LIBRARY FBIXCETON, N. J. No. Case, _ ^4>,^ 789 V.2 - Bampton lectures Sec it ||,f53 v^72:r THE CHART AND SCALE OF TRUTH BY WHICH TO FIND THE CAUSE OF ERROR LECTURES READ BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD AT TJIE LECTURE FOUNDED BY THE REV. JOHN BAMPTON M.A. __-r-\ ' BY EDWARD TATHAM D. D. LATE RECTOR OF LINCOLN COLLEGE OXFORD A NEW EDITION REVISED CORRECTED AND ENLARGED FROM THE AUTHOr's MANUSCRIPTS WITH A MEMOIR PREFACE AND NOTES BY E. W. GRINFIELD M.A. LATE OF LINCOLN COLLEGE LONDON WILLIAM PICKERING 1840 PRINTED BY C. WHITTINGHAM, CHISWICK. GIG^^. CONTENTS. PART II.— THEOLOGY. CHAP. I.— LOGIC OF THEOLOGY. Theology, the master science ; its truth peculiar, springing- from Divine Revelation; founded on our belief in the Divine veracity ; borrows light from the other sciences ; exalts the intellect, directs the will, and purifies the imagi- nation .... . page 1 — 16 CHAP. II.— THEOLOGIC PRINCIPLE. Divine truth shining in the human mind ; imparting Di- vine knowledge; consists in Divine Inspiration. The possibility and credibility of a revelation ; Divine Testi- mony illustrated by human ; not dependant either on induction or syllogism; analogic and parabolic ; our faith in Divine Testimony ; revealed mysteries ; the witness of God, the highest species of evidence, but not deducible by reason; the facts being proved. Reason resigns to Faith; different from all other truth ; Reason investigates the evi- dence of revelation ; highest kind of truth, though not strictly logical . .... 17 — 57 CHAP. III.— THEOLOGIC REASONING. Reason not directly concerned with Faith ; indirectly proves the evidence and facts of Christianity; renders religion a reasonable service. VI CONTENTS. Sect. I. — The Grounds of Theologic Reasoning. Faith, its first principle ; based on reasonable evi- dences, which are its means ; may proceed by the ascend- ing- or descending- process; the latter adopted and exemplified; first, by the internal evidence ; secondly, by the evidence of miracles; thirdly, by that of pro- phecy; fourthly, by types; fifthly, by our own expe- rience — Reason may also inquire into the authenticity of the sacred writings ; connects herself with history and philosophy ... . . 58 — 106 CHAP. IV.— HOLY SCRIPTURES. The sole repository of revealed truth ; reason an act of inter- pretation ; truth uniform ; the books of nature and of grace correspondent ; Revelation, its mysteries ; the style of Scripture prophetic and parabolical ; artificial systems to be avoided ; school logic hostile to Christian truth, no less than to sound philosophy ; our hopes of the future ; nature and grace to be compared, not confounded 107 — 125 CHAP, v.— INTERPRETATION OF THE SCRIP- TURES. The Bible the Word of God ; requires a distinct rule of Interpretation from any human volume; the Fathers indifferent interpreters ; the schoolmen far worse ; Poole's Synopsis. Our hopes of the future : I. By the cultivation of the learned languages ; the importance of the Hebrew — the Greek — the Latin ; the high value of the Septuagint: — II. The knowledge of the styles and idioms of Scrip- ture : the analogic, its vast extent and importance; the parabolic sanctioned by our Lord ; often designedly ob- scure. Lowth, his merits and demerits as a sacred critic ; too fond of classic elegance; the obscurities of unfulfilled prophecy to be preserved in the style of the interpreter; its parabolic concealment ; double sense of prophecy 126—187 CONTENTS. Vn CHAP. VI.— TRANSLATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. Demands a mode of translation peculiar to itself; more strict and literal than any other; difference of interpreter and translator; our English version; its hig-h value; admits of improvement; the difficulties and defects of our translators; the original text to be ascertained by a collation of manuscripts; the rules of translation; the translator to give up all party prejudice; to be strict and grammatical ; attend to the idioms of the ori- ginal ; aim at faithfulness rather than elegance ; leave un- touched the prophetic obscurities of the original ; aim at general plainness ; the uniformity of the Scripture diction; the high value of the Septuagint ; caution against aiming at classic elegance ; recapitulation. Sketch of the ascending method of studying the Scriptures, from their authenticity, authority, divinity, &c. 188 — 266 CHAP. VII.— THEOLOGTC TRUTH. Founded on faith ; imperfect in its development ; its scientific imperfection ; its peculiar difficulties ; designed to try and exercise the moral, rather than the intellectual faculties; suited to moral discipline ; its end eternal happiness ; faith , its sublime character; theology necessarily inferior to other sciences in logical arrangement ; its evidence dependant on ovir trust in God ; affords the amplest exercise for the moral powers; union of the heart and understanding; its first disciples unlearned but candid ; the faith of the patriarchs, prophets, and apostles various in degree ; uniform in nature and design ; theologic truth united with charity, constitutes wisdom ; address to freethinkers ; the pre-eminent advantages of the Christian believer 267—312 CHAP. VIII. General Recapitulation and Prospectus of the Future Plan 313—364 General Index ..... 365 — 371 ^^^^^^^^E^y^ CHART AND SCALE OF TRUTH, BY WHICH TO FIND THE CAUSE OF ERROR. PART n. THEOLOGY. Chap. I. The Logic of Theology. HMO this general Chart of Truth, specula- -^ tive, practical and poetical, I now pro- ceed to add another and far higher province, or rather, that which forms their metropolis and capital. Like a metropolis however, though distinct and superior, it holds an inti- mate connexion with all, and at once imparts and receives strength and glory from the union. This is a department of science, distinct in its nature, superior in its origin, more extensive in its objects, and more im- 2 B 2 THE CHART AND SCALE portant in its end — in which, the intellect, the will, and the imagination have universally the deepest interest, and the sublimest exer- cise. This metropolitan province is the science of theology — a science resulting from the relation between God the Creator, the moral Governor of the universe, and man, the crea- ture, the moral agent in this lower world. Out of this supreme relation, springs the law of the moral Governor, on the one hand — which is the will of God— and on the other, the obligation of the moral agent operating on the will and affections of man. — Here we find the foundation of all religion, which forms the crown and perfection of intellec- tual and moral truth. Theologic truth consequently does not spring out of any material subject in the com- pass of the universe, nor from the mind of man, in its various operations or imitative effects, like those of the other kinds of truth, which we have previously discussed. It arises from another, and far higher source — the will of God, more fully and more immediately declared, than in the ordinary administration OF TRUTH. 3 of his providence. It is thus derived from the noblest origin, and it has in view the noblest end — the immortal happiness of man. This distinct and divine dispensation opens a new field of knowledge and is productive of a new species of truth, which considered logically, is far more distinct from any of those which we have hitherto analyzed, than any of their distinctions, however important, from each other. It is this difference which constitutes the science of theology — a science of which Aristotle was altogether ignorant — or he would have founded his ethics on ano- ther basis. It would also have enlarged his logic, for it would have brought him ac- quainted with another and far higher kind of truth, than any of those on which he so sagaciously reasoned. But, as reason is concerned with the in- vestigation and evidence of all truth which relates to man, however imparted, or through whatever channel, this species of truth, though infinitely superior to every other, hath a logic appropriate and peculiar to itself. This logic is now to be analyzed and arranged according to the spirit and scope of the 4 THE CHART AND SCALE general rule which we have heretofore laid down^ Of the existence of the moral Governor of nature reason requires no particular proof. She finds him in every thing material which he has made, and feels him in every act of the mind he has created. But of his will, or law, she stands in need of vast and various information. Of the existence of this Almighty agent, reason is immediately and intuitively convinced by the will of man, by conscience, that internal or moral sense, which is the voice of God, proclaiming his presence in the human heart. But of the nature and duty of moral obedience, which is the coun- terpart of this law, she requires " line upon line, and precept upon precept.^' All law and obligation, practically con- sidered, (and whatever relates to will is prac- tical), are words, devoid of meaning, unless they have a sanction to secure their mutual operation. Of the general sanction of reward and punishment (which, though inverse, has the same influence on the will), reason is immediately and intuitively convinced by ' See vol. i. p. 69. OF TRUTH. conscience — " Wickedness is condemned by her own witness^/' But on the nature, pro- portion, extent, and duration of punishment or reward, reason cannot pronounce with any sufficient certainty and precision. Whatever natural reason has discovered of the will or law of God, or of the nature and duties of moral obligation, is properly termed Natural theology. This was not only the highest and most honourable employ- ment of the human mind, in the estimation of the heathen sages of antiquity, but has received the far higher approbation of an in- spired writer — " When the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these having not the law, are a law unto themselves : who show the works of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts meanwhile accusing or excusing each other ^." Such was the high employment of Pytha- goras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and many other philosophers of Greece and Rome, who made laudable and considerable progress ' Wisdom, xvii. 11. ' Rom. ii. 14, 15. O THE CHART AND SCALE in the study of moral truth. But, as these sages, in their investigation of physical truth, are found, by the experiments of modern science, to have been miserably defective and erroneous ; so have they been proved, by the superior light of that theo- logic truth, which we derive from revelation, to be still more defective and erroneous in their moral and religious researches. This divine revelation is conveyed to man by the word of God, and the truth which it contains is, therefore, called theologic. It exhibits to us the code of the new law, as distinguished from the old law, or the law of nature. It is new, not only as being con- veyed to us " by a new and living way ;'' but by its suspending or superseding the old law, as far more perfect in its information, more beneficial in its end, and more adapted to our moral wants and requirements. By this revelation, we are far more clearly informed of the law, or will of God, as our moral Governor ; and of his purpose and dispensation, in securing the happiness of man. By this revelation, we are more dis- tinctly informed of our moral obligation to OF TRUTH. that law, and of all the particular duties, which spring out of that obligation, towards God and our neighbour. We are also hence informed more fully and accurately of the sanction of that law, of those punishments and rewards which will take place hereafter, when the moral system, commenced on earth, shall be perfected in heaven. Above all, by this revelation, the state of man, as a fallen and sinful creature, is explained, and the remedy is proposed for his redemption and recovery. The demands of the moral law are plainly set before him — he is convinced of his utter natural inability to perform its demands, and thus is prepared to acquiesce in that message of the gospel, so worthy of all acceptation, — " that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners." To give a philosophical delineation of this higher logic, by distinguishing its prin- ciple, by illustrating its proper method of reasoning, and by ascertaining the peculiar nature and genius of the truth resulting from the whole, is the main object of my present undertaking. For the sake of displaying more clearly and adequately the science of 8 THE CHART AND SCALE theology in all its parts, this general Chart of the different kinds of truth was first pro- jected, and the parallel drawn between the logic appropriate to each. We may humbly but earnestly hope, that from such an enlarged and comparative estimate, it may receive the strongest and distinctest light, that thus its study may be facilitated, if not improved, that its truths, being weighed in an equal and impartial scale, may have their full and proper value, and that its superior excellence may be more distinctly ascertained. This plan, if executed with success, promises to lay the deepest and broadest basis, on which to ground and establish the Christian faith ^ The departments of learning, which have been the subjects of the preceding lectures, are properly human. This, which comes now to be discussed and illustrated by a com- parison with them, is properly divine. As the Creator and moral Governor of the uni- verse is the author of both, and is ever ' See p. 72, vol. i. OF TRUTH. 9 similar in his operations, and consistent with himself, the one may, in some degree, lead us to a knowledge of the other; and thus however different, nay, and sometimes even contrary to each other, they may serve as mutually illustrative, whether by analogy or contrast. As Newton, from the motion of projectiles on earth, soared with analogic wing to the motion of the planets in the hea- vens, encouraged by that divine resemblance pervading all the works of God, whether natural or moral, which still exists, even when they appear as contraries or contrasts ; even so may the student of theology ascend, from the cultivation of human sciences, to the study of divine. From a logical and comprehensive knowledge of the different branches of human learning, he will derive strength and cultivation of mind, and clear- ness of comprehension, which will abridge his labour and assist his progress in every part of his sublime profession. Instead of being perplexed by a chaos and confusion of different studies, the bane of all proficiency in good learning, he will know how to apply and improve each to his advantage. Instead 10 THE CHART AND SCALE of being embarrassed by an intrusion of sub- jects from other parts of knowledge, which defeat his reasoning, or disconcert his train of thinking ; from the logical acquaintance with all, he will see where the distinction lies, and be able to adapt each, in its proper use, to the great object of his inquiry. Thus instead of wandering from one difficulty to another, in the midst of partial and indigested infor- mation, as in a maze of error increased by an indiscriminate glare of light, he will move on with ease and safety, in the serenity of a clear and comprehensive mind. Prejudice, which in narrow conceptions, is always so inveterate and often so invincible, will give place to candour, whilst all partial and minute objections will be lost in enlarged and comprehensive views. The theological student will found the principles of his science on their just and philosophical basis, distin- guishing them from those of every other ; and, after pursuing that method of investi- gation which is naturally adapted to them, without deviating into any other, he will embrace with a manly and reasonable assent the stupendous truths of Divine Revelation. OF TRUTH. 1 1 Those which he can comprehend, he will enjoy with gratitude ; and those which are above his conception, he will adore in pro- found admiration. But, to derive this use and advantage to his studies from such a comparative estimate of theology with the other parts of learning, he should be apprized, that much labour and attention are to be previously employed. To read with care, to think with candour, to judge with impartiality, and to determine for him- self, are the first and leading qualifications of the theological student. Many and various are the comparisons to be formed between one science and another in all their corre- spondent relations, — whilst that of theology should be compared with every other. To form these comparisons with accuracy and suc- cess, he will feel the necessity of a competent acquaintance with the circle of the sciences being previously formed. He will discover, that to do justice to this exalted and exten- sive field of knowledge, which is the object of his cultivation, it is not enough to read over on the one hand, the bulky folios of school-divinity with a dronish and bigoted 12 THE CHART AND SCALE industry, embracing whatever is advanced with an impUcit assent ; nor on the other, to run through the popular volumes of some modern divines, which are calculated to relieve him from the trouble of thinking, or the labour of attention, and to kill an idle hour in all the ease of indolent straight- forward reading. The study of theology is both scientific and laborious, and requires above any other an independent and active mind. And whoever may honour these volumes with a perusal, their author pre- sumes to request, that he will take no- thing on the authority of the writer, or depend upon his judgment, but examine every thing, and judge for himself; that he will do him the favour not to read them over in an indolent or hurried way, with a view to be merely entertained (in which he will be miserably disappointed) ; but, that he will look back to different parts of the parallel, and compare them together; that he will examine with freedom, and correct with candour. As a fellow-labourer in the commonwealth of learning, the author will engage on his part, to accept of all improve- OF TRUTH. 13 ments with gratitude, and adopt them with simpHcity. With sentiments of deepest awe and rever- ence, I enter upon this province of sacred truth, which though protected, as it ought to be, from outrage and open violence, by the civil power, is ever to maintain its autho- rity over the minds of men, by its own inherent worth and native evidence. This exalted study is not the less perplexed in all its parts, nor rendered the less difficult in its arrangement and discussion, by the number and diversity of champions, who in suc- cession, have taken this consecrated ground. The society of the learned, in this as well as in all other departments, may be divided into two classes — the one consisting of the few, the other of the many. The former are those bold and enterprising geniuses, who advance before their fellows in the road of science, in the discovery of truth, or the arrange- ment of method. The latter lag behind, at a humble distance, content with the in- ferior praise of admiring and tracing their steps, without attempting to advance beyond 14 THE CHART AND SCALE them ; patronising their inventions, espousing their opinions, and adopting their errors *. The former, who are naturally capable of thinking for themselves, by becoming too much wedded to their own systems and in- ventions, from which they are unwilling to depart, are often rendered by their success unable to proceed in the advancement of knowledge : whilst a peasant from the plough, with a strong and active mind, undebauched by system, is almost a fairer candidate in the field of literature, than those of the second class, accompanied with all the parade of learning, without any of the power. Affecting neither to dictate on the one hand, nor implicitly to follow on the other, but soliciting to be examined and improved on these, as I have done hitherto in the departments of human learning, let me here also beg leave of systematic divines, without any disrespect or contempt for their labours, * " Those which give themselves to follow and imitate others, were in all things so observant sectators of their masters, whom they admired and believed in, as they thought it safer to condemn their own understandings, than to examine them," — is an observation of the great Raleigh on the learned men of his time. — Hist, of the World, chap. iii. § 1 , OF TRUTH. 15 to claim the privilege of a free adventurer in the search of truth, and to treat this great argument of theology, after my own way. Though truth may be most easily and fre- quently found in the broad and beaten path, and not the less to be valued, because over- taken in the common road ; yet by following each other in the same unvaried track of formal cultivation, with a sacred care never to deviate from it, philosophers, both divine and human, confirm many errors, without im- proving many truths : and though, in the other mode of proceeding, errors are perhaps more liable to be incurred, they will sooner be detected ; whilst, from the candour and libe- rality it professes, they should no sooner be detected, than abandoned. Theology is the queen of sciences. To her, all the sister-parts of learning should minister and subserve. — " The virgins that be her fel- lows should bear her company," — to cultivate the understanding and prepare the heart, to exalt and purify the imagination for this sublimer service. To train the mind in the gradual search of knowledge, to raise it 16 THE CHART AND SCALE as it imperfectly gathers strength, from one subject to another, to direct its progression from science to science ; to faciUtate and enlarge its comprehension, whilst the exercise of its faculties is confined within the sphere of their distinct and proper action ; to know its capacity and compass when stretched to their utmost reach, and, above all, to rest contented in the fruition of truth, whatever it may be, or however found, — this is that divine and philosophic discipline by which mortals may best improve and direct their energies. This is the proper end and object of theological study. Whilst it exalts the intellect to the summit of attainable know- ledge, it subdues the will to virtue, and engages the imagination as their mutual support and ornament ; and thus, by its admirably useful culture prepares the mind, as a bridal chamber, for the reception and entertainment of those diviner truths, which may hereafter exalt that honour into perma- nent and substantial glory. OF TRUTH. 17 CHAP. II. THE THEOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE. THE kinds of truth which form the several departments of human knowledge be- longing to the different provinces of the theo- retic, the practic, and the poetic mind, are the inferences and deductions of natural rea- son. They result from principles existing in the nature and constitution of subjects, material or mental, to which they respectively relate^. And thus a part of that truth, which in the Divine Mind is universal and intuitive, is by the use of sense and reason, conveyed pro- gressively into the human ; where it exists, according to the nature of the subjects from which it is derived, and in proportion to the mind in which it dwells^. But truth, as we have observed, is origi- ' See vol. i. p. 62. ' Ibid. p. 9—13. 2 C 18 THE CHART AND SCALE nally of the nature and essence of God ^, an attribute of his omniscient mind*. Infinite regions and oceans of truth must exist there- fore in that universal and unbounded intel- lect, which sees all things without a medium — which contemplates mysteries beyond the reach of our senses to apprehend, our reason to investigate, or our best faculties to con- ceive, both from want of principles, and want of capacity. If the natural operations of the Deity — if the exertions of his power in governing and disposing the material system of the universe by the instrumentality of second causes (which are subject to the senses and capable of experiment), form a labyrinth of dark and difficult investigation to human reason — if, after our ablest and most successful re- searches, many of the works of nature are only partially discovered, and some remain totally concealed'' — surely, the moral and in- tellectual dispensations of his wdsdom, those more spiritual parts of his government, which =» See vol. i. p. 5, (>. " Ibid. p. 9. ^ Ibid. p. 178. OF TRUTH. 19 are immediately administered by an act of his omniscient mind, and removed from the observation of external sense, must form a system of more deep and mysterious contriv- ance, unfathomable in its profounder parts, as the depth of his intellect. All the depart- ments of this sublime dispensation, which lie beyond the reach of human faculties, if they ever become the subject of our know- ledge, must therefore be derived into the mind from a principle or ground of evidence, essentially different both from external and internal sense, and communicated by an instrument far superior to that of reason. Our great philosopher, whose clear and comprehensive mind arranged the depart- ments and marked the confines of all learning, has thus distinguished this principle of divine from those of human knowledge, by a general division — " All knowledge is allotted a two- fold information — the one originating from sense, the other from inspiration ^." And this distinction, so essential to the true foun- dation of theology, is made by another, who ^ Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. iii. cap. 1. 20 THE CHART AND SCALE excels him, as much in divinity of thought, as in subhmity of expression : " Hardly do we guess aright at the things that are upon the earth, and with labour do we find the things that are before us ; but the things that are in heaven, who hath searched out, — Thy counsel who hath known, — except Thou give wisdom, and send thy Holy Spirit from above ^ V This new principle, by which the mind and will of God, the moral Governor, is immediately dispensed to man, the moral agent, is called Inspiration. It is the most direct communication of truth, from the source and centre of all truth. Some few individuals have been so dark in apprehen- sion, so preposterous in judgment, or so perverse in reasoning, as to call in question the possibility of this divine communication. They have been so extravagantly absurd, as to demand the formal demonstration of a universal axiom, which is one of those, (if I may so speak) that demonstrates itself, by ' Wisdom, ix. 16, 17. OF TRUTH. 21 resulting immediately from the existence of God. To doubt of this important truth, is to insult our Maker, by doubting of his power; and to deny this truth, is to deny that he, who gave men sense and reason, the only means by which natural knowledge is acquired, can convey to them knowledge in another and higher way. How pertinently and powerfully do the inspired writers ex- pose these doubts and sophisms, by a direct implication of its truth, from the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of the Supreme. — " He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? He that formed the eye, shall he not see ^ ? He that made the mouth ^, shall he not speak ? And he that framed the mind, shall he not teach man knowledge ^° ?" Appointed the lords and sovereigns of the whole visible creation, and distinguished M'ith many divine and extraordinary gifts ; ad- mitted, by the information of the external and internal sense, to the possession of so much knowledge, speculative and practical, and thought worthy of the far higher favour, * Psalm xciv. 9. ^ Exodus, iv. 11. '" Ps. xciv. 10. 22 THE CHART AND SCALE to be taken into a near connexion with the supreme Lord and Governor of the universe, by being constituted his moral subjects ac- countable to himself; He, who hath bestowed upon men these supereminent prerogatives, who has endowed their understandings with the power of drawing so much knowledge from principles in nature, and of communi- cating it to each other by human intercourse. He, who hath given them the still nobler prerogative of the will, can, out of the trea- sures of his wisdom, impart to them other and sublimer truths by his supernatural communication, for the employment of that understanding and the exercise of tliat will. Who may presume to wonder, that He, who is the fountain of all truth, should com- municate to his moral agents such portions of it, as their reason cannot deduce from those material and mental subjects with which it is connected ; especially when he can enlighten the willing mind, and prepare it for their reception and improvement ? His omniscience knows the necessities of his moral agents, created for happiness and en- joyment ; his goodness is ever ready to OF TRUTH. 23 supply them. Or who can doubt of his power? — " The greatness of Thy mercy reacheth unto the heavens, and thy truth unto the clouds ^^ \" The possibihty and credibihty of divme inspiration, or supernatural instruction, being thus ascertained, let us now inquire into its legitimate authority, as the principle or basis of theologic truth, and consider the nature and constitution of this peculiar source of information on the subject of revealed theo- logy. We may thus be enabled to ascend to the application of this celestial principle, as the foundation of a logic, so different and superior to any which we have hitherto explored, in connexion with other sciences. We may thus also, in some degree, ascertain its superior weight and importance in the scale of moral truth. — When Mago arrived at the gates of Car- thage, charged by the victorious general with the important embassy of the defeat of » Psalm xlvii. 11. 24 THE CHART AND SCALE the Romans in the battle of Cannae, though they did not themselves witness the truth of that great event, the whole senate enter- tained the welcome news on the relation of the brother of Hannibal ; and on his pouring out, in the vestibule of their house, the rings of the Roman knights who fell in that bloody action, they were fully confirmed of the truth of the intelligence and thoroughly convinced of the important fact^^. And when Columbus, on his arrival in the western hemisphere, told the Indians that the ships, in which he had sailed over the Atlantic, were made by men ; though they could have no conception how such vast and complicated machines were built, they gave credit to this truth, on the word of that celebrated navi- gator. Had these different facts not been credited by the informed, their mistrust or disbelief could have made them no less true. They were however credited by both parties, on the authority of their informants. In the first instance, by men, who were capable of understanding clearly the nature of the ^^ Liv. lib. xxiii. cap. 11, 12. OF TRUTH. 25 victory of Hannibal, and how it was accom- plished from the narration of his brother. In the second, by men, who were incapable of comprehending the complex and artful construction of an European ship, or of con- ceiving how it could be erected by human power. And whether the nature of the facts related, were understood or not by the in- formed, was also a circumstance which could not in the least affect their positive truth. They were both however received and cre- dited alike on the testimony of others, and were both equally true. In similar circumstances are all men placed, from the condition of their nature, in regard to nearly all the truths which affect human life and action. Few indeed are the things which the wisest can discover, or know, or prove by themselves, and were we unaided by the information of others, they would be fewer still. We should then be little wiser than the brutes and without their instinct — less qualified to pass through the world, or to perform our duties in it. Confined within the narrow limits of time and place, possessed of various degrees of knowledge and infor- 26 THE CHART AND SCALE mation, and of different capacities and reach of understanding for their acquisition, we are of necessity obhged, in every sphere and scene of hfe, to rely on the credit and veracity of each other, and to receive the largest and the most useful proportion of truth, of almost every kind, from information and tradition. These are consequently the most common and extensive sources, or channels, of truth ; and whether capable of understanding it or not, men are obliged to found upon them the most important thought and the most eventful conduct. By this borrowed light, they have been led from age to age ; nor, upon the whole, have they reason to com- plain that they have been led wrong. If such then be the credit and authority of human testimony, so extensive yet trustworthy, as the experience of every one must convince him, in reference to many of the most interest- ing and important truths of life and conduct ; how properly and how pointedly does the reasoning of the inspired apostle, enforcing, with sublime analogy, the authority of a divine communication, come home to our OF TRUTH. 27 self-conviction ! — " If we receive the witness of men, the witness of God is greater ^'^.^ Tlie testimony of God conveyed to man, not by a natural, but supernatural communi- cation, is thus brought down to the appre- hension of reason ; in other words, reason ascends to the cognisance of the Divine ve- racity, from its analogy to human testimony. And thus, by reasoning from the testimony of man, to the testimony of God (as Newton from projectiles, to the planetary forces) ; this transcendent principle of theology is logically and scientifically formed. The nature of testimony in general, or " the witness of man," as a principle of truth, has been stated and discussed in the former part of this work^*, where it was found to operate with more universality and extent than any other, being the general vehicle by which truths of every kind are communicated and conveyed. If we here make use of the clue held out to us by the apostle, which leads us from earthly to hea- " 1 John, V. 9. '■' Chap. iv. and v. 28 THE CHART AND SCALE venly things, reason will conduct us safely, by a close and obvious analogy, (the only logic by which divine truths can be con- veyed to men), from this human principle, to the divine ; from this testimony of men, whence is derived the greatest share of natural or human truth, to the testimony of God ; — the source and vehicle of those truths, which are supernatural or divine, and which, being communicated by the word of God, are essentially and necessarily theo- logic. All truth, whether natural or supernatural, proceeds alike from God, but in different ways, and by different dispensations. How- ever various in appearance or multiplex in form, it is connected like all his works, by a pervading and consistent chain. Of this chain, one main link consists in the principle of testimony, which is common to both ; by which, an easy and familiar transition is made, from truths that are human, to those which are divine. It is not by induction, or by syllogism, but by analogy, that reason arrives at the prin- OF TRUTH. 29 ciple of all sound theology ; and it is by analogy, that it is to be cultivated through all its provinces. For, whether the Almighty act through the instrumentality of his crea- tures, or more immediately by himself; whe- ther he convey truth to the minds of men through the natural organs of the senses, by the information of others, or by a super- natural communication of his own, he is ever uniform and consistent, so that one part of his divine economy becomes introductory to another, and illustrative of its truth. By this wonderful uniformity, which pervades heaven and earth, earthly things become the ex- pressive types and resemblances of heavenly things ; on which real resemblance, that ana- logy is founded, which is the great instrument of all supernatural truths, by which alone they can be conveyed to men. — Thus the Almighty instructs men in heavenly and invisible things, which are the objects of faith, by analogical reference to earthly and visible things, which are the objects of sense ; and thus conveys to us a sufficient know- ledge of himself, his attributes, and his 30 THE CHART AND SCALE actions, by analogous reference to the powers, passions, and actions of mankind ^^. Such is the true nature and foundation of that logic, which is peculiarly appropriated to subjects of theology, and which has had the sanction and approbation of Him, who is its origin, its instrument, and end. — " Jesus departed into the coasts of Tyre and Sidon : and behold a woman of Canaan came out of the same coasts, and cried unto him, saying, ' Have mercy on me, O Lord, thou son of David, my daughter is grievously vexed with a devil/ — But he answered and said, ' It is not meet to take the children's bread and to cast it to the dogs.' And she said, ' Truth, Lord : yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their master's table.' " This answer to his allusive observation of the children's bread, possessed a quality so singularly ex- cellent, as to attract from him an animated eulogium, accompanied with the grant of her request : — " O woman, great is thy faith ! be it unto thee even as thou wilt^*"." This an- swer, so highly applauded and honoured by '^ Bp. Browne's Divine Analogy. '^ Matt. xv. 21, &c. OF TRUTH. 31 our Lord, was the result of reasoning by analogy, — that, as the dogs eat of the crumbs of the master's table, after the children are supplied and satisfied ; so she, though an alien from the house of Israel, and not en- titled to the first overtures of his grace, might hope for some small portion of his superabundant favour, after the children of that house were served. On this rational ground of analogy, sprung the excellency of her faith. And we have another very strik- ing instance upon record, of the same high approbation accorded to this mode of reason- ing, and to the effect which it produced. — " And when Jesus was entered into Caper- naum, there came unto him a centurion, beseeching him, and saying, ' Lord, my ser- vant lieth at home sick of the palsy, griev- ously tormented.' And Jesus saith unto him, ' I will come and heal him.' The centurion answered and said, ' Lord, I am not worthy that thou shouldest come under my roof: but speak the word only, and my servant shall be healed ^^. For I also am a man set '" Matt. viii. 5y &c. 32 THE CHART AND SCALE under aiithoritj, having under me soldiers, and I say unto one, Go, and he goeth ; and to another, Come, and he cometh ; and to my servant. Do this, and he doeth it/ When Jesus heard these things, he marvelled, and said unto the people, 'I say unto you, I have not found so great faith, no not in IsraeP^/'' The admiration of our Lord was, doubtless excited by the centurion^s arguing, from this parity or analogy of reasoning, — that, as one, whose power though infinitely inferior, was vested with an authority by which he could execute his commands, without going in person ; so our Lord's divine and supernatural power was so great, that he could heal diseases at a distance, as well as in his own presence. These passages of sacred story are memora- ble and important. From this conviction of the truth of his divine authority, founded on analogic reasoning, the author of our religion pronounced the faith of the parties to be more excellent than any other : and if to these instances of such marked and decided approbation, we add the numerous parables, '* Luke, vii. 8, 9. OF TRUTH. 33 Similitudes, and analogies, which he em- ployed on all occasions to convey his super- natural truths to men, we may infer that this method of reasoning is specially conse- crated to the service of religion. Upon this analogic reasoning, the great principle of all theology is founded — " If we receive the witness of men, the witness of God is greater.'^ From the nature of divine testimony, it can lay hold of the mind of man only by its analogy to human. " This is the witness of God, which he has testified of his Son \' and accordingly, " he that be- lieveth on the Son,"' as the apostle argues, " hath the witness,'" the prototype and prin- ciple of the evidence, " within himself ^^" In the kingdoms both of nature and of grace, the God of all truth is wonderfully consistent in the mode of its dispensation ; and analogy is the intellectual instrument by which, in one no less than in the other, man is enabled to ascend from earth to heaven. From the curves and motions of projectiles, '9 John, iii. 10, 11. 2 D 34 THE CHART AND SCALE we have already beheld the astronomer rising by a sublime analogy, to those of the celestial bodies'''^ ; as we have seen the theologist rising from the testimony of men to the testimony of God : and as those stupendous orbs, rolling in silent majesty through the vast regions of space, are infinitely more ex- alted and sublime, than the projectiles by which they are illustrated and explained ; so this divine testimony, which is conveyed to the apprehension of man, and made a prin- ciple of reasoning by its analogy to human, is infinitely superior, more exalted, and sub- lime, in proportion as God, in knowledge, fidelity, and all perfection, is superior to man. " The witness of God is greater." — The word of such a witness must be invinci- ble in power, and paramount to every thing which does not involve a positive contradic- tion. The testimony of God, which is in its own nature infallible, is consequently the highest species of evidence, superior to that of sense, or of mathematical demonstration. 2" See vol. i. p. 140, 156. OF TRUTH. 35 He is too wise to be deceived, and too good to deceive. If he will not suffer our senses to be deceived, while well informed, nor our minds to be deceived, in things which they are competent to understand ; he will not deceive us in his own immediate revelations — so that there is the same foundation for faith as knowledge, our belief in the divine veracity ^\ The theological principle being thus logi- cally founded and explained, we shall dis- cover the specific nature and force of the truths resulting from it, by observing the operation which it must produce on the mind, and by comparing it with the prin- ciple of other kinds of truth. That all reasoning is from principles of some specific kind, and that the method which it pursues is governed by the nature of those principles, and productive of a species of truth exactly correspondent and "• Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind, chap. vi. sect. 24. 56 THE CHART AND SCALE proportioned to both^^, is that leading logical doctrine, which this general Chart would illustrate and enforce in every part of sci- ence. On comparing the theological principle, with those which have been severally deline- ated in the preceding volume, in order to weigh the specific operation and effect of each in the just scale of truth ; it will be found to differ more from them all, in its logical nature and operation, than any in- dividually differ from each other. Thus it constitutes a new light or inlet of knowledge, and consequently, the truth resulting from reasoning in theology may be expected to produce a different effect upon the mind, and to command a species of assent pecu- liar to itself. All other kinds of truth are derived into the understanding, primarily, from the senses external or internal ; or secondarily, from the testimony of men, and are called natural. Theologic truth, derived from the immediate impression, or communication, of the Deity, *2 See vol. i. p. 24 and 63. OF TRUTH. 37 is called inspiration, and as distinguished from them, is supernatural^^. In the former cases, reason begins her operation with par- ticular truths, and rises, by a laborious in- ductive process, to general conclusions. Thus the secondary principles or general truths are to be applied, by a different operation, to the proof of particular truths. In the latter case, after the general principle is established, reason has no direct concern with the truths at all, which spring immediately of them- selves, from the divine inspiration^*. Her office consists only in the proof of that in- spiration, from those internal and external evidences by which it is accompanied, and which, though inseparably interwoven with ^ It is thus the apostle very accurately discriminates between the principles of metaphysical and theologic truth — " What man knoweth the things of a man, save the spirit of man which is in him ? Even so, the things of God knoweth no man, but the Spirit of God." — 1 Cor. ii. 11. '^* In rebus naturalibus,ipsa principia examini subjiciuntur per inductionem, licet minime per syllogismum ; atqne eadem ilia nullam habent cum ratione repugnantiam, ut ab eadem fonte, turn primae propositiones turn mediae deducan- tur. Aliter fit in religione, ubi et primae propositiones authypostatae sunt, atque per se subsistentes. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. cap. I. [An abridgment of the original. Editor.] 38 THE CHART ANT3 SCALE it, are to be considered, as essentially distinct and separate from the truths themselves ''^^. When the fact of inspiration is proved, the divine testimony, which is the principle of all theology, results immediately from it, and is proved, as the cause is proved from the effect. As, on the one hand, in estab- lishing the principle, reason has no direct concern, but only that which arises from analogy ; so, on the other, it has no concern in deducing them from it by any process, beyond that of proving their existence in the sacred records ^^. They are admitted as re- vealed ; and so far as they are revealed, they flow from the principle intuitively, with- out the intervention of deduction of any kind, and convince the mind, without any other authority than the supreme credit of the witness. .They are implicitly to be re- ceived, without any operation of the judg- ment, on the word, or testimony, of God^'^. ^ See Chalmers's Evidence of Divine Revelation. Editor. * Et rursus, non reguntur ab ilia ratione, quae proposi- tiones consequentes deducit. — Bacon, de Augm. Scient. lib. ix. cap. 1. " Prserogativa Dei totum hominem complectitur ; nee minus ad rationem, quam ad voluntatem humanam, extendi- OF TRUTH. 39 The ground of our assent does not lie in the abstract credibihtj of the things themselves, but in the veracity of God, who has revealed them. Whether they be revealed more or less fully, they are to be believed, so far as they are revealed, without our even attempt- ing to throw any further light upon them of our own ; — " His thoughts are not as our thoughts,'' and who may dare either to question, or superadd to the truths by him communicated ? Whether, like the Cartha- ginian senate, we are able or think ourselves able, to comprehend them ; or, with the benighted Indians, we are unable to form any conception of them at all : since He who hath revealed them, knew for what purpose they were designed, and in what proportion they were to be given ; since he is totally free from error, and equally inca- pable of fraud or falsehood — who, I say. tur, ut homo in universum se abneget et accedat Deo. Quare, sicut legi divinae obedire tenemur, licet reluctetur voluntas; ita et verbo Dei fidem habere, licet reluctetur ratio. Etenim si ea duntaxat credamus, quae sunt rationi nostrae consentanea, rebus assentimur non auctori ; quod etiam suspectae fidei testibus praestare solemus. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. iii. cap. 1. 40 THE CHART AND SCALE may presume to question, or superadd to the truths which He has communicated ? Thus inversely to its procedure, in the vari- ous kinds of knowledge which are natural, in theology, reason has no concern with the truths of revelation, either in the direct formation of their general principle, or in judging of them as they are derived from it. " Faith,^^ or the assent which they produce, Cometh not by reasoning, but by " hearing, and hearing by the word of God^^/' This principle subsists and terminates in itself. Like its author, it is alpha and omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last. — Such is the only true and genuine AT'TO^S "E*A. This preeminent principle, the testimony of God, is not only essentially different from ma- thematical, physical, and all other axioms ; but also from the principle of human testi- mony. From analogy to this, it first takes possession of the mind ; but it is needless to observe it is infinitely more excellent and superior in power. Human testimony is a ''^ Horn. X. 17. OF TRUTH. 41 principle only of probable truth. It is subject to error in its origin, often vague and precari- ous in its reasoning, and of various degrees of credibility; but the testimony of God, is in the eye of analogy, as superior to that of man, as the heavens are higher than the earth. Com- paring the strength of human testimony with divine, the Baptist, who, like the morning star, was appointed the immediate harbinger of this supernatural light, has displayed its superiority in terms the most emphatic — " He that cometh from above, is above all : He that is of the earth is earthy, and speak- eth of the earth : he that cometh from heaven, is above all ; and what he hath seen and heard, that he testifieth." He then pro- ceeds to urge the transcendent authority of this testimony — " He that hath received his testimony, hath set to his seal, that God is true. He whom God hath sent speaketh the words of God, for God giveth not the Spirit, by measure, to him. The Father loveth the Son, and hath given all things into his hands ^^.^^ — And this authority is enforced upon the ^ John, iii. 31—35. 42 THE CHART AND SCAT.E minds of men by the beloved disciple, in very similar terms — " This is the witness of God, "which he testifieth of his Son. He who be- lieveth on the Son of God hath the witness in himself: he who believeth not God, hath made him a liar ; because he believeth not the record which God gave of his Son^°/' He then proceeds to state, in a few plain words, the stupendous substance of this re- cord or testimony — " That God hath given us eternal life '^ and " that this life is in his Son^' '' — the end and the means of religion. The end w^orthy of Him, by whom it was designed ; the means worthy of Him, by whom they were brought to pass. Thus theologic truth is essentially different from every other kind ; and its effect upon the mind will be proportioned to the divine authority and transcendent superiority of its principle. Compared with the several kinds, which have been analyzed in the preceding volume, how totally distinct will this be found in its =>« 1 John, V. 9, 10. ="1 John, V. 1 1. OF TRUTH. 43 constitution, or its operation on the mind ! Though, from the infalhble authority and transcendent supremacy of its principle, the- ological truth be equal in force and convic- tion to mathematical conclusions, yet in its specific nature it is the very reverse. Whereas they are the deductions from general princi- ples, by a train of reasoning the most syllo- gistic, elaborate, and extensive of any other ; this results from its principle, without a single intermediate act of judgment. And as all the other kinds of truth which we call natural, claim an assent, in proportion to the nature of their principles and mode of rea- soning ; this supernatural truth, when its principle is established on its own inde- pendent evidence, commands an assent pro- portionable to itself, without any reasoning at all. " He who believeth,'' as the apostle suggests, " hath the witness in himself." If his mind admit the witness, it must imme- diately admit the truth (an assent distin- guished by the name of faith), which is absolute and intuitive, independent of all the powers of the understanding, the will, or the imagination ; and with which reason has no 44 THE CHART AND SCALE direct concern. Its duty is to bring our faculties with all diligence and alacrity to embrace the truth, and in all virtue and humility to acquiesce ^^. The truths which are the objects of our faith, are on this account distinguished from all other kinds, by the name of mysteries. But, as in advancing from truth to truth, we have observed the mind proceeding through a regularly ascending scale, beginning with the lowest and rising higher and higher as it advances ; so, in condescension to our natural desires, and to invite men to the en- joyment of the sublimest truths, the dis- penser of these mysteries hath made some of them to stoop, or seem to stoop, to the level of our comprehensions. Others, by their sublimity, reach into the heaven from which they came, and are awfully lost to all human sight, in the clouds and darkness which sur- round " his throne." On those mysteries which are revealed with so much clearness, as to be brought within the comprehension of the human mind (though '' See liord Bacon's tract on " the Interpretation of Na- ture," and his Advance of Learning-, book ii. sub fine. OF TRUTH. 