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Prophets and Prophecy. 
 
 PROF. W. H. GREEN 
 
 \ 
 
 A COMPILATION FROM NOTES OF THE LECTURES 
 
 BEFORE THE SENIOR CLASS. 
 
 [printed, not published.] 
 
 f be ^nnceton ^rcss 
 
 C. S. ROBINSON & CO., STEAM POWER PRINTERS 
 
 1888 
 
Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 
 
 W. H. GREEN, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
THE PROPHET. 
 
 What is meant by the term "prophet" in the 0. T. ? 
 True definition : An authoritative and infallible expounder 
 of the will of Gocl. 
 
 The books of the prophets form an important part of 
 the 0. T. writings. This importance is shown in four par- 
 ticulars : 
 
 1. In their authority. — They contain a divine revelation 
 of God's will, and dealings with Israel through over foui 
 hundred years, which will is still binding, in its essence, on 
 us to-day. 
 
 2. In their historical value. — They show to us the religion, 
 and theology of the theocracy in its doctrinal aspect, in its 
 most advanced stages. 
 
 3. In their Messianic value. — They contain the fullest and 
 clearest disclosures B. C. concerning the coming Redeemer, 
 his work among men, and his ignominious death upon the 
 cross. They give the criteria for his recognition, holding 
 him up before the world as an object of faith and hope. 
 
 4. In their apologetic value. — They contain the most 
 astonishing exhibitions of supernatural foresight in numer- 
 ous predictions, and furnish us with a powerful argument 
 for the truth and divinity of our religion. In these four 
 points the prophecies are most important. 
 
 For the study and appreciation of the character of the 
 prophets, we must first see what is meant by the term 
 prophet. 
 
 1 DEUTERONOMY 18 : 18, 19. 
 
 The true idea of an O. T. prophet may be learned first 
 and most explicitly from the formal definition given in 
 Deut. 18: 18, 19: "I will raise them up a Prophet from 
 among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put my 
 words in his mouth ; and he shall speak unto them all that 
 I shall command him. And it shall come to pass, that who- 
 soever will not harken unto my words which he shall speak 
 
in my name, I will require it of him." This passage is ap- 
 plied by Peter in Acts 3 : 22, 23, to Christ, and is supposed 
 by some to refer to Christ alone. The difficulty of this is 
 found in the connection, which is two-fold : 
 
 a. There were no diviners, charmers, consulters, wizards 
 or necromancers, Deut. 18 : 9-14, to whom they were per- 
 mitted to resort. The people were forbidden to use any 
 other means of inquiring into the will of God, as the 
 heathen had done, for they would have no need of it. 
 
 b. In condescension to the weakness of the people, as 
 shown on Mount Sinai, when they were not able to endure 
 the presence of God, he promises to send them a prophet, 
 or to raise up one who should stand between them and 
 God. Now so distant an event as Christ's coming could 
 not be used as a reason for their not applying to diviners, or 
 to some substitute for the God of heaven. There must be 
 a nearer one than Christ, hence the O. T. prophet. 
 
 It is plain from the original language that this passage 
 from Deut. 18 : 18, 19, being the ground of two different 
 applications, these two applications must be reconciled, by 
 making Deut. 18 : 18, 19, refer to the line of prophets, and 
 that of Peter in Acts 3 : 22, 23, must refer to Christ, the 
 last and greatest of all the prophets. The passage has a 
 Messianic reference, and therefore comprehends Christ and 
 the 0. T. prophets. 
 
 Different Views of the Term " Prophet." — Some 
 commentators take the word prophet in Deut. in a collec- 
 tive sense, i. e., it is a singular noun used for the plural. 
 Answer 1. This view is unreasonable, for nowhere else is a 
 singular used for a plural. 2. To so use it, would destroy the 
 individuality of the term, which is so marked, and, besides, 
 all the verbs and pronouns are also used in the singular. 
 Some apply it to Joshua, instead of taking it in a collective 
 sense. On the whole, it seems best to understand it in its 
 generic sense, as Heverneik ; or, in an ideal sense, as Hengs- 
 tenberg, that is : a. Equivalent to a prophet at each time 
 of emergency ; b. Equivalent to a prophet, that is, a com- 
 plex or ideal person, conceived of as a unit, but embracing 
 in it a whole line, or order of prophets; e. g., the Pope of 
 Rome is an ideal man, he is one of many in the line of 
 popes ; the President of the United States is an ideal man, 
 being one of many presidents. Et is in this sense, that all 
 are combined as one person, into an ideal unity. He 
 argues — 
 
1. That the prophetic order was to culminate in Christ. 
 
 2. Is called the "spirit of Christ," as in 1 Peter 1: 10, 
 11, for the spirit of Christ was to speak through the proph- 
 ets. In Peter it says, " searching what, or what manner of 
 time the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify, 
 when it testified beforehand the sufferings of Christ, and 
 the glory that should follow." The Spirit of Christ spoke 
 through these prophets ; he therefore was, in a certain 
 sense, the only prophet. 
 
 Essential Particulars. — a. God would put his words 
 into his mouth. 
 
 b. Infallibility. He should speak to the people all things 
 commanded, and should give it just as he received it. 
 
 e. His authority should, be absolute and unconditional. 
 To refuse or reject him was to refuse or to reject God. This 
 subject may still further be illustrated by Moses, thus plac- 
 ing the prophets in contrast with two classes of men. 
 
 1. In contrast with heathen diviners, v. 10; and with 
 prophets who spake in the name of other gods, v. 20. These 
 last thought, or sought, to penetrate the will of deity by the 
 observation of omens. This is denounced and prohibited 
 in the verses following. 
 
 2. In contrast with false prophets, who profess to speak 
 in the Lord's name, but are unauthorized. These are to be 
 distinguished by their uttering what does not come to pass, 
 v. 22; and in teaching what is at variance with what God 
 has taught them, Deut. 13 : 1-5. These false prophets 
 were of heathen origin, and introduced by heathen nations. 
 They belong to the earlier stages, i. e., those under the first, 
 and from the Canaanites. e. g., the " witch of En-dor." Or 
 they belong to the apostate Kingdom of the ten tribes, 
 "prophets of Baal," 1 Kings 18. The false prophets from 
 Israel belonged to a later date, and to Judah. They were 
 courted on account of their smooth words, Jer. 28 : 15. 
 
 II. NAMES, EPITHETS, Etc. 
 
 This is another source whence to derive a true idea of 
 the prophet. They are — 
 
 1. Those names which describe them absolutely. 
 
 2. Those which describe them relatively to God. 
 
 3. Those which describe them relatively to the people. 
 
6 
 
 a. Nabhi: common term applied to prophet. 
 
 b. Roeh : A seer. And in Hosea 9 : 7, we have : 
 
 c. Ish haruahh ; Man of the spirit: inspired man 
 (poetic). 
 
 1. Roeh: Seer does not mean one who simply sees vis- 
 ions, as some have supposed, but one who possesses the 
 power or faculty of foresight in a higher degree than ordi- 
 nary men. Not confined to visions strictly, but in a wider 
 sense to one who, by God's power, could see what lay hid 
 to others; the hidden will of God. The common designa- 
 tion of prophets is nabhi, from nabha, to bubble forth ; with 
 the passive signification, is one on whom the spirit of the 
 Lord is poured out, as given by some interpreters. But in 
 Hebrew it signifies "dropping;" hence words significant 
 of dropping, are figuratively referred to speaking; there- 
 fore, to speak, and in the passive sense one who is qualified 
 to speak — one skilled in pouring forth meaning of the word 
 is seen from Ex. 7 : 1, "I have made spring pour forth 
 its waters." That this is the primary word — one who pours 
 forth words or utterances, as " thee a god to Pharaoh, and 
 Aaron, thy brother, shall be thy prophet," i. e., his spokes- 
 man. Hence, what God says to Moses must mean, one who 
 is a mouth-piece of God to man. 
 
 So also in the Greek, p>rophets is commonly interpreted 
 as pro, beforehand, hence speaking beforehand. Again, in 
 a local sense, to speak beforehand was only a subordinate 
 function of the prophet, hence, pro has been referred to 
 place and not to time, which is the primary signification. 
 
 Nabhi gives authority to declare the word of God. This 
 gives signification to 1 Sam. 9 : 9. " Beforetime in Israel, 
 when a man went to enquire of God, thus he spake, Come, 
 and let us go to the seer : for he that is now called a Prophet 
 was beforetime called a Seer." Prediction is only subordi- 
 nate. Pro, in local sense, indicates one who speaks in the 
 presence of another for him; seer describes simply one who 
 sees ; while prophet is one who speaks what he sees. 
 
 2. Relation to God. — The second series of names are 
 those which show their relation to God, e. g., 1 Sam. 2: 27, 
 " And there came a man of God unto Eli." Again, they 
 are called servants, 2 Kings 17: 23, "As he had said by all 
 his servants the prophets." They are called messengers, 
 2 Chron. 36: 15, 16, " They wait upon Him ready to do 
 His bidding." These terms, from their nature, are inap- 
 plicable to those in the service of false gods. They have, 
 
however, a wider sense, a more general use, and are not 
 restricted to prophets, but are used of any employed by 
 God to do his work. Jer. 25 : 9, " Nebuchadnezzar, the 
 king of Babylon, my servant." The angels, also, are his 
 messengers, Ps. 119 : 91, " For all are thy servants." 
 
 3. Relation to Man. — Thus they are called Roeh : shep- 
 herds, signifying their duty to protect, guide and feed the 
 flock of God. The general term applied to civil rulers and 
 priests. They are called watchmen, interpreters. The 
 word watchman is equivalent to two Hebrew words, one de- 
 rived from aphah, to set at a distance, to watch, Is. 21 : 6, 
 " Go, set a watchman." Shamar : a guardian set in the 
 streets or on the walls, a watchman to guard near at hand, 
 to sound the alarm, Is. 62 : 6. Interpreters : those who ex- 
 plain the otherwise unintelligible will of God. He imparts 
 utterances of God's will, Is. 43 : 27. These words corres- 
 pond to seer and prophet in order. The watchman is one 
 who sees what others do not. A seer is a supernatural 
 watchman. An interpreter utters clearly God's will, as a 
 prophet. His qualifications for the functions of a prophet 
 are divine, hence, what he utters is inspired. 
 
 III. PHRASES AND EXPRESSION'S. 
 
 We gather the true idea of a prophet by collecting and 
 comparing the various phrases and expressions about them. 
 That God's will is made known to them is seen : 
 
 1. Because God speaks to them, He shows them what to 
 say, and what to do ; His spirit rests upon them ; His words 
 come to them ; they hear Him, hence revelations are made 
 to them, and "thus saith the Lord" shows a divine com- 
 munication. 
 
 2. That they are commissioned to declare His will is 
 also asserted, e. g., God sends them, bids them prophesy, 
 gives them tongues to speak. They are charged with 
 authoritative communications to others. They are bound 
 to deliver these under the severest penalties. They declare 
 what they have from God, in contrast with false prophets. 
 They always preface what they say with, " Thus saith the 
 Lord." So completely is the prophet's own personality lost 
 that often the pronoun is changed, as if God spoke directly. 
 Divine impartation of divine instruction. Modern critics 
 say it is merely a mode of expression among the people, 
 and not actual in fact. 
 
8 
 
 Skeptical Opinions. — 1. Some regard the prophets as 
 men of superior enlightenment dealing with ignorant peo- 
 ple. To conciliate favor for their utterances they publish 
 them as coming from the deity. 
 
 2. Others say the prophets were the most advanced rep- 
 resentatives of public sentiment. Enthusiasm thus referred 
 to God. They combined what was in the popular heart. 
 They were men who enthusiastically thought that all this 
 was inspiration. 
 
 3. The prophets, they say, were really inspired of God, 
 but only as every right exercise of our faculties is under 
 God's guidance. They differ from Christians not in kind, 
 but in degree. Taking auy one of these cases, and adopt 
 their views, it takes away the grand distinction of a prophet, 
 it robs them of their spiritual and scriptural meaning. 
 
 Answer 1. The supernatural character of the prophet 
 is involved in the supernatural character of the O. T., and 
 of religion in general. 
 
 2. Though the prophets were holy men, and many of 
 them were highly gifted, yet the inspiration was distinct 
 from their sanctification. Even men who were destitute 
 of piety were thus inspired, — Balaam, Saul, Caiaphas. 
 
 3. It appears from the nature of these communications 
 made to the prophets, that they were such as necessarily 
 imply supernatural communications from above. 
 
