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GEATTAN, MEMOIES OF HIS LIFE AND TIMES, By his Son. With Portrait, 5 vols. 8vo. cloth, £1 5s. W. Tegg and Co., 85, Queen Street, Cheapside, London. CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. Muhammad Izzet Pasha. A pretender to the Turkish throne. His strange history and rare accomplishments. Disappears at Kuniyah. Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Grants permission to Mustuk Bey to murder his nephew. Sulaiman Pasha. Durwish Ahmed’s expedition against Mustuk Bey. His chief officers taken and stripped. Bayas captured and sacked. ........... CHAPTER X. Anecdotes of Sulaiman Pasha. Gin-Jusif, rebel of Kara-Tash. Arif Pasha. Murder of a pasha. Hasan Pasha. Anecdotes of the council. Christian members of council. Employes of the Porte. Toll at Kulak Bughaz. Hati Sheriff. Courts of justice. CHAPTER XI. Geography of Cilicia. Tarsus and Adana. Missis (Mopsuestia). Sis (Pindenissus). Bayas and the coast. Pyhe Cilicise. Population of Cilicia. Europeans and their influence destroyed. Consuls and their authority. English consuls allowed to trade. Climate. Stagnant lake (Rhegma). Marsh of Alexandretta. Country- houses. Nimrud. Sea-ports. Kaisanli. Mursina and its road¬ stead. CHAPTER XII. Advantages and disadvantages of Tarsus in a commercial point of view. Tables of navigation. Tabular view of the trade of the interior of Asia Minor. Table of exports. Table of imports. State of agri¬ culture in Cilicia. Produce of the country. Cotton. Wheat. Barley. Linseed. Wax. Fruit-trees. Silk. Olive-trees. Pay of a day-labourer. Pasture of land. Tenure of land. Timber and woods. Geology and mineralogy. Extracts from Mr. Ainsworth’s work. Plain of Tarsus. Falls of the Cydnus. First, second, third, and fourth range of hills. Mines of iron and lead. Argentiferous Galena. Revenue of the Pashalik. CHAPTER XIII. II Lamas (Lamum). Kurkass (Corycus). Aski Shahir. Soli, after¬ wards Pompeiopolis. Great Mausoleum at Tarsus. Strabo’s de¬ scription of the coast of Cilicia. His account of Tarsus and neigh¬ bouring towns. . .. CONTENTS. Vlll LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. PAGE Introductory . . . . . . . . . . .145 CHAPTER II. Discovery of the terra-cottas. Lares and Penates of Cilicia. Evidences of promiscuous worship. Apollo of Tarsus. Perseus, Bellerophon, and Pegasus. Radiated Apollo. Identity of physiognomy. Ugly faces. Deification of children. Deification of princes. Deification of ladies. Character of Cilician art. Progress of Christianity. Destruction of the Lares and Penates. Atys. Apollo, the Syrian Baal. Cybele, Ceres, and Isis. Eleusinian mysteries. Cybele and Atys, Isis and Osiris, Yenus and Adonis. The cat, dog, and horse, Harpocrates and Florus. Isis and the NTeluinhium. Sacred bulls. Egyptian art. Morpheus . . . . . . . .152 CHAPTER III. Apollo. Apollo Belvedere. Caricatures of Midas. Apollo of Tarsus. Senator in the clavus latus. Lion attacking a bull. Telephus or Mercury (?). Ceres. Victory. Date of destruction of the Lares. Metamorphosis of Actaeon into a stag. Remarks of Mr. Birch. . 184 • CHAPTER IV. ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THE EXTINCT RACES OF AMERICA. Monstrous head in a conical cap. Portrait of a Hun (?). Identity with American sculptures. Emigrations of Asiatic nations to America. Testimonies from Stephens, Schomburgk, Humboldt. Analogies of language. Evidences from Klaproth and d’Herbelot. 203 CHAPTER Y. ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OF THE HUNS CONTINUED. I > y -0 ff _ ....-' r au ^tino polis/ /cu. - a Vl '"'' liar a. SLA UluMsi J — f r [o o A rulal Sale Bl SlSl Pj^rlcm Ttirbaeif \TurtcJdi Hot 0 ru-h .. wvwiliil AnasHa Ka^* An.a7.arba / Nimruci castle , 0 Ruins of otic Town 1 Aflamn.Ti. ma i Arlana 1 A la Dagh oKaraJKovcL Gintabal/x . -= '^^CjMarsh. , .'tls-S ^ !MLs sxsaL,Mopsae sti; -(J/oros (j/7-r-hjLcs ■ l mMM i JJ lUJJJJt. V O --C •■ncia. Has 3 Hi -ffAossfc^s Seopuh sfliTA ^ Antic cli dp MAP OP rJepel Altra (M?lC: arid the north of JdirmrwirL o Chalets ^hiujhl Scale of Ene;lislL Miles. Composed iroTro Beaufort, Ouesroey & Fisc/cers Maps vdrfu corrections from. Ainsworths &■theAutJwrspersonal survey/ CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS; EF.ING AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. EARLY PERIOD OF CILICIAN HISTORY-SCRIPTURAL MENTION OF TARSUS- ANCIENT RELIGION-NOTICE OF TIIE CILICIANS BY HERODOTUS-CILICIA UNDER THE ASSYRIANS-BURIAL-PLACE OF SARDANAPALUS-DOMINION OF TIIE MEDES-CILICIA OVERRUN BY SCYTHIAN HORDES-TIIE PROPHET Daniel’s tomb — crcesus, king of lydia—Persian satraps—invasion OF GREECE BY TIIE PERSIANS—SYENNESIS, KING OF CILICIA-TREATY OF ANTALCIDAS-ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN CILICIA-BATTLE OF ISSUS. The early history of Cilicia, a country replete with interesting associa¬ tions, as having been the theatre of many great events, is unfortunately, like that of most ancient nations, involved in obscurity; and it is ex¬ tremely difficult to construct, out of the scanty materials which have- reached our times, a chain of narrative so complete and satisfactory as to connect, without the absence of some essential links, the history of its- past grandeur with its actual condition. It has been my main endea¬ vour, the more effectually to dispel the cloud which hangs over the ancient portion of its history, to select from such writers as have given this country a place in their pages what may be considered most worthy of insertion, in order to form a connected and complete history. Rut the gleams of light which, from time to time, break through the mist are partial, leading only to conjecture; and they do not sufficiently fill up the gaps which the ignorance of some and the unwillingness of others have left us to regret in this inquiry. There is, however, the best reason to believe that those passes or natural defiles which break the barriers that Nature has placed between the elevated plains of Asia Minor and those large tracts situated east of the Mediterranean, were considered by the nations of antiquity of so much 12 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. importance that they were made an object of the particular attention of monarchs; and hence Cilicia became, from its position, the scene of strife between contending empires. Connecting, as it were, the eastern and western world, it was also, at a very early date, the first to benefit by the continual influx of strangers; and civilisation, consequent on the in¬ tercourse of man with man, was an early feature of its character; while wealth, flowing rapidly on its precursors, civilisation and trade, laid a foundation for that opulence which, in after times, attracted the cupidity of the Romans, and reduced it finally to a Roman province. Hence w T e find Cilicia mentioned by several historians as the first commercial power which made any figure in this part of the world. But it is not only the fables of Pagan theology that bear witness to the high antiquity and power of this country, by informing us that Tarsus was built by Perseus, son of Jupiter by Danae; but Scripture historians also affirm that the sons of Tarshish , the great-grandson of Noah, who were settled on this coast, had made themselves famous for their navigation and commerce; so that “the ships of Tarshish had become a common appellation for all vessels of trade, and “ to go to Tarshish” a proverbial expression for setting out to sea in such vessels. In Isaiah xxiii. 10, Tyre is called “the daughter of Tarshish,’ which would lead us to infer that the nautical celebrity to which the lyrians subsequently attained had its rise in Cilicia, and that a colony from this country settled on the Syrian coast and laid the foundation for Pficeiii- cian grandeur and fame.'* * There are few questions in sacred geography that are involved in greater diffi¬ culties than the position and extent of Tarshish, or of the several Tarshishes men¬ tioned in the Scriptures. Some have argued that the word itself applied to the sea generally. One of the latest authorities, the Rev. J. It. Beard, D.D., has attempted in a similar manner to cut the gordian knot, by arguing that all the scriptural pas¬ sages in which the name occurs agree in fixing Tarshish somewhere in or near Spain. (Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, edited by J. Kitto, D.D., art. “Tarshish. ) Heeren (Ideen, &c. ii. 64) goes so far as to translate (Ezek. xxvii. 25) the ships of Tarshish, &c. by “Spanish ships.” And Bochart, in his Geographia Sacra (Phaleg , iii. 1), is undecided as to the superior claims of Carteia or Cadiz, or the Tartessus of Aristotle, Strabo, Pausanias, Arrian, and Avienus, which was between the two mouths of the Bsetis or Guadalquiver, and which is the most likely site of the Spanish Tarshish, being of Phoenician orgin. But there was another Tarshish in Ophir or Arabia; for in 2 Chron. xx. 36 it is recorded that Jehoshaphat king of Judah joined himself with Ahaziah king of Israel to make ships to go to Tarshish ; and they made the ships in Ezion-geber—that is, on the Elanitic Gulf, on the eastern arm of the Red Sea. And in the parallel passage, found in 1 Kings xxii. 49, these vessels are described as “ships of Tarshish,” which were intended to go to Ophir. So also there appears much probability that there was a Tarshish nearer to Judiea. An important testimony to this effect occurs in Ezek. xxxviii. 13: “Sheba and Dedan, and the merchants of Tarshish, with all the young lions thereof.” Now, here Tarshish is mentioned in conjunction with two eastern sites; and we shall have occasion to shev. SCRIPTURAL MENTION OP TARSUS. 13 Strabo says of the nations of Tarsus, that they did not, like other nations, stay at home, but, in order to complete their education, went abioad; and many of them, when this was accomplished, became at¬ tached to their residences in foreign countries, and never returned. To this loving disposition we must attribute the circumstance of their having factories at Dedan and Sheba on the Euphrates, with which places they trafficked in silver, gold, &c., as we are told by Ezekiel (xxxviii. 10) ;* mid it confirms the assertion of Tacitus, that Thamiras the Cilician w’as the first who introduced the science of divination into Cyprus during the reign of Cinyras, as far back as 2000 years b.c., and that the priesthood continued to be hereditary in his family for many generations, until, for •want of male heirs, the sacerdotal functions merged into the descendants of the king. Here we find an enlightened Cilician quitting his native country, and bearing with him the riches of superior knowledge, which he imparts to a less civilised nation, establishing for himself and for his posterity an imperishable monument of fame. Vv hat that knowledge was, or to what particular worship it related that the Amanus was in ancient times as renowned for its lions as Cilicia is to the present day distinguished by the number of its panthers, while it does not appear that there were lions in Andalusia. Again, when Jonah (i. 3; iv. 2) wished to avoid the duty imposed upon him to go and prophesy against Nineveh, he took ship at Joppa and fled to Tarshish. It is not likely that he fled as far as Spain; but it is not unlikely that he fled from Judcea and took refuge in Tarsus. ’ The transit of the Phoenicians from Cyprus to Cilicia was easy. Apollodorus relates that Celendns, now Chalindrah, was founded by Sandocus, e. Sadoc, father of Cinyra! It was afterwards a colony of Samians. The name of the country itself is said to have been derived from Cilix, the brother of Cadmus. According to Bochart, Corycus, on the same coast, derived its name from the celebrity of its crocuses or saffron,— carcom in the Hebrew, and corcarn in the Syriac (Solomon’s Song iv. 14). It is not certain if the Amanus is meant in the 8th verse of the same canticle, “ look from the top of Amana,” because the mountain so called is mentioned in connexion with the Lebanon. The allusion to “ the lions’ dens”—'“ the mountains of the leopards”—makes it, how¬ ever, extremely improbable that it is the Cilician Amanus that is referred to. Bochart in his Phcenices in Cilicia (Phaleg , i. 4), entertains no doubt of the commercial rela¬ tions of Tarsusand Tyre:. “Nee desuntf he adds, “quibus Tarsus Cilicice metropolis Pauli Apostoli ortu nohilis, videtur esse Tarshish el Cetis ” (Cethim)._V/. F. A * Very little is known as to the locality peopled by the descendants of the Cushite Dedan. It is supposed that they settled in southern Arabia, near the Persian Gulf • but the existence in that quarter of a place called Dadan or Dadena is the chief ground foi this conclusion. The Rev. Charles Forster has, however, shewn in his Historical Geography of Arabia , that correlative testimony is given of this opinion by the juxta¬ position of kindred names (vol. i. pp. 38, 63). With regard to the descendants of the Cushite Sheba, there seems no reason to doubt that their ultimate settlement was in Ethiopia; while the descendants of Sheba, son of Joktan, peopled Yemen in Arabia. Hence the distinction between the African Sabajans and Arabian Sabreans; but there were also Badwin or “wandering” Shebans (Job i. 15) and Chaldean Sabseans, or, more properly, Tsalians, particularly described by Mr. Rich and the Rev. Mr Wolff_ W. F. A. 14 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. the learned historian does not proceed to say; but in another passage we learn from him that the Egyptians, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadel- phus, b.c. 284, obtained the statue of the god Serapis from Sinope in Pontus; and although the epoch when this image was introduced and placed in the quarter of the city of Alexandria called Phacotis is compara¬ tively of modern date, the circumstance may go far to establish that this god was worshipped in Asia Minor; and if we are to believe Plerodotus, who says the Egyptian priests attributed the origin of their nation to the Phrygians , close neighbours of the Cili— cians, we may conclude that a great similarity existed in the worship and religious ceremonies of the two countries. This subject is more particularly illus¬ trated in that part of the work which refers to the newly-discovered terra-cottas, among which have been found heads of Horus and other deities of the Egyptian pantheon, as also the god Osiris, represented under the form of an ox, and of which we give an illustration here. The two accompanying woodcuts of Serapis and Osiris are taken from some terra-cotta antiques found at Tarsus, and of which the reader will find a more circumstantial account further on. We are told by Herodotus that the original inhabitants of Cilicia were called Hypacheans, and that it was not until the arrival of Cilex : the son of Agenor king of Phoenicia, that they obtained the appellation of Cilicians. Cilex, it is related, set out in search of his sister Europa, who had been carried away by pirates; and after seeking her in many countries by sea and land, disgusted and worn out by his want of success, and attracted by the fertility of the soil, he settled down on the coast of Asia Minor, and gave his name to the country which forms the subject of this history, about 1552 b.c.*' Tarsus in Cilicia is said to have been founded, according to heathen mythology, b.c. 1326, by Perseus son of Jupiter and Danae, while on his expedition against the Gorgons; but other historians attribute its origin to a colony of Argives. * According to others (ApoUodorus, iii. c. 14), Cilex was son of Cinyras, and brother of Cadmus, which Cinyras first colonised these countries from Phoenicia, and built the town of Celendrse or Celendris, afterwards a colony of Samians. Bochart ( Chanaan , i. 5) argues that the country derived its name from the abundance of chalk and lime¬ stone ,—challek or chcilluk of the Hebrews, and of the Greeks.—W. F. A. ■zmmm SERAPIS. CILICIA UNDER TIIE ASSYRIANS. Id However that may be, this city became famous for its maritime commerce as early as the days of King David, b.c. 1055 (Ps. xlviii. 7), and from that circumstance gave its name to that part of the Mediterra¬ nean contiguous to Cilicia, which was thence called the Sea of Tarshish. Pamphylia was also colonised from the same district. But under what government Cilicia existed, or whether it rose to fame in a state of independence, is a matter of great uncertainty. It would appear probable that this country paid tribute to the Assyrian monaichs, because the Cihcians are not mentioned by Homer in his catalogue as having sent subsidies to Priam at the siege of Troy, b.c. 1184, with the rest of their neighbours, the different states on the coast of Asia Minor. Certain it is that the kings of Assyria subdued the piincipal petty nations of Asia; and as the Taurus formed the natural boundary of Mesopotamia, Cilicia must have been the first to fall under the yoke of the successors of Nimrod. But we are precluded from learning at what precise date this coun¬ try was overrun by the Assyrians, because from the death of Ninias, the son of Ninus and Semiramis, b.c. 1600, down to the revolt of the Medes against Sardanapalus, during a period of eight hundred years, there is a chasm in the history of Babylon to be filled up. The fables of Berosus in reference to this subject are not worthy of credit, as the work which passes under his name is evidently a fabrication. But that it was sub¬ dued and formed a part of that kingdom previous to the time of its disso¬ lution is an historical fact, as we find Sardanapalus made it his favourite residence; and we are informed by some historians that the ports of this country were considered of great importance by that dynasty, as being their chief maritime station in the Mediterranean. Grecian historians have attributed to ’Sardanapalus, the last king of the Assyrian monarchy, the foundation of the city of Tarsus, b.c. 820- but as it is also reported that he was buried at Anchiale* by his par- Ancliiale may have begun even in the time of Sardanapalus to be a necessary port to the commerce of Tarsus, in consequence of the increasing alluvium brought down by the river Cydnus, and which is always filling up the lake, that formerly sei v ed as a hai bour (called by Strabo Rhegma, and which he says preserved some remains of its naval arsenal). This Rhegma resembled a lake by its extensive and shallow bed, and could no longer admit of large vessels, because earth, stones, and rubbish were continually brought down into it from the heights of Mount Taurus by the winds and torrents. It is now a stagnant marsh, with four or five feet water, and no longer communicates either with the sea or the river Cydnus, although not more dis¬ tant in some places than a thousand yards from either. The original beds of the canals, which served as a means of communication with the sea, are filled up by earth and sand ; but the traces of them exist, and could with no great difficulty be cleared, and made to serve as an exit for the water. The whole of the surrounding country, with 16 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. ticular desire, we may infer that he was more probably the founder of this latter place, and the embellisher only of Tarsus. On the site of Anchiale is a ruin to be seen which may have been the foundation of the tomb ; but no vestige remains of the celebrated statue mentioned by Arrian of this ill-fated monarch, or of the inscription in the As¬ syrian language commemorating the intemperance and dissipation that distinguished his life, which so provoked the satire of Aristotle. The fact that Sardanapalus was really buried on this spot would seem to contradict the accounts of other writers of celebrity, who assert that he burned himself in his palace in the city of Nineveh , with all his house¬ hold and treasure; or, at all events, the two statements can only be reconciled by supposing that his body was carried by some faithful surviving attendants, by whom, we hear, he was deified , to repose in the city of his predilection, which owed its origin to his choice.* Dif¬ ferent accounts of the same event occur frequently in ancient authors, and cause us to regret how much this question is involved in obscurity.f On the dismemberment of the Assyrian empire, Cilicia fell into the the bed of the lake itself, having risen considerably by alluvial deposits—a circumstance universal wherever rivers flow into large plains, and particularly in the vicinity of such a high range of mountains as the Taurus—Anchiale was for centimes the depot of Tar¬ sus, and received such vessels as could not by their size enter the lake; and it con¬ tinued to serve as the port of Tarsus in after ages until modern times, when Kaisanli was chosen for its proximity; and lately Marsinah has been preferred to either for the safety of its roadstead, and is rising into the notice of the commercial world. * The partiality that Sardanapalus seems to have evinced to Anchiale was natural enough; it was to him, with its wide expanse of sea, what the Indian Ocean would have been to Alexander,—the furthest point of his conquest: for in the Bay of Issus the land may be seen on the other side ; while at Anchiale the Eastern monarch might have considered himself as having reached the farthest bounds of his Western World. From this place, which he prided himself on having built in one day, he could look on the broad blue sea, and ordain that his tomb should there be formed, where it might remain as a monument of his grandeur, washed by the waves that alone impeded his conquest. There is a ruin at Karadoghar which may be supposed to form a part of this monument; and the whole coast is lined with buildings that are now broken down and covered with sand by the sea, which has retired full a hundred yards : these must have served for quays, and greatly facilitated the landing of goods, which now have to wait the calming of the wind and sea. When we see the gigantic works of the ancients, wherein they spared no trouble for the smallest good, we cannot but wonder at the vastness of population which enabled them to carry out such undertakings. We might well take a lesson of perseverance from them example. f Professor Grotefend states, that after Shalmaneser king of Assyria had reigned twenty-five years, he extended his conquests over Asia Minor, and took up his abode in the city of Tanakan, a strong place in Etlak, by which perhaps Tarsus in Cilicia is meant, of the budding of which by Sennacherib a fabulous account is given by Alex¬ ander Polyhistor and Abydenus in the Armenian version of Eusebius. After he had introduced into that place the worship of Assarde (Astarte) or Nisroch, and received gold and silver, corn, sheep, and oxen as a tribute, he reduced the neighbouring pro- THE PROPHET DANIEL’S TOME. 17 hands of the Medes , and so continued until the reign of Cyaxares, b.c. 624, when the barbarous hordes of Scythians overran all Central Asia, and overturned the government. After remaining twenty-eight years in possession, the Scythians were in their turn driven out, their chiefs be¬ ing murdered by Cyaxares at a feast. The Medes then recovered that power which the invaders had lost by their licentiousness and ignorance of civil administration. As Daniel the Prophet flourished about this time (550 b.c.), I take the opportunity here of stating a remarkable circumstance connected with an Armenian tradition in the country. The Turks hold in great veneration a tomb which they believe contains the bones of this prophet, situated in an ancient Christian church, converted into a mosque, in the centre of the modern town of Tarsus. The sarcophagus is said to be about forty feet below the surface of the present soil, in consequence of the accumulation of earth and stones; and over which a stream flows from the Cydnus river, of comparatively modern date. Over this stream, at the particular spot where the sarcophagus was (before the canal was cut and the waters went over it), stands the ancient church above men¬ tioned; and to mark the exact spot of the tomb below, a wooden monu¬ ment has been erected in the Turkish style.* The waters of this rivulet are turned off every year in the summer, in order to clear the bed of the canal; and if ever this country falls into the hands of a civilised nation, it will not be difficult to verify the authenticity of this tradition, which the fanaticism of the Turks now prevents us from doing. However extraordinary this may appear, and difficult as it may be to establish the identity of this sarcophagus as containing the relics of the prophet , without the assistance of history or inscription, little doubt can be enter¬ tained of the existence of a tomb of some holy personage, or of one whose memory was held sacred, from the well-known permanence of oral tra¬ dition in the East; and it is a remarkable instance of the tenacity by which events are rescued from oblivion, and the power of tradition to record the exact locality, at so great a depth under the accumulated ruins of so many years.f vinces to subjection, and appointed Akharrizadon or Assarhaddon as king over them. This is one of the triumphs supposed to be alluded to in the celebrated obelisk of Nim- rud or Athur.—W. F. A. * This monument is covered with an embroidered cloth, and stands in a special apartment built for it, from the iron-grated windows of which it may occasionally be seen when the Armenians take occasion to make their secret devotions ; but generally a curtain is dropped to hide it from vulgar view, and add by exclusion to the sanctity of the place. f The burial-place of the prophet Daniel is not historically known. Epiphanius says C 18 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. It is a curious coincidence that the supposed tomb of Daniel the Pro¬ phet at Susa is said to be, like the one above described, under a running stream. This would prove the great increase of alluvial deposits in the Last. (Vide Journal of the Royal Geographical Society , vol. ix.; article by Colonel Eawlinson.) Duiing the anarchy attendant on the wars of the J\Iedes with their neighbours the Babylonians and Persians, Cilicia became independent; foi we are informed by Herodotus that (b.c. 548) Croesus king of Lydia subjected almost all the nations which are situated on this side the ii\er Halys. The Cilicians and Lycians alone were not brought undei his yoke ; and we find them again (b.c. 504) governed by their own kings and increasing in maritime power, but subject to pay tribute to Darius Hystaspes, third king of the Persian monarchy, who divided his dominions into satrapies , of which Cilicia was the fourth. The Cilicians were obliged to furnish 360 white horses and 500 talents of sil\ei annually; ol these, 140 were appointed for the payment of the cavalry who formed the guard of the country; the remaining 360 talents were received by Darius. O 11 the resolution taken by Darius (b.c. 490) to inv ade Greece, Datis and Artaphernes his nephews were ordered to man a fleet and collect an army for the purpose. Accordingly they proceeded to Aleium in Cilicia, a plain at the mouth of the river Pyramus* and near the port of Mallos (Kara-Tash), where they col¬ lected a large body of infantry; here they were soon joined by a numer¬ ous reinforcement of marines, agreeably to the orders which had been given; and soon after, the vessels which the preceding year Darius had commanded his tributaries to supply having arrived, the cavalry and troops embarked and proceeded to Ionia, in a fleet of six hundred tri¬ remes, or three-oared galleys. that he died at Babylon; and he is followed in this by the generality of historians. onumentally and traditionally, however, the tomb designated as that of Daniyali koar the greater Daniel/’ at Sus, ancient Susa, in Susiana, records the burial- place of God is my judge.” The great Saracenic building 'which adorns the’site at the present day m Sus or Shush, is represented in the Baron de Bodes Travels in Lunstan and Arabistan (vol. ii. p. 188). It is also described by Major Eawlinson in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (vol. ix. p. 83). The Major spoke of sacred fish being also preserved at the spot. Layard (ibid. vol. xvi. p. 61) says that the smaR stream which washes the tomb certainly contains fish, but he does not believe that they are generally esteemed sacred. A black stone or aerolite, such as played so conspicuous a part m the early religions of the Semitic nations, is preserved there. Great suspicion as to the intentions of Europeans towards this sacred stone is unfor¬ tunately entertained by the guardians of the monument.—W. F. A. 1 / Aleian Plain has alwa ys stood prominent in the history of Cilicia. Pliny calls it Campus Aleius. Strabo relates that Philotas led the cavalry attached to the lacedoman army under Alexander the Great, ’a\; ]10v 7 rediov, “over the Aleian Plain ” INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS. 19 Xerxes, son of Darius, on undertaking (b.c. 484) his great expedi¬ tion against Greece, exacted one hundred ships from the Cilicians, at which epoch Herodotus says they wore helmets peculiar to their coun- try, and small bucklers made of the untanned hides of oxen; they had also tunics of wool, and each man had two spears and a sword, not un¬ like those of Egypt. At a council called by Xerxes before the battle of Salamis, Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, spoke very disparagingly of the Cilicians, as a people addicted to piracy and not to be trusted, and on whom no reliance could be placed. Whatever may have been the character of many of the Greek colonies of the coast, it is certain that the inhabitants of Tarsus maintained a fair reputation in their com¬ mercial transactions, and which was absolutely necessary to them in their intercourse with foreigners. At the death of Xerxes (b.c. 410), Cilicia remained under the government of its own kings, but tributary to his successors Artaxerxes, Darius Nothus, and Artaxerxes, against whom Cyrus the younger revolted. Having been appointed governor of Lydia by his brother Artaxerxes, he assembled an army (a part of which was composed of the ten thousand Greeks whose courage and endurance have been im¬ mortalised by Xenophon), and entering Cilicia, arrived at Tarsus. The inhabitants of this city, with their king Syennesis, fled to a fastness in the mountains, now called Nimrud; but those of Soli and Issus, who were near the sea, did not follow their example. Cyrus sent for Syennesis; but the latter replied, that he had never put himself in the power of a superior, and would not do so now. His wife Epyaxa, who had previously visited Cyrus in Phrygia, whither she had been sent on a diplomatic mission to meet the conqueror, dis¬ mayed by the reports regarding his formidable army, prevailed on her liusband^to change his resolution, and the two princes met on friendly terms. Syennesis gave Cyrus large sums of money to carry on the war, and received in return suitable presents, with the restitution of Arrian describes Philotas as leading the cavalry across the Plain to the river Pyramus. This is important in a geographical point of view. Dionysius of Corinth alludes to this Plain in the 87'2d verse of his poetical geography: whicLAvienus has rendered “ Hie cespes late produc 'd Aleius arva .” It was’also on this beautiful and expansive Plain that Bellerophon wandered after his fall from Pegasus at Tarsus : “ Forsook by heaven, forsaking human kind, Wide o’er th’ Aleim field he chose to stray, A long, forlorn, uncomfortable way.” W. F. A. 20 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. the prisoners taken bj Cyrus. lie was confirmed in his authority at Tarsus. We may presume that the Cilician kings during the next twenty years sided with the Grecian colonies in the war carried on by the Spartans against Artaxerxes, and lost their independence; for we find, by the “ treaty of Antalcidas,” that Tarsus was included among the other cities and possessions in Asia Minor that were ceded to the Persian monarchs. When Alexander had carried his victorious arms into Asia (b.c. 333),. in his march against Darius after the battle of the Granicus, he ad¬ vanced to the Pyke Cilicia? (Kulak Bughaz); and fearing an ambuscade,, he ordered the light-armed Thracians to advance and reconnoitre that narrow pass, where only a few men abreast can be admitted at a time. Pie was astonished, and rejoiced at his good fortune, in finding that the Persians had not availed themselves of the advantages afforded them by the natural features of the pass to make an effectual stand at this im¬ portant post, which a handful of men could defend, and hurl destruction on the invaders by throwing stones and other missiles from the heights above. This neglect on their part surprised him, but it was nothing more than what was to be expected; for the few Persian soldiers left there as a guard by Arsanes on his retreat, after laying waste the country, had fled in consternation at the approach of the formidable in¬ vader; and the Cilicians were so ready to throw off the Persian yoke, and to hail the Greeks their fellow-countrymen, that they never thought of offering any opposition. From this place the Macedonian hero marched his whole army to Tarsus, and arrived just in time to save it from de¬ struction, as the Persians had set fire to the city, to prevent his becom¬ ing master of the treasures it contained. It was here that Alexander nearly lost his life by bathing in the cold waters of the Cydnus, a river which passes by this town, and which in sum¬ mer is nearly all of melted snow, flowing from the neighbouring heights of Mount Taurus; and here it was he gave an instance of that magnani¬ mity of spirit which formed so distinguishing a feature in his character,, by shewing perfect confidence in his physician Philip, and drinking off the: medicine he administered, in utter disregard of the insinuations made to influence him against a faithful servant, and which accused the physi¬ cian of having been bribed by Darius to poison him. From this place, having sent his cavalry under Philotas across the Aleian plain to the banks of the Pyramus, where he ordered a bridge to be prepared, lie proceeded to Soli, where he laid the inhabitants under a contribution of 200 talents, and evinced in what contempt he held the 21 ALEXANDER THE GREAT—ISSUS. barbarians, by entertaining liis followers with games in honour of AEscu- lapius and Minerva; he*then proceeded along the coast to Megarsus, and from thence to Mallos. This latter place, situated on a height according to Strabo, “ was founded by Amphilocus and Mopsus, who having slain one another in single combat, were buried so that the tomb of the one should not be visible from that of the other.” He next proceeded to Issus, the scene of the memorable battle which decided the fate of the Persian empire; for soon after, by the battle of Arbela (b.c. 330), Darius was dethroned, and with him terminated the line of Assyrian and Persian kings, which had lasted two hundred and nine years from Cyrus.* * According- to Plutarch, Darius was encouraged by Alexander’s long stay in Cilicia, —which he regarded as the effect of his fears, instead of tracing it to its true cause, sickness,—to march across the mountains into Cilicia in quest of his adversary. “ But happening to miss each other in the night, they both turned back ; Alexander re¬ joicing in his good fortune, and hastening to meet Darius in the straits, while Darius was endeavouring to disengage himself and recover his former camp.” This descrip¬ tion of the two armies passing one another in the night indicates that Darius had effected the passage before Alexander had reached the Syrian Gates, and that the armies passed one another in the region of Urzin, and where are now the supposed ruins of Epiphanea ; the Macedonians keeping the coast, the Persians occupying the interior. Calisthenes says, in the fragments of Polybius (lib. xii. cap. 8), that Alex¬ ander had reached the straits which are called the Cilician Gates, when Darius arrived with liis army at the Amanian Gates. The philosopher of Olynthus evidently meant the Cilician and Syrian Gates of Xenophon (Markaz Kalasi), and not the Cilician Gates (Kulak Bughaz). Quintus Curtius (lib. iii. cap. 8) says, “ The same night that Alexander arrived at the straits by which Syria is approached, Darius arrived at that place which is called the Amanian Gates.” Arrian (lib. ii. p. 94) also says, “ Darius having crossed the mountain where are the Amanian Gates, advanced to¬ wards Issus ; Alexander having imprudently left him in his rear.” Most scholars have read to Kara n, an aqueduct, and other detached ruins, tombs, and on Jiaraviama. There are also remains row of two hundred columns, once united present day by many INVASION OF TIG HANES—POMPEY. reign of Seleucus the sixth. This monarch fled from Antiochus Pius, and took refuge at Mopsuestia in Cilicia; where endeavouring to levy money from the people, he was burnt together with his followers in his palace by the revolted populace, who were excited to so severe an act of vengeance by his tyranny. Mopsuestia is now a small village called Missis on the banns of the Saihun (Pyramus), and on the high road from Constantinople to Antioch.* Tigranes, king of Armenia (b.c. 69), son-in-law of Mithridates, dur¬ ing the latter part of these civil wars had laid waste Cilicia, and carried an ay the inhabitants of Soli, with many others, to colonise and people I igi anoceita, a city he had founded in Armenia and made his capital, and which Lucullus, the Roman general, took with great difficulty, and found there 8000 talents in ready money.f b.c. 68. The vast body of pirates who had infested the whole of the Mediterranean during the war with Carthage had become formidable to the Romans, by intercepting the vessels laden with wheat and other provisions into Rome, and committing many great excesses. They pos¬ sessed a thousand galleys and 400 cities in different parts of the Medi¬ terranean, and hired themselves as subsidiaries to Mithridates, king of I ontus, "with whom the Romans were then at war. Pompey was sent with the fullest powers that were ever given to a Roman citizen against them, and set out in a fleet of 500 shijDs and with 120,000 men. He divided his forces into thirteen squadrons, which he sent to different parts of the Mediterranean, and followed them up into Cilicia, which they had made their chief place of resort, and where they had fortified many places which they considered impregnable. After various engagements Mopsuestia, more correctly written by Strabo Mopsi Hestia, the house or abode of Mopsus the poet and soothsayer, was a holy city and an asylum, and became free under the Romans, by whom it was enlarged and embellished in the time of Hadrian It was also, as we learn from Procopius, remarkable for its magnitude and splendour in the middle ages; and Abu-al-fada relates that 200,000 Moslems were devoted to death or slavery in this city by Nicephoras Phocas and John Ximisces. A great many misi epresentations, regarding both the situation of this city and its name, exist m tllc Byzantine writers, and are also propagated by Gibbon. It is now a mere village of about a hundred houses, known as Missisah, vulgo Missis, situate on the right bank of the river, connected with a mass of ruined dwelling-houses and a caravansarai on the other, by a bridge constructed in part of old materials, and from among which I copied a Greek inscription now in Colonel Chesney’s possession, and possibly' the same as that giien by Gruter (p. 255, num. 4). There is also a large ancient mound er tumulus that might bo worth excavating.—W. F. A. f A careful consideration of all the circumstances connected with the details of the campaign of Lucullus against Tigranes have led me to identify' Tigranocerta with the Amida of the Byzantines, now Dyar-Bakir. (Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Ar., vol.ii. p. 362.) St. Martin says that all the Armenian writers consider Tigrano- oerta the same as Amida, also called Dorbeta by Ptolemy.—W. F. A. 20 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. carried oil for three months, Pompey overthrew the pirates in a pitched battle, by sea and land, at Coracesium, now Kurkass,* and took ninety men-of-war and 20,000 prisoners. This multitude of men he compelled to relinquish their roving and desperate life, and caused them to settle and people the cities which had been laid waste by Tigranes in Cilicia, particularly Soli, which was rebuilt by him and to which he gave his name, and which was afterwards called “ Pompeiopolis” on that ac¬ count, j b.c. 65. The kingdom of Syria had been restored by Lucullus to Antiochus Asiaticus on the expulsion of Tigranes, king of Armenia; but four years after, Pompey, who was called upon to settle the intestine broils and factions of the royal family, dethroned Antiochus, on pretence that he, who had concealed himself while an usurper sat upon his throne, was not worthy of being a king. Syria and Cilicia, with their depen¬ dencies, were then constituted Roman provinces; and with this last scion of royalty terminated the dynasty of the Seleucida?, which had lasted 257 years. Occasionally the governors named by the senate were, how- over, allowed to retain the title of kings, as we shall see later. Cicero was named proconsul of the province of Cilicia b.c. 50, and set sail from Rome with 12,000 foot and 2600 horse ; and by prudence and good government he effected the reduction of Cappadocia to the authority of Artobazanes. Cicero’s administration was remarkable for the moderation and integrity he displayed; for, although u he drove out the thieves which infested mount Amanus,” we do not find any brilliant action recorded; and on his return he refused the triumph which the senate wished to decree him, saying he preferred to see differences set¬ tled and parties reconciled to each other.i * Coracesium was, according to Strabo, the first town of Cilicia Aspera; and the barren ridges of Mount Taurus, which come down to the shore, sufficiently indicate the beginning of that rugged coast. Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort identifies Coracesium with the town and promontory of Alaya, where he found the remains of a Cyclopean wall, a few broken columns (the remains of Christian churches), and other fragments of antiquity. Sir Francis Beaufort says, in allusion to this last stand made at Corace¬ sium by the pirates against the Romans, that certainly no place in the whole coast was so well calculated to arrest the march of a conqueror, or to bid defiance to a fleet, as this commanding and almost insulated rock. —W. F. A. f Appian (Mithridates, p. 394) also mentions Mallus, Adana, and Epiphanea, as cities which the pirates were made to colonise.—W. F. A. J The movements of Cicero in Cilicia require much careful study. The greater number of sites mentioned by the then proconsul are even now unknown. In his 20th Epistle (lib. v. ad Attic.) he describes himself as proceeding from Tarsus to that por¬ tion of Amanus which divides the waters between Cilicia and Syria. This would ap¬ parently coincide with the actual Gawur Tagh. This is further demonstrated by his occupying there a castle (wliich was formerly held by Alexander) near Issus, and MARC ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA AT TARSUS. 27 b.c. 41. We must not omit, in thus hastily recapitulating the prin¬ cipal events which took place in Cilicia, to notice the visit of Cleopatra to Tarsus, whither she went to meet Marc Anthony, and which meeting has been commemorated by the immortal bard of Avon. The Egyptian queen arrived and sailed up the Cydnus in a galley, the prow of which was inlaid with gold, the sails of purple silk, and the oars of silver, and the latter were made to beat time to the music of flutes and oboes. Under a canopy o± cloth-of-gold curiously embroidered, Cleopatra was seen reposing, dressed as Venus is generally represented, with beautiful little boys like cupids around her, who fanned her, while her maids habited as sea-nymphs were employed, some steering the rudder, some working the ship, at the same time that perfumes exhaled from the vessel, and wafted by the breezes diffused themselves along the shore. 4 ancy can alone portray to the imagination the glowing descriptions given of this pageant, which attracted such crowds of all classes that Anthony was left on his throne alone, “ Whistling to the air, which but for vacancy Had gone to gaze on Cleopatra too. And made a gap in nature.” Her entertainments, rendered particularly remarkable by an ingenious display of brilliant lights, so far exceeded any thing of the kind even in that luxurious age, that Anthony was astonished, and avowed himself outdone. He was subsequently induced by her artifices to make her a grant of the fine pasture-lands in Upper Cilicia, u the noble cedar-woods against the Persians. From thence the proconsul ascended into Amanus and devas¬ tated the country. In the 4th Epistle to Cato, book xv., he says, that having pacified Amanus, he simulated leaving the mountain, and removed the distance of a day’s march to a castle near Epiphanea. This would therefore appear to correspond to the castel¬ lated ruin which is seen about two miles south of the ruins of Epiphanea. Erana cor¬ responds to Baylan. The sites called Sepyra, Commorin, and Pomtino, all in Ama¬ nus, are unknown. The subjection of this portion of the Amanus having been effected by fh e destruction and burning of these strongholds, 'Cicero proceeded to Pindenissus, which he says was in Eleutherocilicum, and inhabited by the Eleutherocilicians, a people who were never subject to kings (15 ad Fam. Epis. iv. and v. ad Att. 20). Pindenissus has been identified by Mr. Barker with Sis; and as it is described as situated on so lofty and well-fortified a site, this is very probably a correct identification. Colonel Chesney and the annotator visited the ruins of two ancient castles north of Sis in the inte- lioi of the mountains, one of which was called Kara Sis, or the Black Sis, and the other Andal Kalah, and one of which probably represents the Flaviada placed in the Itinerary from Caesarea in Cappadocia to Anazarba, eighteen Roman miles north of the latter. This is an interesting and unexplored route, on which the sites of Prsetorium, Badinum, Laranda, and Cocuso remain to be discovered. The Flaviada of the Itinerary is called Flaviopolis by Ptolemy, Flavias by Hierocles and by Callistus, who says (lib. xiv. cap. xxxix. p. 529), rendered necessary by the weakness of the suc- onr °TT entS c lT d WhiCh We Sha11 866 particularly exemplified as we proceed in our modern history of these countries.—W. B. B. 1 Mr Winiam J . Hamilton was the first to bring to light in modern times the • '; °, the stronghold of the Isaurians ; and he has given a peculiarlyinterest- vok h!p n 331°-W F 6 r mg 1 ' UinS ^ hiS Researches in Asia Minor > p ontus, dx. 43 HERACLIUS—DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. compelled him to retreat with precipitation, and in a subsequent cam¬ paign (a.d. 543) repossessed himself of all the cities taken by the Per¬ sian king in Cilicia. He, at the same time, so strengthened the de¬ fences of the country, that no further inroads were made on that part of the kingdom for many years. After the death of Justinian (a.d. 590), and during the reigns of his successors Justin II., Tiberius II., and Maurice, the Persian wars continued without any decided advantage on either side, the Persians never having been able to retain any conquest beyond the Euphrates. But in the lifetime of the latter prince, Chosroes, the grandson of Nushirwan, on the revolt of his subjects and the deposition and death of his father Hormuz, fled to the Roman emperor for support. He was ultimately reinstated on the throne of his ancestors, after two bat¬ tles against the usurper had been fought, in which the Roman troops were the victors. Chosroes was grateful for this signal service; and until the death of Maurice peace between the two empires was faith¬ fully maintained. But the disorders introduced by the tyrant Phocas, who succeeded Maurice (a.d. G11-61G), afforded a pretext to Chosroes to invade Syria and Asia Minor. The pretence was to revenge the death of his friend and benefactor; and the first intelligence from the East which Heraclius, the successor of Phocas, received, was the taking of Antioch. In five years the armies of Chosroes had overrun all Asia Minor, Syria, Pales¬ tine, Egypt, and Lybia as far as Tripoli, and the Bosphorus; and a Persian camp maintained its position for some time in sight of Con¬ stantinople. The emperor Heraclius (a.d. G22), roused at length by such extraor¬ dinary successes, prepared to attack the Persians. He embarked his forces on board a fleet of transports, and landed near the Syrian gates (Markaz Kalahsi) in the Gulf of Alexandretta, within the confines of Cilicia. The natural fortifications of that country protected and con¬ cealed the camp of Heraclius, which was pitched near Issus, on the same ground where Alexander had defeated Darius. Cilicia w r as soon encom¬ passed by the Persian army, who were astonished to find the enemy had taken up a position in their rear. Their cavalry hesitated for some time to enter the defiles of Mount Taurus; but by superior manoeuver- ing, Heraclius drew them into general action on the plain; and having defeated and routed them, the emperor was enabled to cross the moun¬ tains, and winter his army in the province of Cappadocia on the banks of the river Halys. In the next year (a.d. 623) Heraclius sailed by the Black Sea to Tj'e- 44 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. bizond, passed tlie mountains of Armenia, and penetrated into Persia as far as Tabriz, which, with several other cities, he took and sacked, destroying all the temples and images, and retaliating on the Persians the horrors committed on the Christians at the destruction of Jerusalem nine years previously by Chosroes. Heraclius next penetrated into the heart of Persia (a.d. 624), and by a well-concerted succession of marches, retreats, and successful actions, drove the enemy from the field into the fortified cities of Media and Assyria. In the spring of the next year, after crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, he returned laden with spoils to the banks of the Sarus, in Cilicia, to maintain that important position. He found the banks of the river lined with barbarian archers; and after a bloody conflict, which continued till the evening, on the bridge of Adana, he dislodged and dis¬ persed the enemy, a Persian of gigantic size being slain and thrown into the river by the emperor himself. In his fourth campaign (a.d. 627-628)Heraclius marched into Persia, obtained a complete victory on the plains of Nineveh over Chosroes (who fell and was put to death by his son Siroes), recovered three hun¬ dred Roman standards, delivered numerous captive Christians, and re¬ turned to Constantinople in triumph, after concluding an advantageous peace with the Persians. But these signal successes were not attended with any lasting benefit to the empire, for a very few years afterwards the followers of Mohammed possessed themselves of the same provinces which Heraclius had recovered with so much labour and bloodshed from the Persians; and even the kingdom of Persia itself, in less than thirty years from this date, was brought under the yoke, civil and re¬ ligious, of the Arabian khalifs. CHAPTER IY. RISE OF THE SARACENS—CILICIA OVERRUN BY HARUN AL RASHID-AL MAMUN DIES IN CILICIA-EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS AT IL-LAMAS—SACK OF MOP- SUESTIA BY THE KHALIF MUTASSIM-MOPSUESTIA RETAKEN BY NICEPHORUS PHOCAS AND JOHN ZIMISCES-RISE OF THE TURKMANS-ALP ARSLAN AND ROMANUS DIOGENES-TURKMAN DYNASTY AT NKLEA—PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS-FIRST CRUSADE-TANCRED AND BALDWIN IN CILICIA- ALEXIUS ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE GREEK EMPIRE. The Saracens, who (a.d. 639) had just sprung up in a corner of Arabia, impelled by religious fanaticism, were carrying, under Khaled their chief, surnamed the Sword of God , all before them in Persia, Syria, and Palestine. Pursuing their progress to the north, they reduced Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus, to obedience. Passing on, they crossed Mount Taurus, and spread the flames of war as Air as the environs of Trebi- zond. These conquests were soon followed by the siege of Constan¬ tinople (a.d. 677), by Sufiyan, general of the khalif Muawiyah, when 30,000 Moslems perished, and the Arabs were obliged to retreat and conclude a peace of thirty years with the Emperor Constantine IY. They also agreed to pay a tribute of three thousand pieces of gold, fifty horses, and fifty slaves ; and the feeble hand of the declining em¬ pire was once more extended over unfortunate Cilicia. A second attempt was made by the Saracens (a.d. 717), when they, to the number of 120,000, marched again through the provinces of Asia Minor, under Muslimah. Crossing the Hellespont at Abydos, they laid siege to Constantinople on the European side; but after some months of fruitless warfare, their fleet was burnt by the renowned Greek fire, and they were glad to retreat through Asia Minor, dreadfully dispirited and diminished in numbers. Five galleys only of their fleet of 1800 ships returning to Alexandria. In the reign of Irene the Great (a.d. 781), Harun al Rashid invaded the Greek provinces at the head of 95,000 men, and the Christians sub¬ scribed to an ignominious treaty and an annual tribute of 70,000 dinars of gold, which bought the khalif’s clemency. The payment of this tribute was delayed after he returned; but at eight different times the 46 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Greeks were taught to feel that a month of devastation was more costly than a year of submission. On the accession of Nicephorus (a.d. 800), open war was declared, and Harun al Rashid crossed the Amanus and Taurus in the depth of winter, ravaged Cilicia and Asia Minor, and sacked Heraclea, on the Black Sea. The famous statue of Hercules, with the attributes of the club, the bow, and the quiver, and the'lion’s hide of massive gold, was demolished by him. Nicephorus was compelled to recognise the right of lordship which Harun assumed; and the coin of the tribute, in servile obedience to the conqueror, was stamped with the image and super¬ scription of the khalif and his three sons. Al Mamun, the son of Harun al Rashid, undertook (a.d. 829) an ex¬ pedition into Asia Minor, when he advanced as far as Tarsus, and took fifteen towns of Cilicia. On his way back he encamped on the banks of a little stream in Cilicia, which the Arabs call Bazizun, not far from Tarsus. Here he stayed to enjoy the shade of the trees and coolness of the stream, and expressed a wish to have some dates from Azad , which he said were alone wanting to make his felicity perfect. By an extra¬ ordinary coincidence, a caravan of mules happened to be just passing, and two baskets of dates, fresh from Bagdad, were set before him. Of these lie eat so heartily, drinking at the same time so copiously of the cold waters in the adjacent rivulet, that he was seized with fever, of which he died. His body was transported to Tarsus, and there interred, but no trace now exists of his tomb. Al Mamun* was a great encourager of science and literature. During his reign mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry were intro¬ duced among the Arabs; and the first library was established at Bagdad, to which all nations and sects were invited to contribute copies of their works. The Emperor Theophilus, the son of Michael the Stammerer, marched in person (a.d. 838) five times through Asia Minor in his wars with the * An extraordinary tale is told by an Arabian writer of the birth of Al Mamun. His father, Harun al Rashid, having won at chess from the celebrated and admired Sit Zibaidah (Zobaide of the Arabian Nights), his wife and cousin, the privilege of dic¬ tating to her any caprice which struck his fancy, compelled her to walk barefoot across the centre of the bath, over the hot stones, measiu’ing the whole distance by putting one foot in succession before the other. This she was obliged to do; but she resolved to take signal vengeance for this unfeeling frolic on the first opportunity which pre¬ sented itself after her recovery. She challenged him to renew the game for the same stakes; and being this time the victor, she chose the ugliest female black slave in the harim, and obliged him to take her to wife. Al Mamun was the fruit of this union, born about the same time as Amin the son of Sit Zibaidah, and he grew up as clever as his brother was stupid. SIEGE OE AMORIUM. 47 Saracens; and in his last campaign he destroyed the small town of Zabatra in Syria, in spite of the solicitations and remonstrances of the Khalif Mutassim,* third son of Harunal Rashid, whose casual birthplace it happened to be. Mutassim levied a large army to resent the affront. The troops of Persia, Syria, and Egypt were collected together in the plains of Cilicia at Tarsus, and moved on over Mount Taurus to Amorium in Phrygia, the birthplace of the father of Theopliilus. The emperor hastened the defence of what appears to have been at that time a most flourishing city, but to no purpose ; for although 70,000 Moslems had perished in this war, Mutassim persisted in the siege, and totally ruined the town, slaughtering 30,000 Christians, and carrying off an equal number of captives to Tarsus, Syria, and Persia. These were treated with great cruelty; for although an exchange or ransom of prisoners was sometimes allowed^; in the national and religious conflicts of these two parties, quarter was seldom given in the field, and those who escaped the edge of the sword were condemned to hopeless servitude or the most cruel torture. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus relates with visible satis¬ faction the execution of the Saracens of Candia, who were flayed alive or plunged into caldrons of burning oil. Gibbon, in speaking of the taking of Amorium, makes the following observation: “ To a point of honour Mutassim had sacrificed a flourishing city, two hundred thousand lives, and the property of millions. The same khalif descended from his horse and dirtied his robe to relieve the distress of a decrepit old man, who with his laden ass had tumbled into a ditch. On w r hich of these two actions did he reflect with most pleasure when he w r as summoned by the angel of death?” * Mutassim was the first khalif, according to an Arabian writer (Ibn Shuhny or Shuh-na), who added the name of the Almighty to his own — a practice continued by his successors, as if maintaining their right by divine authority. Thus we have epithets of Billah, Biamr-illah, Lidin-allah; as we should say, By the grace of God, Ac. &c., Prophet of the Faith, &c. T There is reason to believe that Zabatra corresponds with the place now called Eum-Kalah, or “ Castle of the Romans,” on the Euphrates; but there is great difficulty in determining this point satisfactorily, as the site is only mentioned by the mediaeval writers.—W. F. A. X Abu-l-faraj relates one of these singular and characteristic exchanges as having taken place on the bridge of the Lamas (now Il-Lamas), in Cilicia, the boundary of the two empires, and one day’s journey westward of Tarsus, where, 4460 Moslems, 800 women and children, with 100 allies, were exchanged for an equal number of Greeks. They passed each other in the middle of the bridge ; and when they reached their respective friends, they shouted “Allah Akbar !” and “Kyrie Fleison!” hTo doubt many of these were prisoners of Amorium; but the most illustrious of them {the forty martyrs) had been the same year beheaded by order of the khalif. 48 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Arabian writers also mention a victory gained by Mutassim over tlie Greeks at Mopsuestia, called by them Mamuriyah, and state that 30,000 of the enemy were left on the field of battle. This engagement must have preceded the taking of Amorium, for from this date Cilicia came under the dominion of the khalifs; and Tarsus became a capital city of great importance, from its vicinity to the frontiers of the Muhammadan domi¬ nions. During the whole of the next century the khalifs of Bagdad, the suc¬ cessors of Mutassim, retained possession of Cilicia; and the hostilities car¬ ried on between this Arabian dynasty and the Greeks were confined to some trifling inroads by sea and land, the fruits of their close vicinity and inde¬ lible hatred. But towards the middle of the tenth century the intestine broils and revolutions which convulsed the throne of the Abbassides, and reduced the khalifs to the position of royal prisoners, encouraged the Greek emperors Nicephorus Pliocas and John Zimisces to make a last effort (a.d. 963 ) to obtain possession of the fine provinces which their prede¬ cessors had lost. The twelve years of their military command form the most splendid period of the Byzantine annals. An immense army laid siege to Adana (erroneously called Mopsuestia by Gibbon*), which double city, divided into two by the Sarus , was surrounded and taken by assault, and two hundred thousand Moslems were led to death and slavery.j* * See Colonel Leake’s learned work on the Ancient and Modern Geography of Asia Minor. 1824. It would appear, however, that Gibbon was in the right as far as regards the city in question being Mopsuestia. The mistake of saying that Mopsuestia was cut in two by the river Sarus originated with Zonaras and Cedrenus: it should be by the Pyramus. Adana does not appear to have been ever divided into two towns by the river Sarus, but Mopsuestia always was by the Pyramus ; hence Colonel Leake ap¬ pears to increase the confusion by changing the town to meet the error in the name of the river. Mopsuestia was also an important city in the middle ages; Adana did not rise into notice till after the time of the Khalifs: nor is it likely that two such excessive populations as those of Adana and Tarsus could have existed so close to one another. It may be remarked also, that Abu-l-fada describes this butchery of Moslems—so much exaggerated_as far as numbers are concerned—to have taken place at Mopsu¬ estia, not Adana. Sir Francis Beaufort, in his Karomania, remarks that Anna Comnena has made the same mistake, when she describes (Alexiad. lib. xii.) part of Tancred’s army as proceeding up the Sarus to invest Mopsuestia.—W. F. A. p “A surprising degree of population,” says Gibbon, “ which must at least include the inhabitants of the dependent districts.” And yet there is more probability of this number being less exaggerated than that ascribed to Seleucia, near Antioch, computed to have had upwards of 300,000 • as the environs of Adana ai’e very extensive and fer¬ tile, and well calculated to afford sustenance for an infinitely large number, whereas the position of Seleucia is circumscribed within very narrow limits by the sea on one side, and the rocky Mount Rhossus on the other, which could never have furnished sufficient food for such multitudes ; particularly in the vicinity of so vast a metropolis THE TURKMANS* 49 The city of Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine. The Saracens capitulated on honourable terms, and were dismissed with a safe- conduct to the confines of Syria. “ A part of the old Christians had quietly lived under their dominion, and the vacant habitations were re¬ plenished by a new colony; but the mosque was converted into a stable, the pulpit was delivered to the flames, and many rich crosses of gold and gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a grateful offering to the piety and avarice of the emperor; and the gates of Adana and Tarsus were transported to Constantinople, and fixed in the wall there, a lasting monument of victory.” Antioch was recovered, and subsequently all Syria (except Acre), and many cities on the other side of the Euphrates were overrun and despoiled. The Emperor Zimisces returned to Constan¬ tinople laden with Oriental spoils, and displayed in his triumph the silk, the aromatics of the East, and three hundred myriads of gold and silver. But this transient hurricane, the last efforts of a declining storm, blew over, and left few traces of its effects; for shortly afterwards, being unable to maintain their conquests, the Greeks evacuated the Asiatic towns, and the Saracens again purified their mosques, and overturned the idols of the saints and martyrs, the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians preferring their Saracen rulers to their heretical brethren. Antioch, with the cities of Cilicia and the island of Cyprus, were the only possessions re¬ tained by the Greek Emperor, and the sole advantages of this bloody struggle. o o The Turkmans, wandering hordes of Scythians who had come from the north and overrun all China and Central Asia, had been invited some years previously (a.d. 1000) by the khalifs into Persia, to prop up by their military energy a feeble and tottering power, opposed by re¬ bellious and refractory vassals. Converted to Muhammadanism by their new connexion with the Saracen Arabs, they seized upon the monarchy , but suffered the monarch to exist; they declared themselves the lieu¬ tenants of the Khalifs, and distributed their numerous clans over the whole of the countries between Bagdad and India, which they divided among themselves: hence the different dynasties of Sammanides, Gazna- iides, SuljuJdans , Karizmians , &c., and at length Ottomans or Osmanlis, which last became the most celebrated from the duration and extent of their power, and which they have had the good fortune to retain to the present day. The Turkmans of the court and city have been refined by the business and intercourse of social life, and softened by luxury and effeminacy; but the greater number of their brethren still as Antioch, which was said to contain 000,000 souls. Commerce alone might have been equal to the support of such numbers. E .50 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. continue to dwell in tlie tents of their ancestors, and lead the same wan¬ dering life which they led eight centuries ago. During the life of Tugrul Bay (a.d. 1050), one of the Suljukian family, many parties of Turkman horse invaded the provinces of the Greek Empire, and overran a frontier of 600 miles, shedding the blood of 130,000 Christians. But these incursions did not make a lasting impression on the Greek Empire, which still extended to Antioch and the boundaries of Armenia. The torrent rolled away in the open country, obscure hostilities were continued or suspended with various vicissitudes of good and bad fortune, and the bravery of the Mace¬ donian legions renewed the fame of the successors of Alexander. The Turkmans, however, had the advantages of a new and poor people over an ancient and corrupt government, and were besides continually re¬ cruited by fresh hordes of their companions, impelled by the thirst of rapine, and the necessity of forming new settlements. a.d. 1068. Tugrul Bay left to his nephew and successor, Alp Arslan (become, by the overthrow of the Gaznavide dynasty, the most powerful head of the numerous clans, and who had assumed the title of Suldan), the care of prosecuting the war against the Christians, and he invaded Asia Minor with a large army headed by his Amirs or generals. Laden with spoils, which they seized indiscriminately, and careless of discipline, these troops were, in the security of conquest, scattered in numerous detachments all over the provinces. The Greek emperor, Bomanus Diogenes, who had been invested by the Empress Eudocia with the purple for the purpose of defending the state against these barbarians, surprised and defeated them separately, and drove them beyond the Euphrates in three laborious campaigns. On the report of these losses, Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action (a.d. 1072) at the head of 40,000 horse, and overcame and captured Bomanus Diogenes. He accepted, however, a ransom of a million of gold pieces, and sent him back on promise of paying a tribute of 860,000 pieces. But in the treaty of peace it does not appear that he extorted any province or city from the captive emperor, and his revenge was satisfied with the trophies of his victories and the spoils of Anatolia, from Antioch to the Black Sea. Sulaiman, the son of Kutulmish, a relative of Arslan, and of the family of the Suljukians, invaded Asia Minor two years after (a.d. 1074), and declared himself in favour of Nicephorus Botoniates, in opposition to his rival Bryennius, and materially contributed to the success of the former, whom he settled on the throne of Constantinople. 2000 Turks were at this time transported into Europe, the first of that nation who TURKMAN DYNASTY AT NI CUE A. 51 crossed the Hellespont,—a fatal precedent, for the Turks took the op¬ portunity of fortifying themselves in the country ; and the elevation of a tyrant, who was soon deposed and put to death, was purchased by the sacrifice of many of the finest provinces of the empire; and from this date the Turks could no longer be expelled from Asia Minor, the whole of which they soon subdued, except Trebizond, which held out to the Greeks. Sulaiman following up his successes, completed (a.d. 1084) the con¬ quest of Anatolia, and established the new kingdom of the Suljukians of Roum. At Nicsea, the metropolis of Bithynia, 100 miles distant from Constantinople, “ on the very spot where the first general council or synod of the Christians was held, the divinity of Christ was denied and derided; and the Kuran was preached in the same temple which had witnessed the assemblage of the heads of the Christian Church, now converted into a mosque. The Cadis judged according to the laws of the Kuran, the Turkish manners and language prevailed over the cities, and Turkman camps were scattered over the plains and mountains of Asia Minor. On the hard conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek Christians were permitted to enjoy the exercise of their religion; but their holy churches were profaned, their priests and bishops insulted; they were compelled to suffer the triumphs of the Pagans and the apos- tacy of their brethren, and many thousand captives were devoted to the service or pleasures of their masters.” Here I pause to observe how well adapted to the present state of the country is this picture drawn by Gibbon, from contemporary winters, of the degraded state of the Chris¬ tians in those times, and which has continued to the present day with little or no alteration or diminution. In consequence of this tyranny, they have, in self-defence, been induced to resort to that cunning and deceit which are now their leading characteristics, and which alone are the features that distinguish them from their oppressors, for they have in every other respect adopted the manners and prejudices of the Mu¬ hammadans. None of their churches have been restored to them that %vere converted into mosques; but they are permitted, on payment of large sums, to build new churches, on heaps of ruins where it is im¬ possible to say what edifice had stood, whether theatre, bath, or Pagan temple. Under the late Sultan some of the restrictions on Christian worship have been diminished, and firmans are to be obtained with less difficulty and comparatively moderate fees; and this they owe to the progress of civilisation, consequent on the march of intellect which produced in Sultan Mahmud an enlightened monarch and a man of genius, 52 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. On the establishment of a Turkman dynasty at Nicaea (a.d. 1095), which lasted 220 years, the provinces of Asia Minor came under its subjection, and were the scene of slaughter and rapine; while the pil¬ grims from every part of Europe, who began to flock to Jerusalem, en¬ countered innumerable perils ere they were permitted to salute the Holy Sepulchre. A spirit of zeal, engendered by the exclusiveness of Muham ¬ madanism, prompted these hordes to insult the clergy of every other sect. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, we are informed, was dragged by the hair along the pavement and cast into a dungeon, to extort a ransom from his flock; and the divine worship in the Church of the Resurrection was often disturbed by the rudeness of its masters. Peter the Hermit roused the martial nations of Europe to avenge their wrongs ; and the Crusades were undertaken by our ancestors in a spirit of enthusiasm to peril their lives in the defence and rescue of their co-religionists—a feeling which seems to have been entirely extinguished in the hearts of their descendants. Kilitch Arslan, the son of Sulaiman, was king of Nicaea (a.d. 1097) when the army of the first Crusaders besieged that city on its way to the Holy Land, and took it after a siege of seven months. The Turk¬ man sultan, no way dismayed by the loss of his capital, retreated to Dorylseum in Phrygia, and assembling there all the forces he had in the province, resolutely attacked the Latins, and eventually engaged them in a pitched battle. But victory declared for the Crusaders ; and Kilitch Arslan was compelled to retreat, and implore the aid, by kindling the resentment, of his eastern brethren, which he did, laying waste the countries he traversed. The Crusaders proceeded to Koniyah, Arakli, and Marash, and thence over Mount Taurus to Kucusus, now Kursun, a town remarkable as having formerly been the place of exile of St. Chrysostom. Two of the chiefs, Tancred and Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, were here detached from the main army, with their respective squadrons of 500 and 700 knights. They qverran in rapid career the hills and sea-coast of Cilicia, from the mountainous country to the Syrian gates, and planted the Norman standard on the walls of Tarsus and Mahnistra (Mopsuestia). The former of these cities Baldwin, excited by jealousy and ambition, obliged Tancred to deliver into his hands ; and he had the barbarity to refuse admission to 300 of the soldiers of Tancred, who were consequently obliged to pass the night outside the walls, where they were cut to pieces by a strong party of Saracen Turks. But Tancred by his moderation had gained the affection of the soldiers, and Baldwin was soon obliged to return to the camp, to endure the reproaches of the Latin chiefs. Tancred for- CILICIA ANNEXED TO THE GREEK EMPIRE. 53 tified and garrisoned the towns he had taken, and these were the most lasting possessions of all that the Crusades acquired. a.d. 1118. While the brave Tancred and his warlike associates were winning laurels before the walls of Jerusalem and Antioch, the wily Alexius, Emperor of Constantinople, improved the opportunity afforded by the victories of the Crusaders, and recovered the provinces previously taken from the Greeks by the Suljukian Turkmans, by following in their steps, and taking possession of and fortifying all the towns on the coast, including the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes. The seat of power of the Turkmans was thus confined to the districts of Koniyah, where the dynasty of Alp Arslan fixed their debilitated throne. Their power eventually became nominal; for in spite of the high titles they assumed, the last of their race were happy to be considered as generals of the Great Mogul, and owe their sway to his bounty, until they were finally destroyed by Gazan in 1298, the year 706 of the Hegira. In the mean¬ while the ambitious but prudent Alexius had resolved to annex Cilicia to his empire, and that the Syrian gates should be the boundary of his possessions: for this purpose he made war on Tancred and Boliemond, now tranquil masters of their conquests. Bohemond, unable to cope with this new enemy, left Tancred to govern at Antioch, and returning to Europe, levied an army of 5000 horse and 40,000 foot, with which he returned to punish the faithless Greek. But the sudden death of Bohe¬ mond happened about this time ; added to which, the venal arts of Alexius, by which he won over his confederates, compelled Tancred to sign a treaty of peace, whereby all Cilicia was restored to the Byzantine empire. Thus the towns of Tarsus and Malmistra (or Mopsuestia),'so bravely won by Tancred, fell under the government of the Greeks. CHAPTEE Y. THE EMPEROR JOHN COMNENUS KILLED IN A WILD - BOAR HUNT IN CILICIA_ DESCRIPTION OF ANAZARBA-THE SECOND CRUSADE—THIRD CRUSADE_ DEATH OF FREDERICK I. (bARBAROSSA) IN CILICIA-FOURTH CRUSADE_ CILICIA UNDER JOHN DUCAS VATACES-DEVASTATIONS OF YANGIIIZ OR GENGHIZ KHAN. The crafty Alexius was succeeded (a.d. 1143) in the throne of Con- stantinople by his son John Comnenus, surnamed Ivalo Joannes or John the Handsome, a prince whose reign of twenty-five years was marked by virtues rarely met with in such degenerate and guilty times. He intro¬ duced a gradual reformation in the manners of his capital, without as¬ suming the tyrannic office of a censor. The only check on the public felicity was love of military glory,—the ruling passion of the emperor. But the frequent expeditions he undertook may be justified in some mea.sui e by the necessity of repelling the Turks and repressing their in¬ roads. The Sultan of Karamania was confined to his capital, the barba¬ rians were driven to their mountains, and the maritime provinces of Asia en j°yed a tranquillity which was highly appreciated. John Comnenus repeatedly marched at the head of his victorious armies fiom Constantinople to Antioch and Aleppo; the whole coast of Anatolia to the north aod south was subjected to his power, and in the sieges and battles of the Holy War his Latin allies were astonished at the superior spiiit and prowess of a Greek. But while the Greek king began to in¬ dulge the hope of restoring the ancient limits of the empire, the decrees of Providence were about to frustrate his plans; and the thread of his life and of the public happiness was broken by an unfortunate and rather singular accident. While hunting a wild boar in Cilicia, near the town of Anazarba, he had fixed his javelin in the body of the furious animal, and m the struggle to recover himself a poisoned arrow dropped from his quiver, and a slight wound in his hand produced mortification and proved fatal to him.* , a ( j lclG ffipendait des rois Seleucides; mais Tigranes roi d’Arme'nie ayant de- rone ce prince, la Cilicie, du moins la partie qu’on appellait Campestris, obeit au roi c Armeme jusqu’a l’an 688 de Rome, dans laquelle Tigranes fut yaincu par Pomp^e. Cette partie resta soumise aux Romains. Jules-Cesar confirma le titre de Metropole h a ville de Tarsus. L’Empereur Auguste lui confdra de nouvelles graces, et elle jouit SECOND CRUSADE. The second Crusade, under Conrad III. Emperor of Germany and Louis VII. (a.d. 1147), experienced the same disasters that befel the first expedition. Misled by the guides in the pay ot the perfidious Greek Emperor Manuel, who succeeded Kalo Joannes, and who was secietly leagued with the Saracens, the unfortunate Conrad and Louis were be¬ trayed; and unable to penetrate farther than the Taurus and the confines du titre et des preeminences de metropole jusqu’au cinquieme siecle de J£sus-Ghrist. Les viRes d’Anazarba d’Eges (Ayash) et Malius (Kara Tash),. et autres, lui etaient soumises. La vble d’Anazarba, decor^e du titre de C^saree, etait illustre; elle £piou\ a les plus grands malheurs; elle fut renversee par un tremblement de terre, et 1 Em- pereur Nerva la fit bientot retablir. Cette ville resta dans un etat fleunssant pendant plusieurs siecles; un autre tremblement de terre la ruina sous le regne de Justin ou Justinian. Elle se releva encore du milieu de ses ruines par la munificence des princes, et Vavantage de la situation et la fertility de son territoire furent cause qu’ebe fut bientot r^tablie. Anazarba ricbe, peuplee, et dans une position avantageuse, par une rival it,£ alors commun entre les grandes vibes d’une meme province, ambitionna le title de metropole, et elle le prit suivant Vaillant sous le regne d’Elagabule; mais elle 1 avait obtenu auparavant: sur un medaille frappee en l’honneur de Caracalla 1 an baz 2o2 de 1 ere de la vibe, 966 de Rome, 214 de Jesus-Christ, quatrieme du regne de ce prince, elle prend le titre de mhtpoiioa E£22, metropole, qu’ebe conserva sous les empereurs suivant • mais ce titre dtait simplement honorifique, sans donner aucune jurisdiction dans la province; il donnoit la preseance apres Tarsus, dans les assemblies g^ndrales Parebs honneurs furent accordds aux vbles de Nicee en Bythinie, de Lao die 6 e en Sj-iie, et de Sidon en Phenicie. La vble d’Anazarba ne se contenta pas du titre de metropole; elle y ajouta 1 epi- tbete d 'illustre, enaoeoymhtpoiioaeoc, qu’ebe fit graver sur plusieurs de ses monnaies. Elle conservait encore ce titre sous le regne de Diocletian. On fit dans les Actes de& Martyrs publics par Don Ruinart, que Taraque, Andronique, et Probus furent mis a mort pour la religion Chiritienne l’an 304 de Jesus-Christ b> ’Ava£a P /% rr, evhoty TroXei, & Anazarba illustre Metropole.—Dissertation sur VEre d’Anazarba par l’Able Belley, in the Memoires de V Academic, vol. 50, p. 350. Vide Journal, Jan. 18, 1848. Tarsus under the reign of L.Verus had inscribed on its medals n M K, which has puzzled antiquaries; the Abbe says it means tt P ot^ ^rponoXe^ K iTukIm. Anazarba had the same engraved on its medals, out of opposition. Under the reign of Arcadius, Cilicia was divided into first and second pi ovmces, of which Tarsus and Anazarba became the chief metropolitan towns. Anazarba, under the Emperor Commodus, obtained the privilege of being avrovo^o,, by which it had the right of choosing its own magistrates, and of being governed by its own laws.—W. B. B. , Anazarba, which appears to have been erroneously called Am-zarbeh,- the name being merely corrupted by the natives to Anawarzah,—figured for a short period as one of the most flourishing cities of Cbicia. Ptolemy cabs it C^sarea ad A nazarbum ; Phnv Anazarbeni qui nunc Caesarea ; Hierocles cabs it Metropolis; and it is enume- rated* among the Christian episcopacies in the Ecclesiastical Notices of the Low Empwe. It was the country of Dioscorides, who is called by Suidas the physician of Anazarba, and of Oppian, the poet of the Cynegeticus. Carolus Stephanus in his historical dic¬ tionary, says that this writer of elegant verses died of plague at his birthplace, which he calls Zerbus. This splendid town was destroyed by a fearful earthquake m the reio-n of Justinian. This is narrated by Procopius and by Cedrenus. ^Little was known of the actual condition of this place tbl it was visited by a party from the Euphrates expedition. The walls stib remain, but in a_ruinous condition. 00 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. / of Cilicia, they were obliged to embark with a few retainers only in Greek vessels for the coast of Syria, the one from the Hellespont, and the other from Satalia. The greatest part of their miserable and mis¬ guided followers, to the number of several thousands, were abandoned to their fate and exposed to the cruelty of the Saracens at the foot of the Pamphylian hills, and in the forests of Mount Taurus. Andronicus, grandson of Alexius and cousin of Manuel, was twice sent duiing the lifetime of this emperor to govern the important pro¬ vince ot Cilicia. His romantic adventures and hair-breadth escapes would fill a volume; I can but refer to the most striking passages in his life. In his first campaign he pressed the siege of Mopsuestia, which had been seized by the Armenians. By day his boldness was ecjual to his success; but the nights were devoted to the song and dance, and a band of Greek comedians formed the choicest of his retinue. One evening he was surprised by a sally of the vigilant foe; biiu while his troops fled in disorder, his invincible lance transpierced the thickest ranks of the Armenians. In his second command of the Cilician frontier, some years afterwards, the Armenians again exercised his courage and exposed his negligence, while he wasted his time at Antioch in balls and tournaments. Among three princesses whom he seduced was the Queen of Jerusalem, whose shame was more public and scandalous than that of either of her predecessors. He remained twelve years in prison, took the Cross as a Crusader, wandered as an outlaw to Bagdad and leisia, settled among the Turks in Asia Minor, became a lobbei of Clnistians and the terror of the kingdom of Trebizond, usurped the throne of Constantinople, and after a bloody reign of three years was put to death in a cruel and ignominious manner by the enraged populace. The thiid Ciusade, under the conduct of Frederic I. Emperor of Geimany, surnamed Barbarossa (a.d. 1183), did not eventually meet with much more success than the last. After passing the Hellespont, his army was harassed by innumerable hordes of Turkmans during twenty days that he was traversing the dense forests of Bithynia; but he overcame all obstacles to his progress, and attacked and stormed the capital of the Turk¬ mans, and compelled the Sultan of Koniyah to sue for peace. But the veteian warrior reaped no harvest from his exertions; he was not fated Tew public buildings exist, however, within the walls, beyond an extensive castle of various ages, built upon the top of a rocky hill, and many of the rooms of which are in perfect keeping,-but these appear to belong to the Muhammadan era. A great num¬ ber of beautifully sculptured and highly ornamented tombs and sarcophagi still attest however, to the opulence and civilisation of this former metropolis of Cilicia. Nor must we omit to mention the ruins of an aqueduct, which brought water direct from the mountains, a distance of many miles.