  12  :  19  ;  16  :  27  ;  27  :  42). 
 The  Christian  practice  in  the  matter  of 
 oaths  was  founded  on  the  Jewish,  the  oath 
 on  the  Gospels  being  an  imitation  of  the 
 Jewish  custom  of  placing  the  hands  on  the 
 book  of  the  Law. 
 
 O-ba-di'ah  [^xervant  of  Jehovah],  the 
 name  of  twelve  pei-sons  mentioned  in 
 Scripture,  of  whom  two  only  need  be 
 singled  out. 
 
 1.  A  godly  man  and  principal  officer  in 
 the  household  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  by 
 whose  interposition  one  hundred  prophets 
 of  the  Lord  were  secreted  from  Jezebel 
 and  supplied  with  food  (1  Kings  18  :  3, 
 4). 
 
 2.  The  fourth  of  the  twelve  minor  proph- 
 ets (Ob.  1).  As  to  the  time  he  exercised 
 the  prophetic  function  Ave  know  nothing 
 with  certainty,  but  the  brief  prophecy 
 which  bears  his  name  furnishes  some  evi- 
 dence that  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Jere- 
 miah, and  wrote  after  the  first  but  before 
 the  final  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. The  book  of  his  prophecy 
 is  a  sustained  denunciation  of  the  Edom- 
 ites,  melting  into  a  vision  of  the  future 
 glories  of  Zion. 
 
 O'bed  \_servant,  i.  e.  of  Jehovah],  son 
 of  Boaz  and  Ruth  the  Moabitess  (Ruth  4  : 
 17).  Wherever  in  Scripture  he  is  men- 
 tioned he  is  uniformly  described  as  the  fa- 
 ther of  Jesse. 
 
 O'bed-E'dom  [servant  of  Edom'],  a 
 Levite,  said  to  be  a  GiUite  (2  Sam.  6:10, 
 11),  that  is,  a  native  of  the  Levitical  city 
 of  Gath-Rimmon  in  Manasseh,  which  was 
 a.ssigned  to  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  21  :  25). 
 After  the  death  of  Uzzah,  the  ark,  which 
 was  being  carried  from  the  house  of  Abin- 
 adab  in  Gibeah  to  the  city  of  David,  was 
 left  in  the  house  of  Obed-Edom,  where  it 
 remained    three  months.      The   blessing 
 
OBEISANCE— OFFERING. 
 
 381 
 
 which  came  on  the  house  of  Obed-Edom 
 for  the  ark's  sake  encouraged  David  to 
 remove  it  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  6  :  12). 
 Obed-Edom  and  his  sons  were  appointed 
 keepers  of  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle  (1 
 Chron.  16  :  38)  and  of  the  sacred  vessels 
 (2  Chron.  25  :  24). 
 
 O-bei^sance,  an  act  of  respect  and 
 courtesy  (Ex.  18  :  7 ;  1  Kings  1 :  16).  See 
 Bowing. 
 
 Ob-la'tion.     See  Offering. 
 
 O'ded  [lifting  up],  the  name  of  two 
 men. 
 
 1.  The  father  of  Azariah,  the  prophet  in 
 the  reign  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
 15:  1). 
 
 2.  A  prophet  of  Jehovah  in  Samaria  at 
 the  time  of  Pekah's  invasion  of  Judah. 
 On  the  return  of  the  victorious  army  with 
 the  two  hundred  thousand  cajjtives  of  Ju- 
 dah and  Jerusalem,  Oded  met  them  and 
 prevailed  upon  them  to  let  the  captives  go 
 free  (2  Chron.  28  :  9-15). 
 
 Of- fence',  a  trap-stick,  a  cause  of 
 stumbling.  This  term  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures often  means  that  which  causes  or  is 
 likely  to  cause  one  to  sin.  Our  Lord  is 
 called  a  "rock  of  offence"  (Rom.  9  :  33), 
 and  the  gospel  is  styled  "  the  offence  of 
 the  cross"  (Gal.  5:  11),  in  the  sense  that 
 the  Jews  made  them  an  occasion  of  offence 
 because  they  did  not  accord  with  their  no- 
 tions. We  are  bidden  in  Matt.  5  :  29,  30 
 not  to  allow  the  right  hand  or  the  right 
 eye  to  "  offend  "  us ;  that  is,  to  cause  us  to 
 sin.  In  like  manner,  the  expression  "  to 
 offend  one  of  our  Lord's  little  ones  "  (Matt. 
 18 :  6)  has  the  sense  of  putting  a  stumbling- 
 block  in  one's  way,  and  of  thus  causing 
 one  to  fall  or  to  commit  an  offence.  Tlie 
 word  offence  is  also  used  in  tlie  strict  sense 
 of  a  sill  or  a  transgression  of  God's  law 
 (Rom.  5  :  15,  17,  20). 
 
 Offer-ing,  anything  given  to  God  in 
 worship  (Gen.  4  :  3,  4).  The  offerings  re- 
 ferred to  in  Scripture,  and  especially  those 
 required  by  the  Levitical  Law,  are  com- 
 
 monly divided  into  two  classes,  bloody  and 
 bloodless.  Bloody  offerings  were  from  the 
 animal  kingdom  and,  as  sacrifices,  involv- 
 ed the  destruction  of  animal  life  or  blood- 
 shedding;  bloodless  offerings  were  from 
 the  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms,  and 
 as  gifts  expressed  either  the  supplication 
 or  the  thanksgiving  of  the  offerer.  The 
 bloody  offerings  were  of  oxen,  sheep,  goats, 
 turtle-doves  and  young  pigeons  ;  the  blood- 
 less offerings  were  of  corn,  meal,  bread, 
 honey,  incense,  salt,  silver,  gold  and  the 
 like. 
 
 Of  bloody  offerings  there  were  four 
 kinds — Burnt,  Sin,  Trespass  and  Peace. 
 Burnt-offerings  were  slain  animals,  the 
 blood  of  which  was  sprinkled  or  dashed 
 upon  the  altar  in  atonement  for  sin,  and 
 the  pieces  of  which  were  wholly  consum- 
 ed by  fire  (Lev.  1  :  2-17).  Sin-offerings 
 were  animal  sacrifices  in  atonement  for 
 sin,  offered  by  the  high  priest  for  himself 
 (Ex.  29  :  10-14),  for  the  nation  (Ex.  30  : 
 10;  Lev.  4:3;  16:9-16),  for  a  ruler 
 (Lev.  4  :  22-26),  or  for  a  private  person 
 (Lev.  4  :  27-35).  Trespass-offerings  were 
 sacrifices  presented  by  an  individual  who* 
 had  committed  any  trespass  or  had  con- 
 tracted any  ceremonial  defilement  (Lev. 
 5  :  1-19).  Peace-offerings  were  sacrifices 
 in  the  nature  of  thank-offerings  for  mer- 
 cies received,  consisting  of  slain  animals 
 with  various  appendages  (Lev.  3  :  1-17  ; 
 7  :  11-21). 
 
 Of  bloodless  offerings,  the  kinds  regu- 
 lated by  law  were  two — Meat-offerings  and 
 Drink-offerings.  Meat-offerings  accompa- 
 nied most  of  the  animal  sacrifices  (Ex. 
 29  :  40,  41),  and  were  gifts  of  fine  flour, 
 cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  with  oil  or 
 first-fruits  or  green  ears  of  corn  dried 
 (Lev.  2  :  1-16).  Drink-offerings  were 
 also  appendages  to  animal  sacrifices  ;  they 
 are  minutely  described  in  Ex.  29  :  40,  41 ; 
 Num.  28  :  7-31 ;  29  :  6-39. 
 
 Besides  the  offerings,  bloody  and  blood- 
 less, thus  adverted  to,  there  were  Heave- 
 
382 
 
 OG— OINTMENT. 
 
 offerings,  Wave-offerinr/s  and  FreewUt-offer- 
 ingx.  The  lieave-offering  was  either  part 
 of  the  animal  sacrificed,  as  the  shoulder 
 of  the  victim  heaved  up  toward  heaven 
 as  a  token  of  devotement  to  (iod  (Ex.  29  : 
 27),  or  bread  (Lev.  7  :  12-14),  or  the  first 
 produce  of  new  corn  (Num.  15  :  19-21), 
 or  the  tithes  (Num.  18  :  19-29),  or  the 
 captives  in  war,  beasts  and  men  (Num. 
 31  :  28-41).  The  wave-offering  was  also 
 a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  and  was  so  called 
 because  it  was  waved  before  the  Lord  by 
 the  priest  in  acknowledgment  of  the  di- 
 vine gifts  and  blessings,  especially  the 
 first-fruits  of  harvest  (Ex.  29  :  22-27  ; 
 Lev.  23  :  10-20).  The  freewill-offering 
 was  a  voluntary  gift  of  something  valu- 
 able in  token  of  dependence  and  service 
 (Lev.  22:18,  19,  29;  Num.  15:8-12; 
 Deut.  16  :  10-15 ;  Ezra  8  :  25-28). 
 
 All  these  offerings  were  typical  of  the 
 better  Cliristian  dispensation,  and  were 
 preparatory  thereto.  They  were  fitted  to 
 impress  the  worshipers  with  a  sense  of 
 God's  holiness  and  their  own  sinfulness, 
 of  the  necessity  of  atonement  for  sin  and 
 rf)f  salvation  from  sin.  They  were  fitted 
 also  to  keep  alive  in  all  worshipers 
 the  feeling  of  entire  dejiendence  on 
 God,  and  to  furnish  an  expression 
 of  the  hearty  gratitude  due  to  God 
 for  the  countless  benefits  of  his  prov- 
 idence and  grace. 
 
 Og  [gianQ,  an  Amoritish  king 
 of  Bashan  whose  rule  extended  over 
 sixty  cities  (Josh.  13 :  30).  He  was 
 one  of  the  last  representatives  of  the 
 giant  race  of  Refthaim,  and  was,  with 
 his  children  and  his  people,  defeated 
 and  exterminated  by  the  Israelites  at  Edrei 
 immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Sihon 
 (Deut  3:1-13;  Num.  32  :  33).  His  iron 
 bedstead  was  preserved  as  a  memorial  of 
 his  huge  stature  (Deut.  3  :  11). 
 
 Oil.  Of  the  numerous  substances,  ani- 
 mal and  vegetable,  which  were  known  to 
 the    ancients   as    yielding  oil,  the  olive- 
 
 berry  is  the  one  of  which  most  frequent 
 mention  is  made  in  Scripture  ( Ex.  27  :  20 ; 
 Deut.  8:8;  28  :  40).  Oil,  especially  the 
 olive,  was  prized  as  an  article  of  food  in 
 Canaan  (Lev.  7  :  10 ;  Deut.  12:17;  2 
 Chron.  2  :  10).  It  was  also  used  for  lamps 
 (Ex.  25  :  6;  27  :  20),  and  on  festive  and 
 joyous  occasions  for  ointment  (Ps.  23  :  5 ; 
 92  :  10  ;  104  :  15). 
 
 Oil  Tree.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  occurs  in  Neh.  8  :  15  (where  our 
 Authorized  Version  has  "  pine  branches  "), 
 in  1  Kings  6  :  23  (where  it  is  rendered 
 "olive  tree"),  and  in  Isa.  41  :  19  (where 
 it  is  translated  "  oil  tree").  With  the  ex- 
 ception of  the  pa.ssage  in  Nehemiah  it  in- 
 dicates the  olive  tree,  and  where,  as  in  said 
 passage,  it  is  mentioned  as  distinct  from 
 the  olive  tree,  it  may  perhaps  be  identified 
 with  the  zackum  tree  of  the  Arabs,  the 
 Balanites  jE<iyptiaca,  a  well-known  and 
 abundant  shrub  or  small  tree  in  the  plain 
 of  Jordan.  The  zackum  oil  is  held  in 
 high  repute  by  the  Arabs  for  its  medicinal 
 properties. 
 
 Oint'ment.  The  principal  uses  of 
 ointments  and  perfumed  oils  were  these : 
 
 Alabaster  Vessels  for  Ointiuents. 
 
 1.  Cosmetic  (Ruth  3:3;  Esth.  2:12; 
 Prov.  27  :  9,  IG ;  Eccles.  7  :  1 ;  9  :  8)  ;  2. 
 Funereal  (Matt.  26  :  12;  Mark  14  :  3,  8 ; 
 Luke  23  :  56 ;  John  12  :  3,  7  ;  19  :  40) ;  3. 
 Medicinal  (Isa.  1:6;  Jer.  8  :  22 ;  John  9  : 
 6;  Rev.  3  :  18) ;  4.  Ritual  (Ex.  30:23, 
 33 ;  37  :  29 ;  40  :  9,  15).  The  person  whose 
 business  it  was  to  compound  ointments  was 
 
OLD  TESTAMENT— OLIVES,   MOUNT  OF. 
 
 383 
 
 (Ex. 
 
 commonly  called  an  "apothecary" 
 30:  25;  Eccles.  10  :  1). 
 
 Old  Tes-ta'ment.    See  Scriptures. 
 
 OFive.     The  olive  tree  is  one  of  the 
 chief  vegetable  products  of  Palestine.     It 
 
 The  OUve-Bianch,  with  Fruit. 
 
 is  of  a  moderate  height,  with  knotty, 
 gnarled  trunk  and  a  smooth  ash-colored 
 bark  on  the  younger  trees  and  the  branches. 
 The  leaves  are  in  pairs,  lanceolate  in  shape, 
 of  a  dull  green  on  the  upper  and  hoary  on 
 the  under  surface.  The  flowers,  white, 
 appear  in  little  tufts  in  the  axils  of  the 
 leaves.  The  fruit  is  an  elliptical  drupe, 
 at  first  of  a  green  color,  but  gradually  be- 
 coming purple,  and  even  black,  with  a 
 hard,  stony  kernel.  It  blossoms  in  June, 
 and  ripens  from  August  to  September. 
 It  grows  slowly,  but  lives  to  an  immense 
 
 age.  Its  look  is  singularly  indicative  of 
 tenacious  vigor.  Those  who  see  the  olive 
 for  the  first  time  are  apt  to  be  disappoint- 
 ed by  the  dusty  color  of  its  foliage,  but 
 those  who  become  familiar  with  it  find  an 
 inexpressible  charm  in  the  rippling 
 changes  of  its  slender  gray-green 
 leaves.  It  is  more  closely  associat- 
 ed with  the  history  and  civilization 
 of  man  than  any  other  tree.  Many 
 of  its  scriptural  associations  are  sin- 
 gularly poetical.  When  the  waters 
 of  the  Flood  began  to  retire  its  foli- 
 age is  the  earliest  that  is  mentioned 
 by  name  (Gen.  8:11).  In  the  ear- 
 liest allegory  (Judg.  9:8,  9)  it  is 
 the  most  prominent  tree.  With 
 David  (Ps.  52  :  8 ;  128  :  3)  it  is  the 
 emblem  of  prosperity  and  the  di- 
 vine blessing.  With  the  later 
 j)rophets  (Jer.  11  :  16;  Hos.  14  :  6) 
 it  is  the  symbol  of  beauty,  luxu- 
 riance and  strength.  Among  all 
 civilized  nations  the  olive-branch 
 has  always  been  the  accepted  sign 
 of  peace.  The  olive  is  uniformly 
 enumerated  among  the  valued  trees 
 of  Palestine  (Deut,  6:11;  8:8; 
 28  :  40).  The  olive  oil  of  Pales- 
 ^IZ  tine  was  highly  prized,  and,  besides 
 the  immense  quantities  required  at 
 home  for  food,  for  burning  in  lamps 
 and  for  the  ritual  service,  was  large- 
 ly exported  to  Egypt  and  Phoenicia 
 (Hos.  12 : 1 ;  Ezek.  27  :  17).  The  kings  of 
 Israel  raised  a  part  of  their  revenue  in  oil 
 (2  Chron.  32  :  2^).  The  wood  of  the  tree 
 was  used  by  Solomon  for  making  the  cher- 
 ubim and  for  doors  and  posts  "  for  the  en- 
 tering of  the  oracle"  (1  Kings  6  :  23,  31, 
 32). 
 
 OPives,  Mount  of,  and  OPi-vet, 
 the  ridge  east  of  Jerusalem,  separated 
 from  the  city  by  the  narrow  ravine  of  the 
 Kidron,  the  Valley  of  .Jehoshaphat  (Zech. 
 14  :  4).  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
 olive  trees  which  once  abounded   on  it 
 
384 
 
 OLYMPAS— ON. 
 
 (Neh.  8  :  15).  It  is  about  a  mile  long 
 from  north  to  south,  and  presents  several 
 summits  or  slight  elevations  above  the 
 general  level.  Up  its  slopes  David  went 
 weeping  when  he  fled  from  .Jerusalem  at 
 the  outbreak  of  Absalom's  rebellion  (2 
 Sam.  15  :  30).  Upon  one  of  its  summits 
 Solomon  built  "  a  high  place  for  Chemosh 
 the  abomination  of  Moab"  (1  Kings  11  : 
 7),  and  this  summit,  the  most  southern 
 one,  was  in  after-times,  on  account  of  the 
 idolatrous  rites  there  practiced,  commonly 
 designated  "  the  Mount  of  Corruption"  (2 
 Kings  23  :  13).  The  chief  interest  of  Ol- 
 ivet, however,  is  derived  from  New  Testa- 
 ment associations.  It  was  a  favorite  resort 
 of  our  Lord  (John  8:1;  Luke  21  :  37). 
 Down  its  side  our  Lord  rode  when  making 
 his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Matt. 
 21  :  1 ;  Mark  11:1;  Luke  19  :  29,  37). 
 Here  our  Lord  sat  wlien  teaching  his  dis- 
 ciples, and  here  he  foretold  the  ruin  of  the 
 Holy  City  (Matt.  24  :  3 ;  Mark  13  :  1-3). 
 Hither,  after  his  last  passover  on  the  fear- 
 ful night  of  his  agony,  our  Lord  came 
 (Matt.  26  :  30  ;  Mark  14  :  26 ;  Luke  22  : 
 39;  John  18  :  1),  and  hence,  forty  days 
 after  his  resurrection,  in  the  full  view  of 
 his  disciples,  our  Lord  ascended  into 
 heaven  (Acts  1  :  9-12). 
 
 O-lym'pas,  a  Christian  at  Rome  to 
 whom  the  apostle  Paul  sent  salutations 
 (Rom.  16  :  15). 
 
 O'mar  [eloquent],  son  of  Eliphaz,  the 
 first-born  of  Esau  and  "duke  "  or  phylarch 
 of  Edom  (Gen.  36  :  11,  15;  1  Chron.  1  : 
 36). 
 
 O'me-ga  [S2],  the  last  letter  of  the 
 Greek  alphabet,  as  Alpha  [A]  is  the  first. 
 It  is  used  metaphorically  to  denote  the  end 
 (Rev.  1  :  8,  11). 
 
 O'mer,  a  Hebrew  dry  measure,  sup- 
 posed to  be  equal  to  about  six  pints. 
 
 Om'ri,  the  name  of  four  men,  of  whom 
 one  only  need  be  mentioned.  This  one 
 was  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of 
 Elah,   king  of   Israel    (1  Kings  16  :  16). 
 
 When  Elah  was  murdered  by  Zimri  at 
 Tirzah,  then  capital  of  the  northern  king- 
 dom, Omri  was  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
 Gibbethon.  As  soon  as  the  army  heard 
 of  Elah's  death  they  proclaimed  Omri 
 king.  Thereupon  he  broke  up  the  siege 
 of  Gibbethon  and  attacked  Tirzah,  where 
 Zimri,  as  king  of  Israel,  was  holding  his 
 court.  The  city  was  taken,  and  Zimri, 
 after  a  reign  of  seven  days,  perished  in 
 the  flames  of  the  palace.  Omri,  however, 
 was"  not  allowed  to  estal)lisli  his  dynasty 
 without  a  struggle  against  Tibni,  whom 
 "half  the  people"  (1  Kings  16  :  21)  de- 
 sired to  raise  to  the  throne.  The  civil 
 war  lasted  four  years.  After  the  defeat 
 and  death  of  Tibni,  Omri  reigned  six 
 years  at  Tirzah,  and  then  removed  his 
 capital  to  Samaria,  the  city  which  he 
 founded,  where  he  reigned  six  years  more. 
 He  was  a  vigorous  and  unscrupulous  ruler, 
 and  manifested  an  especial  anxiety  to 
 strengthen  his  dynasty  by  intercourse 
 and  alliances  with  foreign  states. 
 
 On  [li[/ht,  the  sun],  one  of  the  oldest 
 cities  in  the  world.  It  was  situated  in 
 Lower  Egypt,  some  ten  miles  north-east 
 from  the  present  Cairo.  It  is  first  men- 
 tioned in  Gen.  41  :  45,  where  it  is  said 
 that  Pharaoh  gave  to  Joseph  for  his  wife 
 the  daughter  of  Poti-pherah,  priest  of  On. 
 The  Septuagint  translates  On  by  Heliopolis, 
 which  means  in  Greek  "the  city  of  the 
 sun,"  and  in  referring  to  the  same  city 
 Jeremiah  (43  :  13)  designates  it  Beth-She- 
 mesh,  which  means  in  Hebrew  the  "  house 
 or  temple  of  the  sun."  According  to  He- 
 rodotus, it  was  one  of  the  four  great  Egyp- 
 tian cities  in  which  were  held  religious 
 festivals  attended  by  imposing  processions 
 and  solemn  ceremonies.  In  it  the  observ- 
 ance was  in  honor  of  the  sun.  For  gene- 
 rations On  was  the  chief  seat  of  I*]gyptian 
 science  and  the  school  to  which  many  il- 
 lustrious Greeks  resorted.  Its  site  is  now 
 marked  by  low  mounds,  the  only  remnant 
 of  its  ancient  magnificence  being  a  solitary 
 
ONAN— OPHRAH. 
 
 385 
 
 obelisk  of  red  granite,  sixty-eight  feet  high 
 and  covered  with  hieroglyphics. 
 
 O'nan,  the  second  son  of  Judah  by 
 the  Canaanitess,  "  the  daughter  of  Shua  " 
 (Gen.  38  :  4 ;  1  Chron.  2  :  3).  He  and  his 
 brother  Er,  because  of  their  wickedness  "in 
 the  sight  of  the  Lord,"  were  smitten  by  the 
 Lord  with  sudden  death  (Gen.  3S  :  7,  10), 
 before  the  family  of  Jacob  went  down  into 
 Egypt  (Gen.  46:  12 ;  Num.  26  :  19). 
 
 O-nes'i-mus  ^profitable'],  the  name 
 of  the  slave  in  whose  behalf  Paul  wrote 
 the  Epistle  to  Philemon.  He  was  a  na- 
 tive, or  at  least  an  inhabitant,  of  Colosss 
 (Col.  4  :  9).  Fleeing  from  his  master  and 
 taking  refuge  in  Rome,  where  in  the  midst 
 of  its  vast  population  he  could  best  be  con- 
 cealed, he  was  brought  into  contact  with  the 
 apostle,  and  was  savingly  converted  to 
 Christ.  He  returned  to  his  master  with 
 Paul's  beautiful  and  touching  letter ;  and, 
 although  we  have  no  direct  information 
 of  the  fact,  we  cannot  but  think  that  he 
 was  at  once  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a 
 freedman  and  to  the  honor  of  "  a  brother 
 beloved"  (Philem.  16,  17). 
 
 O-ne-siph^O-rus  [profit-bringing],  a 
 believer  of  Ephesus  who  came  to  Rome 
 during  the  second  imprisonment  of  Paul  in 
 that  city  (2  Tim.  1  :  16-18 ;  4  :  19),  and 
 who  in  behalf  of  the  apostle  displayed  a 
 noble  courage  and  a  rare  generosity. 
 
 On'ion.  The  word  in  its  plural  form 
 occurs  only  in  Num.  11  :  5.  From  time 
 immemorial  onions  have  been  a  favorite  ar- 
 ticle of  food  among  the  Egyptians.  The  on- 
 ions of  Egypt  are  much  milder  in  flavor  and 
 less  pungent  than  those  in  this  country. 
 
 O'no  [strong],  a  town  of  Benjamin  (1 
 Chron.  8  :  12).  After  the  Captivity  it  was 
 reoccupied  and  grouped  with  Lod  (Ezra 
 2  :  33 ;  Neh.  7  :  37).  A  plain  near  it  bore 
 its  name  (Neh.  6  :  2).  It  was  probably 
 near  Lod  or  Lydda. 
 
 On'y-cha.  The  word  occurs  only  in 
 Ex.  30  :  34  as  one  of  the  ingredients  of 
 the  sacred  perfume.  It  is  thought  to  be 
 25 
 
 the  operculum  of  a  shell-fish  {Strombus 
 lentiginosus). 
 
 On'yx,  the  translation  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  the  Hebrew  word  shoham, 
 but  in  the  passages  where  the  word  occurs 
 (Gen.  2  :  12;  Ex.  28  :  9,  20;  1  Chron.  29  : 
 2 ;  Ezek.  28  :  13  and  other  places)  there  is 
 nothing  to  aid  in  determining  its  significa- 
 tion. The  balance  of  authority  is  in  favor 
 of  some  variety  of  the  onyx. 
 
 O^phel  [the  hill,  swelling  mound],  a  part 
 of  ancient  Jerusalem  surrounded  and  for- 
 tified by  a  separate  wall  (2  Chron.  27  :  3 ; 
 33  :  14 ;  Neh.  3  :  26).  It  is  a  low  ridge, 
 extending  southward  from  the  temple-area 
 to  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  between  the  deep 
 Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  on  the  east  and 
 the  shallower  Tyropoeon  or  Valley  of  the 
 Cheeseraakers  on  the  west.  It  is  about  fif- 
 teen hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  by  two 
 hundred  and  ninety  broad,  and  its  flat  top 
 is  partly  tilled  and  partly  planted  with  olive 
 and  other  fruit  trees. 
 
 O'pliir,  celebrated  as  a  place  of  trade, 
 and  referred  to  in  about  one  dozen  places 
 in  the  Old  Testament  as  particularly  dis- 
 tinguished for  the  purity  and  plenty  of  its 
 gold  (Job  28  :  16).  Thither  Solomon  de- 
 spatched his  ships,  which  returned  with 
 gold,  precious  stones,  sandal-wood,  silver, 
 ivory,  apes  and  peacocks  ( 1  Kings  9  :  28 ; 
 10  :"ll ;  2  Chron.  8  :  18  ;  9  :  10,  21).  Its 
 geographical  site  is  much  disputed.  Whilst 
 more  than  a  score  of  countries  have  been 
 vigorously  advocated,  the  best  critics  now 
 hesitate  only  between  Africa,  Arabia  and 
 India. 
 
 Oph''rah  [female  fawn],  the  name  of 
 two  towns. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  Benjamin  (Josh.  18  :  23 ;  1 
 Sam.  13  :  17).  Eusebius  places  it  five  miles 
 east  of  Bethel,  and  in  keeping  with  this 
 Dr.  Robinson  found  a  town  called  el-Tai- 
 yibeh,  situated  on  a  conical  hill  in  the 
 midst  of  ancient  ruins  and  commanding 
 a  fine  view  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 
 
 2.  A  town  in  Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jor- 
 
386 
 
 ORACLE— ORNAN. 
 
 dan,  the  native  place  of  Gideon  and  the 
 scene  of  his  exploits  against  B;uil  after 
 the  angel  of  the  Lord  had  apprised  him 
 of  his  selection  as  the  deliverer  of  Israel 
 (Judg.  G  :  11-24).  Here  also,  after  his 
 accession  to  power,  Gideon  resided,  and 
 here  he  was  buried  (Judg.  8  :  27,  32). 
 The  site  of  it  is  not  known. 
 
 Or'a-cle,  the  holy  place  in  the  temple 
 whence  God  made  his  special  communica- 
 tions (1  Kings  8  :  6).  The  word  was  also 
 employed  to  express  what  God  spoke,  that 
 is,  his  word  or  revelation  ( 2  Sam.  1 G  :  23 ; 
 Acts  7  :  38 ;  Rom.  3:2;  Ileb.  5  :  12). 
 
 Or-dain',  Or-dain^ed.  These  words 
 are  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  denote 
 the  act  of  setting  one  apart  to  an  or- 
 der or  office  of  the  Christian  ministry 
 (Mark  3:  14;  Acts  1  :  22;  14  :  23;  1 
 Tim.  2:7;  Tit.  1  :  5).  The  sum  of  New 
 Testament  teaching  in  respect  to  ordina- 
 tion may  be  conveniently  stated  thus:  1. 
 Our  Lord  ordained,  in  the  sense  of  appoint- 
 ing his  disciples  to  ministerial  service  by 
 his  own  authority,  and  without  employing 
 any  exterior  ceremony,  2.  In  the  election 
 of  Mattliias  to  the  place  in  the  apostolic 
 office  from  Avhicli  Judas  fell  it  was  deem- 
 ed sufficient  to  ascertain  by  prayer  and  the 
 lot  whom  the  Lord  had  chosen ;  and  in 
 like  manner,  without  any  exterior  cere- 
 mony, "  he  was  numbered  with  the  eleven 
 apostles."  3.  The  laying  on  of  hands  as 
 a  ceremony  of  ministerial  ordination  was 
 first  practiced  by  the  apostles  in  the  case 
 of  tlie  seven  deacons,  in  immediate  se- 
 quence of  the  miracle  of  the  Pentecost. 
 4.  It  was  subsequently  practiced  in  the  or- 
 dination of  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  tiie 
 elders  of  the  New  Testament  Church.  5. 
 No  account  is  given  of  any  one  having 
 been  ordained  to  the  office  of  bishop  in 
 distinction  from  that  of  elder  ;  still  less  is 
 there  any  intimation  that  bishops  were  or 
 were  to  become  the  only  officers  in  the 
 Church  competent  to  ordain  ministerial 
 candidates,  whereas  elders  were  frequ'^ntly 
 
 if  not  always  associated  even  with  apostles 
 in  the  act  of  ordination. 
 
 Such,  as  to  form  and  ceremony,  wa.s 
 ministerial  ordination  as  practiced  in  the 
 apostolic  Churcli.  As  to  effect,  it  claimed 
 only  to  set  apart,  publicly  and  solemnly, 
 to  some  specific  service  and  office  in  the 
 church,  men  approved  and  called  of 
 God.  No  intimation  is  given  that  or- 
 dination conferred  priestly  functions  or 
 prerogatives  in  any  form  or  degree,  while 
 on  the  other  hand  various  cautions  are 
 given,  both  in  the  example  and  precepts 
 of  the  apostles,  against  such  an  idea. 
 
 O'reb  [a  rnrera],  the  name  of  a  sheik 
 of  tlie  Midianites,  who  with  Zeeb  ("  the 
 wolf")  invaded  Israel,  and  with  terrible 
 slaughter  was  overthrown  by  Gideon  (Judg. 
 7  :  25  ;  Ps.  83  :  1 1  ;  Isa.  10  :  26). 
 
 O'reb,  the  Rock  [the  raven's  crafi], 
 the  place  where  the  men  of  Ephraim  put 
 to  death  Oreb,  a  prince  of  Midian  (Judg. 
 7  :  25 ;  Isa.  10  :  26).  Its  locality  is  un- 
 known. 
 
 Or'g'an.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  probably 
 denotes  a  pipe  or  perforated  wind  instru- 
 ment. In  Gen.  4  :  21  it  appears  to  be  a 
 general  term  for  all  wind  instruments. 
 In  Job  21  :  12  it  indicates  wind  instru- 
 ments as  distinguished  from  stringed  in- 
 struments (harp)  and  instruments  of  per- 
 cussion (timbrel),  the  three  possible  kinds 
 of  musical  instruments. 
 
 O-ri'on.  The  Greek  name  of  a  bril- 
 liant constellation  seen  in  the  southern 
 hemispiiere  about  the  middle  of  Novem- 
 ber, called  by  the  Arabs  "  the  Giant,"  and 
 well  known  to  the  Hebrews  under  the 
 name  Kesil  (Job  9:9;  Amos  5:8).  The 
 "giant"  of  Oriental  astronomy  w;us  Nini- 
 rod  the  mighty  hunter,  who  for  his  impi- 
 ety was  fabled  to  have  been  bound  in  the 
 sky — a  notion  eclioed  by  the  Hebrew  name 
 of  the  constellation  and  by  the  expression 
 "bands  of  Orion  "  in  Job  38  :  31. 
 
 Or'nan,  the  form  in  which  the  name 
 
ORPAH— OUCHES. 
 
 387 
 
 of  the  Jebusite  king,  who  in  the  older 
 record  of  the  book  of  Samuel  is  called 
 Araunah,  is  given  1  Chron.  21 :  15-18,  20- 
 25,  28;  2  Chron.  3:1.    See  Araunah. 
 
 Or'pah  [a  hind'],  a  Moabitish  woman, 
 wife  of  Chilion,  son  of  Naomi,  and  thereby 
 sister-in-law  to  Euth  (Rnth  1  :  4,  14). 
 
 0''see  (Rom.  9  :  25),  a  form  of  the  name 
 of  the  proi)het  Hosea. 
 
 O-she^a  (Num.  13  :  8),  a  form  of  the 
 name  of  Joshua, 
 
 Os'pray.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  occurs  in  Lev.  11  :  13  and  Deut. 
 14  :  12  as  the  name  of  some  unclean  bird. 
 It  is  well  rendered  ospray  for  European 
 readers  as  an  approximate  title.  Tris- 
 tram would  make  it  the  short-toed  eagle, 
 a  fine  bird,  of  majestic  flight,  by  prefer- 
 ence a  reptile- feeder ;  but  he  judges  that 
 the  term  'asniyeh  includes  also  other  spe- 
 cies of  eagles. 
 
 Os''si-frage,  the  name  of  some  un- 
 clean bird  associated  with  the  ospray  in 
 Lev.  11  :  13  and  Deut.  14  :  12.  The  He- 
 brew name  of  the  bird  literally  means  the 
 "breaker,"  and  so  is  well  represented  by 
 the  ossifrage  or  "  bone-breaker,"  the  Lam- 
 mercjeyer  or  bearded  vulture,  one  of  the 
 largest  of  the  birds  of  prey. 
 
 Os'trich,  the  bird  of  the  desert — the 
 camel-bird,  as  the  Greeks  term  it.  Three 
 Hebrew  words  are  used  to  designate  it. 
 1.  The  first  word,  a  feminine  noun,  has 
 the  sense  "daughter  of  greediness,"  and 
 refers  to  the  voracity  of  the  ostrich,  a  well- 
 known  characteristic.  This  word  occurs 
 in  Lev.  11  :  16 ;  Deut.  14  :  15  ;  Job  30  : 
 29  ;  Isa.  34  :  13  ;  43  :  20 ;  Mic.  1 :  8,  where 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  it  is  erroneous- 
 ly rendered  "  owl."  2.  The  second  word, 
 the  masculine  form  of  the  preceding  fem- 
 inine noun,  occurs  in  Lam.  4  :  3,  where  the 
 context  shows  that  the  ostrich  is  intended. 
 3.  The  third  word,  derived  from  a  verb 
 which  means  to  lonil,  in  allusion  to  the 
 bird's  cry  at  night,  occurs  in  Job  39  :  13, 
 where  it  is  clear  from  the  whole  passage 
 
 (13-18)  that  ostriches,  and  not  "pea- 
 cocks," as  in  our  Authorized  Version,  are 
 intended.  Ostriches  are  gregarious,  from 
 families   consisting  of  a  male   with   one 
 
 Ostrich. 
 
 or  several  female  birds,  and  perhaps  a 
 brood  or  two  of  young,  up  to  troops  of 
 near  a  hundred.  They  are  the  largest  of 
 all  known  birds,  and  perhaps  the  swiftest 
 of  all  running  animals.  They  have  also 
 enormous  strength.  The  feathers  which 
 are  so  much  prized  are  the  long  plumes 
 of  their  wings.  The  best  of  these  feathers 
 come  from  Barbary  and  West  Africa. 
 
 Oth^ni-el  [my  strength  is  God],the  first 
 judge  in  Israel  after  the  death  of  Joshua. 
 He  was  the  son  of  Kenaz,  the  brother  of  Ca- 
 leb, of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  for  his  valor 
 in  seizing  the  city  of  Debir  or  Kirjath- 
 Sepher  was  rewarded  by  the  gift  of  Ach- 
 sah,  Caleb's  daughter,  in  marriage  (Josh. 
 15  :  16-19  ;  Judg.  1  :  11-15;  3  :  8-11). 
 
 Oucli''es  [setlinysl,  the  sockets  for  fas- 
 tening the  precious  stones  in  the  shoulder- 
 
388 
 
 OVEN— OX. 
 
 pieces  of  the  higli  priest's  epltod  (Ex.  28  : 
 11,  14,25;  39:  6,  13,  16). 
 
 Ov^en.  The  Eastern  oven  is  of  two 
 kinds,  fixed  and  portable.  The  former 
 is  found  only  in  towns  where  regular 
 bakers  are  employed  (Hos.  7:4);  the 
 latter  is  adapted  to  the  nomad  state.  It 
 consists  of  a  large  jar  made  of  clay,  about 
 three  feet  high  and  widening  toward  the 
 
 by  the  Helirew  term  some  animal  be  desig- 
 nated, the  screech-owl  {strix  Jiammea)  may 
 
 Portable  Oven. 
 
 bottom,  with  a  hole  for  the  extraction  of 
 the  ashes.  Eacli  household  possessed  such 
 an  article  (Ex.  8  :  3),  and  it  was  only  in 
 times  of  extreme  dearth  that  the  same 
 oven  sufficed  for  several  families  (Lev. 
 26  :  26).  It  was  heated  with  dry  twigs, 
 sometimes  with  grass  (Matt.  6  :  30),  and 
 the  loaves  were  placed  both  inside  and 
 outside  of  it. 
 
 OtvI.  Several  Avords  in  Hebrew  are 
 rendered  "owl"  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion, some  erroneously,  some  correctly. 
 For  the  passages  where  "  owl "  should  be 
 "ostrich."  see  Ostrich.  In  Lev.  11  : 
 17  ;  Deut.  14  :  16  ;  Ps.  102  :  6;  Isa.  34  : 
 11,  14,  15,  several  species  of  the  owl  are 
 most  probably  referred  to,  but  the  specific 
 differences  cannot  be  determined. 
 
 In  Isa.  34  :  14  our  Authorized  Version 
 has  "  screech-owl "  in  the  text  and  "  night- 
 monster  "  in  the  margin.  According  to  the 
 rabbins  the  word  thus  rendered  {lUilh)  de- 
 noted a  nocturnal  spectre  in  the  form  of  a 
 beautiful  woman,  that  carried  off  children 
 at  night  and  destroyed  them.    If,  however, 
 
 well  be  supposed  to  represent  it,  for  this 
 bird  is  found  in  Bible  lands,  and  is,  as  is 
 well  known,  a  frequent  inhabiter  of  ruined 
 places.  The  nocturnal  cry  of  this  bird  is 
 so  startling  that  it  would  naturally  impress 
 itself  on  the  minds  of  men  as  a  fit  image 
 of  solitude,  desolation  and  terror. 
 
 Ox.  In  the  rural  economy  of  the 
 Israelites,  as  in  that  of  the  ancient  Ori- 
 entals generally,  no  animals  were  held 
 in  higher  esteem  than  those  of  the  ox- 
 tribe  (Bovidie).  Oxen  were  used  for 
 ploughing  (Deut.  22  :  10 ;  1  Sam.  14 :  14), 
 for  treading  out  corn  (Deut.  25  :  4;  Hos. 
 10  :  11),  for  draught  purposes,  wlien  they 
 were  generally  yoked  in  pairs  (Num.  7  : 
 3;  1  Sam.  6:7),  as  beasts  of  burden  (1 
 Chron.  12  :  40)  ;  their  flesh  was  eaten 
 (Deut.  14  :  4;  1  Kings  1:9);  they  were 
 used  in  the  sacrifices  (Ex.  29  :  10;  Lev.  1 : 
 3) ;  and  their  females  (kine,  cows)  supplied 
 milk,  butter,  etc.  (Deut.  32  :  14 ;  2  Sam. 
 17  :  29 ;  Isa.  7  :  22).  -  Thus  it  appears  that 
 the  animals  of  the  ox-tribe  were  those  upon 
 which  the  Hebrews  most  relied,  and  to 
 which  they  were  required  by  the  Law  to 
 extend  a  special  care  and  protection  (Ex. 
 23  :  12 ;  Deut.  5  :  14 ;  25  :  4).  See  Bull, 
 Bullock  ;  also  Cattle. 
 
PADAN-AEAM— PALM  TREE. 
 
 389 
 
 Pa'dan-A'ram  [the  field  or  plain  of 
 A.ram  or  Syria),  same  as  Mesopotamia 
 (which  see). 
 
 Paint.  The  use  of  cosmetic  dyes  has 
 prevailed  in  all  ages  in  Eastern  countries. 
 Among  the  Hebrews,  however,  the  notices 
 of  it  are  few,  and  in  each  instance  it  seems 
 in  use  to  have  been  a  meretricious  art, 
 unworthy  of  a  woman  of  high  character. 
 Thus,  .lezebel  "painted  her  face"  (2  Kings 
 9  :  30) ;  thus,  too,  Jeremiah  (4  :  30)  and 
 Ezekiel  (23  :  40)  represent  painting  as 
 the  characteristic  of  a  harlot.  The  dye 
 commonly  used  was  a  mixture  of  burned 
 or  pulverized  antimony  and  zinc,  which 
 was  softened  with  oil  and  applied  to  the 
 eyes  by  a  pencil  or  short  smooth  style  of 
 ivory,  silver  or  wood,  which  was  drawn 
 between  the  closed  eyelids.  By  this  pro- 
 cess a  black  ring  was  formed  around  the 
 eyelids.  The  effect  was  an  apparent  en- 
 largement of  the  eye. 
 
 PaFace,  the  dwelling  of  a  king  (2 
 Chron.  9  :  11).  The  word  is  often  used 
 in  this  sense  in  the  Old  Testament.  In 
 the  New  Testament  it  is  specially  used 
 of  the  residence  of  the  Roman  govern- 
 or (which  was  either  the  palace  built  by 
 Herod  or  the  fortress  of  Antonia,  and 
 which  is  called  in  Mark  15  :  16  "the 
 praetorium")  and  of  the  dwelling  of  the 
 high  priest  (John  18  :  15).  The  word 
 "palace"  in  Phil.  1  :  13  means  the  prae- 
 torium at  Rome,  the  barracks  of  the  impe- 
 rial life-guards,  where  state  prisoners  like 
 Paul  were  kept  pending  trial.  See  Judg- 
 ment-hall. 
 
 PaPes-ti-na  and  PaPestine.  The 
 first  of  these  forms  occurs  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  three  times  (Ex.  15  :  14;  Isa. 
 14  :  29,  31) ;  the  second  but  once  (Joel  3  : 
 4).  In  each  case  the  Hebrew  word  is  Pd- 
 esheth,  which  in  Ps.  60  :  8 ;  83  :  7 ;  87  :  4 ; 
 
 108  :  9  is  rendered  either  "Philistia"  or 
 "  Philistines."  Hence  Palestine  means 
 Philistia  or  the  land  of  the  Philistines ; 
 that  is,  according  to  the  sense  of  "  Philis- 
 tines," the  land  of  strangers  or  emigrants. 
 It  became  afterward  the  designation  of 
 the  whole  land  of  the  Israelites,  and  is 
 now  a  well-known  name  of  the  Holy 
 Land.  Celebrated  as  this  country  is,  and 
 pre-eminent  above  all  lands  in  its  sacred 
 associations,  it  is  of  inconsiderable  extent, 
 being  in  length  not  more  than  one  hun- 
 dred and  thirty  miles,  and  in  breadth  on 
 the  south  seventy  miles,  on  the  north 
 about  forty  miles,  with  a  superficial  area 
 of  seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 square  miles.  Although  in  its  most  flour- 
 ishing periods  it  was  a  land  flowing  with 
 milk  and  honey,  rich  in  agricultural  prod- 
 ucts and  with  a  teeming  and  active  popu- 
 lation, it  is  now  for  the  most  part  solitary 
 and  barren,  exhibiting  in  its  ruined  cities, 
 its  unfilled  fields  and  its  oppressed  and 
 miserable  inhabitants  a  striking  contrast 
 to  its  former  condition.  War,  revolution, 
 earthquake  and  oppression  have  combined 
 with  the  ignorance  and  sins  of  its  inhabit- 
 ants to  render  it  what  it  is.  Peace,  good 
 government  and  godliness  may  restore  it 
 to  something  of  its  former  fruitfulness. 
 It  has  in  Scripture  several  names,  of 
 which  Palestine  and  the  Holy  Land  are 
 the  two  in  most  common  use  at  the  pres- 
 ent day.     See  Canaan. 
 
 Palin'er--woriii.  The  Hebrew  word 
 thus  rendered  occurs  only  in  Joel  1:4;  2  : 
 25 ;  Amos  4  :  9,  and  denotes  not  a  loexist, 
 as  some  have  maintained,  but  a  caterpil- 
 lar. 
 
 Palra  Tree.  The  Hebrew  name  of 
 this  tree  (tamdr)  embodies  the  leading 
 characteristics  of  it — namely,  the  erect- 
 ness,  tallness,  straightness  of  its  stem.     It 
 
390 
 
 PALSY— PARABLE. 
 
 grows  to  a  great  height,  from  sixty  to  one 
 hundred  feet ;  its  cylindrical  stem,  un- 
 broken by  branches,  is  canopied  at  the  top 
 with  a  cluster  of  enormous  leaves,  some 
 fan-shaped,  some  feathery,  in  tlie  shadow 
 of  which  are  sus- 
 pended great  clus- 
 ters of  fruit;  it  is 
 always  green,  ma- 
 jestic, beautiful ;  it 
 bears  fruit,  the 
 "date,"  from  six  to 
 ten  years  after  plant- 
 ing, and  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  allu- 
 sion in  Ps.  92  :  14 
 continues  to  be  pro- 
 ductive for  one  hun- 
 dred years.  The 
 Arabs  enumerate 
 three  hundred  and 
 sixty  uses  to  which 
 the  different  parts 
 of  the  palm  tree 
 may  be  applied.  A  tree  with  such  pecu- 
 liarities could  not  fail  to  attract  the  atten- 
 tion of  the  writers  of  any  country  where 
 it  is  indigenous,  and  hence  it  is  alluded  to 
 in  Scripture  very  often  :  Ex.  15  :  27  ;  Lev. 
 23:40;  Deut.  34  :  3;  Judg.  1:16;  3:13; 
 4:  5;  1  Kings  6  :  29;  Ps.  92  :  12;  Jer.  10  : 
 5;  John  12:  13;  Rev.  7  :  9. 
 
 Pal'sy,  or  Pa-raFy-sis,  a  disorder 
 which  deprives  the  limbs  of  sensation  or 
 motion,  or  both,  and  which,  since  its  im- 
 mediate cause  is  a  compression  on  the 
 brain,  is  not  infrequently  attended  with 
 imbecility  of  mind.  The  cure  by  our 
 Ijord  of  a  number  of  paralytics  is  record- 
 ed in  the  Gospels:  Matt.  4  :  24 ;  8  :  6,  13; 
 9  :  2,  6  ;  Mark  2  :  3,  4 ;  Luke  5:18;  John 
 5:  5. 
 
 Pam-phyl'i-a  [of  every  race'],  a  prov- 
 ince in  the  southern  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
 bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
 south,  Cilicia  on  the  east,  Pisidia  on  the 
 north  and  Lycia  on  the  west.    The  sea 
 
 between  it  and  the  island  of  Cyprus  is 
 called  the  Sea  of  Pamphylia  in  Acts  27  : 
 5.  As  visitors  from  Pamphylia  were  pres- 
 ent in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
 (Acts  2  :  1-10),  they  probably  carried  back 
 with  them  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel. 
 The  fii-st  place  in  Asia  Minor  which  Paul 
 visited  in  his  first  missionary  journey 
 was  Perga  in  Pamphylia  (Acts  13  :  13). 
 Thence  the  apostle  went  north,  but  before 
 leaving  Asia  Minor  returne<l  to  Pamphylia 
 (Acts  14  :  24,  25). 
 
 Pan^nag,  an  tmtranslated  Hebrew 
 word  occurring  in  P^zek.  27  :  17,  where 
 it  is  enumerated  among  the  articles  ex- 
 ported from  Palestine  to  Tyre.  It  may 
 be  translated  as  a  "sweet  confection." 
 It  is  represented  in  Palestine  now  by  the 
 Arabic  halaway,  a  putty-like  confection, 
 ordinarily  composed  of  pounded  nut-ker- 
 nels, spices,  oil  and  grape-syrup  (dibs). 
 
 Pa'per.     See  Writing  and  Books. 
 
 Pa'per-reed.  See  Reed  and  Bul- 
 rush. 
 
 Pa''phos,  a  city  on  the  western  ex- 
 tremity of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which 
 Paul  visited,  and  whose  governor,  through 
 his  instrumentality,  was  converted  to  the 
 faith  of  the  gospel  (Acts  13  :  6-12).  The 
 city  was  noted  for  the  worship  of  Venus, 
 who  is  fabled  to  have  risen  here  from  the 
 sea,  and  who  from  this  circumstance  is  often 
 called  the  Paphian  goddess.  It  contained 
 a  magnificent  temple  dedicated  to  Venus, 
 and  other  elegant  public  buildings.  It  is 
 now  a  poor  and  insignificant  place. 
 
 Par^a-ble.  This  word  is  derived  from 
 a  Greek  verb  which  signifies  to  set  aide  by 
 Hide,  and  so  is  employed  to  indicate  that 
 form  or  figure  of  speech  which  sets  two 
 things  in  juxtaposition  for  the  purpose 
 of  comparison.  It  corresponds  to  the  He- 
 brew word  (iiKishdl)  which  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  is  usually  rendered  proverb, 
 and  which,  equivalent  to  simililude,  is  ap- 
 plied sometimes  to  the  shortest  proverbs 
 (1  Sam.  10  :  12 ;  24  :  13 ;  2  Chron.  7  :  20), 
 
PARADISE. 
 
 391 
 
 sometimes  to  dark,  prophetic  utterances 
 (Num.  23  :  7,  18;  24  :  3;  Ezek.  20  :  49), 
 sometimes  to  enigmatic  maxims  (Ps,  78  : 
 2 ;  Prov.  1  :  6),  sometimes  to  metaphors 
 expanded  into  a  narrative  (Ezfk.  12  :  22). 
 In  the  New  Testament  the  word  "  parable  " 
 is  commonly  restricted  to  the  sense  of  a 
 hctitious  narrative  under  which  is  veiled 
 some  important  truth.  Our  Lord's  par- 
 ables, models  of  clearness  and  elegance 
 in  expression  and  of  pertinency  and  force 
 in  instruction,  may  be  ranged  into  groups 
 which  indicate  a  plan  or  order. 
 
 1.  The  group  embodying  the  laws  of 
 the  divine  kingdom,  and  drawn  from  the 
 material  realm.  To  this  group  belong 
 the  Sower  (Matt.  18;  Mark  4;  Luke  8), 
 the  Wheat  and  the  Tares  (Matt.  13),  the 
 Mustard-seed  (Matt.  13;  Mark  4),  the  Seed 
 cast  into  the  Ground  (Mark  4),  the  Leaven 
 (Matt.  13),  the  Pearl  of  Great  Price  (Matt. 
 13),  the  Net  cast  into  the  Sea  (Matt.  13). 
 
 2.  The  group  illustrative  of  human  na- 
 ture, and  drawn  from  the  moral  realm. 
 To  this  group  belong  the  Two  Debtors 
 (Luke  7),  the  Merciless  Servant  (Matt. 
 18),  the  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  10),  the 
 Friend  at  Midnight  (Luke  11),  the  Eich 
 Fool  (Luke  12),  the  Wedding-Feast  (Luke 
 12),  the  Fig  Tree  (Luke  13),  the  Great 
 Supper  (Luke  14),  the  Lost  Sheep  (Matt. 
 18;  Luke  15),  the  Lost  Piece  of  Money 
 (Luke  15),  the  Prodigal  Son  (Luke  15), 
 the  Unjust  Steward  (Luke  16),  the  Rich 
 Man  and  Lazarus  (Luke  16),  the  Unjust 
 Judge  (Luke  18),  the  Pharisee  and  the 
 Publican  (Luke  18),  the  Laborers  in  the 
 Vineyard  (Matt.  20). 
 
 3.  The  group  descriptive  of  the  consum- 
 mation of  the  divine  kingdom,  and  drawn 
 from  the  ultimate  distinction  in  human 
 character,  as  good  or  evil.  To  this  group 
 belong  the  Pounds  (Luke  19),  the  Two 
 Sons  (Matt.  21),  the  Vineyard  let  out  to 
 Husbandmen  (Matt.  21 ;  Mark  12 ;  Luke 
 20),  the  Marriage-Feast  (Matt.  22),  the 
 Wise   and    Foolish   Virgins    (Matt.   25), 
 
 the  Talents  (Matt.  25),  the  Sheep  and 
 the  Goats  (Matt.  25). 
 
 It  is  characteristic  of  the  several  Gos- 
 pels that  the  greater  portion  of  the  parables 
 of  the  fii"st  and  third  groups  belongs  to 
 Matthew,  the  evangelist  emphatically  of 
 the  kingdom,  whilst  those  of  the  second 
 group  are  found  for  the  most  pai't  in 
 Luke. 
 
 Par'a-dise.  The  word  is  of  Persian 
 origin,  and  has  the  sense  of  a  -park  or 
 (jarden.  It  does  not  occur  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 but  in  the  Septuagint  Version  it  is 
 used  to  translate  the  Hebrew  word  for 
 (jarden,  and  is  the  equivalent  for  Eden. 
 In  the  New  Testament  it  is  applied  figu- 
 ratively to  the  celestial  dwelling  of  the 
 righteous,  in  allusion,  doubtless,  to  the 
 garden  of  Eden  (2  Cor.  12:4;  Rev.  2  : 
 7).  It  is  quite  significant  that  the  word 
 "  paradise  "  nowhere  occurs  in  the  public 
 discourses  of  our  Lord  or  in  the  records 
 of  his  more  private  intercourse  with  the 
 disciples.  It  had  been  so  connected  in 
 popular  conception  with  the  thoughts  of 
 a  sensuous  happiness  that  it  was  not  the 
 fittest  or  the  best  word  for  those  whom  he 
 was  training  to  rise  out  of  sense-hued  con- 
 ceptions to  the  higher  notions  of  the  spir- 
 itual life.  For  the  disciples,  accordingly, 
 the  words  most  dwelt  on  are  "  the  king- 
 dom of  heaven  "  and  "  the  kingdom  of 
 God."  With  the  thief  dying  on  the  cross 
 (Luke  23  :  43)  the  case  was  different.  We 
 cannot  suppose  that  the  robber-outlaw  had 
 in  mind  any  other  than  the  most  rudiment- 
 ary forms  of  popular  belief.  The  answer 
 to  his  prayer  gave  him  what  he  most  need- 
 ed, the  assurance  of  immediate  rest  and 
 peace.  The  word  "  paradise  "  spoke  to 
 him,  as  to  other  Jews,  of  repose,  shelter, 
 joy — of  the  greatest  possible  contrast  to 
 the  thirst  and  agony  and  shame  of  tlie 
 cross.  Quite  significant,  also,  is  the  ab- 
 sence of  the  word  from  the  general  teach- 
 ing of  the  Epistles  and  from  the  glowing 
 
392 
 
 PARAN— PASIIUR. 
 
 symbolism  of  the  Revelatit)n.  Paul  uses 
 it  but  once  (2  Cor.  12  : 4),  to  designate 
 tlie  realm  of  the  glorified,  and  John  uses 
 it  but  once  (Rev.  2:7),  as  a  symbol  of 
 eternal  blessedness.  Tlie  word,  therefore, 
 furnishes  no  ground  for  those  ingenious 
 speculations  respecting  tlie  intermediate 
 state  which  many  Christian  writers  have 
 framed. 
 
 Pa-ran  [place  of  caves],  a  wilderness 
 or  desert  extending  from  the  borders  of 
 Judah  to  the  neighborhood  of  8inai.  It 
 was  in  and  near  this  great  desert  that 
 the  Israelites  performed  their  tedious  and 
 circuitous  journey  of  nearly  forty  years 
 (Num.  10:  12;  Deut.  1  :  19).  On  its 
 nortli-eastern  part,  perhaps,  was  the  Mount 
 Paran  to  which  Moses  and  the  prophet  Ha- 
 bakkuk  allude  (Deut.  33  :  2 ;  Hab.  3  :  3). 
 
 Parch'ment.    See  Writing. 
 
 Par'don,  the  act  of  forgiving  an  of- 
 fender, or  of  so  removing  the  guilt  of  sin 
 that  the  punishment  due  to  it  may  be  re- 
 mitted. The  Scriptures  represent  the  par- 
 don of  human  sin  as  the  act  of  God  alone 
 (Isa.  43  :  25 ;  55  :  7  ;  Mark  2:7;  Luke 
 5  :  21),  and  as  based  on  our  Lord's  work 
 of  atonement  (Acts  5  :  31 ;  13  :  38  ;  2  Cor. 
 5  :  19;  Eph.  1  :  7).  The  Scriptures  rep- 
 resent, also,  the  nature  of  pardon  under  a 
 variety  of  suggestive  and  substantially 
 similar  phrases,  such  as  a  covering  of  sin 
 (Ps.  32  :  1 ;  85  :  2),  a  non-imputation  of  sin 
 (Ps.  32  :  2),  a  blotting  out  of  sin  (Ps.  51  : 
 1),  a  non-remembrance  of  sin  (Heb.  8  : 
 12). 
 
 Par''iiie-nas,  one  of  the  seven  deacons 
 of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  6  :  5). 
 Nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 
 
 Par'thi-ans.  The  word  occurs  only 
 in  Acts  2  :  9,  where  it  designates  Jews  set- 
 tled in  Parthia,  originally  a  small  moun- 
 tainous district  lying  to  the  north-east  of 
 Media,  but  subsequently  that  great  Par- 
 thian kingdom  into  which  the  province 
 expanded.  The  record  in  the  Acts  indi- 
 cates how  widely  spread  were  members  of 
 
 the  Hebrew  family  in  the  first  century  of 
 our  era. 
 
 Par-ti'tion,  Mid'dle  Wall  of,  a 
 supposed  reference  to  tlie  wall  in  the  tem- 
 ple-area which  sejjarated  the  Court  of  Is- 
 rael from  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles  (Eph. 
 2  :  14).  It  is  figuratively  employed  by 
 the  apostle  Paul  to  denote  whatever  in  the 
 ceremonial  Law  separated  the  Jews  from 
 the  Gentiles.  This  ceremonial  Law,  which 
 made  the  Jews  a  separate  people,  was  bro- 
 ken down  by  our  Lord's  sacrificial  death, 
 and  thenceforward  Jew  and  Gentile  were 
 to  be  one  with  each  other  and  witli  God. 
 
 Greek  Partridge. 
 
 Par'tridge.  This  word  occui-s  only 
 in  1  Sam.  26  :  20  (where  David  compares 
 himself,  when  pursued  by  Saul,  to  a  par- 
 tridge hunted  upon  the  mountains),  and  in 
 Jer.  17  :  11.  Tlie  Greek  partridge  (Cac- 
 cabis  saxaiilis)  is  abundant  in  Syria,  and 
 at  the  present  day  is  run  down  by  men 
 armed  with  sticks. 
 
 Par-va'im  [easlo-n  regions'].  In  2 
 Chron.  3 :  6,  Solomon  is  said  to  have  used 
 the  "gold  of  Parvaim  "  in  embellishing 
 the  temple.  The  word  Parvaim  is  suppos- 
 ed by  some  to  indicate  a  place  where  the 
 purest  gold  was  found,  and  by  others  to 
 designate  indefinitely  tliose  Eastern  re- 
 gions whence  gold  of  fine  quality  was 
 brought. 
 
 Pash'ur,  the  name  of  two  noted  men. 
 
PASSION— PATMOS. 
 
 393 
 
 1.  A  priest,  the  son  of  Immer  and  a 
 contemporary  of  Jeremiah,  wlio  acted  so 
 as  to  incur  a  severe  threatening  from  that 
 prophet  (Jer.  20  :  1). 
 
 2.  Another  priest  in  the  time  of  Jere- 
 miah, the  son  of  Malchiah  (Jer.  38  :  1), 
 who  twice  came  in  contact  with  the  proph- 
 et, and  who  once  with  others  brouglit  about 
 the  prophet's  imprisonment.  His  family 
 were  among  those  who  returned  from  the 
 Captivity  (Neh.  7  :  41 ;  11  :  12). 
 
 Pas'sion  \_si(,ffering],  once  used  to  des- 
 ignate our  Lord's  painful  death  (Acts  1  : 
 3).  In  Acts  14  :  15  and  James  5  :  17  the 
 plural  form  of  the  word  is  found  in  the 
 expression  "  men  of  like  passions,"  where 
 tlie  writers  evidently  mean  ordinary  liu- 
 )nan  beings. 
 
 Pass'over,  the  first  and  most  import- 
 ant of  the  three  great  annual  festivals  on 
 which  the  male  population  of  the  Israel- 
 ites appeared  before  the  Lord  in  Jerusa- 
 lem. It  commemorated  tlie  exemption  or 
 passing  over  of  the  families  of  the  Israel- 
 ites when  the  destroying  angel  smote  the 
 first-born  of  Egypt  the  night  of  the  Exo- 
 dus (Ex.  12  :  1-51  ;  13  :  3-10).  After 
 the  Exodus  the  Levitical  Law  prescrib- 
 ed with  minute  accuracy  the  various 
 ceremonies  which  were  to  characterize 
 tlie  observance  of  the  festival  (Lev.  23 ; 
 4-14;  Num.  9  :  1-14;  28  :  16-25;  Deut. 
 16  :  1-6).  The  passover  was  a  striking 
 type  of  that  signal  deliverance  from  the 
 thraldom  of  sin  and  sense  and  Satan  which 
 the  sacrificed  Lamb  of  God  (1  Cor.  5:7) 
 has  achieved  for  his  people. 
 
 Pas'tor.  The  word  has  the  literal 
 sense  of  shepherd,  but  in  the  Scriptures  is 
 figuratively  applied  to  one  who  leads  the 
 flock  of  God's  people  (Jer.  2:8;  3:15; 
 Eph.  4 :  11).  Summarily  stated,  the  chief 
 duties  of  a  pastor  are  :  1 .  To  feed  the  flock 
 of  God  (1  Pet.  5:2);  2.  To  guide  its  mem- 
 bers in  the  pathway  of  duty  and  holiness 
 (1  Thess.  2  :  10-12)  ;  3.  To  guard  them, 
 so  far  as  may  be  possible,  from  moral  and 
 
 spiritual  evil  of  every  kind  (Acts  20  :  28, 
 29). 
 
 Pat'a-ra,  a  port  of  Lycia  in  Asia 
 Minor,  and  a  very  ancient  city,  at  which 
 Paul  changed  his  ship  for  one  bound  to 
 Phoenicia  (Acts  21 :  1,  2).  It  was  situated 
 on  the  sea,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Xan- 
 thus,  and  had  a  celebrated  temple  and  oracle 
 of  Apollo.  Ruins  of  great  extent  and  beau- 
 ty remain,  including  a  theatre,  some  baths, 
 a  triple  arch,  which  was  one  of  the  gates 
 of  the  city,  an  old  castle,  altars  and  col- 
 umns. Traces  of  its  walls  are  found,  but 
 drifting  sand  has  already  choked  its  har- 
 bor and  is  rapidly  burying  every  evidence 
 of  its  former  glory. 
 
 Path^ros,  a  name  given  to  Egypt  ( Isa. 
 
 11  :  11),  and  perhaps  to  that  district  of 
 Egypt  which  the  Greeks  afterward  called 
 Thebais,  and  which  we  now  know  as  Sais 
 or  Upper  Egypt  (Jer.  44  : 1,  15 ;  Ezek.  29  : 
 14). 
 
 Path-ru'sim,  the  plural  of  Pathros, 
 given  in  Gen.  10  :  13,  14;  1  Chron.  1  :  11, 
 
 12  as  the  fifth  in  order  of  the  sons  (that  is, 
 descended  tribes)  of  Mizraim,  who  colonized 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Pa'tience.  The  word  is  descriptive 
 of  an  attribute  of  God  and  an  excellence 
 of  man.  As  an  attribute  of  God  it  denotes 
 his  marvelous  long-suffering  amidst  nume- 
 rous and  heinous  provocations  (Rom.  15  : 
 5).  As  an  excellence  of  man  it  designates 
 that  calm,  resolute,  unfaltering  endurance 
 with  which  one  of  our  Lord's  followers 
 bears  the  evils  of  life  as  he  pursues  the 
 heavenward  way  (Rom.  12  :  12;  Heb.  12  : 
 
 1). 
 
 Pat'mos,  a  bare  and  rocky  island  in  the 
 ^gean  Sea,  about  twenty-eight  miles  in  cir- 
 cumference. Its  barrenness  and  desolation 
 coumiended  it  to  the  Roman  government  as 
 a  suitable  place  for  the  banisliment  and  con- 
 finement of  the  worst  criminals.  To  this 
 dreary  spot  the  apostle  John  was  banished 
 by  the  emperor  Domitian  "  for  the  testi- 
 mony of  Jesus  Christ"  (Rev.  1  :  9),  and 
 
394 
 
 PATRIARCH— PAUL. 
 
 Patnios. 
 
 here  among  the  vilest  characters  he  was 
 forced  to  live.  Here  too  he  was  favored 
 with  those  visions  from  heaven  which 
 have  invested  Patmos  with  such  real  inte- 
 rest to  every  Christian.  In  the  Middle 
 Ages  the  island  bore  the  name  of  Pal- 
 vioi^a ;  now  it  is  called  Palino.  The  chief 
 inhabited  site  of  the  island  is  the  town  at- 
 tached to  the  single  port  and  situated  on  a 
 high  rocky  mountain.  It  contains  about 
 four  hundred  houses,  whilst  the  landing- 
 place  or  port  below  lias  about  fifty  houses. 
 Upon  the  island  tliere  are  also  some  scat- 
 tered hamlets.  About  halfway  up  the 
 mountain  from  the  port  to  the  town  is 
 shown  a  grotto  in  the  rock  where  the 
 apostle  John  is  supposed  to  have  wit- 
 nessed his  visions  and  to  have  written 
 the  Revelation. 
 
 Pa^tri-arch  [head  of  afnmily  or  tribe}. 
 The  name  is  applied  in  the  New  Testament 
 to  Abraham  (Heb.  7  :  4),  to  the  sons  of 
 Jacob  (Acts  7  :  8,  9)  and  to  David  (Acts 
 2  :  29).  It  is  apparently  intended  to  be 
 equivalent  to  the  phrase  the  "  head "  or 
 "  prince  of  a  tribe,"  so  often  found  in  the 
 
 Old  Testament.  In  commou  usage  the 
 title  of  patriarch  is  assigned  especially  to 
 those  whose  lives  are  recorded  in  Scrip- 
 ture previous  to  the  time  of  Moses. 
 
 Pat'ri-mo-ny  [an  inkented  estate]. 
 The  word  occurs  but  once  in  Scripture 
 (Deut.  18  :  8),  but  the  thought  pervading 
 it  is  frequently  referred  to.  Every  Israel- 
 ite had  his  patrimony,  which  could  not  be 
 permanently  alienated.  This  wise  provis- 
 ion was  a  barrier  against  the  evils  of  over- 
 grown estates,  against  the  oppression  of 
 the  unfortunate,  against  the  emigration  of 
 the  Hebrews  and  against  the  influx  of 
 foreigners.     See  Inheritance. 
 
 Paul,  the  specially  appointed  "  apostle 
 to  the  Gentiles,"  and  in  many  respects  the 
 mf)st  distinguished  among  the  apostles. 
 He  was  of  pure  Hebrew  descent,  but  of 
 his  parents  we  know  nothing,  except  that 
 his  father  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
 (Phil.  3  :  5)  and  a  Pharisee  (Acts  23  :  6) ; 
 that  by  some  means  he  had  acquired  tlie 
 Roman  franchise  (Acts  22  :  28) ;  and  that 
 he  was  settled  in  Tarsus  (Acts  21  :  39). 
 The   Jewish   name  which  Paul   received 
 
PAUL. 
 
 395 
 
 from  his  parents,  and  which  he  bore  up  to 
 the  time  of  his  conversion  and  call  to  the 
 apostleship,  was  "Saul"  (Acts  9  :  1).  At 
 Tarsus  he  learned  to  use  the  Greek  lan- 
 guage with  freedom  and  force  in  speaking 
 and  writing.  At  Tarsus  also  he  learned 
 that  trade  of  "tentmaker"  (Acts  18  :  3) 
 at  whicli  he  afterward  occasionally  wrought. 
 WJien  a  boy  he  was  removed,  for  the  sake 
 of  education,  to  the  Holy  City  of  his  fa- 
 thers, and  was  enrolled  among  the  pupils 
 of  "  Gamaliel,"  one  of  the  most  eminent 
 of  all  the  doctors  of  the  Law  (Acts  22  : 
 3). 
 
 Whilst  yet  "  a  young  man "  (Acts  7  : 
 58)  he  arrayed  himself  against  the  form- 
 ing Church  of  Christ,  and  proved  himself 
 a  determined  persecutor.  Having  under- 
 taken to  follow  up  the  believers  "  unto 
 strange  cities,"  he  naturally  turned  liis 
 thoughts  to  Damascus.  What  befell  him 
 as  he  journeyed  thither  is  related  in  detail 
 three  times  in  the  Acts — first  by  tlie  histo- 
 rian Luke  (Acts  9  :  3-19),  then  in  the  two 
 addresses  by  himself,  the  one  at  Jerusalem 
 (Acts  22  :  1-21),  the  other  before  Agrippa 
 ( Acts  26 : 2-2G ) .  In  the  narrative  the  mani- 
 festation of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God  is  the 
 main  point ;  and  in  the  life-work  upon 
 which  he  now  enters  the  demonstration 
 that  Jesus,  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  is 
 the  Saviour  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  is  the 
 leading  topic  of  his  ministry  (Acts  13  : 
 47).  Of  his  many  and  perilous  journeys, 
 of  his  privations  and  persecutions,  of  his 
 indefatigable  labors  in  founding  and  train- 
 ing churches,  our  limited  space  forbids  us 
 to  speak  in  detail.  The  history  in  the 
 Acts  is  supplemented  by  numerous  par- 
 ticulars in  the  Epistles  which  he  wrote 
 to  churches  and  individuals.  Everywhere 
 and  always  he  appears  as  the  devout  and 
 devoted  missionary  of  the  cross.  We 
 have  no  account  in  Scripture  of  his  death, 
 but  when  he  wrote  his  Second  Epistle  to 
 Timothy  he  evidently  anticipated  a  speedy 
 martyrdom  (2  Tim.  4  :  6-8) ;  and  accord- 
 
 ing to  the  concurrent  testimony  of  eccle- 
 siastical antiquity  he  was  beheaded  at 
 Rome  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Nero. 
 All  the  statements  and  traditions  re- 
 specting the  apostle's  personal  appearance 
 which  have  come  down  to  us  agree  in 
 ascribing  to  him  a  short  stature,  a  long 
 face,  a  high  forehead,  aa  aquiline  nose, 
 close  and  prominent  eyebrows.  Other  cha- 
 racteristics mentioned  are  baldness,  gray 
 eyes,  a  clear  complexion  and  a  winning 
 expression.  A  strong  body  he  must  have 
 had  to  endure  such  journeys  and  hardships 
 (2  Cor.  11  :  23-28),  and  he  unquestionably 
 had  an  extraordinary  will-power.  His 
 speeches  and  letters  convey  to  us  as  we 
 read  them  the  truest  impressions  of  those 
 qualities  which  helped  to  make  him  the 
 great  apostle.  We  perceive  the  warmth 
 and  ardor  of  his  nature,  his  deeply  affec- 
 tionate disposition,  the  tenderness  and 
 truth  of  his  sense  of  honor,  the  courtesy 
 and  personal  dignity  of  his  bearing,  his 
 perfect  fearlessness,  his  heroic  endurance ; 
 we  perceive  the  rare  combination  of  sub- 
 tlety, tenacity  and  versatility  in  his  intel- 
 lect ;  we  perceive  also  a  practical  wisdom 
 which  is  usually  associated  with  a  cooler 
 temperament  and  a  tolerance  which  is 
 seldom  united  with  such  impetuous  con- 
 victions. When  he  first  comes  before  us 
 in  the  history  we  see  a  man  of  intense 
 energy,  firm  decision,  iron  resolution  and 
 uncompromising  zeal ;  and  these  qualities, 
 tempered  by  purer  religious  feeling,  guid- 
 ed by  higher  knowledge  and  modified  by 
 experience,  continue  to  characterize  him 
 so  long  as  he  appears  upon  the  stage  of 
 life.  His  natural  mental  endowments 
 were  of  the  highest  order.  He  had  great 
 breadth  of  view,  great  clearness  of  appre- 
 hension, a  capacity  of  firmly  grasping 
 principles,  the  power  of  arranging  his 
 thoughts  in  their  proper  logical  form,  and 
 the  ability  to  utter  them  in  forcible  and 
 fitting  words.  In  his  moral  development 
 everything  is  great  and  noble.    To  honesty 
 
396 
 
 PAUL. 
 
 of  purpose  and  sincerity  of  speech  he  add- 
 ed humility  and  self-distrust,  generous  re- 
 gard for  the  welfare  of  others,  a  tender 
 sympathy  with  those  he  loved  and  a 
 philanthropy  that  embraced  the  race ; 
 while  the  absence  of  everything  mean, 
 mercenary  or  selfish,  and  a  noble  devoted- 
 ness  at  whatever  cost  to  the  interests  of  a 
 great  cause,  combine  to  shed  around  a  cha- 
 racter in  other  respects  so  beautiful  traits 
 of  a  wellnigh  unapproachable  sublimity 
 and  grandeur.  We  feel  that  here  is  a  man 
 to  be  at  once  admired  and  loved  ;  a  teacher 
 at  whose  feet  one  might  sit  with  unhesitat- 
 ing docility  :  a  friend  on  whose  bosom  one 
 might  lean  with  confidence  and  affection. 
 The  vigorous  intellect  and  the  large  heart 
 which  belonged  to  him  by  nature  would 
 have  brought  him  distinction  under  any 
 circumstances;  but  his  highest  claim  to 
 honor  is  derived  from  his  having,  under 
 the  constraining  power  of  the  love  of 
 Christ,  consecrated  himself,  body,  soul 
 and  spirit,  to  the  service  of  God  in  pro- 
 moting the  best  interests  of  men.  In  this 
 respect  he  stands  foremost  among  the  he- 
 roes of  the  Church  and  the  benefactors  of 
 the  human  race. 
 
 For  the  sake  of  convenient  reference 
 the  three  missionary  journeys  of  Paul  and 
 the  points  touched  at  in  his  voyage  to  Rome 
 are  subjoined : 
 
 THE  THREE    MISSTONARY  .TOURNEYS  OF 
 PAUL   THE  APOSTLE. 
 
 I.  With  Barnabas  and  John  Mark 
 (Acts  13,  14). 
 
 Antioch  (in  Syria),  the  centre  of  Gen- 
 tile evangelization.  Leaving  Antioch  when 
 specially  called  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  mis- 
 sion-work, the  three  go  to 
 
 Seleucia  ( porta/  Antioch),  whence  they 
 sail  to  the  island  of 
 
 Cyprus  (the  native  place  of  Barnabas), 
 landing  at  the  eastern  extremity,  and 
 preaching  in  the  synagogues  of 
 
 Salamis  (a  populous  mercantile  port). 
 
 Thence  they  traversed  the  island  (one 
 hundred  miles)  to 
 
 Paphos,  its  western  extremity,  the  cap- 
 ital city.  Here  Elymas  was  struck  blind, 
 and  the  Roman  pro-consul,  Sergius  Paulus, 
 converted.  Here  this  name  "  Paul  "  first 
 appears,  and  thenceforward  replaces  that 
 of  "  Saul."  They  crossed  to  the  southern 
 shore  of  Asia  Minor,  landing  at 
 
 Perga,  the  ancient  port  of  Pamphylia, 
 whence  goods  from  the  interior  were  ex- 
 ported. Here  John  Mark  returned  home. 
 The  next  point  reached  was 
 
 Antioch  (in  Pixidia),  wliere  the  great 
 road  from  Ephesus  into  Asia  intei-sected 
 the  southern  road.  It  was  a  Roman  col- 
 ony. They  preached  in  tlie  synagogue 
 one  Sabbath  to  Jews  and  the  next  to 
 Greeks.  Ijected  by  the  rulers,  they  fol- 
 lowed the  great  road  to 
 
 ICONIUM  {capital  of  Lycaonia).  They 
 remained  here  "a  long  lime,"  making 
 many  converts,  till,  a  factious  mob  at- 
 tempting to  stone  them,  they  fled  to 
 
 Lystra,  a  small  rural  town  inhabited 
 by  heathens,  who,  upon  the  cure  of  a 
 cripple  by  Paul,  treated  the  two  evangel- 
 ists at  first  as  gods,  but  subsequently,  upon 
 the  representations  of  Jews  from  Iconium, 
 stoned  them  as  impostors.  Thence  they 
 fled  to 
 
 Derbe,  a  small  town,  where  they  rested 
 awhile,  and  then  returned  through  Lys- 
 tra, Iconium,  Antioch,  Perga,  sailing  from 
 the  latter  place  to 
 
 Antioch,  whence  tliey  had  gone  forth. 
 Here  they  remained  six  or  seven  years. 
 
 II.  With  Silas  (Acts  15  :  36-18  :  22). 
 
 Antioch  (in  Syria),  the  starting-point, 
 whence  they  went  by  land  through 
 
 Syria  and  Cilicia,  confirming  the 
 churches  and  delivering  the  decrees  of 
 the  apostles  and  elders  in  respect  to  Gen- 
 tile Christians.  Thence  across  the  moun- 
 tains to 
 
 Derbe  and  Lystra,  where  Paul  cir- 
 
PAUL. 
 
 cumcised  Timothy,  whom  he  took  with 
 him  through 
 
 Pheygia  and  Galatia.  Forbidden  in 
 the  latter  province  by  the  Spirit  to  go  into 
 the  province  of  Asia,  Paul  went  into 
 
 Mysia,  but,  forbidden  again  to  make 
 his  proposed  journey  to  Bithynia,  he  was 
 divinely  guided  to 
 
 Troas,  where  he  met  with  Luke  the 
 evangelist.  Here  he  had  a  vision  of  a 
 Macedonian  inviting  him  to  Greece.  He 
 embarked,  touched  at 
 
 Samothkacia,  and  landed  at 
 
 Neapolis,  the  seaport,  whence  he  went 
 up  by  land,  across  the  Pharsalian  plain,  to 
 
 Philippi  (in  Macedonia),  a  Roman  "col- 
 ony," or  possessed  of  the  same  laws  and 
 riglits  as  those  of  Rome,  the  imperial  city. 
 Here  Lydia  was  converted,  the  sorceress 
 exorcised  and  Paul  and  Silas  scourged  and 
 imprisoned.  Upon  the  miraculous  release 
 of  Paul  and  Silas  from  prison,  and  after  the 
 conversion  and  baptism  of  the  jailer  and 
 his  household,  the  two  intrepid  preachers 
 of  the  gospel  left  Luke  and  Timothy  at 
 Philippi,  and  passed  through 
 
 Amphipolis  and  Apollonia  to 
 
 Thessalonica  (metropolis  of  Macedo- 
 nia), where  they  spent  three  Sabbaths. 
 Assailed  by  a  Jewish  mob,  they  escaped 
 to 
 
 Berea  (a  city  of  Macedonia),  where 
 they  were  well  received  till  persecutors 
 followed  them.  Paul,  leaving  Silas  be- 
 hind, and  also  Timothy,  who  had  joined 
 them,  came  by  sea  to 
 
 Athens  (capital  of  Attica),  where  he 
 waited  for  his  companions,  and  where,  on 
 Mars'  Hill,  he  preached  a  memorable  ser- 
 mon.    He  went  thence  to 
 
 Corinth  (capital  of  Achaia),  a  great 
 commercial  centre,  which  for  eighteen 
 months  he  made  the  head-quarters  of  his 
 evangelistic  work.  Here  he  was  joined 
 by  Silas  and  Timothy,  and  here  he  wrote 
 the  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians.  He 
 sailed  from 
 
 Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of  Corinth, 
 to 
 
 Ephesus  (a  splendid  city  of  Ionia,  Asia 
 Minor),  where  he  left  Aquila  and  Pris- 
 cilla,  and  went  on  to 
 
 C^SAREA,  whence  he  journeyed  by 
 land,  as  is  supposed,  to  Jerusalem  to  keep 
 the  feast  of  Pentecost.     He  returned  to 
 
 Antioch,  liis  place  of  departure,  and  re- 
 mained there  "sometime" — probably  less 
 than  a  year. 
 
 III.  With  Timothy  (Acts  18  :  23-21  : 
 33). 
 
 Antioch  (in  Syria),  starting-point ; 
 thence  through 
 
 Galatia  and  Phrygia,  of  which  no 
 incidents  are  recorded,  to 
 
 Ephesus,  where  Paul  spent  three  event- 
 ful years.  Persecution  becoming  bitter, 
 he  was  sent  by  his  friends  to 
 
 Macedonia,  where  he  visited  and  en- 
 couraged his  converts  in  the  various  places 
 visited  in  the  second  journey.  Thence  he 
 passed  into 
 
 Greece,  where  he  stayed  three  months, 
 visiting,  probably,  the  churches  at  Cor- 
 inth and  in  the  province  of  Achaia.  Hin- 
 dered and  waylaid  by  the  Jews,  he  sent 
 Timothy  and  several  other  friends  who 
 had  joined  him  to  Troas,  and  by  some  se- 
 cret and  unrecorded  route  made  his  way 
 to 
 
 Philippi,  where  he  was  joined  by  Luke. 
 The  two  sailed  thence  together,  and  in  five 
 days  reached 
 
 Troas,  where  Paul  with  his  companions 
 remained  seven  days.  His  companions 
 sailed  for  Assos,  whilst  he  walked  thither 
 round  the  coast.     At 
 
 Assos  Paul  embarked,  and  they  touched 
 successively  at 
 
 Mitylene,  Trogyllium,  Miletus 
 (near  to  Ephesus),  Patara,  where  they 
 changed  vessels,  embarking  on  one  sail- 
 ing direct  to  Syria.  They  landed  at 
 Tyre,  and    remained  there  seven  days; 
 
398 
 
 PAVEMENT— PEACOCK. 
 
 thence  to  Ptolemais  (Acre),  and  thence  to 
 Cfesarea.  After  many  days,  Paul,  accom- 
 panied by  a  number  of  friends,  went  up  by 
 land  to  Jerusalem,  where,  after  a  time,  he 
 was  seized  by  a  mob,  from  whom  the  Ro- 
 man chief  captain  extricated  him,  put 
 him  in  prison,  and  sent  him  to  Csesarca, 
 to  Felix  the  governor. 
 
 The  Voyage  of  Paul  the  Prisoner  to 
 Rome,  with  certain  other  prisoners,  un- 
 der charge  of  Julius,  a  centurion  of  the 
 Augustan  cohort : 
 
 Cfesarea.  Paul  sailed  thence  on  a 
 vessel  bound  for  Adramyttium,  touching 
 at 
 
 SiDON,  where  he  visited  liis  friends. 
 Thence  to  leeward  of 
 
 Cypri'S  (that  is,  on  the  north  side),  un- 
 der the  shores  of  Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  to 
 Myra  (a  city  of  Lycia),  where  he  was 
 transferred  to  an  Alexandrian  corn-ves- 
 sel bound  for  Italy,  which  coasted  along 
 the  southern  shore  of  Asia  Minor  to 
 
 Cnidus,  the  extreme  south-west  prom- 
 ontory. There  the  wind  and  current  from 
 the  archipelago  caught  and  drove  the  ship 
 southward  to 
 
 Crete,  where,  rounding  Cape  Salmone 
 and  getting  under  tlie  shelter  of  the  south- 
 ern coast,  they  sailed  along  it  to 
 
 Fair  Havens,  where  Paul  advised  that 
 they  should  winter.  The  harbor,  however, 
 being  incommodious,  they  tried  to  reach 
 
 Phenice,  which  had  a  harbor  sheltered 
 toward  the  north-west  and  south-west. 
 They  were  caught  by  the  wind  Eurocly- 
 don  or  Euraquilon,  from  the  north-west, 
 but  under  the  shelter  of 
 
 Clauda  (an  island  south-west  of  Crete) 
 they  prepared  for  a  tempest  by  striking 
 sail,  undergirding  the  ship,turning  her  head 
 to  the  wind,  and  lying  to,  so  as  to  avoid  be- 
 ing driven  on  the  "Syrtes"  to  the  north  of 
 Libya.  They  drifted  slowly  west  by  north 
 thirteen  and  a  half  days,  when  they  ran 
 the  ship  aground  in  a  creek  of 
 
 Melita  (Malta),  where  by  swimming 
 or  on  j)ortions  of  the  wreck  they  reached 
 land.  After  three  months  they  sailed  in 
 an  Alexandrian  corn-ship  by 
 
 Syracuse  (Sicily),  where  they  stayed 
 three  days ;  thence  to 
 
 Rhegium  (Italy),  where  tliey  staj'ed 
 one  day ;  thence  to 
 
 Puteoli,  in  the  Bay  of  Naples,  where 
 they  rested  seven  days ;  thence  by  the 
 Appian  Way  to  Appii  Forum,  where 
 brethren  from  Rome  met  Paul  and  ac- 
 companied liim  to 
 
 Rome,  where  the  apostle,  in  the  cus- 
 tody of  a  soldier  to  whom  he  was  chained, 
 remained  two  full  years  in  his  own  hired 
 house. 
 
 Pave'ment.    See  Garbatha, 
 
 Pa-vil'ion,  a  tent  or  temporary  taber- 
 nacle erected  for  shelter  against  the  heat 
 of  the  sun  (1  Kings  20  :  12).  It  is  also 
 used  poetically  for  the  dwelling  of  God 
 (Ps.  18:11),  and  to  image  the  absolute  se- 
 curity of  those  whom  God  there  shelters 
 (Ps.  27  :  5;  31  :  20). 
 
 Peace.  The  original  words  in  the  He- 
 brew and  Greek  Scriptures  thus  rendered 
 properly  mean  health,  prosperity,  welfare. 
 Accordingly,  "peace"  is  a  word  which  is 
 used  in  our  Authorized  Version  in  difi'er- 
 ent  senses.  Generally  it  denotes  quiet  and 
 tranquillity,  public  or  private,  but  often 
 prosperity  and  happiness  of  life.  Spirit- 
 ual peace  is  deliverance  from  the  bondage 
 and  penalty  of  sin,  by  which  we  are  at 
 enmity  with  God  (Rom.  5:1);  the  re- 
 sult is  peace  in  the  conscience  (Heb.  10  : 
 22).  Tliis  peace  is  the  gift  of  God  through 
 Jesus  Christ  (2  Thess.  3  :  16).  It  is  a 
 blessing  of  great  value  (Ps.  119  :  165). 
 It  is  denominated  perfect  (Isa.  26  :  3),  in- 
 expremhle  (Phil.  4  :  7),  permanent  (John 
 14  :  27  ;  16  :  22),  eternal  (Heb.  4:9). 
 
 Peace-OfFering.    See  Offering. 
 
 Peacock.  Peacocks  are  iftentioned 
 among  the  articles  which  Solomon's  fleet 
 brought  from  Tarshish  (1  Kings  10  :  22; 
 
PEAELS— PELICAN. 
 
 399 
 
 2  Chron.  9  :  21).  As  the  Hebrew  word 
 by  which  they  are  designated  is  identical 
 with  the  Tamil  word  by  which  they  are 
 
 Peacock. 
 
 now  designated  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  it 
 is  most  probable  that  Southern  India  was 
 one  of  the  foreign  countries  reached  by 
 Solomon's  fleet. 
 
 Pearls,  rounded  concretions  of  shelly 
 matter  deposited  within  the  valves  of  the 
 pearl-oyster.      They   are   mentioned    but 
 
 Pearl  Oyster  and  Pearls. 
 
 once  in  our  Authorized  Version  of  the 
 Old  Testament  (Job  28  :  18),  where  the 
 Hebrew    word    thus    rendered    probably 
 
 means  "crystal."  They  are  frequently 
 mentioned,  however,  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment (Matt.  13  :  45;  1  Tim.  2:9;  Rev. 
 17:4;  21:21).  The  "pearl  of  great 
 price"  (Matt.  13  :  4(3)  is  doubtless  a  fine 
 specimen  yielded  by  the  pearl-oyster 
 {Avicula  maryuritlferd),  still  found  in 
 abundance  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Pearls 
 are  also  found  on  the  Syrian  coast. 
 
 Peep.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Version  (Isa.  8  : 
 19;  10  :  14)  means  to  chirp  or  to  chatter, 
 as  young  birds.  In  Isa.  29  :  4  it  is  ren- 
 dered ivhkper ;  in  Isa.  38  :  14  it  is  ren- 
 dered challer.  In  the  passages  where 
 it  is  rendered  peep  it  refers  to  the  low 
 sounds  which  necromancers,  as  ventrilo- 
 quists, caused  to  come  from  the  ground, 
 and  which  they  claimed  to  be  the  voices 
 of  departed  spirits. 
 
 Pe'kah  [an  opening,  as  of  the  eyes], 
 son  of  Remaliali,  originally  a  captain  of 
 Pekahiah,  king  of  Israel,  the  murderer  of 
 his  master  and  the  usurper  of  the  throne 
 (2  Kings  15  :  25).  After  a  reign  of  twen- 
 ty years  he  was  assassinated  by  Hoshea, 
 who  seized  the  throne  (2  Kings  15  :  30). 
 
 Pe-ka-hi'ah  [Jehovah  opens  (he  eyes'], 
 son  and  successor  of  Menahem,  king  of 
 Israel  (2  Kings  15  :  23).  After  a  brief 
 reign  of  scarcely  two  years,  a  conspir- 
 acy against  him  was  organized  by  Pe- 
 kah,  who  murdered  him  and  seized  the 
 throne. 
 
 Pe'kod,  an  appellative  applied  to  the 
 Chaldfeans  ( Jer.  50  :  21 ;  Ezek.  23  :  23), 
 but  its  meaning  is  disputed. 
 
 Pe'leg  [(livisionl,  son  of  Eber  and 
 brother  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10:  25;  11  :  16). 
 His  name  was  given  him  because  "in  h's 
 days  was  the  earth  divided."  This  refers 
 to  a  division  of  Eber's  family,  the  young- 
 er branch  of  whom  (the  Joktanites)  mi- 
 grated into  Southern  Arabia,  while  the 
 elder  remained  in  Mesopotamia. 
 
 PePethites.    See  Cherethites. 
 
 PePi-can,  an  unclean  bird  mentioned 
 
400 
 
 PEN— PENTECOST. 
 
 in  Lev.  11  :  18;  Deut.  14:  17.  It  resem- 
 bles the  goose,  though  nearly  twice  as 
 large.  Its  bill  is  fifteen  inches  long,  is 
 broad  and  flat,  and  is  terminated  by  a 
 strong,  crooked  and  crimson-colored  nail. 
 The  female  has  an  enormous  pouch  or 
 bag,  capable  of  holding  ten  quarts  of  water 
 and  food.  It  is  classed  with  the  birds  that 
 delight  in  solitary  and  desolate  places,  and 
 its  cry  is  harsh  and  melancholy  (Ps.  102  : 
 6;  Isa.  34:  11  ;  Zeph.  2: 14).     In  the  pas- 
 
 Pelican. 
 
 sages  cited  from  Isaiah  and  Zephaniah 
 our  Authorized  Version  has  "  cormorant," 
 but  the  rendering  should  be  "pelican." 
 See  Cormorant. 
 
 Pen.     See  Writing. 
 
 Pe-ni'el  and  Pen'u-el  [face  of  God}, 
 the  place  on  the  bank  of  the  brook  Jabbok 
 where  Jacob  wrestled  in  his  mysterious 
 conflict  with  the  angel  of  the  covenant 
 (Gen.  32  :  24-32).  It  derives  its  name 
 from  the  gracious  issue  of  this  conflict. 
 Its  site  was  probably  marked  at  first  by  a 
 simple  memorial  stone,  but  five  hundred 
 years  afterward  Gideon,  in  pursuing  the 
 Midianites,  found  here  a  city  and  tower, 
 Avhich  he  destroyed  (Judg.  8  :  17).  It 
 was  subsequently  rebuilt  by  Jeroboam  (1 
 Kings  12  ;  25).  Its  precise  locality  is  un- 
 known. 
 
 Pen^knife.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version  ( Jer. 
 36  :  23)  literally  means  "  the  scrivener's 
 
 knife."     It  was  used  to  sharpen  the  point 
 of  the  writing-rced. 
 
 Pen'ny,    Pen'ny-worth.       These 
 words,  wherever  in  our  Autliorized  Ver- 
 
 Denarius  of  Vespasian. 
 
 sion  they  occur,  are  the  rendering  of  the 
 Roman  cknarius  (Matt.  20  :  2 ;  22  :  19 ; 
 Mark  6 :  37;  12  :  15;  Luke  20  :  24;  John 
 6:7;  Rev.  6:6),  a  silver  coin  of  about 
 fifteen  cents  in  value. 
 
 Pen'te-cost  [the  fiftieth],  the  second 
 of  the  three  great  annual  festivals  on  which 
 all  the  male  Israelites  were  required  to  ap- 
 pear before  the  Lord  in  the  national  sanc- 
 tuary, and  which  was  celebrated  seven 
 complete  weeks,  or  fifty  days,  after  the 
 Passover  (Lev.  23  :  15,  16).  It  was  the 
 Jewish  harvest-home,  and  the  people 
 were  especially  exhorted  to  rejoice  be- 
 fore Jehovah  as  they  brought  their  free- 
 will oflTerings  (Deut.  16 :  10,  11).  It  is  the 
 only  one  of  the  three  great  feasts  which  is 
 not  mentioned  as  the  memorial  of  events 
 in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  But  such  a 
 significance  exists  in  the  fact  that  the  Law 
 was  given  from  Sinai  on  the  fiftieth  day 
 after  the  deliverance  from  P^gypt  ( Ex.  chs. 
 12, 19).  The  typical  significance  of  the  Pen- 
 tecost is  made  clear  from  the  events  of  the 
 day  recorded  in  the  second  chapter  of  the 
 Acts.  The  preceding  passover  had  been 
 marked  by  the  sacrifice  upon  the  cross  of 
 tiie  true  Paschal  Lamb.  The  day  of  Pen- 
 tecost found  his  disciples  assembled  at  Je- 
 rusalem, like  the  Israelites  before  Sinai, 
 waiting  for  "  the  promise  of  the  Father." 
 Again  did  God  descend  from  heaven  in 
 fire,  to  pour  forth  that  Holy  Spirit  which 
 gives  the  spiritual  discernment  of  his  law, 
 and  the  converts  to  Peter's  preaching  were 
 
PENUEL— PERFUMES. 
 
 401 
 
 the  first-fruits  of  the  spiritual  liarvest  of 
 which  our  Lord  had  long  before  assured 
 the  disciples.  Just  as  the  appearance  of 
 God  on  Sinai  was  the  birthday  of  the  Jew- 
 ish nation,  so  was  that  Pentecost  the  birth- 
 day of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 Pen'u-el.     See  Peniel. 
 
 Pe^or  [the  deft,  oipening'],  a  mountain  in 
 Moab,  to  the  top  of  which  Balak  the  king 
 brought  Balaam  the  prophet,  that  the  lat- 
 ter might  see  at  a  glance  and  blast  with  a 
 curse  the  whole  host  of  Israel  (Num.  23  : 
 28).  As  the  Israelites  were  then  encamp- 
 ed on  the  east  bank  of  the  Jordan,  near  the 
 north-east  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Peor  must 
 have  been  east  or  south-east  of  them.  Pro- 
 fessor Paine  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
 Society  has  plausibly  identified  the  pre- 
 cise peak  denominated  Peor  with  the 
 second  of  the  three  summits  of  Pisgah 
 (Jebel  Sidghah).  From  the  reference 
 in  Num.  25  :  18  and  31  :  16  to  "the  mat- 
 ter of  Peor,"  and  the  reference  in  Josh. 
 22  :  17  to  "  the  iniquity  of  Peor,"  it  would 
 seem  that  wherever  was  the  locality  of 
 Mount  Peor,  upon  its  summit  stood  the 
 temple  of  the  Midianitish  idol  Baal-Peor, 
 and  upon  its  slope,  near  its  base,  stood  the 
 Moabitish  town  Beth-Peor,  "  over  against " 
 which  Moses  was  buried  (Deut.  34  :  6). 
 See  Pisgah. 
 
