t:^. c: &, SYNONYMS OP THE OLD TESTAMENT: THEIR BEARING ON CHRISTIAN FAITH AND PRACTICE. BY THE REV. EGBERT BAKER GIRDLESTONE, M.A. AUTHOR OP ' THE ANATOMY OP SCEPTICISM ' AND OP ' DIES IVUE, OR THE JUDGMENT OP THE GREAT DAY VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF SCRIPTURE AND CONSCIENCE.' Voces sunt fimt<2 ; res aiitem infinitce. LONDON : LGNGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 187L ' Whoso is armed with the Text, the same is a right Pastor, aud my best advice and counsel is, that we draw water out of the true Fountain ; that is, diligently to read in the Bible. He is a learned Divine that is well grounded in the Text ; for one text and sentence out of the Bible is of far more esteem and value than many writings and glosses, which neither are strong, sound, nor armour of proof.' Maetin Ltjther. PREFACE. The work now presented to the public was begun eight years ago, amidst the pressure of a curate's hfe in a large parish, and has been completed in eveninj? hours after days spent in still more arduous employ- ments. Nothing but a conviction of the importance of the subject, and a belief that no one had attempted a systematic investigation of it, justified one who has neither profound scholarship, nor a ready pen, in un- dertaking the task. He cannot help hoping that the work thus imperfectly sketched out may be taken up and carried on hereafter by more accomplished hands. Li selecting subjects, it was hard to know where to stop ; but the leading topics of religious thought have been the same in all ages of the Church ; and the writer's aim has been to investigate the usage of the terms in which these subjects were originally brought before the human mind by the Great Author of our being. Whilst admitting the importance of studying the writings of the Early Fathers, and the works of English and foreign divines of various schools, the writer holds that the pious, diligent, and accurate study of the Sacred Text is the appointed means of obtaining a wise and practical understanding of the Truth, both as it regards the vi Preface. character and work of God and the duty and hopes of man. To be unbiassed is impossible ; but the writer has never wittingly evaded any text or any consideration which seemed to militate against a previously formed impression. Hence the result of the present investiga- tions has been that his opinions on some points have been considerably modified. He has endeavoured to approach the work as a student, not as a controver- sialist ; and the various chapters have been worked out independently, not as parts of a system, although as a matter of fact they have thrown much light on each other. Some readers will object that too many controverted points are introduced ; whilst others will complain that the writer's views on doctrinal sub- jects are not sufficiently pronounced. Believing that sound theology ought to be based on accurate Biblical criticism, the writer could not discuss sacred words without touching upon their doctrinal import. On the other hand, having put together the materials which could best aid in the formation of a judgment on the chief doctrines of the Bible, it seemed both unwise and unnecessary, even if there had been time and space for the undertaking, to work out the details of a theological system. A secondary aim has not been overlooked in preparing the following pages, namely, to illustrate the importance of the study of Hebrew. The difficulties at the outset are considerable, but when they are once overcome, every hour spent on the Hebrew Bible amply repays the student. The English translations of texts do not always follow Preface. vii the A. V.\ nor has elegance been aimed at in translation, the object being the greatest possible clearness. Some- times an alternative rendering or a paraphrase has been incorporated into the text, in order to bring out the sense more clearly. The spelling of Hebrew words in Eoman characters has often been a source of perplexity, ov/ing to the variety of forms which they assume, and the different sounds which Hebrew letters take under different circum- stances. The writer fears he has not been altogether successful or consistent in this matter, but he has gene- rally followed Ewald's system, especially in putting th for the Hebrew t3, the sound of which is neither t nor TH, but something between the two. The chief books which have been used in the course of the preparation of the work are the Bible in various languages, Wilson's ' Enghsh-Hebrew Concordance' (Mac- millan), a most valuable work ; Fiirst's ' Hebrew Con- cordance,' the ' Englishman's Hebrew Concordance ' (Longman), and the Greek Concordances of Kircher, Trommius, and Bruder. Buxtorf 's Eabbinical Dictionary has also been referred to, in order to ascertain the (comparatively) modern usage of Hebrew terms ; but Eabbinical studies, whilst deeply interesting, do not contribute nearly so much to the understanding of the Scriptures as might be supposed. The LXX is of infi- nitely greater importance for the present purpose than either the Targums or the Talmud. 1 This abbreviation signifies the English Authorised Version in the following pages ; similarly, LXX signifies the early Greek translation of the O. T., commonly called the Septuagint, viii Preface. Thanks to the kindness of those friends who have criticized the sheets, verified the references throughout, and prepared the index of texts, it is hoped that the printing is tolerably accurate. In conclusion, the author earnestly desires that readers of this book may gain — as lie has gained in writing it — a deepened conviction of the truth, the unity, and the authority of the Scriptures, and that it may influence members of various parties and denomina- tions to enter upon a critical and systematic study of the Sacred Eecords in their original languages. They will thus be drawn nearer to one another, and will be stimulated to live ' in unity of spirit, in the bond of peace, and in righteousness of life,' awaiting the Master's return to reward all who have laboured in His spirit and on His side ; — ' and then shall every man have praise of God.' ClAPHAM CoMMOir: October 1871. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ON THE STUDY AND THE TRANSLATION OF THE SCEIPTURES. PAGE Controversies originated by want of accuracy in the interpretation of Scripture. — World-wide circulation of the Bible defended. — The Scriptures a standard of doctrine. — -Theological precision of tlie Hebrew 0. T. — Peculiarities of the Hebrew language, and wealth of its synonyms. — -Value of the LXX as a con- necting-link between the Hebrew 0. T. and the Greek N. T. — Languages spoken by the Jews in our Lord's time. — Principles of translation. — Our Lord's mode of quoting and interpreting the 0. T. — Illustrations .... 1 CHAPTER II. THE NAMES OP GOD. A translator's difficulties. — The title Elohim ; is it a proper name ? — Its appli- cation to idols. — Its plural form. — Its application to Judges. — How to be trans- lated.— St. Paul's speech at Athens. — The forms Eloab, Elah, El, and Elim. — Titles of the Messiah.— Shaddai or the All-Bountiful.— Adonai or The Lord. — 'Elion or The Most-High. — J'ebovali and Jah.— Elohist and Jehovist discussion. — The Lord of Hosts. — The Angel of the Lord. — How ought the name Jebovab to be represented ? — Its application to the Messiali . . 32 CHAPTER IIL THE NAMES OF MAN. Incongruities of human nature.^ — Meaning and usage of Adam. — The ' Son of Man.'— Glorified human nature. — Origin, meaning, and usage of Ish.— The apple of the eye. — Usage of Enosb. — Passages in which it occurs. — Its pro- bable etymology.— Why not applied to the Messiah.— Meaning and usage of Cever. — Instances of its occurrence. — Words cognate with Gever. — Re- pbaim and XT epbilim 7'^ CHAPTER IV. THE SOUL AND THE SPIRIT. Psychological distinctions in the O. T.— Nepbesb, the soul.— Teaching witli regard to the soul in the N. T.— Buacb, or the spirit ; its primary and se- condary meanings. — Comparison of Ruacb and Nepbesb.— Tlic Spirit of God.— Senses in which the word Spirit is used in the N. T. — Christ and the Holy Spirit.— The work of the Spirit.— The Seven Spirits of God . . -9^ PAGE Contents. CHAPTER V. HEAET, WILL, CONSCIENCE, -WISDOM, UNDEKSTANDING. Difficulty of the subject. — Words rendered Heart in the 0. T. — Usage and mean ing of lev. — The hardening of the heart ; Hebrew words for Hardening. — Usage of the word Heart in the N. T. — il-vab, the Will. — Usage and meaning of Cbaphets and Ratson. — The will of God in the N. T. — Words used for the Will in Daniel. — UTadav, or voluntary action. — Yaal or volition. — Other words rendered Will. — The Conscience. — Cliacain or wisdom. — Bin, or under- standing.— Similar words 107 CHAPTER VI. SIN, WICKEDNESS, TRESPASS, AND GUILT. Cbattaa, its general meaning — Its peculiar usage in the Piel form. — How re- presented in the LXX. — Avab, or Wrong. — ilmal, or Travail. — 'iival, or Evil. — 'Avar, or Transgression. — Ra% or Mischief. — Pasba', or Rebellion. — Rasba', or Wickedness. — Ma'al, or Breach of Trust. — Aven, or Vanity. — Asbam, or Guilt. — Words for sin, &c., in the N. T 127 CHAPTER VIL REPENTANCE, CONVERSION, AND AMENDMENT. Original meaning of the word ITacbam. — Its renderings in the LXX. — Com- plex ideas connected with it. — Maimouides, Eosenmiiller, Beza, Erasmus, and Lucas Brugensis on Panitentia. — The Roman Catholic doctrine. — Repentance according to the N. T. — Other aspects of the word XTacbam as illustrated by the LXX and N. T. — Hebrew and Greek words for conversion, amendment, a,Tidi goodness . ............ 144 CHAPTER VIH. PERFECTION AND PEACE. Various words rendered ' Perfect ' in the 0. T. — Usage of Sbalam and Tbaznam. — Idea of Peace in the N. T. — Oneness and Perfection. — Develop- ment and maturity. — Christ's perfection, Faultlessness and completeness . 1 57 CHAPTER IX. UPRIGHTNESS, FAITH, AND HOPE. Meaning and usage of Yasbar. — Its Greek representatives in the N. T. — Tbamam, or integrity, — Tsadak, or righteousness. — IVXisbpatb, or judg- ment.— Aman, truth or faithfulness. — Hebrew words rendered trust. — Batbacb, to confide in. — Words rendered hope, — Distinction between faith and trust. — Christian /ai^A, trust, and ho2)e . . . . . . ,167 CHAPTER X. GRACE, PITT, LOVE, AND MERCY. Words rendered grace in the 0. T. — Racbam, or pity. — Abav, or love.-^ Other words rendered love. — Love, according to the N. T. — Cbesed, or mercy. — Meaning of cbasid, usually rendered saint. — How represented in the N. T. 177 Contents. xi CHAPTER XI. EEDEMPTION AND SALVATION. ... . PAGE The Divine intervention on behalf of man supported by analogy. — Caal, to re- deem.— Its spiritual application. — Padah, to deliver. — Eedemption, accord- ing to the N. T. — The idea of Purchase in the N. T. — Yasba', to save. — Its fulness of meaning in the Prophets. — Other words rendered Save in the 0. T. — Aspects of Salvation in the N. T. . . , . , . . . .191 CHAPTER XH. ATONEMENT, FORGIVENESS, AND ACCEPTANCE. The call made by man's sin upon the attributes of God. — Meaning of the word Capbar. — Capporeth, or the mercy-seat. — Ideas set forth by the word atonement. — Other renderings of Capbar. — Its Greek representatives. — The vicarious nature of Clirist's suiferings. — Reconciliation. — Salacb, to forgive. — Forgiveness, according to the N. T. — KTasa, to bear. — Its representatives in the N. T. — Hebrew words rendered acceptance. — Itatsab ; its meaning and usage. — Aecejptance, according to the N, T. . . . . . . . 205 CHAPTER XIIL CLEANSING, WASHING, SPRINKLING, AND BAPTISM. God's purity. — Man impure through sin. — Tbab€r, to cleanse — The case of the leper. — Other cases of cleansing. — Moral application of the word. — Cleansing, according to the N. T. — AVords for Washing in the 0. T. — Cavas, to wash garments, and Racbats, to wash the body. — Moral application of the words. — I Washing, according to the N. T. — Barar, to make clean. — Words signifying internal purity. — Hebrew words for SprinJding. — Baptism. Usage of the ■word in the LXX andN. T. — Conclusions as to the administration of the rite . 230 CHAPTER XIV. JUSTIFICATION, INNOCENCE, AND IMPUTATION. Ideas connected with the word Justification. — Usage of the verb Tsadak.^ Eenderings in the LXX. — Passages in which the word Righteousness occurs in the 0. T. — Sacrifices of righteousness.— Aspects of Righteousness in the 0. T. — Its meanings in the N. T. — Justification, according to the N. T. — TTakab, to be clean. — Cbasbav, to impute or reckon.— Its theological meaning.— Its , representative in the N. T 254 CHAPTER XV. SANCTIPICATION, HOLINESS, CONSECRATION, ANOINTING. Usage and meaning of Kadasb. — Words marking Consecration, Dcdiratmi, and Ordination. — Usage of ayid^w and cognate words in the N. T. — Masbacb, to anoint.— Christ, the Anointed King.— Anointing, as applied to Christians. — The anointing of the sick "° CHAPTER XVI. OFFERINGS, SACRIFICES, AND ALTAR. The Jewish offerings typical.— Korban, or offering.— Nagasb, to draw near.— Representative words in the N. T. — 'Olah, the asceuding-ofiLTing. — Its meaning illustrated from the N. T.— Mincbab, the meat-offenng.— Zevacb, xii Contents. PAGE the sacrifice, or communion feast. — The altar. — Sacrifice and altar in the N. T. — Remarks on Heb. 13. 10. — 'Asab, to offer or do.- — Relation of the Lord's Supper to the Sacrifice of the Passover. — Sbacbatb, to slay. — Pasacb, the Passover. — Sbelem, the restitution-oiFering. — Cbattab, the sin-oifering. — The same in the N. T. — Asbam, the guilt-oflfering. — Zsbab, the fire-offer- ing.