—W. F. A. DEATH OP FREDERIC I.—JOHN DTJCAS VATACES. 57 to tread the soil of the Holy Land, nor to terminate the triumphs which he had begun. He was drowned while crossing a river in Cilicia, which had been swollen by the tropical rains ,—the Cydnus according to some writers, and who have taken this occasion to draw a comparison between him and Alexander, to whom this river had nearly proved fatal above a thousand years previously. But I am unwilling to give credit to this story, as it seems unaccountable that a general at the head of his army should be lost in fording a river which is nowhere more than six feet deep; and I think it more probable that he was attacked by the malignant fever of the country. However this may be, his troops were decimated by sick¬ ness and famine, and his son, who had contrived to reach the Holy Land with a few remaining followers, expired at the siege of Acre. These losses led succeeding Crusaders, grown wiser by the fate of their prede¬ cessors, to abandon the overland route, and Cilicia was no longer trampled under foot by the zealous but little disciplined hosts. The fourth Crusade, undertaken by the Venetians and French (a.d. 1204), was diverted from the coast of Syria, to which it was origi¬ nally directed, by the enticing shores of the Bosphorus ; where, on pre¬ tence of revenging the death of Alexius, who with his father Isaac had been murdered by Murzufli, the Latins made themselves masters of Constantinople, sacked and burnt the best part of the capital, and elected Baldwin Count of Flanders Emperor of the East. The successors of this monarch maintained themselves in the capital during a period of fifty- seven years. But Theodore Lascaris, the son-in-law and relation of Alexius, having fled, he set up the standard of the Greeks at Nicsea, and with the alliance of the Turkish sultan he saved a remnant of the falling empire. During a reign of eighteen years, this emperor extended, by his military talents, the small principality of Nicoxi to the magnitude of a kingdom, in which Cilicia was included. Theodore Lascaris was succeeded at his death (a.d. 1222) by John Ducas Vataces, his son-in-law, who fixed the throne on a more solid basis, and in a long reign of thirty-three years displayed both the virtues of peace and the energy of war. In the long administration of this prince, the provinces of Asia Minor, and among them Cilicia, en¬ joyed the blessings of a good government. The lands were sown with corn or planted with olives and vines ; the pastures were filled with cattle and horses ; the education of youth and the revival of learning were also serious objects of his care, and both by his precepts and practice, simplicity of manners and domestic industry were encouraged. It was somewhere about this period that the Venetians and Genoese founded commercial emporia on the coasts of Asia Minor, in Cilicia, 58 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. and in Syria, somewhat after the principle adopted by the early Hel¬ lenic colonists, fortifying themselves in their positions by adequate defences, and often by castles to command the passes of the interior, or to keep the surrounding populations in awe. Few records of the era of the foundation of these emporia exist, and equally few are to be met which record their history, their prosperity, or their adverses, and their final extinction. Upon this subject the able historian Sismundi says, “ The chronicles of the maritime cities of Italy throw very little light upon the colonies which their citizens founded in the towns of the East, or even at Constantinople. These colonies governed themselves, they named their own authorities, and did not receive them from the metropolis; and whatever their popu¬ lation or their wealth, they could not be considered as belonging to the state. Hence it is that the national historians have attached but little importance to the debates of a number of Venetian and Pisan individuals at the other extremity of Europe, although the results brought about by them still astonish us in the present day ; while, on the other hand, the continual wars of the Pisans and the Genoese, which appear to us in the light of freaks of pirates, captivated their whole attention.” There are, however, a few fragments referring to these conquests which it may be interesting to record here. The earliest fleet of the Venetian republic that accompanied the first Crusade, a.d. 1099, was composed of 200 ships, and commanded by the son of the new doge, Vital Michieli. They fought off Rhodes a bloody battle against the fleet of the republic of Pisa, each forgetting that they "Were Christians and crusaders. The Venetian fleet took Smyrna at a later period, and assisted the land troops of the crusaders in taking Jaffa.* The Genoese republic sent, in August 1100, twenty-eight galleys and six larger vessels into the East. The historian Caffaro was of the expedition. Another fleet was despatched about this time by the republic of Pisa under the Archbishop Daimbert, who became afterwards Patriarch of Jerusalem. The combined fleets passed the winter at Lattakiya ; and when the death of Godfroy de Bouillon had endangered his new king¬ dom, they kept the maritime provinces, including Cilicia, in subjection to the Latins. I he troops of the two republics undertook the siege of Cassarea, a.d. 1101. Caput Malio, the Genoese consul, was the first to climb the ramparts, on simple maritime scaling-ladders, and the town was taken from the Musulmans and consigned to pillage. One-fifteenth of the booty was given to the sailors that remained on board the fleet. * Anclrea Danduli Chron. 1. ix. c. 10, p. 256. VENETIANS, GENOESE, AND PISANS. 59 Constantinople was retaken bj the Greeks under Stratigopulas from the Venetians, a.d. 1261 ; and Michael Paleologus, whose troops had been assisted by the Genoese, granted privileges to the latter which he had promised them beforehand, but established them at Galata, out of the city. The Venetians and Pisans formed each a separate quarter, and the three were governed by a separate magistrate, which their re¬ spective towns sent to them; and here were formed three small republics, which maintained their liberty and independence, in a city the emperor of which was still at war with the Latins. The latter ceded the island of Scio to the Genoese, which was the largest held by them (till 1556), the jealousy of the Greeks having induced them to look with favour upon the occupation of the island by the Musulmans. The final conquest, by Melek Seraf, of St. Jean d 1 Acre, when 30,000 Christians were massacred, occurred a.d. 1291; and the taking of Tripoli of Barbary by the Genoese admiral Philip Doria, in a.d. 1355. The Genoese of Pera attempted in the year 1376 to take the island of Tenedos, ceded to them by Andronicus, who had been half blinded by his father, John Paleologos. They were prevented by the governor of the island, who remained faithful to the deposed emperor, and called the Venetians to his assistance, thus defeating the objects of the Genoese. Nicotia was taken June 16th, 1373, by Catani (Genoese admiral of some galleys sent by the Genoese to revenge the massacre), and seventy captive virgins dedicated to Venus were restored to their parents. Famagosta was taken October 3d by Petre di Campo Fregoso, brother of the Doge of Genoa, at the head of thirty-six galleys and 14,000 men. Petro Lusignan, the young king, and son of the deceased king of the same name, was taken prisoner on that occasion, and the island subjugated to the Genoese. The young king, however, attacked the Genoese in Famagosta in 1378, assisted by the Venetian galleys ; but he was repulsed, and forced to quit not only the island, but the seas of Cyprus. Sinope (Samsun), Trebizonde, and Cerasus were taken by Moham¬ med II. a.d. 1462. Pope Pius II. died in 1464, and thus the hopes of assistance enter¬ tained by the Christians of the Levant were destroyed. Pope Paul II. endeavoured in vain to revive an interest in the Christians of the Levant, and the fleet that had assembled at Ancona (a.d. 1465) to proceed to the assistance of the Christians, was sent by the Venetian senate to attack and plunder the island of Rhodes, under the Great Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem. 0 Petro Mocenigo, after ravaging, with eighty-eight galleys, the north 60 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. of Asia Minor, attacked, a.d. 1472, Attalia, or Satali, a rich town of Pamphilia, which furnished Egypt and Syria with provisions, devastated the environs, and then returned to Rhodes. He also ravaged Ionia, opposite Scio, and Smyrna, without making any distinction between the Christian churches and the Muhammadan mosques. Mocenigo received from Yenice, a.d. 1473, the order to put him¬ self in communication with Ozun Hassan, to whom the republic sent Josaphat Barbaro (a person advanced in age, speaking the Persian fluently, and of great talent and perspicuity), three galleys laden with presents and a great quantity of artillery, together with 100 artizans whom the republic offered to the service of the sovereign of Persia. It was through Cilicia that they had decided on passing into Persia to accom¬ pany the Persian ambassador. The latter was on his return to his master after having been received at Yenice, to negotiate that mutual assistance should be given by the Latins and Persians against their common enemy Mohammed II. The princes of Karamania, two brothers, who had been despoiled by the Muhammadans of great part of their possessions, but who still defended themselves bravely in the remainder,* were awaiting them. One of these was besieging Seleucici (Sulufsky), which it seems was a place still of some importance even at so late a period. Mocenigo, with forty-five galleys, two from the Knights of Rhodes and four from the king of Cyprus, proceeded to their assistance. Land¬ ing first at Cyprus, he had a meeting with Hassan Bay, the younger brother (the eldest, Pyramet,j" being in the Persian camp), near Suluf¬ sky, where his envoy, Yictor Seranzo, was informed by the young bay that the Muhammadans kept the people of Karamania, who were devoted to the Christian prince, under subjection by means of three fortresses, Sicliesii, Seleucia, and Coryco (Sikin, Sulufsky, and Kurkus), which they could not take for want of artillery. Mocenigo forced the Muhammadan troops occupying these three places to capitulate, and made them over to Hassan Bay4 These were the first attempts made to open a communication with the Persians; and they are of an interesting character, not only as re¬ garding the country we are now engaged upon, but also as pointing out * M, Antonio Sabellico, deca. iii. 1. ix. f. 215 verso. Coriol. Cepio, 1. ii. p. 361. 4 Many of the names used by Mr. Barker in this portion of his narrative are de¬ rived, as will be seen from the foot-notes, from Italian writers of the middle ages, and they are exceedingly corrupted. Pvramet, for example, could not be a Turkish name. —W. F. A. It is a corruption of Pyr and Ahmed, which conjointly mean old Ahmed } or the chief Ahmed.—W. B. B. + M. Ant. Sabellico, deca. iii. 1. ix. f. 216 vo. Callimachus Experiens de Venetis contra Turcos, f. 409. Coriolan Cepio, 1. ii. p. 352. ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. 61 the progress of the human mind. They opened unknown regions to the observations of western nations ; they brought together people that had been long separated; they threw the first dawn of light on geo¬ graphy, till then so confused ; and they inaugurated the period in which we are now living, a period the most remarkable character of which consists in the communication established between all the nations of the globe. After the taking of Sulufsky by Mocenigo, finding it impossible to penetrate into Persia with his suite, Josaphat Barbaro left in Crete the presents with which he was charged, and proceeded with the Persian ambassador to cross these barbarous lands, accompanied only by a few servants. He started from Tarsus through “ Little Armenia,” no doubt following the usual route that leads by Anazarba and Sis through a passage made in the mountains by the river Pyramus ; thence he crossed Kurdistan, a country that has remained to this day as wild as its inhabitants are intractable. Here he was attacked by robbers ; his companion, the Persian ambassador, was killed, as were also his secretary and two of their followers. Barbaro himself was severely wounded and despoiled of every thing; he did not, however, lose courage, but proceeded to join Ozun Plassan at Tabriz, with whom he remained five years, and received from that sovereign great marks of kindness and favour. In 1488 he returned to Venice by way of Aleppo. Mocenigo in the mean time proceeded to attack different places on the coast of Asia Minor. Pie took Myra, having defeated and killed Arasa Bay, the governor of the province, who had come to the rescue. He then disembarked near Phygas in Caria, where he received a mes¬ sage from Catlierino Zeno, who was accredited by the republic of Venice at the Persian camp, to come to Cilicia, in order to be able to afford any assistance in his power to the Persians, who were then advancing west¬ ward. On his arrival at Ivurkus he received another messenger from Zeno announcing the defeat of the Persians, after their partial success, and their retreat into Armenia. About this time we find that the Genoese still possessed some strong places in Cyprus ;—among others, Famagosta. It would be beyond our limits to enter into the details of the wars between Charlotte, daughter of Janus III., the fourteenth king of Cyprus, and her natural brother Jacques, the Venetians siding with Janus, and the Genoese with the legitimate princess ; suffice it to say, that in 1444 Famagosta opened its gates to Jacques de Lusignan, after three years’ siege. Mocenigo continued up to the year 1473 to make descents on the coast of Lycia, Caria, and Cilicia ; but his attention seems to 62 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. have been principally taken np with subduing the island of Cyprus to the adopted daughter of St. Mark, the niece of Marc Cornaro, a Venetian gentleman established in Cyprus, and who had been an exile from his country. This is the lady whom Jacques de Lusignan married, in order to contract an alliance which should qualify him as u son-in-law of the republic.”* * * § The Genoese, up to the year 1475, possessed a colony in Caffa in the Crimea, anciently called Theodosia ; it had been more than two cen¬ turies in the hands of these people, and had acquired riches and a population almost equal to its mother city. It was the centre of com¬ munication between Europe and the East, by means of the Genoese, who received the spices of India, and the stuffs of silk and cotton manu¬ factured in Persia, by way of Astrakan.j' Caffa was taken by Hamid, a commander of Mohammed II. (a.d. 1475). He conducted the Frank inhabitants to Pera, selecting there¬ from 1500 youths to be brought up among the Janissaries at Constan¬ tinople; and thus was destroyed the dominion of the Genoese in the Black Sea. An army of 80,000 men was sent by Bayazid II. (a.d. 1488) to attack Kayit Bay, the sovereign of Egypt, in whose hands, at this time, was Syria and Cilicia. This army, after having taken Adana and Tarsus, was defeated by the Mamluks at Issus, at the foot of Mount Amanus. The Ottoman fleet was dispersed and partly destroyed by a tempest, and the Turks renounced the invasion of Egypt. 1 Jam or Zezim, son of Mohammed II., and brother of Bayazid II., aspired (a.d. 1489) to the throne of his father, under the plea that he was “ Porphyrogenetus,” that is, born when Mohammed II. had become sultan, whereas his elder brother was born during the earlier period of their father’s life, before he had reached to the height of empire. He was vanquished, however, in his endeavours to bring about a revo¬ lution in his favour in Asia Minor, and he took refuge in Cilicia, which which was then under the dominion (as we have just seen) of the Sultan of Egypt. From this he embarked for Ehodes, to solicit the assistance of the Knights of St. John.§ It would seem that the latter did not dare to keep him on the * Marin Sanuto Vite du Duchi, f. 1185, vol. x. p. 339. Andrea Navaziero Stor. Veneziana, f. 1127-1131. Annal. Ecclesiast. 147, § 47, f. 229. 4 Ubertus follata Genuens Hist. 1. xi. p. 626. J And. Navaziero Stor. Venez. p. 1197, and Raynaldi An. Ecc. 1488, § 9, p. 389. Sismondi, vol. ii. p. 321. § Raynaldi Annal. Eccles. 1482, § 35, f. 312. Turco Grsecia Hist. Politica, 1. i. p. 30. Demetrius Centimir, 1. iii. chap. ii. § 7 and 8, p. 128. MOGULS AND TARTARS UNDER GENGHIZ KHAN. 63 frontiers of a state that had become so powerful; they therefore sent, him to France, from whence he passed into the hands of Pope Inno¬ cent VIII. (a.d. 1489), who detained him in honourable confinement by the bribery of Bayazid, who paid the pope 40,000 ducats yearly for the u pension” of his brother! In the year 15GG the Genoese lost the island of Scio, which was taken from the family of the Giustinianis by Sultan Sulaiman. They were on the point also of losing Corsica, which had been invaded by the French in 1553, had revolted in 1564, and continued to repel the op¬ pressive yoke of this republic until 1568, when it was again brought into subjection. The Venetians signed a treaty (20th October, 1540) by which they ceded to Sulaiman all the islands of the Archipelago already conquered by the Turks. In 1570 the Turks attacked Cyprus, which was defended until 1573 by an immense sacrifice of men and money, till the inhabitants ■were forced to sign a treaty of peace, and abandon the island to its new masters. To resume, however, the thread of our history, in and about a.d. 1255. The three years of the reign of Theodore, son of John Ducas, w T ere marked by cruelty and evil passions ; and although he thrice led an army against the Bulgarians in Europe, he obtained no signal advan¬ tage. He left at his death the crown to his son John Lascaris, a boy eight years of age, who was soon set aside and blinded by Michael Palasologus (a.d. 1259), one of his relations, who seated himself firmly on the throne of Constantinople two years afterwards, by which event the Latin dynasty was superseded, and the Greek emperors triumphantly entered the metropolis, after a banishment of fifty-seven years (a.d. 1261). But the removal of the seat of empire from Nicsea to Constantinople W as fatal to the Greeks, as the countries on the Asiatic side of the Helles¬ pont were left exposed to the Turkish invaders, and the barrier which had been effectual for so many years against their inroads was removed farther- north. The attention of Michael Palseologus was also almost totally absorbed in propitiating the Roman pontiff, in order, by artful and hypo¬ critical means, to avert the western storm which was hanging over his head, so that the eastern part of the empire was neglected and left to its fate. While the Greeks and Latins were engaged in disputes on trifling points of religion, a colossal and irresistible power had over¬ turned all the Asiatic kingdoms; and even_those of Europe were shaken to their foundation. The whole of Central Asia, China, Persia, part 64 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. of India and Russia, were overrun by the Moguls and Tartars, wlio about the year a.d. 1206, under Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan and his followers, rendered themselves masters, during sixty-eight years of unparalleled success, of the greater part of Asia. The sultans of the Suljukian dynasty at Koniyah in vain attempted to stop the torrent in its course ; they were swept away by the victorious arms of the Moguls, and Azzaddin fled to Europe, taking refuge in Thrace. The whole of Asia Minor felt the iron sway of the conquerors ; and Hulagu Khan, grandson of Tanghiz Khan, laid the whole country waste with fire and sword. But as these shepherd-kings soon returned to their own country with their spoils and captives, the destructive inundation ceased to flow after a while, and Cilicia once more formed a part of the Greek empire. Michael Palasologus was succeeded by his son Andronicus, (a.d. 1282,) whose long reign of nearly fifty years w T as disgraced by super¬ stition and weakened by the disputes of the Greek Church, and this at the very time that a new power, destined to subvert his own, was rising- on the ruins of the Suljukian dynasty. EUIN at anxzarba.— (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTER VI. PJSE OF THE OSMANLIS OR USMANLIS—VICTORIES OF BAYAZID—INVASIONS OF THE MOGULS-CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY MUHAMMAD II._BAYAZID II. ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE—CAMPAIGNS OF SULAIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AMURAD IV. INVADES CILICIA-HIS HOUSE AT ADANA_ REFORMS OF MAHMUD II.-ABD’UL MASJID. Othman, son of Orthogrul,* a Turkman chief of a tribe of four hundred families who had settled in Lesser Armenia on the banks of the Eu¬ phrates, after his father’s death enlisted in the service of Ala-addin, one of the last sultans of Ivaramania. Becoming emir or lieutenant of the feeble monarch, he founded a kingdom, the seat of which was first established at Brusa, then at Adrianople, and lastly at Constantinople. The founder of the Osmanli dynasty first invaded the territory of Nicomedia, a.d. 1299, and during twenty-seven years he made repeated incursions on the Greek empire. At last, when oppressed by age and infirmities, he received the news in his camp of the taking of Brusa by his son Orchan, which then became the capital of the new dynasty. Orchan afterwards subjected all the countries of Asia Minor, almost without resistance ; but it appears that he allowed his brother-generals to divide the spoil, for we see that the emirs of Gharmain and Ivaramania (in the latter of which Cilicia was included) are said to have been in a condition to bring each an army of 40,000 men into the field. From these proceeded the vast tribes of Turkmans established all over Cilicia and Karamania, who maintain their original way of living to this day, and who are a separate race from the wandering tribes to the north,—of those, for example, in the districts of Kaisariyah. The latter are mostly of Kurd origin, and speak a perfectly different language. Orchan, piofiting by the civil wars ot the elder Andronicus and his grandson, caused his emirs to build a fleet and pillage the adjacent islands, and even the sea-coasts of Europe. * It is proper in names so long accepted as Osman or Othman, Orthqgrul, and Osmanlis or Ottomans, to retain the accepted orthographies ; otherwise, as there is no o in the original, a more correct orthography would be ’Usman, ’Usmanli, ’Urthu- grul, &c. F 66 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. John Cantacuzene, who, in conjunction with John Palasologus, son of the younger Andronicus, had become emperor, basely invited to his aid (a.d. 1346) the public enemies of his religion and country; and Orchan was induced to come to his assistance by the stipulated condition that the daughter of Cantacuzene should be given him in marriage. Parental tenderness was in this case silenced by the dictates of ambition, and the Greek princess was delivered over to her Asiatic lord without the rites of the Church. The Turks were thus introduced into Europe; and in the very first step they made they trod down with contempt one of the first and most sacred rites of the Christians, by taking the daughter of their emperor as a concubine in their harims ! Sulaiman, the son of Orchan, marched at the head of ten thousand warriors into Europe to support the wavering power of his ally. In the civil wars of Romania he performed a small degree of service and a greater degree of mischief. By degrees the Chersonesus was insensibly filled with a Turkish colony, while the Byzantine court solicited in vain the restitution of the fortresses of Thrace. The walls of Galipoli, the key of the Hellespont, had been thrown down by an earthquake ; they were rebuilt and fortified by the policy of Sulaiman, and Constantinople would have next fallen a prey to the ambition of the Turks, had the Turkish chief not died by a fall from his horse, and the death of his father soon after fortunately intervened to stay for a little while the shock of the impending storm. a.d. 1360. Amurad I., second son of Orchan, succeeded to the throne, which he removed from Brusa to Adrianople. During a reign of nearly thirty years he subdued without resistance the provinces of Romania and Thrace, from Mount Hamms to the suburbs of Constanti¬ nople ; and John Palasologus, almost a prisoner in his palace, was obliged, with his four sons, to follow the court and camp of the Ottoman prince. The Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Albanians were all made tribu- tary, and brought by a famous institution to be, by their bravery, the supporters of Ottoman greatness. The redoubtable corps of the “ Janissaries” (Yani-chari), chosen from among the stoutest and most beautiful Christian youths, became the terror of nations, and in later times of the sultans themselves. It was reserved to Amurad’s son Bayazid, who succeeded him, a.d. 1389, to extend the conquest begun by his grandfather to the bound- aiies of the Greek empire in-the East. All the countries from the Hellespont to the Euphrates acknowledged his sway ; while on the other side, whatever yet adhered to the Greek empire in Thrace, Mace¬ donia, and Thessaly, submitted to Turkish masters. Bayazid stationed TIMUR-LANG. 67 a fleet of galleys at Galipoli to command the Hellespont. At Nicopolis lie defeated a confederate army of 100,000 Franks under John Count of Nevers, whom he made prisoner. At length (a.d. 1395) his attention was directed to the conquest of Constantinople; and the dreaded catastrophe was only averted by the . consent of Manuel, successor of John Palaeologus, to pay an annual tri¬ bute of 30,000 crowns of gold. But this respite was of short duration ; the truce was soon violated by the restless sultan, and an army of Ottomans again threatened the devoted capital. Manuel in his distress implored the assistance of his Latin “ brethren,” and a reinforcement of troops from this quarter (a forlorn-hope) protracted the siege until Timur-lang, known in Europe by the name of Tamerlane, the Mogul conqueror, diverted the attention of Bayazid by invading his Eastern possessions. Thus the fall of Con¬ stantinople was deferred for some fifty years longer. a.d. 1402. Timur-lang, surnamed the lame , although a descendant of Yanghiz Khan in the female line, rose from the state of a shepherd- lad to the possession of an empire more extensive than that of Alex¬ ander. Ilis first conquest was Sogdiana; from thence he advanced to the conquest of Persia, took Bagdad, penetrated to the farthest part of India, and on his return from thence he fell upon Syria and Asia Minor. His aid was solicited by the Muhammadan princes whom Bayazid had deposed, as also by the brother of the absent Greek emperor. Timur summoned the Turkish sultan to raise the siege, and the two formidable enemies met on the plains of Ancyra (Angora) in Galatia. After one of the most furious battles ever recorded in history, Bayazid was defeated and taken prisoner, and put into an iron cage, according to the vulgar tale* Thus the Moguls became masters of all Asia ; and, if they had been possessed of ships they might have overrun Europe. But the invasion of these hordes led to no permanent conquests ; Timur had no troops to leave behind him to maintain his power, and the popu¬ lations were abandoned to anarchy.j" * Local tradition records the exact locality of this great engagement to have been the plain of Chibuk-Abad, north of Angora, now Anguri.—W. F. A. The Turks tell a characteristic story regarding the spirit of discord prevalent in Cilicia, which is not equalled in any part of the world. Each inhabitant would, if he could, drink the blood of his neighbour. They say that Tinmr-lang used to carry with him forty cases containing his trea¬ sure, and that he had eighty slaves, to whom he confided the guard of his person and these cases, half of whom by turns watched while the other half reposed. Arrived before Adana -on his way back, he overheard his guards concerting among each other to kill him, and divide the spoil between them; and he understood them to say that they would wait till their companions awoke, to be all agreed. Upon this Timur-lang, 68 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Oi the five sons of Bayazid who after his death contended for the sovereignty, Muhammad I. was the most conspicuous, and obtained the ascendency. He employed the eight years of his reign in eradicating the vices produced by civil discord, and in establishing the Ottoman powei ovei Cilicia and the other provinces of Asia Minor on a firmer basis. His son Amurad II. besieged Constantinople, a.d. 1422, with an army ot 200,000 Turks and Asiatic volunteers; but after a siege of two months he was called away to Brusa to quell a domestic revolt excited by his brother. The effete empire was allowed a respite of thirty years, during which Manuel sank into .the grave, and his son John Pa- IcCologus II. was permitted to reign in consideration of a tribute which he paid to the Turks of 300,000 aspres, and the renunciation and aban¬ donment of all the territory without the walls of Constantinople. Amu- rad was much taken up with the Hungarian war, and twice abdicated the throne, preferring the prayers and religious practices of the society of the dervishes to the cares of royalty. John Palseologus was succeeded by his brother Constantine (a.d. 144o), a youth of fair promise, and who defended his country bravely for a time. But it was ordained that the last of the Greek emperors should bear the same name as the first and founder of Constantinople. On the 29th of May, a.d. 1438, the ill-fated city fell into the hands of Muhammad II., the son of Amurad, who took it after a siege of fifty- three days. Thus was sealed the fate of the Christian government in the East, at the same time that the Turkish government was finally es¬ tablished in Europe. J Muhammad II. marched a large army into Asia Minor against Uzzum Hassan, a powerful. Turkman chief, and obtained a complete victory O v r er him on the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia. Bayazid II. succeeded his father a.d. 1481, and inherited his mar¬ tial character, but did not meet with all his success in military affairs During the long wars which his father had carried on in Europe the eastern provinces had been neglected, and the sultan of Egypt, taking ad¬ vantage of this supineness, had made himself master of all Syria Cilicia mid part of Anatolia. Bayazid undertook a great expedition into Asia Minor to recover these provinces, and two battles were fought by the rival sultans in Cilicia, and the cities of Adana and Tarsus were taken a 7 ake ' ordered tho whole army in motion, saying that there must be •m i ? US in tk<3 ver y g 1 ' 011110 ! whereon they were encamped, which could lake the select of his followers so faithless. And that is the reason, say the Turks why he did not take Adana. * SULAIMAN, SELIM, AND AMURAD. 69 and retaken by both parties with alternate success. At length Bayazid, although vanquished, had the tact to conclude an advantageous peace, by which all Cilicia was ceded to him as far as the Syrian gates (a.d. 1492). He then returned to prosecute the wars against the Venetians in the Morea; in which expeditions he caused all the dust from his shoes to be collected, in order that the same being put into his coffin, might witness in his favour at the day of judgment, ot his having carried on the war against the infidels with unremitting vigilance. Bayazid was succeeded, a.d. 1512, by his son Sulaiman I., who be¬ gan his reign by poisoning his father and putting his two brothers to death. His next step was to make war on Shah Ismail Sufi of Persia, whom he defeated in the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia (which had before been the scene of Muhammad II.’s victory), and obliged him to retreat to the southern part of his dominions. The city of Tabriz fell into Sulaiman’s hands, and he at first resolved on wintering there, but was dissuaded by his officers on account of the intense cold; and he re¬ turned to Amasiyah, and soon after to Constantinople, to prepare for a greater expedition. A very formidable army was again levied, at the head of which he marched into Syria and Egypt, carrying every thing before him, and completely subduing both countries, the military sove¬ reigns of which were both slain, and he led in triumph to Constantinople the last khalif of the second dynasty of the Abbassides. Sulaiman II., surnamed the Magnificent , a.d. 1520, succeeded his father Selim. He is looked upon as the greatest of the Turkish em¬ perors, for, independent of his great victories, he was the friend of litera¬ ture and art, as well as a just prince. He took Belgrade, and also the island of Rhodes, after a gallant resistance, and won the famous battle of Mohatz (a.d. 1526). In the following year Buda fell into his hands. In his war with Austria he was not so fortunate; for after having made twenty assaults on Vienna, he was obliged to raise the siege and return to Constantinople. Unable to remain inactive, he set out on an expe¬ dition against Shah Tamasp of Persia, besieged and took Bagdad, and through the zeal of his lieutenants carried his arms into Africa. Many cities on the coast of Barbary were added to the empire during his long and victorious reign of forty-six years. The short reign of Selim II., who ascended the throne in a.d. 1o 66, was distinguished by no remarkable event except the taking of the island of Cyprus and the loss of the battle of Lepanto in the Morea, in which it is said that 32,000 Turks perished. Amurad III., son of Selim, began his reign (a.d. 1574) by strang¬ ling five of his brothers. The Shah of Persia having invaded his eastern 70 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. provinces, lie marched to attack him, and retook the city of Tabriz, which the Persians had seized during the last reign. Muhammad III., one of the greatest monsters that ever disgraced the annals of history, succeeded the weak Amurad a.d. 1594. He began his reign by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and causing ten of his father’s wives to be thrown into the Bosphorus, in the fear that they might prove pregnant. His reign of nine years was marked throughout by cruelty and treachery, and just before his death he executed his own son and his son’s mother on suspicion of treason. Alimed I., second son of Muhammad III., succeeded to the throne a.d. 1604, at the age of fifteen; and after a reign of twelve years he was succeeded by his brother, Mustafa I. (a.d. 1617), who made himself so odious by his savage disposition, that he was deposed by the Janissaries after a reign of three months, and his nephew Osman II. was placed on the throne; and after a brief reign of four years and four months he also was deposed, and Mustafa I. was once more elevated to the throne by the intrigues of the Janissaries. These were at this time a real Praetorian body, and very soon after put the sovereign of their choice to death. Amurad IV., son of Ahmed I., succeeded (a.d. 1622), and proved as sanguinary a tyrant as his grandfather Muhammad III. had been; for he perpetrated all sorts of excesses, some of which seem to be scarcely credible,— such, for example, as amusing himself by shooting his subjects from a balcony. The Pasha of Erzerum having thrown off his allegiance, and united with the Shah of Persia to devastate some of the Turkish provinces in Asia, Amurad marched at the head of 200,000 men to stop their progress. With this immense force he entered Cilicia, and laid waste the Taurus and other countries. Hav¬ ing reduced Trebizond and Erzerum, he marched into Syria, with the intention of proceeding on a pilgrimage to Mecca ; but it appears that he did not go beyond Damascus, and returned to Constantinople in 1635. Three years afterwards he undertook the conquest of Persia; but after taking Bagdad he was persuaded to sign a treaty of peace, and he again returned to Constantinople, to execute a project he had long been revolving in his mind, which was no less than the utter destruc¬ tion of the Ottoman race. Death, however, put an end to his design. The house which this sultan inhabited at Adana is still to be seen, but in a dilapidated condition. The door leading to the upper story is walled up, as, according to traditionary report, it is unlawful for any one to occupy the seat of the monarch, to prevent which this precau- SULTANS FROM 1640 TO 1807 . 71 tion was taken; or perhaps, we might also conclude, in superstitious horror of his character and crimes. Ibrahim I., the brother of Amurad, succeeded him a.d. 1640. This prince fitted out an expedition against Candia. The siege is remarkable in history for the horrible murders and atrocities perpetrated during its progress ; but this island, the pride of the Archipelago, was not an¬ nexed to the Ottoman dominions till the reign of his successor. Ibrahim I. w^as strangled by the Janissaries a.d. 1648, and his son Muhammad IV., a boy seven years old, was placed on the throne. In the early part of the reign of this prince the siege of Candia was pushed with vigour, and terminated favourably for the Turks. In the lattei part of Ibrahim’s life the reverses he had met with in Hungary so enraged him, that he swore he would feed his horse on the altar of St. Peter at Rome. For this purpose he prepared a large army, with which he besieged Vienna in 1683, but was completely foiled and compelled to raise the siege by the bravery of the celebrated Sobieski. After a long reign of nearly forty years he was succeeded, a.d. 1687, by Sulaiman III. his brother, who only reigned three years. Ahmed II., brother of Sulaiman, succeeded in a.d. 1690, and reigned four years. Mustafa II., a nephew of the two former sultans, was elected by the Janissaries a.d. 1695, and, after a reign of eight years, was deposed in favour of his brother, Ahmed III., who, after an inglorious reign of twenty-seven years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his nephew Muhammad V., who, raised to the throne a.d. 1730, reigned twenty- four years, and was then succeeded, in a.d. 1754, by his brother, Osman III., who reigned only two years, and was then succeeded by his nephew (a.d. 1757), Mustafa III., son of Muhammad V., during whose reign the wars with Russia began. Mustafa III. was succeeded (a.d. 1776) by his brother, Abdul Hamid I., who was not more fortunate in repelling the en¬ croachments of the Russians on his territory than his brother had been; at his death the throne was filled (a.d. 1789) by Selim III, the only son of Mustafa III. This ill-fated prince sus¬ tained repeated losses in his wars with Russia, in spite of the reforms in the army and navy which he introduced, and the adoption of Euiopean customs and improvements, and which proved so displeasing to the Janissaries that they deposed him, and soon after put him to death. Mustafa V., cousin of Selim III., was proclaimed sultan a.d. 1807; 12 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. but lie reigned only one year, when he was also murdered. Of the pre¬ tended son of this prince, Nadir Bey, I shall have occasion to speak further on. Mahmud II., the brother of Mustafa V., and the only surviving male of the Ottoman line, was raised to the throne a.d. 1808 by the Janissa¬ ries, and he proved himself superior to any of his predecessors in poli¬ tical courage and sagacity. He temporised and cajoled the Janissaries, until he could seize a fitting opportunity, which occurred on the 14th June, a.d. 1826, when he caused them all to be put to death, and restored tranquillity to the empire. His name will ever be memo¬ rable by the reforms he began, and wdiicli have since been slowly but steadily carried out by his son, Abd’ul Masjid, the present sultan, who ascended the throne on the 11th July, 1839, and a few months after gave to the world the before unheard-of spectacle of a despotic monarch granting voluntarily a constitution to his people, by the well-known Hatti Sherif of Gulhanah.* As this document is quite unique in Eastern history, we give a few extracts : “ These new institutions should have three objects in view :—first, to guarantee to our subjects perfect security of life, honour, and property ; secondly, the regular levy¬ ing and assessing of taxes ; and thirdly, a regular system for the raising of troops, and fixing the time of their service. “ T° r ^ in truth, are not life and honour the most precious of all blessings ? What man, however averse his disposition to violent means, can withhold having recourse to them, and thereby injure both the government and his country, when both his life and honour are in jeopardy ? If, on the contrary, he enjoys in this respect full security, he will not stray from the paths of loyalty, and all his actions will tend to increase the prosperity of the government and his countrymen. If there be absence of security of property, every one remains callous to the voice of his prince .and country. No one cai t,s about the progress of the public good, absorbed as one remains with the inse- cuiity of his own position. If, on the other hand, the citizen looks upon his property as smui e, of whatever nature it be, then, full of ardour for his interests, of which for his own contentment he endeavours to enlarge the sphere, thereby to extend that of his enjoyments, he feels every day in his heart the attachment for his prince and for his countiy grow stronger, as well as his devotedness to their cause. These senti¬ ments in him become the source of the most praiseworthy actions.” CHAPTER VII. MODERN HISTORA OF CILICIA-RISE OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU—HIS MEANS OF RE¬ VENUE ACTS OF CRUELTY—RAYAS-MODE OF LIFE AND CHARACTERISTICS SEIZES THE MASTER OF AN ENGLISH VESSEL-CAPTURES A FRENCH MER¬ CHANTMAN BRIBES THE TURKS WHO ARE SENT AGAINST HIM-PUTS HIS FRIEND THE DUTCH CONSUL OF ALEPPO INTO PRISON-FORCES A CARAVAN OF MERCHANTS TO RANSOM HIM-A CHARACTERISTIC ANECDOTE. The history'' of the Ottoman Empire during the last two centuries, till we come to the epochs of Mahmud II. and of his son Abd’ul Masjid, furnishes little or no pleasing retrospect; but is on the whole a dark picture of tyranny, cruelty, and barbarism. The sultans, no longer peimitted to be at the head of their armies, were buried in the effeminacy of the seraglio and the mazes of an intriguing court. They gave up the administration of affairs to their officers, who sold the government of the provinces to the highest bidder, while the purchasers were permitted to indemnify themselves by the plunder of the towns and villages. The population, oppressed by repeated acts of injustice, were glad to screen themselves behind a lesser evil, and submit to the usurped rule of factious chiefs who became rebels to the authority of the Porte, and erected de facto petty independent kingdoms, which they left at their deaths either to their children or to the most in¬ triguing, brave, or impudent of their followers. The weakness of a government enfeebled by venality, and no longer maintained or held together by those principles which called it into existence, pre¬ vented the adoption of vigorous measures to punish rebellion, and sub¬ due those chiefs who had availed themselves of the general discontent If a blank occurs in the history of Cilicia for the last two hundred years, the reason is, that no archives are kept in the provinces as at Constantinople, as each succeeding governor carries away with him in a bag the small bundle of official docu¬ ments ; and that for two reasons : first, because he is afraid to leave behind him any traces of his misrule, which might be employed subsequently by his enemies against him ; and secondly, from the summary way in which business is transacted,—mostly byword of mouth,—very few papers are necessary, and the small stock can be trans¬ ported with great facility, the whole object and aim of these governors being to make money as,quickly as they can before the order for their recall is obtained by their enemies. 74 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. to flatter their followers with the hope of impunity, and who were thus enabled to depose or set aside the pashas sent to execute the orders of the Porte; and the ministers at Constantinople, unable to carry on the busi¬ ness of the government (or even to maintain themselves in their posts,) from the exhausted state of the treasury, drained by increasing luxury and extravagance, were induced to compound with a power they had not the means to destroy. From these causes may be traced the circumstance that, for a long series of years, many of the provinces, particularly those of Asia Minor, were wrested from the Porte, or merely held in nominal allegiance to it, by the strength of successive chieftains of powerful Turkman tribes, called “ Darah Beys,” vulgo Par ah Begs, among whom the famous family of Kara Osman Uglu, 11 son of the black Osman,” hold a dis¬ tinguished place. Cilicia has been in the same position, torn by con¬ tending factions of chiefs among the Turkman tribes which have in succession contended for the supreme authority; and I think it not irrelevant to my subject to follow up the history of some of these chieftains during the last forty-six years, which may perhaps expose in a clearer point of view the state to which the country has been reduced by the defective system of government above alluded to, and explain the effects of such a system on the provinces, better than a more studied or elaborate account. One of these Darah Beys, Khalil Bey, better known by the name of Kutchuk Ali Uglu,* was in 1800 a Turkman chief of the mountains in the vicinity of Bayas (near the ancient Issus), which is now almost deserted,j - but in his time was a populous and flourishing town, that carried on a considerable trade with Egypt, and produced annually ten * A sketch of the life of Khalil Bey (or Bay, the a pronounced as in nay, say, may, bay-tree, &c.), commonly called Kutchuk Ali Uglu, has been published by Messrs. Mangles and Irby, and still more lately by Mr. Neale, in both cases from statements or documents obtained from my father, Mr. John Barker ; but as the real facts of the case have been much mutilated at second-hand, and as I shall have to give the life of the chieftain’s two sons, which are intimately connected with the history of Cilicia, a more correct and detailed history will not perhaps be unwelcome to the reader, and will serve as an introduction to events in later times. f There are in the present day a group of very handsome buildings at Bayas. A spacious stone bazar, or more properly speaking, bazastain, solidly arched over, and approached by noble portals, opens at the centre, to the east, into a khan with a large paved yard, having a fountain in the centre, and the usual stables with galleried apart¬ ments above. To the west, another passage, after leading by some massive domed buildings which constituted the public Hammam or bath, opens into a court-yard, at one end of which is a pretty little mosque (masjid) with a graceful minaret (minar), and at the other the entrance to a polygonal castle of considerable strength and climensTons. This is in¬ deed the most complete and compact thing of its kind to be met with perhaps in the KUTCHUK ALI. 75 thousand pounds of silk. Ivutchuk Ali laid the foundation of his power by making nocturnal excursions from the mountains to rob the gardens of Bayas. Some gardeners, with a view to purchase exemption from his depredations, stipulated to pay him a trifling yearly tribute, or black¬ mail. Their example was followed by others, who were petty merchants, glad to secure the mass of their property by entering into similar engagements; and from a rotolo* of coffee, or a few rotolos of rice, the whole town became at length compelled to furnish a stated contri¬ bution. This fund enabled Ivutchuk Ali to support himself at the head of a band of forty or fifty robbers; and he then aspired to render himself master of the place. He began by waylaying the heads of the principal families; and in the course of a few years he succeeded in exterminating every individual of such as possessed any weight or influence at Bayas or in its territory. The last member of the most influential of these families, whose adherents he could neither subdue by open force nor corrupt by bribery, successfully contended for some time with him for the supreme authority, till at length Kutchuk Ali, having lulled his suspicions by giving him his daughter in marriage, murdered him with his own hands; and he has often been heard to warn his own children against a male infant the offspring of that marriage; advising them to crush the crocodile in the egg, lest he should one day revenge on them his father’s blood.f With a very inconsiderable number of dependents, who often did not exceed 200 in number, Kutchuk Ali succeeded in impressing with terror and dismay the minds of the people by a system of cruelty, continued for many years; and he occasioned much trouble to the Porte, between whom and the rebel there existed, however, a East. Every thing- that is essential to the nucleus of an oriental city is gathered into the smallest possible compass, and is in excellent preservation. These structures are attributed in the Mecca Itinerary to Ibraham Khan-Zadah, better known as Sakali Muhammad Pasha, or the “ bearded pasha Muhammad,” who was wuzir to Sultan Sulaiman II. The river of Bayas flows past these buildings on the south side ; and at the port, distant about a mile and a half, is a castle with a square bawn and a small village. The modern village of Bayas, where the governor resides, is about two and a half miles north, upon another and lesser rivulet; and between the two is the village of Kuratas. There is also a small village of Syrians of the Greek Church on the river, a little above the castle and khan of Bayas. This, as the site also of the antique Bale or baths, was certainly one of the most charming spots on the coast of Syria.—W. F. A. * A rotolo is a Turkish weight, varying in different parts of the empire ; in Cilicia it is equal to five and a half pounds. t Kutchuk Ali Uglu’s second son, Mustuk Bey, as we shall see by the sequel, mindful of his father’s injunctions, actually put them in practice, and murdered this unfortunate individual. 76 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. reciprocal desire to be on a footing of friendship, founded on mutual advantage, and which prevented their continuing long on terms of either real or ostensible hostility. Kutchuk Ah’s territorial government was, it may naturally be imagined, such as to afford him but very slender means of drawing wealth from the impoverished inhabitants of Bayas and its environs. His i evenue, therefore, in a great measure, was derived from the casual passage of travellers and caravans through his territory, and whom he laid under such contributions as he thought they would bear, rather than be obliged, by going another way, to make a very inconvenient journey. Sometimes his rapacity and naturally brutal inclinations impelled him to overstep the bounds he meant to prescribe to his own extortions, and then the Porte testified its displeasure by prohibiting travellers from passing through Bayas. As soon as the rebel found his coffers in need of fiesh supplies, the Porte succeeded in forcing him to sue for pardon, which was seldom long withheld, on account of the necessity of procuring a safe passage for the annual grand caravan of pilgrims from Constanti¬ nople to Mecca, which was obliged either to pass through his territory or to make a circuitous and fatiguing journey through the mountains of Cappadocia. When the caravan of pilgrims came into Kutchuk Ali’s dominions, it yielded him a very considerable revenue; for he taxed every individual according to his own caprice, but always, however, with an eye to the rule above mentioned. On the approach of this caravan to Bayas, Kutchuk Ali sent some of his household to compli¬ ment on his arrival the chief of the caravan—a personage of great dis¬ tinction, who dismissed the rebel’s emissaries with rich presents for him. On such occasions, the horses it was customary to present to Kutchuk Ali would be returned, with a hint that they would be preferred com¬ pletely accoutred m the usual gilt and silver trappings. Much time was invariably lost in negotiating and stipulating the precise tribute required, but as invariably the measure of his rapacity was filled, the caravan was permitted to proceed. . Iu order the b etfcer to dispose the pilgrims to submit to his extor¬ tions, Kutchuk Ali was always careful to exhibit, as proofs both of his power and his cruelty, the spectacle of two bodies impaled at the gate of Bayas. It happened on one of these occasions, when the caravan was approaching, that his prisons were empty, and he had no victims that he could impale. He imparted his embarrassment to a convivial com¬ panion. The caravan, ’ said he, “ will be here to-morrow, and we ave not yet prepai ed the customary execution. Look ye, pick me out two from among my servants.” His friend expostulated; and while he KUTCHUK ALI. 77 was endeavouring to induce him to abandon his design by the assurance that every thing would proceed in due order without the execution in question, Kutchuk Ali, still revolving the matter in his mind, and stroking his beard, exclaimed, “I have it: go fetch me Yakub the Christian; he has been four months in bed sick of a fever, and can never recover.” The poor wretch was forthwith dragged out of his bed, strangled, impaled, and hung up! When it is considered that the forces of this monster did not exceed two hundred armed men, it becomes a matter of surprise, even to those who are well aware of the once existing weakness and in¬ difference of the Sultan’s government, that such a bandit could have been so long allowed to brave the authority of the Porte. But it was at that time rendered almost powerless by evils and abuses that have since, to a great extent, been remedied and corrected. •Kutchuk Ali was well aware that his usurped power rested on the tottering foundation of public opinion, and the little arts he put in practice with a view to conceal his weakness are characteristic and curious. Whenever an individual of distinction came into his terri¬ tory (which was only to be approached through dense woods), in order to deceive the new comer by an ostentatious display of his forces, he dis¬ posed his men in the thickets, so as to pass and repass at several points before the traveller like soldiers on a stage; thus the reports even of an ocular witness became fallacious, and the power of Kutchuk Ali was extolled and exaggerated all over the Turkish dominions. He also erected numerous tall towers, which he scattered along the eminences of his mountains, and which from afar appeared like the turrets of so many impregnable castles. They were, however, in reality nothing more than rude edifices composed of mud and straw, and white-washed with lime, which a night’s heavy rain frequently damaged. Kutchuk Ali also occupied the narrow passage known in history, more especially in the Anabasis, as the Cilician and Syrian gates, as well as the castle of Bayas. It was at this latter spot that Heraclius in his first campaign disembarked, choosing it as the most secure spot in which to strengthen himself and concentrate his forces against the Saracens. Cicero also apparently writes to his friend from this place : “ Castra habemus ea ipsa quse contra Darium habuerat apud Issum Alexander Imperator, haud paulo melior quam tu aut ego.” Its modern name is derived perhaps from the Turkish word bayciz (white), descrij)tive of the snow that for a great part of the year is seen on the summit of its grey mountainous cliffs, which descend abruptly 78 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. towards the sea, leaving a narrow tract between its precipices and the sea.* Kutchuk Ali was short in stature, and in 1800 appeared to be about sixty years of age; his body was thick-set and muscular, and his head disproportionably large. His face was round, bluff, and flat, and it was rendered apparently flatter by a chronic disorder which had carried away the bones of his nose, and caused him to snuffle as he arti¬ culated ; and it is remarkable that his son, Mustuk Bey, speaks much in the same way, although he is quite free from any infirmity. But this is a fashionable tone prevalent among the Turks, and which they ape from one another, doubtless considering it very impressive and sonorous. Kutchuk Ali had nevertheless a very insinuating address, and often deceived by his mild and courteous demeanour those who did not discriminate his real character in the tiger-like glances of his restless eye. When he was raised to the high rank of a Pasha of three tails, he altered nothing from the rude simplicity of his way of life when only a Turkman freebooter. As an instance of this he had two wives, who so far from being secluded and guarded by eunuchs (yunuks) in splendid apart¬ ments, were in no way distinguished from the other women of his family. They made bread and fetched water from the spring unveiled, having only one distinction, that of occupying exclusively two separate rooms, which were divided by a slight wooden partition, instead of the curtain which served the same purpose in the tents of his forefathers. When¬ ever he intended to honour one of his consorts with his company, he sent to bid her prepare for the occasion; and the thought being always suggested when he was wholly or partially intoxicated, the poor woman had generally to watch in vain for his appearance, while he gradually sank down on his carpet in forgetfulness of everything in this world. But however deep might have been his nocturnal po¬ tations, he always rose at the first dawn of day to call his men to their daily labours, and in all seasons and in all weathers accompanied them to the field of their toils. He sat without mat or carpet on the ground to superintend their operations, which were not, as might be supposed, in the chief industry of the country (mulberry-plantations for silkworms), nor in the useful labours of rearing garden fruits and vege¬ tables, of which he knew not the want. His habitual occupations were * Between Bayas and Alexandretta is the river Markatz (ancient Kersus), with village and castle (Markatz Ivalahsi) on its banks, and ruins towards the sea-shore; while beyond is the Macedonian relic now called Sakai Tutan,— the Bomitse or altars of Pliny,—all comprised within the Cilician and Syrian Gates.—W. F. A. KUTCHUK ALI. 79 in pulling down, rebuilding, and changing the form of the white-washed turrets and sham battlements before described, with the view, no doubt, of preventing revolt among his followers by keeping them constantly employed in hard labour. He prided himself on the discipline he maintained. u I am not,” he would say, “ as other Darah Beys are,* fellows without faith, who allow their men to stop travellers on the king’s highway;—I am content with what God sends me. I await his good pleasure, and, AUiuxndlillah (God be praised), he never leaves me long in want of any thing.” Upon Kutchuk Ali’s attaining the rank of Pasha it was thought in¬ dispensable that he should exchange the Turkman sash and turban for the Jcauk , a head-dress of distinction. A Tartar accidentally passing through Bayas was commissioned to bring him one, but it proved to be too small for his head: he wrote for another, but it again fell short of the proper dimensions. Disgusted at his ill-success, he gave up the attempt, coming to the conclusion, as he said, that if kciuks could not be made for heads, his head could not be made expressly for them. In 1798, Mr. Fowls, master of an English vessel in the harbour of Alexandretta, went with four of his men to water at the Markatz Chai, a river in the territory of Bayas, at a place before alluded to, and called by sailors Jonas’ Pillars. Here they were seized by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, and thrown into prison, and a large sum was demanded for their release. Before the necessary arrangements could be made for its payment, the master was driven by despair to put a period to his existence by pre¬ cipitating himself from a high tower in which he was confined; and all the others perished soon after, except a boy twelve years old, named Charles Edwards, who was sent by Kutchuk Ali as a present to his friend Mr. Masseyk, Dutch consul at Aleppo. It is not known exactly what measures were taken by the mission at Constantinople to obtain the necessary satisfaction for this act of violence, but it is certain that none was ever given by the savage perpetrator. Two years after this event (in 1800) a French ship from Marseilles, richly laden with merchandise for Aleppo, was, by the captain’s igno¬ rance of the locality, taken under the walls of Bayas, when the master, with a part of the crew, supposing that they had anchored at Alexan¬ dretta, landed in search of the consular establishment, and were con¬ ducted to the governor, who received them with every mark of hospi- * Chiefs of Turkman tribes, and self-appointed governors of districts in Turkey, whom the Porte used to find it necessary to confirm in their posts, and even to load with presents and raise to various dignities, in order to obtain through then* means a portion of the contributions which they levy,—having no better means to enforce obedience. »_^ 80 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. tality; but while he was entertaining them with a sumptuous repast, his men were occupied in taking possession of the vessels. This accomplished, he immediately unloaded and sunk the ship, sending the crew by land to the French consul at Alexandretta. Remonstrances were made to him on this act of violence by all the consular authorities at Aleppo, and in particular by his intimate friend the Dutch consul, to whom he replied in these terms : “ My dear friend,—You know very well that consistently with the friendship subsisting between us, property and life itself are indifferent matters. Nay, I swear by God, that for your sake I would sacrifice my son Dada Bey; but I entreat you not to drive me to the extremity of denying you what it is impossible for me to grant. My dear friend, place yourself in my position. I am in disgrace with my sovereign, without having given him any just cause for this displeasure ; I am threatened with attacks from the four quarters of the earth ; I am with¬ out money, I am without means; and the ever-watchful providence of the Almighty sends me a vessel laden with merchandise ! Say, would you in my place lay hold of it or not ? I know very well the Franks will claim restitution of the property from the Sublime Porte, and that is precisely what I want, because an opportunity will then be offered to me of negotiating my pardon.” On the receipt of this letter all hopes of recovering any thing by ami¬ cable means were given up in despair, and the French consul made ap¬ plication to his supei lor at Constantinople, and obtained several imperial commands on the subject. Three Turkish caravallas (ships of war) were sent to Bayas to enforce obedience to the orders of the Porte. Kutchuk Ali retired to his mountains. The caravallas fired a few guns against empty houses and dilapidated fortresses, and in a very short tune, having consumed their stock of provisions, the officers and men on board were glad to accept such as were liberally tendered them by Kutchuk Ali, who soon obtained, through the customary means of brib¬ ing with French watches and fine French broadcloth, the good mil of all the commanders of the ships sent against him. So great was their astonishment and satisfaction at the rebel’s princely magnificence, that they contracted with him solemn engagements of private friendship, and promised him their intercession in his behalf with the Porte on their l eturn to Constantinople. The dignity of an additional tail was ob¬ tained foi him on this occasion, with an imperial firman 'pro forma, 01 deiing restitution of the property. In compliance with this order, Kutchuk Ali addressed a letter to the French consul at Aleppo to an¬ nounce that he was ready to obey the commands of the sultan, but the 81 ARREST OE THE DUTCH CONSUL. caigo of the ship in question having been converted to use , he offered as an equivalent to make over to the proprietors of the goods sundry plan¬ tations belonging to him in the territory of Bayas. The merchants of Aleppo rejected with scorn the proposal, as adding insult to injustice; particularly as they considered that the environs of Bayas are unhealthy, and their agents would be liable to take the malignant fever of the place whilst directing such an arduous enterprise as the cultivation of land. The neighbourhood was also reputed dangerous; and the poverty of the inhabitants was supposed to render it impossible for them to sell any produce for a quarter of its value. Yet the merchants could not obtain any other redress.* In the beginning of 1801, Mr. John Masseyk, Dutch Consul-general in Aleppo, was arrested by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, as he was returning from Constantinople, although furnished with an imperial firman for the ex- eicise of his official functions, at a period when the Porte was at peace with Holland. The proceedings of Kutchuk Ali on this occasion will ser\ e to elucidate his character, which will be exhibited in a curious light when it is considered that there had for many years previous to the detention of the Dutch consul existed between him and the pasha, as has already been observed, habits of the most cordial friendship and interchange of gifts, according to oriental custom. On the arrival of the consul at Bayas he was immediately thrown into prison, bound with chains, and stripped of everything except the apparel he wore. But the pasha, with great circumspection, avoided all opportunities of being thrown in contact with his prisoner; for it is a peculiarity worthy of remark, that this tyrant, whenever he ordered a bad action to be committed, kept himself personally aloof from the scene of its perpetration, from an idea that it would lower his importance to assume the office of executioner to his own orders, or perhaps in this in¬ stance from very shame for thus ill-treating an old friend. The sum fixed for the consul’s ransom was 25,000 piastres of those days (about 2000/.); but being unable to produce more than 7500, Mr. Masseyk underwent during the period of eight months every species of ill-usage. Eveij means was tried to force him to embrace the Muhammadan re¬ ligion, and to extort from him the money required for his ransom j to which end they would at one time confine him in a damp dungeon with- N o doubt, fevers prevail at Bayas at certain seasons of the year, as in other parts of the coast of ojiia; but the situation is open and dry, the soil gravelly yet fertile, and well supplied with clear and rapid streams. The climate is mild and serene ; there is no marshy ground except at Markatz, which could be easily drained. Altogether Bayas is differently circumstanced to Alexandretta, and would appear to be as healthy, as fertile, and ought to be as wealthy, as any spot on the coast of Syria,—W. F. A. G CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. 82 out light, and often without sustenance for twenty-four hours. At an¬ other they would threaten him with immediate death ; and once, in older to shew that their menaces were not wholly nugatory, two innocent wretches, who had been arrested under similar circumstances with him¬ self, were impaled before him, for having delayed, as he was informed, to procure the money for their ransom. When the news spread abroad that Ivutchuk Ali had entrapped an European, the mountaineers descended in crowds to see how much humanity the tyrant exhibited; and Mr. Masseyk used to relate that being one day engaged in writing, a man who had thrust his head through the bars of his prison-window, after contemplating his person and occupation for some time, exclaimed with reproachful indignation, (l What, is it possible the wretch is so lost to all sense of shame as to hold an effendi (a clerk) in captivity? ” referring evidently to the well-known rights and immunities enjoyed by the learned, as well in this barbaious legion as in Europe. This picture indeed resembles more the state of society in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries than that of the nineteenth; and to those who are unacquainted with Oriental ideas and customs, which have un¬ dergone so few changes for centuries past, might appeal unfaithful to nature, were it not for what history has related of those daik ages. Although Ivutchuk Ali persisted in refusing to admit his prisoner to his presence, he more than once sent to him his lieutenant with consoling messages to assure him of his sympathy. u Tell him, said he, that un¬ fortunately my coffers were empty when his fate brought him into this territory; but let him not despair, God is great and mindful of us. Such vicissitudes of fortune are inseparable from the fate 01 men of 1 enow n, and from the lot of all born to fill high stations. Bid him be of good cheer; a similar doom has twice been mine, and once during nine months in the condemned cell of Abd’ul Rahman Pasha: but I never despaired of God’s mercy, and all came right at last, Alla kaiim (God is bountiful).” At length, fortunately for this poor man, the arrival at Bayas of a caravan from Smyrna proceeding to Aleppo afforded Ivutchuk Ali Gglu an excuse for extorting his ransom from the travelling merchants by obliging them to advance the money on the bond of his prisoner, whom he delivered into their hands as a slave sold to them for 17,500 piastres. This v'as a debt beyond Mr. Masseyk’s means of discharging at once, but he paid it off by instalments, not without the hope that the Dutch Republic would come to his assistance. This it did in pai t, but he never recovered the whole amount. The restriction placed on his person proved, however, beneficial to the consul in one lespect, inasmuch AX EFFECTUAL CUKE FOR TIIE GOUT. 83 as lie was by means of the rigid prison fare entirely cured of the gout, to which he had been much subjected previous to his incarceration; and he has frequently remarked to his friends, that Kutchuk Ali had in this 1 espect unwittingly conferred on him an almost priceless favour, and had pioved himself a better physician than friend. The Porte at different times sent several pashas with considerable forces against this rebel; but whether owing to the natural defences that abound m the precipitous mountains, covered with forests into which he retreated, or to the system of compromise already described, the Sultan v as never able to subdue him during forty years’ existence in open de¬ fiance of his authority.* Such is the individual whom Mr. John Barker, then British Con¬ sul at Aleppo, to whom I am mainly indebted for the foregoing facts, had the address to propitiate, in order to facilitate the transmission of despatches from the East India Company, which passed through his hands; and his influence with the rebel was so great, that he once in¬ duced him to give up goods to the amount of 6600/., belonging to British mei chants, which he had seized along with other property. My readers will perhaps be startled on hearing that, in the beginning of the pre¬ sent century, there was so little personal security even in the vicinity of a well-fre¬ quented harbour like that of Alexandretta, that the crews of two European vessels could have been subjected to such treatment, or that such an affront as the incarcera¬ tion of a public officer could have been suffered to pass without redress of any kind having been obtained from the Porte. Let us hope, however, that as time has wrought many changes in Turkey since the establishment of the Nizam, or regular troops, by k.ultan Mahmud, by which some of the chief rebels have been crushed and piracy put own hi the Mediterranean, that a new turn to this state of things has been now defi¬ nitively brought about, and that the light which is dawning even in the benighted East will prevent the recurrence of such scenes. CHAPTER VIII. DADA BEY, SON OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU-HIS PIRATICAL EXPEDITIONS—REPELS THE ATTACKS OF THE TURKS-IS TAKEN BY STRATAGEM-IS BEHEADED AND BURNT-HISTORY OF MUSTAFA PASHA-KEL-AGA KILLED BY HAJI ALI BEY-DERVISH HAMID-STORY RELATED OF HAJI ALI BEY-CONQUESTS OF IBRAHIM PASHA-MUSTEK BEY PLACED IN POWER—COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH GOVERNMENTS. In 1808 Kutchuk Ali Uglu died, and was succeeded by his son Dada Bey. Mr. Massevk, while in prison, having gained the goodwill of Dada Bey, conceived the hope that he might be induced to make him some reparation for the ill-treatment he had met with at his father’s hands; and he wrote him a letter of condolence on his recent bereave¬ ment, in which he took occasion to remind him of the reprobation he had always expressed of his late parent’s cruelty, and in a particular manner of his injustice to himself. Dada Bey received Mr. Masseyk’s application with the usual tokens of sympathy and affection, but replied, “ My dearest friend, you know very well that were I called upon to make restitution of all the money my late father (God have mercy on his soul!) unjustly acquired during a long life, all the stones of the mountains of Bayas converted into gold would not suffice.” Dada Bey was of large stature, and had an expressive countenance and a fine full black beard: he was about thirty years old when he suc¬ ceeded to his father. He had not, however, the same tact and cunning, as he evinced in the circumstance of his being unable to keep out of the grasp of his enemies for more than nine years; and during this period he encouraged his people in all kinds of piracy, and his boats infested the coast, attacking vessels at anchor off Alexandretta, and among others a large ship belonging to Abdalla Bey, son of Abd’ul Rahman, Pasha of Baylan. An individual still living, who formed one of an expedition under¬ taken to carry off some ships at Kaisanli, the roadstead of Tarsus, related to me the following fact: “We were twenty-two in number, and started one night from Kara- Tash (Black Rock, ancient Mallus and Megarsus,) in a small boat. We found eleven small brigs of the country moored at Kaisanli, loading and ATTACK ON DADA BEY. 85 unloading. We attacked them one by one with as little noise as possi¬ ble. As they were not armed, and were taken by surprise, we had no difficulty in binding such of the crew as made any resistance ; and having cut tne cables, we made use of the lads on board to manoeuvre the ves¬ sels, which we brought safely to Bayas, where they were detained till their proprietors sent large sums to ransom them.” Amin Pasha Cliiapan Uglu, who governed at Uzgat, received an Older fiom the Poite to send the head of Dada Bey to Constantinople. The Turkman chief of Uzgat sent 2000 irregular troops of those days to accompany an expedition which he ordered to be assembled from among the various Turkman tribes in the district of Tarsus and Adana : Kur- mud-uglu Ali Bey, Ivalaga, Bashaga, Tur-uglu, and Takal-uglu, from the territory of the former; and Osman Bey Jarid (son of Hussain Pasha), Maiamangi-uglu, Kara Hajili, Karagiya, and Hamid Bey, father of Haji Ali Bey, from that of the latter. These chiefs collected about twelve or fifteen thousand men, and encamped on the sea-shore near Bayas for many days, without being able to make up their minds what plan to adopt in attacking the lion in his den; at last they agreed with Abdul Rahman Pasha of Baylan, and Chulak-uglu of Mar’ash, to fall upon him on all sides at the same time. Dada Bey, who had more friends than enemies in this motley band, composed of all his neighbours, being informed by his spies of the position of the tent which contained the ammunition of the troops, sent a boat in the night, with two cannons of wood filled with powder and old nails. These were disembarked by some of his men, who having succeeded in placing them near the tent, set fire to the match and retreated to the boat. Only one exploded, and it had no other effect than that of awakening the astounded chiefs, who the next morning gave orders for a general attack. Dada Bey wished for nothing so much as to try the mettle of his men against a multitude of peasants, who he knew were assembled against tlieir inclination to make war on a person whom they considered invincible. He posted Jin Yusuf of Karatash and a few men in the fort, with strict orders not to fire till the enemy arrived so close that every shot might tell, and to wait the signal of a discharge of two cannons from the turret above. He himself, with about 100 picked horsemen, fell on the troops in the rear; while Jin Yusuf, on the first volley, killed forty men; and the roaring of the cannon from above, the shot of which came over the heads of the dismayed Turkmans, sufficed to inspire all the terror he could desire. In half an hour there was no one to oppose him in the field, from which the soldiers retreated to Adana, and the Turkmans dispersed to their respective homes. Thus it constantly happened be- 86 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. fore the institution of the Nizam, that when any of the Turkman chiefs revolted, the Porte had no effectual means of compelling them to obe¬ dience, but was obliged to have recourse to the neighbouring tribes, who were unwilling to excite a lasting feud among their relatives (as they all intermarry), and only made a feint of attacking them. Thus the govern¬ ment was obliged to conform to their desires by coming to a compromise, wherein the outward dignity of the Porte was only consulted, whilst all the interests of these petty rebels were attended to, inasmuch as they were only submissive as long as it suited their purpose. That which could not be effected by open violence was, however, effected by treachery. Mustafa Pasha, son of Abd’ul Rahman, Pasha of Baylan, Dada Bey’s neighbour and personal enemy, seized on an ac¬ cidental opportunity of destroying him. During four years that Mustafa had been pasha at Adana, he had endeavoured, by influence and in¬ trigues at Constantinople, to obtain from the government an order that the whole of the country as far as Baylan, his native town, should be placed under his orders. Having accomplished this object, the first thing he did was to summon Dada Bey to submit to his authority, which of course the latter refused to do. Whereupon Mustafa Pasha sent his brother Ismail Bey, with four or five thousand men, to Bay as. Dada Bey, happening to pass alone at this time through a village close by, was betrayed by an old woman into the hands of a Baylanli named Tal-uglu, who chanced to be there. This man, with the assistance of a few others, succeeded in taking Dada Bey by surprise, when they bound Rim and took him prisoner to Adana. The people of the country had such an instinctive dread of Dada Bey, that it is reported that even the pasha refused to see him till he had been heavily chained. Dada Bey retorted upon his exulting enemy in terms of indignation all the insults he had received, and expressed infinite contempt for 11 a wretch who could so abuse the power which chance had given him over a fallen lion.” His head was nevertheless cut off and sent to Constantinople, and his body was burnt in the court-yard under the windows of the palace, and the ashes scattered to the winds. Such was the insatiable feud that existed between these families ! Mustafa Pasha had in earlier years killed his brother Mulla Bey, in order to become master of Baylan ; but another brother, Abdullah Bey, raised the populace against him and drove him away. He pro¬ ceeded to Constantinople, where he obtained the pashalik of Adana, which he held seven years; he was then sent to Erzerum, and after¬ wards to Aleppo, where he remained two years. From this place he went to Acre, to attack Abdullah Pasha of that place; and he acted as MU ST UK BEY. 87 lieutenant to Durwish or Dervish Pasha, commander-in-chief of the troops. He then returned to Aleppo for another year and a half, and was thence removed to the governorship of Damascus; and when at that place, he laid Jerusalem under heavy contributions. He was after¬ wards transferred to Bosna and Kurk-Kilisa, and subsequently he ob¬ tained the command of some troops, with whom he treacherously at¬ tacked the Russians in time of a truce or peace. On the Russian mission representing this perfidy to the Porte, he was, in outward appearance, disgraced and sent to Brusa, where he was lately living, as a private individual, in the enjoyment of his ill-acquired wealth, the reward of his crimes and cruelties. Few such adventurers, however, meet with such good fortune. They rarely escape the intrigues entered into against them, and generally return to the same state of obscurity as that from which they emerged, unless possessed of extraordinary ability, or of means to bribe their way to other employments as lucrative, by large sums which they have had time to amass during their stewardship. When well supported, they frequently secure the pecuniary assistance of their Armenian bankers ( sarraffs ), which they repay with an interest of 50 per cent. People may have read in the newspapers published at Constantinople of such an effendi, to whom every virtue is attributed, having been pro¬ moted for his ■patriotic conduct to a post of distinction, and might have been led to imagine these men to be something above the common order of Turks ; whereas those who, like myself, have had opportunities of knowing the truth, are aware that they were generally chosen from among the servants of older pashas. On the death of Dada Bey, a.d. 1817, his brother Mustuk Bey, then twelve years old, took refuge in Maraash with Kalandar Pasha, and with whom he remained for some years, till after the departure of Mustafa Pasha; and during his minority of ten years, his uncle Zaitun- uglu governed for him. On his return to Bayas in 1827, Mustuk Bey was attacked by Haji Ali Bey;* at the same time that a certain Kel-Aga, chief of the Turk¬ man tribe of Kugiuli, whose residence was in the mountains to the * This man had constituted himself master of Adana and independent of the Porte’s authority, and he had driven Muhammad Pasha (who had bought the post of governor of this province, and was on his way to take possession of his government) back from Kulak Bughaz. Muhammad Pasha was by this flagrant act of rebellion reduced to the necessity of returning to the capital, where he complained of his having been sent to occupy a post, which had cost him a large sum, of which he could not take quiet possession ; and the pashalik of Erzerum was assigned to him to compensate him for his loss. After the usual delays in nominations of this kind, he was installed governor of that district. 