 Per'a-zim,  Mount,  a  name  which 
 occurs  only  in  Isa.  28  :  21,  and  which  is 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Baal-Pera- 
 ZIM  (which  see). 
 
 Per-di'tion.  In  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion this  word  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament, and  rarely  in  the  New,  but  the 
 idea  which  it  conveys  runs  through  tlie 
 whole  of  Scripture.  The  general  sense  of 
 the  Greek  word  thus  rendered  in  the  New 
 Testament  is  that  of  loss;  as  the  loss  of 
 property,  spoken  of  as  waste  (Matt.  26  : 
 8 ;  Mark  14  :  4) ;  the  loss  of  bodily  life, 
 spoken  of  as  death  (Acts  25  :  16) ;  and  the 
 loss  of  eternal  blessedness,  spoken  of  some- 
 times as  destruction,  sometimes  as  perdi- 
 26 
 
 tion,  and  sometimes  as  damnation  (Matt. 
 7:13;  Acts  8  :  20 ;  Eom.  9  :  22 ;  Phil.  1 : 
 28 ;  3  :  19 ;  1  Tim.  6:9;  Heb.  10  :  39 ; 
 2  Pet.  2  :  1,  3;  3  :  7,  16;  Rev.  17  :  8,  11). 
 In  all  the  passages  where  the  word  perdi- 
 tion actually  occurs  the  loss  of  eternal 
 life  is  clearly  meant.  The  Scriptures 
 teach  that  there  are  persons  who  die  in 
 their  sins  (John  8  :  24),  who  have  no  for- 
 giveness (Matt.  12  :  31),  who  have  God's 
 wrath  abiding  on  them  (John  3  :  36),  who 
 rise  to  the  resurrection  of  damnation  (John 
 5  :  29),  who  depart  from  Christ  (Matt.  7  : 
 23)  into  outer  darkness  (Matt.  8  :  12)  and 
 into  a  furnace  of  fire  (Matt.  13 :  50).  There 
 these  unliappy  persons  reap  the  fruit  of 
 their  actions  done  here,  being  accursed 
 and  utterly  degraded.  In  John  17  :  12 
 and  2  Thess  2  :  3,  Judas  and  Antichrist 
 are  denominated  each  "  the  son  of  perdi- 
 tion," by  which  we  are  to  understand  that 
 perdition  marks  both  the  character  and 
 destiny  of  the  persons  spoken  of.  Per- 
 dition, therefore,  is  not  annihilation.  To 
 represent  perdition  as  equivalent  to  anni^ 
 hilation  is  to  wrest  the  Scriptures  and 
 to  teach  ruinous  error. 
 
 Pe''res  [diindedl,  in  its  jdural  Upharsin, 
 one  of  the  mysterious  words  in  the  doom 
 pronounced  on  Belshazzar  (Dan.  5  :  28). 
 See  Uphaksin. 
 
 Pe'rez-Uz'zah  [the  breach  of  Uzzah], 
 the  name  given  to  the  place  between  Kir- 
 jath-jearim  and  Jerusalem  where  Uzzali 
 was  struck  dead  for  rashly  and  irreverent- 
 ly taking  hold  of  the  ark  (2  Sam.  6:8). 
 The  site  is  unknown. 
 
 Per-fec'tion,  completeness,  whole- 
 ness, freedom  from  defect.  It  is  ascribed 
 to  God  absolutely  (Matt.  5  :  48),  to  man 
 comparatively  (1  Cor.  2:6;  Phil.  3  :  15). 
 Noah  and  Job  (Gen.  6:9;  Job  1  :  1),  be- 
 cause of  the  simplicity  of  their  faith  and 
 the  godly  completeness  of  their  lives  are 
 described  as  "perfect." 
 
 Per'fumes.  The  free  use  of  perfumes 
 was   peculiarly  grateful  to  the  Orientals 
 
402 
 
 PERG  A— PERSIA. 
 
 (Prov.  27  :  9).  The  Hebrews  manufac- 
 tured their  perfumes  chiefly  from  spices 
 imported  from  Arabia,  and  to  a  certain 
 extent  from  aromatic  plants  growing  in 
 their  own  country.  Perfumes  entered 
 largely  into  the  temple-service  in  the  two 
 forms  of  incense  and  ointment  (Ex.  30  : 
 22-38).  Nor  were  they  less  used  in  pri- 
 vate life ;  they  were  applied  not  only  to 
 the  person,  but  also  to  garments  (Ps.  45  : 
 8)  and  to  beds  (Prov.  7  :  17). 
 
 Per'ga,  a  town  of  Pamphylia  in  Asia 
 Minor,  situated  on  the  river  Cestrus,  some 
 distance  from  its  mouth.  It  was  originally 
 the  capital  of  the  whole  province,  but  when 
 Pamphylia  was  divided  it  became  the  cap- 
 ital of  the  part  in  which  it  lay.  Near  it, 
 on  an  eminence,  stood  a  celebrated  temple 
 of  Diana.  Its  site  has  been  identified,  and 
 is  marked  by  extensive  remains  of  vaulted 
 and  ruined  buildings.  It  was  twice  visited 
 by  Paul  (Acts  13:  13;  14:  25). 
 
 Per^'ga-raos,  a  city  of  Mysia  in  Asia 
 Minor,  about  sixty-four  miles  north  of 
 Smyrna,  on  the  north  bank  of  tlie  river 
 Caicus,  at  the  base  and  on  the  declivity 
 of  two  steep  mountains,  which  define 
 one  of  the  loveliest  and  most  productive 
 valleys  in  the  world.  Two  hundred 
 years  before  the  Christian  era  it  became 
 the  residence  of  the  princes  of  the  family 
 of  Attains,  under  whose  patronage  it  be- 
 came a  seat  of  literature  and  the  arts, 
 and  was  noted  for  its  library,  consisting 
 of  two  hundred  thousand  volumes.  This 
 library  was  removed  to  Egypt  by  Antony, 
 who  presented  it  to  Cleopatra,  and,  being 
 added  to  the  celebrated  library  of  Alex- 
 andria, was  eventually  burned.  In  Per- 
 gamos  were  many  splendid  temples  de<l- 
 icated  to  Jupiter,  to  Minerva,  to  Apollo 
 and  to  Esculapius.  In  it  also  was  one  of 
 the  "seven  churches  of  Asia"  (Rev.  1:11) 
 which  is  commended,  although  the  mag- 
 nificent city  around  it  is  characterized  as 
 "  Satan's  seat"  (Rev.  2  :  12-17).  Its  mod- 
 ern name  is  Bergavui,  with  a  population 
 
 of  about  twenty  thousand,  most  of  them 
 Turks,  but  a  few  of  them  Greek  and  Ar- 
 menian Christians.  The  remains  of  the 
 ancient  city  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
 Corinthian  and  Ionic  columns  which  are 
 lying  mutilated  in  unsightly  heaps. 
 
 Per'iz-zites,  one  of  the  nations  in- 
 habiting the  Land  of  Promise  before  and 
 at  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  Israel  (Gen. 
 15  :  20 ;  Ex.  3:8,  17  ;  Deut.  7:1;-  Josh. 
 3  :  10). 
 
 Per^sia,  the  great  empire  founded  by 
 Cyrus,  whicli  at  the  period  of  its  greatest 
 prosperity  comj)rehended  all  the  Asiatic 
 countries  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
 Indus,  and  from  the  Black  and  Caspian 
 seas  to  Arabia  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  It 
 was  divided  into  several  provinces.  The 
 Medes  and  Persians  are  generally  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  in  conjunction,  and 
 most  probably  were  kindred  branches  of 
 that  great  Aryan  family,  which  under 
 different  names  ruled  the  A-ast  re- 
 gion between  Mesopotamia  and  what  is 
 now  known  as  Burmah.  In  the  time  of 
 Cyrus  (b.  c.  558)  the  Persian  empire  held 
 sway  over  both  Media  and  Persia.  The 
 most  interesting  circumstance  to  the  bib- 
 lical student  connected  with  this  empire 
 and  its  royal  master  was  the  permission 
 granted  by  Cyrus  to  the  captive  Jews  to 
 return  to  their  own  land  (2  Chron.  36  :  22, 
 23;  Ezra  6:3-5;  Isa.  44  :  28).  He  was 
 the  special  instrument  also  in  the  hand  of 
 the  Almighty  in  fulfilling  the  threatenings 
 against  Babylon  (Isa.  45  :  1-4;  46  :  1,  2; 
 47  :  1-15 ;  Jer.  chs.  50,  and  51).  The  Per- 
 sian monarch  who  permitted  the  Jews  to 
 rebuild  their  temple  was  Darius  Hystaspes 
 (Ezra  6  :  1-15).  Upon  his  death  (b.  c. 
 485)  Xerxes,  the  Ahasuerus  of  Esther 
 and  Mordecai  and  the  defeated  invader 
 of  Greece,  ascended  the  throne.  After  a 
 reign  of  twenty  years  Xerxes  was  assas- 
 sinated by  Artabanus,  who,  reigning  but 
 seven  pionths,  was  succeeded  by  Artax- 
 erxes  Longimanus,  the  king  wlio  stood  in 
 
PEESIS— PETEE. 
 
 403 
 
 such  friendly  relations  toward  Ezra  and 
 Nehemiab  (Ezra  7  :  11-28;  Neh.  2  :  1-9). 
 This  is  the  last  of  the  Persian  kings  who 
 had  any  special  connection  with  the  Jews. 
 The  empire  was  finally  overthrown  by 
 Alexander  the  Great.  In  later  ages  the 
 name  and  power  of  Persia  revived,  and 
 at  the  present  time  the  ancient  country 
 of  Cyrus  has  a  Mohammedan  sovereign 
 and  most  of  its  inhabitants  are  bigoted 
 adherents  of  Islaraism. 
 
 Per'sis,  a  Christian  woman  at  Eome 
 whom  Paul  salutes  (Rom.  16  :  12). 
 
 Pes^ti-lence.     See  Plague. 
 
 Pes'tle,  the  instrument  used  for  trit- 
 urating in  a  mortar  (Prov.  27  :  22).  See 
 Mortar. 
 
 Pet'er  [rock].  H!s  original  name  was 
 Simon,  that  is,  "hearer."  He  was  the 
 son  of  a  man  named  Jonas  (Matt.  16  :  17; 
 John  1  :  42;  21  :  16),  was  born  at  Beth- 
 saida  in  Galilee  (John  1  :  44),  and  was 
 brought  up  in  his  father's  occupation,  a 
 fisherman  on  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (Matt. 
 4:18).  It  is  probable  that  when  first  called 
 by  our  Lord  he  and  liis  brotlier  Andrew 
 were  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist.  The 
 13articulars  of  this  call  are  related  with 
 graphic  minuteness  by  the  evangelist  John. 
 It  was  then  that  our  Lord  gave  him  the 
 name  Cephas,  an  Aramaic  word  answer- 
 ing to  the  Greek  Peter,  and  signifying 
 a  stone  (John  1  :  35-42).  This  first  call 
 led  to  no  immediate  change  in  Peter's  ex- 
 ternal circumstances.  With  his  brother 
 Andrew  and  with  James  and  John,  prob- 
 ably all  partners  with  him  in  his  business, 
 he  returned  to  Capernaum  and  pursued  his 
 usual  occupation.  The  second  call  is  re- 
 corded by  Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke,  the 
 narrative  of  the  latter  being  apparently 
 supplementary  to  those  of  the  two  former. 
 It  took  place  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  near 
 Capernaum.  Peter  and  Andrew  were  first 
 called.  Our  Lord  then  entered  into  Simon 
 Peter's  boat  and  addressed  the  multitude 
 on  the  shore.     Immediately  after  that  call 
 
 our  Lord  went  to  the  house  of  Peter,  where 
 he  wrought  the  miracle  of  healing  on  Pe- 
 ter's wife's  mother.  The  special  designa- 
 tion of  Peter  and  his  eleven  fellow-disci- 
 ples as  apostles  took  place  some  time  after- 
 ward (Matt.  10:2-4;  Mark  3:13-19; 
 Luke  6  :  13-16).  The  distinction  which 
 our  Lord  accorded  him  and  perhaps  his 
 consciousness  of  ability,  energy,  zeal  and 
 absolute  devotion  to  his  Master's  person, 
 seem  to  have  developed  a  natural  tendency 
 to  rashness  and  forwardness  bordering  upon 
 presumption.  Tlie  exhibition  of  such  feel- 
 ings on  a  noted  subsequent  occasion  (Matt. 
 16:21-23;  Mark  8  :  31-33)  brought  upon 
 him  the  sternest  reproof  ever  addressed  by 
 our  Lord  to  a  disciple.  His  impulsive  dis- 
 position came  out  repeatedly  in  his  inter- 
 course with  the  Master,  and  notably  at  the 
 Last  Supper,  where  his  protestations  of  un- 
 alterable fidelity  were  soon  to  be  falsified 
 by  his  miserable  foil. 
 
 On  the  morning  of  the  resurrection 
 it  became  evident  that  Peter,  although 
 humbled,  was  not  utterly  crushed.  He 
 and  John  were  the  first  to  visit  the  sep- 
 ulchre, and  he  was  the  first  to  enter  it. 
 To  him  first  among  the  apostles  our  Lord 
 appeared,  and  toward  him  our  Lord  mani- 
 fested an  extraordinary  tenderness  in  re- 
 storing him  to  the  place  he  had  forfeited 
 and  in  commissioning  him  anew  to  feed 
 the  flock  of  God  (John  21  :  15-17).  Hence- 
 forth, he  with  his  colleagues  were  to  estab- 
 lish and  govern  the  Church  without  the 
 support  of  the  Master's  presence.  The 
 first  part  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is 
 occupied  by  the  record  of  transactions  in 
 nearly  all  of  which  Peter  stands  forth  as 
 the  recognized  leader;  he  is  the  most 
 prominent  person  in  the  greatest  event 
 after  the  resurrection,  when  on  the  day 
 of  Pentecost  the  Church  was  invested 
 with  the  plenitude  of  gifts  and  powers. 
 He  became  the  foremost  worker  of  mira- 
 cles and  the  selected  agent  to  convey  to 
 the  Gentiles  the  blessings  of  the  gospel. 
 
404 
 
 PETHOR— PHARISEES. 
 
 The  baptism  of  Cornelius  was  the  crown 
 and  consummation  of  Peter's  ministry 
 (Acts  ch.  10).  From  that  time  we  have  no 
 continuous  history  of  him.  He  left  Jeru- 
 salem, but  it  is  not  said  where  he  went. 
 He  was  probably  employed  for  the  most 
 part  in  building  up  and  completing  the 
 organization  of  Christian  communities  in 
 Palestine  and  the  adjoining  districts.  If 
 he  visited  Rome  at  all,  it  must  have  been 
 near  the  close  of  his  life.  Tradition  makes 
 him  a  martyr  at  Rome  by  crucifixion  at  or 
 about  the  time  when  Paul  suffered. 
 
 The  only  written  documents  which  he 
 left  are  the  two  Epistles  whicli  bear  his 
 name,  but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe 
 that  the  Gospel  of  Mark  embodies  the 
 substance  of  his  oral  instructions.  See 
 Mark. 
 
 Pe^thor,  the  name  of  a  place  in  Meso- 
 potamia, the  residence  of  tlie  prophet  Ba- 
 laam (Num.  22  :  5  ;  Deut.  23  :  4).  Its  site 
 is  unknown. 
 
 Pha'raoh  [commonly  thought  to  mean 
 the  sun,  but  recently  read  on  the  monuments 
 as  meaning  great  Aouse],  the  common  title 
 of  the  native  kings  of  Egypt  mentioned 
 in  the  Old  Testament.  Of  these  kings 
 we  know  with  certainty  little  more  than 
 an  enumeration  of  them  furnishes:  1.  The 
 Pharaoh  of  Abraham,  probably  one  of  the 
 shepherd-kings  ruling  in  Lower  f^gypt. 
 2.  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph,  a  shepherd- 
 king,  perhaps  Apepi  II.  (Apappos),  ruling 
 all  Egypt.  3.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression, 
 a  native  Egyptian,  probably  of  the  line 
 which  the  sheplierd-kings  had  displaced. 
 He  is  tliouglit  to  have  been  Rameses  II. 
 
 4.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  a  lineal  de- 
 scendant, it  is  supiiosed,  of  the  Pharaoh 
 of  the  Oppression,  and  by  Egyptologists 
 believed  to  have  been  Menephthah,  son 
 of  Rameses  II.  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty. 
 
 5.  Pharaoh,  father-in-law  of  Solomon,  the 
 leader  of  an  expedition  into  Palestine 
 (1  Kings  9  :  16).  6.  Pharaoh,  the  opponent 
 of  Sennacherib,  supposed  to  be  the  Sethos 
 
 whom  Herodotus  mentions,  and  referred 
 to  in  Isa.  36  :  6.  7.  Pharaoh- Necho.  At 
 the  commencement  of  his  reign  he  made 
 war  against  the  king  of  Assyria,  and,  being 
 
 Head  of  Rameses  II. 
 
 encountered  on  his  way  by  Josiah,  king  of 
 Judali,  defeated  and  slew  him  at  Megiddo 
 (2  Kings  23  :  29 ;  2  Chron.  35  :  20-24). 
 Subsequently  his  army  was  signally  de- 
 feated by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Carchemish, 
 in  which  battle  all  the  Asiatic  dominions 
 of  Egypt  were  lost  (2  Kings  24  :  7).  8. 
 Pharaoh-Hophra,  the  second  successor  to 
 the  throne  after  Neclio,  to  wliom  Zedekiah, 
 king  of  Judali,  applied  for  lielp  against 
 Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  44  :  30;  Ezek.  17  : 
 11-18). 
 
 Pha'rez  [breach,  as  of  a  wall],  twin 
 son  with  Zarah  of  Judah  by  his  daughter- 
 in-law  Tamar  (Gen.  38  :  29,  30).  After  the 
 death  of  Er  and  Onan,  Pharez  became  as 
 the  first-born.  His  descendants  were  nu- 
 merous and  illustrious  (Ruth  4:12;  1 
 Chron.  27  :  3 ;  Matt.  1  :  3). 
 
 Phar''i-sees,  a  religious  party  or  school 
 amongst  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
 so  called  from  perisMn,  the  Aramaic  form 
 of  the  Hebrew  word  pei-usMm,  "  separated." 
 The  name  does  not  occur  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament. The  Pliarisees  formed  a  kind  of  so- 
 ciety. Each  member  undertook  in  the  prcs- 
 
PH  AKP  A  K— PHENICI  A. 
 
 405 
 
 ence  of  three  other  members,  that  he  would 
 remain  true  to  the  laws  of  the  association. 
 The  most  characteristic  laws  of  the  Phar- 
 isees related  to  what  was  clean  and  unclean. 
 As  according  to  the  Levitical  Law,  every 
 unclean  person  was  cutoff  from  all  religious 
 privileges  (Num.  19  :  20),  so  on  principles 
 precisely  similar  the  Pharisees  held  that 
 one  could  incur  these  awful  religious  pen- 
 alties either  by  eating  or  by  touching  what 
 was  unclean.  Animals  whose  flesh  was  to 
 be  used  for  food  could  not,  tlierefore,  be 
 slaughtered  by  a  Gentile,  and  for  Jew- 
 ish slaughterers  directions  the  most  mi- 
 nute were  laid  down.  As  respects  touching, 
 prohibitions  and  distinctions  no  less  mi- 
 nute were  insisted  on.  To  any  one  familiar 
 with  these  regulations  the  apostle's  words 
 (Col.  2  :  21),  "  Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle 
 not,"  seem  a  correct,  but  scarcely  a  com- 
 plete, summary  of  their  drift  and  purpose. 
 Hence  there  was  a  stern  antagonism  be- 
 tween the  teaching  of  the  Pharisees  and 
 tlie  teaching  of  our  Lord,  who  proclaimed 
 boldly  tliat  a  man  was  defiled  not  by  any- 
 thing he  ate,  but  by  the  bad  thoughts  of 
 the  heart  alone  (Matt.  15  :  11),  and  who, 
 even  when  he  was  the  guest  of  a  Pharisee, 
 pointedly  abstained  from  washing  liis  hands 
 before  a  meal,  in  order  to  rebuke  the  super- 
 stition which  attached  a  moral  value  to 
 such  a  ceremonial  act  (Luke  11  :  37-40). 
 This  antagonism  so  exasperated  the  Phar- 
 isees that  they  naturally  became  promi- 
 nent in  devising  plans  and  measures  for 
 compassing  his  death.  As  to  the  doctrines 
 of  the  Pharisees,  a  fundamental  one  was  a 
 belief  in  a  future  state  (Acts  23  :  6).  This 
 doctrine,  coupled  with  their  general  strict- 
 ness of  life,  gained  them  many  proselytes 
 and  made  them  a  powerful  community. 
 
 Phar'par  [swifi],  one  of  the  two  rivers 
 of  Damascus  alluded  to  by  Naaman  (2 
 Kings  5  :  12).  The  two  chief  streams  in 
 tlie  district  of  Damascus  are  now  known 
 as  the  Bar'ada  and  the  Awaj.  Tlie  Bar- 
 uda,  beyond  a  question,  is  the  Abana ;  hence 
 
 the  Aivqj  is  the  Pharpar.  The  Awaj  has 
 two  principal  sources — the  one  high  up  on 
 the  eastern  side  of  Hermon,  just  beneath 
 the  central  peak ;  the  other  in  a  wild  glen 
 a  few  miles  southward.  The  streams  unite 
 near  Susa,  and  the  river,  flowing  eastward 
 in  a  deep,  rocky  channel,  falls  into  a  lake 
 or  marsh  about  four  miles  south  of  the 
 marshy  lake  into  which  the  Barada  falls. 
 Although  eight  miles  distant  from  the 
 city,  yet  the  Awaj  flows  across  the  whole 
 plain  of  Damascus,  and  ancient  canals 
 drawn  from  it  irrigate  the  fields  and  gar- 
 dens almost  up  to  the  walls.  Its  total 
 length  is  about  forty  miles,  its  volume 
 about  one-fourth  that  of  the  Barada. 
 
 Phe^'be  \_shining'],  a  distinguished  fe- 
 male member  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea, 
 near  Corinth  (Eom.  16  :  1).  The  strong 
 commendations  of  the  apostle  indicate 
 that  she  was  prominent  in  works  of  faith 
 and  labors  of  love. 
 
 Phe'nice,  more  properly  Phcenix,  a 
 town  and  harbor  on  the  south-west  coast 
 of  Crete.  In  attemj^ting  to  reach  it,  the 
 ship  in  which  Paul  sailed  was  driven  by 
 tempest  upon  the  breakers  near  the  island 
 of  Melita  and  wrecked  (Acts  27  :  12-44). 
 
 Phe-nic'i-a  and  PhcB-nic'i-a,  the 
 Greek  name  of  the  country  in  Syria  which 
 lay  along  the  Mediterranean  between  the 
 sea  and  the  mountains,  with  an  average 
 breadtli  of  twenty  miles,  and  which  ex- 
 tended north  and  south  about  one  hundred 
 and  twenty  miles  from  the  river  Eleu- 
 therus  (now  the  Nahr-el- Kebir)  on  the  north, 
 near  Tripolis,  to  the  promontory  of  Carmel. 
 The  name  does  not  occur  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament, and  in  the  New  Testament  is 
 foimd  in  three  passages  only  (Acts  11  : 
 19 ;  15  :  3  ;  21  :  2).  In  the  first  two  of 
 these  passages  it  is  rendered  Phenice, 
 Among  its  principal  towns  were  Ptole- 
 mais,  Sarepta,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Tripolis  and 
 Berytus.  Some  of  these  towns,  and  nota- 
 bly Sidon  and  Tyre,  were  of  great  an- 
 tiquity (Gen.  10  :  15-18).     Their  inhabit- 
 
406 
 
 PHICOL— PHILETUS. 
 
 ants  were  the  inventors  of  letters  and  the 
 first  builders  and  navigators  of  ships.  Tliey 
 established  commercial  relations  with  the 
 countries  on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red 
 Sea,  witli  the  coasts  of  Arabia,  Africa  and 
 India,  witli  the  islands  and  shores  of  Eu- 
 rope. Nor  was  tlieir  overland  trade  less 
 than  their  maritime.  They  sent  caravans 
 to  Damascus  and  Babylon,  to  the  interior 
 cities  of  Arabia  and  Egypt.  Thus  by  sea 
 and  land  they  were  the  world's  merchants 
 (Ezek.  27  :  l-2o).  Their  most  flourishing 
 period  was  between  the  time  of  David  and 
 that  of  Cyrus,  about  five  hundred  years. 
 Carthage  in  Africa,  the  rival  and  the  vic- 
 tim of  Rome,  was  one  of  their  principal 
 colonies,  but  before  Greek  triumphs  and 
 Roman  conquests  Phoenician  pride  and 
 power  passed  away.  Into  the  country 
 which  once  formed  the  territory  of  Phoj- 
 nicia  the  gospel  wa.s  introduced  with  some 
 success  (Acts  21  :  2-5). 
 
 Phi'col  [mouth  nf  all],  chief  captain 
 of  the  army  of  Abimelech,  king  of  the 
 Philistines  of  Gerar  in  the  days  of  both 
 Abraham  (Gen.  21 :  22,  32)  and  Isaac  (Gen. 
 26  :  26). 
 
 The  Modern  Philadelphia. 
 
 Phil-a-dePphia  [brotherly  lovel, acity 
 of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  about  twenty-five 
 miles  south-east  from  Sardis  and  about  sev- 
 
 enty miles  eaat  of  Smyrna.  It  derived  its 
 name  from  its  builder,  King  Attains  Phil- 
 adelphus.  It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
 seven  churches  (Rev.  3  :  7-13).  In  the 
 apocalyptic  Epistles  its  church  is  so  high- 
 ly connuended  that  we  are  scarcely  sur- 
 prised to  learn  that  the  city  still  remains 
 and  tliat  in  it  the  Christian  faith  is  still  pro- 
 fessed. It  withstood  the  conquests  of  the 
 Turks  longer  than  any  of  the  Asiatic  cit- 
 ies, but  was  finally  taken  by  Bajazet  I.  in 
 the  year  1392.  It  was  not  destroyed,  how- 
 ever, and  through  the  centuries  since  has 
 been  a  place  of  considerable  importance. 
 Mr.  Gibl)on  finely  says :  "  Among  the 
 Greek  colonies  and  churches  of  Asia 
 Philadelphia  is  still  erect — a  column  in 
 a  scene  of  ruins,  a  pleasing  example  that 
 the  i)aths  of  honor  and  safety  may  some- 
 times be  the  same."  Its  modern  name  is 
 Alla-shehr,  "  city  of  God "  or  high  town. 
 It  is  built  on  the  slopes  of  four  hills,  or 
 rather  on  one  hill  witli  four  flat  siunmits. 
 The  country  around  is  ejcceedingly  beau- 
 tiful. The  town,  although  spacious,  is 
 poorly  built ;  the  dwellings  are  mean 
 and  the  streets  filthy.  There  are  few  re- 
 mains of  its  ancient  art,  yet  among  the 
 few  is  a  single  column  of  great  antiquity 
 and  beauty.  Tradition  has  it  that  one  of 
 the  buildings  now  occupied  as  a  Turkish 
 mosque  was  the  identical  church  in  which 
 assembled  the  primitive  Christians  ad- 
 dressed in  the  Revelation. 
 
 Phi-le'mon  [affectionate],  the  name 
 of  the  Christian  to  whom  Paul  addressed 
 his  Papistic  in  behalf  of  Onesimus.  lie 
 was  a  resident  in  Colosse  when  the  apos- 
 tle wrote  to  him,  and  perhaps  a  native  of 
 that  citv.  He  was  converted  to  Christ 
 most  likely,  under  Paul's  preacliing 
 (Phile.  V.  19). 
 
 Phi-le'tus  [amiable],  a  disciple,  pos- 
 sibly of  liymenseus,  with  whom  he  is  as- 
 sociated in  2  Tim.  2  :  17,  and  who  is  named 
 without  him  in  1  Tim.  1  :  20.     See  Hy- 
 men .eus. 
 
PHILIP— PHILISTIA. 
 
 407 
 
 PhiFip  [a  lover  of  a  horse],  the  name 
 of  an  apostle  and  of  an  evangelist. 
 
 1.  PgiLip  THE  Apostle  was  of  Beth- 
 saida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter  (John 
 
 1  :  44),  and  apparently  was  among  the 
 Galilean  peasants  of  that  district  who 
 flocked  to  hear  the  preaching  of  John 
 the  Baptist.  To  him  first  in  the  whole 
 circle  of  our  Lord's  disciples  were  spoken 
 the  words  so  full  of  meaning,  "  Follow  me" 
 (John  1  :  43).  So  soon  as  he  has  learned 
 to  know  the  Master  he  is  eager  to  com- 
 municate his  discovery  to  another.  He 
 speaks  to  Nathanael,  probably  on  his  ar- 
 rival in  Cana  (John  1  :  45 ;  21  :  2).  In 
 the  lists  of  the  twelve  apostles  his  name 
 is  as  uniformly  at  the  head  of  the  second 
 group  of  four  as  the  name  of  Peter  is  at 
 that  of  the  first  group  (Matt.  10:3;  Mark 
 3:18;  Luke  6  :  14).  A  few  of  his  signifi- 
 cant utterances  are  recorded  by  the  evan- 
 gelist John  (6  :  5-9;  12  :  20-22;  14  :  8). 
 He  is  among  the  company  of  disciples  at 
 Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  (Acts  1  : 
 13)  and   on   the   day  of  Pentecost   (Acts 
 
 2  :  14). 
 
 2.  Philip  the  Evangelist  is  first 
 mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  dispute 
 between  the  Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  dis- 
 ciples in  Acts  6.  He  is  one  of  the  first 
 seven  deacons  appointed  in  the  church 
 at  .Jerusalem  to  superintend  the  daily  dis- 
 tribution of  food  and  alms.  The  persecu- 
 tion headed  by  Saul  forcing  all  who  were 
 prominent  in  the  Church  to  flee,  Philip 
 went  to  Samaria,  and  ''  preached  Christ " 
 with  great  success  (Acts  8  :  5-8).  After 
 the  remarkable  interview  with  the  Ethi- 
 opian eunuch  (Acts  8  :  26-38),  whom  he 
 led  to  Christ  and  whom  he  baptized,  Phil- 
 ip continued  his  work  as  a  preacher  at 
 Azotus  (Ashdod)  and  among  the  other 
 cities  that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the 
 Philistines,  and,  following  the  coast-line, 
 came  to  Csesarea.  Then  for  a  long  period, 
 not  less  than  eighteen  or  nineteen  years, 
 we  lose  sight  of  him.     In  Paul's  last  jour- 
 
 ney to  Jerusalem,  when  he  had  come  to 
 Cffisarea,  the  apostle  and  his  companions 
 found  a  hospitable  shelter  in  Philip's  house 
 (Acts  21  :  8). 
 
 PhiPip  Her'od  I.,  II.    See  Herod. 
 
 Phi-lip 'pi,  a  city  of  proconsular  Mace- 
 donia, within  the  limits  of  ancient  Thrace 
 (Acts  16  :  12).  It  had  previously  borne 
 the  names  of  Datus  and  Krenides,  but 
 having  been  taken  from  the  Thracians  by 
 Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
 and  by  him  much  enlarged  and  beautified, 
 it  was  called  Philippi  after  him.  Here,  B.  c. 
 42,  was  fought  that  famous  battle  between 
 Antony  and  Octavius  on  the  one  side  and 
 Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  other  in  which 
 the  latter  were  defeated  and  the  Eoman 
 republic  came  to  an  end.  Paul  visited  this 
 city,  and  established  in  it  a  Christian 
 church,  to  which  he  afterward  directed 
 one  of  his  Epistles.  Here  Lydia,  a  trader 
 from  Thyatira,  was  converted  (Acts  16  : 
 14),  and  here  Paul,  for  dispossessing  a 
 poor  girl  of  the  "spirit  of  divination," 
 was  scourged  and  imprisoned.  In  the 
 prison  occurred  one  of  the  most  cheering 
 and  interesting  events  in  the  history  of 
 the  early  Church.  The  jailer  and  his 
 household  accepted  the  gospel,  and  were 
 publicly  baptized  into  the  faith  of  Christ. 
 The  magistrates  of  the  city  were  compelled 
 to  make  an  apology  to  Paul  and  his  com- 
 panion Silas  and  to  set  them  at  liberty 
 (Acts  16  :  16-40).  Paul  soon  after  visited 
 Philippi  again,  and  probably  remained  in 
 the  city  and  vicinity  a  considerable  time 
 (Acts  20  :  1-6).  He  received  from  the 
 Philippian  Christians  many  substantial 
 kindnesses,  which,  when  a  prisoner  in 
 Rome,  he  gratefully  remembers  and 
 touchingly  commemorates  (Phil.  4  :  10- 
 20).  Philippi  is  now  in  ruins  and  its 
 site  is  without  a  name. 
 
 Phil-is'tia(Ps.60:8;87:4;108:9).  In 
 these  passages  the  Hebrew  word  rendered 
 Philistia  is  identical  with  that  elsewhere 
 translated  Palestine.    Philistia  is  the  coun- 
 
408 
 
 PHILISTIM— PHINEHAS. 
 
 try  of  the  Philistines  or  Palestines.  It  em- 
 braced the  coast-plain  on  the  south-west 
 of  Palestine,  from  Joppa  on  the  north  to 
 the  valley  of  Gerar  on  the  south,  a  dis- 
 tance of  about  forty  miles,  and  from  the 
 Mediterranean  on  the  west  to  the  foot  of 
 the  Judiean  hills,  a  distance  varying  from 
 ten  to  twenty  miles.  The  name  common- 
 ly given  to  it  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
 Shephelah — that  is,  a  low,  flat  region. 
 
 Phiris-tim.  See  Nations,  under 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Phi-lis'tines,  a  people  of  Ca- 
 naan whose  origin  is  nowhere  expressly 
 stated  in  the  Scriptures,  but  by  inference 
 is  referred  to  the  Hamite  Mizraim  (Amos 
 9:7;  Jer.  47  :  4 ;  Deut.  2  :  23 ;  Gen.  10  : 
 13,  14).  The  Philistines  must  have  set- 
 tled in  the  land  of  Canaan  before  the  time 
 of  Abraham,  for  they  are  noticed  in  his 
 day  as  a  pastoral  tribe  in  the  neighborhood 
 of  Gerar  (Gen.  21  :  32,  34 ;  26  :  1,  8).  Be- 
 tween the  times  of  Abraham  and  Josliua 
 the  Philistines  had  changed  their  quarters, 
 and  had  advanced  northward  into  the 
 plain  of  Philistia.  Here  they  became  a 
 prosperovis  and  powerful  people.  In  the 
 division  of  the  Promised  Land  among  the 
 Hebrew  tribes  the  territory  of  the  Philis- 
 tines was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
 (Josh.  15  :  2,  12,  45-47).  In  the  lifetime 
 of  Joshua,  however,  no  portion  of  it  was 
 conquered  (Josh.  13  :  2),  and  even  after 
 his  death  no  permanent  conquest  was  ef- 
 fected (Judg.  3  :  3),  although  the  three 
 cities  of  Gaza,  Ashkelon  and  Ekron  were 
 taken  (Judg.  1  :  18).  The  Philistines 
 soon  recovered  these,  and  commenced  an 
 aggressive  policy  against  the  Israelites,  by 
 which  they  gained  a  complete  ascendency. 
 Individual  heroes  were  raised  up  from 
 time  to  time,  such  as  Shamgar  ( Judg.  3:31), 
 and  still  more  Samson  (Judg.  chs.  13-16), 
 but  neither  of  these  men  succeeded  in  per- 
 manently throwing  off  the  yoke.  The  his- 
 tory of  the  Philistines  and  Israelites  down 
 to  the  captivity  of  the  latter  is  a  history 
 
 of  continuous  struggle.  During  the  Cap- 
 tivity the  power  of  the  Philistines  was 
 crushed  by  the  great  inonarchs  on  the 
 east  and  south,  who  in  contending  for 
 supremacy  made  Philistia  their  battle- 
 ground. With  regard  to  the  institutions 
 of  the  Philistines  our  information  is  scan- 
 ty. As  early  as  the  days  of  Joshua  the 
 five  chief  cities  had  constituted  themselves 
 into  a  confederacy,  restricted,  however, 
 most  probably,  to  matters  of  offence  and 
 defence.  Each  Avas  under  the  government 
 of  a  prince  (Josh.  13:3;  Judg.  3:3),  and 
 each  possessed  its  own  territory.  The  Phi- 
 listines appear  to  have  been  exceedingly 
 superstitious.  They  carried  their  idols 
 with  them  on  their  campaigns  (2  Sam. 
 5  :  21),  and  proclaimed  their  victories  in 
 their  presence  (1  Sam.  31  :  9). 
 
 Phi-loPo-guS  [word-lover},  a  Chris- 
 tian at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sends  his 
 salutation  (Rom.  16  :  15) 
 
 Phi-los'o-phy  [love  of  tvmlom] .  The 
 "philosophy"  against  which  Paul  utters 
 a  caution  in  Col.  2  :  8  and  1  Tim.  6  :  20  in- 
 cludes every  form  of  speculation  inconsist- 
 ent with  Christian  teaching.  The  refer- 
 ence is  most  likely  to  gnosticism,  which 
 was  quite  prevalent  in  the  apostle's  times, 
 and  to  the  Greek  philosophy  as  represent- 
 ed by  the  two  rival  scliools,  the  Epicu- 
 rean and  the  Stoic,  See  Epicureans 
 and  Stoics. 
 
 Phin'e-has  [brdzen-mouibed},  the  name 
 of  two  men. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Eleazar  and  grandson  of 
 Aaron  (Ex.  6  :  25).  He  is  memorable  for 
 having  appeased  the  divine  wrath  at  a 
 critical  juncture,  thus  putting  a  stop  to  the 
 plague  which  was  destroying  the  nation 
 (Xum.  25  :  7).  For  this  he  wa.s  reward- 
 ed by  the  special  approbation  of  Jehovah, 
 and  by  a  promise  tliat  the  priesthood 
 should  remain  in  his  fomily  for  ever 
 (Num.  25  :  10-13). 
 
 2.  The  second  son  of  Eli  (1  Sam.  1:3; 
 2  :  34 ;  4  :  4,  11,  17,  19  ;  14  :  3).     He  was 
 
PHLEGON— PHYSICIAN. 
 
 409 
 
 killed  with  his  brother  by  the  Philistines 
 when  tlie  ark  was  captured. 
 
 Phle'gon  [burning],  a  Christian  at 
 Rome  whom  Paul  salutes  (Rom.  16  : 
 14). 
 
 Phryg'i-a,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  Bithynia  and 
 Galatia,  east  by  Cappadocia,  south  by 
 Lycia  and  Pisidia,  west  by  Caria,  Lydia 
 and  Mysia.  It  was  usually  divided 
 into  Phrygia  Major  on  the  south 
 and  Phrygia  Minor  on  the  north- 
 west. Tlie  Phrygians  were  a  very 
 ancient  people,  and  their  territory 
 was  a  well-watered  and  fertile  one. 
 Some  of  them  were  present  at  Je- 
 rusalem at  the  feast  of  Pentecost 
 (Acts  2  :  10).  We  have  notice  of 
 two  visits  which  Paul  in  his  mis- 
 sionary journeys  made  to  this  re- 
 gion (Acts  16:  6;  18:  23). 
 
 Phut,  a  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  10  : 
 6),  the  pi-ogenitor  of  a  people  in 
 Africa  of  the  same  name.  The 
 few  mentions  of  Phut  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures (Isa.  66  :  19;  Jer.  46:  9; 
 Ezek.  27  :  10 ;  30  :  5 ;  38  :  5 ;  Nah. 
 3  :  9)  indicate  a  country  or  peo- 
 ple not  far  from  Egypt,  but  fur- 
 nish no  intimations  of  the  exact 
 position.  The  Egyptian  monu- 
 ments describe  a  people  called 
 Pet  (Nah.  3:9  "Put"),  whose 
 emblem  was  the  unstrung  bow, 
 and  who  dwelt  between  Egypt  and  Ethi- 
 opia proper,  in  the  region  now  called 
 Nubia  (see  Nations,  under  Hamites). 
 Recent  investigations,  however,  have  led 
 certain  Egyptologists  to  identify  Phut 
 with  Pu(n)t,  that  part  of  Arabia  which 
 lies  nearest  to  Egypt.  If  this  identifica- 
 tion be  correct,  then  it  would  seem  that 
 as  there  were  two  Gushes,  so  there  were 
 two  Pliuts,  one  African  and  the  other 
 Asiatic,  the  African  Phut  being  prob- 
 ably the  original  nation,  and  the  Asiatic 
 Phut  an  offshoot  from  it. 
 
 Phy-gePlus,  a  Christian  convert  in 
 Asia,  who  with  Hermogenes  deserted  Paul 
 when  the  apostle  was  about  to  be  impris- 
 oned the  second  time  (2  Tim.  1  :  15). 
 
 Phy-lac'te-ries,  so  called  in  Matt. 
 23  :  5,  but  denominated  "frontlets"  in 
 Ex.  13  :  16;  Deut.  6:8;  11  :  18.  They 
 were  strips  of  parchment  on  which  were 
 written  in  an  ink  prepared  for  the  pur- 
 pose these   four   passages  of  Scripture — 
 
 A  Jew  with  the  Phylactery. 
 
 namely,  Ex.  13  :  2-10,  11-16;  Deut.  6  : 
 4-9;  11  :  13-23.  Folded  up  and  enclosed 
 in  a  small. leather  box,  they  were  worn, 
 one  sort  upon  the  forehead  nearly  between 
 the  eyes,  and  another  sort  upon  the  left  arm 
 near  to  the  heart,  being  attached  by  straps 
 of  leather.  They  were  considered  as  thus 
 reminding  the  wearers  to  fulfill  the  Law 
 with  the  head  and  heart.  They  were  re- 
 garded as  amulets,  protecting  the  wearer 
 from  the  powers  of  evil. 
 
 Phy-si^cian.     For  the  region  of  the 
 Mediterranean     basin     Egypt    was    the 
 
410 
 
 PIBESETH— PIGEON. 
 
 earliest  home  of  medical  skill.  Every 
 Egyptian  mummy  of  the  more  expensive 
 and  elaborate  sort  involved  a  process  of 
 anatomy  ;  hence  "  the  physicians  embalm- 
 ed Israel"  (Gen.  50:2).  In  Egypt  the 
 Hebrews  acquired,  most  probably,  some 
 knowledge  of  medicines  and  some  skill 
 in  their  use.  We  read  of  "healing" 
 and  "  medicines  "  and  "  physicians  "  quite 
 frequently  (Ex.  21  :  19 ;  2  Kings  8  :  29  ;  2 
 Chron.  16  :  12;  Jer.  8  :  22 ;  14  :  19;  30  : 
 13 ;  46  :  11 ;  Matt.  9:12;  Mark  o  :  26 ; 
 Col.  4 :  14).  Among  the  special  diseases  re- 
 ferred to  in  the  Old  Testament  are  ophthal- 
 mia (Gen.  29  :  17),  which  is  perhaps  more 
 common  in  Syria  and  Egypt  than  any- 
 where else  in  the  world ;  leprosy  (Lev. 
 13  :  8,  15,  27,  30),  which  has  always  pre- 
 vailed in  the  East ;  paralysis  ( 1  Kings  1 3  : 
 4-6) ;  sunstroke  (2  Kings  4  :  19) ;  lycan- 
 thropy  (Dan.  4  :  33).  In  Ex.  30  :  23-25  we 
 have  a  prescription  in  form.  The  i-emedies 
 used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  chiefly 
 ointments  (especially  of  balsam,  Jer.  8  : 
 22;  46  :  11 ;  51  :  8),  leaves  of  trees  (Ezek. 
 47  :  12),  cataplasms  (especially  of  figs,  2 
 Kings  20  :  7),  animal  warmth  for  restor- 
 ing the  circulation  (1  King-s  1  :  2-4;  2 
 Kings  4  :  34,  35).  Among  the  most  fa- 
 vorite of  external  remedies  was  the  bath. 
 Bathing  was  common  (Lev.  15  :  13 ;  2 
 Kings  5  :  10) ;  in  the  times  of  the  kings 
 the  best  houses  contained  bath-rooms  (2 
 Sam.  11  :  2). 
 
 Pi-be''seth,  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
 situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Nile  about 
 forty  miles  north-east  from  Memphis.  It 
 derived  its  name  from  Bubastis,  the  goddess 
 of  fire,  whom  its  inhabitants  worshiped, 
 and  to  whose  temple  at  this  j)lace  great 
 numbers  of  people,  from  all  parts  of  the 
 country,  m.ade  yearly  a  festive  pilgrimage. 
 Ezekiel  (30  :  17)  predicted,  "  The  young 
 men  of  Aven  and  of  Pibeseth  shall  fall 
 by  the  sword,  and  these  cities  shall  go  into 
 ca|)tivity."  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Per- 
 siarLS,  who  destroyed  its  walls,  but  it  was 
 
 a  place  of  some  note  in  the  time  of  the 
 Romans.  Its  site  now  exhibits  only 
 mounds  of  confused  and  broken  frag- 
 ments, no  monument  of  its  former  gran- 
 deur being  left  standing. 
 
 Pic'tures.  This  Avord  is  found  in 
 three  passages  of  our  Authorized  Version 
 (Num.  33  :  52;  Prov.  25 :  11  ;  Isa.  2  :  16), 
 and  is  the  rendering  of  two  Hebrew  words 
 from  the  same  verbal  root  meaning  to  look 
 at.  In  the  first  and  third  of  these  passages 
 the  word  "  pictures  "  denotes  idolatrous  rep- 
 resentations— either  independent  images 
 or  more  usually  stones  "portrayed"  (Ezek. 
 23  :  14),  that  is,  sculptured  in  low  relief 
 or  engraved  and  colored.  Movable  pic- 
 tures, in  our  modern  sense,  were  unknown 
 to  the  early  Jews,  but  colored  sculptures 
 and  drawings  on  walls  or  on  wood  must 
 have  been  familiar  to  them  in  Egypt.  The 
 "pictures  of  silver"  (Prov.  25  :  11)  were 
 probably  wall-surfaces  or  cornices  with  car- 
 vings, and  the  "apples  of  gold"  represen- 
 tations of  fruit  or  foliage,  like  Solomon's 
 flowers  and  pomegranates  (1  Kings  6  :  32, 
 35). 
 
 Piece  of  Silver.  In  the  New  Testa- 
 ment two  words  are  rendered  by  the  phrase 
 "piece  of  silver."  1.  Drachma  (Luke  15: 
 8,  9),  which  was  a  Greek  silver  coin,  equiv- 
 alent at  the  time  of  Luke  to  the  Roman 
 denarius,  value  about  fifteen  cents.  2.  The 
 indefinite  word  "silver,"  as  the  "thirty 
 pieces  of  silver"  mentioned  in  the  account 
 of  our  Lord's  betrayal  (Matt.  26  :  15;  27  : 
 3,  5,  6,  9).  What  coins  are  here  intended 
 it  is  difficult  to  ascertain.  If  the  most 
 common  silver  pieces  be  meant,  they 
 would  be  denarii.  The  parallel  passage 
 in  Zechariah  (11  :  12, 13)  appears  to  point, 
 however,  to  uliekvh,  and  it  can  scarcely  be 
 a  coincidence  that  thirty  shekels  of  silver 
 was  the  price  of  blood  in  the  case  of  a  slave 
 accidentally  killed  (Ex.  21 :  32).  The  shek- 
 el was  equivalent  to  four  drachma,  or 
 about  sixty  cents. 
 
 Pigeon.    See  Dove. 
 
PIHAHIEOTH— PISGAH. 
 
 411 
 
 Pi-ha-hi^roth  [the  place  where  sedrje 
 growsl,  one  of  the  encamping-places  of 
 the  Israelites  (Ex.  14  :  2),  near  the  north- 
 ern end  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  It  was  ap- 
 parently the  name  of  some  natural  local- 
 ity, not  of  a  town  or  fort.  It  cannot  be 
 positively  identified. 
 
 Pi'late,  Pontius,  the  sixth  Roman 
 procurator  or  governor  of  Judsea,  under 
 whom  our  Lord  taught,  suffered  and  died 
 (Matt.  27  :  2;  Mark  15:1;  Luke  3:1; 
 John  chs.  18,  19;  Acts  3  :  13;  4  :  27 ;  13 : 
 28 ;  1  Tim.  6:13).  He  held  his  office  for  ten 
 years,  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
 Tiberius.  On  two  or  three  occasions  his 
 arbitrary  administration  drove  the  people 
 into  insurrections,  which  he  suppressed  by 
 bloody  measures.  It  was  the  custom  for 
 the  procurators  to  reside  at  Jerusalem 
 during  the  great  feasts  to  preserve  order; 
 accordingly,  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  last 
 passover  Pilate  was  occupying  his  official 
 residence  in  Herod's  palace.  As  the  power 
 of  life  and  death  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
 Roman  governor,  our  Lord  could  not  be 
 crucified  by  the  Jews  without  the  sanction 
 and  command  of  Pilate  (John  18:31;  19 : 
 16).  Not  long  after  our  Lord's  crucifixion 
 he  was  accused  of  cruelty  and  oppression 
 in  the  exercise  of  his  office,  and  was  sent 
 to  Rome  for  trial.  When  he  reached 
 Rome,  Tiberius,  the  emperor,  had  died, 
 and  Caius  Caligula  was  on  the  throne. 
 His  enemies,  apparently,  were  too  strong 
 to  be  successfully  resisted  by  him ;  he 
 was  banished,  according  to  tradition,  to 
 Vienne  on  the  Rhone,  where  he  is  said 
 by  Eusebius  to  have  committed  suicide. 
 
 PiPlar.  The  word  is  literally  used  to 
 designate  either  a  monumental  shaft  or  an 
 architectural  column  supporting  a  roof 
 (Gen.  35  :  20;  Judg.  16  :  25,  26,  29).  Its 
 principal  use  in  the  Scriptures,  however, 
 is  metaphorical.  It  is  applied  to  fire, 
 cloud,  smoke  when  the  form  resembles 
 that  of  a  pillar  (Ex.  14 :  24 ;  Judg.  20 :  40). 
 It  is  associated  with  a  prophet  ( Jer.  1 :  18), 
 
 with  an  apostle  (Gal.  2  :  9)  and  with  the 
 Church  (1  Tim.  3  :  15). 
 
 Pill'ed,  an  Old  English  word  for 
 "peeled,"  in  the  sense  of  stripped  (Gen. 
 30  :  37,  38).  To  pill  or  to  peel  may  mean 
 to  strip  a  rod  of  its  bark  or  a  person  of 
 his  substance.  The  first  meaning  appears 
 in  the  account  of  the  rods  which  Jacob 
 "  pilled ;"  the  second  meaning  survives  in 
 the  words  pillage,  pilfer. 
 
 Pine  Tree.  The  word  occurs  but  three 
 times  in  the  Scriptures  (Neh.  8  :  15 ;  Isa. 
 41  :  19  ;  60  :  13).  In  the  first  passage  the 
 tree  referred  to  is  most  probably  the  wild 
 olive ;  in  the  two  other  passages  the  tree 
 intended  is  quite  uncertain,  but  the  ren- 
 dering "pine"  is  the  least  probable  of 
 any. 
 
 Pin^na-cle  of  the  temple  (Matt.  4  : 
 5 ;  Luke  4:9).  The  Greek  of  these  two 
 passages  should  have  been  rendered  not  a 
 pinnacle,  but  the  pinnacle.  The  word  may 
 refer  to  the  battlement  which  the  Law  re- 
 quired to  be  added  to  every  roof;  perhaps 
 the  battlement  upon  the  end  of  the  porti- 
 co overhanging  the  deep  valley. 
 
 Pi^non,  one  of  the  "  dukes  "  of  Edom — 
 that  is,  head  or  founder  of  a  tribe  of  that 
 nation  (Gen.  36  :  41  ;  1  Chron.  1  :  52). 
 
 Pipe.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  render- 
 ed is  derived  from  a  root  signifying  "  to 
 bore,  perforate,"  and  is  represented  with 
 sufficient  correctness  by  the  English  "  pipe," 
 or  "  flute,"  as  in  the  margin  of  1  Kings  1 : 
 40.  It  is  one  of  the  simplest,  and  there- 
 fore probably  one  of  the  oldest,  of  musical 
 instruments.  It  is  associated  with  the  ta- 
 bret  as  an  instrument  of  a  peaceful  and 
 social  character  (1  Sam.  10 :  5 ;  Isa.  5:12; 
 30  :  29).  The  sound  of  the  pipe  was  ap- 
 parently a  soft,  wailing  note,  which  made 
 it  appropriate  to  be  used  in  mourning  and 
 at  funerals  (Matt.  9  :  23),  and  in  the  lament 
 of  the  prophet  over  the  destruction  of  Moab 
 (Jer.  48  :  36). 
 
 Pis'gah  [a  parti,  a  high  ridge  on  the 
 east  of   Jordan,  opposite   Jericho,   noted 
 
412 
 
 PISIDIA— PITCH. 
 
 as  the  spot  whence  Moses  viewed  the  land 
 of  Canaan,  It  was  one  of  the  ridges  of 
 that  great  mountain-chain  wliicli  is  called 
 Abarim.  It  was  in  the  territory  afterward 
 assigned  to  Keuben,  and  tlius  was  north 
 of  the  Arnon  (Num.  21  :  20;  Deut.  3  :  27  ; 
 4  :  49 ;  34 : 1 ).  As  Balak  brought  Balaam 
 "  into  tlie  field  of  Zopliim  to  tiie  top  of 
 Pisgah,"  and  there  "bnilt  seven  altars" 
 (Num.  23  :  14),  it  has  been  thought  that 
 Pisgah  liad  places  on  its  top  with  a  flat  sur- 
 face and  even  cultivated  land  ;  but  from  tlie 
 character  of  the  region  tliis  is  imjjrobable. 
 The  targum  of  Onkelos,  tlie  Septuagint, 
 and  tlie  Pesliito  Syriac  make  "the  field 
 of  Zopliini "  "  the  field  of  the  sentinels," 
 in  the  sense  that  from  Zopliim,  as  from  a 
 watch-tower,  there  was  a  full  view  of  the 
 Israelite  encampment.  Prof  Paine,  of  the 
 American  Palestine  Exploration  Society, 
 lias  identified  in  Jcbel  Siaghah  the  Pis- 
 gah where  Moses  stood.  He  describes  it 
 as  a  summit  or  shoulder  a  little  to  the 
 westward  of  Nebo,  not  so  lofty  as  the  lat- 
 ter peak,  but  commanding  a  grander  sweep 
 of  vision  than  any  other  point  in  the  vicin- 
 ity, and  bringing  into  view  as  no  other 
 point  does  the  special  localities  named  in 
 Deut.  34 : 1-3  as  those  over  which  the  eye 
 of  Moses  swept.  The  western  end  of  the 
 ridge  Pisgah  has  three  summits — Jebel 
 Siaghah,  Peor  and  Zophira. 
 
 Pi-sid'i-a,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor, 
 lying  chiefly  on  Mount  Taurus,  between 
 Pamphylia,  Phrygia  and  Lycaonia.  It 
 was  and  is  a  wild,  rugged  country,  and  in 
 New-Testament  times  its  inhabitants  were 
 as  wild  and  rugged  as  the  country  itself 
 Its  chief  city  is  called  "Antioch  in  Pisid- 
 ia,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Syrian  An- 
 tioch and  other  places  of  the  same  name. 
 In  this  city  Paul  preached  a  memorable 
 sermon,  and  from  it  he  was  afterward  ex- 
 pelled (Acts  13  :  14-50).  Among  the  de- 
 files of  Pisidia,  Paul  may  have  encoun- 
 tered those  "perils  of  robbers"  and  "per- 
 ils of  rivers "  of  which  he  speaks  in  2  Cor. 
 
 11  :  26.  Perhaps  fear  of  Pisidian  bandits 
 may  account  for  John's  sudden  departure 
 from  Paul  (Acts  13:13, 14).  Paul  refers  to 
 his  persecutors  in  Pisidia  in  2  Tim.  3  :  11. 
 
 Pi'son  [overflowiiu/'],  one  of  the  rivers 
 of  E<len  (Gen.  2:  11),  the  position  of 
 which  is  as  mucli  a  matter  of  conjecture 
 and  dispute  as  that  of  the  garden  of 
 Eden   itself. 
 
 Pit.  Tills  word  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion represents  three  distinct  words  in  He- 
 brew and  one  in  Greek.  The  three  He- 
 brew words  designate:  1.  The  shadowy  un- 
 der-world, the  dwelling  of  the  dead  (Num. 
 IG  :  30,  83) ;  2.  The  liole  dug  in  the  eartli 
 and  then  covered  lightly  over  as  a  trap  to 
 ensnare  animals  or  men  (Ps.  35 :  7) ;  3.  The 
 well  dug  for  water,  connected  sometimes 
 with  "deep  water"  (Ps.  69: 15),  sometimes 
 with  "miry  clay"  (Ps.  40  :  2),  and  some- 
 times with  "  no  water"  ( Zech.  9:11),  where 
 the  prisoner  in  the  land  of  his  enemies  is 
 left  to  i)erish.  The  one  word  in  Greek  lias 
 the  literal  sense  of  "  the  pit  of  the  abyss," 
 and  is  rendered  "bottomless  pit"  (Rev.  9  : 
 1,2;  20:  1,  3). 
 
 Pitch.  Tliis  word  is  used  to  designate 
 mineral  pitch  or  asphalt,  an  opaque,  in- 
 flammable substance  which  bubbles  up 
 from  subterranean  fountains  in  a  liquid 
 state,  and  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
 but  readily  melts  under  the  influence  of 
 heat.  It  was  used  as  a  cement  in  lieu  of 
 mortar  in  Babylonia  (Gen.  11:3),  as  well 
 as  for  coating  the  outside  of  vessels  (Gen. 
 6  :  14),  and  particularly  for  making  the 
 papyrus-boats  of  the  Egyptians  water- 
 tight (Ex.  2  :  3).  The  Babylonians  ob- 
 tained their  chief  supply  from  springs  at 
 Is  (the  modern  Hit),  which  are  still 
 in  existence;  the  Jews  and  Arabs  got 
 theirs  in  large  quantities  from  the  Dead 
 Sea,  which  hence  received  its  classical 
 name  of  Lacus  As^phallites.  In  the  early 
 ages  of  the  Bible  the  slime-pits  (Gen.  14  : 
 10)  or  springs  of  asphalt  were  apparent 
 in  the  vale  of  Siddim. 
 
PITCHER— PLAIN. 
 
 413 
 
 Pitchier,  This  word  is  used  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  to  denote  the  water- 
 jars  with  one  or  two  handles  in  which 
 water  was  carried  (Gen.  24  :  15-20;  Mark 
 14  :  13;  Luke  22  :  10).  These  water-jars 
 were  generally  borne  on  the  head  or  the 
 shoulder. 
 
 Pi^thom,  one  of  the  treasure-cities,  or 
 public  granaries,  built  in  Goshen  by  the 
 Israelites  for  Pharaoh  (Ex.  1  :  11).  Lep- 
 sius,  Rawlinson  and  others  have  identified 
 it,  on  grounds  of  strong  probability,  with 
 the  Patumos  of  Herodotus,  at  or  near  Tel 
 Abu  Suleiman,  near  the  west  end  of  Wady 
 Tumeyldt.     It  was  a  frontier  fort. 
 
 Plague,  The.  The  disease  now  called 
 the  pLigue,  which  has  ravaged  Egypt  and 
 neighboring  countries  in  modern  times, 
 is  supposed  to  have  prevailed  there  in 
 former  ages.  It  is  a  disease  resembling  a 
 severe  kind  of  typhus,  accompanied  by 
 buboes.  Like  the  cholera,  it  is  most  vio- 
 lent at  the  first  outbreak,  causing  almost 
 instant  death ;  later,  it  may  last  three 
 days,  and  even  longer,  but  usually  it  is 
 fatal  in  a  few  hours.  Several  Hebrew 
 words,  each  having  some  distinctive  or 
 characteristic  sense,  are  translated  "  pes- 
 tilence "  or  "  plague,"  specimens  of  which 
 are  to  be  found  in  Deut.  32  :  24 ;  Ps.  91  : 
 6 ;  Hos.  13  :  14 ;  Hab.  3  :  5. 
 
 Plagues,  The  Ten.  The  occasion  on 
 which  these  plagues  or  judgments  were 
 sent  is  described  in  Ex.  chs.  3-12.  The 
 plagues  themselves  are  these:  1.  The  Plague 
 of  Blood,  or  the  conversion  of  the  Nile,  the 
 sacred  river  of  Egypt,  into  blood.  2.  l^he 
 Plague  of  Frogs,  or  the  increase  of  these 
 sacred  animals  to  such  prodigious  extent 
 as  to  cause  an  intolerable  nuisance.  3.  The 
 Plague  of  Lice,  or  the  changing  of  the  dust  of 
 the  dry  land  into  offensive  vermin.  4.  The 
 Plague  of  Flies,  or  the  filling  of  the  air 
 with  annoying  insects.  5.  The  Plague 
 of  the  Murrain  of  Beasts,  or  the  destruc- 
 tion of  domestic  animals.  6.  The  Plague 
 of  Boils,  or  the  infliction  upon  the   per- 
 
 sons of  the  Egyptians  of  some  terrible 
 form  of  skin  disease.  7.  The  Plague  of 
 Hail,  or  the  elements  at  war  with  men 
 and  animals  and  trees  and  herbs.  8.  The 
 Plague  of  Locusts,  or  the  utter  ruin  of  veg- 
 etation. 9.  The  Plague  of  Darkness,  or  the 
 awful  portent  of  some  sorer  divine  indig- 
 nation. 10.  3%e  Plague  of  the  Sudden 
 Death  of  the  First-born,  or  the  smiting  at 
 midnight  of  what  in  every  Egyptian 
 home  was  dearest.  These  plagues  show 
 a  gradual  and  very  noticeable  increase 
 in  severity.  They  seem  to  have  been 
 sent  as  warnings  to  the  oppressor  to  af- 
 ford him  a  means  of  seeing  God's  will 
 and  an  opportunity  of  repenting  before 
 Egypt  was  ruined.  As  Pharaoh  refused 
 to  see  and  repent,  his  career  teaches 
 that  there  are  men  whom  the  most  sig- 
 nal judgments  do  not  turn  from  the 
 way  of  death. 
 
 Plain,  Plains.  The  Hebrew  lan- 
 guage abounds  in  descriptive  local  terms 
 which  are  often  rendered  in  our  Version 
 "plain"  or  "plains,"  and  sometimes  im- 
 properly. The  principal  of  these  terms 
 are  these:  1.  Abel,  a  grassy  place  or 
 meadow.  See  Abel.  2.  Arabah,  aster- 
 ile  region,  applied  to  the  lower  valley  of 
 the  Jordan,  with  its  continuations  from 
 the  Dead  Sea  toward  the  eastern  or  Elea- 
 nitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea.  See  Arabah. 
 3.  Shephelah,  low  country,  especially 
 applied  to  the  country  between  Joppa  and 
 Gaza  (1  Chron.  27  :  28;  Jer.  17  :  2G;  Zech. 
 7  :  7).  4.  Bik'ah,  rendered  "plain"  in 
 Gen.  11:2;  Neh.  6:2;  Isa.  40  :  4 ;  Ezek. 
 3  :  23  ;  Dan.  3:1;  Amos  1:5;  elsewhere 
 it  is  translated  "  valley,"  and  is  specially 
 applied  to  the  valley  lying  between  the 
 two  ranges  of  Lebanon  (Josh.  11  :  17). 
 See  Lebanon.  5.  Kikkar,  the  low 
 ground  skirting  the  Jordan  (Gen.  13  :  12; 
 19:17,  25,  28,  29 ;  Deut.  34  :  3 ;  2  Sara, 
 18  :  23 ;  1  Kings  7  :  46;  2  Chron.  9  :  27 ; 
 Neh.  3  :  22;  12  :  28).  6.  Mishor,  prop- 
 erly a  "plain"  or  "level  ground,"  espe- 
 
414 
 
 PLANETS— POMEGRANATE. 
 
 cially  that  east  of  the  Jordan  near  Hesh- 
 bon,  and  now  called  Belka  (Deut.  3  :  10; 
 4  :  43 ;  Josh.  13  :  9,  16,  17,  21 ;  20  :  8  ;  1 
 Kings  20  :  23,  25;  2  Chron.  26  :  10;  Jer. 
 21  :  13;  48:  8,  21;  Zech.  4  :  7).  The 
 word  "plain"  is  wrongly  used  for  the 
 Hebrew  term  elon,  which  means  "oak" 
 (Gen.  12:  6;  13:  18;  Judg.  4:11;  9: 
 6,  37  ;  1  Sam.  10  :  3). 
 
 Plan'ets.  The  Hebrew  word 
 thus  rendered  is  supposed  to  denote 
 the  twelve  divisions  of  the  Zodiac, 
 marked  by  the  figures  and  names  of 
 animals.  It  occurs  but  once  (2  Kings 
 23  :  5),  and  is  probably  identical  in 
 sense  with  Mazzaroth  in  Job  38  :  32. 
 
 Pledge,  tliat  which  is  given  as  security 
 for  the  performance  of  a  contract  (Ezek. 
 33  :  15).  The  Mosaic  Law  provided  that 
 the  requirement  of  pledges  should  not  be- 
 come a  means  of  oppression.  The  upper 
 garment,  which  is  used  as  a  coverlet  at 
 night,  was  to  be  returned  the  same  day 
 (Ex.  22  :  26,  27).  The  millstone  used  for 
 grinding  (Deut.  24  :  6),  the  object  prized 
 as  an  heirloom  (Deut.  24  :  10,  11),  and  the 
 raiment  of  a  widow  (Deut.  24  :  17)  could 
 not  be  taken  in  pledge  at  all. 
 
 Ple'ia-des,  a  cluster  of  stars,  of  which 
 seven  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  the 
 neck  of  the  constellation  Taurus  (Job  9  : 
 9;  38  :  31  ;  Amos  5  :  8).  As  the  sun  en- 
 ters Taurus  about  the  middle  of  April,  the 
 Pleiades  are  associated  with  "  the  sweet  in- 
 fluences" of  the  genial  season  of  spring. 
 
 Plough,  the  instrument  for  turning  up, 
 breaking  and  preparing  the  ground  for  re- 
 ceiving seed.  It  is  mentioned  in  Job  4  : 
 8,  in  Gen.  45  :  6  [earing),  in  1  Sam.  8  :  12 
 (ear),  and  is  unquestionably  of  great  an- 
 tiquity. In  the  first  instance  it  was  prob- 
 ably the  bough  of  a  tree,  from  which  an- 
 other limb  or  piece  projected,  and  when 
 sharpened  tore  up  tlie  ground  in  a  rude  man- 
 ner. Plouglis  altogether  wooden  are  still 
 used  in  the  East.  The  better  kind,  how- 
 ever, have  the  wooden  coulter  sheathed  with 
 
 a  thin  plate  of  iron.  The  Eastern  plough  is 
 so  light  that  to  guide  it  properly  requires 
 constant  and  close  attention.  In  Luke  9  : 
 62  our  Lord  compares  the  life  of  religion 
 
 Plough,  Plough-shares  and  Yoke. 
 
 to  the  act  of  a  ploughman  who  keeps  his 
 plough  in  the  soil,  and  Avho  runs  a  straight 
 furrow  only  so  far  as  he  gives  an  undivert- 
 ed hand  and  eye  to  his  work. 
 
 Poi'son.  Our  Authorized  Version 
 thus  renders  two  Hebrew  words  and  one 
 Greek  word.  The  first  and  most  common 
 Hebrew  word  is  from  a  verbal  root  which 
 means  "  to  burn,"  and  which  describes  poi- 
 son as  something  inflaming  the  bowels 
 (Deut.  32  :  24,  33;  Job  6:4;  Ps.  58  :  4; 
 140  :  3).  The  second  Hebrew  word  is  the 
 ordinary  designation  of  the  poppy,  whence 
 opium  is  extracted ;  it  is  sometimes  render- 
 ed "gall"  (Deut.  32: 32  ;  Jer.  8: 14),  and  is 
 used  as  a  general  expression  for  poison 
 (Job  20  :  16).  See  Gall.  The  Greek 
 word  thus  rendered  means  something  shot 
 forth,  and  is  metaphorically  applied  to 
 "poison"  as  to  that  which  is  i<hot  forth 
 by  serpents  (Eom.  3:13;  James  3  :  8). 
 
 Poll.  L'sed  as  a  noun,  the  word  means 
 "  head"  (Num.  3  :  47) ;  used  as  a  verb,  the 
 word  means  to  cut  the  hair  from  the  head 
 (2  Sam.  14  :  26). 
 
 Pol'lux.     See  Castor  and  Pollux. 
 
 Ponie'gran-ate  [grained  apple,  from 
 the  number  of  grains  or  seeds  in  it],  Pu- 
 nicoj  granalum.  It  was  early  cultivated  in 
 Egypt ;  hence  the  complaint  of  tiie  Israel- 
 ites in  the  wilderness  (Num.  20  :  5;.  The 
 tree,  witli  its  characteristic  calyx-crowned 
 
POMMELS— POECH. 
 
 415 
 
 fruit,  is  easily  recognized  in  the  Egyptian 
 sculptures.  In  Song  4  :  13  mention  is 
 made  of  "an  orchard  of  pomegranates." 
 In  very  cold  winters  the  tree  suffers  much. 
 Carved  figures  of  the  pomegranate  adorned 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 the  tops  of  the  pillars  in  Solomon's  temple 
 (1  Kings  7  :  18,  20),  and  worked  represen- 
 tations of  this  fruit  in  blue,  purple  and 
 scarlet  ornamented  the  hem  of  the  robe 
 of  the  ephod  (Ex.  28  :  33,  34). 
 
 Pom^mels,  only  in  2  Chron.  4 :  12, 13 ; 
 in  1  Kings  7  :  41,  "  bowls."  The  word  sig- 
 nifies convex  projections  on  the  capitals  of 
 pillars. 
 
 Ponds,  the  rendering  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  a  Hebrew  word  which, 
 having  the  general  sense  of  a  collection  of 
 water,  denotes  most  probably  in  Ex.  7  : 
 19;  8:5  the  putrescent  reservoirs  or 
 swampy  pools  left  by  the  inundation  of 
 the  Nile.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  in 
 Isa.  19  :  10  associated  with  fish  ("ponds 
 for  fish"),  and  the  evidence  is  conclusive 
 that  in  Egypt  and  Palestine  fish-ponds,  or 
 ponds  constructed  especially  for  storing 
 and  catching  fish,  were  common. 
 
 Pon'ti-us  Pi'late.  See  Pilate,  Pon-^ 
 
 TIUS. 
 
 Pon^tus  [</(e  seal,  the  north-eastern 
 province  of  Asia  Minor,  taking  its  name 
 from  the  Euxine  Sea  (PontusEuxinus),  its 
 northern  boimdary.  Its  eastern  boundary 
 was  Colchis,  its  southern  Cappadocia  and 
 part  of  Armenia,  its  western  Paphlagonia 
 and  Galatia.  Its  most  flourishing  period 
 was  under  the  government  of  Mithridates, 
 who  was  at  length  subdued  by  Pompey, 
 and  his  kingdom  annexed  to  the  Roman 
 empire.  Jews  settled  in  Pontus  were  at 
 Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  Pentecost  (Acts 
 2:9).  Aquila,  the  friend  of  Paul,  was  a 
 native  of  Pontus  (Acts  18  :  2),  and  to 
 Christian  brethren  in  this  country  Peter 
 addressed  one  of  his  Epistles  (1  Pet.  1:1). 
 The  principal  towns  of  Pontus  were  Ama- 
 sia,  the  ancient  capital,  Themisayra,  Cera- 
 sus  and  Trapezus,  which  last,  under  the 
 name  of  Trebizond,  is  still  an  important 
 town. 
 
 Pool.  Like  the  tanks  of  India,  pools 
 in  many  parts  of  Palestine  and  Syria  are 
 the  only  resource  for  water  during  the  dry 
 season,  <ind  the  failure  of  them  involves 
 drought  and  calamity  (Isa.  42  :  15).  Of 
 the  various  pools  mentioned  in  Scripture 
 perhaps  the  most  celebrated  are  the  pools 
 of  Solomon,  three  great  reservoirs  south 
 of  Bethlehem,  called  by  the  Arabs  el-Bu- 
 rah,  whence  was  carried  an  aqueduct  which 
 once  supplied  -Jerusalem  with  water  (Eccles. 
 2:6).  This  aqueduct,  "the  low  level," 
 still  runs  by  Bethlehem  to  Jerusalem. 
 Three  fountains  in  Jerusalem  are  still 
 fed  by  it.  Another  aqueduct,  "the  high 
 level,"  can  be  traced  as  far  as  the  plain  of 
 Eephaim. 
 
 Pop'lar.  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 this  word  occurs  but  twice  (Gen.  30  :  37  ; 
 Hos.  4 :  13),  and  is  the  rendering  of  a  He- 
 brew word  which  is  supposed  to  denote  the 
 white  poplar  (Populus  alba),  a  tree  very 
 common  in  Palestine. 
 
 Porch.    See  House. 
 
416 
 
 PORCH,  SOLOMON'S— POTTER'S  FIELD. 
 
 Porch,  SoFo-mon's.    See  Temple. 
 
 Por'ci-us  Fes'tus.    See  Festus. 
 
 Por'ters,  the  officers  appointed  to  open 
 and  shut  the  gates  of  a  city  or  a  great  liouse 
 (2  Kings  7  :  10  ;  1  Chron.  16  :  42).  Four 
 thousand  of  them  were  in  charge  of  the 
 temple-gates  (1  Chron.  23  :  5) ;  they  were 
 clas.sitied  and  had  leaders  or  directore  ( 1 
 Chron.  26  :  1-13;  2  Cliron.  8  :  14). 
 
 Pos'sess-ed  -with  Dev'ils.  See 
 Devil. 
 
 Post,  a  messenger  or  bearer  of  tidings 
 (Job  9  :  25;  Jer.  51  :  31).  Persons  fleet 
 of  foot  were  trained  to  the  business  of  run- 
 ning (2  Sam.  18  :  19-31).  To  convey  in- 
 telligence quickly,  Cyrus,  it  is  said,  ar- 
 ranged posts  which  rode  night  and  day ; 
 to  this  arrangement  allusion  is  supposed 
 to  be  made  in  Esth.  3:13;  8  :  10. 
 
 Pot.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered 
 in  Job  41  :  20  is  rendered  basket  in  Jer. 
 24  :  2,  ketth  in  1  Sam.  2  :  14,  caldron  in  2 
 Chron.  35  :  13.  It  is  tliought  to  have  the 
 general  sense  which  appears  in  Ps.  81  :  6, 
 where  "  pots  "  denote  those  close-wrought 
 baskets  which  the  Eastern  laborers  now 
 use,  as  we  do  the  hod,  for  carrying  mor- 
 tar. In  addition,  the  term  "pot"  is  used 
 to  denote  an  earthen  jar,  deep  and  nar- 
 row, without  handles,  inserted  in  a  stand 
 of  wood  or  stone  (2  Kings  4:2),  and  an 
 earthen  vessel  for  culinary  purposes  (1 
 Sam.  2  :  14).  The  water-pots  of  Cana 
 (John  2:6)  were  large  amphorae  of  stone 
 or  hard  earthenware,  such  as  are  now  in 
 use  in  Syria. 
 
 Pot'i-phar  {bdongliKj  to  the  sun],  some- 
 times written  Potipherah,  an  officer  of 
 Pharaoh's  court  who  purchased  Joseph 
 when  brought  as  a  slave  into  Egypt,  ele- 
 vated him  to  an  office  of  trust,  and  upon 
 a  false  accusation  cast  him  into  prison 
 (Gen.  39  :  1-20). 
 
 Pot'i-phe'rah,  priest  or  prince  of  On 
 (Heliopolis)  in  Egypt,  whose  daughter  Ase- 
 nath  became  Joseph's  wife  (Gen.  41  :  45, 
 60 ;  46  :  20). 
 
 Pots,  Ran'ges  for  (Lev.  11  :  35), 
 probably  pots  or  pans  with  covers. 
 
 Pot'sherd,  the  fragment  of  an  earthen 
 vessel  (Job  2:8;  Isa.  45  :  9). 
 
 Pot'tage,  a  broth  made  by  cutting 
 flesh  in  small  pieces  and  boiling  the 
 pieces  with  rice,  beans,  flour,  parsley  or 
 other  herbs  (Gen.  25  :  29,  30 ;  2  Kings  4  : 
 39). 
 
 Eastern  Potter. 
 
 Pot'ter,  the  maker  of  earthen  vessels 
 (Ps.  2  :  9).  The  art  of  pottery  is  one  of 
 the  most  common  and  most  ancient  of  all 
 manufactures.  The  Hebrews  used  earth- 
 enware vessels  in  the  wilderness,  and  the 
 potter's  trade  was  afterward  carried  on  in 
 Palestine.  Wall-paintings  in  Egypt  mi- 
 nutely illustrate  the  pottei-'s  trade.  The 
 clay  when  dug  was  trodden  by  men's  feet 
 so  as  to  form  a  paste  (Isa.  41  :  25),  then 
 placed  by  the  potter  on  the  wheel  beside 
 which  he  sat,  and  shaped  by  him  with  his 
 hands.  How  early  the  wheel  came  in 
 use  in  Palestine  is  not  known,  but  it  is 
 likely  that  it  was  adopted  from  Egypt  (Isa. 
 45  :  9;  Jer.  18  :  3).  The  vessel  was  then 
 smoothed  and  burnt  in  a  furnace.  There 
 was  in  Jerusalem  a  royal  establishment 
 of  potters  (1  Chron.  4  :  23),  from  whose 
 employment  and  from  the  fragments  cast 
 away  in  the  process  the  Potter's  Field 
 perliaps  received  its  name. 
 
 Potter's  Field,  The.  See  Acelda- 
 ma. 
 
POUND— PRESBYTERY. 
 
 417 
 
 Pound.  1.  A  weight.  See  Weights 
 A.ND  Measures. 
 
 2.  A  money  of  account  mentioned  in  the 
 parable  of  the  Ten  Pounds  (Luke  19  :  12- 
 27),  as  the  talent  is  in  the  parable  of  the 
 Talents  (Matt.  25.  14-30).  The  reference 
 appears  to  be  to  a  Greek  pound,  a  weight 
 used  as  a  money  of  account,  of  which  sixty 
 went  to  the  talent,  the  weight  depending 
 upon  the  weight  of  the  talent. 
 
 Praise.  In  the  ordinary  Scripture  use 
 of  this  term  it  denotes  an  act  of  worship, 
 and  is  often  used  synonymously  with 
 tlianksgiving  (Ps.  34  :  1).  It  is  called 
 forth  by  the  contemplation  of  the  charac- 
 ter and  attributes  of  God,  however  they 
 are  displayed ;  it  implies,  also,  a  grateful 
 sense  and  acknowledgment  of  past  mercies. 
 In  tlie  Psalms  expressions  of  praise  in  al- 
 most every  variety  of  force  and  beauty, 
 abound. 
 
 Prayer.  There  are  no  directions  as  to 
 prayer  given  in  the  Mosaic  Law ;  the  duty 
 is  rather  taken  for  granted,  as  an  adjunct 
 to  sacrifice  than  enforced  or  elaborated. 
 Besides  this  public  prayer,  it  was  the  cus- 
 tom of  all  at  Jerusalem  to  go  up  to  the 
 temple  at  regular  hours,  if  possible,  for  pi-i- 
 vate  prayer  (Luke  18  :  10;  Acts  3:1); 
 and  those  who  were  away  were  wont  to 
 "open  their  windows  toward  Jerusalem" 
 and  pray  "toward"  the  place  of  God's 
 presence  (1  Kings  8  :  46-49;  Dan.  6  :  10; 
 Ps.  5  :  7  ;  28  :  2 ;  138  :  2).  The  regular 
 hours  for  prayer  seem  to  have  been  three : 
 the  "morning,"  that  is,  the  third  hour 
 (Acts  2 :  15),  that  of  the  morning  sacrifice; 
 the  "evening,"  that  is,  the  ninth  hour  (Acts 
 3:1),  that  of  the  evening  sacrifice  (Dan. 
 9:  21) ;  and  the  sixth  hour,  or  "noonday" 
 ( Ps.  55  :  17).  The  posture  of  prayer  among 
 the  Jews  seems  to  have  been  most  often 
 standing  (1  Sam.  1  :  26;  Matt.  6:5;  Mark 
 11  :  25 ;  Luke  18:  11);  if  the  prayer  was 
 offered  with  especial  solemnity  and  humil- 
 iation, the  posture  was  kneeling  (1  Kings 
 8  :  54;  Ezra  9:5;  Ps.  95  :  6) ;  occasion- 
 27 
 
 ally  the  posture  was  prostration  (.losh.  :  7 
 6 ;  1  Kings  18  :  42 ;  Neh.  8  :  6). 
 
 Preach^er,  one  who  preaches  or  pro- 
 claims, as  God's  herald  or  ambassador,  the 
 truths  of  revealed  religion  (Rom.  10  :  14; 
 2  Cor.  5 :  20).  The  work  of  the  preacher, 
 or  preaching,  has  ever  been  the  chief  means 
 by  which  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  has 
 been  spread  (2  Pet.  2:5;  Jude  vs.  14,  15), 
 and  such,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  it  is 
 to  be  (1  Cor.  1 :  21).  Although  the  "preach- 
 er of  righteousness  "  has  existed  in  all  the 
 ages,  yet  preaching,  in  a  very  marked  de- 
 gree, is  a  characteristic  of  Christianity 
 (Mark  16:15,  20;  Acts  4:2;  13:38; 
 Eph.  3 :  8  ;  1  Tim.  2:7).  Christian  preach- 
 ers and  i^astors,  however,  are  not  a  priest- 
 hood. They  belong  to  no  sacred  caste. 
 The  gospel  knows  but  one  Priest — Jesus, 
 the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  The  office  of 
 the  gospel  minister  is  not  to  atone,  but  to 
 preach  the  atonement.  The  altar  has 
 been  superseded  by  the  pulpit,  and  the  of- 
 fering of  sacrifice  by  Christian  instruction 
 and  worship. 
 
 Pre-des-ti-na^tion,  the  foreordina- 
 tion  by  God  of  whatsoever  comes  to  pass 
 (Eph.  1  :  4-12).  The  Scriptures  plainly 
 teach  that  the  works  of  providence  and 
 grace  are  in  no  sense  subject  to  chance  or 
 contingency,  but  are  all  the  outcome  of  a 
 preiirranged,  unalterable  plan  (Acts  2  : 
 23;  15  :  18;  Rom.  8  :  28-30).  An  eter- 
 nal foreknowledge  in  God  is  therefore  tan- 
 tamount to  an  eternal  foreordination.  It 
 has  been  objected  that  such  a  doctrine  is 
 an  encouragement  to  inaction  and  licen- 
 tiousness, but  in  reality  it  has  a  directly 
 opposite  tendency  and  result.  Believers 
 in  Christ  are  predestinated,  not  to  sin,  but 
 to  holiness — not  to  evil  works,  but  to  good 
 works  (Eph.  2  :  10 ;  2  Thess.  2:13;  1  Pet. 
 1  :2). 
 
 Pres'by-te-ry,  a  court  or  council  of 
 presbyters  for  governing  the  Church  and 
 ordaining  office-bearers  (Acts  15  :  2;  21  : 
 17,  18;  1  Tim.  4  :  14).     This,  as  scholars 
 
418 
 
 PRETORIUM— PRIEST,   HIGH  PRIEST. 
 
 now  admit,  was  the  earliest  form  of  church- 
 government,  having  heen  inst'tuted  by  the 
 apostles  and  maintained  throughout  the 
 apostolic  age.  Presbytery,  therefore,  was 
 not,  as  some  allege,  an  outgrowth  from 
 episcopacy,  but,  on  the  contrary,  episco- 
 pacy was  an  outgrowth  from  presbytery, 
 and  an  unauthorized  change  of  the  orig- 
 inal model. 
 
 Pre-to'ri-um  (Mark  15  :  16),  proper- 
 ly PRyETORiuM.  See  Palace  and  Judg- 
 ment-hall. 
 
 Pre-vent'.  This  word,  which  liter- 
 ally means  to  come  before,  is  used  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  in  two  senses:  1.  To 
 precede  (Ps.  88  :  13;  1  Thess.  4  :  15) ;  2. 
 To  seize  (2  Sam.  22  :  6  ;  Job  30  :  27).  Its 
 present  ordinary  meaning,  io  hinder,  is  not 
 found  in  the  Scriptures. 
 
 Pricks  (goads),  long,  sharp-pointed 
 sticks  which  were  used  to  drive  cattle 
 (Acts  26  :  14).  When  pricked  or  goaded 
 the  restive  cattle  would  kick  back,  and 
 thus  would  wound  themselves  more  deep- 
 ly. "To  kick  against  the  pricks"  became, 
 accordingly,  a  proverbial  expression  for 
 the  folly  and  madness  of  resisting  lawful 
 authority. 
 
 Priest,  Higrh  Priest.  The  English 
 word  priesl  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
 presbyter,  signifying  an  "elder."  In  the 
 worship  of  the  patriarchal  age  no  trace 
 of  an  hereditary  or  caste  priesthood  can 
 be  discovered.  Once  only  does  the  word 
 priest  come  into  view  as  belonging  to  a 
 ritual  earlier  than  the  time  of  Abraham 
 (Gen.  14  :  18).  In  the  worship  of  the  pa- 
 triarchs themselves,  the  chief  of  the  fam- 
 ily, as  such,  acted  as  priest.  The  office  de- 
 scended with  the  birthright.  The  priest- 
 hood, as  an  order,  was  first  established  in 
 the  family  of  Aaron.  All  the  sons  of  Aa- 
 ron were  priests,  and  stood  between  the 
 high  priest  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Le- 
 vites  on  the  other.  The  ceremony  of  their 
 consecration  is  described  in  Ex.  29 ;  Lev. 
 8.    Their  chief  duties  were  to  watch  over 
 
 the  fire  on  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  and 
 to  keep  it  burning  evermore  both  by  day 
 and  night  (Lev.  6:12);  to  feed  the  golden 
 lamp  outside  the  veil  with  oil  (Ex.  27  :  20, 
 
 High  Priest. 
 
 21 ;  Lev.  24 :  2) ;  to  offer  the  morning  and 
 evening  sacrifices,  each  accompanied  with 
 a  meat-offering  and  a  drink-offering,  at  the 
 door  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  29  :  38-44). 
 They  were  also  to  teach  the  children  of 
 Israel  the  statutes  of  the  Lord  (Lev.  10  : 
 11 ;  Deut.  33  :  10).  Provision  was  made 
 for  their  support  sufficiently  liberal  to  se- 
 cure the  religion  of  Israel  against  the  dan- 
 gers of  a  ca.ste  of  pauper  priests,  but  not 
 so  abundant  as  to  make  the  order  a  wealthy 
 one.  In  the  time  of  David  the  priesthood 
 was  divided  into  fourand-twenty  "  courses  " 
 or  orders  (I  Chron.  24  :  1-19  ;  Luke  1  :  5), 
 each  of  which  was  to  serve  in  rotation  for 
 one  week. 
 
 The  first  high  y)riest  was  Aaron.  As 
 distinguished  from  the  other  priests,  the 
 characteristic  attributes  of  Aaron  and  of 
 the  high  priests  who  succeeded  him  were 
 these:  1.  Aaron  alone  was  anointed  (Lev. 
 8:12),  whence  one  of  the  distinctive  epi- 
 thets of  the  high  priest  was  "  the  anointed 
 priest"  (Lev.  4 :  3,  5, 16 ;  21  :  10).  2.  The 
 high  priest  had   a  peculiar  dress,  which 
 
PRINCE— PROGNOSTICATION. 
 
 419 
 
 passed  to  his  successor  at  his  death.  This 
 dress  consisted  of  several  parts — the  breast- 
 plate, the  epiiod,  witli  its  curious  girdle,  the 
 robe  of  the  ephod,  the  turban,  the  bioidered 
 coaf,  the  girdle,  and  the  breeches  or  drawers 
 of  linen,  the  intermingled  colors  being 
 those  of  blue,  red,  crimson  and  white  (Ex. 
 ch.  28;  Lev.  16  :  4).  3.  The  high  priest 
 had  peculiar  functions.  To  him  alone  it 
 appertained,  and  he  alone  was  permitted, 
 to  enter  the  Holy  of  Holies,  wliicli  he  did 
 once  a  year,  on  the  great  day  of  atonement, 
 when  he  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  sin-of- 
 fering on  the  mercy-seat  and  burnt  incense 
 within  the  veil  (Lev.  ch.  16).  He  stood  in 
 God's  presence,  nearer  to  him  than  any 
 other  mortal  might  venture,  and  pleaded 
 for  Israel.  He  was  the  appointed  type  of 
 God's  own  Son,  who  with  his  own  blood 
 has  entered  once  into  the  holy  place  ( Heb. 
 
 9  :  24-26). 
 
 Prince,  the  rendering  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  of  a  number  of  Hebrew  and 
 Greek  words  which  designate  in  general 
 one  who  holds  a  foremost  place  in  rank  or 
 authority  or  power.  It  is  applied  to  a  man 
 of  prominence  (Gen.  23  :  6),  to  the  head 
 of  a  tribe  (Num.  17  :  6),  to  the  captain  of 
 a  host  (Josh.  5  :  14),  to  tlie  ruler  of  a  city 
 (Ezek.  28  :  2),  to  the  son  of  a  king  (2  Sam. 
 8 :  18),  to  the  monarch  of  a  country  (Dan. 
 
 10  :  13),  to  the  devil  (John  12  :  31),  to  the 
 Messiah  (Dan.  9  :  25),  to  Jesus  Christ  (Rev. 
 1  :  5),  to  God,  the  Sovereign  of  the  uni- 
 verse (Dan.  8  :  11). 
 
 Pris-cil'la,  or  Pris'ca  [^anele-nt'],  the 
 wife  of  Aquila  (Acts  18  :  2,  18 ;  1  Cor.  16  : 
 19  ;  Rom.  16:3;  2  Tim.  4  :  19).  They 
 are  always  mentioned  together.  See 
 Aquila. 
 
 Pris'on.  In  Egypt,  from  the  earliest 
 times,  special  places  were  used  as  prisons, 
 and  were  under  the  custody  of  military 
 officers  (Gen.  40  :  3;  42  :  17).  During 
 the  desert  wanderings  of  the  Israelites 
 two  instances  of  confinement  in  ward  are 
 mentioned  (Lev.  24  :  12  ;   Num.  15  :  34), 
 
 but  imprisonment  was  not  prescribed  by 
 the  Law,  and  the  prison  makes  no  appear- 
 ance in  Jewish  history  till  the  time  of 
 the  kings,  when  it  comes  to  view  as  an 
 appendage  to  the  palace  or  a  special  part  of 
 it  (1  Kings  22  :  27 1.  Later  still,  the  pris- 
 on is  distinctly  described  as  being  in  the 
 king's  house  (Jer.  32  :  2  ;  37  :  21  ;  Neh. 
 3  :  25).  Under  the  Herods  we  read  again 
 of  prisons  attached  to  the  palace  or  in 
 royal  fortresses  (Luke  3  :  20;  Acts  12  :  4- 
 7).  By  the  Romans  the  fortress  Antonia 
 at  Jerusalem  (Acts  23  :  10)  and  the  prae- 
 torium  of  Herod  at  Caesarea  (Acts  23  :  35) 
 were  used  a.s  prisons.  The  sacerdotal  au- 
 thorities also  had  a  prison  under  the  su- 
 perintendence of  special  officers  (Acts  5  : 
 18-23;  8:3;  26:  10). 
 
 Prize.  The  word  occurs  but  twice  in 
 the  Scriptures  (1  Cor.  9  :  24  ;  Phil.  3  :  14), 
 and  designates  the  honorary  reward  be- 
 stowed on  victors  in  the  Grecian  games. 
 This  reward  was  a  wreath  or  crown  of 
 green  leaves,  and  to  the  mind  of  the  apos- 
 tle Paul  furnished  a  very  suggestive  im- 
 age of  that  "crown  of  righteousness" 
 which  at  the  day  of  judgment  is  to  be 
 given  to  the  victor  in  the  Christian 
 race. 
 
 Pro-cho'rus  \_'premlen.t  of  the  chorxis], 
 one  of  the  seven  original  deacons  (Acts 
 6  :  5). 
 
 Pro-fane''.  In  Scripture  usage,  one  is 
 profane  who  treats  sacred  things  with  ir- 
 reverence or  indifference.  The  word  is 
 applied  to  Esau,  who  manifested  no  proper 
 regard  for  the  spiritual  privileges  of  the 
 birthright  (Heb.  12  :  16),  and  to  the  proph- 
 et and  priest  who  were  not  deterred  from 
 wickedness  by  the  sanctity  of  God's  house 
 (.Jer.  23  :  11).  Hence  they  are  profane 
 who  irreverently  use  God's  name,  who  ap- 
 propriate God's  Sabbaths  to  secular  avo- 
 cations and  amusements,  or  who  show  dis- 
 respect to  the  services  and  ordinances  of 
 religion. 
 
 Prog'-nos-ti-ca''tion.    The  word  oc- 
 
420 
 
 PROPHET. 
 
 curs  but  once  (Isa.  47  :  13),  where  it  is  link- 
 ed to  the  word  "  monthly  "  and  associated 
 witli  "astrologers"  and  "star-gazers."  The 
 pei-sons  thus  described  were  probably  such 
 as  employed  the  appearances  of  the  new 
 moon  to  indicate  the  future,  or  who,  from 
 signs  which  they  claimed  to  understand, 
 predicted  the  events  which  were  to  occur 
 from  month  to  month. 
 
 Proph'et.  The  ordinary'  Hebrew 
 word  for  prophet  is  derived  from  a  verb 
 signifying  "to  speak  inarticulately."  It 
 thus  designates  one  who  announces  in  orac- 
 ular or  enigmatical  ways  the  declarations 
 of  God.  The  English  word  is  a  transfer 
 from  the  Greek  iprophe'teg),  and  designates 
 (me  who  speaks  for  another,  especially  one  who 
 speaks  for  God,  and  so  declares  to  man  the 
 divine  will.  Its  essential  meaning,  there- 
 fore, is  that  of  a  speaker  for  God,  whether 
 the  matter  spoken  pertain  to  doctrine  or 
 practice  or  fore-announcement. 
 
 The  priestly  order  was  originally  the 
 instrument  by  which  the  members  of  the 
 Jewish  theocracy  were  taught  and  trained 
 in  things  spiritual.  Teaching  by  act  and 
 teacliing  by  word  were  alike  their  task. 
 But  during  the  time  of  the  judges  the 
 priesthood  sank  into  a  state  of  d 'generacy, 
 and  the  people  were  no  longer  affected  by 
 tlie  acted  lessons  of  the  ceremonial  service. 
 Under  these  circumstances  a  new  moral 
 power  was  summoned  forth — namely,  the 
 prophetic  order.  Samuel,  himself  a  Le- 
 vite  of  the  family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron.  6  : 
 28),  was  the  instrument  used  at  once  for 
 effecting  a  reform  in  the  priestly  order  (1 
 Chron.  9  :  22)  and  for  giving  to  the  proph- 
 ets a  position  of  importance  which  they  had 
 never  before  held.  He  instituted  compa- 
 nies or  colleges  of  prophets.  One  we  find 
 in  his  lifetime  at  Ramah  (1  Sam.  19  :  19, 
 20),  others  afterward  at  Bethel  (2  Kings 
 2  :  3),  Jericho  (2  Kings  2  :  5),  Gilgal  (2 
 Kings  4  :  38)  and  elsewhere  (2  Kings  6  : 
 1).  But  not  to  all  who  belonged  to  tlie 
 prophetic  order  was  the  prophetic  gift  im- 
 
 parted. Generally  the  inspired  propliet 
 came  from  the  college  of  tlie  prophets 
 and  belonged  to  the  prophetic  order,  but 
 tliis  was  not  always  the  case.  Amos,  though 
 called  to  the  prophetic  office,  did  not  belong 
 toi  the  prophetic  order  (Amos  7  :  14). 
 
 The  sixteen  prophets  whose  books  are  in 
 the  Canon  occupy  that  place  of  honor  be- 
 cause they  pcissessed  tlie  prophetic  gift. 
 When  we  consider  the  characteristics  of 
 tliese  sixteen  p.ophets,  we  describe  those 
 who  possessed  the  proplietic  gift  thus:  1. 
 They  were  the  national  poets  of  Judaea. 
 