— STesec, the drink-offering. — Incense. — The free-will offering. — The wave and tlie heave-offering 2'97 CHAPTER XVII. WOBD, LAW, COMMANDMENT, CHARGE, COVENANT. Revelation regarded as the Word of the Lord. — Modes of expressing the Word in the 0. T. and the N. T. — Hebrew names for Law ; for Commandments. — Terms used in the 119th Psalm. — The Law and Commandments in the N. T. — The words for Covenant in the 0. and N. T. . . . . . . . . 324 CHAPTER XVIIL ■WORSHIP, PRAT, PRAISE, PREACH, TEACH. Words used for Worship. — Sbacbab, to prostrate oneself. — Worship rendered to Christ. — Other references to Worship in the N. T. — Hebrew and Greek words which express Prayer, Praise, and Blessing. — Basbar, to evangelise, and Kara, to proclaim. — Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher. — Preaching in the N. T. — Words used to express Teaching 341 CHAPTER XIX. TEMPLE, TABERNACLE, CONGREGATION, CHURCH. , Hebrew and Greek words for Temple, Sanctuary, and Tabernacle. — The Feast of Tabernacles. — XCabal, its meaning and usage. — 'Adab, the Congregation or Testimony. — The Tabernacle of the Congregation. — The Holy Convocation. — Ecclesia and Synagogue. — Church organisation. — Other senses of Ecclesia . 359 CHAPTER XX. PROPHET, PRIEST, ELDER, MINISTER. Hebrew names for a Prophet. — Cbozeb, or the Seer. — Coben, or the Priest. — Zacen, or the Elder. — The ' Ancients.' — Christian Presbyters. — Sberetb, or the Minister. — Representatives. — 'lived, or the Servant in the N. T. . .377 CHAPTER XXI. KING, JUDGE, CONDEMN, PUNISH, REVENGE. Hebrew words representing Royalty, Bide, and Judgment. — The judicial and the administrative offices. — Meaning of Sbapbatb. — Judgment and Condemnation in the N. T. — Words used iov Punishment and Vengeance, in the 0. T. and N. T. 393 CHAPTER XXII. HEATHEN, NATION, PEOPLE, TRIBE, FAMILY. Coim, or Heathen. — 'Am, or People. — Other words rendered People. — Distinc- tion between (Qvos and \a6s in the N. T. — The expression ' all nations.' — Words for Tribe and Family .... ..... 40.5 Contents. xiii CHAPTER XXIII. LAND, EARTH, WORLD. Adamah, or Soil. — Passages in which it has been rendered Earth. — Distinetion between Adamab and Erets — Other words rendered Earth.— Earth and Land in the N. T.— Words for World in the 0. T. and N. T 412 CHAPTER XXIV. HEAVEN, HOST OF HEAVEN, FIRMAMENT. Words for Heaven in the O. T. and N. T.— ' The Queen of Heaven.'— The Host of Heaven.' — The Firmament: ideas conveyed by the Hebrew and the Greek words 418 CHAPTER XXV. DESTROY, PERISH. Words used to express Destruction. — Meaning and usage of Avad, Shachath, Sbamad, and Cbaram. — Representatives in the N. T. — The extermination of the Canaanites ............ 425 CHAPTER XXVI. THE GRAVE, HELL, DEATH. Passages in which Sbeol occurs — Meaning of the word. — Eeferences to Hades in the N. T. — Notes on passages in the N. T. — Hebrew words which express Death. — Repbaim. — ' Thou shalt surely die.' — Pecidiar use of the word Death in the N. T. — Relationship between sin and death. — The Second Death . .443 CHAPTER XXVII. SATAN, TEMPTER, SERPENT. Existence and influence of evil spirits. — Meanings of the word Sair, Sbed, and Satan. — The words Satan, Devil, and Demon in the N. T. — Hebrew wr)r(ls which signify Temptation. — Conclusion as to the meaning of the words.- — Their Greek equivalents. — Hebrew names for the Serpent and the Dragon, . . ioo CHAPTER XXVTCn. WITCH, DIVINER, FAMILIAR SPIRIT, MAGICIAN. Ancient and Modern Spiritualism. — Cashapb, or the Witch. — Kesem, or the Diviner. — Ob, or the Familiar Spirit. — The Witch of Endor. — Id'oni, or the Wizard. — Cbartummim, or magicians. — Gezar, or the Soothsayer. — Other words of similar import . .......... 471 CHAPTER XXIX. IDOL, TERAPHIM, GROVE, HIGH PLACE. Man's tendency to materialism. — Hebrew words for Idols. — ' Abomination ' in the N. T. — Usage and meaning of 'etsev. — Hebrew and Greek words sigiiifving imaffc or similitude — Other words referring to idolatry. — Fulke and Martin's controversy on the word image.— T/litsva.}!, or the Pillar. — Tiu^ Chamonim. — Asberab, or the Grove.— Bamab, or the High Place.— The Tcrajjhi/n . 448 xiv Contents. CHAPTER XXX. ETERNAL, EVERLASTING, THE AGE TO COME. PAGE The word 'ad, and its Greek renderings. — ITetsacb, or ' Utterly' — Tamid, or ' Perpetually.' — Orec, Dor, Kedem, Vom, Etb, 'Olam, N. T. representa- ' tives of these words. — The Age to Come ........ 495 Index of Subjects ............ 507 „ Hebrew Words 511 „ Greek Words 513 ,, Texts 615 SYNONYMS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. CHAPTER I. ON" THE STUDY AND THE TRANSLATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. § 1. Doctrinal controversies not caused by Protestantism ; § 2. But mainly originated by want of accuracy in the interpretation of Scripture. — § 3. Use of the Bible for tlie uneducated. — § 4. Its world-wide circu- lation defended. — § 5. The Scriptures, as we now possei-s them, a standard of doctrine amongst all Churches. — § 6. Theological precision of the Hebrew 0. T. — § 7. The present volume intended to illustrate this pre- cision and to exhibit its bearing on the N. T. — § 8. Peculiarities of the Hebrew language, and wealth of its synonyms. — § 9. Value of the LXX as a connecting-link between the Hebrew 0. T. and the Greek N. T. — § 10. The languages spoken by the Jews in our Lord's time. Note on St. Matthew's Gospel. — § 11. Principles to be borne in mind by trans- lators of the Scripture. — § 12. Our Lord's mode of quoting and interpret- ing the 0. T. — § 13. Illustrations of the foregoing views as applied to (a) 2 Thess. 3. 5, {b) 2 Thess. 1. 11, (c) Acts 4. 27. § 1. The CONTROVERSIES wliicli exist in the Christian Church are a source of trouble and perplexity to every thoughtful mind. It might naturally be supposed that those who pro- fess to follow one and the same Master, to venerate one and the same Book as the final com-t of appeal in matters pertaining to religion, would agree on all questions of faith and ecclesiastical order; but this is far from being the case. Eoman Catholic theologians have sometimes asserted that Protestantism is the real source of religious dissensions, B 2 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch, I, inasmucli as it exposes the Scripture to the private judgment of the individual ; and thej tell us that there would be no differences of opinion among Christians if all were to abide by the teaching of the Papal Church. There are many reasons, however, which may fairly lead us to doubt the propriety of such a solution. In the first place, controversy did not spring up with the Reformation. There were nearly a hundred shades of opinion, more or less erroneous, which had to be contended against in the earliest ages of the Church ; and there were as hot discussions on theological questions in the Middle Ages as there are now. Secondly, there are far greater divergences of thought in religious matters among the adherents of the Papacy than the world generally suspects.^ Thirdly, it is to be observed, that though the modern Church of Pome has laid down in the decrees of the Council of Trent a scheme or basis of doctrine according to which all Scripture is to be interpreted, yet she has never ventured to publish an infallible commentary which should explain all the hard passages of Scripture. Thus even under Roman rule the door of controversy is prac- tically left open. There were expositors of the Scrij)ture in the Church of Christ long before men were divided into Roman Catholics, Greek Church, and Protestants. Which of them shall we follow ? Shall it be Origen or Chrysostom ? Jerome or Augustine ? The answer which the Church of Rome, in common with all other Churches, has to give is, that no interpretations of Scripture by an individual, however learned, are to be regarded as infallible; all that can be done by the authorised leaders of the Church is to indicate a certain line of faith, ecclesiastical order, and practice, according to which the Bible ought to be interpreted, and by which all commentators ought to be guided and tested. ' Jeremy Taylor, in his Liherty of Prophcuying, gives an almost intenninaljle Jis;t of the differences of opinion which have existed in the Church of Rome. § L] Doctrinal Controversies. 3 In accordance witli this view, one of the most learned of Roman Catholic divines, Cardinal Cajetan, says, that if a new sense be discovered for a text, though it is opposed to the interpretation of a wdiole torrent of sacred doctors, it may be accepted, provided it be in accordance with the rest of Scripture, and with the teaching of the Church.^ To Scripture alone, he adds, do we reserve this authority, that we believe a thing to he so because it is written so ; a new sense of Scripture is not to be opposed merely because it is new, and if it falls in perspicuously with the text and con- text, let praise be ascribed to God who has not tied doAvn the exposition of the Scriptures to the interpretations of the ancient doctors, but to the sacred writings themselves, subject only to the censorship of the Church Catholic.'^ • Cajetan, Pm/". in Pent. The original passage is as follows: — 'Si qiiando oceurrerit novus sensus Textui eonsonus, nee a Sacra Scriptura nee ab Eeclesice doctrina dissonus, qnamvis a torrente Doctorum sacrornm alienus, asquos se pr?e- beant censores. Meminerint jus suum unieuique. Solis Scriptiirse Sacrae autoribns i-eservata est hsee aiitoritas, ut ideo credamus sic esse, quia ipsi ita seripserunt : alios autem, inquit Augustinus, ita lego, ut quantalibet sanctitate doctrinaque prse- polleant, non ideo credam sic esse, quia ipsi ita seripserunt. Niillus itaque detes- tatur novum Scripturse sensum, ex hoc quod dissonat a priseis Doctoribus ; sed scrutetur perspicacius Textum ac contextum Scrijjturse; et si quadrare invenerit, laudet Deum, qui non alligavit expositionem Scripturarum Sacrarum priscorum Doctorum seusibus, sed Scripturse integrse sub Catholicte Ecclesiffi censura.' Cardinal Pallavicini (Hist. Cone. Trid. \\. 18) discusses the view thus boldly enunciated by his brother Cardinal — a view by no means generally approved of — and says that it is not contrary to the decrees of the Council of Trent, as they simply declare heretical any doctrine or exposition which is opposed to the universal teaching of Fathers, Popes, and Councils. - It would be beyond the aim of the present work to discuss the relationship which exists between the Chiu'ch and the Bible. Certainly the teaching, creeds, liturgies, and general spirit of the Church ought to be in accordance with the Scripture. If they are not, they cannot be right. No doctrine of Development can be accepted which would tend to throw discredit on the teaching of the New Testament. This point is admirably laid down in Articles VI., XX., and XXI. of the Ch\i.rch of England. The fact that the Church is a witness and keeper of Holy Writ is sometimes set forth as a reason why her teaching ought not to be criticised by reference to its pages. But this is a fallacy unworthy of those who advance it. As the flaws in the candlestick may be detected by theliglit of the candle which it holds, so may the dogmas, formularies and ceremonies of the Church be checked and reformed from time to time by a wise and reverent comparison with the teaching of Scripture. B 2 4 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Cn. I. § 2. It would be Utopian to anticipate a time in whicli all Christians will be of one mind in matters of faith and prac- tice— at least under the present dispensation. It has been constantly remarked that our beliefs are affected by physical tem23erament and education, by the occupations of our life, and by the nature of our intercourse with men and books. We bring these things with us to the study of the Bible, and they give a certain colouring to truth in the course of its assimilation with our nature. In this matter, as in all others, God is only acting in accordance with the general laws which He has imposed upon the receptive faculties of man. Whilst, however, it is of the utmost importance that we should bear this in mind, we are none the less bound to aim at reducing our differences to a minimum. The Lord's prayer for unity (John 17.) calls us imperatively to take such a course. The Apostle Paul also presses this point specially upon our attention when he says (Phil. 2. 2), ' be like-minded, having the same love, being of one accord, of one mind.' How is such an exhortation as this to be fulfilled ? First by recognising the points of union which exist among us, which are much more numerous than we sometimes suj)pose ; and secondly, by carefully tracing our differences to their real sources. As we follow out this latter line of inquiry, we shall see with increasing clearness how numerous are the causes which contribute to bring about the diversities of vieAv which we so much regret. Not only are there great varieties of temperament, giving a distinctive hue to each man's creed, but also he inherits many views from his ]3arents; he is affected by the ecclesiastical body to which he belongs ; he is biassed by his tastes, his studies, and his pursuits, — by the importance he attaches to particular texts, and by the weight he assigns to historical Christianity which has grown up through the lapse of ages into an elaborate and almost §3.] Use of the Bible for the Uneducated. 