83 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. north-westward of Taurus, and who had become absolute master of this last-mentioned town, thinking this a favourable moment to take Adana, had proceeded against that town with a large body of followers. Haji Ah Bey, hearing of this movement, made peace immediately with the young Mustuk Bey, and by a forced retrograde march reached Adana; and coming suddenly upon the encampment of Ivel-Aga at night, and in the outskirts of the town, he surprised the chief, who was found dead drunk, and had his head cut otf on the spot. The father and grandfather of Ivel-Aga both lost their heads in rebellion, the one by means of the bands of Tur-uglu, and the other by Sadik Aga; and Durwish Ahmed, son of Ivel-Aga, is not an un¬ worthy descendant of such ancestors. As a young man, Ahmed held the government of all the villages to the westward of Tarsus, in which Mursina and Ivaisanli are included. Being related to most of the in¬ fluential families of the country, he did what he pleased with impunity, abandoning himself to all and every imaginable excess. A dozen horsemen accompanied him wherever he went, and were made the ministers of his pleasures and vices by dragging instantly to his pre¬ sence any woman or child he might call for in his drunken fits. The inhabitants of the villages in his district were obliged to submit to his heavy impositions, and to furnish the sum requisite to complete the taxes due from nearly a thousand persons whom he exempted from all contributions, because he shared with them the produce of their lands. This system of “ protection,” as it is termed, used to be very general in the Ottoman dominions; the ayans or nobles of all the large cities appropriating to themselves a large tract of country by sharing the produce with the proprietors, who give up a third or fourth of their income for the advantage of being exempted from paying the dues to government. This exemption the nobles were enabled to afford them, being members of the council of the city, to whom all political affairs were referred in conjunction with the pasha. The pasha himself was generally, if not invariably, won over to their party, for without their participation he could not hope to carry on public business. Thus they contrived to protect each other’s interests, and the whole weight of taxa¬ tion fell on the poorer classes and those who had not the advantage of an “ayan’s support.” This system resembled in some respect the feudal, and took its origin when the country was ruled by rebel chiefs, whose partisans were respected by their independent colleagues in return for the same courtesy mutually shewn to one another. Intrigue and the love of power perpetuated this state of things after the cause which had given rise to it had vanished, and it was carried CAPTURE OE HAJI ALI BEY. 89 on in miniature in all the villages, each elder having his protected. Durwish Ahmed had led this dissipated life for some time after his father’s death, when his cousin, Mustafa Aga, was induced to bribe the governor of Tarsus with 15,000 piastres to appoint him instead of Ahmed; and he was accordingly summoned to Tarsus, where he agreed to appear at the governor’s house, on the guarantee of his father-in-law and chief of the Zaims (Turkish irregular troops). On this occasion, an account of the revenue that had passed through his hands was demanded of him, and he was brought in a debtor to the government of 95,000 piastres. Ahmed evaded paying any portion of this by privately bribing the governor with a sum for himself of 30,000 pi¬ astres; and he might, probably, have been re-established in his post, had not the governor been shortly afterwards recalled. But to return to Haji Ali Bey. A year after the death of Kel-Aga, (a.d. 1828,) Hussain Pasha, general-in-chief of the army sent into Syria against Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, arrived in Cilicia at the head of his troops. Haji Ali Bey, unable to resist so overwhelming a force, was compelled to dissimulate; and therefore, putting on the semblance of perfect submission, he went as far as Kulak Bughaz to meet the com¬ mander-in-chief, and busied himself in procuring means of transport for the army, at the same time furnishing the troops with provisions of all kinds. Hussain Pasha, acting under the orders, doubtless, of the Porte, was glad of an opportunity of destroying a Darah Bey who had become so formidable and independent as to have refused to receive a pasha sent by the Sultan to his district, and who might cause some uneasiness by tampering with the Egyptians. He accordingly resolved to manage matters so as to induce him to go to Constantinople; and in order to lull his suspicions, treated the Turkman chief with marked distinction until the army had passed the formidable pass of the Cilician gates, when the pasha having no further need of his services, he exhibited a firman he pretended to have just received, but which he had had long by him, wherein Haji Ali Bey was ordered to proceed to Constantinople, and promised that there he should be preferred to great honours for his late services. The Turkman chief fell into the snare, and on his arrival at Constantinople he was put under arrest, and soon afterwards dis¬ appeared, in the same way as many others have done before him. As the head of Haji Ali Bey was exacted from his keeper, that of some other man, who may have died about that time, was procured; and the escape of the Haji having at the same time been connived at, he found his way from a Turkish bath, disguised in a Frank dress, on board a vessel then setting sail for Italy. The bribes requisite for this 90 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. manoeuvre liad completely stripped him of every thing of any value, and he was maintained by the government of the Pope, as a convert to the Catholic religion, under the name of Signor Giovanni, on an allowance of a dollar a day. His family, hearing of his escape, sent an old Christian servant who had brought him up to see and identify him, and if possible to persuade him to return. The man came back with assurances that Haji Ali Bey was really alive, and passing under the assumed character of a Christian in Europe; but that he refused to return to his country until his great enemy old Khusru Pasha should be no more. It was further reported that Haji Ali Bey, during the long period of his exile, had once visited the province in European costume, and that a Turk who saw him at the French consulate in Tarsus was observed to say, “That Frank, sir, is so like Haji Ali Bey, that were it not for his being in this dress, and his ignorance of Turkish, I should have no doubt it was he, in spite of his being reported dead.” A hen the army of the sultan w r as routed by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, MustukBey did not fail to conciliate the favour of the conqueror by pillag¬ ing the vanquished, and he was confirmed in his government of Bayas, which he kept for several years ; but he could not bear the restraint of the regular and strict discipline of the Egyptian soldier, and he retired to the territory ofMarash. Ibrahim Pasha, however, finding it difficult to maintain order among the turbulent factions of the Turkmans, who were continually in revolt and committing all kinds of disorders, and his time being too much taken up with more important matters to admit of par¬ ticular attention to the mountain of Bayas (over which he was obliged, however, to lead his forces twice in person, to reduce the turbulent mountaineers both of Amanus and Taurus to obedience), he thought it expedient to invite Mustuk Bey to return, and resume the direction of the thirty Darahs of whom he is the chief, and over whom he has much influence. When the Egyptian army evacuated Cilicia, Mustuk Bey did all he could to restrain his people from plunder until the troops had passed the strait of Bayas, in order that the army might not be provoked in its passage to lay waste a country which he felt was more particularly returning under his own immediate control; but as soon as the army had passed his own domain he fell on its rear, robbing all the loiterers and runaways. It is but justice to Ibrahim Pasha to say here, that the affairs of the province of Cilicia were ably and efficiently administered in his time by Selim Pasha and Hamid Minikli. These worthy individuals GOVERNMENT OE IBRAHIM PASHA. 91 did an immense deal of good in being the first to introduce the adminis¬ tration of justice into the province; and they are still much regretted, although the people suffered considerably in their time from military conscriptions. Ibrahim Pasha is said to have maintained at one time as many as 20,000 men in this province out of its own revenues, and yet to have saved money. He re-opened the long-closed mines in the Taurus ; he exported to Egypt vast quantities of timber from Mounts Rhosus, Ama- nus and Taurus ; he introduced the sugar-cane, and favoured agricul¬ tural pursuits; and he founded in the gates of Cilicia, at Kulek Boghaz, a line of defences which were constructed with great engineering shill, but which were blown up by the army previous to their retreat. SACCAL TUT AX. A ruin at a place near Alexandretta, known by sailors as “Jonas’s Pillars/’ and supposed to be the gates mentioned by Xenophon, and called by him the gates of Syria and Cilicia ; they are on the battle-field of Issus, and from the top of these Alexander may be supposed to have witnessed the retreat of Darius’s army before his brave troops. CHAPTER IX. MUHAMMAD IZZET PASHA-A PRETENDER TO THE TURKISH THRONE-HIS STRANGE HISTORY AND RARE ACCOMPLISHMENTS-DISAPPEARS AT KUNIYAH-AHMED IZZET PASHA—GRANTS PERMISSION TO MUSTUK BEY TO MURDER HIS NE¬ PHEW-SULAIMAN PASHA-D UR WISH AHMED’S EXPEDITION AGAINST MUS¬ TUK BEY-HIS CHIEF OFFICERS TAKEN AND STRIPPED-BAYAS CAPTURED AND SACKED. I now proceed to the history of the last five pashas who have succes¬ sively governed the province of Cilicia since the evacuation of the Egyptians in 1840, and to narrate the various facts of note that have taken place since that epoch. Muhammad Izzet was the first appointed by the Porte to preside over this province. He is one of the employes of the Porte that I have known who most deserves well of his country. This worthy man filled his post with dignity and honour, and combined much of the munificence of the “ old school” with the simplicity of the new. This good man fell into disgrace without meriting it, and remained some time neglected, until he obtained, through the greatest pecuniary sacrifices, the post of governor at Uzgat, where he died. He was so much beloved, that on his leaving Adana the people actually wept at the loss they were about to sustain 5 and this is a fact for which I can vouch as an eye-witness. But per¬ haps, although I would not detract from his merit, this mildness of temper was owing in a great measure to the times he lived in as governor of Cilicia | because as he was the first appointed after the evacuation of the Egyptians, he would no doubt have had particular instructions to be extremely lenient. It was during the administration of Muhammad Izzet Pasha that an event occuned in Cilicia which I must pause to relate, for the facts are as extraordinary as they are inexplicable. In February 1843, an individual calling himself Nadir Bey, accom¬ panied by an amiable young Englishman of good family and education, whose parents live in London, arrived at Tarsus. The former (Nadir Bey) appeared to be little past thirty, of a very prepossessing cast of nadir bey and Ills pretensions. 93 countenance and engaging manners, highly accomplished, and acquainted with fourteen languages, which he appeared to know as well as a native of the countries whose language he spoke. He had been in the service of Ibrahim Pasha, under the assumed name of Murali Mahandas (Grecian engineer), and was well known to the inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana. Indeed, he seemed to know every body all over the Levant. It was remarked that on his former visit to Tarsus, while in the Egyptian service, he used to gamble a good deal, and often lost of an evening all he had about him, frequently large sums, upwards of 20,000 piastres (200?.); and the next day his purse would be replenished as usual. He had, however, maintained his incognito ge¬ nerally, and only confided to a few of his private friends his real history, which was that “ being the son of Sultan Mustafa, and the elder brother of Mahmud, he was the rightful heir to the throne .’’ His knowledge of English was perfect, and he sang Italian music like a vocalist of that country ; and I have since been informed by his companion that he had at Palermo a palace filled with a large collection of first-rate paintings of the old masters, chosen by himself, and u a live portrait” of a young and beautiful Circassian whom he looked upon as his wife. He had passed in all the courts of Europe under an assumed Italian name, Count Kicchi of Corfu, and was much respected and beloved by all who knew him. Indeed, his companion has since assured me, that one day having called unexpectedly on the brother of the Iving of Naples, who was at dinner, that prince rose from table to receive him with more empresse- ment than even the greatest courtesy could exact or court etiquette allow. As I cannot doubt the veracity of my friend the young Englishman, who has since informed me that he believed Nadir Bey was allowed 5000?. a year by the Emperor of Morocco, I am at a loss how to proceed in my history, as I have to state that these two gentlemen arrived in Tarsus without any pecuniary means whatever, and on the wildest of all imagi¬ nary schemes ! Nadir Bey applied to a friend in Tarsus for a small sum in order to obtain a suit of Turkish clothes, as he was dressed in the European costume. Having obtained what he desired, he departed for Adana the third day of his arrival, leaving his friend in Tarsus ; and the latter has repeatedly declared that he was only his travelling companion, and had no idea of the rash step Nadir Bey was about to take, or he cer¬ tainly would not have allowed him to go, as he was very much attached to him. Nadir Bey had two private interviews with the former governor of the city, who had been Mutsillim, or town-governor, in the time of 94 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Ibrahim Pasha, and who it seems knew him well. They agreed to go to the Mufti’s; and the next day, on presenting themselves there, whilst smoking the first pipe, and before they could enter on the subject of Nadir Bey’s views, the Tufankji Bashi, or chief officer of police, sum¬ moned them to appear before the pasha in council, where they found all the ayans (nobles) assembled. When Nadir Bey entered, he proceeded to take his seat next to the pasha, and began a discourse in Turkish, saying that he felt it a duty he owed his country to take the present step, inasmuch as his heart bled to see it suffering under the present tyranny, and that if they would rise and declare him sultan, he would make them all his ministers; “ for,” said he, “ you must know that I am the rightful heir to the throne, being the son of Mustafa V., the elder brother of the late Sultan Mahmud. On the murder of my father, my mother escaped on board a Russian vessel, and I was born a few months after her escape to her family in Georgia.” He had subsequently been sent to Russia, where he was educated. To support his claims, he shewed them a letter addressed to him by Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, wherein he is styled “ Effendim Sultanim,” and recognised as the lawful heir to the throne.* The pasha observed that his proposed enterprise could only be undertaken with a large body of men, and much money would be requisite. To this he replied, that if they would only promise to rise, he would engage that early in the spring there should arrive 25,000 men on the coast, and that pecuniary means should not be wanting. The Nakib then observed, “ Our pashalik is small, and we think you had better go to Kuniyali and have a conference with the pasha of that place, whose district is much more extensive. Yes,” said the pasha, u that is the best place; so you had better retire to the coffee-room” (where the principal attendants of the pasha remain in waiting, and which often serves for a more honourable confinement to a person of distinction than a public prison), 11 until two Tufankjis (military police) can be got ready to accompany you.” * I cannot suppose this letter authentic, because I must also note that he hacl last come from Egypt, which country he and his companion had been obliged to leave so suddenly on board an Egyptian frigate bound for Tarsus, that the latter had not time to apprise his friends of his destination, and he had to wait some time before he could hear from them and receive remittances. The officers of this Egyptian man-of-war have often asked me very anxiously concerning him, and acknowledged that he had confided his secret to them during the passage. They appeared to idolise his memory, for he contrived to engage the affections of every one wherever he went; but I cannot help thinking that his sudden departure from Alexandria was in consequence of Mu¬ hammad Ali’s determination not to be compromised personally, though he allowed him to try his luck, or rather risk his life, in attempting to raise the people elsewhere. ARREST OE NADIR BEY. 9 5 Nadir Bey remained twenty-four hours under this arrest, weeping, and vouching for the truth of what he advanced, and saying that now his life would be the forfeit of his patriotism. “ Yes,” he ex¬ claimed, “lama sacrifice for my poor people; still my rights shall be recognised.” He then would cheer up with the delightful prospect with which his madness deceived him, that he would obtain justice eventually, and then again he would relapse into despair. Mounted on a bad horse, he set off the 4th of March, 1843, under the escort of two armed men, to Kuniyah. Before leaving the town, he called at the house of* a Erench resident at Adana, and without being allowed to dismount, asked him for a little money and a cloak to screen him from the inclemencies of the season. Having obtained the latter, he then begged him earnestly to send a portfolio he had taken the pre¬ caution to confide to his care previous to his entering on this mad enter¬ prise, to the English consul at Tarsus, with a request that he should take notice of the papers contained therein, and immediately inform the British embassy of his position, “ that, if necessary, the ambassador may intercede to save his life, as he had already done once before.” This is in allusion to a statement which is also current, that Nadir Bey had been a great favourite with Sultan Mahmud, who entrusted him with the government of a province in Europe, where he tried to excite a conspiracy, and being brought to Constantinople would have lost his life but for the humane intercession of his excellency. I have seen the contents of this portfolio, wherein there is no paper of any consequence except a very urgent one from the Emperor of Morocco to the late Sultan Mahmud, recommending Nadir Bey very strongly to his kindness, as “his nephew and own flesh and blood.” This letter I have perused with great attention, and have no doubt of its authenticity ; but I have not heard how or by what means of per¬ suasion it was obtained. Here I should mention, that when Nadir Bey was seized by the pasha, the British consular agent at Adana thought it his duty to claim him as a person furnished with a passport, and consequently under his jurisdiction; but the pasha smiled and said, “ No, no, Ave knoAv this man well; his name is Ahmed, and Ave have all along been on the look-out for him.” Nadir Bey reached Kuniyah in safety, and a European, Avho had been apprised by letter of his coming, immediately Avent to the palace of the governor to inquire after him. He Avas informed that such an individual had arrived, and had prosecuted his journey to Con¬ stantinople. The people of the country, Avho all took interest in his fate, said 96 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. that at Kuniyah he had been recognised by the Mullah Khunkar, or chief of the dervishes, on whom devolves the duty of buckling on the sword of every newly-elected sultan, and that he was presented with a good mule, and furnished with money and servants to proceed to the capital as became his rank. Be this as it may, nothing more has ever been heard of this mysterious young man. Two or three months after this event, the British vice-consul at Samsun, who had been informed of what had occurred in Cilicia, taking a ride, saw a horseman who answered the description given of Nadir Bey. He was in Egyptian clothes,* and was whistling as he rode before him into town an Italian air with the greatest correctness. The resemblance of this man to what he had heard of Nadir Bey did not at the time strike Mr. C-; but he had scarcely reached his home before the thought occurred to his mind that this might be the same individual, and he immediately sent people to all the public khans and coffee-houses, and to every place where he could suppose it possible he could go, to find him out; but although the town is small (not containing 6000 inhabitants), he was not able to discover any person agreeing to the description he gave of the individual he had met that afternoon ! This is all I have been able to ascertain and collect regarding this extraordinary character, who has interested me exceedingly, and the more so as I found that he was universally beloved and esteemed by all who have known him per¬ sonally. I regret that I did not see him (being at the time confined to my room by fever), to be enabled to give a more particular description of his person. There appeared, some days later, an article in one of the Constantinople papers saying that an impostor had been seized in Tarsus who pretended to the throne, and that he had been sent to Constan¬ tinople, where he was daily expected; but his arrival there was never announced. But the circumstance of his appearing in Cilicia as a claimant to the throne of Constantinople alone and without funds, to create a revolt in a country where he was well aware the natural feelings of patriotism are unknown, and where the inhabitants are driven like sheep by the strongest or by those who pay them, at the best, can only be reconciled to common sense by supposing that he must have lost his senses be¬ fore entering on his project: for what reasonable hope could there be of exciting a sympathy or enthusiasm in a population reduced by poverty to the last stage of indifference, and that too in the character of a man who had passed the greater part of his life among infidels, the ■' Like those purchased by Nadir Bey at Tarsus, previous to proceeding to Adana on his inexplicable undertaking. 97 QUARRELS AND INTRIGUES OF TURKISH OFFICIALS. enemies of their religion and nation, himself tainted by the odium of having been allied to the hated Jawurs, and hence unfitted for the sacred office of defender of the faithful,—a prejudice impossible to eradicate from the minds of those who aspire to be strict Mussulmans, and who form by far the great majority of the population? Politically speaking, the attempt was madness; and we are lost in a maze of conjecture when we reflect on the infatuation of this individual, who was well acquainted with the country and people, and who in all other respects excited the astonishment while he captivated the hearts of all who knew him.* The second pasha who was appointed (12th May, 1843) to govern Cilicia after the evacuation of the Egyptians, was Ahmed Izzet Pasha,j" son-in-law of old Ali Pasha of Bagdad. Ahmed was jealous of the influence which the Muhassil (financial agent of the Porte) Abdullah Ruslidi exercised, and by which he could appropriate to himself all the emoluments arising from bribes. He therefore persuaded Mustuk Bey to quarrel with the Muhassil, in order to frighten him out of his post. The pasha hoped thus to get a more complaisant Muhassil, who would allow him to take into his own hands the advantage of directing through him the financial government of the Porte in the country. Mustuk Bey accordingly seized the earliest opportunity of quarrelling with the Muhassil, and which presented itself as they were seated during Ramadan at the door of a large caravansarai, enjoying the coolest place they could find in that sultry town. Mustuk Bey began by threatening to take away the Muhassil’s life, and made a shew of drawing his pistols for that purpose. But the Muhassil, so far from being intimidated, wrote to Constantinople, and had, it appears, sufficient influence to get the pasha dismissed. In the meanwhile, however,, before an answer could come from Con¬ stantinople, and it could be known which influence would ultimately prevail, Mustuk Bey had nothing to fear from the resentment of the Muhassil; but as family matters called him to Bay as, he took his leave of the pasha at Adana and returned home, whilst the latter set off in a contrary direction for Tarsus, “ to make hay while the sun shone,” that I must also add, for the satisfaction of the reader, that his friend and companion, before leaving- Tarsus, did not fail to pay whatever debts Nadir Bey had incurred during his passage through Tarsus See Appendix. f The Porte had been for some time uneasy about old Ali Pasha of Bagdad, not knowing whether he would submit or throw off his allegiance. This man tmdertook to persuade Ali to be faithful to the Sultan, and proceeded to Bagdad, where he ingra¬ tiated himself so completely in the old man’s good graces that he gave him his daughter in marriage, and, as a proof of his obedience to the Porte, agreed to give up his^post and accept the pashalik of Damascus, in order to spare the bloodshed of the faithful, consequent on civil war amongst Muhammadans;. H 98 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. is, to profit by liis position and make a tour among the Turkman tribes, from each of whom it was customary that every new pasha should receive one or more horses, valued at from 10Z. to 20 l. sterling, the number of which in this province generally amounted to a hundred given to each pasha. These horses were afterwards taken away to be sold, in the interior or at Constantinople, by the pasha when he was recalled, and thus the coun¬ try was drained of all its best steeds. The money to purchase these horses was raised by contribution from the inhabitants of the district the pasha visited, and they were charged by their chiefs at twice their value!* Ahmed Izzet Pasha had just arrived at Tarsus, when he was aston¬ ished to see Mustuk Bey make his appearance there, at a time when he thought him at Bayas. I happened accidentally to be present at their meeting, and witnessed the embarrassment of the pasha, who was per¬ suaded that something very serious could alone have brought him thus suddenly to Tarsus. He was soon, however, relieved from his anxiety to know the cause of this sudden visit, by Mustuk Bey’s informing him privately, that he was come to obtain his sanction to make away with his own relation, who had conspired against him during his absence from Bayas, whilst paying his court to the pasha at Adana. Mustuk Bey ob¬ tained the permission he had come to solicit and returned home, where, the better to cloak his design, he soon after made peace with his nephew Hassan Aga Zaitun Uglu, the very individual against whom his father had warned his ..children, and whose father, as has already been stated, Kutchuk Ali Uglu had murdered. Mustuk Bey accepted from his nephew a dinner of reconciliation, and went with his followers to visit him. Soon after dinner Mustuk rose to depart, and ordered his nephew’s followers to escort him, leaving his own to finish their meal; and when the master of the house, who is required by the etiquette of the East to be the last to rise from the table, had just got up, and was in the act of washing his hands, his cousin Osman Aga shot him with a pis¬ tol, and the rest despatched him with their swords, after which they mounted their horses to follow their master. The dying man is said to have exclaimed, “Is such treachery possible?” referring to the maxim common to all nations, that there should bo “ honour among thieves.” Mustuk Bey resembled his father; his face was large and flat, with rather a scanty beard, becoming grey. He also spoke through his nose * When a new pasha arrived, aU the local officers employed by his predecessor were expected to make him a present of greater or less value, according to the importance of their office, in order to be continued in their posts, which was generally done till the pasha had had time to look about him, when he took occasion to turn them out, and place in some of his dependents. GOVERNMENT OF SULAIMAN PASHA. 99 like his father. His conversation was pleasing, his manners very polished, and he treated all travellers who visited him, particularly the English, very kindly, and with much respect. He occupied a little palace above Bayas, which his predecessor Rustam Bey, the governor appointed by Ibra¬ him Pasha, had embellished after the Turkish fashion.* His great gene¬ rosity reduced him to be often in want of the necessaries of life; and the debts he contracted towards the government by reason of his munificence afforded an opportunity to his enemies wherewith to work his ruin. The moment Ahmed Izzet Pasha had lost his post through the superior influence of the Muhassil Rushdi Effendi’s friends and sup¬ porters at Constantinople, the latter availed himself of his power to bring Mustuk Bey into disgrace. Sulaiman Pasha, who succeeded Ahmed Izzet Pasha in the month of November 1843, was, under the advice of the Muhassil, induced to sum¬ mon Mustuk Bey to appear in Adana. He replied, that he was ready to obey as soon as the Muhassil should be recalled, or else to enter the city with a suite of 500 horsemen; whereupon the Muhassil took secret mea¬ sures to induce the Porte to believe that Mustuk Bey refused to pay the tribute he owed to the government, the greatest of all crimes in the estimation of the ministry. In order further to excite the government against his enemy, the Muhassil gave private orders to the Tartar bearer of letters from Da¬ mascus to Constantinople not to pass through Bayas, but to take a boat and go across the Gulf of Alexandretta to Kara-Tash. The post having thus been delayed in its progress, the Muhassil had a pretext for accus¬ ing Mustuk Bey of interrupting public communication, although caravans and passengers were never in the least molested, and although that very week two Hajjis arrived from Syria, after having been treated on their way by Mustuk Bey with his usual hospitality. The Porte, giving ear to these insinuations, issued an order to attack Mustuk Bey. Two conscripts, one on foot, the other on horseback, were exacted from every village; and such, of course, were sent as could best be spared from agricultural labours. These were therefore boorish shepherds, many of whom had never used any other arms than those given them by nature, unless it were a club or stone against the wolves that attacked their sheep, and were equally unacquainted with riding. Each man was also furnished by the village to which he be- * He was in great favour with the first two pashas after the evacuation of the Egyptians, and was honoured with a Nishan Iftichar, and the title of Kapitchi Bashi, by the Sultan,—an honorary grade given to governors of towns and chiefs of Turkman tribes who render themselves useful to the Porte. 100 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. longed with a hundred piastres for his expenses during the campaign, a pound of powder, and four leaden bullets. In this manner five or six thousand men were collected outside the gates of Adana, wheie biscuit and barley were the only things provided by the government for the use of their levies. On the other hand, 1800 cartridges were discovered in the corner of some magazine, and were broken open in order to distribute the powder therein contained to the Turkmans by the handful. No chief would at first condescend to lead such a rabble; and this honour was finally reserved for Durwisli Ahmed, son of Kil-Aga, who was the only man who had the courage to march against the redoubtable Mustuk Bey. For more than a month the conscripts were still assembling, and the encampment had been transferred to Ivurt-Ivulak, twelve houis ride fiom Adana. In the meanwhile the caravan of Mecca was approaching j and the Tufankji Bashi and Oda Bashi, or chamberlain, resolved to advance with about sixty followers, with the impudent boast of their doing so in order to protect the caravan. Mustuk Bey received their valiant on¬ slaught with a handful of his followers, took them all prisoners, and ignominiously stripped them of their clothes, sending them back with a message to the effect that he would not make them pay with their lives the insult they had offered him, and that the only thing he would retain would be their horses, in part payment for a herd of cattle which the enemy had a few days previously carried off. These fellows, ashamed and disgusted, returned to Adana. The caravan passed with all due hon¬ ours, and the chief undertook to intercede at Constantinople for Mustuk Bey, and to explain the exact state of things. Mustuk accordingly, satisfied with the hopes which the promises of the Suramini had inspired, and unwilling to be the cause of the effusion of “ Muhammadan blood,” as also not to implicate himself still further, retired to his mountains, although he could, as the people expressed it, 11 have eaten them up all at once? As soon as Durwish Ahmed heard of Mustuk’s retreat, he fell on Bayas, and pillaged and burnt every thing that came in his way, even to the wood for building belonging to merchants of Adana that happened to be on the sea-sliore ready for embarkation. Neither the sex nor the rank of one of Mustuk Bey’s harim, who remained behind, saved her from being stripped and ill-treated—an act unprecedented in the annals of the East, as women are always respected by the most barbarous. Mus¬ tuk Bey went to Mar’ash and afterwards to Aleppo, where he was hospi¬ tably received by the pasha, who took him with him to Beyrut, and thence to Constantinople. CHAPTER X. ANECDOTES OF SULAIMAN PASHA-GIN-JUSIF, REBEL OF KARA-TASH-ARIF PASHA—MURDER OF A PASHA-HASAN PASHA-ANECDOTES OF THE COUNCIL -CHRISTIAN MEMBERS OF COUNCIL-EMPLOYES OF THE PORTE-TOLL AT KULAK BUGHAZ-IIATI SHERIFF-COURTS OF JUSTICE. / During tins period, as I have already stated, Sulaiman Pasha governed Adana. This old man was of all pashas the most stupid, except in matters relating to money, the sound of which alone could awaken his attention. During his government, an oke of sugar as a bribe would not be refused by him or his officers when nothing more valuable could be had. On his arrival to take the reins of government, this pasha told me that he had been named for his peaceable disposition, in opposition to that of his predecessor; and in this the Porte really shewed great discri¬ mination. He was rich, although he maintained a whole troop of women servants, together with a wife. On the landing of the latter at Mursina, the wife of the doctor of quarantine called to pay her respects. To excuse her very ordinary apparel, and the tattered garments of her children, she said, u Pray do not look at these clothes; I have some with four fingers’ width of gold lace on them.” But this was not likely, as, contrary to our customs, the people of the East always travel in their finest and newest apparel. When Sulaiman Pasha first arrived at Mursina from Constantinople, he was also met on the sea-shore by the director of the quarantine, who caused a sheep to be slaughtered in honour of his disembarkation, lodged his excellency with all his suite for the night, giving up to him his own apartment, and standing before him all the while to serve him, &c. The next day he accompanied him to Tarsus, to swell the number of his cortege. After remaining twenty-four hours in attendance, as the pasha was to proceed to Adana, he came forward to take his leave; and kneel¬ ing down, kissed the hem of his garment, requesting permission to return. Will it be believed, that the pasha actually asked him who he was ? 102 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. The power of the Porte was much shaken in Ivara-Tash about' this time. Yusuf, son of the man whom we have seen defending the castle of Bayas under Dada Bey, had killed his brother and usurped his post. This man was a peasant of the Ansairi tribe, but he had no particular religious belief. His domestic establishment was composed of seven women, among whom were the sister and mother of his wife ! He col¬ lected all the rogues he could, by screening them from the pursuit of justice ; and Kara-Tash was fast passing from under the jurisdiction of the pasha, when Jin Yusuf was enticed to Adana and put into prison. But as the government thought he might one day be required for the purpose of setting him against his other brother Mustafa, his life was spared. Tired of such restraint, Jin Yusuf sent one of his followers to shoot Mustafa, knowing that he would then be necessary to govern¬ ment at Kara-Tash. It turned out as he expected: Mustafa died of the wound he received from a bullet, and the pasha being about to quit Adana in disgrace, was glad to take 10,000 piastres (equal to about 90/.), which Jin Yusuf paid him for his release, and which sum he soon after recovered, levying it by contributions on the villagers in his district of Kara-Tash ; and Jin Yusuf is at this moment the right-hand man of one of the ayans of Adana, and the pasha, in a letter to me, styles him Jciz-agasi , a title equivalent to lord-lieutenant of a county. Old Sulaiman Pasha having been a sufficient time at his post to make up more than the sum he had defrayed to obtain it, he was re¬ called a.d. 1844, and Arif Pasha was named to succeed him ; but the pride of this man soon led to his downfall. Kuzan Uglu, chief of the Turkman tribes that dwell near Sis, and a friend of Mustuk Bey, had been summoned to Adana; but he refused to appear, suspecting Abdullah al Rushdi, the muhassil, of treachery. On the guarantee of the Armenian patriarch, he ultimately consented to answer the summons; but on his arrival he was treacherously put under arrest. The mountaineers hearing of this breach of faith, prepared to attack the city, and would certainly have pillaged it, had not the pasha invested Kuzan Uglu with a pelisse of honour, and sent him back to quell the insurrection. The Turkman tribe of Kuzan Uglu has al¬ ways been, to a certain extent, independent alike of Ibrahim Pasha and of the Porte. Shortly after this, a pasha of Mar’ash (a young man whose name I have forgotten) was killed by some of the Aiishir tribes, neighbours of Kuzan Uglu; for having gone among them to levy tribute, and with a dozen of his followers he fell a victim to his imprudence. Arif Pasha, in consequence, made some demonstration of his intention to invade THOROUGH CHANGE OP GOVERNMENT. 103 the Kuzan Tagh, which constitutes a portion of the Taurus mountains; but the demonstration came to nothing. The unsettled state of the country was indeed at its height during Arif’s government. He actually refused to convict a thief without com¬ petent witnesses, although some of the stolen property was found upon him, because this individual had powerful friends, and bribed the cadi with 500 piastres. Abdulla Rushdi at last fell into disgrace ; but he contrived to leave Adana with upwards of a hundred horses and forty-two panther-skins, together with several thousand purses (of 5 1. each) wherewith to in¬ trigue for new honours. He was succeeded by another intriguer, who had united with the chiefs of the country to get Arif Pasha dismissed. In 1846 the Porte, having been repeatedly petitioned by these peo¬ ple, and worn out by their importunities, as well as tired of their com¬ plaints, determined to make a complete change in the officers of the pashalik of Adana; and Hassan Pasha was deputed, with a suite of fresh- imported employes, to fill up the various vacancies. This fat illiterate man was one of the Janissaries of old, who had, in the time of the reformation of Sultan Mahmud, willingly submitted to the new discipline called Nizam, and was consequently spared the fate of his companions in arms. His stupid, coarse manners corresponded with his appearance.* Mastuk Bey, who had been to Constantinople with his patron Waji Pasha, availed himself of the change of ministry at Adana to return, and he accompanied Hassan Pasha in the Turkish steamer. On their arrival I took occasion to recommend Mustuk Bey to him, on the ground of his being the only man who could keep the Turkmans in order ; for the roads had been infested with robbers during his absence, which was never the case when he was at the head of his tribe. Hassan Pasha contemptuously answered, “ that neither Mustuk Bey nor any one else, not even himself, could presume to consider that he was indispensable to the Daulat il Aliyah (Sublime Porte), whose breath * An Arabic story is told of a governor, who surpassed his father and grandfather in tyranny, going out in disguise one day to hear what people said of him. He was surprised to find that an old woman alone, out of all his subjects, prayed God to prolong his life ,—“ Alla yitawall amru.” He accosted her, and entering into familiar conversation, desired to be told why she prayed for the prosperity of a tyrant hated by every body. She informed him that “ the grandfather of Effendina was tyrannical his father still more so, and Effendina was worse than both; should God Almighty, therefore, in his vengeance deprive us of him, he could at this rate send us none other than Eblis (Satan) himself ‘Azlam,’ more just than Effendina (our lord), whom God preserve : and that is why I pi'ay for the long life of Effendina, as we can only change for the worse.” 104 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. alone supports or exterminates all men 1” I could not help smiling at this assumption of grandeur, having been witness of the little power of the government he so much lauded only a few days previously, when the Turkmans had carried off with impunity between two and three hundred head of cattle within half an hour’s ride of Adana. Arif Pasha, with a spy-glass in his hand, had actually seen from his window some travellers stripped on the other side of the river, and dared not afford them assistance ; nor could the post ever pass without an escort of Dali Bashis (“ mad heads,” irregular cavalry). But the weakness of the Cilician governors is in some degree ex¬ cusable when we consider that they are thrown in a strange land with¬ out sufficient means to enforce their authority, being scarcely allowed the pay of fifty saimans (irregular troops). They are thus placed at the mercy of the chiefs of the country, who offer them the option, viz. on one side the opportunity of becoming rich, and on the other, opposition in every thing, which would completely cripple their power; and they are induced, by want < of .principle, to choose that which is most con¬ ducive to their private advantage. It sometimes happens that, in consequence of the mutual jealousies of the members of the council, they submit to receive a Mutsallim, or governor, among them: but this man, as well as his master the pasha, with whom he shares his profits, becomes a tool in their hands ; and as soon as one of the members contrives to get the ascendant of the rest, the Mutsallim is set aside without any scruple or ceremony. This is perhaps the case in this province more than in any other, the members of the council being chiefs of Turkman tribes supported by 2000 or more followers, who are encamped within call at a few hours’ ride from the towns.* Thus we see that this pashalik is governed only nominally by the envoyes from the Sublime Porte, and that the real authority is in the hands of the ayans, who retain the power of levying the Saliyan , an arbitrary tax originally paid by the people for the purpose of de¬ fraying the travelling expenses of Pashas, Kapitchi Bashis, and other officers of the Porte, while resident in the towns, and which has con¬ tinued in force, although since the financial reforms of the sultan it has been fixed on more regular principles, and the reasons for its exaction have long ago been cancelled. This tax is levied twice a year, and from the uncertain nature of the sum, holds out a wide field for pecu¬ lation. It is divided into so many portions, generally double the sum required by the Porte, and it is exacted from the chiefs of the several ♦ Some of the tribes are much more powerful. Malamanji Uglu could unite from $00 to 1200 guns. TAXATION IN CILICIA. 10 5 districts, villages, or departments, who in their turn also speculate on its advantages to their own profit; so that the poor villagers have to pay three times what the Porte receives, and they are also the greatest suffereis, as the ayans contrive to exempt their own people ; and this tyranny falls so heavily on the villagers, that they often find no other chance of escaping the exactions of the ayans than emigration, which takes place to a great extent,* although a husbandman is not allowed by law to quit his district; so that when unable to pay the dues fixed upon them at the capricious option of the chiefs, they wander about from place to place, and leave their children to the mercy of strangers, j" This system is also put in practice in its several ramifications by the sheiks of the villages, who mimic their superiors in the council; and they enjoy the same immunity from punishment. Nothing can be more detrimental to the public weal than this combination of six or ten persons who act in concert. The more individuals in power, the more channels of extortion, and the more subjects exempt from taxation to the prejudice of the rest of the community. This council, presided over by the Pasha and Muhassil, is composed of the Mufti, Cadi, Nakib, and some of the chiefs of the Turkman tribes, who, by the venal means above alluded to, have contrived to establish an influence indispensable (without regular troops) to the collecting of the taxes. These keep up a good understanding among themselves as to what i egards their individual interests, and cede by turns to each other ev eiy advantage they can avail themselves of to monopolise and Kai adughar (Anchiale) and Kaisanli, formerly two flourishing villages, were in 1517 neaily deseited, in consequence of the heavy exactions of the government-people, who, seeing a populous village, fixed a sum to be paid in Saliyan far beyond the means of the poor inhabitants, who, having been reduced to sell every thing they had to satisfy the extortions of their petty tyrants, and their lands proving bar- 1 en in consequence of the want of rain, were all dispersed, each seeking refuge in some distant place, some going to Cyprus, and others to Syria, while those who had any relations in the country were too happy to become their servants in the culture of the ground, to obtain food for themselves and then.' distressed families. Happy it is that such a state of things is rapidly going by ! Out of some forty families in Karadughar, only six families remained; and these being required to pay 18,200 piastres of the Saliyan of the village when it was populous tried to run away to Syria by embarking in a small boat at night. The number of the families at Kaisanli was seventy, and they were reduced by desertion to a dozen in the same state as those of Karadughar ; and many other villages, such as Ivara- jillas, Nisani, &c., were reduced to the same condition. All these villages were peopled with Ansairi peasants, a quiet and laborious race of men. f This is certainly a remains of the feudal system ; and I have repeatedly heard of two neighbouring chiefs quarrelling, and reclaiming from each other the taxes due by their several serfs, who had taken refuge and been received by another chief from his neighbour’s territory: and often these individuals are compelled to return to their for¬ mer place, and submit to the still greater exactions of their exasperated chief. 106 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. extort, allowing to the Pasha and Muhassil a fair portion of the booty for their co-operation. The introduction of Christians into the councils, as ordained by the Porte, has not in Cilicia as yet gone beyond the summoning of some illiterate follower of the Messiah, who sits on his knees near the door, and never opens his mouth but with low obeisances to confirm their nefarious decrees. He is generally a servant of the Mufti, and officiates as Sarraff or banker of the government, a lucrative employ¬ ment, which throws much floating capital into his hands. He is sup¬ posed to be the most respectable of his co-religionists; but the Turks pay little regard to the rank he holds as representative of the Christians and member of the council , for he often gets the bastinado to quicken his accounts.* In this council all the u appaltos” (monopolies) of the government, which have not been abolished, are sold yearly, although in the treaty with England a heavy duty of twelve per cent is established by the last tariff on condition of their being set aside ; and here I may notice, that from time immemorial it has been observed that in Turkey a new tax very seldom cancels old ones, but is added to them, in spite of all arrangements to the contrary. The Pasha and Muhassil buy in the name of their servants the most profitable monopolies, without any one outbidding them, as they distribute to each of the members a suffi¬ cient number of such u appaltos” as regards their various districts. Last year a present or bribe of 25,000 piastres (250Z.) was offered to the Muhassil to allow the monopoly of tobacco to be sold freely, but he preferred keeping it to himself. This dignitary, by this one fraud alone, collected yearly several thousand pounds sterling. I perfectly recollect the first arrival of Abdalla Rushdi Effendi in Mursina, where he had occasion to accept of my hospitality. The first question he asked was, wffietlier there were any dresses to be had ready-made at Adana! He had actually arrived at his post without a change of clothes; and yet on dismounting from his horse at Adana he found a house furnished for him with such magnificence, that he was enabled to treat those who called upon him with pipes and coffee in cups set w r ith diamonds, and * A remarkable instance of tliis took place on tbe arrival of Arif Pasha, who, on inspecting the public records, found a deficit of about 300£. to 400L, and required its immediate payment. The money was not owed by the sarraff of Tarsus, but by the elfendis of the council, who had each taken what they required; and yet the sarraff was afraid to explain this knotty point, and at first received 500 bastinados, and was afterwards obliged to disburse the money out of his own purse. He had even to pre¬ tend that the money was due by different Christians, friends of his, who acknowledged the debt, which was paid by the sarraff, in order to conceal the tricks of the ayans, who are always trifling with the public revenue. CHARACTER OF TAX-GATHERERS. 107 which had been prepared for him by the officious ayans. We have seen how he left Adana after three years’ residence there. The Cadi of 1844, on his arrival to take possession of his post in Adana, had not wheiewith to pay his horse-hire from Mursina to Tarsus ! Very laige salaries have of late been paid to all the employes by the Poite, in the hope that this may induce them to give up their habits of venality; but unfortunately the instability of their appointments, at least in Cilicia, renders them anxious to profit by the opportunities afforded them, in order to be enabled by their ill-gotten wealth to bribe in their turn their superiors at Constantinople when they are recalled,—an event which takes place e very few months, in consequence of the many com¬ plaints that reach Constantinople of their venal practices, and which is generally brought about by one intriguing against the other. By this constant change of oppressors, the people are always falling into fresh hungry hands, which must be satisfied, lodged, and maintained; and although very strict commands are issued from time to time by the Porte to prevent these irregularities, in distant provinces like Cilicia little or no attention is paid to the wishes and good intentions of the government.* But the great source of local mal-administration is the influence of the members of the council, whose whole energy is directed to the support of its members and dependents at the expense of the Porte and people. An useless, unprincipled, and in most cases an igno¬ rant oligarchy, ruinous to the country and to the treasury of the Sultan; and until some very effective measures are taken to crush the power it has usurped, no hope can be entertained of any amelioration in the legislature. Individual despotism is always to be deplored; but an oppressive oligarchy is the perfection of tyranny. It had been agreed upon between the Porte and the European powers, that there should be no more monopolies; still these exist in full force: and the Bage or toll levied at Kulak Bughaz is not one of the least * At Antioch the tax-gatherers used to exact the tithes in money; and as they fixed a larger sum than even the produce of the land, the villagers found it so ruinous, that they preferred leaving a great portion of their grounds uncultivated, and actually cut down their trees. This came to the cognisance of the Porte, and a firman was issued to forbid such abuses; and it was therein clearly specified that the tithes should be always collected in kind: and each of the Ayans of Antioch, who are not, like those of Cilicia, supported by Turkman tribes (not belonging to any), was himself com¬ pelled to read in his district this firman before the assembled people, for the purpose of giving due publicity to the intentions of the Porte. That year some attention was paid to this order: but they soon returned to their original mal-practiees ; and the tithes are now actually paid in cash at a price double the value of what the produce could be sold for in Antioch. But great changes are taking place for the better every year even in these remote districts; none more important than the abolition of the Saliyan in 1846, which has not been renewed since that period. 108 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. onerous. Three piastres per load, and one oke* in kind, is exacted in soap, coffee, turnbac, &c., which makes the road-tax amount to more than 12 per cent. The Muhassil, who has the chief interest in this oppres¬ sive toll, gives it his energetic support, and has not allowed it to be sup¬ pressed, in spite of many orders from the Porte obtained by the French and English ambassadors for that purpose. Although the Porte had declared that personal taxation should be abolished, and a tax on property be established in lieu thereof, this has not taken place, at least in Cilicia, where the members of the council being almost the sole landed proprietors, they would have been the chief sufferers; and as the executive power is in their hands, they have not allowed such an innovation to come into force. Nor have many advantages accrued to this province as yet by the Tanzimat Khairiyah , or Hatti Sheriff of Gulhana, so deservedly applauded as a charter granted by the Sultan to his subjects. The people, at least in Cilicia, are under the same tyrannical subjection, and are exposed to the same rapacity of their governors as ever they were; the latter never fail to avail themselves of the slightest excuse that can be found to put them in prison, whence they are never freed, however innocent, before they have paid a sum in proportion to their means, which imposition they call ex¬ penses of the prison , and which is fixed at the arbitrary caprice of the Tufankji Bashi. The Cadi also takes advantage of his position to carry on measures of intrigue very foreign to his station and profession. The great license allowed by the Turkish law, the facility of procuring false witnesses, and the difficulty of appealing to Constantinople for redress, enable him to carry through, by the connivance of the council, any mea¬ sure, however detrimental to the public weal. Indeed, the whole ad¬ ministration of justice, if such it can be called, may be summed up in the great facility of procuring false witnesses, and the extraordinary article in the Turkish code of condemning individuals sued against, how¬ ever false the accusation , to pay the costs. Innumerable instances may be brought forward of innocent persons prosecuted solely from motives of ill-will on the slightest pretences, to oblige them to pay the costs; and the officers of law, to whose profit this system accrues, give naturally en¬ couragement to such mal-practices. These abuses, and many more, are adopted by the pasha and officers of police, in order to make up for the loss of the privilege they formerly enjoyed, of imprisoning a man known to be rich, for the avowed purpose of making him pay an arbitrary tax for the private use of the pasha’s kitchen. In order to render the pre¬ sent plan as lucrative as the old one, it is in too many instances made * Two pounds and three-quarters English. MAL-ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 109 as general as possible, by encouraging the population to complain one against the other; and although a person is falsely accused, the accuser is not punished, nor do the costs of the suit, as I have already observed, fall upon him, as they should do. If any sum is recovered, the creditor pays seven to ten per cent, besides what is given to the constable for his trouble by the latter, and what is secretly paid by the creditor to the judge, generally about a third of the sum. I trusted to be able to conclude the present chapter with more con¬ solatory words of hope to the friends of Turkey, of which, notwithstand¬ ing its faults, and the difficulties the Porte has to fight against, I may truly say that I rank as one, and indeed as a most zealous well-wisher. It has been my endeavour throughout these pages to lay before my readers only simple facts which speak for themselves, to enable them to judge of the actual state of a province so remote and so peculiarly circumstanced as Cilicia. Nearer to Constantinople, the Turkish go- \ ernment is enabled to carry into more effective operation the many excellent regulations that are daily issued at the Porte for the benefit of the people. PLAIN OF ANTIOCH—OVERFLOW OF THE ORONTES ; MOUNT AMANUS IN THE DISTANCE. (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) MISSIS. (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTER XI. GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA—TARSUS AND ADANA-MISSIS (MOPSUESTIA)-SIS (PIN- DENISSUS)-BAYAS AND THE COAST-PYL.E CILICLE-POPULATION OF CILICIA-EUROPEANS AND THEIR INFLUENCE DESTROYED-CONSULS AND THEIR AUTHORITY-ENGLISH CONSULS ALLOWED TO TRADE-CLIMATE- STAGNANT LAKE (RHEGMA)—MARSH OF ALEXANDRETTA-COUNTRY-HOUSES -NIMRUD-SEA-PORTS-KAISANLI-MURSINA AND ITS ROADSTEAD. • • • ^ Haying traced the history of Cilicia down to the present day, I pro¬ pose now to say a few words on its geographical position, statistics, com¬ mercial resources, natural productions, and antiquities. The so-called pashalik of Adana, which corresponds pretty nearly to ancient Cilicia Campestris, is comprehended in a plain that extends from Sulufska (Seleucia,) to Ma’rasli, in a north-easterly direction, about 120 miles between the Taurus and Jawur or Giaour Tagh, which last, running north and south, forms with the sea a triangle in which the province is composed, and which is called by the Turks Chukur Uvah, and GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. Ill corresponds to the Aleian plain of old. Tarsus is situated on this plain, at the foot of Mount Taurus, about twelve miles from the sea, and a branch of the river Cydnus passes through the city, taking its rise in the adjoining chain of mountains, and emptying itself into the sea about twelve miles from Tarsus. Adana, fabled by Stephanus to have been founded by Adam (vide Ainsworth's Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks ), stands to the north-east, and is also on the plain at the foot of the Taurus range, and about thirty miles from the sea. It has another and larger river, Saihun, ancient Sams, passing by it, which, running parallel to the Cydnus, empties itself near the mouth of the latter. Missis, anciently called Mopsuestia, is said to have been founded by Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and Apollo, during the Trojan war; he had three daughters, Rhoda, Meliade, and Pampliylia. It is now a ruined village about twenty-five miles north-east of Adana, and through it flows the Jaihun (Pyramus), a river still larger than the two last mentioned. The Pyramus springs from the other side of Ma’rash, whence it passes winding along the plain to Sis and Missis, and finishes its course in the Bay of Ayass (TEgte), which is opposite Alex- andretta.* Sis (Pindenissus) is to the north of Missis, about sixty miles dis¬ tance, at the foot of Taurus, which the people of the country call at that point Ivusan Tagh, after the name of the tribe of Turkmans who inhabit the district. At this place is a monastery of great antiquity, the lesidence of an Armenian patriarch, who has some influence in the country, but who, notwithstanding his high rank, when he comes to Adana to visit the pasha, is as obsequious to the Turks as the rest of the oppressed Christian subjects of the Porte. A view of Sis, with the Armenian patriarch in the foreground surrounded by his bishops, is given in the frontispiece. Bayas (Issus) is on the gulf of that name, sixty miles to the south¬ east of Missis. Alexandretta is sixteen miles more to the south-east, at the foot of the Jawur Tagh, which rises almost perpendicularly behind it, constituting the farthest limits of the pashalik at Bailan (Pyla? Syria?), where the confines of Syria begin in a very tortuous and difficult pass. * Aisus (Rhossus) is to the*south of this town; it has the sea on one This place, that is, Ayass, is remarkable for its extraordinary number of sea- turtle, which are very easily caught as they come out on the sea-shore in the night to lay their eggs in the sand. Fish is also very abundant; but when taking it with a seine or draw-net the turtle fill up the sack; so that before it can reach the shore the fishermen have to go into the sea, which is not deep near the beach, to take them out, two or three times successively. On one occasion (May 1842) the crew of H.M.’s steamer Hecate, Captain Ward, took more than 150 turtles in less than twenty-four hours. 112 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. side and Mount Rhossus towering above it on the other.* The latter projects into the sea, and forms Cape Khanzir, or Wild-boar Cape, (Scopulus Rhossicus), so formidable to sailors in leaving the Bay of Alexandretta. Karatash is a village opposite Arsus, on the extreme side of the gulf, and has a little harbour affording a precarious shelter to small boats of the country, and is about sixty miles east by south of Tarsus. At Kulak Bughaz (Pyke Cilicke) is the pass into this province to the north-west from Anatolia, which is the most convenient road for beasts of burden, and was that principally used in all the military expeditions of the ancients. It was repaired by the Romans so as to admit of their chariots passing, but being neglected, has fallen to ruin, and in the narrow part you have now to pass through a stream two or three feet deep for more than a hundred yards. But I must, for a more minute description of this celebrated pass, refer to Mr. Ainsworth’s work entitled Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia , Chaldea, and Armenia. It was here that Ibrahim Pasha caused to be conveyed to the crest of the pass some very fine pieces of artillery of such a size that the present government have not been able to bring them down, and have been obliged to content themselves with twenty-eight small pieces of brass artillery, which they sent to Constantinople to be melted down into bislilics (five-piastre pieces of the country), worth something less than a shilling. At the same time six vessels of 250 tons were laden for Constantinople with powder and military stores, which had remained and been overlooked by the Egyptian army at the moment of departure, although by order of Ahmed Minikli Pasha some of the magazines were blown up. This shipment was made, not only to turn to account the leavings of the Egyptian army, which would have been useless in Adana, but also to keep such dangerous articles out of the people’s reach. Ibrahim Pasha had had constructed at Kulak Bughaz by a clever Polish * Arsus is now a small village built on the site of ancient Rhosus ; and in the vicinity are many fragments of walls, arches, and some remains of a temple with Corinthian columns. The most remarkable ruin in the neighbourhood is, however, an extensive aqueduct carried on arches, and which formerly brought water direct from the moun¬ tains to the town, although a rivulet of clear water flows through it. Nothing indicates that this town, whither, according to Plutarch, Demetrius re¬ paired from Seleucia Pieria, was ever an extensive site. It is, however, a spot still much frequented by Syrian Christians, with whom its church is in great sanctity ■ thus preserving, to a certain extent, the ecclesiastical importance which belonged to it in the middle ages, and which enabled it to send its mitred representatives to the Chris¬ tian Synods of the East. Eusebius, it is true, only notices Rhosus as a parish; but Socrates (iii. 25) mentions Antipatrum as Bishop of Rhosus; and it is also noticed as an episcopacy in the Acts of the Synod. The name is variously rendered Rhosus, or Rossus, by the Greeks and Latins; the Acts of the Synod have it Rhosopolis, and the Theodosian Tables Rhosus. W. F. A.. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF ALEXANDRETTA AND THE PASS OF ISSUS, WITH THE CILICIAN TAURUS MOUNTAINS IN THE DISTANCE. TAKEN FROM THE SUMMIT OF MOUNT RHOSSUS, FROM A SKETCH BY C. F. BARKER, ESQ. PYL2E CILICL®. 113 engineer, Colonel Shutz, fortifications which were intended to repel an vader, and at the same time serve as a model to instruct officers in every branch of fortification. These worts were executed by the retreat before I™ “ ^ T deStr ° yed by theE gH> tia ™ on their retreat before they were completely finished, after having cost immense sums of money and eight years’ constant labour of 10,000 men. is not : P T Iat T ° f thlSpashaIik amounts to about 300,000 souls; but it are either fe] “ exact cal otUation, as the reports of the Turkmans Tarsus fiOof fTt,- eXagS T te a ' Ad “ a C ° ntainS 18 ’ 000 “^bitants ; Tarsus, 6000. of this one-third are Mussulmans, more than a third An- sayrn or Ansanans, generally Deists, and the rest Armenians and Greeks. There are more than 300 villages on the plain, which average 200 souls each and the inhabitants of which are-for the most part Anlayrii, and a , i uhammadans. At Sis the population is almost entirely Armenian an numbers about 2000. Missis and Bayas contain 200 to 300 in- labitants altogether, and Alexandretta and Arsus as many. . ■ Turkman tribes, who dispersed in the plains, valleys, and moun- O -, S 0 113 P rovlnce > feed tllelr flocks in the pasturages of the Jaihun, T ‘ ’ aud thelr tributaries, in winter, and repair to the uplands of Taurus in summer, make up the sum of the rest of the population as above stated. There are at Tarsus a few families from Cyprus w o lead the same monotonous existence to which they are accustomed n their native town of Larnika. The few Europeans who inhabit Tarsus live a life of great privation, devoid of all intellectual society: they ap¬ pear to exist only in the hope that some day or another the relative ™Td Place WiU a ‘ length be full T predated and settled ; they will then be the first to profit thereby. atpa Th . er ®, a ! e f ng !L sh ’ French ’ Russian > Dlit clb and Neapolitan consul¬ ates established in Tarsus. The English system of allowing a consul to trade is very disadvantageous to commercial interests, and frustrates the very intention for which he is appointed—that of encouraging British commerce. It brings him into constant personal collision with the local government, and detracts from his respectability and authority. Besides is position gives him such an advantage over other merchants, that few nghshmen can settle in any place where such is the case; and therefore as I have just observed, the desire and interest of England to extend her commerce is thus counteracted for the saving of a few hundred pounds a year of salary. This is particularly the case in Tarsus; and indeed we may observe, that in few places in the Levant where a British consul is allowed to trade have we any commercial houses, and this fact speaki tor itself: although consuls have been appointed in those places for I 114 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. many years, and although a good deal of real business might be carried on by the means of English houses of commerce, were their interests properly supported by disinterested individuals. The climate of Cilicia is not more unhealthy than the rest of Asia Minor, but the air of Tarsus is very much so, particularly during the months of July and August, when the town and its environs are subject to exhalations productive of putrid and intermittent fevers. The prin¬ cipal cause of this evil is a stagnant lake about thirty miles in circum¬ ference, now a few miles from Tarsus, which formerly communicated with the sea, but which is now separated from it by a sand-bank. This is the harbour mentioned by Strabo, which he says was the port of Tarsus (and that there were in his time the remains of the arsenal). Indeed, its position leads us to infer that the sea once came up to Tarsus ; but as the alluvium of the river has raised the ground con¬ siderably, it would be easy to dry this lake by drains, which would not cost more than 200/., and the deleterious state of the atmosphere would be permanently obviated; and not only would many diseases be pre¬ vented, but the ground would become well adapted to the cultivation of sesam, cotton, and wheat, and its incomparable fertility the first year would no doubt repay a thousand-fold all expenses.* This lake lies between Tarsus and the sea, and thus its putrid exhalations are con¬ veyed to the town by the sea-breezes. It is the opinion of medical men, that the pores of the skin being opened by the great heats of the day, are much influenced by the damp and cold wind of the mountain at night; and this combined with the malaria above mentioned occasions congestions of the brain, and hence bilious and gastric fevers, which, if not properly treated by bleeding and other active remedies, will carry off the patient in three or four days, as the fever soon ceases to be inter¬ mittent and assumes a malignant type. Ibrahim Pasha caused the small lake of Alexandretta to be drained at the suggestion of M. Martinelli, as also subsequently of Mr. Hays, her Majesty’s consuls there, and for two or three years afterwards no deaths took place, whereas previously there were accidents occurring every few months. The canal for carrying off the water has, however, since unfortunately been allowed to fill up, and Alexandretta is now the tomb of all who inhabit it for any length of time without change of air. * A few years ago, in consequence of a great dearth, part of this lake having dried up, the people of the adjoining village sowed and reaped melons twice in one season, the seed of the second crop being from that of the first, and the quality produced was most excellent. VILLAGES NEAR TARSUS. 115 The inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana go to the mountains to pass the summer, at a place called Nimrud, sixty miles distant, where there “ a Castle wllich the 7 attribute to Nimrod and call it after his name. lere are evident traces of its having been built at three different periods, and it was at one time in the possession of the Crusaders. It is built on the summit of a hill, which I should calculate to be certainly 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and it is not commanded by any of the adjoining heights. It was probably here that Syennesis first re¬ tired on the approach of Cyrus to Tarsus, b.c. 401 (vide Ainsworth’s Travels in Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks). The country around Nimrud is and, with scarcely any running water; but the water of the wells is not bad and is abundant, and the air is fine. Each habitation stands m a little vineyard, and this extends the cultivation of the moun¬ tain for many miles; and the luxuriance with which the vine, cherry, and walnut-trees grow is very remarkable. All who come up here lead a life of perfect indolence, and the poor man will sell any thing he may possess rather than fail to take his family to the mountain during the summer months. This constant shifting of residence prevents the in. habitants from building good houses either in Tarsus or in the Yaila, as they call their summer quarters. The merchants of Tarsus and Adana are chiefly strangers, and during the hot season they visit their families m I vaisari yah, and m the other towns in the interior of Asia Minor whence they return in the months of September and October. Kaisanli is a village containing about a hundred families, established m the point of the bay nearest to Tarsus (about twelve miles distant). It is m this place that Arab lombards come from Syria to load and un¬ load; but on the slightest appearance of bad weather they are obliged to take shelter at Mursina (Zephyrium), more to the westward of the bay, about eight miles further, where the roadstead is excellent, and, according to some captains, is preferable as a safe anchorage to that of Alexandretta or any other on the coast of Syria.* Two French vessels and some Arabs have been driven on shore ; but in every case the fault has been from their chains or cables breaking, and not from bad bottom in the anchorage, English vessels, at the same time and in the same storm, sustaining no damage whatever. The only inconvenience they experienced was that their crew were prevented from communi¬ cating with the sea-shore for three days till the storm had subsided • but this is of very rare occurrence, and generally speaking, morning and evening the business of embarking and disembarking is not inter- . * The sea "breeze is stronger here than any where else on the coast * hence its an cient name perhaps. I had a beautiful brass medal struck here, which I have mislaid. ]16 CILICIA AND 1TB GOVERNORS. rupted. About midday there is a little swell, and the want of a small pier alone prevents the working of merchant-ships’ boats all the year round. This could be easily made for the trifling sum of 50/. ; but the governors of the country, although in landing to take possession of their posts they have often got wet, always talk of having one made; as soon as they reach Adana, their head-quarters, they forget entirely that such a place as Mursina exists. Mursina is a name compiled from the Greek, fixipalvt], myrtle , because formerly immense bushes of that plant were the only characteristics of the place. When I first went to Tarsus, in 1838, there was only a small magazine and a few miserable huts at this place, and the bales of cotton were left out under the rain until French vessels came to ship them for Marseilles. In the hope of drawing the commerce of the inte¬ rior and rendering this a place of transit for such produce as is usually conveyed overland to Smyrna, I built large magazines capable of hold¬ ing the cargoes of fifteen vessels at one time. As I had anticipated, this convenience, so much wanted previously, induced people to avail themselves of them, and deposit therein goods which were shipped to Europe and Smyrna. Commerce taking a new course, three other magazines were built, and other persons settled there. ALEXANDRETTA AND CAPE KHANZIR. —(From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTER XII. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TARSUS IN A COMMERCIAL POINT OF VIEW—TABLES OF NAVIGATION—TABULAR VIEW OF THE TRADE OF THE INTERIOR OF ASIA MINOR—TABLE OF EXPORTS—TABLE OF IMPORTS— STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN CILICIA — PRODUCE OF THE COUNTRY—COTTON- WHEAT—BARLEY—LINSEED—WAX—FRUIT-TREES—SILK—OLIVE-TREES — PAY OF A DAY-LABOURER —PASTURE OF LAND-TENURE OF LAND- TIMBER AND WOODS—GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY—EXTRACTS FROM MR. AINSWORTH’S WORK : PLAIN OF TARSUS—FALLS OF THE CYDNUS—FIRST SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH RANGE OF HILLS—MINES OF IRON AND LEAD ARGENTIFEROUS GALENA-REVENUE OF THE PASHALIK. Tarsus being the nearest port to the several large towns of Asia Minor —Adana, Maraash, Nighdah, Kaisariyah, and others,—it would seem to be the best adapted to embark goods from; but the inhabitants of the interior have long been accustomed to go to Smyrna and Constantinople . 7 land ( five tlmes furth er off), where they have the advantage of find¬ ing more buyers who are ready to compete with each other in the purchase of their merchandise, whereas in Tarsus the competition is trifling, as there are few if any merchants; and these only acting as factors, they cannot make large purchases without consulting their principals, who are too far off to allow of any activity in their opera¬ tions. For these reasons Tarsus will remain for many years in the background: but attention to the causes of malaria would soon eradi¬ cate the greatest evil, and then many respectable merchants with their families would be induced to reside in Tarsus, otherwise not a disa¬ greeable residence, and one of the most fertile spots in the world • and they would profit by the advantage of its vicinity to the interior of Asia Minor, inasmuch as goods can be shipped twenty per cent cheaper here than by taking them overland to Smyrna, where the produce of the country now chiefly goes for want of a nearer mart, and to reach which place on camels backs, wool and madder-roots are deteriorated in qua- h ty b 7 bein S exposed to rain on the road; but the merchants of Anatolia do not mind that, as the weight is thereby increased I Albertus Aquensis, according to Cellarius, talks of 3000 ships sail- 118 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. ing from the port of Tarsus at one time (vide Ainsworth’s Asia Minor , p. 83). At present its commerce, although increasing within the last eight years, is confined to twenty or thirty Arab vessels, that come suc¬ cessively to load here for Syria, bringing a little soap, coffee, and English manufactures for the consumption of the pashalik. About twelve French vessels also load sesam and wool for Marseilles yearly: one or two Austrian and Sardinian. An English vessel may visit this road¬ stead in the course of the year to take up a part of her cargo for Leg¬ horn or Smyrna, which they get in Alexandretta. A few Greeks also from Cyprus keep up a traffic in the products of their country, taking wheat in exchange. Steamers have been put on this route from Smyrna two or three times; but in consequence of the irregularity of their ar¬ rivals and departures no dependence could be placed on them, and nothing was done satisfactorily. (See the accompanying Table on the Trade and Navigation of Tarsus, No. 1.) Tarsus might, at least for the present, serve as a convenient depot for the produce of the interior, were the agents there more to be depended on; but what man would live there who could gain his bread elsewhere, particularly as the means of business are less than any where else, and the disadvantages of ill-health and difficulties of getting and executing orders greater than any where else ? But in order to give some idea of the impulse that might be given to the trade of Asia Minor through Tarsus were the difficulties alluded to removed, I shall accompany this notice with a report or table of the trade of Anatolia as regards Kaisariyah and the towns of Asia Minor, which I drew up from researches on the spot and upon the best authority. (Vide Table in the Appendix.) The principal exports, a table of which I also adjoin in the Appendix, consist in cotton, wool, wheat, barley, wax, sesam-seed, and linseed from the interior, from whence might be brought Caraman madder-roots in great quantities, Persian yellow-berries from Kaisariyah, buffalo-hides and cow-hides, and all the minor produce of the country. All kinds of imports, such as English manufactures, sugar, coffee, indigo, cochineal, soap, and Persian tobacco, are brought from Syria ; but the want of cash in the country renders the sale precarious. The seller is compelled to wait months for payment, and frequently money is lost by the failure of the buyers, who are as insolent as they are needy. The import trade is very discouraging; but in exports some¬ times a good profit is to be obtained, particularly in wheat, which is remarkably cheap : often it may be had at a price that enables the buyer to deposit it in the London Docks at 20s. the English quarter. During Ibrahim Pasha’s administration, the government was put to the COMMERCE OE TARSUS. 