 2.  They   were  annalists   and   historians. 
 
 3.  They   were    preachers  of   patriotism. 
 
 4.  They  were  preachers  of  morals  and  of 
 spiritual  religion.  5.  They  were  extra- 
 ordinary yet  authorizetl  exponents  of  the 
 Law.  6.  They  held  a  pastoral  or  quasi- 
 pastoral  office.  7.  Tliey  were  a  political 
 power  in  the  state.  8.  Tliey  were  instru- 
 ments of  revealing  God's  will  to  man,  as 
 in  other  ways  so  especially  by  predicting 
 future  events,  and  particularly  by  fore- 
 telling the  incarnation  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  and  the  redemption  effected  by 
 him. 
 
 Of  thes''  sixteen  prophets,  four  are  usu- 
 ally called  the  Greater  Prophets — namely, 
 1  Isaiah,   Jeremiah,   Ezekiel   and    Daniel  ; 
 and  twelve  the  Minor  Prophets — namely, 
 Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mi- 
 I  call,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  2^|ihaniah,  Hag- 
 1  gai,   Zechariah,  Malachi.     They  may  be 
 j  divided   into   four  groups:  the   Prophets 
 of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  Hosea,  Amos, 
 j  Jonah ;    the   Pro[)hets    of   tlie   Southern 
 '  Kingdom,    Isaiah,    Jeremiah,    .Joel,   Mi- 
 cah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah  ;    the 
 Prophets  of  the  Captivity,  Kzckicl,  Dan- 
 iel, Obadiah  ;  the  Prophets  of  the  Return, 
 Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi.     The  chro- 
 nological order  is  difficult  to  determine, 
 but  the  following  is  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
 act :   .Joel,  .Jonah,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah, 
 Micah,    Nahum,    Habakkuk,    Zephaniah, 
 Jeremiah,  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  Obadiah,  Hag- 
 
PROFIT  I ATION— PROSELYTE. 
 
 421 
 
 gai,  Zechariah,  Malachi.  Their  respec- 
 tive times  and  the  places  in  which  they 
 exercised  the".r  office  may  be  arranged 
 thus: 
 
 B.  c. 
 
 860,  about. 
 
 825,  about. 
 
 790,  about. 
 
 784-725. 
 
 758-698. 
 
 750-720. 
 
 712,  about. 
 
 630,  about. 
 
 627,  about. 
 
 627-587. 
 
 600-534. 
 
 595-572. 
 
 585,  about. 
 
 520. 
 
 520. 
 
 415,  about. 
 
 Name. 
 
 In  which    UQder    whose    reigu    or 
 Kingdom.  reigns. 
 
 Joel.  Judah.  Joash. 
 
 Jonah.  Israel.  Jeroboam  II. 
 
 Amos.  Israel.  Jeroboam  11. 
 
 Hosea.  Israel.   Jeroboam  II. 
 
 Isaiah.  Judah.  Uzziah-Hezekiah. 
 
 Micah.  Judah.  Jotham-Hezekiah. 
 
 Nahura.  Judah.  Hezskiah. 
 
 Habakkuk.  Judah.  Josiah. 
 
 Zephaniah.  Judah.  Josiah. 
 
 Jeremiah.  Judah.  Josiah. 
 Daniel.  During  Captivity. 
 
 Ezekiel.  " 
 
 Obadiah. 
 Haggai. 
 Zechariah. 
 Malachi. 
 
 After  Restoration. 
 
 During  Nehemiah's  ad- 
 miuistratiou. 
 
 So  far  as  their  predictive  powers  are  con- 
 cerned, th3  sixteen  Old  Testament  prophets 
 find  their  New  Testament  counterpart  in 
 the  writer  of  the  Revelation ;  but  in  their 
 general  cliaracter,  as  specially-illumined 
 revealers  of  God's  will,  their  counter- 
 part will  rather  be  found  first  in  the 
 great  Prophet  of  the  Church  and  his 
 forerunner,  John  the  Baptist,  and  next  in 
 all  those  persons  who  were  endowed  with 
 the  extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
 apostolic  age,  the  speakers  with  tongues 
 and  the  interpreters  of  tongues,  the  proph- 
 ets and  the  discerners  of  spirits,  the  teach- 
 ers and  miracle-workers  (1  Cor.  12  :  10, 
 28).  The  prophets  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment were  in  the  main  supernaturally- 
 illuminated  expounders  and  preachers. 
 
 Pro-pit'i-a'tlon,  that  on  account  of 
 which  God's  wrath  against  sin  is  appeased 
 and  God's  judgment  from  the  sinner  avert- 
 ed. In  the  Jewish  dispensation  it  was 
 foreshadowed  by  typical  sacrifices ;  in  the 
 Christian  dispensation  it  is  made  by  the 
 sacrifice  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  one 
 great  Antitype  (Rom.  3  :  25  ;  1  John  2:2). 
 
 Pros'e-lyte.     This  word   occurs  but 
 
 four  times  in  our  Authorized  Version  of 
 the  Scriptures,  and  all  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment: twice  in  its  singular  form  (Matt. 
 23  :  15;  Acts  6  :  5),  twice  in  its  plural 
 form  (Acts  2  :  10  ;  13  :  43 ).  It  is  a  Greek 
 word  transferred  to  our  English  tongue, 
 and  designates  "one  who  comes  to  an- 
 other country  or  people,"  a  stranger,  so- 
 journer. It  is  the  uniform  rendering  in 
 the  Septuagint  Version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment Scriptures  of  the  Hebrew  term  ger, 
 translated  "stranger,"  and  apparently  it 
 singles  out  from  the  mass  of  strangers, 
 aliens,  foreigners  and  sojowmers,  so  often 
 referred  to,  the  man  who,  although  a  non- 
 Israelite  in  blood,  has  yet  been  born  in  the 
 promised  land,  and  who,  under  the  influ- 
 ence of  divine  truth  and  religious  associa- 
 tion, has  bean  drawn  to  the  hope  of  Israel 
 and  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  As  a  native 
 and  resident  in  tlie  land,  the  stranger  [ger, 
 proselyte)  seems  to  have  been  what  the 
 rabbins  denominate  "  a  proselyte  of  the 
 gate" — that  is,  a  man  of  foreign  blood, 
 who,  because  born  in  the  land,  is  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Israelite  commonwealth  (Ex. 
 23  :  9 ;  Lev.  25  :  35 ;  Deut.  10  :  18,  19),  and 
 who,  upon  compliance  with  certain  require- 
 ments, is  privileged  to  become  a  member 
 of  the  Israelite  congregation  or  Church. 
 The  stranger  (ger,  proselyte)  who  desired 
 to  become  fully  identified  with  God's 
 chosen  people  must  first  give  credible 
 evidence,  by  obedience  to  the  moral  pre- 
 cepts of  the  Law,  that  he  was  in  spiritual 
 sympathy  with  Israel  and  the  God  of  Is- 
 rael, and  in  sign  of  his  changed  feeling 
 and  purpose  must  next  submit  to  the  ordi- 
 nance of  circumcision  (Ex.  12  :  48,  49). 
 When  thus  circumcised  the  stranger  [ger, 
 proselyte)  was  formally  admitted  to  the 
 passover  and  to  all  the  spiritual  priv- 
 ileges of  the  Israelite  congregation  or 
 Church.  He  was  no  longer  a  ".stranger," 
 but  according  to  the  rabbins  was  accepted 
 and  accounted  as  "  a  proselyte  of  righteous- 
 ness," or  a  full  member  of  the  household 
 
422 
 
 PROVERB— PROVIDENCE. 
 
 of  faith.  The  proselytes  of  Scripture  are 
 therefore  of  two  classes — one  class  consist- 
 ing of  uncircumcLted  land-born  men  who 
 are  members  of  the  Israelite  common- 
 wealth ;  the  other  class  consisting  of  cir- 
 cumcised land-born  men  who  are  members 
 both  of  the  Israelite  commonwealth  and 
 the  Israelite  congregation  or  Church. 
 
 In  New  Testament  times  proselytes  from 
 paganism  to  Judaism  were  numerous,  and 
 some  of  them  were  fine  exemplars  of  up- 
 right living.  Roman  centurions  in  Pal- 
 estine learned  to  love  the  holy  precepts 
 of  the  Law,  built  synagogues  for  the  Jews 
 (Luke  7  :  5),  and  fasted  and  prayed  and 
 gave  alms  after  the  pattern  of  the  strict- 
 est Israelites  (Acts  10:2,  30).  Such  men, 
 drawn  by  what  was  best  in  Judaism,  would 
 naturally  be  among  the  readiest  receivers 
 of  that  higher  Christian  truth  which  rose 
 out  of  it,  and  in  many  cases  would  quite 
 as  naturally  become  the  active  members 
 of  newly-formed  Christian  churches.  Be- 
 fore our  Lord's  death,  however,  the  spirit 
 of  Jewish  proselytisni,  at  one  time  pure  in 
 aim  and  praiseworthy  in  eflibrt,  was  degen- 
 erating into  much  that  was  unlovely  and 
 repugnant.  To  make  converts  force  was 
 sometimes  used,  and  not  infrequently  the 
 most  unscrupulous  fraud.  Those  who 
 were  active  in  proselyting  were  precisely 
 those  from  whose  teaching  all  that  was 
 most  true  and  living  had  departed.  The 
 vices  of  the  Jew  were  engrafted  on  the 
 vices  of  the  heathen.  A  repulsive  casu- 
 istry released  the  convert  from  obligations 
 which  he  had  before  recognized,  while  in 
 other  things  he  was  bound  hand  and  foot 
 to  an  unhealthy  stiperstition.  He  became, 
 in  accordance  with  our  Lord's  words  to 
 the  Pharisees,  the  chief  proselyters,  "two- 
 fold more  the  child  of  hell"  (Matt.  23: 
 15)  than  the  Pharisees  themselves.  See 
 Stranger. 
 
 ProVerb.  This  word  is  sometimes 
 used  as  synonymous  with  parable  (John 
 16  :  29),  but  strictly  speaking  the  proverb 
 
 is  a  short  moral  sentence  expressing  an 
 important  principle  in  a  striking  and  for- 
 cible manner  (1  Sam.  10  :  12).  Oriental 
 people  delight  in  such  brief  and  pithy 
 maxims,  wliich  they  often  cloihe  in  fig- 
 urative language. 
 
 Prov'erbs,  Book  of.  It  is  univer- 
 sally admitted  that  tlie  majority  of  the 
 proverbs  contained  in  this  book  were 
 either  uttered  or  collected  by  Solomon. 
 They  have  respect  to  almost  every  duty 
 and  relation  of  life.  They  open  a  treas- 
 ure-house of  wisdom  in  which  one  may 
 find  tlie  plainest  and  most  practical  rules 
 for  the  guidance  of  heart  and  life.  Their 
 style  is  rhythmical,  rising  in  some  sections 
 to  the  loftiest  plane  of  poetrv  (Prov.  8  :  22- 
 31). 
 
 Prov^i-dence.  This  word  occurs  but 
 once  in  our  Authorized  Vei-siou,  and  then 
 is  a])plied  to  the  care  and  protection  ex- 
 tended to  its  subjects  by  a  human  govern- 
 ment (Acts  24  :  2).  The  doctrine  of  a  di- 
 vine providence,  however,  is  set  forth  and 
 illustrated  in  every  part  of  the  holy  Scrijv 
 tures.  It  denotes  the  vigilant  care  which 
 God  exercises  in  relation  to  all  the  works 
 of  his  hand  in  their  preservation  and  gov- 
 ernment. God  has  not  merely  created  all 
 things,  but  he  continues  to  uphold  them, 
 and  all  his  attributes  of  omniscience,  om- 
 nipotence, omnipresence,  justice,  goodness, 
 faithfulness,  etc.  are  continually  illustrated 
 in  his  providential  control.  The  same  per- 
 fections which  were  exerted  to  create  are 
 in  like  manner  employed  to  sustain.  The 
 thought  is  at  once  dreary  and  repulsive 
 that  God  takes  no  special  interest  in  the 
 works  which  he  has  brought  into  being. 
 Proofs  to  the  contrary  are  abundant  on 
 every  hand.  The  orderly  movement  of 
 the  heavenly  bodies ;  the  changes  of  the 
 seasons ;  the  growth  of  plants ;  the  pro- 
 vision made  for  the  countless  varieties  of 
 inferior  animals ;  the  prosperity,  punish- 
 ment and  extinction  of  nations ;  the  his- 
 tory of  the  Church,  and  its  preservation 
 
PROVINCE— PSALMS. 
 
 423 
 
 amidst  the  most  discouraging  circum- 
 stances; the  history  of  every  individual 
 man, — these  and  a  thousand  other  partic- 
 ulars afford  evidence  of  the  directing, 
 controlling  and  sustaining  influence  of 
 One  who  possesses  within  himself  inex- 
 haustible resources.  Providence  has  been 
 called  imiversiil,  as  it  refers  to  things  in 
 general ;  special,  as  it  relates  to  moral 
 beings ;  and  •particular,  as  it  refers  to  God's 
 people.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
 it  extends  to  the  minutest  as  to  the  might- 
 iest concerns  in  the  universe.  It  shapes 
 the  destiny  of  an  animalcule  as  well  as 
 of  a  world.  Not  a  raven  is  fed  or  a 
 sparrow  falls  to  the  ground  without  the 
 notice  of  our  heavenly  Father.  The  his- 
 tory of  Joseph's  elevation  in  Egypt  in  the 
 singular  chain  of  circumstances  which  led 
 to  it  beautifully  illustrates  this  particular- 
 ity of  providence,  and  every  one  who  is  an 
 heir  of  salvation  can  trace  the  same  pre- 
 siding power  in  all  the  various  steps  by 
 which  he  was  led  in  his  religious  career. 
 Chance,  fortune,  accident,  are  words  with- 
 out meaning.  God's  presence  pervades 
 all  things ;  his  hand  is  everywhere  vis- 
 ible ;  his  kingdom  ruleth  over  all ;  and 
 however  a  man's  heart  may  devise  his 
 way,  "  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps " 
 (Prov.  16  :  9). 
 
 Prov'ince,  At  the  division  of  the 
 Roman  provinces  by  Augustus  after  the 
 battle  of  Actium  (b.  c.  27)  into  senatorial 
 and  imperial,  the  emperor  assigned  to  the 
 senate  such  portions  of  territory  as  were 
 peaceable  and  could  be  held  without  force 
 of  arms,  whilst  all  the  other  portions  of 
 the  empire  were  reserved  for  himself. 
 Over  the  senatorial  provinces  the  senate 
 appointed  by  lot  yearly  an  officer  who 
 was  called  "  proconsul,"  and  who  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment is  styled  "  deputy  "  (Acts  13  :  7,  8  ; 
 18  :  12).  The  proconsul  exercised  purely 
 civil  functions,  and  the  provinces  thus 
 ruled  were  called  "  proconsular."  Over  the 
 
 imperial  provinces,  however,  the  emperor 
 appointed  the  presiding  officer,  who  was 
 called  "  procurator,"  and  who  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  of  the  New  Testament 
 is  styled  "  governor  "  (Matt.  27  ;  Luke  3  : 
 1 ;  Acts  23  :  24;  26  :  30).  Hence  in  the 
 time  of  our  Lord,  Judaea  was  an  imperial 
 province.  Before  Pontius  Pilate  our  Lord 
 is  brought  as  a  political  offender  (Matt. 
 27  :  2,  11),  and  the  accusation  is  heard  by 
 the  procurator,  who  is  seated  on  the  judg- 
 ment-seat (Matt.  27  :  19).  Felix  heard  the 
 apostle  Paul's  accusation  and  defence  from 
 the  judgment-seat  at  Csesarea  (Acts  eh. 
 24),  and  Paul  calls  him  "judge"  (Acts  24  : 
 10),  as  if  this  term  described  his  chief  func- 
 tion. 
 
 Psalms.  The  Hebrew  word  by  which 
 the  book  of  Psalms  is  designated  means 
 "  praise;"  the  Greek  word  applied  to  it  hi 
 the  Septuagint,  from  which  our  English 
 designation  is  derived,  means  "  songs,"  as 
 accompanying  stringed  instruments.  The 
 book  contains  one  hundred  and  fifty  psalms, 
 and  may  be  divided  into  five  great  divis- 
 ions or  books.  Book  I.  includes  Psalms 
 1-41 ;  Book  II.,  Psalms  42-72  ;  Book  III., 
 Psalms  73-89  ;  Book  IV.,  Psalms  90-106 ; 
 Book  v.,  Psalms  107-150. 
 
 These  several  books  must  have  been 
 formed  at  different  periods  and  for  differ- 
 ent purposes.  Between  them  there  is  a 
 remarkable  variety  in  their  use  of  the  di- 
 vine names  Jehovah  and  Elohim.  In 
 Book  I.,  Jehovah  is  found  two  hundred 
 and  seventy-two  times,  while  Elohim  oc- 
 curs but  fifteen  times.  In  Book  II.,  Elo- 
 him is  found  more  than  five  times  as  often 
 as  Jehovah.  In  Book  III.  the  earlier 
 psalms  have  Elohim,  while  the  later 
 psalms  have  Jehovah.  In  Book  IV.  the 
 name  Jehovah  is  exclusively  employed, 
 and  so  also  virtually  in  Book  V.  The 
 several  groups  of  psalms  which  form  the 
 respective  five  books  are  distinguished  in 
 great  measure  from  each  other  by  their 
 superscriptions.     Book  I.  is,  by  the  super- 
 
424 
 
 PSALTERY— PUDENS. 
 
 scriptions,  referred  entirely  to  David,  who 
 probably  was  not  only  its  author,  but  also 
 its  compiler.  In  B.iok  II.  a  few  psalms 
 are  referred  to  David,  and  are  perhaps 
 such  as  the  royal  author  left  uncompiled. 
 In  each  of  the  other  three  books  psalms 
 are  ascribed  to  David  which  he  certainly 
 did  not  write,  but  wliich  bear  his  name 
 because  they  were  written  by  his  posterity — 
 by  Hezekiah,  Josiah,  Zerubbabel  and  others 
 of  his  line.  The  interest  of  Book  III.  cen- 
 tres in  the  times  of  Hezekiah,  and  was  prob- 
 ably compiled  in  the  reign  of  Josiah.  Book 
 IV.  contains  the  remainder  of  the  psalms 
 up  to  the  date  of  the  Captivity  ;  Book  V., 
 the  psalms  of  the  Return  ;  and  both  Avere 
 probably  compiled  in  the  times  of  Nehe- 
 miah. 
 
 The  whole  collection  is  a  marvelous  mir- 
 ror of  the  inner  spiritual  life  of  the  pious 
 man  who  feels  the  curse  and  burden  of  sin, 
 who  longs  for  the  love  and  grace  of  the 
 living  God,  who  wrestles  for  pardon  and 
 purity  and  jjeace,  and  who  realizes  that  he 
 must  seek  and  find  rest  in  laying  hold  of 
 the  divine  faithfulness.  "This  book,"  says 
 Calvin  in  the  preface  to  his  commentary 
 on  it,  "  I  am  accustomed  to  call  an  anat- 
 omy of  all  the  parts  of  the  soul,  inasmuch 
 as  no  one  will  find  an  emotion  in  himself 
 whose  image  does  not  reappear  in  this  mir- 
 ror. All  pains,  griefs,  fears,  doubts,  hopes, 
 cares,  anxieties,  the  stormy  impulses  by 
 which  the  minds  of  men  are  driven  hither 
 and  thither,  are  here  placed  by  the  Holy 
 Ghost  with  vivid  distinctness  before  our 
 eyes." 
 
 Psal'te-ry,  a  stringed  instrument  of 
 music  to  accompany  the  voice.  It  resem- 
 bled tlie  guitar,  but  was  superior  in  tone, 
 being  larger  and  having  a  convex  back. 
 The  psalteries  of  David  vnere  made  of  cy- 
 press (2  Sam.  6:5);  those  of  Solomon,  of 
 algum  or  almug  trees  (2  Chron.  9  :  11). 
 
 Pub'li-can.  The  class  designated  by 
 this  word  in  the  New  Testament  were  em- 
 ployed as  collectors  of  the  Roman  revenue. 
 
 The  Roman  senate  farmed  the  direct  taxes 
 and  the  customs  to  capitalists,  who  under- 
 took to  pay  a  given  sum  into  the  treasurv. 
 Contracts  of  this  kind  fell  naturally  into 
 the  hands  of  the  richest  class  of  Romans. 
 They  appointed  managers,  under  whom 
 were  the  actual  collectors  of  taxes  and 
 of  customs.  The  custom-house  officers 
 examined  each  bale  of  goods,  assessed 
 its  value  more  or  less  arbitrarily, 
 wrote  out  the  ticket  and  enforced 
 payment.  The  system  was  essentially 
 a  vicious  one.  The  collectors  were  en- 
 couraged in  the  most  vexatious  or  fraud- 
 ulent exactions,  and  a  remedy  was  almost 
 impossible.  They  overcharged  whenever 
 they  had  an  opportunity  (Luke  3:  13); 
 they  brought  false  charges  of  smuggling 
 in  the  hope  of  extorting  husli-money 
 (Luke  19  :  8) ;  they  detained  and  o|)ened 
 letters  on  mere  suspicion.  It  was  es- 
 teemed by  the  Jews  the  basest  of  all 
 livelihoods.  It  brought  the  class  into 
 ill-favor  everywhere.  In  Judaja  and 
 Galilee  there  were  special  circumstances 
 of  aggravation.  Many  Jews  from  luve  of 
 gain  sought  the  office.  Many  Jews  had 
 the  strong  conviction  that  to  pay  tribute 
 at  all  was  forbidden  by  their  Law.  Thus, 
 conflict  and  confusion  were  sure  to  arise. 
 Tlie  publicans  were  despised ;  were  de- 
 nominated apostates  and  traitors ;  were 
 regarded  as  utterly  defiled  by  their  inter- 
 course with  the  heathen  ;  were  denounced 
 as  the  shameless  tools  of  the  opj):essor. 
 Yet  the  class  thus  practically  excommu- 
 nicated furnished  some  of  the  earliest  dis- 
 ciples both  of  the  Baptist  and  of  our  Lord. 
 
 Pub'li-us,  the  chief  man,  probably  the 
 governor,  of  Mclita,  who  received  and 
 lodged  Paul  and  his  companions  after  the 
 shipwreck  off  that  island  (Acts  28  :  7). 
 
 Pu^dens  [»!oc/e.s<],  a  Christian  of  some 
 note  at  Rome  and  a  friend  of  Timothy  (2 
 Tim.  4  :  21).  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 a  senator  and  the  husband  of  Claudia,  a 
 British  princess. 
 
PUL— PURIFICATION. 
 
 425 
 
 Pul,  the  name  of  a  king  and  a  country. 
 
 1.  An  Assyrian  king,  and  tlie  first  of 
 those  monarclis  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
 His  Hebrew  name  is  more  properly 
 Phul,  whicli  appears  in  the  Septuagint  as 
 Phoiia.  He  invaded  Israel  in  the  time  of 
 Menahem  the  usurper,  who  bought  him 
 off  from  ravaging  the  land  and  from  in- 
 terfering with  the  government  by  the  pay- 
 ment of  a  thousand  talents  of  silver,  which 
 were  extorted  from  the  wealthy  subjects  of 
 the  kingdom  (2  Kings  15 :  19,  20).  As  the 
 name  of  Pul  does  not  appear  in  the  Assyr- 
 ian Eponym  Canon  or  in  the  numerous 
 inscriptions  whicli  have  been  read,  va- 
 rious attempts  have  been  made  to  ex- 
 plain the  fact.  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  is 
 followed  by  Professor  Sayce  of  Oxford, 
 Professor  Schrader  of  Germany  and  other 
 scholars  in  the  identification  of  Pul  with 
 the  Tiglath-pileser  mentioned  in  2  Kings 
 15  :  29;  10  :  7,  10,  and  who  appears  on 
 the  Assyrian  inscriptions  as  Tiglath-pile- 
 ser II. ;  other  scholars  identify  him  with 
 Vul-nirari  III.,  who  reigned  some  thirty 
 years  earlier  than  Tiglath-pileser  II. ;  and 
 still  other  scholars  maintain  that  in  the 
 Assyrian  records  there  exists  a  gap  which 
 is  yet  to  be  filhd.  Bishop  Walsh  of  Os- 
 sory  has  recently  claimed  to  have  found 
 "  Pul,  king  of  Assyria,"  on  a  stone  frag- 
 ment from  the  great  palace  at  Nimriid. 
 On  this  stone  are  mentioned  Pul's  expe- 
 dition against  Tyre,  Sidon,  Omri,  lildom 
 and  Palestine  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean, 
 and  his  laying  tribute  upon  them  all. 
 Should  this  claim  prove  to  be  well  found- 
 ed it  will  happily  settle  one  of  the  vexed 
 and  difficult  questions  of  biblical  history. 
 
 2.  A  people  or  place  mentioned  in  Isa. 
 66  :  19.  It  is  spoken  of  with  distant  na- 
 tions, and  has  been  supposed  to  represent 
 the  island  PhiliB  in  Egypt. 
 
 Pulse.  This  word  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  occurs  only  in  Dan.  1  :  12,  16,  as 
 the  translation  of  words  in  Hebrew  the 
 literal  meaning  of  which  is  "  seeds "  of 
 
 any  kind.  The  term  probably  denotes 
 uncooked  grain  of  any  kind,  whether 
 barley,  wheat,  millet,  vetches  or  the  like. 
 
 Pun'ish-ment.  The  word  has  three 
 applications  in  Scripture:  1.  To  the  suf- 
 fering inflicted  as  the  penalty  of  crime  ( 1 
 Sam.  28  :  9,  10) ;  2.  To  the  calamity  visit- 
 ed by  God  on  a  wicked  nation  (Lev.  26  : 
 41-43) ;  3.  To  the  everlasting  torment  of 
 the  wicked  (Matt.  25  :  46).  The  punish- 
 ments for  crime  among  the  Hebrews  were 
 of  two  kinds,  cfipital  and  secondary.  Of 
 capital  punishments  the  following  only 
 were  prescribed  by  the  law:  Stoning  (Ex. 
 17  ;  4),  Itanf/iiu/  (Num.  25  :  4),  burning 
 (Lev.  21  :  9),  death  by  the  sword,  or  spear 
 (Ex.  19  :  13).  Of  secondary  punishments 
 the  following  were  tlie  principal :  Retali- 
 ation (Ex.  21  :  24,  25),  compensation  (Lev. 
 24:  lS-21),  stripes  (Deut.  25:  3),  scourg- 
 ing (Judg.  8  :  16).  In  the  later  times  of 
 Jewish  history  imprisonment,  confiscation 
 of  goods  and  banishment  were  added  to  the 
 list  of  secondary  punishments  (Ezra  7  :  26 ; 
 Acts  5  :  IS).     See  Prison. 
 
 Pu'non  [darkness  or  blacknessi,  one  of 
 the  halting-places  of  the  Israelites  during 
 the  last  portion  of  the  Wandering  (Num. 
 33  :  42,  43). 
 
 Pu-ri-fl-ca'tion.  In  its  legal  and 
 technical  sense  this  word  is  applied  to  the 
 ritual  observances  whereby  the  Israelite 
 was  formally  absolved  from  the  taint  of 
 uncleanness.  The  essence  of  purification 
 in  all  cases  consisted  in  the  use  of  water, 
 whether  by  ablution  or  aspersion ;  but  in 
 the  higher  forms  of  legal  uncleanness,  such 
 as  childbirth  (Lev.  12:6)  or  contact  with 
 a  corpse  or  a  grave  (Num.  ch.  19)  or  cure 
 of  leprosy  (Lev.  14 :  4-32),  sacrifices  of  va- 
 rious kinds  were  added,  and  the  ceremo- 
 nies throughout  bore  an  expiatory  charac- 
 ter. Indeed,  the  distinctive  feature  in  the 
 Mosaic  rites  of  purification  is  their  expi- 
 atory character.  The  idea  of  uncleanness 
 was  not  peculiar  to  the  Jew.  With  all 
 other   nations,   however,  simple   ablution 
 
426 
 
 PURIM— PYGARG. 
 
 sufficed ;  no  sacrifices  were  demanded. 
 The  Jew  alone  was  taught  by  the  use  of 
 expiatory  offerings  to  discern  to  its  full 
 extent  tlie  connection  between  the  out- 
 ward sign  and  the  inward  impurity. 
 
 Pu'rim  [lola],  the  annual  festival  in- 
 stituted to  commemorate  the  preservation 
 of  the  Jews  in  Persia  from  the  massacre 
 with  which  they  were  threatened  through 
 the  enmity  of  Haman  (Esth.  9  :  24-32). 
 The  festival  lasted  two  days,  and  was  ob- 
 served on  the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar. 
 
 Pur'ple,  the  color  for  which  the 
 Tyrians  were  so  renowned,  and  which  be- 
 came the  symbol  of  imperial  dominion, 
 was  well  known  at  the  time  of  the  Exo- 
 dus. A  large  store  of  material  dyed  in 
 this  hue,  woolen  and  linen  probably,  was 
 carried   by   Israel   from  Egypt  (Ex.  25: 
 
 Murex. 
 
 4;  35  :  6,  25),  and  was  used  for  the  con- 
 struction of  the  curtains,  veil  and  hang- 
 ings of  the  tabernacle,  for  the  cloths  of 
 service  and  for  the  garments  of  Aaron  the 
 high  priest.  The  dye  was  obtained  from 
 a  shell-fish,  the  Murex  (rtincvl<t!>  and  3Iu- 
 rex  brandarh  of  Linnaeus.  Vast  piles  of 
 broken  shells  of  the  murex  may  now  be 
 seen  just  without  the  southern  gate  of 
 
 Sidon,  and  at  Tyre;  also  in  Greece;  and 
 at  Otranto,  Italy,  where  are  the  remains 
 of  dye  works  with  mortar  still  purpled 
 by  the  dye.  The  dye  was  a  liquor  con- 
 tained in  a  vein  situated  in  the  neck  of 
 the  animal.  Its  limitation  in  quantity, 
 the  diflficulty  of  collecting  it  and  the  labor 
 and  complexity  of  the  dyeing  processes 
 necessarily  made  the  purple  cloth  costly 
 even  at  the  place  of  its  manufacture.  Hence 
 the  wearing  of  purple  was  the  well-under- 
 stood sign  of  wealth  (Luke  16  :  19),  and 
 was  consequently  indulged  in  by  the  ojju- 
 lent  until  the  emperors  of  Rome  confined 
 it  to  themselves  by  making  the  apj)ear- 
 ance  of  such  a  garment  on  a  private 
 individual  an  offence  to  be  punished  with 
 severity. 
 
 Purse.  The  Hebrews,  when  on  a 
 journey,  were  provided  with  a  bag  in 
 which  they  carried  their  money  (Gen.  42 : 
 35 ;  Prov.  1  :  14 ;  7  :  20 ;  Isa.  46  :  6),  and, 
 if  they  were  merchants,  also  their  weights 
 (Deut.  25  :  13;  Mic.  6:11).  This  bag  is 
 referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke 
 10:  4;  12  :  33;  22:  35,  36;  John  12:  6; 
 13 :  29).  The  girdle  also  served  as  a  purse 
 (Matt.  10:  9;  Mark  6:8).  Ladies  wore 
 ornamental  purses  (crisping-pins)  (Isa.  3  : 
 22). 
 
 Pu-te'o-li,  now  called  Pozzuoli,  a  sea- 
 port town  in  Campania,  Italy,  about  eight 
 miles  north-west  from  Naples,  and  cele- 
 brated for  its  hot  springs.  It  was  a  favor- 
 ite resort  of  the  Romans.  It  was  also  the 
 port  where  ships  for  Ronid  landed  their 
 passengers  and  discharged  their  cargoes, 
 partly  to  avoid  doubling  the  promontory 
 of  Circeium,  and  partly  because  there 
 was  no  nearer  harbor  that  was  commo- 
 dious. The  ship  which  carried  Paul  and 
 other  prisoners  to  the  imperial  city  landed 
 its  passengers  here,  and  here  the  apostle 
 tarried  seven  days  (Acts  28  :  13,  14). 
 
 Py'garg.  The  rendering  of  a  Hebrew 
 term  which  is  supposed  to  designate  some 
 species  of  antelope  (Deut.  14:5). 
 
QUAIL— QUICKSANDS. 
 
 427 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quail.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
 the  Hebrew  word  in  Ex.  16  :  13 ;  Num. 
 U  :  31,  32;  Ps.  105  :  40  which  is  trans- 
 lated "quails"  is  correctly  rendered. 
 Quails  were  a  part  of  the  food  miracu- 
 lously supplied  to  the  Israelites  in  the 
 wilderness.  They  are  still  common  in  the 
 deserts  of  Arabia,  and  are  brought  to  the 
 market  at  Jerusalem  bv  thousands.     Tlie 
 
 supply  to  the  Israelites,  according  to  the 
 first  two  texts  cited,  was  furnished  on  two 
 occasions,  at  Sin  and  at  Kibroth-hattaavah. 
 Both  were  at  the  season  when  the  quails 
 pass  from  south  to  north,  and  are  found  in 
 immense  flocks  on  the  coast  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean and  Red  Sea.  The  description, 
 "  two  cubits  high  upon  the  faca  of  the  earth  " 
 (Num.  11:31),  refers  probably  to  the  height 
 at  which  the  quails  flew  above  the  ground 
 in  their  exhausted  condition  from  their 
 long  flight. 
 
 Quar'tus  [the  fourth],  a  Christian  of 
 note  at  Corinth  whose  salutations  Paul 
 transmitted  to  Rome  (Rom.  16  :  23).  His 
 name  seems  to  indicate  that  he  was  a  Ro- 
 man. 
 
 Qua-ter'ni-on,  a  military  term  sig- 
 nifying a  guard  of  four  soldiers,  two  of 
 
 whom  were  attached  to  the  person  of  a 
 prisoner,  while  the  other  two  kept  watch 
 outside  the  door  of  liis  cell  (Acts  12  :  4). 
 
 Queen.  Tliis  title  is  properly  applied 
 to  the  queen-mother,  since  in  an  Oriental 
 household  it  is  not  the  wife,  but  the  moth- 
 er, of  the  master  who  exercises  the  high- 
 est authority.  Tlie  extent  of  the  influence 
 of  the  queen-motlier  is  well  illustrated  by 
 the  narrative  of  tlie  interview  of  Solomon 
 and  Bathsheba,  as  given  in  1  Kings  2  :  19- 
 25.  The  term  is  applied  to  Maachah, 
 Asa's  mother  (1  Kings  15 :  13),  and  to  the 
 mother  of  Jehoiachin  (comp.  2  Kings  24 : 
 12  with  Jer.  13  :  18). 
 
 Queen  of  Heaven,  the  moon,  wor- 
 shiped as  Ashtaroth  or  Astarte,  to  whom 
 the  Hebrew  women  offered  cakes  in  the 
 streets  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  7:18;  44  :  17, 
 18,  19,  25). 
 
 Quick  [living  or  alive],  (Lev.  13  :  10; 
 Num.  16  :  30;  Ps.  55  :  15).  The  original 
 sense  of  the  word  is  retained  in  the  verb 
 to  quicken,  which  means  to  make  alive,  to 
 bring  to  life  (Rom.  4  :  17  ;  8:11;  Eph.  2 : 
 5;  Col.  2:  13). 
 
 Quicksands,  The,  more  properly 
 The  Syrtes  (Acts  27  :  17),  the  broad  and 
 deep  bight  on  the  North  African  coast  be- 
 tween Carthage  and  Cyrene.  The  name  is 
 said  to  be  derived  from  Sert,  an  Arabic  word 
 for  a  desert.  For  two  reasons  t  his  region  was 
 an  object  of  peculiar  dread  to  tlie  ancient 
 navigators  of  the  Mediterranean,  partly 
 because  of  the  drifting  sands  and  the  heat 
 along  the  shore  itself,  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
 count of  the  shallows  and  the  uncertain 
 currents  of  water  in  the  bay.  There  were 
 properly  two  Syrtes — the  eastern  or  larger, 
 now  called  the  Oidf  of  Sidrn,  and  the  west- 
 ern or  smaller,  now  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  It 
 is  to  the  first  that  the  passage  in  Acts  re- 
 fers. 
 
428 
 
 RAAM  AH— RA  BBAH. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ra'a-mah  [«  iremblimj'l,  one  of  the 
 sons  of  Cush,  whose  descendants  settled 
 on  tlie  Persian  Gulf  and  became  renowned 
 as  traders  (Gen.  10  :  7 ;  Ezek.  27  :  22). 
 
 Ra-ara'ses,  in  Ex.  1:11,  elsewhere 
 Ram'e-ses  (Gen.  47  :  11 ;  Ex.  12  : 
 37 ;  Num.  33  :  3,  5),  the  name  of  an 
 Egyptian  city  and  province.  Several  of 
 Egypt's  ancient  kings  were  named  Ram- 
 eses  "child  of  the  sun,"  one  of  whom  prob- 
 
 ably built  the  city,  which,  as  it  grew  in 
 importance,  gave  its  name  to  the  surround- 
 ing district.  Tlie  city  and  province  were 
 in  Lower  Egypt,  and  in  that  land  of  Gosh- 
 en which  was  assigned  to  Joseph's  breth- 
 ren and  their  families  because  of  its  adapt- 
 edncss  to  pasturage.  From  Rameses,  city 
 and  province,  the  Israelites  began  their 
 march  out  of  Egypt. 
 Rab'bah,  or  Rab'bath  [the  greai], 
 
 Rabbath-Aninion  from  the  East. 
 
 or  Rab'bath  of  the  Atn'mon-ites, 
 the  canital  of  the  Ammonites  (Deut.  3  : 
 11).  Here  Uriah  was  slain  during  the  siege 
 of  it  by  Joab  (2  Sam.  11:17);  the  city  was 
 afterward  taken  by  David  in  person  (2  Sam. 
 12  :  29).  Subsequently  it  had  many  mas- 
 ters and  encountered  varying  fortunes.  In 
 the  times  of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  it 
 was  rebuilt  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who 
 called  it  Philadelphia,  but  its  old   name 
 
 survived.  It  is  now  called  Ammav,  an 
 echo  of  the  name  of  the  Anuuonites,  its 
 early  possessors.  It  is  utterly  ruined  and 
 desolate,  in  accordance  with  prophecy  (.Jer. 
 49  :  1-3 ;  Ezek.  25  :  5).  Its  ruins,  the  re- 
 mains of  palaces,  temples,  churches,  the- 
 atres and  tombs,  lie  about  twenty-two  miles 
 east  of  the  Jordan.  One  of  its  theatres,  ca- 
 pable of  accommodating  six  thousand  spec- 
 tators, is  one  of  the  finest  ruins  in  Syria. 
 
EABBAH— RAHAB. 
 
 429 
 
 Rab^bah,    or    Rab'bath-Moab. 
 
 See  Ar. 
 
 Rab'bi  [ieac/ie/-],  a  title  of  respect  given 
 by  tlie  Jews  to  their  teachers,  and  often  ad- 
 dressed to  our  Lord  (Matt.  23  :  7,  8 ;  26  : 
 25,  49 ;  Mark  9  :  5 ;  11  :  21 ;  14  :  45  ;  John 
 
 I  :  38,  49 ;  3  :  2,  26 :  4:31;  6  :  25 ;  9:2; 
 
 II  :  8).  Another  form  of  the  title  was 
 rabboni  (Mark  10  :  51  ;  John  20  :  10). 
 The  title  rabbi  is  not  known  to  liave  been 
 used  before  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great, 
 and  is  thought  to  have  taken  its  rise  about 
 the  time  of  the  disputes  between  the  rival 
 schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai. 
 
 Rab'-Mag,  a  title  borne  by  Nergal- 
 Sharezer,  probably  identical  with  the  king 
 called  by  the  Greeks  Neriglissar.  This 
 king,  as  well  as  certain  other  important 
 personages,  is  found  to  bear  the  title  in 
 the  Babylonian  inscriptions.  Tlie  signifi- 
 cation of  Rab  is  "great"  or  "chief,"  but 
 Mag  is  an  obscure  term.  It  has  common- 
 ly been  identified  with  the  word  "  Magus," 
 but  this  identification  is  very  uncertain. 
 
 Rab'sar-is,  the  name  of  two  persons. 
 
 1.  An  officer  of  the  king  of  Assyria  sent 
 with  Tartan  and  Rabshakeh  against  Jeru- 
 salem in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings 
 18  :  17). 
 
 2.  One  of  the  princes  of  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar who  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Je- 
 rusalem (Jer.  39  :  3,  13).  Rabsaris  is  prob- 
 ably rather  the  name  of  an  office  than  of 
 an  individual,  the  word  signifying  chief 
 eunuch.  In  Jer.  ch.  39  the  title  of  the 
 Rabsaris  is  not  only  given,  but  most  prob- 
 ably his  name,  either  Sarsechim,  as  in  ver. 
 3,  or  Nebushasban  (worshiper  of  Nebo),  as 
 in  ver.  13. 
 
 Rab'sha-keh,  one  of  the  officers  of 
 the  king  of  Assyria  sent  against  Jerusa- 
 lem in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings 
 chs.  18,  19;  Isa.  36,  37).  Our  Authorized 
 Version  takes  Rabshakeh  as  the  name  of 
 a  person,  but  it  is  more  probably  the  name 
 of  the  office  which  he  held  at  the  court, 
 that  of  chief  cupbearer. 
 
 Ra^'ca  \_eniptiness^,  a  term  of  reproach 
 used  by  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's  time 
 (Matt.  5  :  22).  It  is  derived  from  the 
 Chaldee  rtkd,  and  is  expressive  of  con- 
 tempt. 
 
 Race.    See  Games. 
 
 Tlie  Toml)  of  Rachel. 
 
 Ra^chel  [er^e],  the  younger  of  the 
 daughters  of  Laban,  the  wife  of  Jacob 
 and  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin. 
 The  incidents  of  her  life  may  be  found 
 in  Gen.  chs.  29-33,  35.  She  died  and  was 
 buried  near  Bethlehem,  where  her  tomb 
 remained  for  a  long  period,  and  the  site 
 of  it,  which  is  undisputed  by  Christian, 
 Jew  or  Moslem,  is  still  pointed  out,  al- 
 though the  tomb  itself,  which  is  shown  to 
 travelers,  is  a  modern  structure.  It  is  about 
 five  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  mile 
 north  of  Bethlehem. 
 
 Ra-gu'el.    See  Jethro. 
 
 Ra'hab,  or  Ra'chab,  a  celebrated 
 woman  of  Jericho  who  received  the  spies 
 sent  by  Joshua  to  spy  out  the  land, 
 hid  them  in  her  house  from  the  pursuit 
 of  her  countrymen,  was  saved  with  all  her 
 fiimily  when  the  Israelites  sacked  the  city, 
 and  became  the  wife  of  Salmon  and  the  an- 
 cestress of  the  Messiah  (Josh.  2:1;  Matt. 
 
430 
 
 RAHAB— RAMA. 
 
 1  :  5).  Her  house  was  situated  upon  tlie 
 town-wall,  whence  she  let  tlie  spies  clown 
 by  ii  cord  through  the  window  where  she 
 bound  the  scarlet  line  (Josh.  2  :  15,  21). 
 Her  life  before  the  overthrow  of  Jericho 
 was  not  a  respectable  one,  but  with  the 
 purer  faith  of  the  Hebrews  which  she  em- 
 braced she  seems  to  have  entered  on  a 
 nobler  career.  Her  faith  is  commended 
 in  Heb.  11  :  31,  and  her  works  in  James 
 
 2  :  25. 
 
 Ra'hab  [pride,  m.so/fi?ice],  a  poetical 
 name  for  Egyi)t  (Ps.  87  :  4;  89  :  10;  Isa. 
 51  :  9),  probably  of  Egyptian  origin,  but 
 accommodated  to  the  Hebrew  language. 
 
 Rain.  In  the  Scriptures  early  rain 
 signifies  the  rain  of  the  autumn  (Deut.  11  : 
 14 ;  Jer.  5 :  24),  and  latter  rain  the  rain 
 of  spring  (Prov.  16:15;  Job  29:  23;  Jer.  3: 
 3 ;  Hos.  6:3;  Joel  2  :  23 ;  Zech.  10:1).  In 
 Palestine  for  six  montl.s  in  the  year  occa- 
 sional showers  only  fall,  and  the  harvests 
 are  gathered  in  without  any  aiiprehension 
 of  unseasonable  storms.  The  whole  land, 
 however,  becomes  dry,  parched  and  brown, 
 the  cisterns  are  empty,  the  springs  and 
 fountains  fail,  and  the  autumnal  rains  are 
 eagerly  looked  for  to  prepare  the  earth 
 for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  There  the 
 early  rains  commence  about  the  latter  end 
 of  October  or  beginning  of  November,  in 
 Lebanon  a  month  earlier.  They  fall  not 
 continuously,  but  irregularly  and  chiefly  in 
 the  night,  giving  the  husbandman  the  op- 
 portunity of  sowing  his  fields  of  wheat  and 
 barley.  During  the  months  of  November 
 and  December  tiie  rains  continue  to  fall 
 heavily ;  afterward  they  return  at  intervals 
 and  are  less  lieavy,  but  at  no  period  during 
 the  winter  do  they  entirely  cease.  January 
 and  February  are  the  coldest  months,  and 
 snow  falls  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
 or  more  at  Jerusalem,  but  it  does  not  lie 
 long;  it  is  very  seldom  seen  along  the 
 coast  and  in  the  low  plains.  Rain  con- 
 tinues to  fall  more  or  less  during  the 
 month  of  March  ;  it  is  rare  in  April,  and 
 
 even  in  Lebanon  the  showers  that  oc- 
 cur are  generally  light.  In  the  valley  of 
 the  Jordan  the  barley-harvest  begins  as 
 early  as  the  middle  of  April,  and  the 
 wheat  a  fortnight  later;  in  Lebanon  the 
 grain  is  seldom  ripe  before  the  middle  of 
 June. 
 
 Rain'bo"W,  the  token  of  the  covenant 
 which  God  made  with  Noah  when  he  came 
 forth  from  the  ark,  that  the  waters  should 
 no  more  become  a  flood  to  destroy  all  flesh. 
 The  right  interpretation  of  (ien.  9  :  13 
 seems  to  be  that  God  took  the  rainbow, 
 which  had  hitherto  been  but  a  beautiful 
 object  shining  in  the  heavens  when  the 
 sun's  rays  fell  on  falling  rain,  and  conse- 
 crated it  as  the  sign  of  his  love  and  the 
 witness  of  his  promise.  In  figure  the 
 rainbow  is  used  to  image  God's  love  and 
 faithfulness.  "When  John  beholds  "a 
 rainbow  about  the  throne  in  sight  like 
 inito  an  emerald"  (Rev.  4:3)  he  has, 
 with  the  awful  vision  of  majesty,  the  as- 
 suring vision  of  mercy. 
 
 Rai'sins,  ripe  grapes  preserved  by 
 drying  (1  Sam.  25  :  18). 
 
 Rak'kath  [■<liore'],  one  of  the  fortified 
 towns  of  Naphtali,  grouped  between  Ila- 
 math  and  Chinneroth  (Josh.  19  :  35).  It 
 is  said  to  have  stood  on  the  site  beside  the 
 iSea  of  Galilee  where  Tiberias  wa.s  after- 
 ward built. 
 
 Ram,  a  male  sheep.  It  was  accounted 
 a  clean  animal  by  the  ceremonial  Law,  and 
 was  used  for  sacrifice  (Ex.  29  :  15-18  ;  Lev. 
 9  :  2,  4).    See  Shkep. 
 
 Ram,  Bat'ter-ing,  a  warlike  instru- 
 ment for  l)reaching  the  walls  of  besieged 
 towns  (Ezck.  4:2;  21  :  22).  In  attack- 
 ing the  walls  of  a  fort  or  city  the  first 
 step  appears  to  have  been  to  form  an  in- 
 clined jilane  or  bank  of  earth  ("to  cast  a 
 mount  against  it"),  by  whicli  the  besiegers 
 could  bring  their  battering-rams  and  other 
 engines  to  the  foot  of  tlie  walls.  See  Bat- 
 tering-Ram. 
 
 Ra'ma,  or  Ra'mah  [high  place],  the 
 
RAMESES— RAVEN. 
 
 431 
 
 one  the  Greek,  the  other  the  Hebrew,  form 
 of  the  name  of  several  towns  in  Palestine. 
 
 1.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  IS  :  25), 
 five  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  occu- 
 pied a  very  strong  position,  commanding 
 the  great  road  from  the  north  to  Jerusa- 
 lem. Here,  at  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
 lem by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  chief  inhab- 
 itants who  had  escaped  the  sword  were  put 
 under  guard,  the  prophet  Jeremiah  being 
 one  of  the  captives  ( Jer.  39  :  8-1 2 ;  40  :  1 ). 
 Then  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  uttered 
 many  years  before  (Jer.  31  :  15).  The 
 lamentation  was  not  only  over  those  who 
 had  just  been  slain  in  Jerusalem,  but  also 
 over  those  captives  who  were  slaughtered 
 at  Ramah  because  from  age  or  sickness 
 they  could  not  be  transported  to  Babylon. 
 The  same  prophecy  was  subsequently  ful- 
 filled when  Herod,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
 infiint  Christ,  "slew  all  the  children  that 
 were  in  Bethleliem  and  in  all  the  coasts 
 tliereof,  from  two  years  old  and  under" 
 (Matt.  2  :  16-18).  As  Rachel  in  giving 
 birth  to  Benjamin  died  near  Bethlehem 
 and  was  buried  there  (Gen.  35  :  16-19), 
 so  her  departed  spirit  is  poetically  and 
 very  beautifully  represented  as  mourning 
 her  murdered  children.  Ramah  has  been 
 identified  with  er-Ram,  a  small  and  mis- 
 erable village  in  the  midst  of  broken  col- 
 umns and  large  hewn  stones. 
 
 2.  A  town  of  Judah,  called  also  Rama- 
 THAiM-ZoPHiM,  the  birthplace,  residence 
 and  burial-place  of  the  prophet  Samuel  ( 1 
 Sam.  1  :  1,  19;  2  :  11;  7  :  17;  8  :  4;  25: 
 1 ;  28  :  3).  All  tradition  of  the  site  seems 
 to  have  been  early  lost,  and  the  conjectures 
 as  to  its  true  position  are  so  various  as  to 
 leave  it  for  the  present  in  entire  uncer- 
 tainty. 
 
 3.  There  was  also  a  Ramah  in  Naphtali 
 (Josh.  19  :  36)  and  a  Ramah  in  Gilead  (2 
 Kings  8  :  29),  called  Ramath-Mizpeh  in 
 Josh.  13  :  26,  and  apparently  the  same  as 
 Ramoth-Gilead  (which  see). 
 
 Ram'e-ses.    See  Raamses, 
 
 Ra'moth-GiFe-ad  [heights  of  Gil- 
 ead^, (1  Kings  22  :  29),  the  same  as  Ra- 
 muth-Mizpeh  (Josh.  13  :  26).     One  of  the 
 
 !  chief  cities  of  Gad,  east  of  the  Jordan,  al- 
 lotted to  the  Levites  and  made  a  city  of 
 refuge  (Deut.  4  :  43  ;  Josh.  20  :  8).     It  was 
 
 j  the  scene  of  many  sieges  and  battles  in  the 
 
 I  wars  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Syr- 
 ians. In  an  attemi)t  to  storm  it  King 
 Ahab  lost  his  life  (1  Kings  22  :  1-37), 
 and    subsequently   in   a   similar    attempt 
 
 I  King  Joram  was  wounded  (2  Kings  8  :  28). 
 Its  precise  site  is  matter  of  conjecture. 
 Ran'som,  the  price  paid  to  purchase 
 
 \  the  freedom  of  a  captive  or  a  slave  (Matt. 
 
 I  20  :  28;  1  Tim.  2  :  6).  Under  the  Levit- 
 ical  Law  an  ofiering  of  half  a  shekel  was 
 required  of  every  Israelite  over  twenty 
 years  of  age  at  the  time  the  census  was 
 
 I  taken.  This  offering  is  called  a  ransom 
 or  afonement-money  (Ex.  30  :  12-16).  It 
 was  to  be  made  upon  penalty  of  the  plague, 
 and  every  person,  rich  or  poor,  was  re- 
 quired to  give  that  sum,  and  neither 
 more  nor  less.  In  1  Pet.  1  :  18,  19  the 
 apostle  refers  to  this  redemption  by  money 
 
 !  in  illustration  of  the  greatness  of  that  re- 
 
 i  demption  which  is  effected  only  by  "  the 
 
 !  precious  blood  of  Christ." 
 
 The  Raven. 
 
 Ra'ven,  a  bird  of  prey  resembling  the 
 common  crow  in  size,  shape  and  color.    A 
 
432 
 
 REBA— REED. 
 
 raven  was  sent  out  by  Noah  from  the  ark  to 
 see  wljcther  tlie  waters  were  abated  (Gen. 
 8  :  7).  It  was  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  Law 
 as  an  article  of  food  (Lev.  11  :  15),  and  it 
 is  represented  in  Scripture  as  delighting 
 in  deserted  and  solitary  places  (Isa.  34  : 
 1 1 ).  AV'hen  about  to  feed  upon  a  dead 
 body  it  seizes  first,  as  commonly  alleged, 
 upon  the  eyes.  Hence  the  allusion  in 
 Prov.  30  :  17  implies  the  exposure  of  the 
 body  in  an  open  field,  than  which  noth- 
 ing was  thought  to  be  more  disgraceful. 
 Under  the  divine  command  ravens  were 
 the  means  of  supporting  the  prophet 
 Elijah  at  the  brook  Cherith  (1  Kings 
 17  :  4,  6).  They  are  expressly  mentioned 
 as  instances  of  God's  protecting  love  and 
 goodness  (Job  38  :  41 ;  Luke  12 :  24).  The 
 glossy  blackness  of  tlie  raven's  plumage 
 furnishes  a  fine  image  of  beautiftil  locks 
 of  liair  (Song  5  :  11). 
 
 Re'ba  [Jhe/ourth  pari],  one  of  the  five 
 kings  of  the  INlidianites  slain  by  the  chil- 
 dren of  Israel  in  their  avenging  expedi- 
 tion when  Balaam  fell  (Num. 31  : 8;  Josh. 
 13  :  21). 
 
 Re-bek''ah  [a  cord  with  a  noose,  sym- 
 bolical of  one  witli  captivating  qualities], 
 daugliter  of  Bethuel  (Gen.  22  :  23)  sister 
 of  Laban  and  wife  of  Isaac,  her  fother's 
 cousin.  The  circumstances  of  her  mar- 
 riage with  Isaac  form  in  recital  one  of 
 the  most  charming  passages  of  sacred  his- 
 tory (Gen.  ch.  24).  After  twenty  years  of 
 marriage  she  became  the  mother  of  Ja- 
 cob and  Esau,  receiving  at  the  time  a 
 remarkable  prophetic  intimation  concern- 
 ing the  future  destiny  of  her  children 
 (Rom.  9  :  10-12).  When  her  sons  were 
 grown  she  manifested  toward  Jacob  an 
 undue  yet  not  unnatural  partiality,  which 
 was  the  source  of  much  domestic  disqui- 
 etude. She  died  before  Isaac,  and,  as  is 
 conjectured,  before  Jacob's  return  from 
 Padan-Aram,  and  was  buried  in  Abra- 
 ham's tomb  (Gen.  49  :  31). 
 
 Re'chab  [rider],  the  father  or  ances- 
 
 tor of  Jehonadab  or  Jonadab  (2  Kings 
 10  :  15,  23),  from  whom  the  tribe  of  the 
 Rechal^ites  derived  their  name.  Nothing 
 is  known  of  his  personal  liistory. 
 
 Rech'ab-ites,  descendants  of  Rechab 
 and  a  section  of  the  Kenites  who  came  into 
 Canaan  with  the  Israelites  and  retained 
 their  nomadic  habits.  Their  real  founder 
 was  Jehonadab  or  Jonadab,  who,  from  zeal 
 for  the  pure  worship  of  God,  associated 
 himself  with  Jehu  in  the  destruction  of 
 the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab.  For  many 
 generations  they  continued  a  separate  but 
 peaceable  people,  living  in  tents  and  re- 
 moving from  place  to  place  as  ciicum- 
 stances  recjuired.  When  Judaea  was  first 
 invaded  by  Nebuchadnezzar  they  fled  to 
 Jerusalem  for  safety,  wlien  the  prophet 
 Jeremiah  held  them  up  before  the  wicked 
 inhabitants  of  the  city  as  an  example  of 
 constancy  in  their  obedience  to  the  man- 
 dates of  an  earthly  father  (Jer.  35  :  2-19). 
 
 Rec'on-cil-i-a'tion,  the  restoration 
 of  harmony  between  parties  who  have 
 been  at  variance  (Heb.  2  :  17).  The  sole 
 and  sufficient  means  of  reconciling  sinful 
 man  to  the  holy  Father  is  the  atonement 
 of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (2  Cor.  5:18- 
 21 ;  Eph.  2  :  16). 
 
 Re-cord'er,  an  officer  of  high  rank 
 in  tlie  Jewish  state,  exercising  the  func- 
 tions not  simply  of  an  annalist,  but  of 
 chancellor  or  president  of  the  privy  coun- 
 cil. In  David's  court  the  recorder  ap- 
 pears among  the  high  officers  of  his  house- 
 hold (2  Sam.  8  :  16 ;  20  :  24;  1  Chron.  18  : 
 15).  In  Solomon's  court  he  is  coupled  with 
 the  three  secretaries,  and  is  mentioned 
 last,  probably  as  being  their  president 
 (1  Kings  4  :  3). 
 
 Re-deem'er,  one  who  purchases  the 
 liberty  of  another  by  paying  the  ransom- 
 price.  The  title  is  emphatically  applied 
 to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Isa.  59:20; 
 Gal.  3:  13;  Rev.  5:  ^). 
 
 Red  Sea.    See  Sea. 
 
 Reed.     Several  words  in  Hebrew  are 
 
KEED,  MEASURING— EEGENERATION. 
 
 433 
 
 " rush ' 
 
 our  Au- 
 
 rendered  "  reed 
 thorized  Version. 
 
 1.  A  word  occurring  in  Isa.  9  :  14 ;  19  : 
 15,  and  rendered  "rush."  It  represents 
 some  aquatic  reed-like  plant  which  can- 
 not now  be  determined  with  certainty. 
 
 2.  A  word  occurring  in  Ex.  2:3;  Isa. 
 18  :  2;  35  :  7 ;  Job  8  :  11,  rendered  in  the 
 first  and  second  citation  "bulrushes,"  in 
 the  third  "rushes,"  and  in  the  fourth 
 "rush."  It  represents  without  doubt  the 
 celebrated  papyrus  or  paper-reed  of  the 
 ancients,  not  now  found  in  Egypt,  but  still 
 found  along  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
 ilee. 
 
 3.  A  word  translated  "  paper-reeds  "  in 
 Isa.  19  :  7,  but  for  such  a  rendering  there 
 is  not  the  slightest  authority.  It  probably 
 denotes  the  open  grassy  land  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Nile. 
 
 4.  A  word  which  is  the  generic  name  of 
 a  reed  of  any  kind.  It  occurs  in  numerous 
 passages,  and  sometimes  denotes  the  "  stalk" 
 of  wheat  (Gen.  41  :  5,  22)  or  the  "branches" 
 of  the  candlestick  (Ex.  25 :  31,  32 ;  37  :  18). 
 The  stems  of  the  larger  class  of  reeds  were 
 used  by  the  Orientals  for  walking-staves  and 
 fishing-rods.  A  reed  similar  to  the  cane 
 of  our  Southern  States,  grows  abundantly 
 28 
 
 on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan  and  in  other 
 moist  places  in  Palestine. 
 
 Reed,  Meas'ur-ing,  a  measure  of 
 length  equal  to  six  cubits  (Ezek.  40  :  5- 
 8;  41  :  8;  42:  lG-19). 
 
 Re-fl''ner.  The  refiner's  art  was  es- 
 sential to  the  working  of  the  precious 
 metals.  It  consisted  in  the  separation  of 
 the  dross  from  the  pure  ore,  which  was 
 effected  by  reducing  the  metal  to  a  fluid 
 state  by  the  application  of  heat  and  by 
 the  aid  of  solvents,  such  as  alkali  (Isa.  1  : 
 25)  or  lead  (Jer.  6  :  29),  which,  amalga- 
 mating with  the  dross,  permitted  the  ex- 
 traction of  the  unadulterated  metal.  The 
 instruments  required  by  the  refiner  were  a 
 crucible  or  furnace  and  a  bellows  or  blow- 
 pipe. The  workman  sat  at  his  work  (Mai. 
 3:3);  he  was  thus  the  better  enabled  to 
 watch  the  process  and  let  the  metal  run 
 oft'  at  the  proper  moment. 
 
 Ref  ^uge,  Cities  of.  See  Cities  of 
 Refuge. 
 
 Re-gen-e-ra^tion.  This  word  occurs 
 but  twice  in  Scripture,  and  both  passages 
 are  in  our  Authorized  Version  of  the  New 
 Testament.  In  Matt.  19  :  28  it  is  used  in 
 the  sense  of  renovation  or  restoration  to  a 
 former  state,  and  is  descriptive  of  that 
 complete  external  manifestation  of  the 
 Messiah's  kingdom  when  all  things  are 
 to  be  delivered  from  their  present  cor- 
 ruption and  restored  to  spiritual  purity  and 
 splendor;  in  Tit.  3  :  5  it  is  employed  to 
 designate  that  change  of  heart  and  life 
 in  every  subject  of  divine  grace  which  is 
 effected  by  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
 This  second  sense  is  the  one  commonly  as- 
 sociated with  the  English  word  regenera- 
 tion, and  the  change  thus  indicated  is,  in 
 the  New  Testament,  expressed  in  very 
 many  and  very  emphatic  forms.  It  is 
 called  being  "born  again"  (John  3  :  3), 
 "born  of  the  Spirit"  (John  3  :  8),  "quick- 
 ened" (Eph.  2:1),  "passing  from  death 
 unto  life"  (1  John  3:  14),  becoming  "a 
 new  creature"  (2  Cor.  5  :  17),  "Christ  in 
 
434 
 
 REHOB— REMPHAX. 
 
 tlie  soul  the  hope  of  glory"  (Col.  1  :  27). 
 The  nature  of  the  change  is  represented 
 very  strikingly  and  arrestingly.  It  is  su- 
 pernatural ( Jolin  3  :  G ;  P2ph.  2 :  4,  5) ;  inter- 
 nal and  invisible  (John  3:8);  vinible  in  its 
 manifested  effects  (1  John  3:9;  4:7;5:4); 
 peimianent  (Phil.  1:6);  essential  to  salva- 
 tion (Gal.  6  :  15),  and  fruitful  in  holiness-' 
 (Gal.  5:22;  Eph.  4  :  24). 
 
 Re'hob  [street,  broad  place],  the  name 
 of  several  cities. 
 
 1 .  A  city  on  the  nortliern  border  of  Pal- 
 estine, first  mentioned  in  the  record  of  the 
 mission  of  the  spies  (Num.  13  :  21).  It 
 was  called  also  Beth-Rehob  (2  Sam.  10  : 
 6-8).     Its  precise  site  is  undetermined. 
 
 2.  A  city  allotted  to  Asher  (Josh.  19  : 
 28),  apparently  near  to  Zidon,  but  as  yet 
 undiscovered. 
 
 3.  A  city  of  Asher,  on  the  southern  bor- 
 der of  the  tribe  (Josh.  19  :  30).  This 
 probably  was  the  Rehob  allotted  to  the 
 Levites  (Josh.  21  :  31 ;  1  Chron.  6  :  75), 
 and  from  which  the  old  Canaanites  were 
 not  expelled  (Judg.  1  :  31).  Site  un- 
 known. 
 
 Re-ho-bo''ain  [enlargement  of  the  peo- 
 ple'], son  of  Solomon  by  the  Ammonite 
 princess  Naamah  (1  Kings  14  :  21,  31), 
 and  his  successor  (1  Kings  11  :  43).  At 
 an  early  period  of  Jewish  history  symp- 
 toms of  an  imperfect  confederation  of  the 
 tribes  appeared.  Tlie  powerful  Ephraim 
 was  not  disposed  to  rest  quietly  in  a  po- 
 sition of  inferiority.  When  Solomon's 
 strong  hand  was  withdrawn  the  crisis 
 came.  Rehoboam  selected  Shechem  as 
 the  place  of  his  coronation,  probably  as 
 an  act  of  concession  to  the  Ephraimites. 
 The  people  demanded  a  remission  of  the 
 severe  burdens  imposed  }w  Solomon,  and 
 Rehoboam  promised  them  an  answer  in 
 three  days,  during  which  time  lie  con- 
 sulted first  his  father's  counsellors,  and 
 then  the  young  men  "that  were  grown 
 up  with  him  and  which  stood  before  him." 
 Rejecting  the  advice  of  the  elders  to  con- 
 
 ciliate the  people  at  the  beginning  of  his 
 reign,  he  returned  as  his  reply  tlie  frantic 
 bravado  of  his  contemporaries.  The  re- 
 sult was  the  insurrection  of  the  ten  north- 
 ern tribes  and  the  enthronement  of  Jero- 
 boam as  the  first  king  of  the  separate 
 kingdom  of  Israel.  Rehoboam  reigned 
 seventeen  years,  acquiring  no  glory  while 
 he  .ived  and  calling  forth  no  unusual  lam- 
 entation when  he  died  (1  Kings  14  :  21- 
 24). 
 
 Re'ho-both  [broad  places,  sti-eetx],  the 
 name  of  several  places. 
 
 1.  A  city  built  by  Nirarod,  site  unknown 
 (Gen.  10:  11). 
 
 2.  A  well  dug  by  Isaac  (Gen.  26  :  22). 
 
 3.  The  name  of  the  city  of  a  certain 
 Saul  or  Shaul,  one  of  the  Edomite  kings, 
 and  called  "Rehoboth  by  the  river"  (Gen. 
 36  :  37).  The  river  is  supposed  to  be  the 
 Euphrates,  three  miles  west  of  which  is 
 now  a  town  called  er-Rahubeh. 
 
 Reins,  the  kidneys,  from  the  Latin 
 renes.  In  the  ancient  system  of  physiol- 
 ogy the  kidneys  were  believed  to  be  the 
 seat  of  desire  and  longing,  which  ac- 
 counts for  their  often  being  coupled 
 with  the  heart  (Ps.  7:9;  26  :  2;  Jer. 
 11  :20;  17  :  10). 
 
 Rem-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  adorns],  the 
 father  of  Pekah,  captain  of  Pekahiah, 
 king  of  Israel,  who  slew  his  ma.ster  and 
 usurped  his  throne  (2  Kings  15  :  25-37 ; 
 Isa.  7  :  1-9). 
 
 Re-ini8''sion,  release  from  obligation 
 to  penalty — that  is,  pardon.  The  sole 
 ground  of  the  remission  of  sins  is  the 
 atoning  sacrifice  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 (Matt.  26  :  28;  Acts  10  :  43).  Hence  the 
 word  of  our  Lord  to  the  apostles  in  respect 
 to  remitting  and  retaining  sins  (John  20  : 
 23)  was  not  their  investiture  with  the 
 power  to  grant  or  deny  pardon,  but  with 
 the  authority  to  publish  to  the  world  the 
 doctrine  of  full  forgiveness  through  the 
 propitiation  of  Christ  (1  John  2  :  1,  2). 
 
 Rem'phan  (Acts  7  :  43)  and  Chiun 
 
REPENTANCE— RESEN. 
 
 435 
 
 (Amos  5  :  26)  have  been  supposed  to  be 
 the  names  of  an  idol,  the  star-god  Saturn, 
 worshiped  by  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
 ness. The  most  reasonable  explanation 
 of  the  two  names  so  different  in  sound  is 
 that  Remphan  is  an  Egyptian  equivalent, 
 substituted  by  the  translators  of  the  Sep- 
 tuagint  for  the  Hebrew  or  Semitic  Chiun. 
 
 Re-pent'ance.  The  general  sense 
 of  the  English  word  thus  rendered  is 
 "change  of  mind."  Thus  Esau  found 
 no  place  of  repentance  or  change  of 
 mind  in  his  father  Isaac  (Heb.  12  : 
 17),  for  Isaac  would  not  change  what  he 
 had  done — that  is,  would  not  revoke  the 
 blessing  given  to  Jacob  (Gen.  27  :  34-40). 
 Thus,  too,  the  expression  "  the  gifts  and 
 calling  of  God  are  without  repentance  " 
 (Rom.  11  :  29)  denotes  the  stability  and 
 unchangeableness  of  God's  purpose  of 
 grace  in  the  covenant  of  redemption. 
 But  in  connection  with  sin  the  word  "  re- 
 pentance "  has  a  specific  sense.  It  desig- 
 nates sorrow  for  sin,  grief  for  having  com- 
 mitted it,  and  a  turning  away  from  it,  ac- 
 companied with  sincere  endeavors,  in  re- 
 liance on  the  grace  and  aid  of  God's 
 Holy  Spirit,  to  live  in  humble  and  holy 
 obedience  to  the  divine  commands  and 
 will  (Matt.  3  :  2,  8 ;  Acts  5  :  31  ;  11  :  18 ; 
 2  Cor.  7  :  8-10 ;  2  Tim.  2  :  25).  Tropi- 
 cally, repentance  is  ascribed  to  God  (Gen. 
 6  :  6)  when,  because  of  change  in  men,  he 
 changes  toward  them  his  conduct  or  bear- 
 ing. 
 
 Rep-e-ti'tions,  Vain,  expressions 
 repeated  frequently  in  prayer,  with  the 
 notion  that  mere  frequency  of  repetition 
 would  make  the  prayer  more  meritorious 
 and  efficacious  (Matt.  6:7).  "Use  not 
 vain  repetitions,"  means  literally  "  babble 
 not." 
 
 Reph'aira  [^giants'],  an  ancient  tribe 
 noted  for  their  gigantic  stature  and  great 
 strength.  In  Abraham's  times  they  lived 
 east  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  14  :  5 ;  15  :  20)) 
 but  at  the  conquest  of  Canaan  they  lived 
 
 both  east  and  west  of  the  river  (Josh.  13  : 
 12;  15:8;  18:16).  They  had  settle- 
 ments in  Bashan  at  a  very  remote  period, 
 of  which  in  the  overthrow  of  Og  by  the 
 Israelites  they  were  dispossessed  (Deut.  3  : 
 10-13).  They  occupied  also  a  section  of 
 Western  Palestine  adjoining  the  mountains 
 of  Ephraim  (Josh.  17  :  15),  and  a  valley 
 lying  between  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem 
 (Josh.  18  :  16).  In  the  times  of  David 
 some  of  them  dwelt  in  Gath  (1  Chron. 
 20  :  4-6). 
 
 Reph^aim,  Val'ley  of  [valley  of  the 
 giantsi,  an  upland  plain  or  valley  a  short 
 distance  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  where 
 David  twice  defeated  the  Philistines  (2 
 Sam.  5  :  17-25 ;  1  Chron.  14  :  9-16). 
 
 Reph^i-dim  [»-este,  supports},  a  noted 
 station  of  the  Israelites  near  to  Sinai, 
 where  they  complained  because  they 
 had  been  brought  out  of  Egypt,  where 
 they  murmured  because  they  had  not  an 
 abundance  of  water,  where  they  were  mir- 
 aculously supplied  with  water,  and  where, 
 under  the  leadership  of  Joshua,  they  de- 
 feated the  Amalekites  (Ex.  ch.  17).  Its 
 locality  is  much  debated,  but  the  majority 
 of  intelligent  travelers  are  agreed  that  its 
 requirements  are  best  answered  by  the 
 palm-grove  now  and  for  many  ages  past 
 called  the  valley  of  Paran  or  Feiran, 
 near  the  base  of  Mount  Serbal. 
 
 Rep^ro-bate.  This  term  is  applied 
 to  silver  (Jer.  6  :  30),  and  means  that  the 
 silver  does  not  endure  the  pro^Der  test  or 
 does  not  conform  to  standard  weight,  and 
 is  therefore  rejected  or  cast  away.  With  a 
 similar  yet  figurative  sense  the  term  is 
 applied  to  human  principles  and  practices 
 (Rom.  1  :  28 ;  Tit.  1  :  16),  which  it  de- 
 nounces as  corrupt  and  as  certain  to  meet 
 the  divine  displeasure. 
 
 Re''sen  [curb,  bridle},  an  ancient  city 
 of  Assyria,  lying  between  Nineveh  and 
 Calah  (Gen.  10:12).  Assyrian  remains 
 of  some  considerable  extent  are  found 
 near  the  modern  village  of  Selamiyeh,  and 
 
436 
 
 RESURRECTION  OF  OUR  LORD— REUBEN. 
 
 perhaps  the  most  probable  conjecture  is 
 that  these  represent  Resen. 
 
 Res-iir-rec'tion  of  our  Lord.  Af- 
 ter our  Lord  had  completed  tlie  work  of 
 redemption  by  his  death  upon  tlie  cross, 
 lie  rose  victorious  from  tlie  grave  and  be- 
 came to  his  people  "  the  Prince  of  life " 
 (Acts  3  :  15).  No  fact  of  history  is  more 
 firmly  established  by  competent  concur- 
 rent testimony  than  this  fact  of  our  Lord's 
 resurrection.  The  number  of  witnesses 
 who  saw  him  and  convereed  with  him 
 after  he  had  risen  is  very  great  (1  Cor.  15  : 
 6) ;  with  many  of  these  witnesses  he  had 
 frequent  interviews  (Matt.  28  :  9,  10;  28  : 
 16,  17  ;  Mark  16:9;  Luke  24  :  13-31,  36, 
 51 ;  John  20 :  19,  20,  26  ;  21 :  1-15) ;  these 
 witnesses  were  at  first  incredulous  and  slow 
 to  believe  (Luke  24  :  1-12) ;  these  wit- 
 nesses manifested  their  deep  conviction 
 and  assurance  of  the  fact  of  our  Lord's 
 resurrection  by  their  publication  of  it  be- 
 fore his  murderers  and  their  persecutors 
 (Acts  2  :  22-24) ;  these  witnesses  could 
 have  had  no  motive  to  attempt  an  impos- 
 ture (1  Cor.  15  :  19) ;  these  witnesses  with- 
 out exception  continued  to  agree  in  their 
 testimony,  although  exposed  by  it  to  suf- 
 fering and  death  (Acts  2  :  32) ;  these  wit- 
 nesses, in  the  name  of  our  Lord  and  in 
 confirmation  of  their  testimony,  wrought 
 many  miracles  (Acts  2  :  43  ;  5  :  12).  Tlie 
 great  fact  thus  established  has  a  command- 
 ing importance.  It  is  the  crowning  evi- 
 dence of  the  divine  character  of  his  mis- 
 sion (Matt.  12  :  38-40 ;  Eom.  1  :  4) ;  it  is 
 the  beginning  of  his  exaltation  and  re- 
 ward (Matt.  28  :  18)  ;  it  is  the  pledge  and 
 seal  of  his  completed  work  of  redemption 
 (Heb.  9:11-14;  10:  12-14);  it  is  the 
 pledge  and  earnest  of  the  resurrection  of 
 his  people  (1  Cor.  15  :  20-23). 
 
 Res-ur-rec'tion  of  the  Dead, 
 This  great  doctrine  rests  on  the  authority 
 of  divine  revelation  and  the  fact  of  our 
 Lord's  resurrection.  The  word  of  God 
 distinctly  announces  a  general  resurrec- 
 
 tion (Dan.  12:2;  John  5  :  28,  29  ;  11:  24, 
 25 ;  1  Cor.  15  :  12-17) ;  the  undoubted  fact 
 of  our  Lord's  resurrection  is  a  prf)of  not  only 
 that  a  general  resurrection  is  possible  and 
 probable,  but  iwsitively  certain  (1  Cor.  15  : 
 22,45,  49;  2  Tim.  1  :'l0). 
 
 Reu  [friend],  son  of  Peleg  in  the  line 
 of  Abraham's  ancestors  (Gen.  11  :  18-21  ; 
 1  Chron.  1  :  25). 
 
 Reu'ben  [behold  a  son],  the  name  of 
 one  of  Jacob's  sons,  of  a  Hebrew  tribe 
 and  of  the  territory  possessed  by  the 
 tribe. 
 
 1.  Reuben  was  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob 
 and  Leah  (Gen.  29:32).  The  most  fa- 
 vorable fact  in  his  personal  history  men- 
 tioned in  Scripture  is  his  successful  eflTort 
 to  preserve  his  brother  Joseph's  life  (Gen. 
 37  :  20-22).  His  nature  seems  to  have 
 been  ardent,  impetuous,  unbalanced,  but 
 not  ungenerous.  At  the  time  of  the  mi- 
 gration into  Egyjit  he  had  four  sons.  Al- 
 though the  first-born,  he  was  yet,  because 
 of  his  perpetration  of  an  act  of  atrocious 
 wickedness  (Gen.  35  :  22),  degraded  by  his 
 father  to  a  subordinate  position  (Gen.  49  : 
 3,  4). 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Reuben  when  leaving 
 Egypt  numbered  forty-six  thousand  five 
 hundred  adult  males  (Num.  1:20,  21); 
 at  the  census  on  the  plains  of  Moab  their 
 number  had  fallen  to  forty-three  thousand 
 seven  hundred  and  thirty  (Xum.  26  :  7). 
 During  the  journey  through  tlie  wilder- 
 ness the  position  of  Reuben  was  with 
 Simeon  and  Gad  on  the  south  side  of  the 
 tabernacle.  The  Reubenites,  as  the  Gad- 
 ites,  had  maintained  in  Egypt  their  love 
 of  pastoral  pursuits.  In  the  exodus  of 
 Israel  from  Egypt  they  took  their  cattle 
 with  them  (Ex.  12  :  38),  and  in  the  wil- 
 derness mention  of  their  cattle  is  occa- 
 sionally made  (Ex.  34  :  3;  Num.  11  :  22: 
 Deut.  8  :  13).  Accordingly,  when  the  na- 
 tion arrived  on  the  open  downs  east  of  the 
 Jordan,  Reuben  and  Gad  and  the  half- 
 tribe  of  Manasseh  desired  and  were  al- 
 
REUEL— KEZIK 
 
 437 
 
 lowed  to  remain  in  a  place  so  perfectly 
 suited  to  their  requirements. 
 
 3.  The  territorial  possessions  of  Reu- 
 ben were  the  tine  pasture-lands  east  of 
 the  Jordan  from  which  the  Amorites 
 had  been  expelled  (Josh.  13  :  15-21). 
 The  part  selected  by  Reuben  had  at  that 
 date  the  special  name  of  "the  Mishor," 
 with  reference  possibly  to  its  evenness, 
 and  under  its  modern  name  of  the  Belka 
 is  still  esteemed  beyond  all  others  by  the 
 Arab  sheep-masters.  It  is  well  watered,  is 
 covered  with  smooth,  short  turf,  and  loses 
 itself  gradually  in  those  illimitable  wastes 
 which  have  always  been  and  always  will 
 be  the  favorite  resort  of  pastoral  tribes.  In 
 the  conquest  of  Canaan  west  of  the  Jordan 
 the  Reubenites  aided  their  brethren.  On 
 the  division  of  the  kingdom  they  joined  the 
 northern  state  or  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
 Their  country  was  invaded  by  the  Syrians 
 under  Hazael  about  b.  c.  884  (2  Kings  10  : 
 32,  33),  and  about  a  century  later  their 
 whole  people  were  carried  captive  to  As- 
 syria by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  15  :  29). 
 Then  the  Moabites  returned  to  their  old 
 country  and  occupied  their  old  cities.  In 
 pronouncing  curses  upon  Moab,  .Jeremiah 
 mentions  a  number  of  Reuben's  cities; 
 and  in  accordance  with  the  profthet's  pre- 
 dictions the  whole  region  is  desolate,  and 
 the  once  busy  centres  of  life  and  trade, 
 bearing  still  their  ancient  names,  are  heaps 
 of  ruins. 
 
 Reu'el  [friend  of  God],  the  name  of 
 one  of  the  sons  of  Esau  (Gen.  36  :  4,  10, 
 13,  17) ;  also  one  of  the  names  of  Moses' 
 father-in-law  (Ex.  2  :  18),  otherwise  Ra- 
 
 GUEL. 
 
 Rev-e-la'tion,  an  extraordinary  and 
 supernatural  uplifting  of  the  veil  from  the 
 hidden  realm  of  God's  thought  and  will 
 (Rom.  16  :  25 ;  Gal.  1:12;  Eph.  3:3; 
 Rev.  1:1).  Its  modes  have  been  various  : 
 sometimes  by  dreams  (Gen.  37  :  5  ;  40  :  5  ; 
 1  Kings  3:5;  Dan.  7:1;  Matt.  1  :  20)  ; 
 sometimes  by  visions  (Gen.  15:1;  46  :  2 ; 
 
 Ezek.  1:1;  Dan.  8:2;  Acts  9  :  10 ;  10  : 
 3);  sometimes  by  direct  communication 
 (Gen.  6  :  13  ;  Ex.  3  :  1-18;  Luke  1  :  11- 
 20  ;  9  :  35  ;  John  12  :  28). 
 
 Rev-e-la'tion,  Book  of,  the  last 
 book  of  the  New  Testament,  often  called 
 the  Apocalypse,  its  title  in  Greek,  and  sig- 
 nifying "revelation."  It  was  written  by 
 the  apostle  John  in  the  island  of  Patmos 
 about  the  year  a.  d.  95.  Its  interpretation 
 has  given  rise  to  much  controversy,  but 
 its  manifest  design  to  comfort  God's  suf- 
 fering people  has  made  it,  through  the 
 centuries  of  Christian  history,  a  very  pre- 
 cious book.  It  represents  the  conflicts  of 
 truth  and  error,  and  the  ultimate,  univer- 
 sal reign  of  purity  and  peace.  It  is  full 
 of  Christ.  It  exhibits  his  glory  as  Re- 
 deemer and  Ruler,  and  shows  the  angels 
 uniting  with  men  in  yielding  him  homage 
 (Rev.  7  :  9-17;  19:  6-16). 
 
 Re-venge''  [returning  evil  for  evil^,  is 
 expressly  forbidden  by  the  word  of  God 
 (Lev.  19  :  17,  18  ;  Rom.  12  :  19,  20  ;  1  Pet. 
 3  :  9).  When  God  is  spoken  of  in  Scrip- 
 ture as  the  avenger  or  revenger  (2  Sam. 
 22  :  48 ;  Nah.  1:2;  1  Thess.  4  :  6)  the 
 reference  is  to  the  infinite  holiness  and 
 justice  with  which  he  administers  his 
 universal  empire. 
 
 Re'zeph.  [a  fire-Htonel,  a  city  named 
 amongst  those  subdued  by  the  Assyrians 
 (2  Kings  19  :  12  ;  Isa.  37  :  12)  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  modern  Rasapha,  or  Ru- 
 safat,  a  day's  march  west  of  the  Euphra- 
 tes, on  the  road  from  Racca  to  Emesa. 
 
 Re^zin  [firm  or  stable],  king  of  Da- 
 mascus, contemporary  with  Pekah  in  Israel 
 and  with  .Jotham  and  Ahaz  in  Judah.  He 
 attacked  Jotham  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
 reign  (2  Kings  15  :  37),  but  his  chief  war 
 was  with  Ahaz,  whose  territories  he  invad- 
 ed in  company  with  Pekah  (2  Kings  16  : 
 5;  Isa.  7:1).  Subsequently  he  was  at- 
 tacked, defeated  and  slain  by  Tiglath-pi- 
 leser II.,  king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  16:9), 
 as   appears   not  only  from  the  record   in 
 
438 
 
 EEZON— RIMMON. 
 
 Scripture,  but  also  from  the  Assyrian  in- 
 scriptions. 
 
 Re'zon  [favor],  son  of  Eliadah,  a 
 Sjrian,  who  wlien  David  defeated  Hadad- 
 ezer,  king  of  Zobah,  put  liimself  at  the 
 head  of  a  band  of  freebooters  and  set  up 
 a  petty  kingdom  at  Damascus  (1  Kings 
 11  :  23).  From  his  position  at  Damascus 
 he  harassed  the  kingdom  of  Solomon  very 
 greatly. 
 
 Rhe'gi-um,  a  city  on  the  south-west- 
 ern extremity  of  the  coast  of  Italy,  oppo- 
 site Messina  in  Sicily.  The  vessel  which 
 conveyed  Paul  to  Italy  touched  at  this  port 
 (Acts  28  :  13).  It  is  still  a  place  of  con- 
 siderable importance,  having  ten  thousand 
 inhabitants.     Its  modern  name  is  Reggio. 
 
 Rhodes  [arose],  an  island  in  the  Med- 
 iterranean, near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
 and  on  it  a  city  of  the  same  name  which 
 Paul  visited  on  one  of  his  voyages  (Acts 
 21  :  1).  The  city  was  built  in  the  fifth 
 century  before  our  Lord's  birth,  and  was 
 celebrated  for  its  commerce,  literature  and 
 the  arts,  and  for  the  delightful  climate 
 which  still  characterizes  it.  With  a  fer- 
 tile soil,  its  gardens  abound  with  delicious 
 fruits,  and  every  breeze  is  laden  with  the 
 fragrance  of  its  orange  and  citron  groves. 
 The  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  one  of  the  won- 
 ders of  the  world,  was  a  brazen  statue  of 
 Apollo,  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  feet 
 in  height,  which,  striding  the  entrance  to 
 the  city's  harbor,  allowed  ships  in  full  sail 
 to  pass  between  its  legs.  This  colossus 
 was  erected  b.  c.  290,  and  was  overthrown 
 by  an  earthquake  B.  c.  224.  During  the 
 Middle  Ages,  Rhodes  was  famous  as  the 
 home  and  fortress  of  the  knights  of  St. 
 John  of  Jerusalem.  Their  noble  fortress 
 still  exists,  but  is  used  by  the  Turks  as  a 
 magazine  for  military  stores.  The  present 
 population  of  the  island,  consisting  of 
 Turks,  Greeks  and  Jews,  numbers  some 
 twenty  thousand. 
 
 Rib'lah  [fertility'],  a  town  on  the  north- 
 ern border  of  Palestine,  near  the  main  source 
 
 of  theOrontes,  and  south  of  Hamath  (Num. 
 34 :  11).  Here,  before  Nebuchadnezzar,  af- 
 ter the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  KingZedekiah 
 was  brought,  and,  aftei-  being  compelled  to 
 witness  the  murder  of  his  sons,  had  his 
 eyes  put  violently  out  and  his  limbs  lx)und 
 with  fetters  of  brass  (2  Kings  25  :  5-7). 
 Traces  of  the  city  exist  in  the  little  vil- 
 lage of  Riblah,  lying  on  the  right  bank  of 
 the  Orontes,  some  twelve  miles  ea.st  by 
 north  from  the  river's  source. 
 
 Rid'dle.  This  word  occurs  in  Judg. 
 14  :  12,  and  is  applied  to  parables,  prov- 
 erbs, hard  sayings,  quaint  conceits,  allego- 
 ries, queries  and  the  like.  The  Orientals 
 are  specially  fond  of  such  verbal  ingenu- 
 ities and  puzzles. 
 
 Rig-ht'eous-ness,  an  essential  attri- 
 bute of  the  Divine  Being.  As  used  in 
 Scripture,  it  is  nearly  allied  to,  if  not 
 identical  with,  justice,  holiness,  faithful- 
 ness (Ps.  119  :  142;  Isa.  46  :  13;  51  :  5,  6, 
 8 ;  56  :  1 ).  It  is  also  used  to  denote  the 
 perfect  obedience  of  the  Son  of  God  (Rom. 
 5  :  18,  19).  The  "  righteousness  which  is 
 of  faith"  (Rom.  10:  6)  is  the  righteous- 
 ness which  is  obtained  by  the  grace  of 
 God  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  (Rom. 
 3  :  21-26 ;  10  :  4,  10;  2  Cor.  5  :  21 ;  Gal. 
 2  :  21).  Righteousness  is  also  very  com- 
 monly used  for  uprightness  and  just  deal- 
 ing between  man  and  man  (Isa.  60  :  17), 
 and  for  holiness  of  life  (Dan.  4  :  27  ;  Luke 
 1:6;  Rom.  14  :  17 ;  Eph.  5:  9). 
 
 Right  Hand.  As  the  right  hand  is 
 the  symbol  of  power  and  strength,  so  in 
 Scripture  it  is  ascribed  to  God  (Ex.  15  : 
 6 ;  Ps.  77  :  10),  and  so  also  to  be  seated  at 
 the  right  hand  is  to  occupy  a  place  of 
 honor  (Acts  7  :  55;  Ileb.  12  :  2).  The 
 right  hand  is  an  expression  for  the  south, 
 and  the  left  hand  for  the  north,  because 
 the  Hebrews,  in  speaking  of  the  points  of 
 the  compass,  suppose  one  to  flice  the  east 
 (Gen.  14  :  15). 
 
 Rirn'mon  [a  pomegranate],  the  name 
 of  several  places  in  Palestine. 
 
RIMMON— ROCK,  ROCKS. 
 
 439 
 
 1.  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  in  the 
 south  of  Palestine  (Josh.  15 :  32  ;  1  Chron. 
 
 4  :  32). 
 
 2.  A  town  on  a  liigh  chalky  rock,  the 
 rock  of  Rimmon,  north-east  of  Gibeah, 
 fifteen  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  on  which 
 is  still  a  village  called  Rammon.  It  was 
 to  this  place  the  Benjaminites  fled  for 
 safety  (Judg.  20  :  45). 
 
 3.  A  city  of  Zebulun  (1  Chron.  6  :  77). 
 
 4.  The  name  of  one  of  the  encamp- 
 ments of  the  Israelites  (Num.  33  :  19). 
 
 Rim'mon,  a  deity  worshiped  by  the 
 Syrians  of  Damascus,  where  there  was 
 a  temple  or  house  of  Rimmon  (2  Kings 
 
 5  :  18).  Rimmon  is  perhaps  the  abbre- 
 viated form  of  Hadad-Rimmon,  Hadad  be- 
 ing the  sun-god  of  the  Syrians.  Combining 
 this  with  the  pomegranate,  which  was  his 
 symbol,  Hadad-Rimmon  would  then  be  the 
 sun-god  of  the  late  summer,  who  ripens  the 
 pomegranate  and  other  fruits.  Gesenius 
 maintains,  however,  that  the  word  Rim- 
 mon means  simply  "the  Most  High." 
 
 Ring.  The  ring  was  regarded  as  an 
 indispensable  article  of  a  Hebrew's  attire, 
 inasmuch  as  it  contained  his  signet.  This 
 was  the  case  equally  in  Egypt  and  the  East- 
 ern nations.  It  was  used  in  signing  contracts 
 and  government  papers.  It  was  hence  the 
 symbol  of  authority,  and  as  such  was  pre- 
 sented by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph  (Gen.  41  : 
 42)  and  by  Ahasuerus  to  Haman  (Esth.  3: 
 10).  Such  rings  were  worn  not  only  by 
 men,  but  by  women  (Isa.  3  :  21),  and  are 
 enumerated  among  the  articles  presented 
 by  men  and  women  for  the  service  of  the 
 tabernacle  (Ex.  35  :  22).  The  signet-ring 
 was  worn  on  the  right  hand  (Jer.  22  :  24). 
 From  Ex.  28  :  1 1  it  is  inferable  that  the 
 rings  contained  a  stone  engraven  with  a 
 device  or  with  the  owner's  name. 
 
 Ring-streaked,  marked  with  circu- 
 lar streaks  (Gen.  30  :  35,  39). 
 
 Ri'phath,  the  second  son  of  Gomer 
 and  the  brother  of  Ashkenaz  and  Togar- 
 mah  (Gen.  10:3).     The  name  is  identi- 
 
 fied with  the  Riphsean  mountains  in  the 
 north-east  of  Dacia. 
 
 Riv'er.  Very  inconsiderable  streams 
 are  sometimes  called  rivers  in  Scripture, 
 and  "the  river"  is  a  phrase  often  used 
 without  any  other  specification.  The  cir- 
 cumstances under  which  it  is  used  should 
 be  noted  to  determine  whether  the  Nile, 
 the  Euphrates  or  the  Jordan  is  intended. 
 In  Gen.  15  :  18  "the  river  of  Egypt" 
 is  probably  the  Pelusiac  or  easternmost 
 branch  of  the  Nile,  but  in  Num.  34  :  5 
 "the  river  of  Egypt"  is  the  small  win- 
 ter stream  which  was  the  boundary  be- 
 tween Egypt  and  the  land  promised  to 
 Moses,  and  which  gained  its  notoriety 
 from  being  the  dividing-line  between 
 two  great  countries. 
 
 Riz'pah  [hot  stone],  concubine  to 
 King  Saul  and  mother  of  his  two 
 sons,  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth.  After 
 the  death  of  Saul  and  occupation  of  the 
 country  west  of  the  Jordan  by  the  Philis- 
 tines, Rizpah  accompanied  the  other  mem- 
 bers of  the  royal  family  to  their  new  resi- 
 dence at  Mahanaim  (2  Sam.  3  :  7).  We 
 hear  nothing  more  of  her  till  we  read  that 
 tragic  story  of  the  crucifixion  of  her  own 
 two  sons  and  of  five  sons  of  Saul's  daugh- 
 ter Merab  (2  Sam.  21  :  8-11)  which  has 
 made  her  name  so  familiar  to  all  the 
 world.  After  the  crucifixion  with  mar- 
 velous love  and  endurance  she  watched 
 the  crucified  and  lifeless  bodies  to  protect 
 them  from  birds  of  prey  six  long,  weary 
 months,  from  early  spring  through  the 
 full  blaze  of  summer  and  to  the  fall  of 
 the  periodical  rain  in  October.  During 
 the  whole  of  that  time  Rizpah  remained 
 at  the  foot  of  the  crosses  which  bore  the 
 ghastly  remains  of  her  dead. 
 
 Rock,  Rocks.  The  Hebrew  word  [tmr) 
 commonly  rendered  "  rock  "  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  is  a  derivative  from  a  verbal 
 root  which  means  "  to  compress,"  and  is  the 
 appropriate  designation  of  a  mass  of  stony 
 matter  so  coiwpressed  as  to  be  compact,  solid, 
 
440 
 
 ROD— ROMANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE. 
 
 firm.  Of  the  word  "rock"  the  Scriptures 
 make  large  use,  literal  and  figurative. 
 Rock  underlies  the  hills  and  mountains 
 of  Palestine,  and  reveals  itself  in  the  pic- 
 turesque forms  of  eminences,  heights, 
 clifis,  crags,  swelling  mounds  and  ele- 
 vated chains.  Its  manifold  utilities  are 
 constantly  recognized  and  referred  to,  and 
 supply  the  material  of  abundant  illustra- 
 tion. Out  of  the  rock  water  gushes  for 
 tlie  famishing  Hebrews  (Num.  20  :  8,  11 ; 
 Neh.  9:15;  Ps.  78  :  20)  ;  on  the  rock 
 houses  are  foundid  (Isa.  42  :  11 ;  Matt.  7  : 
 24,  25) ;  to  the  rock  imperiled  people  flee 
 for  refuge  (1  Sam.  13 ;  Isa.  2  :  10, 19) ;  from 
 the  rock  honey  and  oil  are  taken  ( Deut.  32  : 
 13;  Ps.  81  :  16) ;  under  the  rock  travelers 
 wearied  by  noontide  lieats  repair  for  shade 
 (Isa.  32  :  2) ;  and  in  the  rock  sepidchres  are 
 hewn  (Isa.  22  :  16;  Mark  15  :  46).  Quite 
 a  number  of  rocks  are  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
 ture and  have  great  historic  prominence. 
 On  the  top  of  the  rock  Etam,  Samson 
 dwelt  ( Judg.  15  :  8) ;  in  the  fastnesses  of 
 the  rock  Rimmon  the  Benjaminites  hid 
 themselves  (Judg.  20  :  47);  between  the 
 rocks  Bozez  and  Seneh,  .Jonathan  and  his 
 armor-bearer  passed  to  the  slaughter  of 
 the  Philistine  garrison  (1  Sam.  14  :  4-15). 
 Figuratively,  the  word  "rock"  is  applied 
 to  God,  as  he  is  the  refuge  and  defence 
 of  his  people  (Ps.  28  :  1),  and  to  Christ, 
 as  he  is  the  source  of  the  water  of  life  (1 
 Cor.  10  :  4).  Other  and  obvious  figura- 
 tive uses  of  the  word  will  be  noted  in 
 many  passages. 
 