45 to discover them at first was out of the pro- vince of reason, whatever fitness she may find in them, when once revealed), and which seem to be the connecting Hnk between the little we are allowed to know, and the much from which we are excluded, we may wor- thily employ our meditations. Reason may explain them with simplicity, without prying into them with a curiosity too presumptive, or affecting to give them more light than the Inspirer hath imparted ^^. She may con- template them with reverence, from a view of the justice and goodness of the Deity dis- played in their dispensation, and illustrate ^ Humanae rationis usns, in rebus ad religionem spectan- tibus, duplex est: alter, in explicatione mysterii; alter, in illationibus, quse inde deducuntur. Quod ad mysleriorum explicationem attinet, videmus, non dedignare Deum ad infirmitatem captus nostri se demittere; mysteria sua ita explicando, ut a nobis optime ea possint percipi ; atque reve- lationes suas in rationis nostrse syllepses et notiones veluti inoculando ; atque inspirationes ad intellectum nostrum ape- riendum sic accommodando, quemadmodum figura clavis figurae serae. Qua tamen in parte nobis ipsis deesse minime debemus : cum enim Deus ipse opera rationis nostrae in illuminationibus suis utatur; etiam nos eandem in omnes partes versare debemus, c^uo magis capaces simus ad mysteiia et recipienda et imbibenda; modo animus, ad amplitudinem mysteriorum, pro modulo, suo dilatetur, non mysteria ad angustias animi constringantur. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. 46 THE CHART AND SCALE them by inferences and illations, rather than dive into his secret counsel, by deciding on their fitness with too determined a pre- cision'^. On those, which lie beyond the sphere of the most enlarged conception, man may think with reverence, and silently adore; not narrowing the mystery to the contraction of his mind ; but enlarging the mind, as far as possible, to the amplitude of the mystery. He should view them with all the purest affection of love and admiration, from a consideration of their end ; and, in prostrate humility, con- fess them to partake of that incomprehensible wisdom from which they flow"^^. Reason, by an indirect and secondary operation, may draw inferences and conclusions from these ^* Quantum vero ad illaliones ; nosse debemus, relinqui nobis usum ralionis et ratiocination is (quoad Mysteria) secundarium quendam et respectivum, non primitivum et absolutum. Postquam enim articuli et principia religionis jam in sedibus suis fueiint locata, ita ut a rationis examine penitus exiraantur ; turn demum conceditur ab illis illationes derivare ac deducere, secundum analogiam ipsorum. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. 35 « Why," sailh St. Jerome, " do you pretend, after so many ages are elapsed, to teach us what was never taught before? Why attempt to explain what neither Peter nor Paul thought it necessary to be known ?" — Ad Pammach. et Ocean, de Eiroribus Origenis. OF TRUTH. 47 deeper mysteries, according to the analogy of faith, which will aftbrd her an important and extensive scope ; taking care to distinguish between the authority of the inference, and that of the principle. But it is the great duty of the Christian, to regulate both his faith and conduct, by the doctrines and precepts of the gospel or word of God, whether enabled, more or less, to comprehend the grounds and reasons on which they stand. Acknow- ledging the evidence, by which, as the edicts of heaven they are supported, to be satisfac- tory and divine ; he will best approve his wis- dom and gratitude to God, by yielding an implicit obedience to his laws. It is the property of those theologic truths, which we term mysteries of faith, that they cannot be solved or explained by the prin- ciples or axioms of philosophy, and that con- sequently, they are subject to difficulties and objections, which reason, proceeding on these principles or axioms, may raise against them, and which, of course, she can never solve. But it ought, in such cases, to satisfy every consistent believer of divine revelation, that his faith is founded on a higher and more 48 THE CHART AND SCALE comprehensive principle, and that the diffi- culty arises from the finite not being able to embrace the infinite. It is the natural result of partial knowledge and imperfect faculties. Amidst her admiration of the stupendous mysteries of religion, reason may thus be re- conciled to her own insufficiency. They are supernatural, and nothing is to be found with- in the compass of nature to compare them to, in order to conclude. They admit of no middle term. They are divine, and cannot be measured by what is human. They are as first principles, and with first principles reason has no concern. They are given, by the supreme authority of God, not that we may comprehend, but embrace them with all that humility and confidence which is due to One, who hath given us our faculties, and who has assigned their limits. Those who consider reason, not the handmaid, but the mistress of religion, totally mistake both her office and her power. They plunge at once into the depths of error. They do not con- sider, that reason is only perception and judgment, that perception is much limited OF TRUTH. 49 in regard to many of the phenomena of na- ture, and that judgment, in reference to many objects upon earth, thus with difficulty perceived, is often defeated, and much em- barrassed in deciding on the force of the different kinds and degrees of evidence — but " the things which are in heaven, who hath searched out?'' Though the doctrines of faith are to be judged not at the tribunal of philosophy, but at the tribunal of revelation, they are not the less true, because they are mysterious. Their obscurity is owing to our imperfection, which should be no bar to our assent ; for the truths of revelation are not proposed for us to know on the conviction of reason, but to believe on the authority of " the Spirit who beareth witness, because the Spirit is truth." Such is the logical reasoning of St. John, and the reasoning of St. Paul is very consonant : " the things of God knoweth no man, but the Spirit of God ^V' ^ " Our faith," observes the learned Stillingfleet, " in relation to these mysteries, stands on a twofold basis: first, that the being, understanding, and power of God do infi- nitely transcend our own, and that consequently, he may reveal to us matters infinitely above our reach and capacity. 2 E 50 THE CHART AND SCALE Derived from a divine original, and founded upon a principle which is infalli- ble, as on a rock which the power of men and angels cannot move or subvert, this supernatural truth is theologic ; and the faith, by which it is embraced and entertained, re- lating to the Son, who " brought life and immortality to light by his gospel,^" is the Christian faith, invisible in its object, trans- cendent in its power, and immortal in its end. All other kinds of truth, springing from the evidence of external and internal sense, lie more immediately before our view, to direct our way through this material scene of things, in which we are fitly said " to walk by sight. '^ The kind, which is to con- duct us from this visible world into the world of spirits, is derived from " the evidence of things not seen,"* and we are accordingly commanded, " to walk by faith and not by Secondly, that whatever God hath revealed is indubitably true, though we may not fully comprehend it ; for it is an indubitable first principle, that God cannot and will not deceive man by his own revelations." — Orig. Sac. book ii. chap. 8. See also Stewart's Elements, vol. ii. chap. 1, sect. 2, 3, on the " Fundamental Laws of Human Belief." OF TRUTH. 51 sight." — Bat, however invisible in its object, faith is transcendent in its power, embracing intuitively and at one grasp all the mys- teries of religion, however dark and incom- prehensible. Independent of the faculties of man, it is devoted solely to the glory of God^"'^.^ — And this transcendent virtue is ex- alted to still higher consideration, because it leads us to the prize of immortality. — " He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life ; and he that believeth not the Son shall not see life ; but the wrath of God abideth on him^*^.^" In this grand catastrophe and consummation of human nature, faith, no longer militant, will become triumphant. — "Who is he," — proceeds the beloved apostle in terms of confidence and triumph, — " that overcometh the world, but he who believeth, that Jesus is the Son of God ^^?" Such is the nature and constitution of Christian faith, which is the " evidence of things unseen ;" and which when " it worketh ^'^ Quantum mysterium aliquod divinum fuerit maois absonum et incredibile ; tanto plus credendo exhibetur ho- noris Deo, ut sit victoria fidei nobilior. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. cap. 1. ='8 John, iii. 36. '^ 1 John, v. 5, 6. 52 THE CHART AND SCALE by love," or Christian charity, in the produc- tion of good works, as its genuine fruits, forms the sole and indispensable condition of re- vealed religion. It is through the obedience of faith, that man, the moral agent, will be justified of God, the moral Governor, redeem- ed, ransomed, and rewarded, — " having fruit unto holiness, and the end everlasting life/' This supernatural principle is remote from all others, the truths resulting from it are different from those of every other kind, and result in a different way. But this faith, which transcends every other species of assent, was unknown to Aristotle, whose Dialectic was for ages the impregnable fort of all probable reasoning, the umpire of all learning, and the high tribunal, at which, the pretensions of all truth were to be tried. To punish the vice and obstinacy of mankind in different periods of the world, it pleased " the high and lofty One who inhabiteth eternity,'' to permit a cloud to be drawn across the pure light of heaven, by which it was long ob- structed and obscured. If that great philosopher had been blest OF TRUTH. 53 with the privilege of beholding the glorious gospel shedding its rajs over the Athenian provinces ; or had he partaken, with the righteous Abraham, the distinguished favour of seeing, through type, vision, or scenical representation that future day, in which its divine founder sealed with his blood its immortal truth ; doubtless the patriarch and the philosopher would have rejoiced toge- ther^. Instead of that absurd and unphi- losophical use of his works, which has been made in almost every age by his servile followers; in the enlargement of his vigorous and comprehensive mind, he would have discarded the definitions, the general pro- positions, and the formal syllogisms of his useless Organon, to embrace immediately this theologic principle, founded in the wis- dom, and established on the veracity of God*\ Instead of disputing the stupendous mysteries resulting from this principle, or ever calling them in question, he would have placed them universally on the same divine inscrutable basis, and have exclaimed *o John, viii. 56. « 1 Cor. i. 24. 54 THE CHART AND SCALE at once, — " Lord, I believe ; help thou mine unbelief*^ !" Or had this virtuous native of Stagira been admitted with Paul of Tarsus to the humiliating spectacle of the various opposition, which his Organon, in the hands of men of narrow and contracted genius, enslaved bj terms and stupified by forms, would occasion by its use and abuse to the truths of Christianity, or rather to their reception (for against them the gates of hell cannot prevail), and to the establish- ment of their immortal principle ; had he foreseen the great injury it would effect, in future times, on the wisdom which is from " above, which is first pure*^ and then peaceable \' — by " ministering foolish ques- tions*^," and fomenting rancorous disputa- tions*^ — the philosopher would have lamented with the apostle these profane mixtures of ^^ Mark, ix. 24, " Jumes, iii. 17. « 2 Tim. ii. 23. ■** Eodem etiam spectant eorum commentationes, qui veritatem Christianae reJigionis ex principiisi et auctoritatibus philosopliorum confirniare hand veriti sunt — divina liuuianis impari conditione permisceiites. — Bacon. Nov. Org;, lib. i. *^ Qui cum theolog-iam in artis formam effinxerint, hoc insuper effecerunt, ut pugnax et spinosa Aristotelis philoso- phia corpori religionis immisceretur. — Bacon. Nov. Org. lib. i. OF TRUTH. 55 philosophy and vain deceit, and have laboured with him to guard mankind against them. Could he have heard certain sophists and syllogizers of the Athenian schools, " dis- puters of this world," insulting that great apostle with their ignorance and scorn — " What will this babbler say*^?" — could he have beheld his learned commentator Sim- plicius, under the full light of Christianity, confirming himself in infidelity, and exulting in opposition ; could he have seen the un- happy Porphyry, perplexed and entangled in the subtleties of his logic, and in the act of composing the Isagoge, abandoning his faith ; — could he have conjectured, that whilst it was raising human reason above itself by persuading it of its all-sufficient power, his hypothetical system would lead it from the most solid truths into the endless maze of speculative error, and that this wild infatuation would inflame the sanguine and promising genius of a youthful emperor, and cause him to apostatize from his religion ; — could his eye have reached down to these *^ Acts, xvii. 8. 56 THE CHART AND SCALE distant times, and have observed the cloud of ignorance and superstition, continuing to envelop the greater part of the Christian church, which the evasive versatility of his Dialectic was calculated to thicken and con- firm, rather than dispel ^^ ; or could he have seen that part, which boasts of reformation, still shackled in the pursuit of theologic truth bj its sophisms and useless disputa- tions, and by keeping men entangled, from age to age, in the thorny wilds of school- divinity — could he have foreseen these hurt- ful consequences — instead of committing this portion of his works to the care of the too- faithful Theophrastus, the master and the scholar would have sacrificed them together upon the sacred altar of truth. Above all could he have read, in the Book of life, that heavenly precept — " Love your ene- mies,'^ — he would have expunged the con- ^* " The court of Rome well knew the importance of the school logic in supporting their authority ; they knew it could be employed more successfully in disguising error, than in vindicating truth : and Puffendorf De Monarchia Pontificis Romani scruples not to insinuate, that they patronised it for this very reason." — Beattie's Essay on Truth, p. 360. OF TRUTH. 57 trary proposition, by which his Ethics are disgraced, as mihtating against every prin- ciple of humanity and sound rehgion. He would have improved, or abandoned his moral system, as superseded by one infinitely more perfect. His theology, in which he excelled all philosophers before him, if Plato be excepted, would thus have soared on a sublimer wing to the heaven at which it aimed '*^; whilst he would have been content to sit down as a little child at the feet of Him, " who spake as never man spake^°." *^ See the eighth book of his Metaphysics, and the last chapters of his Physics. ^ On the various subjects of this chapter, consult Bishop Butler's Analogy, Bishop Brown's Divine Analogy, and his Procedure and Limits of the Understanding, Locke's Rea- sonableness of Christianity, Sykes's Connexion of Natural and Revealed Religion, Chalmers's Bridgewater Treatise, Sumner's Evidence of Christianity, &c. — Editor. 58 THE CHART AND SCALE CHAP. III. THEOLOGICAL REASONING. TTATH reason, then, no concern whatever -*--*- in the estabhshment of faith ? and is faith, the ground of theologic truth, that bhnd virtue, which mortals are to embrace without the consent of the understanding ? — To this query we return the following an- swer. Although reason has no direct concern, either in the act of forming the principle of theology by an inductive process, or in deducing from it the truths of religion by any mediate operation, or in proving these truths from any grounds in nature : yet have the learned been successfully en- gaged in urging the necessity of the princi- ple of a divine revelation, and enforcing the stupendous mysteries which that revelation OF TRUTH. 59 contains. These are topics, which have been successfully urged by the advocates of Chris- tianity, from the natural infirmity of the in- tellect and the will of man, from the univer- sal fact, verified in experience, by which as moral agents, they are found disqualified both to know and to do the will of their moral Governor^. Without such a divine interposition, the connexion between God and his accountable creatures would be prac- tically dissolved, and the original intention of their Creator be virtually suspended. And whilst, in such indirect and collateral conclu- sions as are founded upon facts, reason may employ her noblest faculties ; the truth of the holy Scriptures, which display these ' " Natural reason, contemplating the attributes of the Deity, discovered to us, that when human abilities alone are too weak to support us in the performance and discharge of moral duty, God will lend his helping hand to aid our sincere endeavours, by enlightening the intellect and purifying the will, by impressing upon the first all the speculative and practical truths, which the divine principle of faith contains, and by purifying and supporting the will in the embracing and executing that moral righteousness, the foundation of that faith by which men are to be justified, and to which is annexed the enjoyment of eternal life in happiness. — Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. See Bp. Gibson's Second Past. Let. 60 THE CHART AND SCALE facts, may receive light and confirmation from these conclusions. But though in oppo- sition to the fictions and hypotheses either of deists or enthusiasts, reason may lend her modest aid, in support of the general argument ; to judge of the necessity rests solely and properly with God ; who, as in creating man at first, so in giving to man his revelation afterwards, has acted from the purest motives of wisdom, prompted by love — attributes which transcend all human thought and comprehension. To judge of the fact, whether such a revelation, containing such a principle, with its mysteries and credentials, were actually sent from God and received by men, by examining the evidences and circumstances which accompanied it, the time, the place, the manner in which it was delivered, the form in which it descends to us, or in what it is contained, together with its particular substance and burden, and how every part is to be rightly understood — these are the various and extensive topics which consti- tute the important subjects of theologic rea- OF TRUTH. 61 soning, and the proper study of scientific divinity. This extensive body of reasoning is what a faith which is rational, hke that of our holy religion, not only admits, but actually re- quires. It forms the indispensable duty of all who have leisure and ability for the search, with all diligence, humility, and per- severance to pursue this reasoning. It is the proper and more especial business of those, who for the instruction of Christians, devote themselves to the exalted and honourable profession of divinity, though it should be in a certain degree, the employment of all, who " would give a reason of the hope that is in them^.^^ Nor need mortal man complain, that the use of his reason, in the concerns of his religion, is either precluded or super- seded by the still higher prerogatives of faith. These various topics of inquiry and learning open fields of investigation, which may afford ample scope for the ablest exertions of the understanding, to the latest period of human existence. ' 1 Peter, iii. 15. 62 THE CHART AND SCALE A summary sketch of the grounds and method of reasoning in theology, and of the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, general and particular — subjects which constitute the study of divinity in its various and important branches, — is all which the comprehensive plan of these lectures permits me to attempt. Sect. I. The Gi'ounds of Keasomng in Theology. THE principle of theology itself, as well as the truths which it contains, lying beyond the verge of human knowledge, and being totally different from all other principles, and kinds of truth ; the specific reasoning, which is adapted to the province of Divinity, will be found, both in its grounds and method, different from every other, in the aggregate. Wherever general principles are concerned, the reasoning is first to the principle, and then from the principle ; excepting in the OF TRUTH. 63 mathematics, where it is chiefly, if not en- tirely, the latter \ In theology, it has been observed, there is no mediate process of reason, by which the truths of religion can be deduced from the principle. It may, however, be properly said, that in divinity, we reason to the principle ; but from grounds of a different nature, and in a method totally different from that we use in all the other sciences. The supernatural principle, which is the ground of theologic reasoning, is not estab- lished on an induction of particular truths, by which it is made universal, and from which universality its doctrines are entitled to our faith : — but " Faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of God^.'" In this sentence, the apostle has stated the prin- ciple itself, the testimony of God, and the means through which we receive it, viz. hearing ; and has laid down the end or effect which it is calculated to produce, viz. the conviction of faith. The principle is a divine fact, to be proved from the various means by ' See vol. i. part i. sect. 1. ^ Rom. x. 17. 64 THE CHART AND SCALE which it was confirmed, and is. conveyed to us. These are the just grounds of theologic reasoning, and these can alone warrant and support a reasonable faith. Reasoning therefore in theology? respects the means through which the light of reve- lation was established in the world, whereby the divine testimony was communicated and conveyed down to us in these distant ages. According to the method which it pursues, we shall take the Bible in our hand, which professes to contain this w^ord of God, and trace its history through the intervening ages, and countries, and the persons of its editors, to the time, place, and persons, in which, and by whom it was originally written. This will prove its authenticity. — From the proof of its authenticity, reason may proceed to evince its divine authority, by examining all those various tests and marks of a super- natural commission, which are every where inseparably interwoven with its contents ; and which are called the external evidences of religion. This authority reason may fur- ther confirm, by examining the moral import of its comprehensive argument — the internal OV TRUTH. 65 evidence of its divinity. By these which are the means, reason will be conducted safely and logically to the infallible principle, the word or testimony of God, in which faith immediately finds her repose and end. It will then remain for reason only to interpret the meaning of that mysterious book in which they are recorded. — Or, reason may perform this sacred task, by pursuing the in- verse of this order, — ascending, through the internal and external evidences of this autho- rity, to the authenticity of the Holy Scrip- tures, and thus forming the conviction of our faith on the same firm and solid grounds. In conducting reason down the descending line, the different grounds on which she argues, the different offices which she performs, or the method she pursues, our train of thought will be something like the following : All truth is born of God, and as every dispensation of it, whether natural or re- vealed, proceeds from him, all its parts, how- evy^r different they may be in kind, are con- sistent and correspondent members of one 2 F 66 THE CHART AND SCALE perfect whole. Thus truth is evermore the way to truth ; the less leading to the greater, the inferior to the superior, in a regular but sublime gradation. That the knowledge and certainty of one part, is the only right road to the knowledge and certainty of another, forms the cardinal and fundamental maxim of all sound logic. As, from first and intuitive principles of external and internal sense, human truths are derived of different kinds ; so, by a sublimer effort, from these human truths, as new grounds or principles, reason ascends to those which are divine. Such is the grand connecting link between natural and supernatural knowledge, annexed to the footstool of God, from which depends that golden chain, by which, reason ascends from earth to heaven. This method of conveying divine truths into the minds of men, by associating them with truths of which they were previously pos- sessed, and these the most natural and fami- liar, was universally adopted by our Lord, who never stooped to the cumbrous formali- ties of a useless logic. Instead of defining or syllogizing, we find him perpetually OF TRUTH. 67 illustrating and explaining spiritual and hea- venly things, by the analogy and similitude of those which are temporal and earthly. Of this conduct of our Divine Master and instructor, I shall here only adduce one ex- ample. It illustrates that divine authority on which the principle of theology is logically based, and thus lays down those fundamental grounds, from which we are enabled to reason in divinity. — On proclaiming to the phari- sees and scribes, that he was " the light of the world,^^ and that whosoever followed him should not " walk in darkness, but have the light of life '!' in proof of this spiritual and important truth, he does not run into specu- lative argument or metaphysical discussion, which his hearers could not possibly under- stand ; but he appeals to a public fact, which experience and long usage had ren- dered familiar to their understanding : — " It is written in your law, that the testimony of two men is true ;" from this two-fold testimony, he directly argues to the similar truth of his divine commission : " I am one that bear witness of myself, and the Fa- ther, who hath sent me, beareth witness of 68 THE CHART AND SCALE me^." — But, in his answers and expressions, as more was generally meant than met the ear, we shall find these two heavenly wit- nesses, in the different evidences which they adduce, in support of this new light of the world, laying these two different and essen- tial grounds of theologic reasoning : I. The Internal Evide7ice. In the same conference with the Jewish doctors, our Lord puts this pointed and de- cisive question ; " Which of you convinceth me of sin, and, if I speak the truth, why do ye not believe me**?" He is in scripture pre-eminently and expressly styled " the Word,'' which Word consists of the doctrines which he taught, — of which he was himself the subject ; and of the precepts which he delivered, of which he was himself the pat- tern. " Which of you,'' — said he, in this important view of himself, — " convinceth me of sin ?" For the truth of what he said, of his doctrines and of his precepts, he appealed, 3 John, viii. 17, 18. •• John, viii. 46. OF TRUTH. 69 hy this pointed question, to that moral truth, which his hearers had acquired in a natural way, and were convinced of from the prin- ciple of internal sense. He draws a proof of his own divine mission, from the eternal difference of good and evil, virtue and vice, written hy the hand of God on the hearts of men, to be among other uses, a familiar and standing witness of his Son. He in- fers, and teaches all men to infer, that, if upon examining his Word (" the brightness of his glory, and the express image of his person^,'') by this native unerring witness, it be found perfectly consistent with their best ideas of the goodness of God, and superior to their best ideas, it must, in all reason, be also consistent with the sister attribute of his Truth, and thus far worthy of all accep- tation : — " And if I speak the truth, why do ye not believe me ?" Thus it is, by the evidence of moral truth, deduced in a natural way, from the inter- nal principle of conscience^, that reason is enabled to form a decisive judgment of the * Heb. i. 3. ^ See vol. i. chap. vi. sect. 2. 70 THE CHART AND SCALE subject matter of revelation ; which is there- fore, if not properly to be called a principle, a sufficient ground of solid reasoning in mat- ters of religion, and this we call its internal evidence. On this ground, let the theo- logical student exert his keenest powers in accurately and minutely sifting and examin- ing the moral departments of scripture. In the discharge of this duty, the syllogistic logic with all its parade of modes and figures will prove of little service. It may puzzle and perplex, it will not assist him. A competent knowledge of moral science, with a sound head and a sincere heart, will form his best aid in this arduous and interesting task. Could any thing be found in Scripture, as taught or enjoined of God, which when fully understood, palpably contradicts his moral attributes, as they are discovered by the light of conscience and natural reason (which are our first, and as far as they go, true and real lights) ; could any thing be found, which is vicious, immoral, and sinful, op- posed to his very being : he might safely con- clude, that it could not proceed from Him, who is the author of good and not of evil. OF TRUTH. 71 But on the contrary, if the whole rehgious dispensation, both doctrinal and moral, dis- play that superabundant mercy, goodness, and good-will to men, which exceed all hu- man conception, and which must be divine, — it affords a most strong presumption, al- most amounting to full and positive proof, that it assuredly came from heaven. The doctrines of our religion, founded essentially in the unsearchable wisdom of the Godhead (to judge of which attribute of the divine nature, the whole order of intellectual beings and their relations should be taken into account), are transcendently sublime, and some of them far beyond the highest reach of our understanding to compass, or our imagination to conceive. But, to be con- vinced of the great mercy and goodness which they effectuate to the human race, the sole relations to be considered, are those between God and man, and these are easily and clearly to be understood ^. These attributes, shining upon the face of the whole Christian dispensation with the benignest influence, ^ See Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. p. 26. 72 THE CHART AND SCALE discover to natural reason conspicuous marks of its divine extraction ; holding out " a bright and shining light," by which we be- hold, in its constitution, the hand of an im- maculate orioinal. " The law of the Lord is an undefiled law, converting the soul ; the statutes of the Lord are right and rejoice the heart. The commandment of the Lord is pure, and giveth light unto the eyes/' This is a species of evidence, which is mixed and interwoven with the vitals of our religion, and inherent in its very substance — " The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth ^" Thus the perfect theory of that moral virtue, which was transcribed into the life and actions of " the Author and Finisher of our faith,'' is to be found in the records of the Holy Scriptures, and constitutes their first credential and foundation. Such is the order, beauty, harmony, and consistence, which per- vade the whole of God's moral government, ' John, i. 14. OF TRUTH. 73 and conspire to the perfection of the heavenly system. By this internal evidence of his word, , addressed to the hearts and consciences of men, Christ was, therefore, " one who bore witness of himself,^^ as the Divine Messenger of the new covenant^. 11. The Eitenial Evidence of Miracles. But, however necessary and fundamental this species of evidence may be to a religion, which assumes to have come from God, it is not sufficient, of itself alone, to evince the authority of a divine commission^. Our ^ On the internal evidences, see Locke's Reasonableness of Christianity, Soame Jenyns, Beattie, Leland, Sumner ; and, above all, carefully study and inwardly digest the profound " Analogy" of Bishop Butler. — Editor. ^ " In reverence to truth, I hold myself obliged to own, that, in my opinion, the reasonableness of a doctrine pre- tended to come immediately from God, is, of itself alone, no proof, but a presumption only, of such its divine original : because, though the excellence of the doctrine (even allowing it to surpass all other moral teaching whatsoever), may show it to be worthy of God, yet, from that sole excellence, we cannot certainly conclude that it came immediately from him ; since we know not to what heights of moral knowledge 74 THE CHART AND SCALE Lord therefore appeals to another, though not more essential, more obvious and con- vincing test, which stamps an irrefragable seal on the heavenly embassy, — " And the Father who hath sent me beareth witness of me. To call the attention of men to this latter evidence, as more obvious to their apprehen- sion, and in itself more palpable and direct, he uses this strong, though indirect language : " If I bear witness of myself, my witness is the human understanding', unassisted by inspiration, may arrive. Not even our full experience, that all the wisdom of Greece and Rome comes extremely short of the wisdom of the Gospel, can support us in concluding, with certainty, that this Gospel was sent immediately from God. We can but doubtfully guess, what excellence may be produced by a well cultivated mind, further blessed with a vigorous temperament, and a happy organization, of body. The amazement into which Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries in nature, threw the learned world, as soon as men became able to comprehend their truth and utility, sufficiently shows, what little conception it had, that the human faculties could ever rise so high, or spread so wide. " On the whole therefore we conclude, that, strictly speaking, there is no ground of conviction, solid and strong enough to bear the weight of so great an interest, but that which rises on miracles, worked by the first messengers of a new religion, in support and confirmation of their mission. " That is, miracles and miracles only, demonstrate that the doctrine, which is seen to be worthy of God, did, indeed, come immediately from him." — Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. chap. 5. OF TFiUTH. 75 not true^^/' (being only the " testimony of one/' and therefore insufficient of itself), pro- ceeding in the same peremptory and pointed style, — " There is another who beareth wit- ness of me, and I know that the witness which he witnesseth of me is true. The works that the Father hath given me to finish, even the works that I do, bear witness of me, that the Father hath sent me ; and the Father himself, who hath sent me, hath borne wit- ness of me^^." — " If I do not the works of my Father, believe me not. But if I do, though ye believe not me, believe the works ; that ye may know and believe that the Father is in me, and I in him^^." This second witness of his mission to which Christ appealed, which he calls works, were the most plain and obvious facts, intimately connected with his doctrines and precepts, as collateral vouchers of their divinity. After estimating the internal or moral evidence, it is the next office of reason to canvass the pretensions of revelation upon the ground of ^^ That he speaks indirectly, is obvious from another passage in St. John's Gospel, where speaking directly, he contradicts these words — " Though I bear record of myself, my record is true." — viii. 14. '" John, V. 31, :32, 36. '- John, .\. 37, 38. 76 THE CHART AND SCALE these external concomitant facts. These are usually called " the external evidences of Christianity/' The nature of facts, as a species of truth, was analysed in the first volume of this work, to which I must now recall the attention of my reader. They are those human truths, by which the author of our religion leads men immediately to the belief of its divine mys- teries. This species of truth was found to be more direct and obvious than any other ; open to the apprehension, and familiar to the minds of all men ; resulting immediately from the individual objects presented to the eye, the most perfect of the senses ; springing from effects themselves, without attention to their remoter causes ; and requiring nothing for their proof, but the coincidence of trans- action, person, time, and place, or for their conviction, but that the senses be sound, competent, and well-informed. And from their frequency and incessant occurrence in the ordinary course of human affairs, facts are not only most obvious and familiar in themselves, but also in their secondary and efficient causes ^^. '=• See vol. i. p. 203. OF TRUTH. 77 These are the proper topics for the theo- logical student to canvass and examine, in this important department of divinity — but in which, he can derive little assistance from the logic of the schools. The inductions of facts are not to be determined by modes and figures. It is here, that the " Short Me- thods of Leslie with the Jews and Deists'' will afford more assistance, than the entire Organon of Aristotle. The facts which our Saviour laid down, as the original ground of evidence, by which men might be convinced of the truth of his religion, were as palpable to the senses, and easy to the apprehensions of all men, as it is possible for any facts to be. They were witnessed by men of the most artless, simple, and unambitious character, yet who were very slow and cautious in giving their assent, and who could gain nothing from yielding to their convictions, but the hatred, de- rision, and persecutions of their cotempo- raries^"*. The facts themselves, however, dif- fer from the most common and ordinary that occur in the natural course of things, '^ See Paley's Evidences, vol. i. 78 THE CHART AND SCALE only in one particular ; which difference was as clearly to be apprehended by the plainest conception, as the facts them- selves. And it is this important difference to which they owe their evidence ; for whereas other facts are the effects of common and ordinary causes, these were still more obvi- ously the immediate effects of a most un- common and extraordinary cause. From the operation of this uncommon and extraordinary cause, not producing new phe- nomena in a natural way, but doing won- derful and particular acts, and producing wonderful and peculiar effects, in a super- natural manner ; these facts, appointed as the concomitant proofs and evidences of the religious dispensation, were called signs, powers, or miracles. They were, indeed, such " works as no man can do, except God be with him,'' whose all-wise and perfect nature could not employ such stupendous means to sanction a delusion, or to impose on his moral agents ; but to confirm and establish the most important and beneficial truth. These "signs" which were done by Jesus, OF TRUTH. 79 in the presence of his disciples, however plain and obvious to the senses of the spectators, were like all other facts ^* " transient and confined to time and place." To keep up their memory and effects, they were there- fore written and recorded by their first wit- nesses, that others might believe ^^. These miracles, though new and different from the ordinary and uniform experience of men, and the common effects of common causes, and on that account the less credible in themselves ; yet, being the only adequate credentials which could confirm to men the testimony of God and the divine commission of his Son, and absolutely indispensable to the ends of a dispensation so important as to involve the happiness of the human race, derive a credit both from their singular necessity, and the singular importance of their final cause. When thus supported by human testimony sufficiently authentic, they are entitled to the belief of all future ages^^. They were also pronounced and declared by '* See vol. i. p. 196. '^ John, xx. 31. '^ "A miracle, even when best supported by human testi- 80 THE CHART AND SCALE their author, the person who was invested with the supernatural power of performing them, and who communicated to others the same power, to be expressly given as the standing test, the broad seal, of his divine mony, needeth to be still further qualified, ere it can deserve credit of a rational believer: namely, that it be so connected with the system to which it claims relation, as that it seem to make part of it, or to be necessary to its completion. " It is otherwise in facts acknowledged to be within the verge of nature and human agency. Here, all that is wanted to recommend them to our belief, is the testimony of knowing and honest witnesses. " While in pretended facts beyond the verge of nature and human agency, such as those we call miraculous, much more is required when offered to our belief. The control and arrest of the established laws of nature, by the God and Author of nature, either mediately or immediately, is a thing which common experience hath rendered so extremely im- probable, that it will, at least, balance the very best human testimony, standing unsupported and alone. And why? Because ordinary facts carry their causes openly and mani- festly along with them ; or if not so, yet none are required, as we are convinced their causes must be intrinsically there. But in facts assumed to be miraculous, the immediate efficient cause is extrinsical ; and therefore leaves room for doubt and uncertainty : or rather, when, in this case, men perceive no cause, they are apt to conclude there is none ; or, in other words, that the report is false and groundless. So that when the whole evidence of the fact, deemed mira- culous, is solely comprised in human testimony, and is in its nature contrary to uniform experience, the philosopher will at least suspend his belief. " But though in all miracles, that is, in facts deemed mira- culous, the efficient cause continues unknown ; yet, in those OF TRUTH. 81 commission, to which they were so indis- pensable ; and to complete their attesting power, they were essentially and inseparably connected with the most important part of the dispensation, and of the truths them- which our holy religion seems to recommend to our belief, the final cause always stands apparent. And if that cause be so important as to make the miracle necessary to the ends of the dispensation, this is all that can reasonably be required to entitle it to our belief; when proposed to us with the same fulness of human testimony, which is sufficient to establish a common fact : since in this case, we have the moral attri- butes of the Deity to secure us from an error so fatal to our welfare. " And the confining our belief of miracles within these bounds, wipes away (as I conceive) all the miserable so- phistry of our modern pretenders to philosophy, both at home and abroad against miracles, on pretence of their being contrary to general experience, in the ordinary course of things. At least, the true philosopher [Mr. Locke] so thought, when he made that strict inquiry into truth, towards the con- clusion of his immortal work. — Though common experience, (says he) and the ordinary course of things have justly a weighty influence on the minds of men, to make them give or refuse credit to any thing proposed to their belief; yet there is one case, wherein the strangeness of the facts lessens not the assent to a fair testimony given of it. For where supernatural events are suitable to the ends aimed at by Him, who hath power to change the course of nature, then, under such circumstances, they may be fitter to procure belief, by how much the more they are beyond or contrary to ordinary observation. This is the proper case of miracles, which well attested, do not only find credit themselves, but give it also to other truths, which need such confirmation."-- Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. chap. 5. 2G 82 THE CHART AND SCALE selves ^^. " The works, which the Father hath given me to finish, the same works that I do, bear witness of me." — " If ye beheve not me, beUeve the works/' To extend their attesting power to all future ages, these miracles were inseparably interwoven with the most important parts of the divine dispensation itself; that both might be recorded together, and so intermixed, that the truths could not be heard, or read, with- out the evidence, nor the evidences without 17 « \Yg come next to that second species of miracles whose subject makes so essential a part in the economy of the gospel ; that, without it, the whole would be vain and fruit- less. The first and principal of this species is the miracle of Christ's resurrection from the dead. ' If Christ be not raised (saith St. Paul), your faith is vain; you are yet in your sins.' And St. Peter uses the same argument to show the necessity of his Master's resurrection — * God (says he) raised hira up, having loosed the pains of death ; because it was not possible that he should be holden of it.' — If Christ himself was not seen to enjoy the fruits of that redemption, which was of his own procuring, what hopes could be enter- tained for the rest of mankind? Would it not have been too plausibly concluded, that this expedient redemption had proved ineffectual by Christ's not rising? So necessarily connected (in the apostle's opinion) was the miracle of our Saviour's visible resurrection with the very essence of the Christian faith — " Thus, we see, the miracle of the resurrection made a necessary part of the integrity of the gospel." — Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. chap. 5. OF TRUTH. 83 the truths, with which they are inseparably connected. The forgiveness of sins was one of the most important truths of the heavenly dispensation ; and on seeing the faith of the paralytic, who was let down upon his bed through the roof, our Lord pronounced that his sins were forgiven him. This high act of his divine authority, raising the astonishment of his hearers, the Scribes and Pharisees ; to convince them of its truth, he immediately coupled it with a miracle, which he purposely transacted before their eyes, that, from seeing the one act of supernatural power, they might be convinced of the other. Knowing, as he did, their secret thoughts upon the occa- sion, he asked them this pointed question — " Whether is easier to say, Thy sins be for- given thee ; or to say. Arise and walk V And then, that from seeing the miracle, they might be convinced of his power of forgiving sins, he said to the paralytic, " Arise, take up thy bed, and go unto thy house ;'' which the man joyfully did, glorifying God^^. In this instance, as in many others, the miracle '8 Luke, V. 18—25. 84 THE CHART AND SCALE sprang out of the doctrine which it was im- mediately given to attest ; and the doctrine was fully confirmed by the miracle ; since he who was empowered to perform the miracle, could not teach what was untrue. But to complete their attesting power, some of these miracles were not only insepa- rably interwoven with the truths, but formed an essential part of the truths themselves ; as in the instance of our Lord's resurrection from the dead, which constitutes a necessary part of the gospel dispensation, as the full and final test both of the forgiveness of sins and the resurrection of the dead — the two cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith. Thus, whether from the emergency of the case, the authority of the agent, or their own self-importance they derive the strongest and most befitting credibility. Such is the plain and easy apprehension of the nature and use of miracles, in their con- nexion with the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith. — But some losing themselves in the mazes of a sceptical philosophy, pos- sess the unhappy talent of puzzling the plainest things ; and what is a greater evil, OF TRUTH. 85 they allure others into the toils in which they have been taken ; who vainly struggling to get free, entangle themselves the more, till the whole becomes a maze of perplexity and error. By this external evidence of works super- naturally performed, " the Father also, who had sent him, bore witness of him.'^ Founded on the plainest testimony of the internal and external senses, thus clear and convincing are these grounds of evidence. The first, are inherent in the very vitals of the religious dispensation ; the other, essentially connected with it. To both conjointly, our Lord appeals as evidence of the truth, which he brought down from heaven, to become the " light of the world,'^ in that concise and expressive declaration, — " I am one who bear witness of myself, and the Father, who hath sent me, beareth witness of me.^^ And, when the blind obstinacy of his prejudiced and perverted hearers closed their eyes against the blaze of this twofold light ; with that dignity and sublimity of character which distinguished all his deeds and words, he condemned their aggravated blindness, in this 86 THE CHART AND SCALE sum'mary and decisive sentence — " And now have they seen and hated both me and my Father ^^" These two grounds of reasoning, from ex- ternal and internal evidence, though essen- tially different, are conjointly indispensable to the establishment of that divine testimony, which is the infallible principle of all re- vealed religion, mutually supporting and sup- ported by each other — the internal purity of the doctrine proving, that the miracle which accompanied it was wrought of God ; and the divine power of the miracle proving, in its turn, the divinity of the doctrine^^. '^ John, XV. 24. On the external evidence, see Lardner, Paley, Bishop Douglas's " Criterion," &c. — Editor. ^° " So little being known of the powers of created spirits superior to ourselves (some of which we are taught to believe are beneficent to man, and some averse), all that we can con- clude of miracles, considered only in themselves, is that they are the work of agents, able in some instances to control nature, and divert her from her established course. But whether this control be performed immediately by the God of nature, or by agents acting under his direction, or on the contrary by malignant agents, at enmity with man, and, for a time, permitted to indulge their perverse and hurtful pur- poses, cannot be known, but by the nature of that doctrine, in support of which the pretended miracles are performed. The conclusion from this, is, that the miracles are to be veri- fied by the doctrine. But since we know so little of the OF TRUTH. 87 III. The Evidence of Fropltecy. In addition to the supernatural power of miracles, exercised by Christ and his apos- tles, for the rational foundation of his religion ; in the same interesting conference with the Jewish doctors, our Lord appealed to ano- ther ground of external evidence of a dif- ferent and more complex kind, in which the same transcendent power was as conspicu- ously, and still more wonderfully displayed. — " Search the Scriptures, for in them, ye think ye have eternal life ; and these are they which testify of me^^." Such is the evidence of prophecy^ founded extent of the human understanding-, we cannot determine of the true original of the doctrine proposed to our belief, till it be supported by miracles : now the conclusion from this is, that the doctrine is to be verified by miracles. " In this there is no fruitless return of an unprogres- sive argument, but a regular procession of two distinct and different truths, till the whole reasoning becomes complete. In truth, they afford mutual assistance to one another ; yet not by taking back what they had given, but by continuing to hold what each had imparted to the support of the other. " On the whole, we conclude, that if any messengers ever wanted the credentials of miracles, they were the first mes- sengers of God in the revealed mystery of the gospel." — Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. chap. 5. '^' John, V. 39. Compare Rev. xix. 19. 