119 deplorable necessity of pressing the population into military service, by seizing the strong and able-bodied, in order to recruit his troops in Sjuia. As he could not well do this in the border territories, from an apprehension of their deserting, he made the latter labour at public works, and this interrupted the course of agriculture. Grain was in consequence dear, but since the departure of the Egyptians the people do not suffer from this grievance, and being more at leisure, have ap¬ plied themselves to the culture of the land, which is extremely fertile^ and were it not for the fatality which seems to be attached to this ill- fated province, brought on from mal-administration, this might be the happiest instead of the most miserable district of the Ottoman dominions. Its chief produce is cotton, of which 20,000 cantars, of 180 okes, are annually produced, and sent chiefly to Tarabuzun (Trebizond) and Erzerum by caravans. It is inferior to Egyptian cotton, and not well cleaned. The cotton costs about three piastres, or 7\d. the oke (of 2f lbs.). In 1845 the crop failed entirely for want of rain. More than 400,000 quarters of wheat are produced annually, half of which is exported to Syria; the current price is sixty to eighty piastres per quarter, which the people call kilu or kaily, equal to eight measures of Constantinople. A soft kind of wheat comes from Karamania, the flour of which is whiter, and is sold at 100 piastres the kilo, same mea¬ sure as barley. More than 150,000 quarters of barley are grown yearly, which barely suffice for the consumption of the country, many making bread of it when the price of wheat rises, which it invariably does toward the end of the season. The current price is from 40 to 60 piastres, same measure, weighing 130 okes. Of sesam are annually produced 15 to 20 m. kilos, of 130 okes weight, of which the current price is 200 piastres. The quantity pro¬ duced is yearly increasing, as people find it gives better returns- than any other agricultural product, and it obtains the readiest sale, as merchants make advances for several months to obtain it. Of linseed, about 40 m. okes are produced. I was the first person who introduced this seed on trial; but as it was sown by the farmers too late in the season, the plant was burnt up by the heat of the sun, two years successively, before it all came to maturity, and the farmers were discouraged from attending to it : price current, 40 paras or 1 piastre the oke. Of wax, scarcely more than 8 to 10 m. okes are produced; but the quality is good and the price moderate: 18 piastres the oke. I also introduced the best kind of Muscatel grapes, peaches, and 120 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. apricots with a sweet kernel, and the finest cherries; as also the tomato or love-apple, the French bean, and the artichoke, which were pre¬ viously unknown to the inhabitants. Generally speaking, I found the gardeners prefer not having any superior kind of produce to distinguish their gardens, because it attracts the attention of the ayans (nobles'), who are then induced to visit them daily, and with their horses and servants commit depredations, for which they never think of making any remuneration to the proprietor. There are a great many magnificent mulberry-trees, which serve as trellises to support a kind of grape which does not ripen till Christmas; but very few silk-worms are brought up, because the heats come on too soon, and kill the worm before it begins to spin. The people of the country wind it olf with their hands, using small pebbles to prevent it entangling, and it comes out very coarse, which they like, as they work it out in pieces for silk shirts. The sloping sides of most of the hills in the province are planted with olive-trees, which no doubt were universally cultivated by the ancients, especially between Tarsus and Sulufka, along the shore, for a distance of 120 miles in length and several miles in breadth. All these trees were in full bearing in the time that the Genoese were masters of the country; but having since been neglected, they are overgrown with brush-wood, and in many instances lost in a forest of pines. Many old trees were also cut down, but new branches have sprung up from their roots, which now bear a small wild olive used by the Turkmans. In some places there are as many as several thousand trees upon each acre of land, and it would be extremely easy and profitable to restore them to their pristine state; but the want of hands is one of the many draw¬ backs in the East to improvement. A labourer in the harvest-time is paid 2s. a day, besides his tood; and people often come from Cyprus and Syria to avail themselves of such high wages for a season, returning to their homes to restore their health, which is invariably impaired by hard labour in the great heats. The Turkmans who gather the cotton take one-tenth for their trouble ; the man who separates the cotton from the seed takes another tenth ; the government takes also a tenth ; added to which is a very heavy duty of 27 piastres on its value, which goes under the head of customs! The occupation which attracts more particularly the attention of Turkmans is the pasture of their cattle, inasmuch as it is the easiest kind of work. The produce of their dairy is excellent and abundant, although their animals are remarkably small, except their sheep, which are magnificent, and have extraordinary large tails, all fat, and which, 121 CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. when melted down, is used instead of butter in cooking. The wool produced yearly in this province amounts to from 600 to 1000 cantars, of 180 okes each cantar, of which one-third is white and two-thirds black or grey. The texture is fine, but it is generally very dirty, and if washed would lose forty per cent in weight. Europeans find no difficulty in buying land, as they can legally purchase it in the name of females, either really appearing or repre¬ sented by proxy, all women born in the country being regarded as Rayas in the eye of the law; or rather I should say, that the property of the harim is considered so sacred, that any European stating that such property belonged to his wife, no questions would be asked of what nation she were, or if she even existed at all. Title-deeds thus obtained in the name of any female of the country are then made over to the purchaser, in token of a bond for a supposed debt, and this effectually secures to the European purchaser every right to the property. Ihe land may be cultivated by taking into service farmers of the countiy, whom it is usual to interest by granting a quarter, or a third share, or a half, according as the case or agreement may be. On my arrival m this country, I had purchased some land advantageously situated near the sea ; and I caused it to be cultivated by the villagers whom I established on the estate; and I induced them to turn their attention, principally to the produce of vegetables and fruits for the use of the shipping. I also erected in the magazine a machine for pressing wool and cotton, and I omitted nothing that could assist in facilitating commercial operations; but the extreme apathy of the people renders it very difficult to change the course of things, or to introduce any innova¬ tions in the habits they have had handed down to them from their fore¬ fathers. In this province remarkably fine timber for building pur¬ poses is produced, chiefly fir. The oak is also very common near Arsus. Timber is cut of all sizes, and exported from Alexandretta, Bayas, and Arsus to Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha used to have more than 10,000 mag¬ nificent trees cut every year, which he sent to Alexandria for the use of the arsenal. To the north-west of Mursina a smaller kind is cut, which serves for the building of Arab bombards in Tripoli, on the coast of Syria. The people also trade in boards, which the Turkmans bring from the mountains, and which are sawn by their women. These are sent to Syria, and cost on the average one piastre and a half per board, and are of all sizes and thickness. The smell of turpentine contained m the pine-wood is supposed to be an antidote to bugs ; in Tarsus they are seldom seen, except when imported from Cyprus, and even then 122 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS they speedily disappear, being destroyed by the obnoxious smell of the turpentine.* Mount Taurus presents a rich field for the researches of the mineralo¬ gist. Three hundred specimens of stones and minerals were collected by the mineralogists appointed to work the lead-mines by Ibrahim Pasha, some of which were very beautiful, and some very interesting. I have by me some specimens of metals which I procured at Kulak Maaden. Here I cannot do better than quote from Mr. Ainsworth’s work before mentioned, j* u Plain of Tarsus. —From within three miles of Adana to beyond Tarsus, in a westerly direction, the plain is composed of humus and alluvia, which have an average depth of from twenty to thirty feet, and repose upon rubbly limestone. These plains are mostly cultivated, and villages are numerous. u Falls of the Gydnus. — The country to the north of Tarsus rises gradually up towards the Alpine region of Cilician Taurus, remarkable at this point for its bold precipices and rugged grandeur of scenery. The falls of the Cydnus and the grotto of the Seven Sleepers are in an out-lying range of supra-cretaceous limestone and limestone conglomerate. “ The river issues through deep ravines, with perpendicular walls of limestone, and on entering the plain falls over a ledge of rocks of lime¬ stone breccia, about forty feet in width and eighteen in height. * The forests of the Cilician mountains consist chiefly of pines ( Pinus maritimus and Halepensis) and Balanea or Valonia oaks ( Quercus ballota, (Eg Hops, and infectoria). The mountain-peaks are clad with the gloomy foliage of the cedar-juniper (Juniperus excelsior). In the yailaks, or mountain-pastures, we find thickets of dwarf holly-oak (Quercus coccifera), berberry, and yellow jasmine. The low hills are covered with myrtle, arbutus, Daphne, Phlomis, Styrax, Cistus, and Lentisk. The Eleagnus, the oleander, the chaste-tree, and colutea, are the most conspicuous shrubs on the borders of the plains. Christ-thorn ( Paliurus ) abounds in sterile places, especially in the rock of Anazarba. The waste ground is studded with bushes of juniper (Juniperus Plicenicea), spiny burnet (Poterium spinosum), spiny cichory ( Cichorium spinosum), and Lithospermum hispidulum. On the sands of the sea-shore, the Tamarisk attains almost the port and bearing of a tree, and great hushes of tree-spurge (Euphorbia dendroides) are mingled with more humble, but more gaily-flowering, phsenogamous plants. In the highlands of Cilicia there are plantations of walnut-trees, apples, apricots, cherry-trees, Lombardy-poplars, and pollard-willows. The Oriental planes are not so common or so large in Cilicia as in other parts of Asia Minor ; but the number of carob- trees in the plain of Adana is remarkable. The dark cypress not only adorns the cemeteries of the Mussulman, but also grows wild in the ravines. The almond and manna-ash also grow wild among the rocks, and the bay and Judas-tree in the ravines. Mr. Barker has alluded to the fine groves of oranges, lemons, and pomegranates. The palm-tree also adorns the gardens of A dana; and a few specimens of this tree, probably the refuse - of gardens, are also met with on the shore near the Cilician and Syrian gates. W. F. A. f Researches in Assyria, Babylonia , and Chaldea, p. 327. GEOLOGY OF TARSUS. 123 . ^ irst l° west range of hills. —Proceeding to the north-east, the out- jnng and lowest range of hills is composed of marles and gypsum in the lower beds; and superimposed upon these are beds of brecciated rocks. 1 le gypsum is snow-white, granular, or lamellar. This range is divided from the second by level, low, and often marshy plains. “ Second range of hills. —The upper beds are composed of coralline mestone ^ley, friable, fracture uneven — almost entirely composed of stony polypiferous masses with stelliform lamella?, or waved laminar furrows. The lower beds consist of green marles and gieenish-white calcareous marles; the first are argillo-calcareous, earthy, friable, greenish, brownish- green, and yellow; the second are compact, even, non-fossiliferous. This second range consists of low hills, rounded or of a conical form, frequently cultivated, with little wood, but often villages on the summits. u Third range of lulls. —The upper beds consist of ostracite sandstones, compact, earthy, friable, frequently divided on the surface into polygonal and rhombic masses, like a tessellated pavement. Ostraceas (ostiea? and avicula?) are very abundant. An ostrea, probably not different from ostrea gigantea, attains sometimes from a foot to eighteen inches in length. “ The low ® r becls are composed of ferruginous sands, yellow and red, and sometimes of pink-coloured sandstones. Beneath these are argillaceous limestones, alternating with marles (valley of Yam Kushlak) and with slaty beds (hill of village of Yuruks). Fourth range of hills. The upper beds consist of blue anthracitous limestones, compact, fine granular, glistening fracture, blue and dark- blue colour. The lower beds are white limestones, compact, fine granu¬ lar, or moie cretaceous, with chalk fossils. Both beds appear to belong to the chalk formation. “ Mica schist with limestone (Cipolin of Alex. Brongniart)._On the summit of this range, not far from an ancient Boman arch, and by an antique causeway, a formation is met with of mica and argillo-cal¬ careous schist, sometimes forming a solid schistous rock. Ihe limestones after this begin to form a truly Alpine country, some¬ times towering up in lofty and perpendicular precipices upwards of 1000 feet in height, at otheis forming lower and rounded hills, covered, when not lofty, with shrubbery and forest-trees, but when lofty, with oak and pine alone. Sometimes the cliffs are tomb-excavated, as at Mizar-lik ; at other times, isolated knolls of limestone bear castellated ruins. “ Kulak Bughaz. —The formation downwards, from Kulak Bughaz to the plain of Adana, presents pretty nearly a similar succession of deposits as above Tarsus. 124 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. u Tertiary deposits .—At Khan Katlah Uglu, a travertine formation covers a marley and limestone deposit. “ At the village of Durak, granular gypsum occurs in ferruginous sand and common clay. The sand and clay alternate beyond the sand¬ stones, slaty, ferruginous, coarse-grained, in thin strata, and very deter¬ minate rhombic cleavage. “ Polypiferous or coralline limestone succeeds to the rhombic or ostracite sandstone, the litture polypi occurring in groups, or at other times forming the whole mass of rock. The formation also contains botryoidal haematites. “ The coralline limestone, or coral rag, alternates in its lower part with dark-coloured clays, which are replete with bivalve shells belong¬ ing to the genera tillina and lucina. “ At Khan Kusan Uglu, ferruginous sandstones and sandstone con¬ glomerate underlie the clays and polypiferous limestones. Below Khan Sarashi, cirithia and conide limestone succeeds to the central chalk for¬ mation, and between the two formations is a deposit of limestone, breccia, and argillaceous shale. “ In the valley of Khan Kusan Uglu, the conide limestone descends in precipitous cliffs to the south-east, which cliffs are deeply fissured, and wrought into fantastic forms. “ To the north, the limestone is capped by ferruginous sandstones, above which again are coralline limestones; while to the south, beneath the coral rag and sandstones, are sandstone conglomerates. The friable nature of the last three formations has given rise to many curious effects of denudation; tall columns and masses, in various fantastic forms, rising up in picturesque confusion. “ The chalk formation of the central chain is almost every where the same, a hard and compact limestone containing few organic remains, and rising up in bold precipitous rocks, with castles on their summits ; or sweeping circularly, as if to block up the road with their gigantic gates, called those of Taurus or Cilicia.”* Mines .—Above Adana, in that part of the Taurus which is occupied by the tribe named Karasanti-Uglu, there are iron mines , which are * The formations here described evidently correspond to our Eocene formations: chalk or new Alpine limestones; plastic clay, sandstones, with lignite; London clay and calcaire grossier; siliceous limestones, gypsums (in large beds at foot of Mount Casius), and marles. These are the beds in which large and thick oysters occur in ■wondrous abundance; some weigh at least twenty pounds. Sandstones and sands above the gypsum, fresh-water deposits, coralline rag, &c. These beds are full of organic remains, and would furnish a rich harvest to a geologist who had time and opportunity to explore the country, especially between Tarsus and Kulak Bughaz, leisurely and careMly. W. F. A. REVENUE OF PASI1ALIK. 125 worked by the people of the country on their own account, and with very little difficulty. The quality is more esteemed than Russian iron, being softer and more malleable ; it is sold at two piastres the oke. Near Kulak Bughaz there are lead mines , which are worked for account of government. The samples I possess of this mineral in its pristine state are extremely rich. It has lately been discovered by an Italian mineralogist, M. Boriani, that together with this lead there is a good deal of silver, and he extracted a small quantity in proof thereof. The local government is not aware of this, and very possibly regular veins might be easily discovered. Towards Sis there are also many mines of great value; but the Turkmans there used to hide them, in order not to be interfered with by the local authorities.* The revenue of this pashalik exceeds 10,000,000 piastres, and is collected in the following manner : Saliyan. Kharaj (personal tax on Christians only) Spinji (ditto ditto, 3 piastres per head). Miri of the Fallahs (Ansayriis) .... Customs (lately increased to 1| millions of piastres) Monopoly of tobacco. }} yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy snuff spirits of wine . the manufacture of candles the burning of coffee auctions .... salt. dues exacted at Kulak Bughaz, 5 piastres per head (worth much more than) tax levied on the Turkmans that come down to the plains in the winter 3,500,000 5,000,000 , 4,000 5,000 1,200,000 68,000 30,000 30,000 2,000 3,000 17,000 15,000 70,000 5,000 10,024^000 The expenses of the Government are for the Pasha alone ,, ,, for the Muhassil >) )) for the Governor of Tarsus . for the fourteen mem¬ bers of Council for the chiefs of the Turkmans for the subalterns 600,000 144,000 60,000 140,000 100,000 100,000 1,144,000 * At the time that the Euphrates Expedition was at Suwaidiyah, an Englishman arrived, who had been invited to the country by Ibrahim Pasha to work the mines of argentiferous galena, near Sis. The unfortunate man, however, soon fell a victim to the climate. W. E. A. 126 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Besides, no doubt, a large sum which the pasha contrives to pass in his account for the maintenance of troops that never existed. The rate of twelve per cent duty to be paid to custom-houses was calculated in Constantinople on merchandise of first-rate qua¬ lity ; but although the produce of the provinces often only costs half the price of that quality in the capital, still the same fixed duty is exacted; so that the merchant of the interior, paying a duty calculated by the same tariff, actually pays often as high as twenty-five per cent instead of twelve per cent as intended. This has considerably retarded the activity of commercial interests and relations, as no article can pro¬ perly bear such a high duty. The better to illustrate this subject, I shall add a table, wherein the value of each article, and the per-centage duty to be paid is noted; and from which it will be seen how much the com¬ merce of these countries lies under a disadvantage by being obliged to pay so much per cent duty more than what merchants in Constantinople pay. This was a mistake of such as had the establishing of the rates of the tariff, and who fixed each quota according to what the article was worth in their market, and not by an average value of the whole, which would have facilitated commercial operations. It is impossible to impress the people of the East with a conviction of the salutary effects of a quarantine establishment: they cannot divest themselves of the idea that it is only a pretext of the government to enable it to pry into private relations and interfere with the personal liberty of the subject, at the same time that it is another excuse for raising money. They are the more readily led to this conclusion by the shameless conduct of the employes, who exact all manner of presents to exempt the donors from various kinds of restraint, such as being con¬ fined in the most filthy holes , and to be eaten up by vermin of all sorts. When a man desires to perform the spoglio (which is done by passing through water and putting on uncontaminated clothes), he gives secretly a suit of clothes to the chief u guardian .” The next morning this man brings the bundle, and cries out, “ Mr. A. or B., your friend sends you this packet of clothes: come and perform the spoglio .” Generally speak¬ ing, an oke or two of every article that enters the quarantine maga¬ zine is abstracted , and the merchants in vain call for redress. I have seen notes made out by the merchants wherein their sacks of soap, coffee, &c., had been specified as found wanting ten per cent in the weight by going through the hands of the quarantine ; and when bales of goods are opened, generally a piece or two of stuffs disappear. One of the magazines built at Mursina serves for a quarantine es¬ tablishment, although in the centre of the place. But the pilgrims com- / QUARANTINE LAWS. 127 ing overland are obliged to perform quarantine in tents at Adana, exposed to all the inconveniences of the weather; but to that they are accustomed. If two persons present themselves at the gate of Adana, the one with a teskere or passport from Aleppo, and the other from Alexandretta or Bayas, as an inhabitant of the latter places, the former is put in quar¬ antine for fifteen days, while the latter is admitted to free “ pratique,” although they have been journeying on together for the last three or four days, and been in constant communication. What are the people of the country to think of such a quarantine ? 128 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. CHAPTER XIII. IL LAMAS (LAMUM)-KURKASS (CORYCUs)-ASKI SHAHIR-SOLI, AFTERWARDS POMPEIOPOLIS-GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS-STRABO’S DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST OF CILICIA-HIS ACCOUNT OF TARSUS AND NEIGHBOURING TOWNS. Antiquities. —As tliis province was on the high road between the great contending powers of ancient times, the Greek, Roman, and Persian empires, it has passed and repassed into many hands; and this may account for the very few perfect remains of art which are to be met with, the country having suffered greatly by the inroads of troops with almost every successive generation. There are several castles built on eminences by the Persians, Sara¬ cens, Crusaders, and Genoese; but although the Turkmans continued for some time to make use of them, they have gradually fallen into ruin, as doubtless the jealousy of the Porte does not care to allow such facilities of defence to exist among people always disposed to rebel. Il Lamas. —At II Lamas there is an aqueduct of some extent, which conveyed water from a distance of eight or ten miles through hills and across valleys to Kurkass Castle, which is on the coast between Selef- keh and Mursina. This castle is built on a rock in the sea, and is of a very ordinary style of architecture, as are all the ruins that are to be seen on the coast. The aqueduct is now dry, and in some places im¬ passable, as the damp of the mountain above oozes, and forms, drop by drop, as it were, icicles of petrified water (travertino). The waters that formerly ran through it are now lost in a little stream which runs into the sea at a short distance from their source, where Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort’s boat took in water. Near the entrance of the aqueduct are still to be seen the remains of a Saracenic tower, which no doubt was built to defend it from invasions of pirates. Above the aqueduct at II Lamas, and at a distance of three miles inland, a rocky mountain rises perpendicularly to the height of about 3000 feet. In the centre of this precipice, half-way up, may be observed, out of the reach of man, two cannons in bronze, that sparkle in the KALAHT KURKASS. 129 morning sun, deriding for centuries past the vain efforts of the Turks to bring them down ; and the marks of many bullets may be seen, fired at them by Arnaut troops as they have passed the spot. They are in a port-hole , as it were, the one almost erect, but in an oblique position, and the other protruding horizontally. They appear to be about sixteen feet long; the bore, perhaps, a foot in diameter. They were probably placed there to defend the aqueduct; and it is very likely that there is behind them an excavation in the mountain that served for military stores. A part of the mountain having fallen down, the ancient road to them is thus cut off, and they have remained isolated and inacces¬ sible to any one using ordinary means. A road might be cut to them with very little expense, or a person might be let down from above ; but the latter would be a dangerous experiment, as the rock projects above, and it would be requisite to swing the rope backwards and forwards till the person hanging at the end could catch at the port-hole and enter. This place unfortunately was not visited by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, otherwise the jolly tars of old England would certainly have brought them down. Strabo says of Coracesium (present Kalaht Kurkass), that it is situated on a rock close to a small bay, which forms a small harbour for boats of the country,, having an entrance on each side of the castle ; and he adds, that Diodorus, surnamed Tryphon, made use of it as a place of defence, and a depository for arms, when he detached Syria from the power of the Seleucians. tie was so formidable as to pretend to the throne of Syria, and maintained himself with various success, drawing his resources from Apamea and its surrounding towns, such as Larissa Cassiana (his native place), Megorus and Apollonia, until Antio- chus, son of Demetrius, compelled him to take refuge in a fort, where he killed himself.* It was this same Tryphon who first gave the Cili- cians the idea of organising a company of pirates, in order to take ad¬ vantage of the weakness of the different princes who reigned in succession at this epoch over Syria and Cilicia ; being the first to rebel, and with so much success, that others followed his example. As to the ruling princes, says Strabo, “ we may remark, that discord having broken up the union in which brothers ought to have lived, placed the country at the mercy of any one who chose to attack it.” But what principally encouraged crime and plunder, were the great profits that accrued in the sale of persons reduced to slavery. Independently of the facility of making slaves, the robbers had the advantage of being near a place of * Vide Appian de rebus Syria;, cap. 67, 68, and Justin, lib. xxxvi. cap. 1. K 130 CILICIA AND ITS GOVE&NOftg. commerce of some importance, viz. the island of Delos, which was rich enough to receive and send off to various places several thousand slaves per day; and this had suggested the proverb, “Merchants anchor and discharge, for all is already sold,” referring to the facility of meeting with a good market in this island. The Romans also contributed to these lawless deeds by the encouragement they gave in the purchase of slaves, who had become a matter of necessity to them; the destruc¬ tion of Carthage and Corinth having rendered them so rich, that they accustomed themselves to be served by a great number of slaves; and the pirates profiting by this opportunity of administering to their luxury, wandered boldly forth to pillage and seize all whom they met. The kings of Cyprus and Egypt also contributed to the encourage¬ ment of these pirates, by reason of the hatred they had of the Syrian princes; and the inhabitants of Rhodes, a maritime power that could have suppressed these lawless brigands, being jealous of the Syrians, did not choose to come to their assistance. Add to this, that the Romans at this time did not care much for the countries on the other side of the Taurus. It is true that Scipio iEmilius, and after him other officers were sent to visit these countries; and they soon discovered that the cause of these robberies proceeded from the cowardice of the successors of Seleucus Nicator; but they did not choose to interfere with them, or deprive them of a government which they had themselves guaranteed to the family of this prince. The weakness of these kings, says Strabo, was the cause that Syria fell under the domination of the Parthians, who became masters of the country beyond the Euphrates, and after them the Armenians pushed their conquest beyond the Taurus as far as Phoe¬ nicia, exterminated the kings and their race, and left the sea open to the depredations of the Cilicians. The Romans, who had not at first taken energetic measures to stop the progress of the Cilicians in their lawless conduct, were obliged to have recourse to armies of considerable force, in order to destroy the power of the pirates. But Strabo excuses the Romans by saying, that they had at home so many things of greater interest to look to, that it is not to be wondered at if they neglected what was passing at a distance from the metropolis. Pompeiopolis* (Soli). —On the coast, five miles to the westward of Mursina, are the ruins of Pompeiopolis. They are in a delightful situa- * See Dr. Holt Yates’s description and plan of the ancient ruins, from Captain Prissick’s report, which will illustrate my remarks ; Modern History and Condition of Egypt, d:c. (Smith and Elder). We have already quoted Admiral Sir Francis Beau¬ fort’s admirable account of these ruins from his Haramania } pp. 249, 259 et seq. RUINS OF POMPEIOPOLIS. 131 tion, but at present deserted. Here and there a little plot of ground is cultivated; the rest is overgrown with pines and brushwood. The only public buildings that can be distinguished out of such a heap of ruins are, 1st, the place of the amphitheatre, which was built of white marble, and had at the top all round a cornice with wreaths in alto relievo, between each of which was sculptured a tragic mask. In this place was found the centre part of a Venus of full size, in white marble. 2dly, Some hundred columns, forty-two of which are still standing: they are composed of several pieces, and are about thirty feet high. Their capital above is ornamented with sculptured heads of Venus, Hercules, &c. There are six fluted columns, which stand out beyond the others. The whole are of very inferior work and taste. It is sup¬ posed that these columns served for an aqueduct, because it is difficult to explain exactly for what other object they were erected. Sir Francis Beaufort states that possibly the whole colonnade was once a covered street. The people of the country call Pompeiopolis A ski Shakir, “ the old town:” Mazatli is a village higher up inland. There is a tradition that Soli was built by u Hahnun” a Jew, who erected for his daughter “ Hind ” a castle two miles above the town, which is still standing on the banks of the river, but in ruins, and appears to be of Saracenic origin. 3dly, and that which attracts the attention of the antiquary above all other remains, are some tombs which have certainly a very ancient origin. One that is out of the town to the eastward, near the river, in a field, has been opened. It contained two large sarcophagi, more than twelve feet long; one is overturned, and the other still in its place. They are of marble, without any ornament, not having been SARCOPHAGUS AT SELEUCIA PIERIA, OPENED BY MR. W. B. BARKER. intended to be seen, but to be completely buried in the masonry. They have been originally covered all over by a composition formed of pebbles, sand, quick-lime, and pieces of brick, which has become petri¬ fied. Some inquisitive persons have succeeded in detaching this com- 132 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. position from the sarcophagi when opening the tomb, and they are now quite empty.* Another tomb , which has not been opened, lies in the town to the west of the amphitheatre towards the sea, and is overgrown with brush¬ wood. It appears to be eight times the size of the last described. The French consul some years bach tried to force it open; but although he cut the monument nearly half through at the centre, as he did not hap¬ pen to light upon either of the sarcophagi, they have remained enveloped in their pristine mass of mortar. Judging from what we see here, I conclude that the great monument at Tarsus, which so highly deserves the antiquary’s attention, and which has frustrated every historical inquiry as to its origin, contains similar sarcophagi. It is of the same epoch and composition as the last men¬ tioned in Pompeiopolis, but at least one hundred times larger. It has two parallelograms that may be about 80 feet square each; they are at a distance from one another of about 200 paces, surrounded by a wall of the same composition, which is 30 feet high and 22 broad. To the north are two similar walls parallel to the monuments ; and a third that was begun and remained unfinished, because (I suppose) it was not required to contain any more sarcophagi. 1. Here a large hole has been made, but nothing found. 2. Yain attempts at an opening. 3. Here a tunnel was made sideways in the monument at the base till it reached the centre, and then the French consul dug down perpen¬ dicularly till he came to water, without finding any thing in this conglo¬ merated mass of lime and pebbles, except the first and second fingers of a man in marble, of gigantic size, joined together, but not as if they had belonged to the hand of a statue, but a finished work in itself. 4. Here are holes in the wall made to support beams, which must * Here I may mention having opened two similar sarcophagi of very massive stone at the ancient Seleucia Pieria near Suwaidiyah, or Suedia, a few years back. There was this difference, that these sarcophagi were of a yellow stone, and had a bas-relief ornament in the shape of a garland of ordinary work on their side and on the lids, for they were at first intended to be exposed to view, and not buried in any mortar what¬ ever. The cover or lid was so large, that although it had been broken in several pieces, it required some trouble to move the fragments. Both these sarcophagi were found empty for about a foot, beyond which there was a layer of clay three inches deep; then below this were several large stones regularly built in, like the building of a waU; and where the right ear should be, we found a small jar of very ordinary terra-cotta work in each. The only difference between these two sarcophagi was, that in one the ashes of the dead were collected in the little jar ; but in the other the jar was empty, and the ashes were strewn between each layer of the stone masonry built in the sarcophagus. On one were the remains of a Greek inscription quite illegible. See the sarcophagus in the preceding page, as well as the one in page 35. ANCIENT TOMB. 133 have been placed against it to form shelter for some Turkish cavalry in modern times. The whole of what is now standing is, as it were, only the interior of a wall, the facing, composed of large fine marble stones, WALL UNFINISHED. WALL BO F T HICH -'Z2_ BROAD GROUND-PLAN OF THE GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS. has all been taken away and used elsewhere. I imagine that these walls also contain sarcophagi of some branch of the family of an ancient king, and that they were laid in the walls and filled up and covered with the mortar as the persons died; for the last wall to the north has remained 134 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. unfinished for want of tenants. In the centre there was space reserved, as it is said, for Sardanapalus himself, who, however, could not have required this mausoleum, having destroyed himself by fire in his palace at Ninus. Some assert that he was buried in a similar monument at Anchiale on the coast, and that, in conformity to his desire, an inscrip¬ tion was erected over it commemorating his having built Tarsus and Anchiale in one day, as a trophy of his greatness and power. Where Anchiale stood, there are now the remains of such a monument; but it is insignificant compared with this one. Many vain attempts have been made to open this monument; and it remains a question worthy the attention of antiquaries, inasmuch as it has hitherto frustrated the in¬ vestigation of the learned ; and all hypotheses formed upon its pristine object and the date of its construction are as vague as any proposed concerning the pyramids.* Strabo, remarking upon this portion of the coast, says, that Cape Anamour (Anemurium) is the nearest point of the land to Cyprus,** being 350 stadia; and he calls the distance from the frontiers of Paraphilia to this cape 820 stadia along the coast of Cilicia. “ The rest of the coast, of about 500 stadia, terminates at Soli. Strabo further observes, that some persons considered Cilicia to begin at Celenderis (Kilindriya), and not at Coracesium (Kurkass); but this is no doubt in reference to those who divide Cilicia into two, Campestris and Trachea; Celenderis belonging to the latter, and Kurkass to the former. Strabo mentions two philosophers among the illustrious men born in Seleucia, Athenseus and Xenarchus. The former, he says, was friend of Murcia, who had revolted against Augustus, and fell into disgrace, having been taken prisoner with his friend; but having proved his innocence, was set at liberty by order of this prince. On his return to Rome, being cross-questioned by some persons who met him, he replied, desirous of avoiding any political discussions, “ I have just * The people of the country call it Donee Dash —Pierre renversee —and foolishly imagine that it is a temple turned upside down, with its foundations upwards ! W.B.B. We have seen in a note upon Selinus, afterwards Trajanopolis, that Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort identified a low massy edifice of seventy feet by fifty, composed of large well-cut blocks of stone, and containing a single vault, with the tomb or mauso¬ leum of Trajan. Mr. Barker describes similar remains at Soli or Pompeiopolis. These appear tef be the massive mausolea in which the sarcophagi of the great were imbedded before and at the early part of the Christian era. May not the great mausoleum at Tarsus be the tomb of Julian, with which others have been afterwards connected? A mausoleum of similar characters, but of later date, has been joined to that of Trajan, on one side of which is a. sepulchral inscription to Chrestion, the son ofRhsestus. lhe existence of more than one mausoleum within the precincts of Julian s tomb would not thus militate against the validity of the identification. W. F. A. MOUNTAINS AND FORTIFICATIONS. 135 left the residence of the dead, and been freed from the gates of the lower regions.” He was killed by the fall, during the night, of a house which he inhabited. Xenarchus passed his life chiefly in Alexandria and Athens, and the latter part in Rome. He enjoyed the friendship of Areus,* and afterwards the good will of Augustus; and was much respected to the last, dying in an advanced age, after having lost the use of his sight. Strabo does not omit to say that he had been one of his disciples, “ and followed liis lessons .” Strabo says that at the extremity of the Taurus ridge, high up, was Mount Olympus, called, no doubt, after the Olympus of classical celebrity, whereon was a castle of the same name, and from whence you might see Lycia, Pamphilia, and Pisidia, and which served as the stronghold of the pirate Zenicetus. This must be a way of speaking allegorically to express the great height of the Taurus near the sea at this place ; for Strabo could not, had he ever been there, make this assertion, as the mountains to the north of Sulufska, and which run along the coast, intervene between the eye and Lycia. The ridge is here sufficiently high to see therefrom the island of Cyprus, or some sixty miles off; but it cannot overtop the mountains that intervene between it and Lycia. This country was much fortified, as may be seen by the many remains of old castles all along the coast, many of which have been repaired by the Genoese, and adapted to resist the attacks ol modern warfare. Strabo says, that the Romans considered it too unsettled and too much exposed to be attacked both by sea and land, to undertake to govern it themselves by means of officers or proconsuls, and that they preferred it should be governed by kings, who might be always present to suppress any insurrection or incursion of pirates; and they “ gave Cilicia Trachea to Arclielaus, who already possessed Cappadocia.” The pirate Zenicetus, Strabo tells us, burnt himself and his whole family in his castle, when Publius Servilius, surnamed Isauidcus, became master of the mountain. He was at the time also “ master of the Cape Corycus, and of the town of Phaselis and other places in Pamphilia, which were all taken by the general previous to Pompey’s occupation of the country” (year of Rome 674, c. 679).f Next to Lamus (the present Illamus) comes Soli, whence begins Cilicia Proper (Campestris). It was founded by the Acheans and the people of Rhodes, from the town of Lindus; and when Pompey subdued the pirates, as the number of inhabitants was much reduced, he established therein such of those whom he had conquered as he * See Plutarch in Anton. § 81. 4 Vide Eutrop. lib. vi, cap, 3. 136 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. deemed worthy of pardon, and changed the name of the town, calling it Pompeiopolis, after himself. The illustrious men of Soli enumerated by Strabo are, Chrysippus, a Stoic philosopher, son of an inhabitant of Tarsus who had settled in Soli; Philemon, a comic poet, and Aratus, author of a poem entitled The Phenomena. There were two capes that bore the name of Zephyrium, one near the Calycadnus river of Sulufska, and the other in sight of Anchiale. Near this latter is the present village of Mursina ; at its extremity are the ruins of an ancient building, which the people of the country have dubbed with the title of Church of St. George ; and the Christians repair thither once a-year and pay their devotions under a large tree, which they have consecrated in their minds. The whole of the hill at this cape was covered with the foundations of ancient buildings, most of which I caused to be excavated, to build therewith a large maga¬ zine and house, which commands the finest prospect on the coast, and are both a kind of landmark to vessels approaching the roadstead of Mursina. The people of the country not being allowed the use of bells, which only Europeans may have nr ring, there being a Mahomedan prejudice against them, arising from a notion that the idol worship of Baal is attached to them, I recollect one day being specially requested to allow my dinner-bell (which was a large ship’s bell) to be sounded in order to inspire extra devotional feelings in those who had assembled near my house to pay their devotions to St. George on the day set apart for that saint according to the Armenian calculation. At Anchiale (the present Karadujar), says Strabo, citing Aristo- bulus, was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and a statue of stone representing him snapping his fingers, with this inscription below it: “ Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndaraxes, caused the town of Anchiale to be built in one day, and also that of Tarsus. Passer-by, eat, drink, and divert thyself; for every thing else is not worth that ” (meaning a snap of the fingers). The poet CliEeribus mentions also this inscription, which is no longer in existence. But there is an old ruin, the mortar of which is petrified, and which may stand for the supposed tomb above mentioned. To the north of Anchiale was a fort, called by Strabo Cymda, where he says that u the kings of Macedonia deposited their treasure,* and which Eumenes carried off when he rebelled against Antigonus.” Forming a triangle with this fort and Soli, at the foot of the Taurus * Strabo, it appears, looked upon the generals of Alexander of Macedon as Mace¬ donians, and therefore gives to A ntigonus this title, although he was master chiefly of Asia Minor as far as Syria. RIVER CYDNUS AND LAKE RHEGMA. 137 was Olbus. This town had a temple to Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son of Teuca; and the priests of this temple, says Strabo, were formerly masters of Cilicia Trachea, which is very expressive of the influence of the priests in those times, considering the difficulties of the road, and the distance from their temple into another province so much separated by nature as Cilicia Trachea and Campestris. Later, continues Strabo, the country was taken possession of by marauders, and converted into a stronghold for brigands. When they were destroyed, “ which took place in our time,” this province took the title of Principality of Teucer, and even “Priesthood of Teucerand the greater part of the priests of the temple bore the name of Teucer or Ajax. “ Alba, daughter of Zenophanus, having married one of the Teucer family, took possession of this province, which had been under the regency of her father. She was confirmed in her rule by Antony and Cleopatra ; but afterwards, at a later period, she was dethroned, and the government restored to the family.” “ Next to Anchiale,” says Strabo, “ is the mouth of the Cydnus, at the place called Rhegma, which is a lake, and where you may still see the remains of stocks for building of ships. Into this lake the Cydnus falls.” The river at present circumvents the lake, which is a marsh of about thirty miles in circumference. The modern Tarsus is watered by a canal from the Cydnus, and this, after passing through the town, used to fall into the marshes; but the Mufti, at my suggestion, caused a road to be cut for it to return into the river, in hopes that the waters of the marsh would diminish, and, in case there was no spring in the lake, that it might eventually be dried up, which would make the resi¬ dence much more salubrious. At present, the exhalations from the marsh, which are blown over the town by the sea-breeze, lendei the place most unhealthy; and the fevers that are engendered thereby are of the most pernicious kind, often carrying off the persons attacked by them in three days. As I have observed in another part of this work, the lake had been at one time drained, and the remains of a canal to carry off the waters and turn them into the Cydnus may be seen close along the shore at the mouth of the river. I also believe that this lake was once a port, and communicated with the sea through a passage which is now but slightly blocked up by the sand. Strabo confirms this idea by adding: “ This river has its source in that part of the Taurus which is above Tarsus, and it traverses this town (the ancient Tarsus, on part of which only the present town stands) before reaching the lake ; so that this latter serves as a port to the town." 138 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Strabo tells us that “ Tarsus was founded by Triptolemus (a priest of Argos) in his search after Ioand there were at Tarsus and An¬ tioch monuments to prove that Io had been in their neighbourhood, and that they were colonies of Argos.* Strabo further says, that as the sources of the Cydnus are not far from the town which it traverses, directly after leaving a deep valley, its waters are cold, and the current strong. u These,” he adds, u are considered good for persons or animals suffering from sprains or in¬ flamed limbs;” as if the good effects of the cold water, which we fancy to be a discovery of modern times, were known and had recourse to in his time. Strabo proceeds to say, that the inhabitants of Tarsus had distin¬ guished themselves so much by their application to philosophy and literature, that this city in that point surpassed Athens, Alexandria, or even any other town where schools and colleges were to be met with directed by philosophers and learned men. “ The only difference is, that at Tarsus those who apply themselves to literature are all Tarsiots, and that it is visited by few strangers ; even those who are born there do not remain in this town, but leave it to go and perfect themselves elsewhere; and they remain away from home willingly, except a small number, who return to their country. This is quite the contrary in the other towns that I have referred to above (except Alexandria): many strangers go there to study, and fix themselves in them, whilst few of their inhabitants leave their town out of love of science, or seek to instruct themselves at home—two things that take place in Alexandria, whose inhabitants receive many strangers in their schools, and send a great many of their young men to the schools of other towns.”—“ Tarsus possesses schools for every kind of instruction. It is furthermore populous and powerful, and must be regarded as a capital.” Of the illustrious men whom this city has produced, Strabo men¬ tions Antipater, Archimedes, and Nestor, Stoic philosophers, and the two Athenodori. Antipater was disciple and successor of Diogenes, the Babylonian (not the cynic of SinojDi, but the disciple of Chrysippus), about 80 b.c. according to Lempriere; but Smith places him 144 b.c. Feeling his deficiency in the powers of disputing verbally with his opponent and contemporary, Carneades, he confined himself to writing, whence he was called Kalamoboas. Cicero praises his acuteness, and Plutarch speaks of him with Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, as one of the principal Stoic philosophers. * Vide Smith’s Die. of Greek and Rom. Biog. and Myth. STOIC PHILOSOPHERS. 139 I find no particular mention of Archimedes and Nestor in Smiths Biography; but of the Athenodori we find that the first was called Cananites, from a town in Cilicia, although he was a native of Tarsus; and Cicero calls him Athenodorus Calvus. He was in great favour with Augustus, whose government became milder in consequence of his attending to his advice, and the young Claudius was instructed by him. He retired to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82, much beloved and respected in his own native city, of which he has written an account, as well as other works A The other Athenodorus, surnamed Cordylia, was also a native of Tarsus, and a Stoic philosopher. He was keeper of the library at Pergamus; and in his anxiety to preserve the doctrines of Ins sect in their original purity, used to cut out from the works of the Stoic writers such parts as appeared to him erroneous or inconsistent. He removed from Pergamus to Rome, and lived with M. Cato, at whose house he died.I Strabo enters into a long account of the first-mentioned Atheno¬ dorus, how, on his return to Tarsus, finding Boethus and Ins faction intractable, he availed himself of the power confided to him by Augustus, and banished them. This same Boethus, Strabo tells us, was as bad a citizen as a poet, and maintained himself in power over his fellow townsmen by flattering Antony, whom he compared to Achilles, Aga¬ memnon, and Ulysses, in Ins verses, which he had the impudence to insinuate were like those of Homer. “ These philosophers,” says Strabo, “ whom I have mentioned, were Stoics ; but the sect of the Academicians has furnished us m our days with one other distinguished man, Nestor, who was preceptor to Mur- cellus, son of Octavia, sister of Augustus. This philosopher was at the head of affairs in Cilicia, after Athenodorus, whom he succeeded, and he enjoyed to the end of his days the esteem of the governors (sent from Rome) and that of his fellow-countrymen.” As to the other philosophers “ whom I know and specify by their namesf says Strabo, quoting this line of Homer, “ there are two, Plu- tiades and Diogenes, both among those who pass from city to city, to shine in society by making their talents appreciated. Diogenes pos¬ sessed, moreover, the power of improvising, like a man inspired, on all kinds of subjects—poems, for the greater part, of a tragic turn. J This Diogenes mentioned here is not, I should suppose, the Diogenes Laertius, the historian of philosophers, although it is remarkable that * Vide Hoffman Dissert, de Athen. Tarsensi, Lips. 1732 ; Sevin, in the Memoires de l’Acad. des Inscr xix. 14. . . t Vide Smith’s Myth. t Vide Laertius, lib. iv. sagm. 58. 140 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. lie is also one of the celebrated men of whom Cilicia can boast, as he received his surname from being a native of the town of Laerte in Cilicia. Of Plutiades I found no mention elsewhere, except that Smith seems to think him to be the same as Plution, who was a celebrated teacher of rhetoric; and Westerman places him in the period between Augustus and Hadrian. “ The grammarians that came from Tarsus,” says Strabo, “ are Artemidorus and Diodorus. This town also produced Dionysides, an excellent tragic poet, and one of the seven who composed what is called the Pleiad.” This Artemidorus is supposed to be the same as the gram¬ marian of that name surnamed Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alex¬ andria, who had also another disciple named Diodorus , and who may be, perhaps, the person above referred to by Strabo. There was in the time of the Emperor Valens a person of this name, who was appointed Bishop of Tarsus (a.d. 378) by Melitus, the Bishop of Antioch. Diodorus attended the Council of Constantinople (a.d. 381), at which the general superintendence of the Eastern churches was en¬ trusted to him and Pelagius of Lpodiceia. Of Dionysides nothing further is known than what Strabo says above, that he was one of the best of the composers of the Tragic Pleiad of the Alexandrian grammarians, and regarding whom historians are not so well agreed as regarding their number. Hephsestion the scholiast makes them contemporary with Ptolemy Pliiladelphus, and calls them Homer (not the author of the Iliad ), Sositheus, Lycophron, Alexander (cited by Strabo in more places than one), (Eantides, Sosiphanes, and Pliiliscus. Others place Aratus, Apollonius , Nicander , and Theocritus at the head of the list, although none of these poets wrote any tragedies. “ It is particularly in Pome,” continues Strabo, “ that we may procure information regarding the great number of men of letters pro¬ duced by Tarsus ; for it is full of learned men from that city, as well as from Alexandria. But” he concludes, “ this is enough regarding Tarsus .” From this Strabo passes on to the Pyramus, which, he says, comes from Cataonia, and he refers to his account of this river, where he de¬ scribes the country whence it takes its rise, alluding at the same time to the deposits of mud which this stream makes, and which, he says, gave rise to an oracle, which declared “ that the time would come when posterity would see the Pyramus reach the island of Cyprus, by means of its deposits on the continentand, indeed, the sea is rather shallow FABLES MENTIONED BY STRABO. 141 at the mouth of the Pyramus: when the drag-nets are thrown, the men have to wade in the water for a quarter of a mile, as ropes of a general length are too short to reach the shore ; and what is remarkable is, that such is the abundance of turtle on this coast, that they fill the sack of the net, and have to be extracted therefrom three times before the net can reach the shore, by which time, however, it is generally found abundantly provided with fish. The mention of the mouth of the Pyramus naturally leads Strabo to notice Mallos, now a little ruin, and which, he tells us, was founded by Amphilochus and Mopsus. The latter, however, remaining master of the place on Amphilocus’s voyage to Argos, refused to admit him to share in his authority on his return; on which a mortal combat ensued, wherein both perished; and they were buried at a distance from each other, so that the tomb of the one could not be discerned from that of the other, “ in order that their enmity should cease after death.” Strabo also mentions two fables regarding the death of Calchas, the greatest of the Grecian soothsayers at Troy. “Hesiod,” says he, “ar¬ ranges this fable in the following manner. Calchas proposed to Mopsus this enigma: dam astonished at the quantity of figs on this wild fig- tree; could you guess the number of them?’ Mopsus replied, ‘There are ten thousand of them, which make a median measure, and there remains one over; and this you are not capable of understanding.’ Thus spoke Mopsus ; and the measure having been found complete (or cor¬ rect), the sleep of death closed the eyes of Calchas. “ But,” continues Strabo, “ according to Pherecydes, the subject of the enigma was a sow with young. Calchas asked Mopsus how many pigs it bore. Mopsus replied three, and one of which a female. Cal¬ chas, finding Mopsus right, died of grief. Others say that he proposed the enigma of the sow, and that Mopsus in his turn proposed that of the fig-tree; and that Calchas, not having been able to guess rightly, died of vexation, as it had been predicted to him by an oracle. So¬ phocles, in his ‘ Vindication of Helen,’ says that the oracle had de¬ clared to Calchas that he was destined to die as soon as he met with a soothsayer cleverer than him. This same poet places this dispute and death of Calchas in Cilicia. But this is enough,” says Strabo, “ of these ancient fables.” “ Mallos” (or Mallus), says Strabo, “ was the birth-place of the grammarian Crates, of whom Panoetius tells us he was a disciple.” This Crates was son of Simocrates, and lived in the reign of Ptolemy Pliilo- meter, and was contemporary with Aristarchus. This would give us some clue to the epoch in which his disciple lived, and regarding whom 142 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. there is some uncertainty as to the year of his birth or death.* Crates was brought up at Tarsus, and afterwards removed to Pergamus, where he founded a school about the year 157 b.C. He was sent by Attalus ambassador to Rome, where, having by accident broken his leg, he was compelled to lead a sedentary life, and this enabled him to find time to hold frequent grammatical lectures. This, says our historian, is all that is known of the life of Crates. We are told by Strabo that, whilst Philotas conducted the cavalry of Alexander through the Aleian plnins—taking, no doubt, the route which is the high road of the present day through Adana and Missis - the latter conducted the infantry from Soli along the coast to Issus. He must, of course, have passed by Mallos; and Strabo says that it was reported that Alexander offered libations on the tomb of Amphilochus, in consideration of their common origin from the city of Argos.f After mentioning different places on the coast, such as Aegeus (Ayas), the Pyke Amanidse, Issus, Rhosus (Arsus), and the Pylse Syrise, he says that the first Syrian town on leaving the latter is Seleucia Pieiia, the Suedia described in this work, “ near which ther Orontes river dis¬ charges its waters. From this town to Soli the navigation in a straight line °is about 1000 stadia.”{ He then concludes with the following passage regarding the origin of the Cilicians: “ As the Cilicians of Troy whom Homer mentions § are very far from the Cilicians of Mount Taurus, some people pretend that the latter issued from the first; and they shew places bearing the same name as those of Trojan Cilicia, such as Thebes and Lernassus in Pamphilia. Others, on the contrary, consider the Cilicians of Troy to be descended from those beyond the Taurus, and equally point out among them a plain which is called Aleium (after that in which is Tarsus).” * Vide Smith’s Myth. f Vide Arrian de Exped. Alexand. lib. ii. cap. 5. + I have crossed it by a sixteen hours’ sail in an open boat. § Iliad, lib. vi. vers. 395-397- LABES AND PENATES ; OR THE HOUSEHOLD GODS OF CILICIA. m 'jr- . 4 ^ LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Lares and Penates were the names of the Household gods of the an¬ cients. Many derivations have been found for both : the Lares from their descent from Lara; but the most likely is that given by Apuleius (De Deo Socratis ), from lar, familiaris. The Penates appear to be essen¬ tially of Eastern origin, and the etymology of the word, it has been said, must be sought in the Phrygian ; although Cicero and others have given it a Latin origin, quod penitus insident , or again, quia coluntur in penetralibus , u because they are worshipped in the innermost recesses of the house.” A mythology or pantheism of this kind dates from the most remote antiquity ; it is probably one of the first soothing fictions by which the great Deity was brought into immediate contact with persons and actions. The Egyptians had their four gods, for example, who presided over the birth of children — Genius, Fortune, Love, and Necessity. These were subsequently called Pr^stites, Quod prsestaut oculis omnia tuta suis”—O vid. Fast; and were supposed to take care of particular houses and families. We trace the same faith lingering in poetic rather than admitted notions of angelic and saintly interference in our own times. The Penates were divinities, or household gods, who were believed to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of for¬ tune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community. It is not clear whether all or which of the gods were venerated as Penates; for L 146 LAKES AND PENATES. many are mentioned of both sexes, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Yesta, Nep¬ tune, Apollo, &c. ; but every family worshipped one or more of these, whose images were kept in the inner part of the house, the tablinum , situated beyond the atrium. They are represented in various ways on coins and medals. Mr. Rich gives an example in his Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary and Greek Lexicon , from the Vatican Virgil , in which they appear as old men, with their heads veiled like priests officiating at a sacrifice. The occurrence of such an illustra¬ tion would tend to throw some light on the bearded and hooded figures met with in the Tarsus collection, and the origin of which will be after¬ wards discussed under various points of view. The Lares, as tutelary spirits, were also sometimes confounded with the souls of deceased persons. Thus Apuleius tells us that the private or domestic Lares were no more than the. souls of departed persons who had lived well and discharged the duties of their station ; whereas those who had done otherwise were vagabond, wandering about and frightening people under the name of Larvae and Lemures. The Lares were supposed to exercise a protecting influence over the interior of every man’s household, himself, his family, and property ; and yet they were not regarded as divinities like the Penates, but simply as guardian spirits, whose place was the chimney-piece, and whose altar was the domestic hearth (focus) in the atrium, and where each individual made offerings of incense to them in his own home. Many illustrations of these descriptions of private or domestic Lares occur in the Tarsus col¬ lection. According to Ovid there were but two Lares; and these, like the Penates, were worshipped in the form of little figures or images of wax, earthenware, or terra cotta, and of metal, more especially silver. They were dressed in short habits, to shew their readiness to serve, and they held a sort of cornucopias in their hands, as the emblem of hospitality and good house-keeping. Rich says they are constantly represented in works of art as young men crowned with a chaplet of laurel leaves, in a short tunic,* and holding up a drinking-horn {cornu, not the cornu- copice ,) above their heads ; and he gives an example from a bas-relief in the Vatican, under which is the inscription, “ Laribus Augustis.”f Examples are met with in the Tarsus collection. * Succinctis Laribus. Pers. v. 31. + The Lares were also represented as young boys, with dog-skins about their shoulders, and with their heads covered, which was a sign of that freedom and liberty which men ought to enjoy in their own houses ; their symbol was a dog, to denote their fidelity, and the service that animal does to man in preserving and watching over DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LARES. 147 The accessory of the drinking-horn has induced many antiquaries to take these figures for cup-bearers ( pocillatores ) ; but the inscription just mentioned is sufficient evidence of their real character, and they are repeatedly seen on the walls of the Pompeian houses, in kitchens, bakehouses, and over street-doors, standing in pairs, one on each side of an altar, in the same attitude and drapery. Great houses and per¬ sons of wealth had their Lararia, a sort of shrine, small chapel, or apart¬ ment, where the statues of the Lares, as well as of other sanctified or deified personages, were placed and worshipped.* Tatius, king of the Sabines, is said to have built a temple to the Lares. Plutarch distinguishes the Lares, like the Genii, into good and evil; and there were also public and private Lares. The public Lares were sometimes called Compitalis , from compitum, a cross-way; and Viales , from via, a way, or public road, as being placed at the intersection of roads and in the highways, and esteemed the patrons and protectors of tra¬ vellers. The Romans also gave the name TJrbani, that is, Lares of the cities, to those who had cities under their care ; and Hostilii , to those who were to keep off their enemies. There were also Lares of the country, called Purales, as appears from several ancient inscriptions ; and also Lares called Per mar ini, who, it is probable, were the Lares of ships; nor is it unreasonable to suppose that these floating houses should have their tutelar deities as well as others. They had even their grunt¬ ing Lares ; the Lares called Grundiles having, according to tradition, been instituted by Romulus, in honour of a sow that brought forth at one time thirty pigs. The name Grundiles was given to them a grun- nitu, from grunting. When the Roman youths laid aside the bull (a golden ornament shaped like a heart, but hollow, which they constantly wore till four¬ teen years of age), they consecrated or hung it up to the Laies. Slaves likewise, when they obtained their freedom, hung up their chains to these deities. The Romans at first offered young people in sacrifice both to the the places allotted to their charge, on which account the dog was particularly conse¬ crated to them. The number of heads, and other portions of “deified boys,” in the Tarsus collection, is quite remarkable, and would tend to shew that the intention of these figures was the same in Cicilia as it was at Rome. Figures of dogs are not so common, but several instances occur, sufficient indeed to lead us to believe that the same tradition with regard to these faithful domestic animals as obtained among the Romans was also accepted by the Cicilians. They appear to have been the hoarders up of the mythological traditions of almost all the countries by which they were surrounded, or by which they were successively conquered. * Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 29 , 31 . 148 LARES AND PENATES. Lares and Penates; but those barbarous rites were ultimately super¬ seded by more harmless offerings,—hogs in public, and wine, incense, heads of poppies, bandages of wool, and images of straw in private ; they also crowned them with flowers, particularly with the violet, myrtle, and rosemary. The term Lares, according to Mr. Bryant’s mythological theory, was formed from laren , an ancient word by which the ark was represented ; and he supposes that the Lares and Manes were the same domestic deities undei diffeient names, and that by these terms the Hetrurians and Latins denote the Dii Arkitse, who were no other than their Arkite ancestors, or the persons preserved in the laren or ark, the genius of which was- Isis, the reputed parent of the world. He observes further that they are described as daemons and genii, who once lived on earth, and were gifted with immortality. Arnobius styles them, Lares quosdam genios et functonm animas ; and he says that, according to Varro, they were the children of Mania. Flutius* adds, that Mania had also the name of Laranda, and she is styled the mother of the daemons. By some she is called Lara, and was supposed to preside over families; and children were offered at her altar in order to procure her favour. In lieu of these they in after-times offered the heads of poppies and pods of garlic. This accounts somewhat for the discrepancy of the ancients as to their origin. For example, Varro and Macrobius say that they were the children of Mania; Ovid makes them the issue of Mercury and Lara or Larunda; Apuleius assures us that they were the posterity of the Lemures; Nigridius, according to Aunobius, made them sometimes the guardians and protectors of houses, and sometimes the same with the Curetes of Samo-Thracia, which the Greeks call Idcei dactyli. Nor was Varro more consistent in his own opinions, sometimes making them the manes of heroes, and sometimes gods of the air. In Cilicia we have a faint tracing of the admixture of Lgyptian and Samo-Thracian mysteries in the national Pantheism, in the existence of a terra-cotta crocodile, a crocodile river, Kersus of Xenophon, Andricus of Pliny, and a “ Mons crocodilus.” With respect to the Penates, they were of three classes: those who presided over empires and states, those who had the protection of cities, and those who took the care or guardianship of private families ; the last were called the lesser Penates. According to others, there were four classes: the celestial; the sea-gods, the gods of hell, and all such heroes as had received divine honours after death. * Demonst. prop. iv. p. 139 . PENATES OE ROME. 149 Authors are not agreed about the origin of the Dii Penates, which are generally admitted to have come originally from Asia, and were known as the tutelary gods of the Trojans. Dionysius Halicarnassus tells us that iEneas first lodged these gods in the city of Lavinium, and that his son Ascanius, upon building the city of Alba, translated them thither, but that they returned twice miraculously to Lavinium. The same author adds, that in Rome there was still seen a dark temple, shaded by the adjacent buildings, wherein w T ere the images of the Trojan gods, with the inscription u Denas,” which signifies Penates. These images represented two young men sitting, each of which held a lance. I have seen, says Dionysius, several other statues of the same gods in ancient temples, who all appear like young men dressed in the habit of war. Yarro brings the Penates from Samothrace to Phrygia, to be afterwards transported by iEneas into Italy. It is a popular question among the learned, who were the Penates of Rome ? Some say Yesta, others Neptune and Apollo ; Yives says Castor and Pollux, with whom agrees Yossius, who adds, that the reason of their choosing Castor and Pollux in the quality of Penates might be the important service they rendered the Romans in some of their wars. When Macrobius says that Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were the Penates of the Romans, it does not follow from that that they were the Penates of Rome. It seems, indeed, to have been in the option of every master of a family to choose his Penates; and hence it was that Jupiter and some of the superior gods were often invoked as patrons of domestic affairs. The positive domestic and public deities selected by a country or province and its inhabitants were, perhaps, never before so fully illus¬ trated as in the instance of the remarkable collection now brought to light, discovered also in a country of great antiquity, and which per¬ haps, more than any other in the East, forms the connecting link between Assyrian and Greek mythology, and with Lycia between As¬ syrian and Greek art. The light they may yet be made to throw upon these relations will, in all probability, be found to be very considerable, and to present a field of investigation as yet almost un¬ touched. The Assyrians of old recognised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts.* Zeus or Baal, as the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot, was drawn by the finest and largest horses of Asia ; while the god of the sun had only one single Nissan horse, or was represented * Grotefencl on the Mythology of the Assyrians, according to the Sculptures of the Palace at Nimrud. 150 LARES AND PENATES. upon a winged horse, whose image Layard* found embroidered upon the garment of the king.f Like the tradition of Bellerophon and Perseus, whom, according to Heiodotus,J the Persians declared to be an Assyrian, the designation of this horse by the name of Pegasus seems to be of Assyrian origin, espe¬ cially since Tarsus, whose inhabitants, according to Dio Chrysostomus,§ worshipped Perseus, together with Hercules or Sandon r || and the tri- dented Apollo, is said to have been built by an Assyrian king.^f We have here, then, at once accurate legendary information as to the Penates of Tarsus, and tolerably satisfactory testimony as to the Assyrian origin of some of them. Perseus himself has been recognised in this collection; and it has been ingeniously suggested that Tarsus winged, feathered, pinioned, may have reference to the conqueror of the Gorgon* Reasons have been elsewhere given for a preference to an etymology which brings Tarsus more into connexion with the story of Bellerophon, and the frequent fragments of horses’ feet have been sug¬ gested to have some reference to Pegasus ; while the circumstance of the Apollo of Tarsus being winged might be made to bear reference to eithei 01 both of these local traditions. We may observe that Apollo was the chief object of superstitious worship at Tarsus; that his image was no doubt in every house; that his remains are more numerous than the other objects of heathen idolatry; and that he is represented in many various ways. J We have also a head of a horse which, it has been suggested, may be one of the horses of the sun; a surmise which is further said to be sup- * Yol. ii. p. 461, fig. 84. + Grotefend describes, from Layard, a slab at Nimrud upon winch is sculptured a flying horseman, who. bore a helmet with curved crest. The Persians themselves ayard remarks, vol. i. p. 443, may have recognised the Assyrian source of their reli¬ gion when they declared Perseus, the founder of their race, to have been an Assyrian. Herodotus, i vi. c. 54. The head of Perseus occurs on two of the Babylonian cylinders engraved by Mr. Cullimore for the Syro-Egyptian Society. Some traditions made this Perseus a great astronomer, who instructed men in the knowledge of the stars, liep^s 6 hw, Perseus is the sun, says the scholiast in Lycophr. v 18. According to some, he married Astarte, the daughter of Belus. All these traditions point to his Assyrian origin. I only find m Layard vol. i. p. 376, mention of a horseman wearing a helmet with a curved crest, pursued by two Assyrian warriors; but in vol. ii. p. 461, is figured the winged horse, "so closely,’’says Layard, "resembling the Pegasus of the Greeks that we can scarcely doubt the identity.” ’ X Herodotus, vi. 54. § Orat. xxxiii. init. and p. 407, ed. Mon. \\ Compare Raoul Rochette, Memoire sur VHercule Assyrien, p. 489 et sen If Ammianus Marcellinus writes of Tarsus, xiv. 8, Hand condidisse Persens memo - 1 ' Vd Certe ex A nc Hal)o profectus Sandon quidem nomine, vir opulentus et nobilis . THE TARSUS COLLECTION. 151 ported by another fragment existing in the collection which shews the head of a second horse coupled to it as if attached to a chariot, and also by the many votive memorials of horses’ limbs before alluded to. T\ 7 e have in the collection several heads of Hercules, one of which is radiated, and figures of Hercules with the mace. The Assyrian Hercules, Sandcs, Sandon, or Sandok,* but more properly Dayyad the Hunter, was represented on a colossal winged figure holding a mace, and also as bear¬ ing a stag on one arm, and'a flower with, five blossoms in the right hand. It does not appear that this latter form of the divinity was accepted by the Tarsians. It is sufficient, however, that we certainly find traces of Assyrian mythology interwoven into a compound worship—the Egyptian, Syrian, Grecian, and Roman characters of which are elsewhere developed,—and which combination has been justly pointed out to have arisen from the local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions. “ I believe,” remarks Mr. Abington, “ that there has never before been presented to this world so striking a proof of the easy plastic character of the old mythology as we find in this precious collection of antiquities.” A further development even to this view of the matter is given when we add an Assyrian origin to the most characteristic of the Tarsus divini¬ ties, and to the before-mentioned Egyptian, Syrian, Grecian, and Roman combinations. It need only be added, that some further curious and remarkable illustrations of the same affinity—that is, of Cilician and Assyrian mythology—will be found in the chapter devoted to the description of certain gods, demi-gods, and heroes represented in the Tarsus terra¬ cottas, and which arrived in this country, and were described, at a period subsequent to the examination of the first portions of the col¬ lection. * Tacitus, An.xii. 13. CHAPTER II. DISCOVERY OF THE TERRA-COTTAS-LARES AND PENATES OF CILICIA-EVI¬ DENCES OF PROMISCUOUS WORSHIP-APOLLO OF TARSUS-PERSEUS, BELLE- ROPHON, AND PEGASUS-RADIATED APOLLO-IDENTITY OF PHYSIOGNOMY- UGLY FACES-DEIFICATION OF CHILDREN-DEIFICATION OF PRINGES- DEIFICATION OF LADIES-CHARACTER OF CILICIAN ART-PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY --DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES AND PENATES-ATYS- APOLLO, THE SYRIAN BAAL—CYBELE, CERES, AND ISIS-ELEUSINEAN MYSTE¬ RIES-CYBELE AND ATYS, ISIS AND OSIRIS, VENUS AND ADONIS-THE CAT, DOG, AND HORSE-HARPOCRATES AND FLORUS-ISIS AND THE NELUMBIUM -SACRED BULLS-EGYPTIAN ART—MORPHEUS. “ The incarnations, which form the principal subjects of sculpture in the temples of idolatry, are above all others calculated to call forth the ideal perfections of the art, by expanding and exalting the imagination of the artist, and inciting his ambition to surpass the simple imitation of ordinary forms, in order to produce a model of excellence worthy to be the corporeal habitation of the Deity; but this no nation of the earth, except the Greeks, and those who copied them, ever attempted. Let the precious wrecks and fragments, therefore, of the art and genius of that wonder¬ ful people be collected with care, and preserved with reverence, as examples of what man is capable of under peculiar circumstances, which, as they have never occurred but once, may never occur again.”— R. P. Knight on the Symbolical Language of Mythology. It has been my good fortune to discover such remains as are above alluded to in the extract from Mr. R. P. Knight’s learned and interesting work. During a residence of eight years in Cilicia, I was, in the year 1845, at different intervals, presented with one or two of these terra¬ cotta heads by an Armenian, who passed a great part of the day rum¬ maging among old ruins, which is frequently the case with lazy fellows, who pass for moral men or u saints” of the modern Eastern population, and who have an ulterior object besides that of seclusion : the desire of discovering hidden treasures, or of imposing on the credulity of their countrymen, by pretending to supernatural knowledge in the secret of finding the same. I had in vain questioned him regarding the place DISCOVERY OE THE COLLECTION. 153 where he had found these objects. He had naturally an interest in avoiding to satisfy my curiosity, as I paid him handsomely for every thing he brought me ; and he pretended that he used to write magical words on pieces of paper, which he would throw up in the air, and then he would dig in those places whereon they fell! Such is the kind of nonsense which he no doubt endeavoured to impose on his credulous neighbours. One day a friend observed the Armenian scratching the earth on the slope of a hill at no great distance from my residence. He suspected what the man was looking for, and on informing me of the circumstance, I proceeded to the spot, where I discovered the rich mine from which I have drawn the whole of my collection. Having set workmen to clear away the rubbish, I collected all I could get, and these are the objects of which I now offer sketches to the public. These drawings I have taken care should be done as correctly as possible; yet such is the artistic merit of the originals, that no one can do them sufficient jus¬ tice. Still I have endeavoured to give such an accurate delineation of these objects as shall bear the closest critical inspection. On the ancient wall of Tarsus a hill leaned (if I may be allowed the expression), which must have been many centuries there, inasmuch as on its summit, and towards its base, there exists a fabric, the founda¬ tions of which are of Eoman cement, which was used for the interior of walls, and which, petrifying, becomes a conglomeration of mortar, sand, and pebbles, of different sizes, and harder to break up than the rock itself. The inhabitants of the present town do not trouble themselves to go to the mountains to cut thence the stones they may require for their buildings ; they prefer using such as those who lived in the same spot before have left them ; and they carry away, wherever they find them, all the large square stones they require. After using up all that they could find on the surface of the ground, they dug up the founda¬ tion of the old city of Tarsus. This foundation is now as low down as forty feet under ground, such being the speed with which alluvial deposits accumulate in a country so near to the high ridges of the Taurus, and in a city on which several towns have been built in suc¬ cession. In the course of time the wall on which the hill leaned was thus carried away stone by stone, and a secant of the hill left exposed to view. In the centre of this secant it was that I first discoveied these precious objects; and by beating the earth down the hill, I had it well examined, and carried off, as I imagined, every thing worthy of notice, until no more objects were exposed to view by working in the hill. The curiosity excited by this discovery was naturally great, and it was 154 LARES AND PENATES. impossible to prevent tbe inhabitants from crowding to the spot. They were all much pleased with the lamps found among the rubbish, all of which were more or less perfect, and in a state ready for use ; these I could not prevent them carrying off: but as they took no interest in any thing else (heads being perfectly useless to them), and as they were aware that I would have purchased all that were presented to me, I have every reason to believe that nothing of any consequence escaped me except these lamps, of which, however, I secured a great many, rejecting such as were of common workmanship, or devoid of interest, from their having no basso relievo or inscription to recommend them to notice. It was thus that I obtained this unique collection of ancient Cera¬ mic art. At first I imagined that I had lighted upon the site of a Ceramicus, and that the mound might have been formed of the waste of a manufac¬ tory, or what is technically called u sherd wreck,” many of which are now accumulating, and will disclose their secrets to some future genera¬ tion. But on further inspection of the articles themselves, I have no doubt that Mr. Abington’s* suggestion will be found correct, that these precious vestiges are the Penates of the ancient Cilicians, and conse¬ quently of a much more interesting character, inasmuch as they bear witness and testify to the triumphs of Christianity over the superstitions of the Gentiles. The following are some of the reasons that lead to this conclusion. 1st. None of the articles appear to have been rejected by the maker on account of defective workmanship ; though the work of some of them is very slight, yet even these have evidently been in use ; they had. been sent out by the manufacturer as finished ; had been applied to the pur¬ poses intended, and subsequently broken, either by design or accident; “ and if they had been used,” Mr. Birch observed, before he had seen * Here I am happy in an opportunity of expressing publicly my great obligation to Mr. Leonard J. Abington, of Hanley Potteries, Staffordshire, for the valuable infor¬ mation he has furnished me with ; indeed, without him, I question if I should have been able to bring these valuable remains of antiquity into notice. He not only mounted each piece on a pedestal adapted to it, and thereby presented the object in the most advantageous position to be viewed, but he addressed to me a series of remarks doubly interesting : first, as coming from a person who seems at home on every subject, ancient and modern; and second, as emanating from one who could speak artistically as well as scientifically, he being connected with one of the largest establishments of China pottery in England. These observations are incorporated in the following re¬ marks, and form the basis of what I would turn the attention of the reader to, leaving (as I have already observed) to others to work upon the subject, which is of great in¬ terest, and affords matter for many volumes by more able pens. PENATES OF THE CILICIANS. 1 55 the objects, “they would have been covered Avith lime, and painted in fresco, traces of which must be sought upon them.” Now they have all been painted ; indeed, some of them have been painted more than once : see the head of Pan, No. 1, which had been painted blue, and afterwards with a thick coat of red; many were painted in party-colour—the flesh and the gar¬ ments different. In a mounted headless bust of Apollo Belvidere there are two or three spots of the colour remaining ; the body was red, and the garments green; and a careful examination of many of the pieces, after breathing no. 1.—head of pan. upon them, will discover traces of co¬ lour which would not be suspected on a cursory view. The rays upon deified figures are generally painted blue, and sometimes the eyes are of the same colour. The head of Pan, No. 1, was not thrown aside because of any defect making it unsaleable; except a little damage to the edge of the garland with which it is crowned, it is as perfect as when the maker sold it. The mortar, which still remains, by which it was fixed upon the stile which supported it, proves that it had been put up in the place which superstition had assigned to it, and from which it was afterwards deposed and cast out. This remaining mortar or cement proves further, that it had been applied to the purpose for which the heads of Pan and Bacchus usually were, in woods, pastures, and vineyards : it escaped the destruction which came upon its fellows by reason of its solid and al¬ most spherical form. 2dly. The Incense-Burner, No. 2, has not been rejected by the maker on account of any failure in the workmanship. It had left the manufac¬ tory, and been in use in the worship of some household idol; this is certain, by the carbonaceous stain still remaining in the bottom of the crater. This piece, therefore, after having been consecrated to religious use, was afterwards broken and thrown out, either by accident or design. 156 LARES AND PENATES. 3dly. The same argument may be drawn from the Lamp, No. 3, which had been long in use. The stag upon it suggests the thought that it has been used to burn before an image of Diana, whose head we have, No. 4, and who was honoured in Lesser Asia. Another Lamp is entire, and fit for service; and it was not likely to have been thrown away as rubbish. The symbols upon it indicate that it has been used for religious purposes. Such articles would certainly be rejected, as contaminated by the use for idol-worship, on the owners embracing the “ glorious Gospel of the blessed God.” The circular arched form of the lamps would enable them to bear considerable vio¬ lence without breaking, and would account for such a number having been found whole and perfect, although subjected to the same inten¬ tional destruction which the rest of the pieces of the collection have ex¬ perienced. JUPITER, JUNO, AND APOLLO. 157 4thly. Some of the fragments are votive offerings, consecrated to the honour of the gods, and attesting their condescension to suffer¬ ing humanity, and their power to help. To damage or remove such would have been con¬ sidered the highest act of desecration. The most wicked man would have been shocked at such a crime. What, then, could have caused such a sweeping act of sacrilege ? Here lie the prized memorials of relief obtained from the gods in time of trouble, and the very gods themselves lying in the same indiscriminate ruin. There lies the Olympic Thunderer with his jaw broken, No. 5, and the head of his saucy wife for a companion, in the dirt, No. 6. His wings could not save the patron, No. 7, a winged Apollo, NO. 5. — HEAD OP JUriTEK. the honoured of Tarsus, from the general break-up ; nor even the honesty of little Mercury, No. 8, exempt him from the common lot. 158 LARES AND PENATES. There is no fact in history to account for this sacrilegious devastation, but the resistless progress of the Gospel in apostolic times. 5thly. The age to which we must attribute the production of these works of art coincides with this supposition. Additional confirmation of this is afforded by some coins found with them, and which are known to date no further back than a century and a half to two centuries b.c. The fashion of the hair in the head No. 9 will admit of our fixing the date of the destruction of these objects in the first century. I am not aware that we have any account of the introduction of the Gospel, or of its triumphs at Tarsus; but it is not unlikely that this rejec¬ tion of the objects of superstitious reverence might have taken place before the close of the first century: and doubtless St. Paul would have been anxious for the conversion of his immediate friends and re’ations; and if he could not have superintended it in person, he would have early sent his most able and efficient disciples to carry on this work of grace. This question now meets us, Was this casting away of idols the act of private individuals, clearing their habitations of these abominations, at the risk of persecution from the authorities, and burying them outside DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES FOUND. 159 the gates ? or was it a general cleansing of the city by the force of public opinion, such as is described in Acts xix. 18-20 ? In either case we find here accumulated every variety of idol, including the compound worship (which had been carried on for years) of Assyrian, Egyptian, Syrian, Gre¬ cian, and Roman mythology,—this combination no doubt arising from the local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions; and if some person competent to the study would take up the subject, I feel per¬ suaded that much might be elucidated of further interest to the archeo¬ logist and to the divine, which would bring us to the firm persuasion, that their being purposely mutilated and thrown away was to be attri¬ buted to the influence of apostolic missionaries of the Christian faith in the first century of our Lord. A proof of the promiscuous worship of the people of Tarsus, and a picture of their religious superstition, before the establishment of Chris¬ tianity, is afforded by the accompanying list of some of the figures found, which will shew how comprehensive their religious faith must have been: here we have Apollo. Isis. V enus. Jupiter. Serapis. Mercury. .Diana. Juno. PaUas. Pluto. Eros. F ortune—V ictory. Hercules. Adonis. Atys. Bacclius. Pan. Horus. Apis. Anubis (the Egyptian Mercury). Typhon. Iris. iEsculapius. Phre—(the Hawk, the Egyptian Sun). and a multitude of deified men, women, and children, to whom it is impossible even to assign names. The religious system, therefore, prevailing at Tarsus must have been a compound of all the creeds existing at that epoch. Such a combination was perhaps common to the cities of Asia Minor ; but was moie likely to be found at Tarsus, it being a place of resort from all the surrounding countries, on account of its schools, as well as of its commerce. It has been before remarked, that there has never been presented to the world so striking a proof of the easy, plastic charactei oi the old mythology as we find in this precious col¬ lection of antiquities. T Jnlike Christianity, which treads alone in all the rigid inflexibility of eternal truth, and will not amalgamate with any thing earthly or of man’s device, we find ready adoption of any 160 LARES AND PENATES. tiling or every thing likely to fascinate the people, and to bring traffic to the temples. In order to read these vestiges intelligibly, it will not be uninterest¬ ing that we should review the peculiarities of the place of their disco¬ very. Tarsus was u no mean city;” its foundation was in the earliest antiquity; and when it came under the power of the Romans it was made a metropolis, as appears on its coins ; its schools rivalled those of Athens and Alexandria, to which it often furnished professors in eloquence and philosophy. One of the supposed derivations of its name may have been from the Greek. The most fanciful derivations were certainly sometimes represented in works of art. Have the wings any thing to do with Perseus , who has a great place in Tarsian my¬ thology ? Tarsus, says Mr. Birch, is an old name, certainly as old as the twentieth Egyptian dynasty, or fourteen centuries b.c. 11 Tar¬ sus signifies winged—feathered—pinioned, which the following obser¬ vation on one of these relics, a sketch of which is given under No. 7, elucidates, and affords a solution to a great mystery.^ T apa-oi is used by the writers of old not only to express a wing, but also the palm of the foot and hand. In anatomy tarsus is distinguished as belonging to the foot, carpus to the hand. Dionysius, sumamed Periegetes, from his poem of Periegesis, or “ Survey of the World,” refers the name of the city of Tarsus to Pegasus having landed Bellerophon there, leaving the mark of his hoof, or foot, in the ground. The passage runs as follows : Ki/Si'Oi/ T6 pw \inev owo]xa, Tri/sos a