5 stereotyped form, as compared with the primitive Christianity sketched in the N. T. But, in addition to these and sach-like points, it will be found that our religious differences are in a large measure owing to the vagueness with which we read and interpret the Bible. So far from this sacred book being a cause of contention among us, it will be found that the more thoroughly we study it in a right spirit and on just principles of interpretation, so much the more closely shall we draw near to one another in faith and life. It is to the last-named point — not the quantity but the quality of our reading — that attention., is specially directed in the present volume. § 3. The Bible is to be regarded in two aspects. It has its use for the unlearned and its use for the teacher. The Old Testament tells the story of God's dealings with man from the Creation to the days of Abraham, from Abraham to Moses, and from Moses to the Captivity, in language which sets the inain facts of the case plainly before the most unlettered. The ISTew Testament likewise unfolds the love of God, as it has been manifested in Christ toward the poor, the fallen, and the whole Avorld, in terms which come home to every heart. The little child and the untaught man will find many hard words, many puzzling arguments, many allusions to Eastern customs and to points of contemporary history of which they know nothing ; but they will also find certain solid facts which they can grasp, and they will meet with living words wdiich will arrest their attention and cause them to regard God in a new light. As they read on they will learn not only that there is indeed a God who made them, who sustains them, but also that He has a fatherly regard for their welfare. The simple student may thus become a theologian in the true old sense of the word, though ignorant of wdiat modern writers sometimes call theology : he may attain that loving and reverential disposition towards his 6 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch. L Maker and Eedeemer wliicli is described as *tlie beginning of wisdom,' though knowing nothing of the Early Fathers or of the German School of Thought. It has been held in all asfcs of the Church that the humble and devout reading of the Scriptures is one of the most profitable sources of growth in godliness; and nothing but the exigencies of controversy can have led the authorities of the Church of Eome to discourage the circulation and study of the Bible, even in their own authorised versions, indicating thereby their opinion that it is a dangerous book, and one not to be trusted in the hands of the people.^ Jerome, the prince of translators, and a ' churchman ' of the highest order, speaks with no uncertain sound on this point. So does Augustine ; and so do Chrysostom, Ambrose, Basil, and the leading fathers of the early church. They knew that * as the body is made lean by hunger and want of food, so is the soul which neglects to fortify itself by the Word of God rendered weak and incapable of every good work.'^ § 4. It ma}^, however, be said that the reading of the Scriptures should at any rate be confined to those who are previously instructed in Christianity. This point has often been pressed with much force against those zealous Pro- testants who seek to circulate the Scriptures in India and * No translation of the Bible can be circulated ■with the sanction of the Papacy unless it be made from the Latin Vulgate, and be accompanied with notes taken from the ' Catholic doctors ; ' and eren then no layman is (theoretically) permitted to read it unless he have a licence from his priest. The practical consequence of these steps has been that the Bible is almost an unknown book among the Eoman Catholic lait}'. - Augustine. Compare the words of Ambrose, ' omncs cedificat scriptura divina.' The acrimony with which the circulation of the Scriptures has been opposed by the Popes and their subordinates since the days of the Keformation presents a painful contrast with the earnest exhortations of such men as Jerome and Augustine. The cases of the Madiai and Matamoros are still in everybody's memory, and similar instances of persecution for reading the Bible might be cited from France, Belgium, Portugal, Mexico, and wherever the Eoman Church has been able to assert itself. Amongst modern defences of Bible reading, see Beponse dc qiielq%t.es Mcmhrcs de I'EiiUsc Beformcc au Mandonent de Mgr. F Archnrque dc Ihuloiisc, 5th ed. 1838. § 4.] Their Woidd-wide Circulation defended. 7 elsewhere, even amotig those who have not been converted and baptized. But this objection is not valid, either theoretically or practically. Theoretically the Bible is a book for man- kind because it contains the history of God's dealings with the whole human race, and there is nothing in its pages which calls the Church to restrict its circulation. Practically also it is found that the Scriptures in the mother tongue have penetrated further than the living voice of the mis- sionary, and in hundreds, nay probably thousands, of in- stances they have been the means of leading men to the knowledge of God. The Reports of the British and Foreign Bible Society and the records of the various missionary societies abundantly testify to this point. A more inde- pendent writer, however, may be cited ; and his words deserve to be well w^eighed. ' It is not easy (says Sir Bartle Frere, formerly Governor of Bombay) to estimate the exact effect produced by the general cheap circulation of the Christian canonical books and other literature, apart from the ])reaching and viva voce explanations of the missionaries ; but anyone who is at the pains to inquire will speedily be satisfied that the effect is so considerable as almost to justify the expressions of those who talk as if nations could be evangelised simply by the circulation of the printed Scriptures. ' Missionaries and others are frequently startled by discovering persons, and even communities, who have hardly ever seen, and perhaps never heard, an ordained missionary, and who have nevertheless made con- siderable progress in Christian knowledge, obtained through the medium of an almost haphazard circulation of tracts and portions of Scripture. ' In one instance, which I know was carefully investigated, all the inhabitants of a remote village in the Deccan had abjured idolatry and caste, removed from their temples the idols which had been worshipped there time out of mind, and agreed to profess a form of Christianity which they had deduced for themselves from a careful perusal of a single Gospel or a few tracts. These books had not been given by any mis- sionary, but had been casually left with some clothes and other cast-off property by a merchant, whose name even had been forgotten, and who, as fiir as could be ascertained, had never spoken of Christianity to 8 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch. I. his servant, to Avhom he gave at parting these things, with others of which he had then no further need. ' That an inquisitive and intelligent though very simple people, who have few books of their own, and whose recognised indigenous teachers rarely attempt any very earnest instruction in their own religion, should readily read anything that came in their way regarding the religion of their rulers, is not more than might be naturally expected. But we must go to countries in the condition of India and China at this moment to see at work the process of elaborating from a few tracts so read, a system of theology poAverful enough to set aside an ancient and well- established creed. The process is no neAV one ; but it is only rarely, or at a special crisis in the intellectual life of a nation, that such a phenomenon is to be observed.' ' With such a statement as this before us,— and similar testimonies might readily be produced, — we may safely affirm that the reading of the Scriptures, even in an imperfect translation, is calculated, under God's blessing, not only to edify and instruct the Christian, but also to awaken new and holy convictions in the hearts of those with whom the ministers and missionaries of the Church have never come into personal contact. § 5. But the Bible is also the text-book for the theological teacher, and the final court of appeal on all religious ques- tions. Even the Church of Eome, though putting her ecclesiastical traditions on a level with the ScrijDture, gene- rally seeks to obtain the sanction of God's word for her teaching, and never professedly holds any doctrine which, according to her interpretation, is f>ositively opposed to the Bible. To this book, then, all churches and denominations turn for support ; and whatever our view of inspiration may be, we practically take its words as the basis of our teaching and as the standard of our orthodoxy. It would be quite beside the present purpose to discuss theories of inspiration, to attempt a solution of the various ' Essay on Missions in a volume entitled The Church and the Age, Murray, 1870. § 0.] The Scriptures a Standard of Doctrine. 9 questions wliicli relate to tlie Canon, or to weigli tlie authority of different texts, MSS., and readings. Suffice it to say that, with regard to the OUT Testament, it is generally allowed that the text as now received, with the punctuation and accentuation ' which rex^resent the traditional way of reading it in early times, may be taken as substantially the same as that which existed when our Lord gave the weight of his authority to ' the Scriptures.' Several hundred Hebrew MSS. have been brought to light in modern times, and by their aid the Received text might be considerably amended ; and the result would probably be a far greater approximation to the readings contained in the New Testament, the LXX, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Peshito Syriac, and the Latin Vulgate.^ The emendations, however, which would thus be introduced, though very numerous, and often of the deepest interest, would not affect the body of the book. With regard ' 'By pimctuation is here signified, not tlie marlving of pauses in tlie sense, Init the determination of the vowel sounds. Supposing that in some old English inscription we met with the abbreviated word ked, we might have to determine whether it stood for bread, bird, bard, beard or board. This we coidd usually do by means of the context; but there might be doubtful cases, and if such existed Ave should be glad to know how the word had been understood by others in past times. Thus tradition would come in to aid our reasoning powers, though, after all, tradition itself might sometimes be at fault. This just illustrates the case of the Hebrew points. They were added to MSS. somewhere about the fifth century after Christ, in order to perpetuate the traditional mode in which the Hebrew words of the Bible used to be pronounced. Generally speaking, they are undoubtedly right ; but they are not infallible, and sometimes they are capable of correction by means of MSS. and early versions. The case of the word bed for staff, in Gen. 47. 31, is tlie most familiar sample of the existence of two traditional modes of giving vowel sounds for a word whose consonants are the same. The accents mark the tones, the emphasis, and the pauses in Hebrew, and thus they too at times affect the sense and even the division of the verses. - Kennicott's two Dissertations, his Introduction to the Hebrew Bible which he edited, and the posthumous volume of his criticisms, abound in proofs of this assertion. He may have been led to speak too strongly against what he conceives to be the wilful corruption of the text by the Masoretic Jews, but he has conferred a benefit by his labours upon both Jew and Christian, which, alas! neither the one nor the other has yet learned to appreciate. Doderlein and Meisner's Critical Hebrew Bible contains the most convenient collection of readings from Kennicott's and Dc Eossi's MSS. lo Study and Trans la i ion of ike Scriptures. [Ch, I. to tlie ISTew Testament we also have suhstantially intheEeceived Text the writings which were received as authoritative in the early church. Here again there exist plentiful materials for amending the text, through the discovery of many ancient MSS., and through the collation of ancient versions of the quotatinns to be found in the writings of the early Fathers ; but after all had been done that could be done the book would remain very much the same as it is now. We may, therefore, take the Hebrew and Greek text of the Bible as it exists in the hands of every scholar as a suffi- ciently fair representative of the Scriptures; and whilst we bless Him through whose Providence it has been so wonderfully preserved to us, we are bound to remember the cause for which this care has been exercised — namely, that we may return again and again to the sacred text, and correct our fickle and fallible thoughts and teachings by means of its unchanging utterances. § 6. The more closely we study the Hebrew Bible, the more we shall be struck with the uniform precision with which doctrinal terms are used throughout its pages. How- ever ive may choose to account for this fact, its practical bearing is manifest. If the Hebrew Scriptures use theo- logical terras with marked exactitude, translations made from them are plainly missing something of Divine truth unless they do the same. Nor can it be denied that the more accurately the original words are rendered, and the more fully their usage is ascertained by us, so much the nearer shall we be to unity.