 4. It is universally conceded, even by skeptics, that 
 while other nations had their oracles, etc., yet the prophets 
 of Israel stood alone in the character of their revelations. 
 There were deep thinkers elsewhere, and philosophers, but 
 they do not rise beyond ambiguous responses. If proph- 
 ecy is inherent in all men, how is it that the prophets of 
 Israel stand alone in the purity, value and fitness of their 
 communications. 
 
 Another limitation of the term prophet, not by skeptics, 
 but by religious people, is that a prophet refers to one who 
 foretells future events. The Fathers also held this view. 
 The error is in mistaking a part for the whole of their duty, 
 and the means for the end. Foretelling the future was, of 
 course, important, yet it held a subordinate place. The 
 prospective nature of their work gave it a prophetic char- 
 acter. They were not predicters merely, but also teachers, 
 although this, in a large meesure, came to overshadow the 
 rest. The constant aim of these disclosures is lost sight 
 of, beside their own inherent grandeur. Remark. 
 
1. There is no specific reference to future events found 
 in any one of the definitions of prophet already given. 
 However conspicuous this element may appear, it is not 
 essential to the office. They were to speak all that was 
 commanded them, whether present, past or future. 
 
 2. In actual fact we see that the revelations of the proph- 
 ets do not concern the future exclusively, hut refer to the 
 past and present as well, e. //., when Samuel told Saul that 
 his father's asses had heen found, 1 Sam. 9: 20, this is past. 
 Abijah, though blind, yet knew and prophesied to Jero- 
 boam's wife, when she came to him in his old age, 1 Kings 
 14 : 6-16. This shows present power Elisha told Gehazi 
 where he had been, 2 Kings 5 : 26. Daniel related a dream 
 of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 2 : 28. Elisha told the King of 
 Israel words spoken in the bed-chamber by the Syrian 
 king's servant, 2 Kings 6 : 12. Ezekiel 24 : 2, tells them 
 the very clay, " Even of this same day the king of Babylon 
 set himself against Jerusalem." 
 
 3. The function of the Hebrew prophet was not limited 
 to the revealing of seeret events. This was not the main 
 and characteristic part of their work. They were princi- 
 pally divinely instructed guides, and the instructors of the 
 people. They maintained in its dignity and integrity the 
 covenant relation of the people with God. This was their 
 particular function, and to conduct the people towards the 
 end for which that relation was established, i. c, the coming 
 of Christ, and his great salvation. His future purposes 
 were revealed, as were also the past and the present. 
 
 4. To regard the predictions or prophecies merely in 
 the light of prediction of divine help is to mistake entirely 
 their "grand aim. This would exalt the subordinate end 
 over the principal. The evidence was often incomplete 
 until the fulfillment, and hence many would thus lose their 
 meaning and value, for the prophets were contemporaries. 
 Other prophecies are considered doubtful, because obscure 
 and enigmatical. Others still by the failure of God to pre- 
 serve authentic records. Many prophecies were not com- 
 piled in the time of the prophets. 
 
 Deuteronomy 18 : 18, adds two other functions of the 
 prophets. 
 
 1. They were invariably of the chosen people. Balaam 
 though a foreigner, was no exceptiou to the rule, for the 
 name prophet is given to him only in the N. T. (2 Peter 2 : 
 16), and here it is used in its wider, more general sense. 
 
10 
 
 Balaam is nowhere called a prophet in the O. T., but in 
 Joshua 13 : 22, he is called a soothsayer, and in Num. 22 : 
 7, " rewards of divination." He was summoned as a sooth- 
 sayer ; God made use of him as he did of the witch of En- 
 dor, but this did not constitute him one of the prophets. 
 So also he made use of Abimelech concerning Abraham's 
 wife, Gen. 20 : 3. To this may be added Pharaoh's dream, 
 Gen. 41 : 1. Also Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2 : 1. 
 These are revelations. The dream of the man in the host 
 of Midian, Judges 17 : 13, 14. All these were for the 
 benefit of God's chosen people, and were confined to the 
 extraordinary circumstances which evoked them, but none 
 of these were prophets. 
 
 2. A second particular in this passage of Deuteronomy 
 is that the prophet was to be one like unto Moses; that is, 
 the revelations made to him would be like those made unto 
 Moses, a continuation of the scheme which he had begun, 
 and in the same spirit. They were not therefore isolated 
 phenomena, but vital relations to the former scheme. All 
 belonged to one closely related scheme, initiated by Moses, 
 and to be continued by them in likeness to him. The reve- 
 lation of the O. T. is one, a regular unfolding begun by 
 Moses, and carried on by succeeding prophets: their teach- 
 ings must be like his, and* built upon his. The prophets 
 were not antagonistic to the law, but contemplated by the 
 law itself, not to reform it, but to keep it before the minds 
 of the people. It was no afterthought to meet an emergency, 
 but provided for by Moses. It was opposed to false glosses 
 put upon the law, and to those who sheltered themselves 
 behind the law. So Christ was also against tradition. 
 Ezekiel 18 : 20, is not opposed to Exodus 20 : 5. This is 
 not contradictory. He, while claiming that they suffered 
 for their fathers' sins, says they also suffered for their own, 
 and putting false constructions on the law, Exodus says, 
 " of them that hate me." Exekiel appears to Deut. 24 : 
 16. Therefore, Ezekiel is the same as Moses, and contrary 
 to false interpretations. They base their instruction on the 
 law, and so always enforce it. This oneness of the proph- 
 ets with the law, is repeatedly recognized in the O. T., as 
 well as in the N". T.,Is. 1 : 11-14. The prophet here is 
 showing the worthlessness of the ceremony, and does not 
 aim at the abolition of the ritual, but rebukes their heart- 
 less formality, joined with ungodly living. Sacrifices be- 
 came unendurable when joined with lives of sin. The 
 
n 
 
 prophets were divinely commissioned reformers, not of the 
 law, bnt of the people. The law needed no correction. 
 They repeat and re-enact the law. Allusions to it abound 
 everywhere, and all their instructions are based upon the 
 law. Is. 8: 20, refers to the law and testimony. Mai. 4: 4. 
 Though no direct citations, yet as we see allusions are 
 everywhere found in the prophets, even the forms of ex- 
 pression show familiarity with the law. The law and the 
 prophets are combined in the 0. T., e. g., Zech. 7: 12. So 
 in the ~N. T. we find the expressions, " Moses and the 
 prophets," " the law and the prophets." 
 
 From the preceding, we see that the prophet is — 
 
 1. Favored with the immediate disclosure of the divine 
 will. 
 
 2. He is authorized to make it known. 
 
 3. Inspired in recording and teaching it. 
 
 We now come to consider, with additional clearness, 
 not anly absolutely, but relatively, their position in the 
 theocracy and in the great scheme of divine revelation. 
 
 1. As to certain orders the question arises, How do the 
 prophets stand related to other contemporaneous orders of 
 men ? We inquire in the general scheme of divine reve- 
 lation. 
 
 2. As to other subsequent and antecedent modes of 
 divine communication. 
 
 Priests. — The priests were a sacred order of men, 
 mediators between God and man. The priests acted on the 
 part of man before God ; the prophets on the part of God 
 before man. The priests were such by hereditary descent, 
 from representative tribes and families. The levites were 
 selected as representatives for the rest of the people. The 
 priests were an organized body, with gradations of rank. 
 They caried the principle of representation to its farthest 
 extent. The high-priest was highest in rank. They were 
 supported by a legal income, from the people in whose 
 behalf they acted. In other ancient nations, as Egypt, the 
 prophets belonged to the priesthood, but it was not so in 
 Israel. 
 
 The prophets were without any regular succession. 
 They had no organization among them ; no stipend. They 
 were called to the office by the immediate agency of the 
 Spirit of God, by His sovereign pleasure. They might be 
 taken from any tribe, not excepting Levi, e. g., Samuel. 
 They might come from any part of the land, 2 Chron. 20 : 14. 
 
12 
 
 Even from Galilee, as Nahum and Jonah, notwithstanding 
 the sneer: "There ariseth no prophet out of Galilee;" 
 John 7 : 52. They might and did come from any rank. 
 Eoyal blood, e. g., Isaiah, Daniel, Zephaniah. Or from 
 priestly rank, Zechariah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. Or from the 
 most obscure herdsmen, as Amos. They might be taken 
 from either sex, as Miriam the prophetess, Ex. 15 : 20 ; 
 Deborah, Judges 4:4; Huldah, 2 Chron. 34: 22; Anna, 
 Luke 2 : 26 ; and four daughters of Philip, Acts 21 : 9. 
 Their descent from the prophets was not essential, nor the 
 contrary, 2 Chron. 15 : 18. It belonged to the prophets to 
 declare the will of God. They were valued as being inspired 
 of God. The priests were not usually inspired, their pro- 
 vince being to offer sacrifices for the people before God, and 
 to obtain for them the forgiveness of sins, and yet in conse- 
 quence of the mediatorial character belonging to these two 
 classes, the functions sometimes overlapped. The priests 
 were authoritative expounders of the divine will. In the 
 early period especially was this true, as Joshua in Num. 27: 
 21. Repeated mention is made of consultation, 1 Sam. 14: 3; 
 I Sam. 22: 13; Judges 18: 5. 
 
 While the prophets were permanent, and the priests not 
 so much so, yet in Ezra 2 : 63, they are commanded not 
 " to eat of the most holy things till there stood up a priest 
 with Urim and Thummim." And in John 11: 51, the 
 high-priest prophesied of Christ's death. In regard to im- 
 mediate divine communication there is this distinction: the 
 prophet received his knowledge by the direct illumination 
 of the Holy Spirit, while the priest received his knowledge 
 from Urim and Thummim, or the ephod belonging to it. 
 The difference between them may be illustrated "by the 
 heathen omens as opposed to augurs. Beside the super- 
 natural responses, it was the ordinary province of the priest 
 to teach the law to the people, and to deliver the will of 
 God to them in doubtful cases, Lev. 10: 10; Haggai 2: 11. 
 The prophets were to intercede for the people only by the 
 free offering of prayer; the priests by symbolical ritual, 
 Lev. 10: 3; Deut. 33: 10. 
 
 Judges. — Another sacred order of men were the judges 
 — extraordinary judges. They, like prophets, were the im- 
 mediate representatives of God. hence they were called to 
 their office by the direct agency of the Holy Spirit. They 
 were limited to no particular tribe, family, rank, occupa- 
 tion, sex. Deborah was a judge, Judges 6; 4. Like the 
 
13 
 
 prophets, they were inspired, were under the immediate 
 guidance of the Holy Spirit, but for different purposes. 
 They were not to teach, but to rule. They were fitted for 
 the special duties of their office. The office of judge was 
 executive and administrative. They were extraordinary 
 magistrates and leaders raised up by God himself in time 
 of special need. They may be called divinely appointed 
 dictators. The prophets were divinely inspired teachers, 
 or expounders of the will of God, but exercised none of the 
 functions of the magistracy. Their aims were not politi- 
 cal. Their words are not to be viewed in a political or 
 patriotic aspect. We do occasionally find them confronting 
 kings, but. they do not on this account deserve to be es- 
 teemed as tribunes of the people or guardians of public 
 liberty. Elijah came into repeated conflicts with Ahab; 
 Elisha sent a youth to anoint Jehu as king of Israel and de- 
 stroyer of the house of Ahab. Hosea and Isaiah denounced 
 the dangerous alliance of the kings with Assyria and Egypt. 
 Jeremiah was also against Zedekiah. In all these cases 
 they acted as teachers from God, not as politicians, but as 
 religious instructors. They did not seek the office, and 
 were not building up a political party ; they were not dema- 
 gogues. What they opposed was not on the ground of im- 
 policy, but sin. What they maintained was for the honor 
 and the law of God. We must bear in mind that the gov- 
 ernment of Israel differed from all others. In the true 
 sense it was a theocracy. It was governed by the direct 
 manifestation of God's will. He gave them law, appointed 
 their rulers; they were his vicegerents, and hence this gave 
 a religious complexion to all the affairs of state. The 
 idolatry of Ahab's house was a violation of the constitution 
 of Israel, as the covenant people of God, and so often called 
 for the intervention of the prophets. Alliances with heathen 
 nations w r ere crimes against the government of Israel, and 
 the will of God. The evils which the prophets predicted 
 were held up as the just judgments of God. When the 
 prophets were consulted by kings and rulers, the responses 
 were not dictated by policy, but by the divine will. 
 