v tu>v apxaloiv, in reference to the lameness produced by the fall, and which is alluded to in Pindar’s version of the fable. Cellarius also says, “ A Pegasi, ungula quam ibi ami- serit, nomen urbis fingunt, quia Tapo-or etiam planta pedis est.” Scenes of the story of Bellerophon, it has been justly remarked by Dr. Leonard Schmitz, were frequently represented in ancient works of art. His contest with the Chimsera was seen in the throne of Amyclae, and in the vestibule of the Delphic temple. On coins, gems, and vases, he is often seen fighting against the Chimsera, taking leave of Proetus, taming Pegasus, or giving him to drink, or falling from him. But until the recent discoveries in Lycia by Sir Charles Fellows, no representation of Bellerophon in any important work of art was known; in Lycian sculptures, however, he is seen riding on Pegasus and conquering the Chimsera. The several pieces of Cilician art in this important collection made by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker, will suggest a reference to this same story with many; and it is not a little singular that among these works of art a great number of single horses’ feet were found, which upon this fabulous origin of the name of Tarsus, as here given, being communicated by me to Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker, that gentleman ingeniously suggested might not impossibly have reference to the very point in question. The more ancient fable of Bellerophon’s fall from Pegasus at that spot may just as well have been represented in Cilician works of art as that which refers to Perseus. W. F. A. M 162 LARES AND PENATES. to contain incense or lustral water. Mr. Birch calls this the head of Isis ; but whether it be Isis or Apollo, it still proves the existence of Egyptian worship in Cilicia. Here I must refer to another head, No. 23, which Mr. Birch has NO. 23. —HEAD OF APOLLO RADIATED. recognised as the same as that upon the gold and silver coins of Rhodes. He says it is the Apollo (Helios), or the Sun, and is a copy of the Colos¬ sus at Rhodes. It is radiated. This radiation was not usual with the Romans and Greeks; but in the present case it admits of an easy expla¬ nation. Tarsus, bordering upon Phoenicia, and having ready access to Egypt, would have its mythology tinctured with that of its neighbours. Baal of the Phoenicians, Osiris of Egypt, and Apollo of the Greeks, all embody the myths originating in the worship of the sun. This pecu¬ liarity in the figure before us quite accords with the locality where it was found. There is a coin of Tarsus on which Apollo is seated upon a mount, with a lyre in his hand, indicating the presiding influence of that deity at the schools. It is believed that Apollo had an oracle in that place. Of this god the collection offers many specimens, all more or less diversified by some peculiarity or other. A large portion of these terra-cottas are of a sacred character, but they are not of a magnitude or material to make us suppose that they could have had a place in the public temples. They must have been for use in domestic lararia or chapels , or rather oratories * It is likely * Lares, the presiders over housekeeping affairs, occupied a place in the house by the fire-places and chimney-corners. Penates were the protectors of masters of families, wives, and children. Lares had short habits and cornucopias in their hands, symbols of servitude and hospitality. Ovid says, “ two Lares with a dog at their feet.” Plu¬ tarch, “ good and evil Lares, or Genii, also public and private lares.” Apuleius says DEIFYING MEN. 163 that the owners did not restrict the honour of a place there to one or two deities, but that people of opulence had a collection of such as had been duly consecrated by the priest, which were all honoured in turn? or as their special help was required. Alexander Severus is said to have preserved the images of all the great men who had been raised to the rank of the gods, and rendered divine honours to them in the same manner as to the most holy souls. Among these he had Apollonius Tyaneus, Jesus Christ, Abraham, Or¬ pheus, Virgil, Cicero, &c. &c. The lararia of private persons could not have been so well furnished, and the common people must have been content with still less. Before these idols it was the custom to light lamps, to burn incense, to offei flowers, fruits, meat, and wine; also votive memorials of benefits received were consecrated to them: many such small err votes-we have in this collection. See No* 32, p. 175, which is selected out of a great many, and which I imagine to be of this description, and devoted to Apollo. The custom of canonising or deifying men seems to have arisen from the idea that all which made them eminent for their talents or actions proceeded by emanation from the Divine Essence. Hence the simple i ites which express veneration for the dead grew into direct and explicit acts of worship to the shades of renowned men.- these splendid qualities, dazzling the minds of inferior men, soon obtained for them divine honours, as having exhibited and exercised the attributes of the gods upon earth. These deifications multiplied greatly under the Macedo¬ nian and Roman empires ; and many worthless tyrants were by their own preposterous pride, or the abject servility of their subjects, exalted into gods, Nero himself not forming an exception. The most usual mode of expressing this deification was by repre¬ senting the figure naked, or with the simple chlamys, or cloak, as often 1 given to the gods. The head, too, was generally radiated, and the bust placed upon a square inverted obelisk. The cornucopia was often given as a symbol to the statue. I he loose and indeterminate system of ancient mythology presented the Lares represented the souls,of departed persons who had lived well and done good. Lares are also called Penates, images of silver, wax, and earthenware. Public Lares were called Compitales, from compitum, a cross-way; and also Viales, from via, a way or i oad. 1 hese public Lares were placed at meetings of roads, as protectors and patrons of travellers, 'there were also Urbani, i.e. Lares of cities, as well as the country. The Lares were also genial gods, having the care of children from their birth. Bryant holds the Lares of Egypt and Rome to have been the same. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, built a temple to the Lares. The custom was observed of burial in the highways; a hog was offered in sacrifice. Lara was the mother of the demons ; children were offered in sacrifice to her. 164 LARES AND PENATES. very feeble barriers to the innovations and mutations which were con¬ stantly taking place, through intercourse with nations following different practices and other fables.* This collection affords ample proof of this plastic character of the mythology of Tarsus, and of the medley of Grecian, Syrian, and Egyptian worship which went to form it. Every man felt himself at liberty to honour those whom he loved with his adorations and offerings, without waiting for a public decree of canoni¬ sation. The object of his admiration, gratitude, or esteem might receive any religious rites, provided they did not disturb others, or do any thing in violation of the established forms of religious worship. This conse¬ cration, however, was not properly a deification, but what the Romish Church still practises under the title of canonisation, the object of it being considered rather a saint than a god ; wherefore a deified Roman emperor was not called deus , but divus. These facts will explain many of those difficulties which present themselves on a view of this collection; such as heads which have no trace of the orthodox form or ideal beauty of the deities whose attri¬ butes and symbols they bear; but which, on the contrary, are unques¬ tionably portraits of mortal men and women, and give us illustrations of the practice of conferring divine honours upon magistrates, philosophers, priests, and relatives, as the feelings of respect or affection might suggest. To exemplify this remark we have nineteen heads bearing the same expression of face, but with different attributes. Most of these heads have striking resemblance; they all have the hair knotted in the orthodox fashion distinguishing the figures of Apollo. But this deity is almost always characterised by unearthly ideal beauty of form : these are re¬ markable for gross sensuality. Such overfed, bloated faces, with an ex¬ pression of merriment and cunning, would, with tonsure and cowl, have made excellent monks. It seems that it was no unusual no. 24.— priest with attributes of apollo. thing to make the gods in the like¬ ness of mortals. The emperors, la¬ dies of high rank, and priests of the chief order, were thus complimented. Is not No. 24 a chief priest, thus in divine character ? and it has the See quotation from. R. P. Knight, prefixed to this chapter. DEIFICATION OF ROMAN EMPERORS. 165 attributes of Apollo more fully preserved. Here is the wing, the torch, the painting, &c.; but the leering of the eyes and the elevation of the corners of the cunning and merry mouth are any thing but divine, and as far removed from that calm repose by which the ancients always sought to characterise their gods as it is possible to conceive. Whether this was done during the life of the priest, or whether it was only a compliment paid to him after his death, we have not at present the means of knowing. In Josephus* we find a story which shews the depravity of the priests of Isis at Rome, and which caused Tiberius to destroy both them and their temple. May we not imagine that we see these rogues in some of these heads ?—a family likeness, no doubt. Several other heads are of this family, and are worthy of careful study; they all represent the same individual, though they have been wrought by different hands. Some are a piratical copy of the others. Such a piracy indicates that the demand for the figure must have been great. The hair is knotted on the top of the head, in the mode peculiar to Apollo, and shews that the person had been deified; yet there is no¬ thing mythological in the face, which is that of a bloated sensualist. As such, it would do well for Vitellius; but I do not think that he had the honour of apotheosis, though he was rather popular in Asia Minor. The men of Tarsus were very prone to flatter the Roman emperors, and often changed the name of their city in compliment to their imperial masters. After the great earthquake, a.d. 17, Tiberius gave relief to the unfortunate cities of the province of Lesser Asia, for which their gratitude would be due. When Tiberius died, he was raised to the rank of the gods; and that these heads represent a deified emperor there is no doubt. If it is Tiberius, it must be his likeness after his mode of life and debauchery in the island of Capri, and not as he appears upon the medals struck of him. As such medals of him in his deified cha¬ racter would not be made until after his death, such a difference in the likeness might be expected. Or we may take another view of the question. It was not unusual to pay divine honours to the images of the emperors which were erected in the cities of the empire during their lifetime. The city of Tarsus may have honoured one of its masters by an image in which he was flattered by being invested with the attributes of Apollo, their tutelar deity, before he was dead; and in that case we may imagine these to be cheap copies for the use of the million. Every way they are of much interest; and it would be desirable to have the opinion of more compe- * Antiquities of the Jews, book xviii. chap. 3. 166 LARES AND PENATES. tent judges in the investigation, -which, by publishing drawings of some of these, and others in this collection, I hope to afford persons the opportunity of making, who may not be able to see the objects them¬ selves. It was usual at the birth of a child to name it after some divine personage, who was supposed to receive it under his care ; but this name was not retained beyond infancy, when the bulla was given up; after which a name was given expressive of some quality or peculiarity of body or mind, or after its kindred. If the child died in infancy, parental affection would indulge itself in the worship of the idol of the heart, under the character of that god to whom it had been consecrated: the image would be formed with rays, &c., the sign of its exalted state, and honoured accordingly; nor is it unlikely that parental fondness micht in some cases be carried as far, even before death. With this view I lay before the reader Nos. 25 and 26. Here we have a beauti- NO. 25.—EROS WINGED. NO. 26.—HEAD OF A CHILD. ful head of a boy (Eros), with the arm turned over it. Does not this indicate heavenly repose? And the fact of similar other figures being rayed, would go to prove the supposition of deification having been added to the endearing epithets of the departed spirit. People very commonly worshipped the manes of their ancestors, supposing them to have influence in heaven, and cognisance of human affairs. The devices which were stamped upon the coins of ancient nations were of a religious character, and held so strictly sacred, that the most proud and powerful monarchs never ventured to put their own portraits upon them, until the practice of deifying them, and giving them the title of divine, was begun. Till after the time of Alexander the Great, nei¬ ther the Kings of Persia, Macedonia, nor Epirus, nor even the tyrants of Sicily, ever took this liberty ; the first portraits which we find upon money being those of the princes of the Macedonian dynasties, whom the flattery of their followers (in imitation of Eastern pomp) raised to divine FIGURES OE KINGS ON COINS. 167 honours. The artists had, indeed, before this, found a way of gratify¬ ing the vanity of their patrons without offending their piety; which was by blending their features with those of the deity whose image was to be impressed on the coin. This artifice was practised on the coins previous to the custom of putting portraits upon them. The coins of Archelaus, Amyntas, Alexander, Philip, and Seleucus I., &c., all have different heads of Hercules , which seem to represent those of the respec¬ tive princes. The earliest instances of this practice are found in Egypt, in sculptured representations of the divine Triad, Amun, Maut, and Chons, or Osiris, Isis, and Horus, found in the temples; which were sometimes made so as to immortalise the Pharaoh by whom the temple was built. The countenance and figure of the king were given to the supreme god* that of the queen to the divine female, and the likeness of their son and heir to the third of the Triad. This practice was carried by the Romans to the greatest lengths; so that private families indulged in this feeling of personal ambition, by employing modellers to form their visages in the character of the gods; and these facts will doubtless go far to explain the very evident mixture of human and divine expres¬ sion in many of these heads, especially those which are of a Roman character, both male and female. We find, in the first place, the head of one of the Roman emperors, No. 27 (perhaps Commodus), represented as Hercules, crowned with a NO. 27.—HEAD OF COMMODUS AS HERCULES. NO. 28.—HEAD OF A LADY WITH ALL THE ATTRIBUTES OF JUNO. wreath of laurel. It bears, by the way, a remarkable resemblance to the head of Napoleon Bonaparte. In the second case, we have No. 28, the head of a lady, with all the 108 LARES AND PENATES. attributes of Juno; and I possess more, all of equal interest, and charac¬ teristic of the above peculiarity, which would prove that the ancients represented the goddesses by the features of the empress, or of some favourite lady of the day, out of compliment to them, just as we might represent the goddess ol song by the personification of a Jenny Lind or a Grisi. Although they have different features, they are all adorned with the veil and the symbols of Juno, either in the diadem or other¬ wise. NO. 29.— HEAD (RE¬ DUCED) OF A LADY, TEMP. EMP. CLAUDIAN. No. 29 is decidedly of a Roman character, and probably represents some lady high in station—perhaps the wife of an emperor who had bestowed favours upon the city of Tarsus, or was popular in the empire. Some person acquainted with Roman antiquities may probably supply the name. This head is well modelled. Referring back to No. 6, we have another beau¬ tiful representation of the goddess Juno, with the diadem and veil, but with different features. This is one of the fine pieces of the collection, and would appear, from its perfect state, to be more modern, were it not for the great beauty of its execution. When persons of high rank were invested with divine honours, the cornucopia was placed in the hand, as in No. 28. “ Reviewing the whole collection,” says Mr. Abington, “ there is a strange incongruity of high artistic excellence and bad workmanship, such as we find in the plaster images of the Italians, which are moulded from good originals, but made by men of very inferior skill. The trade of figure-making was chiefly in the hands of the Greeks, and the magis¬ trates permitted them to take casts of statues of the gods, which were public property, in order to promote domestic religion, by giving a plentiful supply of copies. There was a figure of Mercury in the Ceramicus at Athens, which had been so often moulded, that it was saturated, and shone with the oil used in the operation. The practice was so general, that the Greek figure-makers pirated the works of all the great artists wherever they could get access to them, and got wealthy by their impositions upon the rich Romans, who wished to make a dis¬ play of taste in their mansions, but were unable to discriminate between an original and a base copy. “ The greater part of the moulds, however, were of clay. The frag¬ ments of lamps in some instances were made by casting, i. e. by pouring clay in a thin fluid state; the plaster-mould absorbs the water, and gives MAKING CASTS. 169 a more regular thickness of clay than is seen in those articles which were made by pressing clay into the mould with the fingers. I might add other remarks upon this subject, but they would be of no interest to any but a potter. “ On comparing these remains with modern figures, we see what benefit the arts derived from the use of plaster, of which moulds are now made, which being run in a fluid state, sets hard like a stone, giving an accurate counterpart of the model, with joints or seams which fit perfectly close. The ancients generally made their models of clay, which would be difficult to press up to the recesses of the mould, and could never give close joinings, and would certainly be distorted in pull¬ ing off. Clay moulds would also shrink greatly in burning; this would occasion a rapid reduction in the size of images which were copied from . one another, and bring down a life-size to a miniature very soon. “ Apply these remarks to No. 15. This Hercules is a copy of a well-known but much larger figure. The beauty of the original is seen even through the disguise which bad workmanship has thrown around it: the same may be said of No. 12, and many others. “ But when the modeller at Tarsus had to produce an Apollo in character, as the tutelar deity of that city, he was thrown upon his own resources; and the result is, that No. 7 is far inferior to No. 23, which was a piracy from the work of a superior artist, but to which rays were added to adapt it to the traditional form worshipped in Asia Minor. 170 LARES AND PENATES. “ The defectiveness of the mould caused very thick and ugly seams where the two sides of the mould are brought together.* These have not been taken off, as they would be by an artist, and indicates that they were sold at a low price. “ These specimens also shew that the ancient potters were unac¬ quainted with the use of sponge in their operations. You may per¬ ceive, on the back sides, the impress of the workmen’s fingers in forc¬ ing the clay into the moulds ; if they had beaten the clay in with a ball of sponge, the noses, lips, and eyelids would have been perfect. We receive this indispensable article (sponge) from the Levant, where it grew almost at the doors of these terra-cotta image-makers, without their being aware of its value.” That the ancients were well acquainted, however, with the art of making fluid plaster, and images of the same material, there is no doubt. This is confirmed by what Pliny says,I whereby it would appear that in his time the art was of great antiquity, more so than brass-founding. He says: u Hominis autem imaginem gypso e facie ipsa primus omnium ex- pressit ceraque in earn formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit Lysis- tratus Sicyonius, frater Lysippi, de quo diximus. Hie et similitudinem reddere instituit; cum antequam pulclierrimas facere studebant. Idem et de signis effigiem exprimere invenit, crevitque res in tantum, ut nulla signa statuasve sine argilla fierunt. Quo apparet antiquiorem hanc fuisse scientiam quam fundendi asris.” But plaster is so prone to absorb moisture and to return to powder, that it is not to be wondered at if we had no practical demonstration of the knowledge of this art, until the four specimens in this collection were first dis¬ covered. Of these I give one drawing (No. 30), which doubtless represents the head of Venus. Mr. Abington says : “ I am persuaded of the value of these heads, and look upon them as objects not to be matched by any collection. The heads are hol¬ low, proving that they were cast in a mould, in the same manner as practised by the Italians. “ The ancients used gypsum or alabaster, the stone from which plaster is prepared for purposes of sculpture and ornament; but I have never before met with any evidence of their having prepared it by calcination for the casting of figures. These specimens, however, * Which may best be seen on examination of the objects themselves. f Natural History, lib. xxxv. 153. NO. 30. — PLASTER OF PARIS HEAD OF VENUS. CILICIAN POTTERS. 171 render the fact indubitable.” However numerous their works in plas¬ ter may have been, it is not surprising that such poor remains as these should be unique, for no material is so destructible. Water dissolves it rapidly; frost also destroys it. In a European climate such remains must have perished utterly; and their preservation can only be accounted for by the dryness of the place in which they were entombed, and which I have described as above the present level of the ground, and about sixty feet above that of the ancient city of Tarsus, on the sides of a hill that covered these monuments for some thirty more feet with dry sandy rubbish. “ They do not seem to have been very skilful,” continues Mr. Abing- ton, u in the management of this plaster: the moulds, which the potter made of plaster, were such as I would not tolerate in a manufactory. The plaster was run upon the model to make the mould in such an unskilful way that the air was shut in the deep parts of the work, form¬ ing bubbles in the mould. This, when the clay is pressed in the mould, occasions those bead-like protuberances which disfigure the work, and prove that the mould was plaster, and not burnt clay. u These specimens may now be considered of much interest, inas¬ much as they appear to be the unique remains of an art evidently well known to the ancients, but of which only an account has come down to us in history. The Assyrians and others carved gypsum in its natural state; but the art of calcining and grinding, and then restoring it to a stony state, by renewing the water of crystallisation, is a very different thing; and it would appear further, from a part of a wainscot ornament executed in calcined gypsum, that it was the habit of the plasterers of those days to use this ingredient as in later times—that is, to form the ornament in a mould, and then to fix it in the place intended. With regard to the date to which we should attribute these interest¬ ing remains, I must remark, that as the coins found with them were struck from 150 to 200 years b.c., and as we see from No. 29, where the female figure bears the hair dressed in the fashion of the Arigustan age, we must conclude that they existed between these two epochs, and may therefore give a difference in date of upwards of three centuries between some of these various fragments. In No. 29, the very artificial and elaborate manner in which the hair is dressed shews that it was pro¬ bably of the Claudian period. Messalina, the fifth wife of this emperor, is represented with her hair in this same fashion. The great ampux or frontal, with which the head is crowned, is characteristic of the same age. It is rather the effigy of some great lady of the empire than a divinity—possibly an empress who might have rendered the province 172 LARES AND PENATES. some service, or was a native of it. It is plaited in the elaborate man¬ ner practised by the Eoman ladies, and which is censured by the Apostle Paul and by the Eoman satirist, on account of the sacrifice of time which it occasioned. It may represent the head of Juno, and be the resem¬ blance of the favourite female of the day, as has already been remarked. In order to form an approximate idea of the time when these Penates were destroyed, I must now quote from Neander’s Church History , as elucidative of the supposed introduction of Christianity into Cilicia, of which we have no positive mention in general history: u The easy means of communication within the vast Eoman empire; the close relation be¬ tween the Jews dispersed through all lands and those of Jerusalem; the manner in which all parts of the empire were linked with the great capital of the world ; the connexion of the provinces with their metropolitan town, were all circumstances favourable to the diffusion of Christianity. These cities, such as Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, were centres of commercial, political, and literary correspondence; and hence became also the principal seats chosen for the propagation of the gospel, where the first preachers tarried longest. “ As a general thing, Christianity at first made progress in the cities, for it was needful above all to gain fixed seats for the propagation of the gospel; the first preachers, passing rapidly over the country, had to pro¬ pose their message first in the cities, whence it might be afterwards more easily diffused by native teachers. “ In the New Testament we find accounts of the dissemination of Chris¬ tianity in Syria, in Cilicia, probably also in the Parthian Empire, at that time so widely extended; in Arabia, in the Lesser Asia, and the countries adjacent, &c. But we are greatly deficient in further and credible ac¬ counts on this subject; the later traditions, growing out of the eager¬ ness to trace each national church to an apostolic origin, deserve no examination.” It is certain that Christianity was early diffused in Cilicia, though it is not until a.d. 160 or 170 that we find indications that the king was a Christian.* He forbade the mutilation connected with the worship of Cybele; and it is on the coins of this prince that the usual symbols of Baal worship of this country are for the first time found wanting, and the sign of the cross appears in their place. In the year 202 the * Abgar-Bar-man. There is another king of the same name, said by the Arme¬ nians to have sent persons to Christ to ask for his portrait, which the Saviour granted him by placing a handkerchief on his face that bore miraculously the impress of his features; and this is why the Armenians admit of paintings in their churches, while sculpture is excluded, as in the Greek Church. INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO CILICIA. 173 Christians had already a church built, as it seems, after the model of the Temple of Jerusalem. The theory of these fragments of household gods having been thrown out of the city in consequence of the introduction of Christianity, we may regard as admitted and settled. But the problem now is, when this took place. The last extract from Neander would seem to suggest an examination of the coins of Tarsus, and to see when they ceased to bear the symbols, &c. of heathen worship. But this examination of the coins of that city would not decide the question, as it might have done if Tarsus had been an independent kingdom ; but being a provincial city, its imperial masters would continue the fashion of the coinage long after the acceptance of the gospel by the inhabitants of this distant city. We know that, in many cases, the inhabitants of cities renounced the worship of idols, and suffered persecution for it, long before their gover¬ nors followed their example. The learned author of the life of St. Paul has not been able to find any thing decisive upon this question. We may therefore conclude that there is nothing remarkable in the records of history relating to it. His conjectures are very reasonable and well- founded, no doubt; still they are but conjectures. The question, therefore, must be left open. Were these remains— these mutilated, dishonoured images—once the objects of religious regard, thrown out of the city in consequence of a movement produced by the missionary visit of Paul and Silas ? The authors of the life of St. Paul seem inclined to this solution of the query. -The act appears to have been sudden. The clearance of the lararia of a few families of respectability would furnish all that have been found. Such a movement would be analogous to the sacri¬ fice of valuable books made in consequence of the preaching of the apostles. Such a rejection of idols was, in many instances, followed by persecution; and this conflict was severe in many parts of the empire before Christianity was finally established. It may, therefore, be ad¬ mitted as possible, that these memorials indicate the earliest triumphs of the religion of the cross, and the suggestion already made be confirmed, that they need not be considered of later date than the close of the first century, or beginning of the second. In Bulwer’s Rise and Fall of Athens, in the chapter on the Religion of the Greeks, after speaking of various theorists, who refer the origin of the Greek mythology to Northern Thrace or Phoenicia, or the Hebrews, or India, or Egypt, he says, “ Accept common sense as our guide, and the mystery is less obscure. “ In a deity essentially Greek, a Phoenician colonist may discover 174 LARES AND PENATES. something familiar, and claim an ancestral god. He imparts to the native deity some Phoenician features; an Egyptian or an Asiatic suc¬ ceeds him, discovers similar likeness, and introduces similar innovations. The lively Greek receives, amalgamates, appropriates all; but the ab¬ original deity is not the less Greek. Each speculator may be equally right in establishing a partial resemblance, precisely because all specu¬ lators are wrong in asserting a perfect identity. “ It follows as a corollary from the above reasoning, that the religion of Greece was much less uniform than is popularly ima¬ gined. “ 1st. Because each separate state, or canton, had its own peculiar deity. u 2dly. Because in the foreign communication of new gods, each stranger would especially import the deity that at home he had more especially adored. Hence, to every state its tutelary god, the founder of its greatness, the guardian of its renown. Even each tribe, inde¬ pendent of the public worship, had its peculiar deities honoured by peculiar rites. “ The Grecian mythology differed in many details in the different states; but under the development of a general intercourse, assisted by a common language, the plastic and tolerant genius of the people har¬ monised all discords. I think it might be abundantly shewn that the Phoenician influences upon the early mythology of the Greeks were far greater than the Egyptian, though by degrees, and long after the heroic age, the latter became more eagerly adopted, and more superficially These observations are written as if the present collection of terra-cottas were before the learned writer. The amalga¬ mation of the Phoenician Baal with the Grecian Apollo, and the other mixtures which have already been referred to and brought to light, have in the above quo¬ tation a commentary prepared for them and written before their resurrection from their tomb ! In exemplification of this, I will now cite such as most conduce to the confirmation of this reasoning, and then proceed, as far as the limits of the pre¬ sent work will admit, with an account MYTHOLOGICAL ANALOGIES. 175 of such of the remaining pieces of the collection as may appear to merit special notice. No. 31. These two fragments, when reunited, give us a very tine model of a boy. Mr. Birch thinks it was intended to represent Atys, a celebrated shepherd, of whom Cybele was enamoured, and who after¬ wards became her high priest: after his death, Atys received divine honours, and temples were raised to his memory, particularly at Dymag, a town of Achaia. Others have thought this represented Mercury in his youth. He would thus appear in his character of a herdsman, with a hooded cloak and the pedum , or crooked stick, in allusion to his ex¬ ploit in stealing the flock of King Admetus, when intrusted with it by Apollo. This is a beautiful piece of modelling; the soft folds of the drapery are admirable, and the reason for giving it precedence to all the others is —first, because I consider it one of the choice pieces of the collection; and secondly, because, as it has a cap not unlike the Phrygian cap, it might be considered also as representing some of the deities of this nation, and thus form a connecting link between the Egyptian and Cilician mythology: as the Phoenicians must have carried into Greece, with their learning, the mythology imported from the Egyptians ; and Phrygia was colonised by the Greeks, receiving its name fiom the Bryges, a nation of Thrace and Macedonia, who came to settle theie. In confirmation of Mr. Birch’s observation, I will remark that Cybele was the chief deity of the country, and her festivals were observed ’with great solemnity by these people, who, residing on the same peninsula imparted their religious creeds to their neigh¬ bours, the Cilicians, who niust have also had fre¬ quent communications with them by sea. No. 32. These two fragments, which, like the rest, appear to have been purposely broken by the new converts to Christianity, as having been con¬ taminated by being in juxtaposition with idol-wor¬ ship, have now been united after a separation of nearly eighteen centuries. They give us the leg of a horse; the truncated part of the thigh shews that it is complete in itself, and that it never formed part of an entire figure. Apollo, as worshipped at Tarsus, partaking of the attributes of the Syrian Baal, was the patron of horses, and horses were sacrificed to him. This is most likely a votive NO. 32.— LEG OF A HORSE (VOTIVE OFFERING). 176 LARES AND PENATES. memorial of a cure obtained for a horse from some lameness or disease of the leg, and which was presented to the deity to record the gratitude of the owner. The mysteries of Cybele certainly originated among the Egyptian priesthood, although in later ages the Phrygians seem to have intro¬ duced the worship of this deity, Mater Dei et hominum , on the continent of Asia; hence we see in this collection many pieces in commemoration of this goddess: one of the finest specimens is the head, No. 33. This beautiful head is crowned with corn, as Ceres is sometimes represented. The features are not in such high relief as the rest of the specimens, in conse¬ quence of the workman not having pressed the clay close into the mould; but even with this defect, it is an in¬ teresting head. Cybele was generally represented as a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, to intimate the fecundity of the earth. Plere at Tarsus she is identified with Ceres, who is the same as the Isis of the Egyptians, whose worship was first brought into Greece by Erechtheus. The Eleusinian mysteries, which descended from the Egyptian secrets of initiation, have left their traces in Asia Minor; and to this day we have several tribes who live quite distinct from the others, in separate villages chiefly, and to whom are falsely attributed all the vile practices of which their forefathers were accused, in consequence of their persisting in keeping secret their religious rites. Among these stand pre-eminent the Fellahins of Syria, the Yezidi of Asia Minor, and the Ali lllahi of Persia, — all three sects closely connected, and who still keep up a kind of freemasonry, which affords certain privileges to the initiated descendants of Ansar , their chief. I have lived much among these people, and will bear witness to their morality and the chastity of their women. Their religion, from all I could learn, was a kind of Deism, which enabled them to distinguish the errors of their neighbours, and kept them, by their horror of idolatry and superstition, from amalgamating with the many tribes who have vanquished them, without subduing their judg¬ ment ; and on the whole, I consider their morals superior to those of their WORSHIP OP ISIS. 177 neighbours, even the benighted erring Christians of the East, who have, alas, but a faint glimpse of true Christianity. Mr. R. Payne Knight observes, that Isis is frequently confounded with the personification of Fortune and Victory, each having the crown or chaplet of immortality. I have many specimens in this collection which may bear on this subject, and represent Fortune. No. 34 has both the radiation and the diadem, with which Juno is often represented; but as there is no sign of any veil, I do not imagine that this goddess was intended to be represented by this beautiful fragment, although we may evidently trace on the top of the sceptre, which the figure held in its right hand, and leaning over its shoulder, a crown often forming the acme of this en¬ sign of royalty. The Greeks and Romans, who adopted the worship of Isis, varied these figures very much from the original Egyptian type, introducing different symbols to signify the various attributes of univer¬ sal nature. In this character Isis is confounded with the personification of Fortune or Victory, which in reality is no other than Providence. The modius upon the head is also found on the head of Pluto, Serapis, and Venus. All the heads with the modius are probably intended for Isis, in those modifications of figure, and also of worship, above referred to. The bow, which seems to form an arch over the head of No. 20, and of which there are only two specimens in this collection might suggest the NO. 34.—HExVD WITH THE ATTRIBUTES OP JUNO. NO. 20.—IRIS. N 178 LABES AND PENATES. idea that they were intended to represent Iris; and as the figures of this goddess were gaudily painted, it might have been done in water¬ colours, which have disappeared through age, whereas those that were painted in fresco, with a layer of lime, still retain strong marks both of the lime and the body-colours used. See particularly No. 35, which is a fragment of a large comic mask that seems to have been fixed to a wall at a considerable height, as the eyes are looking downwards. The ear is bored, probably for the purpose of fixing it more firmly. It was perhaps part of a decoration of a theatre, and was covered with a thick coat of paint, and must have been rejected as an image connected with idolatry , by those who condemned it to take place with the rest of the pieces of this collection, and been cast out from the temples and private residences of the Cilicians on their conversion. It is natural to suppose that all figures would share the same fate, by reason of the zeal of the new converts to a faith that as yet could scarcely be expected to be sufficiently understood, to admit a distinction being made between a mask and an image of a deity. This is, doubtless, why we find it here, as well as No. 36, which is remarkable for being radiated,—why, it NO. 36. —COMIC MASK (SMALL). NO. 16. —ADONIS AS ArOLLO WITH THE CLOAK AND BROOCH. would be difficult to guess, unless we may trace out an idea from its resemblance to Silenus , who, as the preceptor of Bacchus, stands as a demigod, and who received after his death divine honours, and had a temple at Elis, the present Belvedere, which was a large and populous city in the time of Demosthenes, though it did not exist in the age of Homer. Adonis (No. 16) is also represented by the Greek artists as andro¬ gynous. He was especially honoured in Syria, the supposed scene of his death by the wild boar ; and being a special favourite -of Apollo, ADONIS. 179 wlio was so particularly revered at Tarsus (in which latter conclusion we are confirmed by the great many representations we find this god to possess in this collection of the Cilician Penates), it is not astonishing to find him here in company with the other objects of worship : we may observe that he has a cloak and brooch, with which his patron, the Apollo de Belvedere, was represented. He is the Tammuz of Ezekiel, viii. 14. In Egypt, the tales of the loves and misfortunes ot Isis and Osiris are the counterpart of those of Yenus and Adonis. Adonis or Adonai was an oriental title of the Sun, signifying Lord; and the boar, which was supposed to have killed him, was the emblem of Winter. After his death, he passed six months with Proserpine, six with Yenus ; signifying the increase and decrease of solar influence (will this connect him in identity with Apollo ?). Byblus in Syria was the chief scene of his rites ; there the women annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation. These mysteries were held by the uninitiated in the same estimation as those of Ceres and Bacchus at Eleusis (already referred to), and Isis and Osiris in Egypt. The Phrygian tales of Cybele and Atys seem to be another version of this same fable. One specimen has been painted with a ground-colour of blue, and then red, or probably flesh-colour, and has the stamp of Grecian art. Mr. Abington remarks of this piece, and several others similar in the collection :—“ They are all of high art ; it is not too much to say that, as sculptures, they are of great value.” No. 16 exhibits the hu¬ man form in the very perfection of human symmetry—no wonder that Yenus fell in love at first sight. The artist has done his part well in this beautiful conception of the adored Adonis. The ivy chaplet shews the relation there was between the rites of Adonis and those of Bacchus; both embodied the same mystic signs, and out of compliment to Apollo. Among the animals that denote the link in the remains of Egyptian worship, we have the representation of a cat, symbol of the Moon, on account of its faculty of seeing in the dark, or rather by night. The Egyptians worshipped the Moon under this figure, which denotes fecun¬ dity; and their reverence for cats is peculiarly demonstrated by the many thousands of their mummies which are found preserved with the same care they bestowed on the bodies of their nearest and dearest relations, and on the ibis, a bird sacred to the goddess Isis. We have also representations of a dog, the patient expression of which is very characteristic : the animal seems as if he were waiting for his master to take him out. It is a symbol of Hermes, Mercury, and the Anubis of the Egyptians. When Osiris went on his expedition into 180 LARES AND PENATES. India, Anubis accompanied him and clothed himself in a sheep’s skin. In this collection we find him represented as a dog of the woolly species. Some make him the brother of Osiris, some his son by Nepthys. We must not therefore wonder at seeing him in such com¬ pany. This piece had a hole below the right ear, probably to hang it by. For what purpose these two pieces, representing dog and cat, were used, it is difficult to guess, but it was most probably connected with some religious rite. There is also a head of a horse, sculptured very rudely in tufa lime¬ stone, and painted with a colour which has penetrated and given a very hard surface to the stone. There is a cavity in the lower jaw—a mor¬ tice, to receive a support, upon which it was elevated. The horse was one of the Roman ensigns. They were carried upon poles, which branched in some instances like a Y or Y at the top, to support the horse, boar, &c. If this was the symbol of Roman power, it must be very ancient, as quadrupeds were laid aside in the consulship of Marius (b.c. 104), and the eagle alone retained. But if admitted to be the symbol of Roman dominion, we cannot suppose that it was carried with the army, but was, perhaps, erected over the entrance of some public place, court, or head-quarters of the garrison; and, being considered as an image forbidden by the Christian religion, shared the same fate as those which had been really objects of worship. The same observations may be applied to No. 37, which demonstrates a knowledge of anatomy that would do credit to any epoch. The city of Tarsus owed a debt of gratitude to Alexander for having delivered it from the Per¬ sians at the moment they were going to burn it. A city was built by Alexander in honour of his favourite horse : has this fragment any relation to this place ? or is it not natural to conclude, from the many remains of horses we find in this collec¬ tion, that the inhabitants of Tarsus regarded Bu¬ cephalus with a favourable eye as the bearer of his master in their salvation from thraldom ? Or another guess may be allowed : Is this one of the horses of the Sun, connected with the worship of Baal or Apollo ? Such a surmise is supported by another fragment existing in this collection, which shews the head of a second horse coupled to it, as if attached to a chariot, and also by the NO. 37.— HEAD OF A HORSE. HARPOCRATES. 181 many votive memorials of horses’ limbs. The horse is a device found on the medals of many Greek cities. We have also the snout of a hippopotamus. The Egyptians repre¬ sented Typhon by this animal ; and upon his back they put a hawk fighting with a serpent. This is one of the many proofs of the pre¬ valence of Egyptian superstitions at Tarsus, owing to the intercourse between the learned men of the schools at Tarsus and those of the schools at Alexandria. Out of many beautiful specimens, I have selected one (No. 38), which Mr. Birch has denominated Har- pocrates, who was the same as Horus (of the Egyptians), son of Isis. By the Romans he is represented as hold¬ ing one of his fingers to his mouth, in¬ timating that the mysteries of religion and philosophy ought never to be re¬ vealed to the people. As a further illustration of the spread of Egyptian worship, I will ob¬ serve, that I possess a small brass image of this god, which was found in the plain of Babylon, and which I bought on the spot from one of those who, after a heavy shower, scour the ruins, in order to pick up what cylinders and other curiosities the rain may have ex¬ posed to view by washing off the dust. I was there in February, and witnessed the interest taken by the inhabitants of the villages in the environs of the ruins of this celebrated city, which has for years yielded up, and still continues to furnish, on such occasions, many a valuable remnant in confirmation of the wonderful accounts of its ancient splendour. I must here add, that some of these heads have been considered by connoisseurs to represent Isis herself, the face being more like that of a female, and bearing the Nelumbium* on the head; whereas others have more the * The sacred Egyptian bean is the fruit of the NelumMum speciosum, which grows NO. 38. —HAKPOCRATES. 182 LARES AND PENATES. features of a youth, and may be supposed to represent her son ; but on this I will presume to form no decision. Indeed, it would be impos¬ sible to do more than throw out such hints as may lead the learned to express opinions based on more scientific reasons and further re¬ search, which I am far from being prepared or competent to do. In further confirmation of an undoubted fact of the Egyptian my¬ thology having been cultivated at Tarsus, we have many heads of bulls representing either Mnevis, the celebrated bull, sacred to the sun, in the town of Heliopolis, and regarded as the emblem of Osiris, or else Apis, No. 19, and into which the soul of Osiris was supposed to have passed. The hole in the fore¬ head might have been for the purpose of fas¬ tening a disc of some other material, probably gold. The head was painted red. The mildness of the expression would induce us to identify it with the Grecian To, which was but a modifica¬ tion of the Egyptian myth.* If we prefer the idea that No. 19 may be Jupiter in the form as¬ sumed for the rape of Europa, it suits the poet’s description very well : “ Large rolls of fat about his shoulders slung. And from his neck the double dewlap hung; Small shining horns on his curled forehead stand, As turned and polished by the workman’s hand; His eyeballs rolled, not formidably bright. But gazed and languished, with a gentle light.” There are several beautiful specimens, representing the ox, in basso- relievo, among which is one on a lamp, where may be seen portrayed a sacrifice to Apis, the sacred bull of Egypt. The bull has the sun between his horns. The priest has the lotus ornament on his head, and holds in his right hand a basket : a festoon is suspended over his head. The altar has a fire burning : the scene is a temple. Further, we have part of a vase, round which were represented, in relievo, heads of an ox, surrounded by a festoon of flowers which divided in the waters of the Nile. Linmeus calls it Nymjolicea Ndumbo ; a common name ap¬ plied to it is Lotus , or Egyptian water-lily: it is the seed-vessel which is used in mythology. The fruit of the plant contains a number of seeds, which are not shed when ripe, but germinate in their cells, the parent fruit affording them nutriment until they are of a magnitude to burst their way out, when they release themselves and sink to the bottom, where they take root, and become independent plants. It was therefore chosen as a symbol of the reproductive power of nature. The Hindoos, Chinese, Tartars, Japanese, &c., all use it to express the same idea. Their deities are seated on a lotus flower. * See Ovid. i. NO. 19. —APIS. NEPTUNE AND MORPHEUS. 183 each head. This vessel was doubtless used in some of the libations during the ceremonies of the priests, or carried in honour of Apis. I will conclude these remarks, which have been suggested by the inspection of such pieces as I thought implied the close analogy of the Egyptian worship with that of the Cilicians, by referring to another piece, which seems to be of totally different manufacture from any of the others, and was not improbably brought from Egypt, and found its way to the outer gates of the city, from having been in company with the other objects of worship.* It is crowned with the lotus, and round the full head of hair there appears to be a chaplet of ivy. It is a young face, and of an Egyptian cast altogether. I have set it down as Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis. I can only discover a few specimens which would indicate that the worship of Neptune was not entirely neglected. This is remarkable, as I should have expected to have seen many more signs of this god ; the Cilicians having been decidedly a maritime nation, they would certainly have propitiated in their favour the god of the sea. In the first, we have an interesting piece of pottery. u It is,” says Mr. Abington, “ a frag¬ ment of a shallow bowl or dish, five and three quarter inches in dia¬ meter, made for the service of Neptune or some sea-god. If the centre had been left, it would have contained some symbol which would have decided this. The edge is worked into waves, and the cavity of the bowl is impressed with lines forming fish-scales. This kind of ornament could not be continued to the centre, as it would have converged into confusion ; there must have been a central panel or compartment. It is made of coarse clay, and, after it was turned on the wheel, it was dipped into a slip of white clay, containing a large portion of lime, to make it still whiter. The scales were then impressed, and ornamented by a pencil dipped in a thin ochreous clay, which gives the red¬ dish-brown stains. It was then burnt.” In another, we have the tail of a fish, pro¬ bably half-man.'f The only sign of Morpheus, the god of sleep, that I have discovered, is No. 39, the head of a lad half asleep ; it is of beautiful workman¬ ship, and would prove that they were not a sleepy nation who could model such a head ! * On a closer examination of this collection, it will be found that many Indian gods bearing the features of the Budists and Bramins had accumulated in Tarsus before the introduction of Christianity. f See the tale of Ovid, “ Mariners transformed to Dolphins.” CHAPTER III. APOLLO APOLLO BELVEDERE—CARICATURES OF MIDAS—APOLLO OF TARSUS_ SENATOR IN THE CLAVUS LATUS-LION ATTACKING A BULL-TELEPHUS OR MERCURY l -CERES-VICTORY — DATE OF DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES METAMORPHOSIS OF ACTiEON INTO A STAG—REMARKS OF MR. BIRCH. I mill now proceed to note some observations regarding Apollo, who appears to have been the god most in favour among the Cilicians. We have copies of the admirable statue of the Apollo Belvedere, so called from having been placed in the Belvedere of the Vatican by Pope Julius IT. ; it was found in the ruins of Antium, in Italy, in the fifteenth cen¬ tury. It is supposed to have been executed by an Ephesian artist, for one of the Roman emperors—some think Nero. These miniature copies, found in a distant province, shew how popular that beautiful figure must have become immediately after its production. One of these, which is better executed than the others, shews traces of the painting—a speck of led on the flesh, and the cloak has some remains of green, and much of the red paint remains on another. There are a great many fragments l epresenting Apollo in various ways, and we must conclude this idol was the chief object of superstitious worship at Tarsus ; his image was no doubt in every house : for this reason his remains are more numerous than the other objects of heathen idolatry. There is one of goo I Grecian work, which appears to have been diademed. It has very much the ex¬ pression of the Apollo Belvedere, though the hair is not knotted. The dignified repose, and the scornful look of the mouth, seem to identify it with the sla T er of tlie Python. But one of the most certain of the identi¬ fications of Apollo is where he is represented with a crown of rays on his head, being often taken for the Sun, Phoebus, and Hyperion. As this god was so much in repute at Tarsus, we should expect that out of compliment to him caricatures of Midas, with lengthened ears, BEAUTY OF THE SPECIMENS. 185 would abound ; hence we find several, among which I have singled out No. 40. It is remarkable for another singularity ; the head never belonged to any statue, but was detached , standing upon special pedestals, one of which was found, and although it did not actually belong to No. 40, I have adopted it in order to exemplify a singular peculiarity. These were not intended as Lares, but pro¬ bably, on the contrary, made to be scoffed at; and we perceive that the heads of Pan, the rival of Apollo in the art of music, in this collection, are in the same shape. Other heads there are with only a bust, as, for instance, one representing a young woman in a tunic, well modelled, with a jewelled necklace, such as we see in the British Museum. Hitherto I have endeavoured to bring to the reader’s notice such pieces as I thought might best explain the nature and intention of the whole collection. I have also endeavoured to afford an idea of the very great variety of the objects ; but here I must confess that I begin to despair of being able to convey an adequate idea of the whole, unless a drawing of almost every piece should be made, which is beyond the limits of the present publication. I have by no means chosen the most beautiful pieces; indeed, some of the choicest remain to be described : and I fear the artist will despair of being able to delineate their beauty with sufficient accuracy. Mr. Wald on tried to express the beauties of one piece (the head emblematical of the city of Tarsus, see vignette in title-page), in coloured lithography ; and although he exerted every possible faculty of the artist and the lithographer, he has confessed that he came far short of the original, the beauty and grace of which are inimitable, and apparent in spite of the destroying hand of time. Mr. Abington says of this piece : “ It has suffered more from age than many of the others, in consequence of its having been but imperfectly burnt by the potter. Enough of its excellence remains to make us wish that more of a figure in such good drawing could be obtained. Every position in which you view this fragment calls forth our admira¬ tion.” Alas, I found no duplicate of this gem ! But setting aside the beauty of many of the pieces which deserve to stand forth as perfect gems, I will now proceed to note a few more, on which certain observations have been suggested, which, although un¬ connected, I think will afford sufficient interest to the reader to require no further apology for my introducing them without any other ulterior NO. 40 . —MIDAS. 186 LARES AND PENATES. object. Indeed, the whole nature of the collection is such, that I question if any possibility of identification of each piece could be arrived at; and nothing more than suggestions can be expected, at least not without a much deeper study than I am prepared, or even competent to give to the subject. With these remarks I proceed, first, with No. 41, which is one of the most precious pieces, inasmuch as it gives a clear solution of a question which has been hitherto undecided. The image is that of a senator or magistrate of high rank : he wears the toga, and over it a kind of belt or scarf, fringed at the ends and embroidered, which is unquestionably the clavus latus,—an article which lias given rise to much difference of opinion among modern writers. Ferrarius sup¬ posed it to be a band thrown over the shoulders, the ends hanging down in front, as in fact it is. Others say that it was a round loop or buckle, resembling the head of a nail, fastened to the dress in front of the chest. Others, again, that it was an ornamented hem sewn on to, or woven in the dress, or that it was figuring upon the dress itself. Dr. Smith, or rather Anthony Rich, B.A., who supplied the article in Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities, 1842, says: u it is a remarkable circumstance that no one of the ancient statues representing persons of senatorian, consular, or equestrian rank, contain the slightest trace in their draperies of any thing like the accessories above referred to ; some indications of which would not have been constantly omitted if the clavus latus had been a thing of substance.” He therefore comes to the conclusion that it was meiely a band of purple colour upon the garment, which the painter could depict, but which for want of substance could not be shewn in sculpture. This shews how erroneous theories may sometimes bear the appearance of truth, and carry conviction almost against the actual de¬ monstration. Phis fragment affords conclusive evidence, and supplies what has hitherto been sought for in vain. The clavus is a separate article (as the band of the Order of the Bath), worn over the toga, and exhibited with some satisfaction by the wearer, as seems by the hand¬ ling of it by the figure before us. The clavus was introduced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius ; and iti s certainly remarkable that Rome, with its rich stores of sculpture, should not furnish one example of such a valued and coveted mark of distinction; but that the doubts concerning NO. 41 . —IMAGE OF A SE- L NATOll WITH THE CLA¬ VUS LATUS. LION AND BULL. 187 it should be cleared by a terra-cotta fragment found in a distant province of the empire. No. 42. A Lion attacking a Bull, unique in the collection. This is NO. 42 .— LION ATTACKING A BULL. (Subject of a reverse on a Cilician silver coin.) one of the most interesting and valuable fragments in the collection : it is a work of high art, from the hands of a first-rate artist; the rage of the assailant and the agony of the victim are brought out of the material with wonderful effect. The tale which it tells is more historical than mythological. A country symbolised by a bull is conquered by an¬ other power represented by the lion. The same symbols are found sculptured at Persepolis ; and in Conybeare and Howson’s Life of St. Paul, now publishing, we have (p. 24) a coin of Tarsus with the head of the Emperor Hadrian on one side, and on the reverse is this very sym¬ bol, in the same drawing, as if it had been designed by the same artist. The author says, “ This coin was struck under Hadrian, and is preserved in the British Museum : the same figures of the lion and the bull ap¬ pear on a series of silver coins assigned to the period between Xerxes and Alexander.” The symbol therefore commemorates the conquest by the Persians of the country bounded by Mount Taurus, and when Persia was subjugated by Alexander, he adopted it, and it was used by his successors ; hence we find it on the coins of Macedonia, though the drawing is quite different. After the Romans, in their turn, had sub¬ dued Greece and Asia Minor, Hadrian having rebuilt Tarsus, issued a new coinage for it, with the old mythological types. u I consider this fragment,” says Mr. Abington, “ as the most choice morsel in the col¬ lection ; its artistic excellence is equal to any thing among the terra¬ cottas in the British Museum, and it affords the finest example of the heraldry of antiquity that can be conceived.” Before we proceed further, it is requisite to refer back to another 188 LARES AND PENATES. exquisite “morsel” given in this work under No. 8. Mr. Birch calls it Telephus the son of Hercules and Auge the daughter of Aleus, who, dreading the anger of her father, exposed him at his birth on Mount Parthenius ; but his life was preserved by some shepherds, who caused a goat to suckle him, and hence his dress as a shepherd-boy. Mr. Birch adds, that if it be young Hermes, it is probably from a terminal figure wrapped up in his chlamys. Mr. Abington remarks on this piece, “ This is a very clever miniature figure of the boy Mercury (Hermes being the Grecian appellation). To appreciate the merit of this choice moisel, we must look at the character of this divinity, whose counterpart we may find in every house of correction. Mercury is represented under several different characters ; as the boy he is wrapped in a close cloak, tied or held fast under the chin ; he is often represented without feet, as in this case, to shew that the power of speech can effect its pur¬ poses without limbs for its assistance. As soon as he was born he began to indulge his craft and acquisitiveness, and his cloak enabled him to carry off the plunder. He stole sheep the day after he was born: he stole Neptune’s trident, the girdle of Venus, the sword of Mars, Vulcan’s tools, and Jupiter’s sceptre. The subtle innocence of the little thief is admirably expressed by the artist, though there is not much finish in the model. It should be prized as a gem. Mercury, as the god of speech and eloquence, was honoured in such a city, remarkable for learning, though I cannot refer to any evidence of the fact.” This, like No. 43, is one of the pieces in the collection of which there is no duplicate. Mercury was the patron of travellers and shep¬ herds ; and Cilicia being on the high road between the eastern and western nations, it is remarkable that no more images of this god should have been met with. No. 43. A beautiful and simple head of a lady, not unlike the one representing Ceres : it was probably intended to represent the same person in her private capacity of a daughter or a bride. Mr. Abington says of this piece, “ The artist has represented nature with the most perfect truth in the front view and in the profile. It was made out of a plaster mould, as may be seen by the bleb in the corner of the mouth; but the joining of the mould was very imperfect, as shewn by the thick clumsy seam.” Looking to No. 14, which is a figure of Victory, with the palm and crown, and of which we have a great many representations in NO. 43 . —HEAD OF A lady. VICTORY AND ACTION. 189 this collection, by different masters, I must note, that there was a great battle fought in Asia Minor between Septimus Severus and his rival Piscennius Niger, in which the inhabitants of that province took great interest. If these figures could be proved to refer to the triumph NO. 14 . —VICTORIA ALETA. NO. 44 . —ACTION. of Severus, it would bring the time in which these valuable remains were destroyed to the close of the second century, and as some of the pieces must have existed at least one century B.C., they must have remained stored up in the houses of the people who set a value on them, as Lares and Penates, beyond that of common sculptures. No. 44. From the great variety of lamps in all kinds of shapes, and all offering, in basso-relievo, subjects of much interest, I have singled out No. 44, which represents the metamorphosis of Action into a stag, as is seen by the horns branching off from his head. . “ The man began to disappear By slow degrees, and ended in a deer : A rising horn on either brow he wears, And stretches out his neck, and pricks his ears.” Here we see him attacked by his dog, without apparently being able to offer any resistance, and thus he was devoured by his own hounds for 190 LARES AND PENATES. his presumptuous curiosity in prying at Diana and her attendants while bathing at Gargaphia. I must here beg leave to insert Mr. Birch’s able and succinct ac¬ count of these monuments of antiquity, to illustrate which it has been deemed expedient to introduce only some woodcuts, as it would be im¬ possible to have cuts of all the pieces referred to by him. “ An examination which I have recently made of a large collection of terra-cotta figures, consisting of above 1000 pieces, found on the site of the ancient Tarsus by Mr. Barker in 1845, is so instructive to the history of that city—celebrated for its connexion with the Assyrian Sardanapalus, the Apostle Paul, and the apostate Julian — that I think it important to place my observations upon record. As in the case of the collection from the island of Calymna,* the mere inspection of sO large a number of pieces leads to a correcter knowledge of the employ¬ ment of terra-cottas, of those types which prevailed on the spot, and of the time at which they were made. Hence the collection of Mr. Barker, although containing several repetitions of the same figures, and almost all in a mutilated condition, j* is a most instructive comment on the local history of the city. In style of art, too, many are of exquisite taste and feeling,— some the most charming fragments of terra-cotta which I have seen. These objects were found in the midst of an ancient mound or rubbish-heap, one of the monti testacei , as they are called at Rome, which leaned on the old city-walls, the stones of which, having been carried away by the modern inhabitants, exposed a section of the hill: in the centre were the terra-cottas. The whole collection had been anciently thrown away as rubbish, all the figures being found, not only broken but incomplete; while proof existed of the former use of the utensils, such as the lamps and vases. The figures also had cer¬ tainly been prepared for sale, as many exhibited traces of the colours with which they had been painted; consequently they could not have been the sherd-wreck or refuse of a potter’s establishment. Mr. Barker is disposed to think that their destruction was caused by the progress of Christianity, the new converts having destroyed and mutilated their former penates and idols; but it is evident that terra-cotta must have been constantly destroyed by accident, and conveyed to the rubbish- mounds. In the temples, the great accumulation of votive figures was * See Arch. Zeit. 1848, p. 277. f Since Mr. Birch saw these pieces they have been restored by a first-rate sculptor, who has done great justice to them, and renewed to life the dead and departed spirit of the Lares, who now stand forth in all their pristine elegance and beauty. REMARKS OF MR. BIRCH. 191 perhaps cleared out, and the fragments thrown away. I shall proceed to describe them in the following order:—I. Figures. II. Vases. III. Miscellaneous objects. I. Figures. These objects, chiefly the 7 rrfkivoi deoL of the Greeks, and sigillciria of the Romans, are principally figures of deities. They have all been broken, especially the heads, of which a great number are in the collection. They are made of a remarkably fine clay, either of a pale straw or of a red colour, the difference of which is owing to the degree of heat to which they were subject. All of them were made in moulds, typi, and hence their name of ectypa , or sigillaria. Mr. Abing- ton, himself a potter, remarks, that their technical defects are owing to the use of moulds of clay, which shrunk in the baking, distorted the original figure, and reduced it in size. Owing also to their not joining accu¬ rately, large seams, which were not pared away, were left in the places where the moulds united. The figures also, 011 account of the ancient potters not using the sponge, which presses the clay into all the finer parts, are not so sharp as they should be. The marks of the potter’s fingers are still discernible in many specimens. They were probably retouched, as in the ACsopian fable (cccix. KEpapevQ tlq ettAcitte 7toAAclq opviQ ev rig epyarTrrjpiu)) the potter is described as modelling birds.* The figures were then coloured with a fresco, having first been washed all over with a white ground of lime. The crowns and rays of some figures were blue; the faces and bodies red, and the garments green; the eyes sometimes blue. The figures, when complete, were represented standing upon oval or circular pedestals, sometimes with a moulding; and one bust was on a round moulded pedestal, very like those of marble. From this it is evident, that many were ruder copies of statues, probably of those in the temples. Some few heads, grotesques, or caricatures, have holes for plugs to fit them to some other material: these were probably toys. Few of the figures exceed the height of nine or ten inches; but part of the crowns, and the imitated pschent of the Greek figures of Harpocrates, were found, which shew that some of them must have reached between two and three feet. The first subject of remark, indeed, is the prevalence of the Isiac worship. Busts of Serapis, with the modius, others perhaps intended for Isis (No. 11), * See also Lucian, Prometheus, s. 2. 192 LARES AND PENATES. and distinct busts of Harpocrates (No. 38), as lie appears at the time of the Roman Empire, wearing on his head the crown called pschent and a laurel wreath, holding the index finger of his right hand raised to his mouth, and holding in his left hand a cornucopia, often occur repeated, although no one figure is complete. Once he was represented leaning against a column. Considerable respect appears to have been paid to this exotic cultus, which divided with that of the Ephesian Diana, the Samian Juno, and the Phrygian Cybele, the Pantheism of Asia Minor, and even Rome itself. Of these two other cultus no traces occur ; but several busts from figures, which either represent the turreted head of Cybele, or of the city of Tarsus, as it appears on the silver autonymous currency,* are among them ; and one or two of Atys wearing the cidaris, draped in the full garment, and holding in his left hand the pedum. In connexion with these are several tutulated heads (No. 45), from figures which, when complete, appear to have been winged, and to have held a cornucopia, a wreath and palm-branches, and probably represent the Tyche or Fortune of the state. In connexion with these are also several female heads, wearing the stephane, or sphendone, and veiled, and part of a more perfect figure, holding in the left hand a cornucopia, consequently also a form either of Hestia or Cybele (No. 28). Some of these are fine and spirited, and may have composed parts of the figures of Venus, portions * See Coombe, Mus. Hunt. SATURN AND YENUS. 193 of whose form are in the collection. Of the usual Hellenic divinities of Olympus, and of the secondary gods of Greece, several examples are found, but always under their later types. Thus a veiled head of Chronos or Saturn (No. 46) ; one or two busts of Zeus ; others possibly of Hero (No. 47); and several of Athene wearing a Corinthian helmet. Of this latter goddess one remarkable type occurs thrice. The goddess is standing armed with the usual Corin- N0 - 46 - —CHR0N0S thian helmet, her whole form is enwrapped in the peplos, her face only partially revealed. Torsos and parts of figures o f Mercury, wearing the chlamys, are comparatively rare. Those of Venus, whose worship was universally diffused in Asia Minor, are more abundant; and several types of this goddess, representing her as draped, and holding a pigeon in her left hand, like her figure* in the old hieratic form, or as she appears upon the coin of Cos, naked and at the bath (No. 48), her right * Gerhard, liber die Venusidole, Taf. iii. 4. 0 194 LARES AND PENATES. hand concealing her nakedness, her left hand placed upon some drapery, which covers an unguent vase—the sentiment repeated in the Capitoline Venus—probably the goddess bathing prior to revealing her charms to Paris. Another figure with the same motive had the left hand placed under the breasts, the right concealing her nakedness, and at her side a vase; another wearing the stephane, naked, her right hand upon her breast. Pro¬ bably certain figures of a female wearing a stephane, and covered with a peplos, which she unveils, are intended for the same goddess. The Erotes, or Cupids, whose multiplied forms became so Pantheistic at the time of the Roman Empire, appear to have been abundant at Tarsus, although few of their figures are perfect. Either he holds up fruit, like Priapus or one of the Seasons; or is on horseback, or holding by both hands a conch-shell, as he appears at the Bath of Venus ; or hold¬ ing the dove, or throwing his hand over his head, in the same gesture as the Bacchante of Scopas. Almost indistinguishable from the Erotes, are the fragments of boyish figures, of fat proportions, which may be intended for the youthful Dionysos, especially those which wear an in- fibulated chlamys, or have suspended round the neck the Roman bulla, or where the boy, like Telesphoros or the young Hermes, is enveloped in a cloak (No. 8, p. 158). Several heads of other figures of this god, either with the hair di¬ vided at the forehead, or else wearing a wreath, 'as in the head of Cupid or Eros (No. 49 ) ; and others with the lock plaited on the head, or even plain, were found. Of the Delian deities, Apollo and Diana, few, if any, specimens occur. Some heads crowned with laurel-wreaths, and some legs crossed, from figures in that attitude, may possibly represent the Apollo (No. 10), Citharoedus or Lycius. One head only can be assigned to Diana. The Apollo, Phoebus, or Helios, as he appeared on the celebrated Colossus at Rhodes, is, however, among the collection; his head surrounded with NO. 49 . —HEAD OF CUPID OR EROS. FIGURES OF APOLLO AT RHODES. 195 rays, which, are placed upon a nimbus, or dish, in bas-relief. This head bears a remarkable likeness to that of the god as he is seen upon the coins of Rhodes, and on the handles of the Rhodian amphorae ;* and the appearance of this god at Tarsus may be accounted for by the universal diffusion of Rhodian commerce, and the increasing respect paid to the god Helios in the days of the Ptolemies and under the Roman Empire. In the collection is a perfect figure of that god, of singular type: the head is in the radiated crown; the body is naked; the arms and legs have never been complete, the one terminating at the thighs, the other in the thick of the arm, and in them are holes, which do no go through the substance of the figure, for fitting on the fore-arms, and feet, and legs in some other material, like the neurospasts or dolls, or the acrolitliic statues. The whole of the figure was coloured yellow, in allusion to the golden shower which fell in Rhodes — the great encomium of the city.f Few figures of the Muses, which are of such, frequent occurrence in terra-cotta collections, are found in this. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, New Series, vol. iii. VI. I. + See Rhetores Graeci. 