88 THE CHART AND SCALE on a natural truth, which is evinced by the experience of men in every age — That the knowledge of future contingent events is be- yond the reach of all human foresight ; and consequently, that when the prediction of such events is verified by facts, a divine inter- position must obviously have been made for some important purpose. To attest the truth of a supernatural revelation was frequently declared by our Lord himself, and the other illustrious persons who were favoured with this divine gift, to be that important purpose ; nor can we doubt the truth of this declara- tion, when made by those who were com- missioned with the power, and intrusted with the means. The evidence of prophecy is of vast variety and extent, though connected in one mar- vellously consistent chain. It has accom- panied the dispensation of theologic truth, from the earliest ages before the personal advent of Christ; in whom, as in a centre, the whole was united. It is still extended and enlarged by him and his apostles, so as to accompany this truth through succeeding ages with its attesting power, even to the end of the world. OF TRUTH. 89 The vast extent of this evidence from Adam to Christ, precludes even the most distant suspicion of its being the concert or con- trivance of man ; for how is it possible to conceive, that there could be a combination, among the prophets of such different and distant times ? Had it been a forgery con- trived by different persons, in different ages, how could they so exactly and minutely concur in one single point — " the testimony of Jesus ?" This is a manifest impossibility, and most strongly proves, that they were all inspired " by one and the same Spirit/' Such evidence, for these reasons, St. Peter thought stronger than that of miracles derived from the outward senses. It were easier to suppose that the senses of the apostles might have been deceived, than that Adam, Abraham, Moses, David, and St. John could have con- certed together ^^. This is a most fruitful and germinating branch of theological study, in which the learned divine will meet with an extensive and sublime employment. This species of exter- nal evidence displays the wondrous skill and 22 See 2 Pet. i. 16—21. 90 THE CHART AND SCALE profound contrivance of its author. Its events are connected with each other, and distributed through all ages, to the termination of the whole religious scheme ; yet so involved in darkness, that the most penetrating eye can- not foresee them, till they eventually come to pass. The powers of the human mind are then lost in astonishment, at their exact cor- respondence with the predictions. Mean- while, the works of the most eminent writers on prophecy afford striking proofs of this super- natural contrivance. Their most sagacious interpretations are perpetually contradicted by the succession of events. They thus evince the impenetrable veil which overhangs unfulfilled prophecies— but whilst they dis- cover their own fallibility, they preserve attention to the general argument, and thus keep alive the force of its evidence. In this field of study, the ofhce of the theologist is difficult and delicate. It does not consist in anticipating events, in which his imagination will lead him into a labyrinth of error ; but rather, in studying the language of prophecy, and attending, with a watchful eye, to the history of events and changes, as they succes- OF TRUTH. 91 sivelj occur, and thus to classify events with their predictions, when they are found clearly to correspond. But to expatiate in this field of prophecy, would extend these lectures far beyond the limits of the plan prescribed. — Yet we may incidentally ob- serve, that it is by induction, not by syllo- gism, such studies are to be prosecuted. With one or other of these external evi- dences, the Christian church hath been sup- plied, according to its different circumstances and occasions, as they were best adapted to the purposes and progress of its dispensa- tion. Miracles, striking immediately upon the senses, were best calculated for the first planting of a new religion ; but they could not be continued through future ages. By being perpetually repeated, they would in time have lost their very nature, and conse- quently their evidence. When miracles began to be withdrawn, prophecy began to operate, which could not produce an immediate effect on the first witnesses, as requiring time, after its enunciation, for its accomplishment. It was thus prepared to become their substitute. 92 THE CHART AND SCALE and is, on that account, styled by St. Peter " a light shining in a dark place." With us, consequently, in these later ages, it is the " surer," and more lasting evidence. Whilst we have miracles only on record, losing per- haps something of their force by time ; we have prophecy, in some part of its course, in the act of completion, and growing more and more convincing, till by the germinant luxuriancy of its branches, and the gradual ripening of its fruit, its force becomes irre- sistible. — It is thus, that prophecy is gra- dually converted into history. By this divine arrangement, " the sovereign Master, who no less manifests his constant presence to the moral, than to the natural government of the world, has been graciously pleased to give to these later ages of the church, more than an equivalent for what he had bestowed upon the earlier; in beginning to shower down on his chosen servants of the new covenant, the riches of his prophecy, as the power of working miracles abated — and hence, the wisdom of the divine Dispenser is still further seen, in making prophecy, not only the strongest, but the last and con- OF TRUTH. QS eluding evidence of a religion, which, as it was the conclusion of the whole scheme of revelation, so, having (as it should seem) the largest portion of its course to run, that species of evidence, which does not lose, but gain strength by time, was best fitted to ac- company it, to its utmost period ^^." As miracles formed a necessary supplement to the moral evidence, so this vast chain of prophecy, fulfilling and to be fulfilled, con- firms the truth of those miracles, in which it originated, and whose absence it sup- plies. How wonderfully do these predic- tions co-operate in one great design, forming together a magnificent and stately system, an extensive fabric of evidence, equally to be admired for the symmetry and support of all the parts, and the harmony and composition of the whole. — Such is " the unity of the Spirit ;" such " the power and wisdom of God ;" such " the testimony of Jesus,'' which is "the spirit of prophecy^'*." ^ Warb. Div. Leg. book ix. chap. 6. ^^ On prophetic evidence, see Sherlock, Hurd, Mede, Newton, Davison, &c. — Editor. 9'^ THE CHART AND SCALE These external evidences, by which the divine testimony of the Bible is established, and which form the grounds of a rational faith, are not only calculated for the purposes of different men, according to the times and circumstances under which they are placed ; but require a different train and method of reasoning, in their proof and authentication. IV. The Evidence of Types. There exists also a still further kind of exter- nal evidence belonging to Christianity, from the types and figures of the Old Testament, as realized in the New, and which, taken in its whole amount, is very considerable. It is a species of evidence altogether peculiar to our religion. It proceeds on the principle, that such a regular and orderly series of resem- blances, carried on from Creation to the birth of Christ, could not have resulted from accident, that it denotes the finger of God, and the operation of divine superintendence. Thus the sacrifices of the Jews were highly typical of the one great sacrifice to be offered for the sins of the world. The rock, the OF TRUTH. 95 manna, the brazen serpent, the feasts of Passover and Pentecost, the institution of the Sabbath, the first Adam as corresponding to the second, the strong resemblance of Abraham, Moses, &c. to the personal cha- racter of Jesus, — all these types and figures be- token something quite distinct from the facts of other histories. They mark out a dispen- sation harmonious in all its parts, in which times, and places, and all the circumstance of individual character, are brought into cor- respondence with one vast design. And such resemblances, be it remembered, are appealed to in the New Testament, as forming a ground for the evidence of the truth of Chris- tianity, and of the reality of Christ's mission ; and that consequently we are fully justified, in adducing it as part of that evidence. But the great canon for the theologic student to observe is this, — that no type can be esta- blished without such scriptural authority, whilst others are to be viewed only as orna- mental or instructive illustrations^^. ^^ See Conybeare's Bam pton Lectures; Butler's Analogy, part ii. chap. 7; Jortin on the Truth of the Christian Religion, chap. 3. — Editor. 96 THE CHART AND SCALE To the eye-witness of the facts, called miracles, which were performed by Christ himself, the evidence was so palpable and direct, that, where the mind was candid and well-disposed, they produced an immediate and full conviction of the whole truth of his doctrine, as the testimony of God. To the primitive Christians, who were not such eye-witnesses, the evidence was indeed in one degree removed. Their conviction, how- ever, flowed from the immediate report of the eye-witnesses, or at least from that report, at second hand ; which testimony was indeed directly confirmed to them, by the eye- witness of other miracles, — " the Lord work- ing with his servants, and confirming the word, with signs following ^^.'' In this case, reason had a very short and easy process. In the succeeding age, when the canon of the New Testament was completing under conduct of inspiration, these evidences were confirmed by recent facts, performed in times not far remote, by persons who were known in places where the parties lived, and " Mark, xiv. 20. OF TRUTH. 97 published by the same, in such times and places, as the original miracles had been enacted, challenging all who could to con- tradict them. The conviction of the early Christians was founded on the sacred writings thus recently attested, and on the inspired authority of their respective authors, which could be clearly proved. This evidence of fact and history was directly confirmed by prophecies, which were then beginning to be fulfilled, and especially by the fall of Jeru- salem. In this case, reason had a somewhat longer operation, but the effect was vivid. We, in these distant ages, exist under very different circumstances both of time and place. The era, in which the truths of Christianity were revealed, and its evidences exhibited to the world, and in which both were committed to written record, is many ages removed, and we live in countries far remote. This evidence therefore must neces- sarily come down to us through the pro- tracted channel of human testimony. But if we have not such immediate and direct external witness of Christianity, we have what may be called its monumental evidence, 2 H 98 THE CHART AND SCALE arising from its long preservation amidst surrounding difficulties, its triumph over persecution, its moral benefits on nations, its harmony with the growth of science and civilization, and the utter improbability, that it can ever be overturned by the opposition of its enemies, or even by the infirmities of its friends and adherents ; above all, we have the standing evidence arising from the Jewish history. — But this monumental evidence ex- tends itself also into the heart and conscience of every faithful individual. It is the witness within ourselves of the truth of Christianity, resulting from its sanctifying effect on our hearts and lives. This is what the Scripture denotes, " by the Spirit bearing witness with our spirit, that we are the children of God.'' Thus the evidences, by which both the autho- rity of revelation and the inspiration of the Scriptures are established, are not only cal- culated, as we have observed, for the use of different men in different ages, but now require a different train of reasoning from that which belonged to the primitive church. Since we are now indebted to the testi- mony of men for that testimony of God OF TRUTH. 99 which forms the primary principle ot our faith, the study of Christian theology is necessarily based upon history, which opens an extensive and laborious field of reasoning and critical discussion. The method which reason should adopt in this extensive department of theology, consists in a logical train of historical investigation, to establish a series of important facts^^. Now, the first fact which presents itself to the theo- logical inquirer will be — Whether the senses of the immediate witnesses of the super- natural facts and evidences of this divine commission were sound and well-informed, clear and competent judges of truth, and sub- ject to no fraud or imposition '^^ ? And to this, another will succeed as its counterpart — Whether their credit may be relied on, as faithful and honest relators ^^? — These two facts, in their joint affirmation, constitute the requisite qualification of a true witness and faithful narrator, neither deceived himself, nor intending to deceive others ; without ^ See chap. v. sect. 1, vol. i. 29 See p. 208—210, of ditto. '" See p. 214—210, of ditto. 100 THE CHART AND SCALE which, as a primary quahfication, any history may prove either a fallacy or an imposture. The immediate witnesses, or their imme- diate friends, the appointed instruments of the divine testimony in all its parts, were specially and divinely commissioned, and aided by a supernatural power, to commit the whole substance of its truth and evi- dence of every kind, to written record. They were also enabled, by divine assistance, to add whatever was necessary, by way of explanation, prophecy, or exhortation, to complete the whole dispensation of grace to man ; that " the faith of future ages might stand not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth.'' Of the originals, or autographies, of this written record, forming the canon, executed under this infallible guidance, it hath pleased Divine Providence to deprive us. Having shared the fate of all such ancient originals, we have now only their copies, which have been transmittedby human means. But the Divine Wisdom has no doubt guarded this sacred deposit by the invisible eye of its especial care. OF TRUTH. 101 The Scriptures inform us, that Christ esta- bhshed his church upon earth, against which the gates of Hell should not prevail, to remain among other purposes, the standing witness of their own purity and authenticity. Upon the testimony of the church, extended and confirmed from one generation to another, we receive the Scriptures at the present day, which testimony we are to examine, as we do that of other facts, till our judgment is satisfied, without embracing them upon any authority which the church may have as- sumed. We are to judge of the authenticity of the Scriptures, as we would of any other writing, by examining into the plain evidence of facts, without attending to any extrane- ous authority. The fact is, that the canon of the New Testament was formed, while the autographs of the apostles^ writings were still in existence, and their authenticity publicly and concurrently acknowledged; so that it was settled at the time, when it could be esta- blished by full evidence, and whilst the noto- riety of the facts was felt by all. And as the church spread itself into so many branches, stretching into different countries, we have 102 THE CHART AND SCALE received it down, from that time, in copies so universally disseminated throughout Christen- dom, that it was impossible to add or detract from it, or to change any part, without a general detection of the forgery by all the churches in the world. And thus the testimony of the Christian church becomes the public warrant for the authenticity of those Scriptures, which form the rule of Christian faith ; as the Jew- ish church previously was the witness of the authenticity of the Scriptures, which form the canon of the Old Testament. The questions which arise under these cir- cumstances will therefore be — I. Whether the originals themselves were the genuine pro- ductions of those immediate witnesses or their immediate friends, whose names they bear.rr-II. Whether these productions had actually the seal of Divine Inspiration ? On this decision, depends a most important and extensive subject of theological inquiry and learned investigation. — III. Whether those manuscripts and books, which contain the copies, with their ancient versions, editions, and quotations in different languages, be the faithful transcripts of the originals ? OF TRUTH. 103 And, to conclude this preliminary depart- ment of the study of theology, — as these numerous manuscripts, translations, editions, and quotations are found, upon comparison, to differ from each other, though in no very essential points, yet in numerous particulars of smaller account ; another subject of nice exa- mination and critical judgment opens itself to the student, in an extensive collation and comparison of correspondent texts ; to in- vestigate, as far as possible, the mutila- tions, additions, and alterations, which may have arisen through fraud, ignorance, or accident, and by an able and impartial decision, to restore the true and genuine text^^ Thus long and laborious is the way which leads fallible men, in these distant ages, to the infallible principle of theology. On these grounds of judgment, which form the com- monest truths of common life, derived from the internal and external senses, and from the " See Bishop Marsh's Lectures, and his Translation of Michaelis; Lardner's Credibility ; Jones on the Canon, &c. — Editor. 104 THE CHART AND SCALE documents of sound and authentic history (which may be considered as primary prin- ciples, from which we reason to the divine testimony, as secondary), the truth and cer- tainty of the Christian rehgion are firmly built. Reason, as we have more than once observed, can only judge of evidence ; and such evidences are the best, they are indeed all, which the nature of that religion, being purely divine and spiritual, separate from all human and earthly things, can possibly admit : and whatever be the opinions of men, they were thought by Him, who gave us that religion, sufficient for our information and conviction in every age. They are, in all respects, calculated to vindicate the good- ness, and display the mercy of God, "whose ways are not as our ways, nor his thoughts as our thoughts '" who, whether we may be able to discern them or not, knowing himself what cause will produce the designed effect, ever employs the fittest means to accomplish the end he has in view ; and who has taken especial care, in every part and under every circumstance of his revealed dispensation, that " our faith should stand, OF TRUTH. 105 not in the wisdom of men, but in the power of God." By such a method of extensive and various reasoning, philosophically instituted and lo- gically conducted, and upon such grounds, may be established a rational and sublime theology ; just as, in a different province, the fabric of natural philosophy is erected upon physical and experimental principles. This is the theology, which, as the tower on a rock, may defy in every age the assaults of in- fidelity. After the most accurate and critical inquiry, the acutest discernment, and the profoundest learning, which have been re- peatedly exerted on the one hand ; after all, which the keenest acumen, the subtlest artifice, and the deepest sophistry, could object on the other, upon a subject of the greatest and most universal concern, what has been the general result? — The Christian religion has been established and confirmed, as much by the attacks of its bitterest adversaries, as by the defences of its ablest advocates. Upon these grounds it has gone on conquering and to conquer, triumphing over interest and ambition, igno- 106 THE CHART AND SCALE ranee and learning, friends and foes, the superstitions of popery and the false logic of the schools. Reason and sound philosophy are the allies, on whose honest and faithful service she may depend. In every age and country, civilization and science have erected their standard in her cause. They banish error and superstition, scepticism and infidelity, from, her shrine ; and rejoice to place that faith, which is the pure oifspring of heaven, in the legitimate seat of the heart and understanding^^. ^- On the various subjects of this chapter, consult Leland on the Advantage and Necessity of Revelation ; Porteus and Ryan on the Beneficial Effects of Christianity ; Millar's Bampton Lectures; Benson's and Millar's Histories of Chris- tianity ; Conybeare's Defence of Revealed Religion ; Leland's Deistical Writers ; Berkeley's Minute Philosopher; Sumner on the Creation, &c. &c. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 107 CHAP. IV. THE STUDY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 'Tyf "THEN, by establishing the infaUible * ' principle of theology, the testimony of God, that sacred fountain from which the mysteries of religion spontaneously flow, reason has cleared her way to the foun- dation of our most holy faith ; the treasures of the sacred volume still remain to be gathered with diligence, and preserved with care, and to be so faithfully and plentifully distributed among men, that they may be enjoyed by all, who are willing to embrace and to improve them, in the readiest and most effective manner. This opens another field for the exercise of reason in the province of theology, in which the devout student will find additional and different employ- ment. We are thus brought to the second general 108 THE CHART AND SCALE object of inquiry, viz. the proper study of the Bible. The Holy Scriptures are the sole repository of all the mysteries of religion, doctrinal and moral, comprising the whole form and sub- stance of theologic truth. They are styled " the oracles of God,^^ speaking and declaring his will to every age and country, in a language, which though sometimes plain and express, is at others, mysterious as the truths which they contain. They constitute the sole and universal spring, whose living waters are to flow pure and unadulterated " for the healing of the nations,'^ to the end of time. The critical study and analysis of every part present the sublimest subject of rational investigation to the mind of man. In this portion of theology, the act of rea- soning becomes an act of interpretation, in the conduct and execution of which, the deepest learning, the maturest judgment, the ablest criticism, the most extensive information, and, I may add, the purest taste, will find ample scope for their exercise and improve- OP TRUTH. 109 ment. But to qualify the student for the successful execution of this various and im- portant task, his mind should be cultivated and prepared, by a general and comprehen- sive view of the Holy Scriptures, which should form his first and most essential study. And as, in the prosecution of every inquiry, it is of the first and greatest im- portance to set out in the right and straight- forward road ; so, by adopting that method of study, which is philosophically and logi- cally just, we may save much fruitless toil, and be most successful in our pursuit. That, however infinite and various in his truth, " the Lord our God is one Lord,^' con- sistent with himself and uniform in opera- tion, and that one part of his truth is every where introductory to, and illustrative of another, is the solid foundation of that logical analogy, from which the natural system of the universe becomes a key to the moral, and by which the philosophic inquirer is enabled to explore the celestial regions. A right knowledge of the dispensation of nature will therefore furnish us with the clue, which may lead us to the right knowledge of that of 1 10 THE CHART AND SCALE grace : and by placing them side by side, in a comparative estimate, we shall discover that the true method of interpreting the one, will introduce us to the true method of inter- preting the other. " Two books or volumes of study," says our great philosopher, " are laid before us, if we would be secure from error. First, the Scriptures, revealing the will of God .; and then, the creatures, express- ing his power, whereof the latter is a key unto the former^.'' The display of himself, in the great volume of his works, will open to our understanding the display of himself, in the smaller, but more precious volume of his word. The economy of the one will illustrate and unfold the economy of the other, and thus the successful study of both may be conjointly prosecuted. Impressed on every thing around, we observe, in the natural system of the universe, the power, the wisdom, and the goodness, of the Deity ; they meet the eye in such bold and prominent relief, as to force themselves on ' Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. 1. See also Bishop Butler's Analogy, and Bishop Brown's Works. OF TRUTH. Ill the minds of the most torpid and uninformed. In addition to these convictions of the Divine attributes, the knowledge also of the general use of such things, as are necessary for the subsistence and convenience of human life, is easily attained. All the domestic and social benefits, which are requisite for the personal security and comfort of mankind, are extracted and derived with ease, from the various materials with which we are sur- rounded. Thus obvious is the book of nature, in its most useful pages, to the plainest under- standing. — With like clearness and sim- plicity, the fundamental truths of Christianity are disclosed to all. The great duties of faith, obedience, and repentance, which are sufficient to " make men wise unto sal- vation,'^ are plainly and distinctly taught in almost every page of the sacred volume ; whilst every moral virtue and obligation is inculcated with a clearness and simplicity, to which all uninspired morality must yield. — So openly hath the universal Father dealt with all men in both his dispensations ; leaving nothing concealed, which is neces- sary or expedient for the instruction of the 112 THE CHART AND SCALE ignorant and unlearned (who in all human society must ever form the great majority), either in the use of things, which contribute to the comfort of this present life ; or in that religious information and moral duty, in which, their future happiness is involved. But, however plainly these Divine attri- butes may impress themselves upon the gene- ral and superficial attention of all men, or, however easily the most common use of common things may be discovered ; it is only to the eye of the philosopher, pene- trating by accurate and experimental obser- vation, into the deeper recesses of nature, in the various parts of her extensive volume, that this Divine power is displayed in all its force, this wisdom unfolded in all its glory, and this goodness shines forth in all its beauty ; — that all those latent causes are disclosed, which, in the mechanism of the material system, produce such various and astonishing effects. Yet is the moral dispensa- tion, however clear and obvious in its general truths and duties, replete with far deeper and sublimer mysteries, than the natural. The volume of inspiration is professedly mys- OF TRUTH. 1 13 terious, demanding the deepest investigation of the learned in every age, particularly of those, who are appointed, by more than human authority, to be the dispensers and interpreters of that Word, which is adapted to employ their study and industry, to the end of time. However clearly its fundamental articles may be delivered to the apprehension of all, the Christian dispensation is prophetical and parabolical in its style and character. Its particular evolution in the different periods of the world, the future fate and fortunes of the gospel and the Christian church, which are called " the mysteries of the king- dom of heaven,^' — will ever remain a subject for the investigation of the ablest and most profound research. Thus obvious, at the same time, mysterious is the God of truth in his different dispen- sations. Whilst both in his works, and in his word, he is so open and perspicuous, that " he who runs may read," when he is addressing the information and conviction of those, whose faculties are usefully and 2 I 114 THE CHART AND SCALE honourably employed in the necessary oc- cupations of life ; this deeper investigation, either into the constitution of nature or the economy of grace, is allotted to the virtuous and vigorous exertions of the inquisitive and contemplative ; to be rewarded with the high gratification of intellectual improve- ment, and crowned with the still higher satisfaction of communicating to others the result of their labours. Similar and analogous as they are in their whole economy, when we are engaged in the study and cultivation of the systems of nature and of grace, similar causes will often be found to produce similar effects of ill or good success ; and the right method to be pursued in one, will frequently suggest the best course to prosecute in the other. Systems and hypotheses framed by philo- sophers out of their own ideas, divorced by the force of imagination from the truth of facts, were long the bane of natural philoso- phy, and the prolific cause of all the errors, which for centuries opposed the advancement OP TRUTH. 115 of physical science. Disdaining the drudgery of experiment, and the painful task of accu- rate inquiry and individual observation for the principles of inductive truth, philosophers were pampering their indolence and indulg- ing their vanity in dreams and speculations of their own invention. Hence in their in- terpretation of nature, instead of unfolding a real world, the image of its Author, they produced a number of ideal creations, from the pregnant womb of fancy, no less diverse from each other, than equally unrelated to himself And to keep pace with these imagi- native interpreters of nature, their ingenious brethren the school divines, instead of search- ing the Scriptures for the truths which they every where contain, by a grammatical and truly critical, which is always a laborious, examination, were as inventively, but more mischievously employed, in erecting similar schemes of doctrine and hypothetical systems of divinity. These were as contradictory to each other, as abhorrent to the discoveries of the one Inspirer of the one true religion. Correspondent to the genius of these visi- onary systems in theology and science, was Il6 THE CHART AND SCALE the logic engaged in their service. Logic, in those speculative ages, disdained to stoop to the laborious office of investigating truth. As imagination could more readily invent, than reason investigate, the task of discover- ing truth was allotted to the former, whilst the latter had only to forge artificial weapons for attack or defence. It furnished both the philosophical and theological combatant with a suit of magic armour of such dexter- ous contrivance, that the champions of differ- ent theories could attack or defend, with such equal success, as never to injure or destroy their opponents, and thus for ever to contend with an equal show of conquest on either side^. It was only just, that such easy and ingenious systems should possess such easy and ingenious dialectics. Con- sisting of terms of its own, to which by an ^ Haec inutilis subtilitas sive cuiiositas duplex est, et spec- tatur aut in materia ipsa, qualis est inanis speculatio, sive controversia, cujus generis reperiuntur, et in theologia et in philosophia, baud paucae : aut in modo et methodo tractandi. Haec apud scholasticos fere talis erat : super unaquaque re proposita formabant objectiones; deinde objectioniim ilia- rum solutiones, quae solutiones, ut pkirimum, distinctiones tantum erant, &c. —Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. i. OF TRUTH. 117 arbitrary, though formal definition, were an- nexed what ideas it pleased, without regard to the truth of facts ; this scholastic logic could make every phenomenon of nature bend to every hypothesis, and distort every text of scripture to the support of any system of school divinity. Upon such a foundation and by the help of such an instrument, was erected that Babel of the schools in philosophy and theology, which was alike the pest of science and religion ; and which, for so many ages, threw its dark shade over the whole of Europe. To these misguided studies, more than to any other cause, may be attributed the continu- ance of the gross and irrational errors and superstitions of the church of Rome. Polemi- cal divinity, consisting of a number of hypo- thetical and artificial questions, agitated on both sides with all the sophistry of dispu- tation, and in a language, as unintelligible to a rational understanding, as that of the ancient Babel after the confusion of tongues, was the legitimate offspring of such theo- logy and such logic. Universities adopted this art, as the main object of their study 118 THE CHART AND SCALE and cultivation ; in the exercise of which, instead of opening the scriptures in a just and candid interpretation ; their theological disputants, by handling the word of God art- fully and deceitfully, scarcely found a text in scripture, which they did not pervert and misapply, in defending their own dogmas and inventions, or in subverting those of their opponents. Instead of employing their reason soberly and discreetly to the useful purposes of theology, they contaminated its most sublime and sacred mysteries, by an impure mixture of metaphysical speculation. These fabricated questions produced an in- exhaustible fund of polemical contention, (of error there is no end), and though paraded by the schoolmen, as of the last importance to religion, they were " foolish and unprofit- able^' at best; and so exactly descriptive of those " vain babblings, profane novelties of words, and oppositions of science falsely so called V^ against which St. Paul has cau- tioned his disciples Timothy and Titus, as to warrant the supposition, that he foresaw the ^ 1 Tim. vi. 20. OF TRUTH. 119 folly, and foretold the conduct of this learned ignorance of distant ages'*. But what was more than all inauspicious to the study of theology and the pure inter- pretation of the word of God, these scholas- tic systems and disputations, from the pre- judice of education and the prevalence of habit, inflamed by the heat of party zeal, by an insensible contagion warped the under- standing of men of superior learning and sounder judgment. Hence, in their trans- lations, interpretations, and commentaries of the Holy Bible, instead of representing the meaning of the original faithfully, critically, and candidly, they could scarce avoid giving it a colour of their own, to favour the sect or dogma to which they were inclined. Thus the study of physics and divinity, '' Qua in re [litigiosa subtilitate], increpatio ilia Paulina, non magis ad suam aetatem referri, quam ad sequentia tem- pora deduci, potest, neque Theologiam tantum, sed etiam omnes scientias respicere videtur. "Devita proplianas vocum novitates, et oppositiones falsi nominis scientias." His enim verbis, duo signa scientiae suspecta^ atque ementitae proponit. Primum est, vocum novitas et insolentia ; alterum rigor dog- matum, qui necessario ojipositionem, et dein altercationes quffistionesque inducit, etc. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. i. 120 THE CHART AND SCALE instead of being the just interpretation of nature and the Scriptures, which are the works of God, became the invention and support of systems, which were the fabrica- tions of man. The honour of the philosopher and divine consisted, in a pertinacious and obstinate adherence, to the systems in which they had been bred, or in standing forward, with the pride and formahty of a contentious logic, invincible champions in their defence ; just as a mercenary soldier is bound to fight and to die under the banner to which he has once engaged. From these causes, so inauspicious to the progress of good learning, neither of these studies made any material advance for many ages, till the sublime genius of Lord Bacon chalked out a new and different road, by the discovery of a sounder logic, for the study and interpretation of nature. He gave also such clear and collateral intimations, in regard to the study of the holy Scriptures, that a few philosophers and divines magnanimously embarked in the cause of truth. These, in despite of the statutable and formal disci- OF TRUTH. 121 pliiie, have gone hand in hand in emanci- pating reason from the bonds of artificial system, and upon experimental and scriptural grounds have been alike successful in the interpretation of the volumes of nature and of grace. The success which originally crowned the labours of the philosopher in this new line of cultivation, gave encouragement to the divine to pursue a similar plan of study ■^. Some of the ablest divines of the church of England have employed their learning and labours, after this rational and scientific me- thod, much to the honour of their profession, and to the great advancement of the first of sciences. What has been so ably and auspi- ciously begun in this theological reform, it is incumbent on their successors to pursue and finish. Avoiding the extremes of scepticism and superstition, of licentious speculation and blind credulity, it is full time to embrace and second this reform, in every part of our public discipline, by adopting the most judi- cious and proper means. It is time to turn * See Intiod. to book ix. of Warb. Div. Leof. 12^ THE CHART AND SCALE our backs with shame on the fabricated systems and absurd positions of artificial and hypothetical divines, who have usurped or infringed the prerogatives of scripture, and to explore the Bible itself, that pure and genuine treasury, that inexhaustible fund of sound theology. If systems be formed, let them be constructed only on a scriptural foundation. It is time, in short, to change, to shut up, or to pull down the schools, those monuments of the ignorance of past ages. It is time to abandon disputation and altercation, which at best are useless and unprofitable, and instead of contending about questions of science falsely so called, to go hand in hand in pursuit of the genuine prize ; advancing with modesty, candour, and discretion ; and following truth, not for the sake of triumph, but with an eye to charity. And under the direction of such a leader and logician, as our own country has produced, we need not despair of prosecuting our inquiries in the volume of nature, or in that of grace. — But let us not examine, with an eye too bold and daring, into the deeper mysteries of religion, that inner sanctuary, that holiest of holies. OF TRUTH. 123 wherein the Deity alone resides, and into which he has forbidden us to intrude. Yet, whilst " the secret things belong to the Lord our God, the things, which are revealed, belong to us and to our children for ever^." " Let no one,'' says Bacon, " taking to himself the credit of a sobriety and moderation ill applied, think or main- tain, that men can search too far in the book of God's word, or in that of his works, in theology or philosophy. But rather, let them excite themselves to the search, and boldly advance in the pursuit of an endless progress in either ; only taking heed, lest they apply their knowledge to arrogance, not to charity ; to ostentation, not to use^" Thus the kingdoms of nature and grace are as two parallel lines following the same direction, but which can never be made to touch. These studies, by a general and close Analogy, reflect light upon each other, and are to be successfully cultivated in a similar way. But in their separate prosecution, that * Deut. xxix. 29. ' Bacon. De Auerm. Scient. lib. i. 124 THE CHART AND SCALE great maxim of all sound logic, — never to mix and confound them together, — should be most sacredly observed. The neglect of this maxim will be shown, in some future stage of these lectures, to be a fundamental cause of error^. And another admonition, with which that great reformer of learning concludes the above remark, is too important ' To this mixture of these different parts of learning, we may trace the origin of Hutchinsonianism, that strange in- fatuation, by which the judgment of a sect of very learned and worthy men, led away by whim and fancy and from want of proper strength and comprehension of mind, has been astonishingly betrayed ; whom Warburton, in his rude style, denorninated " a cabalistic crew, blind workers in dirt and darkness." Lord Bacon, who knew the proper nature and saw all the just dependencies and independencies of the different parts of learning, and what assistance they could mutually impart, has not only warned us against this mixture and confusion in general, but has stigmatized this particular evil, in the directest words — Alter excessus ejusmodi prae- supponit in scripturis perfectionem, ut etiam omnis philo- sophia ex earum fontibus peti debeat, ac si philosophia alia quasvis, res profana esset et ethnica. Haec intemperies in schola Paracelsi praecipue, necnon apud alios invaluit. Initia autem ejus a rabbinis et cabalistis defluxerunt. Verum istiusmodi homines non id assequuntur quod volunt; neque enim honorem, ut putant, Scripturis deferunt; sed easdem potius deprimunt et polluunt. — Quemadmodum enim iheologiam in philosophia cjuserere, perinde est, ac si vivos quseras inter mortuos: ita, e contra, philosophiam in theologia quaerere, non aliud est, quam mortuos quaerere inter vivos. — De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. OF TRUTH. 125 in the study of divinity, to be neglected — " Taking care again, not to mix and con- found these distinct parts of learning, theo- logy and philosophy^/' ® Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. i. The most beautiful aiad correct illustration of this admo- nition of Bacon is to be found in the " Analog-y" of Bishop Butler, which cannot be too often, or too earnestly recom- mended to the theological student. N. B. In the application of the inductive method to the study of revealed theology, we should be careful of adhering strictly to the rules and limitations wliich Bacon has himself laid down. It should consist in a diligent and comprehen- sive comparison of all its doctrines, so far as they can be brought to illustrate each other, ever remembering, that we can only know any thing of a divine revelation, so far as it is revealed, and so far as our limited faculties will permit us to interpret its discoveries. — Still, " the analogy of faith" will carry us a considerable way, and the unity of divine truth will greatly assist us. The complete systems, whether of nature or of grace, we can only " know in part" — but enough may be known to show the wisdom, the goodness, and the glory of their almighty Author. That the inductive method is not strictly applicable to the peculiar principle of theologic truth, see page 20-28 ; and that it is, in some measure, superseded by the more extensive range of analogic reasoning, see page 9, 27, 33. But, under these modifications, the inductive mind may be safely recom- mended to the student of scientific theology; ever premising the preliminary monition of Luther, — " bene orasse, est bene studuisse." — Editor. 126 THE CHART AND SCALE CHAP. V. THE GENERAL INTERPRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. THAT the Holy Bible, both in matter and form, is a book totally different from all others which ever were, or could be, written, is a position founded on this great and eternal truth, that " the thoughts of Him," by whom it was dictated, " are not the thoughts, nor his ways, the ways of men.'' And hence will arise this important corollary, that the Holy Scriptures require a different method of interpretation from that which is employed in any other volume. In the volume of his grace, as in that of nature, the Almighty hath hidden under a veil the treasures of his wisdom, to furnish employment to the studious ; whilst he has opened those of his goodness and grace, for ther OF TRUTH. ] 27 use and enjoyment of all. Though its inter- pretation has been the task of many ages, as a mine unexhausted and inexhaustible, it is calculated, as we have observed, to exercise the skill and ingenuity of the learned to the end of time. The Fathers and earlier commentators of the church filled the world, with annotations upon the books of the sacred volume ; but, whether from the use of imperfect copies and inaccurate translations, or from a partial and unphilosophical method of interpretation, no great light has been reflected upon the Bible, from their numerous lucubrations. Instead of collating and correcting the text in the first place, and of establishing, in the second, some just and general rules of interpretation ; their labours were wasted, in framing notions and inventions, which are often as absurd in themselves, as repugnant to the original. Their learning was frequently misemployed in labouring every trifling particular, with a great variety and extent of explanation, whilst they generally overlooked things of real and general importance, and their minds were 128 THE CHART AND SCALE darkened by the mist of that cumbrous logic, which obscures every thing which it sur- rounds. We need not therefore wonder, if their scriptural comments be of little use, in leading us to the genuine interpretation of the sacred code\ In addition to these general defects, com- mentators of later date became the bigots of religious persuasions, or the slaves of technical systems, which warped or obscured their par- tial judgment. The tyranny of the Romish hierarchy was, at any rate, to be maintained, all theological truth was to be made to bend to its worldly interests. To support these, the scholastic logic was found a most useful instrument. By a taint early contracted in a scholastic education, and confirmed by narrow habits of thinking and reasoning, each sect became the furious antagonist of an- other, whose main object was to confute their opponent's ingenious and partial interpreta- tions and support its own. Interpretation ' On the strange interpretation of the Fathers, consult Daille, Barbeyrac, and Whitby ; but to avoid an extreme, read Warburton's masterly preface to Julian, or Collinson's Bampton Lectures. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 129 thus assumed the character of disputation, and instead of critical explanations and lumi- nous remarks, the sacred commentators are filled with private bickering and systema- tical altercation. Refinements on words and phrases, perverted by the subtlety of inven- tion into every shape, occupied the rest of their bulky labours. Things the most obvious and direct they often wrest from their meaning, whilst those, which are involved in real diffi- culty, are left to remain undisturbed in their obscurity. " The Schoolmen,^^ says a great author in the reign of Elizabeth, " spinne, into small threds and subtle distinctions, many times the plainesse and simplicitie of the Scriptures : their wits, being like strong water, which eateth through and dissolveth the purest gold. — For God knows, what a multitude of meanings the wit of man ima- gineth to himself in the Scriptures, which neither Moses, the prophets, or apostles, ever conceived^/' And thus, however much may have been written, much remains uninterpreted, and nei- ^ Ralegh's History of the World, chap. ii. § 1. 2 K 130 THE CHART AND SCALE ther from the number of the commentators, nor the bulk of their productions, can we infer, that the Scriptures are yet explained. In consequence of this partial, this frivo- lous, this contentious mode of interpreta- tion, most of the huge folios, with which the presses of Europe have groaned for ages, are replete with unmeaning jargon, inter- spersed with unedifying disputations, and abounding with uninteresting remarks. That, out of the vast heap of annotations of matter and mixture of every kind, raked together by the dull industry of the older and later commentators, some things valuable should not be found, would be a paradox unprecedented in the course of human events. Few men there are in any profession or sphere of life, who say much upon topics which they profess to understand, without saying some things well. There are some lights, which shine from the surrounding heaps of darkness and confusion, like dia- monds out of the immense rubbish of the mine, worthy of preservation for the elucida- tion of this mysterious book. The inter- preters of future ages are indebted to the OF TRUTH. 131 indefatigable industry of a collector^, whose laborious " Synopsis" has brought together every thing worth preserving ; by which he has saved the trouble of diving into a vast and tumultuous sea, wherein the few pearls to be found would scarcely reward our labour and research. With these scanty advantages, derived from the voluminous lucubrations of former times, a ray of brighter hope has dawned upon the Bible in these later ages, from the more ra- tional and philosophical method of study, and that candid and liberal inquiry, which do honour to the present scientific and enlight- ening era. It is now, that men of diverse educations, countries, and persuasions in reli- gion, eminent for learning and of indefatigable industry, abandoning the contentions, and despising the bigotry of former ages, unite as Christians, in one great and common cause. Instead of labouring to confound and perplex, they are anxious to aid and assist each other ; whilst, to the credit of learning and them- selves, they go hand in hand, in the same ' Poole. 132 THE CHART AND SCALE honourable walk, with Truth for their guide, and Charity for their companion. Impressed with an awful sense of the authority of the sacred volume, and of the importance of its immortal argument, the honest interpreter will shake off the bias of prejudices however inveterate, of opinions however sanctioned, and of passions however constitutional, and thus bring to the work, the atmosphere of a pure and impartial mind. Instead of wasting his labour upon a number of minute and less significant particulars, or of refining away plain and obvious sense, by the subtleties of a narrow and corrosive intellect ; it will be his first object to institute a theological inquiry into the general design and purport of the written Word ; and, from principles and instructions, fully contained and fairly understood, to illustrate the true nature and genius of the religious dispen- sation, in all its parts. He will mark the difference between the first and second cove- nants, that of works and of grace, and observe the connexion which subsists between them. He will trace the temporary economy of the OF TRUTH. 