 Rod,  a  term  used  in  Scripture,  some- 
 times to  express  a  sceptre  (Ps.  2:9;  Rev. 
 2  :  27),  sometimes  as  an  instrument  of  pun- 
 ishment (2  Sam.  7  :  14 ;  Job  9  :  34),  some- 
 times for  a  staff  or  wand  (1  Sam.  14  :  27), 
 sometimes  for  a  8hot)t  or  branch  ( Isa.  1 1  : 
 1),  and  sometimes  for  a  tribe  or  people 
 (Ps.  74  :  2).  The  rod  or  staff  of  Moses 
 which  became  a  serpent  (Ex.  4  :  2-4)  and 
 the  rod  or  staff  of  Aaron  which  was  the  in- 
 strument    of    plaguing    Egypt    (Ex.  7  : 
 
 19),  and  which  subsequently  budded  and 
 brought  forth  almond-blos-soms  (Num.  17  : 
 8),  are  especially  celebrated  in  Hebrew  his- 
 tory. 
 
 Roe,  Roebuck.  The  Hebrew  words 
 thus  translated  denote  some  species  of  an- 
 telope, probably  the  gazelle  of  Syria  and 
 Arabia.     The  gazelle  was  allowed  as  food 
 
 Gazelle  of  Syria. 
 
 (Deut.  12  :  15,  22) ;  it  is  mentioned  as  very 
 fleet  of  foot  (2  Sam.  2  :  18) ;  it  was  hunted 
 (Isa.  13:14;  Prov.  6:5);  it  was  celebrated 
 for  its  loveliness  (Song  2  :  9,  17 ;  8  :  14). 
 
 Ro'gel-im  [wunhers,  fullerK},  the  resi- 
 dence of  Barzillai  the  Gileadite  in  the 
 highlands  east  of  the  Jordan  (2  Sam. 
 17  :27;  19:31). 
 
 Roll.     See  Book. 
 
 Romans,  Epistle  to  the,  was  writ- 
 ten from  Corinth  during  Paul's  third  mis- 
 sionary journey,  and  about  A.  d.  58.  The 
 occasion  which  prompted  the  Epistle  and 
 the  circumstances  attending  its  writing 
 were  sis  follows :  Paul  had  long  purposed 
 visiting  Rome,  and  still  retained  this  pur- 
 pose, wishing  also  to  extend  his  journey 
 to  Spain  (1  :  9-13;  15  :  22-29).  For  the 
 time,  however,  lie  was  prevented  from  car- 
 rying out  his  design,  as  he  was  bound  for 
 Jerusalem  with  the  alms  of  the  Cientile 
 Christians,  and  meanwhile  he  addressed 
 this  letter  to  the  Romans  to  supply  the 
 lack  of  his  personal  teaching.     The  church 
 
ROME. 
 
 441 
 
 at  Rome  consisted  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  the 
 latter  perhaps  being  the  more  numerous. 
 Apparently,  the  letter  was  not  written  to  an- 
 swer any  doubts  or  to  settle  any  controver- 
 sies then  rife  in  the  Roman  church.  Ac- 
 cordingly, the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is 
 more  of  a  treatise  than  of  a  letter.  In  this 
 respect  it  differs  widely  from  the  Epistles 
 to  the  Corinthians  and  Galatians,  which  are 
 full  of  personal  and  direct  allusions.  Its 
 contents  are  as  follows :  1.  At  the  outset, 
 in  the  salutation  (1:1-7),  tlie  apostle  strikes 
 the  keynote  of  the  Epistle  in  the  expres- 
 sions "called  to  be  ah  apostle,"  "called  to 
 be  saints."  Divine  grace  is  everything, 
 human  merit  nothing.  2.  Personal  ex- 
 planations;  purposed  visit  to  Rome  (1  : 
 8-1.5).  3.  Doctrinal  (ch.  1  :  16  to  ch.  11  : 
 36).  The  genercd  pruposition:  the  gospel 
 is  the  salvation  of  Jew  and  Gentile  alike ; 
 this  salvation  comes  by  faitli.  4.  Practi- 
 cal exhortations  (ch.  12  to  ch.  15  :  13).  5. 
 Personal  matters  (15  :  14-33;  16  :  1-23). 
 6.  Benediction  and  doxology  (16  :  24-27). 
 While  this  Epistle  contains  the  fullest  and 
 most  systematic  exposition  of  the  apostle's 
 teaching,  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  very  strik- 
 ing expression  of  his  character.  Nowhere 
 do  his  earnest  and  affectionate  nature  and 
 his  tact  and  delicacy  in  handling  unwel- 
 come topics  appear  more  strongly  than 
 when  he  is  dealing  with  tlie  rejection 
 of  his  fellow-countrymen,  the  Jews. 
 
 Rome,  the  famous  ca[)ital  of  the  an- 
 cient world.  It  is  situated  on  the  Tiber, 
 about  fifteen  miles  from  its  month,  in 
 the  plain  which  is  now  called  the  Cam- 
 pagna.  It  was  founded  by  Romulus  about 
 B.  c.  753.  It  rapidly  increased  until  it 
 spread  over  the  seven  hills  (Rev.  17  :  9) 
 which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  an- 
 cient city.  Its  political  history  is  an  in- 
 structive chapter  in  the  history  of  the 
 world.  Its  conquests  were  extended  un- 
 til it  became  the  centre  and  metropolis  of 
 a  vast  empire  enriched  by  the  spoils  of 
 all  nations.     It  was  a  great  seat  of  learn- 
 
 ing and  the  arts,  and  adorned  by  the  rich- 
 est specimens  of  architecture. 
 
 Idolatry  in  many  forms  and  with  all  its 
 corruptions  prevailed,  and  the  people,  not- 
 withstanding their  apparent  refinement, 
 were  grossly  depraved.  At  the  time  of 
 our  Lord's  advent  Rome  had  reached  an 
 extraordinary  height  of  power  and  glory. 
 In  the  reign  of  Augustus  its  population 
 was  about  one  million  and  a  half;  in  the 
 reign  of  Trajan,  about  two  millions.  Its 
 name  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament, 
 but  the  prophet  Daniel  mentions  its  im- 
 perial sovereignty  under  the  name  of  "  the 
 fourth  kingdom  "  (Dan.  2 :  40 ;  7  :  17).  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  references  to  Rome 
 are  many,  but  as  they  are  chiefly  in  con- 
 nection with  the  history  of  the  apostle 
 Paul,  it  may  be  useful  to  give  a  brief  ac-, 
 count  of  the  city  in  the  time  of  Nero,  the 
 Caesar  to  whom  the  apostle  appealed  and 
 in  whose  reign  he  sufTered  martyrdom. 
 
 The  city  at  tliat  time  must  be  imagined 
 as  a  large  and  irregular  mass  of  buildings 
 unprotected  by  an  outer  wall.  Neither 
 the  nature  of  the  buildings  nor  the  config- 
 uration of  the  ground  was  such  as  to  give 
 a  striking  appearance  to  the  city  viewed 
 from  without.  The  visit  of  Paul  lies  be- 
 tween two  famous  epochs  in  the  history  of 
 the  city — namely,  its  restoration  by  Augus- 
 tus and  its  restoration  by  Nero.  It  was  the 
 boast  of  Augustus  "  that  he  found  the  city 
 of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble."  Some 
 parts  of  the  city,  especially  the  Forum 
 and  Campus  Martius,  must  have  presented 
 a  magnificent  appearance,  but  many  of  the 
 principal  buildings  in  ancient  Rome  which 
 now  attract  the  attention  of  modern  trav- 
 elers were  not  then  built.  The  streets 
 were  generally  narrow  and  winding. 
 Paul's  first  visit  to  Rome  took  place  be- 
 fore the  Neronian  conflagration.  One 
 half  the  population  consisted,  in  all  prob- 
 ability, of  slaves.  The  larger  part  of  the 
 remainder  consisted  of  pauper  citizens 
 supported   in   idleness   by  the   miserable 
 
442 
 
 ROOM— RUFUS. 
 
 system  of  public  gratuities.  There  ap- 
 pears to  liave  been  no  middle  class  and 
 no  free  industrial  population.  Side  by 
 side  with  tlie  wretched  classes  just  men- 
 tioned wa.s  the  comparatively  small  body 
 of  the  wealthy  nobility,  of  whose  luxury 
 and  prodigality  we  hear  so  much  in  the 
 heathen  writirs  of  the  time.  Such  was 
 the  population  which  Paul  found  at  Rome 
 at  the  time  of  liis  first  visit.  Detained 
 here  "two  whole  years,"  and  "dwelling 
 in  his  own  hired  house,"  the  apostle  "re- 
 ceived all  that  came  in  unto  him,"  "  preach- 
 ing the  kingdom  of  God  and  teaching  those 
 things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ "  (Acts  28  :  30,  31 ).  It  is  generally 
 believed  that  on  his  "  appeal  to  Caesar  "  he 
 was  acquitted,  and  after  some  time  spent 
 in  freedom  was  a  second  time  imprisoned 
 at  Rome.  His  second  imprisonment  end- 
 ed with  his  violent  death  by  beheading. 
 
 By  whom  Christianity  was  introduced 
 into  Rome  is  uncertain.  No  satisfactory 
 evidence  can  be  adduced  that  Peter  ever 
 visited  it,  although  Romanists  claim  that  he 
 was  the  first  bishop  of  the  Christian  church 
 in  that  place.  The  remarkable  growth  of 
 Christianity  in  this  great  metropolis  of 
 heathenism  was  the  occasion  of  bitter  per- 
 secutions nnder  Nero  and  succeeding  em- 
 perors, and  many  Christians  were  cruelly 
 destroyed.  Still,  the  word  of  God  spread, 
 and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century 
 Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the 
 empire.  In  the  season  of  repose  and  pow- 
 er it  lost  much  of  its  spirituality,  and  by 
 a  gradual  process,  the  monstrous  perver- 
 sions of  popery  were  engrafted  on  it.  The 
 modern  city,  much  reduced  in  size  and 
 not  much  improved  in  morals,  is  but  the 
 shadow  of  its  former  greatness.  It  still  re- 
 tains its  character  as  the  seat  of  the  arts, 
 and  is  an  object  of  atti'action,  principally 
 for  the  remains  of  its  ancient  grandeur. 
 As  the  capital  of  reunited  Italy  ,  and  un- 
 der the  liberal  government  established  by 
 the  late  Victor  Emmanuel,  it  is  entering, 
 
 apparently,  upon  a  new  career  of  prosper- 
 ity. 
 
 Room.  In  Matt.  23 : 6  "  room  "  means 
 place  or  seat.  The  "  uppermost  room"  is 
 the  uppermost  seat  on  the  couch. 
 
 Rose.  This  word  occurs  twice  only, 
 in  Song  2  :  1  and  Isa.  35  :  1,  and  in  both 
 passages  the  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered 
 is  probably  the  beautiful  white  narcissus. 
 Roses,  however,  were  abundant  in  Syria, 
 and  were  greatly  prized  for  the  rose-water 
 which  they  furnished.     See  Sharon. 
 
 Rosh  [head,  chief].  The  Authorized 
 Version  translates  this  Hebrew  word  in 
 Ezek.  38 : 2, 3 ;  39 : 1  as  "chief,"  but  it  should 
 be  translated  as  a  proper  name,  "  Magog, 
 the  prince  of  Rosh,  Meshech  and  Tubal." 
 This,  apparently, would  make  Rosh  the  first 
 of  the  three  great  Scythian  tribes,  and  would 
 identify  them  with  the  modern  Russians 
 and  their  country  with  the  present  Russia. 
 
 Ru'by,  a  precious  stone  of  a  rose-red 
 color  and  of  great  beauty  and  value  (Job 
 28  :  18  ;  Prov.  31  :  10).  It  is  second  only 
 to  the  diamond  in  hardness.  Whether  the 
 Hebrew  word  thus  rendered  means  the 
 ruby  or  coral  is  much  disputed,  and  per- 
 haps will  never  be  determined. 
 
 Ru'di-ments,  elementary  principles 
 (Col.  2  :  8,  20).  "The  rudiments  of  the 
 world  "  are  the  rites  and  observances  of 
 the  Jewish  religion,  and  are  to  the  full 
 knowledge  imparted  in  the  gospel  what 
 the  alphabet  is  to  a  language  or  what  tiie 
 elementary  principles  are  to  the  science 
 of  astronomy  or  of  chemistry.  The  word 
 translated  rudimenis  in  Col.  2  :  8,  20  is 
 translated  elements  in  Gal.  4  :  3,  9. 
 
 Rue.  The  word  occurs  only  in  Luke 
 11  :  42.  It  is  a  shrubby  plant,  about  two 
 feet  high,  of  strong  medicinal  virtues.  In 
 our  Lord's  time  it  was  a  garden  plant  and 
 tithable. 
 
 Ru'fus  [red^,  son  of  Simon  a  Cyrenian 
 who  was  pressed  to  carry  our  Lord's  cross 
 (Mark  15  :  21).  The  name  occurs  again 
 in  the  list  of  salutations  (Rom.  10  :  13) 
 
RUHAMAH— EYE. 
 
 443 
 
 as  that  of  a  person  whose  mother  was  a 
 believer.  The  identity  of  the  two  per- 
 sons has  been  supposed,  but  it  can  neitlier 
 be  proved  nor  disproved. 
 
 Ru-ha'mah.    See  Ammi. 
 
 Ru''liiah  [^elevatedl,  same  as  Arumah. 
 
 Rush.     See  Reed. 
 
 Ruth,  [beauty],  a  Moabitish  woman, 
 the  wife,  first  of  Mahlon,  secondly  of  Boaz, 
 the  ancestress  of  David  and  of  our  Lord. 
 A  severe  famine  in  the  land  of  Judah  in- 
 duced Elimelech,  a  native  of  Bethlehem, 
 to  emigrate  into  the  land  of  Moab  with  his 
 wife  Naomi  and  his  two  sons,  Mahlon  and 
 Chilion  (Ruth  1  :  1,  2).  At  the  end  of  ten 
 years,  Naomi,  now  left  a  widow  and  child- 
 less, having  heard  that  there  was  plenty 
 again  in  Judah,  returned  to  Bethlehem,  ac- 
 companied by  Ruth,  her  daughter-in-law. 
 They  arrived  at  Bethlehem  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  barley-harvest,  and  Ruth,  going  out 
 to  glean,  was  providentially  guided  to  the 
 field  of  Boaz,  a  wealthy  man  and  a  near 
 kinsman  of  her  father-in-law,  Elimelech. 
 Probably  the  best  representation  we  now 
 
 Egyptian  Beapers  la  the  Harvest  Field. 
 
 have  of  this  reaping  scene  in  the  field  of  ' 
 Boaz  is  found  (a.s  in  the  annexed  cut)  on 
 the  monuments  of  Egypt. 
 
 The  appearance  of  Ruth  challenged  the 
 attention  and  claimed  the  kindness  of  Boaz, 
 who,  learning  her  history,  resolved  to  per- 
 
 form the  part  of  a  kinsman  by  purchasing 
 the  inheritance  of  Elimelech,  and  taking 
 her  to  be  his  wife  if  a  nearer  kinsman  should 
 decline  to  do  so.  The  nearer  kinsman  de- 
 clined ;  upon  which,  with  all  due  solem- 
 nity Boaz  took  Ruth  to  be  his  wife  amidst 
 the  blessings  and  congratulations  of  their 
 neighbors.  Their  son  Obed  was  the  father 
 of  Jesse,  who  was  the  father  of  David. 
 The  story  is  charmingly  told  in  the  book 
 of  Ruth,  which  is  a  supplement  to  the 
 book  of  Judges,  and  which  was  written,  it 
 is  supposed,  by  Samuel.  As  a  singular  ex- 
 ample of  virtue  and  piety  in  a  rude  age 
 and  among  an  idolatrous  people,  as  one  of 
 the  first-fruits  of  the  Gentile  harvest  gath- 
 ered into  the  church,  as  the  heroine  of  a 
 story  of  exquisite  beauty  and  simplicity^ 
 as  illustrating  in  her  history  the  workings 
 of  divine  providence  and  the  truth  of  the 
 saying  that  "the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  upon 
 the  righteous"  (Ps.  34  :  15),  and  for  the 
 many  interesting  revelations  of  ancient 
 domestic  and  social  customs  which  are 
 associated  with  her  story,  Ruth  has  al- 
 ways held  a  foremost  place 
 among  the  Scripture  characters. 
 Rye.  The  Hebrew  word  thus 
 rendered  occurs  in  Ex.  9:32;  Isa. 
 28  :  25  and  Ezek.  4:9.  In  the 
 latter  passage  filches  is  the  ren- 
 dering in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion, but  rye  appears  in  the  mar- 
 gin. In  the  passage  in  Isaiah 
 Kpell  appears  in  the  margin ;  and 
 in  all  the  three  passages  spelt, 
 which  differs  but  slightly  from 
 our  common  wheat,  is  most  prob- 
 ably intended.  Rye  is  for  the 
 most  part  a  northern  plant,  and 
 was  probably  not  cultivated  in 
 Egypt  or  Palestine  in  early  times,  whereas 
 spelt  has  from  time  immemorial  been  cul- 
 tivated in  the  East,  where  it  is  held  in 
 high  estimation.  It  is  used  for  mixing 
 with  wheat,  barley  and  other  grains,  which 
 are  ground  together  and  made  into  bread. 
 
444 
 
 SABAOTH— SABBATH. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sab^a-Oth   [hosts'].     In  Rom.  9  :  29  , 
 and  James  5  :  4  the  Greek  form  of  tliis 
 Hebrew  word  is,  in  our  Authorized  Ver-  i 
 sion,  not  translated,  but  transferred.     It  is  ; 
 a  descriptive  title  of  Jehovah  "  the  Lord 
 of    hosts"    (Isa.  6  :  3),  and   whether   the  1 
 word  hosts  refers  to  the  angels  or  to  the 
 stars,  or  to  both,  it  he.ghtens  immensely 
 the  idea  of  God's  greatness  and  majesty. 
 
 Sab'bath.  As  the  Hebrew  root  of 
 this  word  means  "to  cease  to  do,"  "to 
 rest,"  60  the  sense  of  the  word  sabbath  is 
 "  a  day  of  rest."  The  name  is  applied  to 
 divers  great  festivals,  but  principally  and 
 usually  to  the  seventh  day  of  the  week, 
 the  strict  observance  of  which  is  enforced 
 not  merely  in  the  general  Mosaic  code, 
 but  in  the  Decalogue  itself.  The  conse- 
 cration of  the  Sabbath  was  coeval  with 
 the  creation.  It  is  the  only  ordinance, 
 besides  marriage,  which  appears  in  the 
 records  of  creation,  and  which  has  the 
 grounds  of  its  existence  and  obligation 
 interwoven  with  the  very  foundations  of 
 the  world's  history  (Gen.  2  :  2,  3).  Its 
 subseqvient  and  continuous  observance  is 
 clear  from  the  division  of  time  into  weeks 
 (Gen.  8  :  8-13 ;  29  :  27,  28),  the  recognition 
 of  the  day  before  the  giving  of  the  Law 
 (Ex.  16  :  22-30),  and  the  form  of  the 
 precept  in  the  Decalogue,  Remember  (Ex. 
 20  :  8-11 ).  Among  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
 tions preserved  in  the  British  Museum  is  a 
 religious  calendar  of  the  Assyrians  as  old, 
 perhaps,  as  Abraham,  in  which  every  month 
 is  divided  into  four  weeks,  and  the  seventh 
 days  or  "  sabbaths "  are  marked  out  as 
 days  on  which  no  work  is  to  be  under- 
 taken. Professor  Sayce  of  Oxford  in  his 
 lectures  on  Babylonian  Literature  says; 
 "  A  week  of  seven  days  was  in  use  from 
 the  earliest  ages.  The  days  of  the  week 
 were  named  after  the  sun,  moon  and  five 
 
 planets,  and  our  own  week-days  may  be 
 traced  back  to  the  active  brains  of  the 
 long-forgotten  people  of  Chalda^a.  The 
 seventh,  fourteenth,  nineteenth,  twenty- 
 first  and  twenty-eighth  days  of  the  month 
 were  termed  '  sabbaths '  or  '  days  of  rest,' 
 when  tlie  king  was  forbidden  to  eat  '  cook- 
 ed fruit'  or  'meat,'  to  change  his  clothes 
 or  wear  white  robes,  to  drive  his  c;hariot, 
 to  sit  in  judgment,  to  review  his  army,  or 
 even  to  take  medicine  should  he  feel  un- 
 well." Professor  Sayce  has  also  publish- 
 ed his  opinion  that  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
 tions recognize  the  Sabbath  as  of  divine 
 appointment,  and  on  the  fifth  tablet  of 
 the  Chaldrean  account  of  the  Creation 
 there  is  an  inscription  to  this  purport 
 which  Mr.  H.  Fox  Talbot  renders  thus: 
 
 "On  tlie  sevcntli  day  He  appointed  a  holy  day, 
 And  to  cease  from  all  business  He  commanded." 
 
 To  this  positive  historic  testimony  is  to 
 be  added  also  the  reckon  of  the  institution. 
 It  was  to  be  a  joyful  celebration  of  God's 
 completion  of  his  creation.  It  was  not  to 
 be  a  sea.son  of  stern  privation,  but  one 
 of  special  privilege.  The  prohibition  of 
 work  is  only  subsidiary  to  the  positive  idea 
 of  rest  and  refreshment  in  communion  with 
 Jehovah,  who  himself  "  rested  and  was  re- 
 freshed" (Ex.  31  :  17).  It  wa-s  to  be  a  sa- 
 cred pause  in  the  ordinary  labor  by  which 
 man  earns  his  bread,  the  curse  of  the  fall 
 was  to  be  suspended  for  one  day,  and,  hav- 
 ing spent  that  day  in  joyful  remembrance 
 of  God's  mercies,  man  had  a  fresh  start 
 in  his  course  of  labor.  Thus  the  s[)irit 
 of  the  Sabbath  was  joy,  refreshment  and 
 mercy,  arising  from  remembrance  of  God's 
 general  goodness  as  the  Creator,  and  in  the 
 case  of  the  Israelites  of  God's  special  good- 
 ness as  the  Deliverer  from  bondage.  Ac- 
 cordingly, among  the  Israelites  the  key- 
 
SABBATH-DAY'S  JOURNEY— SACEIFICE. 
 
 445 
 
 note  of  all  the  Sabbath  services  was  joy. 
 The  sentiment  with  which  the  people  were 
 required  to  keep  the  Sabbath  was  enshrin- 
 ed in  the  words  of  the  Psalmist:  "This  is 
 the  day  which  the  Lord  hath  made ;  we 
 will  rejoice  and  be  glad  in  it"  (Ps.  118  : 
 24). 
 
 Nor  is  abundant  evidence  wanting  that 
 whilst  the  Sabbath  was  not  always  kept 
 by  the  Israelites  as  God  designed  and  the 
 Law  prescribed,  its  observance  was  never 
 neglected.  Wherever  the  Jew  went  and 
 however  he  might  be  circumstanced,  Sab- 
 bath-keeping became  the  most  visible  sign 
 of  his  nationality.  In  our  Lord's  time, 
 however,  there  had  been  invented  many 
 prohibitions  respecting  the  Sabbath  of 
 which  we  find  nothing  in  the  original  in- 
 stitution. Some  of  these  prohibitions 
 were  fantastic  and  arbitrary,  in  the  num- 
 ber, indeed,  of  those  "  heavy  burdens  and 
 grievous  to  be  borne "  which  the  later 
 expounders  of  the  Law  "  laid  on  men's 
 shoulders."  How  general  this  perversion 
 of  the  Sabbath  had  become  is  apparent 
 both  from  the  recorded  objections  to  acts 
 of  our  Lord  on  tliat  day,  and  from  his 
 marked  conduct  on  occasions  to  which 
 those  objections  were  sure  to  be  urged 
 (Matt.  12  :  1-14 ;  Mark  3:2;  Luke  6  : 
 1-11 ;  13  :  10-17  ;  John  5  :  2-18  ;  7  :  23 ; 
 9  :  13-34). 
 
 Under  the  gospel  the  rest-day  has  been 
 changed  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day 
 of  the  week.    This  rest-day  commemorates 
 a  greater  deliverance  than  that  of  Israel 
 from  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  and  introduces 
 a  new  creation  as  well.     The  day  in  the 
 seven  is  changed,  but  a  day  in  seven  has 
 been  observed  from  the  first  (Acts  20  :  7  ; 
 1  Cor.  16  :  1,  2  ;  Rev.  1:10).     Nor  does  i 
 the  change  of  the  day  make  any  change  , 
 in  the  spirit  with  which  the  day  is  to  be  ! 
 kept.     The   obligation   upon   the   Jew  to  ] 
 keep  the  day  as  one  of  rest  from  worldly  | 
 toil  and  care,  as  one  of  communion  with 
 the  unseen  and  eternal,  as  one  of  joyous  I 
 
 service  and  holy  worship,  and  as  one  of 
 preparation  for  the  Sabbath  of  the  skies, 
 lies  upon  the  Christian  with  a  tenfold 
 weight.    See  Lord's  Day. 
 
 Sab'bath-Day's  Jour'ney  (Acts 
 1:12).  As  the  Law  enjoined  every  man 
 to  "  abide  in  liis  place "  on  the  Sabbath, 
 and  forbade  any  man  to  "  go  out  of  his 
 place"  on  that  day  (Ex.  16  :  29),  and  as 
 some  departure  from  a  man's  own  place 
 was  often  unavoidable,  so  it  was  thought 
 necessary  to  determine  the  allowable 
 amount,  which  was  fixed  by  the  later 
 Jews  at  two  thousand  paces,  or  about 
 three-quarters  of  a  mile,  from  the  wall  of 
 the  city  where  the  man  dwelt. 
 
 Sab-bat 'i-cal  Year.  See  Year, 
 Sabbatical. 
 
 Sa-be'ans,    See  Seba  and  Sheba. 
 
 Sab'tah  (Gen.  10  :  7)  or  Sab'ta  (1 
 Chron.  1  :  9),  a  son  of  Cush.  His  descend- 
 ants are  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the 
 Sabbatha  or  Sabota  or  Sabotale  of  Pliny  and 
 Ptolemy,  which  was  on  the  south  coast  of 
 Arabia,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  Atramitse 
 or  people  of  Hadramaut.  According  to  Ptol- 
 emy, Sabbatha  was  an  important  city,  con- 
 taining no  less  than  sixty  temples. 
 
 Sab'te-chah  (Gen.  10  :  7)  or  Sab'- 
 techa  (1  Chron.  1:9),  a  son  of  Cush. 
 Tlie  settlements  of  his  descendants  were 
 probably  near  the  Persian  Gulf. 
 
 Sack^but.  See  Musical  Instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Sack^cloth,  a  coarse  texture  of  a  dark 
 color  made  of  goats'  hair  (Isa.  50  :  3;  Rev. 
 6  :  12).  It  was  used  for  making  sacks 
 (Gen.  42  :  25;  Lev.  11  :  32;  Josh.  9  :  4) 
 and  for  making  the  rough  garments  used 
 by  mourners,  which  in  extreme  cases  were 
 worn  next  the  skin  ( 1  Kings  21  :  27 ;  Job 
 16  :  15;  Isa.  32  :  11),  but  at  other  times 
 were  worn  over  the  coat  (Jonah  3:6)  in 
 lieu  of  the  outer  garment. 
 
 Sac'ri-flce.  This  word,  whilst  occa- 
 sionally used  in  Scripture  in  the  sense 
 of  oblation  or  offering  (Ps,  116  :  17;  Jer. 
 
446 
 
 SACRILEGE— SADDUCEES. 
 
 33  :  11 ;  Rom.  12  :  1 ;  Heb.  13  :  15,  16),  is 
 generally  and  specifically  applied  to  what 
 is  not  only  offered  to  God,  but  also  burned 
 on  his  altar  in  token  of  complete  surren- 
 der (Lev.  17  :  3-9 ;  Ps.  40  :  6 ;  Heb.  7  : 
 27 ;  9  :  26).  A  sacrifice  from  the  animal 
 kingdom  was  uniformly  killed,  and  in 
 whole  or  in  part  was  consumed  with  fire ; 
 a  sacrifice  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  was 
 always  burned.  The  distinction,  therefore, 
 between  an  oblation  and  a  sacrifice  is  this : 
 an  oblation  is  generically  anything  offered 
 to  God  in  worship ;  a  sacrifice  is  specific- 
 ally what  is  devoted  to  God  by  death 
 (where  death  is  possible)  and  by  fire. 
 The  universal  prevalence  of  sacrifice  shows 
 it  to  have  been  primeval  and  deeply  rooted 
 in  the  instincts  of  li'.mianity.  So  soon  as 
 man  sinned  there  must  have  been  a  pain- 
 ful sense  of  separation  from  God,  and  the 
 early  promise  of  the  woman's  seed  must 
 have  been  accompanied  with  some  in- 
 struction as  to  the  mode  of  reconciliation 
 and  as  to  the  form  of  expressing  faith  in 
 the  coming  Redeemer.  The  clothing  by 
 the  Lord  God  of  Adam  and  Eve  with  the 
 skins  of  animals  (Gen.  3  :  21)  and  the  ac- 
 ceptable sacrifice  which  Abel  offered  (Gen. 
 4:4;  Heb.  11:4)  are  sufficient  proofs  that 
 the  doctrine  of  expiation  for  sin  was  very 
 early  and  most  emphatically  taught.  The 
 meaning  of  sacrifice  is  set  forth  fully  in 
 the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  con- 
 tains, indeed,  the  key  of  the  whole  sacri- 
 ficial system.  The  object  of  the  Epistle 
 is  to  show  the  typical  and  probationary 
 character  of  sacrifices,  and  to  assert  that 
 in  virtue  of  it  alone  they  had  a  spiritiuil 
 meaning.  This  typical  character  of  all 
 sacrifice  being  thus  set  forth,  the  next 
 point  dwelt  upon  is  the  union  in  our 
 Lord's  person  of  the  priest,  the  victim 
 and  tlie  offerer.  As  the  priest,  our  Lord 
 stands  absolutely  alone,  "  a  priest  for  ever  af- 
 ter the  order  of  Melchizedek"  (Heb.  7:17); 
 as  the  victim,  our  Lord  is  "  once  offered  to 
 bear  the  sins  of  many"  (Heb.  9  :  28) ;  as 
 
 the  offerer,  our  Lord  completes  that  per- 
 fect obedience  to  the  will  of  the  Father 
 which  is  the  natural  duty  of  sinless  man, 
 in  which  he  is  the  representative  of  his 
 people,  and  to  which,  when  his  people 
 are  reconciled  to  God  thiough  him,  he 
 effectually  summons  them  (Heb.  10  :  5- 
 27).     See  Offering. 
 
 Sac'ri-lege,  the  profanation  of  holy 
 things,  or  the  using  for  private  purposes 
 what  has  been  consecrated  to  God.  The 
 Avord  occurs  but  once  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  (Rom.  2  :  22),  but  the  idea  often. 
 Malachi  (3  :  8)  calls  the  misapprojiriation 
 of  tithes  and  offerings  a  robbery  of  God — 
 that  is,  a  sacrilege.  The  Jews,  when  they 
 converted  the  holy  temple  into  a  market 
 (Matt.  21  :  12,  13),  proitmed  that  "house 
 of  prayer"  and  were  guilty  of  sacrilege. 
 
 Sad''du-cees,  a  religious  party  or 
 school  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
 our  Lord  (Matt.  3:7;  16  :  1,  6,  11,  12; 
 22  :  23,  24 ;  Mark  12:18;  Luke  20  :  27 ; 
 Acts  4  : 1 ;  5  :  17 ;  23 :  6-8).  They  derived 
 their  name  most  probably  from  Zadok,  the 
 priest  who  acted  such  a  prominent  part 
 at  the  time  of  David,  and  who  declared  in 
 favor  of  Solomon  when  Abiathar  took  the 
 part  of  Adonijah  as  successor  to  the  throne 
 (1  Kings  1  :  32-45).  His  line  of  priests 
 appears  to  have  had  decided  pre-eminence 
 in  subsequent  history.  Ezekiel  honorably 
 mentions  "the  sons  of  Zadok"  and  "the 
 priests,  the  Levltes  of  the  seed  of  Zadok" 
 (Ezek.  40  :  46;  43  :  19;  44  :  15;  48  :  11). 
 Now,  as  the  transition  from  the  expres- 
 sion "  sons  of  Zadok  "  and  "  priests  of  the 
 seed  of  Zadok"  to  Zadokites  is  easy  and 
 obvious,  and  as  in  the  Acts  5  :  17  it  is 
 said,  "Then  the  high  priest  rose  and  all 
 they  that  were  with  him,  which  is  the 
 sect  of  the  Sadducees,  and  were  filled  with 
 indignation,"  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
 the  Sadducees  or  Zadokites  were  original- 
 ly identical  with  the  sons  of  Zadok,  and 
 constituted  a  kind  of  sacerdotal  aristoc- 
 racy.    To  these  were  afterward  and  nat- 
 
SAFFRON— SALIM. 
 
 447 
 
 urally  attached  all  who  for  any  reason 
 reckoned  themselves  as  belonging  to  the 
 aristocracy.  Their  tenets,  so  far  as  we 
 may  gather  them  fiom  Scripture,  were 
 denial  of  the  resurrection  (Mark  12  :  26, 
 27)  and  denial  of  the  existence  of  angels 
 and  spirits  (Acts  23 :  8).  They  were  skep- 
 tical materialists  and  eager  seekers  of  this 
 world's  riches  and  honors. 
 
 Saffron,  This  word  is  derived  from 
 the  Arabic  zajran,  "yellow."  It  repre- 
 sents the  yellow  stigmata  in  the  flower  of 
 an  odoriferous  plant  of  the  crocus  family. 
 From  the  earliest  times  saffron  has  been 
 in  high  esteem  as  a  perfume  (Song  4  : 
 14). 
 
 Saint  [sandified  one],  the  title  given  by 
 the  sacred  writers  to  believers  in  Christ  or 
 the  people  of  God  (Rom.  1:7;  8  :  27  ;  Ps. 
 16:3).  It  imports  that  they  who  are  prop- 
 erly so  called  lead  holy  lives  and  approve 
 themselves  to  be  new  creatures. 
 
 Sa^lah  [ex<erw/on],  son  of  Arphaxad 
 and  father  of  Eber  (Gen.  10  :  24;  11  :  12- 
 14 ;  Luke  3 :  35).  The  name  seems  to  im- 
 ply the  gradual  extension  of  a  branch  of 
 the  Semitic  race  from  its  original  seat  in 
 Northern  Assyria  toward  the  river  Eu- 
 phrates. 
 
 SaFa-mis,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
 Cyprus,  on  a  plain  at  the  eastern  end  of 
 the  island.  In  it  the  Jews  had  a  syna- 
 gogue, and  thither  came  Paul  and  Barna- 
 bas on  their  first  missionary  journey  (Acts 
 13  :  5).  It  was  ruined  by  an  earthquake 
 in  the  time  of  Constantino,  and  when  re- 
 built was  called  Constantia.  Its  remains 
 are  near  the  modern  Famagousta.  See 
 Cypkus. 
 
 Sa-la'thi-el  [a  request  of  God'], 
 son  of  Jechonias,  king  of  Judah,  and  fa- 
 ther of  Zorobabel  according  to  Matt.  1:12, 
 but  son  of  Neri  and  father  of  Zorobabel 
 according  to  Luke  3  :  27,  while  the  gene- 
 alogy in  1  Chron.  3 :  17-19  leaves  it  doubt- 
 ful whether  he  is  the  son  of  Assir  or  Je- 
 chonias, and  makes  Zorobabel  his  nephew. 
 
 Upon  the  incontrovertible  principle  that 
 no  genealogy  would  assign  to  the  true  son 
 and  heir  of  a  king  any  inferior  and  pri- 
 vate parentage,  whereas,  on  the  contrary, 
 the  son  of  a  private  person  would  natu- 
 rally be  placed  in  the  royal  pedigree  on 
 his  becoming  the  rightful  heir  to  the 
 throne,  we  may  assert,  with  the  utmost 
 confidence,  that  Luke  gives  us  the  true 
 state  of  the  case  when  he  informs  us  that 
 Salathiel  was  the  son  of  Neri  and  a  de- 
 scendant of  Nathan,  the  son  of  David.  It 
 would  seem,  too,  from  the  insertion  of  his 
 name  in  the  royal  pedigree  after  that  of 
 the  childless  Jechonias,  as  in  1  Chronicles 
 and  in  Matthew's  Gospel,  he  was,  on  the 
 failure  of  Solomon's  line,  the  next  heir  to 
 the  throne  of  David.  It  may  therefore  be 
 accounted  certain  that  Salathiel  was  the 
 son  of  Neri  and  the  heir  of  Jechonias. 
 His  name  has  in  Hebrew  two  orthograph- 
 ical forms.  In  1  Chron.  3  :  17  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  has  Salathiel,  but  every- 
 where else  in  the  Old  Testament  the  name 
 is  Shealliel. 
 
 SaFcah  and  SaPchah,  a  city  on 
 the  extreme  eastern  limit  of  Bashan 
 and  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Deut.  3  :  10; 
 Josh.  12:5;  13:11;  1  Chron.  5:11). 
 It  is  identified  with  the  modern  Sulkhad, 
 which  occupies  a  strong  and  command- 
 ing position  on  a  conical  hill  at  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  range  of  Jehel 
 Hauran.  Among  its  ruins  are  many 
 houses  still  perfect,  with  stone  roofs  and 
 stone  doors,  but  without  inhabitants.  The 
 view  from  the  summit  of  its  castle  is  one 
 of  remarkable  desolation.  Near  it  begins 
 that  great  Syrian  desert  which  extends  to 
 the  Persian  Gulf. 
 
 Sa'lem.  [peace],  the  supposed  name  of 
 Jerusalem  when  Melchizedek  was  its  priest 
 and  king  (Gen.  14  :  18).  In  Ps.  76  :  2  it 
 is  used  as  a  poetical  abbreviation  of  Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Sa'lim  [^peace],  the  place  near  Enon 
 where  John  the  Baptist  baptized  (John  3 : 
 
448 
 
 SALMON— SALUTATION. 
 
 23).  The  site  of  neither  place  has  been 
 undeniably  ascertained,  but  Salim  is  to  be 
 sought,  most  probably,  on  the  west  of  Jor- 
 dan, some  six  or  eight  miles  south  of  Beth- 
 shean,  now  Beisan.    See  Enon. 
 
 Sarmon  [clothing  or  clothed},  the  name 
 of  a  man  and  of  a  mountain. 
 
 1.  The  man  wits  the  father  of  Boaz,  who 
 married  Kutli,  from  whom  the  family  of 
 David  descended  (Ruth  4  :  20-22). 
 
 2.  The  mountain  is  mentioned  in  Ps. 
 68  :  14,  and  is  possibly,  yet  not  probably, 
 the  same  as  "  Mount  Zalmon,"  near  to 
 Shechem  in  Samaria  (Judg.  9  :  48). 
 
 Sal-mo'ne,  a  promontory  forming  the 
 eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Crete, 
 noticed  in  the  account  of  Paul's  voyage 
 to  Rome  (Acts  27  :  7).  This  promontory 
 still  bears  the  ancient  name. 
 
 Sa-lo'me  [peaceable'].  1.  The  wife  of 
 Zebedee  and  mother  of  the  apostles  James 
 and  John  (Mark  15  :  40;  Matt.  27  :  56; 
 4  :  21 ;  20  :  20,  21 ;  Mark  10  :  35). 
 
 2.  The  name  (though  not  given  in  Scrip- 
 ture) of  that  daughter  of  Herodias  whose 
 dancing  before  her  uncle  and  father-in-law 
 HerodAntipas  was  instrumental  in  bringing 
 about  the  beheading  of  .John  the  Baptist. 
 She  married  first  her  parental  uncle,  Phil- 
 ip, the  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  and  sec- 
 ondly Aristobulus,  the  king  of  Chalcis. 
 
 Salt.  Indispensable  as  salt  is  to  our- 
 selves, it  was  even  more  so  to  the  He- 
 brews, since  to  them  it  was  not  only  an  ap- 
 petizing condiment  and  a  valuable  anti- 
 septic, but  it  entered  also  very  largely  into 
 their  religious  services  as  an  accompani- 
 ment to  the  various  offerings  presented  on 
 the  altar  (Lev.  2: 13).  They  possessed  an 
 inexhaustible  and  ready  supply  of  it  on 
 the  soutliern  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
 inferior  kinds  of  salt  were  often  applied 
 as  a  manure  to  the  soil  (Matt.  5:13;  Luke 
 14  :  35).  Too  large  an  admixture,  how- 
 ever, w.as  held  to  produce  sterility,  and 
 hence  arose  the  custom  of  sowing  with 
 salt,  as  a  token  of  irretrievable  ruin,  the 
 
 foundations  of  a  destroyed  city  (Judg  9  : 
 45).  The  associations  connected  with  salt 
 in  Eastern  countries  are  important.  As 
 one  of  the  most  essential  articles  of  diet 
 it  symbolized  hospitality;  as  an  antiseptic, 
 durability,  fidelity  and  purity.  Hence  the 
 expression  "covenant  of  salt"  (Num.  18: 
 19;  2  Chron.  l.>  :  5)  as  betokening  an  in- 
 dissoluble alliance  among  friends.  It  was 
 probably  with  a  view  to  keep  this  idea 
 prominently  before  the  minds  of  the  Jews 
 that  the  use  of  salt  was  enjoined  on  the  Is- 
 raelites in  their  oflferings  to  God. 
 
 Salt,  City  of,  the  fifth  of  the  six  cities 
 of  Judah  which  lay  in  the  wilderness  (Josh. 
 15  :  62).  Its  site  is  unknown,  but  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  near  En-Gedi,  with 
 which  it  is  grouped,  and  the  Salt  or  Dead 
 Sea,  from  wliich,  most  likely,  the  city  was 
 named. 
 
 Salt,  Sea  of.    See  Sea. 
 
 Salt,  Valley  of,  the  site  of  two 
 memorable  victories  of  the  Israelites  over 
 the  Edomites — that  of  David  (2  Sam.  8  : 
 13;  1  Chron.  18  :  12)  and  that  of  Amaziah 
 (2  Kings  14:7;  2  Chron.  25  :  11 ).  Its  lo- 
 cality is  not  indicated  by  the  Bible  narra- 
 tive, but  tlie  notices  of  it  point  to  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Sela  or  Petra,  the  capital  of 
 Edom. 
 
 Sal-u-ta'tion.  Salutations  may  be 
 classed  under  the  two  heads  of  conver- 
 sational and  epistolary.  The  salutation 
 at  meeting  consisted  in  early  times  of  va- 
 rious expressions  of  blessing,  such  as  "God 
 be  gracious  unto  thee"  (Gen.  43:29), 
 "Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord"  (Ruth  3  : 
 10;  1  Sam.  15  :  13),  "The  Lord  be  with 
 you,"  "The  Lord  bless  thee"  (Ruth  2:4), 
 "  The  blessing  of  the  Lord  be  upon  you ; 
 we  bless  you  in  the  name  of  the  Lord" 
 (Ps.  129:8).  Hence  the  term  "bless" 
 received  the  secondary  sense  of  "  salute." 
 The  salutation  at  parting  consisted  orig- 
 inally of  a  simple  blessing  (Gen.  24  :  60; 
 28  :  1  ;  47  :  10;  Josh.  22  :  6),  but  in  later 
 times  it  took  form  in  the  words  "  Go  in 
 
SALVATION— SAMARIA. 
 
 449 
 
 peace"  (1  Sam.  1  :  17;  20:  42;  2  Sam. 
 15  :  9).  The  epistolary  salutations  in  the 
 period  subsequent  to  the  Old  Testament 
 were  framed  on  the  model  of  the  Latin 
 style.  The  names  of  the  writer  and  of 
 the  person  or  persons  addressed  were 
 usually  combined  in  the  salutation  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  epistle  (Gal.  1.1,  2; 
 Philem.  ver.  1 ;  2  Pet.  1:1).  A  form  of 
 prayer  for  spiritual  mercies  was  also  used. 
 The  concluding  salutation  consisted  occa- 
 sionally of  a  translation  of  the  Latin  valete, 
 "farewell "  (Acts  15 :  29 ;  23 :  30),  but  more 
 generally  of  t  he  phrase,  "  The  salutation  of 
 me,"  etc.   (1  Cor.  16  :  21;  Col.  4  :  18 ;  2 
 
 Thess.  3  :  17),  accompanied  by  a  prayer 
 for  peace  or  grace. 
 
 Sal-va''tion  Ideliverance'],  applied  in 
 the  New  Testament  to  the  deliverance 
 of  sinners  from  eternal  perdition  through 
 faith  in  Christ  (Matt.  1  :  21 ;  Luke  1  :  69; 
 John  3:  16,17;  Acts  4  :  12;  Rom.  10:9; 
 Tit.  3:5;  Heb.  7  :  25).  The  salvation 
 which  the  gospel  offers  includes  in  it  the 
 pardon  of  sin  and  deliverance  from  sin's 
 power  and  pollution,  tlie  sanetification  of 
 the  soul  and  the  joys  of  the  eternal  world 
 (Gal.  3  ;  13;  1  Thess.  1  :  10;  Heb.  5  ;  9). 
 Hence  it  is  called  a  "great  salvation" 
 (Heb.  2  :  3). 
 
 Sebastiyeh   (anciently  Samaria),  from  tlie  E.  N.  E.,  with  the  mountains  of  Ephraiin  behind  it  and 
 the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  the  distance. 
 
 Sa-ma'ri-a  [watch-height,  according 
 to  Gesenius],  the  name  of  a  city,  of  a 
 kingdom  and  of  a  province. 
 
 1 .  The  City  of  Samaria  ( 1  Kings  1 6  : 
 24),  situated  near  the  middle  of  Palestine, 
 on  an  oblong  hill  in  a  basin-sliaped  valley, 
 was  built  by  Omi-i,  king  of  Isi-ael,  who 
 made  it  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom 
 about  the  year  b.  c.  925.  Tlie  site  is  one 
 29 
 
 of  singular  beauty,  and  to  this  hour  claims 
 and  commands  the  unstinted  admiration 
 of  every  visitor.  For  two  centuries,  and 
 until  the  carrying  away  of  the  ten  tribes 
 into  Assyria  by  Shalmaneser  IV.  (2  Kings 
 18  :  11),  Samaria  conlinued  to  be  the  cap- 
 ital of  the  country.  It  was  also  the  seat 
 and  centre  of  an  attractive  idol-worship. 
 Here  Ahab,  son  of  Omri,  erected  in  honor 
 
450 
 
 SAMARITANS. 
 
 of  Baal  a  gorgeous  temple,  which  for  po- 
 litical reiLsons  thirty  years  afterward  Jehu, 
 the  conspirator  against  Jehoram,  Ahab's 
 son,  destroyed  (1  Kings  16  :  32;  2  Kings 
 10  :  18-28).  When  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
 came  to  an  end  Samaria  lost  much  of  its 
 importance,  and  for  centuries  had  an  ex- 
 perience of  diversified  and  often  disastrous 
 fortunes.  Under  Roman  rule  the  emperor 
 Augustus  gave  it  to  Herod  the  Great,  who 
 rebuilt  the  city  with  a  characteristic  mag- 
 nificence and  named  it  Sebaxtc,  the  Greek 
 equivalent  of  the  Latin  Au(/nstuii,  and  still 
 existing  in  the  modern  name  Sebtustiyeh. 
 This  was  the  Samaria  where  in  New 
 Testament  times  Philip  preached  the  gos- 
 pel (Acts  8  :  5).  Subsequently  it  fell  into 
 complete  decay,  and  is  now  a  confused  mass 
 of  ruins.  "  A  long  avenue  of  broken  pil- 
 lars," writes  Stanley,  "apparently  the  main 
 street  of  Herod's  city,  adorned  by  a  colon- 
 nade on  each  side,  still  lines  the  topmost 
 terrace  of  the  hill."  The  "crown  of 
 pride"  (Isa.  28  :  1)  is  terribly  dishon- 
 ored, yet  the  dishonor  and  desolation  are 
 but  echoes  to  the  solemn  and  suggestive 
 words  of  prophecy :  "  I  will  make  Samaria 
 as  an  heap  of  the  field,  and  as  plantings 
 of  a  vineyard ;  and  I  will  pour  down  the 
 stones  thereof  into  the  valley,  and  I  will 
 discover  the  foundations  thereof"  (Mic. 
 1:6). 
 
 2.  The  Kingdom  of  Samaria  (1  Kings 
 13  :  32 ;  Hos.  8  :  5,  6)  was  the  same  as  the 
 kingdom  of  Israel.  Its  name  was  borrow- 
 ed from  that  of  the  capital  city.  Its  ex- 
 tent, in  different  periods  of  its  history,  va- 
 ried very  much.  At  first  its  territory  was 
 coincident  with  that  of  the  ten  tribes  east 
 and  west  of  the  Jordan,  but  in  time  was 
 steadily  diminished  by  the  loss  of  section 
 after  section.  The  territory  east  of  the 
 Jordan  was  invaded  first  by  Pul  and  next 
 by  Tiglath-pileser,  kings  of  Assyria,  and 
 was  permanently  separated  from  the  ter- 
 ritory west  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  5  :  26). 
 The  territory  in  Northern  Palestine  corre- 
 
 sponding to  the  province  of  Galilee  was 
 also  seized  by  Tiglatli-pileser,  and  was 
 never  afterward  repossessed  by  Samaria. 
 Thehceforward,  until  the  final  overthrow 
 of  the  kingdom  by  Shalmaneser  IV.,  Sa- 
 maria was  restricted  to  the  central  portion 
 of  Palestine  lying  between  Judah  and  Gal- 
 ilee. 
 
 3.  The  Province  of  Samaria  (Luke 
 17  :  11  ;  John  4 :  4)  was  the  country  about 
 the  city  of  Samaria,  into  which,  after  the 
 carrying  away  of  the  Jewish  people  to 
 Assyria,  colonists  were  introduced.  It 
 corresponded  very  nearly  to  the  kingdom 
 of  Samaria  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  by 
 Shalmaneser.  It  existed  in  New  Testa- 
 ment times,  but  with  the  ending  of  Ro- 
 man rule  in  Syria  it  ceased  to  designate 
 any  portion  of  Palestine,  and  is  now^n- 
 known  to  the  natives  of  the  country, 
 
 Sa-mar'i-tans,  the  dwellers  in  Sa- 
 maria (city,  kingdom  and  province).  In 
 the  Old  Testament  the  appellative  Samar- 
 iians  occurs  but  once  (2  Kings  17  :  29) ;  in 
 the  New  Testament  it  occurs  several  times 
 (Matt.  10:5;  Luke  9  :  52 ;  John  4  :  9,  39, 
 40).  Wherever  in  the  Scriptures  it  occurs 
 it  designates  a  mixed  people  with  a  mixed 
 religion.  The  origin  of  these  Samaritans 
 was  probably  this :  When  Shalmaneser 
 carried  the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes  into 
 Assyria  (2  Kings  17  :  6)  he  did  not  remove 
 them  to  the  last  man,  for  in  the  reign  of 
 Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  seventy  years  after 
 the  deportation,  a  remnant  of  Israel  exist- 
 ed in  the  cities  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
 from  whom  the  Levites  collected  money 
 for  the  repair  of  the  temple  in  Jerusa- 
 lem (2  Chron.  24  :  9i.  This  remnant  of 
 Israel  consisted,  it  is  fair  to  presume,  of 
 such  families  as  by  tlieir  poverty  and 
 obscurity  could  arouse  no  apprehension, 
 whilst  the  colonists  whom  Shalmaneser 
 sent  from  Assyria  were  numerous  and 
 strong  (2  Kings  17  :  24).  The  few  He- 
 brews thus  left  on  the  soil  were  brought 
 into  close  relations  with  the  manv  heathen 
 
SAMOS— SAMSON. 
 
 451 
 
 who  owned  the  lands,  and  of  necessity  were 
 powerfully  influenced  by  the  association. 
 Intermarriage,  at  first  rare,  but  afterward 
 frequent,  overspread  the  country  with  that 
 new  race  which  in  the  times  of  our  Loid 
 were  held  in  such  contempt  by  Jews  of 
 pure  blood.  Their  religion,  a  curious 
 mixture  of  truth  and  error,  of  the  ideas 
 peculiar  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah  and 
 of  those  belonging  to  the  worst  forms  of 
 idolatry,  imposed  upon  them  no  restraint, 
 but  allowed  them  to  sink  without  check 
 into  the  dreariest  depths  of  sin  and  shame. 
 When  tlie  Jews  were  returned  from  Baby- 
 lon the  Samaritans  desired  to  aid  them  in 
 rebuilding  tlie  temple,  but  were  repulsed 
 with  such  scorn  that  they  obstructed  the 
 work  injevery  possible  way  (Ezra  4  :  1-6). 
 Laterj  they  themselves  built  a  temple  on 
 Mount  Gerizim,  and  in  consequence  the 
 religious  feud  between  them  and  the  Jews 
 became  increasingly  bitter.  This  feud 
 grew  at  lengtli  to  such  proportions  that 
 the  products  of  Samaria  and  all  articles 
 of  diet  among  them  were  pronounced  by 
 the  Jews  as  unclean  as  swine's  flesh.  No 
 Samaritan  was  allowed  to  become  a  pros- 
 elyte to  Judaism,  and  all  Samaritans  were 
 declared  incapable  of  the  resurrection  to 
 eternal  life.  This  was  the  attitude  of 
 the  Jews  and  Samaritans  toward  each 
 other  when  our  Lord  began  his  public 
 ministry.  It  explains  many  allusions  and 
 events  in  the  Gospels,  and  it  gives  jDoint  to 
 our  Lord's  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan 
 (Luke  10  :  25-37)  and  to  the  record  of  our 
 Lord's  miraculous  cure  of  the  ten  lepers, 
 of  whom  one  only,  and  he  a  Samaritan,  re- 
 turned to  give  thanks  (Luke  17  :  11-19). 
 Many  Samaritans  heard  our  Lord  gladly 
 (John  4  :  39-42),  and  afterward,  when 
 Philip  the  evangelist  preached  in  Sama- 
 ria, "there  was  great  joy  in  that  city" 
 (Acts  8  :  8).  At  present  the  Samaritans 
 number  less  than  two  hundred  persons. 
 
 Sa^mos,  an  island  in  the  ^Egeun  Sea, 
 near  the  coast  of  Lydia,  celebrated  for  the 
 
 magnificence  of  its  temple  in  honor  of  Juno 
 and  for  the  beauty  and  excellence  of  its 
 pottery.  It  was  touched  by  Paul  when 
 voyaging  from  Greece  to  Syria  (Acts  20  : 
 15).  At  the  present  time  its  population 
 is  about  sixty  thousand,  and  its  trade 
 consists  chiefly  of  grapes,  raisins  and 
 wines. 
 
 Sam-o-thra'ci-a,  an  island  in  the 
 north-eastern  part  of  the  ^gean  Sea, 
 above  the  Helle.spont  and  near  the  coast 
 of  Thrace.  Its  surface  is  quite  lofty,  and 
 forms  a  conspicuous  landmark  for  navi- 
 gators. When  Paul  sailed  from  Troas  to 
 Neapolis  with  the  view  of  entering  Eu- 
 rope, tliis  island  was  before  him  all  the 
 first  day,  and  furnished  him  and  his  com- 
 panions a  safe  anchorage  through  the 
 night  (Acts  16  :  11).  At  that  time  it  was 
 famous  as  the  seat  of  the  mysterious  divin- 
 ities called  Cabeiri.  Now  it  is  thinly  in- 
 habited, and  bears  the  name  of  Samothraki. 
 Samson  [sunlike'\,  son  of  Manoah,  a 
 man  of  the  town  of  Zorah,  in  the  tribe  of 
 Dan,  on  the  border  of  Judali  (Josh.  15  : 
 33;  19  :  41).  Samson  takes  his  place  in 
 Scripture :  1,  as  a  judge,  an  office  which 
 he  filled  for  twenty  years  (Judg.  15  :  20; 
 16  :  31);  2,  as  a  Nazarite  (Judg.  13  :  5; 
 16  :  17) ;  and  3,  as  one  endowed  with  su- 
 pernatural strength  by  the  Spirit  of  the 
 Lord  (Judg.  13  :  25;  14  :  6,  19;  15  :  14). 
 He  is  emphatically  the  Hebrew  Hercules, 
 and  perliaps  the  original  of  all  the  fables 
 with  which  the  name  of  the  Greek  Her- 
 cules is  associated.  His  mental  force,  as  we 
 i  cannot  but  note  when  we  read  his  history, 
 I  was  quite  inferior  to  his  muscular  strength, 
 and  if  in  Heb.  11  :  32  his  name  were  not 
 enrolled  among  the  heroes  of  faith  we 
 should  hesitate  to  ascribe  to  him  any  spir- 
 itual sympathies  whatever.  His  intellect 
 never  seems  to  have  been  developed,  and 
 he  was  swayed  by  irregular  impulses.  It 
 is  not  improbable  that  tlie  lapses  with 
 whicli  he  is  chargeable  were  largely  due 
 to  the  peculiarities  of  that  physical  tem- 
 
452 
 
 SAMUEL— SAMtEL,   SQOKS  OF. 
 
 perament  to  which  his  prodigies  of  strength 
 were  owing.  But  while  tliis  consideration 
 may  palliate,  it  cannot  excuse  the  moral 
 delinquencies  into  which  he  was  be- 
 trayed, and  for  which  a  just  Providence 
 exacted  so  tremendous  a  penalty  in  the 
 circumstances  of  his  degradation  and 
 death. 
 
 Sam'u-el  [the  heard  of  God],  son  of 
 Elkanah,  an  Ephrathite  or  Ephraimite, 
 and  Hannah  (1  Sam.  1  :  1,  2,  20).  Ded- 
 icated befoi-e  his  birth  to  the  office  of  a 
 Nazarite,  he  was  taken  when  quite  young  to 
 the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh  and  solemnly  con- 
 .secrated  to  the  service  of  Jehovah.  He 
 seems  to  have  slept  in  the  tabernacle,  and 
 at  night,  within  the  precincts  of  the  holy 
 liouse,  he  received  his  first  prophetic  eall 
 (1  Sam.  3  :  1-18).  In  the  overthrow  of 
 the  sanctuary  which  followed  soon  after 
 (1  Sam.  4  :  11)  we  know  not  what  became 
 of  Samuel,  but  twenty  years  thereafter  he 
 suddenly  appeared  among  the  people  and 
 warned  them  against  their  idolatrous  prac- 
 tices (1  Sam.  7  : 3, 4).  He  convened  an  as- 
 sembly at  Mizpeh,  and  whilst  engaged  in 
 offering  up  to  the  Lord  a  sacrifice  the  Phil- 
 istine host  suddenly  attacked  him  and  the 
 people.  A  violent  thunderstorm  came  to 
 the  timely  assistance  of  Israel.  The  Phil- 
 istines fled,  and  on  the  spot  of  their  dis- 
 comfiture Samuel  set  up  a  stone  which 
 long  remained  as  a  memorial  of  his  tri- 
 umph, antl  which  gave  to  the  place  the  name 
 of  Ebenezer,  "the  stone  of  help"  (1  Sam. 
 7  :  12).  This  was  Samuel's  first,  and,  so  for 
 as  we  know,  his  only,  military  achieve- 
 ment, but  it  raised  him  to  the  office  of 
 "judge"  (1  Sam.  7  :  13).  Subsequently 
 he  was  the  inaugurator  of  the  transition 
 from  what  is  commonly  called  the  theoc- 
 racy to  the  monarchy.  The  misdemeanor 
 of  his  own  sons,  a  repetition  of  that  sad 
 perversion  of  high  office  which  in  child- 
 hood he  himself  had  Avitnessed  in  the  case 
 of  Eli's  sons,  precipitated  the  cata.strophe. 
 The  people  demanded  a  king.     For  the 
 
 whole  night  he  lay  fiiating  and  sleepless 
 in  the  perplexity  of  doubt  and  difficulty ; 
 but,  bidden  l)y  the  Lord  to  hearken  unto 
 the  voice  of  the  people,  after  he  had  ut- 
 tered a  solemn  protest  against  the  meas- 
 ure, he  consecrated  Saul  as  king  ( 1  Sam. 
 8  :  6-22 ;  10  :  17-24).  He  was  still  judge, 
 however  (1  Sam.  7:15),  and  occasionally 
 came  across  the  king's  path,  but  chiefly  in 
 his  capacity  as  "  prophet."  An  the  repre- 
 sentative of  the  divine  will  he  sternly  re- 
 buked the  disobedience  of  Saul  on  two 
 noted  occasions  (1  Sam.  13  :  11-14;  15  : 
 10-23),  and  before  the  king's  sad  death 
 anointed  David,  the  youthful  son  of  Jesse, 
 as  the  successor  to  the  throne  (1  Sam.  16  : 
 13).  His  relations  to  David  seem  to  have 
 been  of  the  most  intimate  and  confidential 
 kind,  and  to  his  instruction  and  influence 
 is  due  most  probably  very  much  of  the 
 spiritual  sentiment  and  sympathy  which 
 appear  in  the  Psalms  (1  Sam.  19  :  18-24). 
 He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  whilst  Saul 
 was  yet  wearing  the  dishonored  and  for- 
 feited crown,  and  was  buried  at  Ramah 
 amid  the  lamentations  of  "  all  the  Israel- 
 ites" (1  Sam.  25  :  1).  His  character,  one 
 of  the  finest  in  Scripture,  is  marked  by  a 
 high  integrity,  by  a  stainless  official  pu- 
 rity, by  an  enlightened,  elevated  patriot- 
 ism, and  by  a  conscientious,  consistent 
 piety.  As  an  intercessor  with  God  for 
 the  people  he  is  ranked  with  Moses 
 (Jer.  15  :  1). 
 
 Sam^u-el,  Books  of.  These  books 
 commence  with  the  history  of  Eli  and 
 Samuel,  and  contain  an  account  of  the 
 establishment  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
 and  of  the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David,  with 
 the  exception  of  the  last  days  of  the  latter 
 monarch.  The  fn-st  twenty-four  chaptei-s 
 of  the  first  book  are  usually  attributed  to 
 Samuel  himself,  and  tiie  remaining  seven 
 chapters,  with  all  of  the  second  book,  to 
 the  prophets  Nathan  and  Gad.  The  quts- 
 tion  of  authorship,  however,  is  much  dis- 
 puted. 
 
SANBALLA^— SAPPHIRE. 
 
 453 
 
 San-bal'lat,  a  Moabite  of  Horonaim 
 (Neh.  2  :  10,  19;  13  :  28).  He  held  ap- 
 parently some  civil  or  military  command 
 in  Samaria  in  the  service  of  Artaxerxes 
 (Neh.  4  :  2),  and  from  the  moment  of 
 Nehemiah's  arrival  in  Judaea  he  set  him- 
 self malignantly  to  oppose  every  measure 
 for  the  welfare  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  2:19; 
 4:7). 
 
 Sanc-ti-fl-ca'tion,  symbolically,  the 
 setting  apart  of  a  person  or  thing  to  a  holy 
 use  (Ex.  13:  2;  Lev.  8  :  10-12) ;  spiritual- 
 ly, the  [)rogressive  conformity  of  the  heart 
 and  life  to  the  will  of  God  (Eph.  5  :  26, 
 27 ;  1  Thess.  5  :  23).  The  higher  spirit- 
 ual sense  is  brought  out  with  great  fullness 
 in  Scripture.  In  its  nature  sanctification 
 is  a  work  divme  (Tit.  3:5;  1  Pet.  1  :  2), 
 internal  (Eph.  4  :  23),  revealing  itself  in  vis- 
 ible effects  (Eom.  7  :  4),  never  left  till  per- 
 fected (Phil.  1  :  6),  essential  to  the  soul's 
 peace,  usefulness  and  eternal  happiness  (Rom. 
 6  :  20-22),  achieved  because  of  our  Lord's 
 atonement  (Heb.  10  :  10  ;  13  :  12),  through 
 the  agency  of  the  Spirit  (Gal.  5  :  22,  23), 
 by  the  instrumentality  of  the  Word  (John 
 17  :  17).  The  evidences  of  sanctification 
 are  the  being  made  free  from  sin  (Rom.  6  : 
 2,  18),  the  love  and  practice  of  holiness  (Ps. 
 51  :  10),  humility  (Eph.  3  :  8),  dendness  to 
 the  world  (Gal.  6  :  14),  growing  desires  after 
 heaven  (2  Cor.  5  :  4-8 ;  Phil.  1  :  23). 
 
 Sanc'tu-a-ry,  a  holy  place.  The 
 word  is  applied  to  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  25  : 
 8  ;  Heb.  9:2),  especially  to  the  part  with- 
 in the  veil  (Ex.  26  :  33 ;  Lev.  4  :  6),  where 
 the  propitiatory  or  mercy-seat  was  placed, 
 and  whither  none  might  go  save  the  high 
 priest  once  a  year  (Lev.  16  :  13-17). 
 The  word  is  also  applied  to  Solomon's 
 temple  (1  Chron.  22  :  19).  Sacred  places 
 or  sanctuaries  being  regarded  a.s  inviola- 
 ble, criminals  sought  protection  in  them. 
 Hence,  as  the  land  of  Canaan  was  the 
 asylum  of  Israel,  it  was  figuratively  call- 
 ed the  sanctuary  (Ex.  15  :  17).  God  him- 
 self is  the  sanctuary  of  his  saints  (Isa.  8  : 
 
 14),  and  heaven  is  their  final  and  eternal 
 sanctuary  (Heb.  8  :  1,  2). 
 
 San'dal  (Mark  6:9;  Acts  12  :  8,  the 
 only  passages  in  which  the  word  occurs), 
 a  covering  for  the  feet,  usually  denoted  by 
 the  word  translated  "  shoe  "  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version.  It  was  a  sole  of  hide,  leatli- 
 er  or  wood  bound  to  the  foot  by  thongs. 
 The  thong  called  "  shoe-latchet "  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  is  expressly  noticed 
 
 Sandals. 
 
 in  several  passages  (Gen.  14  :  23;  Isa.  5  : 
 27  ;  Mark  1  :  7).  Sandals  were  worn  by 
 all  classes  of  society  in  Palestine,  even  by 
 the  very  poor  (Amos  8  :  6),  and  both  the 
 sandal  and  the  thong  were  so  cheap  and 
 common  that  they  passed  into  a  proverb 
 for  the  most  insignificant  thing  (Gen.  14  : 
 23).  To  carry  or  to  unloose  a  person's 
 sandal  was  a  menial  ofiice  betokening 
 great  inferiority  on  the  part  of  the  person 
 performing  it  (Matt.  3  :  11  ;  John  1  :  27 ; 
 Acts  13  :  25),  The  use  of  the  shoe  in  the 
 transfer  of  property  is  noticed  in  Ruth  4  : 
 7,  8,  and  as  the  symbol  of  possession  ex- 
 plains the  expression  in  Ps.  60  :  8,  "  over 
 Edom  will  I  cast  out  my  shoe." 
 
 Saph'ir  \_beantifid'],  a  village  addressed 
 by  the  prophet  Micah  (1  :  11),  and  situa- 
 ted, it  is  conjectured,  in  the  mountain-dis- 
 trict between  Eleutheropolis  and  Ascalon. 
 
 Sap-phi 'ra.     See  Ananias. 
 
 Sapph'ire,  a  precious  stone  of  bright 
 blue  color  (Ex.  24  :  10),  the  second  stone 
 
454 
 
 SARAH— SATAN. 
 
 in  the  second  row  of  the  high  priest's 
 brea-stplate  (Ex.  28  :  18),  and  extremely 
 valuable  (Job  28  :  16).  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  not  the  stone  to  which  we  give 
 the  name  mppldre,  and  which  is  a  deep 
 blue  crystalline  variety  of  alumina,  but 
 our  lapis-Utzuli. 
 
 Sa^rah  [princens,  originally  Sarai, 
 and  in  the  New  Testament  Sara],  the 
 wife  of  Abraham  and  mother  of  Isaac 
 (Gen.  11:29-31;  17:15-21).  Of  her 
 birth  and  parentage  no  certain  account 
 is  given  in  Scripture.  According  to  the 
 common  Jewish  tradition  and  to  the  most 
 probable  conjecture,  she  was  the  daughter 
 of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot,  and  therefore 
 the  niece  of  Abraham.  She  died  at  He- 
 bron at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  twen- 
 ty-seven years,  twenty-eight  yeare  before 
 her  husband,  and  was  buried  by  him  in 
 the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  23  :  1,  2, 19). 
 
 Sar'dine  (Kev.  4  :  3).    See  Sardius. 
 
 Sar'dis,    the   capital   of   the   ancient 
 
 Kuius  of  Sai'dis. 
 
 kingdom  of  Lydia,  situated  on  a  well- 
 watered  plain  at  the  ba.se  of  Mount  Tmo- 
 lus.  Under  Croesus,  its  last  king,  it  was 
 one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  opulent 
 cities  of  the  East.  For  many  generations 
 it  was  a  commercial  mart  of  very  great 
 
 importance.  The  art  of  dyeing  wool,  it  is 
 said,  wa.s  invented  here,  and  here  it  is  cer- 
 tain the  trade  in  dyed  woolen  manufac- 
 tures was  extensively  and  most  lucratively 
 carried  on.  It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
 seven  churches  of  Asia  (Rev.  3  :  1-4). 
 Wars  and  earthquakes  long  since  reduced 
 it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  A  miserable  village 
 called  Sei-t-kalessi  now  occupies  its  site. 
 
 Sar'di-us,  the  stone  which  occupied 
 the  first  place  in  the  first  row  of  the  high 
 priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  28  :  17  ;  39  :  10; 
 Ezek.  28  :  13),  and  which  formed  the  sixth 
 foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  heavenly 
 Jerusalem  (Rev.  21  :  20).  It  is  a  supe- 
 rior variety  of  agate,  of  a  clear,  bright 
 red  color,  and  in  modern  times  is  best 
 known  by  the  name  of  cornelian. 
 
 Sard-on'yx,  a  variety  of  agate  com- 
 bining the  characteristics  of  the  sardius 
 and  onyx.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  New 
 Testament  once  only — namely,  in  Rev. 
 21  :  20. 
 
 Sa-rep'ta  (Luke  4  :  26),  the  Greek 
 form  of  the  Hebrew  Zarephatii  (which 
 see). 
 
 Sar'gon,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
 Assyrian  kings,  is  mentioned  by  name 
 only  once  in  Scripture  (Isa.  20  :  1). 
 The  recently-discovered  Assyrian  in- 
 scriptions prove  him  to  have  been  the 
 father  and  immediate  predecessor  of 
 Sennacherib.  He  ended  the  siege  of 
 Samaria,  which  had  been  begun  by 
 Shalmaneser  IV.,  and  carried  its  fami- 
 lies into  captivity.  (See  Shalmane- 
 ser.) He  was  undoubtedly  a  great 
 and  successful  warrior.  In  the  year 
 B.  c.  712  one  of  his  generals  took  Ash- 
 dod  in  Palestine,  the  event  which  oc- 
 casioned the  mention  of  his  name  in 
 Scripture. 
 
 Sa^ron  (Acts  9  :  35),  the  same  as  Sha- 
 ron (which  see). 
 
 Sa'tan.  This  word  means  simply  an 
 "  adversary,"  and  is  so  used  in  Num.  22  : 
 22 ;  1  Sam.  29  :  4 ;  2  Sam.  19  :  22 ;  1  Kings 
 
SATYRS— SAUL. 
 
 455 
 
 5:4;  11  :  14,  23,  25 ;  Ps.  109  :  6.  The 
 original  sense  appears  in  our  Lord's  ap- 
 plication of  the  name  to  Peter  in  Matt. 
 16  :  23.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  used 
 as  a  proper  name  or  title  four  times  with 
 the  article  (Job  1  :  6,  12 ;  2:1;  Zech.  3  : 
 1),  and  once  without  the  article  (1  Chron. 
 21  :  1).  As  a  proper  name  it  evidently 
 applies  not  to  an  earthly,  but  to  a  spiritual 
 adversary  to  God's  people  and  God's  pur- 
 poses. From  the  fuller  revelation  in  the 
 New  Testament  respecting  Satan  or  the 
 devil,  we  learn  that  he  was  a  sinner  from 
 the  beginning  (1  John  3:8);  that  he  was 
 condemned  for  pride  (1  Tim.  3:6);  that 
 he  is  at  the  head  of  all  the  powers  of 
 darkness  and  ignorance  (Rev.  12  :  9;  Col. 
 1:13);  that  he  is  the  god  of  this  world  (2 
 Cor.  4  :  4),  deceiving  the  world  and  work- 
 ing in  the  children  of  disobedience  (1  Tim. 
 5  :  15  ;  Eph.  2  :  2).  He  sows  tares  among 
 the  wheat  (Matt.  13  :  25),  is  the  enemy  and 
 accuser  of  the  Church  (1  Pet.  5  :  8),  and  is 
 the  author  of  persecution  and  tribulation 
 (Rev.  2  :  10).  He  attacks  with  cunning 
 snares  and  with  fiery  darts  (Eph.  6  :  11, 
 16  :  2  Cor.  2:11;  11  :  14;  1  Tim.  3  :  7), 
 and  he  suggests  evil  thoughts  (John  13  : 
 2;  Acts  5  :  3;  1  Cor.  7:5;  Eph.  4  :  27). 
 He  is  overcome  by  Christ  (Luke  10  :  18  ; 
 Acts  26  :  18;  Heb.  2  :  14;  1  John  3  :  8), 
 and  by  the  Christian  in  God's  strength 
 (Pvom.  16  :  20  ;  James  4  :  7 ;  1  Pet.  5  :  8, 
 9;  1  John  2  :  13 ;  5  :  18  ;  Rev.  12:  11). 
 His  end  is  to  share  the  eternal  punishment 
 of  those  whom  he  has  seduced  (Matt.  25  : 
 41 ;  Rev.  20  :  7-10).     See  Devil. 
 
 Sa'tyrs.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered in  Isa.  13  :  21  and  34  :  14,  the  only 
 passages  in  our  Authorized  Version  where 
 this  rendering  occurs,  and  where  the  proph- 
 et predicts  the  desolation  of  Babylon,  is  ren- 
 dered "  devils  "  in  Lev.  17:7  and  2  Chron. 
 11  :  15.  It  has  the  sense  of  "hairy"  or 
 "  rough,"  and  as  a  descriptive  word  is  fre- 
 quently applied  to  "  he-goats."  Whilst  it 
 carries  a  reference  to  the  ancient  worship 
 
 of  Pan,  which  had  the  goat  for  its  peculiar 
 symbol,  it  plainly  denotes,  in  the  two  pas- 
 sages in  Isaiah,  such  shaggy  and  savage 
 creatures  as  find  congenial  haunts  in  desert 
 places  and  among  ruins. 
 
 Saul  [properly,  Shaul,  asked  for],  son 
 of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  the 
 first  king  of  Israel.  His  character  is  in 
 part  illustrated  by  the  fierce,  wayward,  fit- 
 ful nature  of  the  tribe,  and  in  part  account- 
 ed for  by  the  struggle  between  the  old  and 
 new  systems  of  government  in  which  he 
 found  himself  involved.  To  this  we  must 
 add  a  taint  of  madness,  which  at  times 
 broke  out  in  violent  frenzy,  leaving  him 
 with  long  lucid  intervals.  He  was  re- 
 markable for  his  strength  and  activity 
 (2  Sam.  1  :  23),  was  of  gigantic  stature  (1 
 Sam.  10  :  23),  and  of  that  kind  of  beauty 
 which  by  the  Hebrews  was  denominated 
 "good"  (1  Sam.  9  :  2).  Privately  an- 
 ointed the  ruler  of  the  nation  by  Sam- 
 uel in  accordance  with  a  divine  intima- 
 tion (1  Sam.  10  :  1),  and  subsequently 
 chosen  by  lot  in  an  assembly  of  the  peo- 
 ple at  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  10:  17-24),  he  vin- 
 dicated his  royal  title  by  the  speedy  mus- 
 ter of  an  army  and  the  prompt  rescue  of 
 Jabesh-Gilead  from  the  threatened  vio- 
 lence of  Nahash,  king  of  Ammon  ( 1  Sam. 
 11  :  1-11).  The  effect  of  this  splendid 
 achievement  on  the  people  was  instanta- 
 neous. The  monarchy  was  inaugurated 
 anew  at  Gilgal  (1  Sam.  11:7,  14,  15),  and 
 Samuel,  who  had  up  to  this  time  been 
 still  named  as  ruler  with  Saul,  now  with- 
 drew from  the  active  administration  of 
 government  and  resigned  his  authority 
 into  the  hands  of  the  acknowledged  chief. 
 The  character  of  his  reign  was  warlike, 
 but  in  the  prosecution  of  his  plans  against 
 the  Philistines  and  the  neighboring  tribes 
 of  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom  and  Amalek  his 
 impetuous  zeal  led  him  to  usurp  the  office 
 of  priest  (1  Sam.  13  :  5-14)  and  to  disre- 
 gard the  counsels  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  15  : 
 1-9).     Upon   him   a  first   and   a  second 
 
456 
 
 SAUL  OF  TARSUS— SCHISM. 
 
 curse  was  pronounced  by  tlie  prophet, 
 who  with  the  second  coupled  an  intima- 
 tion of  the  transfer  of  the  kingdom  to  a 
 rival  (1  Sam.  15  :  23-28).  The  rest  of 
 Saul's  life  is  one  long  tragedy.  The  fren- 
 zy which  had  given  indications  of  itself 
 before  now  at  times  took  almost  entire 
 possession  of  him.  In  this  crisis  David 
 was  recommended  to  him  as  a  skillful  mu- 
 sician (1  Sam.  10  :  14-23),  and  from  this 
 time  forward  the  lives  of  the  two  are 
 blended  together.  The  power  of  the  mon- 
 archy decreased  as  the  madness  of  the 
 monarch  increased.  The  Philistines, 
 Saul's  old  enemies,  re-entered  the  terri- 
 tories of  Israel  and  threatened  a  sweeping 
 destruction.  Saul  marclnd  against  them 
 with  a  strong  force,  but  before  he  gave 
 battle,  with  that  wayward  mixture  of  su- 
 perstition and  religion  which  marked  his 
 Avhole  career,  he  consulted  a  necromancer, 
 the  famous  witch  of  Endor  ( 1  Sam.  28 :  7- 
 20).  The  battle  next  day  was  fearfully 
 disastrous.  The  Israelites  were  utterly 
 routed,  and  Saul  and  his  three  sons  were 
 slain.  The  body  of  the  king  was  stripped 
 and  decapitated,  and,  with  the  bodies  of 
 his  sons,  was  exposed  on  the  walls  of  the 
 Philistine  city  of  Bethshan  (I  Sam.  31  : 
 8-10).  The  inhabitants  of  Jabesh-Gilead 
 from  gratitude  to  Saul  for  his  early  and 
 efficient  kindness  to  them,  crossed  the  Jor- 
 dan by  night,  and,  removing  the  bodies 
 from  Bethshan  to  Jabesh,  burnt  them 
 and  buried  them  (1  Sam.  31  :  13).  Thence, 
 after  the  lapse  of  several  years,  the  ashes 
 of  Saul  and  of  his  son  .Jonathan  were  rev- 
 erently deposited  by  David  in  their  ances- 
 tral sejiulchre  at  Zelah  in  Benjamin  (2  Sam. 
 21:14). 
 
 Saul  of  Tarsus.     See  Pavl. 
 
 Saviour.    See  Christ. 
 
 Saw  (Isa.  10  :  15).  The  Hebrew  word 
 (massUr)  thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  is  onomatopoetic — that  is,  a  word 
 constructed  to  resemble  the  sound  of  the 
 thing  denoted.     So   far   as   has  yet  been 
 
 discovered,  Egyptian  saws  were  single- 
 handed.  As  is  the  case  in  modem  Ori- 
 ental saws,  the  teeth  usually  incline  to- 
 ward the  handle,  instead  of  away  from  it 
 like  ours.  A  double-handed  iron  saw  has 
 been  found  at  Nimrftd.  No  evidence  exists 
 of  the  use  of  the  saw  apf)lied  to  stone  in 
 Egypt,  ])ut  we  read  of  sawn  stones  used  in 
 the  tenijile  (1  Kings  7:9). 
 
 Scape'goat.     See  Atoxemext,  Day 
 
 OF. 
 
 Scar'let,  a  brilliant  insect-dye,  valued, 
 like  the  purple  and  crimson,  for  rich  ap- 
 parel (Ex.  28  :  15)  and  for  tapestry  (Ex. 
 25  :  4).  It  was  an  emblem  of  honor  and 
 prosperity  (Prov.  31  :  21),  and  also  of  lux- 
 ury and  licentiousness  (Rev.  17  :  3,  4), 
 Sometimes  the  scarlet  and  purple  are  con- 
 founded (Dan.  5:7,29;  Matt.  27:28; 
 Mark  15:17;  John  19  :  2).  The  depth 
 and  strength  of  this  color  give  force  to 
 the  figure  in  Isa.  1  :  18.  See  Purple  and 
 Crimson. 
 
 Scep'tre,  originally  a  rod  or  staff.  It 
 was  thence  specifically  applied  to  the 
 shepherd's  crook  (Lev.  27  :  32;  Mic.  7  : 
 14)  and  to  the  wand  of  a  ruler.  The  al- 
 lusions to  it  in  Scripture  are  all  of  a  meta- 
 phorical character,  and  describe  it  simply 
 as  one  of  the  insignia  of  supreme  power 
 (Gen.  49  :  10;  Num.  24  :  17;  Ps.  45  :  6 ; 
 Isa.  14  :  5;  Amos  1:5;  Zech.  10  :  11). 
 It  was  probably  made  of  wood.  The 
 sceptre  of  the  Persian  monarch,  however, 
 is  described  as  "golden"  (Esth.  4: 11), and 
 probably  was  of  wood  plated  with  gold. 
 
 Sce'va,  a  Jewish  priest  residing  at 
 Ephesus  at  the  time  of  Paul's  second  visit 
 to  that  town.  His  seven  sons,  in  attempt- 
 ing to  imitate  Paul  in  dispossessing  evil 
 spirits,  were  assailed  by  the  possessed  and 
 severely  wounded  (Acts  19  :  14-16), 
 
 Schism  {si.vn).  The  word  occurs  but 
 once  in  our  Authorized  Version  (1  Cor. 
 12  :  25).  It  is  ordinarily  employed  to 
 designate  a  division  or  separation  in  a 
 church  or  denomination  of  Christians  be- 
 
SCORPION— SCRIBES. 
 
 457 
 
 cause  of  some  diversity  of  opinion,  but  in 
 the  single  passage  where  it  is  found  it  ap- 
 parently denotes  a  breach  of  charity  rather 
 than  a  diflerence  of  doctrine. 
 
 Scorpion. 
 
 Scor'pi-on,  a  small  venomous  crea- 
 ture, belonging  to  the  class  Arachnida, 
 or  spiders,  resembling  the  lobster  so  much 
 in  general  form  and  appearance  that  the 
 Arabs  call  the  latter  the  sea-scorpion.  It 
 is  twice  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
 (Deut.  8  :  15;  Ezek.  2  :  6)  and  four  times 
 in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  10:  19;  11  : 
 12 ;  Rev.  9  :  3,  10).  The  wilderness  of  Si- 
 nai at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  was  infested 
 by  scorpions,  and  to  this  day  these  animals 
 are  common  in  the  same  district,  as  well 
 as  in  some  parts  of  Palestine.  There  are 
 several  varieties,  wliicli  are  d'stinguished 
 by  color  and  size,  and  which  are  more  or 
 less  venomous.  In  tropical  countries  they 
 are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  and 
 move  in  a  threatening  attitude  with  the 
 tail  elevated.  The  sting,  at  the  extremity 
 of  the  tail,  has  at  its  base  a  gland  that  se- 
 cretes a  poisonous  fluid,  which  is  discharged 
 into  the  wound  by  two  minute  orifices  at 
 its  extremity.  In  hot  climates  the  sting 
 often  occasions  much  suffering,  and  some- 
 times alarming  symptoms.  The  "scor- 
 pions" of  1  Kings  12  :  11,  14;  2  Chron. 
 10  :  11,  14  are  not  to  be  understood  as  the 
 animal,  but  as  some  instrument  of  scourg- 
 ing, if,  indeed,  the  expression  be  not  sim- 
 ply a  strong  figure. 
 
 Scourg'ing',  a  punishment  prescribed 
 by  the  Law  in  the  ca.se  of  a  betrotlied 
 bondwoman  guilty  of  unchastity,  and  per- 
 
 liaps  in  the  case  of  both  the  guilty  persons 
 (Lev.  19  :  20).  The  instrument  of  punish- 
 ment was  generally  a  whip  formed  of  three 
 lashes  or  tliongs  made  of  leather  or  small 
 cords,  thirteen  strokes  of  which  were  equal 
 to  thirty-nine  lashes,  tlie  Law  forbidding 
 more  than  forty  lashes  (Deut.  25  :  1-3;  2 
 Cor.  11  :  24).  The  suflerer  was  tied  by 
 his  arms  to  a  low  pil'.ar,  his  back  laid 
 bare  and  his  body  bent  forward.  Some- 
 times sharp  iron  points  or  sharp-cornered 
 pieces  of  metal  were  fastened  to  the  end 
 of  the  thongs  to  render  the  suffering  still 
 more  extreme.  As  the  Romans  did  not 
 limit  the  number  of  blows,  our  Lord 
 when  scourged  (Mark  15  :  15;  John  19  : 
 1 )  suffered  in  this  form  all  that  his  mur- 
 derers chose  to  inflict.  The  punishment 
 itself  was  considered  such  a  degradation 
 that  no   citizen   of   the    Roman    empire 
 
 Scourging. 
 
 could  be  subjected  to  it  (Acts  22  :  25, 
 26).  Instead  of  the  knotted  whip,  rods 
 were  used  in  the  case  of  a  Roman  citi- 
 zen (2  Cor.  11  :  25). 
 
 Scribes  [^writers'],  an  ancient  and  hon- 
 orable order  of  men  among  the  Hebrews, 
 called  also  lawyei'S,  who  multiplied,  by 
 transcription,  copies  of  the  Law,  and  who 
 were  students  and  expounders  of  the  word 
 of  God  (Matt.  5  :  20 ;  7  :  29  ;  16:21;  17  : 
 
458 
 
 SCRIP— SCRIPTURES. 
 
 10  ;  20  :  18  ;  23  :  2  ;  26  :  3).  They  were 
 usually  priests  or  Levites,  and  because  of 
 their  social  position  and  accredited  learn- 
 ing were  not  only  held  in  higli  esteem,  but 
 were  rewarded  with  substantial  gains.  In 
 our  Lord's  time  they  were  wealthy  and 
 worldly.  Their  pride  and  hyiJocrisy  and 
 avarice  were  sternly  rebuked  by  our  Lord 
 (Luke  20  :  4(3,  47),  and  they  heartily 
 united  with  the  Pharisees  in  the  con- 
 spiracy which  ended  in  our  Lord's  ar- 
 rest and  death. 
 
 Scrip,  a  bag  or  wallet  made  of  skin  or 
 coarse  cloth,  hung  around  the  neck  and 
 used  to  carry  provisions  for  a  journey 
 (1  Sam.  17  :  40;  Matt.  10:  10 1. 
 
 Scrip^tures,  ordinarily  used  by  the 
 New  Testament  wx-iters  with  respect  to 
 the  collective  writings  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament, called  either  "the  Scripture" 
 (Acts  8  :  32;  Gal.  3  :  22),  or  "the  Scrip- 
 tures" (Matt.  21  :  42;  Luke  24  :  27),  or 
 "the  Holy  Scriptures"  (2  Tim.  3  :  15). 
 The  "other  scriptures"  of  2  Pet.  3  :  15, 
 10  include  writings  of  the  Kew  as  well  as 
 of  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 The  principal  division  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures is  that  of  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ments, respectively  containing  the  his- 
 tories of  the  two  dispensations  of  God  to 
 his  Church  imder  the  old  and  new  cove- 
 nants. Each  of  these  consists  of  separate 
 books,  written  by  different  hands  in  differ- 
 ent periods  of  the  world.  The  application 
 of  the  word  Bible  to  the  collected  books 
 of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  not  to 
 be  traced  further  back  than  the  fifth  cen- 
 tury of  our  era.  The  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament  are  historical,  prophetic  and 
 devotional,  and  are  thirty-nine  in  all. 
 The  books  of  the  New,  which  are  twenty- 
 seven  in  all,  are  historical,  doctrinal,  de- 
 votional and  prophetic.  The  genuine  or 
 canonical  books  of  both  Testaments  are 
 given  by  inspiration  from  God,  and  are 
 not  mere  human  compositions.  The  Old 
 Testament  was  written  in  Hebrew,  with 
 
 the  exception  of  a  small  portion  in  Chal- 
 dee,  and  the  New  Testament  in  Greek. 
 
 According  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  the  five 
 books  of  Moses  were  in  the  time  of  the 
 earlier  Ptolemies,  about  two  hundred  and 
 eighty  years  before  Christ,  translated  into 
 Greek  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  by  seventy- 
 two  persons  api  ointed  for  the  purpose. 
 The  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
 were  afterward  rendered  into  the  same 
 language  by  different  hands  and  with  un- 
 equal talent  and  skill.  The  whole  was 
 completed  before  the  Christian  era,  and 
 was  called  the  version  of  the  Seventy,  or 
 the  Septuagint.  This  version,  in  the  or- 
 dering of  divine  Providence,  was  the 
 means  of  spreading  widely  the  knowledge 
 of  the  one  true  God  and  his  promises  of  a 
 Saviour  to  come  throughout  the  nations. 
 It  also  facilitated  greatly,  when  our  Lord 
 had  come,  the  spread  of  the  gospel.  At 
 an  early  period  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 moreover,  the  whole  Bible  wa-s  translated 
 into  Latin,  and  these  early  versions  were 
 superseded  by  that  of  Jerome,  published 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
 which,  because  Latin  was  then  the  vul- 
 gar or  common  language  in  the  West, 
 was  called  the  Vulgate.  The  division  of 
 the  several  books  of  the  Bible  into  chap- 
 ters and  verses  was  a  comparatively  mod- 
 ern contrivance,  adopted  by  Stephens  in  his 
 edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  A.  D.  1551, 
 anel,  appearing  for  the  first  time  in  an 
 English  translation  in  the  Geneva  Bible 
 of  15G0,  was  thence  transferred  to  the 
 Bishops'  Bible  of  1568  and  the  Author- 
 ized Version  of  1611.  It  was  designed  to 
 facilitate  reference  to  particular  portions, 
 for  which  it  is  very  useful,  although  of- 
 tentimes the  divisions  are  injudiciously 
 made  and  break  in  upon  the  true  con- 
 nection of  the  parts. 
 
 By  tlie  (jenHuieness  of  the  books  of  the 
 Bible  is  meant  that  they  were  written  by 
 the  persons  whose  names  they  bear,  and 
 by  their  aathenticily,  that  their  statements 
 
SCYTHIAN— SEA, 
 
 459 
 
 are  according  to  truth.  Those  which 
 are  acknowledged  to  be  of  divine  origin 
 are  called  canonical,  in  opposition  to  such 
 as  are  apocryphal,  which  as  mere  human 
 compositions  are  not  authoritative  in 
 matters  of  faith  and  practice. 
 
 Scyth'i-an,  a  term  occurring  but 
 once  in  the  Scriptures  (Col.  3  :  11),  and 
 here  as  a  generalized  term  for  rude,  igno- 
 rant, degraded.  The  Scythians  dwelt 
 mostly  on  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea 
 and  the  Caspian,  stretching  thence  indef- 
 initely into  Inner  Asia,  and  were  regarded 
 by  the  ancients  as  standing  extremely  low 
 in  point  of  intelligence  and  civilization. 
 They  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  de- 
 scendants of  Magog  (Gen.  10  :  2),  and 
 there  is  little  reason  to  question  that 
 they  were  the  ancient  representatives  of 
 the  modern  Tartars. 
 
 Sea,  a  general  term  in  Scripture  for 
 any  large  collection  of  water.  It  is  ap- 
 plied to  what  we  denominate  the  ocean 
 (Gen.  1 :  2,  10) ;  to  parts  of  the  ocean  (Ex. 
 14  :  21,  22 ;  23  :  31) ;  to  inland  lakes,  fresh 
 or  salt  (Luke  5:1;  John  21:1;  Gen.  14  : 
 3) ;  to  great  rivers,  the  Nile  (Isa.  19:5), 
 tlie  Euphrates  (Jer.  51  :  36) ;  to  the  laver 
 which  Solomon  made  (1  Kings  7  :  23-26; 
 1  Chron.  18  :  8).  Its  prominent  applica- 
 tions arfe  the  following: 
 
 1.  Brazkn  or  Molten  Sea.  This  was 
 the  capacious  laver  made  by  Solomon  for 
 the  court  of  the  temple,  and  called  a  sea 
 from  its  size.  It  was  made  partly  or 
 wholly  of  the  brass  (or  rather  copper) 
 which  David  had  captured  from  Hadar- 
 ezer,  king  of  Zobah  (1  Chron.  18  :  8). 
 In  1  Kings  7  :  26  its  capacity  is  put  at 
 two  thousand  baths,  equal  to  sixteen  thou- 
 sand gallons,  but  in  2  Chron.  4:5  its  ca- 
 pacity is  put  at  three  thousand  baths.  It 
 was  probably  capable  of  holding  the  larger 
 quantity,  but  did  not  usually  contain  more 
 than  the  smaller.  It  stood  on  twelve  bra- 
 zen or  bronze  oXen,  three  toward  each 
 quarter  of  the  heavens,  and   all  looking 
 
 outward.  It  was  mutilated  by  King  Ahaz, 
 who  removed  it  from  the  oxen  and  placed 
 it  on  a  pavement  of  stones  (2  Kings  16  : 
 17),  and  finally  was  broken  up  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar's soldiers,  who  carried  the 
 pieces  to  Babylon  (2  Kings  25  :  13). 
 
 2.  Galilee,  Sea  of.    See  Galilee. 
 
 3.  Great  Sea.  This  was  what  we 
 term  the  Mediterranean,  or  Midland 
 Sea.  As  it  was  the  largest  sea  with  which 
 the  Hebrews  were  acquainted,  so  it  was 
 called  by  them  in  pre-eminence  "the 
 great  sea"  (Num.  34  :  6,  7;  Josh.  1:4; 
 9:1;  Ezek.  47  :  10,  15,  20).  Being  on 
 the  west  of  Palestine,  and  therefore  be- 
 hind a  person  when  facing  the  east,  it 
 was  also  called  by  the  Hebrews  "  the  hind- 
 er sea"  (Zech.  14:8).  It  was  sometimes 
 also  denominated  "the  utmost  sea"  (Deut. 
 11  :  24;  Joel  2  :  20),  sometimes  "the  sea 
 of  the  Philistines"  (Ex.  23  :  31),  and 
 sometimes  "ths  sea  of  Joppa"  (Ezra  3  : 
 7). 
 
 4.  Red  Sea.  This  large  sheet  of  water 
 lies  between  Egypt  and  Arabia,  its  length 
 being  about  sixteen  hundred  English  miles 
 and  its  mean  breadth  about  one  hundred  and 
 fifty.  Its  northern  end  divides  into  two 
 gulfs,  which,  hold  between  them  the  pen- 
 insula of  S'nai.  It  is  called  in  the  Old 
 T.stament  "the  sea"  (Ex.  14 :  2,  9,  16,  21, 
 28 ;  15  :  1,  4,  8,  10,  19 ;  Josh.  24  :  G,  7), 
 but  its  specific  Hebrew  designation  (trans- 
 lated "  red  sea "  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion) is  "the  sea  of  Suph"  (Ex.  10  :  19; 
 13  :  18 ;  15  :  4,  22  ;  23  :  31 ;  Num.  14  : 
 25).  The  word  suph  signifies  a  sea-weed 
 resemhliiig  ironl,  and  such  sea-weed  is  found 
 in  great  abundance  along  the  shores.  In 
 the  New  Testament  (Acts  7  :  36  ;  Heb.  11  : 
 29),  as  well  as  aniong  the  Greeks  and 
 Romans,  the  usual  appellation  it  bears 
 is  the  Red  Sea.  The  epithet  "red" 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  either 
 from  the  predominant  color  of  its  weeds 
 and  corals,  or  from  the  reddish  appear- 
 ance   given   to   its   waters    by   enormous 
 
460 
 
 SEAL. 
 
 quantities  of  marine  animalculse,  which 
 at  certain  seasons  are  seen  swimming  on 
 its  surface.  Tlie  most  important  cliange 
 in  tlie  Red  Sea  since  the  time  of  the  Ex- 
 odus has  been  tlie  drying  up  of  its  northern 
 extremity,  '  the  tongue  of  tlie  Egyptian 
 Sea."  The  land  about  the  head  of  the 
 Gulf  of  Suez  has  risv^'u,  and  that  near  the 
 Mediterranean  has  sunken.  Thus,  the 
 1  roi)hecy  of  Isaiah  (11  :  15;  19  :  5)  has 
 been  fulfilled :  the  tongue  of  the  Red  Sea 
 lia.'5  dried  up  for  a  distance  of  at  lea.st  fifty 
 miles  from  its  ancient  head.  The  king- 
 dom of  Solomon  extended  to  the  Red  Sea, 
 upon  the  eastern  gulf  of  which  he  pos- 
 sessed the  harbors  of  Elath  and  Ezion- 
 geber.  The  principal  interest  of  the  Red 
 Sea,  however,  is  derived  from  the  mirac- 
 ulous passage  of  it  by  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
 14  :  21,  22).  This  grand  event  is  fre- 
 quently referred  to  in  the  Scriptures 
 (Num.  33  :  8 ;  Deut.  11:4;  Josh.  2:10; 
 Judg.  11  :  16;  2  Sam.  22  :  16;  Neh.  9  : 
 9-11  ;  Ps.  66  :  6  ;  Isa.  10  :  26  ;  1  Cor.  10  : 
 1,  2),  and  is  constantly  rejiresented  as  the 
 type  of  the  grander  deliverance  from 
 sense  and  sin  and  Satan  which  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ  achieves  for  his  people. 
 