^ The truth, whilst it makes us free, will also make us one. § 7. With a view to the illustration and confirmation of * The rule that each word of the original shall always have the same rendei-ing is not to be pressed too far, but in argumentative and doctrinal passages it is very important. It would be easy to name a hundred passages, even in our Authorised Vei'sion, which have seriously suffered through the neglect of this principle. § 7.] Object of the present zvjrk. 1 1 tliis point, four questions are considered in the following discussions : — Fird. What is the original meaning, and what the general usage of Hebrew words which have been selected by the inspired writers to convey the leading- theological, moral, and ceremonial ideas of the Old Testament ? Becondlij. How far have the distinctions between these words been retained in our own Authorised Version "? Thirdly. What Greek words are generally adopted in the Septuagint to represent the Hebrew terms above specified 'P FourtJdy. How far ought the original meaning and usage of the Hebrew words to affect or to determine the rendering of their Greek representatives when these reappear in the New Testament ? The importance of these inquiries will at once be per- ceived. The opinion formerly held by some scholars, that all Hebrew words are equivocal, is now generally regarded as an exaggeration ; and, although there are differences of opinion as to the meaning of some words, the dictionaries of such men as Geseniiis and Fiirst, being the embodiment of Jewish tradition confirmed and checked by investigations into cognate languages, give us a fair general idea of the meaning of the roots. This, however, is not enough. The Bible being regarded as a statute book among Christians, the exact shade of meaning to be given to each Hebrew word ought, if pos- sible, to be ascertained ; and this can only be effected by an induction of instances leading to a definite conception of the sacred usage in each case.' When this has been discovered, ' The Founder of Inductive Science has not neglected to remind us that its prin- ciples are applicable to the study of the Bible. He urges an inquiry into ' the truo limits and use of reason in spiritual things,' which would 'open men's eyes to see that many controversies do merely pertain to that which is cither not revealed or 12 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Cn. I. the student is naturally led to inquire how far the sense thus arrived at has been represented aiid retained in the Autho- rised Version. The same question is also to be raised with reference to the Septnagint, not as a matter of mere anti- quarian curiosity, nor only because this venerable translation ought to have great weight from its age and character, but more especially because of its importance in relation to the Greek of the New Testament. § 8. In making a translation of the Bible, it is impossible at first to iind words which adequately represent some of the ideas which it contains ; and there must always be a risk of considerable misunderstanding for a time. It is only gradually that the peculiar Bible usage of a word becomes engrafted into a national language. This observation may be illustrated both from English and from other lan- guages ; and it has been noticed that the more formed a language is at the time the translation is made into it, the greater is the difficulty of diverting words from their general use to the sacred purposes of the Bible. ^ The Hebrew lan- guage, though poor in some words, is rich in others, and probably no better language could have been selected for the purpose of preparing the way for the redeeming work of Christ. Its variations of voice give shades of meaning which cannot be found in the Indo-European languages. Its de- finite article, the way in which genders are marked in the verb as well as in the noun, its mode of marking emphasis and comparison, the gravity and solemnity of its structure, the simplicity of its tenses, the massive dignity of its style, positive, and that many others do grow upon weak and obscure inferences or derivations ; ' he calls men to investigate the Scriptures themselves instead of resting in Scholastic Divinity, because 'the more 3'ou recede from the Scriptures by inferences and consequences, the more weak and dilute are your positions ;' and he extols • positive divinity, collected upon particular texts of Scriptures.'— Bacon's Advancement of Learning, last chapter. ' See Rlienius on the principles of translating the Bible. §8.] Peculiarities of the Hcbrczv Language. i^ .the picturesqueness of its idiom — these and other points make it peculiarly fitting as a vehicle for expoundino- the ways of God with man. The original meanings of Hebrew religious words may sometimes be ascertained by an observation of their usao-e in reference to non-theological subjects, and may in other cases be illustrated by references to the Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic languages. It has often been observed that they are of peculiar interest. Indeed, it is quite a lesson in moral philo- sophy to take a Hebrew dictionary, and trace the gradual growth of meaning in words as their signification advances from things which are seen and temporal to those which are not seen and eternal. Persons who have made this point a study can well sympathise with the saying of Luther, that he would not part with his knowledge of Hebrew for untold gold.' It is not possible that an English translation should brino- out all the shades of thought which are to be found in the Hebrew Bible. Thus the play upon words, ^ which is so frequent in the original, as in the naming of Jacob's sons or in the blessing pronounced upon them by their father, can ' 'Hac quantulaciinque cngnitione infinitis millilius aureorum carere noliiu' {Vrol.\\\ Ps. 45). Mr. Craik, in his little work on the Hebrew language (Bagster), gives a few apt illustrations of the original meanings of its words. ' It has been well observed,' he says, ' that the original notions inherent in the Heljrew words serve to picture forth with remarkable distinctness the mental qualities which they designate. Thus, for instance, the usual term for " meek " is derived from a root which signifies to afflict. The usual term for " wicked" comes from a root that expresses the notion of restlessness. A "sinner" is one who misses the mark. To "delight" in anything is literally to bend down towards it. The '•law" is that which indicates the mind of God. " Eighteousn ess " is that ■\\-hich is perfectly straight. " Truth " is that which is firm. " Vanity " that which is empty. "Anger" is derived from a root meaning to breathe, quick breathing being a sign of irritated feeling. To " trust" is to take shelter under, or to lean upon, or to cast oneself upon. To "judge" is radically to smooth or make equal.' '"■ A large number of instances oi 'paronomasia will be found at the end of Canon Wilson's Hebrew Concordance (Macmillan). 14 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch. I. rarely be reproduced in another language. Such distinctions as exist between the rest wliicb means cessation {sah- hath) and tbat which signifies repose [noah), or between the fear which signifies terror and that which marks respect, are often through sheer necessity left unnoticed by translators. Again, who would have supposed that three Hebrew words are rendered window in the account of the Deluge, three rendered sack in the story of Joseph's brethren in Egypt, three rendered leaven in the account of the Passover, three rendered ship in the first chapter of Jonah, and five ren- dered lion in two consecutive verses of Job (4. 10, 11)? There are many other curiosities in Hebrew which cannot be reproduced, such as the strange fact that the same word is sometimes used not only in different senses, but even with flatly contradictory meanings. For example, one word signifies both to bless and to curse; the same is the case with words signifying to redeem and to pollute; to join and to separate ; to afflict and to honour; to know and to be strange; to lend and to borrow; to sin and to purge; to desire and to abhor; to hurt and to heal. Again, how much significance lies in the circumstance that a common word for buying and selling also means corn, that a name for money also means a lamb, that the general word for cattle is adopted to signify posses- sion, and that the common name for a merchant was Canaanite. As an illustration of the richness and variety of the Hebrew language, it may be mentioned that seven different Avords are rendered black in the Authorised Version; there are eight words for an axe, for an archer, for a hook ; nine are rendered wine; twelve words stand for beauty, and the same number for body ; thirteen for light, for bough, and for hand; fourteen are rendered dark; sixteen are ren- dered anger, and chief; eighteen are rendered fear; §9.] Value of the LXX. 15 twenty are rendered bind, and cry. The words afraid or affrighted stand for twenty-one Hebrew words; branch for twenty -two; deliver for twenty-five ; cover for twenty- six; gather for thirty-five; cut for forty- two ; come for forty-seven; destroy for fifty-five ; break for sixty ; cast for sixty-one ; bring for sixty- six ; go for sixty-eight ; and take for seventy-four. Such facts as these may well lead the Biblical student to inquire whether there may not be important distinctions between Hebrew words which are used to express theological, moral, ceremonial, or ecclesiastical ideas. § 9. Passing from Hebrew to Greek, we may take as our starting-point the remark of a scholar, lately deceased,^ that the Christian revelation must be regarded as Hebrew thought in Greek clothing. No single language is capable of setting forth adequately the unsearchable riches of Christ ; but God has mercifully revealed his truth in two languages, and has so combined these two, that we get in the New Testament not mere ordinary Greek, such as might be found in Plato or Demosthenes, but Greek of a peculiar kind, each word of which conveyed to the Jewish mind an idea which the He- brew Old Testament had originated. This we owe in great measure to the fact that the Septuagint was in constant use among the Jews in our Lord's lifetime, and was evidently a familiar book to those who wrote the New Testament. Very different estimates have been formed respecting the value of the LXX by various writers. In the early days of Christianity both Jews and Christians were inclined to re- gard it as a work of inspiration ; and most of the early versions of the Old Testament were made from it. But when the Jews found that it was so freely quoted and so much used by 1 Professor Duncan. Cappellus expressed the same sentiment in almost the same words. 1 6 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch. I. Christians, they took refuge in the assertion that it was not a faithful translation ; and on this account the Greek versions of Theodotion, Aquila, and Sjmmachus were made. It was too late, however, to disparage a version which had been prepared before the days of controversy between Jew and Christian had begun ; and the charges made against it were really the means of confirming its value, for Jerome was led to make his version from the Hebrew, partly at least that Christians might see that both Hebrew and Greek practically taught the same truth. Modern critics have sometimes run to extremes in dealing with the LXX. Isaac Voss held that it was inspired ; Cappellus, Munster, and Buxtorf attached but little value to it ; Morinus respected it highly, but was inclined to correct it by the Latin Vulgate. Perhaps the fairest estimate of its value is to be found in the work of Hody on early versions, and in the criticisms of Kennicott. This early Greek translation is, indeed, of the greatest value to the Biblical student, partly because it contains certain readings of importance which are not to be found in the existing Hebrew Bibles ; partly also, because its render- ings, though often free and paraphrastic, and sometimes even illiterate and unintelligible, frequently represent the traditional sense attached to the sacred text among the Alexandrian Jews. But, after all, the main value of the LXX lies in this, that it represents in a great measure the Greek religious language of many of the Jews of our Lord's time, and by its pages the Greek of the New Testament may be illustrated at every turn. Those who have access to Grinfield's Hellenistic Greek Testament or any similar book, are aware that there is hardly a verse in the New Testament the phraseology of which may not be illustrated, and to some extent explained, by reference to the LXX. This fact, which is allowed by all students, has, nevertheless. §9.] Vahie of the LXX. ij hardly received that full attention from translators which it deserves. The idea that the LXX is often an indifferent authority from a literary and critical point of view, has caused them to neglect its study/ whereas it ought to be regarded as a sort of dictionary in which every New Testa- ment word and phrase ought to be looked out,^ in order that its usage in Judseo-Greek might be ascertained. Pliilo is good, Josephus is good, but the LXX is best of all ; both because of its subject-matter, and because of the influ- ence which it exercised over the Jewish language. It has often been remarked how much the English language now owes to the Authorised Version of the Bible. Many English words and phrases used in tracts and sermons, and other religious writings, can only be understood by reference to the Bible. The words themselves may some- times be found in the works of authors who lived before our version was prepared, and also in the writings of many whose acquaintance with religious topics is very limited ; but it is to the Bible that we turn for an explanation of such words as edify, justify, atonement, faith, and grace. These and many other words have been taken out of their ordinary secular usage, and have been adopted for Christian purposes. Little by little the new sense has eclipsed and obscured the old, so that in some cases the latter has vanished altogether. As generations succeed one another, if religious instruction and conversation continues, and if our Bible is not materially altered, biblical language may become still more naturalised amongst us. ■ Certainly, if the Hebrew original were lost and our translation were made from the LXX, each word being rendered according to classical usage, whilst the substance of the Old Testament would remain the same, we should have a very different (and a very mistaken) idea of many of its details. 