 While the prophets were such, and while they stand side 
 by side with the priests and judges, yet their powers were 
 limited only by their great commission from God. Their 
 office might be so extended as to comprehend all the others. 
 The prophets performed any functions that the occasion 
 might demand. So, in cases of emergency, they might act 
 
14 
 
 either as priests, judges or rulers. It was not a profane in- 
 trusion for a prophet to offer sacrifices, as it would be for 
 any one else, e. #., in the days ot the degeneracy of Saul. 
 Here the prophets assumed the functions of priest. Samuel, 
 though not a priest, yet offered sacrifices by virtue of his 
 right as an immediate messenger of God. So also of Elijah 
 and Elisha. The ordinary officers had abdicated, or had 
 been deposed. Elijah sacrificed at Carmel. Bread of the 
 first-fruits was brought to Elisha, which he was commanded 
 to give to the hungry people, 2 Kings 4 : 42 These fruits 
 were due to the priests. The people resorted to Elisha at 
 new-moons, and on the Sabbath, etc., 2 Kings 4 : 23. 
 Samuel took supreme direction over the commonwealth, 
 and acting as judge anointed Saul king, 1 Sain. 7: 15. He 
 subsequently deposed him and appointed David. Ahijah 
 prophesies to Jeroboam, 1 Kings 11 : 29. Elijah was di- 
 rected to anoint Ilazael king over Syria, and Jehu king 
 over Israel, 1 Kings 19: 15, 16; 2 Kings 8: 12, 13. Not 
 only did they depose and set up rulers over the people of 
 God, but over heathen states as well, being the ambassa- 
 dors of that God who is ruler and supreme governor of the 
 universe. 
 
 It only remains now to examine the position of the 
 prophets among the methods of divine communication. 
 There is a growing nearness and fullness. There is a dif- 
 ference in the modes of God's revelations of himself. By 
 the first method, we have : 
 
 1. The Theophany, characteristic of the patriarchal 
 period. God made himself personally known. He spoke 
 in audible voice to Abraham concerning the offering up of 
 his son Isaac ; to Jacob, Abimelech and Laban in dreams. 
 He appeared in human form to Abraham in the plains of 
 Mamre, face to face. Then God needed no agent. But 
 when the flood came, and the destruction of Sodom and 
 Gomorrah, God himself delared it, and sent them out. 
 
 2. When the seed of the patriarchs swelled into a nation, 
 a new mode of revelation was needed and supplied. The 
 will of God was now revealed through prophets, especially 
 Moses. God no longer stood aloof from and out of con- 
 nection with men, so to speak. Divine virtue was now 
 made resident in particular men. The spirit descended 
 upon them, and made them the depositaries of His will ; 
 Amos 3 : 7, " He revealeth His secrets unto His servants 
 the prophets." In the solemn transactions at Sinai, when 
 
15 
 
 the covenant of God was to be made between Him and His 
 people, He spoke once more with His own voice, but all 
 further communications were made through Moses, and the 
 prophets raised up like to Him. Miracles were wrought, 
 and revelations made through them, e. g., the plagues of 
 Egypt were sent and removed at the bidding of Moses. 
 So," also, the Red Sea was divided at the uplifting of his 
 rod. At his word the manna came down from heaven, and 
 water gushed forth from the flinty rock for the famishing 
 people. The drought came and disappeared at the bidding 
 of Elijah. Sennacherib was not destroyed until Isaiah had 
 first foretold it. This second mode or stage of revelation, 
 while an advance on the theophany, was not the ultimate 
 and highest, for Paul says in 1 Cor.. 13 : 8-10, " But 
 whether there be prophecies, they shall fail ; whether there 
 be tongues, they shall cease ; whether there be knowledge, 
 it shall vanish away." Thus he shows that prophecy was 
 preparatory to and emblematic of the future. 
 
 3. The prophetic idea is realized in two forms ; a. In- 
 dividual ; b. Universal. All these gifts, etc., of prophets 
 in the O. T. are but types of better things to come. 
 
 a. The prophetic idea found its consummation in the 
 person of Christ. He was the prophet of God in the high- 
 est sense, Deut. 18 : 18 ; Is. 4 2 : 1 ; 49 : 1 ; 61 : 1. God 
 no longer acts remotely ; He no longer speaks from heaven, 
 nor through His servants, but comes Himself as a man to 
 instruct and bless His people. The prophets were thus types 
 of Christ. The ladder which Jacob saw reaching down 
 from heaven to earth, is thus fully realized. 
 
 b. Universal revelations. The idea of the prophets was 
 destined also to be universally realized in the entire body 
 of the people of God. The prophets belonged to the peo- 
 ple. They had no native gifts of divination ; they did not 
 exercise their gifts for their own benefit, but for the good 
 of the people at large. They were established among the 
 people for the people. The spirit of prophecy belonged not 
 to the, prophets alone, but to all Israel, but was restricted 
 to one individual at first, e. g., Num. 11 : 29, " Enviest thou 
 for my sake ? Would God that all the Lord's people were 
 prophets, and that the Lord would put His spirit upon 
 them ! " When Moses desired in this passage that all the 
 people might become prophets, he expressed what he be- 
 held in type and pledge, which was yet to reach its final 
 culmination. The ultimate form of communication is not 
 
16 
 
 through the few, but when Christ shall come and abide, the 
 Teacher and the Sanctifier, of all the truly regenerate. 
 Joel 2: 28, predicts " the day when the spirit of God shall 
 be poured out on all flesh." Jer. 31 : 34, " And they shall 
 teach no more every man his neighbour, and every man his 
 brother, saying, Know the Lord : for they shall all know me, 
 from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the 
 Lord." Then shall the necessity of all prophetic instruc- 
 tion be superseded, and the prophetic order itself swallowed 
 up in the indwelling of the Spirit, in each and every be- 
 liever. 
 
 Different Classification Proposed. — A somewhat 
 different classification has been proposed by some, corres- 
 ponding to the three leading dispensations, viz. : the Patri- 
 archal, Mosaic and Christian. This was the classification 
 favored by Dr. Moore, formerly of Richmond, Va., now 
 dead, in his "Prophets of the Restoration." (See Com- 
 mentary). 
 
 1. In the Patriarchal the form of divine communication 
 was theophanic. 
 
 2. In the Mosaic, theopneustic. 
 
 3. In the Christian, theologic. In this, the will of God 
 is made known by divine writings, the living Word. The 
 present form is the only one that can be really universal. 
 The prophets in this form meet us now, not in prophetic 
 office, but in the prophetic word. The next will be the 
 return of Christ, and the completion of the circle, back 
 again to the theophanic, when " the pure in heart shall see 
 God," and be admitted to His presence in heaven. 
 
 The prophetic office itself is divided into three great 
 eras, corresponding to the three great dispensations to 
 which they are referred. 
 
 1. Theophanic. — This extends from Moses to Samuel. 
 In this the office was rarely filled. There was no regular 
 succession of prophets. 
 
 2. Theopneustic. — From Samuel to Hosea. This is the 
 era of the prophets of action, who were mainly occupied 
 with the present, and so left but few writings behind them. 
 
 3. Theologic. — This period is marked by inspired men. 
 It began with Hosea. The whole period of phophecy dur- 
 ing this era looked more to future events. All the books 
 were written during this period, and hence it is called the 
 Theologic era, or marked revelation of truth. They turned 
 away from what had gone before. The office marked the 
 
 \ 
 
17 
 
 mercy of God's grace to men. The last phase culminated 
 in the incarnation of the Son of God. He assumed our 
 human nature, and dwelling among us, became the per- 
 sonal Word. 
 
 II. THE PROPHETIC ORDER. 
 
 The law of Moses contemplated and made preparation 
 for the prophets, as it did also for the kings. It is plain 
 that, though coming from Moses, the scheme of divine 
 communication was not to end with him, but it was to be 
 perpetuated by others like unto him. As to the govern- 
 ment, the people were not provided with kings immediately 
 after Moses, but were first put under priests"; subsequently 
 were organized under judges; and, finally, the kingdom 
 was established. So of the prophetic order, it was contem- 
 plated in the law, but did not begin at once. The term 
 " prophet " was general at first. God at first was consulted 
 through the priests. The prophets appeared only sporadi- 
 cally as it were. Finally, a continuous and permanent 
 order w T as created, from Samuel onward, as kings were from 
 Saul and David. 
 
 A "prophet," in its wider sense, denotes any one favored 
 with ' divine communications. In Gen. 20 : 7, Abraham is 
 called a prophet ; in Ps. 105 : 15, David is referred to as a 
 prophet : " Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets 
 no harm." In Acts 2: 30, David is again calle.i prophet. 
 
 In the technical and more restricted sense, the term 
 " prophet " belongs to those not only invested with the gift 
 of prophecy, but especially to those who were invested with 
 the prophetic office. A distinction is made between donum 
 prophetieum and munus jjropheticurn. In an official sense, 
 David was not a prophet, but a king. In this sense, Moses 
 was more than a prophet, though in Hosea 12 : 13, he is 
 called a prophet. He was the great exemplar, the great 
 lawgiver of Israel. 
 
 There were other prophets in the time of Moses. In 
 Ex. 15: 20; Num. 12: 2, Miriam is called a prophetess. 
 Eldad and Medad, and the seventy elders are called proph- 
 ets, in Num. 11: 25, 26. In Judges 2: 1, probably an 
 
18 
 
 angel speaks, yet men of God are spoken of as his mes- 
 sengers, e.g., 1 Sam. 2: 27, "And there came a man of 
 God unto Eli," etc. So in Judges 6 : 8, men of God are 
 spoken of as prophets. The prophetic office, however, ap- 
 pears in its full and complete form for the first time in the 
 time of Samuel, Acts 3 : 24. Before the time of Samuel 
 prophecy was rare, as is seen from 1 Sam. 3: 1. "The word 
 of the Lord was precious in those days, there was no open 
 vision." After the time of Samuel, though rare, the office 
 was regularly transmitted, and seems never to have been 
 entirely suspended until the time of Malachi. 
 
 Seer and Prophet. — The opinion has been pressed by 
 some that the seer possessed the gift of prophecy, but not 
 the office, and thus was distinguished from prophets, who 
 had both the gift and the office. Some say it implies the 
 office as well as the gift, and the Scriptures give the name 
 prophet to every one who was a seer. This distinction 
 holds good, according to the derivation of the words seer 
 and prophet, but it is not sustained in the 0. T. usage, e. g., 
 1 Sam. 9 : 9. The names prophet and seer are both given. 
 The words are used as synonymous. JRoeh, seer, was ap- 
 plied to Samuel almost exclusively. The original word for 
 prophet was nabhi, to boil up, to pour forth words, but the 
 function of address was small. The people consulted them 
 principally in regard to the future. Moses had this term 
 applied to him, because he taught; but seer was the usual 
 term applied to Samuel. After the change noted in 1 Sam. 
 9 : 9, the word prophet was revived, and became the stan- 
 dard. In 1 Chron. 29 : 29, we have three terms for prophet. 
 
 The Call of the Prophets. — The call of the Prophets 
 came immediatelly from God Himself, Amos 7 : 15, " And 
 the Lord took me." Jer. 1:4, " The word of the Lord 
 came unto me;" Ezek. chaps. 1 and 2. The charge laid on 
 Isaiah in the sixth chapter has been supposed by many to 
 be his original call, but it is more probably a re-investiture, 
 designed to fit him for a new and special work, like that of 
 John in Rev. 1 : 10; or Paul in Acts 22 : 17. In the call 
 of prophets, human instrumentality is only once mentioned, 
 and that was in the case of anointing Elisha by Elijah, in 
 1 Kings 19 : 16. In the 19th verse, " cast his mantle upon 
 him." This was a symbolic act. This departure from the 
 ordinary custom was peculiar. The prophets then had to 
 act in the functions of the theocracy. The absence of all 
 allusion to human agency shows that prophets probably had 
 
19 
 
 no rite of induction into office. In Deut. 34 : 9, Moses 
 laid his hands on his successor Joshua, to show the imparta- 
 tion of the Spirit, but there is no good reason for suppos- 
 ing there was any such ceremony in the line of the proph- 
 ets. In Ps. 105 : 15, the term " anointed " occurs parallel 
 with the term "prophet." In Is. 61: 1, the same term is 
 used. Anointing is symbolical of the Holy Spirit, and 
 hence it is inferred that unction was as customary in the 
 installation of prophets as of kings. The only case where 
 it is spoken of or commanded, is in ] Kings 19 : 16, " And 
 Elisha * * * shalt thou anoint to be prophet in thy room." 
 But in this case there is no mention of its actual occur- 
 rence. When Elijah was taken up into heaven, his mantle 
 fell upon Elisha as a symbol and pledge, that a double por- 
 tion of Elijah's spirit should rest upon him, 2 Kings 2 : 10. 
 But the prophets in most cases stood in no such relation of 
 succession as Joshua to Moses, and Elisha to Elijah. There 
 is no propriety in any such inductions to office. The pos- 
 session of the spirit of God was a sufficient induction. 
 