 5.  Salt  Sea.  This  is  the  usual,  and 
 perhaps  the  most  ancient,  name  for  the 
 remarkable  lake  which  we  are  accustomed 
 to  call  "the  Dead  Sea"  (Gen.  14  :  3;  Num. 
 34  :  3,  1 2  ;  Deut.  3  :  17  ;  Josh.  3:16;  12  : 
 3;  15  :  2,  5;  18  :  19).  Another  and  po.s- 
 sibly  a  later  name  is  "  the  sea  of  the 
 plain  "  (Deut.  4  :  49  ;  2  Kings  14  :  25).  In 
 the  prophets  (Joel  2  :  20 ;  Ezek.  47  :  18 ; 
 Zech.  14:8)  it  is  mentioned  by  the  title 
 of  "  the  ea.st  sea."  In  the  New  Testament 
 there  is  not  even  an  allusion  to  it.  The 
 appellation  "  Dead  Sea,"  wliicli  is  noAv  its 
 recognized  and  establisiied  name,  appears 
 to  have  been  first  used  in  Greek  by  Pan- 
 sanias,  and  in  Latin  by  Trogus  Pompeius, 
 before  the  Christian  era.  Its  water-sur- 
 f:ice  from  north  to  south  is  about  forty- 
 six  English  miles  long,  and  its  greatest 
 
 width  is  about  ten  and  a  half  English 
 miles.  This  sea  is  the  final  receptacle  of 
 the  river  Jordan,  which  it  receives  at  its 
 northern  end,  and  it  is  the  lowest  and 
 largest  of  the  three  lakes  which  interrupt 
 the  rush  of  that  river's  downward  course. 
 It  is  the  most  extreme  depression  of  that 
 great  natural  fissure  which  runs  like  a 
 furrow  from  the  north  of  Syria  to  Leba- 
 non, and  from  Lebanon  to  the  Gulf  of 
 Akaba.  This  furrow-like  fissure  is  along 
 the  line  of  a  rectilineal  fracture  in  Creta- 
 ceous and  Eocene  strata,  for  the  opposite 
 sides  of  the  Dead  Sea  consist  of  different 
 kinds  of  rocks,  and  thus  indicate  the  ex- 
 istence of  a  great  fault.  The  depression  of 
 the  sea's  surface  and  the  depth  which  it 
 attains  below  the  surface,  combined  with 
 the  absence  of  any  outlet,  render  it  one 
 of  the  most  remarkable  spots  on  tlie  globe. 
 Its  surface  is  thirteen  hundred  and  sixteen 
 and  seven-tenths  feet  below  the  level  of 
 the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  its  depth  at 
 about  one-third  of  its  length  from  the 
 north  end  is  tliirteen  hundred  and  eight 
 feet.  The  water  of  the  lake  holds  in  so- 
 lution a  very  large  quantity  of  mineral 
 salts,  and  is  very  heavy.  The  old  notion 
 that  no  life  was  found  along  its  shores 
 and  that  no  bird  flew  over  its  surface  is 
 exploded,  for  the  springs  on  its  margin 
 nourish  vegetation  and  afford  shelter  to 
 the  snipe,  the  partridge  and  other  birds, 
 as  wJl  as  frogs;  but  so  acrid  are  its 
 waters  that  no  form  of  vertebrate  or  mol- 
 luscous life  can  exist  in  them. 
 
 Seal.  In  the  Ea.st,  seals  are  accounted 
 of  such  importance  that  without  one  no 
 document  is  regarded  as  authentic  (1 
 Kings  21  :  8  ;  Jer.  32  :  10,  11).  Engraved 
 signets  were  in  use  among  the  Hebrews  in 
 e;irly  times,  for  Judah  wore  one  as  part  of 
 his  ordinary  ecjuipment  (Gen.  38  :  18),  and 
 the  high  priest  wort'  several  of  them  on  his 
 breastplate  (Ex.  28  :  11,  36  ;  39  :  6).  If  a 
 document  were  to  be  sealed,  clay  or  wax  was 
 imjiressed  with  the  seal  and  attached  to  the 
 
SEARED— SEBA. 
 
 461 
 
 document  by  strings ;  if  a  door  or  box  were 
 to  be  sealed,  it  was  first  fastened  with 
 some  ligament,  upon  which  the  clay  or 
 wax  that  received  the  impression  was 
 spread.     When  our  Lord's  sejiulchre  was 
 
 A  Sealed  Stone. 
 
 sealed  (Matt.  27  :  66)  the  fastening  of  the  j 
 stone  which  secured  the  entrance  was  cov-  | 
 ered  with  clay  or  wax,  and  so  impressed 
 with  an  official  seal  that  any  violation  of  . 
 it  could  be  at  once  discovered.     The  use 
 of  clay  in  sealing  is  noticed  in  Job  38  : 
 U. 
 
 Sear'ed.  To  sear  flesh  is  to  cauterize 
 or  burn  it,  and  thus  deprive  it  of  the  power 
 of  feeling.  As  used  in  1  Tim.  4  :  2,  the 
 word  "  seared "  denotes  the  effect  of  ha- 
 bitual sin,  by  which  the  conscience  be- 
 comes so  hardened  as  to  be  insensible  to 
 the  most  enormous  guilt  and  the  most 
 fearful  threatenings  of  punishment. 
 
 Seasons.  Only  two  seasons,  summer 
 and  winter,  are  expressly  mentioned  in  the 
 Scriptures  (Ps.  74  :  17  ;  Zech.  14  :  8),  but 
 the  rabbins,  founding  their  division  upon 
 Gen.  8  :  22,  make  six,  as  follows:  1.  Seed- 
 time, October  to  December;  2.  Winter, 
 December  to  February;  3.  Cold,  Febru- 
 ary to  April ;  4.  Harvest,  April  to  June ; 
 5.  Heat,  June  to  August ;  6.  Summer,  Au- 
 gust to  October.     These  divisions  are  ar- 
 
 bitrary.     Seedtime   now   commences    in 
 October,  after  the  first  rains,  and  continues 
 till  January.     Harvest  in  the  lower  valley 
 of  the  Jordan   sometimes   begins  at  the 
 close  of   March;    in  the  hill-country  of 
 Judaja   it   is   nearly   a    month   later;    in 
 Lebanon  it  rarely  begins  before  June,  and 
 in  the  higher  regions  is  not  completed  till 
 the  end  of  July.     After  the  heavy  falls  of 
 rain  in  November  the  young  grass  shoots 
 up,  and  the  ground  is  covered  with  ver- 
 dure in  December.     In  January  oranges, 
 lemons  and   citrons  are  ripe,  and   at   its 
 close,   in   favorable   seasons,  the  almond 
 tree  puts  out  its  blossoms.     In  February 
 and  March  the  apricot,  pear,  apple  and 
 plum  are  in  flower.     In  May  apricots  are 
 I  ripe,  and  during  the  same  month  melons 
 are  produced  in  the  warm  plains  around 
 the  Sea  of  Galilee.     In  June  figs,  cherries 
 and   plums   ripen,  and   tiie  roses  of   the 
 !  "Valley  of  Rosesl"  near  Jerusalem,  aiid 
 '  of  the  gardens  of  Damascus,  are  gathered 
 for  the  manufacture  of  rose-water.      Au- 
 gust is  the  crowning  month  of  the  fruit-sea- 
 ;  son,  during  which  the  grape,  fig,   peach 
 '  and  pomegranate  are  in  perfection.     The 
 vintage   extends   on  through   September. 
 In   August   vegetation   languishes.      The 
 cloudless  sky  and  burning  sun  dry  up  all 
 moisture.     The  grass  withers,  the  flowers 
 fade,  the  bushes  and  shrubs  take  a  hard, 
 gray  look,  the  soil  becomes  dust  and  the 
 country  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  parched 
 and  barren  desert.     See  Rain. 
 
 Se'ba,  the  name  of  the  eldest  son  of 
 Gush  (Gen.  10  :  7  ;  1  Chron.  1  :  9).  Of 
 the  people  descending  from  him  there  are 
 but  three  notices  in  the  Scriptures  (Ps.  72 : 
 10 ;  Isa.  43  :  3  ;  45 :  14),  and  all  these  pas- 
 sages seem  to  show  that  Seba  was  a  nation 
 of  Africa,  bordering  on  or  included  in 
 Gush,  and  in  Solomon's  time  independent 
 and  of  political  importance.  In  Isa.  45  : 
 14  the  plural  form  of  Seba  is  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  incorrectly  rendered  Sa- 
 be'ans.     The  seat  of  the  kingdom  of 
 
462 
 
 SEBAT— SELAH. 
 
 Seba  may  perliaps  be  identified  with  the 
 island  of  Meroe,  in  the  upper  Niie.  See 
 Sheba. 
 
 Se'bat,  tlie  fifth  month  of  the  Jewish 
 civil  and  the  eleventh  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 year-reckoning  (Zech.  1:7). 
 
 Se-cun'dus,  a  Thessalonian  who  went 
 with  the  apostle  Paul  from  Corinth  as  far  i 
 as  Asia  on  his  return  to  Jerusalem  from 
 his  third  missionary-tour  (Acts  20  :  4). 
 
 Se-di'tion.     In  Acts  24  :  5  the  Greek  > 
 word  rendered  thus  signifies  popular  tu-  ' 
 mult.     In   Mark   15  :  7  the  same   Greek 
 word  is  used,  and  is  rightly  rendered  "  in- 
 surrection."    It  is  translated  also  "dissen-  j 
 sion"  in  Acts  15  :  2;  23  :  7,  10,  where  it 
 indicates    a    controversy    approximating  | 
 violence.     In   Gal.  5  :  20  the  word  "se- 
 ditions"  means    "divisions,"   and    is    so 
 rendered  in  Rom.  16  :  17. 
 
 Seer,  one  who  foresees  and  fore-an- 
 nounces future  events  (1  Sam.  9:9). 
 
 Se'ir  {hairy,  ska(/(jy],  the  name  of  two 
 mountains. 
 
 1.  The  mountain-ridge  which  extends 
 along  the  east  side  of  the  valley  of  Arabah 
 from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf 
 (Gen.  14  :  6).  The  name  may  have  been 
 derived  from  Seir  the  Ilorite  (Gen.  36  : 
 20),  or,  what  is  perhaps  more  probable, 
 from  the  rough  aspect  of  the  whole  coun- 
 try. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  landmarks  on  the  north 
 boundary  of  the  territory  of  Judah  (Josh. 
 15  :  10).  It  lay  westward  of  Kirjath-je- 
 arim,  and  between  it  and  Beth-Shemesh. 
 
 Sei''rath,  the  place  to  which  Ehud 
 fled  after  his  murder  of  Eglon  (Judg.  3  : 
 26,  27).  It  was  situated  among  those 
 shaggy  hills  of  Ephraim  which  stretched 
 so  far  south  as  to  enter  the  territory  of 
 Judah  (Josh.  15  :  10). 
 
 Se'la,  or  Se'lah  [the rock].  The  first 
 form  of  this  word  occurs  in  Isa.  16: 1  ;  the 
 second  form  in  2  Kings  14:7.  In  three 
 pa.sRages  (Judg.  1  :  36 ;  2  Chron.  25  :  12; 
 Obad.  ver.  3)  the  proper  name  is  rendered 
 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  "  the  rock."  It 
 designates,  beyond  a  question,  that  ancient 
 rock-city,  the  capital  of  Idumsea,  which  in 
 later  times  was  known  as  Petra.  It  was 
 in  the  midst  of  the  mountain-region  de- 
 nominated Seir,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
 Mount  Ilor,  about  two  days'  journey  north 
 of  the  head  of  the  Elanitic  Gulf.  It  lay 
 in  a  deep  valley  a  mile  in  length  and  a 
 half  mile  in  width.  The  valley  is  defined 
 by  precipitous  rocks,  which  rise  to  heights 
 varying  from  two  hundred  to  one  thousand 
 feet.  In  the  face  of  these  rocks  dwellings 
 for  the  living  and  tombs  for  the  dead  were 
 excavated  with  vast  labor.  As  the  city 
 lay  in  the  great  route  of  the  Western  car- 
 avan-traffic of  Arabia,  and  of  the  mer- 
 chandise brought  up  the  Elanitic  Gulf,  it 
 was  at  one  time  not  only  the  strong  capi- 
 tal of  Idumsea,  but  also  the  busy  metrop- 
 olis of  a  commercial  people.  In  the  end 
 of  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  Petra  appears 
 as  the  head-quarters  of  the  Nabatha?ans. 
 About  70  B.  c.  it  was  the  residence  of  the 
 Arab  princes  named  Aretas.  It  was 
 brought  into  subjection  to  the  Roman 
 empire  by  Trajan.  It  is  now  and  has 
 been  for  ages  unpeopled,  the  country 
 around  it  being  occupied  by  bands  of 
 roving  Bedouin. 
 
 Se'la-Ham-Mahl'e-koth  [the  rock 
 or  rllff  of  divisions],  a  rock  or  cliff  in  the 
 wilderness  of  Maon,  the  scene  of  one  of 
 those  remarkable  escapes  which  are  so 
 frequent  in  the  history  of  Saul's  pursviit 
 of  David  (1  Sam.  23  :  28).  No  satisfiic- 
 tory  identification  has  yet  been  made. 
 
 Se'lah.  This  word,  which  is  only 
 found  in  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  occurs  seventy-one  times  in  the 
 Psalms  and  three  times  in  Ilabakkuk.  It 
 was  somehow  connected  with  the  musical 
 execution  of  the  psalm,  and  the  jnost 
 probable  conjecture  is  this :  While  the 
 psalm  was  being  sung  the  instrumental 
 accompaniment  was  soft  until  the  wrtrd 
 "  Selah "  was  reached,  when  the  singing 
 
SELEUCIA— SEKAIAH. 
 
 463 
 
 paused  for  a  time  and  a  loud  interlude 
 was  played  upon  the  instruments. 
 
 Se-leu'oi-a,  a  city  of  Syria  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and  the  seaport  of 
 Antioch.  Paul  in  company  with  Barna- 
 bas sailed  from  Seleucia  at  the  beginning 
 of  his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  13  : 
 4),  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  landed 
 there  on  his  return  from  it  (Acts  14  :  26). 
 It  had  its  name  from  Seleucus  I.,  king  of 
 Syria,  who  built  it  and  who  was  buried 
 here. 
 
 Sem,  the  form  in  Luke  3  :  36  of  the 
 name  of  Shem  the  patriarch. 
 
 Se''nir,  This  name  occurs  twice  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  (1  Chron.  5  :  23 
 and  Ezek.  27  :  5),  but  it  should  be  found 
 in  two  other  passages  (Deut.  3  :  9  and 
 Song  4  :  8),  in  each  of  which  the  Hebrew 
 word  is  Senir,  but  appears  as  Shenir.  It 
 is  the  Amorite  name  for  the  mountain  in 
 the  north  of  Palestine  which  the  Hebrews 
 called  Herman  and  the  Phoenicians  Sirion. 
 
 Sen-nach^e-rib,  the  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  Sargon  as  king  of  Assyria.  He 
 mounted  the  throne  b.  c.  705,  and  after 
 the  suppression  of  a  revolt  in  Babylonia 
 and  the  conquest  of  numerous  cities  of 
 the  West,  marched  against  Hezekiah, 
 king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  18  :  13)  and  im- 
 posed upon  him  a  heavy  tribute  of  gold 
 and  silver.  Upon  Hezekiah's  rebelling 
 and  claiming  the  protection  of  Egypt 
 some  three  years  later,  Sennacherib 
 marched  past  Jerusalem  to  the  Egyp- 
 tian frontier  and  laid  siege  to  Lachish 
 and  Libnah,  from  the  former  of  which  he 
 sent  a  commission,  backed  by  an  army,  to 
 Hezekiah  (2  Kings  18  :  17)  Avith  a  per- 
 emptory demand  of  submission.  Heze- 
 kiah hesitating,  Sennacherib  was  prepar- 
 ing to  attack  him  when,  in  one  night,  by 
 a  pestilence  or  some  more  awful  manifes- 
 tation of  divine  power,  he  lost  one  hundred 
 and  eighty-five  thousand  men.  He  fled 
 to  Assyria,  and  never  again  attempted  the 
 subjugation   of   Judah,      Rawlinson   has 
 
 succeeded  in  reading  the  entire  history  of 
 Sennacherib's  wars  with  the  Jews,  and  he 
 finds  it  to  agree  in  a  remarkable  manner 
 with  the  Scripture  record,  even  to  the  very 
 items  of  the  fine  Hezekiah  paid  to  Sen- 
 nacherib— namely,  "  three  hundred  talents 
 of  silver  and  thirty  talents  of  gold"  (2 
 Kings  18  :  14).  Sennacherib  reigned 
 twenty-four  years  and  five  months,  was 
 then  assassinated  by  two  of  his  sons  (2 
 Kings  19  :  37  ;  Isa.  37  :  38),  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  son  Esarhaddon. 
 
 Se'phar  [enumeratiori],  an  Arabian 
 mount  mentioned  in  connection  with 
 the  sons  or  descendants  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
 10  :  30).  The  immigration  of  the  Jok- 
 tanites  was  probably  from  west  to  east, 
 and  as  they  occupied  the  south-western 
 portion  of  the  peninsula,  Sephar  was  most 
 likely  their  eastern  boundary.  The  name 
 is  now  represented  in  the  ancient  city  Zafar, 
 a  seaport  on  the  Indian  Ocean  and  beneath 
 a  lofty  mountain. 
 
 Seph'a-rad,  a  city  or  region  whence, 
 according  to  Obadiah  (ver.  20),  certain 
 captives  from  Jerusalem  were  to  return 
 and  possess  the  cities  of  the  South.  Its 
 site  has  been  placed  by  some  in  Spain, 
 by  others  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Bospho- 
 rus,  but  by  none  is  certainly  known. 
 
 Seph-ar-va'im  \_ihe  two  Sipparas,  one 
 on  either  side  of  the  river  Euphrates],  a 
 city  above  Babylon,  on  the  site  of  the  mod- 
 ern Mosaib,  whence  colonies  emigrated  to 
 Samaria  after  the  ten  tribes  had  been  car- 
 ried into  captivity  (2  Kings  17  :  24).  Its 
 inhabitants  were  sun-worshipers,  and  those 
 who  went  to  Samaria  carried  thither  their 
 idolatrous  customs  (2  Kings  17  :  29-31). 
 
 Sep'ul-chre.    See  Burial. 
 
 Se-rai'ah  [Jehovah  is  a  soldier,  i.  e., 
 man  of  war],  the  name  of  several  per- 
 sons: 1.  The  king's  scribe  or  secretary  in 
 the  reign  of  David  (2  Sam.  8  :  17).  2. 
 The  high  priest  in  the  reign  of  Zede- 
 kiah  (2  Kings  25  :  18;  1  Chron.  6  :  14; 
 Jer.  52  :  24),     3.  The  son  of  Tanhumeth 
 
464 
 
 SERAPHIM— SERVANT. 
 
 the  Netophathite  (2  Kings  25  :  23 ;  Jer. 
 40  :  8).  4.  The  son  of  Neriah  and 
 brother  of  Baruch  (Jer.  51  :  59,  61). 
 
 Ser^aph-im  [fmrninij  ones],  an  order 
 of  celestial  beings  whom  Isaiah  saw  in 
 attendance  upon  Jehovali  a.s  he  sat  upon 
 his  throne  (Isa.  6  :  1-7).  They  are  de- 
 scribed as  having  each  of  them  three  pairs 
 of  wings,  with  one  of  which  lliey  covered 
 their  faces  (a  token  of  humility);  witJi 
 the  second  they  covered  their  feet  (a 
 token  of  respect) ;  wJiile  with  the  third 
 tJiey  flew.  They  appear  to  have  borne  a 
 general  resemblance  to  the  human  figure, 
 for  they  are  represented  as  having  a  face, 
 voice,  feet  and  liands.  They  were  em- 
 ployed, as  tlie  prophet  saw  them,  in  cel- 
 ebrating the  praises  of  Jehovah's  holiness 
 and  power,  and  in  acting  as  the  medium 
 of  communication  between  heaven  and 
 earth.  They  seem  to  be  closely  allied  to 
 clierubim,  and  with  cherubim  to  symbol- 
 ize the  most  exalted  of  the  angelic  host 
 (Heb.  1  :6,  7). 
 
 Ser'geants.  This  word,  occurring  in 
 Acts  16  ;  35,  3S,  denotes  the  Roman  Ik- 
 tors  who  carried  before  the  magistrates 
 the  fasces,  a  bundle  of  rods  with  an  axe 
 in  the  centre,  and  who  inflicted  upon 
 criminals  the  awarded  punishments. 
 
 Ser'gi-us  Pau'lus,  the  proconsul  or 
 deputy  governor  of  Cyprus  when  the  apos- 
 tle Paul  visited  that  island  with  Barnabas 
 on  his  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  13  : 
 0-12).  He  is  descriljed  as  an  intelligent 
 man,  truth-seeking,  eager  for  infdrmation 
 from  all  sources  within  his  reach.  His 
 honesty  and  inquisitiveness  led  him  to 
 admit  to  his  society  Elymas  the  magician, 
 and  afterward  to  seek  out  the  missionary 
 strangers  and  learn  from  them  the  doc- 
 trine of  Christ.  Pie  was  not  long  deceived 
 by  Elymas,  but  upon  his  acquaintance  with 
 Paul  examined  at  once  the  claims  of  the 
 gospel,  and  yielded  his  mind  to  the  evi- 
 dence of  truth. 
 
 Ser'pent.     The  Hebrew  word  ordina- 
 
 rily renderd  "serpent"  in  our  Authorized 
 Version  is  ndchdsh,  the  generic  name  of 
 an  exceedingly  venomous  reptile,  best 
 represented  by  that  deadly  cobra  di  capello 
 which  is  known  throughout  the  East  by 
 
 The  Cobra. 
 
 the  appellation  naja  (Ps.  58  :  4;  Prov.  23  : 
 32),  the  Naja  Iripudians  of  India.  A  close- 
 ly-allied species,  the  ^(y'a  haje,  the  asp  of 
 Egyjit,  is  abundant  in  the  desert  of  Sinai, 
 and  particularly  in  that  dreary  wilderness 
 of  stone  that  bounds  the  land  of  Palestine 
 on  the  south.  Its  poison,  which  burned 
 like  fire,  brought  speedy  death  to  every 
 bitten  Israelite  until,  at  God's  conmiand, 
 "  Moses  made  a  serpent  of  brass  and  j)ut  it 
 upon  a  pole,"  with  the  proclamation  of  the 
 divine  promise  that  whosoever  should  look 
 thereto  should  not  die  but  live  (Num.  21  : 
 4-9).  The  iidclicisli,  moreover,  was  the  ser- 
 pent that  beguiled  Eve  through  his  subtle- 
 ty (Gen.  3:1),  and  its  representative,  the 
 nnjd,  appears  in  Plindoo  mythology  as 
 contending  with  Krishna,  but  ;us  finally 
 crushed.  Hence  the  ndchdsk  or  naja,  for 
 the  rapidity,  the  unerring  certainty,  the 
 terrible  torture  and  the  inevitable  fatality 
 of  its  poisoning,  fitly  stands  as  the  imper- 
 sonation of  sin,  and  is  the  very  significant 
 symbol  of  "  him  that  had  the  power  of 
 death,  that  is,  the  devil." 
 
 Se'rug  Islioot,  tendril],  son  of  Reu 
 and  grandfather  of  Abraham  (Gen.  11  : 
 22-26). 
 
 Ser'vant.    See  Slave. 
 
SETH— SHAMGAR. 
 
 465 
 
 Seth  [se<  or  appointed],  the  third  son 
 of  Adam  and  Eve,  and  the  one  whom  they 
 recognized  as  "set"  in  the  place  of  the 
 murdered  Abel.  To  him  and  his  de- 
 scendants Adam  handed  down  the  prom- 
 ise of  God's  mercy  througli  the  woman's 
 Seed,  faith  in  which  became  the  distinc- 
 tion of  God's  children. 
 
 Sev^en.  This  number,  so  often  found 
 in  the  Scriptures,  is  associated  witli  the 
 idea  of  fullness  or  completeness,  probably 
 with  a  reference  to  God's  ceasing  on  the 
 seventh  day  from  the  work  of  creation 
 (Gen.  2  :  2).  Hence  its  common  and  most 
 cliaracteristic  connection  is  with  rest,  peace 
 and  release  from  toil  and  trouble  (Job  5  : 
 19;  Matt.  18  :  21,  22).  With  the  Jews 
 every  seventh  day  was  hallowed  to  the 
 Lord,  every  seventh  year  was  accounted  a 
 sabbath,  and  every  seven  times  seventh 
 j'ear  was  observed  as  a  jubilee.  See 
 Number. 
 
 Shad'da-i  {_>iiighly,  powerful],  an  an- 
 cient name  of  God  rendered  "Almighty" 
 everywhere  in  our  Authorized  Version. 
 In  all  passages  of  Genesis  except  one  (49  : 
 25),  in  Ex.  6  :  3  and  in  Ezek.  10  :  5  it  is 
 found  in  connection  with  el,  "  God,"  El- 
 vShaddai  being  rendered  "  God  Almighty," 
 or  "  The  Almighty  God."  By  the  name 
 of  El-Shaddai  God  was  known  to  the  pa- 
 triarchs (Gen.  17  :  1;  28  :  3;  43  :  14;  48  : 
 3;  49  :  25)  before  the  name  Jehovah  in  its 
 full  significance  was  revealed  (Ex.  6  :  3). 
 See  God. 
 
 Shad'rach  [etymology  uncertain],  the 
 Chaldsean  name  of  Hananiah,  the  chief  of 
 those  three  friends  of  Daniel  in  Babylon 
 whom  Nebucliadnezzar  cast  into  the  fiery 
 furnace  (Dan.  3  :  20). 
 
 Sha'lem  [sq/V],  a  word  which  as  a 
 proper  name  occurs  but  once  (Gen.  33  : 
 18),  and  there  by  mistranslation.  Instead 
 of  reading  "and  Jacob  came  to  Shalem, 
 a  city  of  Shechem,"  we  should  read  "and 
 Jacob  came  safe  to  the  city  of  Shechem." 
 
 Sha'lim,  Land  of,  and  Sha-lish'a, 
 30 
 
 Land  of,  two  districts  through  whicli 
 Saul  passed  when  seeking  his  father's 
 asses.  The  names  are  found  only  in  1 
 Sam.  9  :  4.  They  were  probably  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Mount  Ephraim. 
 
 Shal'luna  {i-etribatioii],  the  name  of 
 several  persons:  1.  The  fifteenth  king  of 
 Israel.  He  conspired  against  Zechariah, 
 son  of  Jeroboam  II.,  killed  him,  and 
 brought  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  to  a  close, 
 B.  c.  770.  After  reigning  in  Samaria  for 
 a  month  only,  Shallum  was  dethroned  and 
 killed  by  Menahem  (2  Kings  15  :  10-14). 
 2.  The  husband  of  Huldah,  the  prophetess 
 in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  22  :  14;  2 
 Chron.  34  :  22).  3.  The  fourth  son  of  Jo- 
 siah, king  of  Judah,  known  in  the  books 
 of  Kings  and  Chronicles  as  Jehoahaz  (1 
 Chron.  3:  15;  Jer.  22  :  11). 
 
 Shal-ma-ne^ser  \_Salman  (a  god)  is 
 gracious],  the  Assyrian  king  who,  accord- 
 ing to  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  succeed- 
 ed Tiglath-pileser  II.,  and  immediately 
 preceded  Sargon  (2  Kings  17  :  3).  The 
 name  occurs  once  (Hos.  10  :  14)  as  Shal- 
 MAN.  On  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  he  ap- 
 pears as  Shalmanescr  IV.  Soon  after  his 
 accession  to  tlie  throne  lie  led  the  forces  of 
 Assyria  into  Palestine,  when  Hoshea,  the 
 last  king  of  Israel,  had  revolted  against 
 his  authority.  Hoshea  submitted,  but 
 concluding  soon  after  an  alliance  witli  the 
 king  of  Egypt,  he  withheld  tlie  stipulated 
 tribute.  Thereupon  Shalmaneser  invaded 
 Palestine  for  the  second  time,  and  besieged 
 Samaria.  The  siege  lasted  to  the  third 
 year,  but  before  its  conclusion  Shalman- 
 eser died  and  Sargon,  his  successor,  ended 
 it  by  carrying  and  demolishing  the  city 
 and  by  transporting  Hoshea  and  his  sub- 
 jects into  a  returnless  captivity  (2  Kings 
 17  :  6). 
 
 Sham'g'ar,  son  of  Anath,  judge  of 
 Israel  after  Ehud  and  before  Barak, 
 though  possibly  contemporary  with  the 
 latter.  With  no  arms  in  liis  hand  but  an 
 ox-goad   Shamgar  made  a  desperate  as- 
 
466 
 
 SHAMMAH— SHEBA. 
 
 sault  upon  the  Philistines  and  slew  six 
 hundred  of  them  (Judg.  3  :  31). 
 
 Shaiu''inah  {aslonishment,  horror, 
 fright],  the  name  of  several  persons. 
 
 1.  The  third  son  of  Jesse  and  brother 
 of  David  (1  Sam.  16  :  9;  17  :  13). 
 
 2.  One  of  the  three  greatest  of  David's 
 mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23  :  11-17). 
 
 3.  The  Harodite,  one  of  David's  might- 
 ies  (2  Sam.  ^3  :  25). 
 
 Sha''phan,  the  scribe  or  secretary  of 
 King  Josiah,  to  whom  Hilkiah  the  high 
 priest  made  known  his  discovery  of  the 
 book  of  the  Law  in  the  house  of  God  and 
 by  whom  the  said  book  was  read  to  the 
 king  (2  Kings  22  :  8-14). 
 
 Sha'ron  [a  pkiin'],  the  name  of  two 
 districts  of  Palestine. 
 
 1.  A  broad,  rich  tract  of  land  lying  be- 
 tween the  mountains  of  the  central  part 
 of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  Mediterranean 
 (1  Chron.  27  :  29 ;  Isa.  33  :  9  ;  35  :  2 ;  65  : 
 10;  Song  2:1).  It  was  a  region  noted 
 for  fine  pnsturage  and  for  its  floral  wealth. 
 
 Aneiuone  Coronaria. 
 
 The  "rose  of  Sharon"  (Song  2:1)  is 
 commonly  regarded  as  not  a  rose  in  our 
 acceptation  of  the  word,  but  as  another 
 flower,  thought  by  some  to  be  the  var- 
 cimw,  by  others  to  be  the  autumn  crocus, 
 
 and  by  others  still  to  be  some  species  of 
 asphodel.  Tlie  Anemone  coronaria,  which 
 in  spring  dots  the  Plain  of  Sharon  with 
 crimson,  has,  however,  received  the  popu- 
 lar suffrage,  and  in  Palestine  is  known,  at 
 least  to  travelers,  as  "  the  rose  of  Sliaron." 
 
 Wherever  in  Scripture  this  district  is 
 referred  to  the  name  has  the  definite  arti- 
 cle, thus  pointing  to  some  well-defined  re- 
 gion familiar  to  tlie  Israelites. 
 
 2.  A  plain  distinguished  from  the  west- 
 em  one  by  not  having  the  article  attached 
 to  its  name,  as  the  other  invariably  has  ( 1 
 Chron.  5  :  16).  It  was  some  district  on 
 the  east  of  Jordan,  in  the  neighborhood 
 of  Gilead  and  Bashan,  but  the  name  has 
 not  been  identified  as  yet  witli  any  tract 
 in  that  direction. 
 
 Sha'veh,  Val'ley  of,  the  place 
 where  Melchizedek  and  the  king  of  Sod- 
 om met  Abraham  after  the  defeat  of  Che- 
 dorlaomer  (Gen.  14  :  17).  Its  precise  lo- 
 cality is  unknown. 
 
 Sheal'ti-el.    See  Salatiiiel. 
 
 She'ba  [aevenl,  the  name  of  three  men 
 who  became  fathers  of  tribes. 
 
 1.  A  son  of  Raamali,  son  of  Cush 
 (Gen.  10  :  7 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  9).  He  set- 
 tled somewhere  on  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
 sian Gulf.  His  descendants  appear  to  liave 
 formed  a  tribal  union  with  the  descendants 
 of  Slieba,  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Keturah, 
 and  in  conjunction  with  them  to  have  car- 
 ried on  the  great  Indian  traffic  with  Pales- 
 tine. 
 
 2.  A  son  of  Joktan  (Gen.  10:28;  1 
 Chron.  1  :  22).  He  was  the  father  of 
 the  Joktanites,  who  were  among  the  early 
 colonists  of  Southern  Arabia.  The  king- 
 dom which  they  there  founded  was,  for 
 many  centuries,  called  tlie  kingdom  of 
 Sheba.  The  inhabitants  are  the  "Sa- 
 baei"  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
 Joktanite  Sheba,  mentioned  genealogically 
 in  (ien.  10  :  28,  recurs  as  a  kingdom  in  the 
 account  of  the  visit  of  the  queen  of  Slieba 
 to  King  Solomon  (1  Kings  10  :  1).    The 
 
SHEBA— SHECHEM. 
 
 467 
 
 I)rlncipal  passages  referring  to  the  Joktan- 
 ite  Sheba  are  Ps.  72  :  10  ;  Isa.  60  :  6 ;  Jer. 
 6  :  20.  The  kingdom  of  Sheba  embraced 
 the  greater  part  of  Arabia  Felix.  Jts 
 chi?f  city  was  Seba,  by  which  name  the 
 country  and  nation  are  occasionally  des- 
 ignated. 
 
 3.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Keturah 
 (Gen.  25  :  3 ;  1  Chron.  1  :  32). 
 
 She'ba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  a  Benja- 
 minite  from  the  mountains  of  Ephraim 
 (2  Sam.  20  :  1-22),  the  last  chief  of  the 
 Absalom  insurrection.  He  attempted  to 
 establish  himself  in  the  fortress  of  Abel- 
 Beth-maachah,  but  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 place,  at  the  instance  of  a  prudent  woman 
 and  to  avoid  a  protracted  siege,  threw  his 
 head  over  the  wall  to  Joab,  the  command- 
 er of  David's  army,  and  the  insurrection, 
 at  one  time  formidable,  came  to  an  end. 
 
 Sh.e'ba.  one  of  the  towns  of  the  allot- 
 ment of  Simeon  (Josh.  19  :  2),  probably 
 the  same  as  Shema  (Josh.  15  :  26). 
 
 She 'bah  [oa//t],  the  famous  well  which 
 gave  its  name  to  the  city  of  Beersheba 
 (Gen.  26  :  33). 
 
 She 'bam,  one  of  the  towns  in  the 
 pastoral  district  on  the  east  of  Jordan 
 demanded  by  and  finally  ceded  to  the 
 tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Num.  32  :  3). 
 It  is  probably  the  same  which  appears  in 
 the  altered  forms  of  Shibmah  (Num.  32  : 
 38)  and  Sibmah  (Josh.  13  :  19;  Isa.  16  : 
 8,  9;  Jer.  48:  32). 
 
 Sheb'na,  a  person  of  high  position  in 
 Hezekiah's  court,  holding  at  one  time  the 
 office  of  prefect  of  the  palace  (Isa.  22  :  15), 
 but  subsequently  the  subordinate  office  of 
 secretary  (Isa.  36  :  3;  2  Kings  19  :  2).  The 
 change  seems  to  have  been  brought  about 
 by  Isaiah,  who  had  become  displeased  witii 
 Shebna  on  account  of  his  pride  and  as- 
 sumption (Isa.  22:  16,  18,   19). 
 
 Shech'em  [.s7(0(tWer],  an  important 
 city  in  Central  Palestine  (Gen.  33  :  18,  19), 
 called   also   Sichem    (Gen.   12  :  6)    and 
 
 Shechem  (now  Nablom 
 
 Sychem  (Acts  7  :  16).  From  the  Roman 
 emperor  Vespasian  it  received  the  name 
 Neapolis,  or  new  city,  which,  in  the  Ara- 
 bic form  Ndblua,  it  still  retains.  Its  site 
 is  one  of  surpassing  beauty.  It  lies  in  a 
 sheltered  valley,  protected  by  Gerizim  on 
 the  south  and  Ebal  on  the  north.     The 
 
 )  and  Mount  Gerizim. 
 
 feet  of  these  mountains  where  they  rise 
 from  the  town  are  not  more  than  five 
 hundred  yards  apart.  The  bottom  of  the 
 valley  is  about  eighteen  hundred  feet 
 above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  top  of 
 Gerizim  eight  hundred  feet  higher  still. 
 Its  site  is  immediately  on  the  water-shed, 
 
468 
 
 SHEEP— SHELAH. 
 
 and  the  streams  thence  issuing  from  nu- 
 merous springs  flow  down  the  oi)i)08ite 
 slopes  of  the  valley  and  spread  verdure 
 and  fertility  in  every  direction.  Tlie  al- 
 lusions to  it  in  the  Scriptures  are  too  nu- 
 merous to  be  cited,  yet  whoever  collects 
 them  will  see  how  important  the  place 
 was  in  Jewish  history.  After  the  con- 
 quest of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews,  Shech- 
 em  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  20  : 
 7 ),  but  it  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  and 
 became  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  21  :  20,  21 ; 
 1  Chron.  6  :  G7 ;  7  :  28).  During  the  life- 
 time of  Joshua  it  was  a  centre  of  union  to 
 the  tribes  (Josh.  24  :  1,  25).  At  Shechem, 
 Rehoboam  was  inaugurated  king :  there, 
 in  consequence  of  Rehoboam's  folly,  the 
 revolution  began ;  and  there  Jeroboam 
 was  proclaimed  the  first  king  of  the  sep- 
 arate kingdom  of  Israel  (1  Kings  12  :  1- 
 20,  25  ;  2  Chron.  10  :  1-19).  The  modern 
 town,  Nabiux,  contains  about  thirteen  thou- 
 sand inhabitants,  of  whom  all  but  about 
 six  hundred  are  fanatical  Mohammedans. 
 The  well  of  .Jacob  and  the  tomb  of  Joseph 
 are  still  shown  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
 town. 
 
 Sheep.  Flocks  of  sheep  were  an  im- 
 portant part  of  the  possessions  of  the  an- 
 cient Hebrews  and  of  Eastern  nations  gen- 
 erally. Sheep  are  first  mentioned  in  Gen. 
 4  :  2.  They  were  used  in  the  sacrificial 
 offerings,  both  the  adult  animal  (Ex.  20  : 
 24 ;  1  Kings  8  :  63;  2  Chron.  29  :  33)  and 
 the  lamb — that  is,  a  male  from  one  to 
 tiiree  years  old,  but  young  lambs  of  the 
 first  year  were  more  generally  used  in  the 
 offerings  (Ex.  29  :  38 ;  Lev.  9:3;  12  :  6; 
 Num.  28  :  9).  Sheep  and  lambs  formed 
 an  important  part  of  food  (1  Sam.  25  :  18  ; 
 1  Kings  1  :  19;  4:23;  Ps.  44:  11).  The 
 wool  was  used  as  clothing  (Lev.  13  :  47 ; 
 Deut.  22  :  11  ;  Prov.  31  :  13;  Job  31  :  20). 
 "  Ranis'  skins  dyed  red  "  were  used  as  a 
 covering  for  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  25  :  5), 
 and  sheep  and  lambs  were  sometimes  paid 
 as  tribute  (2  Kings  3 :  4).     Immense  num- 
 
 bers of  sheep,  indeed,  were  reared  in  Pal- 
 estine in  biblical  times.  The  common 
 sheep  of  Syria  and  Palestine  are  the 
 broad-tailed.  As  the  sheep  is  an  emblem 
 of  meekness,  patience  and  submission,  it 
 is  expressly  mentioned  as  typifying  these 
 qualities  in  the  person  of  our  Lord  (Isa. 
 53:  7;  Acts  8  :  32). 
 
 Sheep-cotes,  the  same  as  sheepfolds, 
 enclosures  open  above  (1  Sam.  24  :  3;  2 
 Sam.  7:8). 
 
 Sheep-gate,  The,  one  of  the  gate? 
 of  Jerusalem  as  rebuilt  by  Nehemiah  (3  : 
 1,  32 ;  12  :  39),  and  supposed  to  have  beer 
 between  the  tower  of  Meah  and  the  cor- 
 ner where  the  wall  of  the  City  of  David 
 joined  with  the  wall  of  .Jerusalem  proper 
 
 Sheep-Market,  The.  In  the  only 
 passage  (John  5:2)  where  the  word  oc- 
 curs the  translators  of  our  Autliorizcd 
 Version  have  supplied  the  word  "  mar- 
 ket," but  they  should  have  supplied  the 
 word  "  gate."  The  reference  in  tlie  orig- 
 inal text  is  to  the  "  sheep-gate  "  mentioned 
 in  the  preceding  article. 
 
 Shekel. 
 
 Shek'el,  a  weight,  from  a  Hebrew  verb 
 meaning  "  to  weigh."  In  early  times  money 
 was  bullion  iceiyhed,  and  the  shekel,  whether 
 of  silver  or  gold,  was  a  recognized  weight. 
 The  silver  shekel  was  the  one  in  common 
 use,  and  had  in  our  currency  a  value  of 
 about  fifty-five  cents.  See  Mone\',  and 
 Weights  and  Measuees. 
 
 She'lah  [a  request],  the  youngest  son 
 of  Judali  by  the  daughter  of  Shuah  (Gtn. 
 38  :  5,  11,14,  26 ;  46  :  12 ;  1  Chron.  2:3; 
 4  :  21),  and  the  founder  of  the  family  of 
 Shelanites  (Num.  26  :  20), 
 
8H  ELEPH— SH  EPH  ERD. 
 
 469 
 
 She^eph  [a  drawing  out],  the  sec- 
 ond in  order  of  the  sons  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
 10  :  26;  1  Chron.  1  :  20).  His  name  is 
 preserved  in  Sakif,  a  district  of  the  mod- 
 ern Yemen  in  South  Arabia. 
 
 Shem  [nunie],  one  of  the  three  sons  of 
 Noah  (Gen.  5:  32),  and,  according  to  most 
 interpreters  of  the  Scriptures,  the  eldest. 
 The  rendering  of  Gen.  10  :  21  in  our  Au- 
 tliorized  Vers'on  makes  Japheth  older 
 than  Shem,  but  the  Hebrew  admits,  if  it 
 does  not  demand,  the  rendering  "Shem, 
 the  elder  brother  of  Japheth."  At  the 
 time  of  the  Flood  he  was  ninety-eight 
 years  old,  married  and  childless.  Two 
 years  after  the  Flood  he  became  the  father 
 of  Arphaxad.  Upon  him  fell  the  special 
 blessing  of  his  father  Noah  (Gen.  9  :  2-5- 
 27),  that  grand  prophecy  of  a  spiritual 
 pre-eminence.  He  died  at  the  age  of  six 
 hundred  years.  The  portion  of  earth  oc- 
 cupied by  his  descendants  (Gen.  10  :  21- 
 31 )  stretches  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
 to  the  Indian  Ocean.  To  the  languages 
 spoken  by  his  real  or  supposed  descendants 
 the  name  Shemitic  or  Semitic  is  applied. 
 
 Shem-ai'ah  [Jehovah  has  heard],  the 
 name  of  very  many  persons  in  the  geneal- 
 ogies and  of  two  prophets. 
 
 1.  The  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Reho- 
 boam  who  forbade  the  king  waging  war 
 on  the  ten  revolted  tribes  ( 1  Kings  1 2  : 
 21-24).  He  uttered  ako  a  very  effective 
 remonstrance  against  the  impieties  of  Re- 
 hoboam  and  the  nobles  at  the  time  Shishak 
 of  Egypt  invaded  Judah  and  besieged  Je- 
 rusalem (2  Chron.  12  :  5-7).  He  wrote  a 
 chronicle  containing  the  events  of  Reho- 
 boam's  reign  (2  Chron.  12  :  15). 
 
 2.  The  false  prophet  among  the  people 
 of  the  Captivity  in  Babylonia,  called  the 
 Nehelaraite,  who  contradicted  Jeremiah's 
 predictions  and  counseled  Jeremiah's  im- 
 prisonment as  an  impostor.  He  was  de- 
 nounced by  Jeremiah  and  wa.s  overwhelm- 
 ed by  the  divine  judgments  ( Jer.  29  :  24- 
 32). 
 
 Shem'er,  the  owner  of  the  hill  on 
 which  the  city  of  Samaria  was  built  (1 
 Kings  16  :  24). 
 
 Shera'in-ith  [the  eighth],  a  term  oc- 
 curring in  the  titles  of  two  psalms  (6  and 
 12),  and  denoting  either  a  certain  air  known 
 as  "  the  eighth  "  or  a  certain  key  in  which 
 the  psalm  was  to  be  sung. 
 
 She'nir.    See  Se'nir. 
 
 Sheph-a-ti^ah  [Jehovah  judges],  the 
 name  of  many  undistinguished  persons. 
 
 1.  A  son  of  David  (2  Sam.  3  :  4j. 
 
 2.  One  of  the  princes  who  recommended 
 that  Jeremiah  should  be  put  to  death  (Jer. 
 38  :  1-4). 
 
 3.  One  of  the  valiant  men  who  went  to 
 David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  12  :  1-5). 
 
 4.  One  of  the  rulers  of  the  Simeonites 
 (1  Chron.  27  :  16). 
 
 Shep'herd.  In  a  nomadic  state  of 
 society  every  man,  from  the  sheikh  down 
 to  the  slave,  is  more  or  less  a  shepherd. 
 The  progenitors  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  pa- 
 triarchal age  were  nomads,  and  their  his- 
 tory furnishes  many  fine  illustrations  of 
 pastoral  life.  Tending  flocks  was  the  oc- 
 cupation not  only  of  the  sons  (Gen.  30  : 
 31  ;  37  :  12),  but  also  of  the  daughters,  of 
 wealthy  chiefs  (Gen.  29  :  6;  Ex.  2  :  16). 
 The  Egyptian  sojourn  did  much  to  implant 
 in  the  Hebrews  a  love  of  settled  abode; 
 consequently,  the  tribes  which  had  a  taste 
 for  shepherd-life  selected  their  quarters 
 in  the  trans-.Jordanic  district,  apart  from 
 their  brethren  (Num.  32  :  1-5).  Hence- 
 forward in  Palestine  proper  the  shepherd 
 held  a  subordinate  position.  The  routine 
 of  the  shepherd's  duties  appears  to  have 
 been  a.s  follows:  In  the  morning  he  led 
 forth  his  flock  from  the  fold  (John  10:4), 
 which  he  did  by  going  before  them  and 
 calling  to  them,  as  is  still  the  custom  in 
 the  East;  arrived  at  the  pasturage,  he 
 w:itched  the  flock  with  the  a.ssistance  of  dogs 
 ( Job  30 : 1 ),  and  should  a  sheep  stray  he  had 
 to  search  for  it  until  he  found  it  (Ezek. 
 34  :  12;    Luke  15  :  4) ;    he  supplied   the 
 
470 
 
 SHESHACH— SHILOH. 
 
 flock  with  water,  either  at  a  running  stream 
 or  at  troughs  attached  to  wells  (Gen.  29 : 7  ; 
 30  :  38 ;  Ex.  2  :  IG  ;  Ps.  23  :  2) ;  at  even- 
 ing he  brought  the  sheep  back  to  the  fold, 
 and  reckoned  them  to  see  that  none  were 
 missing  by  pa-ssing  them  "under  the  rod "  ' 
 
 Shepherd. 
 
 as  they  entered  the  door  of  the  enclosure 
 (Lev.  27:32;  Ezek.  20:37),  checking 
 each  sheep  as  it  passed  by  a  motion  of 
 the  hand  (Jer.  33  :  13) ;  and,  finally,  he 
 watched  the  entrance  of  the  fold  through- 
 out the  night,  acting  as  porter  (John  10  : 
 3).  The  shepherd's  office  was  therefore 
 attended  with  much  hardship,  and  for  its 
 proper  discharge  required  great  watchful- 
 ness (Luke  2:8)  and  great  tenderness  to- 
 ward the  young  and  feeble  (Isa.  40  :  11). 
 The  term  shepherd  is  frequently  used  in  a 
 metaphorical  sense,  being  applied  to  kings 
 (Isa.  44  :  28),  to  prophets  (Jer.  23  :  4),  to 
 God  (Ps.  23  :  1),  and  especially  to  our 
 Lord  (Zech.  13  :  7;  John  10  :  14;  Heb. 
 13:  20). 
 
 She'shach,  a  name  applied  to  Bab- 
 ylon by  Jeremiah  (25  :  26;  ")1  :  41),  but 
 with  what  meaning  or  for  what  purpose 
 has  never  been  properly  ascertained. 
 
 She'shai  [whitlxh],  one  of  the  three 
 sons  of  Anak  the  giant,  who  at  tlie  Exo- 
 dus dwelt  in  Hebron  (Num.  13  :  22).    At 
 
 a  later  period  they  were  vanquished  and 
 driven  from  Hebron  by  Caleb  (Josh.  15  : 
 14;  Judg.  1  :  10). 
 Shesh'baz'zar.    See  Zerubbabel. 
 SheAv'bread.     See  Bread. 
 Shib'bo-leth,     the     Hebrew     word 
 which  tlie  Gileadites  under  Jcphthah 
 made  u.se  of  at  the  pa-ssage  of  the  Jor- 
 dan after  a  victory  over  the  Ephraimites 
 to  test  the  pronunciation  of  the  sound  sA 
 by  those  who  wished  to  cross  the  river. 
 The  Ephraimites  substituted  for  sh  the 
 simple  sound  n,  and  whoever  at  the  river 
 said  Sibbolelk  instead  of  Shibboleth  was 
 accounted  an  Ephraimite  and  Ma.'*  slain. 
 The  Vi'ord. ihibbolelh  has  two  meanings  in 
 Hebrew — namely,  an  ear  of  corn  and  a 
 stream  or  flood  ;  and  it  was  perhaps  in 
 tlie  latter  sense  that  this  particular  word 
 suggested  itself  to  the  Gileadites,  the  Jor- 
 dan being  a  rapid  river  (Judg.  12:6), 
 Shib'mah.    See  Shebam. 
 Shield.     See  Arm.s,  Armor. 
 Sllig-g"a'i-on,  a    particular    kind    of 
 psalm,  the  specific  character  of  which  is 
 not  now  known  |Ps.  7  :  1). 
 
 Shi'hor  of  Egypt.  See  Siiior. 
 Shi-lo'ah,  The  "Waters  of,  a  cer- 
 tain soft-flowing  stream  mentioned  by  the 
 prophet  Isaiah  (8  :  6),  better  known  under 
 the  later  name  of  Siloam,  the  only  pe- 
 rennial spring  of  Jerusalem.  See  Si- 
 loam. 
 
 Shi'loh  [peaceful],  the  name  of  a  city, 
 and  in  one  passage  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion (Gen.  49  :  10)  the  name  of  a  person. 
 1.  A  city  of  Ephraim.  It  was  one  of 
 the  earliest  and  most  sacred  of  the  He- 
 brew sanctuaries.  The  ark  of  the  cove- 
 nant, whicii  had  been  kept  at  Gilgal  dur- 
 ing the  progress  of  the  Conquest  (Josh. 
 10  :  43),  was  removed  thence  on  the  sub- 
 jugation of  the  country,  and  kept  at  Shi- 
 loh  from  the  last  days  of  Joshua  to  the 
 time  of  Samuel  (Josh.  18  :  1,  10;  Judg. 
 18  :  31  ;  1  Sam.  4  :  3-11).  From  the  time 
 that  Shiloh  lost  the  ark  of  God  the  city 
 
SHIMEI— SHIP. 
 
 471 
 
 sank  into  insignificance,  and  in  Jewish 
 history  stands  fortii  as  a  striking  exam- 
 ple of  the  divine  indignation  (Jer.  7  :  12). 
 Its  site  is  now  marked  by  the  ruined  town 
 of  Sellun. 
 
 2.  The  passage  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion in  which  Shiloh  is  commonly  taken 
 to  be  the  name  of  a  person,  occurs  in  Ja- 
 cob's predictive  benedictions  upon  his  sons, 
 and  especially  in  that  upon  Judah.  If  the 
 rendering  be  correct,  the  allusion  is  to  the 
 promised  Son  of  Judah,  the  Messiah,  who 
 in  Isa.  9 :  6  is  expressly  called  the  Prince 
 of  Peace.  On  the  supposition  that  the 
 rendering  is  correct,  the  passage  predicts 
 the  coming  of  Messiah  the  Prince  just 
 when  the  sceptre  of  sovereignty  has  fal- 
 len from  Judah's  hand  and  a  more  pow- 
 erful hand  than  his  is  needed  to  grasp  it. 
 
 Shim^e-i  [renowned],  the  name  of 
 several  persons. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Gershom,  the  son  of  Levi 
 (Num.  3  :  18;  1  Chron.  6  :  17,  29;  23  :  7, 
 9,  10;  Zech.  12:13),  called  Shimi  in 
 Ex.6:  17. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Gera,  a  Benja'minite  of 
 the  house  of  Saul,  who  lived  at  Bahurim. 
 When  David  fled  from  Jerusalem  in  the 
 time  of  Absalom's  revolt,  Shimei  gave 
 vent  to  the  envy  and  malice  of  his  fam- 
 ily and  tribe  by  hurling  curses  and  stones 
 at  the  king  and  his  retinue  from  the  ridge 
 over  against  the  defile  along  which  the 
 melancholy  procession  moved  (2  Sam.  16  : 
 5-13).  When,  after  a  successful  cam- 
 paign, the  victorious  David  was  return- 
 ing to  Jerusalem  by  the  same  road,  Shim- 
 ei again  appeared,  not,  however,  with  im- 
 precations and  insults  as  before,  but  with 
 professions  of  loyalty  and  jirayers  for  life. 
 The  king  accepted  his  submission  and 
 granted  him  pardon  (2  Sam.  19  :  18-23), 
 but,  accounting  him  an  insincere  and  dan- 
 gerous man,  kept  a  watch  upon  him,  and 
 when  nearing  death  gave  Solomon  a  cau- 
 tion and  a  charge  respecting  him  (1  Kings 
 2  :  8,  9).     Solomon,  after  David's  decease, 
 
 made  Shimei  a  prisoner  at  large  in  Je- 
 rusalem (1  Kings  2  :  36,  37).  Three  years 
 afterward,  forgetful  of  his  parole,  Shimei 
 left  Jerusalem  in  pursuit  of  two  fugitive 
 slaves,  and  on  his  return,  by  order  of  the 
 king,  was  put  to  death  (1  Kings  2  :  39- 
 4d). 
 
 3.  One  of  the  adherents  of  Solomon  at 
 the  time  of  Adonijah's  usurpation  (1  Kings 
 1:8). 
 
 Shim'ron  [watch'],  fourth  sou  of  Issa- 
 char  (Gen.  40  :  13)  and  head  of  the  fam- 
 ily of  the  Shimronites  (Num.  26  :  24). 
 
 Shim'ron-Me'ron,  the  complete 
 name  of  the  place  elsewhere  called  Shim- 
 eon,  a  city  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  11  :  1  ;  19  : 
 15).  Its  king  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
 thirty-one  kings  vanquished  by  Joshua 
 (Josh.  12  :  20). 
 
 Shi'nar,  the  ancient  name  of  that 
 great  alluvial  tract  which  in  later  times 
 was  known  as  Chaldseaor  Babylonia  (Gen. 
 11  :  2).    See  Babylonia  and  Chalcea. 
 
 Ancient  Ship,  from  Painting  at  Pompeii. 
 
 Ship.  In  the  whole  range  of  Greek 
 and  Koman  literature  no  one  writer  has 
 furnished  so  much  information  in  respect 
 to  the  merchant-ships  of  the  ancients  as 
 the  evangelist  Luke  in  his  account  of  the 
 apostle  Paul's  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  chs. 
 27,  28).  The  apostle  made  the  voyage  in 
 three  ships :  first,  the  Adramyttian  vessel 
 which  took  him  from  Caesarea  to  Myra, 
 and  which  was  probably  a  coasting  vessel 
 
472 
 
 SHISHAK— SHUE. 
 
 of  no  great  size ;  second,  the  large  Alex- 
 andrian corn-sliip  in  whic-h  he  was  wreck- 
 eti  on  tlie  coast  of  Malta;  and  tliird,  an- 
 other large  Alexandrian  corn-ship,  in 
 which  he  sailed  from  Malta  by  Syracuse 
 and  Riiegium  to  Puteoli.  These  corn- 
 ships  must  have  been  large,  for  the  one 
 in  which  Paul  was  wrecked  had  on  board 
 two  himdred  and  seventy-six  persons  and 
 a  cargo  of  wheat  (Acts  27  :  37,  38),  and  all 
 these  })assengers  after  the  wreck  were 
 received  into  another  ship  (Acts  28  :  11) 
 which  had  its  own  crew  and  cargo.  Of 
 the  appearance  of  an  ancient  merchant- 
 man a  better  idea  can  be  gained  from  a 
 drawing  than  from  a  description. 
 
 The  ships  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment in  connection  with  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
 ilee (Matt.  13  :  2;  Luke  5  :  3)  were  fish- 
 ing-boats, and  were  not  large. 
 
 Shi'shak,  the  king  of  Egypt  to  whom 
 Jeroboam,  when  he  fell  under  the  suspi- 
 cion of  Solomon,  fled  for  protection  (1 
 Kings  11  :  40).  It  was  probably  at  the 
 instigation  of  Jeroboam  that  Shishak  at- 
 tacked Kelioboam  and,  after  robbing  Jeru- 
 salem of  its  wealth,  laid  Judah  under  trib- 
 ute (1  Kings  14  :  25,  26  ;  2  Chron.  12:2- 
 9).  A  record  of  this  expedition,  sculp- 
 tured on  the  wall  of  the  great  temple  of 
 el-Karnak,  still  remains,  and  in  it  is  a 
 representation  of  the  conquest  of  Judah. 
 Shishak  is  the  Sheshonk  I.  of  the  monu- 
 ments, first  sovereign  of  the  Bubastite 
 twenty-second  dynasty. 
 
 Shit^tah  Tree,  Shit'tim,  a  species 
 of  acacia,  of  which  three  or  four  kinds  are 
 ffiund  in  the  Bible  lands.  Its  wood  was 
 largely  used  in  the  construction  of  the  tab- 
 ernacle (Ex.  chs.  25, 26, 36-38).  The  Acacia 
 xeyal,  one  of  the  species,  is  very  common  in 
 some  parts  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and 
 yields  the  well-known  substance  called 
 gum-arabic,  which  is  obtained  by  incis- 
 ions in  the  bark. 
 
 8111^11111  [//(e  nco«o,s],  the  place  of  Is- 
 rael's encampment  between  tlie  conquest 
 
 of  the  trans-Jordanic  highlands  and  the 
 passage  of  the  .Jordan,  and  the  scene  of 
 Israel's  betrayal  into  enormous  sin  (Num. 
 25  :  1-5). 
 
 Sho'bach,  the  general  of  lladarezer, 
 king  of  the  Syrians  of  Zoba,  wlio  was  de- 
 feated and  slain  by  David  (2  Sam.  10  : 
 15-18). 
 
 Shoe.     See  Sandal. 
 
 Sho-shan'nim  [/)7(>.s],  a  musical  di- 
 rection to  the  leader  of  the  temple  choir 
 which  occurs  in  Ps.  45,  69,  80,  and  which 
 indicates  most  probably  the  melody  in 
 which  these  psalms  are  to  be  sung. 
 
 Shu'hlte,  an  ethnic  appellative  fre- 
 quent in  the  book  of  Job,  but  applied  to 
 Bildad  only  (Job  2  :  11 ;  8  :  1 ).  The  lo- 
 cal indications  of  the  book  of  Job  point  to 
 a  region  on  the  western  side  of  Chaldsea, 
 bordering  on  Arabia. 
 
 Shu^lam-ite,  The,  one  of  the  per- 
 sonages in  the  poem  of  Solomon's  Song 
 (6  :  13),  a  woman  belonging  apparently  to 
 a  place  called  Shulem,  which  is  probably 
 the  same  as  Sliunem. 
 
 Shu'nam-mlte,  The.  This  appel- 
 lative, meaning  a  native  of  Shunem,  is 
 applied  to  two  persons:  1.  Abishag,  the 
 nurse  of  King  David  (1  Kings  1  :  3,  15; 
 2  :  17,  21,  22).  2.  The  nameless  host  of 
 Elisha  (2  Kings  4:12,  25,  36). 
 
 Shu^nem,  a  town  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
 char  (Josh.  19  :  18),  where  the  Philistines 
 encamped  before  Saul's  last  battle  (1  Sam. 
 28  :  4).  It  is  identified  with  the  present 
 SMcni,  a  village  three  miles  north  of  Jez- 
 reel  and  five  from  Gilboa. 
 
 Shur  [a  waWl,  a  place  just  without  the 
 eastern  border  of  Egypt  (Gen.  25  :  18),  and 
 giving  name  to  the  wilderness  which  the 
 Israelites  entered  after  they  had  crossed 
 the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  15  :  22).  It  is  first 
 mentioned  in  the  narrative  of  Hagar's 
 flight  from  Sarah  (Gen.  16:7).  It  n.ay 
 have  been  a  fortified  town  east  of  the  an- 
 cient head  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  from  its 
 being  spoken  of  as  a  limit  it  was  prob- 
 
SHUSHAN— SILAS. 
 
 473 
 
 ably  the  last  Arabian  town  before  enter- 
 ing Egypt. 
 
 Shu'shan,  or  Su'sa,  is  said  to  have 
 received  its  name  from  the  abundance  of 
 the  lily  {skushan  or  shushanah)  in  its  neigh- 
 borhood. It  was  originally  the  capital  of 
 the  country  called  in  Scripture  Elam,  and 
 by  the  classical  writers  Susis  or  Susiana. 
 In  the  time  of  Daniel,  Susa  was  transferred 
 by  the  conquests  of  Cyrus  from  the  posses- 
 sion of  the  Babylonians  (Dan.  8  :  2)  to  the 
 possession  of  the  Persians,  and  in  a  few 
 years  became  the  capital  of  the  whole 
 Persian  empire  (Esth.  1  :  2).  It  was  sit- 
 uated on  the  river  Choaspes,  or  Ulai.  It 
 is  identified  with  the  modern  *S'((.s  or 
 Shush,  and  its  ruins  are  about  three  miles 
 in  circumference. 
 
 Sib'bo-leth.     See  Shibboleth. 
 
 Sib'mah.    See  Shebam. 
 
 Si'chem.    See  Shechem. 
 
 Sid'dim,  The  Vale  of,  mentioned 
 in  one  passage  only  (Gen.  14  :  3,  8,  10). 
 It  seems  to  have  been  a  broad  and  fertile 
 plain,  the  site  of  the  ancient  cities  which 
 were  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone  from 
 the  Lord  out  of  heaven. 
 
 Si^don,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Phoeni- 
 cian name  spelled  Zidon  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment.    See  Zidon. 
 
 Attack  on  Besieged  City  with  Battering-Rain  and  Archers. 
 
 force  the  inhabitants  to  surrender  (Deut. 
 
 20  :  19).  The  sieges  of  Samaria,  Nine- 
 veh, Babylon,  Jerusalem  and  Tyre  are 
 among  the  most  noted. 
 
 Sig'net,  a  ring  used  in  sealing  (Dan. 
 6:17).     See  Seal. 
 
 Signs.     See  Miracles. 
 
 Si'hon  \_sweeping  away'\,  the  king  of 
 the  Amorites  when  Israel  arrived  on  the 
 borders  of  the  Promised  Land  (Num.  21  : 
 21).  Shortly  before  tlie  time  of  Israel's 
 arrival  he  had  dispossessed  the  Moabites 
 of  a  splendid  territory,  driving  them  south 
 of  the  natural  bulwark  of  the  Arnon  (Num. 
 
 21  :  26-29).  When  the  Israelites  appear- 
 ed he  gathered  his  people  and  made  a  fu- 
 rious assault,  but  the  battle  was  his  last. 
 He  and  all  his  host  were  destroyed,  and 
 his  lands  from  Arnon  to  Jabbok  became 
 the  possession  of  the  conquerors. 
 
 Si'hor  [blach],  accurately  Shi'hor, 
 once  Shi'hor  of  E'gypt.  In  Isa.  23  : 
 3  and  Jer.  2  :  18  the  term  designates  the 
 Nile;  in  the  two  other  passages  in  the 
 Bible  where  the  term  occurs  (Josh.  13:3 
 and  1  Chron.  13:5)  it  refers  to  a  stream 
 supposed  to  be  the  Wddij-V  Arep^h,  whieli 
 formed  the  south-western  limit  of  Pal- 
 estine. 
 
 Si'las,  an  eminent  member  of  the  early 
 Christian  Church.  The  name 
 Silas  is  tliat  by  which  he  is 
 uniformly  designated  in  the 
 Acts,  but  in  Paul's  Epistles 
 he  is  quite  as  uniformly  call- 
 ed Silvanus,  the  full  form 
 from  which  Silas  is  the  con- 
 traction. He  first  appears 
 as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
 church  at  .Jerusalem  deputed 
 to  return  with  Paul  and  Bar- 
 nabas to  Antioch  with  the  de- 
 cree of  the  council  (Acts  15: 
 22,  32).  He  accompanied 
 Paul  on  the  apostle's  second 
 
 Siege,  the   surrounding  of  a  city  or  I  missionary  journey  (Acts  15  :  40),  tarried 
 castle  with  an  army  in  order  to  starve  or  I  with  Timothy  at  Berea  while  Paul  jiro- 
 
474 
 
 SILK— SIMEON. 
 
 ceeded  to  Athens  (Acts  17  :  14)  and  re- 
 joined tlie  apostle  at  Corinth  (Acts  18  : 
 5).  His  presence  at  Corinth  is  several 
 times  noticed  (2  Cor.  1  :  19;  1  Thess.  1  : 
 1  ;  2  Thess.  1:1).  Whether  he  was  the 
 Silvanus  who  conveyed  the  apostle  Peter's 
 first  Papistic  to  Asia  Minor  (I  Pet.  5  :  12) 
 is  doubtful ;  the  probabilities,  however, 
 favor  the  identity. 
 
 Silk.  This  word  occurs  in  only  three 
 passages  of  the  Bible.  In  the  first  one  of 
 them  (Prov.  31  :  22)  the  rendering  should 
 have  been  "  fine  linen ;"  in  the  second  of 
 them  (Ezek.  16  :  10,  13)  the  rendering 
 "silk"  is  much  disputed,  but  is  as  prob- 
 able as  any  of  the  proposed  renderings ; 
 in  the  third  of  them  (Eev.  18  :  12)  "silk" 
 is  undoubtedly  the  correct  rendering.  It 
 is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  silk 
 was  known  to  the  Hebrews  from  the  time 
 that  Solomon  extended  their  commercial 
 relations. 
 
 SiPla.  This  place  is  mentioned  in 
 connection  with  "the  house  of  Millo" 
 (2  Kings  12  :  20),  but  where  it  was  is  en- 
 tirely matter  of  conjecture.  It  has  been 
 supposed  to  be  the  Pool  of  Siloam. 
 
 Si-lo'ah,  The  Pool  of  [Neh.  3:15]. 
 See  Siloam. 
 
 Si-lo'am  (John  9  :  7,  11),  Si-lo'ah 
 (Neh.  3  :  15),  Shi-lo'ah  (Isa.  8  :  6),  one 
 of  the  few  undisputed  localities  in  the  to- 
 pography of  Jerusalem,  still  retaining  its 
 old  name  in  the  Arabic  modification  Sil- 
 wdn,  while  every  other  pool  has  lost  its 
 Bible  designation.  It  stands  at  the  south- 
 ern extremity  of  the  temple  mount,  that 
 part  of  the  mount  known  as  the  Ophel  of 
 Scripture.  It  consists  of  an  oblong  reser- 
 voir, partly  hewn  out  of  the  rock  and  part- 
 ly built  with  masonry,  measuring  about 
 fifty-three  feet  in  length,  eighteen  feet  in 
 width  and  nineteen  feet  in  depth,  with 
 a  flight  of  steps  leading  to  the  bottom. 
 The  water  flows  into  this  reservoir  from 
 a  small  cave  adjoining  it  at  its  north- 
 western end.     This  cave  is  the  vestibule 
 
 of  a  conduit  cut  for  a  distance  of  seven- 
 teen hundred  and  lifty  feet  northward 
 through  the  rock  to  the  "  Fountain  of 
 the  Virgin,"  a  copious  underground  foun- 
 tain on  the  west  side  of  the  Kidron  Val- 
 ley. Siloam  is  a  sacred  spot  even  to  the 
 Moslem,  much  more  to  the  Jew  and  to  the 
 Christian.  To  Siloam  the  Levite  was  sent 
 with  the  golden  pitcher  on  the  "last  and 
 great  day  of  the  feast "  of  tabernacles ;  from 
 Siloam  the  Levite  brought  the  water  which 
 was  then  poured  over  the  sacrifice  in  mem- 
 ory of  the  water  from  the  rock  of  Kephi- 
 dim  ;  to  this  Siloam- water  our  Lord  prob- 
 ably pointed  when  he  stood  in  the  temple 
 on  that  day  and  cried,  "  If  any  man  thirst, 
 let  him  come  unto  me  and  drink"  (John 
 7  :  37) ;  and  at  Siloam  the  blind  man  was 
 bidden  by  our  Lord  to  wasli  ofl'  from  his 
 eyes  the  adhering  clay  (.John  9  :  6,  7). 
 
 Si-lo'am,  To'wer  in,  mentioned  by 
 our  Lord  in  Luke  13  :  4,  but  of  which,  be- 
 yond this  mention,  nothing  is  known. 
 
 Sil-va^nus,  Greek  form  of  Silas 
 (which  see). 
 
 SiPver,  a  well-known  precious  metal. 
 The  Hebrew  term  for  it  indicates  its  pale- 
 nexs  as  contrasted  with  gold ;  the  Greek 
 term  for  it  re{)resents  its  whiteness.  In 
 very  early  times  ornaments  (Gen.  24  :  53) 
 and  images  for  idolatrous  worship  (Ex.  20 : 
 23;  Hos.  13  :  2)  were  made  of  it,  but  its 
 chief  use  was  as  a  medium  of  exchange, 
 not  coined,  however,  but  weighed  (Gen. 
 23  :  16).  Spain  appears  to  have  been 
 the  chief  source  whence  the  ancients  ob- 
 tained it  (2  Chron.  9:21;  Ezek.  27  : 
 12). 
 
 SiPver-ling'S,  a  word  occurring  but 
 once  in  our  Authorized  Version  (Isa.  7  : 
 23),  and  there  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
 brew word  which  elsewhere  is  rendered 
 "silver"  or  "money." 
 
 Sim'e-on  [heariiu/'],  a  common  name 
 in  Scripture,  occurring  most  often,  how- 
 ever, in  the  abbreviated  form  Simon. 
 
 1.  The  second  of  Jacob's  sons  by  Leah 
 
476 
 
 SIMON. 
 
 (Gen.  29  :  33),  and  the  father  of  the  tribe 
 bearing  liis  name.  Along  witli  his  next 
 younger  brother,  Levi,  he  took  a  fearful 
 revenge  upon  the  Shechemites  for  the 
 wrong  done  to  his  sister  (Gen.  34  :  25-31). 
 His  spirit,  transmitted  to  liis  descendants, 
 seems  to  have  been  one  of  fierceness  and 
 cruelty,  and  is  sternly  denounced  by  the 
 dying  Jacob  (Gen.  49  :  5-7).  Besides  the 
 massacre  of  Shechem,  the  only  personal 
 incident  related  of  Simeon  is  the  selec- 
 tion of  him  by  Joseph  as  the  hostage 
 for  the  appearance  of  Benjamin  (Gen. 
 42:  19,  24,  .30;  43:  23). 
 
 2.  The  tribe  of  Simeon  at  tlie  census  at 
 Sinai  numbered  fifty-nine  thousand  three 
 hundred  fighting  men  (Num.  1  :  23),  but 
 when  the  second  census  was  taken,  in  tlie 
 plains  of  Moab,  the  number  had  fallen  to 
 twenty-two  thousand  two  hundred  (Num. 
 26  :  14).  At  the  Conquest  and  ever  after- 
 ward it  was  the  weakest  of  all  the  tribes. 
 Tlie  tribal  inheritance  was  a  mere  section 
 i'rom  the  portion  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
 Judah  (Josh.  19  :  1-9).  With  the  help 
 of  Judah  the  Simeonites  possessed  them- 
 selves of  their  lands  (Judg.  1  :  3,  17),  and 
 here  they  were  found  residing  in  the  reign 
 of  David  (1  Chron.  4  :  31). 
 
 3.  A  devout  Jew,  who,  inspired  by  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  met  the  parents  of  our  Lord  in 
 the  temple,  took  the  holy  child  Jesus  in  his 
 arms  and  gave  thanks  to  God  for  the  birth 
 of  the  promised  Saviour  (Luke  2  :  25-35). 
 Who  he  was  is  not  known,  but  a  probable 
 conjecture  identifies  him  with  the  Simeon 
 who  succeeded  his  father  Hillel  as  presi- 
 dent of  the  Sanhedrim  about  A.  B.  13,  and 
 whose  son,  Gamaliel,  was  Paul's  teacher 
 (Acts  22:  3). 
 
 Si'mon  [hearvu/'],  an  abbreviated  form 
 of  Simeon,  and  tlie  name  of  a  number  of 
 persons  mentioned  in  Scripture : 
 
 1.  Simon  the  brother  of  Jesus,  of 
 whom  the  only  undoubted  notice  occurs 
 in  Matt.  13  :  55 ;  Mark  G  :  3. 
 
 2.  Simon  the  Canaanite,  better,  Si- 
 
 mon Zelotes,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles 
 (Matt.  10  :  4;  Mark  3  :  18),  properly  de- 
 scribed as  Simon  Zelotes  (Luke  6  :  15; 
 Acts  1  :  13).  The  term  Zelotes  points  out 
 Simon  as  belonging  to  the  faction  of  the 
 Zealots,  who  were  conspicuous  for  their 
 fierce  advocacy  of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  See 
 Canaanite,  The. 
 
 3.  Simon  op  Cyrene,  a  Hellenistic 
 Jew,  bom  at  Cyrene  on  the  north  coast 
 of  Africa,  and  present  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
 time  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  (Matt.  27  : 
 32).  Mark  describes  him  (15  :  21)  as  the 
 father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus,  perhai)s 
 because  Rufus  was  known  to  the  Roman 
 Christians  (Rom.  16  :  13),  for  whom  he 
 more  especially  wrote. 
 
 4.  Simon  the  Leper,  a  resident  at 
 Bethany,  and  perhaps  the  subject  of  a 
 miraculous  cure  by  our  Lord.  In  his 
 house  Mary  anointed  our  Lord  prepara- 
 tory to  liis  death  and  burial  (Matt.  26  :  6; 
 Mark  14:3;  John  12:  1,  2). 
 
 5.  Simon  Magus,  a  Samaritan  living  in 
 the  apostoli(!  age,  and  distinguished  as  a  sor- 
 cerer or  magician  (Acts  8  :  9,  1 0).  In  con- 
 nection with  the  preaching  of  Philip  he  pro- 
 fessed to  be  a  Christian  and  was  baptized. 
 Witnessing  subsequently  the  effects  pro- 
 duced by  the  imposition  of  hands  as  prac- 
 ticed by  the  apostles  Peter  and  John,  and 
 desirous  of  acquiring  a  similar  power,  he 
 offered  a  sum  of  money  for  it.  His  prop- 
 osition met  with  a  severe  denunciation 
 from  Peter  (Acts  8  :  18-24),  and  the 
 memory  of  his  peculiar  guilt  is  still  per- 
 petuated in  the  word  simony  as  applied  to 
 all  traflSc  in  spiritual  offices. 
 
 6.  Simon  Peter.     See  Peter. 
 
 7.  SiMON,  a  Pharisee,  in  whose  house 
 a  penitent  woman  anointed  the  head  and 
 feet  of  our  Lord  (Luke  7  :  40). 
 
 8.  SiMON  THE  Tanner,  a  Christian  con- 
 vert living  at  Joppa,  at  whose  house  Peter 
 lodged  (Acts  9  :  43).     The  house  was  near 
 
 !  the  seaside  (Acts  10  :  6,  32),  for  the  con- 
 venience of  the  water. 
 
SIN— SINAI, 
 
 477 
 
 9.  Simon,  the  father  of  Judas  Iscariot 
 (John  6  :  71 ;  13  :  2,  26). 
 
 Sin.  In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  three 
 words,  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion iniquity,  transgression  and  sin  (Ex. 
 34  :  7),  stand  very  closely  related,  and 
 witli  their  Greek  equivalents  represent 
 the  leading  features  of  man's  alienation 
 from  the  life  of  God.  Th«  root-idea  of 
 the  word  rendered  "iniquity"  is  per- 
 version  or  distovtion ;  it  is  the  wrong  or 
 wrench  or  twist  to  man's  moral  nature 
 wliich  destroys  the  balance  between  his 
 powers  and  makes  him  prone  to  evil. 
 The  root-idea  of  the  word  rendered 
 "transgression"  is  breaking  one's  allegiance 
 to  another,  especially  to  God ;  it  is  that 
 jjositive  rebellion  against  God's  authority 
 which  leads  man  to  step  beyond  the  bound- 
 ary-lines of  God's  law.  The  root-idea  of 
 the  word  rendered  "sin"  is  failure;  it 
 is  missing  the  mark,  as  spoken  of  one 
 who  shoots  an  arrow;  it  is  missing  the 
 way,  as  spoken  of  one  who  wanders  from 
 the  right  and  safe  path.  Of  these  three 
 terms  the  first  is  generic,  the  second  and 
 third  specific.  Iniquity,  or  man's  wrenched 
 moral  nature,  is  that  out  of  which  revolt 
 and  lawlessness  spring  forth  on  the  one 
 hand,  and  multiplied  and  most  disastrous 
 failures  on  the  other.  In  accoi'dance  with 
 this  usage  the  Scriptures  uniformly  con- 
 nect with  "sin"  three  definite  senses:  1. 
 A  perverted  state  of  heart,  which  domi- 
 nates and  defiles  (Ps.  51  :  2-5;  Rom.  7  : 
 8-23) ;  2.  An  impious  rebellion  against 
 God,  which  refuses  either  to  come  up  to 
 the  requirement  or  to  keep  within  the 
 restraint  of  law  (Dan.  9:5;  James  1  :  15) ; 
 3.  An  ill-desert  or  just  liability  to  punish- 
 ment, which  universally  follows  the  act  of 
 wrong-doing  (Ps.  32  :  1 ;  Rom.  3  :  19-26). 
 
 Sin,  a  city  of  Egypt,  mentioned  only  by 
 Ezekiel  (30  :  15,  16),  and  identified  with 
 the  ancient  Pelusium. 
 
 Sin,  "Wilderness  of,  a  tract  of  the 
 wilderness  which  the   Israelites  reached 
 
 after  leaving  the  encampment  by  the  Red 
 Sea  (Num.  33  :  11,  12).  It  was  between 
 Rephidim  and  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
 Suez.  Here  the  manna  was  first  gath- 
 ered (Ex.  Ki  :  14,  15). 
 
 Sin-Oflfering,  the  sacrifice  among  the 
 Jews  in  which  the  ideas  of  propitiation 
 and  expiation  were  distinctly  marked  (Lev. 
 chs.  4  and  6).  The  trespass-offering  is 
 very  closely  connected  with  it,  and  yet  is 
 clearly  distinguished  from  it.  The  lead- 
 ing difTerences  between  the  two  are  these : 
 1.  The  sin-offering  was  far  the  more  sol- 
 emn and  comprehensive  of  the  two  sacri- 
 fices ;  2.  The  sin-offering  looked  more  to 
 the  guilt  of  the  sin  done,  irrespective  of 
 its  consequences,  while  the  trespass-offer- 
 ing looked  to  the  evil  consequences  of  sin 
 either  against  the  service  of  God  or  against 
 man,  and  to  the  duty  of  atonement  so  far 
 as  atonement  was  possible ;  3.  The  sin- 
 offering  symbolized  the  acknowledgment 
 not  only  of  sinfulness  as  inherent  in  man, 
 but  also  of  the  need  of  expiation  by  sacri- 
 fice to  renew  the  broken  covenant  between 
 man  and  God. 
 
 Sina,  Mount,  the  Greek  form  of  the 
 well-known  name  Sinai  (Acts  7  :  30,  38). 
 
 Si'nai,  the  mountain-summit  in  tlie 
 centre  of  the  peninsula  which  stretches 
 between  the  horns  of  the  Red  Sea  whence 
 Jehovah  published  his  law  to  the  Israel- 
 ites. The  relation  between  Sinai  and  Ho- 
 reb  in  the  usage  of  the  sacred  writers  is  an 
 important  one  to  note.  In  the  book  of 
 Deuteronomy  the  place  where  Israel  re- 
 ceived the  Law  is  uniformly  called  Horeb, 
 but  in  the  preceding  books,  with  three 
 exceptions  (Ex.  3:1;  17:6;  33  :  6),  it  is 
 denominated  Sinai. 
 
 A  careful  examination  of  all  the  pas- 
 sages where  the  names  occur  justifies  the 
 conclusion  that  Horeb  is  the  group  of 
 mountains  of  which  Sinai  is  a  particular 
 summit.  (See  Ex.  19  :  18-23 ;  24 :  16 ;  32 : 
 15 ;  Lev.  7  :  38  ;  25  :  1  ;  Num.  1:1;  3:14, 
 and  compare  with  Deut.  1  :  2-6;  4  ;  10-15; 
 
478 
 
 SINAI. 
 
 9  :  8 ;  29  :  1 ).  In  respect  to  Horeb  the  ex- 
 pression commonly  employed  is  "  »i  IIo- 
 reb;"  in  respect  to  Sinai,  "on"  or  "upon 
 Sinai."  The  mountains  which  form  the 
 group  are  composed  of  granite  and  por- 
 phyry, and  run  in  long  ranges  inclining 
 to  the  north-west,  with  rocky,  sandy  val- 
 leys interlying.  They  spread  over  a  field 
 of  about  forty  miles  in  diameter,  have  a 
 general    similarity   of   aspect,    and    rear 
 
 their  naked  and  desolate  summits  to  the 
 sky.  p>om  the  highest  summits  the  view 
 is  one  of  wild  grandeur.  The  deep  valleys 
 and  rugged  ravines  are  for  the  most  part 
 concealed,  and  the  cluster  of  separate 
 mountains  has  the  appearance  of  a  vast 
 pile  of  gray  rocks  surmounted  by  lofty 
 pinnacles.  In  the  valleys,  indeed,  a  few 
 stunted  shrubs  and  trees  are  found,  and  oc- 
 casionally, in  more  favored  spots,  patches 
 
 Map  of  Mt.  Sinai  and  its  Vitimtv. 
 A.  Rob  Sujtifeh.    B.  Jebel   Musa.    C.  Convent  of  6t.  Katherine.   D.  Tddy  Eeh-Sheikh.    E.  WAdy  Er-Rahah 
 
SINIM— SLAVE. 
 
 479 
 
 of  grass  and  herbage,  but  as  these  in  the 
 general  prospect  are  wholly  unobserved, 
 the  eye  rests  upon  a  sea  of  mountains 
 dark,  stern,  savage. 
 
 The  particular  peak  on  which  the  Lord 
 "  descended  in  fire,"  while  the  people  of 
 Israel  "stood  at  the  nether  part  of  the 
 mount,"  is  much  disputed,  and  perhaps 
 will  never  be  conclusively  settled.  Three 
 claimants  for  the  name  of  Sinai  are  sup- 
 ported by  their  respective  advocates — 
 namely,  Moant  Serbdl,  Jebel  3Iilsa  (Mount 
 of  Moses)  and  Ras  Sufidfeh  (a  magnificent 
 cliff  on  the  north-western  and  lower  face 
 of  the  Jebel  3Ima ) .  Against  Mount  Serbdl, 
 thirty    miles    distant    from    Jebel    MUm, 
 
 the  strong  objection  lies  that  near  it 
 is  no  plain  sufficiently  large  for  the  en- 
 campment of  a  tenth  part  of  the  Israelite 
 host.  A  similar  objection  against  the 
 south-western  face  of  Jebel  3Iusa,  over- 
 looking the  plain  or  Wddy  Sebnyeh,  is 
 strongly  urged,  but  stoutly  resisted.  The 
 Eas  Sufsdfeli,  a  peak  or  cliff  on  the  nortli- 
 western  face  of  Jebel  MUsa,  and  overlook- 
 ing a  plain  which  measures  more  than 
 two  miles  in  length  and  some  half  a  mile 
 in  width,  answers  most  fully  tlie  con- 
 ditions of  the  Scripture  narrative.  Profes- 
 sor Palmer,  a  late  explorer  of  the  region, 
 maintains  with  great  plausibility  and  force 
 that  Jebel  Miisa  was  probably  the  scene  of 
 
 North-western  Face  of  Jebel 
 the  delivery  of  the  Law  to  Moses,  wliile 
 from  Siifodfeh  the  Law  was  proclaimed  to 
 the  people.  From  careful  measurements 
 taken  on  the  spot,  Professor  Palmer  cal- 
 culates that  the  plain  er-Rahah  which  Bas 
 Siihdfeh  overlooks  could  have  accommo- 
 dated two  millions  of  souls,  with  an  allow- 
 ance of  a  square  yard  for  each  individual. 
 Si^nim,  a  people  noticed  in  laa.  49  :  12 
 as  living  at  the  extremity  of  the  known 
 world.    The  name  points  to  the  Chinese. 
 
 Musa  and  Plain  Er-Unhah.- 
 
 Si^on.     See  Zion. 
 
 Sir^i-on.     See  Hermon. 
 
 Sis'e-ra,  captain  of  the  army  of  Jabin, 
 the  Canaanitish  king.  Defeated  by  Barak, 
 he  was  slain  by  Jael  ( Judg.  4  :  2-22), 
 
 Si'van,  the  third  month  of  the  sacred 
 and  ninth  month  of  the  civil  year-reck- 
 oning. 
 
 Slave.  Although  the  Mosaic  Law  did 
 not  establish,  it  yet  recogn'zed  and  regula- 
 ted, the  institution  of  slavery.    Slaves  were 
 
480 
 
 SLIME— SOAP. 
 
 of  two  classes,  Hebrew  and  non-Hebrew. 
 The  circumstances  under  vvhicli  a  Hebrew 
 might  be  reduced  to  servitude  were :  1.  Tlie 
 pressure  of  poverty  (Lev.  25  :  25,  39) ;  2. 
 The  commission  of  theft  (Ex.  22  :  1,  3) ;  3. 
 The  exercise  of  paternal  authority  ( Ex.  21 : 
 7).  The  servitude  of  a  Hebrew  miglit  be 
 terminated  in  tliree  ways:  1.  Tlie  satisfac- 
 tion or  the  remission  of  all  claims  against 
 him  ;  2.  Tlie  recurrence  of  the  year  of  ju- 
 bilee (Lev.  25  :  40) ;  3.  The  expiration  of 
 six  years  from  the  time  that  his  servitude 
 began  (Ex.  21  :  2;  Deut.  15  :  12).  At  the 
 termination  of  the  servitude  the  master  was 
 enjoined  not  "to  let  him  go  away  empty" 
 (Deut.  15  :  13,  14).  If  a  servant  did  not 
 desire  to  avail  himself  of  tlie  opportunity 
 of  freedom,  he  was  to  signify  his  inten- 
 tion in  a  formal  manner  before  the  judges, 
 and  then  the  master  was  to  take  liim  to 
 the  door-post  and  bore  his  ear  through 
 with  an  awl  (Ex.  21  :  6;  Deut.  15  :  17). 
 Of  non-Hebrew  slaves,  the  majority  were 
 war-captives,  either  of  the  Canaanites  who 
 had  survived  the  general  extermination 
 of  their  race  under  Joshua  or  such  as 
 were  conquered  from  the  other  surround- 
 ing nations  (Num.  31  :  26-47).  Many 
 slaves  were  also  purchased  from  foreign 
 slave-dealers  (Lev.  25  :  44,  45).  The  av- 
 erage value  of  a  slave  appears  to  have 
 been  thirty  shekels  (Ex.  21  :  32).  The 
 slave  might  be  manumitted  (Ex.  21  :  26, 
 27 ;  Lev.  19  :  20),  but  the  master  had  the 
 power  of  disposing  of  him  to  heirs,  as  of 
 any  other  article  of  personal  property  (Lev. 
 25':  45,  46). 
 
 Slime,  an  adhesive  hUnmen  or  ipitr.h, 
 used  by  the  Babel-builders  Jis  a  cement 
 (Gen.  11:3).    See  Pitch. 
 
 Sling.     See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Smyr'na,  a  celebrated  city  of  Ionia, 
 on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  about  forty 
 miles  north  of  Ephesus.  During  the 
 reign  of  the  first  Roman  emperor  it 
 was  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Asia,  and 
 became  the  seat  of  one  of  "the  seven 
 
 churches  of  Asia"  (Rev.  1  :  11 ;  2  :  8-11). 
 It  is  now  called  by  the  Turks  hmir,  has 
 a  population  of  about  one  hundred  and 
 thirty  thousand  souls,  and  commands  a 
 large  and  lucrative  commerce. 
 
 Snail.  This  word  occurs  but  twice  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  (Lev.  11  :  30  ;  Ps. 
 58  :  8).  It  is  the  rendering  of  two  dis- 
 tinct words  in  Hebrew.  In  the  first  pas- 
 sage cited  the  Hebrew  word  is  supposed 
 to  represent  one  of  the  numerous  species 
 of  lizards  ;  in  tlie  second  passage  cited  the 
 Hebrew  word  is  admitted  to  be  the  repre- 
 sentative of  the  snail. 
 
 Snow.  The  allusions  of  Scripture 
 make  it  certain  that  snowfalls  wer€  or- 
 dinary occurrences  in  Palestine  in  the 
 winter  months  (2  Sam.  23  :  20;  Ps.  147  : 
 16 ;  148  :  8).  In  the  ravines  of  the  high- 
 est ridge  of  Lebanon  the  snow  lies  diep 
 until  the  summer  is  far  advanced,  and 
 indeed  never  wholly  disappears.  From 
 these  sources,  probably,  the  Jews  obtained 
 their  supplies  of  ice  for  the  purpose  of 
 cooling  their  beverages  in  summer  (Prov. 
 25  :  13).  At  Jerusalem  snow  often  falls 
 to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  in  January 
 and  February,  but  it  seldom  lies.  At  Naz- 
 areth it  falls  more  frequently  and  deeply, 
 and  it  has  been  observed  to  fall  in  the  mar- 
 itime plain  of  Joppa  and  about  Carmel. 
 
 So,  the  king  of  Egypt  with  whom  IIo- 
 shea,  the  last  king  of  .Israel,  formed  an  al- 
 liance, and  (hereby  so  exasperated  Shal- 
 maneser,  king  of  Assyria,  that  he  invaded 
 Israel  and  subverted  the  kingdom  (2  Kings 
 17  :  3-6).  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  king 
 whom  Herodotus  names  Sabaco,  who  ap- 
 pears in  Manetho's  lists  as  Sabakon,  and 
 who  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  is  de- 
 nominated Shebek. 
 
 Soap.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered is  a  general  term  for  any  substance 
 of  cleansing  qualities.  Its  use  in  Jer.  2  : 
 22,  in  contradistinction  from  nitre  {va- 
 tron),  a  mineral  alkali,  justifies  the  in- 
 ference that  it  was  a  vegetable  alkali,  most 
 
SOCOH— SOLDIER. 
 
 481 
 
 likely  of  some  kind  of  potash,  which  forms 
 one  of  the  usual  ingredients  in  our  soap. 
 See  Fuller. 
 
 So'coh,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the 
 tribe  of  Judah. 
 
 1.  A  town  in  the  maritime  plain  (Josh. 
 15  :  35),  also  with  the  forms  of  Shoco  (2 
 Chron.  11:7),  Shocho  (2  Chron.  28  :  18), 
 and  Shochoh  (1  Sam.  17  :  1).  This  was 
 the  place,  near  the  vale  of  Elah,  where 
 the  Philistines  were  gathered  for  the  cam- 
 paign in  which  Goliath  was  slain.  It  is 
 identified  with  the  modern  Suweikeh. 
 
 2.  A  town  in  the  mountains  (Josh.  15  : 
 48)  south-west  of  Hebron. 
 
 Sod'om  [encio.sMj-e],  the  chief  among 
 the   five   cities   which    stood    near    each 
 other    on    "  the    well-watered    plain    of 
 Jordan"    (Gen.    13  :  10,  11),    near    the 
 northern  end  of  the   Dead  Sea.     It  was 
 one  of  the  most  ancient  cities   of  Syria, 
 and    perhaps    of  the    world.     With   the 
 neighboring  cities  it  was  destroyed  by  a 
 shower  of  brimstone  and  fire  from  Jeho- 
 vah (Gen.  ch.  19).     In  the  Scriptures  its 
 fate  is  frequently  instanced  as  a  warning 
 of  God's  terrible  vengeance  upon  sinners 
 (Deut.  29  :  23;  32  :  32;  Isa.  1  :  9,  10;  3 
 9 ;  13:19;  Jer.  23  :  14 ;  49  :  18 ;  50  :  40 
 Ezek.  16  :  49,  50;  Amos  4  :  11 ;  Zeph.  2 
 9;   Matt.  10  :  15;   11  :  23,  24;   2  Pet.  2 
 6-S  ;  Jude  ver.  7  ;  Rev.  11:8). 
 
 Sod'om-ites,  not  the  inhabitants  of 
 Sodom,  but  the  practicers  of  licentious 
 and  unnatural  vices  (Deut.  23  :  17 ;  1 
 Kings  14  :  24;  15  :  12;  22  :  46;  2  Kings 
 23  :  7). 
 
 SoFdier,  a  man  engaged  in  military 
 service.  The  designation  ordinarily  ap- 
 plies to  a  private  or  one  in  the  ranks,  but 
 sometimes  to  the  ofiicer  of  any  grade  who 
 approves  himself  to  be  a  man  of  distin- 
 guished valor  and  skill.  The  word  in  its 
 singular  form  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament of  our  Authorized  Version,  and  in 
 its  plural  form  is  found  but  three  times  (2 
 Chron.  25  :  13;  Ezra  8  :  22;  Isa.  15  :  4). 
 31 
 
 In  the  New  Testament  of  our  Authorized 
 Version,  however,  the  word  in  its  singular 
 and  plural  forms  occurs  quite  frequently, 
 and  in  every  instance  but  two  (2  Tim.  2  ; 
 3,  4)  refers  to  those  who  were  engaged  in 
 the  Roman  military  service. 
 
 The  Roman  army,  which  in  New  Testa- 
 ment times  had  representatives  everywhere 
 j  in  Palestine,  was  divided  into  legions,  the 
 number  of  which  varied  considerably,  each 
 under  six  tribunes  ("chief  captains,"  Acts 
 21  :  31),  who  commanded  by  turns.  The 
 legion  was  subdivided  into  ten  cohorts 
 (each  cohort  a  "band,"  Acts  10  :  1),  the 
 cohort  or  band  into  three  maniples,  and 
 the  maniple  into  two  centuries,  containing 
 originally,  as  the  name  implies,  one  hun- 
 dred men,  but  subsequently  from  fifty  to  one 
 hundred  men,  according  to  the  strength  of 
 the  legion.  Thus  there  were  sixty  centuries 
 in  a  legion,  each  under  the  command  of 
 a  centurion  (Acts  10  :  1,  22;  Matt.  8:5; 
 27  :  54).  In  addition  to  the  legionary  co- 
 horts, independent  cohorts  of  volunteers 
 served  under  the  Roman  standards.  One 
 of  these  cohorts  was  named  the  Italian 
 (Acts  10  :  1),  as  consisting  of  volunteers 
 from  Italy.  The  cohort  named  "Augus- 
 tus" (Acts  27  :  1)  may  have  consisted  of 
 volunteers  from  Sebaste,  or  it  may  have 
 been  an  Augustan  cohort  because  connect- 
 ed with  an  Augustan  legion.  The  head- 
 quarters of  the  Roman  forces  in  Palestine 
 were  at  Caesarea.  The  ordinary  guard  was 
 a  quaternion  of  four  soldiers,  answering  to 
 the  four  watches  of  the  night,  and  reliev- 
 ing each  other  every  three  hours  (Acts  12 : 
 4 ;  John  19  :  23).  Two  watched  outside  a 
 prisoner's  door,  two  inside  (Acts  12  :  6). 
 The  captain  of  the  guard  (Acts  28  :  16) 
 was  probably  commander  of  the  praetorian 
 guards,  to  whom  prisoners  from  the  prov- 
 inces were  committed.  The  spearmen 
 (Acts  23  :  23)  were  light-armed  body- 
 guards. 
 