2 Trommius' Concordance to the LXX is becoming a very scarce book, and ought to be reprinted. The Delegates of the Oxford or Cambridge Press would do well to undertake this work, which is beyond the enterprise of a private individual. 1 8 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Ch. I. What is true in tlie case of the English language has also been perceived in many other languages ;— wherever, in fact, the Bible is much studied. It often happens that missionaries gather their knowledge of a new language, not from native literature, for perhaps there is none, but from a translation of the Scriptures. This forms the basis of their vocabulary, and the standard of their idiom. Mr. Medhurst, in one of his works on China, notices that this was the case in Malacca, where 'the style of preaching and writing became in consequence very stiff and unidiomatic, and so a new and barbarous dialect sprang up among the professors of Christianity, which was in many instances barely intel- ligible to the Mahometan population who speak the regular Malayan tongue.' To take one other illustration of the mode in which a reli- gious language is formed, the reader may be reminded of the vocabulary at the end of Dean Nowell's Catechism. It contains a list of Latin words and modes of expression peculiar to Christians, and differing from the ordinary clas- sical usage. ^ We find among them the words for angel, apostle, flesh, believe, create, crucify, demon, devil, elect, gospel. Gentile, idol, justify, sanctify, mediator, minister, mortify, repentance, resurrection, sacrament, scripture, temptation, tra- dition, and Trinity. Applying these remarks to the case of the Septuagint, and its influence on Judseo-Greek, we may cite the opinion of Father Simon, who points out ^ that the versions made by the ' Vocabiila nostratia, et loquendi formse Christianorum proprise, in quibus a communi more verborum Latinorum discessum est. ^ Critique V. T. 2. 3. Similar remarks are made by this acute ■writer in the very interesting preface to his French translation of the New Testament. This work, including the Preface, was translated into English by William Webster, Curate of St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, and printed by Charles Eivington, in St. Paul's Churchyard, in 1730. Simon's rendering of the Greek would be generally regarded as too free, though not so paraphrastic as the version made by De Sacy. Whilst aiming at ' expressing the pure word of God with all possible exactness,' he 9.] Value of the LXX. 19 Jews liave been servile renderings, and that style lias never been considered in them. ' The words employed in these versions are not used in the ordinary style ; rather the Jews in their desire to give a verbal rendering to the words of the Hebrew text, have formed a certain strange language, which one might call the, language of the synagogue. The Greek of the Sep tuagint version, and even that of the Neiv Testamc7it, is of this nature. . . . It is this which has led certain learned critics to call it Hellenistic, so as to distinguish it from ordinary Greek.' The late Dr. Campbell, of Aberdeen, may also be quoted as holding the same opinion. He writes as follows with regard to the Jewish use of the LXX : — ' In one view their Bible was more to them than oi;rs is to us. It is religion alone, I may say, that influences our regard ; whereas their sacred books contained not only their religious principles and holy cere- monies, but the whole body of their municipal laws. They contained an account of their political constitution, and their civil history, that part especially which is most interesting, the lives of their patriarchs, and the gradual advancement of that family from which they gloried to be descended ; the history of their establishment as a nation ; the exploits, victories, and conquests of their ancestors ; the lives and achievements of their kings and heroes, prophets and reformers. Nay more, the Scriptures might just be considered as a collection of the Avritings, both prosaic and poetical, of a,ll the most eminent authors their country has produced.' ' Those words in particular,' says the same writer, ' which have been in most familiar use with the old (LXX) interpreters have with their naturalisation among the Israelites acquired in the Jewish usage an infusion of the national sj^irit. Though the words therefore are G-reek, Jewish erudition is of more service than Grecian for bringing i;s to the true acceptation of them in the sacred writings. Would you know the full import of the words aymn fioq and ciKuioavrr) in the New Testament ? It will be in vain to rummage the classics. Turn to the pages of the Old Testament. It will avail little to recur to the Greek roots ayioe and ^ikt]. Examine the extent given to the signification of the Hebrew roots kadash, and tsadak, wdiich have was the very opposite of a servih translator. His remarks on the Greek particles and prepositions, viewed in relation to tlie Hebrew, , are very instructive. c 2 20 Sitidy and Translation of the Scriptzires. [Ch. I. given occasion to the introduction of these Greek terms into the trans- lation of the Seventy. ' * The principle thus clearly laid down by Dr. Campbell is one of extreme importance. There cannot be a doubt that he is right in maintaining that the Greek of the New Testament is Jiidceo-Greelc, or to use Dr. Duncan's expression ' Hebrew thought in Greek clothing,' being formed by the LXX regarded as an embodiment of that revelation which was made in Hebrew. Not only is the truth of the Old Testament taken for granted on every page of the New, but the very language of the latter has a vital connection with that of the former, the LXX being a natural, or we should rather say a 'providential, bridge spanning the gulf which separated Moses from Christ. Thus, to take a single short book, in the Epistle of St. James we meet with certain Greek words rendered dispersion, temptation, trial, doubting, first- fruits, respect of persons, Lord of Sahaoth, in the last days, stahlish your hearts, jiistfy, double-minded, long-suffering, of tender mercy, faith, spirit, wisdom, the judge. A Jew trained in the Greek translation of the Old Testament would naturally and almost unconsciously give to these words a peculiar rich- ness and fulness of meaning from their usage in the Law and the Prophets when they appear as the rendering of certain Hebrew words and phrases. Again, such expressions as * son of perdition,' ' children of wrath,' ' if they shall enter into my rest,' ' by the hand of a mediator,' ' go in peace' {sis slprjvrjv), * living waters,' were familiar words to most of them from their youth up.^ § 10. It may be objected, however, that the use of the LXX ' Camplieirs Prdinmiary Dissertations. 2 Mr. Webster rightly states, iu liis Grammar of New Testament Greek, that the influence of Hebrew on the Greek Testament is lexical rather than grammatical, but he somewhat underrates the bearing of the Hebrew voices, tenses, particles, and prepositions on New Testament Greek. Dr. Delitzsch in the learned introduc- tion to his translation of the Epistle to the Romans into Hebrew (Leipsig, 1870) has some interesting remarks on this subject. § 10.] The Lanouagcs spoken by the Jews. 21 was confined to a small portion of the Jews, tliat most of them spoke Aramaic, and that we must not therefore press the resemblances between the Greek Testament and the LXX too far. The popular theory certainly is that our Lord and his disciples spoke in Aramaic or Syro-Chaldee,^ an idea which is usually based on the fact that three or four words of this dialect are found amidst the Greek of the N. T. When Diodati propounded his view that our Lord was in the habit of speaking in Greek, it met with general contempt. De Eossi, no mean critic, controverted this novel view (as it was considered) in a treatise of some learning, though of short compass.^ Dr. Roberts in his ' Discussions on the Gospels,' has taken up the subject again, and has upheld the views of Diodati with much skill. His treatise has never been thoroughly answered ; yet his arguments do not altogether carry conviction. It is strange that the learned are content to rest in uncertainty about a point of such deep interest. There is probably more to be said on eacli side than has yet been said ; but the conviction which a student of the con- troversy is likely to come to at present is that a large number of the Jews were bilingual : they talked both Syro-Chaldee and Judseo- Greek ; and our Lord and his apostles did the same. Whilst, therefore, some of the addresses and discourses contained in the Greek Testament must be considered as trans- lations, others may be fairly taken as giving us the ipsissima verba of Him who spake as never yet man ST)ake. One thing is certain, that if the Greek Gospels do not give our Lord's original discourses, it is in vain to look to any other source for them. If they are not originals, we have no originals. The Peschito Syriac version of the New Testament bears evident ' A compound of Babylonian and Syrian, of which there were two or three dialects, e.g. the Galilean, which was ruder than that spoken iu Jerusalem. See Walton's Prolegomena on this subject ; also De Rossi's work, referred to further on. ^ Dissertasio7ii clella lingua i:)roj)ria di Crista, Milan, 18i2. 22 Study and Translation of the Scriptnres. [Cn. I. traces of Laving been made from the Greek ; so does the early Latin 5 so do all the other early versions ; nor is there any other practical conclusion to be arrived at than this, that the Greek Gospels are to be taken as the inspired transcripts of the words and deeds of the Saviour, written in a tongue which was intelligible to most Jews, to all Greeks, to many Eomans, and to the great bulk of people whom the Gospel could reach in the course of the first century. A difficulty which naturally presents itself here is that the LXX embraces a number of books and fragments for which we find no originals in the Hebrew Bible ; if, therefore, its pages mainly represented the Scriptures of the 0. T. to the Jews in our Lord's time, it might be sujjposed that He gave authority to the Ajpocryijha. But was it so ? When He said ' Search the Scriptures,' did He mean, Search Judith, Tobit, Bel and the Dragon, and the Maccabees ? No. By the Scrip- tures He meant the Law and the Prophets, which were read in the synagogue every Sabbath day, and He referred to the Greek interpretation of these Scriptures only so far as they Avere clear expositions of the Law and the Prophets. The LXX had certainly received a quasi-authorisation by age and custom in our Lord's time, and perhaps it had been more formally authorised. Father Simon considers that it may have obtained its name from the fact that it was sanc- tioned by the Sanhedrim, which consisted of seventy members. He remarks that the Synagogue was used not only for a place of religious service, but as a school. It was in this sense called Beth midrash, the house of exposition ; and whereas the Talmud prohibited the reading of the law in any language but Hebrew during divine service, the LXX and also the Chaldee Targums were the main basis of teaching in school hours. Thus the Hebrew sacred books constituted the canon, whilst the LXX, so far as its rendering of those sacred books is concerned, became what we may call the Authorised § 11.] Principles to be borne in mind by Translators. 23 Version in daily use in the school, and to a certain extent in the family ; and its modes of expression Avould gradually form the religious language of the bulk of the people.