133 Old Testament, and weigh the nature and import of the partial covenant with the Jews, observing with astonishment, how it was made introductory " of better things to come/^ He will then follow it through the law and the prophets, in its marvellous evolutions, till he beholds this vast and preparatory machine of Providence, crowned and completed in the eternal Gospel. The New Testament, the last and noblest part of the religious dispen- sation, he will afterwards study, in the sacred pages of that Gospel, with redoubled atten- tion ; contemplating, with purest love and profoundest admiration, the divine founda- tion on which it is built, the supernatuial means by which it was executed, and the immortal end which it has in view. On this general foundation, all the subordi- nate labours of the sacred interpreter should be formed, as the design which they are destined to illustrate and display. Great and awfully sublime is the task of the theo- logist in this most important department of his profession — a task, to the adequate per- formance of which, many are the acqui- 134 THE CHART AND SCALE sitions, qualifications, and accomplishments indispensably requisite, and various and extensive the studies to be pursued*. I. The learned Languages. The languages in which the books of Holy Scripture were originally written, and into which they were early translated, constitute the first object of the interpreters study and attention, as being the proximate matter of all theologic truth. The book which records the testimony of God, is only to be ac- curately and scientifically understood, in its original and primitive form. Nor are these languages to be studied in a careless and superficial way. They should be pursued radically and grammatically through their inflections and variations, their dependencies and connexions, their dialects and changes. To a competent knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of each, the student should call in the assistance of the best * See Shuckford and Prideaux ; also Daubeny's Discourses on the Connexion of the Old and New Testament ; Stilling- fleet's Origines Sacra?, above all, Butler's Analogy. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 135 lexicons, commentaries, and concordances. These will enable him to understand their peculiar genius and structure, their anomalies and analogies, their relations and differences from each other ■^. The primitive languages of the Old Testa- ment are too little known, and cannot be too accurately and minutely studied by the theo- logical student. Deeply convinced of the vast importance of this ancient oriental learning to the better knowledge and illus- tration of the Scriptures, learned men of different universities in Europe have applied themselves with great assiduity to their grammatical and critical investigation. Since this part of theological literature has been so zealously undertaken and so ably conducted, we may congratulate ourselves upon the extensive and accurate collations of the sacred writings, and hope to receive an improved and uniform translation of the whole, the fruit of their joint and honourable labours. We would admonish them to guard, with ' See Bishop Marsh's Lectures, parts 1 , 2. 136 THE CHART AND SCALE especial care, against the corruptions, frauds, and impostures, which have been practised by the Jewish Tahiiudists upon the Hebrew text, and to use the LXX version, as the polar star to guide them to the truth. The genius of the Greek tongue, in which the New Testament was written (in which, we have a very ancient and invaluable translation of the Old, which for some ages before St. Jerome, was thought by the learn- ed, to have been aided in its formation by more than human skill, and which was cer- tainly sanctioned by Christ and his apostles^, by their numerous quotations), " is universal and transcendent, and, from its propriety and universality, made for all which is great and beautiful in every subject, and under every form of writing^." Nor can it ex- * Some years since, the editor had occasion to institute an exact inquiry into the quotations of the Old, in the New Testament, and he ascertained the number to be as follows : There are, in the whole, two hundred and forty-five quota- tions ; of which, one hundred and ninety-three are taken literally from the LXX; thirty-one agree with the Hebrew, and the rest vary, more or less, from both. ^ Harris's Hermes, p. 423. OF TRUTH. 137 cite surprise, that the Holy Ghost should employ the most perfect language which ever existed, to become the general vehicle, to convey and disseminate the treasures, both of the Old and New Testaments, and to remain the standing monument of religious truth, through all future ages. The Greek tongue is, therefore, of far more import- ance to theology than all other languages. It is capable of a more precise and adequate expression, of being more distinctly and accu- rately understood ; and, what is more than all, it is universally applied, that is, by taking the Septuagint as a part of the sacred code, whose words and phrases are uniformly adopted in the New Testament, and whose authority is sanctioned by that application. The Greek tongue is thus co-extensive with the whole of sacred writ ; so that by mutual reflection, one part may receive and commu- nicate light to another, which is the true key of all scriptural interpretation ^. ^ On the peculiar style of tlie New Testament, in its con- nexion with the Old, the work of Bishop Jebb should be carefully studied, as an admirable continuation of Bishop Lowth's Lectures. — Editor. 138 THE CHART AND SCALE The Latin tongue was spoken by a people who, though not so eminent in arts and elegance as their eastern neighbours, were more renowned for arms, by which they ex- tended the Roman empire over all the civilized parts of Europe, Africa and Asia. And thus the language of the Greeks, and the sword of the Romans, became the especial instruments in the hand of Providence, for disseminating the Holy Scriptures throughout the world. Their dominions, lying between the scene of scripture history and all the western pro- vinces and islands, their language though less copious, and in every respect much in- ferior to the other, became the vehicle, by which, the books of Holy Scripture and the works of the Greek fathers were safely con- veyed to us. In this tongue, we have the old Latin version, called the Vulgate or Italic^, whose antiquity and authority are superior to many of the Greek manuscripts, with a long list of the Latin fathers ; whilst the . ' See Simon's Hist. Critic, cles Vers, du Nov. Test, in INIartianay Prolegom. OF TRUTH. 139 numberless commentaries, translations, and dissertations, which have been written in different ages in Latin, are of the greatest importance to theology. Nor is it the least praise of this language, that it has become the channel, by which, we usually arrive at our knowledge of the Greek ^^. II. The Styles of Scripture. From the languages, the interpreter of holy writ will bend his attention, to the styles of Scripture, which will open a field of curious and important disquisition. When he has analyzed the nature and studied the philosophy of language, he will not require to be informed, that man is distinguished by speech above all terrestrial beings. This prerogative of man, which the Almighty hath employed in the revelation of his will, takes its origin from the impressions, which sensible and material objects make, through their respective organs upon the '" See Bishop Marsh's Lectures, part 1. 140 THE CHART AND SCALE mind, expressed in words or vocal signs, their arbitrary but instituted representatives. He will also know, it is by transferring these words or instituted signs, thus taken from sensible and material objects, to the thoughts and ideas of the mind, which are inappre- hensible by the senses, from a similitude, real or metaphorical, between them, that language is extended to the expression of mental and abstract subjects of every kind. Such is the nature and origin of all human languages, philosophically considered ; which are no- thing more, than the indirect representatives of the things which they express. He will accordingly observe, that figurative modes of speaking abound in all languages ; though, by habit, they often become unperceived in their use. The similitude, which forms the medium of this extension to mental and abstracted sub- jects, is of two distinct and different kinds. Sometimes it is real and permanent. In this case, the transfer of the words, from their - primitive and material, to their secondary meaning, is called analogy. But this simili- tude is often apparent only, and fluctuating, in which case, the transfer is called a OF TRUTH. 141 metaphor. When the simiUtude is real and permanent, the analogical term, by which it is expressed, becomes the true representative of the thought, because it distributes the features of the resemblance between the things compared. It forms the indirect, but the faithful medium, by which truth is communicated ^^ But, when the similitude is only apparent or imaginary, the meta- phorical word, or figurative expression, is not the true representative of the thought, or necessary vehicle of information. It is of a more arbitrary, fictitious, and poetical nature, employed, not properly to convey, but to ex- plain, to illustrate, to heighten, to adorn, and occasionally to conceal the truth. Analogy is, therefore, the instrument of the understand- ing, metaphor the instrument of the ima- gination ; the one, is expressive of the practic and theoretic ; the other, of the poetic mind. However simple it may appear, this dis- tinction of language in general, as transferred from material impressions to mental opera- tions, forms the two general styles of Holy Scripture. It is, therefore, a distinction of the " See vol. i. chap. iv. sect. 3. 142 THE CHART AND SCALE highest importance in the study of theology. Analogy implies a real and existing corre- spondence, arising from the nature of the sub- jects themselves ; whereas figure or metaphor is an imaginary resemblance, arising merely from their surface and semblance. If men are under the necessity of using these indirect and figurative modes of speech, to adapt human language to the mental ab- straction and sublimity of their thoughts, inso- much that the frequency of the habit renders them insensible of the act ; when God, that most pure and exalted mind, totally ab- stracted from matter and removed from sense, communicates himself and his im- mortal truths to men, whose words and ideas are replete with sensible and material images ; we must see the far greater neces- sity of his language, being still more replete with analogical and figurative expression, however he may accommodate himself to their thoughts, their words, or ways. 1. The Analogical Style. Analogy is the instrument of the under- standing, and forms the species of logic, OF TRUTH. 143 which is peculiarly appropriate to subjects of theology, in every stage of that sublime and comprehensive study. It is the natural vehi- cle, by which, the divine truths of religion are conveyed to the view and apprehension of the human intellect, and find a place in the human heart ^^. In this dark and sublunary state, wedded to sense, immured in body, involved in matter, men possess no faculties of body or soul, by which, they can form any immediate conception of beings perfectly immaterial, and more especially of God, that most pure and immaterial Spirit. Between the visible and invisible worlds, an impassable gulf is fixed, an impenetrable chasm, through which, not one single ray of celestial light can directly dart. All our information of things which are divine, must, therefore, be conveyed through an indirect channel : and, as we have seen human language capable of being transferred, by this analogy, from '- Consult Bishop Browne's Divine Analog-y ; also his Pro- cedure and Limits of the Human Understanding. These are both valuable, and too little known by our modern theolo- gians. — Editor. 144 THE CHART AND SCALE material impressions to mental phenomena, and of communicating the latter with certainty and precision ; so, by a similar, but far higher transfer from things human, mate- rial, or mental, to those which are divine, it is converted into an indirect, but faithful instrument of this celestial communication. Through the agency of this necessary in- strument, we are alone rendered capable of receiving the mysteries of religion ; which, in condescension to the apprehension and capacity of man, the Deity hath graciously and abundantly employed ^^. Though analogy often affords strong pre- sumptive evidence, it cannot in theology amount to certainty, till it receives scriptural " Vates sacri, naturam divinam, sub humanis imaginibus adumbrant, eo quod illud necessario postulet humanae mentis imbecillitas ; eoque modo, ut quae a rebus humanis ad Deum transfer untur, nunquam proprie accipi possint. Semper re- mittitur intellectus ab umbra ad veritatem, neque in nuda haeret imagine, sed protinus quserit et investigat id, quod in divina natura ei imagini est analogum ; grandius quiddam et excelsius, quam quod possit plane concipere et appre- hendere, sed quod animum, metu quodam et admiratione, percellit. — Ea enim est mentis nostrae ignorantia et caeeitas in divinee naturae contemplatione, ut ejus notionem simplicem et puram, nullo modo, possimus attingere. — Lowth. Prael. De S. P. Heb. xvi. OF TRUTH. 145 authority ; but, as the proof of every divine doctrine must depend on the Scriptures, the analogies which they sanction become argu- mentative, and may be pleaded, in defence of the truth, which they illustrate, as resulting from a similar relation. When the same relation subsists between two heavenly, as be- tween two earthly things ; then, on account of this analogy, the word, which expresses the one relation may be transferred to the other. It is thus, that the figures of things below become representatives of the " patterns of things in the heavens^*.'^ It is thus, that the deep things of God become capable of being imparted to our finite understandings. This divine analogy, so indispensable to divine revelation, is, like the human, founded on similitude ; consisting, in a permanent resemblance and correspondent reality, be- tween the terrestrial things, or those ideas, which are the direct objects of human intel- lect, and those celestial truths, of which we can have no direct conception. It is ex- pressed, by transferring the M^ords and ideas, " See Heb. ix. 23, 24. 2 L 146 THE CHART AND SCALE which Stand for the terrestrial things, to the celestial truths ; which words are to be under- stood in their plain and obvious, not figura- tive sense. So that the comparison is founded on something real, as well as similar ; from M'hich real and immanent similarity, as a principle, reason deduces a just and true cor- respondence^^. By means of this correspondence, which forms the analogical style of Scripture, the eternal relations of the glorious Godhead are truly and faithfully conveyed to us ; the re- lations of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, with their office and operations, as Creator, Re- deemer, Mediator, and Sanctifier. All the mysteries of our religion are, through this analogical medium, revealed to us, so far as the revealer has thought necessary, by their correspondent names and terms. They are described as a price, ransom, redemption, atonement ; we are saved, purchased, and redeemed — we are " the children of God," and " the joint heirs with Christ,'' and thus all our human relations are brought to bear on this divine analogy. " See vol. i. p. 52 — 56. OF TRUTH. 147 Let us illustrate this reasoning, by one ex- ample. Christ is represented in Scripture, as an advocate and intercessor, in the strict and proper language of analogy. Whatever is proper to an advocate, pleading before a human judge, that Christ transacts before the throne of God, for us ; and what an inter- cessor would effect between man and man, that Christ performs between God and man. As our advocate, he pleads ; as our inter- cessor, he reconciles man to God. This language of analogy, thus real and permanent in its use, which forms the con- tinuous style of Holy Scripture, however indi- rect, is clearly to be understood. When God is termed the Father, in respect of Christ the Son ; what a father is to a son here, accord- ing to the law of nature, that God is to Christ, by a supernatural generation. The word me- diator, in its familiar use with men, imports a person, who, by interposing his friendly offices, reconciles those who were at variance. It is substituted, by analogy, to represent Christ as interposing, in a similar way, between God and man. And though the manner of his supernatural generation, and also of his 148 THE CHART AND SCALE mediatorial interposition be inconceivable by us, and perhaps ineffable ; yet the word Son, fully and clearly informs us of his relation to the Father; whilst that of Mediatory as clearly and certainly expresses this consolatory truth — that, as one man reconciles two enemies, so men are reconciled to God the Father, by the inestimable mediation of the Son. — This is a true and real analogical statement. But when Christ is called " the head of the church,^' or we are called " the members of his mystical body '/' though the rela- tion be very illustrative of the connexion which subsists between the head and mem- bers of our human bodies, the expression is metaphorical, rather than analogic. It is founded only on ideal resemblance, and not on any actual identity or sameness of rela- tions. It is a scriptural illustration, but not a scriptural analogy. Instead of giving men new and spiritual ideas of heavenly things, different to those they have by nature, or instead of using a spiritual language, or mode of communication, adapted directly to express such heavenly realities (which would be to change their na- OF TRUTH. 149 ture at once, and to treat them as different beings, contrary to the divine intention) ; this analogy takes men as they are, by only trans- ferring their words and ideas, from earthly, to heavenly subjects. By this divine and adorable arrangement, " the invisible things of God,'' in the emphatic language of St. Paul, " are clearly seen, being understood by the things which are made^^.'' In human analogies, by understanding both sides of the comparison, which are equally the objects of our senses or reflection, we can judge of the exact degree and proportion of the similitude. But, in this divine analogy, as we understand only one, that is, the earthly side, we cannot judge of the exact similitude. Yet have we an equivalent, more than suffi- cient to compensate this defect, in the veracity of Him, whose goodness hath vouchsafed us this supernatural communication, and whose wisdom hath judged it to be sufficient. On this faith we depend, that the resemblance is cer- tain, incapable of deceiving, though incom- '« Rom. i. 20. 150 THE CHART AND SCALE prehensible in its nature. The same benign and gracious Being, who hath furnished us with senses, bj which we are not deceived, hath given us this diviner mode of instruction. Since it is as necessary, and even more im- portant than the evidence of our senses, its truth is as certain, as if we understood both sides of the simihtude, or as if he had given us direct and adequate ideas of his celestial truths, by a mode of communication directly adapted to them. It presents us with clear and lively representations, and we instantly infer their correspondent realities ; relying as we may upon his truth and wisdom, and thus forming them into the foundation of our present faith and future hope. Compared with that more direct and per- sonal intuition of the Godhead, which we may be admitted to enjoy, in that future and more perfect stage of our existence, — " when this mortal shall put on immortality," — this analogic view of things may pass, as St. Paul expresses it, through the medium of a glass darkly and enigmatically. But, though we behold nothing, in a glass, of the real substance of a man, we have an exact view OF TRUTH. 151 of his image, which implies the existence of a correspondent body — and thus, in this ana- logic mirror of divine truth, we may suffi- ciently behold " the fair image of the Lord,'' and those stupendous realities of the invisi- ble world, with which we are concerned ; without having " the great mystery of godli- ness'' unveiled, till we are changed and pre- pared for its enjoyment^'. By this method of divine revelation, so necessary, so real, clear, and certain, the Al- mighty bowed the heavens and came clown in wonderful condescension, to the blindness and imperfection of human reason ; speaking to us of himself, in our own ideas and words, with the utmost familiarity, " as a man speak- eth with his friend ^^." He has thus enabled us to think and to speak of him, as far as we are concerned, with all reverence and adoration; yet wdth similar ease and certainty, as we speak of each other. " In the explication of his mysteries," says our great philosopher, " God " See Felton's Vindication of the Christian Faith, p. 201. —Editor. '^ Exodus, xxxiii. 11. 152 THE CHART AND SCALE vouchsafeth to descend to the weakness of our capacity, so expressing and unfolding them to us, as they may be best compre- hended by us, inoculating, as it were, his revelations upon the conceptions and notions of our reason ; and so applying his inspira- tions to open our understanding, as the figure of a key is fitted to the wards of a lock. We ought not, however, on this account, to be wanting to ourselves ; for, seeing God makes use of the faculty and functions of reason in his divine illuminations, we ought every way to improve the same, in order that we may be more capable to receive and entertain such holy mysteries ^^/^ The interpreter of the Bible will pay par- ticular attention to the analogic style, view- ing it as the wonderful arrangement, to which we owe that enlargement and ex- tension of the human mind, without which, the stupendous truths of revelation would for ever remain at a distance from our utmost apprehension, and as inconceivable by us, as if they had no existence ; and without which, '^ Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. cap. 1. OF TRUTH. 153 the Deity himself would be very erroneously and obscurely known. He will acknowledge its just interpretation to be of the last im- portance, in forming a right conception of the Christian mysteries, or in preventing their mis- conception. He will allow its importance, in prescribing just limits to the human under- standing and for determining the proper office of reason, in the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. He will look up, with devout admiration, to that divine method of commu- nication, by which the Almighty hath bowed his divinity to the earth, to raise the human mind to heaven. He has thus introduced us to an acquaintance with those objects, of which we are incapable of an immediate appre- hension, till this earthly tabernacle being dis- solved, we shall be admitted, " behind the veil,'' to " behold them face to face.'' When that great change, which we are led by this analogical intercourse to expect, shall arrive, we shall be advanced to higher capa- cities of knowledge and enjoyment, to the more immediate vision and fruition of the Deity. Yet even in our nearest approaches, we shall remain for ever unequal to the 154 THE CHART AND SCALE immeasurable power and wisdom of the glory of God^\ " And we all, with open " See Lord Bacon's Confession of Faith. " Even the highest order of angels, cherubim or sera- phim, must probably have a method of forming conceptions of God and his perfections, which do not come up to direct and immediate perception, such as they have of one ano- ther and of all heavenly objects, and such as we now have of things human and material. Their manner of conceiving the divine perfections, and of communing about them with one another, may be probably through the lively transcript of them in their own nature, from their great archetype and cre- ator. Thus they think and discourse about them, with one another, if I may so speak, as we do ; but, from those incon- ceivably more elevated and exact representations, which they find in themselves. This is but a kind of analogy; though such, as hath a much nearer foundation or proportion of similitude, than ours. And though it is a strain of divine knowledge in them, vastly transcending the farthest reach of all our capacities, and may for ever successively receive a gradual increase and improvement; yet probably it will never come up to a direct and immediate intuition of the divine nature, as it is in itself." — Bp. Browne's Div. Ana- logy, p. 40.* St. Paul says (2 Cor. xii. 4), that when he was "caught up into paradise, he heard unspeakable words, which it is not possible for a man to utter." And if they were uttered as spoken in heaven, it would be impossible for men to understand them : for, if those were words which could ex- press the nature of God properly and directly, or as he is understood by the angels in heaven, they would be unintel- * Tlie whole doctrine of analogy, as stated by Dr. Tatham, is taken from the Divine Analogy of Bishop Browne, whose language, as well as thoughts, form the staple of this entire section . — EdUor. OF TRUTH. 155 face, beholding, as in a glass, the glory of the Lord, shall be changed into the same image, from glory to glory, by the Spirit of the Lord^^" 2. The Parabolical Style. Metaphor is the instrument of the ima- gination, that inventive faculty, to which we have assigned the province of poetry ^^. In the analysis of the poetic art, the species of which words are the materials, though less exact and perfect in its imitations, than the rest, was found to exceed them greatly in extent and operation ^^ But, however effective and superior poetical expressions may be, as all language is incapable of imi- tation which is direct and immediate ^\ the similitude which they depict, and in which ligible to us, unless our present nature was changed ; because we have not faculties adapted to them. To a man born blind the word "seeing" is, we know, totally unintelligible, and no human art can make him understand it. In like manner, this heavenly language would be as unintelligible to us, as the word "seeing" is to him, — See Bishop Browne's Ana- logy, p. 32. 22 2 Cor. iii. 18. 23 g^.^ ^^j^ j_ p, 273. 2^ See vol. i. p. 285. ^^ See vol. i. p. 292. 156 THE CHART AND SCALE consists their poetic beauty, is, in every view, very different from that, which is analogical, and is applicable to a very different purpose. This metaphorical similitude, as we have ob- served, does not arise from the inherent pro- perties of the subject, by which the words are taken, and transferred to others ; but from the imagination only of him, who takes and transfers them. It is, therefore, only the fictitious resepiblance and arbitrary inven- tion of the poet, for the creation of ima- ginative effect. From the variety of these effects, (which are the ends of poetry,) it is divided into four general kinds, according to the different modes employed — descriptive, narrative, dra- matical, and parabolical. Of these, the last, though the least direct and close in its imitations, has been pre-eminently dis- tinguished, as more particularly conse- crated to the service of religion. " Para- bolical poetry,'^ according to an observation of Lord Bacon, " excels among the rest, and appears to be peculiarly sacred and venera- ble ; since religion herself makes use of its OF TRUTH. 157 assistance, by which, she maintains an intercourse between divine and human things ^^/* As words were originally employed, like vocal symbols, to convey a meaning, in the immediate act of speaking ; so, to convey speech to a distance, or record it, pictures were employed in the act of writing. Again, as words, to convey mental operations and abstract ideas, were converted into meta- phors ; these figures, for correspondent pur- poses, were gradually converted into visible symbols, or standing signs, expressive of mental emotions or poetical ideas. This was accomplished, first, by marking down their natural shape, as the figure of a horn, for strength ; and then, by using the w^ord an- swering to the symbol, whether in speaking or writing, to stand for the general idea* Thus, by the addition of symbolical, to meta- phorical expressions in all their variety, figurative language was increased to a vast ^ De Augm. Scient. lib. ii. cap. 13. 158 THE CHART AND SCALE extent ^^. Such is the origin and nature of the parabolic style, which, by the various inventions of the imagination, in tracing poetical similitudes of different kinds, and applying them to different purposes, was diversified and extended into all the forms of parable, allusion, allegory, comparison or similitude, apologue, imagery, symbol, per- sonification, and representative action ^^. This style, which originated in necessity, was gradually converted to use and orna- ment. Under its dark and enigmatical veil, the knowledge of the earliest ages was pro- pagated, or its wisdom concealed. The priest inculcated his doctrines, through the medium '^ De g'enere figurato jam dicturus, video mihi poene infi- nitam rerum materiam, et immensum quendam campum patere. — liowth. Heb. Prael. v. ^ Per dictionem fig-uratam, earn intelligo, qua, una plu- resque voces vel imagines, in aliarum locum, transferuntur, aut etiam aliis illustrandis inserviunt, ex aliqua, quam cum iis habent, similitudine. Ea similitudo, si innuitur tantum, fit metaphora ; si oratione continuata, dicitur allegoria : si aperte exprimitur, collatis inter se utrisque imaginibus, fit comparatio : fundatur etiam in ejusmodi similitudine pro- sopopoeia, cum, vel rebus fictis aut sensu carentibus, datur actus et persona — vel cum verae personae probabilis oratio tnbuitur. — Lowth. Heb. Prael. v. See also Bishop Marsh's 16th, 17th, and 18th Lectures. OF TRUTH. 159 of mysterious rites ; under the cover of alle- gory, the philosopher disclosed his science ; the legistator and the moralist conveyed their instructions, by proverbs and parables ; and, by a well-invented and consistent fiction, in which, every species of poetical expression and imagery was interwoven, the poet de- lighted and improved mankind. Agreeably to this method of instruction, which prevailed amongst the eastern nations in ancient times, the dispensation of religion was conducted. Various is the texture and composition of the poetic or parabolic style, employed by the sacred writers in almost every part of the Holy Scriptures, (excepting that which is historical,) to answer the various ends of the Inspirer. These ends may be divided into two general kinds ; the one, common to them with all other poets, to illustrate, adorn, and exalt the sub- ject ■^^. The other, proper and peculiar to themselves, to couch and conceal their '° Etenim dictionis figuratae, — id consilium est, ea vis, ut imaginibus aliunde translatis, res vel evidentius ac clarius, vel grandis etiam atque elatius exprimantur. — Lowth. Heb. Prael. v. IGO THE CHART AND SCALE meaning, in a way, at once singular and essential to the religious dispensation, of which it was the instrument. These different purposes are frequently mixed and involved in the same scriptural passage or expression. They should, however, be distinguished as far as possible, by all critics and interpreters of holy writ, and should be held by the latter in constant and awful recollegtion. We possess an excellent critique on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, from the pen of a late learned and ingenious prelate, M^hich was delivered in lectures, from a professorial chair in this university. The work is bold and magnanimous in its design, tempered with that circumspect caution, suggested by a subject so awful and sublime. In the exe- cution, it is difficult to determine, whether the refinement of critical judgment, or the ele- gance of classical language chiefly predomi- nates. It was not the object of the polished author of this admirable performance, to establish the principles of scriptural inter- pretation, for the use of the theologist ; but to recommend the beautiful poems of the Hebrews, to the poetical taste and classical OF TRUTH. 1-61 genius of his academical auditors, and thus to invite them to the study of the Holy Scriptures^\ Whilst we see, therefore, the first of the above-mentioned ends of the poetic style, displayed in this celebrated M'ork, with all the acumen of criticism and minuteness of discrimination ; we find the second, which is the more peculiar and im- portant, almost entirely overlooked. In con- sequence of this inattention to the appropriate end of scripture style, we have to lament, that, with the purest and most liberal inten- tion, this learned author has inadvertently seduced himself and others into a style of criticism, injurious to the right interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. By this method of criticism, the sacred volume has been brought in all respects too much on a level with human compositions, whilst its structure, as well as meaning, are too much judged of and decided by a classical standard. In this opinion, I think, we are supported '' Ut meminerim me, non theologiae studiosis divinse veri- tatis oracula exponere, sed juventuti in politiori doctrina et literarum elegantiis exercitatae comrnendare lectissima poe- mata. — Prael. ii. 2 M 162 THE CHART AND SCALE both by the general design and execution of this celebrated work. It is distributed into three parts. — The first treats of the metre of the Hebrew poetry ; and to the remark which, whether true and just or not, is at least ingenious and plausible, — that some kind of metre is essential to poetry, — I have only to rejoin, that, by bringing to the poetry of the Hebrews, the notions of metre from the Grecian, Roman, and other poetry of more modern date, which may uniformly be in measured verse, he too hastily inferred, that the poetry and the metre of the ancient Scrip- tures were co-extensive with his own vague conception of metre. By this decision, he excludes all those parts, which are not thus metrical, from the poetic province ; abridging thereby the privileges and extent of the para- bolical, which is, also, the prophetic style ^^ In consequence of this confined conception of the Hebrew poetry, he excludes the whole book of Daniel, from being poetical and para- bolical, and consequently, from being pro- ^^ See his preliminary dissertation lo Isaiah. OF TRUTH. 163 phetical. Without its appropriate poetical vehicle, prophecy cannot exist. The second part is on the style of the He- brew poetry, in which, after a dissertation on what is called the sententious, he proceeds to the figurative, which peculiarly constitutes the parabolical style. He gives a formal specification of the different ends it has in view, — to explain and illustrate, to aggrandize or exalt the subject. But it is remarkable, that he has altogether omitted the peculiar and appropriate end of the figurative style, to conceal the meaning^^. In this part, he has given a display of the figures of rhe- torical diction — of the metaphor, in all its variety of poetic imagery, of the allegory and parable. In the eleventh lecture, he treats of the mystic allegory, with great ability ; in which, he certainly adverts briefly to the second, or specific, end of the parabolical style, as adapted to the object of prophetic concealment. But this notice is merely par- tial and incidental, and confined to one 3=' See Prsl. v. 164 THE CHART AND SCALE single figure. He then proceeds to the dif- ferent kinds of comparison, prosopopoeia, or personification, and employs four lectures on sublimity of diction, in raising the con- ceptions and affections. In the third part, he gives a minute and critical analysis of the various species of Hebrew or prophetic poetry, as it assimi- lates and accords with the various kinds of classical composition ; the elegy, the ode, the hymn, the didactic, and dramatic poem ; excluding, from the poetical calendar, the entire books of Daniel and Jonah ^'*. The whole of this celebrated performance is therefore a critique of sacred poetry, by the standard of profane. It is to judge of divine, by human compositions. And this work is entitled to the praise, which has been bestowed on it, so far as this kind of criti- cism may be fairly and justly employed upon a book of most solemn and superior import ; which is professedly concealed in its expres- sions and mysterious in many parts ; with the view of displaying those poetical ends, which ^* Prsel. XX. OF TRUTH. 165 it may possess, in common with other poetical fictions. — But is this all ? Had the Author of inspiration no other end in view, when he dictated the prophecies ? And if there be another and higher end, where can we draw the line between them ? — It deserves to be well and maturely weighed, how far the sacred critic may venture in displaying these clas- sical ends, or in judging of the poetical means employed, without intruding on the rights, and infringing the privileges, of that higher end, which is properly divine, and peculiarly adapted to the purpose of Holy Scripture. The pious and ingenious author of the Prelections seems, indeed, to be occa- sionally arrested, in the midst of his critical career, by this awful reflection ; as if he were sensible, that he might be sometimes treading, with a profane step, upon holy ground. Without paying sufficient attention, as a divine, to that vast system of prophecy inter- woven, by means of the parabolic style, in all its variety and extent, through the whole of the Hebrew Scriptures, he has indulged the critic with great freedom, and indeed with much ability ' and it need not offend his 166 THE CHART AND SCALE numerous admirers (of whom, I profess my- self to be one), if I say, that this celebrated work betrays more of the classic, than the divine. After the example of Longinus, and with the acumen of Aristotle, it was his ob- ject to display the various and distinctive characters of the sacred poets, in the senten- tious, the figurative, and the sublime ; to illustrate their specific qualities, and to trace the peculiar effects, which they are calcu- lated to produce on the imagination and affections. With such intention, the Pro- fessor of poetry selected a field of criticism for the theme of his lectures, as fruitful as it was novel ; in which his classical genius has expatiated with equal taste and judgment. But he has overlooked the main end and object, which the Inspirer of this poetry had principally in view, and which should place a restraint on our judgment, in deciding upon the former. He has also confined the para- bolical style, within limits which are hypo- thetical, and far too contracted ; for, inde- pendently of the metre and other accidental modifications, all scripture language which is indirect, whether couched in parables, visions. OF TRUTH. 167 dreams, or representative actions, is para- bolic, and capable of concealing a prophetic import. He acknowledges the intimate con- nexion between prophecy and poetry in the Hebrew Scriptures, and considers them, as the joint dictate of the Holy Spirit^^. Yet it is difficult to conjecture, why he has dwelt so partially and incidentally on this prophetic end of poetry, but on the supposition, that by allowing its full weight in the writings of inspiration, he would have blunted the edge of that inventive conjecture and critical refinement, in which his genius so much delighted, and in which he has so liberally indulged. Considering the Holy Scriptures as different from all other books, in their origin, in- tention, and execution, the theological stu- dent should check the career of this classical and sentimental criticism, however elegant ^* Ex quibus omnibus satis liquet, veterum Hebraeorum sententia, cum poetica, prophetiam arcta quadam societate et cognatione conjunctam fuisse. Utriusque facultatis idem erat nomen ; eadem quippeorigo, idem auctor, Spiritus Sanctus, &c. — Prael. xviii. 168 THE CHART AND SCALE and ingenious, to concentrate his chief atten- tion on the mysterious and appropriate end of the paraboHc style. He should awfully bear in mind, that a vast and various chain of pro- phecy was employed by the omniscient Dic- tator of religion, as its concomitant and standing evidence. Forthe conveyance of this evidence from age to age, to the most distant periods of futurity, he should observe the amazing texture of the most profound con- cealment, interwoven in every part of the religious dispensation, from its earliest annunciation down to its final close, when the Spirit of Prophecy withdrew his special communications. This texture he will discover to be wrought together, with the most exquisite and consummate art, cal- culated to fulfil the secret, but important end of the Inspirer. He will observe, that the poetic or parabolic diction, in its full latitude and extent, was the divine instrument, under which, the Holy Spirit concealed his prophetic designs. Without losing its beautiful and sublime effect on his fancy and affections, he will perceive, that this was the main, and in- deed the only adequate purpose ; and hence. OF TRUTH. 169 is SO much more abundantly employed in the Holy Scriptures, than in any other book. He will think, that fanciful and sentimental criticism, even were it employed with the utmost safety, and without the least pre- sumption, is a very trifling and inferior office, when contrasted with that of the sacred in- terpreter, engaged in a serious investigation of the curious structure of this style, which, however varied, is uniform and consistent, comparing one part with another, in order to develop the secret intention of the Spirit of Prophecy, as it comes to be evolved in the prophetical event^^. He will acknowledge two different causes of this parabolical concealment, the one spe- cial, the other general. The prophecies of the Old Testament were delivered, under a temporary and inferior dispensation, prepara- tory to the establishment of that which was to be perpetual and perfect. They were, therefore, eclipsed and shadowed, that the temporary economy might not be degraded in the minds of those, who were to live and * See Bishop Marsh's 19th to 22nd Lectures. 170 THE CHART AND SCALE to serve God under it, by holding up a view too conspicuous, of the brighter glory which was to follow. " The ministration which was made glorious, had no glory in this respect ; by reason of that glory which excelleth^^/' For the express purpose of hiding from their view the abolition of the law, and of preventing them from being lost to its observance, in the too earnest antici- pation of the gospel, " Moses put a veil over his face, that they could not steadfastly look to the end of that, which was to be abo- lished ^^/^ And, to this special cause of con- cealment, he may add another, which is more general and permanent. The completion of prophecy, being left to the instrumentality of free agents, if the predictions were not thus concealed, such a restraint would be placed on the human will in their fulfilment, as to destroy the nature of man ; or human obstinacy might be tempted to counteract the intent of Providence, and thereby to de- stroy the purpose of God. But, under the cover of this parabolical veil, the free agency " 2 Cor. iii. 10. '^ 2 Cor. iii. 1'3. OF TRUTH. 171 of man is made compatible with prophecy, whilst the Almighty is converting the ac- tions, the errors, and the vices of men, into the secret instruments of his design. On that greatest of prophetic events, the cruci- fixion of his Son, the ancient prophets are so full and clear, that it is difficult to conceive, how the persons, by whom it was executed, could be ignorant of what they did. Yet, that they were ignorant, we know from his own authority — " Father, forgive them ; they know nor what they do^^ :'' and St. Peter told them afterward, " That through igno- rance ye did it, as did also your rulers ; but the things which God had before shewed, by the mouth of his prophets, — that Christ should suffer, — he hath so fulfilled ^".'^ The same parabolical diction was subse- quently employed by Christ and his apostles, in their prophetic character, as teachers sent from God, for the purpose of shading under its veil the mystical doctrines, exalted pre- ^^ Luke, xxiii. 34. *" Acts, iii. 17, 18. See Bishop Kurd's Introduction to the Prophecies ; Bishop Sherlock's Discourses on the Use and Intent of Prophecy ; and Davison on Prophecy. 172 THE CHART AND SCALE cepts, and prophetical anticipations of the New dispensation. The parabohcal style of Holy Scripture, in the different forms which it assumes, is that important and extensive theme, which solicits the express study of the theologist, and which, independently of the important end of his profession, promises to reward his la- bour, by gratifying a sublime and laudable research. In every stage of the investiga- tion, he will be filled with solemn admiration, whilst he traces the consummate art, and contemplates the marvellous address of the Inspirer, in concealing the prophetic meaning, under such general descriptions, different senses, symbols, allegories, images, repre- sentations, dreams, and visions, as were mys- terious in the highest degree, till the antici- pated event arrived ; yet plain and obvious, when that event took place. Poetry from its nature consists of general ideas'*^. By the use of these abstractions, prophetical enunciations exhibit only the out- lines of things, as of pictures which are sketch- ed ; yet with such an exquisite pencil, that no ■" See vol. i. p. 283. OF TRUTH. 173 facts, but the events themselves, are able to fill up and to adjust the particular features, or to give a finish and perfection to the celestial por- trait. The general outline is indeed clearly and distinctly marked by the prophet; but, to give it all its personal and distinctive traits, is left to the unerring hand of time. Whatever is predicted in such general terms, however clearly expressed, must remain in impene- trable secrecy, till the prophetic event arrive, with its adjuncts, circumstances, and exact occurrences, to disclose it '^^. — " And the Lord answered and said. Write the vision and make it plain upon tables, that he may run who readeth it. For the vision is yet for an appointed time, and at the end it shall speak, and not lie — though it tarry, wait thou for it, because it will surely come, it will not tarry . *^ Quod si — prophetiae ipsius indoles, in extremis tantum rerum lineamentis effingendis, et in generalibus affectionibus describendis amplificandisque, praecipue versetur; exinde satis intelligi potest, primo, quanto cum suo emolumento poesi adjutrice et administra utatur, quamque ad omnes suas rationes accommodatam habeat dictionem parabolicam ; cujus ea natura est, ut magnam praebeat copiam et varietatem com- munium imaginum, quibus aliqua materies late ampleque in universum exornari possit.— Lowth, Prael. xx. « Habakkuk, ii. 2, 3. 174 THE CHART AND SCALE The double sense of prophecy, implying the accomplishment of the prediction in more events than one, in the same system of reli- gious dispensation, but at different periods and parts of it, forms doubtless a prophetic ar- rangement of great and general application. " The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of pro- phecy'**;'' — the end and object of the pro- phetic dispensation. A temporary economy was introduced, preparatory to the introduc- tion of his gospel, affording a convenient vehicle of the prophetic enunciations, by which, they were at once safely conveyed, and sufficiently concealed. One sense was brought to advert to the immediate objects and con- cerns of the temporal, though theocratic polity ; whilst the other was preluding to Christ, to the nature, offices, and establish- ment of his spiritual kingdom. The same expressions, which, in their first and more literal signification, described the fate and fortunes of the Jewish state, which was the type ; portended, in their second and figura- tive sense, the character and success of the Christian church, as the antitype. Future and ** Rev. xix. 10. OF TRUTH. 175 more illustrious events were signified, in suc- cessive and less important transactions. Under the predictions of civil states, were couched the spiritual. These different objects were ac- complished by the help of a figurative and poetic language, capable of enlarging or con- tracting^ itself, as times and circumstances respectively demanded. This method of prophetical concealment, the elegant author of the Prelections has treated with great perspicuity of language, and exactness of discrimination ; though, per- haps, on too confined a scale. With judici- ous caution and ingenuous diffidence, he ac- knowledges the great difficulty and danger of judging and criticising a subject so profess- edly involved in mystery*^. Yet the mystic allegory is, by no means, the only species of parabolical diction, employed by the Spirit of Prophecy, to conceal its predictive enuncia- tions. Various are the images and visions in- *^ Verum allegoriae mysticae leges ullas haec in parte con- stituere et perquam difficile, et fortasse etiam temerarium, &c. — Prael. xi. Verum de hoc genere non est fas sperare, quin in non- nullis magna subsit obscuritas, quae non solum ipsam rei naturam consequitur, sed suam habet utilitatem, &c. — Ibid. 176 THE CHART AND SCALE directly used, and often, where the predictions are not shadowed under these, but deUvered in a plain narration of facts, as in the pro- phecy of Jonah ; or in oratorical style, like many predictions of Ezekiel ; or with mixture of both, like the whole of Daniel, — the lan- guage is still indirect and poetical, in its gene- ral character. Where the expression is more direct^, the same obscurity is accomplished, by giving it an ambiguous and enigmatic cast. Thus various and complex is the mode employed by the Spirit of Prophecy in the Holy Scriptures, to conceal from the most distant apprehensions of the human mind, the full import of its predictions, till they come to be unfolded by the event. This veil should place a just restraint on criticism, in judging and deciding on the words of this mysterious volume. In one part of his work, the author of the Prelections acknowledges the free and singular genius of sacred poetry, which is possessed of a boldness and eccentricity repugnant to all ^ See Ezekiel, xii. 13, and Jeremiah, xxxiv. 3. OF TRUTH. 177 artificial rules*^; but elsewhere he has assigned this important reason, that it resulted from the impulse of the Divine Inspirer^^. If, to these just observations, he had added the authority of St. Peter, that " prophecy came not by the will of man ; but holy men of old spake, as they were moved, by the Spirit of God '*^:^^ such considerations might have induced him to attribute more to the divine agency, in moulding the language of the prophets to its celestial purpose. Such re- flections would have smothered in the birth that spirit of criticism, of which he was the father ; and which, in the hands of others more adventurous, and less judicious than himself, hath dishonoured, I had almost said disgraced, the volume of inspiration ■^°. " Per omnia in verbis sensibusque sua quaedam vis atque audacia, nullis mancipata legibus, liberum Hebreae poeseos genium unice spirans. — Prsel. x. *^ Quod ad rerum ordinem ac dispositionem attinet, for- mamque legitimam, quae in hac specie integrum poema con- ficiat ; nihil sane statui potest, quod in universum videatur obtinere. Soluta plerumque, ut, par est, et libera, suo impetu fertur, nullas servans leges, sed materise rationem sequens, et Divini Spiritus impulsum. — Prael. xx. *^ 2 Pet. i. 21. ^ This very learned and ingenious prelate, to whom the Holy Scriptures are much indebted for delivering them from 2 N 1 7 B THE CHART AND SCALE Instead of indulging his genius, in a vain and visionary criticism, founded on classical the rabbinical prejudices, by which, they had been for ages entangled and obscured, who, with a great share of biblical learning, united a correct and classical taste, endeavoured in his Prelections to open the sacred volume to the more gene- ral study of our academical youth, by giving them a taste of their superior beauties, in a critique similar to those which had been so successfully written on the heathen poets. " Enimvero quid est, cur Homeri, Pindari, Horatii scriptis celebrandis omnique laude cumulandis toties immoramur, Mosem interea, Davidem, Isaiara, silentio praeterimus? — • An id tandem statuendum est, eorum quidem hominum scripta, qui tantum modo effecerunt, quantum ingenio et facultate consequi potuerunt, ratione et via tractari oportere, et ad artis preescriptum et normam exigi : quae vero altiorem habent originem, et Divini Spiritus afflatui vere tribuuntur, eorum vim etiam et venustatem suo lumine quodammodo elucere; sed nee doctrinag institutisconstare, nee artis finibus circumscribi posse? — Quamvis igitur ad occultos hujusce Nili coelestis fontes baud fiis sit penetrare, licebit tamen sancti fluminis cursum et flexiones sequi, aquarum auctus et recessus notare, ac rivos etiam quosdam tanquam in subja- centes campos deducere." — [Prael. ii.] The design is plaus- ible, and that plausibility considerably increased by the flowers of diction. But the only plan upon which it can be executed, is upon the supposition, that though the Spirit of prophecy supplied the matter, the manner and the language were left to the natural genius of the inspired. " Alteram impetum mentis vocat Longinus to trepl tuq vo{](T£lq alptTr{]t>o- \ov ; alteram to (r^o^pov ical BvQovaiadTiKov tzuOoq, appellat. Utrumque ita in hoc argumento usurpamus, atque ita sacris vatibus tribuimus, ut nihil derogemns Divini Spiritus afflatui : etsi suam interea vim propriae cuj usque scriptoris naturae atque ingenio concedamus. Neque enim instinctu divino ita comitatur vatis animus, ut protinus obruatui hominis OF TRUTH. 