 Every  Christian,  inasmuch  as  he  fights 
 "the  good  fight  of  faith"  (1  Tim.  6  :  12), 
 
482 
 
 SOLOMON— SOLOMON'S  PORCH. 
 
 and  under  the  leadersliip  of  the  great 
 Captain  of  salvation  overcomes  tlie 
 Wicked  One  (1  Jolin  2  :  14),  is  rep- 
 resented  in   .Scripture  as  "a  soldier"  (2 
 
 Roman  Soldier. 
 
 Tim.  2  :  3),  and  is  summoned  to  "put  on 
 the  whole  armor  of  God"  (Eph.  6  :  II). 
 The  Roman  soldier's  equipment  for  battle 
 is  the  type  of  the  C'hristian  soldier's  equip- 
 ment in  respect  both  to  offensive  and  de- 
 fensive weapons.  As  the  Roman  soldier 
 prepares  himself  for  the  conflict  by  tight- 
 ening his  girdle,  fastening  his  breastplate, 
 drawing  on  his  sandals  and  greaves,  ad- 
 justing his  shield,  assuming  his  helmet, 
 belting  his  sword  and  grasping  his  spear, 
 so  the  Christian  soldier  arms  himself  with 
 a  divine  panoply  and  stands  firmly  up 
 against  the  assaults  of  evil.  The  engrav- 
 ing shows  the  Roman  soldier  in  armor, 
 
 and  well  represents  the  armed  Christian 
 soldier. 
 
 SoFo-mon  [peaceful],  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  David,  the  child  of  David's  old  age 
 and  the  la.st  born  of  all  his  sons  (1  Chron. 
 3  :  5).  He  came  to  the  throne  at  the  early 
 age  of  twenty,  and  reigned  forty  years.  His 
 reign  began  under  very  propitious  auspices. 
 He  "loved  the  Lord  and  walked  in  the 
 statutes  of  David  his  father"  (1  Kings 
 3  :  3).  During  the  night  which  followed 
 a  day  of  sacrifice  and  solenm  religious 
 service  at  Gibeon  the  Lord  ajipeared  to 
 him  and  gave  him  his  choice  of  blessings, 
 when  the  young  monarch  asked,  not  long 
 life  or  wealth  or  victory,  but  wisdom,  "  an 
 understanding  heart  to  judge  the  people" 
 (1  Kings  3  :  9).  In  response  to  his  prayer 
 the  Lord  promised  him  wisdom  so  unusual 
 that  he  would  excel  all  who  had  ever  been 
 before  him  or  who  should  come  after  him, 
 together  with  riches  and  honors  surpassing 
 those  of  contemporary  sovereigns  ( 1  Kings 
 3:11-14).  The  principal  events  of  his  reign 
 were  his  alliances  with  Egypt  and  Tyre, 
 his  erection  of  the  temple  and  of  several 
 palaces,  his  establishment  of  commercial 
 relations  with  distant  lands,  his  fall  into 
 idolatry,  his  heavy  impositions  of  taxes, 
 his  forced  levies  of  labor,  and  his  gradual 
 weakening  of  the  ties  which  held  the 
 tribes  together  and  bound  them  in  alle- 
 giance to  his  father's  house.  Before  he 
 died  he  must  have  foreseen  the  rapid 
 breaking  up  of  the  great  monarchy  to 
 which  he  had  succeeded.  His  latest  days, 
 as  the  book  of  Ecdesiastes  witnesses,  were 
 days  of  penitence  and  of  returning  loyalty 
 to  the  God  of  his  fathers.  In  our  Scrip- 
 tures the  Song  of  Songs,  the  Proverbs 
 and  Ecdesiastes,  with  Ps.  72  and  127,  re- 
 main to  attest  his  genius,  cultuie,  wisdom 
 and  piety. 
 
 SoFo-mon's  Porch,  a  portico  of  the 
 temple  at  Jerusalem,  which  is  occasionally 
 mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  (John 
 10  :  23;  Acts  3:11;   5:  12),  and  which, 
 
SOLOMON'S  SONG— SOUL. 
 
 483 
 
 according  to  Josephus,  had  survived  from 
 the  time  of  Solomon.  It  was  built  upon  a 
 high  wall  rising  from  the  valley  of  Kid- 
 ron,  and  its  columns  supported  magnifi- 
 cent galleries. 
 
 Soro-mon's  Song,  the  twenty-sec- 
 ond in  the  order  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  a  dramatic  poem  celebra- 
 ting the  conjugal  love  of  Solomon  and 
 Shulamith.  It  is  best  interpreted,  per- 
 haps, when  regarded  as  typical  of  the  re- 
 lation of  Jehovah,  the  covenant  God,  to 
 the  anciently  chosen  people,  tlie  bride  in 
 pre-eminence,  and  as  proplietic  of  the 
 stronger  and  more  tender  union  between 
 the  Christ  and  his  Church.  It  has  always 
 had  a  place  in  the  canon  of  Scripture. 
 
 Son.  In  Scripture  the  term  "  son  "  is 
 very  often  extended  to  more  distant  rela- 
 tions than  the  one  originally  and  strictly 
 indicated  by  it,  such  as  grandchildren  (2 
 Sam.  19  :  24),  offspring  generally,  even  to 
 remote  generations,  and  heirs  of  a  par- 
 ticular person  or  family,  tliough  not  in  the 
 direct  line  of  descent.  The  term  was  also 
 used  in  a  figurative  sense  to  denote  the 
 possession  in  a  marked  and  characteristic 
 manner  of  some  natural  or  moral  quality 
 (Acts  4  :  36). 
 
 Son  of  God,  one  of  the  titles  of  our 
 Lord,  applied  to  none  else  except  in  a  con- 
 nection which  shows  the  sense  to  be  differ- 
 ent from  that  peculiar  and  exalted  sense 
 wliich  the  application  to  him  very  mani- 
 festly bears  (.John  5  :  17-25  ;  10  :  24-38). 
 Tlie  Jews  understood  our  Lord  in  appro- 
 priating the  title  to  himself  to  claim  an 
 absolute  equality  with  God,  and  they  not 
 only  rejected  his  claim,  but  held  the  mak- 
 ing of  it  to  be  a  capital  crime  (Matt.  2G  :  63- 
 66).  Our  Lord  never  intimated  that  the 
 Jews  had  misinterpreted  his  words ;  but, 
 on  the  other  hand,  he  admitted  and  de- 
 fended the  correctness  of  their  inter})re- 
 tation. 
 
 Son  of  Man.  This  title  is  given  to 
 our  Lord  eighty  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
 
 ment, and  in  thirty  instances  he  applies  it 
 to  himself  It  is  also  applied  to  him  by 
 Daniel  (7  :  13).  The  Jews  understood  it 
 to  denote  the  Messiah.  As  the  phrase 
 "Son  of  God"  indicates  our  Lord's  pecu- 
 liar relation  to  Godhead,  so  the  phra-se 
 "  Son  of  man  "  indicates  our  Lord's  equal- 
 ly peculiar  relation  to  the  liuman  family. 
 
 Sooth^say-er.    See  Divination. 
 
 So'pa-ter,  son  of  Pyrrhus  of  Bersea, 
 and  one  of  Paul's  companions  on  his  re- 
 turn from  Greece  into  Asia  (Acts  20  :  4). 
 
 Sor'ce-rer.     See  Divination. 
 
 So'rek,  the  VaPley  of,  a  valley  or 
 ivddy  in  which  lay  the  residence  of  Deli- 
 lah (Judg.  16  :  4).  It  lias  been  conjecturally 
 identified  with  the  Wddy  Surdv,  a  broad  vale 
 half  a  mile  across,  with  a  pebbly  torrent- 
 bed  in  the  middle  and  low  white  hills  on 
 either  side.  It  is  in  the  neighborhood  of 
 Zorah,  Samson's  birthplace. 
 
 So-sip'a-ter,  a  kinsman  of  Paul 
 (Rom.  16  :  21),  and  probably  the  same 
 person  as  Sopater  of  Beraea. 
 
 Sos'the-nes,  a  ruler  of  the  Jewish 
 synagogue  at  Corinth  (Acts  18  :  17).  He 
 was  seized  and  beaten  by  a  party  of  Greeks 
 in  that  city,  who  were  excited  thus  to  acts 
 of  violence  by  what  they  thouglit  the  un- 
 justifiable and  malicious  persecution  of 
 Paul.  The  mention  of  the  name  in  1 
 Cor.  1  :  1  has  led  to  the  sui)position  that 
 he  afterward  became  a  convert  to  the 
 Christian  faith  ;  the  name,  however,  was  a 
 very  common  one. 
 
 Soul.  According  to  Scripture  usage, 
 the  Koul  is  that  which  animates  the  body, 
 which  distinguishes  a  living  body  from  a 
 dead  body,  whether  of  man  or  beast  (Gen. 
 2  :  7  ;  1  Kings  17:21;  Job  12:10;  Ps. 
 49  :  8).  It  is  the  real  life,  in  contradis- 
 tinction from  the  body,  whicli  is  tlie  in- 
 strument or  organ  of  life.  Hence,  it  is 
 conceived  of  as  the  seat  of  the  appetites, 
 the  desires,  the  affections  and  the  acts  of 
 will.  The  soul  as  thus  represented  is  the 
 very  man   himself,  and   so   is  frequently 
 
484 
 
 SOUTH— SPEAEMEN. 
 
 translated  by  the  English  words  person, 
 nelf,  creature.  The  link  between  the  soul 
 and  the  body,  that  which  makes  the  body 
 one  with  the  man,is  the  blood;  "the 
 blood  is  the  life"  (Lev.  17  :  14).  Hence, 
 to  shed  tlie  blood  is  to  take  away  the  life. 
 Hence,  too,  to  ofier  the  blood  to  God  is  to 
 signify  that  the  life  is  forfeited  to  God  be- 
 cause of  sin. 
 
 South,  or  South  Coun'try  [He- 
 brew, Nerjeb'].  The  designation  in  Scripture 
 of  a  large  district  of  Judah  (Judg.  1  : 
 16;  Jer.  13  :  19).  It  extends  from  the 
 southern  end  of  tlie  Dead  Sea  south- 
 westward  across  Palestine  to  the  coast- 
 plain.  Upon  it,  in  ancient  times,  were 
 twenty-nine  cities  (Josh.  15  :  21-32). 
 Its  present  condition  is  one  of  solitude 
 and  desolation.  Walls  of  solid  ma- 
 sonry remain ;  fields  and  gardens  sur- 
 rounded with  goodly  walls,  every  sign  ^ 
 of  human  industry,  remains  of  wells, 
 aqueducts,  reservoirs ;  mountain-forts 
 to  resist  forays  of  the  sons  of  the  des- 
 ert; desolated  gardens,  terraced  hill- 
 sides and  tcdflies  dammed  to  resist  the 
 torrent;  but  no  living  being,  except 
 the  lizard  and  screech-owl,  amidst  the 
 crumbling  walls. 
 
 Sow'er,  So'W'ing'.  Tlie  ancient  mode 
 of  sowing  seed  was  witli  the  hand  (Ps.  126  : 
 6),  except  in  wet  soils,  where  the  seed  was 
 trodden  in  by  the  feet  of  animals  (Isa.  32 : 
 20).  The  sowing  season  commenced  in 
 October,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  Feb- 
 ruary, wheat  being  put  in  before,  and  bar- 
 ley after,  the  beginning  of  January. 
 
 Spain,  the  classical  name  of  a  well- 
 known  country  in  Europe,  anciently  ap- 
 plied to  the  wliole  peninsula,  or  wliat 
 we  now  term  .Spain  and  Portugal.  The 
 original  designation  of  the  country  was 
 Tarshish.  In  Paul's  time  (Rom.  15  :  24) 
 it  was  subject  to  Rome  and  the  resort  of 
 many  Jews.  The  purpose  of  Paul  to 
 visit  it  implies  two  interesting  facts — 
 namely,  the  establishment  of  a  Christian 
 
 community  in  the  country,  and  this  by 
 means  of  Hellenistic  Jews  residing  there. 
 
 Span,  a  measure  of  length  not  very  de- 
 terminate, but  usually  estimated  at  nine 
 and  a  half  inches,  being  the  space  from 
 the  extremity  of  the  thumb  to  that  of  the 
 little  finger  when  stretched  apart  (Ex.  28 : 
 16 ;  1  Sam.  17  :  4). 
 
 Spar'row.  The  Hebrew  word  which 
 designates  this  common  bird  occurs  up- 
 wards of  forty  times  in  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 Syrian  Sparrow. 
 
 In  all  passages  excepting  two  it  is  ren- 
 dered in  our  Authorized  Vei'sion  indifibr- 
 ently  "  bird  "  or  "  fowl ;"  in  the  two  pas- 
 sages referred  to  (Ps.  84  :  3  and  Ps.  102  : 
 7)  it  is  rendered  "sparrow."  It  is  the  de- 
 rivative from  a  verbal  root  which  signifies 
 to  "chirp"  or  "twitter."  Its  Greek  equiv- 
 alent occurs  twice  in  the  New  Testament 
 (Matt.  10  :  29;  Luke  12  :  6,  7),  and  rep- 
 resents the  small  sparrow  wliich  may  be 
 seen  to-day  in  vast  numbers  on  Mount 
 Olivet  and  about  the  mosque  of  Omar, 
 and  throughout  tlie  country. 
 
 Spear.    See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Spear'men.  The  Greek  word  tlius 
 rendered  in  Acts  23  :  23  is  of  very  rare 
 occurrence,  and  its  meaning  is  quite  ob- 
 scure.     They  were  probably  troops    so 
 
SPICES— SPIRIT. 
 
 485 
 
 lightly  armed  as  to  be  able  to  keep  pace 
 on  the  march  with  mounted  soldiers. 
 
 Spi^ces.  Several  Hebrew  words  are 
 thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version, 
 and  indicate  not  only  fragrant  gums,  as 
 myrrh,  but  also  roots  and  barks,  as  cassia, 
 cinnamon,  cane,  and  even  the  odors  of 
 flowers  and  various  perfumes  (Song  4  :  13, 
 14).  Spices  were  imported  into  Judaea 
 chiefly  from  Southern  Arabia.  Sweet 
 spices,  in  Mark  16  :  1,  are  aromatic  sub- 
 stances used  in  embalming. 
 
 Spi'der,  a  well-known  animal  of  sin- 
 gular structure  and  habits.  In  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  two  Hebrew  words  are 
 thus  rendered :  the  first  in  Job  8:14  and 
 Isa.  59  :  5,  and  meaning  "  the  weaver ;" 
 the  second  in  Prov.  30  :  28,  a  derivative 
 from  a  verbal  root  meaning  to  poison,  and 
 supposed  to  refer  to  the  geckn,  a  species  of 
 poisonous  lizard.  The  spider's  web,  in  the 
 thinness  and  frailty  of  the  structure,  is  the 
 striking  emblem  of  a  false  hope.  Its  skill 
 in  adjusting  its  web  to  the  ensnarement  of 
 its  prey  is  the  not  less  striking  emblem 
 of  the  artifice  by  which  a  wicked  man 
 achieves  his  successes. 
 
 Spikenard. 
 
 Spike'nard,  a  fragrant  oil  expressed 
 from  a  plant  of  India.  It  is  mentioned 
 twice  in  the  Old  Testament  (Song  1  :  12; 
 4  :  13,  14)  and  twice  in  the  New  (Mark 
 14  :  3-5;  John  12  :  3,  5).  It  was  very 
 precious,  a  pound  of  it  costing  in  our 
 Lord's  times  some  forty  dollars  in  gold. 
 
 It  was  carried  in  a  box  or  vase  closely 
 sealed.  Opening  this  seal  is  called  break- 
 ing the  box. 
 
 Spin^ning'.  The  notices  of  spinning 
 in  the  Scriptures  are  confined  to  Ex.  35  : 
 25,  26;  Prov.  31  :  19;  and  Matt.  6  :  28. 
 As  spinning  was  the  almost  universal  em- 
 ployment of  women  in  the  East,  the  dis- 
 taflT  or  whirling  spindle  was  everywhere 
 used  in  Palestine  and  Egypt. 
 
 Spir'it.  The  root-idea  of  this  word  is 
 wind  or  air,  hence  breath  as  the  sign,  first 
 of  life,  and  second  of  emotion.  Quick 
 breathing  indicates  kindled  feelings,  ex- 
 cited notions,  stirred-up  energies ;  and  so 
 we  reach  the  idea  of  spirit — namely,  that 
 which  is  the  source  of  emotion  and  ener- 
 gy, of  feeling  and  of  force.  One  of  the 
 most  definite  revelations  in  Scripture  is 
 that  "  God  is  a  spirit "  (John  4 :  24).  God, 
 therefore,  is  the  fountain  of  all  true  and 
 good  emotion  and  the  source  of  all  pow- 
 er. The  Scriptures  pointedly  teach,  more- 
 over, that  the  Spirit  of  God  is  a  living, 
 personal  agent,  working  in  man,  inspiring 
 man  in  the  sense  of  breathing  into  him 
 divine  emotion,  divine  light  and  divine 
 force,  striving  with  man  and  making  God 
 present  to  him.  In  the  Gospels  our  Lord 
 is  set  forth  as  the  embodiment  of  God, 
 and  as  possessing  the  Spirit  of  God  with- 
 out measure.  By  our  Lord's  death  and 
 subsequent  exaltation  the  Spirit  of  God, 
 denominated  the  Holy  Ghost,  streamed 
 forth  from  him  into  the  life  of  all  believ- 
 ers. The  book  of  the  Acts  is  the  history 
 of  the  fulfilment  of  God's  promises  in 
 Jesus,  the  Christ,  to  all  nations  and  kin- 
 dreds and  peoples  and  tongues.  By  faith 
 in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  the  called  and 
 justified  people  of  God  obtain  the  spirit 
 of  sonship,  are  made  one  with  the  Son  of 
 God  and  partakers  of  the  divine  nature, 
 are  made  temples  of  the  Spirit  of  God, 
 and  are  prepared  for  the  glorious  day 
 when  mortality  shall  be  swallowed  up  in 
 life. 
 
486 
 
 SPOIL,  SPOILS— STOCKS. 
 
 Spoil,  Spoils,  goods  taken  from  con- 
 quered enemies  (Deut.  2:35;  2  Chron. 
 20  :  25 ;  Ileb.  7  :  4).     See  Booty. 
 
 Sponge,  mentioned  only  in  the  New 
 Testament  (Matt.  27  :  48;  Mark  15  :  36; 
 John  19  :  29).  Although  no  notice  of  it 
 appears  in  tlie  Old  Testament,  it  was  prob- 
 ably used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who 
 could  readily  have  obtained  it  from  the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Sprinkling,  Blood  of.  On  the  great 
 day  of  atonement  the  Jewish  high  priest 
 carried  blood  into  the  inner  sanctuary, 
 and,  sprinkling  it  upon  the  mercy-seat 
 (Lev.  16:11-19),  "made  an  atonement 
 for  the  Holy  Place  because  of  the  unclean- 
 ness  of  the  children  of  Israel."  The  blood 
 of  sprinkling  became,  therefore,  a  very  sig- 
 nificant type  of  the  atoning  blood  of  our 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Heb.  11  :  28;  12  :  24; 
 1  Pet.  1  :2;  1  John  1  :  7). 
 
 Sta^'chys,  a  Christian  at  Rome  saluted 
 by  Paul  (Rom.  16  :  9). 
 
 StaC'te,  the  name  of  one  of  the  spices 
 which  composed  the  holy  incense  (Ex.  30  : 
 34).  It  is  identified  by  some  with  the  gum 
 of  the  storax  tree,  but  all  that  is  positively 
 known  is  that  it  signifies  an  odorous  distil- 
 lation from  some  plant. 
 
 Stand'ard.     See  Banner,  Ensign. 
 
 Star,  a  general  name  applied  to  the 
 heavenly  bodies,  but  usually  excepting 
 the  sun  and  moon  (Gen.  15  :  5;  22  :  17  ; 
 Ps.  8  :  3 ;  147  :  4).  Figuratively,  a  star  is 
 a  prince  or  ruler  (Num.  24  :  17 ;  Dan.  8  : 
 10).  Pastors  of  churches  are  also  stars 
 (Rev.  1  :  20). 
 
 Steel.  In  all  cases  where  the  word 
 "  steel "  occurs  in  our  Authorized  Version 
 t  he  true  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  is  "  cop- 
 per "  (2  Sam.  22  :  35 ;  Job  20  :  24 ;  Ps.  18  : 
 34;  Jer.  15:  12). 
 
 Steph'a-nas,  a  Christian  convert  of 
 Corinth,  whose  household  Paul  baptized  as 
 the  "first-fruits  of  Achaia"  (1  Cor.  1  :  16; 
 16  :  15). 
 
 Ste'phen  [croiwi],  the  first  Christian 
 
 martyr.  He  was  the  chief  of  the  seven 
 deacons  in  the  early  church  of  Jerusalem 
 (Acts  6  :  5).  His  name  indicates  his  Hel- 
 lenistic origin.  Noted  at  the  first  as  a 
 man  "  full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
 (ihost,"  he  presently  appears  as  one  also 
 full  of  "  power,"  for  he  does  "  great  won- 
 ders and  miracles  among  the  people " 
 (Acts  6:8).  His  prominence,  and  espe- 
 cially his  zeal  for  Christ,  arouse  a  very 
 determined  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
 Greek-speaking  section  of  the  Jews,  who 
 prefer  charges  against  him  and  bring  him 
 before  the  Sanhedrim.  His  miisterly  de- 
 fence and  his  death  by  stoning  are  related 
 at  length  in  Acts  ch.  7.  Those  wlio  took 
 the  lead  in  the  execution  were  the  persons 
 who  had  taken  upon  themselves  the  re- 
 sponsibility of  denouncing  him  (Deut.  17  : 
 7;  John  8:7).  In  this  instance  they 
 were  the  witnesses  who  had  reported  or 
 misreported  the  words  of  Stephen.  They, 
 according  to  the  custom,  stripped  them- 
 selves ;  and  one  of  the  prominent  leaders 
 in  the  transaction  was  dejjutetl  to  signify 
 his  assent  to  the  act  by  taking  the  clothes 
 into  his  custody  and  standing  over  them 
 whilst  the  bloody  work  went  on.  The 
 person  who  officiated  on  this  occasion  was 
 a  young  man  from  Tai-sus  named  Saul 
 (Acts  7  :  58),  afterward  Paul,  the  great 
 apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 
 
 Whether  the  death  of  Stephen  had  any 
 connection  with  Paul's  conversion  to  Chris- 
 tianity, we  are  not  told,  and  yet  it  was  quite 
 in  keeping  with  the  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
 to  make  the  blood  of  the  first  martyr  tlie 
 seed  of  the  greatest  apostle. 
 
 Stocks.  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 the  term  "stocks"  is  applied  to  two  differ- 
 ent articles — namely,  to  wliat  answers  to 
 a  pillory,  and  to  what  held  in  a  constrain- 
 ed and  painful  position  the  feet  of  prison- 
 ers. The  prophet  Jeremiah  (20  :  2)  was 
 confined  in  the  first  sort ;  the  "  stocks " 
 properly  so  called  are  noticed  in  Job  13  : 
 27 ;  33  :  11  and  Acts  16  :  24.      The  He- 
 
STOICS— STORK. 
 
 487 
 
 brew  word  rendered  "  stocks  "  in  Prov.  7  : 
 22  would  be  more  nearly  represented  by 
 the  word  "fetters." 
 
 Stocks. 
 
 Sto'ics.  The  Stoics  and  Epicureans, who 
 are  mentioned  together  in  Acts  17:18,  rep- 
 resent the  two  opposite  schools  of  practical 
 philosophy  in  Greece.  The  Stoic  school 
 was  founded  by  Zeno,  and  derived  its  name 
 from  the  stoa  or  portico  in  which  he  taught. 
 In  opposition  to  the  Epicurean  idea,  that 
 pleasure  is  the  chief  end  of  life,  tlie  Stoics 
 insisted  upon  virtue.  The  moral  system  of 
 the  Stoics  has  been  often  i-epr'esented  as  re- 
 sembling that  of  Christianity,  but  the  dif- 
 ferences are  radical.  The  morality  of 
 Stoicism  is  essentially  based  on  pride, 
 that  of  Christianity  on  humility  ;  the  one 
 upholds  individual  independence,  the  other, 
 absolute  faith  in  another ;  the  one  looks  for 
 consolation  in  the  issue  of  Fate,  the  other, 
 in  Providence  ;  the  one  is  limited  by  pe- 
 riods of  material  wreck  and  ruin,  the 
 other  is  consummated  in  a  personal  res- 
 urrection. 
 
 Stom'a-cher.  The  Hebrew  word  so 
 translated  in  Isa.  3  :  24  describes  some 
 article  of  female  attire,  the  character  of 
 
 which  is  a  matter  of  conjecture — perhaps 
 a  festive  outer  robe. 
 
 Stones.  To  commemorate  remark- 
 able events  stones  were  set  up  in  the 
 early  times  (Gen.  28  :  18 ;  35  :  14;  Josh. 
 4  :  9;  1  Sam.  7  :  12).  The  worship  of 
 stones  prevailed  among  the  heathen  na- 
 tions surrounding  Palestine,  and  was  bor- 
 rowed from  them  by  apostate  Israelites 
 (Isa.  57  :  6).  Stones  are  used  metaphori- 
 cally to  denote  hardness  or  insensibility 
 (1  Sam.  25  :  37  ;  Ezek.  11  :  19;  36  :  26), 
 as  well  as  firmness  or  strength  (Gen.  49  : 
 24).  The  members  of  the  Church  are 
 called  "  living  stones,"  as  contributing  to 
 rear  that  living  temple  in  which  Christ 
 hims?lf,  "  a  living  stone,"  is  the  chief  or 
 head  of  the  corner  (Eph.  2  :  20-22 ;  1  Pet. 
 2  :  4-8). 
 
 Stones,  Pre'cious.  Precious  stones 
 are  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures. 
 The  art  of  engraving  on  precious  stones 
 was  known  from  the  very  earliest  times 
 (Gen.  38  :  18).  The  twelve  stones  of  the 
 high  priest's  breastplate  were  engraved  each 
 one  with  the  name  of  one  of  the  tribes  (Ex. 
 28 :  17-21 ).  As  the  Hebrews  seem  to  have 
 had  no  means  of  engraving  a  name  upon 
 the  "diamond,"  the  stone  thus  denomina- 
 ted probably  was  not  used  in  the  breast- 
 plate. In  a  figurative  sense,  precious  stones 
 are  used  in  Scripture  to  signify  value, 
 beauty,  durability  and  the  like  in  those 
 objects  with  which  they  are  compared 
 (Song  5  :  14  ;  Isa.  54  :  11,  12 ;  Rev.  4:3; 
 21  :  11,  21). 
 
 Ston'ing.     See  Punishment. 
 
 Stork.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered designates  the  white  stork,  one  qf 
 the  largest  and  most  conspicuous  of  land- 
 birds,  standing  nearly  four  feet  high,  the 
 jet  black  of  its  wings  and  its  bright  red 
 beak  and  legs  contrasting  finely  with  the 
 pure  white  of  its  plumage  (Zech.  5  :  9). 
 The  black  stork  is  also  found  in  Palestine, 
 but,  preferring  marshy  places  in  forests  and 
 breeding  on  the  loftiest  trees,  it  is  never 
 
488 
 
 STRAIN  AT— SUCCOTH. 
 
 found  about  buildings.  The  white  stork, 
 however,  attaches  itself  to  man,  and  for 
 the  service  which  it  renders  in  the  de- 
 struction of  reptiles  and  the  removal  of 
 
 Stork. 
 
 ofl'al  has  been  repaid  from  the  earliest 
 times  with  protection  and  reverence. 
 
 Strain  at.  This  expression  in  Matt. 
 23  :  24  is  a  printer's  error,  the  true  read- 
 ing being  "strain  out."  A  traveler  in 
 North  Africa  illustrates  the  passage  in  a 
 letter  from  which  the  following  extract  is 
 taken :  "  I  observed  that  a  Moorish  soldier 
 who  accompanied  me  when  he  drank  al- 
 ways unfolded  the  end  of  his  turban  and 
 placed  it  over  the  mouth  of  his  boia 
 drinking  through  the  muslin  to  strain 
 out  the  (jnatu,  whose  larvae  swarm  in  the 
 water  of  that  country." 
 
 Strait,  narrow,  confined.  A  strait 
 gate  (Matt.  7  :  13,  14)  is  a  gate  so  nar- 
 row as  to  be  difficult  of  entrance.  To  be 
 in  a  strait  is  to  be  in  a  difficulty  (1  Sam, 
 13  :  6  ;  2  Sam.  24  :  14).  The  word  "  strait " 
 should  never  be  confounded  with  the  word 
 "  straight." 
 
 Stran^ger.  In  the  Scriptures  the 
 word  "stranger"  commonly  denotes  a 
 person  of  foreign — that  is,  non-Israelite — 
 extraction  resident  within  the  limits  of 
 the  Promised  Land.  Tlie  stranger  was 
 distinct  from  the  proper  "foreigner,"  in- 
 
 asmuch as  the  latter  still  belonged  to  an- 
 other country,  and  would  only  visit  Pales- 
 tine as  a  traveler ;  he  was  still  more  dis- 
 tinct from  the  "  nations,"  or  non-Israelite 
 peoples,  for  he  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  the 
 Israelites.  As  the  word  "stranger"  in 
 our  Authorized  Version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament represents  six  different  Hebrew 
 terms,  each  of  which,  in  addition  to  the 
 rendering  "  stranger,"  is  rendered  now 
 "  alien,"  now  "  foreigner,"  and  now  "  so- 
 journer," the  sense  of  many  passages  is 
 necessarily  indefinite  and  confused.  See 
 Proselyte.  All  the  terms,  however, 
 applied  to  the  stranger  have  si>ecial  ref- 
 erence to  the  fact  of  his  residing  in  the 
 land.  The  existence  of  such  a  class  of 
 persons  among  the  Israelites  is  easily  ac- 
 counted for :  the  "  mixed  multitude  "  that 
 accompanied  them  out  of  Egypt  (P]x.  12  : 
 38)  formed  one  element ;  the  Canaanitish 
 population,  which  was  never  wholly  extir- 
 pated from  their  native  soil,  formed  an- 
 other and  still  more  important  one  ;  cap- 
 tives taken  in  war  formed  a  third ;  fugi- 
 tives, hired  servants,  merchants  and  the 
 like  formed  a  fourth.  The  enactments  of 
 the  Mosaic  Law,  which  regulated  tlie  po- 
 litical, social  and  religious  position  of  res- 
 ident strangei-s,  were  conceived  in  a  spirit 
 of  great  liberality,  and  yet  were  admirably 
 adapted  to  keep  the  Hebrew  people  dis- 
 tinct from  all  other  peoples,  and  to  main- 
 tain within  the  Jewish  nation  a  spirituiil 
 community  or  Church  in  covenant  with 
 the  God  of  Israel.  When  the  stranger 
 identified  himself  with  Israel,  obeyed  the 
 precepts  of  the  Law  and  received  circum- 
 cision in  sign  that  spiritually  he  was  a 
 new  creature,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
 passover,  was  invested  with  all  the  rights, 
 civil  and  religious,  of  a  born  Israelite,  and 
 thereafter  by  all  Israelites  was  to  be  treat- 
 ed as  a  brother  (Lev.  19  :  34;  Deut.  10  : 
 19). 
 
 Stripes.    See  Punishment. 
 
 Suc'coth  [booths,  tents  or  tabernacles^. 
 
SUCCOTH-BENOTH— SWALLOW. 
 
 489 
 
 1.  An  ancient  town  first  mentioned  in 
 the  account  of  the  homeward  journey  of 
 Jacob  from  Padan-Aram  (Gen.  33  :  17). 
 It  lay  probably  between  Peniel,  near  the 
 ford  of  the  Jabbok,  and  Shechem.  In  ac- 
 cordance with  this  is  the  mention  of  Suc- 
 coth  in  the  narrative  of  Gideon's  pursuit 
 of  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (Judg.  8  :  5,  17). 
 Succoth  is  named  once  again  after  this 
 as  marking  the  spot  at  which  the  brass- 
 foundries  were  placed  for  casting  the 
 metal-work  of  the  temple  (1  Kings  7  : 
 46). 
 
 2.  Tlie  first  camping-place  of  the  Israel- 
 ites when  they  left  Egypt  (Ex.  12  :  37  ;  13  : 
 20;  Num.  33  :  5,  6).  Its  site  is  disputed, 
 but  probably  is  to  be  placed  in  Wddy 
 Tumeyldt. 
 
 Suc^COth-be-noth''  [tents  of  daugh- 
 ters'], the  name,  according  to  Sir  H.  Eaw- 
 linson,  of  the  Chaldsean  goddess  Zlrhanlt, 
 wife  of  Merodach,  who  was  especially 
 worshiped  at  Babylon.  The  name  occurs 
 but  once  (2  Kings  17  :  30). 
 
 Sum'mer.    See  Seasons. 
 
 Sun,  the  "greater  light,"  in  contradis- 
 tinction to  the  moon,  or  "  lesser  light,"  in 
 conjunction  with  which  it  was  to  serve  "  for 
 signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days,  and  for 
 years,"  while  its  special  office  was  "  to  rule 
 the  day"  (Gen.  1 :  14-16).  Between  sunrise 
 and  sunset  the  Jews  recognized  three  pe- 
 riods— namely,  when  the  sun  became  hot, 
 about  9  A.  M.  (1  Sam.  11  :  9;  Neh.  7:3); 
 the  double  light  or  noon  (Gen.  43  :  16 ;  2 
 Sam.  4:5);  and  "  the  cool  of  the  day," 
 shortly  before  sunset  (Gen.  3:8).  The 
 sun  also  served  to  fix  the  quarters  of  the 
 hemisphere,  east,  west,  north  and  soutli, 
 which  were  represented  respectively  by 
 the  rising  sun,  the  setting  sun  (Isa.  45  :  6 ; 
 Ps.  50  : 1),  the  dark  quarter  (Gen.  13  :  14; 
 Joel  2  :  20),  and  the  brilliant  quarter 
 (Deut.  33  :  23 ;  Job  37  :  17  ;  Ezek.  40  : 
 24),  or  otherwise  by  their  position  rela- 
 tive to  a  person  facing  tlie  rising  sun,  be- 
 fore, behind,  on  the  left  hand  and  on  the 
 
 right  hand  (Job  23  :  8,  9).  The  worship 
 of  the  sun  as  the  most  prominent  and 
 powerful  agent  in  the  kingdom  of  Nature 
 was  widely  difflised  throughout  the  coun- 
 tries adjacent  to  Palestine,  and  was  a  form 
 of  idolatry  to  which  the  Jews  were  espe- 
 cially inclined.  In  the  metaphorical  lan- 
 guage of  Scripture  the  sun  is  emblematic 
 of  the  law  of  God  (Ps.  19:7),  of  the 
 cheering  presence  of  God  (Ps.  84:11), 
 of  the  person  of  our  Lord  (Mai.  4:2; 
 John  1  :  9),  and  of  the  glory  and  j)urity 
 of  heavenly  beings  (Kev.  1  :  16 ;  10:1; 
 12:  1). 
 
 Sup 'per,  the  chief  meal  of  the  Jews, 
 and  also  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  taken 
 at  or  toward  evening  and  often  prolonged 
 into  the  night.  Hence  it  denotes  an  even- 
 ing banquet  or  feast  in  general  (Matt.  23  : 
 6;  Mark  6  :  21  ;  12  :  39;  Luke  14  :  12, 16, 
 17,  24 ;  20  :  46  ;  John  12  :  2).  It  is  asso- 
 ciated with  the  passover  (John  13:2)  and 
 with  the  communion  (1  Cor.  11  :  20). 
 Tropically,  it  is  used  to  denote  the  de- 
 struction of  the  enemies  of  the  Church 
 (Rev.  19  :  17)  and  the  happiness  of  the 
 Church  during  the  millennium  (Rev.  19 : 
 9).    See  Meal-time. 
 
 Sure'ty,  one  who  becomes  bound  to 
 answer  for  another  and  to  make  good  the 
 debt  or  loss  occurring  from  another's  de- 
 linquency. The  earliest  form  of  surety- 
 ship mentioned  in  Scripture  is  the  pledg- 
 ing of  person  for  person,  as  when  Judah 
 became  surety  for  Benjamin  (Gen.  43  :  9). 
 In  this  sense  the  Psalmist  asks  God  to  be 
 surety  for  him  for  good  (Ps.  119  :  122). 
 More  commonly,  however,  the  suretyship 
 has  respect  to  pecuniary  obligations  ( Prov. 
 6:1;  11  :  15;  17  :  18  ;  20:  16;  22  :  26  ; 
 27  :  13).  In  the  highest  sense  the  term 
 surety  is  applied  to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 (Heb.  7  :  22),  who  has  made  himself  re- 
 sponsible for  all  that  was  required  to  be 
 accomplished  in  the  covenant  of  redemp- 
 tion for  the  salvation  of  his  people. 
 
 Swal'low.      In   the   passages   where 
 
490 
 
 SWAN— SYENE. 
 
 the  Hebrew  name  of  this  bird  occurs 
 (Ps.  84  :  3  ;  Prov.  26  :  2  ;  Isa.  38  :  14  ; 
 Jer.  8:7)  the  characteristics  of  the  swal- 
 low are  mentioned — namely,  its  swiftness 
 of  flight,  its  nesting  in  the  buildings  of 
 
 The  Swallow. 
 
 the  temple,  its  mournful,  garrulous  note, 
 and  its  regular  migration.  Many  species 
 of  swallow  are  found  in  Palestine. 
 
 SAAran.  The  Hebrew  word  rendered 
 "swan"  in  our  Authorized  Version  oc- 
 curs twice  (Lev.  11  :  18;  Deut.  14  :  16)  in 
 the  list  of  unclean  birds.  It  designates, 
 in  the  opinion  of  the  best  scholars,  not 
 the  swan,  but  the  purple  water-hen  of 
 Egypt.  The  water-lien  frequents  marshes 
 and  the  sedge  by  tlie  banks  of  rivers  in 
 all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Med- 
 iterranean, and  is  abundant  in  Lower 
 Egypt. 
 
 SvsT-ear^ing.    See  Oath. 
 
 S-weat,  Bloody.    See  Agony. 
 
 Svrine.  The  flesh  of  swine  was  for- 
 bidden as  food  by  the  Levitical  Law  (Lev. 
 11  :  7;  Deut.  14  :  8),  and  the  abhorrence 
 which  the  Jews  as  a  nation  had  of  it  may 
 be  inferred  from  Isa.  65  :  4.  The  ground 
 of  the  prohibition  of  the  flesli  as  food  is 
 not  stated,  but  if,  as  is  alleged,  its  use  in 
 hot  countries  tends  to  induce  cutaneous 
 disorders,  and  especially  tliat  dreaded 
 scourge  the  leprosy,  the  necessity  for 
 some  strict  rule  is  obvious.  At  the  time 
 of  our  Lord's  ministry  Jews  were  appa- 
 rently engaged  to  some  extent  in  swine- 
 breeding  (Matt.  8  :  32 ;  Mark  5  :  13)  for 
 the  purpose   of  selling   the   flesh   to   the 
 
 heathen  around  them  or  to  the  troops  in 
 the  Roman  garrisons. 
 
 Sword.     See  Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Syc'a-mine  Tree,  mentioned  only 
 in  Luke  17  :  6.  It  is  the  mulberry  tree, 
 of  which  the  white  and  black  species  are 
 common  in  Palestine. 
 
 Syc'a-more.  This  word,  occurring 
 in  1  Kings  10  :  27 ;  1  Chron.  27  :  28 ;  Ps. 
 78:47;  Isa.  9:10;  Amos  7:  14;  Luke 
 19  :  4,  designates  the  fig-mulberry  or  syc- 
 amore-fig. The  tree,  in  Egypt  and  Pales- 
 tine, is  one  of  great  importance  and  very 
 extensive  use.  It  attains  the  size  of  a 
 walnut  tree,  has  wide,  spreading  branches 
 and  affords  a  delightful  shade.  Its  branches 
 spring  from  the  trunk  horizontally  and  near 
 the  ground,  thus  making  it  easy  to  climb 
 and  adapted  to  the  use  to  whicli  it  was  put 
 by  Zaccheus  (Luke  19  :  1-10).  Its  leaves 
 are  heart-shaped,  downy  on  the  under  side, 
 and  fragrant.  The  fruit  grows  directly 
 from  the  branches  and  the  trunk  itself  on 
 little  sprigs,  and  in  clusters  like  the  grape. 
 To  make  it  eatable,  each  fruit,  three  or  four 
 days  before  gathering,  must  be  punctured 
 with  a  sharp  instrument  or  the  finger-nail. 
 This  was  the  original  employment  of  the 
 prophet  Amos. 
 
 Sy^char,  the  modern  'Askar,  a  village 
 about  a  mile  east  of  NablA.'i,  the  ancient 
 Shechem.  It  stands  on  the  slope  of  Ebal, 
 within  sight  of  Jacob's  Well,  from  which 
 it  is  distant  about  half  a  mile.  It  is  mem- 
 orable as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  inter- 
 view with  the  Samaritan  woman  (John 
 4  :  5-30).  It  is  now  merely  a  collection 
 of  mud  hovels. 
 
 Sy^chem.     See  Siifx-iiem. 
 
 Sy'e-ne  [npenin(j,  keyl,  properly  Sev'- 
 e-neh,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the  frontier 
 of  Cush  or  Ethiopia  (Ezek.  29  :  10;  30  : 
 6).  The  modern  town  of  Aswan  or  Ak- 
 souan,  lying  a  little  to  the  north-east  of 
 the  old  city,  represents  Syene.  A  few 
 remains  of  the  ancient  city  are  still 
 found. 
 
SYNAGOGUE— SYRO-PH(ENICIAN. 
 
 491 
 
 Syn'a-gOgue  ^congregation],  a  recog- 
 nized place  of  worship.  Synagogues  ap- 
 pear to  have  arisen  during  the  Exile  in 
 the  abeyance  of  the  temple-worship,  and 
 to  have  received  their  full  development 
 on  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity. 
 The  synagogue  is  therefore  the  character- 
 istic institution  of  the  later  phase  of  Juda- 
 ism. After  the  Maccabsean  struggle  for  in- 
 dependence every  town  had  one  or  more 
 synagogues.  To  the  synagogue  system  more 
 than  to  any  other  agency  is  to  be  ascribed 
 the  tenacity  with  which  the  Jews  adhered  to 
 the  religion  of  their  fathers  and  never  again 
 relapsed  into  idolatry.  The  worship  consist- 
 ed of  prayers,  Scripture  readings — especial- 
 ly readings  of  the  Law — and  addresses 
 (Matt.  6:5;  Mark  6:2;  Luke  4  :  16- 
 o'2).  Each  synagogue  was  under  the  gov- 
 ernment of  a  bench  of  elders  called  rulers 
 (Mark  5  :  22;  Acts  13  :  15),  which  had  a 
 president  or  moderator  called  the  chief 
 ruler  (Acts  18:8).  The  synagogue  had  an 
 important  bearing  not  only  on  the  prep- 
 aration of  the  Jewish  people  for  Chris- 
 tianity, but  also  upon  the  organization 
 of  Cliristian  churches. 
 
 Syn'ty-che,  a  female  member  of  tlie 
 church  of  Philippi  (Phil.  4  :  2,  3). 
 
 Syr'a-cuse,  a  celebrated  and  wealthy 
 city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily.  The 
 apostle  Paul,  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  in 
 an  Alexandrian  ship  from  Melita,  landed 
 here  and  tarried  three  days  (Acts  28  :  12). 
 Its  site  and  its  excellent  harbor  made  it  a 
 convenient  port  for  the  African  corn-ships. 
 
 Syr'i-a,  the  region  of  country  known 
 to  the  Hebrews  as  Aram,  and  deriving  its 
 name  from  l^ur  or  Tyre,  the  first  of  the 
 Syrian  towns  accessible  to  the  Greeks. 
 Its  boundaries  are  indefinite,  but,  lying 
 on  the  north  of  Palestine  and  stretching 
 east  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Eu- 
 phrates and  the  Arabian  desert,  it  is  com- 
 monly understood  to  be  a  tract  of  about 
 three  hundred  miles  in  length  and  from 
 fifty  to  one  hundred  and   fifty  miles   in 
 
 breadth.  The  general  character  of  the 
 tract  is  mountainous.  The  most  fertile 
 and  valuable  portion  of  Syria  is  the  long 
 valley  intervening  between  Libanus  and 
 Anti-Li banus.  The  first  settlers  of  Syria 
 were  Hamites,  followed  after  a  time  by 
 Shemites.  The  former  settled  on  the 
 coast  and  on  the  heights  of  Lebanon,  and 
 had  an  inland  station  at  Hamath  (Gen. 
 10  :  18) ;  the  latter  occupied  Damascus 
 and  overspread  the  remaining  portions 
 of  the  country  (Gen.  14  :  15 ;  15  :  2).  For 
 many  centuries  Syria  seems  to  have  been 
 broken  up  among  a  number  of  petty  king- 
 doms. Tlie  Jews  first  came  into  hostile 
 contact  with  the  Syrians,  under  that  name, 
 in  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  8  :  3-13). 
 In  the  later  days  of  Solomon  an  inde- 
 pendent kingdom  was  formed  at  Damas- 
 cus (1  Kings  11  :  23-25).  In  the  year 
 B.  c.  333,  Syria  submitted  without  a  strug- 
 gle to  Alexander,  but  upon  his  death  it 
 became  for  the  first  time  the  head  of  a 
 great  kingdom.  On  the  division  of  the 
 provinces  among  his  generals  (b.  c.  321), 
 Seleucus  Nicator  received  Mesopotamia 
 and  Syria,  and  as  his  capital  built,  on  the 
 Orontes,  the  city  of  Antioch,  which  for 
 more  than  two  centuries  was  the  most 
 splendid  of  all  the  cities  of  the  East. 
 The  Roman  power  became  supreme 
 throughout  Syria  b.  c.  64.  Christianity 
 was  carried  into  Syria  by  the  disciples 
 "scattered"  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  per- 
 secution (Acts  11  :  19),  and  Paul  frequent- 
 ly visited  its  churches  (Acts  15  :  41  ;  18  : 
 18;  21  :  3;  Gal.  1  :  21). 
 
 Sy^ro-PhoB-nic^ian.  This  word  oc- 
 curs only  in  Mark  7  :  26.  It  denotes  most 
 likely  a  mixed  race,  half  Phoenicians  and 
 half  Syrians.  Matthew  (15  :  22)  speaks  of 
 "  a  woman  of  Canaan  "  in  place  of  Mark's 
 "  Syro-Phcenician,"  and  the  expression  im- 
 plies that  Canaan  and  Phoenicia  were  inter- 
 changeable names.  The  actual  country  of 
 the  Syro-Phoenician  woman  was  the  north- 
 ern portion  of  Phoenicia. 
 
492 
 
 TAANACH— TABERNACLE. 
 
 T. 
 
 Ta'a-nach  [rMS(le'\,  an  ancient 
 Canaanitisli  city,  the  king  of  which  is 
 enumerated  amongst  the  thirty-one  con- 
 quered by  Joshua  (Josh.  12  :  21).  It 
 came  into  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh 
 (Josh.  17  :  11 ;  21  :  25;  1  Chron.  7  :  29), 
 and  was  l>estowed  on  the  Kohathite  Le- 
 vites  (Josh.  21  :  25).  Taanach  is  almost 
 always  named  in  company  with  Megiddo, 
 and  they  were  evidently  the  chief  towns 
 of  the  fine  rich  district  which  forms  the 
 western  portion  of  the  great  plain  of  Es- 
 draelon  (1  Kings  4  :  12).  It  is  still  call- 
 ed Td'annuk,  and  stands  about  four  miles 
 south-east  of  Lejjun,  tlie  ancient  Megiddo. 
 
 Tab'e-rah  [barninc/'],  one  of  the  sta- 
 tions of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  of 
 Paran,  where  a  fire  from  the  Lord  broke 
 forth  upon  the  people  and  consumed  many 
 of  them  on  account  of  their  murmurings 
 (Num.  11  :  3;  Dent.  9:  22). 
 
 Ta'ber-ing',  an  obsolete  English  word 
 found  in  Nah.  2  :  7.  The  "  taber  "  was  a 
 musical  instrument  of  the  drum-type,  and 
 "  to  taber  "  is  to  beat  with  loud  strokes,  as 
 men  beat  upon  such  an  instrument. 
 
 called  by  the  same  name  as  the  tents  of 
 the  people,  in  the  midst  of  which  it  stood. 
 As  a  portable  structure,  it  was  designed  to 
 contain  the  sacred  ai-k,  the  special  symbol 
 
 Tabernacle. 
 
 Tab'er-na^cle  (Ex.  chs.  2-5-27 ;  35- 
 40).  The  tabernacle  was  the  tent  of  Jehovah, 
 
 O  i'VfR 
 
 □ 
 
 Ground-Plan  of  Tabernacle. 
 
 of  God's  presence,  and  was  surrounded  by 
 an  outer  court  entered  on  the  eastern  side. 
 Within  the  entrance  was  placed  the  altar 
 of  burnt-offering;  between  this  altar  and 
 the  tabernacle  was  placed  the  laver  at 
 which  the  priests  washed  their  hands  and 
 feet;  and  toward  the  western  end  of  tlie 
 enclosure  was  placed  the  tabernacle  itself. 
 This  was  an  oblong,  rectangular  structure, 
 thirty  cubits  in  length  by  ten  in  width 
 (forty-five  feet  by  fifteen),  and  ten  in 
 height ;  the  interior  was  divided  into  two 
 
TABERNACLES,  THE  FEAST  OF— TABOR. 
 
 493 
 
 cliambers,  the  first  or  outer  of  twenty  cu- 
 bits in  length,  the  inner  of  ten  cubits,  and 
 consequently  an  exact  cube.  The  former 
 was  the  Holy  Place,  or  First  Tabernacle 
 (Heb.  9  :  2),  containing  the  golden  can- 
 dlestick on  one  side,  the  table  of  shew- 
 bread  opposite,  and  between  them  in  the 
 centre  the  altar  of  incense.  The  latter  was 
 the  Most  Holy  Place,  or  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
 containing  the  ark  surmounted  by  the  cher- 
 ubim, with  the  two  tables  of  the  Law  in- 
 side. The  front  of  the  Holy  Place  was 
 closed  by  a  hanging  of  fine  linen  embroid- 
 ered in  blue,  purple  and  scarlet,  and  sup- 
 ported by  golden  hooks  on  five  pillars  of 
 shittim-wood  overlaid  with  gold  and  stand- 
 ing in  brass  sockets.  A  more  sumptuous 
 curtain  of  the  same  kind,  embroidered  with 
 cherubim,  and  hung  on  Jour  such  pillars 
 with  silver  sockets,  divided  the  Holy  from 
 the  Most  Holy  Place.  It  was  called  the 
 veil,  as  it  hid  from  the  eyes  of  all  but  the 
 high  priest  the  inmost  sanctuary,  where 
 Jehovah  dwelt  on  his  mercy -seat,  between 
 the  cherubim  above  the  ark.  Hence,  "  to 
 enter  within  the  veil "  is  to  have  the  closest 
 access  to  God.  The  veil  was  only  passed  by 
 the  high  priest  once  a  year,  on  the  day  of 
 atonement,  in  token  of  the  mediation  of 
 our  Lord  Christ,  who,  with  his  own  blood, 
 hath  entered  for  us  within  the  veil  which 
 separates  God's  own  abode  from  earth 
 (Heb.  6  :  19).  The  Holy  Place  was  only 
 entered  by  the  priests  daily  to  offer  incense 
 at  the  time  of  morning  and  evening  prayer, 
 and  to  renew  the  lights  on  the  golden  can- 
 dlestick, and  on  the  Sabbath  to  remove  the 
 old  shew-bread  and  to  place  the  new  upon 
 the  table. 
 
 Tabernacles,  The  Feast  of,  called 
 also  "the  feast  of  ingathering"  (Ex.  23  : 
 16),  was  the  third  of  the  three  great  festi- 
 vals of  the  Hebrews,  which  lasted  from  the 
 fifteenth  till  the  twenty-second  of  Tisri. 
 The  time  of  the  festival  fell  in  the  au- 
 tumn, when  the  whole  of  the  chief  fruits 
 of  the  ground,  the  corn,  the  wine  and  the 
 
 oil,  had  been  gathered  in  (Lev.  23:  39; 
 Deut.  16  :  13-15).  Its  duration  was  seven 
 days  strictly  (Deut.  16  :  13  ;  Ezek.  45  :  25). 
 During  these  days  the  Israelites  were 
 commanded  to  dwell  in  booths  or  huts 
 formed  of  the  boughs  of  trees  (Lev.  23  : 
 40-43).  The  feast  of  tabernacles  was  to 
 be  at  once  a  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest 
 and  a  commemoration  of  the  time  when 
 the  Israelites  dwelt  in  tents  during  their 
 passage  through  the  wilderness. 
 Tab'i-tha  [gazelle.'].  See  Dorcas. 
 Ta^bor  \_the  height],  the  name  of  a 
 mount,  of  a  city  and  of  an  oak. 
 
 1.  Mount  Tabor  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
 teresting and  remarkable  of  the  single 
 mountains  in  Palestine.  It  rises  abruptly 
 from  the  north-eastern  arm  of  the  plain 
 of  Esdraelon,  and  stands  entirely  insulated, 
 except  on  the  west,  where  a  narrow  ridge 
 connects  it  with  the  hills  of  Nazareth.  As 
 seen  from  a  distance,  it  presents  to  the  eye 
 a  beautiful  appearance,  resembling  that 
 of  a  cone  with  the  point  rounded  off.  The 
 summit  is  an  irregular  platform,  from  which 
 the  view  is  very  fine.  On  the  west  is  the 
 Mediterranean ;  on  the  east  we  catch  a 
 glimpse  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  to  the 
 north-east  is  the  snow-crowned  Hermon ; 
 on  the  south  are  numerous  valleys  wind- 
 ing into  the  hills  which  skirt  the  plain  of 
 Esdraelon  and  the  noble  plain  itself,  with 
 Mount  Carmel  at  the  one  extremity  and 
 Gilboa  at  the  other. 
 
 Tabor  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament, but  it  makes  a  prominent  figure  in 
 the  Old.     The  name  first  occurs  in  the 
 sketch  of  Issachar's  boundaries  (Josh  19  : 
 22).     On  Tabor,  Barak,  at  the  command 
 of  Deborah,  assembled  his  forces,  and,  de- 
 !  scending  thence  with  "  ten  thousand  men 
 j  after  him"  into  the  plain,  conquered  Sis- 
 !  era  on  the  banks  of  the  Kishon  (Judg.  4  : 
 I  6-15).     The  brothers  of  Gideon  were  here 
 I  murdered  by  Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (Judg. 
 8  :  18,  19).     In  popular  tradition  Tabor  is 
 1  regarded  as  the  mount  of  our  Lord's  trans- 
 
194 
 
 TABBET— TAHAPANES. 
 
 Mount  Tabor  from  the  S.  AV. 
 
 figuration,  but  for  the  tradition  tliere  is  no 
 support  whatever.  Proof  is  abundant  from 
 the  Old  Testament  and  from  later  history 
 that  a  fortress  or  town  existed  on  Tabor 
 from  very  early  times  down  to  b.  c.  50,  and 
 as  Josei)hus  says  that  the  fortifications 
 there  were  strengthened  about  a.  d.  60,  it 
 is  morally  certain  that,  during  the  inter- 
 vening period — that  is,  in  the  days  of  our 
 Lord — Tabor  must  have  been  inhabited. 
 Tabor,  therefore,  could  hardly  have  been 
 the  Mount  of  Transfiguration.  The  prob- 
 able scene  of  that  event  was  one  of  the 
 lower  summits  of  Mount  Hermon,  as  the 
 connection  would  imply  that  our  Lord  was 
 then  at  or  near  Cfesarea  Philippi,  which  is 
 at  the  foot  of  Hermon,  sixty  miles  north- 
 north-east  of  Tabor  (Matt.  17  : 1,  2).  See 
 Hermon.  The  modern  name  of  Mount 
 Tabor  is  Jebel  et-  Tur. 
 
 2.  Tabor,  a  city  of  the  Merarite  Levites, 
 in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (1  Chron.  6  :  77). 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  the  summit 
 and  side  of  the  mount. 
 
 3.  Tabor,  the  Plain  of,  an  incorrect 
 translation  of  the  passage  in  1  Sam.  10  : 
 3;  the  correct  rendering  is  the  oak  of 
 Tabor. 
 
 Ta'bret.     See  Timbrel. 
 
 Taches,  hooks  or  clasps  of  gold  and 
 copper  used  in  connecting  the  curtains  of 
 the  tabernacle  (Ex.  20  :  6,  11,  33  ;  35: 11 ; 
 36:  13;  39  :  33). 
 
 Tad'mor  [city  of  palms],  the  city  built 
 by  Solomon  "in  the  wilderness"  (1  Kings 
 9  :  17,  18;  2  Chron.  8  :  4),  and  known  to 
 the  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  name 
 of  Palmyra.  It  lay  between  the  Euphrates 
 and  Hamath,  in  a  fertile  tract  or  oasis  of 
 the  desert,  and  from  its  position  command- 
 ed a  large  share  of  the  caravan-traffic. 
 
 Ta-hap'a-nes  (Jer.  2  :  10),  Te- 
 haph'ne-hes  (Ezek.  30  :  18),  Tah'- 
 pan-hes  (Jer.  43  :  7),  abbreviated  form, 
 Han'es  (Isa.  30  :  4),  a  boundary  city  of 
 Lower  Egypt,  near  or  on  the  eastern  bor- 
 der. It  is  thought  to  be  the  same  as  the 
 Daphne  of  the  Greeks.      It  was  an  im- 
 
TAHPENES— TARSUS. 
 
 495 
 
 portant  town,  and  is  naentioned  in  connec- 
 tion with  Noph  or  Memphis  (Jer.  46:  14). 
 The  Jews  in  Jeremiah's  time  remained 
 here  (Jer.  44  :  1). 
 
 Tah'pe-nes,  an  Egyptian  queen,  wife 
 of  the  Pharaoh  who  received  Hadad  tlie 
 Edomite  and  who  gave  him  her  sister  in 
 marriage  (1  Kings  11  :  18-20). 
 
 Tale,  an  old  English  word  meaning  a 
 full  number.  It  is  what  wo  call  the  tally 
 or  the  number  tohl  off  or  counted  (Ex.  5  :  8, 
 18 ;  1  Sam.  18  :  27  ;  1  Chron.  9  :  28). 
 
 TaFent,  a  Jewish  weight,  commonly 
 of  silver,  but  also  of  gold.  A  talent  of 
 silver  (Ex.  38  :  25)  is  estimated  as  worth 
 about  sixteen  hundred  dollars. 
 
 TaFmai,  the  name  of  two  men. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  three  sons  of  "the  Anak" 
 who  were  slain  by  the  men  of  Judah  (Num. 
 
 13  :  22;  Josh.  15  :  14  ;  Judg.  1  :  10). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Ammihud,  king  of  Geshur  (2 
 Sam.  3:3;  13  :  37;  1  Chron.  3:2),  and 
 probably  a  petty  chieftain  dependent  on 
 David. 
 
 Ta'mar  \_palm  iree\,  the  name  of  three 
 women  and  a  place. 
 
 1.  The  daughter-in-law  of  Judah  and 
 the  mother  of  the  twins  Pharez  and  Za- 
 rah  (Gen.  38  :  6-30). 
 
 2.  The  daughter  of  David  and  of  Maa- 
 chah,  the  Geshurite  princess,  and  thus  sis- 
 ter to  Absalom  (2  Sara.  13  :  1-32). 
 
 3.  The  daugliter  of   Absalom   (2  Sam. 
 
 14  :  27),  who,  by  her  marriage  with  Uriah 
 of  Gibeah,  became  the  mother  of  Maa- 
 chah,  the  future  queen  of  Judah  as  the 
 wife  of  Abijah  (1  Kings  15  :  2). 
 
 4.  A  spot  on  the  south-eastern  frontier 
 of  Judah,  so  called  evidently  from  a  palm 
 tree  (Ezek.  47  :  19 ;  48  :  28). 
 
 Tarn 'muz,  properly  "the  Tam'- 
 muz  "  (Ezek.  8  :  14),  is  commonly,  and 
 perhaps  correctly,  identified  with  the  Syr- 
 ian Adonis,  the  rites  of  whose  idolatrous 
 worship  were  shockingly  obscene.  Adonis 
 is  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  Adon,  Lord, 
 and  has  the  same  meaning  as  Baal,     His 
 
 worship  therefore  was  ona  of  the  forms 
 of  the  ancient  widespread  worship  of  the 
 sun. 
 
 Tap'es-try,  cloth  woven  or  wrouglit 
 with  the  needle  in  ornamental  figures 
 (Prov.  7  :  16;  31  :  22). 
 
 Tap-pu'ah  [apple,  hence  of  a  place 
 fruitful  in  apples],  the  name  of  two 
 places. 
 
 1.  A  city  of  Judah  in  the  low  country 
 (Josh.  15  :  34). 
 
 2.  A  place  on  the  boundary  of  the  chil- 
 dren of  Joseph  (Josh.  16  :  8 ;  17  :  8). 
 
 Tares,  the  weed  called  "  darnel " 
 (Matt.  13  :  25).  Before  it  comes  into  ear 
 the  darnel  is  very 
 similar  in  appear- 
 ance to  wlicat, 
 hence  the  com- 
 mand that  it  be 
 left  to  the  harvest, 
 lest  wliile  men 
 plucked  up  the 
 tares  they  should 
 "root  up  also  tlie 
 wheat  with  them." 
 Tar'get.  See 
 Arms,  Armor. 
 
 Tar'shish,  one 
 of  tlie  sons  of  Ja- 
 van,  ancestor  perhaps  of  the  Greek  element 
 in  the  population  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia. 
 
 Tar'shish,  occasionally  Thar'- 
 shish,  an  ancient  commercial  city,  usu- 
 ally identified  with  Tartessus  in  the  south 
 of  Spain  (Gen.  10  :  4;  Isa.  2  :  16;  23  :  1, 
 6,  10,  14 ;  Jer.  10  :  9 ;  Ezek.  27  :  12,  25). 
 The  voyage  through  the  Mediterranean  to 
 Tarshisli  was  made  by  the  largest  ships  of 
 ancient  times,  so  that  vessels  of  a  large 
 tonnage  were  called  "  ships  of  Tarshish  " 
 (1  Kings  22  :  48),  without  reference  to 
 the  Mediterranean  trade.  As  Tarshish 
 was  rich  in  the  precious  metals  (Ezek.  27  : 
 12),  it  was  the  seat  of  a  very  extensive 
 and  lucrative  commerce. 
 
 Tar'sus,   the  chief  town  of   Cilicia, 
 
 Tares. 
 
496 
 
 TARTAK— TEMAN. 
 
 Asia  Minor,  memorable  as  the  birtliplace 
 and  early  liome  of  the  apostle  Paul  (Acts 
 9  :  11 ;  21  :  39;  22  :  3).  Augustus  made 
 it  a  "  free  city."  Under  the  early  Roman 
 emperors  it  was  renowned  as  a  place  of 
 education.  Its  commerce  was  also  consid- 
 erable. It  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
 Cydnus,  in  the  midst  of  a  wide  and  fertile 
 plain.  The  modern  town,  called  Tarsous, 
 is  a  poor  and  filthy  place  with  a  po{)ula- 
 tion  of  twenty  thousand  Turks.  Of  the 
 ancient  city  no  ruins  of  any  importance 
 remain. 
 
 Tar'tak,  the  name  of  one  of  the  idol- 
 gods  worsliiped  by  the  Avites  whom  tlie 
 king  of  Assyria  sent  to  people  the  des- 
 olated kingdom  of  Israel  (2  Kings  17  :  31 ). 
 Of  the  god  or  the  form  of  his  worship  no- 
 tliing  is  known.  Tartak  is  a  Persian  or  Peh- 
 levi  word,  meaning  "hero  of  darkness." 
 
 Tar'tan.  This  word,  occurring  in  2 
 Kings  18  :  17  and  Isa.  20  :  1,  has  been 
 generally  regarded  as  a  proper  name,  but, 
 like  Rabsaris  and  Rabshakeh,  it  is  more 
 probably  an  official  designation,  and  des- 
 ignates the  Assyrian  commander-in-chief. 
 
 Tat''na-i,  a  Persian  satrap  or  gover- 
 nor of  the  province  on  the  Jewish  side 
 of  the  river  Euphrates  in  the  times  im- 
 mediately succeeding  the  return  from  Bab- 
 ylon (Ezra  5  :  3,  6).  He  endeavored  with 
 others  to  obstruct  the  work  of  the  return- 
 ed captives. 
 
 Tav^ems,  the  Three.  See  Three 
 Taverns. 
 
 Tax'ing  (Luke  2  :  2),  the  enrollment 
 or  registration  of  the  people  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  a  poll-tax. 
 
 Teb'eth,  the  tenth  month  in  the  sacred 
 and  fourth  in  the  civil  year-reckoning  of 
 the  Hebrews  (Esth.  2  :  16). 
 
 Teil  Tree,  mentioned  but  once  (Isa.  6  : 
 13),  and  supposed  to  be  the  terebinth,  a 
 deciduous,  long-lived  tree  still  found  in 
 Palestine. 
 
 Te'kel  [weif/hefl'\,  one  of  the  significant 
 ■words  written  on  the  wall  of  Belshazzar's 
 
 palace,  and  predictive  of  that  monarch's 
 doom  (Dan.  5  :  25,  27). 
 
 Te-ko^a,  Te-ko'ah  [  pitching— i.  e.  of 
 tenls'],  a  town  in  tlie  territory  of  the  tribe 
 of  Judah  (2  Chron.  11  :  6),  on  the  range 
 of  hills  which  rise  near  Hebron  and 
 stretch  eastward  toward  the  Dead  Sea. 
 The  "wise  woman"  whom  Joab  em- 
 ployed to  effect  a  reconciliation  between 
 David  and  Absalom  was  from  Tekoa  (2 
 Sam.  14  :  2).  Here  also  was  born  Ira,  the 
 son  of  Ikkesh  "the  Tekoite,"  one  of  Da- 
 vid's mighty  men  (2  Sam.  23  :  20).  But 
 Tekoa  is  cliiefly  memorable  as  the  birth- 
 place of  the  prophet  Amos  (1:1;  7  :  14). 
 It  is  known  still  as  TekHa.  It  lies  on  an 
 elevated  hill  which  spreads  itself  out  into 
 an  irregular  plain  of  moderate  extent. 
 Various  ruins  exist,  such  as  the  walls  of 
 houses,  cisterns,  broken  columns  and  heaps 
 of  building-stones. 
 
 Tel-a^bib,  the  i)lace  in  Ciialdaea  on 
 the  river  Chebar  (Ezek.  3:15)  where 
 were  those  Jewish  captives  with  whom 
 the  prophet  Ezekiel  began  his  prophetic 
 functions. 
 
 Tel-a'im,  the  place  at  which  Saul  col- 
 lected and  numbered  his  forces  before  his 
 attack  on  Amalek  (1  Sam.  15  :  4). 
 
 Tel-as'sar  [heap  of  Asshtu-],  mention- 
 ed in  2  Kings  19  :  12  and  in  Isa.  37  :  12 
 as  a  city  inhabited  by  "  the  children  of 
 Eden,"  which  had  been  conquered  and 
 was  held  in  the  time  of  Sennacherib  by 
 the  Assyrians.  It  must  have  been  in 
 Western  Mesopotamia,  in  the  neighbor- 
 hood of  Harran  and  Orfa,  and  its  name 
 points  to  some  site  wliere  Asshur  was  wor- 
 shi])cd. 
 
 Te'ma  [desert,  untiUed  land],  the  nintii 
 son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  25  :  15;  1  Chron.  1  : 
 30),  giving  his  name  to  a  tribe  (Job  6:19; 
 Jer.  25  :  23)  and  also  to  the  land  which 
 the  tribe  occupied  (Isa.  21  :  13,  14).  The 
 name  is  identified  with  Teymd,  a  small 
 town  on  the  confines  of  Syria. 
 
 Te'man  [on  the  right,  that  is,  south],  a 
 
TEMPERANCE— TEMPLE. 
 
 497 
 
 son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of  Esau  (Gen. 
 36  :  11),  who  gave  his  name  to  the  south- 
 ern district  of  the  Edomite  territory. 
 Teman,  as  a  part  of  Edom,  is  so  connect- 
 ed witli  Dedan  as  to  indicate  that  the 
 former  refers  to  the  southern  and  the 
 latter  to  tlie  northern  portion  (.Jer.  49  :  7, 
 8;  Ezek.  2o  :  13).  Eliphaz  tlie  Temanite 
 appears  in  Job  (2  :  11 ;  22  :  Ij  as  one  of 
 the  Avise  men  of  his  day. 
 
 Tem'per-ance.  This  word  in  our 
 Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment has  the  sense  of  self-control,  the 
 avoidance  of  excess  in  tlie  indulgence  of 
 the  appetites  (Acts  24  :  25;  2  Pet.  1  :  G). 
 
 Tem'ple.  David  first  proposed  to  re- 
 place the  taberTiacle  by  a  more  perma- 
 nent building,  but  was  forbidden  for  the 
 reasons  assigned  by  the  prophet  Nathan 
 (2  Sam.  7  :  5-16).  He  collected  the  ma- 
 terials, however,  and  made  the  necessary 
 arrangements,  but  left  to  his  son  Solomon 
 the  execution  of  the  task.  Solomon,  with 
 the  assistance  of  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
 commenced  this  great  undertaking  in  the 
 fourth  year  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  1012),  and 
 completed  it  in  seven  years  (b.  c.  1005). 
 It  occupied  the  site  selected  by  David, 
 which  had  formerly  been  the  threshing- 
 floor  of  the  Jebusite  Oman  or  Araunah, 
 on  Mount  Moriah.  The  whole  area  en- 
 closed by  the  outer  walls  of  the  temple 
 of  Solomon  formed  a  square  of  about  six 
 hundred  feet,  but  the  sanctuary  was  com- 
 paratively small,  inasmuch  as  it  was  in- 
 tended only  for  the  ministrations  of  the 
 priests,  the  congregation  of  the  people 
 assembling  in  the  courts.  In  this  and  all 
 other  essential  points  the  temple  followed 
 the  model  of  the  tabernacle,  from  which 
 it  differed  cliiefly  in  having  chambers 
 built  about  the  sanctuary  for  the  abode 
 of  the  priests  and  attendants  and  the 
 keeping  of  treasures  and  stores.  In 
 all  its  dimensions,  length,  breadth  and 
 lieight,  the  sanctuary  itself  was  exactly 
 twice  the  size  of  the  tabernacle,  the 
 32 
 
 ground-plan  measuring  eighty  cubits  by 
 forty,  whilst  that  of  the  tabernacle  was 
 forty  by  twenty,  and  the  height  of  the 
 temple  being  thirty  cubits,  while  that  of 
 the  tabernacle  was  fifteen. 
 
 As  did  the  tabernacle,  so  did  the  temple 
 consist  of  threj  parts — the  Porch,  the  Holy 
 Place  and  the  Holy  of  Holies.  The  whole 
 interior  was  lined  with  woodwork  richly 
 carved  and  overlaid  with  gold.  Within 
 and  without,  the  building  was  chiefly  con- 
 spicuous by  the  lavish  use  of  the  gold  of 
 Ophir  and  Parvaim.  Above  the  sacred 
 ark,  which  was  placed,  as  of  old,  in  the 
 Most  Holy  Place,  were  made  new  cher- 
 ubim, one  pair  of  whose  wings  met  above 
 the  ark,  and  another  pair  reached  to  the 
 walls  behind  them.  In  the  Holy  Place, 
 besides  the  altar  of  incense,  which  was 
 made  of  cedar  overlaid  with  gold,  there 
 were  seven  golden  candlesticks  instead  of 
 one,  and  the  table  of  sliew-bread  was  re- 
 placed by  ten  golden  tables,  bearing,  be- 
 sides the  shew-bread,  the  innumerable 
 golden  vessels  for  the  service  of  the  sanc- 
 tuary. 
 
 The  outer  court  contained  an  inner  court 
 called  the  "  Court  of  the  Priests."  In  the 
 outer  court  there  was  a  new  altar  of  burnt- 
 offering,  much  larger  than  the  old  one.  In- 
 stead of  the  brazen  laver,  there  was  for 
 the  ablution  of  the  priests  "a  molten 
 sea"  of  brass,  a  masterpiece  of  Hiram's 
 skill.  The  chambers  for  the  priests  were 
 arranged  in  successive  stories  against  the 
 sides  of  the  sanctuary.  This  temple  was 
 destroyed  by  Nebvichadnezzar  b.  c.  586. 
 
 After  the  Captivity  a  second  temple  was 
 built  by  Zerubbabel,  somewhat  larger  in 
 dimensions  than  Solomon's,  but  much  in- 
 ferior in  ornamentation  and  splendor. 
 This  second  temple  Herod  replaced  by  a 
 very  grand  structure,  on  which  he  lavished 
 great  wealth,  and  in  the  building  of  which 
 he  employed  many  years.  Herod's  tem- 
 ple had  the  unspeakable  honor  of  receiv- 
 ing into   its  courts   Messiah  the  Prince, 
 
498 
 
 TEMPT,  TEMPTATION. 
 
 J 
 
 TOWER  ANTONI*. 
 
 UJ     u 
 
 ^BRIDGE 
 
 NORTH 
 
 CATE 
 
 TERRftCe 
 
 TERRACE  22?FT.HICI 
 
 CCURT  OF   CENTiLES. 
 
 ■gv/c 
 
 STOA   BASILICA 
 
 HiLL   OPHEL. 
 
 Ground-Plan  op  Herod's  Temple. 
 
 The  lines  C  C  C  represent  the  Corinthian  columns  that  ran  around  all  sides  of  the  Court  of  the 
 Gentiles.  On  the  south  tliere  were  four  rows,  forming  the  Stoa  Basilica,  the  portico  of  Herod.  The 
 Court  of  the  Gentiles  was  separated  from  the  sacred  enclosure  by  a  marble  screen  or  wall,  F  F  F  F, 
 over  five  feet  high,  beautifully  ornamented  witli  carving,  and  bearing  inscriptions  in  Greek  and 
 Latin  forbidding  any  Gentile  to  pass  within  its  boundaries.  T  C,  the  treasure-chests  on  each  side 
 of  the  Shushan  Gate.  B,  the  Beautiful  Gate.  D,  the  steps  of  Degrees.  A,  the  Great  Altar.  P,  the 
 partition,  about  one  and  a  half  fi^et  high,  which  sej)arated  the  officiating  priests  and  the  altar  from 
 the  people.  H  H,  the  Holy  of  Holies,  within  the  tenijjle  proper.  E  E  K  E,  .steps  leading  up  from 
 the  Court  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  terrace  or  platform  of  the  tenii)le,  an  elevation  of  about  twenty-two 
 and  a  half  feet.  W  G,  the  Water  Gate.  G  S,  Single  (Jate.  G  H,  Gate  of  Huldah.  S  R,  Sanhedrim  Houm. 
 
 the  Lord  of  life  and  glory,  but  its  priests 
 and  worshipers  knew  him  not.  It  was  ut- 
 terly destroyed  by  the  Romans  under  Titus, 
 A.  D.  70. 
 
 Tempt,  Tempt'a-tion.  The  groinid- 
 idea  of  these  words  is  trial,  tent.  In  the 
 Scriptures  this  idea  takes  the  following 
 forms : 
 
 1.  The  temptation  or  trial  whereby  one  man 
 tests  another.  Thus  the  Jewish  priests  and 
 scribes  "  tempted  "  our  Lord  in  the  matter 
 of  the  tribute-money  (Luke  20  :  23\  that 
 they  might  discover  .some  ground  of  accu- 
 sation against  him. 
 
 2.  The  temptation  or  trial  ivhereby  men  test 
 God.    Thus  the  Israelites  "tempted"  God 
 
 in  the  wilderness  when  by  their  rebellion 
 they  tried  or  tested  his  patience  (Ex.  17  : 
 2,7;  Num.  14:  22). 
 
 3.  The  temptation  or  trial  whereby  God 
 teste  7nen.  Thus  God  "tempted"  Abra- 
 ham, in  tlie  sense  that  lie  tested  the  pati  i- 
 arch's  obedience  (Gen.  22  :  1).  Tempta- 
 tions from  God  are  never  enticements  to 
 sin,  but  trials  to  determine  and  develop 
 right  sentiments  and  holy  sympathies. 
 
 4.  The  temptation  or  alhiranent  to  evil 
 ifhereby  Satan  entices  men.  Thus  the  Scrip- 
 tures represent  Satan  as  tlie  Tempter  in 
 pre-eminence  (Gen.  3  :  1-6;  1  Chron.  21  : 
 1 ;  Matt.  4 : 1  ;  1  Thess.  3 :  o).  He  tempts 
 either  by  appealing  to  depraved  desires  or 
 
TEN   COMMANDMENTS— TENT. 
 
 499 
 
 by  suggesting  sin.  In  tempting  by  an  ap- 
 peal to  depraved  desires,  Satan  presents 
 some  outward  allurement,  which  if  one 
 yield  to  one  "  is  drawn  away  of  his  own 
 lust  and  enticed  "  (James  1 :  14)  ;  in  tempt- 
 ing by  a  suggestion  of  sin,  Satan  has  some 
 direct  access  to  the  human  soul  and  some 
 mysterious  power  of  interjecting  thought. 
 In  the  cases  of  Adam  and  our  Lord,  Satan 
 tempted  by  suggestion,  for  in  Adam  before 
 tlie  Fall  and  in  our  "holy,  harmless,  unde- 
 iiled  "  Lord  Jesus  there  were  no  sinful  lusts. 
 TenCom-mand'raents.  The  Scrip- 
 tures expressly  mention  that  the  Ten  Com- 
 mandments (Hebrew  "ten  words")  were 
 written  by  the  Lord  on  hvo  tables  of  stone 
 (Ex.  31  :  18 ;  32  :  15,  16 ;  34  :  1,  4,  28,  29 ; 
 Deut.  4  :  13;  10  :  1-5).  But  whilst  the 
 Scriptures  give  prominence  to  the  fact  that 
 there  were  two  tables,  they  nowhere  indi- 
 cate any  formal  division  of  the  command- 
 ments, or  what  was  their  number  on  each 
 of  the  tables.  The  modern  Jews  take  the 
 words  which  are  often  called  the  Preface 
 ( Ex.  20  :  2 ;  Deut.  5:6)  as  the  jirst  com- 
 mandment, and  the  prohibitions  both 
 against  having  other  gods  and  against  im- 
 age-worehip  as  the  second,  the  rest  being  ar- 
 ranged as  with  us.  The  Roman  Catholic 
 and  Lutheran  churches  regard  the  first 
 commandment  as  embracing  the  two  pro- 
 hibitions in  one  comprehensive  law  against 
 idolatry.  Hence  our  third  commandment 
 becomes  their  second,  and  so  on  to  our 
 ninth,  which  is  their  eighth.  Then  they 
 make  our  tenth  against  coveting  their  ninth 
 and  tenth.  In  their  arrangement  of  the 
 two  tables  the  first  contains  three  com- 
 mandments, closing  with  the  Sabbath  law, 
 and  the  second  the  remaining  seven.  The 
 Greek  and  English  churches  make  the 
 law  against  having  other  gods  besides 
 Jehovah  the  first  commandment,  and  that 
 against  image-worship  the  second.  This 
 is  the  arrangement  which  is  familiar  to 
 us.  It  places  four  commandments  on  the 
 first  table  and  six  on  the  second. 
 
 Tent.  The  early  migrations  of  man- 
 kind and  their  pastoral  occupation  would 
 naturally  lead  to  tent-life.  The  Scriptures 
 tell  us  that  Jubal,  the  son  of  Lamech, 
 "  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents 
 and  of  such  as  have  cattle  "  (Gen.  4  :  20). 
 After  the  Flood,  Noah  and  his  family 
 dwelt   in   tents  (Gen.  9  :  21,  27) ;   so   also 
 
 did  Abraham  and  his  descendants  (Gen. 
 13  :  3;  18  :  9  ;  26  :  17  ;  31  :  33)  till  Ja- 
 cob and  his  sons  went  down  into  Egypt. 
 Upon  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
 from  Egyptian  bondage  and  during  their 
 long  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  they  re- 
 sumed their  original  tent-life  (Ex.  16  :  16; 
 Josh.  7  :  24),  and  continued  it  for  some 
 time  even  after  their  settlement  in  Canaan 
 (Josh.  22:8).  The  phraseology  of  tent- 
 life  remained  among  the  people  long  after 
 such  life  had  ceased  to  be  their  normal  con- 
 dition (1  Kings  12  :  16),  and,  indeed,  at  all 
 times  many  persons  engaged  in  pastoral  pur- 
 suits were  dwellers  in  tents  (Judg.  4:11- 
 22),  as  were  also  for  the  summer  those  en- 
 gaged in  agricultural  pursuits.  The  tent  of 
 an  Arab  chief  to-day  is  such  an  exact  repro- 
 duction of  the  tent  of  Abraham  that  a  de- 
 scription of  the  one  is  a  description  of  the 
 other.  The  tent-covering  consists  of  stuff 
 about  three-quarters  of  a  yard  broad,  made 
 
500 
 
 TENTH  DEAL— THEOPHILUS. 
 
 of  black  goat's  hair  (Song  1 : 5),  laid  parallel 
 with  the  tent's  length.  This  is  sufficient 
 to  resist  ordinary  rains.  The  tent-poles 
 or  columns  are  usually  nine  in  number, 
 placed  in  three  groups.  The  ropes  which 
 hold  the  tent  in  its  place  are  fastened  to 
 loops  of  leather  tied  to  the  ends  of  a  stick, 
 round  which  a  piece  of  cloth  is  twisted 
 and  sewed  to  the  tent-cover.  The  ends  of 
 the  tent-ropes  are  fastened  to  short  sticks 
 or  pins,  which  are  driven  into  the  ground 
 with  a  mallet  (Judg.  4  :  21).  Eound  the 
 back  and  sides  of  the  tent  runs  a  piece  of 
 stufi"  removable  at  pleasure  to  admit  air. 
 The  tent  is  divided  into  two  apartments, 
 separated  by  a  carpet  partition  drawn 
 across  the  middle  of  the  tent  and  fas- 
 tened to  the  three  middle  posts.  As  in 
 ancient  times  so  now,  when  the  pasture 
 near  an  encampment  is  exhausted  the 
 tents  are  taken  down,  packed  on  camels 
 and  removed  (Gen.  26  :  17 ;  Isa.  38  :  12). 
 
 Tenth  deal  [tenth  part^,  a  liquid  mea- 
 sure, supposed  to  be  the  tenth  part  of  an 
 ephah,  or  about  six  pints. 
 
 Te'rah,  the  father  of  Abram,  Nahor 
 and  Haran,  and  through  them  the  ances- 
 tor of  the  great  families  of  the  Israelites, 
 Ishmaelites,  Midianites,  Moabites  and  Am- 
 monites (Gen.  11  :  24-32).  He  was  an 
 idolater  (Josh.  24  :  2),  dwelt  beyond  the 
 Euphrates  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (Gen. 
 11  :  28),  and  in  that  south-westerly  mi- 
 gration which  in  his  old  age,  from  some 
 unexplained  cause,  he  undertook,  went 
 with  his  son  Abram,  his  daughter-in-law 
 Sarai  and  his  grandson  Lot  to  Haran,  on 
 the  way  to  Canaan,  where,  two  hundred 
 and  five  years  old,  he  died  (Gen.  11  :  31, 
 32). 
 
 Ter'aph-im.  The  derivation  of  the 
 name,  found  only  in  the  plural  and  con- 
 nected with  images  used  in  idolatrous 
 worship,  is  obscure.  In  one  ca.se  a  single 
 statue  seems  to  be  intended  by  the  plural 
 (1  Sam.  19:13,  16),  but  generally  several 
 "images"  are  thus  designated  (Gen.  31  : 
 
 19,  30-35 ;  Judg.  17  :  3-5 ;  18  :  17,  18,  20). 
 Teraphim  were  consulted  by  the  Israelites 
 for  oracular  answers  (Zech.  10  :  2),  and  by 
 Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon  (Ezek. 
 21  :  19-22). 
 
 Ter^ti-us,  the  amanuensis  of  Paul  in 
 writing  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Kom. 
 16  :  22),  probably  a  Roman. 
 
 Ter-tul'lus,  "a  certain  orator"  (Acts 
 24  :  1)  who  was  retained  by  the  high 
 priest  and  Sanhedrim  to  accuse  the  apos- 
 tle Paul  at  Caesarea  before  the  Roman 
 procurator,  Antonius  Felix.  He  evident- 
 ly belonged  to  the  class  of  professional 
 orators. 
 
 Tes'ta-ment,  New.  See  Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 Tes'ta-ment,  Old.  See  Scriptures. 
 
 Tet'rarch,  the  sovereign  or  governor 
 of  the  "fourth"  part  of  a  country  (Matt, 
 14:1;  Luke  3:1).  The  title  is  appa- 
 rently applied  sometimes  to  petty  trib- 
 utary princes  without  any  such  determi- 
 nate meaning. 
 
 Thad'de-us,  the  surname  of  the  apos- 
 tle Jude,  called  also  Lebbeus  (Matt.  10:3; 
 Mark  3:18;  Luke  6:16;  Acts  1  :  13). 
 
 Thank-Of^fer-ing.     See  Offering. 
 
 The'a-tre,  a  Greek  word  which  means 
 not  only  the  place,  as  in  English,  where 
 dramatic  performances  are  exhibited,  but 
 also  the  scene  or  spectacle  itself  which  is 
 witnessed  there.  In  the  first  sense  the 
 word  occurs  in  Acts  19  :  29  ;  in  the  .sec- 
 ond sense  in  1  Cor.  4  :  9,  where  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  has  "spectacle." 
 
 The'bez  [brightness'],  a  place  memor- 
 able for  the  death  of  the  brave  Abimelech 
 (Judg.  9  :  50).  It  was  near  Shechem,  and 
 is  identified  with  the  modern  village  Tubdx, 
 the  name  scarcely  changed. 
 
 Thel-as'sar,  a  variation   of  Telas- 
 
 SAR. 
 
 The-oph''i-lus,  the  person  to  whom 
 Luke  inscribed  his  Gospel  and  the  Acts 
 of  the  Apostles  (Luke  1:3;  Acts  1:1). 
 From  Luke's  stvle  of  address  to  him  it 
 
THESSALONICA— THISTLE. 
 
 501 
 
 has  been  argued  with  much  probability 
 that  he  was  a  Gentile  and  that  he  occu- 
 pied some  high  official  position. 
 
 Thes-sa-lon-i^ca,  a  town  of  Mace- 
 donia, on  an  arm  of  the  sea  formerly 
 called   the   Thermaic   Gulf  and   now  the 
 
 Gulf  of  Saloniki.  Its  original  name  was 
 Therma,  but,  rebuilt  and  enlarged  by  Cas- 
 sander,  it  was  named  by  him  Thessalonica, 
 after  his  wife,  the  sister  of  Alexander  the 
 Great.  Under  the  name  Saloniki  it  still 
 exists,   and   after    Constantinople   is   the 
 
 Saloniki,  the  Modern  Thessalonica. 
 
 most  important  town  of  European  Turkey. 
 During  his  second  missionary  journey  the 
 apostle  Paul,  accompanied  by  Silas  and 
 Timothy,  visited  Thessalonica  and  found- 
 ed the  church  there  (Acts  17:1-4;  1 
 Thess.  1  :  1 ;  2  :  1).  To  this  church  the 
 apostle  Paul  wrote  two  Epistles,  the  earli- 
 est of  all  his  Epistles — the  first  about  A.  B. 
 53,  and  the  second  not  many  months  later. 
 
 Tlieu''das,  the  name  of  an  impostor 
 and  insurgent  mentioned  in  Gamaliel's 
 speech  before  the  Jewish  council  (Acts  5  : 
 35-39)  at  the  time  of  the  arraignment  of 
 the  apostles.  He  was  probably  one  of  the 
 insurrectionary  chiefs  or  fanatics  by  whom 
 the  land  was  overrun  in  the  last  year  of 
 Herod's  reign. 
 
 Thieves.  Theft  and  robbery  have 
 characterized  the  East  from  a  very  early 
 period  to  the  present  day.     The  New  Tes- 
 
 tament furnishes  ample  proof  that  during 
 our  Lord's  times  thieves  were  numerous 
 (Matt.  6:19;  21  :  13),  and  bands  of  rob- 
 bers were  scarcely  less  numerous  (Mark 
 15  :  7).  In  the  parable  of  the  Good  Sa- 
 maritan (Luke  10  :  .30-37),  which  is  a 
 graphic  description  of  scenes  then  fre- 
 quently occurring,  the  Greek  word  ren- 
 dered "  thieves  "  would  be  more  accurate- 
 ly rendered  "robbers."  These  robbers 
 sometimes  coupled  with  their  lawlessness 
 such  fanatical  zeal  for  emancipating  the 
 Jewish  nation  from  Roman  bondage  that 
 the  people  were  disposed  to  accept  this 
 zeal  as  an  atonement  for  very  flagrant 
 crimes  against  society.  It  was  on  this 
 account  that  the  popular  sympathy  went 
 out  so  strongly  to  Bar  abbas  and  his  com- 
 panions (John  18  :  39,  40). 
 This'tle.    See  Thokns  and  Thistles. 
 
502 
 
 THOMAS— THRESHING. 
 
 Thom'as,  one  of  the  apostles,  sur- 
 nanied  Didymus,  or  "a  twin"  (John  11  : 
 16;  21  :  2).  All  we  know  of  him  is  de- 
 rived from  John's  Gospel,  and  this 
 amounts  to  but  three  traits,  which,  how- 
 ever, agree  so  exactly  that,  slight  as  they 
 are,  they  place  his  character  before  us 
 with  admirable  precision.  This  character 
 is  that  of  a  man  slow  to  believe,  seeing  all 
 the  difficulties  of  a  case ;  subject  to  despond- 
 ency, viewing  things  on  the  darker  side ; 
 and  yet  full  of  ardent  love  of  his  Master. 
 The  first  trait  is  his  speech  when  our  Lord 
 determined  to  face  the  dangers  that  await- 
 ed him  in  Judaea  on  his  journey  to  Beth- 
 any (John  11  :  16).  The  second  was  his 
 speech  during  the  Last  Supper  (John  14  : 
 5),  that  prosaic,  incredulous  doubt  as  to 
 moving  a  step  in  the  unseen  future,  and 
 yet  an  eager  inquiry  as  to  how  this  step 
 was  to  be  taken.  The  third  was  after  the 
 Resurrection.  He  was  absent,  possibly  by 
 accident,  perhaps  characteristically,  from 
 the  first  assembly  where  our  Lord  had  ap- 
 peared. The  others  told  him  what  they 
 had  seen.  He  broke  forth  into  an  exclam- 
 ation, the  terms  of  which  convey  to  us  at 
 once  the  vehemence  of  his  doubt  and  the 
 vivid  picture  which  his  mind  had  retained 
 of  his  Master's  form  as  he  had  last  seen 
 him  lifeless  on  the  cross  (.lohn  20  :  25). 
 On  the  eighth  day  he  was  with  them  at 
 their  gathering,  perhaps  in  expectation  of 
 a  recurrence  of  the  visit  of  the  previous 
 week,  and  our  Lord  stood  amongst  them. 
 Our  Lord  uttered  the  same  salutation, 
 "  Peace  be  unto  you,"  and  then  turning  to 
 Thomas,  as  if  this  had  been  the  special 
 object  of  his  appearance,  uttered  the  words 
 which  convey  as  strongly  the  sense  of  con- 
 demnation and  tender  reproof  as  those  of 
 Thomas  had  shown  the  sense  of  hesitation 
 and  doubt.  The  effect  on  Thomas  was  im- 
 mediate. The  conviction  produced  by  the 
 removal  of  his  doubt  became  deeper  and 
 stronger  than  that  of  any  of  the  other 
 apostles.    The  words,  "  My  Lord  and  my 
 
 God !"  in  which  he  expressed  his  belief, 
 contain  a  far  higlier  assertion  of  his  Mas- 
 ter's divine  nature  than  is  contained  in 
 any  other  expression  by  apostolic  lij)s.  In 
 the  New  Testament  we  hear  of  Thomiis 
 only  twice  again — once  on  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
 ilee with  six  other  disciples  (John  21 : 2) ; 
 once  in  the  a.ssembling  of  the  apostles  af- 
 ter the  Ascension  (Acts  1  :  13). 
 
 Thorns  and  Thistles.  Eighteen  or 
 twenty  Hebrew  words  point  to  different 
 kinds  of  prickly  or  thorny  shrubs.  These 
 words  are  variously  rendered  in  our  Au- 
 thorized Version  by  "thorns,"  "briei-s," 
 "  thistles  "  and  the  like.  The  "  crown  of 
 thorns  "  (Matt.  27  :  29)  which  was  placed 
 in  derision  upon  our  Lord's  head  before 
 his  crucifixion  was  obviously  woven 
 from  some  flexible,  thorny  shrub,  and 
 not,  as  has  been  maintained,  from  the 
 Mhmnnus,  or  Spina  Christi,  the  thorns  of 
 which  are  quite  too  strong  and  large  for 
 weaving  into  a  wreath.  The  real  slirul) 
 was  pro])ably  the  Arabian  nabk,  which, 
 having  many  thorns  of  sufficient  size  and 
 sharpness  to  inflict  painful  wounds,  has 
 also  round  and  pliant  branches  that  could 
 easily  be  plaited  into  a  crown.  It  also  re- 
 sembles the  rich,  dark  green  of  the  tri- 
 umphal ivy-wreath,  which  would  give 
 additional  pungency  to  its  ironical  pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Three  Tav'ems,  a  station  on  the  Ap- 
 pian  road,  along  which  the  apostle  Paul 
 traveled  from  Puteoli  to  Rome  (Acts  28  : 
 15).  It  was  about  thirty-three  miles  from 
 Rome,  near  the  modern  Cistermt. 
 
 Thresh^ing.  Grain,  when  reaped 
 by  the  sickle  or  pulled  up  by  the 
 roots,  was  bound  in  sheaves,  which  were 
 carted  (Amos  2  :  13)  to  the  tlireshing- 
 floor,  a  circular  spot  of  hard  ground, 
 probably,  as  now,  from  fifty  to  eighty  or 
 one  hundred  feet  in  diameter.  Such 
 floors,  most  likely,  were  permanent  and 
 became  well-known  spots  (Gen.  50:  10,  11 ; 
 2  Sam.  24  :  16,  18).     On  these  the  oxen, 
 
THRONE— THUNDER. 
 
 503 
 
 forbidden  to  be  muzzled  (Deut.  25  :  4), 
 trampled  out  the  grain.  At  a  later  time 
 tiie  Jews  used  a  threshing-sledge  (Isa.  41 : 
 15;   2  Sam.  24  :  22;   1  Chron.  21  :  23),  a 
 
 Th  resh  i  ng-Sled  ge. 
 
 stage  with  three  rollers  ridged  with  iron, 
 which,  aided  by  the  driver's  weight, 
 crushed  out  the  grain,  often  injuring  it, 
 and  always  cutting  and  tearing  the  straw. 
 Lighter  grains  were  beaten  out  with  a  stick 
 (Isa.  28  :  27). 
 