^ § 11. Those readers who have carefully followed the state- ments now advanced will understand that the studies of Old Testament synonyms contained in the following pages are not intended to initiate any novel mode of interpreting- Scrip- ture, but simply to apply those principles which all students, theoretically at least, hold to be sound. The translator must deal with words before he can render sentences. He finds 1860 Hebrew roots in the Old Testa- ment for which he has to discover equivalents. Each of these may have several shades of meaning ; and the various senses given to the original word may not exactly tally Avith • Note on St. Matthew's Gospel. — A possible solution of a long-standinn- diffi- culty may be here presented for the consideration of the learned. There is an old tradition that St. Matthew wrote his Gospel in Hebrew ; but the opinion of some modern scholars who have subjected the matter to the severest criticism is that it was written in Greek. This view is upheld with much force by Dr. Eoberts in his JDiscussions on the Gospels. But, after all, may not some copies of St. Matthew's Gospel have been specially prepared in Hebrew characters for those Jews who talked Greek, but did not read it ? In the present day we find Greek, Spanish, German, Polish, Persian, and Arabic works (especially Bibles) printed in the Hebrew character. So early as the time of Origen, the Hebrew Scriptures were written in Greek letters. Why, then, should not the Greek Scriptures have been written in Hebrew characters for the benefit of a portion of the Jewish people who would otherwise have been debarred from access to them? Transliteration is very common now. Arabic Scriptures are printed in Syriac characters, Turkish in Armenian, Turkish in Greek, Kurdish in Armenian, Indian languages in Arabic, Malay and even Chinese iuKoman. The version which the Caraite Jews especially esteem is a Greek Pentateuch, printed at Constantinople in Hebrew characters. According to the opinion of most scholars, the whole Hebrew Scriptures have been transliterated from Samaritan characters, whilst the Samaritans still retain a text of the Pentateuch in their own character. There would, therefore, be nothing novel or extraordinary in the plan which is here conjectured to have been adopted by St. Matthew or some of his followers, namely, to make copies of the Gospel in Hebrew characters. Any person not versed in the study of Hebrew would naturally suppose, on seeing such a copy, that it was written in the Hebrew language. It is true that such scholars as Origen and Jerome would not be so imposed upon ; but there is no proof that either of these learned men had ever held the book in their hand. The solution now proposed is only ventured on as a ^^ossible, though very natural, clue to the problem. 24 Study and Translation of the Scriptures. [Cn. L those -wliicli are represented by the word adopted as a translation. It is a great help to him to find that the ren- dering of a great proportion of them has gradually become fixed by a sort of tradition. If, however, fresh light can be obtained either from the context, or from the LXX, or from the general nsage of a Hebrew word, and still more if the N. T. can be more clearly rendered through comparison with the LXX, tradition must be sacrificed to truth. The translator's business is to give the idea which the Jew ^ would have in reading the Old and New Testaments, in as idiomatic a form as possible, but without trenching on the duties of the expositor. A word ought to be translated according to its general usage unless there is some j^lain reason to the contrary. When a word is capable of being rendered either in a general or in a specific or technical sense, there is much need of caution and judgment ; here, however, the shades of meaning represented in the Hebrew Yoice often come to the help of the translator, the Tiel being peculiarly a technical or ceremonial Voice. Where critics or theologians differ as to the sense conveyed by the original, the translator must content himself by adhering to the most literal or the most natural rendering of the text. Martin Luther departed from this principle when he translated BiKaioavv7] 6sov ' the righteousness which is valid before God,' - because, whether this idea might or might not be conveyed by the general teaching of St. Paul, the bare words do not teach it. This is thrusting a theological view into the translation, which ought to be scrupulously avoided, as far as possible. The revisers of the English Bible would be justly censured if they were to translate toOto sctti. to ' It may be oljjected that some portions at least of the New Testament were intended for Gentile readers ; this 7}iai/ have been the case, but they were written by Jews, and consequently more or less in the JudaiO-Greek diction. - Die Gerechtigkdt, die vor Gott gili. § 11.] Principles to be borne in mind by Translators. 25 cQnia jxov, ' tliis i^epresents my body ; ' or, sv Xqio-tm, ' by virtue of union with Christ ; ' or, i^ uSaros kol Trvsv/xaTos, ' by water, that is to say, by the spirit ; ' and yet such renderings as these have existed in standard versions. It is sometimes difficult to decide how far a translator should be rigidly precise in translating all words uniformly. On the one hand, a version might be made over-systematic, as was the case with that of Arius Montanus according to the judgment of good authorities ; and, on the other, it may neglect the most ordinary amount of uniformity, thus giving some support to the theory of Cardinal Cajetan, who held that all Hebrew words were equivocal. The English Authorised Version is certainly not so uniform as it ought to be, though far better than many other versions, which seem to have affected variety simply for variety's sake. Wherever a word has a particular theological, ecclesiastical, or technical sense, one and the same rendering ought to be retained throughout. This course also ousfht to be followed whenever an argument depends for some of its force and completeness on the use of the same word in its different parts. Numerous instances are given in the following pages of the advanta.ges which will arise from the more strict maintenance of this rule, and of the inconvenience which has arisen from its neglect. On the other hand, it must be allowed that there ought to be a certain ' elasticity ' in a version ; and when a language is rich in synonyms they may well be resorted to, provided the above rules are acted upon. There is a remarkable consistence in the usage of im- portant words in the Hebrew Bible. Just as all prophecy seems to be framed in accordance with a certain scheme, the germ of which is to be found in the Song of Moses (Deut. 32), so all the moral, theological, and ceremonial terms of the Bible have their sense fixed in the Pentateuch, which is the 26 Study and Translation See Moffat's South African Sketches. Things are veiy different among the Bechuanas now. B 34 The Na7nes of God. [Ch. n. which represents to the heathen mind a class of beings, or ought we to choose what may be called a jpro'per name, even though that name may present a most unworthy notion of the Deity ? Some light, it is hoped, will be thrown on this question in the course of the following discussion ; but at the same time it must be acknowledged to be a subject of 23eculiar difficulty, and one which cannot be fully settled without taking into consideration the peculiar circum- stances of each country in which the matter has called for a solution. § 2. The general Hebrew name for God is Elohim (D'n!?N). Sometimes it is used with a definite article, sometimes without. Altogether it occurs 2,555 times. In 2,310 of these instances it is used as the name of the living and true God, but in 245 passages it appears to be adopted in a secondary or lower sense. Although plural in form ^ the name is generally used with a singular verb when it refers to the true God ; hence no argu- ment in favour of polytheism can fairly be drawn from it. With regard to the question whether Elohim was used by the sacred writers as a generic word or as a Proper Name, it must be granted by all that theoretically and originally the word cannot have been generic, because, as a matter of fact, it represented One Being.^ The believer in the Bible holds that in the earliest stage of human history One Being onl}^ revealed Himself to man as Creator, Euler, and Lord. ' This is indicated by the termination -im, as in such words as Cherub-im and iSeraph-im. - The doctrine that in the unity of the Godhead there are three Persons is not inconsistent with what is here laid down, for the three Persons are not regarded in Scripture as constituting a class. They are not Three Gods but One God. As the body, soul, and spirit are three constituent elements in one man, so (according to the Catholic Faith) the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are three Persons in one God. Distinction of Person implies a class with man, but not with God. Our ideas of Person and of Class do well enough for things human, but they are but imperfect exponents of the infinite and unsearchable Fountain of Life. § 2.] The title Elohim. 35 Whatever name He was known by was, therefore, necessarily His own peculiar title, and ought to have been confined to Him. As EloMm, this Being- stood alone ; and so we read, 'in the beginning God (EloMin in the plural) created (in the singular) the heavens and the earth.' The first hint at the possibility that the title Elohim might be shared by others besides the Creator is to be found in the serpent's suggestion, ' Ye shall be as Elohim, knowing- good and evil.' The translators of the Authorised Version, by using the plural, * Gods,' in this passage, appear to have too much anticipated that polytheism which afterwards became common, but which can hardly have been suggested in such a rude form by the Tempter. Our first parents only knew of one Elohim ; they heard his voice from time to time, and perhaps they saw his form ; they addressed Him in the singular number as Thou ; and the idea of any other being to be called Elohim but this One could not have entered their imagination until the Tempter said to them 'Ye shall be as EloMm, i.e. as God, knowing good and evil.' In after ages, however, the worship of the Creator as EloMm began to be corrupted. The august Name, indeed, was retained, but the natm^e of Him who bore it was well- nigh forgotten. When men were divided into different nations, and spoke various dialects and latiguages, they must have carried with them those notions of EloMm which they had inherited from their fathers, but as they did not care to retain Him in their knowledge, that worship which was due to Him alone was in the lapse of ages transferred to the souls of the departed, to the sun, moon, and stars, and even to idols made by men's hands. ^ ' This is the order of idolatrous degradation adopted by G. S. Faber. He holds that the worship of the heavenly bodies arose from the idea that deceased heroes were transplanted to other regions and became occupants of the stars, with wliich, after a time, they became traditionally identified. D 2 36 The Names of God. [Ch. n. In this way tlie title EloMm, which was the sacred right of the One, became transferred to the many, and this degene- racy of faith and worship led to the anomaly of sajsposing that there might be a class of beings to whom the title might be applied. If it be accounted treason where there is an absolute monarchy to speak of any but one person as 'kimj, much more must it be a mark of disloyalty and rebel- lion for the inhabitants of a world which has been originated and preserved by one Elohim to designate any other being or beings by the same title. Elohim, then, cannot be properly regarded as a generic word, seeing that it is the title of the Creator and Ruler of the world, as such, and that it indicates the power and majesty of that Being to whom every creature owes his existence, his daily life, and his habitation. § 3. It has been supposed that some sanction is given to the theory that the name Elohim is generic by the fact that idols are called by this name in Scripture. Some instances of this usage may therefore be cited for examination. .In Gen. 35, 1, 2, 4, we read as follows: 'And EloMm said unto Jacob, Arise, go up to Bethel and dwell there, and build there an altar, unto the El that appeared to thee when thou fleddest from before thy brother Esau. Then Jacob said to his house and to all that were with him. Put away the strange Elohim that are among you .... and they gave unto Jacob all the strange Elohim that were in their hands, and their earrings which were in their ears, and Jacob hid them under the oak which was by Shechem.' The EloMm in this case seem to have been images, perhaps charms worn on the person, similar to those which the ancient Egyptians used to wear, and which have been ex- humed or manufactured by hundreds in modern days. The word nacar, here rendered strange, is used in Scrij)ture in two opposite senses, for to hnow, and not to knoiv ; it here § 3.] Its application to Idols. 37 probably means foreign or alien, in wliicli sense it is frequently applied to idolatrous worship in Scripture. Some light is thrown on the passage by a reference to the 31st chapter of Genesis. Here we read (verse 19) that Rachel had stolen her father's images (terapMm •), but Laban calls them his Elohim (verse 30), and Jacob, adopting the word, says, ' with whomsoever thou findest thine EloMm, let him not live.' Laban then worshipped teraphim as EloMm, though he ought to have known better, for he knew the name of Jehovah (Gen. 30. 27, 31. 49), and he was not ignorant of the real Elohim, whom his own father had worshipped (Gen. 31. 29, 50, 53). We also read of 'the EloMm of Egypt' (Ex. 12. 12, A. Y. gods; the margin has princes, but see Nu. 33. 4); of molten EloMm (Lev. 19. 4) ; of ' the EloMm of the heathen ' (Ex. 23. 24) ; also of Chemosh, Dagon, Milcom, and other idols which were designated as EloMm. When the Israelites made the molten calf out of their golden earrings, they said of it, 'These be thy EloMm, O Israel' (Ex. 32. 3, 4), and they regarded the image as a representation of Jehovah (verse 5).^ Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, draws a distinction between the true and the false EloMm when he says, ' Now know I that Jehovah is greater than all the EloMm, for in the matter wherein they dealt proudly he was above them' (Ex. 18. 