 Age of the Prophets. — The priests entered upon their 
 work at a precise and regulated time. This probably was 
 not the case with prophets, called at God's time. The only 
 one whose age is especially mentioned, is Ezekiel, 1 : 1. 
 It is here insinuated that Ezekiel began to prophesy when 
 thirty years old, but he was a priest, and this may account 
 for it. Being of priestly origin, and debarred by the cap- 
 tivity from entering the priesthood, he was called at the 
 same age as in the priesthood. He is the only one whose 
 age is mentioned at the beginning. Zechariah was called 
 when " a young man," 2 : 4. Samuel when " a child." 1 
 Sam. 3:1," The child Samuel." So also Jeremiah, 1 : 6. 
 11 Behold, I can not speak, for I am a child." Daniel when 
 a child or youth, for a different term is used in the Hebrew 
 (Dan. 1 : 7.) From the great length of Hosea's ministry, 
 60 years, it has been inferred that he entered upon it at a 
 very early age. Haggai, 2 : 3, must have begun his pro- 
 phetic work when advanced in life. He saw the temple in 
 its glory. 
 
 In 1 Sam. 10 : 5-10, we read of a " company of proph- 
 phets." The " hill of God " was probably Gibeah. In 1 
 Sam. 19 : 20, another company at Naioth in Ramah, 
 Samuel's birthplace, is mentioned. Both Saul and his 
 messengers were overcome, when they met the prophets, 
 and they prophesied also. The " hill of God " may have 
 
20 
 
 been so called because it was the abode of these prophets, 
 or perhaps because they were passing it. Others say there 
 is no evidence for this. The word Naioth means habita- 
 tions, and this was the common name for the residence of 
 the prophets. In the Targum it is translated " schools " 
 or " house of instruction." In 2 Kings 22 : 14, we have 
 the same term, college, whence we obtain the expression 
 " schools of the prophets." The Bible terms are not ap- 
 plicable to our idea. These schools, or company of proph- 
 ets, are not heard of in Judah after the time of Samuel. 
 In 2 Kings 22 : 14, college or prophetic school is not meant, 
 but " ward." Huldah, the prophetess, lived in the lower 
 part or ward of the city. There is no authority for saying 
 these companies ot prophets were to be permanent. They 
 were establishments constructed for the time and place, and 
 they ceased with the exigency that brought them into ex- 
 istence. They were not schools for instruction to train men 
 for the prophetic office, but they were bands of men, as the 
 term implies, already invested with the office, and with a 
 power sufficient to affect all coming into contact with them. 
 The fact, then, would appear to be this : that they were 
 men of Gcd brought together, so that under the direction 
 of Samuel the} 7 might be centers of reformation, in the 
 midst of great apostasy. 
 
 Music. — As music was mentioned in 1 Sam. 10 : 5-10, 
 it has been argued that singing formed part of their ex- 
 ercises. That music was taught is plausible, and it has 
 been conjectured that thus David may have learned to be- 
 come " the sweet singer of Israel." In 1 Chron. 25 : 1, 
 David distributed the service of song among the Levites, 
 who are spoken of as prophets. 
 
 Historians. — As the prophets were the historiographers 
 of the nation, it has also been supposed from 1 Chron. 29: 
 29, that recording the history of God's people was a part 
 of the work of the prophets. 
 
 Sons of the Prophets. — It has been supposed that 
 " sons of the prophets " formed an analogous company in 
 Israel. In the history of Elijah and Elisha we have fre- 
 quent mention of the sons of the prophets, e. g., Kings 4 : 
 38 ; 6 : 1. These sons of the prophets were pupils or ad- 
 herents of the prophets, residing in considerable numbers 
 at times, as would appear from the passages above cited. 
 
 Maintenance op the Prophets. — From 2 Kings 4 : 38- 
 44 we see that, though not monastic, or celibates, yet con- 
 
21 
 
 tributions were made for their maintenance. There were 
 communities at Bethel, 2 Kings 2:3; Jericho and Gilgal. 
 Two of these places, Bethel and Gilgal, were prominent 
 seats of idolatrous worship. This shows reason why the 
 prophets intended them to be centers of Reformation, and 
 opposed to idolatry. How long these institutions continued 
 is not known. Amos 7 : 14, is the only place where thej 
 are mentioned after the time of Elisha. He says" I* was 
 no prophet, neither was I a prophet's son." In 2 Kings 9 : 
 1, Elisha sent one of them to anoint Jehu. The sons of the 
 prophets were sometimes delegated to act in the place of a 
 prophet, as in the above passage. Some were inspired 
 though not all of them. In 2 Kings 3 : 5, those at Bethel 
 knew and told Elisha that Elijah would be taken away. It 
 does not appear that the prophets were ordinarily taken 
 from these institutions, or received any special training for 
 their work. Elisha was trained by Elijah, but this was a 
 peculiar case, and a rare exception. 
 
 Mode of Life. — Of the mode of life of the prophets little 
 is said. Only incidentally is it alluded to, so that we infer 
 that in most respects it was like that of other men. As an 
 appropriate dress for their work, they wore a garment ot 
 hair, e. g., in Zech. 13: 4, "Neither shall they wear a rough 
 garment to deceive." Is. 20 : 2, " Go and loose the sack- 
 cloth from off thy loins." This perhaps is the same referred 
 to in 2 Kings 1 : 8, where Elijah is called a " hairy man." 
 This official dress was the mantle which Elijah cast upon 
 Elisha. This was not worn as by an ascetic, but as a 
 mourner's dress, mourning for the sins of the people, as a 
 preacher of repentance, Dan.. 9 : 18; Ezek. 24 : 18. 
 
 Their Homes. — The prophets usually dwelt in their own 
 houses. Some of them were married, and had families — 
 Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel. Jeremiah, 16 : 2, were forbidden 
 to marry, Some of them had servants, e. g., Elijah had 
 Elisha in constant attendance ; Elisha had Gehazi ; Jere- 
 miah had Barak. 
 
 Inspiration. — As to inspiration it would seem to have 
 been temporary, e.g., Saul had only temporary inspiration, 
 1 Sam. 10: 10. The seventy elders, in Num. 11 : 25, pro- 
 phesied, but did not add, i. e., they did not continue to 
 prophesy. Our version conveys just the contrary, " proph- 
 esied, and did not cease." Those who were permanently 
 in the prophetic office, seem not to have been under the 
 permanent influence of the Spirit. What would seem to 
 
22 
 
 have been from foresight, they only knew when communi- 
 cated, and what it was. This was the case with Moses, 
 Lev. 24: 12. He did not judge until the will of the Lord 
 was made known. So in the case of Samuel, his own pri- 
 vate thought is distinguished from that of God. This is 
 shown in his dealing with the sons of Jesse, 1 Sam. 16: 
 6, 7. Nathan first told David to build the house of the 
 Lord, but afterward told him God had forbidden it, 2 Sam. 
 7 : 3. All this is important in showing the nature of pro- 
 phetic power. They knew and exercised, not at all times, 
 but as God told them to speak. Elisha said, " The word 
 of the Lord came unto them." This shows the distinction 
 between their ordinary and inspired condition. Hence it is 
 said by some that the spirit of prophecy is intermittent, 
 in the way of transient impression, and not pro modum, 
 John 14 : 16, 17. Some think the inspiration of O. T. 
 prophets is thus inferior to that of the apostles. From 
 Num. 12: 6-8, it is supposed that there are different modes 
 of revelation. The circumstances are these : Aaron and 
 Miriam had resisted the leadership of Moses. At this 
 time Moses was the chief organ of divine communication. 
 The revelations of the others are shown to be, from 
 their inferiority of character, subordinate to his, by their 
 intrinsic character, and by the way they were made 
 known. There was no sufficient reason for believing this 
 was permanent. When the prophets were raised up, " like 
 unto Moses," why should not the Lord speak to them as 
 to Moses ? Deut. 34 : 10, refers to the age immediately 
 succeeding Moses, and so need not be applied to the entire 
 condition. Moses beheld the similitude of God, and spake 
 with him face to face. If the former passages are made to 
 cover the period of all the prophets, it does not confer on 
 them the same power as on Moses, but shows they are 
 thereby only inferier to Moses in the special way of receiv- 
 ing their communications. Moses talked with God face to 
 face, while the others received theirs only by signs, visions, 
 etc. 
 
 This question is principally important only as it relates 
 to the state of mind of the prophets when they received 
 their message. Hengstenberg maintains that the ordinary 
 faculties of the mind — consciousness, understanding, etc., 
 — of the prophet were for the time suspended, and only the 
 spiritual faculties awake; — that they were in an ecstastic 
 state when they prophesied. It is true that this was the 
 
23 
 
 case sometimes ; it was so in visions. So with the proph- 
 ets, their minds were completely absorbed in what they 
 were going to say, or rather in what was within them. 
 Dan. 8 : 27, " And I, Daniel, fainted, and was sick certain 
 days." He was physically exhausted. This also was oc- 
 casionally the case with the apostles, as Peter was in a 
 trance when he saw the sheet let down from heaven, Acts 
 10 : 10. John, also, while in Patmos. The apostle Paul 
 was caught up into the third heaven, 2 Cor. 12 : 2, 3. It 
 cannot be argued from these that the prophets always re- 
 ceived their impressions in this way, any more than that 
 the apostles did. Usually they were in their ordinary state of 
 mind. Some impressions are produced by their writtings 
 in which it is seen that all their functions were at work. 
 This is evident from the fact that their peculiarities of style 
 are brought out as in profane writers. This has been the 
 belief of the church and the apostolic fathers. 
 
 Inward suggestion. — It would appear from the scanty 
 hints on this subject that divine communications were usu- 
 ally by inward suggestion, and these they were able to dis- 
 tinguish from their ordinary thoughts in some manner 
 which we can not understand. There were also other ways. 
 
 Audible voice, — As in 1 Sam. 3 : 4, " The Lord called 
 Samuel, and he answered, Here am I." Num. 7 : 8, 9. 
 At the baptism of Jesus, Matt. 3 : 17. At the transfigu- 
 ration, Matt. 17 : 5. Paul's conversion, Acts 9 : 4. John 
 12 : 28, 29, " I have both glorified it, and will glorify it 
 again." 
 
 Angels were sometimes employed to communicate to 
 the prophets, as in Dan. 9: 21, "Even the man Gabriel, 
 whom I had seen in vision," etc, " touched me." 
 
 Visions. — Sometimes these announcements were made 
 known by visions. Some writers have gone to the extreme 
 of denying that the prophets had any visions at all. They 
 claim that this was only the form or dress in which they 
 clothed what they wished to say. But there can be no 
 doubt but that visions were really presented to their minds 
 as they record them. When given in detail, it is said such 
 minutiae would not remain. These are more frequent in 
 some prophets than in others. This shows vividness. Vis- 
 ions were more vivid with the later prophets, e. g., Ezekiel, 
 Daniel, and Zechariah ; also Amos 7; Is. 6 ; Jer. 1. Vis- 
 ions were, 1. Of sensible objects, as when Ezekiel sees the 
 temple, 8: 3; 11: 1. 2. a. Of symbolic objects as repre- 
 
24 
 
 sentative images of another order of creation, b. Or as 
 sacred symbols of the sanctuary, e. g., Ezekiel's vision of 
 the cherubim of the High Priest ; of the candlestick, in 
 the vision of Zechariah, chaps. 3 and 4. c. Or as symbols 
 may be natural emblems, as in Jeremiah's vision, 1 : 13, of 
 a " seething pot." i. e., evils which were to come upon the 
 people. Also Daniel's visions of the four beasts, Dan. 7. 
 3. Visions of supersensuous beings. God appears in vis- 
 ions ; so do angels, Is. 6. 
 