179 and sentimental taste, the sober theologist will find himself more useful employment, in indoles: attolluntur et eriguntur, non extinguuntur aut occultantur naturalis ingenii facultates ; et quanquam Mosis, Davidis, et Isaiae scripta semper Spirent quiddam tarn excel- sum tamque cceleste, ut plane videantur divinitus edita, nihilo tamen minus in iis Mosem, Davidem, et Isaiam semper agnoscimus." — [Prael. xvi.] But, even if we admit the supposition in part, the important question occurs. How far is it to go ? What human critic shall determine, that the Holy Spirit had no influence at all, upon the manner or the language of the prophet, in which his enunciations were delivered? Or what human critic shall say precisely, how far his afflatus was concerned ? What human critic draw the line between the Inspirer and the man? The different and cha- racteristic styles of Moses, David, and Isaiah, will go a very little way, if any at all, to this important decision : for, when the Spirit employs human instruments, he takes them, as they are, and by the act of employing them, makes them his own; so that, whether Amos spoke as a shepherd, or David as a king, they uttered the words of God. These difficulties beset this ingenious critic, and not all his management and address were able to surmount them. At a time, when biblical learning was making such laudable progress under his auspices, it is much to be deplored, that he essayed this critical refinement upon the sacred Scrip, tures. Though that discreet and cautious judgment, by which he was distinguished, restrained his pen within mode- rate bounds, the high reputation which the novelty and plausibility of the undertaking conferred on the work, the distinguished eminence of the author, and the fascinating elegance of his language, produced their effect on the minds of others, in stimulating them to an imitation of his method, that they might participate some of his fame. These pos- sessing less of that ingenuity and high classical taste, in which the chief value of the work consists, could only distinguish 180 THE CHART AND SCALE developing the various methods of conceal- ment, furnished by the parabohcal style, from themselves by an outrage of its faults. Mounted upon this critical Peo;asus, an eminent professor, in an university re- nowned of late for biblical learning-, proceeds, — "And, if the poet Ezekiel has here and there overloaded his subject with ornaments, we shall be unable to refuse our admiration to his genius, notwithstanding these defects. — It almost seems, that the poet himself felt the hurtful consequences of his ample representations ; under this, he endeavoured to prevent them ; first, by giving a general sketch, and then every thing more determinate and in detail. But I doubt whether he has thus prevented them. This method is rather productive of another hurtful consequence; — he occasionally seems to correct himself, but really does not ; that he occasionally seems to retract something, which, when accurately con- sidered, is not the fact. The author of the Revelation, whose poetry is in the same style with that of Ezekiel, and full of imagination, for the most part, has avoided the rocks on which his predecessor stranded ; and for the most part, has happily cut off the wild shoots of a heated imagination. He also has fictions and giant-forms : but he has produced them, only so far as to give the reader the full image before his eyes ; he does not pursue them minutely, — and he does not distract or pain his reader. But, as Ezekiel describes, designs, paints, and exhausts all minutiae, he sometimes injures his poems. According to my taste, he should have broken oflT after he had given the chariot-throne, restless wheels, and cherubim full of living motions ; but, as he con- tinues to describe the motion of the throne by his wonderful forms, he makes unpleasing impressions. Even where these consequences do not arise, from the prolix details of the prophet, he is misled by them to other faults which are equally striking. They sometimes carry him to things which are unnatural. Thus he has acted against nature in slaying what is not food. How much superior is Isaiah in a similar representation ! And should not the great profusion of OF TRUTH. 181 principles contained in scripture ; in analy- zing and arranging the different kinds of learning in the elegy and funeral lamentation over Tyre, when she was destroyed, be quite removed from this piece ? On the contrary, it was a happy invention that his lofty poems are sometimes interrupted by short speeches. They are not only useful for the illustration of his symbols, but also for the repose of the mind. By this change, his readers are agreeably entertained ; and their imagination finds rest- ing places, so as to soar more easily after the imagination of the poet. Ezekiel, therefore, remains a great poet, full of originality notwithstanding his faults; and, in my opinion, whoever censures him as if he were only an imitator of the old prophets, can never feel his power." — Eickhorn's Introd. to his Old Testament. See Newcome's Introduction to Ezekiel, pp. 24—26. Had this learned professor indulged his critical cavallo, in trampling so unmercifully upon the works of the great poet, who feigned the ten years' siege of Troy, as freely as upon those of the prophet, who announced the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem, — who " saw the vision of God," [Ezekiel, chap, i.] and spoke the " words of Jehovah," — he would have been most deservedly torn to pieces by a whole host of critics. — The impetus of this critic, though neither the TO aSpETci'i^oXov, nor the to kvQsdia'^iKov, is surely the to fxavia- Kov TrdQo^. Without thus indulging his critical abilities, the judicious Addison was only a distant and humble admirer. — " As the Jewish nation produced men of great genius, without con- sidering them as inspired writers, they have transmitted to us many hymns and divine odes, which excel those that are delivered down to us by the Greeks and Romans, in the poetry, as much as in the subject to which it was conse- crated." — Spectator, No. 453. But, perhaps, the general idea of Scripture poetry, as given by a French writer, is still more just, because it does not separate the poetry from the inspiration. " It is the true 1 82 THE CHART AND SCALE prophecy, and unravelling " the great mys- tery of godliness/' by assorting predictions with events, and types with their anti- types^^. lang^uage of poetry, of prophecy, and of revelation : a celestial fire animates and transports it. What ardour in its odes ! What sublime images in the visions of Isaiah ! How pathetic and affecting are the tears of Jeremiah ! One there finds beauties and models of every kind. Nothing is more capable than this language of elevating a poetic spirit ; and we do not fear to assert that the Bible, superior to Homer and Virgil in many places, can inspire still more than they that rare and singular genius which is the portion of those who dedicate themselves to poetry." And this learned French- man might have added the reason of this superiority, by attributing it to its true cause, the Inspirer himself. The authority of our great philosopher is decided on the question. " Alter autem interpretandi modus, quem pro excessu statuimus, videtur primo intuitu sobrius et castus, sed tamen et scripturas ipsas dedecorat, et plurimo ecclesiam detrimento officii. Is est, ut verbo dicam, quando scrip- turge divinitus inspiratae eodem quo humana scripta expli- cantur modo."-- Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. See also his Advancement of Learning, book ii. at the conclusion. ^2 Tale esse debet hujus operis institutum, ut cum singulis ex scripturis prophetiis eventuura Veritas conjungatur, idque per omnes mundi getates, turn ad confirmalionem fidei, tum ad instituendam disciplinam quandam et peritiam in inter- pretatione prophetiarum, quae adhuc restant complendae, &c. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. ii. cap. 11. On this subject, the student will find much advantage in consulting Conybeare's Bampton Lectures, on the secondary and spiritual interpretation of Scripture ; also Bishop Marsh's Lectures, part iv. ; and Jones on the Figurative Language of Scripture. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 183 Much of the obscurity, in which, the pro- phetic writings were involved at their first dehvery, is now dispelled, and a new field of investigation is opened to the theologist^^. Although the prophetic system, that vast and various apparatus, arranged by the invisible hand of Him, " with whom one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day,'' for the testimony of his Son, will not be entirely evolved, till the present material system be destroyed ; time, by interpreting many predictions in their correspondent events, hath supplied such grounds of ana- logical reasoning, as may lead us into the *^ Equidem in vaticiniis contra fit ac in caeteris omnibus sacrae poeseos partibus ; ilia turn sunt maxime obscura, cum primum sunt edita; quEeque aliis tenebras inducit, illis inf'ert lucem, vetustas. Adeoque ista obscuritas, quae in hoc genere ab initio insederat, aliqua ex parte jam tollitur : multa sunt, quae explicavit ipse rei eventus, certissimus oraculorum inlerpres : multa, quibus Divinus ille Spiritus, ea quae primum induxerat, involucra dignatus est detrahere; pleris- quealiquam lucem intulit ejusdem sacratissimis institutioni- bus clarius illustrata religionum Judaicarum ratio. Ita fit, ut quae pars sacrae poeseos et singularem quandam naturam et maximam in se difficultatem habet, ad earn tamen cog- noscendam et perspiciendam meliore jam conditione acce- damus, iis subsidiis et adminiculis instructi, quibus plane veteres Hebraei, quaeque ne ipsis quidem vatibus Dei inter- nunciis concessa sunt. — Lovvlh. Prael, xi. 184 THE CHART AND SCALE Structure and economy of prophetic language, and prepare us to acknowledge the accom- plishment of others, when their events arrive. Though intentionally mysterious, the para- bolical style is uniform and consistent, and of course reducible to rule ; one part supplying the key to another. It was the usual mode of writing at the time the prophecies were delivered, and is constructed on such general principles, as make it a theme of rational investigation. Another key is, therefore, to be found by a learned and diligent search into the archives of ancient and oriental learning ; in the images of the eastern and western poets ; in the subsisting monuments of Egyp- tian hieroglyphics, from which all eastern writings took its symbolic cast ; in those pagan ceremonies and superstitions, which drew their origin from the Jewish ; and, above all, in the Holy Scriptures themselves, which, although the productions of many different pens, employ the same symbols, images, and other figures, which were in- tended by their one omniscient Dictator to be interpreters of each other. By an extensive comparison of words. OF TRUTH. 185 phrases, and figures, respectively with each other, the judicious interpreter may hope to develop the prophetic meaning, which is designedly and curiously concealed by the Divine Spirit, as one amongst other reasons, that it might afford a virtuous and sublime employment to the human mind. And if the learned, instead of wasting their labour in the fabrication of hypothetical system, their learning in disputation, and their in- genuity in critical refinement, by an exten- sive induction and judicious arrangement of particulars, collected out of the Bible and other monuments of antiquity, would supply the theological student with some general rules or principles of interpretation (which is a great desideratum in theology), they would bring an offering, as acceptable to the student in theology, as it would be useful to the cause of scriptural information^*. Whilst other proofs of our religion are ^ Something of this kind has been done by the learned Daubuz, in the Preliminary Discourse and Symbolical Dic- tionary, introductory to his Commentary on the Revelations. In 1730, Mr. Lancaster abridged and new-modelled this learned work in a quarto volume, dedicated to Dr. Potter, 186 THE CHART AND SCALE perhaps somewhat weakened and obscured bj time, the evidence of prophecy, which challenges the peculiar cultivation of the student, is gathering strength and clearness, and gratifying him with an immediate and personal conviction. In this important de- partment of theological study, as his appli- cation will be made at the same time to history, whilst he is strengthened in the evidence of divine revelation, he will derive a sublime and endearing enjoyment, from con- templating the ways of men and the wonders of Providence. Thus we see the province of imagination, that exalted faculty of the human mind, by which its finest affections are sublimed and qualified for the imitation of the goodness, the adoration of the wisdom, and the admi- ration of the power of God, extensively employed in the act of discovering his will then Bishop of Oxford, hoping that, under the patronage of so great a name, this valuable work would have met with a general reception. It has, however, shared the fate of many of the best of books, to be known by very few, whilst many of the worst are in the libraries and hands of all. OF TRUTH. 187 to men; forming that indirect and poetical vehicle, through which the truths and evi- dences of our religion are conveyed. — " In matters of faith and religion/' says Lord Ba- con, " the imagination is elevated above the reason. Not that divine illumination resideth in the imagination (nay, rather in the highest tower of the mind and understanding) ; but as in moral virtues, divine grace uses the motives of the will; so in illumination, it makes use of the imagination : which is the cause that religion hath ever sought an access to the mind, through similitudes, types, parables, and visions '^^.'^ " De Augm. Scient. lib. v. c. 1. Should any modem free-thinker feel disposed to smile at this observation of Bacon, it may perhaps check a too hasty decision, by his remembering the more sober neutrality of the Stagirite. — liepl de t^q fxavTLKrJQ, rfjc iv Tolg inryoig yEyofiEvrjg, Kul Xcyo/itVjje (rvfi^aireiv cnro tmv Ivvirviwv' ovte Karafpoytlv p(fhiov, ovTE TTEKrOiirai. — Ai'istot. De Divin. vol. i. p. 607. Edit. Du Val. 188 THE CHART AND SCALE CHAP. VI. TRANSLATION OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. THAT the sacred volume, in manner as well as in matter, is different from all other books, though dictated and recorded in human language, as the indispensable vehicle or instrument of communication, by which the testimony of God, is conveyed to men — is a theological axiom, which has, I hope, been suflBciently established in the preceding pages. This axiom should have a powerful influence upon the particular study and interpretation of that mysterious book. Other books contain the things which are " on earth," the observations, experiments, and reasonings of men on material objects, their thoughts, reflections, and reasonings on mental subjects, their testimony of facts and occurrences, or their poetic imitations. These are conveyed in a style as direct as possible, and even when figurative, are OF TRUTH. 189 intended to be plain and devoid of mystery. But the book of God contains "the things that are in heaven/' and they are recorded in a language, which is analogical and indirect, which is often figurative, and designedly obscure. Whilst we view with pleasure the study of the Holy Scriptures shaking off the fetters of hypothetical system, and moving on in a more free and philosophical direction ; whilst we rejoice that the science of theology is liberated from the forms of an ignorant and scholastic logic, and behold with satisfaction the Volume of Inspiration laid open to the discussion of a rational and learned, not visionary criticism, from which we may in- dulge the hope of receiving a faithful inter- pretation of all its parts ; we are bound to hold in awful recollection, that it is divine in its origin and mysterious in its form ; that though " the things which are revealed be- long to us and to our children,^' to investi- gate and to contemplate " the secret things," which are therein concealed, " belong unto the Lord our God ;'' so to remain, till in his wisdom he open them more fully to our 190 THE CHART AND SCALE understandings. This solemn consideration should be kept perpetually in mind ; lest, by exulting too much in the glorious liberty we have gained, critics and interpreters, commentators and translators, grow too bold in their literary career ; and after snapping asunder the chains of prejudice and form, should rush into the opposite, and more dangerous extreme — capricious judgment and fanciful invention. With this axiom, therefore, constantly in view, we shall descend with advantage from the general interpretation of the Holy Scrip- tures, through the principles on which it is to be conducted, to their particular interpre- tation. The former constitutes the office of the theological critic and commentator ; the latter that of the theological critic and trans- lator. These offices, however connected and allied, are so distinct in their peculiar exercise, that they should never be con- founded. The province of the commentator is more extensive and enlarged ; that of the translator more verbal and confined. Thoup'h OF TRUTH. 191 both offices may be discharged by one indi- vidual, unless he recognise this distinction he will probably do more injury than service, to the cause of scriptural learning. The view, however, which has been taken of the former will lead us to the true principle of criticism and the just method of translating, according to which the latter should be conducted. The divine analogy of scripture language which pervades the sacred volume, and the frequent use of the parabolical style, so im- portant in its intention, will strongly remind the translator of the delicacy and difficulty of his undertaking. They will admonish him, that the task of presenting the Bible in a new language is peculiarly sacred, to be executed with far more caution and fidelity, than that of translating any other book. Amongst the many blessings which Provi- dence hath bestowed on this favoured coun- try, in different periods of its history, is the English Translation of the Bible, appointed to be read in Churches, which for some ages it has enjoyed. Whilst gratitude compels us to set a high value upon a work, by which 192 THE CHART AND SCALE our forefathers were instructed to serve their God, justice will also oblige us to think and speak favourably of its intrinsic merit. The men, to whose learning and labour we are in- debted for this translation, were selected for the task by the discernment of a pious and learned prince, and were endowed with every qualification of heart and understanding, and possessed of every advantage of learning and erudition for the execution of the work, which the state of biblical knowledge, and the religious complexion of their times aftbrded. They availed themselves largely and judiciously of the learning and labours of former translators, both Latin and English, and it may be considered, as an encomium adequate to the best efforts of human ability, if we say, that, upon the whole, they far excelled all their predecessors. Their lan- guage is plain, nervous, dignified ; and what- ever be the defects of this translation in other respects, this version will, in general, ever remain the object of our admiration and gratitude. After paying this tribute of praise, so justly due, to our English version, truth obliges us OF TRUTH. 193 to own, that the translators, however able, laboured under unavoidable difficulties and disadvantages, by which they were obstruct- ed, at that time, in the execution. These are now removed, and if, from the present im- proved and improving state of biblical learn- ing, the change of circumstances in favour of the present age, and with the aid of their excellent translation, we presume, that, as they improved on their predecessors, they may also be improved on in their turn, — the presumption, at least the hope, can neither appear ungenerous towards them, nor unrea- sonable in itself. To procure an accurate and perfect text, is the first step towards a good translation. Without this advantage, whatever other ex- cellence the version may possess, it can be at best only a perfect copy of an imperfect original^. Such a text can be obtained only by a comprehensive investigation, and critical examination of the most authentic monu- ' See Bishop Marsh's liectures, parts i. ii. 2 O 194 THE CHART AND SCALE ments and authorities of the sacred volume, by an extensive collation of ancient manu- scripts, and by the collateral elucidations of more ancient versions from manuscripts more perfect than any which now exist. It is the chief disadvantage of our English version of the Old Testament, that it was formed on the Hebrew text, — the text of these later ages, miserably changed, cor- rupted, and adulterated (and even that imperfectly interpreted) ; rather than on the Septuagint version, which was made from more perfect copies, in an early age, when the ancient Hebrew must necessarily have been far better understood. It was trans- lated by a constellation of the most learned Hellenistic Jews, from one of the most im- perfect, into the most perfect and universal tongue which was ever spoken. From this Septuagint version, our Lord and his apostles have adduced nearly all their quota- tions in the New Testament. In consequence of this radical error, the immediate relation and connexion between the Old and New Testaments is much injured, as the New Testament was translated from the Greek, in OF TRUTH. 19-5 which it was written. The consequence is, that our Scripture phraseology is not so uniform as it ought to be, as was mani- festly designed by the Inspirer, and as our Lord and his apostles have exemplified by their numerous quotations in the exact words of the Septuagint. This statement of the case will, I know, not meet with the assent and approbation of some, who aftect great and superior learning, from having studied the Hebrew and other oriental tongues, and whose reputation for a study which is little understood, prevails with too many, blindly to subscribe to their opinion. But, from the native imperfection of all original languages, from the great diffi- culty of understanding them in ages so far distant from their living use, and above all, from the sanction of the practice and autho- rity of Christ and his apostles, I will main- tain this opinion of the paramount importance of the LXX version. I would not under- value the Hebrew manuscripts. I contend only, that the Greek translation should be made the standing basis of an English version of the Old Testament, even as the Greek 19^ THE CHART AND SCALE text is that of the version of the New ; and that the Hebrew and other ancient versions should be consulted and collated with it, that any occasional light and assistance might be derived. The imperfect state of biblical learning, particularly grammatical, thwarted at the time the success of our English translators, on ac- count of which, they could not have recourse to documents and authorities sufficient to prepare a model thus corrected and improved. Too confidently persuaded of the genuine- ness of the Masoretic text, corrupted by the ignorance and inaccuracy of transcribers, and disguised by the punctuations and sinister practices of the more modern Jews, devoted to rabbinical prejudices which it was made to countenance, and from want of more an- cient and authentic copies,^ — they translated from false and imperfect originals^. However exact and scrupulously faithful in verbal translation, depending entirely upon these, and neglecting more ancient and genuine authorities, their version would unavoidably possess all their prejudices and defects ; - SeeLovvlh's Preface to Isaiah, and Kennicott's Disserta- tions. OF TRUTH. 197 whilst, by too much depending on modern lexicons, they have occasionally misinter- preted the meaning of many separate words; When the true text is determined and re- stored, it is the next qualification of the scriptural translator, on the principles of just criticism and by a rational method of inter- pretation, to express the exact sense of the author fairly and impartially. It is not, how- ever, to be disguised, that attachment to sect and the love of system, inflamed by habits of disputation and polemical divinity, though more temperate in these translators, than in some of their predecessors, has occasionally produced an insensible bias on their judg- ment. To these radical and permanent causes of imperfection, in the translators of the present version, another may be added, which is the effect of time and accident. In the constant flux of the English, as of every living language, some of our words have lost their meaning and become obsolete ; others have changed, and become antiquated ; whilst in many places, the grammatical construction is awk- ward, and occasionally confused. From these and other reasons which might 1.98 THE CHART AND SCALE be assigned, particularly the want of unifor- mity from the cause already mentioned, we need not hesitate to pronounce, that in our present translation, such mistakes and imperfections were unavoidable, without any disrespect to the memory, or derogation from the acknowledged merit of these excellent and learned men. Conscious of these numerous defects, and convinced of the paramount importance of the sacred volume, and of the duty incum- bent upon us to preserve the genuine meaning of every word which it contains ; it were almost as disgraceful, for this age of improved learning and reformed religion, (when the remains of every classical author are brought forward in elegant versions), to suffer the Bible to continue under the imperfections of the present authorised trans- lation, as it was heretofore the reproach of ignorance and superstition, to prohibit its being translated at all. Since the commencement of this century, biblical learning has greatly flourished in the universities of Europe ; and it is, from being OF TRUTH. 199 conducted on just and rational principles, and from the joint studies of the learned of different countries and communities, joining hand in hand in promoting the great work, that the volume of Scripture may be restored to its purity and perfection. At length the rage for system and hj^pothesis has much subsided. We rejoice to see the ancient scholastic discipline on the decline ; and we congratulate the learned, on turning their attention, from useless words and forms, to things of real importance, and on applying it to the genuine sources of theological truth, — biblical studies, languages and antiquities. Before this period, Capellus, with a bold and fearless hand, first essayed to remove the veil of superstition and credulity, which covered the errors and deformities of the Jewish originals, and thus emancipated the study of the Scriptures, from those Masoretic prepos- sessions and rabbinical prejudices, to which it had been so long confined. But to shake ofl^" these chains, so disgraceful and injurious to sound theology, and clear the way to the genuine interpretation of holy writ, was a work reserved for Houbigant, who though 200 THE CHART AND SCALE too bold in some of his conjectural emenda- tions of the sacred text, presented the world with an excellent version of the Old Testa- ment, from a copy corrected with great learning, grammatical skill, and critical acu- men, as a model for the imitation of all future improvers of biblical learning. As a sacred critic and translator, Houbigant holds the foremost rank, and is entitled to the choicest laurel. He has the honour to be followed by Lowth and Michaelis, who succeeded him in this high walk of sacred criticism ; whose labours, though sometimes perhaps imitating the conjectural decisions of their leader, more than the principles of sacred criticism will sanction, are judicious and well-conducted upon the whole, and are followed and improved by learned men of our own and other nations. By their con- current labours, since the charm was broken, many prejudices and obstacles are now re- moved, and thus the avenues to the sacred study of the Scriptures have been gradually laid open^. ^ Marsh's Lectures, part ii. OF TRUTH. 20 J Under the direction of such leaders, sacred learning hath gone on improving and to be improved. The first duty consists, as we have observed, in an extensive and critical colla- tion and comparison of manuscripts, parallel places, quotations, versions, and editions. In this laborious department of biblical learning, the lucubrations of Kennicott hold a distin- guished rank. The second act, consequent on the former, is a new translation of the Bible, or rather perhaps an amended edition of the present. Some few of the learned, actu- ated more by an honest zeal for the present translation, than directed in judgment by a knowledge of the true merits of the question, have strenuously opposed this work, as in itself unnecessary, as hazardous in its exe- cution, or even dangerous in its effect. Others, directed by better information, have been, and at this time are employed, in the useful, but arduous undertaking, with every advantage of sagacity, learning, and im- partiality on their side, encouraging our ardent hopes, and promising to realise our 202 THE CHART AND SCALE sanguine expectations*. They are not, how- ever, exactly agreed as to the just and true method of scriptural translation, — a question of the last importance to the success of this great work, and which should be previously settled and determined. Without some gene- ral agreement of principles, there can be no uniformity of purpose or effect. But, from the liberal, friendly, and unassuming spirit which they breathe towards each other, and which is so manly and generous, as to win the approbation and assistance of every one who can in the least contribute to the pro- motion of this noble design, we may cherish a lively hope, that one uniform, rational, and judicious plan will be finally adopted and invariably pursued. When the text of the original has been carefully and scrupulously adjusted, it is the sound and accurate judgment, which appre- hends the precise meaning of the words, distinguishes the idioms, and considers the ■• Bp. Nevvcome, Dr. Blaney, Dr. Geddes, Dr. Campbell, Dr. Macknio'ht, and others. OF TRUTH. 203 genius of the respective languages of the ori- ginal and the version, which constitutes the general qualification of a competent translator. Without this discrimination, he would be unable to give a just representation of any composition, whether profane or sacred. But the exact method, and the particular rules, by which the work is to be conducted, should be formed on principles, derived from the nature and genius of the original documents. The theological axiom, therefore, which has been laid down in the preceding pages, — " That the Holy Bible, in its origin and formation, is essentially distinct from all books of human composition, however dif- ferent they may be from each other,'' — will require, that distinct rules should be observed in its translation, as well as exposition. In support of this opinion, let me again appeal to the judgment of Lord Bacon, whose autho- rity, on all subjects of literature, is justly acknowledged to be supreme and decisive. " The Scriptures being given by inspiration, and not by human reason, do differ from all books in the Author ; which by consequence 204 THE CHART AND SCALE doth draw on some diiference to be used by the expositor^/" How far human judgment may be exer- cised in translating the word of God, is the great question, in the precise solution of which many different opinions always have divided, and still continue to divide the learn- ed. Till this question be decided on a firm and philosophic ground, though our present trans- lators may possess more biblical knowledge and enjoy more advantages than their pre- decessors, their labours must exhibit an un- equal and imperfect representation of the sacred text. On this topic, therefore, we shall now venture a few observations. Since the Bible has one thing in common with all other books, — that it is written in human language — it is the chief cause of our different opinions, and most certainly the chief cause of ill-success, that learned men, some more, and some less, according to their per- sonal taste and private judgment, bring their rules and ideas of translation, as well as of interpretation, from classical books, to the * The Advancement of Learning, b. ii. p. 326, edit. 1()33. OF lUUTii. 205 sacred volume. " This manner of interpret- ing/' says Lord Bacon, " seems, at first sight, sober and chaste ; yet notwithstanding, it both dishonoureth Scripture, and is a great prejudice and detriment to the church : and this is, to speak in a word, when divinely inspired Scriptures are expounded, after the same manner, that human writings are. For it must be remembered, that there are two points known to God, the author of Scripture, which man's nature cannot comprehend, that is, the secrets of the heart, and the succes- sions of times, which do make a just and sound difference between the manner of ex- position of the Scriptures, and all other books. For it is an excellent observation, which hath been made upon the answers of our Saviour Christ, to many of the questions, which were propounded to him, — that they are imperti- nent to the question demanded. The reason whereof is, that, not being like man, which knows man's thoughts by his words, but knowing man's thoughts immediately and of himself, he never answered their words, but their thoughts. And another reason is, that he spake, not only to them that were then 206 THE CHART AND SCALE present, but to us also, who now live, and to men of every age and place, to whom the Gospel shall be preached ; which sense, in many places of scripture must take place. Much in like manner, it is with the Scrip- tures, which, being written to the thoughts of men, and to the succession and vicissitude of all ages, with a certain foresight of all heresies, contradictions, differing and mutable estates of the church, as well in general as of the elect in special, are not to be interpreted only, according to the latitude of the proper sense of the place and respectively towards that present occasion, whereupon the words were uttered, or in precise congruity or contexture with the words before or after, or in contem- plation of the principal scope of the place ; — but have in themselves, not only totally and collectively, but distinctively in clauses and words, infinite springs and streams of doctrine to water the church in every part ; and there- fore since the literal, is, as it were, the main stream or river ; so the moral sense chiefly, and, sometimes the allegorical or typical, are they whereof the church hath most use. Not that I wish men to be bold in allegories, or OK TRUTH. 207 indulgent, or light in allusions ; but, that I do much condemn that interpretation of the Scripture, which is only, after the manner that men use to interpret a profane book^." These observations apply to particular, rather than to general interpretation ; and if our translators would honour this instruction of our great luminary of science, with the attention it deserves, it would supply them with a general principle, philosophically grounded, from which, certain rules of trans- lating would be easily deduced, and by which they might uniformly and successfully con- duct their labours. And surely men, who are equally distinguished for then' candour and learning, will not disdam to be directed in their interpretation of the volume of Grace, by the light which has led Newton through that of Nature, to the confines of the universe. This principle will admonish them, that, while unfolding the oracles of God, by presenting them in a vernacular tongue to the inhabi- tants of whole nations, they " tread on holy ^ This extract is taken partly from his Latin treatise De Augm. Scient. lib. ix. and partly from his English work " Of the Advancement of Learning," b. ii. p. 329. 208 THE CHART AND SCALE ground." It will warn them, " to put their shoes from ofiP their feet/' and to advance with fear and trembling ; lest by a mixture of human art, they injure, or misrepresent, the dictates of Him, who hath awfully declared — " heaven and earth shall pass away, — but my Word shall not pass away'^/ .7 » As it is his duty to give a faithful picture of the original, it is a rule of the first im- portance for the successful translator of the Holy Scriptures, though one of the most difficult to put effectually in practice, to divest himself of every kind of prejudice or bias. Prejudice insinuates itself insensibly into the mind, and is there so confirmed by time and habit, that it is the enemy in our own bosom, the most difficult to conquer. But prejudices in religion, imbibed at the breast, and cherished, not only with fondness, but with eager and intemperate zeal, are still more obstinate and inveterate than others. To avoid all partial and private interpretation, the bane of sound ' Matt. xxiv. 35. OF TRUTH. 209 theology, he should banish from his mind all systems and hypotheses of human invention. He should divest himself of those narrow habits of thinking, which he may have con- tracted in the use of a dogmatical and arti- ficial logic. He should forget the very persuasion, however orthodox and pure, in which he was bred. He should be constantly and religiously on his guard, lest the spirit of a sect supersede that of a Christian, and lest he show himself the disciple of man, rather than " taught of God^'' Yet, since human language hath been ^ In this fundamental rule, all our present translators pronounce themselves agreed. "The critical sense of passages should be considered, and not the opinions of any denomination of Christians. — The translation should be philological, not controversial." — Bp- Newcome's Rule xii. Pref. to Translation of the Twelve Minor Prophets, p. 37. " Unvi'edded to systems of any kind, literary, physical, or religious, a translator of the Bible should sit down to render his author, with the same impartiality, he would sit down to render Thucydides or Xenophon. He should try to forget that he belongs to any particular society of Christians ; be extremely jealous of his own rational prepossessions ; keep all theological consequences, as far out of his sight as possible, and investigate the meaning of his original, by the rules only of sound and sober criticism, regardless of pleasing or dis- pleasing any party." — Dr. Geddes' Prospectus, p. 141, 142. " Of such consequence it is to a translator, to banish all 2 P 210 THE CHART AND SCALE employed as the vehicle of divine revela- tion, however analogically expressed, we need not hesitate in concluding, that it is to be understood and construed, according to the grammar of the tongue, in which the revelation was given, and to be translated according to that, into which the version is to be rendered. Thus far, the laws of translation, whether sacred or profane, perfectly coincide. In other respects they materially differ, according to the different nature of the works, on which the translator is employed, as Lord Bacon has judiciously observed. And first, in point of propriety — party considerations, to forget, as far as possible, that he is connected with any party, and to be ever on his guard, lest the spirit of the sect absorb the spirit of the Christian, and he appear to be the follower of some human teacher, — of Calvin, Arminius, Socinus, Pelagius, Arius, or Athanasius, than of our only divine and rightful teacher Christ." — Dr. Campbell's Dissertations to his Translation of the Gospels, p. 618. " A translator is bound to abstract from, and, as far as possible, forget all sects and systems, together with the polemic jargon, which they have been the occasion of intro- ducing. His aim ought to be invariably to give the untainted sentiments of the author, and to express himself, in such manner, as men would do, amongst whom such disputes had never been agitated." — Ibid. p. 510. OF TRUTH. 211 I. Presuming, that human judgment is generally commensurate with human compo- sitions, the classic translator, if duly qualified for his office, sits down to the task of ren- dering it in another language, on terms of familiarity, nay, almost of equality with his author. That the new dress which he is forming may sit with ease, and appear with elegance ; that it may lose the stiffness, which the peculiarities of the original language would entail, he gives both the words and sentences, such an idiomatical change, as may enable him, to cast the sense more freely into the mould of the translation, and thus to give it the air of originality. In short, he takes the thoughts of the author, and exhibits them in his own style and expression^. But, so far from presuming that his judg- ment is equally commensurate with a divine production, the devout translator of the Holy Scriptures will sit down to the work, impressed with the sense of this awful truth, — ^ Vide Huet. de Interpretatione et de claris Interpretibus. Stadae, 1680; and Tytler on Translation. — Editor. 212 THE CHART AND SCALE that — " the thoughts of God are not as man^s thoughts, nor his ways/^ or words, " as those of men ;'' that the matter of Revelation is more the object of faith, than of intellect, and that the form is sacred, and frequently ambiguous ^^. He will not, therefore, feel himself, on the same terms of ease and fami- liarity with his author, nor represent his words and sentences, with that freedom of change, which his own judgment might direct, his fancy suggest, or which he might think the genius or elegance of his language would require ; conscious that, as they stand in the original, they may be intended to convey a meaning, which by such change might be injured or lost. He will consequently endeavour, first, to discover the true literal, and grammatical sense ; and then content himself, with making choice of such words and sentences, as may, in his own language, most fully and literally express its meaning. In the propriety of this rule, all our translators '° "I do much condemn," says Bacon, " that interpreta. tion of Scripture, which is only, after the manner, that men use to interpret a profane book." — Advance of Learning, book ii. Ol' TRUTH. 213 seem agreed ^^; though, from their difference of judgment in its execution, they vary widely, in the practice. As there are no two languages, which have a perfect synonymy and coincidence of words, the observance of this rule will often become a task of the greatest difficulty. To cope with this obstacle, the translator should possess a very extensive knowledge of both languages. He should discriminate with the nicest accu- racy, and select with the maturest deliberation. " " The first and principal business of a translator is to give the plain and grammatical sense of his author, the obvious meaning of his words, phrases, and sentences; and to express them in the language, into which, he translates, as far as may be, in equivalent words, phrases, and sentences. Whatever indulgence may be allowed him in other respects, however excusable he may be, if he fail of attaining the elegance, the spirit, the sublimity of his author (which will generally be in some degree the case, if his author excels at all in these qualities) ; want of fidelity admits of no excuse, and is entitled to no indulgence. This is peculiarly so, in subjects of high importance, such as the Holy Scriptures; in which, so much depends on the phrase and expression; and particularly in the prophetic Books of Scripture, where, from the letter, are often deduced deep and recondite senses, which must owe all their weight and solidity, to the just and accurate interpretation of the words of the prophecy. For, whatever senses are supposed to be included in the prophet's words, spiritual, mystical, allegorical, analogical, or the like; they must all entirely depend on the literal sense. This is 214 THE CHART AND SCALE According to the direction of Houbigant, " Non fieri potest, ut duarum linguarum paria verba semper paribus respondeant ; verba sunt ponderanda, non numeranda^^/^ Even words which correspond etymologically, do not always correspond virtually ; so that, however much a translation of the Bible, which is strictly literal might be desired, it is impossible, from these differences in all languages, that a good literal translation should ever be obtained ^^. It is well known. the only foundation, upon which, such interpretations can be securely raised ; and if this is not firmly and securely esta- blished, all that is built upon it will fall to the ground." — Bp. Lowth's Preliminary Dissertation to Isaiah, p. lii. Bishop Newcome's first rule is, — " The translator should express every word of the original, by a literal rendering, where the English idiom admits of it, and where not only purity, but perspicuity and dignity of expression can be preserved." — Pref. to Translation of the Twelve Minor Pro- phets, p. xvii. " First of all, a translator of the Bible ought to be faithful ; that is, ought to express all the meaning, and no more, than the meaning of the original." — Geddes' Prospectus, p. 126. " The first thing a translator has to do, is to give a just and clear representation of the sense of the original, which is the most essential of all." — Campbell, Dissertation x. part i. '■^ Prolegomena, cap. v. art. 3. '^ " It is absolutely impossible to translate literally from any language whatever, without being often barbarous, ob- scure, and equivocal."— Dr. Geddes' Prospectus, p. 127. OF TRUTH. 215 that those who have been most scrupu- lously attached to the letter, are, on account of these differences, often the furthest, from the literal and grammatical sense, — the first object of all scriptural translation^"*. This peculiar difficulty has beset all biblical translators, and divided them in their judg- ment of the proper nature and limits of their office. Some, and these learned men, on considering this difference, inherent in the texture and formation of languages, and ob- serving, that those, who adhered the closest to the letter, were the furthest from the sense, have felt the difficulty attending a literal version insurmountable, and taken refuge, in a more loose and distant mode of translating. The idea of a literal translation of Scripture should not, however, be aban- doned. Though words cannot be made to correspond to words, either as to their num- ber, synonymy, or etymology ; yet there is a middle way, though sometimes difficult to be found, by which, they may be brought to '■• Pagninus and Montanus are less faithful guides than even Castalio, Michaelis, or Wynne. 216 THE CHART AND SCALE correspond in equivalence and effect. Thus the translation, though not strictly, may be virtually literal. Such a translation, our principle, which considers the Bible as a divine production, not only countenances, but requires : and however others may in- dulge their genius, in taking greater liberty with the words of inspiration, consistency will support us in subscribing to the opinion of Beza, as far as the difference of the lan- guages will admit, — " Quo propius abest a Graecis et Hebraeis Latina interpretatio, eo mihi magis probanda videatur^^.^^ But the idioms of language differ still more than the words, and the translator of a profane author would not be read or tole- rated, who does not invariably make the change, and adopt that of his own language. In translating the sacred volume, the prin- ciple, which has been already laid down, will, « Beza, Nov. Test. Dedicat. *' Where a verbal translation cannot be interwoven, one equivalent to it should be substituted, and the idiom [or the word] in the text should be literally rendered in the margin." — Bp. Newcome, rule iii. p. 23. OF TRUTH. 217 for the same important reasons, prescribe to its translator a different rule of conduct. To retain all the minute peculiarities, in an English translation, would, I acknowledge, be unnecessary, and indeed absurd. Fortunately however, for the close coincidence of idiom and phrase with the original, in all matters of more essential importance, there is a singular coincidence and similarity between the Hebrew and English tongues ^^. Many of the principal Hebraisms had long appeared, in an English dress, in former translations, and are become so familiar by frequency of repetition, that the ear would now feel itself strange, and even offended, by their omis- sion. They possess also that dignity, which antiquity confers on every thing, with which, it is associated. Imparting a warmth and 16 " Qjjj. language easily moulds itself into the Hebrew form; and it rarely happens, that we are under any neces- sity of having recourse to paraphrase and circumlocution, to express the full meaning of the text. Even when the syntactical arrangement is different, there is a striking equi- pollence of simplicity, conciseness, and energy, to be at- tained, which, perhaps, no modern language can boast of; and which is not found in ours, with regard to any other language, but the Hebrew." — Dr. Geddes' Prospectus, note, p. 128. 218 THE CHART AND SCALE animation, unknown to modern languages, thej raise the English above its natural level, and qualify it to become the consecrated vehicle of theological truth. " There is a certain coldness," says the judicious Addison, " in the phrases of our European languages, when compared with the oriental forms of speech ; and it happens very opportunely, that the Hebrew idiom runs into the English tongue, with a peculiar grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegances and improvements from that infusion of Hebraisms, which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy writ. They give force and energy to our expression, warm and animate our lan- guage, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than any that are to be met with, in our own tongue. There is something so pathetic in this kind of diction, that it often sets the mind in a flame, and makes our hearts burn within us. If an}^ one should judge of the beauties of poetry, which are to be met with in the divine writings, and examine how kindly the Hebrew manners of speech mix and OK TRUTH. 