8vo, 196 LARES AND PENATES. female amply draped, her liead laureat, and leaning her elbow on a square pilaster, resembling the supposed Polyhymnia, was perhaps one of the Pierian quire. From the great gods, of which the cycle is so incomplete, it is necessary now to pass to the demigods, the first of whom, in rank and power, is Dionysos, whose worship in Greece was universal at almost all periods, and whose companions, the Sileni and the Nymphs, presented such a field for the plastic art—so many capncij for the imagination emancipated from the hieratic style. In some cases, the artist chose the youthful infantine form, or else the naked youthful god, holding the thyrsus in his raised right hand, while his cloak is thrown across his left arm, in the hand of which he holds the cantharus by one handle (No. 18), or else his head bound with the credemnon, while the nebris is thrown over his form. Some heads and fragments of Sileni, one of remarkably fine expression (No. 1, p. 155), crowned with a wreath of the leaves and flowers of the ivy, are complete in them¬ selves, but with holes for plugs beneath to insert them to the figure. Scarcely more than traces of Bacchantes exist, and those only shewn by some uncertain heads and parts of one or two figures, the attitudes of which recall the \ipatpotyoroG , or goat-slayer of Scopas. A few figures of Hercules, whose worship did not enjoy that early local pre¬ ference which that of Bacchus had, as appears from the early coins of the city, were found. There are some heads, one from a group in which the hero as the Callinicos was crowned by victory, or else crowned with the poplar (No. 27, p. 167), referring to the branch of the silver poplar which he brought from Hades, which was afterwards the emblem of the Olympic victor,* or in laurel-wreaths; besides which are torsos and other parts of his form, with the club, and the lion’s skin thrown over his left arm (No. 15, p. 169). One fragment of a figure of Aesculapius standing upon a pedestal, with part of his drapery, and the serpent coiled round the staff at his feet, was found. There are several figures of Victory, which were probably made and sold at the time of the different Roman conquests. The goddess is either advancing forwards, holding a crown and palm-branch (No. 14, p. 189); or else with a palm-tree behind her, alluding to the conquest of Judaea, or holding in each hand a palm-branch, both of which meeting, form an arch or festoon above her head (No.. 20, p. 177). In all examples her hair is parted, and rises up in a double curl at the centre of the forehead; in one in¬ stance, like Tyche orFortuna, she holds a cornucopia. To Somnus may be attributed the head of a sleeping boy, with his eyes closed, broken off from a figure (No. 39, p. 183); and to one of the Seasons a child holding * Theocrit. Idyll, ii. v. 121. Schol. ad eund. PERSEUS. 197 grapes. Of heroes there are Perseus* killing Medusa, and the head of the Medusa, from a group; a heroic head in a pilos (No. 50); and the naked torso of a female, possibly Venus. More uncertain are the head of a youth wearing a wreath ; a Phrygian bearded head in a eidaris (No. 51); and an old Phrygian, bearded, carrying a lamb; a female head with dripping locks, perhaps of a Nereiad or Naiad; a hand hold¬ ing an apple, detached and perfect; part of a figure holding an inverted torch; a hand holding a lyre, placed upon a Corinthian capital; and a draped figure, holding over the left hand and arm a narrow fringed * We have, it appears from Mr. Abington’s researches, several representations of Perseus among the Oriental cylinders published by the Syro-Egyptian Society. In one he is represented capturing Pegasus. He is altogether Babylonian; his bushy hair and heard trimmed and dressed in a style worthy of the son of Jupiter. His wings, and breastplate, and falchion, all agree with the character, only differing from later sculptures in its quaintness and great antiquity. On another cylinder we have a four¬ winged figure dressed like persons of royal rank in the Assyrian sculptures, except the breastplate, which seems to be jewelled, and consists of twelve compartments, like the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest. He is very closely girded with a close belt round the loins, and altogether like the A ssyrian figures, except in the want of a beard, which fact, together with his wings, marks him as a divine person, or a demi-god. He has captured two ostriches ; and Mr. Abington very ingeniously and plausibly suggests that this may refer to the great exploit of Perseus—the taking off Medusa’s head, which is fabled to have occurred in the Libyan desert, which the ostrich might well represent. On another cylinder we have the representation of a figure seated on a throne, holding a symbol of authority in his hand. He is addressing a man (Perseus ?) who has his back turned to him, as if going on some mission, for which he has re¬ ceived his orders. A bird is following him, having a remarkably long neck, appa¬ rently an ostrich, and indicating beforehand the country to which he is repairing. Mr. Abington also thinks that a representation of a man with four wings contending with two gryphons, on another cylinder, refers to the same hero of mythology. The deciphering of the inscriptions on the cylinders will one day assist materially in deter¬ mining the Oriental origin of a great number of these classic stories, giving to them their true parentage, their real country, and their original meaning. 198 LARES AND PENATES. sash, the supposed clay us latus ; a hand holding a tympanum; a hand holding a rhyton, terminating in a male head; the arm of a boxer, the hand loaded with leads; a hand holding a basket; and a large wing. Several heads bore distinct proof of being portraits of persons living at the time of the Roman Empire, from the time of the Flavii to the Antonines. Among them were a head resembling that of Otho or of Titus; others of ladies who wore the head-attire seen on the coins of Julia, the sister of Titus and Domitia (Nos. 9, p. 158, and 29, p. 168); another laureated head resembling Domitian. Three other little heads of exquisite finish, also of the same time, represented personages living under the Roman Empire. Other subjects were taken from the circus, such as a horseman, and the head of another ; the same, holding a palm; from the bath, as the head of a slave; or from the theatre, as a comic actor, the davus seated on a cube, with his hands folded (No. 52); and another of the Satyric east, like the figures represented in the New Comedy, which ap¬ pear from the vases of later date to have approached the broadest style of caricature.* Several heads only, with pointed ears, and plug-holes beneath, to adapt them to bodies of some other material, and one with a helmet apparently also comic, and supposed to have been a lamp, were also either taken from the stage or from those obscene dwarfs and moriones, which are so often found re¬ presented in bronze at the Roman period. With this list closes the torso of a figure wearing the paludamentum, probably from the figure of an emperor. A considerable number of animals were found, and among them a spirited group of a lion attacking a bull, upon which he has sprung (No. 42, p. 187), a subject found on the coins of Cilicia.f A panther, several fragments of horses, some caparisoned or votive; parts of bulls, probably dedicated for the preservation of cattle; a dog, emblematic of Hecate; and a small cat, having a cord tied round its neck, from which is pendent an inverted crescent, shewing that the animal had been sacred to the moon, recalling the collar placed round the neck of the stag of Mount Cercynitis. Among them was also the skin of an animal tied up like an askos.^ xo. 52.— DAVUS. * Wieseler, Theatergebaude. Gotting. 1851, Taf. ix. 9. 4 Due de Luynes, Suppl. PI. iv. Gaos. X It is known that the water is carried in skins. Mr. Bonomi has engraved in VASES. 199 This closes the list of sigillaria, which forms the most important portion of this collection, and which throw considerable light on the state of the arts in Tarsus, certainly not inferior to those in Italy. Many of the heads, although of small size, have a wonderful power and expression, and the arts were generally in a high state at the period. This seems to have been towards the close of the Caesars, to which period the female head-dresses point. II. Utensils. Few vases were found. The most remarkable of these was an cenochoe, quite plain. Several pieces of red glazed Roman ware, not the supposed Samian, but of the class called the false Samian by the English and French antiquaries, distinguished by not being of an NO. 53.— A BASSO-RELIEVO GEM WITH A WREATH : PRIESTESS EXAMINING THE OPENING OF A FLOWER. equal colour throughout, and not stamped with the names of potters inside. On the bottom outside of one cup is the letter T, in bas-relief, but not stamped, as the usual potters’ sigillum. Two pieces of cups in his excellent work, Nineveh and its Palaces, p. 182, from the monuments discovered by M. Botta at Khursabad, the figure of a sack or rather skin, and water-bearer with a leather helmet on his head, and algo of a clasp by which his outer garment was fas¬ tened—a peculiarity of costume that leads to the surmise, he adds, that these people are from the coast of Cilicia, and may be called Milyse, who, Herodotus tells us, wore helmets of leather, and who had their vests confined with clasps. It is not a little curious, and corroborative of the fact, that the Assyrian water-bearers were strangers, possibly some conquered people from Cilicia or the neighbouring Taurus, that the water-bearers in large towns are generally a peculiar people : thus the Sakkas of Con¬ stantinople are Armenians from Armenia Proper and Kurdistan—not Armenians of Constantinople ; and the water-bearers of Paris are Auvergnats. 200 LARES AND PENATES. this collection I consider the finest of any which I have yet seen. One (No. 53), part of a cylindrical cnp of fine ware, of a pale straw colour, has, in delicately raised relief, the bust of a draped female figure, apparently Venus, in a talaric tunic, placed between two festoons of wreaths, a subject which has been repeated round the cup. The other, from a bowl of a remarkably fine light-red clay (No. 54), has, in a slight bas-relief, as if impressed from the mould of a fine gem or cameo, the bust of a Bacchante, her head bound with a wreath of ivy, her form clad in a nebris, and a thyrsus thrown over her shoulder—a subject already known from some gems. Of inferior workmanship are parts of a cup, with wreaths and bucranea. One piece alone, ornamented with feathered ornaments on a maroon ground, belongs to painted vases. Nei¬ ther of these pieces were of glazed or polished ware; but half of a patera had in the inside, in bas-relief, a female hand, placed amidst NO. 54 . —BASSO-RELIEVO GEM, A BACCHANTE. foliage resembling that of the ivy; and several vases with a small handle, in shape of a rude antifixal or helix ornament, with scoral handles made separately, and ready to attach to others, were found; with them was part of a cantharus, or cup, of late black polished ware, the side orna¬ mented with ivy-leaves ( liederata\ completely resembling similar canthari found in France and England. The number of lamps which were found, according to Mr. Barker, amounted to upwards of 3000; and of these he selected for his collection only the most important,, allowing the country people to carry away those which were not ornamented with subjects in LAMPS. 201 bas-relief. This find may be compared with that mentioned by Avolio in his Argille, p. 117. The lamps found at Tarsus were very different from those from Italy or Greece. They are of a fine straw colour, of small size, circular, and with one nozzle, and generally without handles. One lamp, which is only ornamented with an egg and tongue moulding, has the remains of the wooden candelabrum still adhering to it below. None of these lamps have the names of makers, one alone being impressed below with a thunderbolt and cross. The nozzle of many had been burnt, shewing that they had been used. Many are perfect, and by no means worn out. Their subjects are, a goat, emblem of Dionysos and Pnapus; a wild boar; Selene in a car drawn by two buffaloes, holding m each hand a torch; Isis, whose worship has been already traced in the city, holding a situla, on her head the usual ornament, before her Apis as a buffalo, having on his head a star, advancing to a lighted altar behind a temple; Actason attacked by one of his dogs (jNb. 44, p. 189j; a Nereid traversing the sea upon a hippocampus; a hare; a gryphon; Cupid riding upon a lion; two Cupids, one leaping over a lion; a dol¬ phin; a bunch of grapes and vine-leaves; a crater or cantharus; an instrument; a crown, altar, and laurel-branch; a bunch of grapes, leaf, and wreath of laurel on the base AO; a river-god, probably the Cydnus, reclining, holding a reed in the left hand, a cornucopia in the right, at his elbow an urn, Victory hovering in the air, and crowning him; head of Minerva, full face, with the triple crest to the helmet;* a dolphin; head of the Medusa, the mythos of whom was intimately connected with the city founded by Perseus ; a stag advancing to the right. A small lamp; one fragment of a circular lamp of a hollow band, which had held four wicks, closed this list. Distinct from these, and pro¬ bably of an earlier age, are two shoe-shaped lamps with handles, of coarser red ware, one entirely plain, the other having the oriental sub¬ ject of a goddess holding up two lions by their tails. III. Miscellaneous Objects. The number of miscellaneous objects of terra-cotta was by no means great; and what is the most startling is the total absence of all architectural fragments, which generally form an. important portion of similar collections. The few objects of this nature which were found were chiefly models, such as a Corinthian column quite detached. Some lion’s claws, with mertaises apparently for a throne of a small figure. Several oscilke or masks, with hollow eyes, which appear from the mural paintings at Pompeii to have been suspended by cords between the intercolumniations of the * Due de Luynes, Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapes. Suppl. 4to. Paris, 1846. PI. xi. 202 LARES AND PENATES. columns, were found, either scenic masks, either tragic or comic; the head of a hull. Besides these are fragments of a kind of calathus in open work, a pecten shell, a stud, a cylindrical object excised at one end Z H, resembling those found at the Polledrara of Vulci, and apparently bobliquets, or curling-pins for the hair. Some hollow altars, supposed by Mr. Barker to be censers, with evident marks of burning; an object in shape of a cubical seat or altar, with a slit above, supposed to be one of the boxes for money which the gladiators carried round ;* and two large disks or medals about three inches diameter, with a hole to suspend them, on one an A, on the other a B ; and last, although not least, a plain flat disk of terra-cotta on which is incised in cursive characters, the name AnoWwg ; this is a remarkable name, being that of the Alexandrian coadjutor of St. Paul.'!' The inscription is written like a memorandum on the disk. Few objects not of terra-cotta were found ; but among these were a bust placed upon a table with four legs, the head broken olf, which had been used as a knife-handle of dark steatite, and three flat circular stones, which are supposed to have been used for polishing vessels placed on a lathe, or tools. The most interesting, however, of these objects are parts of some figures cast in plaster of Paris or of a coarse gypsum burnt,J and which recal to mind the architectural mouldings of a tomb found at Kertch, and now in the British Mu¬ seum. Those in Mr. Barker’s collection are a female head wearing a sphendone, having the hair gathered up at the sides ; a head of Har- pocrates, the face coloured red ; a head of Hercules in the lion’s skin ; an eagle ; and two architectural mouldings. * See Seroux d’Agincourt Recueil, and Caylus Recueil. + Acts xviii. 24, xix. 1; 1 Corinth, iii. 6, 22, iv. 6. Suidas voce. J Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 153. CHAPTER IV. ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HENS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THE EXTINCT RACES OF AMERICA. MONSTROUS HEAD IN A CONICAL CAP—PORTRAIT OF A HUN (?)-IDENTITY WITH AMERICAN SCULPTURES—EMIGRATIONS OF ASIATIC NATIONS TO AMERICA- TESTIMONIES FROM STEPHENS, SCHOMBURGK, HUMBOLDT-ANALOGIES OF LANGUAGE-EVIDENCES FROM KLAPROTH AND d’hERBELOT. Mr. Abington’s observations on this piece (No. 55), a head of most monstrous form, in a conical cap, are of so remarkable a nature that I must be per¬ mitted to publish them here, and I will add what I have had time to collect from Humboldt and others in confirmation. Mr. Abington says: “ This is the most extra¬ ordinary thing in all the collection. On the first view, I was struck with the identity of its strange profile with the figures sculptured upon the monu¬ ments and edifices of an extinct people in Central America.* Many of Stephens’s engravings represent the same faces exactly. “ But what possible connexion could there be between the people of Asia Minor and that far-distant race? This is a question for the Eth¬ nographical Society, and I hope you will lay it before them. “ In the meantime, I will venture a thought upon the subject. Is it not a faithful and correct portrait of a Hun? Humboldt, on the authority of Ivlaproth, I believe, says that the Hiongnu belonged to the Turkish, and the Huns to the Finnish or Uralian race. We know that * See Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Central America and Yucutan. 204 LARES AND PENATES. the latter were driven by the former, who had been repulsed from the walls of China and roamed westward, upon their neighbours, with whom they are mixed in the relations of their inroads on the south of Europe.* By Huns I do not mean the modern Magyar race, which is of other blood, but the ugly race, whose inhuman faces and horse-like heads, terrified the inhabitants of southern countries, when that Scythian flood rolled in upon them. “ One division of their tribes went eastward, sweeping all before them as far as China; and the great wall was built to keep them out of that kingdom. It is ascertained that some bodies of the Mongol, Kalmuck, and other Tartar tribes crossed to America.']* “ Hitherto the sculptures of Central America have only been won¬ dered at, but not explained. Does not this head of yours identify them with the Huns, and thereby let light in upon a dark mystery? It is a subject I should like to follow up, if I had the means within reach. I can only indicate the direction in which others may follow the matter; and I am very much mistaken if it does not richly reward them. Dr. Pritchard would have been the man to submit it to; but he is, alas, no more. For an account of the migration of the Huns, and their policy in levying a tribute of beautiful women in all the conquered countries, by which their own ugliness was rapidly mitigated, see Gibbon’s Decline and Fall. u The following sketches of the sculptures in Central America, taken from Stephens’s plates and the Quarterly Journal T will shew that my notion of the matter is not a mere fancy. 11 Heads so very unusual, not to say unnatural, though found in such distant places, must surely have come from the same stock. * The Oiimoi are first noticed by Dionysius Periegetes in the time of Augustus ; and Ptolemy writes the word Xovvot, strongly aspirated, which may be found again in the geographical name of Chunigard. f See Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. iii. 1828 ; Dr. Ranking’s paper. THE HUNS AND AMERICANS. 205 a We have written descriptions of the inhuman appearance of the Huns who devastated the nation; but I never met with any representa¬ tion of them either pictorial or sculptural. Perhaps you have the gratification of first bringing before the world a true and exact repre¬ sentation of that once terrible but now forgotten race, and that too by an illustration probably unique; also of removing the veil which has hitherto concealed the mysterious origin of the men who have left the memorials of their peculiar conformation upon the sculptured stones of America, but who have been long extinct.” Sir Robert Schomburgk, in a letter he addressed to Humboldt, says, “ The hieroglyphical figures are more widely extended than you had perhaps supposed.They extend, as ascertained by actual observa¬ tions, from 7° 10' to 1° 40' north latitude, and from 57° 30' to 66° 30' west longitude. Thus the zone of pictured rocks extends, so far as it has been at present examined, over a space of 192,000 square geogra¬ phical miles; comprising the basin of the Corentyn, the Essequibo, and the Orinoco; a circumstance from which we may form some inference respecting the former amount of population in this part of the con¬ tinent.” I find confirmation of Mr. Abington’s idea in Humboldt’s Aspects of Nature, and will proceed to quote his remarks that bear the most on this subject in his Annotations , p. 176. Pie says, “I regard the existence of ancient connexions between the inhabitants of Western America and Eastern Asia as more than probable; but by what routes, or with what Asiatic nations the communications took place, cannot at present be decided. Our knowledge of the languages of America is still too limited, considering their great variety, for us as yet entirely to relinquish the hope of some day discovering an idiom which may be spoken, with certain modifications, at once in the interior of South America and in that of Asia; or which may at least indicate an ancient affinity. Such a dis¬ covery would be one of the most brilliant which can be expected in re¬ ference to the history of mankind.” I am aware that the analogy of one language to another must be sought in the organic structure, and the grammatical forms resulting from the workings of the human intellect and character. Still, when we have no opportunity of following up such research, as in the case of the Americo-Indian languages, it is interesting to trace the similarity of sound in the words which are handed over to us.* For instance, I * I have a catalogue of many words that resemble each other in different languages. I found, however, so many in the German and English having evidently the same origin, that I forbore collecting them, as they would form a little volume in them- 206 LARES AND PENATES. find itz-cuin- tepotzotli to signify a humped-backed dog. Now itz I trace to eet, the Tartaric appellation of a dog: cuin is the Turk¬ ish for a sheep; therefore itz-cuin would be a sheep-dog, or shepherd’s dog: tepotzotli I take to be the same as teppeh , the Turkish for a hill; and the terminative particle li or lu is quite Tartaric, and always used to express a property or possession: thus, topal, lame; topalli herif a lame man; cor , blind of one eye; corli avret, a one-eyed woman. I find, moreover, that, some miles from the Encaramada, there rises in the middle of the Savana the rock Tepu-Mereme, or “painted rock.” Observe here the similarity of tepu to teppe, and the construc¬ tion so Semitic , having the substantive first; here is still greater affinity; for the “me” may be the same as the “ mu” in Arabic; and be the form used to express the adjective. You would in Arabic, using the word nalcsh , paint, say jebel mzmaccash, a rock painted. But what I find contradictory is, that the construction of this word is more Semi¬ tic than Hindo- Germanic; for we find the substantive to precede the adjective , and we have dog-shepherd; humped-back, and not humped- backed sliepherd-dog . The Arabic form would be kelbun rayee-un ahdab , precisely like the Americo-Indian. Would this lead us to trace an affinity between the two, and to suppose that a Semitic tribe traversing through Asia on its way eastward, adopted words from the people with whom it came in contact, and which it afterwards perpetuated in America, preserving, however, its original Semitic construction ? I find further, that some etymologists have thought they recognised in the American word camosi , the sun, a similarity to camosh, the name of the sun in one of the Phoenician dialects, and to Apollo, Chomeas, or Balphegor. Humboldt’s further remarks are most interesting, and bear on this ethnological subject. He says: “ In looking at Peruvian carvings, I have never remarked any figures of the large-nosed race of men so frequently represented in the bas-reliefs of Palinque in Guatemala, and in the Aztec paintings. Klaproth remembered having seen individuals with similar large noses among the Chalcas, a northern Mogul tribe. It is well known that many tribes of the North American red or copper- selves. The resemblance between many words of the German and Tartaric language was more interesting ; and I have a list which would in itself alone prove the connexion between the Alemagni and the tribes in the east, were such proof requisite, or were the fact at a 11 doubted. But what astonishes me is to find a great many words in German that appear certainly to possess a Semitic origin. These words must have been a opte in consequence of the communion between the wandering tribes in earlier tunes, who, it will be observed, kept to their own construction , although they borrowed the use of words or sounds. SPECULATIONS ABOUT THE HUNS. 207 coloured Indians have fine aquiline noses, and that this is an essential physiognomic distinction between them and the present inhabitants of Mexico, New Granada, Quito, and Peru. Are the large-eyed, compara¬ tively fair-complexioned people spoken of by Marchand as having been seen in 54° and 58° lat. on the north-west coast of America, descended from an Alano-Gothic race, the Usiini of the interior of Asia ?” It is very interesting to read the above question in connexion with what we now have in hand. Following up this idea, I find further, that u the southern Huns or Hajatelah (called by the Byzantines Euthalites or Nepthalites, and dwelling along the eastern shore of the Caspian), had a fair complexion. They cultivated the ground, and possessed towns. They are often called the white or fair Huns; and D’Herbelot even declares them to be Indo-Scythians. For an account of Panu, the leader or tanju of the Huns, and of the great drought and famine which, about 46 a.d., caused a part of the nation to migrate northwards, see Deguignes’ Histoire Gen. des Huns , des Turcs , #c. 1756, t. i. pt. i. p. 217; pt. ii. pp. Ill, 125, 223, 447. All the accounts of the Huns taken from the above-mentioned celebrated work have been subjected to a learned and strict examination by Klaproth. According to the result of this research, the Hiongnu belong to the widely-diffused Turkish races of the Altai and Taugnu Mountains. The name Hiongnu, even in the third century before the Christian era, was a general name for the Ti, Tukui, or Turks, in the north and north-west of China. The southern Hiongnu overcame the Chinese, and in conjunction with them destroyed the empire of the northern Hiongnu: these latter fled to the west, and this flight seems to have given the first impulse to the migration of nations in Middle Asia.!’ Might not some families of these tribes have embarked in some fishing-boats, and been cast on the western coast of North America, in the inhospitable climate of from 55° to 65°; and civilisation thus introduced, like the general movement of population in America, have proceeded successively from the North to the South ?* * Humboldt, Relation Historique, t. iii. pp. 155-160. At Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire, have lately been found, outside a Roman camp, the bodies of three men of rather a large size by persons excavating. The heads seemed to have been forced in between two ricks, and to have sustained some injury from violence. The crania were examined and compared with Mr. Lawrence’s work on the species of man, and no similarity could be traced between them and any of the crania described in that work, except to the head of the Caribbean Indian. It is supposed that these must be the remains of some of the tribes of the Huns that found their way into Britain, as they had done into Rome, marking their progress by acts of cruelty, and causing, by their extreme ugliness, horror to those they vanquished. CHAPTER V. ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OE THE HUNS CONTINUED. “ THE UGLY HEADS” OF THE COLLECTION-STANDARD OF BEAUTY-MONU¬ MENTS OF CENTRAL AMERICA-PARALLEL CASE IN HAYTI-THE HITTITES OF SCRIPTURE-REFERENCE TO EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE-EFFECTS OF THE EGYPTIAN INVASION OF CILICIA. On a first examination of a few of the ugly, monstrous heads of the collection, I had imagined that they represented Midas. Apollo being a great favourite at Tarsus, it was natural to conclude that Midas would be there jeered at and caricatured. But, at a later period, when Mr. Abington had pointed out the extraordinary resemblance he had traced between No. 55, p. 203, and the heads sculptured on the rocks in Central America, I was led to look closer into the subject; and by setting apart all the heads of that kind, I found a family likeness to prevail through the whole lot, which consists of upwards of fifty heads, that justifies me in coming to the conclusion that they are the representatives of a nation or tribe, if not of a single family, such is the likeness that prevails among them. These heads have, for the most part, been radiated. The female heads bear the same form of head-dress as that given by the Cilicians to heads representing persons they deified; as if the chiefs of the con¬ quering tribes, hearing that it was customary in the country to have such a compliment paid to the rulers of the land, and to include their ladies, insisted on their being represented by the same effigy. That this was done may be ascertained by an examination of the other heads in the collection, wherein the Junos are represented with the features of the favourite empress of the day; or, to reverse the case, the features of the ladies of that period may be seen bearing the attributes of Juno, Venus, Cybele, Ceres, &c. And on many of these heads may be traced the head-dress of Apollo, with the hair knotted in front,—of Jupiter, DEIFICATION OE UGLINESS. 209 with the radiation, &c. Now it is not at all likely that any of the monsters of Grecian mythology would have that compliment paid them; and certainly Midas, who would rather be an object of derision, could never be thus represented. Now it would seem that when the power of these tribes passed away, the artists, as if ashamed of their subserviency to the people who had ejected them, carefully cut off all the rays on the heads ; and only one male and two females have remained perfect enough, to tell the tale of their fellows, who are only mutilated about the forehead.. Let not their extreme ugliness be considered a reason why they should not have been deified by the Cilicians or by the people of America. What shall be imagined to be the standard of beauty which shall be acknowledged by all people ? The negro is shocked at the first sight of a European. The thin lips, the narrow lengthened nose, oval face, and long hair, are so far from all his notions of beauty as to be ugliness unmitigated. The ugly fellows, whose likenesses we now possess in this collection, would not be ashamed of their peculiarities, n°i hike offence at their true effigies, any more than the Chinese would be offended at being represented with their ugly cheek-bones, oblique pig-eyes, and Tartar noses, even a little exaggerated. One of these, now in London, is so monstrously ugly, that it would be difficult for a modeller to shew him up worse than he is. How hideous are the heads and faces of many of the holy fakirs of India in the present day ! And I have no doubt but that we might find rivals to the ugliest of these heads among many people both in the East and in the West; Further, the monuments of Central America must be looked upon as bearing a mythological character, and representing objects of adora¬ tion—persons who conferred benefits on their fellow-creatures by the* introduction of civilisation ; holy men; priests, and priestesses-, whom* the sculptor would not wantonly degrade by giving them features to cause them to be treated with derision.; yet we find them character¬ ised by ugliness of the superlative degree. We must not, therefore, be surprised at finding such features radiated with the same glory which is applied to Apollo, the perfection of the Circassian tyj>e of beauty. If men of one tribe were eligible for divine honours,.others of tribes less favoured in physical beauty were equally so. The deification was for other qualities than personal beauty, and that too judged of by an arbitrary standard. These priests, conquerors, or chiefs of the people—call them what you please—pretended no doubt to be versed in the doctrines of astrology, divination, mesmeric arts,, and wonders; their, ugly countenances would serve to increase the distance between them- £ 210 LARES AND PENATES. and tlie people; there would be nothing to prevent the modeller from even exaggerating this difference ; and the priesthood would never take offence at it, if it tended to make the deluded multitude stand in awe of them as beings of another and higher order. We have a case in point to refer to, in modern times, which bears on this question. The Emperor Soulouque of Hayti has caused Corradi to take portraits of himself and all his family and government, civil and military. However desirous the artist might be to flatter his imperial highness, the latter would not be pleased or accept of his likeness, if he were represented with Grecian features, but would rather insist on the delineations being as nearly like to nature as possible. He might con¬ sider himself and family a great deal handsomer than the European; and an exaggeration of his ideal beauty, although a monstrosity in our sight, might only be complimentary to him.* As yet I have called the people represented by these heads Huns , to use an appellation known to all; but I believe that their original name was Ivhita—perhaps the Hittites of the Scriptures,—a people who were aborigines of Asia Minor, if not of the province of Cilicia itself, and whose chiefs were taken into captivity by Rameses III. In Rossalini’s great work on Egyptian Antiquities there are repre¬ sented four bodies kneeling, with their arms tied behind them ; each has a line of hieroglyphics stating who he is. The first says, “ This is the vile slave from Tarsus of the Sea ;” its features are unfortu¬ nately disfigured, but alongside there is another captive whose fea¬ tures are complete. The hieroglyphic writing of this says, “ Phoor khasi em Khita en Sacca enk,”—“ The chief of the Khita as a living captive.” Now the fact of these two figures having stood in such propinquity on the monuments in Egypt, erected doubtless to com¬ memorate the conquests of the Egyptian king over the nations of the north of Syria, and the coincidence of the heads found in Tarsus re¬ sembling so much the second as to identify them with the same race at least, if not the same individual, would lead to the conclusion that if the Khita were not the inhabitants of this city, they were some of its imme¬ diate neighbours, and that it was their chief who had been carried into bondage by the Egyptian conquerors of the country. I will leave this point to be discussed and settled by more competent judges ; and will only add, in support of my conclusion, that directly I exhibited the head, No. 55, to Mr. Birch, he exclaimed at once, and * These portraits have been published in a handsome lithographed album, and a full account of them will be found in an extract from the New York Herald, in the Times of Oct, 14, 1852. CONNEXION WITH EGYPT. 211 without hesitation, “ I will tell you what people this head represents and he turned immediately to the plate in Rossalini’s work before- mentioned. Indeed, if we admit similarity of features as a guide in discerning the difference of races, there can be little doubt on the subject. It might be imagined that these two heads (No. 55, p. 203), and the one copied out of Rossalini’s work herewith introduced, not only represented the same race of men, but were even intended to portray the same individual, with some twenty years’ difference in age, only such as he would be at forty and at sixty. Rameses III. was of the 18th dynasty, and must have effected his conquest 1200 or 1500 years b.c. : my Lares and Penates have been proved to have been destroyed about the year 70 of the Christian era ; so that if these heads represent the Kliita, as I have no doubt they do,* * Mr. Layard discovered in the mound of Nabbi Yunus, or of the Prophet Jonah, near Mosul, a head carved in a yellow silex (Eisen Kiesel ?) with singularly grotesque features, which he considers to belong to the later Assyrian period, and an imitation 212 LARES AND PENATES. they had been accumulating in Tarsus, together with many other gods and idols of all nations from the East and West, which were found with them, upwards of 1200 years. How interesting is this fact! and what light may not these monuments throw on ancient history, on times of which we have now no written records ; on times when sculpture formed the basis of the means for perpetuating historical events ; and how precious will be such memorials —how useful in the hands of the learned archaeologist, who could find leisure to devote a little attention to a closer scrutiny of them ! The Cilicians at a later period became a mixed race, and lost their resemblance to these horrid faces, who, as I have already observed, were possibly tribes that conquered them; but if these were the aborigines of Cilicia or Asia Minor, what was the effect of the Egyptian invasion and conquest ? Did it disperse them ? Were they the stock from which the ancient Scythians descended ? Or were they all from one common origin ? How did these wandering tribes, who fought and conquered the West, find their way eastward to America ? Can we infer that the American monuments are of a higher antiquity than heretofore supposed ? These are all questions to which, at present, we are obliged to “ pause for a reply.” of the head of the Egyptian deity, which some believe to represent death. (Layard’s Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 214 ; Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians, plate 41, vol. iv.) This head is now in the British Museum. It has an inscription in cuneiform letters in the crown and back ; it might otherwise, Mr. Layard says, be mistaken for a Mexi¬ can relic ! Mr. Birch suggests that, as a similar head is frequently represented on Egyptian monuments, on vases brought as tribute by an Asiatic people; and is, more¬ over, found on the Phoenician coins of Abusus, as that of the deity; it may be the Semitic Baal or Typhon. There is a representation on one of the Babylonian cylinders, engraved by the Syro- Egyptian Society, of a female divinity of horrid aspect, and very slightly clothed: she stands upon a dragon, and holds three articles in her hands, which, if keys, Mr. Abing- ton remarks, would mark her as the Cybele of the Babylonians. There is something round her cap, which, if intended for oak-leaves, would also distinguish her as that goddess. CHAPTER VI. ADDITIONAL WORKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES. APOLLO-MERCURY-HERCULES-BACCHUS—SILENUS—FAUNS AND SATYRS_ PAN—MINERVA-VENUS-CUPID-EUROPA-MARSYAS-LEANDER-LAO- COON iESCULAPIUS—FORTUNE CAIUS CALIGULA ? PRIAPUS HARPIES -MARSYAS-ABRERIG OR NERGAL ?-SUMMARY. We find from the discoveries of Layard and Botta, that the god of the sun was represented by the Assyrians as an eagle-headed or vulture¬ headed human figure. It is one of the most prominent sacred types in the earlier Assyrian monuments, and was, according to Dr. Grotefend, the tutelar divinity of the nation. “ This figure may also,” says Layard (vol. ii. p. 459), u be identified with the god Nisroch, in whose temple Sennacherib was slain by his sons (2 Kings xix. 37) 5 for the word Nisr signifies, in all the Semitic languages, an eagle.” Josephus* calls this image Arascus; Isaiah, Asarak or Nisroch (xxxvii. 38); Jeremiah (vii. 18), Nit; the Septuagint, M ecropax- It was also written Asarax, Esorac, Nasarac, and Mesarac. The distinguished French archaeologist, Lajard, has traced the Mithra of the Persian sys¬ tem, the same as the Nisroch of the Assyrians, through its various trans¬ formations to the AiroXXtoy of the Greeks, and Apollo of the Iiomans. We have the authority of Herodotus, and other of the ancient histo¬ rians, for the identity of Apollo and the Egyptian Floras; and we have seen in the course of this work that Apollo was not only the favourite deity of the Cilicians, but, as Tarsus the winged, he was in fact the tutelary divinity of the city. It appears from additional terra-cottas obtained since Mr. Birch’s descriptions were penned, and which have been described by Mr. Abington with his usual taste and discrimination, that we have representations of the same deity in other forms among these truly interesting relics. * Antiq. Jud. i. c. 1. 214 LARES AND PENATES. One of these formed part of a basso-relievo of bold projection: the brooch by which his pallium is buckled in front has been made by the impress of a punch much too large for the purpose. There is also a very finely modelled face of apparently the same divinity. In this face the eyes are remarkably expressive, and the mouth diminished so as to give a good example of the sublimated or ideal beauty which the Greeks aimed at. The hair is bound by a fillet into a knot on the top of the head, in the style usually given to Apollo. There is also in the collection a little figure of Horus or Harpocrates, with its finger to its lips, excessively slight and rude. Also a head, trunk, and right thigh of Harpocrates (No. 38). The youthful rotundity and fleshiness of the body and thigh are well ex- piessed. The head has the hair knotted on the top, is radiated, and sur¬ mounted with the sacred Egyptian emblem, and the finger on the lip places, Mr. Abington remarks, the designation of the figure beyond dispute. The left arm supports a horn of plenty filled with fruits. “It is to be regretted that this figure came so late, as it affords a coirect key to very many fragments which we have had before by piece¬ meal. It is most valuable in every point of view. We have many youthful heads with the same Egyptian symbol of the Nelumbium on the top. aie they all to be referred to Harpocrates? If so, he must have been the most popular of the divinities at Tarsus, if we may judge from the number. “I have before noticed the identity of Assarac, Horus, and Harpocrates, as the incarnation of deity through a female divinity, Isis. It may be asked, when the Roman empire began to resound with the testimony of the Apos¬ tles, that the long-expected Messiah of the Jews was incarnate, did the priests of the old mythology bring out more fully to popular notice, and in opposition to the Christians, their ancient mystery of the incarnation of the son of Isis? If this policy was resorted to—and it would seem under the circumstances very natural—it would explain the fact of the representation of Horus being so multiplied at that period. “It would be their policy to j^ersuade the people that the wonderful tales respecting the birth of the Messiah were but stolen from the sys¬ tem of religion maintained by them and their fathers, and therefore an innovation to be rejected.” Another small head in the collection, similar to the foregoing, has a circlet of flowers as a crown, with the sacred bean in front. Another larger head has a diadem of flowers similar to the preced- ing, but surmounted by a radiation, with the Egyptian symbol in front. Another head similar to the one with the hair knotted on the top, MERCURY. 215 but without any radiation; behind it rises a kind of shell-work or plaiting. The origin of Mercury, known as the Hermes and Cyllenius of the Greeks, the Anubis of the Egyptians, the Theutates of the Gauls, and Woden of the Saxons, has been sought for in Phoenicia; the image of this god being the symbolical figure of the ancestor and founder of the kingdom. This, however, is mere speculation, and further research wiil no doubt shew that some of the many forms of this many-sym- bolled god were as common to the Assyrian and Hindu forms of idolatry as to the Egyptian and Phoenician. . . Amon S the different forms in which this deity is represented in the Cilician terra-cottas, is one which Mr. Abington calls the ancient Pelas- gian Mercury, in which he is usually represented terminating in an in¬ verted obelisk, cloaked, and with a phallus. Several examples of the same kind are met with in the British Museum. Hermes, under various forms, seems to have been much honoured m Cilicia. Among the terra-cottas is a head with a cap, which seems to be intended to represent a young Mercury. The expression of the features is very pleasing, both in front and profile. There is also an¬ other , with a curly head, more plump and infantine than the preceding. There is also among the terra-cottas another bonneted head of the same character. It is of childish age, but bears a strong family likeness to some heads of Apollo, &c., modelled from the countenances of priests, or persons of rank; very fat and luxurious-looking. It will be curious if this should be a youth of the same family, who sat to the artist for a study of young Hermes. Also, a winged boy in the act of'flying; he has the hair knotted over the forehead, a Phrygian bonnet, and loose drapery, fastened by a fibula on the breast, but flying open in front. It is a very good figure. Mercury, as the messenger of the gods, is most usually represented with a winged cap, and wings to his ankles; but in this case the wings are fixed to the shoulders. Apollo, as sculptured by the Greeks and Romans, has no wings, but at Tarsus he was winged! So that it does not appear that we can urge this fact of his being winged against the idea of its being the young postman of Olympus. We know that there were so many different legends concerning these deities, and so many different tales of their origin, descent, &c., that they are quite confusing. There are no fewer than six or eight different Mercurys, concerning whom we have accounts. The early traditions would vary in the various lines through which they were transmitted; and priests and poets, by the exercise of 216 LARES AND PENATES. a liberty which was nnrestrained by any real reverence for such objects, have added to the confusion. There is also among the terra-cottas a face and neck of a very good figure, similar to those just described. It is the plump, healthy coun¬ tenance which we cannot look upon but with pleasure. The legends of this hero were well known to the Phoenicians, and also to the Far East. His labours are engraved on some of the Baby¬ lonian cylinders. The tales handed down to us by the Greeks were drawn by them from the tradition of the East. This, independently of the Assyrian origin of the deity, would account for such numerous frag¬ ments of this demi-god being found at Tarsus. Among these is a restored figure of the hero, nearly complete, except the head. It is of good execution. In another head and bust, the breadth of shoulders and fulness of muscle at once declare it to be Hercules. The radiation of the head also shews that it is one honoured by apotheosis. There is also a head of plaster, which appears to represent the same demi-god. Also a terminal figure of an old man dressed in a lion’s skin. Is this an oriental form of Hercules? We know from the cylinders that the Babylonians had their Hercules. Also, a left hand of a Hercules holding his club; the lion’s skin fall¬ ing over it. dhe Assyrian Plercules was also represented holding a mace in his hand. It is remarkable, however, that among the many and various repre¬ sentations that occur of Hercules among the Cilician terra-cottas, we do -not find any of the representations pre¬ cisely identical with that of the Assyrian Hercules, Sandon or Sandok, also called Dayyad “ the hunter.” One head of Hercules is radiated : it is a magnificent head, and the profile is like the finest figures of that deity which have come down to our times; nor will it suffer by comparison with any of them, making allowance for the material. Among the Cilician terra-cottas are two heads in the act of kissing; the female seems to be crowned with ivy, the crown of the other is obliterated. These may not improbably re- NO. 56. —HEADS OF ARIADNE AND BACCHUS. the fir-cone. 217 Psyche BaCdmS ^ Ariadne ’ The iVy f ° rbidS US CalHng Cu P id and There is also a fragment of a vessel worked into the head of the In¬ dian Bacchus. Also a remarkable fragment of a figure in bold relief: a naked, old, fat, ugly man, bald-headed, bearing a thyrsus and a wine- cup, which he seems to have been making free use of. It will be remembered that Bacchus brought his thyrsus, sur¬ mounted by the pine or fir-cone, from the East, when he returned from his Indian expedition; and this is probably an Indian, or, at all events an Oriental Bacchus. M. Lajard has shewn in an elaborate essay* the connexion between the cone of the cypress and the worship of Venus in the religious sys¬ tems of the East. J Layard hesitates to identify the object held by the winged figures of the Assyrian monuments, and evidently, from their constant occurrence, most important objects in the religious ceremonies of the Assyrians of old, with the fruit of the fir or cypress; and he adds, “ Any attempt to explain their use, or their typical meaning, can, at present, be little better than an ingenious speculation.” (See vol. ii. p. 471.) The handing down of the same tradition through long spaces of time, its diffusion over vast spaces geographically distant, and the permanence of forms m art, possess, however, an interest of their own, both artistic and psychological, independent of the true or corrupted meaning of the thing. It is not impossible that the origin of the veneration for the fir¬ cone has been its aphrodisiacal properties. In the celebrated Bishop Berkeleys work called Siris , a treatise on Tar-Water, the learned author argues, that as the elemental fire, which he identifies with animal spirits and natural life (paragraph 277), may not inconsistently with the no¬ tions of that philosophy which ascribes much of generation to celestial influence, be supposed to impregnate animals and plants; so the benign spirit of the native balsam of pines and firs may, by invigorating the said elemental fire, increase the power of fecundation. The Hera of the Assyrians, who, like her prototypes Isis, Astarta, Mylitta, and Venus, presided over generation, is, we see, represented bearing the cone, as are also her priests and priestesses, j- The infamous law which, according to Herodotus, marked the rites of the goddess at Babylon, is generally known, and deservedly condemned in the apocryphal book of Jeremy. * Nouvelles Annales de l’lnstitut Archdologique, vol. xix. f Although unseemly symbols are rare in the Assyrian monuments, still enough exists, as Layard has shewn, to attest that such a worship did exist even under its most degrading forms. 218 LARES AND PENATES. What could be a more fitting accompaniment of Bacchus than the same emblem which he carries on his thyrsus ? Bishop Berkeley furnishes in his pages abundant proof that the virtues of the pine and fir were known to the ancients. Pliny tells us that wines in the time of the old Romans were medicated with pitch and resin; wherefore but for their aphrodisiac qualities ? Pliny also re¬ cords that it was customary for the ancients to hold fleeces of wool over steam of boiling tar, and squeeze the moisture from them, which watery substance was called pissinum. Ray will have this to be the same as the pisselceum of the ancients; but Hardouin, in his notes on Pliny, thinks th e. pisselceum to have been produced from the cones of cedars. No doubt the effect of both was the same. Bishop Berkeley acknowledged that he was ignorant what use the ancients made of these liquors, but the whole evidence can suggest only one conclusion. It was used as an aphrodisiac; and so powerful is this property, that Jonstonus, in his Dendographia , observes that it is wholesome to walk in groves of pine- trees, which impregnate the air with balsamic particles. The Eleusinian and Axio-Kersian mysteries appear to have peculiarly affected pine- groves ; and satyrs and fauns, that dwelt in woods, were notorious for The drunken follower of Bacchus, Silenus (No. 57), is represented in a very fine fragment of his head, in which only the middle part of the face re¬ mains ; but quite enough to make us regret that there is not more. There is also in the collection part of a bold relief figure of the same rollicking demi-god. As illustrative of other followers of Bacchus we have the head of a young faun or wood demon, with the wattles under his throat like a goat. It is a good thing, and worthy of care. The top of a satyr’s head, large size, and the lower part of a faun’s head, with a characteristic sensual grin. Among the terra-cottas is also a head of Pan, or of a satyr, with a crown ol fir-leaves and cones. It is a work of high art, and exhibits a freedom and facility of touch which could only come from the hand of a first-rate artist. The expression of the lower half of the face is admi¬ rable, and the sensuality of the mouth, &c. &c., is wonderfully charac¬ teristic. It is seen to great advantage on the three-quarter face, with their libidinous propensities. NO. 57. —HEAD OF SILENUS. MINERVA AND CUPID. 219 the right cheek presented to the spectator. There is also the base of a figure of Pan , all that lemams is the end of his crook. Also a very excellent head, the expression of the mouth shewing it to be a Pan or wood demon. There are also the lower part of the face of Pan, and a small head of the same character. We have among the Cilician terra-cottas a figure of Minerva as Pallas, in white clay; a work of art in which there is much graceful ease, though the facial angle is remarkably round. And it may be remarked here, in connexion with the Lares and Penates of cities, that as Pallas was essentially the city guardian and protector, so the Palladium, an image of Minerva, which gave security to those cities in which it was placed, was emblematic of the great fact that those kingdoms and cities flourish and prosper where wisdom presides. Also a figure of the same goddess, holding a ram; the ram was sometimes represented on her helmet, together with the sphynx. There is also another head with the fore part of a helmet remaining, apparently the same deity. The workmanship is tolerably good. Among the terra-cottas is a fragment of a female figure, only the thigh and left fore-arm remaining. She has taken Cupid captive, who is struggling to escape. It does not appear certain wdiether this w r as a figuie of Menus or of a Nymph, who, having captured Cupid, is scourg¬ ing him. The portion of drapery remaining is stiff and formal. Among the numerous figures of Cupid that are met with in the Tarsus collection is one winged, bearing the club of Hercules. This was a not uncommon form among the Egyptians, where Horus was in like manner represented, according to the custom of the Neomenia, with different attributes, some¬ times with the wings of the Ete¬ sian wind ; at others with the club of Hercules and arrows of Apollo; and at others riding on a lion, driving a bull, or tying a ram. The powerful child, celebrated for disarming both gods and men, is often repre¬ sented with some trophy of this character, such as the helmet of Mars, &c. &c., to denote the triumphs of love over the strongest of men. Another Cupid (No. 58) occurs, caressing a swan; the head is radiated. 220 LARES AND PENATES. It is a pleasing group: the association of Cupid and the swan was very common. It is altogether a sweet little piece, both in composition and execution; but the neck appears to be too short to represent a swan’s, and what corroborates the doubts entertained on this subject is, that Mr. Major, of St. John’s Wood (Abbey Road), possesses a dozen terra-cotta images, found in Italy, of great beauty, among which there is a similar form of a bird, the neck of which is quite as short, and of which Mr. Major has kindly allowed a copy to be taken. It is of very superior finish, and must be of the time when the Romans had arrived at their highest degree of perfection in the art of sculpture. Here we have the neck quite as short, although most graceful, and it certainly seems to be intended to represent a more ignoble bird than the swan. We have in the same collection a fragment which represents Europa riding upon Jupiter in the form of a bull. A portion of the bull’s head remains; he is turning and rubbing his neck against her foot. Several fragments of bulls appear also to have formed parts of illustrations of the same popular fable. The well-known fable of Marsyas was not passed over by the Cili- cians. Several illustrations of this strange and ungodlike story are met with. In one of these Marsyas is represented bound to the tree and flayed alive. This favourite subject was never better expressed than in this particular fragment. The anatomy is perfect, and must have been carefully studied from nature; and the agony of the face, as the MARSYAS FLAYED ALIVE. 221 head sinks upon the right shoulder, shewing the approach of death, is most impressive. This fragment must take its place in the first class for excellence:— “ The satyr*s fate, whom angry Phoebus slew, Who, raised with high conceit, and puffed with pride At his own pipe, the skilful god defied. Why do you tear me from myself ? he cries. Ah, cruel! must my skin be made the prize ? This for a silly pipe, he roaring said; Meanwhile his skin from off his limbs was flay’d All bare and raw, one large continued wound, With streams of blood his body bathed the ground. The blueish veins their trembling pulse disclosed, The stringy nerves lay naked and exposed. His guts appeared, distinctly each express’d ; And every shining fibre of his breast.” Ovid. Met. vi. Upon another very remarkable anatomical figure of Marsyas being flayed alive and holding something, possibly his flute, in the hands^ which it clasps to the breast, Mr. Abington remarks, that “ it is but a sketch with very little finish, but of the highest merit. The marking of the bones, though not exactly correct, is very striking: the brim of the pelvis and the trochanters of the thigh-bones are very well displayed. The head and right breast form a very bold relief. The skin is flayed off the face and turned back over the scalp, and its cut edges are seen covering the hair. The expression of agony is so intense as to make it a model for study: the staring eyeballs, the swollen corrugations of the eyebrows, and the distressing spasmodic action of the muscles of ex¬ pression on the face, strike us with horror, while they so fascinate by the interest felt in so much suffering, that we can hardly turn away from the sight.” Another fragment of a very stout athletic figure, bound by the middle and kneeling, is supposed by Mr. Abington to represent Marsyas supplicating Apollo previous to his being flayed. Four other fragments are described by the same distinguished artist and antiquary as belonging to the same subject. # ^ ie sam ® collection is a remarkable fragment representing a man swimming on his back; he is in the act of drawing his legs up to strike, or tread the water from him, while he is dashing the water open with his hands. Only one-half the figure is left; the head and hands are wanting. Also the right arm and part of the body of a man swim¬ ming. He is in the act of scooping the water back with his arm. It is slight, but very expressive. There are other fragments relating to the 222 LAKES AND PENATES. same subject. It would appear, from joining some of these pieces toge¬ ther, that the subject is Leander swimming the Hellespont. NO. 59.—LEANDER SWIMMING THE HELLESPONT. “ Alone at night his wat’ry way he took; About him and above the billows broke; The sluices of the sky were open spread, And rolling thunder rattled o’er his head.” Another interesting fragment represents the body of Leander thrown up by the billows upon the shore. The wave which has cast him on the land is retreating in a volume from the dead body, leaving “ His floating carcass on the Sestian shore.”— Virgil. We have also in the Tarsus collection the lower part of a figure of Laocoon, or of one of his sons; and also a -very beautiful figure of Escu- lapius. The dignified ease of the attitude agreeing so well with the CAIUS CALIGULA. 223 repose of the face, is much to be admired; the softness of the drapery is well expressed. Also the foot of a figure of Fortune standing upon an orb. And then, again, the fragment of a winged figure ; only the right arm re¬ mains, and drapery falls from the shoulder. The feathering is remark¬ ably bold ; which would also seem to belong to the same subject. Also the left arm of winged Fortune holding up a wreath. The figures of Isis we have seen, however, have often been confounded with those of Fortune. Among the terra-cottas are also fragments of bodies clothed in the lorica or corselet of scale- armour as worn by generals and superior officers, both Greeks and Romans, sub¬ sequently to the Homeric period, and more or less or¬ namented. Now, it is not a little remarkable that the Emperor Caius Caligula, when he had reigned with moderation for about two years, took a fancy for ho¬ nours of a higher kind, and ordered his statue to be erected in all the cities of the empire. Josephus gives a full account of the in¬ flexible resistance of the Jews, and of the dangers incurred by it, and of their happy deliverance by the death of the tyrant. The commander who was entrusted with the carrying out of this edict came from Syria, and it is not likely that he would find the priests of Antioch and Cilicia quite so scrupulous upon the subject. Images of Caligula must have been in great demand during the short-lived divine honours which were universally paid to him through¬ out the provinces of the enslaved empire. And it is not totally impos¬ sible that these figures of a deified person in Roman armour, or, at all events, of a Roman armed chief, admitted among the Lares and Penates of larsus, may have some reference to the canonisation of Caius Caligula. NO. CO. —BUST OP CAIUS CALIGULA WITH THE LORICA. 224 LARES AND PENATES. We come now to a more delicate subject, but one which is so inti¬ mately interwoven with all the ancient religious systems of the East, that a mere mawkish regard for modern prudery should not exclude its consideration from our pages. It is part of the great philosophy of nature, and reappears in a hundred different forms in the Pantheons of Assyria, Babylonia, India, and Egypt, and at all the first cradles of thought, sentiment, and worship. In the Cilician forms we find the rudest representation of the mysterious principle of fecundity mixed up with that of the well-known fish-god of the East—the Dagon of the Philistines, of Ashdod, and the Annedoti of the Babylonians, which Layard found as a man-god (Oannes ?) at Kliorsabad, and the worship of which was afterwards associated in one common form of icthyolatry m Derceto or Atergates. To the present day we see fish venerated in the East, just as the crocodile was for similar reasons in Egypt and elsewhere, and familiar examples of which occur at Urfah, ancient Ur and Edessa ; at Tashun, in Luristan, and at other places. Among the Cilician terra-cottas there is a phallus broken from a figure with which it was connected, the body of which formed into a si. This combination was very common, and not unfrequently the fish alone was used to express the same idea of fecundity. There is also m the same collection the lower portion of a female figure in fall rapery, the left hand of which holds the symbol of the fish and phallus. In the Bacchanalian orgies the women carried this symbol in their processions. Such facts illustrate St. Paul’s testimony in the epistle to the Romans, 1st chap. v. 18-32, and in Ephesians, v. 12: “It is a shame even to speak of the things which are done of them in secret.” The most extraordinary work of art, however, that comes under tus stiange category is the head and upper half of a figure closely draped ; the head at first view seems to be covered with a helmet drawn over the face. But the extraordinary character of this symbolical gure appears on further examination, and is apparently unique The head is a phallus ! Layard, it may be observed, discovered at Nimrud (ancient Athur) a broken earthen vase, on which were represented two Priapean human figures with the wings and claws of a bird, the breast of a woman, and the tail of a scorpion, or some similar reptile. (Seevol. i. p. 128.) There is also among the Cilician terra-cottas the figure of a naked man bearing a huge shell on his shoulder ; he has a wild expression; and we have before remarked upon the shell being appropriated to Priapus. There occurs also in the collection the following fragments laving reference to the same worship : the middle part of a female harpies. OOK rV f_/ carrying the phallus ; she has two large bosses on her shoulders Another also bearing the phallus. A phallus, simply and bond fide such; as also another, with the body of a fish,-a very common way of bearing it. Further, part of a Priapean figure bearing a pitcher ; and lastly, a mask representing a female head of monstrous features, sur¬ mounted by a phallus. Here also we have the two bosses at the side of the head, such as we find on the foreheads of certain priests, to be here¬ after described, and which identify them as connected with the same obscene rites. The Harpies appear to have had their original in Egypt. That country being very subject, during the months of April, May, and June, to vicissitudes ol weather and the visitations of noxious insects, the Egyptians of old gave to their emblematic figures of these months a female face, with the bodies and claws of birds. The strange forms that the poetic and artistic mythology of Greece and Rome attached to these imaginary demons or genii were as numerous as they were fantastic. Among the Cilician terra-cottas we find a harpy, the lower part of the body of which is vulture-shaped, with wings, the extremities of which are wanting. The face is very expressive of the horrid nature of these fabled beings. It seems in the very act of uttering its cry. Another fragment represents the head and wings of a harpy, which seems to have formed the angle of an altar of incense, or some such article. The head bears a sort of capital, which probably supported the moulding forming the summit. On a fragment of a vessel in the shape of a trough or shallow laver, in the same collection, and the sides of which are formed of rows of leaves the end is supported by a harpy. There are also in the same collection a haipy in relief, and a haipy which has been the handle to some hollow vessel. In describing this portion of the collection, it may perhaps also be noticed, that the ancient Assyrians, according to Dr. Grotefend, recog¬ nised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts. They imagined a supreme ruler dwellmg in the centre of all the revolutions of the stars ; the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot. The seven bright stars in the north (the Great Bear) were compared to a four-wheeled chariot, drawn by three fiery horses, upon which the Creator was riding in eternal rotation. W e apparently see a trace of the same tradition in the Cilician terra¬ cottas in the figure of a man in the act of riding a bear. He has the dress of a charioteer, his loins girded with straps; his right hand seems to hold a whip, with which he is urging the animal forward ; the left 226 LARES AND PENATES. hand holds a rein connected with a collar round the neck of the beast. As Baal or Zeus rode the pole-star, this must have been an inferior deity. Possibly Abrerig, Nerig, or Nergal, the shining Bar, god of the starry skies and tutelar deity of the Assyrian monarchs. NO* 61.—MAN RIDING A BEAR. We find from this examination of a second group of the Lares and Penates of Tarsus, that although in early times an Assyrian city, the Assyrian character is very little preserved, and that only in a partial degree. There is no member of the Assyrian Pantheon, in the whole collection, simple and undefiled by more modem traditions and more recent art innovation. The reason of this is well explained by the fact before debated upon, as to their having been blended with others or mo¬ dified in form by their transition with respect to place and time. In the Babylonian cylinders we have Hercules in the earliest representation of that hero which the world perhaps possesses. We have also the thyrsus of the Indian Bacchus as preserved in the hands of the winged figures of Assyria ; the mythological figure of a charioteer riding the bear ; the female figure with conical cap, like the Diana of Assyria ; the worship of the fish-god; the lion of Rhea; the winged horse, the Pegasus of the Greeks, which we have seen so identified with the story of Tarsus, and which is also found among the emblematical forms and types of Assyria. We have also illustrations of the story of Perseus. According to Herodotus (lib. vi. c. 54), a great astronomer who instructed men’ in the knowledge of the stars, and according to the scholiast in Lycopliron, mythology of tarsus. 227 mole especially 3 } f“ *“ ** traditions COnnected with whom, especially his reputed marriage with Astarte the daughter of 5“* s” - «• * *«>»w «-.«*. synan origin. _ V, e have Asarac or Nisroch, the same as Horns and nity-Mylil Vle T d “ ** “ ation ofa deity through a female divi- thf Ea I V d u™ the 0ldeSt and ” 0St im P° rtant traditions of head mtl ofl V * h 6 ™ 88 ' W als « Ra s Majusi, or Assyrian form i t? transmitti “S an original Babylonian and ■ yrian form, just as Mithra effects the transition of Nergal to Apollo- : f nd p£; u a f haS Shewn that the ^ ria ns knew also tlfobscenefS of TW ° 0lleCti ° n ’ tak , e “ f a11 its P arts > truly shews that the mythology 1 novvir of * 6ed mig,1 ‘ haVe b6en a " tici P ated from what is nown t history its boasted Assyrian origin-its mercantile re- , C “ nneX ‘ 0Q Wlth and Rome, and its celebrity as a Evvo if P T d° S ° P / and re ' igi0n) ° f SU0h a m ingled character, Assyrian, E D ypt an, Indian, Syrian, Greek, and Roman, that it will always be dif- cult to unravel it. Yet in this very fact consists in a great measure collect' Ue ’ 16 lntereSt ’ and the great P eculia rity of this remarkable 62.— ATYS. 63. — ANOTHER REPRESENTATION OF ATYS. CHAPTER VII. SIBYLS AND DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS. SIBYLS—AN AFRICAN SIBYL-HEAD-DRESS OF THE VIRGIN PROPHETESSES-A MATRON SIBYL (?)-DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS-APOTHEOSIS OF DE¬ CEASED CHILDREN-STORY OF ARION-RADIATED HEADS-THE BULLA. It is not surprising that the Cilician terra-cottas, which, we have seen, embrace so large a held of Oriental, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman my¬ thology, should also contain illustrations of oracular beings and virgin prophetesses, who played an important part in the rise of Christianity; whose books were largely used by the ancient fathers of the Church, as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Tertullian, Lactan- tius, Eusebius, St. Jerome, St. Austin, and others, against the Pagans, and whose prophecies did not fall before the light of a new religion for nearly four centuries after the advent of Jesus. Among the various female heads, for example, which adorn this interesting collection, is one (No. 64) with African features, broad nose, and projecting jaws. It is a female of rank. The hair is well dressed, and formed into a circle or crown of plait on the top. Of this head Mr. Abington re¬ marks : “ It is remarkable as being one of a class of heads of which there are several examples, having a hole in the basis of the cranium to receive an axis for its support. There is no appearance of their having been in any way con¬ nected with a body, unless it was in the manner in which the Chinese heads upon their figures of Mandarins, &c., which are centred upon an axle, to which is appended a balance to counterpoise the head. By this the head has the free motion which makes it nod and bow to a spectator on the slightest agitation being communicated to the image. The head SIBYLS. 229 in question might be some ^priestess or sibyl of African origin and of celebrity; and it remains a matter of conjecture if such heads were not used, as above described, for purposes of divination.” The same remarks apply to a female head chiefly differing from the former in the prolongation of the nose. It is crowned with a kind of cap made of plaited work, with an arch or bow on the top. Such a face, pretending to the possession of sibylline foresight, would have great influence with the multitude. The following also possibly come under the same category: 1st, a female head, with the hair in great profusion, worked into plaits, which are doubled and crossed on the top of the head, so as to form a noble tiara. The face is pleasing from its tranquillity, though not of the first order as a work of art. Another female head, with the locks of hair twisted and carried back, so as to be bound together behind the head. This style of twisting, instead of plaiting, is partly seen in the preceding- head. Also, another head of a lady crowned with a very graceful head¬ dress or turban, which is formed of materials folded and bound together. It is a very pleasing face, though much damaged. Again, the head of a lady in fine red clay; the ears are ornamented with large pendants, and the head covered with hair-work, which may probably be artificial, finishing with a rosette on the top : altogether it is a very pleasing figure. We have also other heads and busts of ladies, who cannot but be classed in the category of sibyls. In one of them the hair is dressed so as to spread very fully round the face, and gathered into a knot behind ; over the forehead is a jewel which supports what appears to be a further expansion of the hair. The ears are decorated with large spherical pendants, probably pearls. In another the hair is elaborately dressed in front and plaited behind. The bust is beautifully modelled, and the head gracefully set. Jewels adorn the ears. It is a well-pro¬ portioned and pleasing figure. Also the bust and right arm of a female in relief. She is holding some object in her right hand, which she is looking at with earnestness and complacency. Her hair is plaited, and a jewel in the ear; but there is not enough of the subject to found more than a conjecture. Also, the head of a lady with a tiara, and her hair full dressed; there are jewels in the ears. The right side is in the best preservation, and gives a very pleasing expression. There is also another female head of the same family likeness in the nose and mouth. She wears a bonnet or small cap much ornamented. Further, a woman’s head with a high cap, conical in the front, and flattened at the sides. The round masses with which it is decorated are perfectly plain, as if they were globular buttons; but not a touch of the tool to give them 230 LARES AND PENATES. the expression of roses or any other flowe*, nor is there the least bond of connexion between them to give the idea of u chaplets.” Lastly, we have a small female head with a tiara, the hair turned back in the style of the figures of Pallas. It is much polished, as if it had been moulded from. And the face and bust of a matron, full-faced and plump, crowned with a tiara, the hair arranged in curled rolls, different from any we have yet seen. The ears have jewels pendent from them ; a robe is drawn closely over the shoulders. Could a sibyl have been a matron ? A very interesting illustrated work on the various modes of dressing the hair, as practised by the ladies of old time, might be written from the Tarsus collection of Cilician sibyls, and the other female heads in the collection. We also find in the Tarsus collection a remarkable number of illus¬ trations of dolphins and their riders, which, as in the instance of other works of art, are studied to the greatest advantage, taken, not singly, but in an order of connexion with each other. This group comprises nearly thirty pieces, among which are no fewer than five heads of dolphins, all of them most effectively modelled; two parts of the bodies and two tails. One, the posterior end of a dol¬ phin, having the tail perfect, has also connected with it the right arm of a boy riding the fish and holding a ship’s rudder. Another, the tail end of a dolphin, has the right thigh of a youth riding it. A third, the middle part of a dolphin, with the right leg and thigh of the naked young rider. A fourth, the same on a smaller scale. On a fifth, the leg only of the rider remains. A sixth is the tail of a dolphin held by the right hand of the rider; but in what attitude he was placed it is difficult to imagine. A seventh, the head of a dolphin with a boy riding. He has a rein in the fish’s mouth, which he holds tightly. Only the leg and forearms of the rider remain. This NO. 65. —BOY AND DOLPHIN. BOYS ON DOLPHINS. 231 appears to have been a lamp, the snout of the dolphin being formed into a spout to carry a wick. Lastly, the body and arm of a boy (No. 65), with part of the head of a dolphin, to which he holds on as he rides. Nine other examples have been previously described. In the whole of this series of figures mounted on dolphins, all the riders, it is to be observed, are children ; and the placing of figures upon a fish, especially the dolphin, was a sign of apotheosis, or that consecration of deceased children which prevailed in Cilicia, to which we have so often had our attention called. There are in the collec¬ tion a number of these deified little ones, which, from their attitude and the position of their arms, appear to have been riding the dolphin. Several of them wear the bulla round the neck, and all are radiated. We should not have suspected their having been connected with the symbol of the dolphin but for the clue afforded by the preceding fragments. Another fragment presents the right arm and part of a figure in drapery, with the hands resting upon the head of a dolphin. In this interesting work of art, the arm seems to be that of an adult and not of a child; the drapery is also in a different style from all the rest. It does not seem to sit on the fish upon whose head the hand rests. It is possibly a fragment of the beautiful story of Arion, who, after having charmed the dolphins by his music, leaped into the sea to escape from his murderers, and was conveyed by them safe to land. In the same group is the head and bust of a chubby boy, wearing the bulla, and in the same attitude as the rest; but instead of the head being radiated, it is crowned with the Stephanos, which was worn by persons engaged in sacrifice. Little boys w^ere employed to hold the incense-box, and the crowns and garlands used at sacrifices; the same as children are employed for similar duties at the Mass in Romish churches. This head is that of a deceased boy who had been so offici¬ ally employed, probably the son of a priest; his attitude indicates that, like the rest, he was riding, and, from the analogies, it may be presumed that it was on a dolphin. The figure of another radiated boy differs from the others by having a broad girdle or belt round his middle. It is not certain if this figure was not mounted on a horse, as there is some appearance of a mane before him; but the work of that part is too defective to be read intel¬ ligibly. It also differs from the others in the attitude, the face looking back over the right shoulder. We shall describe other examples of deified children in the chapter devoted to the description and general illustration of human figures. CHAPTER VIII. MAGI AND MONKS. Among tlie more remarkable relics which assist in illustrating the transition of Oriental systems into Greek and Roman mythology are the evidence, in the existence of two miniature figures of Magi (No. G6), of the wise men of the East having formed part of the Cilician Pantheon. These figures are bearded, and dressed in close round cloaks, with a hood or mitre, all in one piece, which must have been put on like a blouse. The Chaldean magi enjoyed a long period of prosperity at Babylon. A pontiff ap¬ pointed by the sovereign ruled over a col¬ lege of seventy-two hierophants. They were also established at Memphis and at Tibet, where the costume is preserved by the priests to this day; they also extended their in¬ fluence and doctrines into Etruria. When the Medes and Persians overthrew the reign¬ ing power at Babylon, they put down the old mythology, and set up their own re¬ ligion. The Chaldeans, to recover their lost influence, brought in one of their own num¬ ber, Smerdis the magian, as king ; but the imposture was detected, and he was slain. After this they revolted in the absence of the Persian king, and set up a Babylonian of their own choice; but Xerxes returned, the city was taken and sacked, and the people slaughtered (b.c. 487). The defeated Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixed their central college at Per- gamos, and took the palladium of Babylon, the cubic stone, with them. NO. 66.—A MAGUS. MAGI AND MONKS. 233 Here, independent of state control, they carried on the rites of their re¬ ligion, and plotted against the peace of the Persian empire, caballing with the Greeks for that purpose. They brought forward Alexander as a divine incarnation, and by their craft did as much as the Greeks by their prowess to overthrow the Persian power. These figures will render good service in the study of the mythology of Tarsus, and will account for the mixture of Eastern superstitions with those of the West. These suggestions are, however, only thrown out for the right use of them ; but there is every reason to believe that these two little figures will be found to be keys to a rich store of treasures of thought and of discovery. The words magi and magii, it may be added, no doubt, originally carried with them a very innocent, nay laudable meaning 5 being used purely to signify the study of wisdom and the more sublime parts of knowledge. But in regard as the ancient magi engaged themselves in astrology, divination, and sorcery, so, apart from the consideration that the vulgar looked upon the knowledge of the most skilful mathemati¬ cians and philosophers of the age as supernatural, they were also, by their very arts, entitled to be looked upon from a very early period more or less in the light of necromancers and practisers of occult science. The Egyptians, as well as the Chaldeans and Assyrians, believed in magii and in dasmons; and these superstitious notions, which had spread all over the East, the Jews imbibed during their captivity in Babylon. Plence we find them in the writings of the New Testament attributing almost every disease to which they were incident to the immediate agency of devils. Many of the same impious superstitions were brought from Egypt and Chaldea by Pythagoras, and transmitted by him and his followers to the Platonists in Greece. This was at the time that magic still cherished its mysteries in the caverns of Dakki, Akmin, and Dum- daniel, or shadowed forth its secrets in the mysteries of Isis, the prac¬ tices condemned by the Jewish prophets, the Samo-Thracian orgies, and those in vogue at Delphi, and in almost every pagan temple throughout the world. Modern mesmerists or magicians would have us believe that “ the powers with which the early race of man was endowed seem never to have been entirely lost.” (See Warburton’s Crescent and the Cross , vol. i. pp. 148-50.) Such is also the basis of the doctrine of apostolic inheritance. “ Oh ! never rudely will I blame his faith In the might of stars and angels: ’tis not merely The human being’s pride that peoples space With life and mystical predominance.”— Schiller. 234 LARES AND PENATES. It would be curious to know in which light, that of learned and pious teachers, or that of practisers of occult arts, the Cilicians admitted the magi among their Lares and Penates. Their dress would seem to indicate a foreshadowing of that system of monasticism which both in Europe and Asia, under Christianity and Buddhism alike, has always been ^something exclusive and mischievous, — something that cloaked and hooded itself, and has ever shunned the light of day. In connexion with the subject of monasticism, it may be remarked on another perplexing head among the Cilician terra-cottas, that we have the head and shoulders of a man exactly like one of the bonzes of Japan; his head plucked clean of all its hairs, Tartar features, with long moustaches hanging from his upper lip, and his shoulders covered by a robe. The question arises, how came such a figure at Tarsus ? This cannot be very satisfactorily answered; but a few thoughts may be ventured on the subject. It is now pretty well understood that at Babylon, the cradle of superstition, all the idolatries of the world had their origin. There was a pontiff, orders of men bound to celibacy, and devoted to a religious life. The divinity was represented as a Triad: the eternal father, Mylitta the female, and Assarac the incar¬ nate son. Mylitta we have in Syria as Astarte, in Egypt Isis, in Greece Aphrodite, and Assarac as Horus and Harpocrates. We have this Triad all through the East, under other names; and it is to be apprehended that the more this is studied, the more clearly it will appear that all the diversified forms of superstition are from one source. All have the same monkish orders, set apart for the benefit of the rest. Whether we know them as bonzes, lamas, talapoins, fakirs, derwises, monks, or friars, all are found to bear the same character, and came from the same common source. When the Medes and Persians introduced another religion into the great empire of the East, this rascality was after many plottings driven out, and found a refuge in Asia Minor, which became their head-quar¬ ters. Their hol}^ brethren in all quarters would keep up correspondence with them, and cause a strange mixture of heads. It is also not a little curious to observe that these heads are shaven, just like the other monkish orders, with the exception of the Christian monks, who affect to retain a memorial of the crown of thorns, by leaving a circle of hair. It is not unlikely that at the time these figures were made, there was a closer community of feeling and of interest among all the diversified orders of holy men than we are aware of; and the seat of their autho¬ rity being shifted from Babylon to Pergamos would cause a great resort of them to Asia Minor. MAGI, BONZES, AND FAKIES. 