 Sometimes the prophets sought for revelations before 
 they were given, e.g., Daniel in the case of Nebuchadnez- 
 zar's dream. In most cases, however, revelations were un- 
 solicited. Upon one occasion, Elisha asked for a minstrel, 
 2 Kings 3: 15, and when the minstrel played, the hand of 
 the Lord came upon him. Ordinarily no external aid seems 
 to have been used, Dan. 12 : 8. The prophets did not 
 always understand the meaning of what was revealed to 
 them. In Zech. 1: 9-19, an angel interpreted to Zechariah. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROPHETS. 
 
 Before entering upon the subject specifically, it may be 
 of advantage to us to take a general survey of the classes 
 and groups into which it is divided. It will thus prepare 
 us for a better understanding of the whole. 
 
 Number of Prophets. — There are preserved in the 0. T. 
 the names of thirty-eight prophets, three prophetesses, and 
 six or seven others, whose names are not given. These 
 are but a small proportion of the whole number. The 
 companis of prophets, the language of Scripture shows to 
 be great companies gathered at the centre of influence. 
 These were inspired men throughout the kingdom. In 2 
 Kings 2: 7-16, we read of fifty prophets, or fifty men of 
 the sons of the prophets at Jericho. In 1 Kings 18 : 4, we 
 read of one hundred prophets being saved by pious Oba- 
 diah. He hid them in caves from the persecutions of 
 Jezebel. There were also idolatrous prophets, e. g., 1 
 Kings 18: 19, we find the prophets of Baal, 450; and the 
 prophets of Astarte, 400, who ate at Jezebel's table. If so 
 many were employed in a false religion, why not at least 
 
25 
 
 an equal number in the service of the true religion ? We 
 find only vague expressions during the period where more 
 are named. 2 Chron. 24: 19; 33: 18; 36: 15. These 
 inspired men only formed the permanent witnesses of God; 
 they supplied the place of ordinary teachers. Only the 
 more prominent are mentioned or referred to in the sacred 
 records, so we infer there were not only one or two at a 
 time, but scores and hundreds in every age, even when not 
 named. This great body of prophets who were the reposi- 
 tories of God's will, have been variously classified. 
 
 1. The anonymous prophets, aad those whose names are 
 mentioned. — The anonymous were by fur the greater in 
 number and aggregate influence. All were alike in inspi- 
 ration and authority. Both those whose names have been 
 given and those whose names have not been preserved, have 
 played an important part in sacred history, but those named 
 were most prominent, hence their names are preserved for 
 us in the Bible. 
 
 2. Canonical and Extra- Canon leal. — The Canonical were 
 charged with the teaching of God's people in all ages, and 
 accordingly they have left writings which have been re- 
 corded in the sacred book. These comprise all whose 
 names are mentioned as authors of books in the O. T., and 
 also the authors of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 
 and 2 Kings. The Extra-Canonical prophets were no less 
 inspired, but their commission was to their contemporaries 
 exclusively. They either left no writings at all, or such as 
 were to have no place in the canon, and hence, what they 
 communicated was not intended for a permanent rule of 
 faith. Elijah, Elisha, and others, who were Extra-Canon- 
 ical, have a larger place in the books than those whose 
 works have been preserved. This division is not the same 
 as fh@ former. Some that were not Canonical were of 
 great influence, and even second to none others^ e. </., 
 Elijah. Some of the anonymous prophets or writers were 
 authors of historical books already mentioned, and pre- 
 served for us in the sacred canon. 
 
 3. The Former and Latter Prophets. — The Former prophets 
 were authors of the six historical books already mentioned. 
 The Latter prophets were the authors of the strictly pro- 
 phetical books. These terms, Former and Latter, have 
 reference not to the time of the composition of the books, 
 but are due simply to the order of the books in the Hebrew 
 canon. The Former prophets were those immediately fol- 
 
26 
 
 lowing the Pentateuch. Judges and Samuel were written 
 before the prophetic books, while Kings were written after. 
 The Former prophets were all anonymous, and by unknown 
 authors, except Joshua. None of the strictly prophetical 
 books, so-called, are anonymous, but their names are found 
 either in the books themselves, or attached to the close. 
 The reason for this is that prophecy requires divine authen- 
 tication attached to the person, his character and history. 
 It was essential that the person of the prophet should be 
 known. History is authenticated by being proved to be a 
 true narrative. This classification does not embrace such 
 prophetical works as are found in other parts of the canon, 
 e. g., Lamentations of Jeremiah, and certain Psalms, such 
 as may have been written by other prophets. The book of 
 Daniel stands in the Hebrew Bible, not among the prophet- 
 ical books, but in the Hagiographa. Some say it was 
 because the book of Daniel was written in exile, and out 
 of the Holy Land, that it was excluded from the prophe- 
 cies, but this furnishes no sufficient reason, for the same is 
 true of Ezekiel. Others allege the reason to be that the 
 collection of the prophets was completed before the book 
 of Daniel was written, and hence it found its place in the 
 later division. This is based on two false assumptions. 1. 
 It is claimed that the book of Daniel is not genuine, not 
 written by him, but is of a later date, and written by 
 another hand. 2. It is assumed that different parts of the 
 canon were collected at widely different periods of time, 
 instead of all at once, as it really was. The true reason 
 why Daniel is found among the Hagiographa is that Daniel 
 was not a prophet in the strict and official sense. He was 
 an inspired man, but did not exercise prophetic ministry 
 among the people, as Ezekiel and Jeremiah did. He held 
 a political station — prime minister of Babylon. The char- 
 acter qf the contents of this book justifies us in classifying 
 it among the prophets, in our present classification. 
 
 Turning our attention to the Latter prophets, we find 
 they may be classified into the Major and Minor prophets. 
 This has reference to the size or length, and not to the 
 quality or rank. 
 
 1. The Major prophets are three : Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel; to which, for reasons already assigned, we may 
 join Daniel, though it is not so long. Properly it belongs 
 to an intermediate place between the two classes. 
 
27 
 
 2. The Minor prophets are twelve in number. In all the 
 ancient catalogues of Scripture, they are regarded as one, 
 under the name of "the twelve," "the twelve prophets." 
 On account of their brevity, they were combined for con- 
 venience, and for preserving them from destruction. 
 Though thus combined, they are entirely independent in 
 authority. Their arrangement among themselves is, for the 
 most part, chronological. This is denied, but it may be 
 said — 
 
 a. There are seven out of the twelve books whose dates 
 are known, and they stand in proper chronological order. 
 
 b. This principle determines the position and regular 
 succession in other parts of the canon, e. g., in the Major 
 prophets; but this is not the case in the Hagiographa, be- 
 cause they were liturgical, and other reasons make change 
 in them. 
 
 c. Tradition favors this. Jerome says those prophetical 
 books having no title belong to the reign of kings named 
 in the books preceding them. 
 
 d. There is nothing in the books themselves to show 
 that they do not stand in chronological order. The order 
 is determined not b} 7 the time when the books were written, 
 for then Hosea would come after Joel ; nor by the absolute 
 time of the beginning of each prophet's ministry, for then 
 Jonah would precede the others, 2 Kings 14 : 25; but the 
 order is determined by the beginning of that portion of 
 their ministry covered by those books which bear their 
 names. 
 
 The arrangement of the Minor prophets among them- 
 selves, as well as their arrangement in relation to the Major 
 prophets, differs in the Septuagint from that in the Hebrew 
 canon. In the Septuagint, Hosea, is followed by Amos, 
 probably because both relate to the ten tribes of Israel. 
 After them, comes Micah in the Septuagint, which relates 
 to both Israel and Judah. In the other cases the Hebrew 
 order is retained. It seems that the Septuagint departed 
 from the Hebrew because of territorial reasons, boundary 
 being followed. 
 
 The Major prophets, being the larger and more impor- 
 tant, stand first in order in the Hebrew Bible. In the 
 Septuagint, the order is reversed, perhaps because of chron- 
 ological reasons; or perhaps the Minor prophets, because 
 they begin with Israel and end with Judah, stand first, as 
 the Major prophets all relate to Judah, and thus all the 
 
28 
 
 prophets of Judah came together. Hosea, the first of the 
 Minor prophets, began before Isaiah, the first of the Major 
 prophets. Or because the Major prophets all belong to 
 Judah, and so correspond with the end of the Minor 
 prophets. 
 
 This division of the prophets just given, into Major and 
 Minor, is purely external and formal. It does not afiect 
 the authority or character. There is more breadth and 
 fullness in Micah and Zechariah, and ampler instructions 
 as to the Messiah, than in Jeremiah. 
 
 Further divisions to be made in the prophets have more 
 vital connection with the nature of the work, and the 
 themes on which they respectively dwell : (1.) Divisions as 
 to the sphere of labor, and the tribes ; (2.) Periods of their 
 ministry. 
 
 4. Division according to sphere of labor. — The sphere of 
 the prophets' labor is divided into the prophets of Judah, 
 and the prophets of Israel. The prophets of Israel are 
 Hosea, Amos, Jonah ; all the rest are prophets of Judah. 
 The book of Jonah is the record of a special mission to 
 Nineveh, but is mainly designed for the benefit of the cov- 
 enant people. The distribution of the prophets between 
 the two kingdoms into different fields of labor, has some 
 points of analogy with the divisions of apostolic labors to 
 the circumcision and uncircumcision. The gospel of the 
 uncircumcision was committed to Paul, yet he wrote the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews. Peter admitted the first Gentile 
 convert into the church, although his mission was to the 
 circumcision. So there was a division of labor in the O. 
 T. times. But we must remember that the existence of 
 distinct kingdoms was in itself schismatic and sinful. It was 
 never recognized as lawful. The tribes of Israel were one, 
 and formed the one chosen people of God. A writing 
 came from Elijah the prophet of the ten tribes, to King 
 Jehoram of Judah, 2 Chron. 21: 12. Nahum was taken 
 from Israel to labor in Judah. Amos from Judah to Israel. 
 The prophets extended their reformatory work over both 
 kingdoms. Thus it was in the period we are now discuss- 
 ing. Hosea and Amos occasionally addressed- themselves 
 to Judah. Isaiah and Micah sometimes have regard to 
 Israel, although they were prophets of Judah. 
 
 5. Division by Periods. — The prophets may again be di- 
 vided with reference to the periods to which they belonged, 
 
29 
 
 the Assyrian and Chaldean. The design of the prophets is 
 to teach the lessons of the schism, etc., and to record the 
 judgment (Assyrio-Babylonish judgment) of God for the 
 good of the church. The work of judgment exhibited the 
 forbearance of God, and gave the people time for repent- 
 ance. Idolatry required a violent corrective. In the fulfill- 
 ment ot ancient threatenings of the law of Moses, this 
 great empire of Asia was raised up for punishment. In 
 the successive stages we see God's mercy in giving oppor- 
 tunity for repentance. The empire of Assyria was raised 
 up, and succeeded in overthrowing the ten tribes, the 
 stronger but more sinful of the two. This empire was not 
 permitted to overthrow Judah, the weaker. The warning 
 thus given to Judah was ineffectual. Having disregarded 
 it, Babylon was erected, and they were given into its power. 
 Judah was carried into captivity, and held therein until the 
 time of Cyrus, when it was restored. The lessons of proph- 
 ecy corresponded to the necessities of the people at the 
 time, and reflect the spiritual wants of the people at that 
 particular time. Prophets were raised up at each succes- 
 sive stage of this severe but salutary lesson. The wants of 
 the time are determined : 1. By the condition of the people. 
 2. By God's purposes respecting them. These different 
 epoch define the various prophetic periods. Of these 
 periods, the first is: 
 
 a. The Assyrian period, embracing the prophets prior 
 to, and contemporary with, the Assyrian invasion, which 
 overthrew Israel and threatened Judah. To this period 
 belong eight prophets, one half of the whole number. 
 Three belong to Israel, Hosea, Amos, Jonah. Five to 
 Judah, Joel, Obadiah, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum. 
 
 b. The Chaldean period, embracing the prophets prior 
 to, or contained within, the period of the Babylonish inva- 
 sion under Nebuchadnezzar, by which Judah was led cap- 
 tive. To this period belong three, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, 
 Zephaniah. 
 
 c. The Period of Exile, during which Judah was in the 
 land of oppressors. To this period belong Daniel and 
 Ezekiel. 
 
 d. The Period of Restoration, from Cyrus to the N". T. 
 To this period belong Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. 
 
30 
 
 (1.) I. Typical Messianic. (2.) II. Properly Messianic. 
 
 A. Implicit. B. Explicit. 
 
 a. Jonah, i. I. 
 