 Throne.  The  Hebrew  word  thus  ren- 
 dered applies  to  any  elevated  seat  occupied 
 by  a  person  in  authority,  whether  a  high 
 priest  (1  Sam.  1  :  9),  a  judge  (Ps.  122 :  5) 
 or  a  military  chief  ( Jer.  1 :  15).  The  use 
 of  a  chair  in  a  country  where  the  usual 
 postures  were  squatting  and  reclining  was 
 at  all  times  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  dig- 
 nity (2  Kings  4  :  10;  Prov.  9  :  14).  In 
 order  to  specify  a  throne  in  our  sense  of 
 the  term  it  was  necessary  to  add  to  the 
 word  the  notion  of  royalty;  hence  the 
 frequent  occurrence  of  such  expressions 
 as  "throne  of  the  kingdom"  (Deut.  17  : 
 18  ;  1  Kings  1 :  46 ;  2  Chron.  7  :  18)'.  The 
 characteristic  feature  in  the  royal  throne 
 was  its  elevation.  Solomon's  throne  was 
 approached  by  six  steps  (1  Kings  10  :  19; 
 2  Chron.  9  :  18),  and  Jehovah's  throne  is 
 described  as  "high  and  lifted  up"  (Isa.  6  : 
 
 1).     In  materials  and  workmanship  Solo- 
 mon's throne  was  very  costly.     It  was  fur- 
 nished with  arms  or  "  stays  "  and  two  lions 
 standing  by  the  stays  ;  its  steps  were  lined 
 with  six  pairs  of  lions,  and  its  footstool 
 was  of  gold  (2  Chron.  9  :  17-19).     The 
 king  sat  on  his  throne  on  state  occasions, 
 as  wiien  granting  audiences  ( 1  Kings  2 : 
 19  ;  22 :  lU ;  Esth.  5 :  1),  receiving  hom- 
 age (2  Kings  11  :  19),  or  administering 
 justice  (Prov.  20 :  8).     At  such  times  he 
 appeared  in  his  royal  robes  (Jonah  3  : 
 6;  Acts  12:  21). 
 Thurn'mim.  SeeURiMandTnuM- 
 
 MIM. 
 
 Thun'der.  From  the  middle  of 
 April  to  the  middle  of  September 
 thunder  is  but  occasionally  heard  in 
 Palestine.  It  was  therefore  selected 
 by  Samuel  as  a  striking  expression  of 
 the  divine  displeasure  toward  the  Is- 
 raelites (1  Sam.  12  :  17).  It  was  regarded 
 by  the  Hebrews  as  the  voice  of  Jehovah 
 (Job  37  :  2,  4,  5 ;  40  :  9 ;  Ps.  18  :  13 ;  29  : 
 3-9;  Isa.  30:31),  who  dwelt  behind  the 
 thunder-cloud  (Ps.  81  :  7).  Hence  thun- 
 der is  occasionally  described  in  Hebrew  by 
 the  term  "voices"  (Ex.  9  :  23,  28;  1  Sam. 
 12  :  17).  Hence  the  people  in  the  Gospel 
 supposed  that  the  voice  of  the  Lord  was 
 the  sound  of  thunder  (John  12  :  29). 
 Thunder  was  to  the  mind  of  the  Jew  the 
 symbol  of  divine  power  (Ps.  29  :  3)  and 
 vengeance  (1  Sam.  2  :  10;  2  Sam.  22  :  14; 
 Ps.  77  :  18;  Isa.  29  :  6 ;  Rev.  8  :  5).  It 
 was  either  the  sign  or  the  instrument  of 
 his  wrath  on  numerous  occasions,  as  dur- 
 ing the  plague  of  hail  in  Egypt  (Hx.  9  : 
 23,  28),  at  the  promulgation  of  the  Law 
 (Ex.  19  :  16),  at  the  discomfiture  of  the 
 Philistines  (1  Sam.  7  :  10),  and  when  the 
 Israelites  demanded  a  king  (1  Sam.  12  : 
 17).  The  term  "  thunder"  is  used  as  a  su- 
 perlative expression  in  Job  26  :  14,  where 
 the  "thunder  of  his  power"  represents  the 
 infinite  sti-etch  of  the  divine  almightiness, 
 the  whole  compass  of  God's  mighty  deeds. 
 
504 
 
 THYATIRA— TIBERIAS. 
 
 The  Modern  Thyatira. 
 
 Thy-a-ti''ra,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  on 
 tJie  confines  of  Mysia  and  Ionia,  and  the 
 seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia 
 (Rev.  2 : 1 8-29).  Dyeing  apparently  formed 
 an  important  part  of  the  industrial  activity 
 of  Thyatira,  as  it  did  of  that  of  Colosse  and 
 Laodicea  f  Acts  16:14).  The  modern  name 
 of  the  city  is  A/c-Hisxar. 
 
 Thy'ine-"WOOd,  an  odoriferous  wood 
 of  the  cypress  family,  greatly  prized  by 
 the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  (Rev.  18  : 
 
 12).  It  is  a  native  of  North  Africa,  and 
 grows  to  the  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty- 
 five  feet. 
 
 Ti-be'ri-as,  a  city  in  our  Lord's  times 
 on  the  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
 (John  6  :  1,  23;  21  :  1).  It  was  built  by 
 Herod  Antipas,  and  named  by  him  in 
 honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  For  a 
 time  it  was  the  capital  of  Galilee.  The 
 amcient  name  has  survived  in  the  modern 
 Tubarieh,  which  occupies  the  original  site. 
 
TIBERIAS,  THE  SEA  OF— TIMNATH-SERAH. 
 
 505 
 
 It  is  remarkable  that  the  Gospels  give  us 
 no  information  that  our  Lord,  who  spent 
 so  much  of  his  public  life  in  Galilee, 
 ever  visited  Tiberias.  Apart  from  its 
 biblical  associations,  Tiberias  has  an  in- 
 teresting history.  It  bore  a  conspicuous 
 part  in  the  wars  between  the  Jews  and 
 the  Romans.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
 and  about  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
 tury, the  Sanhedrim  became  fixed  there. 
 Here  too,  through  a  succession  of  several 
 centuries,  flourished  some  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated schools  of  Jewish  learning. 
 
 Ti-be'ri-as,  the  Sea  of.  See  Gal- 
 ilee. 
 
 Ti-be^ri-us,  in  full  Tiberius  Clau- 
 dius Nero,  the  second  Roman  emperor, 
 successor  of  Augustus  (Luke  3  :  1-3).  He 
 began  to  reign  A.  d.  14  and  continued  to 
 reign  until  A.  D.  37.  He  became  empe- 
 ror in  his  fifty-fifth  year.  He  was  grossly 
 dissolute  in  life,  cruel  and  vindictive  in 
 disposition  and  very  despotic  in  his  gov- 
 ernment. In  his  reign  our  Lord  was 
 crucified. 
 
 Tib'ni,  a  son  of  Ginath  and  an  officer 
 in  the  Israelitish  army  when  Zimri  burned 
 himself  to  death.  He  was  proclaimed  king 
 by  a  portion  of  the  people,  and  so  was  Omri 
 by  another  portion.  In  the  course  of  four 
 years  Omri  prevailed  and  reigned  alone 
 (1  Kings  16  :  21,  22). 
 
 Ti'dal,  a  confederate  of  Chedorlaomer, 
 mentioned  only  in  Gen.  14  :  1,  9.  He  is 
 called  "king  of  nations,"  in  the  sense 
 probably  that  he  was  a  chief  over  various 
 nomadic  tribes. 
 
 Tig'lath-pi-le'ser,  the  second  As- 
 syrian king  who  is  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
 ture as  coming  into  contact  with  the  Is- 
 raelites. He  attacked  Samaria  in  the 
 time  of  Pekah  (2  Kings  15  :  29),  and  sub- 
 sequently becoming  an  ally  of  Ahaz,  king 
 of  Judah,  he  overran  the  whole  district 
 east  of  the  Jordan  and  carried  its  inhab- 
 itants into  captivity  (1  Chron.  5  :  26  L 
 The  annals  of  his  reign,  as  inscribed  on 
 
 the  Assyrian  tablets  and  slabs  which  are 
 now  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
 confirm  these  Scripture  records  in  every 
 essential  particular,  and  furnish  additional 
 details  of  great  historic  value. 
 
 Tim'brel,  Tab'ret.  In  old  English 
 tabor  was  used  for  any  drum.  Tabouret 
 and  taboiirine  are  diminutives  of  tabor, 
 and  denote  the  instrument  now  known 
 as  the  tambourine.  Tabret  is  a  contrac- 
 tion of  tabouret.  It  was  played  princi- 
 pally by  women  (Ex.  15  :  20 ;  Judg.  11  : 
 34 ;  1  Sam.  18  :  6 ;  Ps.  68  :  25)  as  an  ac- 
 companiment to  the  song  and  dance. 
 
 Tim'na,  a  concubine  of  Eliphaz,  son 
 of  Esau,  and  mother  of  Amalek  (Gen.  36  : 
 12). 
 
 Tim'nah,  a  duke  or  phylarch  of  Edom 
 (Gen.  36  :  40-43;  1  Chron.  1  :  51-54). 
 
 Tim'nah,  Tim'nath.  1.  One  of  the 
 landmarks  on  the  north  boundary  of  Ju- 
 dah's  allotment  (Josh.  15  :  10).  It  is 
 probably  identical  with  the  Thimna- 
 THAH  of  Josh.  19  :  43,  and  with  the  Tim- 
 nath,  or  more  accurately  the  Timnathah, 
 of  Samson  (Judg.  14  :  1,  2,  5). 
 
 2.  A  town  in  the  mountain-district  of 
 Judah  (Josh.  15  :  57),  supposed  to  have 
 been  south  of  Hebron. 
 
 3.  The  unknown  scene  of  the  adventure 
 of  Judah  with  his  daughter-in-law  (Gen. 
 38  :  12-14). 
 
 Tim^nath-Se^rah,  the  name  of  the 
 city  which  was  presented  to  Joshua  after 
 the  partition  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
 border  of  which  he  was  buried  (Josh.  19  : 
 50;  24  :  30).  In  Judg.  2  :  9  the  name  is 
 altered  to  Timnath-Heres,  which  Jewish 
 writers  and  travelers  suppose  to  be  identi- 
 cal with  the  modern  Kefr  Hdris,  a  village 
 five  miles  south  of  NabJus.  Dr.  Eli  Smith, 
 however,  suggests  the  identification  of  the 
 place  with  Tibneh,  a  ruined  site  on  the  great 
 Roman  road  from  Lydda  to  Jerusalem. 
 Here  there  are  several  excavated  sepul- 
 chres Avhich  in  size  and  in  the  richness 
 and  character  of  their  decorations  resem- 
 
506 
 
 TIMON— TITHES. 
 
 ble  tlie  so-called  "  Tombs  of  the  Kings  " 
 at  Jerusalem. 
 
 Ti'mon,  one  of  the  seven  deacons  in 
 the  churcli  at  JcruHalem  (Acts  G  :  5) 
 
 Tim'o-thy,  Tim-o'the-us  [honored 
 of  God],  (2  Cor.  1:1;  Pliil.  1:1).  He  is 
 first  mentioned  in  Acts  10:1,  where  he  is 
 described  as  the  son  of  a  Greek  Gentile  by 
 a  Jewish  mother.  Tlie  father's  name  is 
 unknown ;  his  mother's  was  Eunice,  his 
 grandmother's  Lois  (2  T.m.  1  :  5).  His 
 father  seems  to  have  died  during  the  son's 
 infancy,  for  upon  his  mother  and  grand- 
 mother the  care  of  the  boy  devolved. 
 Under  their  training  his  education  was 
 emphatically  Jewish.  The  arrival  of 
 Paul  and  Barnabas  in  Lycaonia  (Acts  14  : 
 6)  brought  the  message  of  glad  tidings  to 
 Timothy  and  his  mother,  and  they  receiv- 
 ed it  with  unfeigned  faith.  During  the  in- 
 terval of  seven  years  between  the  ajiostle's 
 first  and  second  journeys  Timothy  grew  up 
 to  manhood.  His  Cliristian  zeal  and  en- 
 ergy had  so  largely  developed,  and  his 
 reputation  for  consecrated  earnestness  was 
 so  widely  extended,  tliat  the  apostle  Paul 
 took  him  as  a  helper  in  evangelistic  work 
 (Acts  16  :  2,  3).  Thenceforward,  until 
 Paul's  death,  he  was  intimately  associated 
 with  the  apostle.  He  was  entrusted  with 
 the  charge  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  when 
 he  was  quite  young  (1  Tim.  4:12),  and  to 
 him  the  apostle  sent  two  Epistles.  Wheth- 
 er he  reached  Rome  before  Paul's  death 
 (2  Tim.  4  :  21)  we  do  not  know,  nor  do  we 
 know  the  time  and  circumstances  of  his 
 own  death. 
 
 Tin.  Among  the  various  metals  found 
 among  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites  tin  is 
 enumerated  (Num.  31  :  22).  It  was  known 
 to  the  Hebrew  metal-workers  as  an  alloy 
 of  other  metals  (Isa.  1:25;  Ezek.  22  : 
 18,  20).  It  was  brought  to  Tyre  by  the 
 ships  of  Tarshish  (Ezek.  27  :  12). 
 
 Tiph'sah  [ford],  a  town  mentioned  in 
 1  Kings  4  :  24  as  the  limit  of  Solomon's 
 empire  toward   the  Euphrates,  and  in   2 
 
 Kings  15  :  16  it  is  said  to  have  been  at- 
 tacked by  Menahem.  It  was  known  to 
 the  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  name 
 of  Tliapsacus,  and  was  the  point  where  it 
 was  usual  to  cross  the  Euphrates. 
 
 Ti'ras,  the  youngest  son  of  Japheth 
 (Gen.  10  :  2),  usually  identified  with  the 
 Thracians. 
 
 Tire,  an  ornamental  head-dress  worn 
 on  festive  occasions  (Isa.  3 :  18  ;  Ezek.  24  : 
 17). 
 
 Tir^ha-kah,  king  of  Ethiopia  (Gush), 
 the  opponent  of  Sennacherib  (2  Kings  19  : 
 9 ;  Isa.  37  :  9).  According  to  the  Assyr- 
 ian cuneiform  inscriptions,  an  Ethiopian 
 king  of  this  name  contested  with  Assur- 
 banipal,  grandson  of  Sennacherib,  the 
 sovereignty  of  Egypt. 
 
 Tir^sha-tha,  the  title  of  the  governor 
 of  Judaea  under  the  Persians  (Ezra  2  :  63; 
 Neh.  7  :  65;  8  :  9;  10  :  1).  It  is  always 
 written  with  the  article. 
 
 Tir'zah  [delight],  the  youngest  of  the 
 five  daughters  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  2G  : 
 33;  27  :  1;  30  :  11 ;  Josh.  17  :  3). 
 
 Tir'zah,  an  ancient  Canaanite  city 
 whose  king  is  enumerated  amongst  those 
 overthrown  in  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
 try (Josh.  12  :  24).  It  reappears  as  a 
 royal  city,  the  residence  of  Jeroboam  and 
 of  his  successoi-s  (1  Kings  14  :  17,  18).  Its 
 site  was  in  the  mountains  north  of  Shech- 
 em,  and  its  reputation  for  beauty  was  wide- 
 spread throughout  the  country  (Song  6  : 
 4).  It  is  supposed  to  be  represented  now 
 by  TelMzah,  a  place  of  some  size  and  thrift, 
 but  without  any  obvious  marks  of  antiq- 
 uity. 
 
 Tish'bite,  the,  Elijah's  well-known 
 designation  ( 1  Kings  17  :  1 ;  21  :  17,  28 ; 
 2  Kings  1  :  3,  8;  9  :  36).  The  town  thus 
 indicated  as  the  prophet's  birthplace  is 
 usually  taken  to  be  Thisbe  in  Naphtali. 
 
 Tis'ri,  the  first  month  of  the  civil  and 
 seventh  month  of  the  sacred  year-reckon- 
 ing among  the  Hebrews. 
 
 Tithes    [tenthft],   ordinarily   the  dues 
 
TITTLE— TOBIAH. 
 
 507 
 
 paid  for  the  maintenance  of  religion. 
 They  were  in  use  before  tliey  were  regu- 
 lated by  the  Levitical  Law.  Abram  pre- 
 sented to  Melchizedek  the  tenth  of  the 
 spoils  of  his  victory  (Gen.  14  :  20;  Heb. 
 7  :  2,  6),  and  Jacob  after  his  vision  at  Luz 
 devoted  to  God  a  tenth  of  all  his  property 
 (Gen.  28  :  22).  The  first  enactment  of  the 
 Law  in  respect  of  tithes  is  the  declaration 
 that  the  tenth  of  all  produce,  as  well  as 
 of  flocks  and  cattle,  belongs  to  Jehovah, 
 and  nmst  be  offered  to  him  (Lev.  27  :  30- 
 33).  This  tenth  is  assigned  to  the  Levites 
 as  the  reward  of  their  service,  and  they  are 
 to  dedicate  to  tlie  Lord  a  tenth  of  these 
 receipts,  which  is  to  be  devoted  to  the 
 maintenance  of  the  high  priest  (Num. 
 18  :  21-28).  Subsequent  legislation  re- 
 quired tithes  for  festival  purposes  (Deut. 
 12  :  5-18),  and  enacted  that  every  third 
 year  every  Israelite  should  make  an  ex- 
 culpatory declaration  that  he  had  done  his 
 best  to  fulfil  tlie  divine  command  (Deut. 
 26  :  12-14).  Under  the  kings  the  tithe 
 system  shared  in  the  general  neglect  into 
 which  the  observance  of  the  Law  had  de- 
 clined, and  Hezekiah,  among  other  re- 
 forms, took  effectual  means  to  revive  its 
 use  (2  Chron.  31  :  5,  12,  19).  Similar 
 measures  were  taken  after  the  Captivity 
 by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  12  :  44).  The  proph- 
 et Malachi  (3  :  8-12)  severely  denounces 
 those  who,  by  withholding  tithes  rob  God, 
 and  promises  munificent  blessings  to  those 
 who  faithfully  discharge  their  tithe  obli- 
 gations. In  our  Lord's  times  the  minute- 
 ness with  which  the  tithe  law  is  complied 
 with,  even  to  the  tenth  of  garden-herbs, 
 is  the  boast  of  the  Pharisees  (Matt.  23  : 
 23  ;  Luke  11  :  42  ;  18  :  12)  ;  and  in  re- 
 buking them  therefor  our  Lord  censures 
 not  their  scrupulosity  in  tithe-paying,  but 
 their  reliance  upon  the  tithes  of  mint  and 
 anise  and  cummin  for  justification  before 
 God,  whilst  they  notoriously  neglect  "  the 
 weightier  matters  of  the  Law — judgment, 
 mercv  and  faith." 
 
 Tit'tle,  the  least  point  (Matt.  5  :  18), 
 See  Jot. 
 
 Ti'tus.  This  distinguished  preacher 
 of  the  gospel  and  fellow-laborer  with  the 
 apostle  Paul  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts. 
 From  the  Epistles  of  Paul  we  learn  that 
 he  was  a  Gentile  convert  to  Christianity 
 (Gal.  2  :  1-5) ;  that  he  owed  his  conver- 
 sion to  Paul's  labors  (Tit.  1:4);  that  he 
 was  intimately  associated  with  Paul  in 
 evangelistic  work  (2  Cor.  2  :  13^  ;  that, 
 sent  to  Corinth  (2  Cor.  8  :  6,  16)  on  a  spe- 
 cial mission,  he  was  not  with  Paul  during 
 his  first  imprisonment,  but  between  the 
 first  and  second  imprisonment  accompa- 
 nied Paul  to  Crete,  where  the  apostle  left 
 him  in  order  to  complete  what  had  been 
 left  unfinished  (Tit.  1  :  5).  These  are  all 
 the  facts  which  Paul's  Epistles  bring 
 clearly  into  view.  The  presence  of  Titus 
 with  Paul  during  his  second  imprison- 
 ment has  been  inferred  from  Tit.  3  :  12, 
 but  the  fact  cannot  be  asserted.  The 
 Papistic  of  Paul  to  Titus  was  written  be- 
 tween the  writing  of  the  First  and  Second 
 Epistles  to  Timothy,  about  A.  D.  64.  Tra- 
 dition maintains  that  Titus,  after  Paul's 
 deatli,  made  Crete  his  permanent  place 
 of  residence,  and  that  he  died  there  at 
 an  advanced  age. 
 
 Tob  [good],  Land  of,  a  region  east  of 
 Gilead,  probably,  where  Jephthah  took  ref- 
 uge when  expelled  from  home  by  his  half- 
 brother  (Judg.  11  :  3),  and  where,  at  the 
 head  of  a  band  of  freebooters,  he  re- 
 mained till  he  was  brought  back  by  the 
 elders  of  Gilead.  It  has  not  been  identi- 
 fied with  any  modern  district. 
 
 To-bi'ah  [good  in  Jehovah],  the  Am- 
 monite who  played  a  conspicuous  part 
 in  the  opposition  made  by  Sanballat  the 
 Moabite  and  his  adherents  to  the  re- 
 building of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  2  :  10).  The 
 two  races  of  Moab  and  Amnion  found  in 
 these  men  fit  representatives  of  that  he- 
 reditary hatred  to  the  Israelites  which 
 began   before  the  entrance   into  Canaan. 
 
508 
 
 TOGARMAH— TOKMENTORS. 
 
 and  was  not  extinct  when  the  Hebrews 
 as  a  nation  )iad  ceased  to  exist. 
 
 To-gar'mah,  a  son  of  Gomer  and 
 brother  of  Ashkenaz  and  Riphath  (Gen. 
 10  :  3).  As  a  geographical  term,  Togar- 
 mah  is  connected  with  Armenia,  and  the 
 subsequent  notices  of  the  name  (Ezeli.  27  : 
 14;  38  :  0)  accord  with  this  view. 
 
 To'la.  1.  The  first-born  of  Issachar 
 and  ancestor  of  the  Tolaites  (Gen.  4G  : 
 13;  Num.  26  :  23;  1  Chron.  7  :  1,  2).  2. 
 Judge  of  Israel   after  Abimelech  (Judg. 
 
 10  :  1,  2).  He  judged  Israel  for  twenty- 
 three  years  at  Hhamir  in  Mount  Eph- 
 raim,  where  he  died  and  was  buried. 
 
 Tombs.     See  Burial. 
 
 Tongues,  Confusion  of.  The  unity 
 of  the  human  race  is  clearly  implied,  if 
 not  positively  asserted,  by  Moses  (Gen. 
 1  :  27  ;  2  :  22),  who  certainly  assumes,  as  a 
 corollary  of  this  unity,  the  unity  of  lan- 
 guage (Gen.  11  :  1).  No  explanation  is 
 given  of  the  origin  of  speech,  but  its  ex- 
 ercise is  evidently  regarded  as  coeval 
 with  the  creation  of  man.  The  original 
 unity  of  speech  was  restored  in  Noah,  but 
 causes  were  early  at  work  to  disturb  and 
 destroy  it.  The  human  family  endeavor- 
 ed to  check  the  tendency  to  separation  by 
 the  establishment  of  a  great  central  edifice, 
 and  of  a  city  which  should  serve  as  the  me- 
 tropolis of  the  whole  Avorld.  The  project 
 was  defeated  by  the  interposition  of  Je- 
 hovah, who  took  measures  to  "confound 
 their  language,"  so  that  they  might  "  not 
 understand  one  anotlier's   speech"  (Gen. 
 
 11  :  7).  The  confusion  of  tongues  and 
 the  dispersion  of  nations  are  sjioken  of  in 
 the  Scriptures  as  contemporaneous  events. 
 The  divergence  of  the  various  families 
 into  distinct  tribes  and  nations  ran  par- 
 allel with  tlie  divergence  of  speech  into 
 dialects  and  languages,  and  thus  the  tenth 
 chapter  of  Genesis  is  posterior  in  histor- 
 ical sequence  to  the  events  recorded  in 
 the  eleventh  chapter.  In  the  tenth  chap- 
 ter of  Genesis,  Moses  refers  the  whole  hu- 
 
 man race  to  Noah's  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham 
 and  Japheth.  The  Shemites  are  described 
 last,  apparently  that  the  continuity  of  the 
 narrative  may  not  be  further  disturbed, 
 and  the  Ilamites  stand  next  to  the  Shem- 
 ites, apparently  in  order  to  show  that  these 
 were  more  closely  related  to  each  other 
 than  to  the  Japheth  ites.    See  Nations. 
 
 Tongues,  Gift  of.  The  promise  of 
 our  Lord  to  his  disciples,  "They  shall 
 speak  with  new  tongues"  (Mark  16  :  17), 
 was  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when 
 "cloven  tongues  like  as  of  fire"  sat  upon 
 them,  and  "every  man  heard  them  speak 
 in  his  own  language"  (Acts  2 : 1-12).  This 
 supernatural  knowledge  of  languages  was 
 given  to  the  disciples  for  their  work  as 
 evangelists,  and  was  obviously  an  endow- 
 ment of  inmiense  practical  worth.  The 
 disciples  were  Galileans.  They  knew 
 only  the  tongues  spoken  in  Galilee,  but 
 suddenly  they  surmounted  their  provin- 
 cialism. They  could  go  east  or  west, 
 north  or  south ;  could  cross  oceans  oi 
 continents ;  could  visit  without  restric- 
 tion equatorial  or  polar  climes,  and  ev- 
 erywhere could  publish  the  glad  tidings 
 of  salvation.  The  endowment,  however, 
 was  liable  to  abuse,  and  from  tlie  four- 
 teenth chapter  of  Paul's  First  Epistle  to 
 the  Corinthians  we  gather  that  it  was 
 abused.  It  soon  served  its  purpose,  and 
 then  passed  away. 
 
 Tool,  an  instrument  of  manual  labor 
 (Ex.  20  :  25;  32  :  4;  Deut.  27  :  5;  1  Kings 
 6:7).    See  Axe,  Hammer,  Knife,  Saw. 
 
 To'paz.  This  precious  stone  is  of  a 
 brilliant  yellow  color,  and  when  fine  is 
 of  great  value  (Ex.  28  :  17;  39  :  10;  Ezek. 
 28  :  13 ;  Job  28  :  19 ;  Rev.  21  :  20).  It  oc- 
 cupied the  second  place  in  the  sacerdotal 
 breastplate  of  Aaron.  It  is  generally  iden- 
 tified witii  our  chrysolite. 
 
 To'phet,  To'pheth.    See  Hinnom. 
 
 Tor-ment'ors.  The  word  occurs  but 
 once  in  Scripture  (Matt.  18  :  34),  and  is 
 commonlv  understood  to   denote   a  class 
 
TORTOISE— TROAS. 
 
 509 
 
 of  officers  who  examined  accused  per- 
 sons by  torture. 
 
 Tor''toise.  The  word  thus  rendered 
 is  found  in  Lev.  11  :  29,  and  designates 
 a  species  of  lizard. 
 
 TO'W'er.  Watch-towers,  or  fortified 
 posts  in  frontier  or  exposed  situations,  are 
 not  infrequently  mentioned  in  Scripture 
 (Gen.  35  :  21 ;  Judg.  8:17;  Isa.  21  :  5,  8, 
 11 ;  Mic.  4  :  8),  and  in  some  parts  of  Pal- 
 estine are  common  at  the  present  day.  Be- 
 sides these  military  structures,  towers  were 
 built  in  vineyards  as  an  almost  necessary 
 appendage  to  them  (Isa.  5:2;  Matt.  21  : 
 33).  Such  towers  in  vineyards  are  still 
 in  use  in  Palestine,  but  they  are  rudely 
 and  slightly  built. 
 
 ToAvn-Clerk,  the  magistrate  at  Eph- 
 esus  (Acts  19  :  35)  who  appeased  the  mob 
 excited  by  Demetrius  and  his  fellow-crafts- 
 men. He  was  the  recorder  of  the  laws  and 
 decrees  of  the  state,  and  the  reader  of  them 
 in  public. 
 
 Traoh-o-ni''tis,  the  Greek  equivalent 
 for  the  Aramaic  Argob.     See  Argob. 
 
 Tra-di'tion,  a  precept  or  custom  not 
 contained  in  the  written  Law,  but  handed 
 down  from  generation  to  generation  (Matt. 
 15:1-6;  Mark  7:5-13).  The  Jews  of 
 our  Lord's  time  maintained  that  God  gave 
 Moses,  besides  the  Law,  a  variety  of  pre- 
 cepts, which  he  communicated  to  Joshua, 
 by  whom  they  were  communicated  to  the 
 elders,  and  by  them  to  the  judges  and 
 prophets  in  regular  succession.  Many  of 
 these  traditions  were  in  direct  opposition 
 to  the  divine  law. 
 
 Trance.  This  word  is  used  by  Luke 
 (Acts  10:  10;  11:5;  22: 17)  with  the  same 
 meaning,  apparently,  which  it  still  bears — 
 namely,  the  loss  of  conscious  perception. 
 
 Trans-fig 'ured.  This  word  is  de- 
 scriptive of  our  Lord's  changed  appear- 
 ance on  the  mount  (Matt.  17  :  1-8;  Mark 
 9:2-7;  Luke  9  :  28-36;  2  Pet.  1  :  16-18). 
 The  change  was  in  the  form  and  face  and 
 apparel  of  our  Lord.     It  was  a  complete 
 
 metamorphose  or  transformation,  and  was  ex- 
 ceedingly majestic  and  glorious.  His  coun- 
 tenance shone  with  radiant  splendor,  and  his 
 robes  glistened  with  snowy  whiteness.  The 
 design  of  this  miraculous  event  was  chiefly 
 to  attest,  in  the  most  solemn  and  impressive 
 manner,  the  divinity  of  our  Lord's  person 
 and  mission,  and  to  furnish  the  disciples 
 the  most  conclusive  evidence  of  a  higher 
 spiritual  world  in  which  God's  people, 
 represented  by  Moses  and  Elias,  are  con- 
 sciously existent.  It  was,  moreover,  a  rev- 
 elation of  tlie  transcendent  glory  awaiting 
 the  redeemed  when  they  "all,  with  open 
 face  beholding  as  in  a  glass  the  glory  of 
 the  Lord,  are  changed  into  the  same  im- 
 age, from  glory  to  glory"  (2  Cor.  3  :  18). 
 The  exact  scene  of  this  wonderful  event  is 
 not  stated  in  Scripture.  Tradition  has  for 
 many  centuries  pointed  to  Tabor,  but  Her- 
 mon  is  the  more  probable  locality.  See 
 Tabor;  also  Hermon. 
 
 Tres'pass-Of'fer-ing.  See  Offer- 
 ing and  Sin-Offering. 
 
 Trib'ute.  This  word,  as  used  in  Scrip- 
 ture, sometimes  means  a  tax  levied  by  a 
 victorious  nation  upon  a  conquered  state 
 (.Tosh.  16  :  10),  and  sometimes — most  gen- 
 erally, indeed — either  the  ordinary  capita- 
 tion-tax for  the  expenses  of  government 
 or  the  tolls  and  imposts  levied  on  partic- 
 ular commodities  ( Matt.  17  :  25  ;  Luke  20 : 
 22;  Rom.  13  :  6,  7).  The  tribute-money 
 mentioned  in  Matt.  17  :  24,  25  was  the 
 half-shekel  (Ex.  30  :  13),  which  was  the 
 poll-tax  of  every  Israelite,  and  which  in 
 our  Lord's  time  was  applied  to  defray  the 
 general  expenses  of  the  temple.  Another 
 tribute-money,  meaning  the  tax  paid  to 
 the  Roman  emperor,  is  mentioned  in  Matt. 
 22  :  19. 
 
 Tro'as,  full  name  Alexandreia 
 Troas,  the  city  from  which  the  apos- 
 tle Paul  first  set  sail  to  carry  the  gospel 
 from  Asia  to  Europe  (Acts  16  :  8,  11).  It 
 was  situated  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  oppo- 
 site  the    south-eastern   extremity   of  the 
 
510 
 
 TROGYLLIUM— TYRE,  TYRUS. 
 
 island  of  Tenedos.     The  modern  name  is  ; 
 Esk  i-  StximhouL 
 
 Tro-gyrii-um,  the  rocky  extremity 
 of  the  ridge  of  Mycale,  exactly  opposite 
 Samos  (Acts  20  :  15).  A  little  to  the  east 
 of  the  extreme  [loint  is  an  anchorage  where 
 Paul  tarried  one  night. 
 
 Troph'i-mus.     See  Tychicus. 
 
 Trum'pet,  a  wind  instrument  closely 
 related  to  the  liorn.  Two  trumpets  made 
 of  silver  were  used  by  the  priests  to  as- 
 semble the  people  and  to  regulate  the  time 
 for  marching  (Num.  10 :  1-9).  Tliey  were 
 also  used  on  festive  occasions  (Lev.  23 :  24 ; 
 25  :  9,  10). 
 
 Trum'pets,  Feast  of.  This  was  the 
 festival  of  the  New  Year's  day  of  the  civil 
 year,  the  first  of  Tisri,  the  month  which 
 commenced  the  sabbatical  year  and  the 
 year  of  jubilee.  A  characteristic  feature 
 of  the  festival  was  a  "  blowing  of  trum- 
 pets"  (Lev.  23  :  24;  Num.  29  :  1). 
 
 Try-phe'na  and  Try-pho'sa,  two 
 Christian  women  at  Rome  whom  Paul  sa- 
 lutes (Rom.  16 : 1 2).  They  may  have  been 
 sisters,  but  it  is  more  probable  tliat  they 
 were  fellow-deaconesses. 
 
 Tu'bal,  a  son  of  Japheth,  commonly 
 associated  in  Scripture  with  Javan  and 
 Meshech  (Isa.  66  :  19 ;  Ezek.  27  :  13;  32: 
 26 ;  38  :  2,  3 ;  39  :  1 ),  and  represented  as 
 nations  of  the  North.  Josephus  identifies 
 the  descendants  of  Tubal  Avith  the  Iberi- 
 ans— that  is,  the  inhabitants  of  a  tract  of 
 country  between  the  Ca.spian  and  Enxine 
 Seas  which  nearly  corresponds  to  the  mod- 
 ern Georgia.  In  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
 the  Moschi  and  Tibareni,  under  the  names 
 Miiskai  and  Tnpldl,  are  constantly  associ- 
 ated. 
 
 Tu^bal-Cain,  the  son  of  Lamech  the 
 Cainite  by  his  wife  Zillah  (Gen.  4 :  22).  lie 
 is  called  in  our  Authorized  Version  "an 
 instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and 
 iron,"  but  the  original  Hebrew  denominates 
 him  "a  forgrr  of  every  edged  tool  of  cop- 
 per and  iron." 
 
 Tur''tle,  Tur'tle-Dove,  a  species  of 
 pigeon  very  abundant  in  Palestine.  The 
 Levitical  Law  permitted  poor  persons, 
 whose  circumstances  forbade  more  expen- 
 sive ofl'erings,  to  present  at  God's  altar  two 
 turtle-doves  or  two  young  pigeons  (Lev. 
 12 :  8).  Such  an  ofl'ering  was  made  by  our 
 Lord's  mother  when  she  brought  him  "  to 
 Jerusalem  to  present  him  to  the  Lord" 
 (Luke  2  :  22-24).  The  regular  migration 
 of  the  turtle-dove  and  its  return  in  spring 
 are  alluded  to  in  Jer.  8 : 7  and  Song  2:11, 
 12.  In  Ps.  74  :  19,  David  compares  him- 
 self to  a  turtle-dove  because,  perhaps,  his 
 lament  before  God  resembles,  as  he  fan- 
 cies, the  i)laintive  note  of  the  bird. 
 
 Tych^i-cus  and  Troph'i-mus,  com- 
 panions of  Paul  on  some  of  his  journeys, 
 are  mentioned  as  natives  "of  Asia"  (Acts 
 20 :  4),  probably  of  Ephesus.  With  others 
 they  accompanied  the  apostle  returning 
 from  his  third  missionary  journey.  Troph- 
 imus  is  mentioned  once,  Tychicus  .several 
 times,  by  the  apostle  in  his  Epistles,  and 
 both  in  such  connections  as  imply  that 
 they  had  his  firm  confidence  and  warm 
 affection  (Col.  4  :  7,  8 ;  Eph.  6  :  21,  22; 
 Tit.  3:  12;  2  Tim.  4  :  12,  20). 
 
 Ty-ran'nus,  the  name  of  a  man  in 
 whose  school  or  place  of  audience  Paul 
 taught  the  gospel  for  two  years  during  his 
 sojourn  at  Ei)hesus  (Acts  19  :  9).  The 
 presumption  is  that  Tyrannus  was  a 
 Greek  and  a  public  teacher  of  philoso- 
 phy or  rhetoric. 
 
 Tyre,  Tyrus,  a  celebrated  commercial 
 city  of  Phoenicia  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
 the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  Hebrew  name, 
 Tsdr,  signifies  a  rock,  which  well  agrees 
 with  the  site  of  Sur,  the  modern  town,  on 
 a  rocky  peninsula,  formerly  an  island.  In 
 the  Scriptures,  Tyre  is  named  for  the  first 
 time  in  the  book  of  Joshua  ( 19 :  29),  where, 
 in  reference  to  the  boundaries  of  the  tribe 
 of  Asher,  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  "strong" 
 (fortified)  city.  The  first  passages  in  the 
 Hebrew  historical  writings,  or  in  ancient 
 
TYRE. 
 
 511 
 
 The  Harbor  of 
 
 history  generally,  which  afford  glimpses 
 of  the  actual  condition  of  Tyre  are  in  the 
 book  of  Samuel  (2  Sam.  5  :  11),  in  con- 
 nection with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  send- 
 ing cedar-wood  and  workmen  to  David  for 
 building  him  a  jtalace ;  and  subsequently 
 in  the  book  of  Kings  ( 1  Kings  5  :  1-12), 
 in  connection  with  the  building  of  Solo- 
 mon's temple.  Between  the  Tyrians  and 
 Hebrews  very  friendly  relations  existed 
 until  mercantile  cupidity  induced  the  for- 
 mer to  buy  Hebrew  captives  from  their 
 enemies  and  sell  them  as  slaves  to  the 
 Greeks  and  Edomites.  Then  the  proph- 
 ets commenced  denunciations  and  threats 
 of  retaliation  (Joel  3  :  4-8  ;  Amos  1 :  9, 10 ; 
 Isa.  ch.  23).  Some  of  the  notices  of  Tyre 
 by  the  Hebrew  prophets — that  in  Ezek. 
 ch.  27,  for  example — are  singularly  full, 
 and  furnish  us  on  some  points  with  details 
 such  as  we  do  not  have  respecting  any  an- 
 cient city,  with  the  exception  of  Athens 
 and  Rome.  We  there  learn  that  its  trade 
 extended  to  very  many  lands — to  Syria, 
 Arabia,  the  countries  along  the  Persian 
 Gulf,  the  countries  beyond  the  Indus,  and 
 
 Tyre  as  it  now  is. 
 
 the  countries  south  of  the  Black  Sea  in 
 Asia ;  to  Egypt  in  North  Africa ;  to  the 
 Mediterranean  Islands,  to  Greece,  to  South- 
 ern Spain  and  to  distant  Britain  in  Europe. 
 Resisting  successfully  many  sieges,  and  re- 
 taining its  marvelous  prosperity  for  many 
 centuries.  Tyre  was  forced  at  length  to 
 yield  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who  butch- 
 ered many  thousands  of  its  inhabitants 
 and  sold  other  thousands  into  slavery. 
 Through  the  immigration  of  fresh  set- 
 tlers it  gradually,  however,  recovered  its 
 importance,  but  never  was  able,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  vicinity  and  rivalry  of  Alex- 
 andria, to  get  back  all  its  ancient  trade. 
 In  the  times  of  our  Lord  it  was  a  popu- 
 lous city,  but  subsequent  wars  and  polit- 
 ical changes  wrought  its  ruin.  It  is  now 
 the  mere  wreck  of  a  town.  Than  it  few 
 places  in  the  East  affo  d  more  striking  il- 
 lustrations of  fulfilled  prophecy.  Of  its 
 former  grandeur  nothing  remains  but 
 prostrate  columns  and  heaps  of  dressed 
 stones.  On  the  rocks,  opposite  the  prostrate 
 columns,  the  fishermen  spread  their  nets, 
 as  Ezek: el  (26  :  14)  foretold. 
 
512 
 
 ULAI— URBANE. 
 
 U. 
 
 U'la-i,  a  river  mentioned  by  Daniel 
 (8  :  2,  16),  near  to  Shushan,  where  he  had 
 the  vision  of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat.  It  has 
 been  commonly  identified  with  the  Eulajus 
 of  the  Greek  and  Roman  geographers. 
 The  Eulaeus  is  supposed  by  many  to  be 
 the  Choaspes,  the  modern  Kerkhah,  an 
 affluent  of  the  Tigris;  by  others,  with 
 kss  probability,  it  is  ngarded  as  the 
 Kuran,  a  large  river  considerably  farther 
 to  the  ea.stward. 
 
 Un'clean,  See  Clean  and  Unclean. 
 
 Unc^tion  [avointing'],  the  special 
 grace  of  God's  Spirit  vouchsafed  to  be- 
 lievers for  their  sanctification  and  conse- 
 cration (1  John  2  :  20). 
 
 Un-der-gird'ing,  an  expedient  for 
 keeping  ships  from  opening  and  sinking, 
 by  encircling  them  with  coils  of  strong 
 cable  (Acts  27  :  17). 
 
 U'ni-corn  [one-homed].  The  Hebrew 
 word  rendered  "  unicorn  "  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  occurs  seven  times  in  the  Old 
 Testament  as  the  name  of  some  large  wild 
 animal.  The  notion  that  this  animal  had 
 but  one  horn  rests  on  nothing  more  solid 
 than  the  fancies  of  Greek  and  Roman 
 writers,  and  is  fully  disproved  by  the 
 passage  in  Deut.  33  :  17,  where,  in  the 
 blessing  of  Joseph,  it  is  said,  "  his  glory 
 is  like  the  firstling  of  his  bullock,  and  his 
 horns  are  like  the  horns  of  a  unicorn,"  the 
 Hebrew  text  of  the  passage  requiring  "  uni- 
 corn" to  be  singular,  whilst  the  English 
 text  improperly  lias  it  "  unicorns."  It  is 
 expressly  declared,  moreover,  in  this  same 
 passage  that  the  "  horns  "  of  Joseph  "  are 
 the  ten  thousands  of  Ephraim  and  the  thou- 
 sands of  Manasseh,"  those  hvo  sons  of  the 
 patriarch  who  became  the  heads  of  pow- 
 erful tribes.  Since,  therefore,  the  animal 
 referred  to  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is  a 
 two-homed  animal  of  great  strength  and 
 
 ferocity  (Num.  23  :  22  ;  24  :  8;  Isa.  34  : 
 7),  well  known  to  the  Jews  and  often  seen 
 by  them,  fit  for  sacrificial  purposes  and 
 associated  frequently  with  bulls  and  oxen, 
 there  can  be  little  doubt  that  some  species 
 of  wild  ox  is  intended. 
 
 U-phar'sin  Idividers},  the  plural  form 
 of  the  singular  Pekes,  one  of  the  words 
 of  doom  written  on  the  wall  of  Belshaz- 
 zar's  palace,  and  interpreted,  "  Thy  king- 
 dom is  divided  and  given  to  the  Medes 
 and  Persians"  (Dan.  5  :  2-5,  28). 
 
 U'phaz,  A  term  used  twice  (Jer.  10: 
 9;  Dan.  10:5)  in  connection  with  fine 
 gold,  as  the  term  Ophir  is  used.  It  has 
 been  commonly  regarded  as  a  variation 
 of  Ophir.  Of  a  place  or  region  called 
 Uphaz  nothing  is  known. 
 
 Ur  [fire  or  light},  the  land  of  Haran's 
 nativity  (Gen.  11  :  28),  and  the  place 
 whence  Terah  and  Abram  started  ''  to  go 
 into  the  land  of  Canaan"  (Gen.  11  :  31). 
 It  is  called  in  Genesis  "  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
 dees,"  while  in  the  Acts  (7  :  2,  4)  Stephen 
 places  it  by  implication  in  Mesopotamia. 
 These  are  all  the  indications  which  Scrip- 
 ture gives  as  to  its  locality.  Sir  Henry 
 Rawlinson  identifies  its  site  with  the 
 modern  Miujheir,  on  the  west  of  the  con- 
 fluence of  the  Euphrates  with  the  Tigris. 
 Here  have  been  found  cylinders  and  bricks 
 of  the  oldest  type  and  inscribed  with  the 
 names  of  a  series  of  kings  extending  from 
 Urukh  (b.  c.  2230)  to  Nabonidus  (b.  c.  540). 
 One  of  the  inscriptions  found  is  as  follows : 
 "Orchanus  (or  Urukh),  king  of  Ur,  is  he 
 who  hath  built  the  temple  of  the  moon- 
 god."  The  ruins  of  this  temple,  which 
 Wiis  built  of  large  bricks  cemented  with 
 bitumen,  are  the  chief  ruins  of  Muyheir. 
 This  city  was  perhaps  the  first  capital  of 
 Chaldaea. 
 
 Ur'bane,  a  disciple  at  Rome  whom 
 
URIAH— URIM. 
 
 513 
 
 Paul  salutes  (Rom.  16:9).  The  name  is 
 properly  Uibanus,  and  either  that  or  Ur- 
 ban is  the  form  it  should  have  had  in  our 
 Authorized  Version. 
 
 U-ri'ah,  U-ri'jah  [Jehovah  is  my 
 lifjhl'],  the  name  of  three  prominent  men. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  thirty  commanders  of  the 
 thirty  bands  into  which  the  Israelite  army 
 of  David  was  divided  (1  Chron.  11  :  41 ; 
 2  Sam.  23  :  39).  Like  others  of  David's 
 officers,  lie  was  a  foreigner,  a  Hittite,  but 
 his  name  and  his  manner  of  speech  (2 
 Sam.  11  :  11)  indicate  that  he  had  adopted 
 the  Jewish  religion.  He  married  Bath- 
 sheba,  a  woman  of  extraordinary  beauty, 
 the  daughter  of  Eliam  (2  Sam.  11:3; 
 23  :  31).  His  wife's  beauty  became  a 
 snare  to  King  David  and  the  occasion 
 of  his  own  death  (2  Sam.  11  :  6-27).  A 
 touching  incident  of  the  story  is  that 
 Uriah  fell  in  battle  before  Rabbath-Am- 
 mon  when  he  was  altogether  unconscious 
 of  his  wife's  dishonor. 
 
 2.  High  priest  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
 (Isa.  8:2;  2  Kings  16  :  10-16).  Of  his 
 parentage  we  know  nothing.  He  prob- 
 ably succeeded  Azariah,  who  was  high 
 priest  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah.  He  is 
 chiefly  remembered  for  his  irreligious 
 subserviency  to  the  idolatrous  fancies  of 
 Ahaz. 
 
 3.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Hakkoz, 
 the  head  of  the  seventh  course  of  priests 
 (Ezra  8  :  33 ;  Neh.  3  :  4,  21). 
 
 4.  A  faithful  prophet  of  God,  who,  being 
 threatened  with  death  by  King  Jehoiakim, 
 fled  to  Egypt.  The  king  of  Egypt,  unwill- 
 ing to  afford  him  refuge,  returned  him  to 
 Jehoiakim,  who  put  him  to  death  and  cast 
 his  dead  body  into  a  dishonored  grave  ( Jer. 
 26  :  20-24). 
 
 U'ri-el  \_God  is  wy  light],  the  name  of 
 several  men. 
 
 1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Tahath 
 (1  Chron.  6  :  24). 
 
 2.  Chief  of  the  Kohathites  in  the  reign 
 of  David  (1  Chron.  15  :  5,  11). 
 
 33 
 
 3.  The  father  of  Maachah  or  Michaiah, 
 the  favorite  wife  of  Rehoboam  and  mother 
 of  Abijah  (2  Chron.  13  :  2). 
 
 U'rim  and  Thurn'mim,  plurals  of 
 excellence  denoting  light  and  perfection. 
 We  are  told  that  "the  Urim  and  Thum- 
 mim  "  were  to  be  on  Aaron's  heart  when 
 he  went  in  before  the  Lord  (Ex.  28  :  15- 
 30).  When  Joshua  is  solemnly  appointed 
 to  succeed  the  great  hero-lawgiver,  he  is 
 bidden  to  stand  before  Eleazar  the  priest, 
 "  who  shall  ask  counsel  for  him  after  the 
 judgment  of  Urim,"  and  this  counsel  is 
 to  determine  the  movements  of  the  host 
 of  Israel  (Num.  27  :  21).  In  the  bless- 
 ings of  Moses  they  appear  as  the  crown- 
 ing glory  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Dent.  33  : 
 8,  9).  How  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were 
 consulted  is  quite  uncertain.  The  rabbins 
 maintained  that  the  stones  on  the  high 
 priest's  breastplate  gave  out  the  oracular 
 answer  by  preternatural  illumination.  The 
 simplest  supposition,  however,  and  the  one 
 most  accordant  with  the  accounts  we  have 
 of  inquiries  made  by  LTrira  and  Thummim 
 (1  Sam.  14:3,  18,  19 ;  23  :  2,  4,  9,  11,  12 ; 
 28  :  6 ;  Judg.  20  :  28  ;  2  Sam.  5  :  23),  is 
 that  the  answer  was  given  simi)ly  by  the 
 word  of  the  Lord  to  the  high  priest  when 
 he  had  inquired  of  the  Lord  clothed  with 
 the  ephod  and  breastplate.  How  long  the 
 Urim  and  Thummim  were  consulted,  and 
 what  led  to  their  withdrawal,  we  are  not 
 informed.  The  statement  of  Josephus, 
 that  they  had  continued  to  shine  with 
 supernatural  lustre  till  within  two  hun- 
 dred years  of  his  own  time,  is  simply  a 
 Jewish  fable,  at  variance  with  the  direct 
 confession  of  their  absence  on  the  return 
 from  the  Captivity  (Ezra  2  :  63).  Inas- 
 much as  Abiathar  was  the  last  priest  who  is 
 mentioned  in  Scripture  as  habitually  using 
 the  ephod  with  its  appendages  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  consulting  Jehovah  ( 1  Sam.  23  :  6- 
 12  ;  28  :  6 ;  2  Sam.  21  :  1),  it  would  seem 
 that  the  duration  of  the  LTrim  and  Thum- 
 mim cannot  be  extended  bevond  the  davs 
 
514 
 
 USURY— UZZIEL. 
 
 of  David.  Apparently,  too,  the  utterances 
 of  the  prophets  who  spake  by  the  word  of 
 the  Lord  gradually  superseded  the  oracles 
 of  the  Urim  (1  Sam.  •»  :  9). 
 
 XJ'su-ry.  This  word,  which  now  means 
 the  lending  of  money  at  extortionate  inte- 
 rest, meant  at  the  time  of  the  translation 
 of  our  Authorized  Version  any  interest,  a 
 sum  paid  for  the  itse  of  money.  Hence 
 "mine  own  with  usury"  (Luke  19  :  23) 
 means  "  mine  own  with  interest."  ( For  the 
 laws  respecting  interest  among  the  Hebrews 
 see  Loan.) 
 
 Uz,  the  country  in  which  Job  lived 
 (Job  1:1).  It  lay,  so  far  as  we  can 
 gather,  either  east  or  south-east  of  Pales- 
 tine (Job  1  :  3),  adjacent  to  tlie  Sabaeans 
 and  the  Chaldseans  (.Job  1  :  15,  17),  conse- 
 ipiently  north  of  the  Southern  Arabians  and 
 west  of  the  Euphrates,  and  lastly  adjacent 
 to  the  Edomites  of  Mount  Seir,  who  at 
 one  period  occupied  Uz,  probably  as  con- 
 (juerors  (Lam.  4  :  21),  and  whose  troglo- 
 dyte habits  are  apparently  described  in 
 Job  30  :  6,  7.  Uz  corresponded  perhaps 
 to  the  Arabia  Deserta  of  classical  geogra- 
 phy ;  at  all  events,  to  so  much  of  it  as 
 lies  north  of  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  lat- 
 itude. This  district  has  in  all  ages  been 
 occupied  by  nomadic  tribes,  who  roam 
 from  the  borders  of  Palestine  to  the 
 Euphrates,  and  northward  to  the  con- 
 fines of  Syria. 
 
 U'zal,  the  sixth  son  of  Joktan  (Gen. 
 10  :  27;  1  Chron.  1  :  21),  the  settlements 
 of  whose  descendants  were  most  likely  in 
 Yemen.  The  name  of  San' a,  tlie  capital 
 city  of  the  Yemen,  was  originally  Awzal. 
 This  city,  San^),  from  the  earliest  ages  of 
 which  any  traditions  have  come  down  to 
 us,  has  disputed  with  the  rival  cities  Seba 
 and  Zofdr  the  riglit  to  be  the  chief  city  of 
 the  kingdom  of  Sheba.  It  seems  to  liave 
 always  belonged  to  the  people  of  Slieba, 
 and  from  its  position  in  the  centre  of  the 
 best  portion  of  that  kingdom  it  must  al- 
 
 ways have  been  an  important  city.  The 
 houses  and  palaces  of  Sand,  Niebuhr  says, 
 are  finer  than  those  of  any  other  town  of 
 Arabia,  and  it  possesses  many  mosques, 
 public  Ijaths  and  caravanserais.  It  resem- 
 bles I>amascus  in  the  number  and  beauty 
 of  its  gardens  and  in  the  abundance  and 
 excellence  of  its  fruits. 
 
 Uz'za,  the  Garden  of,  tlie  spot  in 
 which  Mauas.seh,  king  of  Judali,  and  his 
 son  Amon  were  both  buried  (2  Kings  21  : 
 18,  26).  The  fact  of  its  mention  sliows 
 that  it  was  not  where  the  usual  sepulchres 
 of  tlie  kings  were.  No  clue,  however,  is 
 afforded  to  its  position. 
 
 Uz'zah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Abinadab, 
 in  wliose  house  at  Kirjath-jearim  the  ark 
 rested  for  twenty  years.  Accompanying 
 the  ark  when  David  first  undertook  to 
 remove  it  to  Jerusalem,  and  steadying  it 
 with  his  hand  when  jostled  in  the  cart  by 
 the  stumbling  of  the  oxen,  he  was  sudden- 
 ly struck  dead  (2  Sam.  6  :  6-8).  But  Uz- 
 zah's  fate  was  not  merely  the  penalty  of 
 his  own  rashness.  The  improper  mode 
 of  transporting  tlie  ark,  which  ought  to 
 have  been  borne  on  the  shouldei-s  of  the 
 Levites,  was  perliaps  the  primary  cause 
 of  his  unholy  act  and  startling  death.  As 
 Uzzah  died  immediately  by  the  side  of  the 
 ark,  the  event  produced  a  deep  sensation. 
 David,  with  a  mixture  of  awe  and  resent- 
 ment, was  afraid  to  carry  the  ark  fartlier, 
 and  the  place  of  tlie  tragedy,  apparently 
 changing  its  ancient  name,  was  thence- 
 forth called  Perez-Uzzah  iwliich  see), 
 the  "breach"  or  "disaster"  of  Uzzah  (2 
 Sam.  6:8;  1  Chron.  13:  11). 
 
 Uz-zi'ah.      See  Azariah. 
 
 Uz'zi-el  [God  is  my  strength],  fourth 
 son  of  Koliath,  fiither  of  Mishael,  Elza- 
 phan  or  Elizaplian  and  Zithri,  and  uncle 
 to  Aaron  ( Ex.  6  :  1 8,  22 ;  Lev.  10:4).  His 
 descendants,  the  Uzziclites,  were  one  of  the 
 four  groat  families  of  tiie  Kohathites  ( Num. 
 3  :  27  ;  1  Chron.  20  :  23). 
 
VASHTI— VINE. 
 
 515 
 
 V. 
 
 Vash''ti,  the  "  queen  "  of  Ahasuerus, 
 who,  for  refusing  to  show  herself  to  the 
 king's  guests  at  the  royal  banquet  when 
 sent  for  by  the  king,  was  repudiated  and 
 deposed  (Esth.  ch.  1).  Her  displacement 
 opened  the  way  for  the  elevation  of 
 Esther. 
 
 Veil. 
 
 Veil.  The  tise  of  the  veil  by  women 
 in  the  East  was  not  so  general  in  ancient 
 as  in  modern  times,  since  Mohammedan- 
 ism has  exerted  its  influence  so  widely  and 
 powerfully  for  the  seclusion  of  the  female 
 sex.  In  ancient  times  the  veil  was  adopt- 
 ed only  in  exceptional  cases,  either  as  an 
 article  of  ornamental  dress  (Song  4:1, 
 3  ;  6  :  7 ),  or  by  betrothed  maidens  in  the 
 presence  of  their  future  husbands,  espe- 
 cially at  the  time  of  the  wedding  (Gen. 
 24  :  65;  29  :  25),  or  by  women  of  loose 
 character  for  purposes  of  concealment 
 (Gen.  38  :  14).  The  Eastern  veils  of  the 
 present  day  vary  greatly  in  form  and  ex- 
 tent of  concealment. 
 
 Veil  of  the  Tab^er-na-cle  and 
 Tem'ple.  See  Tabernacle  and  Tem- 
 ple. 
 
 Ver-miFion,  a  red  pigment  used  for 
 ornamenting  dwellings  and  temples  (Jer. 
 22  :  14  ;  Ezek.  23  :  14). 
 
 Village.     In  the  Scriptures  the  word 
 
 "  village  "  is  used  to  denote  either  the  un- 
 walled  suburb  of  a  walled  town  (Josh.  13  : 
 23,  28)  or  a  small  collection  of  houses, 
 often  huts,  destitute  of  walls  or  external 
 defences  (Lev.  25  :  31  ;  Judg.  5:7;  Matt. 
 14:  15;  Luke  24  :  13,  28). 
 
 Vine,  the  well-known  valuable  plant 
 (  Viiis  vinifera),  very  frequently  referred  to 
 in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  and  cul- 
 tivated from  the  earliest  times.  The  first 
 mention  of  it  occurs  in  Gen.  9 :  20,  21.  The 
 vines  of  Palestine  were  celebrated  both  for 
 luxuriant  growth  and  for  the  immense 
 clustei-s  of  grapes  which  they  prodHce<l 
 (Num.  13  :  23,  24;  Isa.  16  :  8-10;  Jer. 
 48  :  32).  From  the  abundance  and  ex- 
 cellence of  the  vines  of  Palestine  this 
 plant  is  the  subject  of  frequent  meta- 
 phor in  the  Scriptures.  To  dwell  under 
 the  vine  and  fig  tree  is  an  emblem  of  do- 
 mestic happiness  and  peace  (1  Kings  4  : 
 25;  Mic.  4:4).  The  rebellious  people 
 of  Israel  are  compared  to  "wild  grapes," 
 "  an  empty  vine,"  "  the  degenerate  plant 
 of  a  strange  vine"  (Isa.  5  :  2,  4 ;  Hos.  10 : 
 1  ;  Jer.  2  :  21).  It  is  a  vine  which  our 
 Lord  selects  to  show  the  spiritual  union 
 which  subsists  between  himself  and  his 
 members  (John  15  :  1-6).  The  vintage, 
 which  formerly  was  a  season  of  general 
 and  great  festivity,  began,  as  at  present,, 
 in  July  and  lasted  till  December.  The 
 grapes  were  gathered  with  shouts  of  joy 
 (Isa.  16  :  10),  put  into  baskets  (Jer.  6  : 
 9),  and  then  carried  on  the  head  and 
 shoulders  or  slung  upon  a  yoke  to  the 
 wine-press.  The  finest  grapes  were  dried 
 as  raisins  (1  Sam.  25  :  18),  and  the  juice 
 expressed  from  the  rest  was  either  boiled 
 down  to  a  syrup  (an  article  of  food  which 
 under  the  name  of  dibs  is  still  used  most 
 extensively  by  all  classes  in  the  East)  or 
 was  made  into  wine. 
 
516 
 
 VINEGAR— VULTURE. 
 
 Vin'e-gar  [sour  wine'].  The  Hebrew 
 word  translated  "  vinegar  "  was  applied  to 
 a  liquid  consisting  generally  of  wine  turn- 
 ed sour,  but  sometimes  artificially  made 
 by  an  admixture  of  barley  and  wine, 
 which  rapidly  passed  into  the  acetous 
 stage  of  fermentation.  It  was  acid  to  a 
 proverb  (Prov.  10  :  26),  and  was  much 
 used  by  laborers  (Ruth  2  :  14),  and  in  our 
 Lord's  time  by  Roman  soldiers  (Matt.  27  : 
 48;  Mark  15  :  3(5;  John  19  :  29,  30). 
 
 Vlnt'age.    See  Vine. 
 
 Vi^ol.  This  word  occurs  in  a  few  pas- 
 sages (Isa.  5  :  12 ;  14  :  11 ;  Amos  5  :  23; 
 ()  :  5)  as  the  English  equivalent  for  a  He- 
 brew term  elsewhere  rendered  Psaltery 
 (which  see). 
 
 Vi'per.     See  Adder. 
 
 Vision.     See  Dream. 
 
 Vow,  a  solemn  religious  engagement 
 to  do  or  to  abstain  from  doing  some  cer- 
 tain thing.  The  earliest  mention  of  a 
 vow  is  that  of  Jacob  (Gen.  28  :  18-22  ;  31  : 
 13).  The  Law  therefore  did  not  intro- 
 duce, but  regulated,  the  practice  of  vows. 
 Three  sorts  are  mentioned :  1 .  Vows  of 
 devotion;  2.  Vows  of  abstinence;  3. 
 Vows  of  destruction.  As  to  vows  of  de- 
 votion, the  following  rules  are  laid  down  : 
 A  man  might  devote  to  sacred  uses  pos- 
 sessions or  persons,  but  not  the  first-born 
 of  man  or  beast,  which  was  devoted  al- 
 ready (Lev.  27  :  26).  If  he  vowed  land,  he 
 might  either  redeem  it  or  not  (Lev.  27  : 
 17-23).  Animals  fit  for  sacrifice,  if  de- 
 voted, were  not  to  be  redeemed  or  chang- 
 ed (Lev.  27  :  9,  10,  33).  The  case  of  per- 
 sons devoted  stood  thus:  A  man  might 
 devote  either  himself,  his  child  (not  the 
 first-born)  or  his  slave.  If  no  redemption 
 took  place,  the  devoted  person  became  a 
 slave  of  the  sanctuary.  Otlierwise,  he 
 might  be  redeemed  at  a  valuation  accord- 
 ing to  age  and  sex,  on  the  scale  given  in 
 Lev.  27  :  1-7.  The  principal  general  reg- 
 ulations affecting  vows  were  these  :  1.  Vows 
 were   entirely  voluntary,  but   once   made 
 
 were  regarded  as  compulsory  (Num.  30  : 
 2;  Deut.  23  :  21  ;  Eccles.  5  :  4).  2.  If 
 persons  in  a  dependent  condition  made 
 vows,  as  an  unmarried  daughter  living  in 
 her  father's  house,  or  a  wife,  even  if  she 
 afterward  became  a  widow,  the  vow,  if  in 
 the  first  case  her  father,  or  in  the  second 
 her  husband,  heard  and  disallowed  it, 
 was  void;  but  if  they  heard  without  dis- 
 allowance it  was  to  remain  good  (Num. 
 30  :  3-16).  3.  Votive  offerings  arising 
 from  the  produce  of  any  impure  traffic 
 were  wholly  forbidden  (Deut.  23  :  18). 
 (For  vows  of  abstinence  see  Core  an,  and 
 for  vows  of  destruction  see  Anathema 
 and  Acci'RSED.) 
 
 Vulture. 
 
 Vul'ture.  The  three  Hebrew  words 
 thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version 
 refer  to  some  of  the  smaller  species  of  rap- 
 torial birds,  as  kites  or  buzzards  (Job  28  : 
 7 ;  Isa.  34  :  15).  Two  other  Hebrew  words, 
 the  one  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion (jier-eagle  (Deut.  14  :  17),  the  other, 
 eagle  (Micah  1  :  16),  are  really  vultures  of 
 great  size  and  power,  which  scent  their 
 prey  from  afar  and  congregate  in  the  wake 
 of  an  army  (Job  39  :  30).  All  tiie  species 
 of  vultures  are  found  in  Palestine,  are  very 
 numerously  represented,  and  by  the  cere- 
 monial Law  were  unclean  (Lev.  11  :  14; 
 Deut.  14  :  13). 
 
WAGES— WAE. 
 
 517 
 
 W. 
 
 Wa'ges,  compensation  for  labor.  The 
 earliest  mention  of  wages  is  of  a  recompense 
 — not  in  money,  but  in  kind — to  Jacob  from 
 Laban  (Gen.  29 :  15,  20 ;  30 :  28 ;  31  :  7,  8, 
 41 ).  The  only  mention  in  Scripture  of  the 
 rate  of  wages,  when  paid  in  money,  is  in 
 the  parable  of  the  Householder  and  the 
 Vineyard  (Matt.  20  :  2),  where  the  labor- 
 ers' w^ages  are  set  at  one  "  penny "  ( the 
 denarius)  per  day,  about  fifteen  cents.  The 
 Law  was  very  strict  in  requiring  daily  pay- 
 ment of  wages  (Lev.  19  :  13 ;  Deut.  24  :  14, 
 15),  and  the  iniquity  of  withholding  wages 
 is  in  Scripture  severely  denounced  (Jer. 
 22  :  13;  Mai.  3:5;  James  5  :  4). 
 
 Wag'on.     See  Cart. 
 
 "Walls.     See  City,  Town. 
 
 "War.  The  military  organization  of 
 the  Jews  began  with  their  departure  from 
 the  land  of  Egypt,  and  was  adapted  to  the 
 nature  of  the  expedition  on  which  they 
 then  entered.  Every  man  above  twenty 
 years  of  age  was  a  soldier  (Num.  1:3); 
 each  tribe  formed  a  regiment  with  its  own 
 banner  and  its  own  leader  ( Num.  2:2; 
 10  :  14) ;  their  positions  in  the  camp  or  on 
 the  march  were  accurately  fixed  (Num.  cli. 
 2) ;  the  whole  army  started  and  stopped  at 
 a  given  signal  (Num.  10  :  5,  6) ;  thus  they 
 came  up  out  of  Egypt  ready  for  battle  ( Ex. 
 13  :  18).  On  the  approach  of  an  enemy 
 a  conscription  was  made  from  the  general 
 body  under  the  direction  of  a  muster-mas- 
 ter (Deut.  20 :  5 ;  2  Kings  25 :  19),  by  whom 
 also  the  officers  were  appointed  ( Deut.  20 : 
 9).  The  army  was  then  divided  into 
 thousands  and  hundreds  under  their  re- 
 spective captains  (Num.  31  :  14),  and  still 
 further  into  families  (Num.  2  :  34 ;  2 
 Chron.  25  :  5 ;  26  :  12),  the  family  being 
 regarded  as  the  unit  in  the  Jewish  polity. 
 With  the  kings  arose  the  custom  of  main- 
 tain ng  a  body-guard,  which  formed  the 
 
 nucleus  of  a  standing  army.  Thus,  Saul 
 had  a  band  of  three  thousand  select  war- 
 riors (1  Sam.  13  :  2;  14  :  52;  24  :  2),  and 
 David,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
 a  band  of  six  hundred  warriors  (1  Sam. 
 23  :  13 ;  25  :  13).  This  band  David  re- 
 tained after  he  became  king,  and  added 
 the  Chei'ethites  and  Pelethites  (2  Sam.  15: 
 18;  20:7),  together  with  another  class, 
 officers  of  high  rank  (shalishim),  the  chief 
 of  whom  (2  Kings  7  :  2 ;  1  Chron.  12  :  18) 
 was  immediately  about  the  king's  person. 
 David  further  organized  a  national  mili- 
 tia, divided  into  twelve  regiments  under 
 their  respective  officers,  each  of  which 
 was  called  out  for  one  month  in  the  year 
 (1  Chron.  27  :  1) ;  at  the  head  of  the  army 
 when  in  active  service  he  appointed  a  com- 
 mander-in-chief (1  Sam.  14  :  50). 
 
 Hitherto  the  army  had  consisted  entirely 
 of  infantry  (1  Sam.  4  :  10 ;  15  :  4),  the  use 
 of  horses  having  been  restrained  by  divine 
 command  (Deut.  17  :  16) ;  but  as  the  for- 
 eign relations  of  the  kingdom  extended, 
 much  importance  was  attached  to  horses. 
 David  had  reserved  a  hundred  chariots 
 from  the  spoils  of  the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  8  : 
 4 ) ;  these  probably  served  as  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  force  which  Solomon  afterward 
 enlarged  through  his  alliance  with  Egypt 
 (1  Kings  10  :  26,  28,  29).  It  does  not  ap- 
 pear that  the  system  established  by  David 
 was  maintained  by  the  kings  of  Judah,  but 
 in  Israel  the  proximity  of  the  hostile  king- 
 dom of  Syria  necessitated  the  maintenance 
 of  a  standing  army.  In  Judah,  however, 
 the  body-guard  appears  to  have  been  reg- 
 ularly kept  up  (1  Kings  14  :  28 ;  2  Kings 
 11  :  4,  11).  Occasional  reference  is  made 
 to  war-chariots  (2  Kings  8  :  21),  but  in 
 Hezekiah's  reign  no  force  of  the  kind 
 could  be  maintained,  and  the  Jews  were 
 obliged    to   seek   the  aid    of   Egypt   for 
 
518      WARS  OF  THE  LORD— WASHING  THE  HANDS  AND  FEET. 
 
 horses  and  chariots  (2 'Kings  18  :  23,  24; 
 Isa.  31  :  1).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
 soldier  ever  received  pay,  even  under  the 
 kings. 
 
 Before  entering  upon  an  aggressive  war 
 the  Hebrews  sought  the  divine  sanction 
 by  consulting  either  the  Uriin  and  Thum- 
 mim  (Judg.  1:1;  20  :  27,  28  ;  1  Sam.  14  : 
 37  ;  23  :  2 ;  30  :  8)  or  some  acknowledged 
 prophet  (1  Kings  22  :  6;  2  Chron.  18  :  5). 
 When  their  land  had  been  invaded  the 
 people  were  summoned  to  repel  the  inva- 
 sion— sometimes  by  messengers,  sometimes 
 by  trumpets,  and  sometimes  by  signals  set 
 up  on  the  hills  (Judg.  3  :  27  ;  1  Sam.  11  : 
 7;  Jer.  6:1).  In  the  actual  warfare  of 
 early  times  divine  aid  was  occasionally  and 
 improperly  sought  by  bringing  into  the  field 
 the  ark  of  the  covenant,  which  was  the  sym- 
 bol of  Jehovah  himself  (1  Sam.  4: 4-18;  14: 
 18).  When  an  engagement  was  imminent 
 a  sacrifice  was  sometimes  ofiLred  (1  Sam. 
 7:9;  13  :  9)  and  an  inspiriting  address  de- 
 livered, either  by  the  commander  (2  Chron. 
 20 :  20)  or  by  a  priest  (Dent.  20 :  2).  Then 
 followed  the  battle-signal  (1  Sam.  17  :  52; 
 Isa.  42  :  13).  The  combat  assumed  the 
 form  of  a  number  of  hand-to-hand  con- 
 tests. At  the  same  time  various  strategic 
 devices  were  practiced,  such  as  the  ambus- 
 cade (Josh.  8  :  2,  12;  Judg.  20  :  30),  sur- 
 prise (Judg.  7  :  16)  or  circumvention  (2 
 Sam.  5  :  23). 
 
 The  siege  of  a  town  or  fortress  was  con- 
 ducted in  a  systematic  manner.  A  line  of 
 circumvallation  was  drawn  round  the  place, 
 constructed  out  of  the  trees  found  in  the 
 neighborhood,  together  with  earth  and  any 
 other  materials  at  hand  (Deut.  20:20). 
 This  line  not  only  cut  off  the  besieged 
 from  the  surrounding  country,  but  also 
 served  as  a  base  of  operations  for  the  be- 
 siegers. The  next  step  was  to  throw  out 
 from  this  line  one  or  more  mounds  or 
 "banks"  in  the  direction  of  tlie  city  (2 
 Sam.  20  :  15;  2  Kings  19  :  32;  Isa.  37  : 
 33),  which  were  gradually  increased  in 
 
 height  until  tliey  were  about  half  as  high 
 as  the  city  wall.  On  these  mounds  or 
 banks  towers  were  erected  (2  Kings  25  : 
 1 ;  Jer.  52  :  4 ;  Kzek.  4:2;  17  :  17 ;  21  : 
 22 ;  26  :  9),  whence  the  slingers  and  arch- 
 ers might  attack  with  effect.  Battering- 
 rams  were  brought  up  to  the  walls  by 
 means  of  these  banks,  and  scaling-ladders, 
 when  needed,  were  placed  on  them. 
 
 In  ancient  times  tiie  treatment  of  the 
 conquered  was  exceedingly  severe.  The 
 bodies  of  the  soldiers  killed  in  action  were 
 plundered  (1  Sam.  31  :  8) ;  the  survivors 
 were  either  killed  (Judg.  9  :  45;  2  Sam. 
 12:31),  mutilated  (Judg.  1:6;  1  Sam. 
 11  :  2)  or  carried  into  captivity  (Num. 
 31  :  26;  Deut.  20  :  14).  Sometimes  the 
 mass  of  the  population  of  the  conqucreil 
 country  was  removed  to  a  distant  locality. 
 The  conquerors  celebrated  their  success  by 
 the  erection  of  monumental  stones  (1  Sam. 
 7  :  12),  by  hanging  up  trophies  in  their 
 public  buildings  (1  Sam.  21  :  9)  and  by 
 triumphal  songs  and  dances  in  which  the 
 whole  population  took  part  (1  Sam.  18  : 
 6-8).  See  Soldier,  Battering-Ram, 
 Siege,  Arms,  etc. 
 
 "Wars  of  the  Lord,  Book  of,  the 
 title  of  an  anciuit  book  referred  to  in 
 Num.  21  :  14.  The  book  was  perhaps  a 
 record  of  military  achievements,  and  ap- 
 parently a  poetical  composition.  It  has 
 not  been  transmitted  to  us. 
 
 "Wasli'ing.  The  religious  import  of 
 washing  is  indicated  in  the  articles  Bath, 
 Bathing,  Purification  (which  see). 
 
 'Wash'ing'  the  Hands  and  Feet. 
 As  knives  and  forks  were  disj)ensed  with 
 in  eating,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that 
 the  hand,  which  was  thrust  into  the  com- 
 mon dish,  should  be  scrupulously  clean; 
 and,  as  sandals  were  ineH'ectual  against 
 the  dust  and  heat  of  an  Eastern  climate, 
 washing  the  feet  on  entering  the  house 
 was  an  act  both  of  respect  to  the  company 
 and  of  refreshment  to  the  traveler.  The 
 former  of  these   usages  was  transformed 
 
WATCHES  OF  THE  NIGHT— WATER. 
 
 519 
 
 by  the  Pharisees  of  the  New  Testament 
 age  into  a  matter  of  ritual  observance 
 (Mark  7  :  3),  and  special  rules  were  laid 
 down  as  to  the  times  and  manner  of  its 
 performance.     Washing  the  feet  did  not 
 
 rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  ritual  observance 
 except  in  connection  with  the  services  of 
 the  sanctuary  (Ex.  30  :  18-21).  It  held  a 
 high  place,  however,  among  the  rites  of 
 hospitality.  So  soon  as  a  guest  presented 
 himself  at  the  tent-door  it  was  usual  to 
 offer  the  necessary  materials  for  washing 
 the  feet  (Gen.  18:4;  19:2;  24  :  32;  43 : 
 24;  Judg.  19  :  21).  A  more  compliment- 
 ary act,  and  one  betokening  equal  humil- 
 ity and  affection,  was  the  host's  actual  per- 
 formance of  the  office  of  feet-washing  for 
 the  guest  (1  Sam.  25  :  41 ;  John  13  :  5- 
 14). 
 
 Watch'es  of  the  Night.  See  Cock, 
 Cock-Crowing. 
 
 "Watch^man,  one  who  watches  against 
 danger  in  order  to  ward  it  off  (Isa.  21  :  11). 
 In  ancient  times  some  watchmen  walked 
 the  streets  of  cities  by  night  (Song  5:7), 
 others  were  placed  in  watch-towers  on  ele- 
 vated spots  (Isa.  21  :  5,  6),  and  others  still 
 were  posted  in  towers  over  the  gates  of 
 cities  (2  Sam.  18  :  24-27 ;  2  Kings  9  :  17). 
 At  the  approach  of  danger  an  alarm  was 
 
 given  by  a  trumpet-blast  ( Jer.  6 :  17 ;  Ezek. 
 33  :  2-9). 
 
 "Water.  Many  of  the  most  beautiful 
 allusions  in  Scripture  depend  on  the  fact 
 that  in  Oriental  countries,  where  the  heat 
 is  intense  and  the  water-courses  compara- 
 tively few  and  inconsiderable,  the  highest 
 value  is  set  on  water.  The  Jordan  is  the 
 most  important  stream  in  Palestine;  the 
 others,  with  few  exceptions,  are  tempora- 
 ry, flowing  in  the  rainy  seasons  and  dried 
 during  the  heat  of  summer.  Hence  the 
 necess'ty  of  constructing  pools  or  reser- 
 voirs for  preserving  the  water  to  be  used 
 in  times  of  scarcity,  especially  for  the 
 I^urpose  of  artificial  irrigation.  Solomon 
 says,  "  I  made  me  gardens  and  orchards, 
 and  I  planted  trees  in  them  of  all  kinds 
 of  fruits;  I  made  me  pools  of  water  to 
 water  therewith  the  wood  that  bringeth 
 forth  trees"  (Eccles.  2  :  5,  6).  Wells,  too, 
 were  dug  wherever  water  could  be  reached, 
 and  these  wells  became,  in  many  cases, 
 links  in  the  history  and  landmarks  in 
 the  topography  of  Palestine. 
 
 The  difference  between  a  cistern  (Heb. 
 Bor)  and  a  well  (Heb.  BSer)  consists 
 chiefly  in  the  use  of  the  former  to  denote 
 a  reservoir  for  rain-water,  while  the  latter 
 denotes  a  receptacle  for  water  springing  up 
 freshly  from  the  ground  (Prov.  5  :  15 ; 
 John  4  :  14).  Of  the  two,  wells  are  much 
 the  more  important  and  valuable,  and  in 
 the  desert  are  the  exclusive  property 
 either  of  a  whole  tribe  or  of  individuals 
 whose  ancestors  dug  the  wells.  If  a  well 
 be  the  property  of  a  tribe,  the  tents  are 
 pitched  near  it,  and  from  it  other  Arabs 
 are  not  permitted  to  water  their  camels. 
 If  a  well,  however,  belong  to  an  individual, 
 he  receives  presents  from  all  strange  tribes 
 and  persons  who  there  refresh  their  beasts 
 and  themselves.  Hence  wells  were  watched 
 with  jealous  care,  and  in  the  pastoral  dis- 
 tricts were  subjects  of  contention  between 
 rival  parties  (Gen.  26  :  19-22).  Hence, 
 too,  when  Moses  requested  permission  to 
 
520 
 
 WATER. 
 
 pass  through  Edom,  he  was  willing  to  stip- 
 ulate that  all  the  water  that  was  used  on  the 
 march  should  be  paid  for  (Num.  20 :  17-1 9). 
 Lieut.  Lynch,  in  his  Expedition  to  the 
 Dead  Sea,  refers  to  the  extreme  sufferings  I 
 
 Eastern  Water-Seller. 
 
 «f  his  party  from  heat  and  thirst.  Al- 
 though continually  resorting  to  the  lim- 
 ited supply  of  the  precious  element  they 
 carried  with  them,  their  parching  thirst 
 could  not  be  allayed ;  and  when  their  sup- 
 
 ply was  exhausted  he  remarks,  "  Our  last 
 waking  thought  was  water.  In  our  dis- 
 turbed and  feverish  slumbers  we  fancied 
 the  cool  beverage  purling  down  our 
 parched  and  burning  throats.  .  .  ,  Our 
 thoughts  could  not  revert 
 to  home  save  in  connec- 
 tion with  the  precious  ele- 
 ment." 
 
 In  view  of  such  facts 
 the  force  of  many  allu- 
 sions and  figurative  ex- 
 pressions in  Scripture  is 
 readily  perceived.  What 
 so  valuable  to  the  thirsty 
 as  "living  waters"  or  as 
 "fountains  of  living  wa- 
 ter"! What  so  terrible 
 as  "a  dry  and  thirsty 
 land,  where  no  water  is  "  ! 
 (Ps.  63  :  1),  or  so  disap 
 pointing  as  "  broken  cis- 
 terns that  can  hold  no  wa- 
 ter"! (Jer.  2:13).  What 
 refreshment  so  grateful  as 
 "  rivers  of  waters  in  a  dry 
 place  " !  How  beautiful 
 the  description  of  tlie 
 righteous  man,  who  is 
 "  like  a  tree  planted  by 
 the  rivers  of  water,  that 
 bringeth  foi  th  his  fruit  in 
 his  sea.son"!  (Ps.  1:3). 
 To  one  who  has  had  an 
 experience  of  thirst  the 
 invitation  comes  with  pe- 
 culiar emphasis :  "  Ho, 
 every  one  that  thirsteth, 
 come  ye  to  the  waters" 
 (Isa.  55:1).  Hence,  in 
 representing  the  blessings 
 of  the  gospel  as  food  for 
 the  hungry  (Isa.  55 :  2)  and  water  for  the 
 thirsty  (Matt.  5  :  6)  there  is  a  special  and 
 very  suggestive  propriety. 
 
 Water  is  carried  in  the  East  by  women, 
 and  nothing  burdens  the  Bedouin  women  so 
 
WATER  OF  JEALOUSY— WEAVING. 
 
 521 
 
 much  as  this  menial  service.  The  tents  are 
 seldom  pitched  very  close  to  a  well,  and 
 whatever  may  be  the  distance  of  the  well 
 away,  the  women  must  carry  the  water 
 every  evening  on  their  backs  in  long 
 water-skins,  and  sometimes  are  obliged  to 
 seek  a  second  supply.  In  the  cities  water 
 is  sold  by  men  from  jars  or  leather  bottles ; 
 hence  the  force  of  the  expression  in  Isa. 
 55  :  1,  "Without  money  and  without 
 price."     See  Fountain,  Well. 
 
 Water    of  Jealousy.     See  Jeal- 
 ousy. 
 
 Wave-Of^fer-ing,  This  rite,  to- 
 gether with  that  of  "heaving"  or  "rais- 
 ing" the  offering,  was  an  inseparable  ac- 
 companiment of  peace-offerings.  In  such, 
 the  right  shoulder,  considered  the  choicest 
 part  of  the  victim,  was  to  be  "  heaved,"  and 
 viewed  as  holy  to  the  Lord,  was  therefore 
 only  to  be  eaten  by 
 the  priest  ;  the 
 breast  was  to  be 
 "  waved,"  and  eaten 
 by  the  worshiper. 
 On  the  second  day 
 of  the  passover  a 
 sheaf  of  corn  in  the 
 green  ear  was  to 
 be  waved,  accompa- 
 nied by  the  sacrifice 
 of   an    unblemished 
 
 lamb  of  the  first  year ;  from  the  perform- 
 ance of  which  ceremony  the  days  till 
 Pentecost  were  to  be  counted.  When 
 tliat  feast  arrived,  two  loaves,  the  first- 
 fruits  of  the  ripe  corn,  were  to  be  of- 
 fered with  a  burnt-offering,  a  sin-offering 
 and  two  lambs  of  the  first  year  for  a 
 peace-offering.  These  likewise  were  to 
 be  waved.  The  scriptural  notices  of  these 
 rites  are  to  be  found  in  Ex.  29  :  24,  28 ; 
 Lev.  7  :  30,  34;  8  :  27  ;  9  :  21 ;  10  :  14,  15; 
 23  :  10,  15,  20;  Num.  6  :  20;  18  :  11,  18, 
 26-29.  The  design  of  these  rites  was  to 
 acknowledge  God's  greatness  and  his  right 
 over  the  creature,  and  also  to  bear  witness 
 
 to  a  ratified  covenant  and  to  an  established 
 communion  between  God  and  man. 
 
 "Wax.  As  a  verb,  to  "  wax  "  means  to 
 grow  (Gen.  19  :  13;  Ex.  22  :  24;  Lev.  25  : 
 39 ;  1  Sam.  3:2;  Matt.  24  :  12 ;  Luke  12  : 
 33).  As  a  noun,  "wax"  is  the  name  of  a 
 well-known  substance,  easily  softened  and 
 dissolved  by  heat  (Ps.  22  :  14;  68  :  2;  97  : 
 5;  Mic.  1  :4). 
 
 Way^far-ing  Man,  one  who  jour- 
 neys on  foot  and  who  depends  on  the 
 hospitality  he  may  meet  with  on  the 
 road  (Isa.  35:8;  Jer.  9  :  2 ;  14:8). 
 
 Weap'ons.     See  Arms. 
 
 Wea'sel,  The  word  occurs  but  once 
 in  our  Authorized  Version  (Lev.  11  :  29), 
 in  the  list  of  unclean  animals;  the  Hebrew 
 word  thus  rendered  is  thought  to  be  a  rep- 
 resentative of  tlie  "  mole,"  which  is  very 
 common  in  Palestine. 
 
 Weaving  and  Spinning,  from  an  Egyptian  Painting. 
 
 'Weav'ing'.  The  art  of  weaving  was 
 practiced  in  the  very  earliest  times.  The 
 "vestures  of  fine  linen,"  such  as  Joseph 
 wore  (Gen.  41  :  42),  were  the  products  of 
 Egyptian  looms.  The  Israelites  were 
 probably  acquainted  with  the  process  be- 
 fore their  sojourn  in  Egypt,  but  there  un- 
 doubtedly they  attained  that  proficiency 
 which  enabled  them  to  execute  the  hang- 
 ings of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  35  :  35 ;  1 
 Chron.  4  :  21).  Tlie  textures  produced 
 by  the  Jewish  weavers  were  very  various. 
 The  coarser  kinds,  such  as  tent-cloth,  sack- 
 cloth and  the  hairy  garments  of  the  poor, 
 were  made  of  goat's  or  camel's  hair  (Ex. 
 
522 
 
 WEDDING— WEIGHTS. 
 
 26  :  7  ;  Matt.  3  :  4).  Wool  was  extensive- 
 ly used  for  ordinary  clothing  ( Lev.  13  :  47  ; 
 Prov.  27  :  26;  31  :  13;  Ezek.  27  :  18), 
 while  for  finer  work  flax  was  used,  vary- 
 ing in  quality,  and  producing  the  textures 
 described  in  the  Scriptures  as  "linen"  and 
 "  fine  linen."  The  mixture  of  wool  and 
 flax  in  cloth  intended  for  a  garment  was 
 interdicted  (Lev.  1!)  :  19;  Dent.  22  :  11). 
 
 "Wed^ding.    See  Marriage. 
 
 "Wed^ding-Gar^ment.  At  a  wed- 
 ding-feast the  host  provided  a  garment  for 
 each  of  the  guests.  To  appear,  therefore, 
 at  such  a  feast  without  the  jjrovided  gar- 
 ment was  a  discourtesy  to  the  liost  and  the 
 occasion  for  immediate  and  ignominious 
 expulsion  (Matt.  22  :  11-13). 
 
 "Week.  Measuring  time  by  a  period 
 of  seven  days  is  a  custom  of  remote  an- 
 tiquity (Gen.  8  :  10;  29  :  27).  Its  antiqui- 
 ty is  so  great,  its  observance  so  widespread, 
 and  its  relation  to  sacred  things  so  intimate 
 and  important,  that  it  must  date  back  to 
 the  creation  of  man.  Thus,  the  week  and 
 the  Sabbath  are  as  old  as  man  liimself. 
 In  Exodus  the  week  comes  into  very  dis- 
 tinct manifestation.  Two  of  the  great 
 feasts,  tlie  passover  and  the  feast  of  tab- 
 ernacles, are  prolonged  for  seven  days 
 after  that  of  their  initiation  (Ex.  12  :  15- 
 20;  Lev.  23  :  34-36).  The  division  by 
 seven  was  expanded  so  as  to  make  the 
 seventh  month  and  the  seventh  year  sab- 
 batical. The  Christian  Church  from  the 
 very  first  was  familiar  with  the  week  (1 
 Cor.  16  :  2). 
 
 "Weeks,  Feast  of.     See  Pentecost. 
 
 Weights  and  Meas^ures.  These 
 were  in  use  from  the  earliest  period  (Gen. 
 6:  15;  23:  16). 
 
 I.  In  respect  to  Weights,  the  chief  unit 
 was  the  shekel,  (that  is,  weight),  called  also 
 the  holi/ shekel  or  shekel  of  the  savchtary,  sub- 
 divided into  the  beka  (that  is,  halj')  or  half- 
 shekel,  and  the  r/erah  (that  is,  a  grain  or 
 bean).  The  chief  multiple,  or  higher 
 unit,  was  the  kikkar  (that  is,  circle  or  globe), 
 
 translated  in  our  Autliorized  Version  tal- 
 ent, subdivided  into  the  maneh  (that  h>, 
 part).  The  foregoing  weights  were  usu- 
 ally employed  for  the  standard  of  weigli- 
 ing  xilver.  For  gold  a  different  shekel  was 
 used,  probably  of  foreign  introduction. 
 The  talent  of  this  system  wa.s  just  double 
 that  of  the  silver  standard  ;  '\t  was  divided 
 into  one  hundred  manehs,  and  each  maneh 
 into  one  hundred  shekels.  A  different 
 standard  still  for  copper  seems  to  have  ex- 
 isted— namely,  a  shekel  four  times  as  heavy 
 as  the  gold  shekel.  In  the  coinage  it  seems 
 to  have  been  subdivided  into  halves,  quar- 
 ters and  sixths. 
 
 II.  Of  Measures  there  were  two  kinds, 
 measures  of  Length  and  measures  of  Ca- 
 pacity. 
 
 1.  Measures  of  length  were  of  two 
 classes — length  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and 
 distance  or  itineraiy  measures.  Measures 
 of  length  in  the  ordinary  sense  were  de- 
 rived in  the  first  instance  from  the  parts 
 of  the  human  body,  the  only  parts  u.sed  for 
 this  purpose,  however,  being  the  hand  and 
 /tire-a?')u  to  the  exclusion  of  the/oo<,  which 
 was  the  chief  unit  of  the  Western  nations. 
 Hence  arises  the  difficulty  of  determining 
 the  ratio  of  the  foot  lo  the  cubit,  which 
 appears  as  the  chief  Oriental  unit  from 
 the  very  building  of  Noah's  ark  ((Jen.  6  : 
 15,  16 ;  7  :  20).  The  Hebrew  lesser  meas- 
 ures were  the  finger  s  breadth  (.Jer.  52  :  21 ), 
 the  palm  or  handbreadth  (Ex.  25  :  25)  and 
 the  span — that  is,  the  full  stretch  between 
 the  tip  of  the  thumb  and  the  tip  of  the  lit- 
 tle finger  (Ex.  28  :  16).  The  actual  length 
 of  the  Mosaic  cubit  cannot  be  exactly  de- 
 termined, but  is  placed  ajiproximately  by 
 the  best  authorities  at  a  little  more  than 
 eigliteen  inches.  Of  itinei-ary  measures, 
 or  those  of  distance,  the  smallest  was 
 the  pace  and  the  largest  the  day's  journey. 
 The  pace  (2  Sam.  6  :  13),  if  single  like 
 our  step,  was  about  thirty  inches;  if  double, 
 like  the  Latin  pulsus,  it  was  about  five  feet. 
 The  day's  journey  was  the  most  usual  metli- 
 
WEIGHTS. 
 
 523 
 
 od  of  calculating  distances  in  traveling 
 (Gen.  30  :  36;  Ex.  3  :  18  and  many  other 
 passages).  The  ordinary  day's  journey 
 among  the  Jews  was  thirty  miles,  but 
 when  they  traveled  in  companies  only 
 ten  miles.  The  Subbath-days  journey  of 
 two  thousand  cubits  (Acts  1  :  12)  is  pecu- 
 liar to  tlie  New  Testament,  and  arose  from 
 a  rabbinical  interpretation  of  Ex.  16  :  29 
 and  Num.  35  :  5. 
 
 2.  Measures  of  capacity  were  liquid  and 
 dry.  The  liquid  measures  were  the  log 
 (Lev.  14  :  10)  ;  the  hin  (Ex.  29  :  40), 
 equal  to  twelve  logs;  the  bath  (1  Kings 
 7  :  26),  equal  to  six  bins  or  seventy- 
 two  logs;  and  the  cor  (Ezek.  45  :  14), 
 equal  to  ten  baths.  The  dry  measures 
 were  the  cab  (2  Kings  6  :  25) ;  the  omer 
 (Ex.  16  :  16-36),  a  little  less  than  two 
 cabs;  the  seah  or  "measure"  (Gen.  18  :  6), 
 equal  to  six  cabs;  the  ephah  (Ex.  16  :  36), 
 equal  to  ten  omers ;  and  the  homer  (Lev.  27  ; 
 16),  equal  to  ten  ephahs. 
 
 The  following  tables  exhibit  at  one  view 
 the  Hebrew  weights  and  measures,  with 
 their  nearest  modern  representatives : 
 
 I.  Hebkew  Weights. 
 
 Troy  Weiglit. 
 grains,    lbs.  oz. 
 
 IGerah 11    ...    ^ 
 
 10  Gerahs  =  1  Beka 110    ...     i 
 
 2  Bekas      =  1  Shekel 220    ...      i 
 
 50  Shekels  =  1  Maneh 11,000      1  II 
 
 60  Mauehs  =  1  Talent  (Kikkar) 660,000  114    7 
 
 The  above  table  was  for  silver  ;  for  gold 
 a  different  shekel  was  used.  The  talent 
 of  gold  was  just  double  that  of  the  silver 
 standard ;  it  was  divided  into  one  hun- 
 dred manehs,  and  each  maneh  into  one 
 hundred  shekels.  A  third  standard  for 
 copper  appears  to  have  existed — namely, 
 a  shekel  four  times  as  heavy  as  the  gold 
 shekel,  and  subdivided  in  the  coinage  into 
 halves,  quarters  and  sixths.  The  money-value 
 of  the  several  silver  and  gold  weights  given 
 in  the  table  was,  in  the  currency  of  the 
 United  States,  ap^iroximately,  this: 
 
 Silver. 
 $      cu. 
 
 IGerah 0    2.73 
 
 1  Bekab 0  27.30 
 
 1  Shekel 54.60 
 
 1  Maneh  oi-  Minali 27  30 
 
 1  Talent 1638 
 
 Gold. 
 
 1  Gold  Shekel 8  76 
 
 1  Gold  Talent 26,280  00 
 
 This  money-value  of  weighed  silver  and 
 gold  furnishes  a  suggestive  commentary 
 on  several  historic  facts  recorded  in  Scrip- 
 ture. Joseph  was  sold  fur  twenty  pieces 
 of  silver  (shekels),  hence  his  price  was 
 $10.92.  Judas  sold  our  Lord  for  thirty 
 pieces  of  silver  (shekels),  and  therefore 
 received  $16.38.  The  debtor  (Matt.  18  : 
 24)  who  had  been  forgiven  ten  thousand 
 talents  (silver),  equal  to  $16,380,000,  re- 
 fused to  forgive  his  fellow-servant  one 
 hundred  pence  (Eoman  penny,  worth  fif- 
 teen cents),  or  $15.  Naaman's  offering  to 
 Elisha  of  six  thousand  pieces  (shekels)  of 
 gold  was  equivalent  to  $52,560. 
 
 IL  Hebrew  Measures  of  Length. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1  Finger 0.75 
 
 4  Fingers  =  1  Palm 3.02 
 
 3  Palms     =lSpan 9.07 
 
 2. Spans    =1  Cubit 18.14 
 
 6  Cubits    =  1  Beed 108.84 
 
 III.  Hebrew  Liquid  Measures. 
 
 Jnsephus.      Rabbins. 
 
 gals.  qts.  pts.     gals.  qts.  pts. 
 
 One  Log 0.99     0.56 
 
 4  Logs    =  1  Cab 1  1.96  ...       1  0.24 
 
 3  Cabs    =lHin 1      1  1.88  ...      3  0.72 
 
 6  Hins    =1  Bath 8     3  1.28  5      0  0.32 
 
 10  Baths  =  1  Cor 89     0  0.80  50      11.20 
 
 IV.  Hebrew  Dky  Measures. 
 
 Joseph  us.  Rabbins. 
 
 bsh.  pks.  qts.  pts.  bsb.  pks.  qis.  pis. 
 
 1  Cab 2     1  0.24 
 
 1^  Cabs      =10mer 3    1.1    2    ... 
 
 si  Omers  =  1  Seah 1    3   1.7    6  1.44 
 
 3  Seahs      =  1  Ephah.     1     0    2   3.2    ...    2      4  0.32 
 10  Ephahs=l  Homer.   11    0   4    0       6     1     1    1.2 
 
 The  absolute  values  of  the  liquid  and  dry 
 measures  are  stated  differently  by  Josephus 
 
524 
 
 WELL— WHIRLWIND. 
 
 and  the  rabbins.  Unable  to  decide  be- 
 tween them,  we  give  a  double  estimate  of 
 tlie  various  denominations. 
 