219 incorporate with the Enghsh language ; after having perused the book of Psalms, let him read a literal translation of Horace and Pindar, and he will find, in these two last, such an absurdity and confusion of style, with such a comparative poverty of imagina- tion, as will make him very sensible of what I have been here advancing ^^." Castalio, both in biblical learning and critical judgment, was a superior translator ; but, by an unhappy attempt, to leave the Hebrew idiom, and clothe his version in all the elegance of the Latin phraseology and construction, — upon this principle of profane translation injudiciously applied, — he has not only abandoned the fidelity, as well as others, but has lost all the dignity and simplicity of Holy Scripture. Instead of being all that is elegant, and graceful, and ornamental, as he expected ; every thing is finical and affected, in this fancy-dress ; and all the redundance of the polish, submits not only to the sim- plicity of his rival Beza, but often to the more servile representations of Tremellius and " Spectator. 2 '20 THE CHART AND SCALE Junius, — nay, occasionally — even to the bar- barisms of Montanus and Pagninus^^. For these, among other reasons, a critical revision and improved edition of the old, seems more desirable, than a new translation. Not only the Hebrew idiom, but as many of the words as possible of the old translation, should be retained, on account of their sim- plicity and dignity, and also to indulge the honest prepossessions of the people ^^. The remark, from whatever quarter it may have come, is very justly made, — " that common '* On the comparative merits of these Latin translators, consult Simon's Critical History; Huet. de Interpret, lib. ii, cap. 3 ; and Macknight's Preface and Preliminary Essays before his Translation of the Epistles. — Editor. " When the terms and phrases, employed by former 'interpreters, are well adapted for conveying the sense of the author, they are justly preferred to other words equally expressive and proper; but which, not having been used by former interpreters, are not current in that application." — Campbell's Diss. xi. p. 521. " Words that are too fine, too learned, or too modern, are repugnant to the style of the sacred penmen, are too flowery, affected, and modish, to suit their style, which is eminently natural, simple, and dignified. And, on the other hand, words which are low and vulgar, are still more deroga- tory, from the exalted sublimity of the subject and language of Holy Scripture." — Ibid. Diss. xi. p. 570. "The simple and ancient turn of the present version should be retained." — Bp. Newcome, rule vi. p. 32. OF TRUTH. 221 minds can discriminate with difficulty be- tween the language and the substance ; and in losing the one, they will be, in no little anxiety about the other ; besides, that the long use of writings avowedly sacred, gives a venerable air to the language, and seems almost to consecrate it to the service of religion ^^." But, to sanction this general reasoning in support of the preservation of the ancient idiom, we have two precedents, whose autho- rity will be admitted as unquestionable. The Septuagint is a translation of the Old Testament, of very high, if not of divine authority ; in which, though the language be Greek, the idiom is uniformly Hebrew. And in the New Testament itself, though the words are Greek, the ideas are Jewish, and the idiom Hebrew ; which afford a convinc- ing proof, that the original idiom should at any rate be preserved ^^. ^ Critical Review, Nov. 1789. " A Septuagint edition of the Greek Testament, that is, an edition, illustrated throughout by references to the LXX. is a great desideratum. Such an edition has long been contemplated by the Editor, but the risk and labour are too great for an individual. It should be undertaken by sonje 222 THE CHART AND SCALE But, besides the words and idioms, the pecuhar spirit, style, character, and manner of each sacred writer, should form an ob- ject of the translator's care, the transfusion of which into our own language, constitutes, in the opinion of our modern translators, the main difficulty and chief merit of their office ^^. Yet these are niceties still more arbi- trary and uncertain, than either words or idioms, varying more amongst individual au- thors, than any mere difference of phrase or idiom ; and to transfuse them in translation, is an effort of imitation, which seems somewhat public body. He would willingly communicate his re- ferences, amounting to several thousand, arranged under chapter and verse. — Editor. ^^ " It is incumbent on every translator to study the manner of his author ; to mark the peculiarities of his style; to imitate his features, his air, his gesture, and, as far as a dif- ferent language will permit, even his voice; in order to give a just and expressive resemblance of the original." — Lowth. Prelim. Diss, to Isaiah xxxv. "The second thing a translator has to do, is, to convey into his version as much as possible, in consistency, with the genius of the language which he writes, the author's spirit and manner, and, if I may so express myself, the very cha- racter of his style." — Campbell's Diss. x. part 1. "The fifth quality of a good translation is that diversity of style which characterized the different Scripture writers. OF TRUTH. 223 fanciful and capricious, depending rather on the taste and genius, than the sound judg- ment of the translator. This favourite rule is obviously borrowed from profane translation, without sufficiently attending to the peculiar nature of inspired productions. It is far too vague and licentious, for the severe prin- ciple of scriptural translation. The trans- lator should reflect, that by labouring to observe this rule, he is in danger of in- fringing all the preceding canons ; to which, he is far more strictly bound, and thus of eventually counteracting his own design. To give his production all the beauties and which, however difficult to attain, ought certainly, by all means, to be aimed at. — Every writer, whether sacred or profane, has something peculiar to himself, and it ought to be the endeavour of a translator, to retain as much as possible of that peculiarity." — Geddes' Prospectus, pp. 137, 138. This learned author then quotes the above words of Bishop liowth, as authority, which, I hope, he does not embrace, without considering what precedes and follows them. " To convey into his version, as much of his author's spirit and manner, as the genius of the language which he writes will admit," is the second qualification of a Scripture trans- lator mentioned by Dr. Campbell; and Mr. Wakefield is of opinion, that a considerable share of human ingenuity and invention is requisite, in order to preserve this spirit and manner. See his Preface. 224 THE CHART AND SCALE advantages of the original, the translator of a human work, especially if poetical, per- ceives, that in this imitation, lies his fullest and fairest scope, and that his success will depend chiefly on his own poetic genius. In the execution, therefore, he not only varies many of the words and idioms of the original, but occasionally the figures, and flies to the resources of his imagination, to supply him with others. These, whilst on the whole, they impart the thought, suit the nature and ele- gance of his own phraseology, and rise to that height of spirit and animation, and that peculiar style and character, which he conceives his author to possess. And if, to exalt and improve these qualities, he should occasionally give a new turn to the thought, the licence has been commended ; as by thus enabling the author to shine in the version, with a higher lustre than his own, he compen- sates for some of those peculiar beauties, in which, every translator must fall short of his original. And, however different it may be, in some particular passages, should the trans- lation produce the general effect of the origi- nal, the translator has arrived at the summit OF TRUTH. 225 of his art, to which, though all hope and imagine they have attained, their success must be in proportion to their genius, and thus their imitations become as diversified as their taste. Such imitation of the style, character, and manner of the sacred writers, whose lan- guage is always analogical, and often more highly figurative than the classic authors, is an effort of human genius, of which, I hum- bly conceive, the nature of the originals and the severe laws of translation which they dictate, cannot in any great degree, permit. This would be to mix too much of what is vague and human, with what is unchange- able and divine ; and is altogether subver- sive of that literal and idiomatical fidelity, for which we have been so earnestly con- tending. The late learned and ingenious prelate, to whom biblical learning is so much indebted, but who brought rather too much classical refinement, to the criticism of sacred poetry, has introduced this imitative translation also from classical authors, to the sacred volume ; under the persuasion, that it was perfectly 2 ^ 226 THE CHART AND SCALE compatible with a strictly literal version. Here the same questions recur, with respect to translation, which were proposed, in regard to criticising inspired productions. — How far is this imitation to be carried ? and who shall draw the line, where it is to stop ? — He has ably observed, that in translating the works of the best classic poets, much de- pends, not only on giving the sense of the author with equal force and elegance, but in catching his characteristic features, his com- plexion, his personal mien and motion. And he owns, that whoever has thus attempted to translate the sacred poets into Greek or Latin verse, if not quite inferior, must neces- sarily be quite dissimilar to them^^. Yet notwithstanding this concession, he has him- self attempted to reconcile this personal ^ In exprimendis alia lingua egregiorum poetarum ope- ribus, multum in eo positum est, ut non tantum iidem sint intimi sensus, par in sensibus explicandis vis et venustas; sed ut, quantum fieri potest, externa etiam oris lineamenta effingantur, ut suus cuique color alque habitus, suus etiam mot us et incessus tribuatur. Qui itaque sacros vates Graeco vel Latino carmine exprimere, adeoque eorum veluti perso- nam sustinere conati sunt, fieri non potuit, quin toto genere et forma, si non inferiores, multum certe ab iis dissimiles essent. — Prael. iii. p. 43. OF TRUTH. 227 and peculiar imitation, with his EngUsh version. He declares it to be the design of his translation of Isaiah — " not only to give an exact and faithful representation of the words and the sense of the prophet, by adhering as closely to the letter of the text, and treading as nearly as may be in his footsteps ; but also to imitate the air and manner of the author, to express the form and fashion of his composition, and to give the English reader some notion of the pecu- liar turn and cast of the originaF^.^' The latter part of this design coincides, he thinks, perfectly with the former ; and whatever his success may have been in the execution, his candour deserves to be commended, though it may not accord with consistence. This example, however, rendered the more attrac- tive by the celebrity of his learning, the brilliancy of his genius, the dignity of his station, and the fascinating elegances of his Latin style, others, possessed of less judicious caution, have been too eager to follow, with- out keeping within the bounds of that imita- ^* Preliminary Dissertation to Isaiah, p. I. 228 THE CHART AND SCALE tion he has prescribed ^^. They too confidently rely on this false presumption, — that the matter was furnished by the Inspirer, while the form and manner of utterance were left entirely to the natural genius and inclination of the inspired ; agreeably to the words of Castalio, — " Res dictat Spiritus, verba qui- dem et linguam loquenti aut scribenti liberam permittit^^/^ That inspiration consists in the commu- nication of ideas, not of words, which are only the instrument and mode of that com- munication, is an opinion confidently main- tained by many of the learned ; with all deference to whom, I would contend, that the Inspirer was interested in the manner, as ^ His notion of imitation seems to have gone no further than an attempt to represent the prophet's manner, the form of his composition, and his character as a writer, so far as re- lates to their verse, measure, and rhythm ; without affecting the style properly understood, — the idioms, metaphors, images, and expressions of the sacred writers. This imita- tion is, perhaps, founded in caprice and fancy, rather than in fixed and certain principles ; yet he hoped that it was per- fectly consistent with the literal sense. — " I must entreat the reader to be satisfied with my endeavour to express the literal sense — this is what I have endeavoured closely and exactly to express." — Tbid. p. 74. 2^ Def. contra Bezam. OF TRUTH. 229 well as in the matter, in the words, as well as in the ideas. In his supernatural intercourse with men, the Almighty has recourse to human instru- ments. It was shown, in the preceding pages, that he condescended to employ human words to be analogically understood, in order to convey his divine truths to our understandings. But, because the agents are human, no one may presume to take the liberty of giving them any change or different representation, by any effort of human genius. No one may presume to change the words Father, Son, Redeemer, Mediator, which the Inspirer hath adopted. It was also shown, that for special purposes of revelation, he has made use of that para- bolical expression, those poetical symbols and figures, which abound in the eastern languages: — and are not these as sacred as those analogical terms ^^? Upon this ground of reasoning, we may " " Metaphors are in general to be retained, and the sub- stitution or unnecessary introduction of new ones should be avoided. And if the original metaphor cannot be transferred. 230 THE CHART AND SCALE justly attribute their different styles, their appropriate spirit and character, to the natural genius, or the particular education of the prophets. Nevertheless, since the Spirit of prophecy employed their language, whatever it might be, with all its images and figures, to his own purposes, it became his instru- ment, no less than the prophets themselves, and became in that sense, peculiarly his own^^. And who can affirm, that this divine affla- tus had no concern in the immediate act of animating and forming their several styles? or who shall draw the line or determine pre- cisely, how far it was concerned ^^ ? Whether it should be rendered in the margin." — Bp. Newcome, rule vi. p. 35. ^^ Utrunjque [ro Trepl rag voifauQ aSpeirrifioXov et to (T(j)odp6v Koi IvBatna'^iKov iraQoo] in hoc argumento usurpamus, atque ita sacris vatibus tribuimus, ut nihil derogemus Divini Spiritus afflatui : etsi suam interea vim propriae cujusquam scriptoris naturae atque ingenio concedamus. — Lowth. Prael. xvi. ^^ Hanc speciem IvQaaiaa^B appellarem naturalem, nisi viderer plane inter se repugnantia conjungere: est certe longe diversus, et altioris quidem originis, verus ille et ger- manus ivdacnaaiioc, eoque nomine unice dignus, quo solum- modo Hebrseorum poesis sublimior, ac maxime prophetica, incitatur. — Ibid. Prael. xvii. OF TRUTH. 231 the Almighty addressed the world by Amos, in the style of a shepherd, by Daniel, in that of a courtier, or by David, in that of a king ; whether he spoke in figures, in symbols, or by double senses, he would mould their minds, — and why not their words, their styles, and even actions, to his heavenly purpose ? And since, under the cover of these styles and symbols, he has generally concealed the main burden of prophetic enunciation from the prophets themselves, this influence may be considered even as more immediate over their language, than over their minds — " Go thy way, Daniel ; for the words are closed up, sealed to the time of the end^^/' When the prophetic style conveys a double sense, both literal and figurative, the words are the vehicle of the literal to him who understands the language only ; whilst the literal sense becomes the vehicle of the figu- rative to him, to whom it may be given to " discern the things of the Spirit/' But, should the translator, upon the notion of imitating what he imagines to be the style and spirit '" Daniel, xii. 9. 232 THE CHART AND SCALE of the prophet, in order to transfuse them into his version as his taste and genius may direct, make the least change in the images, or even in the words, the interpreter will in vain seek for the figurative meaning. And however the prophetical sense be couched, whether under metaphors, symbols, or other cover, corresponding ill effects will ensue from such corresponding changes. " That the difference of style in the writers, who were alike the organs of inspiration, is no objection to their having been inspired,^^ is a position, therefore, to which I readily concede. The Almighty can employ the organs of free agents, as the instruments of his revelation, without making in them any sensible change. The sacred writers might be permitted to use the style most congenial to their taste and education, whilst the In- spirer was bending it, by his secret operation, to his prophetic purposes, nay, even privately suggesting such words and phrases, such figures and images, as were adapted to this end. This secret and supernatural operation upon the mind of man is the peculiar pre- rogative of the Holy Spirit, both in his OF TRUTH. 233 extraordinary and ordinary communications. " The wind bloweth where it Hsteth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth : even so is every one that is born of the Spirit^\" If things therefore were the first object of inspiration, words and forms of words were the second ; and the favourite position, that, whatever be the subject-matter, the words and manner are equally their own, upon the strength of which critics and translators make as free with Moses, David, and Isaiah, as with Homer, Sophocles, or Virgil, has no foundation, but in a weak and narrow-minded vanity, by which they aspire to entertain the learned, or astonish the ignorant, in the display of their own ingenuity and invention. How then, it may be inquired, are the spirit, and manner, and characteristic style of the sacred writers, those prominent and distinctive qualities, to be preserved and " John, iii. 8. 234 THE CHART AND SCALE represented in an English translation ? — We answer, by rendering them, as verbally and idiomatically as possible, without attempting any fanciful imitation ^^. In this opinion, I have the concurrence of one of the most sober and judicious of our translators, who observes, that, " by a literal rendering, not only the matter of the Scriptures, but the peculiar turn of the language, will be faith- fully represented^^/' And this, I think, will be thus accomplished with a better and more distinct effect, than by the most suc- cessful attempts of the translator, who, in spite of his utmost endeavour to vary with the variety of each author, must retain throughout the whole a characteristic simi- larity of his own. The English tongue, having been long in the habit of expressing Hebrew ideas in Hebrew phrases, has be- come by usage as well as nature, adapted for this effect. Without labouring to mimic '^ As the mind of our author excelled, rather in strength and vigour, than in delicacy and refinement of taste, the student should make all due allowance for the severity of these critical animadversions on the polished antagonist of Warburton. — Editor. " Bp. Newcome's Pref. to Twelve Minor Prophets, p. 17. OF TRUTH. 235 the Jewish character and expression, it can assume them at once, and, however various they may be, they will not only sit with ease, but shine with elegance. That all poetry is confined to metre, is an opinion as false, as it is contracted. Whether the original be in verse or not, the translation, though in prose, will retain the poetic style and spirit, which is the main object, with enough of the measure, to preserve the native animation of the original. This indeed is acknowledged by the late ingenious prelate^*, who took the lead in imitative transla- tion; who, after labouring, in a preliminary apology, with his utmost ingenuity and ad- dress, to ascertain the measure, structure, style, and character of the Hebrew writers, ^* Duo hie occurrunt adnotanda, quae ex jam dictis quasi consectaria quaedam enascuntur. Primo quidem, Poema ex Hebraea in aliam linguam conversum, et oratione soluta ad verbum expressum, cum sententiarum foraise eaedem peima- neant, multum adhuc, etiam quod ad numeros attinet, pris- tinae dignitatis retinebit, et adumbratam quandam carminis imaginem. Hoc, itaque in vernacula sacrorum poematum interpretatione cernitur, ubi plerumque " Invenias etiam disjecti membra poetse :" quod, in Graecis aut Latinis versibus eodem mode conversis, longe aliter eveniret. — Prael. iii. 236 THE CHART AND SCALE in order to imitate them, felt, at last, the difficulties and inconsistencies in which he was entangled, and ingenuously confessed, that the subject was sentimental in its foun- dation, and precarious in its result ^^. By the rules of propriety, therefore, aris- ing from the principle of scriptural trans- lation, founded on the nature of the Sacred Volume, an English version of the Bible should be as verbal and idiomatical and exactly representative of the original, as the language into which it is made will possibly allow. This rule is strikingly exemplified in the Septuagint version, which is altogether different in its style from any other Greek book. II. From the rules of propriety, let us pro- ceed, on the same scriptural principle, to con- sider those of perspicuity, — that other tribunal 3* " I venture to submit to the judgment of the candid reader the preceding observations upon a subject, which hardly admits of proof or certainty, which is rather a mat- ter of opinion and taste, than of science." — Diss. Prelim, xxxiii. OF TRUTH. 237 at which the translators of Scripture are to be examined. Perspicuity is a quality of the first import- ance in all human composition, and so essen- tial to its perfection, that whenever an author is obscure, the translator makes no scruple to step out of his province to give him light, even should he be compelled to have recourse to conjecture. The too hasty and licen- tious use of this licence in criticising and translating classic authors, has however been severely and justly censured. But it has been already observed, that in dictating the Holy Scriptures, obscurity and concealment were often in the original design of the Inspirer : which difference of design will require a very different conduct in the trans- lator. In scriptural translation, therefore, perspicuity should ever give place to pro- priety ; and we should take the utmost care, lest, in the pursuit of the secondary and inferior rule, we lose sight of that which is primary and supreme. As he treads on ground, which is every where sacred, and often involved in mystery, the translator 238 THE CHART AND SCALE should religiously confine himself to the literal and grammatical sense of the words. After the text is brought to all the perfection of which it is capable, when that sense is given, should the meaning of the inspired writer remain obscure, or even apparently unintelligible, the severity of the rule, which propriety en- joins, will require, that it be so left, — in a literal and grammatical translation. Even Castalio, though a very free, or rather licen- tious translator, felt the force and acknow- ledged the justice of this observation. — " Hunc locum non intelligo, ideoque ad ver- bum transtuli.^^ Upon this canon of scriptural translation, the decision of Le Clerc is fully defen- sible. — " Translatio, ubi archetypus sermo clarus est, clara, ubi obscurus, obscura esse debet^^ : whilst that of Houbigant, who, taking his ideas from profane translation, attempts to turn it to ridicule, is unwarrant- able : " Obscurus est non semel Horatius ; num igitur laudanda ea erit Horatii Gallica interpretatio, ubi clarus clare, ubi obscurus "^ Proleg'om. in Pent. Diss. ii. § 4. OF TRUTH. 239 obscure loquentem reddit?" And, in a style of triumph over Le Clerc, he proceeds, — " Dubitandum non esset, quae Sacri Scrip- tores scripseruntperspicuescripsisse/^ The ob- servation may be just, if understood with this restriction, that what they were given clearly to understand themselves, and intended that their readers should clearly and immediately understand, they delivered clearly ; or, that grammatically they were sufficiently clear ; — but, when taken at large, and extended to every sort of perspicuity, it is very falla- cious ; and, from his high reputation as a biblical critic and translator, this authority hath misled, and is in danger of misleading others ^^ ^' " Perspicuity is the second most essential quality of a good translator; nor need we the authority of Horace or Aristotle to establish a proposition, so agreeable to common sense." — Of scriptural translation unfortunately neither Horace nor Aristotle could be judges. — "The Jewish, like all other writers, certainly wrote to be understood." — These Jewish writers were, in this important respect, totally unlike all other writers. — " The poets and prophets themselves are not obscure on account of their style, which, though bold and figurative, must have been perfectly intelligible when they wrote." — How far perfectly intelligible ? Was it not by that bold and figurative style, that, in their prophetical, the most important, sense, they were often unintelligible? — "A trans- 240 THE CHART AND SCALE A sensible translator has observed, on the contrary, that " the Holy Spirit of God often intends a mystery, and so leaves the letter seemingly obscure : such seeming absurdi- ties are left for the honour of God's Spirit, which clears the difficulty, and sets all right ^^/' Time is the only interpreter, which can throw light on the prophetical event to vindicate this honour, by dispelling all such intended obscurity, and which is not inciden- tal to the language. Critics and translators should, as far as possible, distinguish between these different kinds of obscurity ; to the lator, therefore, who, under pretext, that his originals are obscure, affects to give an obscure translation, betrays either his idleness or ignorance, offers an insult to his readers, and throws an oblique ridicule on the author he pretends to inter- pret. If the Scriptures are at all to be translated, of which we have no doubt, they should be made as plain and perspi- cuous as possible, and not a single ambiguity should be left in them, that can any ways be removed. That there are cer- tain mysterious words of the originals, that should not be rendered, may be a pious, but is not a rational, notion." —[Dr. Geddes' Prospectus, pp. 128, 129.]— Without mak- ing the just distinction between grammatical or idiomatical and prophetical obscurities, does not this very learned and liberal translator sacrifice propriety to perspicuity, the first law of scriptural translation, to the second? ^ Dr. Gell. — He was not a translator, but published "An Essay towards the Amendment of the English Translation of the Bible." London, 1659, foWo.—FdUor. OF TRUTH. 241 neglect of which distinction, I am persuaded, we may attribute the different opinions by which they are divided. The latter it is incumbent on the sacred critic and trans- lator to elucidate as far as possible : with the former he has no kind of concern, — he should leave it, in the same literal ex- pression as he finds it^^. Even, though mysteries may be disclosed to us, in these dis- tant ages, which, when the Scriptures were written, were hid in the womb of time, the translator, whose office is to give the represen- tation, not the explanation of his original, (in which consists the difference between a ^ " There are some things that our Saviour said, as well as did, to his disciples, which it was not intended they should understand then ; but which they would understand after- wards. 'These things,' said our Lord, 'I have spoken to you in figures; the time cometh, when I shall no longer speak to you in figures, but instruct you plainly concerning the Father.' It was, therefore, not intended that every thing in the Gospel should be announced at first with plainness. It is withal certain, that the veil of figurative language thrown over some things was employed, to shade them only for a time, and, in the end, to conduce to their evidence and greater lustre. " For there was no secret, that was not to be discovered, nor was aught concealed, that was not to be divulged." — Now justice is not done to the wise conduct of the Spirit, unless things be represented, as nearly as pos. .sible, in his own manner." — Campbell's Diss. p. 625. 2 R 24^ THE CHART AND SCALE translator and commentator), should not avail himself of this intervening light. He should preserve the cover, under which, the prophetic meaning was originally hidden, though that meaning may now be more clearly under- stood^^ ; and he should keep still more invio- lable the veil, under which, future events may yet remain concealed. All that he should attempt or hope, is so to translate the Bible, that it be now as literally understood, as it was when originally written ; to make it, if possible, as intelHgible to the studious reader of the present age, as the writings of Moses were to the Israelites, and those of the apostles to the ancient Jews*^. It is the duty of the preacher (and a most essential part of his ministerial function) to make that translation intelligible to the common people. *^ " Though many of the events foretold which are now accomplished, have put the meaning of such prophecies beyond all question, we ought not, in translating them, to add any light borrowed merely from the accomplishment. By so doing, we may materially injure the history, and render those mistakes incredible, which, on a more exact representation of things, as they must have appeared at the time, were entirely natural." — Campbell's Diss. p. 625. ■" " It is the duty of a translator to give every thing to his readers, as much as possible, with the same advantages, nei- ther more nor less, with which the sacred author gave it to his contemporaries." — Ibid. OF TRUTH. 243 This is that exact and faithful representa- tion, which the dictates of inspiration require, guarded as they are by a solemn prohibition, that not a word shall be added, diminished, or disguised. Though from their greater familiarity with words, idioms, and customs, the contemporaries of a revelation may be supposed to have understood the literal meaning, better than ourselves ; we enjoy more of their spiritual import : and, if with such advantages over us, they were suftered to remain under a thicker cloud of darkness, — should we either wonder or repine, that a part of that cloud is still left, or en- deavour by a fruitless struggle to remove it ? If the translator has reason to suppose, that time has removed the veil from his eye, let him still adhere to his literal duty. As a commentator, he may give the full in- terpretation in the notes. But where the mystery remains involved in futurity, let him observe the rule of Castalio, an exact, though finical translator, by rendering the words literally, and acknowledging in the margin his ignorance of their real meaning. In attempting to carry perspicuity, by the 244 THE CHART AND SCALE ingenuity of conjecture or by any other means, beyond the hmits which propriety prescribes, let the translator of sacred writ awfully reflect, that he, who walks on com- mon earth, is not only stepping out of his own province into the path of an inspired writer, who trod on holy ground, but even mounting over him, by intruding on the pre- rogatives of the Heavenly Inspirer, who has frequently thought proper to hide his mean- ing from those, who gave utterance to his words *\ Nor, because holy scripture is often obscure in the delivery, let him hastily imagine, that it is therefore imperfect, or that it stands in need of his emendation and improvement 42 *^ When Caiaphas determined, in council, with reference to Jesus, that " it was expedient one man should die for the people, and that the whole nation perish not," — the evangelist informs us, " that this he spake not of himself, but, beino- high priest that year, he prophesied that Jesus should die for that nation ;" — a prediction which he neither intended, nor understood. "•^ See Lowth's Prelim. Dissert, to Isaiah, p. 64. " I am fully persuaded that the words, as they stand in the present Hebrew text, are utterly unintelligible. There is no doubt of the meaning of them separately ; but put together, they make no sense at all — in this difficulty what can be done, but to have recourse to conjecture? This, it may be said, is imposing your sense upon the prophet; but, how- OF TRUTH. 245 III. But, though by means of a figura- tive and paraboUcal style in all its forms, the Holy Spirit threw a temporary veil over the whole prophetic dispensation, he prepared ever, it is better, than to impose upon liim, what makes no sense at all." — Lovvth on Isaiah, p. 271, 272. When the text, if wrong-, cannot be made right by colla- tion, nothing should, I think, be done, but to translate the words as they stand, verbatim. This reasoning from the principle laid down, may perhaps militate, in some respects, against the fifteenth rule proposed by a very learned prelate, in his preface to his translation of the Twelve Minor Prophets, whose sober and judicious con- duct, as a scriptural translator, accords with my opinions on the whole, more than that of any other. " Of dark passages, which exhibit no meaning, as they stand in our present ver- sion, an intelligible rendering should be made on the prin- ciple of sound criticism." He then quotes this authority of Bishop Lowth, — " that it is better to impose your own sense upon the prophet, than to impose upon him what makes no sense at all." As the authority and example of Houbigant misled this author, we cannot wonder that his own should mislead others. " I cannot help disapproving," says our northern trans- lator, " the admission of any correction merely on conjec- ture ; for were such a method of correcting to be generally adopted, no bound could be set to the freedom which would be used wdth sacred writ — this is an extreme, which, should it prevail, would be much more pernicious than the other extreme, of adhering implicitly, with or without reason, to whatever we find in the common edition." [Campbell's Dissertation, p. 646.] What he so well observes of cor- recting, will apply with equal force to translating, by con- jecture. 246 THE CHART AND SCALE the way for its removal, at the appointed period, by preserving uniformity of lan- guage, as the immediate key, to unlock the sacred oracles, when the prophetic events were fulfilled ^^ In addition, therefore, to the rules of propriety and perspicuity, that of uniformity of language should be sacredly regarded, in all scriptural translation. Prophecy is a system, and notwithstanding the many different styles of Scripture so much contended for by our modern critics, this uniformity is interwoven through every part of the Sacred Volume, which, though written " at sundry times and in divers man- ners,^^ retains every where the same, or simi- lar, figures and symbols, and frequently the very same words. Possessed only of the Spirit " by measure,^^ the ancient prophets were unacquainted with the whole of that vast dispensation, of which they were the partial instruments, and which was conducted under the omnipresent Eye of that omniscient Mind, *^ See Davison's Discourses on Prophecy, perhaps the most original work of modern theology. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 247 to which " a thousand years are as one day/ The event one foretold partially and darkly, another, at a different period, more fully and clearly signified, in the same style and almost the same words, but with more pointed and particular circumstances. By this consis- tency, light was reflected from prophecy to prophecy, and the entire system was brought to be illustrative of itself. As the Spirit of prophecy held in contemplation an uniform and consistent series of events, he was no less careful to express these predictions, in a language, which was correspondently uniform and consistent, exactly cast and moulded for the design. This is strikingly apparent through every part of the sacred code ; but is no where more conspicuous, than in the uni- formity, which is so wonderfully maintained between the Old Testament and the New. As the prophets were bred in the same school, to qualify them for this necessary uniformity of prophetic language ; so the evangelical writers were all Jews, bred under the law and the prophets, and qualified to transfer it from one dispensation to another, and thus to make 248 THE CHART AND SCALE it pervade the whole Inspired system**. The Greek is known to differ from the Hebrew and other oriental tongues, as much in idiom and construction, as in character : yet, though the words of the New Testament are Greek, the idiom and phraseology are invariably Hebrew. The whole is, indeed, little else than Hebrew ideas and phrases clothed in Greek. To prepare them for this singular union of adapting the Greek tongue to the Hebrew idiom, and to familiarize it to their use, the Septuagint version of the ancient Scriptures had been providentially made. The Septuagint exhibits Hebrew phraseology in Greek words, and formed the model and staple for the writings of evangelists and apostles. And thus, by this arrangement of Providence, the figurative and symbolical pre- dictions, delivered under the law, are adapted to their correspondencies in the gospel ; in which they were either interpreted, or be- queathed to the future ages of the church. "* The reasons assigned by Dr. Campbell, in his Disser- tations, p. 12, to account for the apostles introducing He- braisms and Chaldaisms in their writings are extremely defective, as this uniformity of Scripture is, I apprehend, the chief and fundamental cause. OF TRUTH. 249 This uniformity*^, as the key of inter- pretation, should, therefore, at any rate be ^^ The translator of Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets appears to adopt this rule of uniformity. " The same original and its derivatives according to the leading different senses, and also the same phrase, should be respectively translated by the same correspondent English word or phrase; except where a distinct representation of a general idea, or the nature of the English language, requires a different mode of expression. Not only the sense, but the beauty and force, of many passages depend on a version not deviating from uniformity, without a decisive reason." — Bp. Newcome's Pref. 24, &c. " A fourth quality of a good translator is as strict an uni- formity of style and manner, as is consistent with the fore- going properties." — Dr. Geddes' Prospectus, 136. I wish the arguments for uniformity, supported by these two great authorities, would weigh with our northern trans- lator of the Gospels, and induce him, either to reconsider the following position, or to be very cautious of indulging in that variety which he seems to cherish : " There are cases wherein some things may be done, nay, ought to be done, by a trans- lator for the sake of variety ; for the sacred historians do not always confine themselves to the same words, in expressing the same thoughts. This is owing to a freedom from all solicitude about their language. An unvarying recourse to the same words, for expressing the same thoughts, would, in fact, show one to be solicitous about uniformity, and uncom- monly attentive to it." — Campbell's Diss. xii. part I. p. 594. The language of the inspired writers is of various kinds ; sententious, didactic, parabolical, and narrative ; and the uniformity of some may be of more importance than that of others; but to discriminate between them is neither easy, or necessary. Their meaning can be known only from their words, and where these differ, the meaning may not be pre- cisely the same. — This taste for variety is no fiivourable omen in a sucred translator. 250 THE CHART AND SCALE preserved in translation : and on this ground of reasoning, we may subscribe to the joint opinion of Erasmus and Beza : — " Veterem interpretem/^ says Beza, " Erasmus merito in eo reprehendit, quod unum idemque vocabu- lum saepe diversis modis exphcat. Atque in eo ipso quoties peccat ? Leviculum hoc est, dices. Ego aliter censeo, nisi cum ita necesse est, in his quidem hbris, in quibus ssepe vi- deas mirifica quaedam arcana, veluti unius vocabuh involucris, tegi/^ IV. With regard to the elegances of lan- guage and harmony of periods — those quali- fications of good translation held in such high esteem by recent translators — they have their chief foundation in the caprice of fashion and in the varying refinements of taste, and are those superficial accomplish- ments, with which, the translator of a classic author may offer incense to popular fame. He feels himself a kind of rival to his author ; is partly interested in his sense, and still more in his language, which, if adorned in the fashionable, yet fading ornaments of the day, may often prove the fairer candidate for OF TRUTH. 251 public favour. But the dignity and sim- plicity of scriptural interpretation, in which the translator has no discretionary power either over the sense or the words, reject all such fanciful and adventitious ornaments. If the grosser inelegances and improprieties of language be avoided, — " ea efhgies laudatur/' says Le Clerc, " non quae vultum formosum, Sed qualis est revera spectantium oculis offert^^.'' The Holy Bible will appear, in a far more characteristic and becoming dress, invested in its native simplicity and grandeur, than if adorned in all the fancy of modern elegance; whether dilated through the arti- ficial and affected sentences of a fashion- able historian, or decked in the pompous and unclassical formalities of the Johnsonian period. The rule of scriptural translation, based on the principle, that — " The Holy Bible, in manner, as well as in matter, is dif- ferent from all other books, and, therefore, requires a different treatment *^,'^ — is more or *^ Prolegom. in Pent. Diss. ii. sect. 4. « Chap. V. p. 126. 252 THE CHART AND SCALE less repugnant to the opinions advanced by our modern translators, and the canons which they severally prescribe. In support of the preceding argument — that a translation of the Bible should be, at once, literal, idiomatic and faithful ; without aspiring to elucidate any obscurities, which do not attach to the letter, and uniform in its phraseology — I shall now bring one illustration out of many that might be adduced. In the 21st chapter of St. Matthew, v. 42, and the 20th of St. Luke, v. 18, our Lord represents himself and the kingdom of the gospel, under the symbol of a stone [a/^o^,] as the ancient prophets had uniformly done be- fore him^^. To this symbol, he applies the two verbs a-vvGXacr^vicrfloci and KiKiMYjosi, figurative ex- pressions, which had also been employed by the ancient prophets'*^. Of the former, trans- lators have given a literal version confrin- getnr, '* he shall be broken ;'' but the latter, which is a bolder figure, taken from the ^* See Gen. xlix. 24 ; Isa. xxviii. 16, viii. 14 ; Dan. ii. 34 ; Psa. cxvii. 22 ; Rom. ix. 32, 33 ; 1 Pet. ii. 8. *^ Zech. xii. 3; Isa. xxx. 14, xli. 16; Jer. xxxi. 10; Amos, ix. 9. OF TRUTH. 253 rustic employment of winnowing corn, like many other prophetic figures, appearing, in their judgment, when applied to a stone in its literal sense, not only obscure but utterly unintelligible ; rather than impose on our Lord in their translation, what they thought no sense at all, they judged it better, by some canon of modern criticism, to introduce a meaning of their own invention ■^^. In- stead ofvejitilabit, " it will blow him away like chaff;'' they have therefore rendered it by conteret^^, commhmet^^, " will grind him to powder ^^ ;" or, as one more lately, " shall crush him to pieces ^^ '/' in all of which trans- lations, the original figure is totally lost, and substituted by another, and thus the meaning is completely changed ^^. But, after all their labour to give the passage some signification of their own, it has puzzled commentators and critics, more than almost any other in ^ See Lowth's Notes on Isa. Ixiv. 5. ^' The Vulgate, Erasmus and Castalio. ^^ Beza. *^ English translation. ^* Dr. Campbell. ^^ All the translations I have seen entirely misrepresent the figure, except the Gothic of Benzelius, which renders it by dissipabif, and gives ventilabit, in the margin. — Author. Beza has dissipabit. The Vulgate conteret in Matthew, and comminuet in Luke. — Editor. 254 THE CHART AND SCALE the Gospels ; insomuch that their explana- tions are not only vague and conjectural, but absolutely contradictory to each other. By applying these two figures to the em- blem of the stone ^ our Lord was illustrating, confirming, and extending, as he and his apostles often did, two ancient and very im- portant prophecies, in the uniform diction of the ancient prophets. In the verses imme- diately preceding, he quotes the prophetic words of the 1 1 8th Psalm ^^, informing the Jews that they were on the point of fulfilment, by the gospel being taken from them, on ac- count of their inveterate obstinacy, and given to others more qualified to receive it. — " Did ye never read in the Scriptures, — ' The stone, which the builders rejected, the same is be- come the head of the corner : this is the Lord's doing, and it is marvellous in our eyes V Therefore I say unto you, The king- dom of God shall be taken from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof^^.'' And in the next verse, he re- peats the same symbol, to which, he applies the two figures in question, confirming also ^ Verse 22. *' Mutt. xxi. 42, 43. See Luke, xx. 17. OF TRUTH. 255 two further prophecies relating to the Jews. By that of being " broken ^^ \_a-vvdKoc(r9'^(rs]at~\, he confirms the prediction of Isaiah and Jeremiah, which signified, that, after such rejection from the kingdom of the gospel, the Jews should have their theocratic polity dissolved, and their social commu- nity broken. — " Sanctify the Lord your God,^^ saith Isaiah, " and let him be your fear, and let him be your dread ; and he shall be for a sanctuary : but for a stone of stumbling, and for a rock of offence to both houses of Israel, for a gin and for a snare to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and many among them shall stumble, and fall, and be broken ^^:'' which figurative and symbolical denunciation is more directly expressed by Jeremiah, in the emblematic action of breaking the potter's vesseP^. — Notwith- standing this severe denunciation, there was a reserve in the divine mercy, in favour of this people of God, that, though rejected and broken, " a remnant should be saved ^V^ and that, however dispersed throughout the ^* Isa. viii. 13 — 15. ^ Compare Isa. xix. and xxx. 14 ; Jer. xviii. and xix. *' See Isa. xxvii. 12, and Rom. xi. 256 THE CHART AND SCALE world, they should, at some remote period, be reunited and restored. The main topics of prophetic enunciation were the four great empires of the world ; which, after subverting each other in succession, were finally to give place to this kingdom of the stone. By the second figure [A/jt^rlo-s/], our Lord confirms another illustrious prophecy respecting a dif- ferent people reserved to a different fate, the last of these empires, the successor and repre- sentative of the three former. This prophecy intimated, that this last empire was not only to be broken, as the Jewish polity ; but that every trace and vestige of it should vanish from the earth as a spectre, and be blown away as chaff. The department in the pro- phetic system, which relates to the future fate and fortunes of this new and spiritual kingdom of the stone, fell more especially to the lot of Daniel, whose prophetic words, in his declaration of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, exactly correspond to this figure : — " Thou sawest, till that a stone was cut out without hands, which smote the image upon his feet of iron and clay, and brake them to pieces. Then was the iron, the clay, the OF TRUTH. 257 brass, the silver, and the gold, broken to pieces together, and became like the chaff of the summer threshing floors ; and the wind carried them away, that no place was found for them ; and the stone that smote the image became a great mountain, and filled the whole earth ^^/^ In the interpreta- tion which directly follows, as translated by the LXX, the prophet explains these last words by Xixix^a-si, the very word which our Lord employs ^^. Of these three prophecies relating to his gospel, to which Christ gave a confirmation and extension, the two former have been completely and strikingly fulfilled, by the rejection of the Jews, and the dissolution of their polity ; whilst no inconsiderable portion of the third has met with its completion, in the successive history of the world. Of the three great prophetic empires, the Baby- lonish, the Medo-Persian, and the Mace- donian, no more trace or vestige hath re- mained for many ages, than if they had " Dan. ii. 34, 35. ^ Dan. ii. 44. 'AvcKTTrjffei 6 dtOQ r» «pa»'5 fiaaiXhay — i]Ti? Xtirrvvel (cai XiKfirjaEi rcdaaq raq fiaaCKeiaq. 2 S 258 THE CHART AND SCALE never existed. With regard to the fourth, which is the Roman in its full extent, impe- rial and papal, it has been long on the wane, and seems as a shadow to be vanishing from the globe. " The stone that smote the image will become a mountain, and fill the whole earth,'^ — when " the kingdoms of the world shall become the kingdoms of the Lord and of his Christ^^." " But the vision is yet for an appointed time, — in the end, it will speak and not lie^*/^ Instead of imposing a new sense on the word KiKiMiia-si, by which the figure was lost, had the translators only rendered it literally and directly, that uniformity would have been preserved, which is the true key of in- terpretation^^. Then, instead of having re- course to conjecture and invention to remove the supposed difficulty of the passage (which arises from a false translation), commentators would have been led to its just interpretation in the book of Daniel ; and one of the most ^ Rev. xi. 15. " Hab. ii. 3. ^^ Inde hoc saltern collegi potest, uno eodemque vocabulo Graecum scriptorem uti ; ideoque locum unum cum allero conferri debere. — Hen. Steph. Praef. in Nov. Test. OF TRUTH. 259 important and extensive prophecies of our Lord would not have been lost for so many ages to our understanding^^. ^ The Scottish translator, as we have seen, is a strong ad- vocate for variety, as a requisite of scriptural translation ; by which, he must frequently sacrifice that uniformity of words and phrases, which is here contended for. In searching after this variety, he has given us no promising specimen of his translation in this passage. He is not only guilty of the same fault with his predecessors, by departing from the literal rendering; but in his love of variety, has differed from them all, and is just so much inferior. Not only has he lost the figure in XiK/xrjaei, by rendering it " will crush them to pieces;" but that o( (rvrdXacr^^rjcrerai, fvom translating it "bruised" instead of "broken ;" by which the prophetic mean- ing is totally destroyed. His Dissertations promise better : and I hope his version of this passage is not a true specimen of his work, as it is, in every respect, much inferior to the old translation. The symbol, which had been employed by Moses, David, Isaiah, Zechariah, St. Paul, and Christ him- self, to represent the kingdom of the gospel, the old trans- lators have distinguished, with the proper article, the stone; by which it is rendered particular and supereminent ; but Dr. Campbell has diminished it into a stone, making it general and common. In our Lord's prediction of the rejec- tion of the Jews and the call of the Gentiles, the words rat £» Gal. iii. 286 THE CHART AND SCALE folded in the personal sacrifice of his Son upon the cross ^\ On the part of Abra- ham, as this was the most signal example of obedience ; so, on the part of God, this was a signal example of the language of pro- phetic action. This emblematic vision was in- terpreted by Christ himself, in that emphatic declaration, bj which the Jews were so much offended, and by which commentators have been so much confounded — " Your father Abraham rejoiced to see my day, — he saw it, and was glad ^^." Had the information and conviction of the understanding been the sole, or indeed the main object, in the intention of the Inspirer in these early ages ; instead of delivering this religious instruction in such a dark and mys- terious form, he could have adopted some mode of supernatural communication more immediate and direct. But He, who had resolved by his immutable attributes, that, " without holiness no man should see him,'' had another and greater end in view. Religious instruction was communicated in " Gen. xxii. " John, viii. 56. OF TRUTH. 