 6. Nahum, ii. J. (A.) Periods. B.) Person. 
 i — _ , - . a .- Jstiiili i 
 
 (a.) Negative. (6.) Positive. Micuh! 
 
 a. Obadiah, i. a. Hosea, i. ) T Jeremiah, ii. 
 
 b. Habakkuk, ii. d. Amos.ii. [ Lm Daniel, iii. 
 
 Zechariah, iv. 
 /. Joel, i. ] Malachi. 
 
 e. Zephaniah, ii. ! T 
 6. Ezekiel, iii. f J - 
 c. Haggai, iv. J 
 
 6. Division into Messianic and Non- Messianic. — The proph- 
 ets may still further be divided with reference to their atti- 
 tude concerning the coming of Christ, and the function they 
 were to perform in preparation for his coming, a. The 
 Non-Messianic, which were only typically or indirectly 
 Messianic, b. The Messianic, or directly and properly 
 Messianic. 
 
 (1.) The Non-Messianic prophets did not direct their 
 thoughts to the remote future, but confined themselves to 
 the immediate wants of the people. They comprise nearly 
 all who precede the period of written prophecy, i. <?., from 
 Samuel to Hosea. They are restricted almost exclusively 
 to the needs of the people and the time in which they lived. 
 They reclaimed the people from apostasy, made disclosures, 
 and urged the people to adhere to God, but, as a rule, say 
 nothing of the coming Messiah. During this period we 
 find only the most scanty predictions of Christ, 2 Sam. 7 : 
 12-16. There were only enough of this kind to keep alive 
 the Messianic hope of the people, and to preserve their 
 faith from extermination. The teaching was mostly by 
 types, sufficient for the times. It is not until the lessons of 
 the types are adequately set forth, that the Messianic proph- 
 ecy becomes prominent. Yet every promise, even of tem- 
 poral good, under the old covenant, foreshadowed to them 
 better things for the future, a greater spiritual good. The 
 predictions of this period still have a mediate reference to 
 the Messiah. Acts 3 : 24, " Yea, and all the prophets from 
 Samuel and those that follow after, as many as have spoken, 
 have likewise foretold of these days," is therefore true in 
 typical import. 
 
 (2.) The Messianic prophets embrace all from Hosea on- 
 ward who were writers of prophecy. Those of Canaan not 
 only wrote concerning the present wants of the people, but 
 also for the needs of God's people for all time to come. 
 In these, the doctrine of the Messiah becomes very promi- 
 nent, and yet in treating this theme there is no dull, life- 
 
31 
 
 less uniformity on this part of the prophets. In treating 
 of the Messiah, the substance, character, and amount of 
 their teaching are all different. They do not develop on 
 all sides the doctrine of Christ, but they make their ap- 
 proaches to this theme from different standpoints, exhibit 
 different aspects of it, and with different degrees of full- 
 ness. But this divergence shows no discrepancy. It is 
 possible to gather the whole up into a higher unity. They 
 are not only harmonious, but they are mutually self-sup- 
 porting, and are supplementary to each other. Whether 
 such a combination was possible before Christ appeared, or 
 was fully understood, is difficult to say. However, it is 
 plain that all these divine representations do find their 
 counterpart in the Lord Jesus Christ. In Christ all the 
 enigmas of prophecy are solved, and we see the consistency 
 of what the prophets wrote concerning him. 
 
 7. Division according to Implicit or Explicit Disclosure con- 
 cerning Christ. — These sixteen prophetical books may be 
 further classified in respect to their manner of disclosure 
 concerning Christ. This manner may be divided and the 
 prophets viewed as Implicitly Messianic, and Explicitly 
 Messianic. a. Implicitly Messianic furnished a link be- 
 tween the prophets of this and the former period. They 
 do not in express terms speak of that which is strictly Mes- 
 sianic, yet their predictions obviously stand in closer con- 
 nection with the Messianic prophets than the unwritten 
 types do. b. The Explicitly Messianic make Christ the 
 direct theme of prophecy. 
 
 A. Of the Implicitly Messianic or transition prophets, 
 there are only two, Jonah and Nahum. They were not con- 
 temporaries, yet they belonged to the Assyrian period, 
 Jonah in Israel, and Nahum in Judah. The theme of both 
 was the purpose of God with respect to Nineveh, the 
 capital of Assyria, the prominent foe of God's people. 
 These two prophets make entirely diverse revelations con- 
 cerning the fate of Nineveh, the common foe of both nations. 
 They appear at different times, and present Messianic les- 
 sons, from different sides. 
 
 a. Jonah, the sphere of whose work lay mainly in the 
 ten tribes, in the time of prosperity under Jeroboam, was 
 sent to prophesy in Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria, 
 Jonah 4 : 11. This city was selected rather than some 
 other, because it was then the great hostile power which 
 threatened Israel. Jonah's prophecy had a good effect. 
 
32 
 
 By hearkening to his message the city was spared. The 
 contrast is, that Israel is obstinate, and hastening on to de- 
 struction, while Nineveh, the heathen enemy, is saved. 
 Jonah had preached a long time to Israel, and they did not 
 repent. He went and preached in Nineveh, and it repented 
 at once, and was saved. The great typical lesson is that 
 the gospel shall one day be preached to the Gentiles, and 
 they should hear it, while God's ancient covenant people 
 should be cast off". The great foe of Israel was spared to 
 be its overthrow. But the time had not yet come for an 
 actual change. God's purposes were not yet ripe. There- 
 fore Assyria was not then substituted for Israel. Assyria 
 still continued heathen, and Israel the favored people of 
 God. The Gentiles should not only hear the gospel, but 
 obey it, while Israel should be cast off, and deprived of the 
 religion of their fathers. It was typical of what should 
 transpire when Christ came. 
 
 b. The message of Nahum was for Judah, which was 
 not to be overthrown by Assyria as Israel was. Nahum, 
 therefore, predicts the preservation of the people of God. 
 It is not a development of a Messianic prophecy, but this 
 may be inferred. This disastrous overthrow 7 of Assyria 
 stands as a type of the overthrow of all God's enemies, the 
 safety of God's people, and the judgments against an 
 ungodly world. These are totally different, and yet the 
 same. If we put them into contrast, according to Jonah, 
 Israel is cut off; while according to Nahum Israel is saved, 
 and the heathen cut off. 
 
 B. The rest of the prophetic books are Explicitly Mes- 
 sianic,— they teach of Christ in express terms. Here, again, 
 we find a great variety of aspects, far greater than before. 
 As to the character of the Messianic period, we may view 
 it as comprising two classes, (a.) Those which treat of the 
 Messianic period itself. {b.) Those which, in addition to 
 that, speak of the Messiah's person. The one exhibits a 
 negative view of the Messianic period in the light of de- 
 liverance from present and future evils ; the other develops 
 the positive character. The former declare what the Mes- 
 sianic period is not. A future which stood in no sort of 
 relation to the present, could not be understood by the peo- 
 ple, but if so related that the lesson may become compara- 
 tively easy, then we must make the present the point of de- 
 parture. It is thus we obtain our knowledge of spiritual 
 things — by our own consciousness, negative and positive. 
 
33 
 
 Thus we get an idea of God from a knowledge of our- 
 selves : first by denying to Him all the imperfections 
 which we find in ourselves; second, by ascribing to Him 
 all the perfections of what is good. So the prophets do. 
 Some deny to that glorious period the evils of the present. 
 Others positively prophesy blessings and benefits on that 
 time. 
 
 (a.) In the negative, Obadiah belongs to the Assyrian 
 period; Habakkuk to the Chaldean. Both belonged to 
 Judah. Both direct their prophecy to different yet related 
 themes. 
 
 a. Obadiah belonged to the earlier portion of prophecy, 
 and selected Edom, a small neighboring state, as the repre- 
 sentative of the enemies of God. The burden of O. is the 
 downfall of Edom. He reaches into Messianic times, and 
 predicts that every enemy of God shall find its downfall. 
 The book ends with the declaration, " The Kingdom shall 
 be the Lord's." This offers another opportunity for incul- 
 cating the same lesson in a more impressive form, which 
 occurred in the Chaldean period, i. e., the universality of 
 His kingdom. 
 
 b. Habakkuk in the Chaldean period. A far more 
 formidable foe than Edom had arisen. The great empire 
 of" Babylon was terrible. It gave a conception of the pos- 
 sible combination which might be arrayed against the peo- 
 ple of God. It presents a spectacle of universal empire, 
 ruling almost the whole world. It was given to Habakkuk 
 to predict the overthrow of this huge empire, and deduce 
 from it the same lesson Obadiah had done, the universality 
 of God's kingdom as opposed to all others. Hab. 2 : 14, 
 " For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the 
 glory of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea." This truth 
 could insure the downfall of Babylon, though now at the 
 height of its power. 
 
 (6.) The remaining six prophets are positively Messianic, 
 not only as speaking of this period as one of deliverance, 
 but in a positive sense. They are Joel, Zephaniah, Ezekiel, 
 Haggai, of Judah ; Hosea and Amos, of Israel. They de- 
 lineate in positive aspect the actual benefits of the Mes- 
 sianic period, yet here also is there variety in the mode of 
 preservation. 
 
 a. Hosea takes no note of anything but the fortunes of 
 God's covenant people, and of the Gentile nations merely 
 as executioners of what comes upon God's people, without 
 
any reference to what shall become of them themselves. He 
 was sent to prophesy to the ten tribes shortly before they 
 were to be overthrown by Assyria. He was to assure the 
 despondent pious of the glorious future awaiting God's 
 people. The Messianic teaching in Hosea has four points : 
 1. The favor ot God shall be restored forever. 2. The 
 unity of the people of God under one head. No such dis- 
 astrous schism as at present exists shall divide the nation. 
 3. Immense multiplicity of the people of God. 4. Their 
 return. They shall be regathered out of the dispersion, so 
 threatening, and be brought back to the Lord's land. 
 
 b. Ezekiel, sent to Judah when in exile, develops still 
 more fully and minutely the blessings which the people 
 would enjoy. He adopts the symbols of the old economy, 
 and pushes them to greater lengths than Hosea did. 
 Ezekiel describes in addition to the return, and in minute 
 detail, the fresh partition ot lands among the people, the 
 rebuilding and measurements of the temple, and restora- 
 tion of the Levitical ceremonials. This is only in a sym- 
 bolic and emblematic sense. The theocracy, which seemed 
 to be in ruins, was to be restored after the same general 
 pattern as before, but on a much larger scale. He refers 
 also to the destiny awaiting their heathen foes, now exult- 
 ing over Israel's downfall and Judah's captivity. He de- 
 clares they shall fall before the people of God. There is 
 no mention that the Gentiles shall be partakers of the 
 blessings of God's people. 
 
 c. Haggai comes after the exile and stands on substan- 
 tially the same platform as Ezekiel, although he seems to 
 be partially paving the way for the extension of the good 
 news ot the kingdom to the Gentiles. The government of 
 Judah shall be protected. Whatever may perish, God's 
 people shall be saved. The result is stated in Haggai 2: 
 7, " And I will shake all nations, and the desire of all 
 nations shall come : and I will fill this house with glory, 
 saith the Lord of hosts." The "desire of all nations" is 
 not a persona] designation of the Messiah, as satisfying the 
 longings of mankind. It does not mean Messiah, as many 
 have explained it. This view is true from various conside- 
 rations, being supported from the prophet's own under- 
 standing ot the passage. According to grammatical princi- 
 ples the " desire " of all nations is a collective, feminine 
 singular. The temple seemed poor in comparison with 
 Solomon's, which preceded it, but all the treasures of the 
 
85 
 
 nations shall be brought to adorn and beautify the Lord's 
 house, llaggai does not say persons of the Gentiles should 
 be brought into the kingdom of God, but their noblest pos- 
 sessions. He does not say whether they are to be volun- 
 tarily brought, or wrested from their unwilling hands. 
 This is not explicitly declared, yet all suspense and doubt 
 are removed by the three remaining ones, who each unam- 
 biguously affirm that the Gentiles shall share in the bless- 
 ings of the Messiah's kingdom. This is set forth by each 
 in different aspects. 
 
 d. Amos speaks of the incorporation of the Gentiles 
 into the kingdom of God, as the result of their spiritual 
 subjugation by Israel, 9: 12, "That they may possess the 
 remnant of Edom, and of all the heathen, which arc called 
 by my name, saith the Lord that doeth this." That the 
 Gentiles, like Israel, were to be called by the "Lord's 
 name," implies that they are to come into the same relation 
 with God as His people. This is the result of conquest by 
 Israel. Active propagation of the gospel proceeding from 
 the heart of the Christian church. So David must be built 
 up as of old. There must be a Spiritual people. The 
 Christian church was to be built up and owe its existence 
 to the Jewish church. This was in part the case. The 
 founders of the Christian church were Jews. 
 
 e. Zephaniah, on the other hand, declares the Gentiles, 
 like Israel, are to be purified by divine judgements, Zeph. 
 2: 11 ; 3: 8, 9. According to Zephaniah, God's providen- 
 tial judgments are to be the agents in bringing about the 
 blessing. 
 