11) ; yet this very confession is so worded as to imply not only that the priest of Midian had hitberto been in the dark on the subject, but also that he still had a lin- ' For further remarks on the nature of the Terafliim, see chap. 29. § 14. ^ David Mill, in one of his Bissertationes Selecta, discusses the symbolical mean- ing of the golden calf, and comes to the conclusion that it represented Typhon, the deity to -whom the Egyptians attributed all things hurtful. The people of Israel knew full well that their God had looked with no favouring eye upon Egypt, and it is therefore not improbable that in choosing a symbol to represent Him they would select that which the Egyptians regarded as their evil genius. 2,S The Names of God. [Ch. n. gering belief in the existence of inferior Elohim. The same ignorance and superstition was to be found amongst tlie children of Israel ; and the primary lesson which the Lord sought to teach them during their journeyings in the wilder- ness was that they were to restore the name Elohim to its orio^inal and sole owner. ' Thou shalt have no other Elohim before Me" (Ex. 20. 3). 'Make no mention of the name of other Elohim, neither let it be heard out of thy mouth' (Ex. 23. 12). 'Jehovah he is Elohim in heaven above and upon the earth beneath; there is none else' (Deut. 4. 39). So in the Song of Moses (Deut. 32. 37, 39) we read concerning the heathen, ' Where are these Elohim, the rock on which they leaned ? . . . I even I am He, and there is no Elohim with me.' Once more, the utter anomaly of using the word Elohim for others than the true God is clearly indicated in the prayer of Hezekiah (2 Kin. 19. 18), ' Of a truth, Jehovah, the kings of Assyria have destroyed the nations and their lands, And have cast their Elohim into the fire : for they were no Elohim but the work of men's hands, wood and stone.' § 4. It has already been remarked that the fact of the word Elohim being plural in form does not at all sanction polytheism; but we have now to consider whether it may fairly be taken as a testimony to the plurality of Persons in the Godhead. It is certainly marvellously consistent with this doctrine, and must remove a great stumbling-block out of the path of those who feel difficulties with regard to the acknowledgment of the Trinity in Unity. Great names are • Literally, 'in addition to my face.' Some Hebrew students regard this expression not merely as a Hebrew idiom, but as setting forth that the Face or Manifestation of God is God. They have hence argued for the Deity of Christ ; but the argument in the form in which it is sometimes advanced is rather perilous, because it is inapplicable to other passages, e.g. Ex. 33. 20 : 'Thou canst not see My face, for there shall no man see Me and live.' It is nevertheless true that we behold ' the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ' (2 Cor. 4. 6), §4.] Its Plural Form. 39 to be cited for taking a step further, and for adducing the words, ' Elohim said, Let us make man in our image after our likeness,' as a proof of the Trinity. Father Simon notes that Peter Lombard (1150) was the first to lay stress upon this point ; though probably the argument was not really new in his time. Many critics, however, of unimpeachable orthodoxy, think it wiser to rest where such divines as Cajetan in the Church of E.ome and Calvin among Protestants were content to stand, and to take the plural form as a -plural of majesty, and as indicating the greatness, the infinity, and the incom- prehensibleness of the Deity. On the whole, it appears probable that the idea unfolded in the plural form Elohim may be expressed more accurately by the word Godhead than by the word God ; and there is certainly nothing unreason- able in the supposition that the name of the Deity was revealed to man in this form, so as to prej^are him for the truth that in the unity of the Godhead there are Three Persons. As long as the passage above quoted stands on the first page of the Bible, the believer in the Trinity has a right to turn to it as a proof that Plurality in the Godhead is a very different thing from Polytheism, and as an indication that the frequent assertions of the Divine Unity are not incon- sistent with the belief that the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Ghost is God. The fact that the Hebrews often expressed a word in the plural, so as to give it a stronger or more technical meaning, as in the case of the words Blood, Water, Wisdom, Salvation, Righteous- ness, Life, is really in favour of what has just been advanced ; and the use of the plural in the language of majesty and authority is the same. In these cases it is evidently implied that the word in the singular number is not full enough to set forth all that is intended, and so in the case of the Divine Name the plural form expresses the 40 The Names of God, [Ch. n. truth that the finite word conveys an inadequate idea of the Infinite Personality or Unity of Persons which it represents. Other names of God will be found to be in the plural also ; and it is worthy of notice that in the well-known passage in Ecclesiastes (12. 1) the Hebrew runs thus, 'Remember now thy Creators in the days of thy youth.' § 5. Another use of the word Elohim has now to be noticed. We read in Ex. 4. 16, that God said to Moses, with reference to his brother Aaron, ' thou shall be to him in the 'place of EloMm,' or more literally ^for Elohim.' From these words it would appear that Moses was to be regarded by Aaron as standing in immediate relation to God, — not, however, as on a level with Him, for God did not say ' thou shalt be as (3) Elohim,' but '-for (^) Elohim.' ' Moses was to convey the divine message to Aaron, who, in his turn, was to announce it to Pharaoh. Similarly in chap. 7. 1, the Lord says to his servant, ' Behold I have appointed thee {as) Elohim to Pharaoh, and Aaron shall be thy prophet.' It is evident that the name of God was here given to his human representative, as such. The usage of the word in these passages may be well illustrated by a reference to our Lord's teaching. When accused by the Jews of making Himself God, He answered, ' Is it not written in your law, I said. Ye are gods ? If he called them gods, unto whom the word of God came, — and the Scripture cannot be broken, — say ye of him, whom the Father hath sanctified, and sent into the world. Thou blasphemest; because I said, I am the Son of God?' (John 10. 34-36.) The passage which our Lord here refers to is in ' In chap. 6. 7, we hare the same expression (QTIPS?) rendered, ' I will be to you a God.' It might be best, therefore, to consider the emphatic verb fo be in the above passage as signifying (in conjunction with the preposition) to represent — ' Thou shalt represent Elohim to him; In Zech. 12. 8, there is a more remarkable expression ; it is said that ' the House of Dayid shall be as God and as the Angel of the Lord before them.' § 5.] Its application to yiidges. 4 1 Psalm 82, wliich begins thus : ' God taketli liis stand {i^i) in tlie gathering of El, i.e. in the mighty gathering ; in the midst of Elohim he doeth judgments.' The Psalmist then proceeds to rebuke this gathering of Elohim, who are evidentlj judges, responsible for judging in accordance with the word of the Lord : ' How long will ye administer per- verted justice, and favour wicked men ? Deal justly with the poor and fatherless : acquit the afflicted and needy. Deliver the poor and needy : rescue them from the hand of wicked men.' Yet the rebuke was unheeded. Alas ! ' They know not, neither do they perceive ; they go on walking in darkness : all the foundations of the land (i. e. its judges) are moved from their course.' Then comes the retribution following on their neglect of these august privileges and duties. ' It is I ' that said ye are Elohim ; and all of you chil- dren of the Highest. Yet after all ye shall die as Adam, and as one of the princes shall ye fall.' The Psalmist concludes with the proj)hetic aspiration, ' Arise, thou Elohim, ad- minister just judgment in the land : for it is tliou that hast all the heathen for thine inheritance.' Our Lord, by referring to this Psalm, evidently meant his hearers to understand that if earthly judges were called gods in Scripture because they were to regulate their decisions by the Word of God, it could be no blasphemy in Him whom the Father hath sent into the world to call Himself God's Son. If they represented God, how much more did He. In accordance with the words of the Psalm just referred to, we read in Ex. 22. 7, 8, ' If the thief be not found, then the master of the house shall be brought unto the judges, (ha-EloMm) to decide whether he hath put his hand unto ' It is only in some such way as this that one can express the force of the emphatic Hebrew personal pronoun. Our translators have not often adopted this plan, but in other versions (e.g. the French of Ostervald) the distinction between the expressed and the unexpressed pronoun has been marked iu this way. 42 The Names of God, [Ch, n, his neiglibour's goods. The cause of both parties shall come before the judges (ha-Elohim), and whom the judges (Elohim) condemn, he shall pay double to his neighbour.' In the 28th verse, where our translators have somewhat unfortunately put 'thoushalt not revile the gods,' we read Elohim again, and consistently with the previous passages we should render it, * thou shalt not revile judges, nor speak evil of a leader among thy people.' This passage was re- ferred to with a latent shade of irony by St. Paul when he was called to account for speaking sharply to Ananias, who professed to judge him after the law whilst causing him to be smitten contrary to the law (Ac. 23. 5). The judges are also called Elohim in Ex. 21. 6, where the account is given of the master boring his servant's ear in the presence of the magistrates. It is possible that the witch of Endor, when she said, ' I see Elohim ascending from the earth,' used the word in this sense, that we might render the j)assage, 'I see judges ascending from the earth.' Both the noun and the participle are in the plural number in this passage.^ In all these passages the word Elohim indicates not beings who are to be worshipped, but a body of responsible magis- trates who represent the only true Elohim, and who have received his word as the rule whereby all judicial causes are to be decided. Accordingly we read that ' the men between whom there is a controversy shall stand hefore Jehovah, before the priests and the judges' (Deut. 19. 17). Nothing, surely, could invest a human tribunal with greater majesty and im- portance than the solemn truth that the magistrate was to regard himself, and to be regarded by others, as the mouth- piece of ' the Judge of all the Earth.' Human laws were to be based on Divine revelation ; man's judgments were to be conformed to God's law of equity and right. ^ See chap. 28. § 5, for a further reference to th? scene here noticed. § G,] Its applicatio7i to Angels. 43 § 6. There is yet another use of the word Elohim which must not be passed over. The Samaritan Version and also tlie LXX have adopted the word angels to represent it in several places, and the English translators, partly guided by the teaching of the New Testament, have occasionally fol- lowed their example. Some critics have been inclined to render the words in Gen. 3. 5, 'Te shall be as angels '; but there is no ground for such an interpretation. In Job 38. 7, ' the sons of God ' who shouted for joy are designated angels by the LXX, but this is by way of commentary rather than translation. Again in Ps. 138. 1, where we read 'before the gods will I sing praise unto thee,' the LXX has 'before the angels.' The Psalmist may have meant that he would praise God publicly in the presence of the judges. This interpretation would fall in well with the 4th verse, where we read, ' All the kings of the earth shall praise thee, 0 Lord, when they hear the words of thy mouth.' There are two other passages which call for special atten- tion because of their connection with the New Testament. In Heb. 1. 6, we read, ' when he bringeth again the first- begotten into the world, he saith, And let all the angels of God worship him.' The writer here cites words which are to be found in some copies of the LXX in the Song of Moses (Deut. 32. 43), but there is no Hebrew equivalent for them in our existing text. The next words of the song, ' Pejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people,' are quoted by St. Paul in his Epistles to the Eomans (15. 10), as indicating a hope, not for the Jews only, but also for the Gentiles ; and the verses which follow carry the reader on from the day of Moses to a time yet to come when God ' will avenge the blood of his servants, and will render vengeance to his ad- versaries, and will be merciful to his land and to his people.' This wiU be, no doubt, at the time of the restitution of all 44 The Names of God. [Ch. n. things wliicli have been spoken of by all the holy prophets shice the world began (Ac. 3.21). It may well be supposed, therefore, that the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews had the Song of Moses in his mind when he quoted the words of the LXX vei-hatim, ' And let all the angels of God worship Him.' There may, indeed, be a secondary reference to Psalm 97. 