287 such a mode and with such quaUfications, as to excite the desires, exercise the industry, and improve the virtue of these venerable men. And thus the first and best offering which they made to Heaven, was the volun- tary offering of the heart. Such was the sanctifying nature of that faith, by which " the elders obtained a good report,^' anticipating its object amidst dark and distant prospects, full of pious affection, earnest desire, and holy trust. After enume- rating an illustrious phalanx of saints and martyrs, who were justified by such faith, the apostle has assigned the reason why they were withheld from the enjoyment of the promise. It is most encouraging to the efforts, desires, and hopes of the partakers of the same faith, in all ages since it was fulfilled. — " God having provided some better thing for us ; that they, without us, should not be made perfect^^ \" — that the whole family and house- hold of the faithful, in every age, as the spiritual children of Abraham, should be jus- tified together. '=> Heb. xi. 40. 288 THE CHART AND SCALE 2. The circumstances and situation of events at the coming of Christ, and his own conduct and that of his apostles in preach- ing the gospel, will afford us still more ample illustrations of the true nature of theologic faith. His divine commission was opened by an illustrious herald, specially sent to prepare the way for his reception, by preaching " the baptism of repentance,'^ or the internal pur- gation of the heart, as the prelude to that external baptism, which is its emblem, and which, therefore, he ordained to be the initia- tory sacrament of his religion. On assuming the prophetic character, he first addressed himself to those learned Jews, who, from their superiority of station and the ritual offices which they held, should have been prepared to receive him, as the Messiah, whether by hearts purified according to the observance of their law, or by the application of prophecies fulfilled in him, to which it was their duty to attend. Devoid, however, of the former qualification, they became totally blind to the second. In them was the OF TRUTH. 289 prophecy fulfilled — " None of the wicked shall understand ^^" By a perversion of judg- ment the most obstinate and depraved, they were led to misinterpret the obvious meaning of their prophets : and when he displayed before their eyes the most stupendous miracles, " their hearts being hardened ^^ through the deceitfulness of sin," their understandings revolted against this combination of external and internal evidence ^^. Their faith was blasted by an obduracy of mind, the result of many gross and habitual vices, particularly the predominance of pride, and that of the most inveterate species — the pride of knowledge. Devoid of that charity which alone could edify, their knowledge was vain and unprinci- pled. The vices of the heart perverted the light of the understanding. " Therefore,'' saith the beloved apostle, " they could not believe.'' — This total perversion of the facul- ties of the human mind, in rejecting his gospel, was an event so singular and im- portant, as to become the subject of a signal prophecy. It was thus transformed into " Dan. xii. 10. '* John, xii. 40. '« .John, xii. 37, 38. 2 U 290 THE CHART AND SCALE an evidence of the very truth which it had rejected : — " That the saying of Esaias might be fulfilled, — He hath blinded their eyes and hardened their heart, that they should not see with their eyes, nor under- stand with their heart, and be converted, and I should heal them^^/' Habitual sincerity of heart was the first object of our Lord^s search, and the sole subject of his niiprovement. To prove whether their faith could endure a foundation based on humility, he delivered his doctrines to the Scribes and Pharisees, under the veil of parables ^^, that he might rouse their voluntary faculties, and appeal to their moral convictions. Had he delivered them in open terms, their overwhelming energy, supported by the miracles with which they were ac- companied, would have subdued their re- sistance, and they would have been converted and healed by a compulsive power, in oppo- sition to their will, — a contradiction to the whole intent of his religion. But by couching " John, xii. 40. See Rom, x. 21. '^ Matt. xiii. and Mark iv. OF TRUTH. 291 them under parables, he held them in reserve, that thej might be still amenable to their own unrighteous prejudices, — " that seeing they might see, and not perceive, and hearing they might hear, and not understands^." From these unpromising candidates of a holy faith, he turned his attention to others of an opposite description, with this severe and pointed sentence, — " For judgment, am I come into the world, that they who see not, might see ; and they who see, might be made blind '^°." Such were those humble fishermen, who were possessed of sincerity, but who had no pretension to great intellec- tual attainments. In these, he fulfilled another prophecy, by " being found of them who sought him not, and being made manifest to them, who asked not after him^\" Their minds, though uninformed, were candid ; though ignorant, unprejudiced ; though weak, were well-disposed. Possessed, in a sufficient degree, of the first and more essential quali- fication, — docility and simplicity of heart, — they became the proper subjects of a king- ly Mark, iv. 12. ^^ John, ix. 39. ^i Ro,„ x. 20. 292 THE CHART AND SCALE dom, to be founded and administered in righteousness : whilst, under the care and disciphne of such a master, they would speedily acquire the second, — their under- standings enlarged and their faculties strength- ened. From his miracles, they acknowledged, with ingenuous candour, his divine autho- rity. By showing themselves ready to obey, and willing to be instructed, they evinced the necessary qualifications to become his disciples. — " He that hath my command- ments and keepeth them, I will love him, and will manifest myself to him^^.'' If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of God ^^.'' But however open their hearts and willing to obey, their minds were mfirm and tender : he therefore instructed them with the utmost caution, lest, by alarming their fears, he should subvert or check those principles, which were to be of voluntary growth, insensibly improving their hearts and invigorating their understandings. He did not unfold to them, at once, the mysteries 2* John, xiv. 21. ^3 j^i^n^ ^jj 17, OF TRUTH. 293 of his kingdom, unable, as they were, to un- derstand such deep, or to endure such solemn truths. He taught them in parables to excite in them a voluntary curiosity and desire to be informed, and at the same time, to conceal from them, till they were strengthened and prepared for its reception, the awful events of his religion. When they had sufficiently employed their best intellectual faculties in the endeavour to discover their import, he explained to them in private, what he had before delivered in public, to the Scribes and Pharisees, as " they were able to bear it^\'^ On their inquiring why he taught under this parabolical disguise, and not openly, to encou- rage them to advance from grace to grace, he honoured them, mean as they were in their own esteem, above their haughty teachers. " To you, it is given to know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven ; but to them in para- bles ^^.^' He thus stigmatized the obstinacy, punished the vices, and confounded the pride of the Scribes and Pharisees. And to illustrate this important position of the pro- 2* Mark, iv. 33. »^ Matt. xiii. 13, 14. 294' THE CHART AND SCALE gressive discipline and voluntary establish- ment of his kingdom in the heart, he delivered his two expressive parables — " the Sower ^^'\ and—" the Talents^^" After the disciples were sufficiently dis- ciplined and confirmed, he commissioned them to preach the kingdom of God, with power, and " appointed seventy others to go before his face into every city and place whither he himself should come^^." When these humble messengers told him, on their return, of their success in preaching the gospel and the progress they had made in faith, — " in that hour Jesus, rejoiced in spirit and said, I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that thou hast hidden these things from the wise and prudent, and revealed them unto babes : even so, O Father ; for so it seemeth good in thy sight ^^/' Doubtless he could have opened their understandings instantaneously, and have filled them with intuitive knowledge ; but, ^« Matt. xiii. 3—23, and Luke, viii. 4—15. ''' Matt. XXV. 14—30, and Luke, xix. 11—27. "^ Luke, X. 1. 29 L^ke, x. 21. OF TRUTH. 295 " knowing what is in man, and whereof he is made/' he treated them as rational and ac- countable beings, leaving their minds to their voluntary actions, to search after truth, ad- vance in goodness, and grow in grace. As they improved in faith, he increased their knowledge. The improvement of the intel- lect, without the heart, was no qualification of a religion which is holy and undefiled. One of their number, failing in this moral im- provement, so indispensable to a sound and saving faith, after all the wonders he had seen, and the divine instructions he had received, fell an unhappy victim to perverted privileges. Even the eleven, who continued faithful, were suffered for the same moral probation, to remain in ignorance of the true nature of his spiritual kingdom, till after his resurrection^". Season- ed and prepared, however, by a long course of severe and trying discipline, for its full reception, at length he poured on them his Holy Spirit, to open their understandings, and lead them into all revealed truth. 30 Matt. XX. 21, and Acts, i. 6. 296 THE CHART AND SCALE Such was that discipline by which the apostles were trained, through scenes of dark- ness gradually dispelled, in a virtuous and holy faith, by the hand of Christ himself. This example of their Divine Master they fol- lowed in their conduct towards others, observing, on all occasions, the great rule of faith which he had delivered — " Whosoever hath, to him shall be given, and he shall have more abundance ; but whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away even that which he hath^\'' 3. Whether it be the age of the patriarch, of the apostle, or the modern believer; — this faith is essentially uniform and perma- nent. As there " is one Lord, and one baptism, so there is one faith ^^,^^ which is the same essential virtue in all ages, de- manding the same joint qualification of the heart and understanding. Before the advent of Christ, " faith was ^' Matt. xiii. 12, and xxv. 29. Luke, xviii. 26. '2 Epii. iv. 5. OF TRUTH. 297 the substance of things hoped for/* — brought into the mind by anticipation : and, since his final departure and the supernatural operation of the Holy Spirit, it is " the evidence of things not seen,*' — brought into the mind by retrospection^^. It is evermore the glory of our religion, that it constitutes a w^illing, as well as a reasonable service. The situation and circumstances, under which we are placed, in these remote times, with regard to its truth and evidence, still render necessary the same honest endea- vour and voluntary exertion. They still arouse every affection of the mind, in the amiable search and pursuit of theologic truth ; and still constitute our faith the same compre- hensive and exalted virtue. These sublime and unfathomable mysteries are the truths of our religion, to be firmly embraced on the sole authority of the testi- mony of God, though the evidences of that testimony to us are distant and in- direct. The road to these evidences is long and laborious, and numerous difficulties =" Heb. ii. 1. 298 THE CHART AND SCALE and obstructions intervene, to give exer- tion to the moral, as well as to the in- tellectual powers, that the student may improve in grace, as he improves in know- ledge. In this elaborate inquiry, his industry is excited, his desires kindled, his love inflamed. Whether we view him, travelling through the annals of civil and ecclesiastical history, to prove the authenticity of the sacred code ; or regard him as employed, in the painful task, of comparing ancient manu- scripts, copies, editions, and translations, for the purpose of establishing an uncorrupt text ; whether he is engaged in collecting the evidences of Christianity, to deduce the immortal argument from the whole, or in interpreting and translating different parts of the Holy Scriptures ; we may behold him traversing these regions of various learning, with the heart throbbing with desire, and the hope full of immortality. However deep his erudition, or indefatigable his industry, his attention and perseverance will prove unequal to the task, unless ani- mated by the cause which leads him onwards. Thus disciplined in faith, whilst advancing OF TRUTH. 299 in knowledge, and encouraged by the exam- ple of those devoted men, who, in every age, have trod the same learned and laborious walk, and are gone before him to receive the reward of their labours, — the very same hopes, by which, they were animated will enable him to persevere : and, whilst looking up to them with gratitude and veneration for their useful labours, he will attribute their success, not less to their sincerity and simplicity of heart, than to the strength and vigour of their un- derstandings. But, it forms the chief glory of our faith, that, if turning our eye from the theological student to the humble believer, who, em- ployed in any of the honest occupations of social life, reads his Bible, or hears it read ; — who " thinks of the Lord, with a good heart, and, in simplicity of heart, seeks him ; — He will be found of them that tempt him not, and sheweth himself to such, as do not distrust him^*/' It is the peculiar glory of our faith, that it is adapted to all, accommodated to the use, and intended for the benefit of ==* Wiscl. i. 1, 2. 300 THE CHART AND SCALE every class and description ; that he, who breathes, with an ardent desire, after the prize of his Christian calhng, however igno- rant and unlettered, if his heart be sincere, and he earnestly prays for Divine assistance, will be accepted " according to what he hath, and not according to what he hath not^^/* — " There is no respect of per- sons." Since the inhabitants of all ages and na- tions could not enjoy the immediate evidence of eye-witnesses, let it then be our privilege, to rest ourfaith with firmness, on the testimony of the first believers, in the consoling hope, that the greater diligence, assiduity, and confi- dence, we exert in the exercise of faith, the more abundant will be our reward. — " Thomas, because thou hast seen me, thou hast believed : blessed are they that have not seen, and yet have believed ^^.'' — When those unhappy multitudes, who, beholding the miracles of Jesus, rejected his doctrines, and ascribed his works to Beelzebub, shall look back in vain on the age of the Messias — should « 2 Cor. viii, 12. 's John, xx. 29. OF TRUTH. 301 we, in these remote ages, repose our faith, with confidence, on the testimony of our predecessors, this difference will doubtless hereafter redound to their misfortune, and to our advantage. — " We are kept by the power of God, through faith, unto salva- tion, ready to be revealed in the last time. Wherein we greatly rejoice, — that the trial of our faith, being much more precious than of gold which perisheth, though it be tried with fire, may be found unto praise, honour, and glory, at the appearing of Jesus Christ ; whom, having not seen, we love ; in whom, though now we see him not, yet believing, we rejoice with joy unspeakable, and full of glory ; receiving the end of our faith, — the salvation of our souls^^.^' Thus in every age of the world, the Chris- tian religion is a school of moral discipline, in which, " Wisdom is justified of all her chil- dren ^^^Z" " None of the wicked shall under- stand ; but the wise shall understand ^^." — Had its truths and evidences been brought to " 1 Pet. i. 5—9. '' See Butler's Analogy, part i. chap. 5, and part ii. chap. 6. '3 Dan. xii. 10. 302 THE CHART AND SCALE shine on the understanding, with that full glow of light and demonstrative conviction, which some have ignorantly required ; thej might have forced from the wicked his hard and impenitent heart, and rendered it possible to be a Christian, a2;ainst the freedom of the will, — a subversion both of the end of religion and the nature of man. He who " knows whereof we are made,'' hath dealt with his moral agents, in a way more suitable to our condition, and to the honour of his own government ; affording us such a de- gree of light, as, whilst it gives exercise to liberty and candour, is fully competent to convince the willing and well-disposed ; but which does not shine, with such absolute and irresistible force, as to illumine those, who " love darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil'^^/' Thus from the nature of theological truth, it becomes the privilege of faith to be the greatest of virtues, comprehending all moral and intellectual good, and forming that ex- ^" John, iii. 19. OF TRUTH. 303 alted union, in which, all the virtues of the heart and understanding combine. It is that inviolable bond, in which, truth and charity meet together in that wisdom ^^ which alone is from above ; — " which is first pure," — subduing the affections ; and " then perfect,'' • — excelling all other knowledge. This is the faith which, in every age, is the test of true religion. However varied in degree by cir- cumstance or situation, it is the same essential quality in all — the voluntary offspring of the heart, rather than the necessary result of the intellect. Thus pure in her origin, progressive in her increase, and perfect in her end, let it reflect no dishonour on this Wisdom, that " she can be justified only of her children,'' nor cast discredit on that faith, by which she is enter- tained, that the names of some men of bril- liant parts and superior endowments are not enrolled under her banners. It is not, that they reject and dishonour her ; it is rather, she who rejects and dishonours them. Either the "' See vol. i. sect. 1, p. 3. 304 THE CHART AND SCALE cold and evil spirit of unbelief hath chilled the heart, or their moral digestion is so vitiated and depraved, that it turns the most wholesome food into deadly poison. In them is fulfilled the denunciation of our Lord — " If thine eye be evil, thy whole body shall be full of darkness. If the light which is in thee be darkness, how great is that darkness"*^ \" Whilst we admire their talents and emulate their learning, we look up with pity to these splendid monuments of human folly, as our Lord surveyed with tears the temple of Jeru- salem — that superb edifice erected for the service of the living God, and once worthy of his abode, — then desecrated and profaned, and devoted to destruction. Whether Deist, or Freethinker, Minute phi- losopher, or unbeliever of whatsoever name, however inveterate be the prejudice, or aban- doned the habits, under which, you labour, we can trust you with that searching question, either in respect to Christ or his religion, which Jesus addressed to his cotemporaries, — " Which of you convinceth me of sin V — « Matt. vi. 23. OF TRUTH. 305 Which of you can impeach the morahty of the gospel ? One advantage you must confess that we enjoy over you, in the great utihty of its precepts and examples, which contribute so much to the happiness and security of social life. To this advantage, resulting from the "charity" of the gospel, which we know " will never fail," we can add another of equal, or superior moment to our present happiness, derived from our " hope in believing," which throws a beam of perpetual comfort over the mind. This would cheer and enliven every scene of life, even were our faith a dream, from which, when passed into the sleep of death, we were never to awake. This virtu- ous, this happy dream, would soften all our cares, alleviate all our pains, animate all our joys, whilst journeying through this vale of tears and sorrows. Permit us, then, to look up to the divine founder of that faith, with affections of gratitude and love ; or if you will not acknowledge this founder, suffer us to offer thanks to the God of nature and providence for so great a blessing. — But some of you deny the being of God, and others his providence, con\inced the admis- 2 X 306 THE CHART AND SCALE sion of these will too powerfully imply the rest. Should you deny us these solid foun- dations of trust and comfort, permit us, at least, to congratulate our good fortune on the many and signal advantages, which we enjoy over you, by embracing the gospel, even in this deplorable world of change. — But consider, seriously consider, if what you so much de- ride, should eventually prove no dream — how superabundant will be our joy and consola- tion, how dreadful your regret and condem- nation ! But "thanks be to God who hath given us^' not only the advantage, but " the victory,'' over you and the world — even the victory of our " faith,'' " through our Lord Jesus Christ." This is, indeed, no dream — it is a virtuous, pious, and reasonable conviction, built on substantial grounds, and to be crowned with sure enjoyment. The truths which it embraces are so divinely authorized ; the evidences by which they are attested so strongly authenticated ; they are accom- panied by so many concurrent circumstances and credible qualifications — the personal knowledge, the honesty, the number, the OF TRUTH. 307 consistency, of the witnesses — men who had neither interest nor abihty to forge such an extraordinary and unique plot, in the very scene, and ahuost at the time of action, when all had the immediate power to disprove it; — they are transmitted through so many different and opposite channels, and attested by so many collateral authorities, as to raise in every rational and candid mind a convic- tion, though not so overwhelming, yet quite as satisfactory, as the strongest evidence. And thus, " if the gospel be hid, it is hid to them that are lost ; in whom the God of this world hath blinded the minds of them that believe not, lest the light of the glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God, should shine unto them^*.'^ The prejudice of habit, the pride of sci- ence, or the impertinence of curiosity, may render some men dissatisfied, unless they can climb the confines of demonstration, for the proof of every kind of truth. We esteem it, on the contrary, not only the privilege, but the honour of every fair and rational in- ■" 2 Cor. iv. ?,, 4. 308 THE CHART AND SCALE quirer, willingly to embrace and thankfully to acquiesce in such evidence and grounds of assent, as are sufficient ; more particularly, in such, as are naturally adapted to the kind of truth in question, and accommodated to the nature of the subject*^. Better and fairer evi- dence of truth can in no case be required ; and with such, the Christian religion is abun- dantly supplied. God hath revealed himself, as he thought best for his own glory and our good ; and, if ye cannot believe him, because he has not given you exactly that degree of light, which your own fancy may suggest, but of which things do not admit — " he will not be mocked, ""^ ye must take the conse- quences on yourselves. The only assistance which we can give you, is to pray, that " He who commanded the light to shine out of darkness, may shine in your hearts, to give you the light of the knowledge of the glory of God, in the face of Jesus Christ*^." " The kingdom of God is within you^^," implying that it had its origin in the heart, — « Kurd's Serm. vol. vi. ^« 2 Cor. iv. 6. "' Luke, xvii. 21. OF TRUTH. 309 was the answer of our Lord to the Jews' inquiry, when his kingdom should appear. To represent this fundamental truth more sensibly to his disciples, " Jesus took a child and set him in the midst, and said, Unless ye be converted, and become as little children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven." And, still further to illustrate it, he employs the parables of the Seed^^, and the Grain of mustard*^. By the former, he intimates, that at first it is small, and that its increase will depend upon the goodness of the soil, which is to be prepared and cleansed from the tares of vice ; and that, in such a soil, it will make gradual ad- vances from one stage to another, producing, " first, the blade, next the stem, then the ear, and, lastly, the full corn in the ear^^." By the latter, he signifies, that, however small at first, it will finally become the great and reigning principle of the human mind. Thus " the path of the just,'' in the courts and offices of religion, " is as a shining light ; which," by perpetual increase of faith, and *' Matt. xiii. 3, &c. »'' Matt. xiii. 31. =" Mark, iv. 28. 3J0 THE CHART AND SCALE constant supply of grace, " shineth more and more unto the perfect day^^/' For the admission, as well as enjoyment of the truths of a religion, which is thus pure and undefiled, the requisite qualification is the purity and renovation of heart, ex- pressed in Scripture, by the figure of being " born again" or " from above." Accordingly, the great apostle of the Gentiles admonishes the Ephesians, " to put on the new man, which, after God, is created in righteousness and true holiness ^^ '" and he exhorts the Ro- man converts, " not to be conformed to this world, but to be transformed in the renewing of their mind, that they may be able to prove what is the good, and acceptable, and per- fect work of God^^" In consecrating his labour at the temple of religion, whilst he cultivates its truth with his understanding, let the student of theology nourish charity in his heart, as the first and most essential ingredient of a sound and saving faith; frequently meditating on the solemn admonition of the last great prophet — " He 5' Prov. iv. 18. *' Eph. iv. 24. " Rom. xii. 2. OF TRUTH. 311 that is unjust, let him be unjust still : he that is filthy, let him be filthy still : he that is righteous, let him be righteous still : he that is holy, let him be holy still ^*/' From this logical view of the province of theology, in its principle, its reasoning, and its truth, the student in divinity will entertain a profound sense of the dignity, as well as difficulty of that science, which leaves behind all terrestrial things, and opens our prospect to future and unearthly scenes. With that humility, which becomes his pre- sent state, he will feel himself to be only in the cradle of his existence, and that his knowledge is proportioned to the immaturity of his age. In respect of the manhood of his being, he now only thinks and understands as a child ; and in this school of terrestrial dis- cipline, in which, he is training for immor- tality, " he walks by faith and not by sight.'' He will acknowledge, that this life does not admit of any adequate view of things celes- tial, and that even the eye of faith, by which ** Rev. xxii, 11. 312 THE CHART AND SCALE they are spiritually discerned, can only " see them imperfectly and in part, and as through a glass darkly/^ He will be convinced, there are innumerable and ineffable truths reposed in the divine intellect, beyond the present comprehension of our faculties : whence will spring a lively hope, that in the future stages of his existence, he may be admitted to their knowledge and enjoyment. Di- vested of this mortal body, and removed from this material system, he will be trans- planted into a purer clime, under the influ- ence of a brighter sun, and advance by perpetual approaches towards Him, who, though now enshrined in clouds and dark- ness, will then reveal himself, as " the God OF Truth ^^," " to be admired of all that be- lieve" — " when he shall behold his presence in righteousness, and awaking up after his likeness, shall be satisfied with it^^/' " 'O GEOS THS 'AAHGEIAS.— Ps. xxxi. 5. 'O aXr]- ^ivoQ. — Rev. iii. 7 ; vi. 10. Ta^t Xiyei 6 ^AfjLi)v, 6 fxaprvg 6 TziaTOQ KoX aXrjSrtyog. — Rev. iii. 14. 'H dX//-&£ta ra Kvp/a fierei dg tov uiwi'a. — Ps. cxvi. 2. Deus, Veritas. — Jer. x. 10. Montanus, literally from the Hebrew. Conf. Isaiah, Ixv. 16. John, xiv. 6. — Editor. *fi Ps. xvii. 15. OF TRUTH. 313 CHAP. VIII. GENERAL RECAPITULATION, AND SKETCH OF THE FUTURE PLAN. "\ /TETHINKS, I am in the situation of ■^^-*- one, who has been travelhng over a level, but fertile country. When he first set out, the place of his destination appeared at no great distance ; and the objects to be noticed in the way seemed neither so many nor so important, but that he could view them, with sufficient attention for the purpose of his journey, and arrive at the end, in a given time. As he advanced, he found the prospect opening on every side, the objects increasing in number and swelhng in magnitude, as the eye surveyed them ; insomuch that, though he made no excursion from the road, he found himself employed and detained on his journey much longer than he expected. — Thus the plan, which I hoped to execute, in some 314 THE CHART AND SCALE measure, in the course of ten or twelve lec- tures, is not half completed : and though I have endeavoured to treat the important topics of various disquisition, as they occurred, with all the conciseness in my power, we are arrived only at the point, from which I had intended to take my general survey. This may perhaps prove an alarm to the fu- ture patience of my hearers ; it is, I am sure, a present disappointment to myself. But, be- fore we start afresh (should I find opportunity or encouragement to proceed, by overcom- ing that indolence, which is a vice I feel deeply rooted in my constitution), it may be proper to take a general view of the ground over which we have passed, by way of adjust- ing our present accounts, and also to give my reader a short sketch of the country, through which, at some future period, we may travel together : unless some individual, better quali- fied, should undertake the task ; — " etgaudebo certe, si alii, quod nos inchoavimus, melio- ribus ipsi auspiciis et necessariis ad tantum opus praesidiis instructiores perfecerint^.'^ ' Casaubon, p. 406. OF TRUTH. 315 The delineation of Wisdom, with which we commenced these philosophical researches, portrayed that universal virtue of the heart and understanding, which comprehends all moral and intellectual good ; and which we accordingly divided into two collateral branches, truth and charity — the basis and summit of all things. Truth is of the nature and essence of God, incapable of a verbal definition, but to be illustrated by the similitude of light. From the divine mind, it becomes, by communication, an attribute of the human, and is proportioned to the mind in which it exists. In the divine, it is universal, intuitive, permanent, and infallible. In the human, it is partial, progressive, various, and hidden, to be sought by virtuous and assiduous investigation. In both, it is im- mutable^. In the investigation of truth, the philosophy of mind, of which it is an attribute, is the first in natural order, though the last in the course of human study, and therefore called meta- physics. This is a science which, in its just ^ Introduction, sect. i. 316 THE CHART AND SCALE and proper cultivation, is of great import- ance, as it lays the philosophical foundation and distinction of all other sciences ; dis- tributing the human mind into three general provinces, the theoretic, the practic, and the poetic, in reference to the intellect, the will, and the imagination ; and classing universal truth under these different provinces, as it separates into special relations, according to the operation of these different faculties on their respective internal or external objects^. All truth, to whatever province it pertains, is deduced from principles, as they exist in the nature and constitution of things, which are of two general kinds, primary and secon- dary. The primary are the evidence of ex- ternal sense, the evidence of internal sense, and the evidence of memory. Sec. The secondary are axioms, or universal proposi- tions, derived from the former by a process of reason. These two species of principles divide all direct reasoning into two kinds or methods^. Truths are deduced from principles, by an ^ Sect. ii. * Sect. iii.. OF TRUTH. 317 act of reason, their common instrument, con- sisting of perception and judgment, act- ing by comparison. It is the office of reason to judge of evidence, to form and apply axioms, and to trace analogies. According to the principles on which it operates, rea- soning is divided into different methods. The first is the inductive, which commences with particulars, derived from the primary principles. It compares many of them toge- ther by simple acts, and by such comparisons, extracts general laws, respecting the powers, properties, and relations of things ; abstract- ing, by an experimental process, general ideas, or formal causes. By affirming or denying a genus of a species, or an accident of a sub- stance, through all the stages of the ascend- ing process, it forms general conclusions ; which, if logically conducted, are axioms, ranged one above another, till they ter- minate in universals. When axioms, or secondary principles, are thus formed, the method is the reverse, and becomes syllo- gistic, which applies these general axioms to the proof of less general or particular truths ; predicating a genus of a species or individual. 318 THE CHART AND SCALE in a descending scale ; and proceeding in double or complex comparisons, by the help of a third, or middle term. To these two, which are direct, is added the analogic, which is indirect and subservient to them. Analogy compares things already known by whatever way, with those which are not known, and, from their similitude, infers the truth of the latter. This is a method of vast utility and extent, and supplemental to both the former. These three methods are essen- tially different, and constitute severally the whole business of logic, as an instrumental art, or rather, as the particular method of each^. Universal truth assumes a special form, ac- cording to the specific nature of its different means, which constitute those various sub- stances and subjects of mind and body, from which its particular principles are supplied. According to these particular principles, and the method of reasoning adapted to them, truth separates into particular kinds, possessed of different degrees of evidence and convic- * Sect. iv. OF TRUTH. 319 tion. The general rule, by which reason should conduct her operations in each, is this — to investigate its proper principles, to pursue them in the proper method, and embrace its proper truth with a just and due assent^. To apply this general rule to the different branches of science, constitutes the first part of my plan ; which, by exhibiting a parallel of their principles, their reasoning, and their truths, forms a general chart of their distinct and separate provinces, and subdivisions ; whilst, by placing them in juxtaposition and by their comparative survey, it furnishes a general scale, by which the proper nature and weight of the truth of each may be respectively adjusted''. Every thing which is the subject of human knowledge, belongs either to mind or body. Metaphysic is the universal science, logic the universal art ; — these treat more immediately of the former. Physics belong to the latter. Between these, lies a science, which relates to and partakes of both, having its subject derived from the sensible qualities of body, « Sect. V. ' Sect. vi. 320 THE CHART AND SCALE but abstracted by an act of mind. These are the mathematics; comprehending quantity continuous and discrete, or magnitude and multitude, and accordingly separating into geometry and arithmetic. The evidence of the external senses, exercised on bodies in respect to quantity (from which all other attri- butes are abstracted with so much ease, as to supersede the necessity of induction), is the primary principle of mathematical science. These begin with general ideas, capable of clear and adequate definition, of being ex- hibited to the eye by diagrams and signs ; being simple modes, distinct from all other ideas, absolute and unchangeable in them- selves, and to be exactly measured and ascer- tained. These ideas being compared, form a few general propositions which are axioms or secondary principles. They compel convic- tion from a single act of judgment, and are, therefore, self-evident, though not intuitive. On account of these axioms, mathematical reasoning is perfectly syllogistic ^, reducing ^ Those who wish to be ocularly convinced of this asser- tion, may consult the Euclid of Herlinus (Argent. 1566), in which the first six books are laboriously converted into syl- OF TRUTH. 321 general truths under more general, till they terminate in the most general. These con- clusions, or demonstrated theorems, may be applied, in the same way, to the proof of others almost ad infinitum. The truths re- sulting from such a process are purely scien- tific, carrying the most absolute and irre- sistible conviction^. In these, the Will has no concern ; they belong to the Intellect. The science of Physics, or natural philo- sophy, investigates the qualities of things in- dividual and particular, the properties and operations of natural body. The evidence of the external senses forms the primary principle of physics, aided by experiment, and philosophical observation. Its method of reasoning, from a number of experi- ments and observations to general causes, or secondary principles, is purely and exclu- sively inductive, but is extended by ana- logisms. Barrow, in his Led tones Mathematics, p. 106, has turned the first proposition into enthymemes. See also Cla- vius's Euclid, lib. i. prop. 1. — "It would have been diffi- cult," observes Dui^ald Stewart (vol. ii. p. 260), " to devise a more effectual expedient for exposing to the meanest under- standing the futility of the syllogistic theory." — Editor. » Part i. chap. 1. 2 V 322 THE CHART AND SCALE logy. When these secondary principles, or laws of physics, have been thus established, they will account for the truth of particulars by superinduction, without any aid of syllo- gism ; but mathematics apply, with great effect, to those physical forms, which are capable of mensuration. As experiments do not penetrate into the essence of things, but only inform the senses of apparent qualities or eftects, as the induction is partial and con- fined, and the conclusions particular; physical truth is inferior in rank to mathematical, and is not strictly demonstrative. But though not admitting demonstration, it forms a most useful and interesting part of science ^^. After Physics, Metaphysics, or the phi- losophy of mind, may be most usefully and successfully cultivated. Consciousness is their primary principle, assisted by observa- tions on the intellectual and moral faculties. Their method of reasoning, from a number of such observations accurately made, is in- ductive, assisted by analogy, to form their secondary or general principles. This method '» Part i. chap. 2. OF TRUTH. 323 will establish the certainty and utility of metaphysical science, which has hitherto been too much under the dominion of the imagination, with which it has no concern ^^. Facts constitute an extensive and impor- tant species of truth. Their first and sole principle is the evidence of the external senses, and require for their proof, the coin- cidence in a particular transaction, of person, time, and place. Standing themselves as first principles, resulting immediately from the senses, they demand no direct reasoning, either inductive or syllogistic. But reason is employed in examining the senses, by comparing them with themselves, to ascer- tain, whether they be sound and well- informed, subject to any impediment from nature, imposition from art, or deception from accident. The truth which results from facts is immediate and irresistible, at once, self- evident and intuitive ^^. Facts are enlarged, and extended to distant times and places, by History. The first prin- ciple of historical knowledge is the faculty of " Part i. chap. 3. '^ Vol. i. chap. 4. 324 THE CHART AND SCALE memory, supported by that universal affec- tion, the love of truth, producing and co-ope- rating with the secondary principle of testi- mony. The historic method of reasoning is inductive, y/w?z the primary principle, exer- cised in innumerable particular instances, to the general truth of the secondary. Testimony is, however, different from other general principles, and the reasoning from it \eYy distinct. It is not, like them, the cause of truth, it is only the medium, by which, truths derived from other causes are conveyed, producing various degrees of conviction, according to the different circumstances, persons, times, and places, with which it is connected, and requiring to be particularly investigated, througli the competency of witnesses, the fidelity of relators, the authen- ticity of records, and other collateral vouch- ers. Historical truth is only secondary and indirect, varying in its strength through all the degrees of probability with the circum- stances, the fidelity of the investigation, and the clearness or obscurity of the media through which it passes ^^. " Vol. i. chap. 5. Perhaps, the author should have mentioned that oxigina OF TRUTH. 325 These kinds of truth all belong to the province of the intellect, or theoretic mind. The practic functions exist in the province of the Will, and relate to moral action, of which, the end is happiness. The primary principle of Morals is the internal or moral sense, — an instinct of our common nature, informing us of good and evil, of the existence of the will, by which men choose the one and avoid the other, and of reward or punishment attaching to the performance or neglect of our duties. Hence we infer a superior law and moral government, the foundation of moral obligation, fixed in the attributes and will of God. — From the operation of these primary principles in innumerable instances, reason derives, by a kind of tacit induction, two universal propositions, as secondary prin- ciples. All voluntary good will meet with reward : — All Toluntary evil with punishment. — But as morality consists of particular actions which are numberless, arising out of various principle of the human mind, which disposes us naturally to helieve, and give credit to the testimony of others ; which may be called the principle of failh, or credence. — Editor. S26 THE CHART AND SCALE relations, it is the chief office of ethical reasoning, to range these, by induction, in classes, called virtues and vices, sins and duties, with their appropriate distinctions. We thus form less general propositions, as middle principles, under which, particular actions may be arranged by syllogism. The truths so deduced are ethical. These, however clear and strong in their conviction, are very different and inferior, in logical evidence, to mathematical demonstrations. The most perfect body of ethics is the morality of the GospeP*. Poetry belongs to the imagination, and em- ploys the faculties of imitation, or invention, to produce its various effects. It comprehends all the elegant arts. Their end is pleasure, combined with instruction, and their excel- lence depends on the truth of their various effects, under the conduct of reason. The first principle of the poetical or inventive art, is a native and internal sensibility, recognising the objects and events which produce the differ- ent modes of pleasure and pain. Of these different effects often experienced, reason first '» Vol. i. chap. 6. OF TRUTH. 327 investigates the proper causes, which she then arranges, by induction, in general classes, as poetical ideas or secondary principles. From these, the poet draws the i^esources of his art, which he applies in all the different acts of imitation or invention, to produce the poetical effect. If these generals be well formed and judiciously applied, if the imita- tion be true, and the resemblance which it exhibits just, the effect produced upon the mind will be uniform and certain. This effect constitutes poetic truth, operating on the sensibility of all, according to its power and delicacy ^^. Music is also an imitative art, or rather an art conjoined to science, for its tones may be measured by geometric progression. It con- sists in sound and motion, operating through the auditory nerves on the mind, and produc- ing the most touching effects on the passions. Its truth consists in exciting this natural sensibility, according to the style in which it is performed ^^. At the conclusion of the first volume, I have offered some strictures on the Aristote- '■^ Vol. i. chap. 7. « Vol. i. cliiip. 8. 328 . THE CHART AND SCALE lian logic, in order to trace its origin, and estimate its value ^'^. I have also animad- verted on the discipline of the Schools, with a cordial wish for their improvement^^. But we now proceed to a far more im- portant species of truth. — Theology is a science more distinct from all the preceding, than any of them are from each other. It does not originate, like them, from any material subject, or from the mind of man ; but from another and far higher source, the mind of God. In this study, all the provinces of intellect, will, and imagination are con- cerned. Its logic will, therefore, derive important elucidation from a comparison with all. The theological principle is totally different from and infinitely superior to every other, being the testimony, or word of God, con- veyed to man by a supernatural mode of communication called revelation. The nature of this divine testimony is somewhat similar to human testimony, from which similarity '^ Appendix i. vol. i. '^ Appendix ii. vol. i. OF TRUTH. 329 it takes possession of the human mind. When the possession is secured, it is not only uni- versal in its operation, but far superior to all other principles, and transcendent in its power. When the principle is established, it rejects all reasoning, whether in deducing its truths, or in respectively deciding on them. They result immediately from its divine authority, and produce an effect in proportion to the principle ; which is the strongest and most implicit assent of the mind, distinguished by the name o{ faith. Theologic truths are mysteries, distinct from all others, to be con- templated with reverence, and embraced with implicit confidence ^^. Though reason can have no original, or direct, concern with the principle, or the mysteries, of revelation, its office in theology is various and important. It is bound to inquire, — whether such a revelation, contain- ing such a principle, with its mysteries and credentials, was actually given by God, or received by men, at the time and place as- serted ^^. " Vol. ii. chap. 1. '" Vol. ii. chap. 2. 330 THE CHART AND SCALE The grounds of reasoning in theology are, consequently, the various means by which the Gospel, containing this principle or word of God, was confirmed, is conveyed down, and to be interpreted by us. The method it pursues, is, first, to estimate the morality or internal evidence of the gospel ; secondly, to judge of that part of its external evidence called miracles ; thirdly, to study the pro- phecies — the remaining part of its external evidence. And, as both the time and place of this revelation are far removed. Reason has also to inquire, by an historical investiga- tion, — whether the witnesses of such evidences were well informed and faithful; whether the written record, in which the whole is con- tained, w^as aided by inspiration ; and whether the Scriptures, which we possess, exhibit a true and authentic transcript of the original ^^. In the study of the Holy Scriptures, thus confirmed and authenticated, reasoning be- comes an act of interpretation : and the right and true method of interpreting the volume of Grace, is analogous and similar to that, ^' Vol. ii. chap. 2, sect. 1. OF TRUTH. 331 which has, of late years, been adopted by the best natural philosophers, in interpreting the volume of nature : not by hypothesis, factitious system, and disputation, but from grounds and documents contained in Scrip- ture, and inseparably interwoven with it^^. In the general interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, the first object of the student's attention is the languages, in which, they were originally written, or early translated. The second is the analogical style. The third, the parabolical style of the sacred writings, in all its compass and variety ^^. In the particular interpretation, or transla- tion, of the Holy Scriptures, it is the first object, by an able and accurate collation, to procure a genuine text. The next is, to translate it in another language, according to those rules of impartiality, propriety, perspi- cuity, and uniformity, which the peculiar nature of inspired and divine productions warrant and require. The truth, resulting from this various and extensive train of reasoning in reference to ^- Vol. ii. chap. 4. -' Vol. ii. chap. 5. 332 THE CHART AND SCALE the evidences, the authority, the authenti- city, the interpretation, and translation of the Holy Scriptures, is theological. It is totally different from every other, requiring a different assent, and though superior in value, is inferior in scientific force. From this logical inferiority, faith, through which it is embraced and entertained by the inhabitants of every age, — the patriarch of old, the eye- witness, and the modern believer, — becomes the greatest of virtues; engaging all the best affections of the heart, as well as the faculties of the understanding, and constituting that pure and perfect wisdom, in which truth and charity are united. — With these my lectures commenced, and with these they end^*, as being, in the solemn language of our great philosopher, — " the haven and sabbath of all human contemplations ^^.'^ In this general Chart or Geography of ^^ Vol. ii. chap. 6. ^ Cum sit portus et sabbatum humanarum contempla- tionum omnium. — Bacon. De Aug-m. Scient. lib. iii. cap. 1. " The sabbath and port of all men's labours and peregrina- tions." — Advancement of Learning, b. ii. OF TRUTH. 333 Truth, I have attempted to give a parallel and comparative view of the different kinds of learning, human and divine, classing and arranging them under separate provinces, and analyzing them, according to their respective nature and constitution. Thus, whilst all may be seen, at one view, in their relative situation ; each, in its proper cultivation, may be kept distinct ; its own principles asserted ; its own proofs employed ^^ ; and the convic- tion of its truth measured and ascertained by -^ Superest artis judicandi appendix quaedam insignis, quam desiderari statuimus : Siquidem Aristoteles rem nota- vit, modum rei nullibi persecutus est. Ea tractat, quales demonstrationes ad quales materias sive subjecta applicari debeant ; ut haec doctrina tanquam judicationes judicationum contineat. Optime enim Aristoteles, Neque enim demon- strationes ab oratoribus, neque suasiones a mathematicis requiri debere monet : Ut, si in probalionis genere aberretur, judicatio ipsa non absolvatur. Quando vero sint quatuor demonstrationum genera, vel per consensum immediatum et notiones communes, vel per inductionem, vel per syllogis- mum, vel per eam (quam recte vocat Aristoteles) demonstra- tionem in orbem (non a notioribus scilicet sed tanquam de piano), habent hae demonstrationes singulse certa subjecta et materias scientiarum in quibus pollent; alia, a quibus excluduntur. Etenim rigor et curiositas, poscendo proba- tiones nimium severas in aliquibus, multo magis facilitas et remissio in acquiescendo probationibus levioribus in aliis, inter ea sunt numeranda, quae detrimenti plurimum et impedimenti scientiis attulerunt. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. v. cap. 4. 334 THE CHART AND SCALE one common scale. This appeared, in my mind, to be the just and philosophical method to keep the understanding clear and steady in its researches ; to render it successful in its investigations, sensible of its own weakness, and thankfully acquiescent in every kind of truth, — particularly in that, which is the subject of the Christian faith ; to ground and establish which, on a broad and solid basis, was the principal object of these lectures. This various and extensive task I have exe- cuted, in a treatise of more than sufficient length, if the number and value of its pages are considered ; yet far too short, I fear, if we consider the extent and importance of the subject. It was not, however, my intention to descend to a full discussion of the several branches of learning ; but only to take a general and cursory view of each. Nor do I presume to teach others, in the style of a dictator ; but to invite them to study for themselves, in the language of a friend and fellow-labourer. And though I should not have leisure or ability to execute the other parts of my projected plan, need this be deemed imperfect or incomplete on that ac- OF TRUTH. 335 count, since it embraces the first object I had in view, as entirely and independently, as if I were to execute the whole design. PROSPECTUS OF THE FUTURE PLAN. The future purposes, to which, this general Chart will be preparatory, after placing theo- logy upon its distinct and proper basis, will be, to confirm more fully the Christian faith ; and also to develop the causes of heretical and schismatical errors, by which that faith is opposed. To these purposes, nothing can so effectu- ally contribute, as comprehensive views, which break down narrow habits of thinking, and set the mind at liberty ; which enable it to embrace the most distant and dissimilar parts of learning; and which give it the command of the general expanse of knowledge. It is thus the eye looks down from a rock on the whole country below, and surveys the bearings and connexions of every part, al- lowing each its proper latitude and extent, and contemplating the entire landscape with- out mixture or confusion. 336 THE CHART AND SCALE The second Part of my plan will consist, (should I be encouraged to pursue it,) in ap- plying those parts of human learning, which have been analyzed and digested in the first volume, to theology : in order to discover ex- actly how far, when cultivated according to the rule of reason, they contribute to its evi- dence and support, and where their appli- cation ought to terminate. This will give a comprehensive view of the right use of learning ^^. In the execution of this part, we shall observe the several branches, as they spring from the general trunk of knowledge ; we shall distinguish their affinities, connex- ions, and dependences. We shall thus ascer- tain how one kind of truth is built upon another, and how far those which are human, can minister, in their subordinate and proper exercise, to those which are divine. And the third Part will very conveniently accompany the second. By turning our attention, from the right use of learning, *' Vol. i. p. 73. OF TRUTH. 337 in which the different branches are thus logically contributing to theology, to its abuse ^^, in which the rule of reason is neg- lected or infringed, by their being illogi- cally confounded and mixed together ; we shall be able to discover the true and ade- quate causes of those heretical and schisma- tical errors, which we hope need only be detected, to be eventually eradicated. The execution of this part, which forms the completion of the plan laid down, if attended with that success which an author may be permitted to hope, promises to be an effectual support of sacred truth, by a radical subversion of its opponents. It is at the same time calculated to reward our labour, by conferring a high gratification upon the mind, through every stage of the investigation : " Suave est spectaculum, stantem aut ambulantem in littore, navem intueri tempestate in mare jactatam ; suave itidem ex edita arce duas cernere acies concursantes in planitie : at nil dulcius est homini, quam mens per doctrinam in arce =« Vol. i. p. 69. 2 Z 338 THE CHART AND SCALE veritatis collocata, unde aliorum errores et labores dispicere possit^^/' All falsehood is opposite to truth. Error is that falsehood, which availing itself of the weakness of the understanding, the depravity of the will, or the undue influence of the imagination, assumes the colour of truth, by which, reason is deceived. Truth is the health, error the disease of the mind. The one leads to honour and happiness, the other to disgrace and misery. The human body is a machine or system consisting of many different parts and opera- tions : the mind is also a machine or system consisting of corresponding parts and opera- tions, and, though their union be mysterious, their analogy is conspicuous. The health of both consists in the due and regular per- formance of their respective parts and opera- tions ; and the disorders of both spring respectively from their suspension or irregu- larity. To remedy the disorders of the body? is the duty of the physician ; and to rectify those of the mind, is the duty of the philo- sopher. But before either can apply his ^^ Bacon. De Ausm. Scient. lib. i. OF TRUTH. 339 remedy, he must ascertain the cause. The maxim, " Sublata causa tolhtur eftectus," holds as good in philosophy, as in medicine, and has there, indeed, a more full and efficient operation. After the physician has discovered the cause, he must devise and apply his medicines, without any certainty of success, in the event ; whereas, in philosophy divine or human, the discovery of the evil should at least in generous minds, prove the source of cure. To enable him to investigate disease, the physician should be conversant with the ana- tomy of the body, have studied its economy and analyzed its functions. In their obstruc- tion or irregularity, he remarks those symptoms which reveal to him the cause of the malady. By a similar analysis of mind, and an acquain- tance with its faculties and operations, and by ascertaining the proper exercise of reason in every department of knowledge, whether in its suspension or misapplication, the philo- sopher is enabled to discover the different causes of error ■'°. '" See Bacon's Advancement of Tjearning, b. i., and De 340 THE CHART AND SCALE The first general cause springs from the neglect or suspension of reason ; as a con- sequence of which, men embrace falsehood for truth, with an implicit trust on the credit and authority of others. From this cause, spring all those vulgar er- rors, cherished from age to age, by the blind- ness of prejudice and the inveteracy of habit. Hence also arise the errors of superstition, differing from the former, only as they prevail in matters of religion, and become more inve- terate, in proportion to the greater seriousness and solemnity of the subject, and the universal interest which it involves. Alike the offspring of ignorance and obstinacy, they embrace each other as sisters. They have ever grown and thriven together, in the same soil and climate, under the same social administration and the same friendly cloud of darkness and prejudice. They are gradually annihilated and dispelled by the approach of learning, wher- ever it gains admittance, as night is dispelled Augm. Scient. lib. i. ; also Dr. Reid's Essays, vol. ii. essay vi. chap. 8, in which an excellent commentary is given on Bacon's " Idols." — Editor. OF TRUTH. 341 at the approach of day. Under the deadly shade of superstitious errors, superinduced by the artifices of the interested and ambitious, and thickened by the base and corrupt- ed pohcy of degenerate states, devoted to the god of slavery, the religion of Asia, and the greater part of Europe has languished, for many ages. As knowledge, however, advances, these errors and superstitions na- turally decline. In several parts of Europe they have been long on the wane, and are insensibly hastening to decay. The errors of the Jews have been ably refuted^\ Those of the Roman pontiff, notwithstanding all the gloss and varnish with which they have been disguised, have been abundantly exposed ^^; whilst those of the false prophet of Arabia, though under the cloud of Asiatic ignorance more explicitly espoused, are still more easily refuted ^^. '' Limborch de Veritate Religionis Christianae amica collatio cum erudito Judaeo. ^^ Chillingwoith's Safe Way to Salvation. '^ Jenkin's Reasonableness of the Christian Religion. Bp. Gibson's Second Pastoral Letter. Grotius De Veritate Christianas Religionis. Prideaux's Life of Mahomet, and Dr. White's Bampton Lectures. The author has here, and in several other parts of this 342 THE CHART AND SCALE The second general cause of error springs from a different source, — the perversion and misappUcation of reason, — still more deceitful and difficult to be detected and extirpated: which, in the multiform shapes that it assumes, will be the subject of our future studies. The abuse of learning, by its violation of the rule of reason, constitutes this cause in these seve- ral ways. — First, by reasoning from no prin- ciples of any kind ; secondly, by reasoning from the principles of one branch of learn- ing, in the method of another : thirdly, by reasoning from the principles of one, to the truths of another : lastly, by expecting the same kind and degree of conviction in the truths of one, which belong to another, and of which it does not admit.— Thus this second general source of error may be distinguished into four classes, which, in their separate or joint operation, will account for all scien- tific and theological errors, however different they may appear. This verifies the obser- work, expressed himself far too sanguinely on the decrease of error and the progress of truth. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 343 vation of our great philosopher, — " amongst opposite errors, the causes of erring are commonly the same^*." Springing from a different source, these learned errors have a different effect from those of ignorance. As these are on the wane, the former perhaps are on the increase. Strenuously intrenching themselves in the usurped fortresses of truth and jealous of their hold, they maintain their false position, by all the formalities of reasoning and ceremo- nials of argument, and lead in the chains of sophistry a considerable part of the learned. Assuming various shapes and postures of defence, shifting from ground to ground, and relieving each other with the changes of time and fashion ; while the mind is subject to vice and infirmity, they threaten to continue and to struggle even with Truth herself. They are the adversaries which reli- gion has chiefly to dread ; for though its truth will overcome at last, they meanwhile weaken its force and retard its progress. It is the usual method of combating these ^ Bacon's Advancement of Leainina:. 344 THE CHART AND SCALE errors to attack them, with the arms of polemical divinity, as they appear in some heretical form, equipped in the accoutre- ments of false reasoning. But the more successful and compendious mode of ex- terminating them would be to discover and expose their causes. This would essen- tially defeat their consequences in every form. Instead of aiming bold and efficient strokes, at the root of the tree of error, controversy, however well conducted, is only like beating among the branches. If one be lopped off, perhaps several may spring up in its place. — This method has prevailed, because it is friendly to that polemical con- tention and scholastic disputation, which delight to keep up the strife from age to age ; in which, so many champions of truth have been defeated by the patrons of error, and so many battles left undecided. The method which these lectures would adopt and re- commend, is, not to combat individual errors under the disguise of truth, by individual arguments ; but to investigate and expose their general cause, under the conviction, that it will contribute more effectually to OF TRUTH. 345 their extirpation, than if we were to write volumes of controversy to attack those endless forms and appearances of error, which lie in wait to deceive and mislead mankind. When the tree is pierced in the root, its leaves, branches, and poisonous fruit must come down together. The general causes which I have mentioned, and to which, in their joint or separate ope- ration, all learned errors are to be attributed, originate either in the pride or prejudice of the human mind. The first, which consists in reasoning from no principle at all, however absurd it may appear even to common sense, is of vast influence and extent. The powers of the human mind are doubtless great ; but its presumption is often greater ^^. Not con- tent to be employed on such principles and ^^ Alius error fluit ex nimia reverentia, et quasi adora- tione intellectus humani, untie homines abduxere se a con- templatione naturae, atque ab experientia, in propriis medi- tationibus et ingenii commentis susque deque volutantes. Caeterum prseclaros hos opinatores et (si ita loqui licet) in- tellectualistas, qui tamen pro maxime sublimibus et divinis philosophis haberi sclent, recte heraclitus perstrinxit, — ' Ho- mines,' inquit, ' quaerunt veritatem in microcosmissuis, non in mundo majori.' Respuunt enim quasi abecedarium naturae. 346 THE CHART AND SCALE materials, as are furnished for her use by Providence and the nature of things in a slow and sober exercise, she vainly presumes, by an action and operation of her own, to invent others of a superior order, by the help of which, she may soar with rapid wing into the possession of the sublimest truth. Buoyed up by these self-inventions, she attempts unbounded flights into the fertile, but delusive regions of imagination. In these regions, was erected that edifice of hypo- thesis, filled with dreams and fictions, with which the pride and self-sufficiency of philosophers rendered them enamoured, and embraced them for the most valuable truth. From these fictitious principles, we observe that even Aristotle, Plato, and Pythagoras, the ancient, and more particularly some modern metaphysicians, have been led, by trains of solid reasoning, to systems of splen- primumque in operibus divinis tirocinium : quod si non facerent, potuissent fortasse gradatim et sensim, post literas simplices et deinceps syllabas, ad textum et volumen ipsarum creaturarum expedite legend um ascendere. At illi contra, jugi mentis agitatione, urgent et tanquam invocant suos genios, ut vaticinentur eis edantque oracula, quibus merito et suaviter decipiuntur. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. i. OF TRUTH. 347 did and delusive theory. When the mind, that complex machine, has the first wheel, which gives movement to every other, set wrong, however ingenious be the mechanism, the whole will terminate in error. The peculiar nature and mystic sublimity of theology open a two-fold door for this cause of error. It is liable either on principles of human invention, to erect nominal truths, which have no existence ; or, to attempt, from such principles, to prove or dis- prove truths, which are to be embraced on no other principle, than the testimony of God'^ The other causes, which have been assigned as the general sources of error, consisting in the adoption of wrong principles, in the applica- tion of a wrong method of reasoning, or in the expectation of a wrong species of convic- tion, have their origin in prejudices, springing from partial and inveterate habits. Man is altogether a creature of habit. All his virtues are habits ; all his vices are habits ; ■'^ Bacon. Nov. Orf;^. aphor. 89. 348 THE CHART AND SCALE and habit has a powerful sway over the mind, not only in the elegant, but also in the scientific parts of learning. As the ear is prepared and qualified by habit, for the en- joyment of music, the eye for that of painting, and every other part of the mental and corporeal frame, adapted to its proper object : so is the mind prepared and qualified by habit, for the search and relish of every kind of truth. But habit, which is naturally the friend of virtue and knowledge, by being too long and closely confined to the same objects, employments, and pursuits, as it is observed to contract and even distort the body ; so it generates in the mind a prejudice and confirms a partiality, which not only cramp and confine, but often weaken and destroy its specific powers ^^. It is the remark of a living writer, who is no ordinary philosopher, that "custom and some other causes have made many deviations from the natural pleasures and pains of the several tastes ; but then the power of distinguishing •■" See Bacon's account of these idols, Nov. Org. lib. i. aphor. 58 — 62. OF TRUTH. 349 between the natural and the acquired reHsh remains to the very last. A man/^ says he, " frequently comes to prefer the taste of tobacco to that of sugar, and the flavour of vinegar to that of milk ; but this makes no confusion in tastes, whilst he is sensible that the tobacco and vinegar are not sweet, and whilst he knows that habit alone has reconciled his palate to these alien plea- sures^^." Unfortunately, however, for the interests of truth, there is here no parallel between the mind and the palate ; for when the mind has been enslaved by long usage to the cultivation of one kind of truth, it not only relishes and prefers, but becomes often insensible to the distinction, nay, even exist- ence of any other. Thus addicted to one set of principles, habituated to one train of reasoning, and accustomed to one kind of conclusions, men are often disqualified, by their very habit of stating, reasoning, and concluding, and even by their success in some parts of learning, ^^ Burke's Introd. to Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. Aristotle's Metaph. b. ii. chap. 3. 350 THE CHART AND SCALE from prosecuting truth, in others. Wedded by an intemperate fondness and admiration to their own studies, and often not knowing much beyond them, they are unwilhng to allow that truth can exist in any other shape. In every part of science, it is their principles must be adopted, or their method of reason- ing employed, or their conclusions drawn. They refuse to be satisfied with any other^^. When, under the influence of these preju- dices and partial habits, philosophers turn their attention from their other studies, to theology, they are either defeated in their attempt to reason at all, they reason in- correctly, or they are disappointed, that its truths do not bring the same conviction, as they have been accustomed to feel. This ^^ Alius error huic posteriori finitissimus est, quod homi- nes ssepius imbuant et inficiant meditationes et doctrinas suas, opinionibus quibusdam et conceptibus propriis, quos potissimum in admiratione habent, aut artibus, quibus maxime addicti et consecrati sunt; csetera omnia illis deliciis infi- cientes et quasi intingentes, licet fuco admodum fallaci. Sic suae philosophise immiscuit Plato theologiam, Aristoteles logicam, Secunda schola Platonis, (Proclus scilicet et re- liqui), mathematicas. Istas enim artes solebant illi, tan- quam filiolos suos primogenitos, suaviari. — Bacon. De Auofm. Scient. lib. i. OF TRUTH. 351 will account for a phenomenon much to be deplored, — that some of the brightest ornaments of human learning have reasoned themselves out of the sacred temple of light and truth, into the gloomy dungeon of in- fidelity. Such I apprehend to be the true causes of the most dangerous and inveterate errors which beset the Christian faith ; and which are the more to be lamented, as they raise enemies to religion in the persons of those, who, from their love of learning, would by its proper use prove the ablest supporters of Christianity. After showing, therefore, how far those parts of learning which have been analyzed in the preceding volume, minister to religion, I would endeavour to trace these errors to their proper causes, in their joint or separate operation. This method of com- bating error will relieve me from two evils attendant on that of polemical controversy — disputation, which terminates in logomachy — and intemperate warmth, which ends in animosity. Learned men have often concealed what they possessed, or supposed they possessed, in 35^ THE CHART AND SCALE sciences and systems "^^ (as the miser hoards his money in chests and boxes), instead of increasing the general stock of learning, by drawing their opinions from true and genuine principles, and guarding them from error, by carefully inquiring into the causes from which it springs. They then defend them with all the fury of clamorous disputa- tion. Hence results polemical controversy, in which the combatants and defenders of systems take the field, each equipped in his private armour, which he employs in his own partial way : and the whole merit of the contest consists in lengthening out the disputation, by univocating, equivocating, and defining by terms abstracted from things, and propositions devoid of meaning. The same questions, which had been agitated for ages. *^ Alius error est, praematura atque proterva reductio doc- trinarum in artes et methodos ; quod cum fit, plerumque scientia aut parum, aut nihil proficit. — Bacon. De Augm. Scient. lib. i. I have lately met with a curious and striking- illustration of this remark in the"Axiomata Philosophica" of the Venerable Bede (Colon. 1618), in which all the elements of science and philosophy are reduced into first principles or axioms, and this, long before Newton or Bacon had instructed us in our ignorance. — Editor. OF TRUTH. 353 were left undetermined ; and thus the bat- tles, which were neither lost nor won, were always ready to be fought again. Of the three expedients, proposed by its great reformer, to remove the difficulties of learning, the most important, he observes, is that " wisdom of design, which strikes out the right way to accomplish what we pro- pose ; that prudent choice of means, which conduces more effectually to the end in view, than the application and accumula- tion of the greatest force ^\'' If the plan, which I have laid down for the discovery of different kinds of truth, be sound and philo- sophical, it will point out the road which is to be pursued in the detection of error, which is its opposite. As the way to the one is in a right line exactly prescribed, every deviation from that line will lead to the other. And thus we have only to mark with care the particu- lar cause or obstacle, which intervenes to ■" Inter haec tria, merito primas tenet consilii prudentia et sanitas ; hoc est, monstratio et delineatio vise rectae et pro- clivis, ad rem, quae proponitur, peragendam — medii prudens electio efficacius conducitad rem, quam virium aut intentio aut accumulatio. — Bacon. De Augni. Scient. lib. ii. cap. 1. 2 A A 354 THE CHART AND SCALE throw reason out of the direct, into the obhque road — by shunning the cause we shall avoid the danger. This is to detect error by the scale of truth immediately applied. This would bring all reasoning, which has been so various and so clamorous, to a certain and silent issue, by prescribing a general and standing law, — " That the matter in question be referred to its proper province, that the combatants come out of their private ground, and meet it on its own principles, and none beside ; that they leave behind their prejudices and habits, which are their private armour, and argue in the method which is its own, and in no other ; and that they go hand in hand in the philosophical, not disputatious search of truth, and detection of error, obliging them- selves to embrace the one, and to discard the other, of whatever kind, or wherever it be.^' 2. As to the other evil incident to con- troversy, however irritable be the temper of the theological reasoner, the method here proposed would relieve him from the effects of unbecoming warmth. It can trace error to any of the causes which have OF TRUTH. 355 been assigned, without charging it indis- criminately on guilt ; and, in the fair pursuit of its object, it can allow others all the merit which they possess, and pardon their faults, convinced of the validity of the axiom — that Truth is never so graceful and successful, as when led by the hand of Charity. The spirit of this Wisdom, we are taught, " is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypo- crisy*^. This lovely portrait, it becomes her children, therefore, in the act of justifying her, neither to deface or distort. Why should in- temperate zeal be suffered to take the place of sober argument? Why should candour be supplanted by illiberality, or benevolence by scorn ? — By the favour of Providence and the liberality of the public, the Christian church has ample endowments, if properly bestowed, for the support of advocates, who are able and willing to maintain her cause ; and why should they swell with anger, if the temple of religion be attacked ? Experience would ''- James, iii. 17. 356 THE CHART AND SCALE inform them, they have far better reason to rejoice, — her truths will be certain to triumph from examination, and in that tri- umph, to gain larger and firmer hold on the public mind. An excellent prelate, whose learning and virtues do honour to this age in which he lives, in his zeal for moderation, deems it an act of wisdom, " to show condescension to the very prejudices and humours of men ;" and is also of opinion, that " their errors may sometimes be removed, by arguing with them on their own mistaken principles." To this one act of his condescension, the author of these lectures cannot consistently sub- scribe, as it is diametrically opposed to the whole scope and tenour of this work. It has been stated as a principal cause of error. In all other points, his lordship^s conde- scension and moderation do equal honour to his heart and understanding. " The errors of men,'^ he proceeds, " may sometimes be removed, by allowing all that truth and rea- son will warrant to their opinions ; by putting the fairest construction upon their designs, instead of fiercely declaiming against them ; OF TRUTH. 357 above all, by testifying a sincere disposition to advance truth and goodness, without any indirect views to our own interest. Or, w^ere all other considerations out of the case, we could never be excused from proceeding in the way of gentleness and civility, from treating them with due respect, and express- ing the sincerest good-will to their persons. Be their moral and religious defects what they may, we should hardly be wise, if we reproved with bitterness, advised with inso- lence, and condemned with passion. In all addresses to mistaken and bad men, where our purpose is to inform, or amend them, the gentlest applications are surely the best, be- cause these excite no passion to counteract their virtue '^.'^ Thus have I executed, to the utmost of my power, the first Part of this new logic, or general investigation of truth and error, and given a prospectus of the remainder. Whilst I acknowledge myself under great obliga- tions to different writers and philosophers, *^ Hurd, vol. ii. serm. 2. 358 THE CHART AND SCALE and particularly to Aristotle and Bacon, the two champions of learning, I have freely ex- ercised the privilege of an author, by sub- mitting their doctrines to the examination of my own judgment; thus rendering myself solely and properly responsible for the result. If I have been too bold and independent in the exercise of this privilege, to say that I deplore it, is what I deem a very weak and insufficient apology. The best apology which I can make to the authors I have injured, or to the public, is to solicit the fair and candid examination of scholars and philosophers, with the promise to retract, change, correct, and improve any or every part, upon fair conviction. Sensible of the many faults and imperfections, w4iich must have overtaken me in this various and extensive walk, and professing, that the improvement of sound learning is not only the ruling motive, but the sole desire of my heart, I have to request of the few, who shall do these volumes the honour of a perusal (from the nature of the work, it neither expects nor hopes for many readers), that with a free and independent mind, they will read with care, and judge OF TRUTH. a 59 with candour ; and no one will, I trust, have cause to complain of the obstinacy or un- fairness of the author. And should this humble essay, which we presume to call a new logic, have the singular good fortune to lead men, who are the sons of science, to think and to judge for themselves, and not according to the thoughts and opinions of others ; this one effect, by opening the door to sound improvement, will prove more than a sufficient recompense for my labour. 360 THE CHART AND SCALE \_The foUowivg Extract from the Authors Manuscripts was omitted hy mistake at the close of Chap. V. p. 187.] Having thus delineated the particular styles of the Holy Scriptures, as they are ranged under the heads of analogy and para- ble, it may be useful to state the general rules by which reason should proceed, in establishing the proper interpretation of the Sacred Volume — I. By judging of the parti- cular sense, from the general scope and design of the whole ; II. When the inquiry relates to any particular occasion (as in the Epistles), by considering well the particu- lar circumstances, and whether the sense has a just connexion with the context, both preceding and subsequent ; III. By dili- gently comparing one Scripture with another^ Scripture being ever the best interpreter of itself; and lastly, by examining whe- ther the sense, thus obtained, be agreeable to the analogy of faith ; that is, whether in itself, or its consequences, it be consonant or contrary to the general tenor of the dis- OF TRUTH. 361 pensation, to the known attributes of God, and the acknowledged articles of faith. It is in concert and combination with these primary canons for the just interpretation of the word of God, that we would advise the theological student, to pay also a just defer- ence to the authority of the Christian writers of the first and second centuries ; not the slavish deference of the Romish church, but that, which is quite consistent with the spirit and examples of our own Protestant re- formers. As a corollary to these general rules of scriptural interpretation, in all controverted places of Holy Scripture, the best ground and foundation we can proceed upon, is the sense in which they were understood by those, to whom they were first delivered. Those who received the doctrines of religion from the mouths of the apostles, or from their writings, whilst they were living, must have best known the import of these writings ; and next, those to whom they taught them ; and thus in succession, through the several ages of the church. This is bringing the act of interpretation, not to the assumed authority 362 THE CHART AND SCALE OF TRUTH. of the Romish church, but to matter of fact ; to what was the universal doctrine of the general, or Catholic church, in the first and purest ages. This was the method taken by the early Fathers upon all occasions. They did not rely on the refinements of criticism, or the etymology of words ; but the question with them was, — Quis unquam talia audivit ? — And, considering that the Gospel was preached, before the death of the apostles, in most countries of the known world, the doctrine universally received in different and distant countries, must be that which was first preached and delivered to them, and could not result from any concert or contri- vance among those, who had no intercourse or even knowledge of each other. And thus, by the providence of God, the universal church, in all its various branches and divi- sions, becomes a check upon itself, and re- mains the standing guardian of the Holy Scriptures, — " the Pillar and Ground of the Truth.'' GENERAL INDEX. Abraham, his faith, ii. 285. Accident, logical, i. 43. Addison, his opinion of Scripture style, ii. 218. Aldiich cited, i. 342. Algebra, i. 111. See Mathematics, Arithmetic, Geometry. Analogic style of Scripture, i. 66. Analogy, its connexion with induction, i. 138, 140; its application to theology, ii. 9, 14, 33; analogic style, 142 — 155; analogic terms sacred, 229. Analogy founded on similitude, i. 53 ; account of, 52 — 62 ; scarcely noticed by Aristotle, 55, 323; Newton's use of, 163, 168; a branch of probable truth, 54; its great importance, 55; the me- dium of theologic truth, 22. Analogy, importance of, in theology, ii. 23, 31 ; the basis of theologic Truth, 28, 29. Analytic Method, i. 129 ; analytics of Aristotle, 326, 327. Ancients and moderns, how they differ in their use of propositions, i. 119. See Introduction. Apology of the author, see Appendix, vol. i. Aquinas cited, i. 6 note. Aristotelian logic, see Appendix, vol. i. Aristotle, his definition of wisdom, i. 1, 2 ; divisions of the mind, 22, 222 ; his account of first principles, 24, 66 ; his divisions of know- ledge, 14; of axioms, 26; of evidence, 28; of science, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 216; of quantity, quality, and equality, 98, 105; of mathe- matical reasoning, 108, 117, 314; of mixed mathematics, 145 ; of poetry, 121, 284, 287, 292, 304, 306; his critical rules too con- fined, 300 ; patron of the essential difference in morals, 249 ; on syllogism, 48, 49, 51, 314,318; his Organon, 331 ; ethical error, 341, 348 ; obscured by Arabian and scholastic commentators, 333 ; cited ii. 187. Aristotle reduces all mathematical reasoning to syllogisms of the first figure, i. 106 iiote ; error in setting up syllogism as a universal test, 112 note ; his account of demonstrative truth, 117; his phy- sical errors, 133; ethical error, 348; ii. 56. Arithmetic, or quantity discrete, i. 90, 94, 95, 1 10. See Mathe- matics. Art, its definition, i. 277. 364 GENERAL INDEX. Arts, imitative of natural operations, i, 271. Astronomy, discoveries in, not aided by logic, i. 149. Athenian schools, their aversion to induction, i. 133. Aulus Gellius cited, i. 246. Axioms, account of, i. 28 ; the primary principles of truth, 33, 213 ; general, 35, 41; described, 207; ethical, 237 ; Bacon and Aris- totle's account of, 37; Locke's, 36, 37; self-evident but not intui- tive, 102. See Principles. Bacon, his partition of learning, i. 18, 22; patron of induction, 35, 38; opposed to syllogism, 45, 48, 51 ; opposed to the scholastics, 59, and their logic, 61, 139, 141, 147, 239; ii. 116, 119, 265; account of mixed mathematics, i. 151, 244 ; of poetry and history, 288, 299, 300; division of morals, 244, 266; opposed to Aristotle, 354; account of theologic principles, ii. 37 — 39 ;ofmysteries, 45, 46 ; of Divine testimony, 43; limits of philosophy and theology, 124; rule for scriptural interpretation, 212; union of reason and revela- tion, 152; rules of scriptural translation, 176 — 179; theologic truth, 295; address to the Universities, i. 365. Bacon, how far his inductive method is applicable to theology, ii. 123 — 125; opposed to scholastic subtleties, 119; rules for scrip- tural translation, 214. Beattie cited, i. 27, 28 ; school logic, ii. 5, 6. Belief, i. 218. See Testimony. Benzeiius commended, ii. 253. Berkeley, i. 158. Beza commended, ii. 216 — 219, 250; mistranslation of, 253. Bible. See Scriptures. Boerhaave cited, i. 124. Boscovich, i. 160. Browne's (Bishop) Divine analogy cited, 6, 54, 56 ; ii. 143 ; his pro- cedure of the understanding recommended, 154 7wte. Buddseus cited, i. 19 note. Burke cited, ii. 188, 221. Butler's Analogy, i. 52, 234; recommended, ii. 125, 134 note, 271, 276. Caiaphas, his prophecy, ii, 244. Campbell cited, ii. 210, 214, 220, 221, 222, 223; corrected, 248, 249. Capellus commended, ii. 199. Casaubon, ii. 314. Castalio, his character as a translator, ii. 219 ; his rule of translation commended, 238; mistranslation of, 253. Categories, account of, i. 40, 119, 317, 329, 336; their defects, 335. Chillingworth, his character, i. 356. Cicero cited, i. 2, 19, 242, 243. Conscience, the principle of ethics, i. 228, 229. See Moral Sense. Consciousness, the instrument of mental philosophy, i. 16. See Mind, Metaphysics, &c. Contraries, rule of, in morals imperfect, i. 348; ii. 56. Cotes cited, i. 129, 132, 134, 143, 156, 164. GENERAL INDEX. S65 Criticism, its origin, i. 282, 298, 322 ; Aristotle father of, 321. Cudwortbi commended, i. 20. Daubuz commended, ii. 185. Davison on Prophecy recommended, ii. 246, 285. De Croy cited, i. 344. Definition, its nature, i. 40, 59. Deists, address to, ii. 304. Demonstration confined to quantity, i. 111. See Locke and Mathe- matics. Dialectics. See Logic. " Dictum de omni et nullo," i. 43, 108, 129. Disciples of Christ, their character, ii. 291. Duncan, his Logic cited, i. 50 ; erroneous account of mathematical reasoning, i. 112 note. Du Val cited, i. 17, 18, 20, 23, 89, 329, 335. Eickhorn, his rash mode of scriptural interpretation, ii. 180. Erasmus, ii. 250. Ethics, their logic, i. 220; principles, 228 ; reasoning, 238 ; relations, 241 ; axioms, 243, 245 ; syllogism useless in, 244 ; their truth, 252; how they diflfer from mathematics, 254, 255. See Locke. Evidence, i. 216 — 219 ; of Scripture; ii. 96, 97, of faith, 50; in- ternal, 68; external, 73 ; prophetic, 87 ; typical, 94. See Theology, &c. Experiments, their nature and value, i. 136. See Physics. Facts, their logic, i. 193; principles, 195; reasoning, 198; truth, 202 ; how connected with theology, ii. 77. Faith, ground of theologic truth, ii. 40, 41 ; humbled by passing through human testimony, 267 ; its nature, 269, 272 ; its design, 273 ; moral rather than intellectual, 277 ; patriarchal, 282 ; its uniformity, 302. Fathers (The Christian) indifferent interpreters of Scripture, ii. 127. Felton, ii. 151. Figurative style of Scripture, ii. 158. First Philosophy, i. 16—18, 19, 94. See Metaphysics, Mind, In- tellect, &c. Forms, i. 35. See Axioms. Galileo, his discoveries, i. 149. Geddes, his rules for scriptural interpretation, ii. 209,214,217; cen- sured, 2o9; his letter to the author, see Appendix to Memoir. Cell, his rule of scriptural translation commended, ii. 240. Genius, its privileges, i. 299; poetic, 301. See Poetry. Genus, species, accident, i. 43. See Logic. Geometry, or quantity continuous, i. 90, 94, 111. See Mathematics, Arithmetic, &c. Gospel (The), its moral perfections, i. 266, 267, 272. Goulston cited, i. 268. Greek language, its theological importance, ii. 136. 366 GENERAL INDEX. Halley, i. 154. Harris cited, i. 50, 282, 322. Havenruterius cited, i. 10, 90, 133, 221. Haygarth, his letter to the author, see Appendix to Memoir. Hebrew language imperfectly understood. See Septuagint. Hebrew poetry, i. 135. See Lowth. History, its logic, i. 204; its principles, 206; its reasoning, 208; its truth, 217; its value, 219 ; its nature, 277 note; its connexion with theology, ii. 79. Hooker, ii. 229. Horrox, account of his philosophical discoveries,!. 150, 154; con- nexion of geometry and astronomy, 173. Horsley cited, i. 127; his account of Newton's controversy with Leibnitz, 162, 163. Houbigant commended, ii. 186; reproved, 238. Huet, ii. 211, 220. Hurd (Bishop), ii. 171, 308, 359. Hutchinsonians, their errors in confounding theology and philosophy, ii. 124. Ideas, Locke's agreement of, i. 114, Imagination, the medium of poetry, i. 275, 283 ; rules for its cultiva- tion, 303 ; its province in theology, ii. 186, 187. See Poetry. Imitation of nature, the object of the elegant arts, i. 305. See Poetry, Music, &c. Induction, its nature and value, i. 33 — 40, 49, 336 ; ground of Bacon's logic, 40, 41, 134 ; differs from the example of Aristotle, 39 ; contrasted with syllogism, 47 — 49 ; little used by the ancients, 132, 333. Induction not strictly applicable to theologic truth, ii. 28; under what limitations, 121 — 125, note. Inspiration, the theologic principle, ii. 20, 37, 38; belongs to words as well as ideas, 228. Intellect, the subject of theoretic truth, i. 21, 22, 220. See Mind. Interpretation. See Scriptures, Translation. Interpreter of Scriptures, his duties, ii. 132 ; the fathers and school- men bad interpreters of Scripture, 127, 128. Intuition, how it differs from self-evidence, i. 103; to what it should be limited, 104. See Axioms. Jebb (Bishop), ii. 137 note. Jerome cited, ii. 46. Jones (W.) cited, i. 53; his objections to the Newtonian theory of gravitation, 160, 162 ; his own theory, 166, 169. Kennicott commended, ii. 201. Kepler's rules, i. 152, 154. Langbaine cited, i. 225, 275. Languages (learned), ii. 134. See Latin, Greek, Hebrew. Latin tongue, its theological importance, ii. 138. GENERAL INDEX. SGj Le Clerc commended, ii. 238, 251. Leslie, ii. 77, Locke, his division of science, i, 22 ; mistakes about axioms, 35 — 37; his simple modes, 97; errors respecting mathematical reason- ing, 111,251; agreement and disagreement of ideas, 114 ; account of probable truth, 215 ; of testimony, 217 ; errors about conscience, 220; and ethics, 237, 255, 257; estimate of his character, 36. Logic, its general principles, i. 41, 51; its office and objects, 23; rational opposed to scholastic, 58 ; difference between the ancients and moderns in their use of, 11 9 ; its objects and advantages, 74 — 80, 134; logic and metaphysics, their analogy, one as the universal science, and the other as the universal art, SiB ; no universal logic, 112; logic, the Aristotelian, its defects, 334, and Appendix, i. 321 ; the subject of Bacon's Organum, 300. Lovvth cited, i. 270, 271, 284, 286, 302; ii. 136, 144; judges of scriptural poetry too much by classic standards, 160; analysis of his Preelections, 162 — 164; diction of a translator, 213, 226 — 236. Maclaurin cited, i. 172. Mathematics, their meaning and etymology, i. 50; reasoning reduci- ble to syllogism, 50, 112 — 118; principles, 91 ; its certainty and precision, 94, 95, 98 — 101 ; ii. 284; its language precise and pecu- liar, i. 107 ; its reasoning unlimited, 110, 112; simple and mixed, 117, note; mixed mathematics, 145; mathematics and physics, their union, 146; mathematics and physics not to be confounded, 166—174. Maxims. See Axioms. Metaphor distinct from analogy, ii. 141. Metaphysics, etymology of, i. 17 ; basis of all science, 18, 23 ; their logic, 180; principles founded on consciousness, 184; their truth, the basis of all truth, 191 ; their use and importance, ii. 280; rea- soning inductive from particulars to universals, i. 186. See First Philosophy, 180—192. Memory, its powers and defects, i. 209. Metre, Lowth's opinion of, ii. 162. Middle term, i. 47, 107. Miracles essential to a revelation, ii. 79, 80. See Theology. Miracles, external evidence of, ii. 73 — 94. See Evidence. Mind, truth an attribute of, i. 9, 11, 16; its divisions, 21, 220 — 223; investigates principles and causes, 17; philosophy of, 18, 19; the cause of all things, 307. 6'ee Metaphysics, Intellect. Modern and ancient different use of propositions, i. 119. Monboddo cited, i. 312, 325, 347; ii. 280. Montanus, ii. 215. Moral virtue founded on the will and law of God, i. 259; its per- fection in the Gospel, 272. Moral sense, i. 228—230, 232, 248. Moral truth not demonstrable, i. 253. See Ethics. Music, a compound of motion and sound, i. 310; terminates in effect, 311; akin to poetry and geometry, 313 ; at once an art and a science, 313. 368 GENERAL INDEX. Mysteries or revealed doctrines, ii. 44, 108; Bacon's account of, 45 ; to be cautiously treated, 122. Nature, its variety and harmony, i. 64; its harmony with grace, ii. 123. Nevycome, his rules of scriptural interpretation, ii. 209, 213, 216, 221, 234; commended, 249. Newton cited, i. 31, 94, 99, 129, 154, 156; Regulae Philosophandi, 137, 150, 156, 161; his method of analysis, 129. Obscurity in Scripture often designed, ii. 240 — 244. See Prophetic Style. Orders, Grecian, not suited to our architecture, i. 302. Organon, Aristotle's, its defects, i. 331, 333, 335, 341 ; Bacon's, its superiority, 338, 340. Pagninus, ii. 215. Parabolic style of Scripture, ii. 30, 31, 155, 162, 169; its vast im- portance, 171, 245. Patriarchs, their faith, ii. 287. Philoponus cited, i. 58, 88. Physics, i. 94; their logic analytic and inductive, 118, 131 ; prin- ciples analytic, 121; reasoning analogic, and experimental, 126; their union with mathematics, 146; their distinction from mathe- matics, 166—174, 258; ii. 285. Plan of the work, i. 71 — 79 ; its analysis, ii. 278 — 297 ; sketch of the intended, i. 79, ii. 299 — 320. Plato cited, i. 2, 22, 176; patron of the moral science, 245; his division of the mind, 22. Poetic mind, i. 21, 273, 276. See Imagination. Poetry, its logic, i. 273 ; principles, 279; reasoning, 281; its dig- nity, 287 ; its kinds, 292 ; truth, 304 ; ii. 289. Poetry, Hebrew. See Lowth. Poole's synopsis commended, ii. 131. Pope cited, i. 317. Practic mind, i. 21, 220. See Ethics, Will, &c. Predicables, i. 318. Premises, i. 47, 107. Principles, i. 24 — 28; primary and secondary, 28, 60; ii. 281. See Axioms. Primary the basis of induction, 33 ; secondary, of syllo- gism, 41 . Probability, its nature, i. 215. See History, Facts, &c. Prophetic style, ii. 203—215 ; its evidence, 87; its obscurity, 173 ; its double sense, 174, 231 ; its vast extent, 246. See Theology, Scriptures, &c. Propositions, general, i. 37, 113; categoric and relative, 119. See Axioms. Propriety and perspicuity first duties of a translator, ii. 236; the sense to be limited by the original, 240. Pythagoreans, their physical errors, i. 133 ; inventors of the categories, 329. GENERAL INDEX. 369 Quantity the subject'of mathematics, i. 92, 'J3; its precision and cer- tainty, 98—101, 109. (iuintilian, his account of analogy, i. 53. Quotations in the New from the Septuagint and Hebrew, their com- parative number, ii. 136, note. Raleigh cited, ii. 14; his opinion of the schoolmen, 129. Reason, its office and limits, i. 31 ; consists of perception operating by comparison, 32; the instrument of truth, 34; its office in morals, 245 ; its office in theology, ii. 43, 52, 86. Stc Theology. Reasoning, by induction, i. 33; by syllogism, 41 ; by analogy, 52 ; its powers in mathematics, 110, 111 ; its limits in theology, ii. 63. Reid's Analysis of Aristotle's Logic cited, i. 49, 51, 110; his account of syllogism, 113, 319, 330; his letter to the author in defence of Newton, 165, see Appendix to Memoir. Relative propositions, i. 113 ; see Introduction. Revelation, its possibility and probability, ii. 20 — 23, 49, note. See Theology. Romish Church supported by the school logic, ii. 128. Rule of Truth, i. 69. Schoolmen, their character, ii. 115, 116. Sciences, divisions of, i. 23, 220 — 223. Scriptures, the records of Christian doctrine, ii. 108 ; interpretation of, by authors to schoolmen, 127 — 129 ; their original language, 134; Greek Septuagint, 136; Latin, 137; styles, 118; analogic, 142 — 155; parabolic, 155 — 160; translation of, 188; rules of translation, 209 — 224; idioms, 216; prophetic style, 203 — 215; authenticity to be determined by evidence, 101, 102; interpretation of, 331. Scriptures, the sole repositories of religious truth, i. 108; analogous to the book of nature, 110. Senses, the witness of facts, i. 209. See Facts, External and moral, their analogy, 280. Sensibility, poetical, i. 279. See Poetry, &:c. Septuagint edition of the New Testament recommended, ii. 221. Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, ii. 136. Shakspeare's account of poetry, i. 295. Similitude, ii. 140. See Analogy. Sophisms, account of, i. 319, 330. Species, logical, i. 43. Stewart, Dugald, referred to, i. 51, 52; cited, ii. 312 itufe. Stillingfleet cited, ii. 49. Stone, the, prophetic emblem of, explained, ii. 252. Styles, scripture, ii. 139 — 186 ; their great importance, 230. Syllogism, general nature of, i. 42, 44, 48, 108 ; its small value as an instrument of probable truth, 41— 51, 138, 244; history of, 211 ; inferior to induction, 45 — 50, 139; Aristotle's account of, 326 — 329; attachment to, 326; main defect of, 328; cannot investigate first principles, 48 ; not applicable to theologic truth, ii. 28. See Mathematics. . '^ r, p. 370 GENERAL INDEX. Synthetic method, i. 138, 143. Systems and hypotheses hostile to truth, ii. 115. Taste, its nature, i. 282, 289 ; its rules, 302 ; its limits in scriptural translation, ii. 229. Term, middle, i. 46—51, 113. Testaments, New and Old, their connexion and uniformity, ii. 247. Testimony, human, the basis of historic truth, 1. 217; divine revela- tion, rules forjudging of, ii. 27, 33, 41, 216. See Facts, History. Theology, its logic, ii. 1 — 16; its principle, inspiration, 17; built on the divine testimony, 23 — 28, 32, 53 ; on faith in the divine veracity, 23 ; its reasoning analogic, 26 — 28, 32 ; its truth results immediately from faith in the divine veracity, 31, 35, 36 ; its doc- trines, 34 ; first principles superior to reason, 38, 40 ; theologic truth superior to and different from every other, 36, 42 ; its spirit peaceable and opposed to logical disputes, 54 ; theologic mysteries, 44, 47; theologic reasoning its objects and limits, 38, 58 ; respects the evidence of Christianity, 60 — 64 ; internal, 68 — 73 ; external, 73—80; miracles, 78, 79; prophecy, 87 ; types, 94, 98; theology and philosophy, their limits, 123 ; embraces all the faculties, 291 ; grounds of theologic reasoning, 58, 62 ; sources of errors in, 347. Theology, natural, ii. 5; theologic truth, 6; different from every other, 6 — 8 ; receives illustration from the other sciences, 9 ; me- thod of reasoning in, 81 ; not to be confounded with philosophy, 124,125. Theoretic mind, i. 16, 23, 193, 220—222, 273. See Mathematics, Physics, &c. Thomson's eulogy on Bacon, i. 339. Topics, Aristotle's, their design, i. 350. Translators and interpreters, how they differ, ii. 190, 226, 235; trans- lations of Scripture, 188; excellences and defects of the English, 191 ; rules of translation, 209 — 224, 238. See Scriptures. Truth, theologic, its difficulty of investigation, ii. 268 ; its logical imperfections, 269; its scientific inferiority accounted for, 271, 272 ; moral rather than intellectual, 277 — 281 ; the highest in nature, but not in logical arrangement, 238 ; reasons why, 246 — 264, 268; necessary or contingent, i. 216 — 218; essentially divine, 312 7iote. See Mathematics, History, Facts, Physics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Music, Theology, &c. The love of truth inherent in man, i. 13, 211.. Truth, universal, divine, and incomprehensible, i. 5; universal in God, partial, limited, yet trustworthy in man, 6, 9, 11, 13, 68; its kinds, 62 — 70 ; rule of, 69 ; corresponds to light, 1 1 ; to seeds, 65; theologic, ii. 23, 28, 42, 52, 267, 318. Types, ii. 94. See Evidence, Prophecy, Analogy. Tytler on Translation, ii. 211. Understanding, the, kinds of truth belonging to, ii. 288. See Intel- lect. Theoretic Mind, &c. Uniformity of Scripture in matter and style, ii. 217 — 220. Universities, Bacon's address to, i. 365. GENERAL INDEX. 371 Veracity, divine, ii. 35, 126. See Testimony, Faith, &c. Virtue, moral, its perfection, i. 263 ; fomid in the Gospel, 266 ; its defects supplied by revelation, 270 ; its perfect pattern exhibited in Christ, 272. Wakefield, his opinion of scriptural translation, ii. 223. Wallis cited, i. 109, 114, 152. Warburton cited, i. 90, 229, 250, 270 ; ii. 59, 71 ; account of mira- cles, 73, 80 ; doctrines, 73. Will, the, kinds of truth belonging to, ii. 288. See Ethics, Practic Mind, &c. Wisdom, its divine nature, i. 2, 3; ii. 315. Witnesses, how to be estimated, i. 216, note. See Evidence, Testi- mony. Wollaston cited, i. 5, 102. Works and word of God analogous to each other, ii. 110, 114, 120, 123. Wren, his discoveries, i. 149. Zeno, the patron of arbitrary will in morals, i. 249. PRINTED BY C. WH1TT1NGHAM, CHISWICK, \'uiUnim^in^,^r.r:'''-^'>('' Libra, 1 1012^1130 9368 ■ .iku^mmm Am wfi'.J i