 /. Joel 2 : 28, makes no mention of any active extension 
 or propagation of God's kingdom by those included in it, 
 nor of the effect of God's providences in breaking down 
 obstacles, but he refers it solely to the outpouring of the 
 Spirit of God, this being the only agency employed in the 
 work. This is in accordance w T ith His great promise, " I 
 will pour out my spirit upon all flesh." 
 
 (B.) Person of the Messiah. — The last class of Messi- 
 anic prophets are those who make revelations, not only 
 concerning the character of the Messianic period, but also 
 concerning the person of the Messiah. This class embraces 
 the six remaining prophets, all of whom belong to Judah. 
 The Personal prophets are Isaiah, Micah, Jeremiah, Daniel, 
 Zechariah, and Malachi. There is a double reason for con- 
 fining these explicit disclosures concerning Messiah's per- 
 
36 
 
 son to Juclah. First, because the kingdom of the ten tribes 
 was not to survive, as the kingdom of Judah should, till the 
 advent of the Messiah. It was destroyed by Assyria, 
 and never be revived again. It was to be superfluous, 
 therefore, to supply them with marks of the coming Mes- 
 siah. Second, the great body of the truly pious, and that 
 in which the proper succession of the covenant people lay, 
 was in Judah. They greatly outnumber the prophecies of 
 Israel, and the disclosures made to Judah far surpass those 
 made to Israel. So, also, Messianic disclosures were limited. 
 These six prophets, who make distinct mention of the per- 
 son of the Messiah, are distributed through all four of the 
 prophetic periods. There are two in the Assyrian period ; 
 two in the period of Restoration ; and one each in the Chal- 
 dean and Exile periods. Isaiah and Micah belong to the 
 Assyrian ; Jeremiah, Chaldean ; Daniel. Exile ; Zechariah 
 and Malachi, Restoration. 
 
 a. Jeremiah makes the most scanty revelation of the 
 person of the Messiah. His period was the downfall of 
 Judah. He predicts the Messiah as the righteous king, in 
 contrast with the degenerate monarch of his own day. He 
 is to restore, not only his people, but all things to his will. 
 
 b. Micah adds the Messiah shall be not only a virtuous 
 king of David's ancient race, but a divine monarch, and an 
 effectual defense and protection against all foes, however 
 powerful. 
 
 c. Daniel contrasts Christ's kingdom with the utmost 
 potency with the greatest kingdoms of the world. He thus 
 carries the teachings of the Messiah to the greatest extent. 
 In symbol, he represents the kingdoms of the world as 
 brutal, figured by beasts of uncommon kinds; on the other 
 hand, he represents the Messiah as the Son of Man, 7 : 13. 
 
 d. Isaiah adds to what has thus far been set forth, his 
 prophetic office as teacher of the nations, and the fact of his 
 vicarious sacrifice for sin is set forth most clearly by this 
 prince of the prophets. 
 
 e. Zechariah combines with his kingly office that of his 
 priestly office, making him a priest upon his throne, as well 
 as the Good Shepherd disowned by his flock, thus repre- 
 senting the sufferings he should endure as a priest. 
 
 /. Malachi predicts the Messiah as a judge, refining and 
 purifying by the fires of his justice, separating the right- 
 eous from the wicked. 
 
37 
 
 All of these prophets except Jeremiah present special 
 marks of identification, marks by which he may be known 
 when he comes. Isaiah foretells his birth from a virgin 
 mother, and his ministry in Galilee. Micah foretells his 
 birth in Bethlehem. Daniel mentions the time of his ap- 
 pearing. It should be at the expiration of the seventy 
 weeks. Zechariah speaks of his riding into Jerusalem upon 
 an ass. Malachi, his being preceded by a forerunner, or 
 one who should " come in the spirit and power of Elias," as 
 we read it elsewhere. 
 
 [Various passages quoted or used in support of our 
 present " Division of Prophets." From the Minor proph- 
 ets : Hosea 1 : 10, 11 ; 3 : 5. Joel 2 : 28-32. Amos 9 : 
 11-15. Obadiah 1 : 31. Micah 4 : 1-3 ; 5 : 2. Hab. 2 : 
 14. Zeph. 2: 11; 3: 8, 9. Hag. 2:6, 7. Zech. 6: 12, 13; 
 9: 9; 13 : 17. Mai. 3: 1-3;"" 4: 5. From the Major 
 prophets: Is. 7: 14-16; 9: 1-7; 53: 1-12. Jer. 33: 
 15-17. Ezek. chs. 38, 39, 40-48. Dan. 2: 44-45; 9: 
 24-27.] 
 
 ASSYRIAN PERIOD. 
 
 I.— PROPHETS OF THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 
 
 They should not be taken at random for there is order 
 here. They must not be massed together, nor isolated, so 
 that the connection may be lost. They were part of the 
 divine scheme, a system of training to which the Israelites 
 were subjected, and were conceived in order. The minis- 
 try of each particular prophet fills its appropriate place in 
 the era to which he belongs. The complete study of the 
 prophets embraces : 
 
 1. Each book in its own individual character, and abso- 
 lute amount of prophecy which it contains. 
 
 2. In its relation to its own group or period. The 
 functions which belong to it individually. 
 
 3. Relation of the mission of each period to the grand 
 system of prophetic teaching which embraces all the proph- 
 ets. 
 
 4. Relation of the work of preparation considered as a 
 whole to the entire sheme of training to which Israel was 
 subjected under the whole O. T., for this preparation by 
 
38 
 
 the medium of the prophets is only a part in a greater whole. 
 a. Legal preparation by Moses, b. Providential prepara- 
 tion by the history of the people in the historical books — 
 negative and positive, c. Individual preparation : the sub- 
 jective preparation in the poetical books, the religious ex- 
 periences of inspired and sanctified men, their inward and 
 outward trials which have their bearing upon the Son of 
 Man. 
 
 We begin with the consideration of the prophets of 
 Israel, because : 
 
 (1.) This is probably the chronological order. Although 
 the prophets of Israel are in general S3*nchronous with the 
 first periods of Judah, yet Hosea, the first prophet of Israel, 
 began before Joel. 
 
 (2.) It enables us to complete the prophets of one king- 
 dom before beginning the others. 
 
 (3.) The future disclosures made to Israel, as well as the 
 revelations concerning the Messiah, are less full and clear 
 than those granted to the prophets of Judah, and thus 
 there is progress. In order to understand the whole char- 
 acter of their ministries we must look at the providential 
 circumstances which determined their character. 
 
 I. Intrinsic character of the kingdom and the domestic 
 and foreign relations of Israel. 
 
 a. It was inherently sinful in character, being founded 
 on schism and apostasy, leaving the true worship of God in 
 Jerusalem for the worship of false gods in Bethel and Dan. 
 The very existence of this kingdom was a erime against 
 God. The perpetuity of the kingdom involves this twofold 
 guilt. 
 
 b. There was universal corruption. (1) The kings uni- 
 versally were wicked, in Judah some were good. (2) The 
 abandonment, by the people, of the true worship of God, 
 followed by awful sins and violence, which are rebuked by 
 the prophets, in both princes and people. One of the fruits 
 of this is to be found in the fact that there was no regular 
 hereditary succession to the throne, but many usurpa- 
 tions and regicides and interregnums. Pour out of seven 
 kings during the ministry of this period were murdered, 
 and only two transmitted the crown to their descendants, 
 and this for one generation. There were repeated civil 
 wars, and two periods of anarchy, during which no monarch 
 sat upon the throne for several years. This seems to be a 
 necessary inference from the history, though not expressly 
 
39 
 
 stated. The ten tribes having thus cut themselves oft' from 
 the people of God and his divinely appointed worship, and 
 having become more opposite to the character of God's 
 chosen people, the question arises, How will God treat them 
 and deal with them ? The book of Chronicles omits the 
 history of the ten tribes altogether, as not belonging to the 
 theocratic history of the kingdom of God at all, and con- 
 fines itself to Judah. 
 
 II. Purpose of God respecting it. 
 
 a. His forbearance hitherto is shown by preserving it 
 for nearly t\yo hundred years in a moderate state of peace 
 and prosperity. The schism began with the revolt of Jero- 
 boam I, B. C. 975 ; death of Jeroboam II., B. C. 784 ; 
 shortly before which the latter period begins with the 
 period of the prophecy of Hosea. 
 
 b. God's favor is shown by interrupting the course of 
 degradation from Jeroboam to Ahab, by : (1) Ministries of 
 Elijah and Elisha. (2) After Ahab by placing on the 
 throne the princes of Jehu. Jehu was made king, 884 
 B. C. The first century of the schism, or, more exactly, 
 the first 90 years from the original revolt of Jeroboam to 
 the fall of the house of Ahab, was one of growing corrup- 
 tion, until Ahab and his heathen wife renounced the wor- 
 ship of God entirely for the heathen gods. This process 
 of degradation was broken off by placing Jehu on the 
 throne. Ths preparation for this was made by the period 
 of Elijah and Elisha, whose ministry extended to Joash, 
 the grandson of Jehu, and under Jehu there was a zealous 
 reform, for which he was commended by God. Although 
 the golden calves were still retained, Jehu was of marked 
 ability, and the princes remained for four reigns, upward 
 of a century, as God had promised to Jehu, 2 Kings 10 : 
 30. Under the reign of these princes there was prosperity 
 to Israel, and deliverance from their foreign oppressors, 
 and victory over them. Under Jeroboam II. there was an 
 extension of the kingdom to the limits reached by Solomon, 
 2 Kings 14 : 25. 
 
 c. The raising up of prophets to labor among them for 
 their admonition and salvation, and to show that they were 
 not yet to be cast off, combined ministries of Hosea, Amos, 
 Jonah, besides others, as Oded, 2 Chron. 28 : 9, and many 
 more. All these measures failed to effect any thorough re- 
 form of the people of God at large, and the period of for- 
 bearance was drawing to a close, and was to be followed 
 
40 
 
 by one of judgment. The term of the house of Jehu was 
 nearly at an end; his third descendant, Jeroboam II., had 
 nearly reached the end of his reign. His successor, Zacha- 
 riah, was to reign only six months. The great Assyrian 
 power (B. C. 721) was to overthrow Israel, capture Samaria, 
 and take the people into captivity. 
 
 The character of the people and the designs of God 
 respecting them are the main elements that determine their 
 necessities and show the nature of the ministry. This 
 ministry was not to be exercised by a single individual. 
 Even as our Lord sent out his disciples two by two, both for 
 mutual aid and countenance, as well as that in the mouths 
 of two or three witnesses his word should be established, 
 so here the prophets were to supplement each other, to 
 seize the truth on different sides, to teach distinct though 
 related lessons. In regard to Hosea, Amos, and Jonah, 
 there was not the full amount of instruction in any one of 
 them, but in the combination of the lessons which they 
 severally teach and in regarding them altogether as one 
 united ministry. Yet we must not lose sight of their indi- 
 vidual peculiarities. We must show their close connection, 
 and how each had its own distinctive mission to fulfil, but 
 all harmonize and co-operate in the accomplishment of the 
 common end. It is apparent that a people so given to sin, 
 and in the prospect of judgment, needed : 
 
 1. A ministry of rebuke and denunciation. This is a 
 characteristic of these three prophets, and is in marked con- 
 trast with the three prophets of Judah. This denunciation 
 and rebuke is administered by Hosea directly, Jonah in- 
 directly, Amos in both ways. Hosea and Amos performed 
 their direct work by threatening in so many terms the com- 
 plete destruction of" the kingdom, and foretelling the cap- 
 tivity and rejection of the mass of the people, and this oc- 
 cupies the bulk of these books, only a few verses contain- 
 ing a promise of mercy. Amos threatens the overthrow 
 of many nations around Israel who are less guilty than 
 Israel, while as to the great power, Assyria, which was 
 around Israel, he says not a word, leaving it to be inferred 
 that it is to finish the mission of destroying Israel. Jonah 
 also shows indirect proof of the same fact. The Ninevites 
 are less obdurate than Israel, and the actual destruction of 
 Nineveh is postponed. Yet the promises of God are not 
 to be frustrated, mercy was in store for them and for the 
 world, for which the judgment was to be a means to an 
 
s 
 
41 
 
 end. No promises whatever of the proximate future are 
 given to Israel, nothing to break the full force of the im- 
 pending judgment, so that this judgment might be averted. 
 For the present all is dark, but there is a brighter prospect 
 beyond, after the work of judgment shall be accomplished. 
 