 Well.  The  special  necessity  of  a  sup- 
 ply of  water  (Judg.  1  :  15)  in  a  hot  climate 
 has  always  involved  among  Esustern  nations 
 questions  of  propcTty  of  the  highest  im- 
 portance, and  sometimes  has  given  rise  to 
 serious  contention  (Gen.  21  :  25-32).  Wells 
 in  Palestine  are  often  excavated  from  the 
 solid  limestone  rock,  sometimes  with  steps 
 to  descend  into  them  (Gen.  24  :  16).  The 
 brims  are  furnished  with  a  curb  or  low 
 wall  of  stone,  bearing  marks  of  high  an- 
 tiquity in  the  furrows  worn  by  the  ropes 
 used  in  drawing  water.  It  was  on  a  curb 
 of  this  sort  that  our  Lord  sat  when  he  con- 
 versed with  the  woman  of  Samaria  (.John  4 : 
 6 ) .  The  usual  method  of  raising  water  was 
 the  rope  and  bucket  or  water-skin  (Gen.  24 : 
 14-20;  John  4  :  11).  Wells  are  usually 
 furnished  with  troughs  of  wood  or  stone, 
 into  which  the  water  is  emptied  for  tlie 
 use  of  persons  or  animals  coming  to  the 
 wells. 
 
 "Whale.  The  Hebrew  word  rendered 
 "whales"  in  Gen.  1  :  21  designates  sea- 
 monsters  in  general,  and  the  Greek  word 
 rendered  "whale"  in  Matt.  12  :  40  is  not 
 restricted  in  its  meaning  to  a  whale  or 
 any  cetacean,  but  may  denote  any  sea-mon- 
 ster, either  a  whale  or  a  shark  or  a  seal. 
 The  whale  which  swallowed  Jonah  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  white  shark,  which 
 is  abundant  in  tlie  Mediterranean,  and 
 which  frequently  attains  the  length  of 
 thirty  feet.  Whales  are  also  found  in 
 the  Mediterranean. 
 
 Wheat.  This  well-known  valuable 
 cereal,  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times, 
 is  first  rpentioned  in  Gen.  30  :  14  in  the 
 account  of  Jacob's  sojourn  with  Laban  in 
 Mesopotamia.  As  a  plant  no  trac?  of  it 
 is  found  in  any  of  the  geological  strata 
 until  we  come  to  tlie  most  recent  forma- 
 tions contemporaneous  with  man.  It  has 
 never  been  found  in  a  wild  state.     It  has 
 
 never  been  known  as  anything  but  a 
 cultivated  plant.  History  and  observa- 
 tion prove  that  it  cannot  grow  sjiontane- 
 ously.  It  is  never,  like  other  plants, 
 self-sown  and  self-diffused.  Neglected  of 
 man,  it  speedily  disappears  and  becomes 
 extinct.  It  can  only  be  reared  perma- 
 nently by  being  sown  by  man's  own  hand 
 and  in  ground  wliich  man's  own  hand  has 
 tilled. 
 
 Egypt  in  ancient  times  was  celebrated  for 
 the  growth  of  its  wheat;  the  best  qualities 
 were  bearded,  and,  according  to  Pliny,  were 
 grown  in  the  Thebaid.  Tlie  same  varie- 
 ties existed  in  ancient  as  in  modern  times, 
 among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  seven- 
 eared  variety  described  in  Pharaoh's  dream 
 (Gen.  41  :  22).  Syria  and  Palestine  pro- 
 duced wheat  of  very  fine  quality  and 
 in  large  quantities  (Ps.  147  :  14).  In  the 
 parable  of  the  Sower  our  Lord  alludes  to 
 grains  of  wheat  which  in  good  ground 
 produce  a  hundred-fold  (Matt.  13  :  8). 
 Wheat  is  reaped  toward  the  end  of  April, 
 in  May  and  in  June,  according  to  the  dif- 
 ferences of  soil  and  position.  It  was  sown 
 broadcast,  and  then  ploughed  in  or  tram- 
 pled in  by  cattle  (Isa.  32  :  20). 
 
 Wheat  was  ground  into  flour ;  the  finest 
 qualities  were  expressed  by  the  term 
 "fat  of  kidneys  of  wheat"  (Deut.  32  : 
 14).  The  curious  expressiou  in  Prov. 
 27  :  22,  "Tliough  thou  shouldest  bray  a 
 fool  in  a  mortar  among  wheat  with  a 
 pestle,  yet  will  not  his  foolishncsti  depart 
 from  him,"  appears  to  point  to  the  cus- 
 tom of  mixing  the  grains  of  inferior 
 cereals  with  wheat.  The  meaning  will 
 then  be,  "  Let  a  fool  be  ever  so  much  in 
 the  company  of  wise  men,  yet  he  will 
 continue  a  fool." 
 
 Whirl'"wind..  In  our  Authorized  Ycr- 
 sion  four  Hebrew  words  have  the  common 
 [  rendering  "whirlwind,"  which,  indeed,  is 
 j  not  suitable  to  any  of  them.     They  all  re- 
 fer, not  to  a  wind  revolving  with  great  im- 
 1  petuosity  on  its  own  axis,  but  to  a  wind 
 
WHISPERER— WILLOW,   WILLOWS. 
 
 525 
 
 blowing  with  fury  and  producing  blight 
 and  desolation.  Tempest  or  storm,  rather 
 than  whirlwind,  would  have  been  a  more 
 exact  translation.  Of  these  four  terms, 
 two  only  are  used  with  any  frequency : 
 one,  from  a  root  signifying  to  snatch  away 
 or  carry  off,  denotes  a  sweeping,  desolating 
 blast  (job  21 :  18 ;  37  :  9  ;  Isa.  21 : 1 ;  Hos. 
 8:7);  the  other  indicates  very  nearly  the 
 same  thing,  but  makes  a  distinct  reference 
 to  its  vehement  agitating  motion  (2  Kings 
 2:1,  11;  Job  40:0;  Isa.  40:  24).  Of  the 
 remaining  two  terms,  one  should  have  been 
 rendered  simply  "wind"  (Ezek.  1  :  4),  and 
 the  other  has  respect  to  the  sense  of  hor- 
 ror which  is  occasioned  by  blasts  of  a 
 more  destructive  and  terrific  kind  (Ps.  58  : 
 9;  Dan.  11  :  40). 
 
 "Whis'per-er,  a  secret  slanderer  (Prov. 
 16:  28;  Rom.  1:29). 
 
 Wid^ow.  ^'he  Levitical  Law  made 
 no  specific  provision  for  the  maintenance 
 of  widows,  but  toward  widows  the  spirit 
 of  the  Law  was  singularly  considerate  and 
 generous.  They  were  left  dependent  part- 
 ly on  the  affection  of  relatives  (more  es- 
 pecially of  the  eldest  son,  whose  birth- 
 right, or  extra  share  of  the  property,  im- 
 posed such  a  duty  upon  him),  and  partly 
 on  the  privileges  accorded  to  other  dis- 
 tressed classes,  such  as  a  participation 
 in  the  triennial  third  tithe  (Deut.  14  :  29  ; 
 26  :  12),  in  leasing  or  gleaning  (Deut.  24  : 
 19-21 )  and  in  religious  feasts  (Deut.  16 :  11, 
 14).  With  regard  to  the  remarriage  of 
 widows,  the  only  restriction  imposed  by 
 the  Law  had  reference  to  the  contingency 
 of  one  being  left  childless,  in  which  case 
 the  brotlier  of  the  deceased  husband  had 
 a  right  to  marry  the  widow  ( Deut.  25 : 5,  6 ; 
 Matt.  22 :  23-30).  In  the  apostolic  Church 
 the  widows  were  sustained  at  the  public 
 expense,  the  relief  being  daily  adminis- 
 tered in  kind,  under  the  superintendence 
 of  officei's  appointed  for  this  special  pur- 
 pose (v\.cts  6  :  1-6).  The  apostle  Paul 
 gives  particular  directions  as  to  the  class 
 
 of  persons  entitled  to  such  public  main- 
 tenance (1  Tim.  5  :  3-16). 
 
 Wife.     See  Marriage. 
 
 "WiPder-ness  of  the  "Wan'der- 
 ing.  This,  as  the  designation  of  the  re- 
 gion in  which  the  children  of  Israel  so- 
 journed for  thirty-eight  years  (Josh.  14  : 
 10),  must  have  included  three  great  groups 
 or  districts  of  mountains,  each  called  a  wil- 
 derness— namely,  the  wilderness  of  Sinai 
 to  the  south,  the  wilderness  of  Paran  to  the 
 north  of  that,  extending  toward  the  north- 
 west, and  the  wilderness  of  Zin  to  the  north- 
 east. The  whole  of  tliis  region  Wiis  deficient 
 in  water  and  in  food  for  man.  Hence  the 
 occasion  for  the  miraculous  stream  which 
 flowed  from  the  smitten  rock  ( Ex.  17  :  6) 
 and  for  the  miraculous  manna  which  fell 
 from  heaven  (Ex.  16  :  1')). 
 
 "Wild  Hon'ey.    See  Honey. 
 
 Wil'low,  Wil'lows.  Of  these  words, 
 the  first  occurs  in  our  Authorized  Version 
 but  once  (Ezck.  17  :  5);  the  second  five 
 times  (Lev.  23  :  40;  Job  40  :  22;  Ps.  137  : 
 2  ;  Isa.  15:7;  44  :  4).  Tlie  Hebrew  word 
 rendered  "willows"  in  the  five  passages 
 cited  is  only  found  in  the  plural,  and  is 
 undoubtedly  generic,  including  not  only 
 the  numerous  species  of  willows,  but  also 
 the  numerous  species  of  poplars,  all  the 
 plants  indeed  which  constitute  the  natu- 
 ral order  Salicacece.  Of  willows  proper, 
 the  Salijc  alba  or  white  willow,  the  Salix 
 viminalis  or  osier  willow,  and  the  Salix 
 ^ijyptiaca  or  Egyptian  willow,  are  the 
 most  common  in  P^astern  countries.  The 
 Hebrew  word  rendered  "  willow "  is  a 
 diflerent  word  from  that  rendered  "wil- 
 lows," and  is  supposed  to  be  the  specific 
 designation  of  Salix  JE(/yptiaca.  As  to 
 the  tree  upon  which  the  captives  in  Bab- 
 ylon hung  their  harps,  opinions  are  di- 
 verse. The  weeping  willow  received  the 
 name  Salix  Bahylonica  because  in  Ps.  137  : 
 2  "willows"  were  mentioned,  and  the 
 "weeping  willow"  seemed  the  most  ap- 
 propriate willow  to  be  associated  with  the 
 
626 
 
 WILLOWS,  THE  BROOK  OF  THE— WINE. 
 
 grief  of  the  Jewish  captives,  but  Hebrew 
 scholars  are  now  agreed  that  the  word 
 "willows"  in  the  Psalm  should  be  "pop- 
 lars." According  to  Karl  Koch,  the  weep- 
 ing willow  is  a  native  of  Cliina.  Tlie  spe- 
 cific poplar  referred  to  by  the  Psalmist 
 is  not  certain.  It  is  thought  by  some  to 
 be  the  Populm  Euphratica,  which  grows 
 abundantly  in  the  Mesopotamian  valley ; 
 by  others  to  be  the  Salix  peiulula. 
 
 WiPlows,  The  Brook  of  the,  a 
 wady  mentioned  by  Isaiah  (15  :  7)  in  his 
 dirge  over  Moab.  His  language  implies 
 that  it  was  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the 
 country,  and  it  is  possibly  identical  with 
 a  wady  mentioned  by  Amos  (6  :  14),  as  the 
 then  recognized  southern  limit  of  the 
 Northern  kingdom.  This  latter  is  de- 
 nominated in  our  Authorized  Version 
 "  the  river  of  the  wilderness,"  and,  wide- 
 ly different  as  the  two  names  seem,  they 
 are  all  but  identical  in  the  original  He- 
 brew. 
 
 "Wim^ple,  an  old  English  word  for 
 hood  or  veil  (Isa.  3  :  22).  The  Hebrew 
 word  rendered  "  wimple  "  in  our  Author- 
 ized Version  is  translated  "  veil  "  in  Ruth 
 3  :  1 .5,  but  it  signifies  ratlier  a  kind  of  shawl 
 or  mantle. 
 
 Win^dow.     See  House. 
 
 "Winds.  The  Hebrews  used  the  ex- 
 pression "  four  winds "  as  equivalent  to 
 the  four  cardinal  points,  north,  south,  east 
 and  west  (Ezek.  37  :  9 ;  Dan.  8:8;  Zech. 
 2:6:  Matt.  24  :  31).  Of  winds  proper, 
 the  north-west  wind  prevails  in  Palestine 
 from  the  autumnal  equinox  to  the  begin- 
 ning of  November,  and  the  north  wind 
 from  June  to  the  equinox.  The  east 
 wind  crosses  the  sandy  wastes  of  Arabia 
 Deserta  before  reaching  Palestine,  and  was 
 hence  termed  "  the  wind  of  the  wilderness  " 
 (Job  1  :  19;  .Jer.  13  :  24).  It  blows  with 
 violence,  and  the  word  is  used  generally  to 
 represent  any  violent  wind  (Job  27  :  21 ;  Ps. 
 48 :  7 ;  Isa.  27  :  8 ;  Ezek.  27  :  26 ).  In  Pal- 
 estine the  east  wind  prevails  from  February 
 
 to  June.  The  south  wind,  which  traverses 
 the  Arabian  Peninsula  before  reaching 
 Palestine,  must  of  necessity  be  extreme- 
 ly hot  (Job  37  :  17  ;  Luke  12  :  55).  The 
 west  and  south-west  winds  reach  Pales- 
 tine loaded  with  moisture  gathered  from 
 the  Mediterranean,  and  are  termed  by  the 
 Arabs  "the  fathers  of  tlie  rain."  Wester- 
 ly winds  prevail  in  Palestine  from  Novem- 
 ber to  February.  The  Scriptures  notice 
 the  local  squalls  to  which  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
 ilee was  liable  (Mark  4  :  37  ;  Luke  8  :  23) ; 
 and  in  the  narrative  of  the  apostle  Paul's 
 voyage  to  Rome  special  mention  is  made 
 of  "  a  tempestuous  wind  "  called  Enroclydon, 
 and  coming  from  east-north-east  (Acts  27  : 
 14).    See  EuuocLYDON. 
 
 Treading  Grapes  in  the  Wine-Press. 
 
 "Wine.  Seven  different  Hebrew  words 
 have  in  our  Authorized  Version  the  com- 
 mon rendering  "  wine."  The  word  "  wine  " 
 has  therefore  a  general  rather  than  a  spe- 
 cific sense,  and  of  this  an  examination  of 
 passages  furnishes  abundant  confirmation. 
 The  leading  senses  of  the  word  "  wine  "  as 
 found  in  our  Englisli  Bible  are  these  :  1. 
 Vintage-fruit  (Num.  18  :  12;  Deut.  7:13; 
 11  :  14;  12:  17;  14:  23;  18:4;  Isa.  36  : 
 17  ;  Jer.  40  :  10-12  ;  Mic.  6  :  15) ;  2.  Grape- 
 juice  unexpressed  (Isa.  65  :  8)  ;  3.  Grape- 
 juice  just  expressed  (Gen.  49  :  11  ;  Isa.  16  ; 
 10 1  ;    4.  Grape-juice  vinously  fermented 
 
WINNOWING— WITHS. 
 
 527 
 
 (Ps.  75  :  8 ;  Prov.  20  :  1 ;  23  :  29-32)  ; 
 o.  Grape-juice  acetously  fermented — sonr 
 wine,  vinegar  (Ps.  69  :  21 ;  Matt.  27  :  34 ; 
 Mark  15  :  23).  Of  these  senses  the  fourth  is 
 that  which  usage  has  commonly  associated 
 with  the  word  "  wine,"  and  in  this  sense 
 wine  was  certainly  abundant  in  Palestine. 
 The  severe  denunciations  against  drunken- 
 ness which  abound  in  Scripture  imply  the 
 use  and  prevalence  of  intoxicating  wines. 
 
 "Win'now-ing',  the  process  of  separa- 
 ting tlie  grain  from  the  chaff  and  straw 
 (Isa.  30  :  24).  The  grain  was  first  taken 
 upon  a  broad  shovel  and  thrown  up  against 
 the  wind,  which  did  the  work  of  a  fan,  and 
 subsequently  at  the  markets  was  shaken  in 
 a  sieve,  wliich  cleaned  it  from  dirt  and 
 refuse  (Job  21  :  18;  Ps.  35  :  5;  Matt.  3  : 
 12;  Amos  9  :  9). 
 
 "Wise  Men,  In  Matt.  2  :  1-12  our 
 Authorized  Version  indicates  by  "wise 
 men  "  those  Magi  or  Magians  who  in  his- 
 tory are  conspicuous  chiefly  as  a  Persian 
 religious  caste.  As  to  the  country  whence 
 these  wise  men  came,  opinions  vary  great- 
 ly, but  their  following  the  guidance  of  a 
 star  seems  to  point  to  tlie  banks  of  the 
 Tigris  and  Euphrates,  where  astronomy 
 was  early  cultivated  by  the  Chaldseans. 
 The  religion  of  Zoroaster,  remaining  pure 
 from  tlie  grosser  forms  of  idolatry,  pre- 
 served the  hope  of  a  great  Deliverer  who 
 would  reform  the  world  and  establish  a 
 reign  of  universal  peace.  That  some  tra- 
 dition, influenced  possibly  by  the  Jews  of 
 the  Dispersion,  made  this  deliverer  a  "  king 
 of  the  Jews,"  seems  a  fair  inference  from 
 tlie  direct  form  of  the  inquiry  for  him 
 which  tliey  addressed  to  Herod.  As  to 
 the  sign  whicli  guided  them,  the  plain 
 narrative  of  Matthew  evidently  supposes 
 a   miracle   vouchsafed    for  the    occasion. 
 
 The  ingenious  conjecture  of  certain  as- 
 tronomers that  the  appearance  of  the  star 
 was  caused  by  a  remarkable  conjunction 
 of  the  planets  Jupiter  and  Saturn  is  cer- 
 tainly inadmissible.     The  approach  of  the 
 
 two  planets  was  not  at  all  near  enough  for 
 them  to  be  mistaken  for  a  single  star,  nor 
 could  habitual  observers  of  the  heavens 
 fail  to  recognize  the  positions  of  such 
 well-known  planets.  Besides,  the  stand- 
 ing of  these  planets  "  over  the  place  where 
 the  young  child  was,"  so  as  to  define  the 
 spot  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  utterly 
 inconceivable.  The  better  way  is  to  ac- 
 cept tlie  obvious  explanation  that  some 
 new  luminary,  whether  meteoric  or  celes- 
 tial, was  expressly  and  distinctly  made  to 
 appear  to  these  Eastern  sages  and  practiced 
 astronomers  in  order  to  guide  them  on 
 their  way.  Following  the  star,  the  wise 
 men  found  at  length  the  Child-King,  paid 
 him  their  willing  homage,  and  presented 
 their  costly  gifts,  the  first-fruits  of  the 
 wealth  and  wisdom  of  the  Gentile  world. 
 By  means  of  a  dream,  a  form  of  divina- 
 tion which  they  we;e  wont  to  follow  with 
 implicit  faith,  they  were  warned  by  God 
 not  to  return  to  Herod ;  accordingly,  they 
 departed  into  their  own  country  by  an- 
 other route,  i)erhaps  by  Hebron  and  round 
 the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  An  ut- 
 terly baseless  tradition  represents  the  Avise 
 men  as  three  kings  named  Gaspar,  Mel- 
 chior  and  Balthazar.  Their  bodies,  it  is 
 said,  were  discovered  somewhere  in  the 
 East,  were  brought  to  Constantinople, 
 were  thence  transferred  to  Milan,  and  in 
 A.  D.  1162  were  finally  deposited  in  the 
 cathedral  of  Cologne,  where,  as  the  great- 
 est of  its  many  treasures,  the  shrine  of  the 
 Three  Kings  is  now  shown. 
 
 "Witch,  Witch'craft,  Wiz'ard. 
 The  first  and  third  of  these  words  indi- 
 cate the  female  and  male  pretender  re- 
 spectively to  the  power  of  witchcraft,  or 
 that  of  penetrating  the  future  and  of  per- 
 forming supernatural  acts.  The  profes- 
 sions and  practices  of  all  such  persons  are 
 sternly  denoimced  in  Scripture  (Ex.  22  : 
 18;  Deut.  18:  10-12).  See  Divination 
 and  Familiar  Spirit. 
 
 "Withs.     The   word   occurs    but   once 
 
528 
 
 WITNESS— WOM  EX. 
 
 (Judg.  16  :  7),  and  then  the  better  render- 
 ing would  have  been  "new  (moist)  cords." 
 The  Saxon  word  "with"  means  a  sup- 
 ple twig  or  piece  of  fresh  bark  used  for 
 twining  or  wicker-work. 
 
 "Wit'ness.  Among  special  pro- 
 visions with  respect  to  evidence  are  tlie 
 following :  1 .  Two  witnesses  at  least  are 
 required  to  establish  any  charge  (Num. 
 35  :  oO;  Deut.  17  :  6  ;  John  8:17);  2. 
 In  the  case  of  the  suspected  wife  evi- 
 dence besides  the  husband's  was  re- 
 quired (Num.  5  :  13) ;  3.  The  witness 
 who  withheld  tlie  truth  was  censured 
 (Lev.  5:1);  4.  False  witness  was  pun- 
 ished with  the  punisliinent  due  to  tlie 
 offence  which  it  sought  to  establish 
 (Deut.  19  :  lG-19) ;  5.  Slanderous  re- 
 ports and  officious  testimonies  are  dis- 
 couraged (Ex.  23  :  1 ;  Lev.  19  :  16,  18 ) ; 
 6.  The  witnesses  were  the  first  execu- 
 tioners (Deut.  13 : 9 ;  17  : 7  ;  Acts  7 :  68) ;  7. 
 In  case  of  an  animal  left  in  charge  and  torn 
 by  wild  beasts,  the  keeper  was  to  bring  the 
 carcass  in  proof  of  the  fact  and  disproof  of 
 his  own  criminality  (Ex.  22  :  13).  In  the 
 New  Testament  the  original  notion  of  a 
 witness  is  exhibited  in  the  special  form  of 
 one  who  attests  his  belief  in  the  gospel  by 
 personal  suffering  (Acts  26  :  16-23;  Eev. 
 20  :  4) ;  hence  has  arisen  the  term  "mar- 
 tyr," the  Greek  word  for  "  witness." 
 
 "Wolf,  a  fierce,  cruel,  ravenous  animal, 
 in  size  and  general  appearance  resembling 
 a  dog.  It  varies  in  color,  being  sometimes 
 gray,  with  a  tinting  of  fawn  and  long  black 
 hairs,  sometimes  black  and  sometimes  taw- 
 ny. It  was  more  common  in  Palestine  an- 
 ciently than  now ;  it  is  but  occasionally 
 seen  by  modern  travelers.  The  scriptural 
 allusions  to  the  wolf  are  mainly  the  fol- 
 lowing. Its  ferocity  is  mentioned  in  Gen. 
 49  :  27 ;  Ezek.  22  :  27  ;  Ilab.  1:8;  Matt. 
 7  :  15;  its  nocturnal  habits  in  Jer.  5:6; 
 Zeph.  3:3;  its  attacking  sheep  and  lambs 
 in  Matt.  10  :  16;  Luke  10  :  3;  .John  10  : 
 12.     Isaiah  (11:6;  65  :  25)  foretells  the 
 
 peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah  under  the 
 metaphor  of  a  wolf  dwelling  with  a  lamb. 
 Cruel  persecutors  are  likened  to  wolves 
 'Acts  20  :  29). 
 
 Syrian  Wolf. 
 
 'Wom''en.  The  position  of  women  in 
 the  Hebrew  commonwealth  contrasts  fa- 
 vorably with  that  which  is  now  theirs  in 
 Eastern  countries.  Instead  of  being  im- 
 mured in  a  harem  or  appearing  in  pulilic 
 with  the  face  covered,  the  wives  and  maid- 
 ens of  ancient  times  mingled  freely  and 
 openly  with  the  other  sex  in  the  duties 
 and  amenities  of  ordinary  life.  Rebckah 
 traveled  on  a  camel  with  her  face  unveiled 
 until  she  came  into  the  presence  of  her  affi- 
 anced (Gen.  24  :  64,  65) ;  Jacob  saluted  his 
 relative  Rachel  with  a  kiss  in  the  I'resencc 
 of  the  shepherds  (Gen.  29  :  11);  women 
 played  rto  inconsiderable  part  in  public 
 celebrations  {tlx.  15  :  20,  21  ;  Judg.  11  : 
 34) ;  the  odes  of  Deborah  (Judg.  ch.  5) 
 and  of  Hannah  (1  Sam.  2  :  1-10)  exhibit 
 a  degree  of  intellectual  cultivation  which 
 in  itself  is  a  strong  proof  of  woman's  higher 
 position  in  that  early  period.  The  value 
 of  a  virtvious  and  active  housewife  forms 
 a  frequent  topic  in  the  book  of  Proverbs. 
 The  effect  of  polygamy  was  to  transfer 
 female  influence  from  the  wives  to  the 
 mother.      Polygamy   also    necessitated   a 
 
WOOL— WORMWOOD. 
 
 529 
 
 separate  establishment  for  the  wives  col- 
 lectively or  for  each  wife  individually. 
 
 Wool.  As  the  staple  material  for  the 
 manufticture  of  clothing,  wool  was  an  arti- 
 cle of  the  highest  value  among  the  Jews 
 (Lev.  13  :  47 ;  Deut.  22  :  11 ;  Job  31  :  20; 
 Prov.  31  :  13;  Ezek.  34  :  3 ;  Hos.  2  :  5). 
 The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  wear  a 
 garment  mingled  of  woolen  and  linen 
 (Lev.  19  :  19). 
 
 "Word,  one  of  the  titles  of  our  Lord 
 (John  1:1),  and  a  general  expression  for 
 the  revealed  truths  of  religion  (Rom.  9:6; 
 1  Cor.  14  :  36;  Gal.  6:6).  It  also  indi- 
 cates any  form  of  utterance  (Ps.  119  :  101; 
 Isa.  2:1;  Luke  5  :  5). 
 
 "Works.  God's  works  are  all  those 
 things  created  and  governed  by  his  power 
 and  wisdom  which  make  him  known  (Ps. 
 145  :  9-12) ;  good  works,  or  the  works  of 
 the  righteous,  are  such  as  spring  from 
 gracious  sympathies  (Eph.  2  :  10).  Good 
 works  in  themselves  are  not  justifying,  but 
 are  evidences  of  that  faith  which  is  justify- 
 ing. 
 
 World.  In  our  Authorized  Version 
 two  Hebrew  and  two  equivalent  Greek 
 words,  the  one  having  respect  to  time,  the 
 other  to  space,  are  rendered  "  world." 
 
 1.  The  word  which  has  respect  to  tune 
 expresses  an  "  age  "  or  "  period  "  indefi- 
 nite (John  9  :  32),  or  even  infinite  (John 
 6  :  51).  It  is  used  sometimes  for  a 
 lifetime  (Ps.  73  :  12),  sometimes  for  a  gen- 
 eration (Eccles.  3:8),  but  more  often  for 
 one  of  those  vast  aggregates  of  time  which 
 enter  into  God's  counsels  in  reference  to 
 man's  being  and  destiny  (Isa.  4')  :  17  ;  Heb. 
 1:2).  When  designating  time  simply  it 
 is  often  combined  with  "this"  or  "the 
 present"  (Matt.  12:32;  13:22;  Luke 
 16  :  8;  Rom.  12  :  2;  1  Cor.  1  :  20;  2:6, 
 8 ;  Gal.  1:4;  1  Tim.  6:17;  2  Tim.  4  : 
 10)  in  contrast  with  "  that "  or  "  the  fu- 
 ture" or  "the  coming"  (Luke  18:30; 
 20:  35;  Eph.  1:21). 
 
 2.  The  word  which  has  respect  to  space 
 
 .Si 
 
 embodies  in  Hebrew  the  idea  of  "active 
 productiveness;"  in  Greek  the  idea  of  "or- 
 derly arrangement."  The  Hebrews  de- 
 nominated our  earth  "  the  world,"  be- 
 cause it  is  fertile  and  inhabited  (Ps.  90  : 
 2)  ;  the  Greeks  denominated  our  earth 
 "the  world,"  because  of  its  regular  and 
 beautiful  disposition  (Matt.  4:8).  By  a 
 natural  figure  the  term  "  world "  passed 
 into  a  designation  of  men,  the  world's  in- 
 habitants ( Ps.  9:8;  John  1  :  29 ;  3  :  16), 
 and  into  a  designation  of  men  as  lying 
 under  God's  displeasure  because  of  sin 
 (1  Cor.  11  :  32;  Eph.  2  :  12;  2  Pet.  2  : 
 20;  1  John  5:19). 
 
 Worm.  Several  Hebrew  words  are 
 thus  rendered  in  our  Authorized  Version. 
 One,  which  occurs  in  Isa.  51  :  8,  denotes 
 some  species  of  moth  whose  larva  is  inju- 
 rious to  wool.  Another,  which  occurs  in 
 Ex.  16  :  20,  points  evidently  to  various 
 kinds  of  maggots  and  the  larvse  of  insects 
 which  feed  on  putrefying  animal  matter. 
 Another,  which  occurs  in  Dent.  28  :  39,  is 
 applied  to  some  kinds  of  larvae  destructive 
 to  the  vines.  In  Job  19  :  26 ;  21 :  26 ;  24  : 
 20  there  is  an  allusion  to  worms  (insect 
 larva?)  feeding  on  the  dead  bodies  of  the 
 buried.  There  is  the  same  allusion  in 
 Isa.  66  :  24,  which  words  are  apjilied  by 
 our  Lord  (Mark  9  :  44,  46,  48)  metaphor- 
 ically to  the  torments  of  the  guilty  in  the 
 world  of  departed  spirits.  The  insignifi- 
 cance and  weakness  of  the  worm,  the  con- 
 tempt in  which  it  is  held,  and  especially 
 its  liability  to  be  trodden  under  foot  and 
 crushed,  make  it  in  certain  circumstances 
 not  an  unapt  emblem  of  man  (Job  25  :  6 ; 
 Ps.  22  :  6;  Isa.  41  :  14). 
 
 Worm ''wood.  This  word  occurs  fre- 
 quently in  the  Scriptures,  and  generallv 
 in  a  metaphorical  sense.  In  Deut.  29  : 
 18;  Prov.  5:4;  Jer.  9  :  15;  23  :  15; 
 Lam.  3  :  15,  19,  it  is  symbolical  of  bitter 
 calamity  and  sorrow.  As  there  are  sever- 
 al kinds  of  wormwood  in  Palestine,  and  as 
 the  ancients  were  accustomed  to  type  sor- 
 
530 
 
 WORSHIP— WRITING. 
 
 rows,  cruelties  and  calamities  by  plants  of 
 a  poisonous  or  bitter  nature,  the  occasion 
 of  tlie  frequent  recurrence  of  the  word  is 
 plain. 
 
 Wor'ship.  This  word  is  sometimes 
 used  to  express  respect  and  homage  to  a 
 fellow-creature  (Luke  14:10;  Acts  10: 
 25),  but  it  is  mol'e  generally  employed  to 
 indicate  the  religious  reverence  and  hom- 
 age which  man  owes  to  God  (John  4  :  24 ; 
 Heb.  1:6;  Rev.  22 :  9).  "  Will-worship  " 
 (Col.  2  :  23)  is  that  species  of  worship 
 which  God  has  not  authorized,  but  which 
 men  themselves  have  invented. 
 
 "Wrath.      The  Hebrew  and   Greek 
 words   thus   rendered   in  our  Authorized 
 Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
 have  the  sense  of  a  violent  commotion  of 
 mind,  an   excessive  indignation   and   an- 
 ger rising  to  the  height  of  pasifion,  and  in- 
 cluding the  desire  of  vengeance  or  pun- 
 ishment (Deut.  9:7;  Job  16  :  9;  Ej^h.  4  : 
 31  ;  Col.  3:8).    Associated  with 
 God,  the  term  ivralh  imjilies  his 
 utter  abhorrence  of  sin  and  his 
 aversion  to  those  who  live  in  it 
 (Ex.  22  :  24  ;  Josh.  22  :  20  ;  John 
 3  :  36;  Rom.  1  :  18).     The  He- 
 brew prophets  represent  Jeho- 
 vah as  giving  to  the  nations  in 
 his  wrath   an   intoxicating  cup 
 so  that  they  reel  and  stagger  to  destruction 
 f  Isa.  51  :  17  ;  Jer.  25  :  15).     Similar  use  of 
 this  figure  is  made  in  the  New  Testament 
 (Rev.  14:10;  16:19;  19:15). 
 
 'Writhing'.  In  the  Scriptures  there  is 
 no  account  of  the  origin  of  writing.  The 
 first  mention  of  writing  is  in  Ex.  17  :  14, 
 and  the  connection  clearly  implies  that  it 
 was  not  then  employed  for  the  first  time. 
 The  tables  of  the  testimony  are  said  to  be 
 "written  by  the  finger  of  God"  (Ex.  31  : 
 18)  on  both  sides,  and  "the  writing  was 
 the  writing  of  God  graven  upon  the 
 tables"  (Ex.  32:161.  The  oldest  docu- 
 ments which  contain  the  writing  of  a  Se- 
 mitic race  are  probably  the  bricks  of  Nin- 
 
 eveh and  Babylon,  on  which  are  impressed 
 the  cuneiform  Assyrian  inscriptions.  There 
 is  no  evidence,  however,  that  these  bricks 
 were  ever  employed  by  the  Hebrews.     The 
 
 ■Writing-Materials. 
 
 oldest  alphabetic  writing  now  in  existence, 
 so  far  as  we  know,  is  the  inscription  on  the 
 Moabite  stone.    See  Mesha.     It  is  prob- 
 
 Writing-Case. 
 
 able  that  the  ancient  as  well  as  the  most 
 common  material  which  the  Hebrews  used 
 for  writing  was  the  papyrus,  rolls  of  which, 
 as  old  perliaps  as  Moses,  exist  to-day.  Not 
 until  the  reign  of  King  David  were  the 
 Hebrews  in  the  habit  of  writing  on  the 
 skins  of  animals,  and  parchment,  in  the 
 proper  sense  of  the  term,  did  not  come 
 into  use  until  about  B.  c.  200.  Parchment 
 was  used  for  the  manuscripts  of  the  Penta- 
 teuch in  the  time  of  Joseplius,  and  Paul 
 mentions  "parchments"  in  2  Tim.  4  :  13. 
 Tlie  papyrus  sheets  and  the  dressed  skins, 
 when  written  upon,  were  formed  into  rolls 
 (Jer.  36  :  14 ;  Ezek.  2:9;'  Zech.  5  :  1 ). 
 Sometimes    the  rolls   were  written   on 
 
YEAR 
 
 531 
 
 both  sides.  A  modern  traveler  who  saw 
 in  Syria  two  ancient  rolls  of  this  descrip- 
 tion thus  describes  the  processes  of  un- 
 rolling and  of  reading :  "  I  observed  two 
 very  beautiful  rolls  containing  the  liturgy 
 of  St.  Chrysostora  and  that  attributed  by  the 
 Greeks  to  St.  James.  You  begin  to  read 
 by  unrolling,  and  you  continue  to  read  and 
 unroll,  till  at  last  you  arrive  at  the  stick  to 
 which  the  roll  is  fastened  ;  then  you  turn 
 the  parchment  around  and  continue  to  read 
 on  the  other  side,  rolling  it  gradually  up 
 till  you  complete  the  liturgy."  Thus,  these 
 rolls  were  written  "  within  and  without " 
 (Ezek.  2  :  10).  Thus,  too,  we  get  an  in- 
 telligible and  correct  idea  of  the  books 
 described  both  by  Ezekiel  and  by  John. 
 But    besides   the    papyrus    sheets   and 
 
 the  dressed  skins,  which  were  used  for 
 the  more  permanent  kinds  of  writing,  tab- 
 lets of  wood  covered  with  wax  (Luke  1  : 
 63)  served  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
 life.  They  were  written  upon  with  a  point- 
 ed style  (Job  19: 24),  sometimes  of  iron  (Jer. 
 17  : 1).  For  parchment  a  reed  was  used  (3 
 John  ver.  13).  The  ink  (Jer.  36:  18), 
 literally  "  black,"  was  usually  made  of 
 lamp-black  dissolved  in  gall-juice.  It  was 
 carried  in  an  inkstand  or  ink-horn,  which 
 was  suspended  at  the  girdle  (Ezek.  9  :  2, 
 3),  as  is  done  at  the  present  day  in  the 
 East.  The  Eastern  ink  is  commonly  held 
 in  a  wad  of  cotton  in  the  inkstand.  Some- 
 times the  scribe  carried  in  a  case  his  writ- 
 ing implements.  To  professional  scribes 
 there  are  allusions  in  Ps.  45  :  1 ;  Ezra  7  :  6. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Year.  The  Hebrew  name  for  year  is 
 derived  from  a  rout  which  embodies  the 
 idea  of  change,  repetition,  recurrence,  and 
 is  thus  descriptive  of  the  annual  revolu- 
 tion of  the  seasons  or  the  periodic  changes 
 in  the  position  of  the  sun  relatively  to  the 
 earth.  The  Hebrew  year  was  a  lunar  year 
 of  twelve  months,  yet  made  essentially  so- 
 lar by  assigning  the  offerings  of  first-fruits, 
 harvest  produce  and  ingathered  fruits  to 
 certain  days  of  the  year,  two  of  which  were 
 in  the  periods  of  great  feasts ;  the  third,  it- 
 self a  feast,  reckoned  from  one  of  the  for- 
 mer days.  The  later  Jews,  as  explained 
 toward  the  close  of  this  article,  added  a 
 thirteenth  month  whenever  the  twelfth 
 ended  too  long  before  the  equinox  for 
 the  offering  of  the  first-fruits  to  be  made 
 at  the  time  fixed.  The  later  Jews  had 
 also  two  commencements  of  the  year, 
 whence  it  is  commonly  but  inaccurately 
 said  that  they  had  two  years,  the  sacred 
 and  the    civil,   better    described    as  two 
 
 year-reckonings.  The  sacred  year-reck- 
 oning was  that  instituted  at  the  Exodus, 
 according  to  which  the  first  month  was 
 Abib ;  by  the  civil  year-reckoning  the 
 first  month  was  the  seventh.  The  inter- 
 val between  the  two  commencements  was 
 thus  exactly  half  a  year.  The  year  was 
 divided  into  seasons,  months  and  weeks. 
 (See  the  respective  articles.)  The  order  of 
 the  months,  with  their  approximate  iden- 
 tification with  those  of  our  calendar,  will 
 appear  in  the  following  table : 
 
 Sacred  Yeae-Reckoning. 
 
 I.  Abib,  or  Nisan March,  April. 
 
 II.  lyyar  (pron.  ^e'yar).. April,  May. 
 
 III.  Sivan May,  June. 
 
 IV.  Thaminuz June,  July. 
 
 v.  Ab July)  August. 
 
 "VI.  Elul August,  September. 
 
 VII.  Tisri,  or  Ethanim September,  October. 
 
 VIII.  Bui October,  November. 
 
 IX.  Chisleu November,  December. 
 
 X.  Thebat December,  January. 
 
 XI.  Sebat January,  February. 
 
 XII.  Adar February,  March. 
 
532 
 
 YEAR,  SABBATICAL-YOKE. 
 
 Civil  Yeak-Reckonino. 
 
 I.  Tisri,  or  Ethanim September,  October. 
 
 II.  Bui October,  November. 
 
 III.  Chisleu November,  December. 
 
 IV.  Tbebat December,  January. 
 
 V.  Sebat .January,  February. 
 
 VI.  Adar February,  March. 
 
 VII.  Abib Marcb,  April. 
 
 VIII.  Iyyar(pron.JS!!V"')— April,  May. 
 
 IX.  Sivan May,  June. 
 
 X.  Thammuz June,  July. 
 
 XI.  Ab July,  August. 
 
 XII.  Elul August,  September. 
 
 The  twelve  lunar  months  thus  enumer- 
 ated consisted  alternately  of  twenty-nine 
 and  thirty  days,  making  the  ordinary 
 Jewish  year  consist  of  three  hundred  and 
 fifty -four  days,  or  about  eleven  days  shorter 
 than  the  solar  year.  This  difference  of 
 length  in  the  lunar  and  solar  year  would 
 necessarily  and  soon  have  prevented  anni- 
 versaries from  coinciding  with  the  return 
 of  the  seasons.  The  Israelites  were  there- 
 fore compelled  to  resort  to  intercalation. 
 They  added  to  certain  years,  termed  some- 
 times extraordinary,  sometimes  var/iie,  an- 
 otlier  month,  making  such  years  consist 
 of  thirteen  months  containing  twenty-nine 
 or  thirty  days.  The  thirteenth  month,  Ve- 
 Adar  or  the  second  Adar,  was  inserted  at 
 the  latter  part  of  INIarch  and  beginning  of 
 April.  The  eflfect  of  this  was  to  make  the 
 festival  of  the  Passover,  which  began  on 
 the  fourteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan, 
 coincide  with  the  season  when  the  barley 
 was  ready  for  cutting,  because  the  Pass- 
 over demanded,  besides  the  paschal  lamb, 
 the  offering  of  a  sheaf  of  barley  as  the  first 
 fruits  of  the  harvest.  After  repeated  ex- 
 periments and  many  attempts  to  settle  the 
 rules  of  intercalation,  the  later  Jews 
 finally  adopted  the  Metonic  cycle  of  nine- 
 teen years,  so  named  from  its  inventor, 
 Meton,  the  Greek  astronomer,  of  which 
 the  third,  sixth,  eighth,  eleventh,  four- 
 teenth, seventeenth  and  nineteenth  years 
 comprise  thirteen  months,  and  at  the 
 expiration  of  the  nineteenth  year  the 
 days  of  the  new  and  full  moon  general- 
 
 ly fall  again  upon  the  same  day  of  the 
 month. 
 
 Year,  Sab-bat'i-cal.  By  the  Mo- 
 saic code  not  only  were  each  seventh  day 
 and  each  seventh  month  holy,  but  also 
 each  seventh  year  (Ex.  'J8:  10, 11 ;  Lev.  25: 
 2-7  ;  Dent.  ch.  15).  During  this  seventh 
 or  sabbatical  year  neitiier  tillage  nor  cul- 
 tivation of  any  sort  was  to  be  practiced. 
 The  spirit  of  this  law  is  the  same  a.s  that 
 of  the  weekly  Sabbath.  Both  have  a  ben- 
 eficial tendency,  limiting  the  rights  and 
 checking  the  sense  of  property ;  the  one 
 puts  in  God's  claims  on  time,  the  other 
 on  the  land.  There  may  have  been,  too, 
 some  reference  to  the  benefit  which  would 
 accrue  to  the  land  from  lying  fallow  every 
 seventh  year  in  a  time  when  the  rotation 
 of  crops  was  unknown.  The  sabbatical 
 year  opened  in  the  sabbatical  month,  and 
 the  whole  Law  was  to  be  read  every  such 
 year  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles  to  the 
 assembled  people.  At  the  completion  of 
 a  week  of  sabbatical  years  the  sabbatical 
 scale  received  its  completion  in  the  year 
 of  jubilee.  The  best  Jewish  authorities, 
 basing  their  opinion  on  Lev.  25  :  3,  4, 
 hold  that  the  law  of  the  sabbatical  year 
 became  obligatory  upon  the  Israelites 
 fourteen  years  after  the  first  entrance  into 
 the  Promised  Land,  the  conquest  of  which 
 took  seven  years  and  the  distribution  seven 
 more. 
 
 Year  of  Jubilee.    See  Jubilee. 
 
 Yoke.  Tiiis  word  is  used  in  several 
 senses:  1.  A  well-known  implement  of 
 husbandry,  and  frequently  used  meta- 
 phorically for  subjection  (1  Kings  12  :  4, 
 9-11 ;  Isa.  9:4;  Jer.  5:5);  hence  an  iron 
 yoke  represents  an  unusually  galling  bond- 
 age (Deut.  28  :  48;  Jer.  28  :  1.3) ;  2.  A  pair 
 of  oxen  so  termed  as  being  yoked  together 
 (1  Sam.  11  :  7;  1  Kings  19  :  19,  21);  3.  A 
 certain  amount  of  land  (1  Sam.  14  :  14), 
 equivalent  to  that  which  a  couple  of  oxen 
 could  plough  in  a  day  (Isa.  5  :  10;  Au- 
 thorized Version,  "acre"). 
 
ZAANAIM,  THE  PLAIN   OF— ZADOK. 
 
 533 
 
 z. 
 
 Za-a-na'iin,  The  Plain  of,  more 
 accurately,  "  the  oak  by  Zaanaim,"  a 
 tree,  probably  a  sacred  tree,  mentioned  as 
 marking  the  spot  near  which  Heber  the 
 Kenite  was  encamped  when  Sisera  took 
 refuge  in  his  tent  (Judg.  4  :  11).  Zaa- 
 NANNiM,  another  form  of  the  same  name, 
 is  found  in  Josh.  19  :  33. 
 
 Za-an'an  [rich  in  flocks'],  (Mic.  1:11), 
 same  as  Zenan  (which  see). 
 
 Za'bad  [yift],  the  name  of  several 
 men. 
 
 1.  A  son  of  Nathan  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
 dah  (1  Chron.  2  :  36). 
 
 2.  A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  slain  in  a 
 skirmish  with  the  men  of  Gath  (1  Chron. 
 7  :  21). 
 
 3.  One  of  the  conspirators  who  slew 
 King  Joash  (2  Chron.  24  :  25,  26),  and  who 
 was  afterward  put  to  death  by  Amaziah, 
 the  successor  of  Joash  (2  Chron.  25  :  3). 
 
 4.  Three  othere  in  the  later  genealogies, 
 mentioned  among  those  who  had  married 
 and  put  away  foreign  wives  (Ezra  10  :  27, 
 33,  43). 
 
 Za'bud  [given — that  is,  of  God],  the 
 son  of  Nathan,  called  principal  officer  to 
 Solomon  and  the  king's  friend  (1  Kings 
 4  :  5). 
 
 Zab'u-lon,  the  Greek  form  of  Zebu- 
 lun  (Matt.  4  :  13,  15;  Eev.  7  :  8). 
 
 Zac-che'us,  a  tax-collector  near  Jer- 
 icho, who,  being  short  in  stature,  climbed 
 up  into  a  sycamore  tree  in  order  to  obtain 
 a  sight  of  Jesus  as  he  passed  through  that 
 place  (Luke  19  :  1-10).  He  was  a  Jew, 
 and,  as  "  the  chief  among  the  publicans," 
 was  probably  the  superintendent  of  cus- 
 toms or  tribute  in  the  district  of  Jericho. 
 
 Zach-a-ri''a]a  [Jehovah  remembers], 
 properly  Zechariah,  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Jeroboam  II.,  king  of  Israel  (2 
 Kings  14  :  29).     His  reign  lasted  but  six 
 
 months.  He  was  killed  in  a  conspiracy 
 of  which  Shallum  was  the  head  (2  Kings 
 15  :  10),  and  by  which  the  prophecy  in  2 
 Kings  10  :  30  was  accomplished. 
 
 Zach-a-ri^as,  the  Greek  or  New  Tes- 
 tament form  of  Zachariah  or  Zechariah, 
 and  the  name  of  two  persons. 
 
 1.  Father  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  1  : 
 5).  He  was  of  the  course  of  Abia  or  Abi- 
 jah,  the  eighth  in  order  of  the  priestly 
 courses  as  arranged  by  David  for  minis- 
 tering at  the  tabernacle  or  temple  (1  Chron. 
 24 :  10),  and  is  described  as  one  of  the  best 
 representatives  of  the  priestly  order,  walk- 
 ing, along  with  his  wife  Elisabeth,  "  in  all 
 the  commandments  and  ordinances  of  the 
 Lord  blameless"  (Luke  1 :  6).  When  the 
 birth  of  his  son  John  was  announced  to 
 him  by  an  angel  he  was  incredulous  and 
 asked  a  sign ;  in  punishment  for  his  unbe- 
 lief he  was  stricken  with  dumbness  for  a 
 season  (Luke  1  :  20). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Barachias,  who,  as  our  Lord 
 says,  was  slain  by  the  Jews  between  the 
 altar  and  the  temple  (Matt.  23  :  35 ;  Luke 
 11  :  51).  The  allusion  is  most  likely  to 
 Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada  (2  Chron. 
 24  :  20,  21 ),  the  name  Barachias  having 
 crept  into  the  text  of  Matthew  from  a  mar- 
 ginal gloss. 
 
 Za^dok  [just],  the  name  of  several 
 persons,  of  whom  two  only  need  be  spe- 
 cially mentioned. 
 
 1.  Son  of  Ahitub,  and  one  of  the  two 
 chief  priests  in  the  time  of  David,  Abia- 
 thar  being  the  other.  He  was  of  the  house 
 of  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron  (1  Chron.  24 : 
 3),  and  eleventh  in  descent  from  Aaron  (1 
 Chron.  6  :  53).  He  joined  David  at  He- 
 bron, after  Saul's  death,  with  twenty-two 
 captains  of  his  father's  house,  and  thence- 
 forth his  fidelity  to  David  was  inviolable 
 (2  Sam.  chs.  15,  17 ;  19  :  11 ;  1  Kings  oh. 
 
534 
 
 ZALMON— ZEBOIM. 
 
 1).  For  his  loyalty  to  David  he  was  re- 
 warded by  Solomon  (1  Kings  2  :  27,  35). 
 
 2.  "The  scribe"  whom  Nehemiah  set 
 over  the  treasuries  of  the  temple,  along 
 with  Shelemiah,  Pedaiah  and  Hanan, 
 "  for  they  were  counted  faithful,  and  their 
 office  was  to  distribute  unto  their  breth- 
 ren" (Neh.  13:  13). 
 
 Zal'mon  [shady'],  a  wooded  hill  near 
 Shecliem  (Judg.  9  :  48). 
 
 Zal-mo'nah.  [shady],  a  desert  station 
 of  the  Israelites  on  the  east  side  of  Edom 
 (Num.  33:  41). 
 
 Zal-mun'na,  one  of  the  two  kings  of 
 Midian,  Zebah  being  the  other,  at  the  time 
 of  Gideon's  great  victory  over  the  Midian- 
 ite  host  (Judg.  ch.  8).  The  two  kings,  hav- 
 ing slain  several  of  Gideon's  brothers,  were 
 by  him  put  to  death. 
 
 Zam-zurn'miins,  properly  Zam- 
 zurn'mim,  the  Ammonite  name  for  the 
 people  who  by  others  were  called  Reph- 
 AIM  (Dent.  2:  20).  They  are  described  as 
 having  originally  been  a  powerful  and  nu- 
 merous nation  of  giants.  It  is  conjectured 
 that  the  Zanizummim  are  identical  with 
 the  Zuzim. 
 
 Za-no'ah  [perhaps  marshy. 
 
 1.  A  town  of  Judah  in  the  plain  (Josh. 
 15  :  34;  Neh.  3  :  13;  11  :  30),  supposed  to 
 be  identical  with  Zamui,  on  the  slope  of  a 
 hill  east  of  Bethshemesh. 
 
 2.  A  town  of  Judah  in  the  highland 
 district  (Josh.  15  :  56),  supposed  to  be 
 identical  with  Zan&tah,  about  ten  miles 
 south  of  Hebron. 
 
 Zaph'nath-Pa-a-ne'ah,  the  name 
 given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph  (Gen.  41 :  45). 
 The  Eabbins  explained  this  name  as  mean- 
 ing "  the  revealer  of  secrets  ; "  another  ex- 
 planation, based  on  the  Coptic  tongue, 
 gives  to  the  name  the  sense  of  "  the  pre- 
 server of  the  age;"  and  still  another 
 and  more  probable  explanation  regards 
 the  name  as  an  ancient  Egyptian  expres- 
 sion for  "the  broad  of  life." 
 
 Za'red  or  Ze'red,  a  brook  or  valley 
 
 running  into  the  Dead  Sea  near  its  south- 
 east corner  (Num.  21  :  12;  Deut.  2  :  13, 
 14).  It  lay  between  Moab  and  Edom, 
 and  is  the  limit  of  the  proper  terra  of 
 the  Israelites'  wandering. 
 
 Zar^e-phath  [smelting-shop],  a  town 
 on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  in  Phcenicia, 
 between  Sidon  and  Tyre.  Here  the 
 prophet  Elijah  was  entertained  by  a 
 widow  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
 drought,  as  recorded  in  1  Kings  17  :  9, 
 10.  Its  ruins  may  be  seen  on  the  plain 
 near  the  coast,  but  its  modern  represent- 
 ative, the  little  village  of  SUrnfend,  is 
 upon  the  face  of  the  hill  a  sliort  dis- 
 tance from  the  water.  In  the  New  Tes- 
 tament (Luke  4  :  26)  Zarephath  appears 
 under  the  Greek  form  of  Sarepta. 
 
 Zar'e-tan,  a  place  in  the  plain  of  the 
 Jordan,  up  to  wliich,  when  Israel  crossed 
 the  river,  the  heaped  waters  rose  (Josh.  3  : 
 16).  The  name  is  variously  given  :  Zere- 
 da  (1  Kings  11  :  26),  Zartanah  (1  Kings 
 4  :  12),  Zeredatha  (2  Chron.  4  :  17),  Zar- 
 than  (1   Kings  7  :  46). 
 
 Zar'hites,  the,  a  branch  of  the  tribe 
 of  Judah,  descended  from  Zerah,  the  son 
 of  Judah  (Num.  26  :  13,  20;  Josh.  7:17; 
 1  Chron.  27:  11,  13). 
 
 Ze'bali.    See  Zalmunna. 
 
 Zeb'e-dee,  a  fisherman  of  Galilee,  the 
 father  of  the  apostles  James  and  John 
 (Matt.  4  :  21)  and  the  husband  of  Salome 
 (Matt.  27  :  56  ;  Mark  15  :  40).  He  prob- 
 ably lived  either  at  Bethsaida  or  in  its 
 immediate  neighborhood. 
 
 Ze-bo'im,  the  name  of  two  places,  the 
 spelling  of  which  in  our  Authorized  Ver- 
 sion is  alike,  but  in  the  Hebrew  both  spell- 
 ing and  signification  are  different. 
 
 1.  One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  of  Jor- 
 dan. Its  name  means  "the  place  of  ga- 
 zelles." It  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  10  :  19; 
 14  :  2,  8;  Deut.  29  :  23;  Hos.  11  :  8,  in 
 each  of  which  passages  it  is  either  cou- 
 pled with  Admah  or  placed  next  it  in 
 the  lists. 
 
ZEBULUN— ZECHARIAH. 
 
 535 
 
 2.  A  ravine  or  gorge,  apparently  east  of 
 Miclimash,  mentioned  only  in  1  Sara.  13  : 
 18.  Its  name  means  "  the  ravine  of  hye- 
 nas." 
 
 Zeb^u-lun  [a  habitation'],  the  name  of 
 one  of  Jacob's  sons,  of  a  Hebrew  tribe  and 
 of  the  territory  which  the  tribe  possessed. 
 
 1.  The  tenth  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  ac- 
 cording to  the  order  in  which  their  births 
 are  enumerated,  the  sixth  and  last  of 
 Leah  (Gen.  30  :  19,  20 ;  35  :  23 ;  46  :  14 ; 
 1  Chron.  2  :  1).  Of  the  man  Zebulun 
 notJiing  is  recorded.  He  had  three  sons, 
 founders  of  the  chief  families  of  the  tribe 
 at  the  time  of  the  migration  to  Egypt. 
 
 2.  During  the  journey  from  Egypt  to  Pal- 
 estine the  tribe  of  Zebulun  formed  one  of 
 the  first  camp  with  Judah  and  Issachar, 
 marching  under  the  standard  of  Judah. 
 At  the  census  of  Sinai  it  numbered  fifty- 
 seven  thousand  male  adults ;  at  the  cen- 
 sus on  the  plains  of  Moab,  sixty  thou- 
 sand five  hundred.  The  tribe  is  not  re- 
 corded to  have  taken  part  for  evil  or 
 good  in  any  of  the  events  of  the  Wan- 
 dering or  the  Conquest. 
 
 3.  To  Zebulun  fell  one  of  the  fairest 
 portions  of  Canaan  at  the  partition,  reach- 
 ing on  the  one  side  to  the  Lake  of  Gennes- 
 aret,  and  on  the  other  to  Carmel  and  the 
 Mediterranean.  On  the  south  it  was 
 bounded  by  the  portion  of  Issachar ;  on 
 the  north  it  had  Naphtali  and  Asher. 
 In  the  history  of  the  Israelites  the  occa- 
 sions are  few  in  which  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
 lun emerged  from  the  obscurity  of  every- 
 day life.  During  the  struggle  with  vSisera 
 they  fought  with  desperate  valor  side  by 
 side  with  their  brethren  of  Naphtali,  and 
 were  especially  commended  by  Deborah 
 (Judg.  5  :  18).  When,  too,  the  tribes  as- 
 sembled at  Hebron  to  make  David  king, 
 fifty  thousand  expert  men  of  Zebulun 
 were  among  the  warriors  who  professed 
 allegiance  and  proffered  service.  But 
 when  we  consider  how  numerous  was  the 
 tribe,  how  rich  in  agricultural   resources. 
 
 how  well  provided  with  strongholds  and 
 strategic  points  of  defence,  we  wonder  at 
 the  poor  appearance  of  Zebulun  in  the 
 events  which  determined  the  destinies 
 of  their  land  and  nation. 
 
 Zech-a-ri^ah  \_Jehovah  remembers],  the 
 name  of  several  prominent  persons. 
 
 1.  Son  of  the  high  priest,  Jehoiada,  in 
 the  reign  of  Joash,  king  of  Judah  (2 
 Chron.  24  :  20).  After  the  death  of  Je- 
 hoiada, Zechariah  probably  succeeded  to 
 his  office,  and  in  attempting  to  check  the 
 reaction  in  favor  of  idolatry  which  imme- 
 diately followed  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  con- 
 spiracy formed  against  him  by  the  king, 
 and  was  stoned  in  the  court  of  the  temple. 
 He  is  probably  the  same  as  the  "Zacha- 
 rias,  son  of  Barachias,"  who  was  slain  be- 
 tween the  temple  and  the  altar  (Matt.  23  : 
 35).    See  Zacharias  No.  2. 
 
 2.  A  wise  and  pious  man,  who,  in  the 
 earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king 
 of  Judah,  exercised  upon  the  king  a  de- 
 cidedly beneficial  influence  (2  Chron. 
 26  :  5). 
 
 3.  Son  of  Jeberechiah,  taken  by  the 
 prophet  Isaiah  as  one  of  the  two  "  faith- 
 ful witnesses  to  record "  an  important 
 prophetical  transaction  (Isa.  8  :  2). 
 
 4.  The  eleventh  in  order  of  the  twelve 
 minor  prophets,  son  of  Berechiah  and 
 grandson  of  Iddo  (Zech.  1:1).  Like  Jer- 
 emiah and  Ezekiel  before  him,  Zechariah 
 was  a  priest  as  well  as  a  prophet.  He 
 seems  to  have  entered  upon  his  office 
 when  young  (Zech.  2  :  4),  his  birthplace 
 being  most  likely  Babylon,  whence  he 
 returned  with  the  first  company  of  exiles 
 under  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua.  He  first 
 publicly  discharged  his  office  in  the  sec- 
 ond year  of  Darius,  acting  in  concert 
 with  the  prophet  Haggai.  Both  prophets 
 labored  earnestly  to  secure  the  rebuilding 
 of  the  temple,  and  to  their  efforts  the  suc- 
 cess of  this  important  enterprise  was  large- 
 ly due  (Ezra  6  :  14).  The  book  of  Zech- 
 ariah  consists   of  three   principal   parts: 
 
536 
 
 ZEDAD-ZENAS. 
 
 chaps.  1-8;  chaps.  9-11;  chaps.  12-14. 
 The  first  part  contains  a  series  of  visions 
 descriptive  of  all  those  hopes  and  antici- 
 pations of  which  the  building  of  the  tem- 
 ple was  the  pledge  and  sure  foundation ; 
 the  second  part  contains  threateuings 
 against  Damascus  and  the  sea-coa.st  of  Pal- 
 estine ;  and  the  third  part  contains  a  very 
 significant  prophecy  respecting  .Indah  and 
 •Jerusalem.  The  style  of  Zecliariah  is  un- 
 polished and  his  meaning  at  times  obscure, 
 but  he  utters  predictions  concerning  the 
 Messiah  which  for  clearness  and  definite- 
 ness  are  not  surpassed  by  those  of  any 
 other  pro[ihet. 
 
 Ze'dad,  one  of  the  landmarks  on  the 
 north  border  of  the  land  of  Israel,  as  prom- 
 ised by  Moses  (Num.  34 :  8)  and  as  restored 
 by  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  47  :  loj. 
 
 Zed-e-ki'ah  [the  righteousness  of  Je- 
 hovah^, the  name  of  several  persons. 
 
 1.  The  last  king  of  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
 lem. He  was  the  son  of  Josiah,  and  after 
 the  deposition  by  Nebuchadnezzar  of  .Je- 
 hoiakim,  his  nephew,  was  placed  upon  the 
 throne  by  the  conqueror,  who  changed  his 
 original  name  from  Mattaniah  to  Zedekiah. 
 He  was  but  twenty-one  years  old  when  he 
 Avas  thus  placed  in  charge  of  an  impover- 
 ished kingdom  (2  Kings  24  :  18).  He  was 
 a  weak  man,  and  altogether  unequal  to  the 
 ta.sk  of  guiding  his  country  safely  in  peril- 
 ous times.  He  formed  an  alliance  with 
 Egypt,  which  of  itself  was  equivalent  to 
 a  declaration  of  war  witli  Babylon.  An 
 immediate  invasion  of  his  country  by  tlie 
 Chaldseans  was  the  consequence  (2  Kings 
 25  :  1 ;  Jer.  37  :  5-11) ;  and  after  a  pro- 
 tracted siege  Jerusalem  was  carried  by 
 storm  and  the  fleeing  king  was  overtaken 
 near  Jericho  and  carried  to  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, then  at  Riblah.  With  a  refinement 
 of  cruelty  characteristic  of  those  cruel 
 times,  Nebuchadnezzar  ordered  the  sons 
 of  Zedekiah  to  be  killed  before  him,  and 
 lastly  his  own  eyes  to  be  thrust  out.  The 
 unhappy  monarch  was  then  loaded  with 
 
 brazen  fettirs  and  was  taken  to  Babylon, 
 where  he  died  (Jer.  39  :  4-7). 
 
 2.  Son  of  Chenaanah,  who  at  the  court 
 of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  urged  the  expedi- 
 tion against  Ramoth-Gilead,  and  was  re- 
 sisted by  the  prophet  !Micaiah  (1  Kings 
 22  :  1 1-29). 
 
 3.  (Son  of  Maaseiah,  a  false  jjropliet  in 
 Babylon  (Jer.  29  :  21,  22). 
 
 4.  Son  of  Hananiah,  one  of  tlie  princes 
 of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
 36  :  12). 
 
 Zeeb  [wolf],  one  of  the  two  princes  of 
 Midian,  Oreb  being  the  other,  who,  with 
 the  kings  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  fell  be- 
 fore the  victorious  arms  of  Gideon  ( Judg. 
 7  :  25). 
 
 Ze'lah,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  wliere 
 Saul  and  his  sons  were  buried  (2  Sam. 
 21  :  14). 
 
 Ze-loph'e-had,  a  descendant  of  Ma- 
 nasseh  (Josh.  17  :  3).  He  came  out  of 
 Egypt  with  Moses,  but  died  in  the  wil- 
 derness (Num.  14  :  35;  27  :  3).  He  died 
 without  male  heirs,  and  his  five  daughtei-s 
 claimed  the  inheritance  of  their  father  in 
 the  tribe  of  Mana.sseh.  By  divine  direc- 
 tion the  claim  was  admitted  (Num.  27  :  6, 
 
 7). 
 
 Ze-lo'tes,  the  epithet  given  to  the 
 apostle  Simon  to  distinguish  him  from 
 Simon  Peter  (Luke  6  :  15).  See  Simon 
 and  Canaanite,  The. 
 
 Zem-a-ra'im,  a  town  in  tlie  allotment 
 of  Benjamin  (Josh.  18  :  22),  identical,  per- 
 haps, with  Mount  Zemaraim  (2  Chron. 
 13:4). 
 
 Zeni'a-rite,  the,  one  of  the  Hamite 
 tribes  forming  part  of  the  population  of 
 ancient  Canaan  (1   Chron.  1  :  16). 
 
 Ze-nan  [rich  in  flocks],  a  town  in  the 
 plain  or  low  country  of  Judah  (Josh.  15  : 
 37;  Mic.  1  :  11). 
 
 Ze^nas,  a  Christian  mentioned  by  Paul 
 (Tit.  3  :  13)  in  connection  with  Apollos. 
 He  is  called  "the  lawyer,"  but  whether 
 he  was  a  Jewish  doctor  or  a  Roman  juris- 
 
ZEPIIANIAH— ZERUIAH. 
 
 537 
 
 consult  cannot  be  determined.  The  tradi- 
 tion is  that  he  was  the  hitter,  and  such  is 
 the  natural  inference  from  the  narrative. 
 
 Zeph-a-ni^ah  I  Jehovah  conceals'],  the 
 name  of  three  prominent  persons. 
 
 1.  The  ninth  in  order  of  the  twelve  mi- 
 nor prophets.  In  the  prophecy  which  he 
 has  left  (ch.  1  :  1)  he  traces  his  genealogy 
 back  four  generations,  to  Hizkiah  or  Hez- 
 ekiah,  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  king  of 
 that  name.  He  exercised  liis  prophetic 
 office  in  the  time  of  Josiah,  king  of  Ju- 
 dah,  when,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
 the  king  to  bring  about  reformation,  the 
 princes  and  people  were  sinking  more 
 and  more  into  that  widespread  and  reso- 
 lute apostasy  which  ultimately  wrecked 
 the  nation.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
 his  prophecy  are  the  unity  and  harmony 
 of  the  composition,  the  grace,  energy  and 
 dignity  of  the  style,  and  the  rapid  and 
 very  striking  alternations  of  threats  and 
 promises. 
 
 2.  The  son  of  Maaseiah  ( Jer.  21  : 1)  and 
 mga-n  or  "second  priest"  (2  Kings  25  :  18) 
 in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah.  He  succeeded 
 Jehoiada  (Jer.  29  :  25-29),  and  was  prob- 
 ably a  ruler  of  the  temple,  whose  office  it 
 was  among  others  to  pun'sh  pretenders  to 
 the  gift  of  prophecy.  In  this  capacity  he 
 was  appealed  to  by  Shemaiah  the  Nehela- 
 mite  to  punish  Jeremiah.  Twice  was  he 
 sent  from  Zedekiah  to  inquire  of  Jeremiah 
 the  issue  of  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the 
 Chaldseans  (Jer.  21  :  1)  and  to  implore 
 him  to  intercede  for  the  people  (Jer.  37  : 
 3).  On  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  he  was 
 taken  with  others  to  Riblah  and  slain  (Jer. 
 52  :  24,  27 ;  2  Kings  25  :  18-21 ). 
 
 3.  Father  of  Josiah  and  of  Hen,  men- 
 tioned in  the  account  of  the  typical 
 crown  which  the  prophet  Zechariah  made 
 (Zech.  6  :  10-14). 
 
 Zephath.  [ivatch-totver'],  a  town  in  the 
 extreme  south  or  wilderness  of  Judah,  af- 
 terward called  HoRMAH  on  account  of  the 
 destruction  inflicted  on  it  (Judg.  1  :  17). 
 
 Zeph'a-thah  [watch-iower],  the  valley 
 in  which  King  Asa  joined  battle  with  Zerah 
 the  Ethiopian  (2  Chron.  14  :  10). 
 
 Ze'pho,  son  of  Eliphaz,  son  of  Esau, 
 and  one  of  the  dukes  or  phylarchs  of  the 
 Edomites  (Gen.  36  :  11,  15). 
 
 Ze'rah  or  Za'rah  [a  rising,  as  of  a  lu- 
 minary]. 
 
 1.  The  twin  brother  of  Pharez,  son  of 
 Judah  and  Tamar  (Gen.  38  :  30),  from 
 whom  sprung  the  family  of  the  Zarhites 
 (Num.  26  :  20;  1  Chron.  27  :  11). 
 
 2.  A  son  of  Keuel  and  grandson  of  Esau, 
 one  of  the  dukes  or  phylarchs  of  the  Edom- 
 ites (Gen.  36  :  13,  17  ;  1  Chron.  1  :  37). 
 
 3.  The  Ethiopian  or  Cushite  who  in- 
 vaded Judah  and  was  defeated  by  Asa  (2 
 Chron.  14  :  9-13).  Zerah  is  supposed  to 
 be  the  Hebrew  form  of  writing  Usarken, 
 a  king  of  Egypt,  either  Usarken  I.  or 
 Usarken  II.  of  the  twenty-third  dynasty. 
 
 Ze'red.     See  Zared. 
 
 Zer'e-da.    See  Zaretan. 
 
 Zer-e-da^thah.     See  Zaretan. 
 
 Ze'resh  [goldl,  wife  of  Haman  and 
 his  pi'ompter  in  ambitious  schemes  (Esth. 
 5  :  10-14). 
 
 Ze-rub'ba-bel  [begotten  at  Bahjhn'], 
 the  head  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  at  the  return 
 from  the  Babylonish  captivity  in  the  first 
 year  of  Cyrus  (Ezra  2  :  2>.  He  was  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Persian  king  to  the  office 
 of  governor  of  Judaea.  He  undertook  the 
 rebuilding  of  the  temple,  which,  after 
 much  ojjposition  and  delay,  was  finished 
 in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius,  and  was  ded- 
 icated with  great  rejoicing  (Ezra  6:14- 
 22).  With  the  completion  of  the  tem- 
 ple we  lose  sight  of  Zerubbabel.  In  the 
 New  Testament  his  name  appears  in  the 
 Greek  form  of  Zorobabel  (Matt.  1  :  12, 
 13;  Luke  3:  27). 
 
 Ze-ru-i^ah  [le-pro)is'],  the  mother  of  the 
 three  leading  heroes  of  David's  army, 
 Abishai,  Joab  and  Asahel.  She  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  a  half-sister  to  David 
 (1  Chron.  2  :  13,  16 ;  2  Sam.  17  :  25).     Of 
 
538 
 
 ZIBA— ZIKLAG. 
 
 Zeruiah's  husbaud  the  Scriptures  make  no 
 mention. 
 
 Zi^ba  [a  pillar],  a  servant  of  the  house 
 of  Saul  who  plays  a  prominent  but  dis- 
 creditable part  in  one  of  tiie  episodes  of 
 David's  history  (2  Sam.  9  :  2-12;  16  :  1- 
 4;  19:  17,  24-30). 
 
 Zib'e-on,  father  of  Anah,  whose  daugh- 
 ter, Aholibamah,  was  Esau's  wife  (Gen.  30 : 
 2).  _ 
 
 Zid'dim,  a  fortified  town  in  the  allot- 
 ment of  Naphtali  (Josh.  19  :  35). 
 
 Zi'don  {_ fishery],  an  ancient  and 
 wealthy  city  of  Phoenicia,  on  the  eastern 
 coast  of  tiie  Mediterranean  Sea,  less  than 
 twenty  English  miles  to  the  north  of  Tyre 
 (Josh.  11  :  8;  Judg.  1  :  31  ;  Isa.  23  :  2,'4). 
 In  early  times  Zidon  was  more  influential 
 than  Tyre.  From  the  time  of  Solomon  to 
 the  invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Zidon  is 
 not  often  directly  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures, and  seems  then  to  have  been  subor- 
 dinate to  Tyre.  During  the  Persian  dom- 
 ination it  attained   its   highest   point  of 
 
 The  Port  of  Modern  Zidon. 
 
 prosperity.  Its  prosperity,  however,  was 
 suddenly  cut  short  by  an  unsuccessful  re- 
 volt against  Persia,  which  ended  in  the 
 destruction  of  the  town.  Forty  thousand 
 of  its  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  perished 
 in  the  flnmes  which  consumed  its  buildings. 
 Gradually  tlie  city  recovered,  and  once 
 more  became  populous  and  prosperous. 
 Its  modern  name  is  Salda.  It  is  now  a 
 poor  place,  with  little  trade  or  manufac- 
 tures worthy  of  the  name.  Its  once  fa- 
 mous harbor  has  in  it  scarcely  four  feet 
 of  water.  It  is  surrounded  by  fragrant 
 gardens  and  orchards,  and  seen  from  a 
 distance  presents  a  beaut' ful   appearance, 
 
 which  by  a  nearer  view  is  sadly  marred. 
 Its  population  is  about  ten  thousand 
 souls. 
 
 Zif,  the  second  month  of  the  Jewish 
 sacred  and  eighth  of  the  civil  year- 
 reckoning  (1  Kings  G  :  1). 
 
 Zik'lag,  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah 
 (Josh,  l-")  :  31),  afterward  allotted  out  of 
 the  territory  of  Judah  to  Simeon  (Josh. 
 19  :  5).  At  times  it  was  subject  to  the 
 Philistines  of  Gath,  whose  king,  Achish, 
 bestowed  it  upon  David  for  a  residence 
 (1  Sam.  27  :  6).  There  David  resided  for 
 a  year  and  four  months,  and  there  he  re- 
 ceived the  news  of  Saul's  death  (2  Sam.  1 : 
 
ZILLAH— ZOAN. 
 
 539 
 
 .  16).  He  then  relinquished  Ziklag  for  He- 
 bron, where  he  was  anointed  "  king  over 
 the  house  of  Judali"  (2  Sam.  2  :  1-4). 
 
 ZiFlah  [■■ihadow],  one  of  the  two  wives 
 of  Lamech  the  Cainite,  to  whom  he  ad- 
 dressed his  song  (Gen.  4  :  19-24). 
 
 Zil'pah,  the  handmaid  of  Leah,  who  be- 
 came the  secondary  wife  of  Jacob  and  the 
 mother  of  Gad  and  Aslier  (Gen.  30  :  9-13  ; 
 35  :  26). 
 
 Zim'ri  [celebrated  in  S07ig],  tlie  name  of 
 two  men. 
 
 1.  The  son  of  Salu,  a  Simeonite  chief- 
 tain, slain  by  Phinehas  with  the  Midian- 
 itish  princess  Cozbi  (Num.  25  :  14). 
 
 2.  Fifth  sovereign  of  the  separate  king- 
 dom of  Israel,  of  which  he  occupied  tlie 
 throne  for  the  brief  period  of  seven  days. 
 He  gained  the  crown  by  the  murder  of 
 King  Elah,  son  of  Baasha  (1  Kings  16  : 
 8-10).  The  army,  however,  when  they 
 heard  of  Elah's  murder,  proclaimed  Omri, 
 their  general,  king.  Omri  marched  against 
 Tirzah,  where  Zimri  held  his  court,  and 
 took  the  city.  Zimri  retreated  into  the 
 innermost  part  of  the  king's  palace,  set 
 it  on  fire  and  perished  in  the  flames  (1 
 Kings  16  :  18). 
 
 Zin,  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  great 
 wilderness  in  which  the  children  of  Israel 
 wandered  (Num.  13  :  21).  It  consists  of 
 two  or  three  successive  terraces  of  moun- 
 tain converging  to  an  acute  angle  at  the 
 Dead  Sea's  southern  verge,  toward  which 
 also  they  slope.  Kadesh  lay  in  it,  and 
 here  also  Idumaea  was  conterminous  with 
 Judah  (Num.  20  : 1 ;  27  :  14;  33  :  36  ;  34  : 
 3;  Josh.  15:  1). 
 
 Zi^on  \_elevated.  innuntl.  See  Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 Ziph,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Judah. 
 
 1.  One  in  the  south,  between  Ithnan  and 
 Telem  (Josh.  15  :  24). 
 
 2.  One  in  the  highland  district,  between 
 Carmel  and  Juttah  (Josh.  15  :  55).  The 
 place  is  memorable  for  its  connection  with 
 David  ( 1  Sam.  23 :  14, 15,  24 ;  26  :  2).    The 
 
 name  Zif  is  now  found  about  three  miles 
 south  of  Hebron,  attached  to  a  rountled 
 hill  of  about  one  hundred  feet  in  height. 
 
 Zip'por  [a  little  bird],  father  of  Balak, 
 king  of  Moab  (Num.  22 :  2,  4,  10,  16 ;  23  : 
 18;  Josh.  24:  9;  Judg.  11  :  25). 
 
 Zip-po'rah  [a  bird  or  sparrow — femi- 
 nine of  Zippor],  daughter  of  Reuel  or 
 Jethro,  the  priest  of  Midian,  wife  of 
 Moses  and  mother  of  his  two  sons,  Ger- 
 shom  and  Eliezer  (Ex.  2  :  21;  4  :  25;  18: 
 2). 
 
 Ziz,  Cliflf  of,  the  pass  by  which  the 
 hordes  of  Moabites,  Ammonites  and  Me- 
 hunim  made  their  way  up  from  the  shores 
 of  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  wilderness  of  Judaii 
 near  Tekoa  (2  Chron.  20 :  14-16).  It  is  now 
 near  the  pass  A  in  Jidy,  the  old  En-Gedi,  and 
 is  the  route  which  the  Arabs  take  in  their 
 marauding  expeditions  at  the  present  day. 
 
 Zo'an  [dwellin(/-place1,  an  ancient  city 
 of  Lower  Egypt,  originally  named  in  an- 
 cient p]gyptiaii  Ta(n),  called  Tanis  by  the 
 Greeks,  and  situated  on  tlie  eastern  side 
 of  the  Tanitic  arm  of  the  Nile.  It  is  first 
 mentioned  in  Scripture  as  having  been 
 built  seven  years  after  the  building  of 
 Hebron  in  Canaan  (Num.  13  :  22),  and 
 the  mention  of  it  thus  indicates  appar- 
 ently some  real  connection  in  the  origin 
 of  these  two  cities.  If,  as  is  probable,  the 
 Anakim  of  Hebron,  in  league  with  other 
 Canaanites,  were  prominent  actors  in  the 
 Shepherd  invasion  of  Egypt,  commonly 
 dated  about  this  period,  the  linking  to- 
 gether in  the  Bible  record  of  the  names 
 of  the  two  cities  is  readily  explained.  It 
 has  been  represented,  but  perhaps  on  in- 
 sufficient grounds,  to  be  the  same  as  Av- 
 aris,  the  capital  of  the  Shepherd  dynasty. 
 
 Zoan  was  an  important  and  strongly-for- 
 tified post  toward  the  eastern  frontier  of 
 Egypt,  the  residence  of  the  Pharaoh  of 
 the  Exodus  (Ps.  78  :  12,  43j,  and  at  times 
 the  chief  seat  of  government  (Isa.  19  :  11, 
 13;  .30  :  4).  "The  field  of  Zoan,"  men- 
 tioned twice   in  Ps.  78,  is,  according  to 
 
540 
 
 ZOAR— ZUZIMS. 
 
 Ebers,  a  common  phrase  in  tlie  hiero- 
 glypliic  inscriptions.  That  through  many 
 generations  it  was  a  phice  of  great  political 
 importance  is  abundantly  evidenced  by  the 
 Kgyptian  monuments. 
 
 It  is  named  by  Kzekiel  (30  :  14)  as  one 
 of  the  cities  in  Egypt  which  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar is  to  burn.  Its  ruin  has  for  many 
 generations  been  complete.  A  sandy  plain, 
 as  vast  as  it  is  dreary,  called  at  this  day 
 Sun,  in  remembrance  of  the  ancient  name 
 of  Zoan,  and  covered  witli  gigantic  ruins 
 of  columns,  i>illars,  sphinxes,  stelae  and 
 stones  of  buildings,  all  cut  in  the  hardest 
 material  from  the  granite  of  8yene,  is  the 
 melancholy  site  of  the  once  great  and 
 splendid  city. 
 
 Zo'ar  [s?>u(//],  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 cities  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  Its  original 
 name  was  Bela  (Gen.  14  :  2,  8).  It  was 
 <jne  of  the  five  cities  of  the  "  plain  of  Jor- 
 dan," but  in  the  general  destruction  of 
 these  cities  it  was  spared  to  afford  shelter 
 to  Lot  (Gen.  19  :  22,  23,  30).  It  is  men- 
 tioned in  the  account  of  the  death  of 
 Moses  as  one  of  the  landmarks  which 
 bounded  his  view  from  Pisgah  ( Deut.  34  : 
 3),  and  it  appears  to  have  been  known  in 
 the  time  both  of  Isaiah  (15  :  5)  and  Jere- 
 miah (48  :  34). 
 
 Zo'ba,  Zo'bah,  a  portion  of  Syria 
 which  formed  a  separate  kingdom  in  the 
 tiri'.e  of  the  Jewish  monarchs,  Saul,  David 
 and  Solomon  (1  Sam.  14  :  47  ;  2  Sam.  8  : 
 3  ;  2  Chron.  8  :  3).  The  name  is  found  in 
 the  inscriptions  of  Assyria,  which  appar- 
 ently locate  the  kingdom  between  Ilamath 
 and  Damascus. 
 
 Zo'phar,  one  of  the  three  friends  of 
 Job.  He  is  called  the  Naamathite,  from 
 the  i)lace,  probably,  where  he  resided  (Job 
 2:  11;  11  :  1;  20:  1;  42  :  9). 
 
 Zo'phim,  the  Field  of,  a  spot  on  or 
 near  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which  Ba- 
 laam had  his  second  view  of  the  encamp- 
 ment of  Israel  (Num.  23: 14).  The  exact 
 spot  indicated  by  the  name  is,  according  to 
 
 Prof.  Paine,  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
 Society,  one  of  the  three  peaks  of  Pisgah. 
 See  Pisgah. 
 
 Zo'rah,  a  town  in  the  allotment  of  the 
 tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  19:41).  It  is  pre- 
 viously mentioned  (Josh.  15  :  33)  in  the 
 catalogue  of  Judah  among  the  places  in 
 the  plain  or  low  country,  It  was  the  resi- 
 dence of  Manoah  and  the  birthplace  of 
 Samson  (Judg.  13:2,  24).  It  is  men- 
 tioned amongst  the  places  fortified  by  Re- 
 hoboam  (2  Chron.  11  :  10).  It  has  been 
 identified  with  the  modern  village  of 
 Sur'ah. 
 
 Zu'ar  [smallnens],  father  of  Nethaneel, 
 the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  at  the 
 time  of  the  Exodus  (Num.  1:8;  2:5;  7  : 
 18,23;  10:  15). 
 
 Zuph,  a  Kohathite  Levite,  ancestor  of 
 Elkanah  and  Samuel  ( 1  Sam.  1  :  1  ;  1 
 Chron.  6  :  35). 
 
 Zuph,  the  Land  of,  a  district  at 
 which  Saul  and  his  servant  arrived  after 
 passing  through  those  of  Shalisha,  of  She- 
 lim  and  of  the  Benjamites  (1  Sam.  9  :  5). 
 It  has  been  thought  to  be  the  same  as  Soba, 
 a  well-known  place  about  seven  miles  west 
 of  Jerusalem. 
 
 Zur,  a  Midianite  chief,  father  of  the 
 Cozbi  who  along  with  her  Israelitish  par- 
 amour was  slain  by  Phinehas  (Num.  25  : 
 15). 
 
 Zu'ri-shad'dai  [my  rod-  ix  the  Al- 
 mif/hty],  father  of  Shelumiel,  the  chief  of 
 the  tribe  of  Simeon  at  the  time  of  the  Ex- 
 odus (Num.  1:6;  2:12;  7  :  36,  41 ;  10  : 
 19). 
 
 Zu'zims,  the  [properly,  the  Zuzim], 
 
 an  ancient  [leople  who,  lying  in  the  path 
 
 of  Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies,  were  at- 
 
 j  tacked  and  overthrown  by  them  (Gen.  14: 
 
 I  5).     They  inhabited,  most  probably,  the 
 
 country  of  the  Ammonites,  and  were,  in 
 
 !  accordance    with   the    usual    assumption, 
 
 <  identical  with  the  Zamzmnmim,  who  are 
 
 known  to  have  been  exterminated  and  suc- 
 
 ,  ceeded  in  their  land  by  the  Ammonites. 
 
BOOKS  OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT. 
 
 WHEN  writtp:n.      1  where  written. 
 
 First  Gospel Matthew  the  Apostle About 
 
 Second  Gospel Mark  the  Evangelist " 
 
 Third  Gospel Luke  the  Evangelist " 
 
 Fourth  Gospel John  tlie  Apostle " 
 
 The  Acts Luke  the  Evangelist :  " 
 
 Romans Paul  the  Apostle " 
 
 First  Corinthians "  "       " 
 
 Second  Corintliians "  "       '' 
 
 Galatians "  ''       " 
 
 ! 
 
 Ephesians ^     "  '"       " 
 
 Philippians "  " '• 
 
 Coloasians "  "       " 
 
 j 
 
 First  Tliessalonians "  "       " 
 
 Second  Thessalonians...      "  "       " 
 
 First  Timothy "  "       " 
 
 Second  Timothy "  "       " 
 
 Titus '     "  "       " 
 
 Philemon ''  "       " 
 
 Hebrews "  "       " 
 
 James James,  son  of  Alphreus  ....  I  " 
 
 First  Peter Peter  the  Apostle ,  " 
 
 Second  Peter !     "  "        I  " 
 
 First  John John  the  Apostle '  " 
 
 Second  John "  "       '  " 
 
 i 
 
 Third  Jolin "  "       |  " 
 
 i 
 
 Jude Jude  the  Apostle 
 
 I 
 Revelation John  the  Apostle 
 
 55...  Palestine. 
 
 1 
 65...  Rome. 
 
 60...  Csesarea. 
 
 78...  Epliesus. 
 
 63...  Rome. 
 
 58...  Corinth. 
 
 o7...;Ephesus. 
 
 58...  Philippi. 
 
 67...  Epliesus. 
 
 62...  Rome. 
 
 63...  Rome. 
 
 62...  Rome. 
 
 53...  Corinth. 
 
 53...  Corintli. 
 
 63...  Macedonia. 
 
 67...  Rome. 
 
 64...  Ephesus. 
 
 62...  Rome. 
 
 i 
 63...  Rome. 
 
 CO...  Jerusalem. 
 
 64...  Babylon. 
 
 65...  Babylon. 
 
 92...  Ephesus. 
 
 92... 'Ephesus. 
 
 92...  Ephesus. 
 
 65...  Palestine. 
 
 95...  Patmos. 
 
 \ 
 
 541 
 
SCRIPTURE  CHRONOLOGY 
 
 AS  COMMOjSILY  reoeiyed. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4004.  Creation  of  Adam. 
 
 3875.  Murder  of  Abel. 
 
 3874.  Birth  of  Seth. 
 
 3382.  Birth  of  Enoch. 
 
 3317.  Birth  of  Methuselah, 
 
 3074.  Death  of  Adam ;  age,  930  years. 
 
 PERIOD  I. 
 
 From  Adam  to  the  Flood,  1656  years. 
 B.C. 
 
 3017.  Translation    of    Enoch;    age,   3G5 
 
 years. 
 2948.  Biith  of  Noah. 
 2468,  Threat  of  the  Flood. 
 2348.  Methuselal\  dies ;  age,  969  years. 
 2348.  jSfoah,  600  years  old,  enters  the  ark. 
 
 PEEIOD  II, 
 
 From  the  Flood  to  the  Birth  of  Abram,  352  years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 2347.  Noah  and  his  family  leave  the  ark. 
 
 2234.  Confusion  of  tongues. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 1998.  Death  of  Noah,  aged  950  years. 
 1996.  Birth  of  Abram. 
 
 PERIOD  III. 
 
 From  the  Call  of  Abraham  to  the  Exodus  from  Egypt,  445  years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 1936.  Call  of  Abraham. 
 1896.  Birth  of  Isaac. 
 1871.  Offering  of  Isaac, 
 1859.  Death  of  Sarah. 
 1856,  Isaac  marries  Rebekah, 
 1836,  Birth  of  Jacob  and  Esau, 
 1821,  Abraham  dies,  aged  175  years. 
 1779,  Jacob  goes  to  Padan-Aram, 
 1746,  Birth  of  Josepli. 
 5  42 
 
 B.C. 
 
 1739.  Jacob  returns  to  Canaan. 
 
 1729.  .Joseph  sold  as  a  slave. 
 
 1716.  .Joseph  made  governor  of  Egypt. 
 
 1706.  Jacob  removes  to  Egypt. 
 
 1689.  Jacob  dies,  aged  147  years. 
 
 1636,  Joseph  dies,  aged  110  years. 
 
 1574,  Birth  of  Aaron, 
 
 1571.  Birth  of  Moses. 
 
 1491.  Moses  sent  to  deliver  Israel. 
 
SCRIPTURE  CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 543 
 
 PERIOD  IV. 
 
 From  the  Exodus  to  the  Building  of  Solomon's  Temple,  487  years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 1055.  Saul  kills  himself. 
 
 1055.  David  acknowledged  king  by  Judah. 
 
 1048.  David  acknowledged  king  by  all  the 
 
 tribes. 
 1047.  Jerusalem  made  David's  capital.. 
 1033.  Birth  of  Solomon. 
 1023.  Rebellion  of  Absalom. 
 1015.  Solomon  proclaimed  king. 
 1015.  Death  of  David,  aged  70  years. 
 1004.  Solomon's  temple  finished. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 ]491. 
 
 1490. 
 
 1453. 
 
 1451. 
 
 1451. 
 
 1443. 
 
 1155. 
 
 1095. 
 
 1085. 
 
 1063. 
 
 Exodus  from  Egypt. 
 
 The  Law  given. 
 
 Death  of  Aaron. 
 
 Death  of  Moses,  aged  120  years. 
 
 Joshua  leads  Israel  into  Canaan. 
 
 Joshua  dies,  aged  110  years. 
 
 Birth  of  Samuel. 
 
 Saul  anointed  king. 
 
 Birth  of  David. 
 
 David  slays  Goliath. 
 
 PERIOD  V. 
 
 From  the  Dedication  of  Solomon's   Temple  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  Captivity 
 of  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  416  years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 1004.  Solomon's  Temple  dedicated. 
 976.  Death  of  Solomon  and  revolt  of  the 
 Ten  Tribes. 
 
 B.  C.  Kings  of  Judah. 
 975.  Relioboam. 
 958.  Abijah. 
 955.  Asa. 
 
 914.  Jehoshaphat. 
 892.  Jehoram. 
 885.  Ahaziah. 
 
 B.  C.  Kings  of  Israel. 
 
 975.  Jeroboam  I. 
 
 954.  Nadab. 
 
 953.  Baasha. 
 
 930.  Elah. 
 
 929.  Zimri. 
 
 929.  Omri. 
 
 918.  Ahab. 
 
 898.  Ahaziah. 
 
 896.  Jehoram. 
 884.  Athaliah  (queen).  884.  Jehu. 
 878.  Joash.  856.  Jehoahaz. 
 
 839.  Amaziah.  841.  Jehoash. 
 
 810.  AzariahorUzziah.  825.  Jeroboam  II. 
 
 B.  C.  Kings  of  Judali. 
 
 758.  Jotham. 
 742.  Ahaz. 
 726.  Hezekiah. 
 698.  Manasseh. 
 
 B.  C.  Kings  of  Israel. 
 773.  Zechariah. 
 772.  Shallum(one 
 
 month). 
 772.  Menahehi. 
 761.  Pekahiah. 
 759.  Pekah. 
 730.  Hoshea. 
 721.  Captivity  and 
 deportation. 
 
 643.  Amon. 
 641.  Josiah. 
 
 610.  Jehoahaz  (three  months). 
 610.  Jehoiachim. 
 
 599.  Jehoiachin  (tributary  prince). 
 599.  Zedekiah  (tributary  prince). 
 588.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  temple ; 
 complete  captivity. 
 
 PERIOD  VI. 
 
 From   the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem   by  Nebuchadnezzar,  to  the   Birth  of  Jesus,  the 
 
 Christ,  588  years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 588.  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  begin- 
 ning of  Captivity. 
 
 538.  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus. 
 
 536.  Proclamation  of  Cyrus  for  the  return 
 of  the  Jews. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 534.  Foundation  of  the  temple. 
 
 529.  Artaxerxes   (Cambyses)    forbids  the 
 
 work. 
 520.  Favorable  decres  of  Ahasuerus. 
 518.  Esther  made  queen. 
 
544 
 
 SCRIPTURE  CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 515.  The  second  temple  finished. 
 
 510.  Haraan'.s  plot  fru.'strated. 
 
 484.  Xerxis  king  of  Persia. 
 
 464.  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 
 
 458.  Ezra  sent  to  govern  Jerusalem. 
 
 445.  Nehemiah  sent  as  governor. 
 
 424.  Samaritan   temple    built   on   Mount 
 
 Gerizim. 
 420.  Malachi  closes  the  canon  of  the  Old 
 
 Testament  Scriptures. 
 335.  Alexander  the  Great  invades  Persia 
 
 and  establisiies  the  Greek  empire. 
 323.  Alexander  dies. 
 320.  Ptolemy   I.  (Soter)   of   Egypt  takes 
 
 Jerusalem   and  Jews   settle  at  Al- 
 exandria. 
 283.  Septuagint  Version  made  by  order  of 
 
 Ptolemy  II.  (Philadelphus). 
 205.  The  Jews  submit  to  Antiochus  the 
 
 Great. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 170. 
 
 166. 
 153. 
 135. 
 109. 
 
 107. 
 
 63. 
 
 54. 
 40. 
 
 28. 
 18. 
 
 Antiochus  Kpiphanes  storms  .lerusa- 
 
 lem  and  profanes  the  temple. 
 Judas  Maccabieus  governor. 
 Jonathan  becomes  higii  priest. 
 John  Hyrcanus,  high  priest. 
 John  llyrcanus  destroys  the  temple 
 
 on  Mount  Gerizim. 
 Judas  (Aristobulus)  high  priest  and 
 
 king. 
 Jerusalem  taken  by  Pompey,  and  Ju- 
 
 drea  made  a  Roman  province. 
 Crassus  plunders  the  temple. 
 Herod  made  king. 
 Augustus  Ciesar  emperor  of  Rome. 
 Herod  begins  the  rebuilding  of  the 
 
 temple. 
 Jesus,  the  Christ,  born  four  years  I)e- 
 
 fore  the  era  known  as  A.  D. 
 Herod  dies  at  Jericho. 
 Archelaus  is  greeted  as  king. 
 
 PERIOD  VII. 
 
 From  the  Birth  of  Jesus,  the  Chri 
 
 \.  D.  Four  years  before  a.  d.  1  our  Lord  born. 
 
 8.  Jesus  visits  Jerusalem. 
 22.  Pilate  sent  from  Home  as  governor 
 
 of  Judffia. 
 2").  John  the  Baptist  begins  his  ministry. 
 26.  Jesus  baptized  by  John. 
 29.  Crucifixion  and  n  suriection  of  Jesus 
 
 Christ. 
 36.  Conversion  of  Paul. 
 38.  Gospel  preached  to  the  Gentiles. 
 44.  James  beheaded  by  Herod. 
 63.  Paul  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome. 
 65.  Beginning  of  the  Jewish  war. 
 67.  Paul  suffers  martyrdom  at  Rome  by 
 
 order  of  Nero. 
 
 st,  to  the  end  of  the  First  Century. 
 
 A.  D. 
 67.  Vespasian,  the  Roman  general,  raises 
 the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  by  which  an 
 opportunity  is  aflorded  for  the  Chris- 
 tians to  retire  to  Pella  beyond  Jor- 
 dan, as  admonished  by  our  Lord. 
 70.  Jerusalem  besieged  and  taken  by  Ti- 
 tus ;  the  temple  destroyed. 
 
 95.  John  banished  to  the  island  of  Pat- 
 mos  by  the  empeior  Domitian. 
 
 96.  John  writes  the  Revelation. 
 
 97.  John,  liberated  from  e.xile.  writes  his 
 Gospel. 
 
 100.  John,  the  last  surviving  apostle,  dies 
 in  Ephesus,  according  to  tradition. 
 
 THE   END. 
 
THE 
 
 A^^D  NATIOINS 
 
 OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
 
 30    Tjon^itiidc 
 
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 1    1012  01124  4383 
 
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