235 The problem is- u why do we find bonzes, fakirs, &c. &c.at Tarsus,” and why they should seem to be objects of religious respect? Ihat in their dispersion they found refuge and a safe asylum in Asia Minor is an historical fact, and that they brought their own mythology with them is equally clear. This mythology was essentially the same as that of Egypt, Baal for Osiris, Mylitta for Isis or Aphrodite, Assarac for Horus or Harpocrates. The priests of Isis were a profligate, sen¬ sual lot, notwithstanding their shaven crowns and vows of celibacy. It would appear that many of the bare-heads in the Tarsus collection re- piesent these priests of Isis; and that they were not natives of the country, but men of the east, preferred for their sanctity and great powers. Such men were proficient in many occult arts, and strange things were done by them in that day. Versed in the doctrines of astrology, divination, mesmeric arts and wonders, their ugly counte¬ nances would serve to increase the distance between them and the people. I here would be nothing, as I have already observed in chap¬ ter v., to prevent the modeller from even exaggerating this difference, and the priesthood would never take offence at it, if it tended to make the deluded multitude stand in awe of them as beings of another and a higher order. We have in the Tarsus collection what appears to be a perfect head of a Buddhist bonze. It might have been recently brought from Japan ! As also numerous heads of religious devotees, such as are to be seen daily in India by the road-sides. For this unexpected and per¬ plexing enigma we want a solution. The only one which can well be imagined is, that though there is now a great gulf of separation between those people and the western countries, there was at, or before the Christian era, a wide-spread diffusion of these monkish fellows through all the heathen countries; but that, through the influence of Christianity, their occupation was gone, and they disappeared, or made their exit from a stage no longer suited to their action. May these very tribes not be represented by our gypsies as their descendants, who practise similar arts as far as the manners of the age permit, and are of unques¬ tionable antiquity, and of Oriental descent; many of their words being known to be pure Sanscrit? “ In Antioch, the Oriental element of superstition and imposture was active. The Chaldean astrologers found their most credulous dis¬ ciples in Antioch. Jewish impostors, sufficiently common throughout the East, found their best opportunities here. It is probable that no populations have ever been more abandoned than those of the Oriental Greek cities under the Roman empire; and of these cities, Antioch was 236 LARES AND PENATES. the greatest and the worst.Juvenal traces the superstitions of heathen Rome to Antioch.”* This quotation is given here as bearing upon the matter of our in¬ quiry; for whatever may be said of Antioch may be applied to Tarsus. In an account of Pococke’s India in Greece , given in Blackwood's Magazine , it is said, “ By an original method of interpretation, applied to documents existing in the Greek and Sanscrit languages, the author has discovered important facts, illustrative of the most obscure periods in ancient universal history. The interpretations introduced consecutively into this work, and accompanied by the true Sanscrit text in lieu of the corrupt Greek version, produce abundant and interesting results, espe¬ cially in relation to early Grecian history, of which results the following is a brief summary. “In the great conflict between the Brahminical and Buddhistic sects in India, the latter being defeated, emigrated in large bands, and colo¬ nised other countries. It is demonstrated in this work that the princi¬ pal locality from which this emigration took place was Aflghanistan and North-western India; that the Indian tribes proceeding thence, colo¬ nised Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and Italy; that they also produced the great Scandinavian families, the early Britons inclusive; and that they carried with them to their new settlements the evidences of their civili¬ sation, their arts, institutions, and religion.” Surely this goes to confirm the fact of a connexion between the East and West in old time, and to support the opinion as to the great value of the Cilician or Tarsus collection, as containing some hidden mysteries in history, which will be opened in due time by some one competent to the work. The contest between Brahma’s disciples and the followers of Buddha is a dark page in history, but the issue of it in the dispersion of the lat¬ ter is a known fact. If we must go to the Sanscrit for the solution of these things, we shall find a new field opening before us, the results of a thorough exploration of which it would be difficult to anticipate. * Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul, 135. CHAPTER IX. MONSTERS AND IDIOTS. Among what may truly be termed the curiosities of the Tarsus collec¬ tion are many heads of monsters and idiots, among the first of which we may describe a small head (No. 67), much damaged, but still retaining all the horrible expression of its original state. The brows are enormously swollen, and the eyes seem starting from their sockets; the mouth is in keeping with all the other ugly features. It has a chaplet round the head, binding two large round tufts to it for ornament; but what they were formed of, or intended to represent, we can¬ not distinguish, as they are only marked by the impress of a small square punch. Is this, it might fairly be inquired, male or female, human or divine ? It is horrible enough for Typlion himself, or one of his ministers. Then, again, we have the aqui¬ line nose and hairy upper lip of a monstrous face ; the view of the left side shews the strange outline most strikingly. There is a work called the Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer , in which are heads of NO. 67. —HEAD OF A MONSTER. spirits, one of which has a nose and lip just like this. In the same category is a fragment of the lower part of a nose with the upper jaw. The nose is turned up, as if by the expression of scorn and hatred; the lip rises in harmony with that feeling, laying bare the teeth. It is made of red clay, and the teeth have been painted white. Also, more or less associable with the same order of ideas, and yet in another category, is a head with strongly-marked features, having a kind of cap upon it. It is loose, having, like others, a hole for an axle. It is of the same class with many others as to beauty. The expanded 238 LARES AND PENATES. NO. 68.—A MACROCEPHALUS. ears, long nose, and slavering month, give it much of the expression of an idiot, which also agrees with the miserably-contracted cranium. Was this image sarcastic ? or were idots, as in modern times in the East, looked upon as sacred or mysterious beings ; beings labouring under an occult dispensation, and more particularly taken under divine pro¬ tection ? However bad superstition may generally be, whoever first promulgated this, although in some instances public nuisances are entailed, secured kind treatment among a semi-barbarous people to an afflicted humanity. Among the same group is a very remarkable head (No. 68) with Afri¬ can features, and large thick ears; the cranium is of an extraordinary length from front to back. This ap¬ pears to be a head of the Macroce- phali, a tribe of Asia Minor, who took liberties in shaping the heads of their children as the Chinese do with their ladies’ feet. There are also in the collection two other heads of Macrocephali ; one is remarkable for a bump above the organ of firmness ; his mouth, however, seems to indicate much bodily pain, as if he were roaring. Among the other monstrous heads is one with horrid teeth, yet it would seem to be a lady by the dress; the malignity of the eyes is most repulsive. Another monstrosity (No. 69) is the repre¬ sentation of a man’s head with no brains, the tongue projecting from his slavering mouth; the ears project like a dog’s. The expression is that of animal pain. It would seem to be as dangerous to draw ethnological deductions from the monstrous productions of the Cilician ar¬ tists, as it would for some Australian of the year 4000 to discuss our national pe¬ culiarities from the grotesque heads that adorn many of the old religious buildings, supposed, in some cases, to illustrate the spite and antagon¬ ism of rival monastic orders. Among the heads of a more particularly idiotic character is one with a face with projecting chin and pug-nose, giving a very straight facial line. The mouth is monstrous, and the expression malignant. NO. 69. —HEAD OF AN IDIOT. IDIOTS, FOOLS, AND DWARFS. 239 Another idiot face has the skull shelving back where the brains ought to lie. Yet it is radiated ! Was it a portrait of such a character deceased ? Possibly so. We have before remarked that idiots are still looked uj:>on in the East as beings under a mysterious dispensation and divinely protected. Anothei cuiious head is that of a merry fool, who has been painted white and red, like Joe Grimaldi. He looks as if he could keep a regi¬ ment in good humour, in spite of his ugly face. In another, again, the reverse, or extreme bodily pain, is well expressed, "it is almost enough to give one the tooth-ache to look at it. It would require a spoonful of magic embrocation to make him smile. Poor fellow! it is no sham. There is also another ox-eyed head represented as in a woful plight. It is very rudely sketched, but tells its tale. There is also in the collection the head and right shoulder of a figure which, like some others, indicates the lowest degree of mental debasement. He turns to look over his shoulder without any particular expression of pain or pleasure, but as if he were giving utterance to some unmeaning sound. The hair is woolly like a negro’s. Among the same group are two monstrous heads with caps, which, unnatural as they are, are doubtless correct representatives of persons then existing. Fools, dwarfs—out of the very sport of nature—were formerly kept in the establishments of great people and in king’s courts. Negro servants were much employed in this country, and dressed fan¬ tastically, a century ago. Might not monstrous productions be sought out and retained about the temples ? We have also half the face of another of the same kind, and the lower face of another, but the mouth and chin of better mould. An¬ other, again, with the chin almost nil; and another with a better chin. It would seem as if there had been wens upon the bottom of the cheeks, which have been broken oft. If it is so, these goitres would confirm the preceding suggestions, and prove that they were cretins. It does not appear, however, that such have as yet been met with in the mountain¬ ous districts of Asia Minor. It does not follow, however, that they do not exist in the secluded and little-frequented valleys of Taurus; per¬ haps near to Tarsus. Among heads and faces of a similar character is part of one, the brows of which are contorted and indicative of much suffering, which the eyes also express ; and another which is almost all face, the cra¬ nium excessively small. This, like some of the others, is thoroughly idiotic. What were the superstitions (it may well be inquired on viewing 240 LARES AND PENATES. such deified heads,) of that age respecting idiots ? Were they not thought to be in more immediate connexion with the gods ? If so, these may be portraits of some such unhappy beings. In the same strange category we may also place another unnatural head, with huge project¬ ing ears, and a pinched narrow forehead, and the face utterly unintel¬ lectual. Two heads in slave’s caps, not quite so monstrous as the last, but most intolerably ugly; another head of the same class, but with a sly sinister expression about the eyes, yet low intellectual faculties for want of brain; a small head of the same breed as the preceding, but somewhat better, except the chin, with a cap on painted blue ; also two other heads of the same parentage; large eyes, heavy noses, thick bullock mouths, and enormous ears. One of them seems in pain; but it looks like mere brute suffering. Another, again, is a fragment of ahead; the nose and mouth monstrous. It is a fact, that a small receding chin, and an open mouth with relaxed lips, as if never used but to take in food, is always accompanied by defective intellect. Look at the chins of George Washington and Napoleon, and the close grip of their lips, and contrast the chin of George III. and the mouth of the late Charles X. of France. Another has an enormous goitre hanging on the throat; and the little of the face which remains is in keeping with it. There can be no doubt from this that some of these idiots were true cretins. Of another there is not much left, but enough to exhibit the ma¬ niac —the demoniac—in whom dwelt a god ! Then again we have two other fragments of heads of the same description, perfect idiots. In another the cheek is hairy, and the nose and mouth extravagantly out of proportion. Monstrous features and forms of head, or countenances of idiotic ex¬ pression, are not confined to men. There is in the collection the frag¬ ment of a female head in which the nose is monstrous, the mouth, the chin, and the forehead idiotic. The hair in this figure is plaited and carried back. We have also a female head, the hair of which is dressed and the ears jewelled; but the mouth and chin identifying it with the same class. It may be remarked upon these strange works of art, that if such characters were held in superstitious veneration, it is likely that they were supported by the temples, and used by the priests for the pro¬ motion of their own objects. The female head having a high cap or bonnet, ornamented with orbicular masses, like buttons, all over its surface, suggests curious thoughts. If she is of that class of un¬ happy beings referred to, may not the round projecting objects on her IDIOT HEADS. 241 cap. be spherical bells ? They are ail of one size,-, and'have as great a projection as the potter’s mould would allow. Such--a belled cap was worn by the fools and jesters of kings* popes, and nobles in the middle ages. It is not less probable that this head may give us the only re¬ maining memorial of the ancient and original fool’s cap and bells; In this view the head is perhaps unique.- There is more disagreeably suggestive matter' connected' with the subject of the deification* of idiots, contained in the following letter. It is, however, borne out by the well-known fact, that at the present da 7 Egyptian fellah women will assemble and veil with their bodies, as it were, an idiot engaged-in the indulgence of his-disgusting sensual propensities. Mr. Abington writes,, under date of August 10, 1852 : “ I have thought much on the subject of the idiot {cretin) heads, so numerous; and having read some papers on matters of a similar character by a learned but anonymous writer,. I obtained his address, and informed him in general terms of your valuable collection ; of the articles it comprises, especially of these heads. I asked whether such unhappy beings weie not supposed to be in more immediate connexion with the gods ? ^ Whether it is likely that they might be kept and fed at the expense of the temples ; being used by the priests for their super¬ stitious purposes, and generally for the promotion of their craft. I pointed out also the occurrence of figures similar to the Buddhist priests and the fakirs of India. U re pEes: 1 1 do not recollect that they were permanently at¬ tached to the temples ; but I take it that reverence was paid them as being preternaturally endowed with sensual propensities. I believe that cretins are much given this way. Fakirs, we all know, are won- dei fully so given, inasmuch that no notice-or resentment is ever shewn at any insult by them to a female, even in open daylight, or even by a husband. A military friend of mine in India, who had wandered shoot¬ ing into a village about forty miles from Nypore, which no European had entered before, came suddenly upon a religious festival, at which all the maidens of the neighbourhood were assembled to wait upon and feast a set of naked fakirs, who were sitting in a circle with fool’s caps upon their heads ; their carcasses were painted like harlequins. He was at once requested to withdraw; but expresses his belief that the old rites of Astarte were about to follow.’ “ All this so fully agrees with my own surmises respecting these creatures being associated with the figures of the gods, that I could not forbear sending it to you. I believe that the same remarks will apply R 242 LARES AND PENATES. to both sexes, where yon find the cranium faithfully represented as formed almost entirely of animal propensities, without any adequate proportion of the sentiments to balance them. Certainly nothing can be imagined too gross and beastly for them to have embodied in their religion, when we recollect the free use of the obscene phallus in their public rites. But it is an unpleasant subject to dilate upon.” TOMB AT ELEUSA, FEOM A SKETCH BY MR. LAYARD. CHAPTER X. HUMAN FIGURES. BARDS-PRIESTS-MISCELLANEOUS-FEMALE FIGURES-DEIFIED CHILDREN- UNDETERMINED. Among the fragments of human figures which do not belong to any of the categories before described, may be enumerated, in the first place, that of a bard reciting his verses. This figure is far more ancient than any other piece in the collection ; he is playing on an instrument that is unknown, but of which there are two other pieces that will throw some light on this subject. These will be referred to in a subsequent chapter, where mention is made of a boy playing on a pan-pipe and of a syrinx. Next, two figures of priests bearing a bas¬ ket or some vessel on their heads, to which their hands are applied for support. These figures are altogether of an ori¬ ental character. There are two bosses, or balls, on the head¬ dress, which help to identify them as to their occupation, which was undoubtedly in the temple or rites of Priapus. There is also a figure of another bearded man, which resembles the preceding, but has no chap¬ let on the head, though the NO. 67. —ANCIENT BARD PLAYING ON SOME UNKNOWN INSTRUMENT. 244 LARES AND PENATES. hands are elevated to support a burden under which he seems to bend. Another figure represents a priest of the same order, but standing at ease; he bears in his hand something which appears like the links of a chain folded up. Was it for inflicting penance? We know that self¬ mortification was carried to great lengths by some orders of the ancient heathen priests, the same as is now practised in India. These figures go to confirm the previous suggestions made with regard to the con¬ nexion of the mythology of Cilicia with Buddhism. Besides the above heads of bards and priests, we have also a man’s head, probably a portrait, from its peculiar expression; the ears are remarkably long. Also a cloaked figure, the head of which is well- modelled and interesting; the hair is very ample and curly. Then, again, we have a head painted white. There is another such on a lamp; it has a helmet; the twist of the nose and mouth in a con¬ trary direction gives it a ludicrous appearance. This was probably a likeness of some well-known character employed about a temple. There is also the bald head of a man. It has a well-developed cranium, over which a cloth is thrown. It was connected with something on the back, which is too scanty to give any idea of what it was. One of the heads in the same group is more of a grotesque character, and from its pecu¬ liarity and natural propor¬ tions, a portion of one who was “ no fool.” In the same collection we have the upper part of the body of a conquered gladia¬ tor; a relic of art so full of expression, so eloquent in its mute agony, that we have introduced it here. Then again we have the middle part of a figure bear¬ ing a wine-sack, as if pouring it out. Part of a figure which has the thigh extended, as if sitting on a horse; the mor¬ tar to the seat remains. Also the left side of a man, half naked, well modelled. The left hand of a bearded figure, holding up something which is broken off. by which it was fastened FRAGMENTS OF FIGURES. 245 Then part of the body of a man, having a cloak over his shoulders in the style of Apollo. Then an old man’s head with a cap, very expres¬ sive; his bushy eyebrows give great force and character to it. We have also the upper face of a man with his head bound up, as if he was sick; his eyes and brows seem to indicate the same. It is well modelled. Also a fragment of a head with a very bushy brow; there is a wen on the forehead. And lastly, the lower face of a man with a full-developed chin: indicating that he could both raise and enjoy a laugh; but the lips are gone. The above are male: there are also fragments of female figures, as exemplified in the left arm and drapery of a female reclining. The lower limbs of a female; they are crossed, while drapery painted red falls down behind her. It has been a graceful figure, well drawn. Also a sitting figure of a naked female. The head is wanting. It has been found lately and proved that she represented a sibyl on her seat of in¬ spiration. It was used as a fountain; the base is formed into a pipe, through which the water or wine would ascend; and the seat on which she is placed inclines downward, to give a free flow to the fluid. Among miscellaneous fragments, we have an arm holding uj) a tripod, possibly part of a priestess of Apollo. Also part of a female and child. Then, again, the right half and head of a female with a tiara and veil; possibly a Yenus. Also a female bust in relief, the left breast and shoulder naked; stiff and inferior. Another fragment repre¬ sents the upper half of a female figure, having all the character of a divinity; but the right hand of a man is placed on her right shoulder. And another is the head of a dignified lady, the hair full dressed, stand¬ ing on a pediment. Among other fragments we have part of a circular medallion, con¬ taining a female in relief; the hand and part of the body remain, sufficient to shew that it refers to the rites or honours of Cybele. It was probably votive. Then, again, we have part of an elegant figure of a female bearing a veil, which floats in the wind. Also another pleasing head, little, but good, of a lady in full dress, with jewels in her ears. Anothei pietty head in a close dress, the veil hanging down full behind, and shewing the gathering of the hair at the back of the head. Again’ a female divinity, with the hair knotted, and the drapery flowing. Then the bust of a female carrying a bird. Also the head of an old woman; she wears a cap most unique, ornamented with buttons or other round objects. And the lower part of a head, which is female, from the ringlet hanging on the cheek. Lastly, we have the upper part of a figure of a woman dressed in a garment which is wrapped close round her, and is 246 LARES AND PENATES. drawn over her head; in her left arm she bears a naked boy. It has been painted. It would do for a Madonna, but must be of a date long prior to any such representations of Mary and her child. There are two of these, and they both appear to be far more ancient than the generality of the pieces, if we may judge from their style of sculpture, and from the blackness of the terra-cotta. In the same category may be classed the following interesting works of art, being chiefly figures of deified children. 1. A fragment representing a child with wings, and in close drapery; the hair of the head is knotted on the top. There is connected with it an ornamented ring, apparently to hang it by. “It is possibly a me¬ morial,” says Mr. Abington, “ of a deceased and deified child.” 2. A boy with wings and a radiated crown, reposing, with his right arm over an object covered by a cloth or skin, which hangs in folds over it, and which has been painted blue. The crown also was painted the same colour, and the hair red. The figure appears to be slumbering. 3. The bust of a deified child, with the head radiated, and the right hand elevated in valediction. 4. A little fragment, having a winged infant, in relief. 5. Head of a deified child, bearing a vase, probably to receive liba¬ tions. There are also the following pieces. A fragment of a Bacchanalian group of boys, in high relief; one kneeling, with an armful of grapes. There appears something like a bow by the side; but it may be the trunk of a vine. Another fragment of a well-executed figure of a boy reminds us of Flamingo’s models. An excellent figure of a boy looking upward. The balancing of the body is well managed; while it seems bent out of the perpendicular, it stands firm. A bust of a deified child. Upper portion of a boy; another is holding him by the chin ; his eyes are shut. A boy in a tunic, as if ascending upward on wings: a me¬ morial of the dead. Part of a boy holding a sickle, with which he is gathering grapes. A naked boy with a cock; on his left shoulder there is a foot like that of an eagle. This is possibly a Ganymede. Another winged boy, not improbably Eros. A boy closely cloaked, very imper¬ fect, and a young child, led by a female. The head of a youth, with the left hand elevated with much energy. A boy carrying a basket of grapes on his back; he looks as if he was conscious of having stolen them. An imperfect fragment of a youth: good, but much decayed. A young student; a good study for the historical painter; it is com¬ plete except the feet. The hands of a boy carrying a goose. A youth’s hands crossed in front, as if standing in the presence of his FRAGMENTS OF FIGURES. 247 superiors. A fragment of two boys ; they seem engaged in drawing a carriage of some kind. A boy’s head, with the hair disposed in ring¬ lets, in the style of theatrical masks. A small chaplet is placed on the crown, to which were attached large bunches of ivy-berries ; it is surrounded by a copious radiation of ivy-leaves. The expression is peculiar, though quite juvenile. Still more interesting is a very beau¬ tiful boy’s head, the hair thin and scanty, radiated. The more this is studied, the more it must be admired. Flamingo or Cipriana might have been proud of the production of it. And lastly, a trunk of a boy, naked, except a cloak, fastened by a fibula on the right shoulder; he carries in the cloak a variety of fruits, among which grapes and the pine are the most conspicuous. There are several fragments in the collection, the character and gender of which it is not so easy to determine. Among these are, part of a figure bearing a square vessel or chest, covered with drapery. A left hand, belonging to a figure in drapery holding something like a modern book. The lower portion of a closely clothed figure, with shoes on the feet. It is remarkable that the legs are cut free behind, and the back drapery worked. It was sitting. Also three fragments of sitting Egyptian figures, apparently connected with the worship of Isis. And lastly, a number of detached arms and hands, not requiring any individual description. Among the Cilician terra-cottas, the true character of which has not been as yet satisfactorily determined, may also be noticed a fragment of a figure in a sitting posture; only the lap and legs remain. It is closely clothed, and the left hand rests on the thigh, holding with the fingers and thumb a remarkable portion of the dress, consisting of two tablets hanging from the girdle. The style is altogether Egyptian, and if not a deity, it has been some sacerdotal officer. Also part of a figure formed into a cup at the top, probably for the purpose of holding perfume. The head only remains, which is bonneted; the features are youthful, with curled locks, and the right hand is elevated, to hold the cup which rises out of the figure. Again, a fragment of a relief, which shews the left arm of a slave carrying fish, which are suspended in a bundle at the end of a pole. There is also another similar fragment; but instead of fish, a basket or net hangs at the end of a pole. The contents are so slightly modelled, that it is difficult to say what is intended. We may perhaps be permitted to include in this chapter a notice of the following, among the strange fragments contained in the Tarsus collection, viz. several images of the lower human jaw, one with the 248 LARES AND PENATES. symphysis marked very deep, a row of incisor teeth, and the left canine teeth. Another, with the teeth still more strongly marked, the canine tooth being much curved; and others with slight variations. All these remnants are portions of flat, circular medallions or ^reliefs; and all have the ground within the jaws, modelled to represent flames , and have been painted red. Among the works of our early painters of Church legends, and of the temptations of saints, &c., we often find representations of heaven and hell. The latter is generally depicted-.as the wide yawning jaws of a great monster with enormous teeth, and belching out fire and flames. Do not these fragments shew us that such a mode of repre¬ senting a fiery infernal region was but traditionary.? Are they not personifications of the Tartarus of the ancients ? If so, was the fact ever known before ? Lastly, several masks occur in the same collection. Among these is the half of the mask of a bald-headed man. Also a very expressive tragic mask. Again, a figure in a mask, excessively rude, and imperfect in every point. In another part of a mask the hair is in short curls, and is dressed to a great height. A pair of wings ornamented the front of it. It has been painted. Is it Perseus ? The variety of masks, both tragic and comic, is too numerous to be entered upon here, and they would require more illustrations than the nature of this work permits. CHAPTER XI. ANIMALS. DOGS-OXEN-BULLS-BUFFALO—HORSES-LIONS—PANTHER—WOLF-BOAR - APE -HIPPOPOTAMUS (?)-CAT-GOATS-RAMS AND SHEEP—CROCODILE -SNAKE—EAGLE—SWAN-OSTRICH—COCKS. Both wild and domestic animals have their illustrations among the Tarsus terra-cottas; some with a mythological meaning, as in the in¬ stance of the lion, the ape, the cock, and others. The meaning of others is more difficult to detect, unless as accompaniments to figures and personages wanting in the work to make it complete. Among such is the hind half of a dog in relief, which seems to have been the top of a lamp; also the hind legs of a dog in relief, behind which is a basket. Also, a dog sitting by the side of a figure, the foot of which only remains. This may have been Diana and a hound, as it forms the plinth of a statue. Further, the rump of a shaggy dog in the act of running; and a dog whole length appears to be climbing; and lastly, a hound’s head at full speed—good. There are also several hind-quarters of dogs, which do not require particularising. Among these .zoological fragments are also a very fine head of a young ox, and the forehead of a bull, with the hole in front by which the golden disk was fastened, shewing it to have been divine. Also, a good bull’s head, one horn wanting; the expression is admirable. An¬ other bull’s head, probably a fragment of a group, with a lion on his back. Again, a head which appears to have belonged to an Indian buffalo. The buffalo, it may be remarked, is a common animal in the marshes of Asia-Minor and Syria; and the Indian buffalo is met with on the Euphrates and Tigris. The bull may be partly illustrative of Egyp¬ tian, or also of Greek and Eoman mythology. Besides the numerous fragments of horses attached to chariots or 250 LARES AND PENATES. otherwise, and the still more numerous horses’ feet, the meaning of which has been previously discussed, fragments of horses and of equestrian figures are common in the Tarsus collection. Among these, we may notice as deserving of separate mention: A boy riding a horse, of which the hind half only remains. Part of a horse with a saddle, and naked leg of a boy-rider. Also, the thigh and leg of an equestrian figure, who, by the bend of his body, would seem to be at full speed. Also, the upper part of a horseman: his loins are belted, and he seems to be racing. And then, again, part of a group of horses—the bridled head of one, and the shoulder and neck of the other harnessed. We have also, in part of a circular tablet in bas- relief, the fore-leg of a horse, and the booted leg of a man running by the side of him. By putting all these and other pieces before him° the sculptor has been enabled to restore several complete figures that are most interesting. Among animal relics of another order, we have a small head of a lion; when viewed on the left side, the effect is admirable. It was attached to some other object on the right side, which is therefore un¬ finished, not being intended to be seen. Also, the head and paw of a lion’s skin, hanging by the side of a throne—only one leg of which re¬ mains : it is formed of a chimsera head and lion’s paw. Also, a detached lion s head, and a lion’s skin, from the figure of Hercules. As also a lion with a figure riding upon it. The left arm and drinking-cup re¬ mains. And the same subject, but only the head of the lion is left. Ihen, again, we have a panther, probably part of a bacchanalian group, in high relief. The head of a wolf, and the fore part of a boar wanting the snout. The figured face of an ape is a solitary instance of the kind: it has a cap on the head: this animal is rarely found in Greek sculptui es, but it was a sacred animal among the Egyptians. Isis is sometimes represented riding upon a monkey. It was in some such association that this figure was used. Also, the fore part of an animal, thick, clumsy, and short-legged, which might be taken for a fragment of an hippopotamus, sacred to Typhon ; and in the collection there exists the snout of this intelligent animal. Among figures of other familiar creatures are the head of the long¬ eared Syrian goat; another goat’s head ; a fragment of the same, and a fragment of a boy riding a goat. Also, the top of the head of a ram ; a ram s horn, and part of a sheep kneeling on a plinth. The ram had mostly reference to the rites of Minerva. Among the same relics we find the mutilated or imperfect repre¬ sentation of the crocodile. We have had occasion to remark elsewhere, CROCODILE AND BIRDS. 251 that there exists in Cilicia, a river called Andricus by Pliny, as also a mons crocodilus , and that both are connected geographically as well as by name. This river, now called Markatz Su, and remarkable as flow¬ ing between the walls of the antique Syro-Cilician gates, is of too small a size ever to have been frequented by so remarkable a saurian. But the same river is called Kersus by Xenophon—a word derived from a Coptic and Syriac idiom, and which refers to the ancient crocodile wor¬ ship, being met with in the Axio-Kersws of the Samo-dliracian mys¬ teries, and is explained by Soega and Miinter, as the great principle of fecundation; and hence it was expressed by Pliny by the word Andri¬ cus, whilst the mons crocodilus rose up above it. It is to be observed that the crocodile worshipped by the Syrians was also called Succoth ; but the able commentators of Pancoucke’s Pliny suggest an identity between the Syriac Iversus and the Egyptian Ivamses, the name of a ferocious crocodile, which has been ascertained to be a different species from the sucko or succoth. In this same class we have also a snake winding round a staff, the symbol of Aesculapius, and probably part of his statue. There are also several fragments of figures of birds; and to take the most noble birds first among fragments of this description, there is a foot of an eagle; the ground has been painted blue. It was of great size, and probably connected with a figure of Jupiter. Also the lull figure of an eagle, which has been connected with some object at the side, most likely the throne of Jupiter, to whom the eagle would then be looking up. Then, again, we have the figure of an ostrich, with a loop behind for suspension; as also of a swan, the head of which is supported by a human hand. The crane is also here represented and the do^ e. Among the other ornithological fragments may be noticed three cocks, probably relating to Aesculapius; as also two cocks’ heads. Nergal, the Assyrian Abrerig, god of the starry sky, and the tutelar deity of the king, was also, it is to be observed, conjectured, according to the presumed Semitic or Indo-European origin of the name, to have reference to a fire-worship, or to that of the sun under the form of a cock.* * See Layard, vol. ii. p. 459. It is worth mentioning, however, that being at the mines of Ishik Tagh, near Angora, in the year 1839, we were surprised one day to find a cock, in the midst of great scarcity, newly killed, yet not eaten, in front of the houses. Upon inquiry, we ascertained that the miners, who were Christians by name, of the Greek Church, had killed it in order to pi’opitiate some genius of the mines, and that a sacrifice must not be eaten. This was evidently a remnant of the old superstition of cocks being sacrificed to Pluto for the same objects. See Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, &c. vol. i. p. 131.—W. F. A. 252 LARES AND PENATES. We liave also in the collection the figure of the hawk—a bird, like the eagle, of quite as great importance in the Assyrian pantheism as the Egyptian ; and of which we introduce an illustration. PH REE, THE EGYPTIAN SUN. CHAPTER XII. DOMESTIC AND RELIGIOUS ART. CHARIOTS-VASES-BOWLS AND DISHES-WINE-JARS AND DRINKING-VESSELS —LAMPS-HANDLES—TABLE AND CHAIR—RING AND GLASS—ROUND DISC OF POTTERY-NET—BUTTER-PRINT (?). Objects of domestic and religions art are not so numerous in the Tarsus collection as might a priori be imagined. Among these are fragments of the wheel of a chariot, with the hind leg of the lion which is drawing it. It was painted red. The lion was connected with the worship of Cybele; and the goddess Rhea, with her lions, as described by Diodorus, may be recognised with similar accompaniments in the Assyrian sculptures ; so also Hera, the Assyrian Venus, stands erect on a lion in the rock tablets of Pterium and those of Assyria.* Also, of a more or less similar character, a chariot driven by a naked boy; the wheel is partly covered by what appears to be the tail of the animal drawing. Also the hand of a boy, holding the reins and driv¬ ing a chariot ; and the two hands of a boy in the same action. He holds the reins with much apparent skill and energy.- And lastly, a chariot, in which sits the lower half of a boy, with a portion of drapery thrown across him. If they are horses’ legs immediately before the wheel, they are very stiff and out of place. Add to which, a boy’s hands grasping reins, and several detached chariot-wheels, two of which are bored as if placed free in their axles. In the same collection are several fragments of vases, of greater or less interest both in an artistic and an archaeological point of view. One is ornamented with vine-leaves and annular handles. The foot is wanting. Only one side of it is wrought, shewing that it was fixed against a wall. The cavity is shallow. It was, perhaps, used for libations to Bacchus, and was possibly placed on the head of a figure. Another is somewhat like the preceding, but not ornamented. This * See Layard, vol. ii. p. 456. 2o4 LAKES AND PENATES. appears to have been borne on the bead of a figure, and supported by the right hand. Another part of a vase is of very elegant design, but slight work¬ manship. It is a portion of the foot only ; the plinth part is ornamented with festoons of fruit, supported on ox-heads, and on the shoulders of winged boys. The cove rising to the leg of the vase is very gracefully fluted. There is also part of a cup or vase in the Egyptian style. It is formed of two rows of lotus-leaves representing a flower, and very like the capitals of some columns of Egyptian temples. Round the bottom there is a row of animals, such as are seen on some cornices in the British Museum ; but whether they are hooded snakes cannot well be made out. There is also, among fragments of a similar character, one that pre¬ sents a very graceful design for the support of a vase, or for an incense altar. It is formed of three leaves, giving it a tripod character. The intervals between the leaves are occupied by swans couching, with their pinions advanced over their breasts. This would indicate its application to the rites of Pan or Venus. Another fragment seems to have been intended as a leg or support for some article. We have a round base, upon which is a well-formed lion’s paw, which passes into the figure of a crouching man, who grasps the two handles of a drinking vase. It has very much the aspect of a Babylonian work. Lastly, we have two vases, one between two animals. There is a hole in it, and the vase being in the shape of an amphora, indicates that it was part of a vessel to hold wine. And another with drapery thrown over it, in modern funereal style. Among the minor objects of art having a similar tendency, and illus¬ trative both of art and feeling, are a portion of the side of a drinking bowl in red clay (No. 54). It bears a bas-relief of the head of a Bac¬ chante, crowned with ivy and bearing a thyrsus, that is, a long pole, with an ornamental head, formed by a fir-cone, or by ivy or vine- leaves, which was carried by Bacchus and his votaries at the celebration of their rites. The back of the Bacchante is turned toward the eye, and her face is looking over the left shoulder, from which the tunic is sliding off: nothing could be better conceived ; it must have come from the hand of an artist of the first order, though it has somewhat degenerated in the hand of the potter. Altogether this is a precious fragment, and will bear comparison with any thing which has hitherto been discovered of ancient ceramic art. DRINKING-VESSELS. Among objects of a similar character are a fragment of a Bacchana¬ lian bowl; it has a moulding of beads and buttons round the top, under which is a border of vine-leaves and grapes. On the body is a mask, and a nymph, slightly draped, beating upon an instrument like a drum or gong. This vessel was painted red, and by its curvature must have been seven and a quarter inches in diameter. Also a portion of a bowl of a different shape from the preceding. It was of a beautiful shape, though the ornamentation is very rude and slight. The leaves, &c. were pressed on with a die after the bowl had been thrown by hand upon the wheel. It is also red ; the diameter is about five inches and three eighths. Reclining on a large wine-jar or amphora is the figure of a come¬ dian performing his part in a play. He is in the attitude of one at a banquet, has the comic mask on, and sandals (baxea) on his feet. The baxa, or baxea, worn on the comic stage,* and by philosophers who affected simplicity of dress,t are, it may be observed, sometimes indi¬ cated on the feet of Egyptian statues, and many originals have been discovered in the Egyptian tombs ; some made with close sides and upper leather, like a shoe ; others with a leaf, forming a mere strap, like a clog, across the instep ; and others with a band across the instep, and another smaller leaf on the fore part of the sole, intended to pass the great toe through. We have next to notice a fragment in yellow clay (No. 53), part of a cylindrical drinking-vessel, three inches in diameter, similar to our modern mugs. A relief has been made out of a plaster-mould, and laid upon it; but the body of the vessel was thrown upon the potter’s wheel. The subject is a female, slightly clothed, holding in her hand a branch of sesamum, which she is attentively watching to observe the opening of the seed-capsules, a mode of divination often resorted to for the solution of love-questions. The modelling is very good, except the breasts, which are out of place. The back part of the vessel was decorated with ivy. This vessel might, it may also be observed, possibly, have been an oil- jar ; and the female contemplating the common oil plant (sum-sum of the Arabs) be poetically emblematic of the uses of the vase. “The piece,” says Mr. Abington, “ is interesting to a potter, as it shews that the an¬ cients laid reliefs upon their works in the same manner as is practised now; but the workmanship on the part of the ancient potter was un¬ worthy of the beautiful models supplied to him by the artist, and would not be tolerated in a modern pot-work.” Among the minor objects of art in the additional collection are many * Plaut. Men. ii. 3, 40. t Apul. Met. xi. p. 244. 256 LARES AND PENATES. fragments of lamps well deserving of mention. Among these are the upper portion of one with a bas-relief of a eentaur bearing a wine-vase upon his back, and about to drink from a bowl. The modelling of this beautiful fragment is truly admirable. Another fragment of the top of a lamp has a relief representing Vulcan occupied in his workshop. He sits with one foot upon his anvil, and upon his raised knee is a shield, which he is fashioning into shape with a finishing hammer. His pincers, or tongs, are lying upon the ground. This is one of the pleasing deifi¬ cations of the most humble art, ennobled in this case by the object in which the artist is engaged, and a tribute to the imaginary inventor of forges, and the first teacher of the malleability and polishing of metals. Another part of the top of a lamp is adorned with the figure of a Roman herald, bearing his staff and an ensign. This fragment is painted red, and is of inferior merit as a work of art. Lastly, another has the head of a satyr on the top, and is like the former of rude workmanship. The designs for handles found among the Tarsus terra-cottas are sometimes very elegant. Among them may be particularly noticed a most elegant handle of a lamp: it is formed of a horse’s head of first-rate execution, emerging from foliage most gracefully drawn. Also a lamp- handle very plain, but the lines graceful and well drawn; as well as the handle of a lamp with a slight relief of the conventional honeysuckle, in pure Greek style, on the triangular face of the top. There are figures of such in many works of antiquity. Well worthy of notice also is the handle of a lamp in the form of the prow of a ship; there is the figure of a bird upon it. This piece was burned so hard in the fire as to be vitrified in the surface. Also a very primitive handle of a lamp; the ornamentation is such as is attempted by men in their earliest efforts. The handle of a vase, with a head, the tragic Muse. A ring-handle, with a fragment of the vessel with which it was connected, very perfect; and then, again, a portion of a handle, with a human head upon it. This is remarkable for having a glazing upon it of vitrified lead. Part of a good handle terminating in a chimera head, with a frill of leaves behind it. Also the handle of a lamp, with chimsera head. A vine- leaf, forming the handle of a bowl or dish; and lastly, parts of two snakes, probably connected as handles to a vessel; and a harpy’s head, which served as a handle. We have next to notice the handle of a flat dish or tazza, the orna¬ ment of which, though rude, is complex, and appears to have a mytho¬ logical meaning. It has a circular altar or short column in the centre supporting a basket; on each side of which a humped buffalo or Indian bull is couching; over these are two human heads, apparently female, HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES. 25V and behind these, fishes: there are others below the fishes, the character of which is not easily determined. The bulls, the fishes, and the female heads have a mythological meaning in harmony with the purpose to which the vessel was appropriated, which was religious. The dish was large, the diameter being nearly 14^ inches, and coated with a red varnish. Also another handle from the same mould, with a small portion of the bowl- part of the dish; this fragment shews the ornamentation was all on the under side, and would be unseen when the dish was in use; when out of use, it would be reversed, the concave part would be unseen, and the decorated bottom exposed to view; the very opposite to the construction and use of our dishes. Does not this illustrate a passage in the Bible ? 2 Kings, chap. xxi. 18, u I will wipe Jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, turning it upside down.” Next, a small fragment of a red dish, with a part of the handle, having a flower, the syrinx of Pan, and a figure like a running dog. It is on the same plan as the preceding. And in the same category may be placed a very good head of Medusa, in relievo, painted red. It had been applied as an ornament to some vessel, from which it is detached, leaving part of its hair behind. The head of Medusa, it is well known, is sometimes depicted as one of the most beau¬ tiful, and at others as one of the most shocking objects in the world; the noble head in the Strozzi collection at Rome is an example of the former. Lastly, a fragment of a beautiful bowl, the outside of which has been ornamented with leaves impressed on it by a punch or die. The handle or lip projected from the rim, and was decorated with scrolls. In the department of furniture, we find a fragment of a relief, repre¬ senting a tripod table, with chimera legs, and some provisions lying upon it; also the side of a chair of state, with a well-formed chimasra in the front. Both these objects appear to have belonged to temples, most probably dedicated to Apollo. Among the same objects, also, we may notice a ring of glass. It was coated with an enamel made of oxide of silver, and consequently of a yellow or amber colour; but the maker of it did not use silex enough in the composition of the enamel to make it permanent. The article being buried so long in the earth, and thereby exposed to moisture, the enamel has been decomposed, the alkali in it has been carried off, and the oxide of silver, losing its oxygen, has returned to the metallic state, now forming a coat of pure silver upon the glass. The silver being in an imperfect state of crystallisation, causes the spangled appearance. There are several such silver enamels in the British Museum which have not suffered decomposition, having been preserved in dry tombs, &c. As to the purpose for which this ring was used s 258 LARES AND PENATES. when covered with a smooth coating of enamel, it is more fit to be guessed than described. It was connected with rites which could not stand before the purifying influence of the Christian religion. In the same collection we find a round disc of pottery, having a hole to hang it by. The panel in front has the character M upon it. It is probably a numeral of the Greeks representing 40. We manufacture similar labels for the purpose of hanging in wine-cellars to distinguish different lots; this was probably used for some like purpose. Among more miscellaneous objects may be briefly described, an ornamented net containing flowers, and something like our butter-prints; but the subject is in cameo. TOMB AT ELEUSA, EROM A SKETCH BY MR. LAYARD. CHAPTER XIII. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. LYRES-SYRINX. There are several fragments of lyres in the collection, one of them painted red ; another with a hand resting upon it, and which formed part ot a Muse. These fragments do not throw any light upon the oft- discussed questions as to the original inventor of the lyre and the num¬ ber of its strings. It is more interesting to us to remember that the Abyssinians have a tradition that this instrument was brought from Egypt i nto Ethiopia by Thot in the very first ages of the world; and even Greek and Roman authorities will be found to bear out the opinion, that the invention of the primitive lyre with three strings was due to the Egyptian Mercury, Hermes. Layard found only one musical instrument depicted by the As¬ syrians, and that was a triangular lyre, the strings of which were nine or ten in number. The god, says Layard, which Mr. Birch now conjectures to be Baal, is represented at Talmis playing on a triangular lyre.* These last discoveries may well be considered as disposing of the story of Mercury’s first affixing thongs to a tortoise-shell; of Chorsebus, the son of Atys, adding a fifth string; Hyagnis, a sixth; Terpander, a seventh; and according to some, Pythagoras, or according to others, Lychaon of Samos, an eighth string, by which the octave, which con¬ sisted of two disjoint tetracliords, was produced; and which discoveries are seriously discussed by Mr. Spence, Dr. Burney, and others, and which may be now fairly consigned to the same fabulous repositories as Mercury’s peace-offering to Apollo, Apollo’s vindictive jealousy of Marsyas, the rage of the Theban women against Orpheus, and the building of the seven gates of Thebes to the seven strings of Amphion’s lyre. In this department of the collection may be classed the upper * Rossellini, M.C., Teste, tom. iii. p. 19, tav, ann. Layard, vol. ii. p. 412. 260 LARES AND PENATES. portion of a youth playing the syrinx or Pandean organ, the fabled origin of which, from the conversion of a beautiful naiad pursued by Pan into a tuft of musical reeds, is so well known. The instrument appears to be suspended by a band to his neck, and he regulates it with his right hand, while the left seems to have been free. The pipes are more numerous, and those in the bass part of the instrument much longer than is usually represented. The player seems quite satisfied with his performance. There is also another fragment giving the middle portion of another figure playing upon a red instrument of a more perfect form. There seems to be little doubt that our modern complicated organs are to be traced to Pan’s pipes as their origin. In Hawkins’ History of Music is an engraving of an ancient monument at Pome, in which is the repre¬ sentation of a primitive organ. It is a small chest placed on a table; in the front is a female playing on keys, and on the other side is a man NO. 69. —YOUTH PLAYING THE SYRINX. blowing into the box with a pair of bellows. This, I believe, is the only known link connecting the organ with the Pandean syrinx. But does not this fragment supply another link in the chain of improvement, and take its place between the simple reeds of Pan and the rude organ just described ? It may be unique, and of value in its bearing on the history of music. Let us look at it again. The instrument consists of a vertical row of pipes, the length unknown, as the lower portion is wanting; they are MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 261 inserted into a small air-chest, which appears inflated in the middle part. The right hand is operating upon it with a kind of cushion or compress, by which he forces the air into the pipes, and which he seems to apply to different parts at will. There appears to have been a pro¬ longation of the central part of the instrument across the left arm : the loss of this is much to be lamented, as that would have shewn us more of its construction, and also how the left hand was employed in playing it. It is firmly fixed to the body; but the upper ends of the reeds are too low for the performer to blow into them with his mouth. The openings in the tops of the reeds are all perfect, nothing is deficient at that end. This may be looked upon as the very first application of a pneumatic chest to the Pandean organ, which still retains its place on the breast of the player, though he no longer operates upon it with his mouth. It is most desirable to restore this figure ; we should then see whether the left hand or the foot was employed to blow the air into the machine. In the same collection we have also the representation of a syrinx detached from some figure: there is a fracture on the front, marking the place from which the hand that held it was broken off. The reeds are bound together by a broad ornamented band. Part of the top of the instrument is perfect, and likewise the lower ends of the five treble pipes, but the bass is broken. CHAPTER XIV. COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. ARSUS (RHOSUS)-MYRIANDRUS-ISKANDRUN OR ALEXANDRETTA (ALEXAN¬ DRIA AD ISSON)-GODFREY DE BOUILLON’S FORT-BAYLAN (PICTANUS, ERANA ?)-PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN CHURCH-CASTLES OF IBN DAUD AND OF BAYLAN BUSTANDAH-ALTARS OF ALEXANDER-CASTLE OF MARKATZ- RIVER KERSUS-GATES OF CILICIA AND SYRIA—BAYAS (BALE)—ISSUS- NICOPOLIS KARA KAYA (CASTABALA) EPIPHANEA MATAKH TAMIR KAPU (IRON GATES, AMANIAN GATES) AYAS (AGE^E) AMMODES KARA TASH (MALLUS AND MEGARSUS) ALEIAN PLAIN-PYRAMUS-MOPSUESTIA- CASTLES ON THE PLAIN-SARI CAPITA-RHEGMA OF THE CYDNUS-YANIFA KISHLA-MAZARLIK-CASTLE OF KALAK BUGHAZ— KARA SIS-ANABAD AND DUNKALAH. This chapter has reference to the sites of ancient towns or cities in Cilicia, which ought not to be passed over in silence in a general account of the antiquities of the country. Commencing at the south-easterly extremity of the province, the olden episcopacy of Rhosus or Rhosopolis, now Arsus, we have seen still presents some interesting remains of olden time. There are re¬ mains of a Christian church with Corinthian columns, and of an exten¬ sive aqueduct, besides other fragments of art. The existing Greek church also presents many features of archaeological interest. According to the distances given by Xenophon of five parasangs from the gates of Cilicia and Syria, the site of Myriandrus (which still remains to be discovered) ought to be on the way from Markatz to Arsus, unless, as is not improbably the case, it was situated at the foot of the Baylan pass, or within the pass itself. At Alexandretta are the ruins of the Levantine factory, and a little to the southward is a polygonal fort of massive masonry, the construc¬ tion of which is traditionally attributed to the crusaders under Godfrey de Bouillon ; beyond this, again, are fragmentary ruins at a spring BAYLAN—JONAS’ PILLARS. called Jacob’s Spring by some, but Joseph’s Well by Pococke, and which has been supposed by Pennell and others to be the site of Myriandrus. Baylan is a remarkable town on the crest of the gorge forming the Syrian gates, and it corresponds to the Pictanus of the Jerusalem Itinerary, which was nine miles from Alexandria and eight from Pan- grios (Pagras). It appears also to represent the Pinara of Pliny and Ptolemy, placed by both in the neighbourhood of Pagras or Pagras, as also, by corruption, the Erana of Cicero, which is described as being in the mountain above the region in which the altars of Alexander are situated. The mosque of Baylan was built, according to the Mecca Itinerary, by Sultan Selim, and the Khan by Sultan Sulaiman the Magnificent. There are also remains of a causeway, of an aqueduct, and of a bridge, appertaining to the time of the Romans. Higher up in the mountains, and a few miles northwards of Baylan, are the remains of a well-constructed Christian church of the earliest form after the Basilica ; being an oblong area, with colonnades at the sides, supporting an arched or vaulted roof; and at the end opposite the entrance, a semicircular space surmounted by a half cupola. Dr. Po¬ cocke, it is also to be observed, met with several Christian sites in the district between Mount Rhosus and Coryphaeus. On the Syrian side of the Baylan pass, we have, to the south, the ruins of a Saracenic castle called that of Ibn Abi Daud, at the site of the ancient Pagras or Pangrios; to the east, the ruins of Khan Karamut; and to the north, within the hills, is the castle called Baylan Bustandah, one of the apartments of which is used as a sepulchral chamber, and within which are preserved many arrows—reminiscences of medieval warfare. To return to Alexandretta : the colossal marble fragment known as Jonas’s Pillars is familiar to all travellers. There is much reason to believe, as we have before pointed out, that these are the remains of the altars erected by Alexander to commemorate his victory over the Persians. It was in vain that the traces of such were sought for on the Pinarus. Quintus Curtius may have been in error when he stated that this commemorative monument was erected on the banks of that river. Pliny says that the “ Bomitas,” or altars, were between Amanus and Rhosus ; and the monument or gateway in question belongs ap¬ parently to the Macedonian era. Beyond Jonas’s Pillars (Sakai Tutan of the Mecca Itinerary), and to the right on the acclivity of the hills, is a Saracenic castle, called Markatz Kalahsi. Beyond this, again, the 264 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. Markatz Su, the Kersns of Xenophon and Andricus of Pliny, close by Mount Crocodile. The way in which the Kersus of Xenophon came to be called Andricus by Pliny is curious, and exemplifies the great diffi¬ culty which the comparative geographer sometimes experiences in arriv¬ ing at a correct identification. There would seem to be at first no sort of relation between Kersus and Andricus. But the Markatz Su, called by Pliny the Andricus, was called by Ptolemy Xepaiag. Pliny has also a Mons Crocodilus on the Andricus, evidently the precipitous rock that rises up above the villages of Markatz, and the site of the Syrian and Cilician gates. The word Kersus, derived from a Coptic and Syriac idiom, refers to the ancient crocodile worship, and is met with in the Axio-Kersus of the Samo-Thracian mysteries. It is explained by Zoega and Munter as the great principle of fecundation; and hence it was ex¬ plained by Pliny by the word Andricus, which term becomes identified with Kersus. It is to be observed that the crocodile worshipped by the Syrians was also called succoth; but the able commentators of Pan- coucke’s Pliny suggest an identity between the Syriac Kersus and the Egyptian Kamses, the name of a ferocious crocodile which has been as¬ certained to be of a different species from the sucko or succoth. It has been seen before that we have the crocodile preserved in the terra¬ cottas of Tarsus. The ruins of a wall can be traced north of the southerly branch of the Markatz Su, from the precipitous rocks to the sea-side, where it terminates in a tower; and to the north of this are also ruins of a tower on the shore, marking the extremities of the other wall, which were three stadia apart. These are the remains of the gates of Cilicia and Syria, to gain which both Cyrus and Alexander despatched a fleet of boats in advance of their respective armies. It is not improbable that it was because the Macedonian hero had gained this point, and attained the heights of the Sakai Tutan, which command the whole Issic Gulf, before he returned to give battle to Darius, that he afterwards erected his altar of thanksgiving at that point. Bayas has been described in a note to the text; so also with regard to the supposed site of Issus. We have only the authority of Stephanus of Byzantium, that Issus was called Nicopolis after the great victory won there by the Macedonians ; but what city in Cilicia is there so worthy of the name ? The fact, however, of Strabo and Ptolemy noticing Nicopolis as distinct from Issus renders the identification very doubtful. The remarkable and extensive ruins of Epiphanea have also been described ; and by the distances given of twenty-six Roman miles from ANTIQUITIES. 265 ^Egas, and sixteen miles from Bais (Baiae), there can be little doubt but that the castle and ruins ol Kara Kaya, 11 the Black Rock,” represent the Catabolon of the Antonine Itinerary and the Castabala of writers, as also the castle near Epiphanea, to which Cicero repaired. There are remains of a Roman causeway and of arches leading from Epiphanea across the Burnuz Su to the mounds and ruins at Matakh, and the Amanian gates, near to the Cyclopean arch, called the Tamir Kapu or iron gates. At Kurt-Kulak there is a fine but ruinous old khan. The castle of Ayas, ancient ^Egeae, is a dilapidated structure of various ages, the walls and towers at the angles alone remaining. To the westward is a round tower with an Arabic inscription; and Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort’s party copied a Greek inscription at the same place, which will always possess a melancholy interest as the spot where the much-esteemed hydrographer received a severe wound, and a young midshipman of the Frederikssteen was killed. This is the site also of a plaintive story related by Gibbon, of Maria, the Christian maiden of Carthage. llie Ammodes, or sandy cape, noticed by Mela Pomponius as being between the Pyramus and the Cydnus, and now so celebrated for its numerous turtle, leads the way to Kara Tasli, a promontory of rock with a port for boats, a village and caravanserai, a ruinous castle like that of Ayas, of various ages, and other fragments of ruins around. A variety of curious considerations, which it is needless to enter upon noiv, led me at one time to identify Mallus with that portion of Mopsuestia which was on the east or further side of the Pyramus ; but a further study of all the details of the question has induced me to return to the views entertained by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort and by Colonel Leake, and to identify the site of the city of Amphilochus and of the fane of Minerva (Megarsus), as well as of the tombs built out of sight the one of the other, with the ruins at Kara Tasli, which are minutely described in Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort’s work. North of Kara Tash is the great Aleian plain, now called Tchukur Uvah; and up the existing bed of the river Pyramus (Jaihun Su) are the ruins of Mopsuestia ;* to the east, terminating the rocky ridge called the Jibal al Nur or “ Mountain of Light,” and overlooking the vast ex¬ panse of plain beyond, is the ruinous castle designated as Shah Maran Kalahsi (Jilian Numa, p. 603), or the Castle of the King of the Serpents. Beyond this again, on rocky knolls rising out of the plain, are Turn Kalahsi and Saliyath Kalahsi, which we did not explore ; and beyond that again, at the junction of a tributary flowing from the Kuzan Tagh * See page 110. 266 GEOGRAPHY OE CILICIA. with the Pyramus, are the ruins of Anazarba, before noticed, and crowned by a similar rock isolated castle. Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort has so ably discussed the positions along the coast of the Sari Capita of Pliny, of the second promontory called Zephyrium by Strabo, and of the twice historically united and twice separated waters of the Sarus and the Pyramus, that it is un¬ necessary to allude to these here. His work contains also a detailed description, with a neatly engraved plan, of the ruins of Soli and Pom- peiopolis, which, with the description given of the ruins at Karaduvar (Anchiale ?) are more perfect than any that we yet possess of other Cilician cities. From the extensive ruins at Parshandy to Korghos, ancient Corycus, and thence to Ayash (Sebaste and Eleusa), and for several miles east¬ ward of the latter, the same authority describes the shore as presenting u a continued scene of ruins, all of which being white, and relieved by the dark-wooded hills behind them, give to the country an appearance of splendour and populousness, that serves only, on a nearer approach, to heighten the contrast with its real poverty and degradation.” To return inland, or into what the olden geographers called Medi¬ terranean Cilicia: on our way from Tarsus to the renowned Cilician gates (Kulak Bughaz) are traces of a Roman causeway, with an arch ; a ruinous castle called Yanifa Kishla ; and a ravine, with sepulchral grottoes and an inscription, now called Masarlik or “ the Place of Graves.” A castellated building also crowns the crest of the rugged rocks at the narrowest portion of the pass, where the work of the chisel to widen the road is very manifest. We are indebted to Mr. Barker for the first notice of a castle in the same neighbourhood, called after Nimrod, a name which would give evidence of great antiquity, and to which he supposes Syennesis to have retreated. The country of perpetual rebels, of the lawless Tibareni, of the Cliteans, of the predatory Armenians, and of the unconquered Aushir and Kusan Ughlu tribes, contains, in the present day, the old castles of Kara Sis, and of Andal Kalah, which may correspond to the Cadra and Davara of the Cliteans ; and the pass of the Pyramus through Taurus into Cilicia, the bridle-way to Marash, so minutely described by Strabo, is also characterised by its defensive structures, among which the castles of Anabad and Hun Kalah are the most remarkable. CHAPTER XY. ANTIOCH AND SELEUCIA. THE BAY OF ANTIOCH-VILLAGE OF SUWAIDIYAH-GROTTO OF NYMPH2EUS —- ISLAND OF MELIBCEA-RUINS OF SELEUCIA PIERIA-PROJECTED RE-OPENING OF THE PORT OF SELEUCIA-'MOUNT ST. SIMON—-MOUNT CASIUS-TEMPLE OF HAM. The bay of Antioch extends from Ras al Khanzir, or Cape Boar, on the north, to Ras Pussit (Ancient Posideum), on the south, a distance of about thirty miles. Hemmed in by Mount Casius — Jibal Akrab, or bald mountain (so called from its summit being covered with snow the greater part of the year), and Anti-Casius to the south; it is bounded to the north by Mount Moses (Jibal Musa), above which again rise the lof¬ tier peaks of Jibal Akma, in ancient Rhosus, which attain an elevation of 5,550 feet; and these two ranges are united by low, wood-clad hills in the back-ground, to Mount Saint Simon, a hill that stands in advance of Mount Casius, from which it is separated by a narrow and precipi¬ tous but wooded and picturesque ravine, through whose shady depths the river Orontes (Al Asi, 11 the rebel”) forces its way, flowing onwards by the ruins of a monastery, church, and khan—'all that remains of the old port of St. Simon — and then by a hamlet or two, constituting the modern port, into the sea. The modern village of Suwaidiyah, or Suedia, as Seleucia is orien¬ talised, or as it is more commonly called Zaitunli, u the place of olives,” embosomed in luxuriant groves of mulberry, olive, grape-vine, pome¬ granate, and apricot trees, occupies the range of the lower hills ; and there are also several large villages in the mountains to the north and south, and on the south bank of the Orontes. Close by the latter is a small grotto, with a spring of clear water ; connected with which are many large hewn stones and other fragments of antiquity. The site appears, from a variety of circumstances, to correspond to that of nymphceum cum specu of Strabo, situated between the mouth of the Orontes and Mount Casius, 268 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. If ever Meliboea, of poetical celebrity, was an island at the mouth of the Orontes, it must be now joined to the mainland, which is not at all an improbable circumstance. We have the explicit authority of Op- pianus* in favour of the first fact; and the fabled lover of Orontes, and the nymph of Meliboea, would bear out the latter, as well as the physi¬ cal features of the soil, the alluvium slowly but steadily adding to the extent of the coast. On the other hand, we have the combined testimonies of Yirgil, “ Victori chlamydem auratam, quam plurima circum Purpura Maeandro duplici Melibcea cucurrit.” —^Eneid, v. 251. and of Lucretius, “ Jam tibi barbaric® vestes, Meliboeaque fulgens Purpura Thessalico concbarum tincta colore.”—Lib. i. y. 499. that Meliboea was a Thessalian island; but this would only shew, what is frequently the case, that there were two of the same name.j* The line of coast from the Orontes northwards is low and sandy on the shore, but pastoral or marshy in the interior to the foot of the hills. Nearly half way to the ruins of Seleucia Pieria is the neatly white¬ washed tomb of a holy Mohammedan, which being a ziyarat, or place of pilgrimage, has some ruinous buildings attached to it. Close by is a well of fresh water. The ruins of the city and port of the Seleucidse are beyond this at the foot of the rocky range of Jibal Musa,formerly called Utepia, or Pierius, when Seleucia of Antioch was distinguished from other cities bearing the same name, by the epithet Seleucia Pieria. Strabo calls Mount Pierius a continuation of Amanus; but it is rather an outlying range of Phosus, oi Rhossus. The bare cliffs of Mount Pierius rise at this point abruptly from the low level plain below, and advance in rude promontories into the sea on the other, and the ruins of the once strong, populous, and well-frequented port are still indicated by the now filled-up basin or * Cyneget. vers. 115 to 120. f There is at the mouth of the Orontes a piece of ground of about a hundred acres, which the Orontes forms (by winding round it) into a peninsula, and which the people o t le country call “ Gezire,” the island, because it is evident that the neck of land las also been traversed by the river at no very distant period. This piece of land be- ongs to Mr. Barker’s garden at Suedia, it being customary there to have a piece of an oi each gai den, in order that the people who rear the silkworms may have a place on which to cultivate the wheat and barley they require for their immediate use. it out such land it is difficult, almost impossible, to get any one to take c large of agaiden. The most delicious melons grow on this peninsula, and the crops ai e \ ery fertile in consequence of the propinquity of the water in that warm climate, the two vessels which afterwards navigated the river Euphrates were landed at this pom , w nch was called by Colonel Chesney, in his despatches, Amelia Depot. SELEUCIA PIERIA. 269 dock, the crumbling gates and ramparts, tumbled-down buildings and houses, numerous sarcophagi, and still more interesting sepulchral grot¬ toes, and the remarkable extensive hollow way or excavation cut through the mountain, and attesting in so singular a manner to every successive visitor the industry and perseverance, as well as the skill and ingenuity, of the older inhabitants of this free port. The walls of the city appear to have been quadrangular, and they had a double line of defence; the northern extremity abutting on the hill, whose summit was crowned by the acropolis. There were also walls of a suburb, triangularly disposed, and reaching down to the mole, traces of which are still extant. A gate led from the suburb to¬ wards the sea, and on the opposite side another opened towards Antioch, which was adorned with pilasters, and defended by handsome towers. The space occupied within the walls had a circumference of about four miles, and is filled -with the ruins of houses. The basin is 2000 feet long by 1200 feet wide, occupying an area of 47 acres, and was in fact as large as the export and import basins of the East and West India Docks together. The inner port is entirely excavated, and its canal is 1000 feet long; the area of the outer port is about 18,000 feet square, and it affords good shelter, but is obstructed by sand. There are two moles, 240 paces apart, constructed of enor¬ mous stones, and a pier called that of St. Paulte, which runs west 80 paces, and then turns N.W. Colonel Chesney proposed some years back to open this port* to modern commerce. Since that time, Captain William Allen, R.N., who so distinguished himself in exploring the river Niger, has surveyed and carefully mapped this interesting basin; and his calculations of the ex¬ pense of clearing the port of mud, and opening it to navigation, chiefly by the natural means formerly used by the inhabitants of letting down the winter floods by the ravine, which is their natural channel, instead of turning them off into the excavated and artificial channel, corresponds almost precisely to that made by Colonel Chesney (30,000/.). Dr. Holt Yates, who has erected a handsome house in the neigh¬ bourhood, near the Orontes, has also entered warmly into a project which promises to be of so much benefit to commerce and to the im¬ mediate neighbourhood, and has read a paper on the subject to the Syro-Egyptian Society. The great advantages to be gained by opening this port are, that it is nearer at hand than that of Iskandrun or Alex- andretta; that it avoids the difficult navigation of the Gulf of Issus; * Description of Seleucia Pieria, in Journal ofKoyal Geographical Society, vol. viii. p. 228. 270 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. that, whereas Alexandretta is infamous as one of the most unhealthy spots on the coast of Syria, and hence few can be induced to reside there, Seleucia is a comparatively healthy spot, and would, if opened to commerce, soon become in all probability a flourishing town ; that the road from Seleucia to Antioch, Aleppo, and the Euphrates, is com¬ paratively open, while that from Alexandretta has to cross the for¬ midable Syrian gates—the mountain pass of Baylan (ancient Erana), between Amanus and Rhosus ; and lastly, that while Cilicia is con¬ stantly disturbed by local dissensions and the rebellion of races, the neighbourhood of Seleucia, chiefly tenanted by peaceful Christians, is re¬ markable for its tranquillity and security; and lastly, Seleucia would con¬ stitute the safest harbour (especially for steamers), on the whole coast of Syria, and would, from that circumstance, and from its greater proximity to Antioch and Aleppo, entirely supersede the ports of Bayrut or Beirut, of Tripoli, and Latakiyah. The same circumstances that have existed from the period of Mr. John Barker’s settling here, and which induced Colonel Chesney to adopt it as the site for landing the steam-boats and equipments of the Euphrates expedition, still exist; and at a very mode¬ rate outlay, Seleucia might be again rendered what it once was, the most capable, the most flourishing, the most fertile, the most populous, the most wealthy, the most beautiful, and the most healthy port of Syria. As to the effect which the opening of such a port would have upon the commerce of the interior, the promises it holds out as the key to North Syria, the Euphrates, Mesopotamia, the Tigris, Kurdistan, and Persia, and the line of communication that could be opened, as originally pro¬ posed by Colonel Chesney, by this route to India, such subjects are of too great a magnitude to be entered upon here ; but once the port opened, they would force themselves upon the Turkish authorities, the Anglo- Indian government, and all concerned or interested in the amelioration of the countries in question, in the progress of commerce, and the general advance in civilisation. On the side of the city opposite to the harbour are the ruins of two temples, and of an amphitheatre partly cut out of the rock, as is so fre¬ quently the case ; and here also commence the numerous sepulchral excavations, which extend nearly two miles along the face and up the ravines of the mountain, and in front of which many hundreds of sarco¬ phagi, some of which Mr. W. B. Barker opened, are scattered. One portion of the excavations, called the Tomb of the Kings, has a fac^ade entrance, and suites of apartments, with columns and staircases leading to a set of chambers above. In some of the grottoes were traces of ntings, with remarkably bright colours ; in general, however, they PORT AND RUINS OP SELEUC1A. 271 were ordinary excavations, devoid of architectural ornaments, and many appear to have been used subsequently as broglodyte dwellings. They are now, however, only tenanted by foxes, jackals, and porcupines. But the most remarkable feature in the ruins of Seleucia is the great cut or hollow way before noticed, and by which the inhabited and tomb-dotted portion of the mountain is separated from the heights above. This extraordinary work takes its origin from an open valley in Pieria, which is prolonged in a north-easterly direction to beyond the city, upon which it opens to the south-west, above the inner ex¬ tremity of the harbour. This opening being artificially dammed up, the cutting led the waters away through the mountain to the sea, or to the mouth of the harbour to the north of the city. It is altogether 3074 feet in length, and attains in places an elevation of 120 feet, averaging a width of 22 feet, and it terminates abruptly over the sea. This great excavation is divided into portions, the greater part being an open, hol¬ low way; interrupted, however, by two tunnelled portions or covered ways, the one 102, and the other 293 feet long. The cut is also crossed in its eastern part by an aqueduct supported by a single arch, and its western extremity by another arch, bearing a mutilated inscription of the time of the Caesars. A recess, with sepulchral grottoes, occurs in another portion. Water was carried along this hollow way, in addition to what may have flowed along its base, by a little channel hewn in the face of the rock, 18 inches in width; and in one part a narrow staircase leads down to within about 14 feet of the base, and which Colonel Chesney thinks was the ordinary level of the waters. The waters of the valley before mentioned, although no longer artificially dammed up from their natural course, appear still to flow at times along the bed of the hollow way, which they seem to have deepened, for the line of demarcation be¬ tween the hewn portion and that which has been since excavated by the waters is very distinct, and these waters have forced a passage for them¬ selves through the south-western sides of the excavation leading down to the mouth of the harbour; and hence, according to some, used to keep that mouth open. But the excavation can be traced beyond this opening towards the sea, although the traces of running waters are no longer discernible in that direction. Appian relates in his Syriacs (p. 202), that Seleucia was founded in obedience to an intimation to that effect, obtained from the thunder. Hence it was dedicated to the thunder-god, as may be seen on a coin recorded by Spanheimus, u Jupiter fulminans Seleucensium,” and this thunder-god was identified by the Bomans with Jupiter Casius. 272 GEOGRAPHY OP CILICIA. Seleucia was embellished and strengthened by Selencns Nicator, who gave the place his own name. It was so strongly fortified, that Strabo designates it an impregnable city; and it was made a free port after the conquest of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, as is recorded on coins belonging to the times of Caius Cscsar, Trajan, and Caracalla. It was one of the four most distinguished cities of the Macedonian dynasty of the Seleucidae, and which, including Antioch, Apamea (Kalah Muclik), and Laodicea (Latakiyah), were called sisters, on account of the concord which existed between them. Mount St. Simon, so called from the tomb of that well-known Syrian ascetic, but also denominated Bin Kilisa, or “ the thousand churches,” from its extensive remains of ecclesiastical structures be¬ longing to an early Christianity, has been described by Mr. Barker, and it need only be added here, that the memory of this fanatic, whose feats of penance have been misrepresented by Lucian, and justly derided, and that without any indecent allusions, by Gibbon, is as much venerated by the Muhammedans as by the Christians of the country; and the Mecca Itinerary contains especial injunctions to pilgrims, on their arri¬ val at Antioch, to pay their respects to the tomb of ILazrat Simun—the holy, or beloved Simon. This will not appear at all extraordinary to those who are aware how much of the legendary and historical por¬ tion of the Kuran is borrowed from what had been long before adopted by Syrian monks and priests, and their followers, the Byzantine chro- nographers. Indeed this use of Christian-Syrian materials is made evident by a comparison of the narrative of the Prophet of the Islamites with the writings of Ephrem Syrus — the Euphrates of the Church, as he has been called by his admirers; yet who was one of the earliest propounders of those systems of scriptural astronomy and geography, for refuting which Galileo was thrown into a dungeon; as also with the works of Syncellus, and the Paschal Chronicle * Mount Casius attains an elevation of 5318 feet above the sea. This was determined by angles taken from the two extremities of a base, measured on the plain below, and by the simultaneous comparison of two barometers, one at the top of the mountain, the other at its base. * The founder of the sect of the Stylites, the fanatical pillar-saint, Simeon Sisanites, the son of a Syrian herdsman, is said to have passed thirty-seven years in religious contemplation on the summits of five successive pillars, each higher than the pre¬ ceding. The last pillar was forty ells high. He died in the year 461. For seven hundred years there continued to be men who imitated this manner of life, and were called “ Sancti columnares” (pillar-saints). Even in Germany, in the diocese of Treves, it was proposed to erect such aerial cloisters ; but the bishops opposed the undertaking. (Mosheim, Institut. Hist. Eccles. 