7, where we read, 'worship him all ye gods (Elohim),' but where the LXX has rendered, ' worship him all ye his angels.' This passage, however, could not be pressed as giving apostolic sanction for interpreting EloMm as angels. In the 8th Psalm the Authorised Version runs thus, ' What is man, that thou art mindful of him ? and the son of man, that thou visitest him ? For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honour. Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands.' Here the Hebrew has EloMm ; and were it not for the sanction given to the LXX interpretation in the Ep. to the Hebrews (2. 7), our translators might have given a literal rendering. Gesenius, Hengstenberg, and other critics, understood the Psalmist to mean that the Son of Man should be but little below the glory of God.' We might, perhaps, paraphrase the words, ' thou hast bereft him for a little while of the divine glory,' cf. Phil. 2. 7 [kavrov sksiwcts). In giving this interpretation of the words, though Ave do not adopt the exact rendering of the LXX, we arrive at a substantial ao"reement with its teachingr. The fact announced in the Hebrew text with regard to man generally, is fulfilled with regard to Christ in such a mode as the LXX describes, and as the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews sanctions. Our translators have, therefore, the highest authority for their rendering ; but the passage in the Psalm cannot justify the ' So Calvin, ' parimi abes&e eum jussisti a divino et coelesti statu.' §7.] The Tra7isIation of EloJiim. 45 supposition tliat angels are to be taken as a class of EloMm, as some have imagined. § 7. We have now arrived at the conclusion that the name Elohim is properly a title belonging to one Being, who is the Creator of heaven and earth, and the Sustainer of all existence. We have seen that the regard due to Him alone has been obliterated in great measure from the memory of the human race, and that what remains of it in the heart of man has often been transferred to unworthy objects. The question now returns, how is the word Elohim to be dealt with in translation ? Three possible courses present themselves ; the Hebrew word might be transferred into other languages ; or we might substitute for it the name of some native object of worship, which seems to form the best material on which to graft the true ideas of the Divine Being; or we might take the original meaning of the Hebrew word, and translate that into other languages. To deal with the last proposal first, it will be sufficient to say that although it has not been customary to translate the word, there could be no valid objection to such a course if no better plan presented itself. It is agreed by almost all scholars that the name Elohim signifies the putter forth of power. He who is called by it is the Being to whom all power belongs; this is the essential idea originally con- veyed by the name wherever it is used. The lowest of heathen tribes are compelled to acknowledge that there is a Power in existence greater than their own, and the mission- ary constantly has to take this acknowledgment as a basis on which he may plant a more complete theology. The proposal that the Hebrew name for the Divine Being should be transferred, and used alone, or in combination with those of native deities, has been received with greater favour by some missionaries. They have looked upon it as a means of avoiding the danger in which everv translator is 46 The Names of God. [Ch. n. manifestly involved, of giving a seeming sanction to false religion by the adoption of a name which conveys false ideas. But, after all, while seeking to escape one evil, the trans- lator would find himself running into another, for he would be laying himself open to the charge that he was setting forth strange gods — a course never approved of in Scrip- ture. § 8. It would appear a wiser plan to single out that name which is on the whole the best representative of a personal and powerful Being, leaving it for the general teaching of Scripture, and for the oral instruction of the missionary to lift up men's minds to higher ideas of this Being than they had before. If all the names of God were to be rejected which had ever been used for idolatrous purposes it is hard to know what would be left. Elohim itself was so used ; its Arabic forms, Ildli and Allah, which are adopted in a large number of Oriental versions of the Scripture, were so used in old times (see Herodotus 3. 8) ; the Greek Theos, the Ethiopic Amlak (i.e. Moloch), the Egyptian Nout, the Hungarian Isten, the Albanian Pernti, the Tartar Tengri, and many others, which are sanctioned in time-honoured versions, or have been adopted in later times, would have to go. Nay, what would happen to the Georgian Ghut, the Persian Khuda, the German Gott, and the English God, when it has been held by learned authorities that these names are to be identified with the idol Gad, condemned in Is. 65. 11 (margin) ? To this it will be at once answered that our idea of God comes not from the etymology of the word, nor from its use in the days of our heathendom, but from the truths which have been taught about Him from our childhood. This is exactly the point to be borne in mind. The name, and the sense con- veyed by it, may be very different in different countries, and in no country may it exactly tally with the original mean- §8.] The Translation of Elohim. 47 ing of Elohim. Every care should be taken to select the best word, but after all it is well to remember that in all countries the truth about God is gathered not so much from the Name as from what is taught concerning Him who bears it. The knowledge of the nature and character of God is gradually acquired through the study of the Scriptures. Little by little the false ideas which man too readily forms with respect to his Maker are removed from his mind, and new thoughts take their place ; thus he goes ' from strength to strength ' in the path of faith and obedience, and the idea suggested by the name he has adopted for Elohim becomes deej)er and purer, until he passes away from earth, and enters into the immediate presence of his Maker, where he shall know even as he is known. Bishop Boone, in his contribution to the Chinese discus- sions, says that we should render the name of God by the highest generic word which represents an object of worship. If this theory were to be carried out, then the first verse of the Bible would run thus : ' In the beginning an object of worship {as^aa-ixa) created the heavens and the earth.' This, however, would be an inversion of the right order of thought. God is to be worshipped because He is Creator. His works constitute, in great measure, his claim to worship. It would be better, therefore, to take a more personal name as a starting-point, even though it might cause some mis- conception at first. The above-mentioned writer also quotes Lactantius and Origen in favour of a generic name for God. These learned men wrote centuries after the matter had been practically settled, so far as regards the Greek lan- guage, by the usage of the LXX, and when it would have been too late, even if it had been good for any reason to substitute Zeus for Theos. Mr. Malan indeed has shown in his work on the Names of God ' that Zeus and Theos were ' Who is God in China ? — a powerful argument in favour of Shang-ti. 48 The Names of God. [Ch. n. originally, in all probability, the same word. But we have a greater witness than Mr. Malan, even that of the Apostle of the Gentiles, who, after quoting two heathen hymns written in honour of ZevjS, argues from them in favour of the spiritual nature of Theos, who made the world. § 9. The passage in the Acts (chap. 17.) now referred to is of such exceeding importance with reference to the subject under discussion that it may well receive some further notice. When St. Paul reached Athens he found that it was wholly given to idolatry (KaTSiScoXov), an expression which falls in all too well with the Eoman satirist's remark that it was easier to find a god than a man in that city. Accordingly the apostle held constant discussions {BisXsysTo), not only with the Jews and proselytes whom he found in the Synagogue,' but also with anybody whom he could meet with in the Agora. Here certain of the Epicureans, who were Atheists, and of the Stoics, who were Pantheists, fell in with him from day to day -."^ and while some spoke of him with utter scorn — his Gospel being 'foolishness' to them — others came to the conclusion that he was setting forth certain demons (Authorised Version, ' gods ') which were foreign to their city. By 'demons' these philosophers meant very much the same as the Mahommedans mean by their genii ; their ideas about them would be very vague. Sometimes they seem to have been regarded as the souls of the departed, sometimes as guardian angels, sometimes as evil influences, sometimes as what we call demi-gods.^ ' The A. V. runs thus : ' Therefore disputed he in the synagogue with the Jews, and with the devout persons ;' but there ought to be no comma after the word Jews. The ffe^Sixevoi, or devout proselytes, went to the synagogue, where Paul doubtless discoursed in Greek. See chap. 1. § 10. 2 The imperfect tense is used throughout. * No distinction can be drawn between Sal/xtev and Satfuoviov ; both were applied to the deity, to fortune, to the souls of the departed, and to genii or demi-gods, beings part mortal part divine {fj-era^v Oeov re Kal OvriTov) as Plato calls them {Si/mp. p. 202 d.). I § 9.] Relationship between Zens and Theos. 49 Idolatry and demon -worsliip (taking tlie word in this vague and general sense, in wliicli Socrates seems to have used it) are the two substitutes for the worship of the living God which are to be found amongst almost all the nations of the earth. The/e^is/t of the African rain-maker is connected with a sort of mysterious unseen power, which is supposed to work uj)on a man's life and possessions. The acknow- ledgment of such hidden influence harmonises all too readily with Pantheism, and is not inconsistent even with Atheism. A man may be a Positivist and yet a Spiritualist. He may, in profession at least, deny that there is a personal causa causarum, and yet may give way to a superstitious respect for certain shadowy poAvers, which are to him realities, and which exercise an appreciable influence on his thoughts and wa3^s. This arises from the necessity of his nature. His consciousness announces to him the reality of unseen and immaterial entities, though he does not care to proclaim the fact to the world. If he is highly civilised and scientific, he may dismiss these phantoms as creations of the imagination ; but if he is a member of a barbarous and uncultivated tribe, from which the true idea of God has apparently died out, he will become the prey of the rain-maker, the conjuror, or the witch, by whose arts his superstition will be systematically developed. The fetish or object Avhich he regards with awe, whether it be merely a bit of rag or a bundle of feathers, becomes an embodiment of the dark and terrible side of his spiritual feelings. The bright side, which ought to be ex- ei'cised towards God, may gradually have passed away. As lono- as the sun shines and the rain descends and the fruits of the earth abound, — as long as a man has health, and strength, and prosperity, — he cares little about fetish or demon, and still less about God ; but when trouble comes he will follow the example of Jonah's mariners, who ' cried every man unto his god,' and will seek by magic or superstitious arts to avert E 50 The Names of God. [Ch. ll. the misfortunes wliicli have befallen him, and to propitiate the evil spirit whom he has unwittingly offended. This sad story of human superstition is well known to every missionary who has laboured among rude tribes of idolaters ; and it may help us to understand the state of things which Christianity has had to displace ever since its earliest promulgation. But to return to St. Paul's speech at Athens. ' He seemeth,' said the sage, ' to be a setter forth of strange (i.e. foreign) demons." Accordingly, impelled by curiosity, they gather round the apostle, and lead him out of the bustling Agora up the rock-cut steps by which one still mounts to the Areopagus.^ There to his male and female audience, half- cynical, half-interested, the apostle of the Gentiles delivers an address, which is in itself a masterpiece, reflecting equal credit on his judgment and his learning, on his philosophy and on his theology. It is indeed a model after which all missionary addresses ought to be formed, and confers a lustre on Athens which neither the oratory of Demosthenes, the statesmanship of Pericles, the philosophy of Plato, nor the art of Phidias can surpass. It may be paraphrased as follows : — ' Athenians ! ye appear to me to be far too much given to demon- fearing already; it is a mistake therefore to sup- pose that I have come to set forth more demons for your acceptance. My mission is a very different one ; for whilst coming through your city, and inspecting the objects which you regard with reverence, I met with an altar on which was vn-itten, " To God the Unknown." Besides the demons whom you fear, then, there is evidently a being called God, whom you regard with reverence, even though you are igno- rant a,bout his true nature. Tliis is the Being whom I am setting forth to you.'^ ' The very charge made against Socrates (Xen. Mem. 1. 1. 2 ; Plato Ap. 24 6.). 2 The author climbed up them in the spring of 1860, and was not a little interested in looking upon the remains of the heathen temples which must have greeted the eye of the great apostle on this memorable occasion. ^ YMTorp/iKKv) ; compare the %kv