1755, p. 215.) MOUNT CASIUS. 273 ° f , tlle mountaln is mainly myrtle-clad, at an elevation of 1500 feet; this is succeeded by oak, and the oaks are again succeeded y gloomy pine-forests, which, at an elevation of 3500 feet, are them¬ selves succeeded by open glades of birch, and occasional wild pear, apple, quince, and medlar trees. Vegetation is both luxuriant and beautiful, and m April the patches of gaudy scarlet peonies alternate, and are re- leved by patches of yellow asphodel, not far from the snow-clad sum¬ mit, where violets and pansies are succeeded by dark-green fennel The extreme summit is composed of naked limestone rock. Mount Casius is, with the exception of Mount Lebanon, Mount mai and a few hills m Palestine rendered more familiar from frequent bciiptural references, the most celebrated in Syria* Sacrifices to the Thunderer were offered on its summit from the most remote antiquity; dii iey were said to have originated with the descendants of Tripto- lenius, settled at Seleucia, and whom Seleucus Nicator invited to An¬ tioch These sacrifices were kept up by the Ciesars, who dedicated lem o upiter Casius. Julian the Apostate, discomfited at Daphne, cheered himself with a hecatomb on Mount Casius; and Pliny relates lat Jupiter, yielding to prayers addressed to him on Mount Casius, sent the birds called Seleucidas, the roseate thrush (Turdus roseus), to destroy the scourge of the country—the locusts. But the most curious tradition connected with the mountain, which . ® m P er ° rs Hadrian and Julian went especially to witness, and which is described at length by Aristotle (Meteor, i. 16) and by Pliny (v 18) is, that at the fourth watch, or at the second crow of the cocoas Am- mianus relates it, day and night are, by the walk round of a few paces seen at the same time. The elevation of the mountain we have before o served, is o318 feet above the sea. Now, the rising of the sun com¬ mences about one minute sooner at an elevation of 1000 feet than at the level of the sea. Hence the world below is, in these countries, where theie is little twilight, wrapped in darkness for five minutes after it is day on the summit of Mount Casius. * Bochart (Phaleg, p. 333) derives Casius (as more particularly applied to the Xs; tr tbe “ es %^> ft-rt nit a “unwary Another Hebrew origin might be found in Kas - straw or Jh 1 rT US6d “ PSa ‘ m 1XXXiU - U ’ and Jer - 24. Homer HIM'v 499^ Achne inthe same sense ; and Pliny says of an island of Rhodes, « Casus olim Ac me ” A-rnore likely ongin may, however, be found in the Syriac and Chaldean Kas o s Un- “Lunttr-' 6 Tin 1 " b H Id rT\’ ^ ^ A ' abfc -me, jfbS'Aktb, ii i i S !; * d also lead > according to Mela and Pliny were probablv called by the Greeks Kasiteros, from their lustre. Tin (in Numbers xxxi 22) is read Chides ; ^ “ Arabi °’ KaSdir ' TUs was tbe origin the British T 274 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. On the acclivity of the same mountain, to the eastward, are the ruins of a very pretty temple or church, now embosomed among woods. It was constructed in the form of the Basilicum, but not so simply so as some of the early Christian churches. The oblong area within the walls is divided into nave and aisles by a handsome row of columns supporting a vaulted roof, and the semicircular space opposite the en¬ trance is supported by a half cupola. This little remnant of early times, placed in so remarkable a position, has been identified by Colonel Clies- ney with the site of the Pagan temple described by Sanchoniatho (see Cory’s Ancient Fragments , p. 11) as having been consecrated to Cronus or Hamon on Mount Casius by the descendants of the Dioscuri. It is also noticed by Strabo (xvi. 750) and by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 14). We cannot do better than close this chapter with an extract from Strabo,* premising that tetrapole , a title given to Antioch, means a city consisting of four parts, each fortified separately, and the four collectively forming one city. u Seleucus Nicator also gathered together at this place the descendants of Triptolemus, of whom I have spoken before. This is why the inha¬ bitants of Antioch render to Triptolemus heroic honours, and celebrate a feast in honour of him at Mount Casius near Seleucia. It is said that this hero, sent by the Argives in search of Io, who had for some time past disappeared from Tyre, and was wandering in Cilicia, was in that country abandoned by some of the Argives who accompanied him, and they founded the city of Tarsus. The rest continued to follow him along the shores of the sea, but despairing of succeeding in the object of their search, they established themselves with Triptolemus on the plains watered by the Orontes. Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, went and founded a colony in Gordieeus j" (TopSaia), with a portion of those who had followed his father, the others remained in the country; and it was the descendants of these people that Seleucus united to the inhabi¬ tants of Antioch. Forty stadia further on is Daphne, an inconsiderable suburb. An extended and dense wood is met with there, which is watered by live springs ; and in the centre there is a sacred enclo¬ sure which 'serves as an asylum, as also a temple of Apollo and of Diana. The people of Antioch and of the neighbourhood are in the habit of assembling there to celebrate festivals. The circumference of the wood is eighty stadia. The Orontes flows near the city. This river, which has its sources in Coelo-Syria, passes under ground, then Yol. v. p. 202. British. Museum. f Gordiscus was the most southerly part of Assyria, or of the present Kurdistan, near Lake Van. The inhabitants of Gordiseus have also borne the name of Cardrichi, whence the modern name Kurd. ' '^LLE'i OF THE ORONTES, WITH MOUNT CASSIUS IN THE BACKGROUND, BAY OF SUEDIA. From a Sketch by Mr. C. F. Barker. RIVER ORONTES 27o shews itself again, to flow through the territory of Apamea and water that of Antioch; and after having passed near the town, it enters the sea near Seleucia. This river, called Orontes, from the name of the person who built a bridge over it, was first called after Typhon; and according to fable, it was in this place that the adventures of Typhon and Arimes (Inarimes) took place. It is said that Typhon, struck by lightning, fled, seeking refuge ; this dragon in his flight furrowed the ground so deeply as to cause the source of this river to spring up, and he gave to it his name. The sea is to the west, and is above the territory of Antioch on the side of Seleucia. It is near this latter city, situated forty stadia from the sea and one hundred and twenty stadia from Antioch, that the Orontes flows into the sea. The ascent from the mouth of the river to Antioch can be effected in a day.” RUINS OF AN AQUEDUCT AT ANAZARBA : FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER CHAPTER XVI. NATURAL HISTORY—ZOOLOGY. THE OUNCE-THE LYNX—BEARS—HYENAS, WOLVES, AND JACKALS-THE FOX -HARES—FALLOW DEER—WHITE GAZELLE (GHAZAL)—GREYHOUNDS- gh’aik, OR IBEX. There are different species of wild animals in the mountains of Cilicia, among which we may note the ounce , the skin of which is much esteemed by the Turks, who use it chiefly to cover their saddles.* I saw a lynx which had been caught in Mount Taurus, but it died after a few months of an inveterate mange, which communicated itself to all the domestic animals in the mansion, and was so virulent that even the fowls died of it. This malady in this incurable state seems to be as indigenous to Tarsus as the fever of the place, which I consider worse than any other: inasmuch as, firstly, it carries off the patient in three days (unless copious bleeding is had recourse to); and secondly, that it is almost impossible to eradicate it out of the system even for years afterwards. The most effective relief I have found to be following up the cold-water system ; this seems to possess the best means of alleviating, if not of entirely cur¬ ing, the evil effects of continued attacks of fever. But with regard to the mange in dogs I will relate one instance that is remarkable. I had been requested to procure Count Pourtalles two brace of greyhounds, of which the Turkmans possess a very fine breed. One of these greyhounds had had the mange, but was considered cured by a preparation of gunpowder and oil; and as he was quite a champion, and celebrated for his feats, I was tempted to send him among the num¬ ber; and I have since been informed by the Count, whom I had the honour of visiting when ambassador for Prussia at Constantinople, that The largest animal of the feline tribe seen by our party in Cilicia was rather a leopard or panther than an ounce. It was called Nimar by the natives, and was pro¬ bably the same animal that is called Kaplan in Lycia. A smaller species, apparently corresponding to the Felis pardina of Oken and Temminck, was very common. A lynx with black ears (kara kulak) was also met with.—W. F. A. BEARS AND PORCUPINES. 277 tlie malady broke out again and communicated itself to the other dogs, and that they all four died in spite of every exertion to cure them that European knowledge and treatment could afford. From the same malady I have lost the most valuable dogs. At last I discovered that dogs at Tarsus generally died either of this or of the yellow fever, unless they were washed daily with cold water and soap, and confined in a court¬ yard and kept from all contact even with the ground trodden on by other dogs wherein the seeds of the malady might be left; for I suspect that it is caused by some minute insect that gets into the skin of the animal, and nothing can drive it out that would not be equally pernicious to the life of the dog. Bears are to be found in Mount Taurus; but as they only prowl about at night, they are not frequently met with. I have had them shot, or rather they shot themselves by a not very ingenious contrivance of the people of the country. As the bears come down into the gardens nearest the mountains to feed upon the vegetables, they walk along the paths and leave marks of their footsteps. The gardener ob¬ serving this, puts across their road a string which is connected with the trigger of a gun that is set so as to fire on the poor creature as it passes, and the gardener hearing the gun go off, comes up and finishes the work of destruction. The flesh of this animal is remarkably fat, and not unlike beef, but it is not eaten by the people of the country. I have seen one ham which weighed 60 lbs. The flesh of the porcupine when young is good and tender. The gipsies are constantly in search of them; but it requires some cleverness and patience to get a shot at them; their acute sense of hearing renders them sensible to a person’s being in wait, and they cannot easily be compelled to leave their burrows. The native sportsmen even pretend that it is necessary to cover the flint lock of the gun with the left hand when firing, as they discover the flash and dip back into their holes before the shot can reach them ! The Turks do not consider them unclean, but few eat them ; their flesh is white, and tastes like some¬ thing between a sucking-pig and a hare. Hyenas, wolves, and jackals abound, and prowl about at night in search of carrion. I have heard the hyenas howling within a few yards of me, V/hen a. have slept on the sands of the sea-shore, where we would light a fire to keep off the innumerable mosquitoes that infest the coast. The people plant the stems of four fir-trees and form a kind of table on the top with branches and leaves ; here they climb to the height of twenty to thirty feet, and endeavour to sleep in the air out of the reach of this plague, the most irritating of all insects, and which is believed 278 NATURAL HISTORY—ZOOLOGY. to have a peculiar relish for a stranger’s blood. The jackals frequent the marshes; they are very numerous and noisy, but are so thick-skinned that it is a difficult matter to kill one with a club. I have had to do this with one that had been attacked by my dogs, and I can speak from experience as to their toughness ; if a cat has nine lives, the jackal may be said to have nine times nine ! There are two kinds of foxes ; the one large and grey, the other small and brown. These, as well as the jackals, appear to have a fine scent, and they hunt for them¬ selves, destroying a great deal of game, which is, however, very abundant in spite of their depredations. A friend of mine assured me that some years previous to my coming to Tarsus he had been out shooting, and had first counted a hundred francolins, which he put up in the course of an hour and a half, after which he desisted from counting any more. There is but one kind of hare in Cilicia, the large heavy hare. It is of a darker colour than the desert hare, found to the east of Syria. This latter kind is very small, and will often beat the grey¬ hounds in a straight line, without their being able to turn her once. A gentleman of veracity residing at Aleppo related to me an incident hav¬ ing reference to the hare of the desert which I may be allowed to repeat here. He was out coursing on the desert side of the city; and, strange to say, the strength of the hare, dogs, hawk, and horses was so per¬ fectly matched, that after a long chase they all came to a full stop. First the hare came to a stand ; then the dogs, out of breath, a few paces behind ; next the horses of the sportsmen brought to a perfect stand-still; and lastly, the hawk resting on a stone close by quite exhausted ! The gentleman’s servant dismounted and took up the hare in his hands. On the plains of Adana a kind of fallow-deer is met with, called by the natives yumurgia; their skins are dyed and used by the Muhammadans as carpets to say their prayers upon. This animal is very large, but is by no means so swift as the gazelle; the latter are very abundant, and may be seen in flocks of fifty or sixty. They afford the chief sport for cours¬ ing, and are seldom taken except by an extraordinary dog, unless they can be driven into a muddy field after heavy rains, which they have the instinct to avoid, by making for the high road as soon as they apprehend pursuit. It requires a great deal of tact and ingenuity to manoeuvre so as to get them into the predicament requisite to make them flounder till the dogs can come up to them. I recollect when at Mosul being instrumental in the capture of two, which we took on the plains of Nineveh with dogs that my friend the French consul had in vain taken out on several occasions. The flesh of the red gazelle is barely eat- GAZELLES AND DOGS. 279 able, it is always lean and dry; whereas the rimi , or white gazelle of the desert, is very fat, and is, perhaps, the most delicious of all venison. The gazelle supplies a tribe of Arabs called Slaih with food, raiment, and tents. Ihese people have a simple method of taking large herds of them for their winter provisions. They build a wall of loose stones about four feet high and about a quarter of a mile long, dis¬ posed in a semicircle. In the centre they leave a breach, behind which they dig. a deep pit. When they have contrived to drive the gazelles along this cul-de-sac, which is effected by the whole tribe turning out to¬ gether, the poor animals, seeing no other exit, jump through the breach and fall into the pit, where the men are ready to slaughter them. Their flesh is dried in the sun, and is said to form the only food of the tribe; their skins also serve as covering for the body, and are used as tents to shelter them from the rays of the sun. This Slaih tribe is a remarkable one; with the exception of a very few donkeys, they possess no worldly goods either of camels, sheep, or horses, whereby to tempt the cupidity of their neighbours, with all of whom they are thus enabled to keep at peace. The. dogs used for coursing in Cilicia are very beautiful, having silky hair on their ears and tails ; they are bred in the higher regions of Mount Taurus and Anatolia, and are brought down by the Turkmans in the winter, and return to their yalias in the summer, as they cannot hold out against the heat of the plains. They are very tame, and, unlike any other dog of the Turks, are much petted, and allowed to lie on their carpets and beds. They are very susceptible of cold, and are always kept covered with cloth-felt. A good dog is much prized, and is often not to be had in exchange for a cow or a horse and a measure of wheat. Such as take hares may be had from half a guinea to a guinea; but one that has taken a gazelle, under the most favourable circumstances, will fetch 21. 10s. at least; and then the proprietor will only part with it when constrained to do so by his superior or by his superstitious preju¬ dices ; for the Orientals think that if they refuse to part with an animal they have been asked to dispose of, it will be struck with the evil eye and die, or be lost or stolen. They profess, indeed, to despise dogs, and express their contempt of any one refusing to give a dog or horse; and yet the Turkman will never give away either if good for any tiring, nor sell either but at an exorbitant price. They have a very fine breed of shepherd-dogs, which they bring up on milk, as they seldom have any bread to spare. (The greater part of their wheat is pm-cliased with the money produced by the sale of their cattle.) This breed is: promulgated all over the north of Asia Minor, and I have seen it as 280 NATURAL HISTORY—ZOOLOGY. perfect on the borders of the Lake of Urumiyah in Persia. It is a large handsome dog, of a light-brown colour, with long woolly hair, and is faithful, courageous, and hardy. Some have been known to possess a good scent, and I have seen them used to find game, and to attack the wild boar, which is very large, and does much mischief to the crops of the villagers, who each pay so much a year to people who make a busi¬ ness of hunting this monster of the marshes. While hunting or hawking I have often come across a sow with seven or eight young ones; but my pointers had no chance with them, and it required larger dogs to over¬ come them. I recollect encountering one on foot with a lance, and I had to keep the lance in the huge beast to save myself until my com¬ panions came up and put a ball into the animal. There is a kind of antelope in the higher regions of Mount Taurus which the people call Grha-ik. It is remarkable for the length of its horns, which are sometimes four feet long, and curve over its back in a semicircle without branching ofi at all. It is as large as the fallow- deer, and its skin is much esteemed by the Muhammadans ; it has a strong musk smell, is hard and short in the hair, which is brown, with a darker streak along the back and a dirty yellow white on the stomach. Some years ago one of these animals being caught before it was three days old, it was brought up by a goat in a village near Kulak Bughaz Castle. If not taken very young, it is impossible to have one alive, and there is much difficulty in getting a shot at them, as they are very alert and live among the highest rocks of Mount Taurus. I offered the sports¬ men of Nimrud a handsome present for a live specimen, but in vain.* * This is evidently the ibex (Capra ibex) which occurs throughout Taurus, and is described by Professor Edward Forbes as inhabiting the mountainous parts of Lycia, where it is known by the same name, spelt by him Caik or Caigi. Professor Forbes says (Travels in Lycia, vol. ii. p. 62) that it is specifically identical with the ibex of Switzerland. The “ wild goat” of Crete, whose horns are figured in Mr. Pashley’s work, is the same species. A specimen was procured alive and kept tame as a pet on board the Beacon (Capt. Graves). In Lycia the ibex frequents the summits of the highest mountains in summer. In the month of October 1841, during Mr. Iloskyn’s tour, a herd of them was met with on the summits of the Massicytus, travelling in single file over the steep rocks, at an elevation of 9000 feet. In the winter they are said to descend from the heights. The wild goat of Crete mentioned by Aristotle, and of which he reports that, when wounded, it is said to seek the herb dictamnus, was doubtless this ibex. Its modern name Professor Forbes thinks is only a corruption of the ancient cuf.—W. F. A. CHAPTER XVII. GAME BIRDS. GAME BIRDS- MANNER OF TAKING QUAILS-MANNER OF TAKING FRANCOLIN AND PARTRIDGES—CAPTURE OF WILD DOVES. Quails and woodcocks are very abundant in their respective seasons of passage. The former afford amusement to the peasants, who take them in a very curious manner. A iad walks about till he sees a quail, which he intimidates from rising by holding a jacket extended by two sticks ov ei his head, which the quail mistakes for the wings of a large bird or hawk, and by shaking either of these u wings” he drives the poor little creatuie in the direction he pleases, till he conducts it into a small net he has fixed some yards further off, and then he takes it with the hand. I witnessed another plan for entrapping the quail used by the Arabs on the coast of Egypt, which I will here note. The Arab sticks two branches of the date-tree in the earth; and these are joined about afoot high at the top, forming a triangle, of which the ground is the base, and he fastens thereto a small net opposite the side facing the sea; of these he makes several hundred, planting them in regular rows at ten paces from each other; the quails arrive during the night, or rather very early in the morning, and as soon as they begin to feel the heat of the sun, they naturally seek for shade, which is no where to be found in the sandy desert (between Alexandria and Rosetta) except under these ar¬ tificial bowers, where they are induced to take refuge. About ten o clock, the Arab knows that all the quails have repaired under his treacherous cover, and he has nothing further to do but to present him¬ self on the side facing the sea, which is open, and the quail, if it attempts to fly at all, must be entangled in the net on the other side. In this way thousands are taken daily and brought in cages to market; but they are never so good as those shot, because they soon fret in captivity and become lean. Some of the peasants of the plain of Tarsus and Adana employ 282 GAME BIRDS. sparrow-hawks, which they capture a few days before the passage of the quails (which takes place from the 15th of April to the end of May, and again between the 15th of September and 15th of October), and tiain them to take quails, letting them go again when the sea¬ son is over. If this useful little hawk is kept two years, it is capable ol taking paitridges and francolins, to do which it is requisite to prac¬ tise it at the young birds, which he will continue to take until they are full Hedged. But it is the most delicate of all hawks, and it is very seldom that any remain free from accident for so long a period. Cilicia abounds in francolins and partridges; the latter are of the i ed-legged species and keep to the mountains, coming down into the hilly part of the plains in the winter, and are at that time to be met with in vast numbers among the bushy mounds of sand on the sea¬ shore. The lormer is a morass bird, and never to be found at any distance from water; the female is exactly like the hen pheasant, but not so the male r which has a little tail; but is quite as variegated in colours and as courageous as any of the gallinaceous breed. The people of the country have a curious way of taking these two kinds of birds, namely, by galloping them down; for when they have flown twice, they generally allow themselves to be taken with the hand, probably from exhaustion. The same method is practised in regard to the cormorant in the shallow waters of some rivers; and Sir John Malcolm, in his Sketches in Persia, mentions the circumstance of the Persians taking the partridge in the same manner in the environs of Bushire (Abu Shakir), when he was on his way from that place towards the capital. The. natives sometimes keep a decoy bird, which they expose in spring-time in its cage, when, by its crowing, it attracts other male birds which come to fight with it, and which are thereupon shot from behind a wall or hedge. It is remarkable that the cock will eat the brains of its fallen enemy, which are generally given to it; and it is curious to see it crow and quite glut itself as if triumphing in its repast. Partridges and francolins are also approached by a man holding in his hand a light framework, on which is fixed a checkered linen cloth, two feet by six, with a small hole to peer through, till he comes within shot, when he sticks it m the ground and fires from behind. Turkman children have also an ingenious way of catching larks or any other small, bird. The contrivance is this: they tie at one end of a liorse-hair four inches long, a piece of dry sheep or goat’s dung, and to the other end an insect or grub of any kind; they throw several of these on the ground and retire to a distance; when they see that a bird has swallowed one of these baits, they run to it, and invariably, on its flying, its wings CATCHING DOVES. 283 get entangled in the horse-hair, which is kept hanging down by the weight attached to it, and the bird is thus soon caught. The natives of Galata, to the west of Mursina, have also a simple yet efficacious method of capturing wild doves; these, like all other birds of passage, on their first arrival, fly in a direct line, never deviating thirty paces to the right or left; the people know this, and in the twilight be¬ fore sunrise they place across their road a net six feet high by fifty long. On each side of the road, six or eight men stand with crooked branches of trees about three feet long in their hands, and when they see the doves coming, they throw these dark branches up in the air, and the doves imagining them to be hawks coming down upon them fly very low, and consequently come in contact with the nets, and as they go in flights of thirty or more, many are taken in this way. SCULPTURED ROCKS AT ANAZARBA : FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER. DIANA STARTING FOR THE CHASE.* CHAPTER XVIII. FALCONRY. The ancient and aristocratic sport of falconry, formerly much, in vogue in Cilicia, lias latterly fallen into disuse; even in that province the rich have degenerated to such a point that they cannot conceive any gratifi¬ cation in activity, and the poor are too much occupied in matters more profitable than attending to their hawks, which require constant care and trouble. Still, man is by nature a sportsman, and the Turkmans appre¬ ciate the qualities of a good falconer, the term avgi being still a lauda¬ tory one, and many of their chiefs feel flattered by it. When they see a European excel in their own line, they are much pleased, and look upon him as one of themselves. Some of the young chiefs keep hawks ; but their dogs are badly trained: when young they are allowed to run wild, * From, the original plaster of Paris sketch modelled by Mr. J. Hancock of New- castle-on-Tyne. hawking. 285 and are therefore never afterwards under command. They hunt how¬ ever, with considerable activity; but it is for themselves, as they gene¬ rally eat the game they get hold of, if they are not closely watched. In¬ deed, I once saw a dog swallow a quail—bones, feathers, and ah-with¬ out giving his master the chance or time to get it out of his mouth. Of course they cannot be expected to bring the game on which they are fed, to “ induce them to he sharp and look after it!” as a young Turk¬ man told me; considering it as a matter of course that a dog would not hunt without such incentive. As soon as the dog seizes the bird, the master calls out, “ Ilusht! husht /” throwing a stone or any thing he can at him to make him let go the bird, in order to get hold of it him¬ self, and cut its throat before it dies; for if it dies of itself, or is killed by the dog, they look upon it as strangled, and their religion forbids their eating it. But some confirmed sportsmen laugh at this, and cut the birds throat subsequently, in order to make it appear that this prescribed formality has been gone through in proper time, and thus induce their women to cook the game for them. , The Turkmans have but one kind of sporting dog. It appears to be of a somewhat similar breed to the Scotch terrier, and is well adapted to go through the bushes, as its hair is long, and it is a hardy beast. It is called boji; is small, and has long bristly hair (generally grey, and abounding about the eyes and nose). It is an intelligent animal, and were it brought up by a European, might be rendered subservient and useful for the hawk; and as they are natives of a hot climate, they can stand the heat well, and remain longer without water. Such qualities are valuable; for I have seen my dogs quite knocked up as late in the year as the 25th of November, and chiefly from the heat of the season. These Turkman bojis have not so acute a scent as some of our best dogs in England, but they are as good as the generality of common breeds, and very persevering. It is really astonishing how these poor creatures hunt at all, for they are nearly starved. Besides the sparrow-hawk ( accipiter nisus), hashek in Arabic, atmajia in Turkish, the Cilicians are acquainted with three species of hawks : I he gos-hawk, doghan j autour of Buffon, aster palumharius of Linnaeus. The lanner, seifee; falco gentilis or lanarius of Linnaeus. The peregrine, sheheen; falco nohilis or per eg rinus of Linnaeus.* * The sparrow-hawk is the falco nisus ; the gos-hawk the falco palumharius ; the falco gentilis is the greater buzzard, falco gallinarius of Temminck. According to the latter author, the falco peregrinus of Linnaeus and the falco lanarius of Gmelin are different ages of the true blue-backed falcon.—W. F. A. 286 FALCONRY. The doghan or gos-hawk is a native of Mount Taurus. It is fre¬ quently brought up from the nest, as bad sportsmen imagine that by that means a hawk becomes tamer, and not so likely to fly away. But this is an error; and I do not know that there is really any benefit to be derived from an eyas ; and I can point out several disadvantages. One is, that unless very carefully and constantly fed when young, it gets into the habit of “ calling” when it is hungry—a great vice, and one that is catching in birds. No sportsman would keep such among his hawks, as it would spoil the whole lot. Further, the hawk takes to scratching, and will not easily give up the game it seizes, which it often nearly tears to pieces. Besides these disadvantages, the hawk having never caught any thing in the wild state, must be taught; and it requires some time to develop its instinct : whereas haggards, that is, hawks taken by the net full-fledged, know what they have to do, having hunted on their own account, and it is merely necessary to tame them in order to ren¬ der them useful birds. They are also more careful of their wings, the advantages of which they can appreciate better than a bird that has never flown, and they are soon brought into the use of their faculties; whereas the nestling or eyas has to be taught to fly, and practised a long while before it can be brought into wind. On the whole, therefore, I lean towards the haggard; and the doghan is so tractable a creature, that in the course of ten days it may be brought to be as tame as can be desired. Generally speaking, a much longer time is taken to train them by timid or inexperienced falconers; but I have myself hunted a doghan and made him take a partridge the eighth day; but then I had dogs accustomed to hunt under the hawk, which is of great consequence, as a dog that does not know what hawks are will do more harm than good. In England hawks are “ flown at hack that is, when brought from the nest, they are kept in a shed, where they are regularly fed, and allowed to fly away and return in the evening to their roost.* This is a great advantage, as it enables you to keep your hawk much fatter; and in after times, when hunting, if it is lost or flies away, you know that it will return home. And this is particularly advantageous in case of hawks of the lure, which are most prone to wander. The doghan is so steady a bird that it is extremely difficult to lose it; and he must be a very inexperienced falconer who would allow it to be in that state which would induce it to fly away. Thus, on the whole, the doghan gives the least trouble of any kind of hawk, and requires the least train- * The falconers in the East cannot do this, as they would be sure to have their hawks stolen. PRACTICE OF HAWKING. 287 ing ; and we shall see further that it is the bird the best adapted for the present state of the country. I have lately perused a work of much interest, called Game Birds and Wild Fowl , their Friends and their Foes, by A. E. Knox, M.A., F.E.S. The author devotes a chapter to falconry, and gives a graphic account of this exhilarating sport from the experience of his friend, Colonel Bonham, of the 10th Hussars, who, he says, although a good shot and a practised stalker, laid aside the gun and the rifle for the en¬ joyment of the “ noble craft.” “ Would that others could be tempted to follow his example ! To this I would add, as an inducement, my persuasion, that those who have not felt all the excitement experienced by the talconei cannot be said to have tasted of all the pleasures of life * and surely if there remain to them still one enjoyment which is so re¬ fined and innocent, it is worth their while to give it a fair trial, which all can do who have the means of keeping a man, two horses, and a doo-, and have the run of an open country. Knox’s description (page 164) of the perfection to which dogs can be brought goes far beyond my experience, as I have not had the advan¬ tage of seeing dogs in such good training; and I considered that one dog I had for seven years had reached the acme of what dogs were capable of; but I find, from what he says, that the intelligence of the Russian set¬ ters leads them to distinguish and appreciate the nature of the different characters in which they were alternately required to appear; and when the game was sprung, and the bird fell or flew away, no attempt was made, no inclination was evinced, to break the point; they would “ down charge” as instantaneously and perfectly as if the discipline usual in such cases had never been for a moment relaxed in their sport under the hawks. Dogs, in hawking, are expected to run in upon the game directly it rises, and follow the hawk as closely as possible. I had a pointer that would cross the river and hunt alone under the hawk who had pursued the quarry to the other side, and would be on the top of a bush waiting the arrival of his coadjutor to raise the game, which generally takes refuge on the first flight in the closest cover at hand. Doll would first go round the bush to make sure that the partridge had not skulked out, and then entering, would raise it. The bird would then try to fly back to the side of the river from whence it was first started, and would sometimes be struck close to my feet by the hawk. Sometimes the bird fell into the river at the moment of being seized. In this case the hawk would not let go his prey; but both might be seen sailing down the stream, until Doll, swimming back to me, and see¬ ing how matters stood, could go to the rescue, and land hawk and 288 FALCONRY. partridge on my side of the river. If the quarry drops in the river be¬ fore it is caught, the doghan will not lay hold of it, but will return to his master. But it happens that he sometimes overtakes it before it is quite in the water, and yet not sufficiently in the air to enable him to carry it, which he can easily do, to a distance of a couple of hundred yards, when at a sufficient height in the air. Can you imagine any sight more attractive and picturesque than the repose of the party after the excitement of an exploit like the one just mentioned ? Often might you see the dog actually hunt alone with the hawk across the river, and return Avith the hawk, or be in time to rescue it from the stream. My Arab mare appeared, upon these occasions, to understand what was going on, and to take as much interest as the falconer in the sport.* And as the hawk (after having been duly fed) was perched on her back, she Avould turn round and look approvingly (for horses can look apprcw- ingly) at the intelligent victor, Avhile the dog, having shaken off the water from its back, would be jumping up to lick her mouth ; the sportsman caressing all the three, wondering which he loved best, his gallant ha\vk, his generous mare, or his faithful dog! Mr. Knox acknowledges that the movements of the gos-haAvk in cover are exceedingly rapid and effective. Its short wings enable it to pass more easily through the interstices of boughs; Avliile with its long and fan-like tail it steers its Avay and performs marvellously intricate eA r o- lutions, as it pursues the pheasant, the black-cock, the hare, or the squirrel, through the tangled labyrinths of coppice and underwood. But he says, u its character is altogether devoid of that energy and per¬ severance that are so conspicuous in the falcon. If the quarry should gain an advantage at the beginning of the chase, it frequently relin¬ quishes the pursuit altogether, and, settling on the nearest branch, pre¬ pares to dart upon the next passer-by.” This is the general complaint made by sportsmen against the gos- * I am not exaggerating the intelligence of these noble creatures; and I declare that my horse would always distinguish between a hare and any other animal, be¬ tween the game I sought and any common bird, of which it would take no notice, but always start off in pursuit of the quarry, when put up, if I happened to be looking a different way. It is a known fact, that the Arab horse, when let loose to graze while his master is reposing, will always come up and snort, to apprise him of the approach of an intruder on the privacy of the desert. In the East the saddles are made to cover the greater part of the back of the horse, and are much more convenient than the English saddle for mounting and dismounting, with the embarrassment of the hawk on the hand, which it is very often requisite to do. The pommel is large enough to form a hold for the left hand ; and the hind part of the saddle is raised, so that it is often convenient to perch the hawk upon it. An English rider mounts by the mane of the horse, and not the pommel, in order not to throw too great a strain upon the saddle and saddle-girths. THE GOS-HAWK. 289 hawk, but my experience has shewn me that these defects are not in¬ herent in the hawk; but originate generally with the sportsman. If a gos-hawk is properly trained, and given something (say the head) of every thing he takes, he will never give up the pursuit until he reaches the bush wherein the quarry has taken refuge; but the dog and the falconer must be alert, and come to his assistance, and never give up the search for that identical bird. If the bird is let go, and the sportsman looks aftei another, the hawk, whose mind and soul are set upon that particular biid, which he will distinguish from among any number that may rise, and will never fail to pursue in preference to the rest, is dis¬ couraged from the sport. Mr. Knox proceeds :—“ It was not without reason, therefore, that this species, and some other hawks of similar structure, habits, and character, were styled £ ignoble’ by our ancestors, to distinguish them from the long-winged, high-flying, or ‘ noble ’ falcons.” I am sorry to differ from an authority of such high standing as- the naturalist above quoted 5 but I would beg to suggest a very different reason for the epithet in question. The gos-hawk, and those of his structure, are birds so much easier to train and keep than the falcons, which require a man for each, that the vulgar herd used them when they could not afford to keep those of a higher flight, which were thus left to the privileged aristocratic and rich falconers. That the gos-hawk is more efficient than the peregrine is clear from the fact that Colonel Bonham, according to Mr. Knox, acknowledges that “ three grouse were sufficient to take from a falcon in one day” Colonel Bonham being a great proficient, and having had great practice, must be allowed to be a fair judge; and I am assured that, in general, the peregrine cannot be brought to take so many. One flight, or two at most, daily, is all that is expected of him by the falconers of the present day. Now, the dog- han will take as many birds as you can fly him at; and I have repeat¬ edly taken fifteen to twenty francolins in a country where there were no preserves, and where we had to hunt out our game. What would the doghan not do here in England, provided always he had the head of the quarry given him to encourage him ? That our forefathers did not look upon the gos-hawk as really ignoble, may be seen from the many elaborate treatises published in the way of treating and hunting this hawk alone; and that they appreciated his good qualities may be inferred from their always keeping one “ to feed their falcons with” that is, fo secure game for them when the peregrine was not in humour to hunt, a thing of constant occurrence. Indeed, I believe that the uncertainty and ca¬ prices of this latter bird have been the chief cause of the noble art of 290 FALCONRY. falconry falling into disrepute. People could not afford to keep several of these birds (for each of which, properly speaking, a man is required) in order to secure one flight or two. Sometimes the falconer might, in his zest for the sport, invite a party of friends to witness his exploits, and twenty to one but they were all disappointed, and told that the bird, on being tried out - in the field, was not in the humour ; was too fat, or too thin, or some other excuse 5 and you are never sure what your bird will do till you have had the trouble of going out to fly him. Now the gos-hawk, when properly broken in, requires little or no attention ; his master need keep no servants or falconer to attend upon him, and carry him day and night on the hand, which is requisite with the peregrine; if in proper trim, he is ready to hunt, and you can count upon him, and you may fiy him as often as you please in the course of a day. I do not recollect over seeing my hawks done up from flight after flight, for six hours consecutively; and I have known a gos-hawk belonging to Rizu Kuli Mirza Nayebel Ayaly, a Persian prince residing at Bagdad, take twenty-one francolins consecutively. The prince as¬ sured me, and I firmly believe him, that he made sure of the quarry every time he let him fiy from his hand. I have myself taken four hares and a dozen francolins, with several minor birds, and some larger birds, in one day; and I invariably found my gos-hawk improve by ex¬ ercise,—the more I hunted him, the more he was anxious to continue the sport. If ever falconry is to be revived in England, this bird will be the one to which we must have recourse. The enclosed state of the country has been generally brought forward as a reason for this sport having been discontinued. Such may be the case; and it constitutes the chief impediment in hunting with the peregrine, where life and death are in the scale; for if you do not arrive in time to assist your falcon, he may be killed by the crane or heron. But in following the gos-hawk, you need never go faster than a hand canter ; and you will not find more impediments in your way than a fox-hunter is prepared to meet: surely, therefore, this should be no discouragement. Besides, if your dogs know what they are about, they will follow the hawk while you go round by a gate; and when you come up, you will be just in time to see the game raised, and the hawk waiting your arrival on the nearest bush or tree; for the gos-hawk flies in a straight line at his quarry, which he never allows to go beyond a thousand yards from the place it first started from. Indeed, the sport with the gos-hawk is so gentle, and, in a tolerably open country, so easy, that I think it particularly adapted for ladies; and I GOS-HAWKS. 291 shall be happy to hear of some of our noble-minded countrywomen setting the example to the sex, and give every encouragement to the sportsman, by honouring him with their presence, and cheering him by an interest in his success. TV ith such inducements of so refined a character, I have no doubt that the art of falconry would be revived 5 and it would be delightful to strive, by patience and attention to our hawks, to gain the approving smile of beauty. Indeed, the presence of the fair sex consti¬ tuted in former times, no doubt, half the charm of falconry. Let me not be thought desirous of detracting from the merits of the pei eg line 01 the Iomtlgt . Hie latter is one of the most perfect of its race; but both require much attention and an open country, and must be left to those who ha ve attained great perfection in the art of falconry. Gene- 1 ally speaking, the gos-liawk will answer the purposes of most sportsmen. At the Zoological Gardens there are now five or six gos-hawks impoited from Germany; one of these I have trained and sent into the country, consigning it to the care of F. H. Salvin, Esq., Killingbeck Hall, Leeds, who has succeeded in making it take rabbits ; and latterly “ Juno” has distinguished herself, and taken hares, which is an inter¬ esting sight, and one that no person in England has witnessed, except myself and a friend who visited me in Cilicia. I trust this bird, by her feats, may be the cause of once more attracting the attention of the public to an amusement now almost extinct.* I cannot speak too highly of Mr. Salvin’s intelligence, patience, and perseverance. He has carried his refinement so far, as to hunt "with the otter, and has performed mi¬ racles with some cormorants, which he tamed and trained to take fish for him. I am happy that he has turned his attention to the gos-hawk, as, having kept falcons some years back, he will no doubt be better able to do justice to this bird than any one else. Mr. John Hancock of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a gentleman well known as one of our first naturalists, has, I believe, carried falconry to perfec¬ tion. He has kept every kind of hawk, and understands well their habits and mode of life. His collection of stuffed birds and their eggs is quite unique both in its variety and in the way they are got up. No one who has seen them can forget the specimens of taxidermy he exhi¬ bited in the transept of the Great Exhibition; and I am happy to hear that he is about to favour the public with lithographic drawings, done by himself, of what I may very properly call “ anatomical specimens of stuffed birds,” and which stand prominent in the art which he has * I have since received two trained gos-hawks from Tarsus. They were three months in a cage on their way to England, and came in perfect health. They have j ust finished moulting in the Zoological Gardens. 292 FALCONRY. carried to such perfection, as to rank, in my opinion, with the first painters. Falconry is, indeed, not quite extinct in England; for I find that the Duke of Leeds takes an interest in this noble sport; and Colonel Thorn¬ ton, Lord Orford, Sir Thomas Sebright, Colonel Wilson, and the late Duke of St. Alban’s (the Grand Falconer of England), have all kept hawks. So late as 18o9, there was a Hawking Society, called the Norfolk Hawking Club ; and on its being dissolved, some of the members, such as the Duke of Leeds, the late Honourable C. Wortley, and Mr. E. ClufF Newcome, joined the Loo Club patronised by the present King of Holland. Mr. Newcome, as well as Captain Yerner and some others, still pursue this sport with great success ; and I cannot but express the gieatest interest in their pursuit, and wish their example may be fol¬ lowed by others. I am also informed that there are plenty of open districts still in England, upon the chalk formation, suitable to falconry, such as the country between Lincoln and Peterborough, the Berkshire and Wilt¬ shire Downs, seen from the Great Western Railway, and the country about Brighton, Winchester, &c. Those who cannot find time or con¬ venience to go to these places, let them keep the humble, unassuming, useful, and efficient gos-hawk, which I have hunted successfully in a country as bushy as any that nature has produced, and as wild as can be well imagined. The dense thickets that occur between Mount Tau¬ rus and the sea-shore, are, indeed, remarkable. The dog can scarcely penetrate them, and sportsmen would generally flinch from flying a hawk there; but living as I did in the vicinity at Mursina, I used to try, day after day, and I soon learned the “ dodges” requisite to ensure a good day’s sport, even with such difficulties to surmount. I find that Colonel Thornton and the Earl of Orford were the last sportsmen who took the hare and the kite with the Iceland falcon towards the close of the 17th century (1700). In 1844, Mr. E. C. New- come, of Hockwold Hah, Brandon, Norfolk, took, with a cast of old “ passage-hawks,” fifty-seven herons.* I also hear from my fellow-admirers of this sport, that his Grace the Duke of Leeds, when Marquis of Carmarthen, and living at Dunotar The her ons are not killed; but being taken alive from the hawk, a copper ring, with the name of the captor and date upon it, is fixed to its legs, and it is turned off again ; and as the heron is a long-lived bird, I have read of their being recaptured many years after. Indeed, in one instance, a bird was shot at the Cape of Good Hope, bearino- on its leg a date so ancient that I am afraid to venture upon noting it here. FEAT OF A IIAWK. 293 House, near Stonehaven, in Kincardineshire, Scotland, killed with one peregrine, an old eyas tiercel, “the General,” 130 partridges out of 133 flights in one season. These instances, and Colonel Bonham’s suc¬ cess in Ireland, should, I think, encourage others to enter the field of competition; and I should be happy to afford them every assistance and information in my power, having had great experience for many years, during my residence in the East, in the training of hawks. Indeed, when I visited Persia, Malek Ivasem Mirza, the viceroy of Azerbigian, declared to his officers that he had learned a great deal from me in con¬ versation on the subject, when I passed some twenty days in his happy valley near the borders of the lake of Urimiyah; and I confess that I also learned much from him, for the Persians have carried falconry to the greatest perfection possible. As an example of which I will cite one case. Timour Mirza Seif-il-dowly, great grandson of the King of Per¬ sia, Feth Ali Shah, now residing with his two elder brothers at Bagdad, when at Aleppo some years ago, was accompanied by my brother in a hawking expedition. He had only a gos-hawk with him, having left his other falcons (of which he has more than a dozen, chiefly lanners) at home. He rode with his slave behind him equally well mounted. On coming to the place where partridges were expected to be found, two rose at the same time. He let off his hawk, which seized one of them immediately in the air at a few paces off. The prince dismounted and took it from the hawk, which he raised in his right hand, concealing the prize with his left. The hawk looked forward, and seeing the other partridge still flying in the open country, proceeded in pursuit of it. The prince remounted, giving the first partridge to his man, and gal- lopped off after his hawk, coming up just after it had overtaken and seized the partridge that had flown upwards of a quarter of a mile, thus effecting “ un coup double /” This he did three times successively, taking six partridges one after the other, to the astonishment of my bro¬ ther, who was aware of the difficulty that is experienced by falconers in extracting the quarry out of the hand of the hawk, so as to enable it to look forward, instead of looking after the missing bird. I must note, however, that the country where this took place was clear of any bush, and that the partridge could scarcely hide itself any where, except under a stone; and that it is not extraordinary that it should be taken in such an open country; the wonder lay in the bird’s patient obedience to its master, in allowing him possession of the partridge, and flying im¬ mediately after the second. In that open country, I have myself taken forty-two partridges in three days, with a bird I had not had in train¬ ing ten days, and which Ibrahim Pasha had given me; and I believe 294 FALCONRY. that there is no limit to the number of birds a gos-hawk would take when in proper condition—quite as many as he may be flown at, always provided he is not discouraged by being deprived of his right to the head. Sportsmen have found that it is necessary to keep each falcon to a distinct species of quarry, i. e. you cannot properly fly them at fur and feather indiscriminately. But although this rule applies also to the gos-hawk in some degree, I have found that it is by no means unexcep¬ tionable ; for I used to fly my gos-hawk (one I kept seven years) at every thing ; and I remember often returning home with every kind of game that I had met with, including hares, ducks, geese, partridges, franco- lins, curlews, water-birds, small herons, quails, rails, and even crows, and birds of rapine, three times his size ! Indeed, there was nothing he would not fly at, if I would let him go; and he once actually attacked a vulture, which had carried off one of his companions, a gos-hawk belonging to a sporting friend, who was out with me, and who had neglected his bird in pursuing the game his dogs were hot upon. Besides the German gos-hawk, there is at the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, a precious and beautiful specimen of the Australian gos¬ hawk ; it is perfectly white, and its eyes are the colour of bright rubies. This is a hawk of considerable value for the sportsman ; its hands are larger in comparison to the other European and Asiatic gos-hawks, as it is smaller in body. But judging from appearances, I am led to believe that it would be swifter in flight, and, on the whole, a more efficient bird. I have had the pleasure of taming this bird, and could, I think, promise to turn it out a perfect hawk. This is the only specimen in England ; but I believe that Mr. Mitchell, the secretary to the society, is daily expecting some more of them from our antipodes. It forms, in my opinion, the beau idea of perfection in a hawk. I consider it worthy of a princely hand, and should be happy to see his Royal Highness Prince Albert patronise the training of this bird to afford amusement to our young Prince of Wales. It is without a defect, and might be brought to perform wonders. There are also peregrines and Iceland falcons to be seen in the same collection. Hitherto, indeed, the natural history of hawks has been much neglected, and we must look forward to more correct and valuable drawings, which we are promised by Mr. Hancock. The two accompanying illustrations have been kindly furnished me by my friend Mr. John Hancock, to exhibit the different forms of the two tribes of “ hawk of the lure” and “ hawk of the fist.”* I cannot avoid making a few remarks here on the wanton destruction of life ANTIQUITY OF FALCONRY. 295 In England, hawks are divided into long-winged and short-winged ; in the East, they follow the same division, hut call them black and yellow-eyed ; the peregrine and lanner being of the former, the gos¬ hawk and sparrow-hawk of the latter. And it is remarkable how, on almost every point, the sportsmen of the East and West are agreed. Although the communication between them has been interrupted for centuries, the general system of treatment, the many ingenious con¬ trivances, either discovered or handed down from posterity, are in THE GOS-HAWK. THE FALCON. both alike. Each use bells, jesses, leashes, hoods, and gauntlets, that are much alike. They imp the broken feathers in the same way; and both bathe and weather their hawks, give castings, and feed them in the same manner. This alone would prove the ancient origin of falconry, which appears to have had one source, and probably to have been in¬ troduced by the Indo-Germanic race from the plains of Hindustan, so favourable to hawking. It appears from all accounts that falconry is more generally attended to there than in any other part of the world ; and it was there that Colonel Bonham seems to have acquired his valu¬ able experience, “ in spite of Thugs, tigers, and fever,” and where his which the mania for collecting eggs and birds to stuff has generated. At the late sale of the valuable and interesting zoological collection at Knowsley, many a rare animal was bought in order to kill and stuff it; and the exertions made in collecting eggs, an unfair practice and a morbid taste, will soon deprive us of many an interesting bird, unless put a stop to by the execration of public opinion, expressed on all possible occasions. 296 FALCONRY. perseverance lias been rewarded by the acquisition of many a sporting trophy. I here is a kind of hawk called by the Easterns ispir. I have only seen one of these. They are much esteemed and fetch a great price : I have heard it said that 5/., a dog, a horse, a camel, a donkey, a cow, a goat, and a sheep, have been given in exchange for one of these birds. They are very rare in Syria, and always haggards; but I must confess that I have not been able to make a real distinction between them and the doghan, except that, when they have moulted, their eyes remain yellow , the pristine colour of the first year, whereas that of the doghan changes into a ruby red. They are certainly more powerful and swifter of flight, flying up hill after partridges, and taking them often compre¬ hensively, that is, flying at the covey , and not singling out any particular bird, by which means the whole lot is brought to a stand-still in a small space, while the hawk is flying about from.bush to bush making a whistling noice, which so frightens the partridges that they allow them¬ selves to be taken by the dogs rather than fly again. When the sports¬ man has thus secured the whole covey, he throws up one to the hawk in waiting, who seizes it in the air, and gives it up, after having been rewarded with the head for his patience and assistance, and is ready to renew the sport until evening, when, of course, he must be well fed on the last taken. Modern sportsmen, in these degenerate days, will perhaps call this proceeding a species of poaching; but when we consider the difficulty and merit of training hawks to be so tractable, we must not, in consideration of the tastes of others, desecrate the noble art of falconry with such an appellation ; and we must recollect that, in the East, the chief point looked to is the quantity bagged, which, by the by, is much the same with our present generation, who go out in a preserve to shoot at game as if they were so many barn-door fowls, and glory in the number they bring down without any exertion or tiouble. It is related of Charles X. of France, that a shooting day used to cost him thousands of francs in powder alone, as he had a party of keepers sent round to drive up the game (by firing at it in the air without shot), and bring it under the aim of the royal gun ! Ihe yellow-eyed hawks, or hawks of the fist, are never hooded; those of the lure aie accustomed to the hood, because, I believe, that, as the lattei sit moie forward on the hand than the former, they cannot ba¬ lance themselves so well; and it is necessary to blind them in order to cany them about, as by that means you compel them to have recourse to their 1 hands , ’ instead of constantly opening their u sails ” to help themselves in their balance. This is the only use I can discover of the THE PEREGRINE. 297 hood, and I would never recommend it, except on particular occasions, when necessary to keep the bird quiet. But otherwise I consider the use of the hood should be deprecated. The songhur * is a larger species of peregrine. It is sometimes taken in the north of Asia Minor; but I have not seen a specimen of this falcon. It is considered by the Turkmans as the king of birds, and they have assured me that all the feathered tribes “ tremble in its presence.” The peregrine of the cliffs of Mount Taurus is smaller than the Eng¬ lish peregrine, but more beautifully variegated in plumage. It is known as the “ Barbary falcon.” It is generally kept in the East by rich men, who can afford to have one man, or even two men, for each bird. The hand of the falconer should be its only perch. Thus treated, its natural wildness is conquered, and it may be brought to take any thing, although it is generally kept to protect the doghan from the attacks of its natural-enemies, the eagle and vulture. So we see that the peregrine acts but a secondary, although a loyal part, in the estimation of Eastern falconers. The lanner, I have said, is the perfection of birds. The older it grows, the more perfect it becomes, it is so gentle and so tractable; but it requires a very experienced sportsman to bring it to hunt at all. If he once succeeds, the bird is without price. It is the hawk most in use in Bagdad, where they are divided into several species, each having a separate name and employment. Some are trained to assist the dogs in taking the gazelles of the neighbouring desert, which it does by fasten¬ ing itself on the head of the females, which have no horns, until the dogs come up. It is a native of the centre of Asia Minor; and I am told that you may see a nest on every tree in front of the habitations of the people of Bur and Nigdy. If naturalists have not called this hawk the “ falco gentilis ,” they have given a misnomer to any other species, and deprived it of its rights. Its eyes are of a bluish-black colour; its beak grey, with whitish-grey feet, and black claws. It is not unlike in feathers to the English peregrine in its first year’s plumage. I cannot, however, be expected to enter here into a dissertation on the treatment and training of hawks. To do this effectively a separate volume should be devoted to the subject. I have only mentioned cursorily what I thought might be of most interest, and which I trust will attract the attention of the sporting world. Falconry is a source of healthy and innocent enjoyment; and it is very desirable that some person of distinction should patronise its re¬ vival. Being conducted on horseback, quietly , it is more adapted to the * The Turkish appellation of this falcon. 298 FALCONRY generality of sportsmen than fox-hunting or shooting, both of which are too violent exercises for many persons, and subject to many serious accidents, from which falconry is quite free. This “ noble craft” com¬ bines every advantage, and let us hope will be brought into fashion once again; that we may see, as our ancestors did, those scenes so gra¬ phically portrayed by our immortal Walter Scott and other celebrated novelists, when describing this pageant of past glory. GESRIL HADEED, IN THE PLAINS OF ANTIOCH FROM A SKETCH BY MR. C. F. BARKER. CHAPTER XIX. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Among the medicinal herbs that have fallen under my notice, I must mention the Adiantum capillus Veneris , or maiden-hair, of which the people of the country make a strong decoction to remove dysentery and violent diarrhoea. There is also a black seed, like a dried black bean, of which I have not learned the name (nor is it, perhaps, used in the materia medica, if known at all). It is remarkably useful in the above maladies ; it is a tasteless astringent, and one or two seeds pounded up and taken in coffee bring about the desired effect. The Colocynth , or bitter apple, which grows wild on the sea-coast. The Palma Christi , or castor-oil plant, which the inhabitants culti¬ vate for domestic as well as medicinal purposes. Mount Taurus produces also the Scammony plant, and the gum is collected from the wild plants by persons who come to Tarsus from Latachia expressly for the purpose. And, lastly, the Scilla maritima , which is to be found every where on a sandy ground. The bulb of this plant is dried in an oven and reduced to powder ; it forms an excellent gum or glue, used by shoe¬ makers instead of their wax ; when required, it is simply rubbed up gradually with a little cold water into a paste , and after it is used and has dried, it becomes impervious to moisture, and no insect will touch it. In the state used in Turkey, it is of a brown colour ; but I think that, by sifting it of the rind, the remaining pith would be white, and it might be made available in book-binding, saddlery, &c. I brought some of it with me to England, and it has been declared to possess many valuable qualities. In Europe, the squill is a well-known medicinal agent for coughs and consumption; but these maladies are unknown in Cilicia and Syria. So true is this, that the ancient Greek and Roman physicians were in the habit of sehding their consumptive patients from Europe to Antioch and Suedia, on account of the beauty and salubrity 300 MEDICINAL PLANTS. of the climate : an example which, it is to be hoped, our countrymen will soon learn to follow; for in few places can so fine a climate, such beautiful scenery and vegetation, such resources in learned or philan¬ thropic pursuits, or in field-sports, and such cheap living, be found united together. The country would also benefit infinitely by the occasional residence of our valetudinarians at Suedia, Betias, or the neighbourhood. The reason that these districts have hitherto attracted so little attention is because travellers generally confine themselves to the beaten tract from Beyrut to Palestine. In this respect Mr. Neale’s work, lately published, is calculated to do some good. betias: mr. barker's summer residence on mount rhossus. FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER. APPENDIX. A. NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY, WRITTEN FROM HIS OWN DICTATION.* Depuis l’instant ou Dieu tout puissant crea dans le ciel 1’etoile qui devait marquer mon existence, et depuis le jour de ma naissance jusqu’a 1’age de onze ans, enfant, je ne savais rien, je n’avais rien vu, si ce n’est les pleurs de ma bien-aimee et tres-lionoree mere, possedant une ame celeste, qui, au milieu d’un chagrin continuel, n’ay ait pu m’apprendre autre chose qu’a l’ai- mer et a partager ses peines. J’appris aussi, avant de l’avoir jamais vu, que mon bien-aime empereur et pere avait ete assassine par son propre frere qui par-la a imprime sur le front de mon oncle une tache de sang, que rien ne pourra elfacer de son vivant, et qui souillera sa memoire lors- qu’il aura rejoint ses ancetres dans l’^ternite. J’appris encore qu’it l’epoque du massacre des innocentes dames de son harem, ce Dieu tout puissant et misericordieux, qui m’a donne l’etre, se servit de la main meme d’un des assassins pour sauver les jours de ma tendre mere—barbare assassin, qui montrait des sentimens de generosite et d’humanite superieurs a ceux d’un oncle souille de sang—empereur de droit, mais de fait un assassin, qui s’abreuvait du sang de sa propre famille. De cette epoque, quoiqu’en- fant, mon jeune cceur eprouyait toutes les angoisses d’une pareille tra- * The mistakes left are those in the original, which, though incorrect, is very good for a Turk to dictate to an Italian amanuensis. (For Translation, see p. 310.) It may be proper to premise here, that the author in no way pretends to guarantee the authenticity of the above extraordinary document. The improbability of the events and the incoherence of the writer are manifest throughout. Little faith can therefore be placed in the princely origin claimed by its author. Still there are such strange things enacted in a country circumstanced as Turkey is, and which receive such frequent illustration in its past history, and there is so much that is romantic in the life ol this Oriental adventurer, that there is every excuse for presenting so curious a biography in his own words. If necessary, a further excuse might be found for such a publication, in the fact that the existence of such a personage as Nadir Bey—as a pretender to the throne of the Osmanlis—was very generally known in the countries that border the Mediterranean. Miss Romer, as we shall afterwards see, has already published some account of “the Turkish pretender,” as that lady designates him; and frequent allusions have also been made in the Maltese and other newspapers of the day to the same extraordinary personage, whose story has now for some time excited the greatest interest and curiosity in many parts of the world, but has never before been given in the author’s own words. 302 APPENDIX. gedie de mon pauvre pere, que mes yeux n’avaient pas eu le bonheur de voir, mais que mon coeur avait devine, et je detestais Taction horrible de mon oncle. Comme enfant, je partageais les chagrins de ma royale mere, l’objet de mon affection la plus devouee dans mon enfance, et de mon respect, de mon amour, dans l’adolescence, et mon unique consolation dans l’age viril. Mais lielas ! peu de terns apres le chagrin qui la con- sumait termina les jours de cette auguste dame, et elle s’envola, comme je l’espere et le crois fermement, vers les regions du bonheur eternel. Elle me laissa par droit d’heritage les droits de prince imperial, titre que la puissance divine m’accordait, et qu’aucun pouvoir humain ne pouvait me contester, et dont on ne pent sans crime me priver ; mais en meme terns elle me legua aussi un chagrin profond, et une douleur dont la puissance humaine ne pouvait adoucir Tamertume. Elle me laissa aussi un vetement superficiel que nul ne pouvait dechirer a l’exception de moi- meme; elle me laissa un sentiment de vengeance dont moi seul peut connaitre la profondeur; elle me laissa des diamants, preuve de la muni¬ ficence imperiale de son auguste epoux le sultan, et son amant; elle me laissa des papiers ecris de son auguste main—ajoutez a cela quelle me confia aux soins, a la prudence, et a la protection de Joaniza, homme d’environ soixante-dix ans, qui avait survecu a sa femme et ses enfants, etre devoue et fidele au service de ma mere, et reconnaissant des bontes et des bienfaits qu’elle avait repandus sur lui pendant sa vie. Elle lui recommanda de me conduire a Constantinople, ayant soin de ne faire connaitre ni mon nom ni ma naissance, mais de me faire donner une education ottomane aussi brillante que possible; et lorsque je arriverais a Tage de majorite, de declarer mes droits, et de m’engager a les faire valoir. C’est ainsi que la plus cherie des meres expira dans cet espoir. Mais il ne fut pas realise ; car “ Thomme propose, et Dieu dispose.” L’honnete vieillard, fidele executeur des ordres de sa bienfaitrice, essaya de me conduire a Constantinople, sans s’inquieter de ses propres infirmites et de son age avance. Peu de terns apres la mort de ma mere nous partimes de Caffa, ville de la Crimee, ou ses saintes cendres impe¬ rials reposent: nous arrivames a Odessa dans l’intention de nous rendre a la capitale oil avaient regne mes ancetres; mais nous fumes arretes dans notre voyage par les lois arbitraires de la Eussie, qui ne permettent a aucun sujet de passer la frontiere ; et quoique le vieux Joaniza fut descendu d’une famille de la Moldavie, et devenu sujet de la Eussie par suite d’un sejour de plusieurs annees dans cet empire, ou la justice est inconnue. Cependant, apres avoir ete retenu pendant trois ans dans cette ville, le bon vieillard termina sa carriere, et je restai sans protection, isole, et sans un seul ami, a l’age de quinze ans. Je connus NARRATIVE OE NADIR BEY. 303 alors la situation deplorable dans laquelle je me trouvais place. Je rappellai a ma memoire les dernieres paroles de ma noble mere, que me redisait souvent le bon vieillard, et ce fut alors que la vengeance prit reellement possession de mon cceur; et ayant arrange mes projets, j’im- plorai dans les Jarmes la protection de Dieu seul, et pla^ant toute ma confiance en lui, j appellai la prudence et le courage a mon aide, et quittai la ville, accompagne d’un Grec nomme Maoris, qui allait en Moree, passant par Trieste pour servir son pays, disait-il. Arrive a Bulta, les Juifs astucieux decouvrirent un air de mystere existant entre moi et mon compagnon, attendu que, n’ayant point de passeport, je comptais sur sa prudence; malgre que j’eusse achete cherement l’amitie de ces Juifs, les mallieureux n’en suivirent pas moins leurs dispositions a la duplicite, et aussitot que j’en eus connaissance, je quittai cette ville et mon compagnon, et seul je gagnai Mozilow sur le Dniester. La je fus assez tranquille, et je fis tout ce que je put pour gagner l’amitie de chacun, et apprendre tout ce que je pouvais. La j’appris un peu le Polonais; de-la je me rendis a Lozensk, ou, par hasard, je me suis procure un document d’Eleftliery, en Grec, sorte de passeport, qui me mit a meme ensuite de voyager en Russie sous ce deguisement, et d’etre admis dans la meilleure societe de cet empire. Je fus a meme d’etudier sa force et sa politique, ses lois, et la faiblesse de ses ressources ; en un mot, je put apprecier son gouvernement avec justesse. La j’ai vu l’en- nemi puissant de mon pays, et par consequent de mon coeur; enfin, je quittai la Russie pour me rendre en Pologne, ou je trouvai ce peuple guerrier, brave et genereux, et sa brillante armee ; je commen^ai des lors a m’attacher a la theorie et aux tactiques de leur armee; et j’arrivai a dix-huit ans connaissant parfaitement la politique astucieuse de la Russie, et penetre des souffrances qu’enduraient mon pays natal par suite de la revolte des Grecs. Je fus oblige de quitter la Pologne a cause des soup^ons que j’avais inspire a la police, et je passais en Galicie dans l’intention de me rendre en Moldavie, et de-la dans la capitale de mes ancetres. Mais a Lembergh on me demanda dans l’hotel ou j’etais descendu, d’ou je venais; mais ne desirant pas les satisfaire sur ce point, ou plutot craignant le gouvernement russe, je repondis que j’arrivais de la Moldavie, sans penser aux consequences qui en pouvaient resulter. Lorsqu’on me demanda ou j’avais fait quarantaine, je balbutiai, et re¬ pondis, “ Nulle part.” Cette reponse etcnna tout le monde, et on me dit que je serais pendu pour m’etre soustrait a cette mesure de precau¬ tion. Ce que je compris facilement; mais ne voulant pas etre traite comme coupable sans avoir commis un crime, je quittai cette ville, et, sous l’egide de la protection divine, je gagnai, sans etre inquiete, la ville 304 APPENDIX. de Jassy en Moldavie, faisant partie de l’empire que gouvernait mon oncle. La, reflechissant sur ma situation, j’accusai souvent le destin. En peu de terns j’appris la langue moldavienne, seul avantage que je retirais de mon sejour. Je me mis en route pour Constantinople, pousse par la vengeance, et formant des projets imaginaires, batailles, et vic- toires; la tete pleine de ces reves je cheminais, et de cette maniere je me trouvai lance au milieu d’une nation etrangere, quoique ce fut ma patrie; des moeurs et des manieres toutes nouvelles pour moi; et lorsque j’etais a etudier ce nouveau pays, la guerre eclata avec la Eussie dans les annees 1828 et 1829. Je n’y comprenais rien, croyant qu’il etait de mon devoir de prendre parti contre les agresseurs de mon pays. Je vis alors l’armee des Turcs, lions de courage, honnete par nature, mais com- mandes par des gdneraux aussi ignorans que des agneaux, sans en pos- seder la douceur, qui, dans leur vanite, se croyaient nes pour gouverner. Je ne pouvais que les plaindre et pleurer sur mon pays, et sur le mal- heureux resultat qui eut lieu a Adrianople, et je le considerai comme un chatiment inflige par la providence a mon oncle le Sultan Mahmout. Je me rendis alors au tombeau revere de mon legitime empereur, mon pere bien-aime, ou je versai les pleurs filiales, et ensuite je vis son assassin place dans des circonstances les plus critiques, et ce tableau horrible rappellant l’affreuse tragedie dans laquelle mon auguste pere avait perdu la vie, mes sens s’egarerent, et je ne revai plus que ven¬ geance ; mais bien malheureux est l’homme qui en fait son idole. Neanmoins me trouvant dans mon pays natal, j’apertpis l’activite qu’il mettait a le civiliser et a en reformer les abus; j’approuvai ces principes ; mais malheureusement il ne pouvait communiquer a d’autres ce qu’il ne connaissait pas lui-meme, comme la suite l’a demontre ; ses idees etaient nobles et genereuses, mais il ignorait sur quelles bases il fallait les fonder. Je ne saurais exprimer les combats qui s’elevaient en moi: d’un cote brulant de vengeance, et de l’autre retenu par la prudence et l’amour de mon pays, qui devait 6tre sauve, mais non pas remue par des revolutions, me firent prendre la resolution de le hair, mais de ne pas l’arreter dans la voie de reforme qu’il avait en vue, et plutot le seconder comme empereur de ma patrie adoree. Pour ce faire, il etait necessaire de connaitre mieux notre empire, et je me rendis en Asie pour examiner de quoi est composee cette grande nation ; et apres avoir satisfait ma curiosite sur ce point, je revins a la capitale dans l’intention d’etre utile a mon pays. Il fallait connaitre les elemens du gouvernement; je fis la connaissance de tous les amis de mon pere, de ceux qui correspondaient avec ma mere sublime, pour qui j’avait des lettres d’elle, et qui en con¬ sequence sont devenu mes vrais amis, et qui me sont encore; en suite je NARRATIVE OE NADIR BEY. 305 fis la connaissance de Reis Effendi et de I’interprete de la Sublime Porte •; ils devinrent mes vrais amis; et me eonfiant a leur amitie, je decouvris a ce dernier la plaie que j’avais dans le coeur, mon. nom, ma naissance, et quelles etaient mes projets. Le brave homme, honnete Mussulman, parut frappe de la foudre, et apres un moment de reflexion, il s’exprima ainsi, les yeux baignes de larmes : u Prince, ayez conflance en Dieu, mais jamais dans les homines. Cachez bien votre origine imperiale, et suivez. vos intentions pacifiquees; aimez votre pays, et Dieu vous sera en aide. Quant a moi, je vous suis devoue jusqu’a mon dernier moment; mais n’oubliez pas que votre vie est en danger, que vous devez. la conserver pour votre pays ; ainsi, que la prudence vous guide,, et que Dieu vous protege.” J’ai suivi ses conseils ; et en peu de terns je fis beaucoup d’amis; et Hosref Pacha, alors generalissime, qui a cette epoque igno- rait mon origine, me confia le commandement d’un regiment de cavalerie qu on devait former a Aldana. Arriv4 la, je m’occupai de recruter les soldats; et lorsque j’eus le complement, je re^is l’ordre de les discipliner pour l’infanterie, ce que je fis avec le plus grand zele. Je contractai la un engagement d’amitie fraternelle avec Hagi Ali Bey, gouverneur de la place, et tils du fameux Uassan Pacha d A.dana. If. A.li Bey avait sous ses ordres environ 19,000 homines de cavalerie, les plus braves, je crois, du monde entier, et entierement h sa disposition et a la mienne. Ce fut le moment le plus propice pour venger la mort de mon pere; mais ay ant deja resolu de servir mon pays en assistant et participant a la reforme dont il avait besoin, je renongai k inquirer mon oncle dans ses projets., Quelques terns apres, comme j’avais un gout prononcee pour la cavalerie, je demandai la permission de me rendre a Constantinople, afin de faire mi ^change et de passer de l’infanterie dans la cavalerie; et en ayant regu l’auto- risation, je me rendis a la capitate. Independamment de mes appartomens du Seraskier, je pris un logement particulier h Pera, afin de me trouver en rapport avec les Europeens, et apprendre le Frangais. Peu de terns apres les etrangers vinrent a moi, m’appellant IMoszinski, a ma grande surprise ; et quoique je declinasse rhonneur que l’on me faisait, mes devices furent inutiles ; et bientot, en depit de moi-meme, tout Pera m’appella de ce nom, me felicitant de ce que j’etais si bien. avec le gou- vernement turc, et dont le motif m’a occasionne des persecutions de la Russie (motif imaginaire). Un jour, en mon absence, la grande incendie de Pera eut lieu; et lors¬ que, comme tout le monde, je fus pour sauver ce que je possedais, j'arrivai au moment oil tout etait en cendre. Pres de-la j’apei^us une femme grecque, seule et sans assistance. Le feu avait deja gagne sa maison; son denuement excita ma compassion; et avec 1'assistance de mes x 306 APPENDIX. gens, je sauvais sa vie et ses objets les plus precieux ; car ses piopres domestiques l’avaient abandonnee £b perir, pour se livrer au pillage de sa maison. Apres avoir mis en surete ce qui avait 4te sauve dans le mai~ son de Monsieur Black, qui est batie en pierre, je conduisit cette dame, encore toute effrayee, dans une maison eloignee de 1 incendie ; la je lui demandai ses clefs pour aller chercber ses bijoux, argent, et papiers, parceque je considerais prudent quelle les eut en sa possession, dans la crainte que dans une confusion semblable ils ne fussent perdus. Je m’aper^us qu’effrayee 5 elle craignait de se confier a un etranger 5 cepen- dant les larmes aux yeux, et avec cette delicatesse feminine, elle me les remis. Je la quittai, et me dirigeai de suite vers la maison de M. Black; mais lieureusement pour elle je rencontrai par hasard en chemin des gens inconnus, qui emportaient ses malles, qu ils avaient enlevee dans la con¬ fusion du moment; et quoique je nen fussent pas precisement certain, jarretai les frippons, et ouvrit les malles avec les clefs quelle nr avait remises. J en sortis les bijoux et papiers, et mis le reste en suiete dans la maison de M. Bersolesy 5 je retournai de suite aupres de laffiigee Mariola (elle s'appellait ainsi), et lui remis ses bijoux et papiers, quelle avait cru perdus, et que le liasard seul m avait fait decouvrir. Mariola, etonn^e d une semblable chance et de 1 honnetete, comme elle le disait, d’un Stranger, me remercia de la maniere la plus gracieuse m exprimant sa reconnaissance, et me disant quil n etait pas possible que je fusse un des Chretiens du pays ; car la probite et la generosite que j’avais montree 6 taient bien rare chez eux. Et pourtant, je considerais que je n’avais fait que mon devoir. Je donnai alors l’ordre a mes gens de lui procurer une maison a Arnaut Kivy, comme elle le desirait 5 et apres avoir fait transporter ce qui avait ete sauve de 1 incendie, je 1 accom- pagnai dans la maison qu’on avait preparee pour sa reception 5 mais a peine arrivee, ses pleurs commencerent a couler abondamment. Je lui en demandai la cause ; et elle me repondit, avec cette delicatesse qui n’appartient qu a une dame de distinction, que desormais elle ne pouvait plus gouter le bonheur, et que sa reputation se trouvait compromise de ce que je l avais accompagnee, ce qui etait contraire a leurs usages. Ces pleurs me causerent une vive emotion, et quelque chose meme de plus tendre ; et etourdie, comme un jeune homme que j'etais, pour la mettre a l’abri de la calomnie d’une societe grecque et injuste, j offris de lepouser (vu que la loi mussulman pennet a lhomme d’epouser une femme de quelle que religion qu’elle soit); et Mariola me repondit qu elle acceptait volontiers une pareille destinee, quoique je ne fusse pas Grec. Mariola etait le plus cher objet de mon cceur. Un jour Hosref Pacha m’apprit que la revolution faisait des pro- NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY. 307 gres rapides en Pologne, et que l’armee russe avait et<$ battue plusieurs fois. II me demanda si j’avals voyage en Pologne, et me fit beaucoup de questions sur cette brave nation; et entr’autres, si j’en connaissais la langue; et layant satisfait sur tous ces points, il jugea a propos de m envoyer personnellement en Pologne. On me permettra de garder le silence sur l objet de ma mission. D’aprSs ses ordres je me mis en voyage^ et arrival h, Belgrade, porteur de depeches adressees par Hosref Paclia a Hussein Pacha, gouverneur de cette ville, qui ecrivit de suite & Vienne pour obtenir que la quarantaine fut reduite, s’il