 2. With an entire absence of all promises for the pres- 
 ent, they nevertheless point forward to Messianic blessings. 
 Nothing is said about the person of the Messiah, but only 
 about the Messianic period, which is different from the con- 
 temporaneous prophets of Judah, e. g., Isaiah and Micah. 
 There the person of Messiah is treated of (a) in a more 
 obscure form, sufficient for present purpose to comfort them; 
 (b) not the same necessity to give marks to a kingdom 
 which was to end long before the advent of the Messiah. 
 For similar reasons, the Messianic period is not largely and 
 fully dwelt upon by these prophets of Israel. They make 
 a contrast between the evils of the present, and the glories 
 of the future. 
 
 1. The attitudes and revelations of the prophets are 
 different. Hosea and Amos are explicit, use express terms, 
 Jonah implicit, by actions which foreshadow the future. 
 
 2. There is a difference in the extent of the revelations 
 themselves respecting the Messianic period. Hosea tells 
 only of the blessings to Israel, Jonah of the calling of the 
 Gentiles, and Amos speaks of both. He unites with Hosea 
 in announcing that the destruction of the kingdom is a 
 necessary antecedent to the fulfilment of their hopes. 
 That they shall be returned to God by these, and be re- 
 united to Judah, and then the blessing shall come. Amos, 
 with Jonah, tells of the future calling of the Gentiles, but 
 in a different way, and different aspect. Amos foretells 
 the spiritual subjugation of the heathen, by a power from 
 Israel. Jonah treats of the preaching of the Gospel to all 
 nations, and embraced by them voluntarily, while Israel 
 remains impentinent and unbelieving. The calling of the 
 Gentiles is implicitly connected by Jonah with the rejection 
 of the Jews. From the N. T. we see that both were ful- 
 filled. 
 
 3. Personal Relations. — Knowledge on this matter is 
 scanty. The only thing mentioned of Hosea is the name of 
 his father. The residence and occupation of Amos is given. 
 The residence and father of Jonah. 
 
 4. Citizenship. — Hosea and Jonah belong to the king- 
 dom of Israel. Amos lived in Judah, but ministered to 
 
42 
 
 Israel. It is not stated concerning Hosea, but is inferred 
 from knowledge concerning the others. 
 
 5. Scene of their Ministry. — Hosea in the ten tribes : no 
 particular place mentioned. Amos in Bethel, 7 : 13. Jonah 
 in Nineveh. 
 
 6. Their writings. — Hosea a resume or abstract of a long 
 ministry. Jonah and Amos record a single brief mission 
 which in the case of Amos was a mission from Israel to 
 Judah. It may have been the whole of his prophetic 
 career, but in the case of Jonah it was not, 2 Kings 14 : 25. 
 
 7. Messianic teaching. — The prophets of Israel do not ad- 
 vance much on the promises made to David, but they are 
 reiterated and re-enforced, expanded in the case of Judah. 
 
 8. Theme. — Hosea exclusively treats of the duty and 
 destiny of the covenant people. Amos relates both to the 
 covenant people and Gentile nations; Jonah exclusively to 
 a particular Gentile nation. 
 
 9. Form of the Prophecies. — Hosea and Jonah symbolic 
 actions ; Amos symbolic visions. 
 
 10. All are recognized and referred to in the N. T. 
 Hosea in Rom. 9: 25; 1 Pet. 2 : 10. Amos, James in Acts 
 15 : 16. Jonah by our Lord, Matt. 12 : 39-41. 
 
 HOSEA. B. C. 784-724. 
 PERSON AND BOOK. 
 
 Name, salvation ; from which we may perhaps infer 
 that he was from pious parents. It is the original name of 
 Joshua, Num. 13 : 8, 16. Also, the name of the last king 
 of Israel, 2 Kings 15 : 30. He was the son ot Beeri, the 
 mention of whom does not prove him to have been a person 
 of distinction, nor a prophet, according to the Rabbins, 
 who say that whenever the name of the father of the 
 prophet is given, the father also was a prophet. It is simply 
 the oriental mode ot supplying the lack of family names. 
 
 It is probable that, like most of the other prophets, he 
 was a native of Israel, (a.) If not we should expect it to be 
 expressly mentioned, as in the case of Amos, (b.) The 
 places mentioned in Hosea belong to the ten tribes, and 
 
43 
 
 the events belong to the history of the ten tribes, (c.) Es- 
 pecially (7: 5) "our king," and such expressions as " the 
 land" (1: 2) "I have seen" (6: 10). These indicate a 
 knowledge of the land. 
 
 Some have urged that there are unusual forms in the 
 book which betray the northern idiom, but not enough is 
 known of the Hebrew dialects to warrant such a statement. 
 
 Some have objected to the view of the prophet's belong- 
 ing to the ten tribes; that the title of the book indicates 
 that he was of Judah, because he names the kings of Judah, 
 in whose reigns he prophesied. The kings of Judah are 
 mentioned in full, while of the kings of Israel, only Jero- 
 boam is mentioned. The explanation of this is not that he 
 lived in Judah, but that he did not recognize the right of 
 the schism of Israel, and that the king of the house of 
 Judah was the only lawful king. This is shown by other 
 passages, 8 : 4, " They have set up kings, but not by me ; " 
 and in 3: 5, they are to come. back under the rule of Judah. 
 To these kings of Judah, he adds the name of Jeroboam, 
 king of Israel, for a double reason, (a.) To indicate more 
 exactly the beginning of his ministry. Uzziah's reign 
 lasted until 26 years after the death of Jeroboam, but it was 
 in that part of Uzziah's reign when Jeroboam was still 
 living, that he began his ministry, (b.) Because God by 
 His providence gave a certain kind of sanction to Jeroboam 
 as one of the princes of Jehu, vide 2 Kings 14 : 25-29, " He 
 saved them by Jeroboam the son of Joash." 
 
 Ewald has a kind of intermediate theory, viz. : that the 
 prophet at first belonged to Israel, but on account of oppo- 
 sition, he removed to Judah. 
 
 Marriage. — As to the account of the prophet's marriage, 
 from ancient times interpreters have been divided. Was 
 his faithless wife an allegory or a fact ? In either case it 
 was certainly symbolical of the Lord's relation to His err- 
 ing people. It is improbable that it was a literal occur- 
 rence, for 
 
 1. God would not have commanded a holy prophet to 
 form such a connection. Though it is not a command to 
 form a sinful connection, as some have maintained, yet it 
 was certainly a revolting one, would subject him to an end- 
 less amount of scandal, and thus destroy his influence. 
 
 2. The law of Moses (Lev. 21 : 7) forbade a priest to 
 marry an unchaste woman. In regard to this, the law of 
 ceremonial purity relative to the priesthood is not to be 
 
44 
 
 applied to the prophet, for the priest would not even marry 
 a divorced woman. The high priest (Lev. 21 : 18, 14) could 
 not marry a widow. But the prophets were nevertheless a 
 sacred order of men as well as the priests, and God would 
 not specially direct them to form alliances of this kind. 
 
 3. An argument from the third chapter in which the 
 prophet is again required to form another such connection, 
 without any intimation that the former wife is dead or put 
 away. Is this a direction to renew his connection with the 
 woman ? Or is it a direction to marry irrespective of the 
 command? The force of this argument depends upon the 
 interpretation to be put upon this latter command, 
 (Chap. 3). If it is interpreted as a mere repetition of the 
 former command, the argument has no force. If it is a new 
 command, the argument will apply. The whole appear- 
 ance of the second command is against a previous actual 
 marriage. 
 
 4. Significant names of the children of this woman seem 
 to show that it was merely allegorical. 
 
 5. The action of the first chapter would require years 
 for its performance, requiring not only his marriage, but 
 the birth of several children. 
 
 The symbolic lesson would be lost entirely, and the 
 people would think of the scandal. The marriage is simply 
 an allegory. [W. H. G.] 
 
 Date. — " The word of the Lord that came unto Hosea, 
 the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and 
 Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, 
 the sou of Joash, king of Israel," Hosea 1 : 1. 
 
 Duration of Ministry. — Hosea 1 : 1, Uzziah reigned 52 
 years, Jotham 16, Ahaz 16, Hezekiah 29, in all 113. It 
 can not be supposed that Hosea was prophet during the 
 entire reigns of all these. Jeroboam II, died 784 B. C. 
 Uzziah survived him 26 or 27 years. From the death of 
 Jeroboam to the accession of Hezekiah, was 58 years. 
 Supposing Hosea was prophet one year under Jeroboam, 
 and one j^ear under Hezekiah, his ministy would have 
 been sixty years in length. We are not informed whether 
 Hosea lived to see the overthrow of Samaria or not. If so, 
 his ministry would be 65 years. If he began his ministry 
 when 20, he was 85, when he died, the oldest of all the 
 prophets. The truth of the title has been impugned. In 
 answer to the charge that these statements are false, we 
 answer : 
 
45 
 
 1. Those who make them are not agreed among them- 
 selves as to the length of his ministry. Some say 55, others 
 40, others 30, others 20, and others still less. This disagree- 
 ment betrays the insufficiency of the data. 
 
 2. The method pursued by them is inadmissible. They 
 assume the ministry of the prophet terminated immediately 
 after the latest event recorded in the prophecy, and that the 
 absence of allusion to atvy important event shows that it 
 did not occur during his ministry ; Jbut Hosea was not in- 
 tending to give a history of all events. Ewald says he 
 makes no mention of the invasion by the king of Assyria, 
 and therefore it can not have transpired during his min- 
 istry, or he surely would have alluded to it. Simpson finds 
 an allusion to the assassination of Menahem's son, Peka- 
 hiah, by Pekah, son of Remaliah. 
 
 3. The title is directly established by the statements of 
 the book itself. In 1 : 4, the fall of the house of Jehu is 
 predicted as still future. With the exception of six months 
 Jeroboam was the last king, hence Hosea's ministry must 
 have begun in the reign of Jeroboam. In 10 : 14, " as 
 Shalman spoiled Betharbel in the day of battle." Beth- 
 arbel is Arbela, a fortified town in Galilee; Shalman is 
 Shalmaneser, whose invasion was under Tloshea, the last 
 king of Israel, which brings us almost to the reign of Hez- 
 ekiah. From the former passage he must have begun in 
 the reign of Jeroboam ; from the latter passage he must 
 have continued to Hezekiah. 
 
 Structure of the Book. — Critics are divided. From the 
 brevity of the book it is not probable that it contains all 
 the prophcies Hosea ever uttered. Does not contain dis- 
 tinct discourses which we can state particularly, and their 
 date be ascertained. Dr. Wells says there are five discour- 
 ses in chronological order. German critics go to the most 
 unwarrantable extremes, multiplying these divisions, saying 
 that the book is compiled without any order at all. Maurer 
 says 13 discourses; others say 29; some 17, 14, etc., and 
 others many more. Each paragraph is searched to find an 
 historical statement as a theme of discourse. The book 
 is not a congeries of fragments, but is one continuous com- 
 position prepared by him near the close of his ministry, 
 and having in condensed form the discourses of his min- 
 istry. He simply places upon record what is of perma- 
 nent value to the people of God in such a form as would 
 suit best his immediate purposes. 
 
46 
 
 Ewald proposes an ingenious but artificial division. He 
 says there are two parts corresponding to the two allego- 
 ries in chaps. 1 and 2. 1-2 are the first part of the allegory 
 and the comments : the remainder, 3-14, is the second part 
 of the allegory and comments. This last comment has three 
 parts : 1, Charge ot sin against the people, and against 
 particular classes; 2, Denunciation of punishment; 3, Two 
 retrospects of ancient and better days. 
 
 Perhaps the most satisfactory division is based upon the 
 literary form of the book. The first three chapters are em- 
 blematic. The second part of the book, from 4th to 14th 
 chapter, is literal. Agreeably to a hint furnished by chap. 
 
 1 : 2, the former may be considered as the earlier part of 
 the prophet's ministry. This corresponds to the contents 
 of the text. In this the people are charged with outward 
 sins. From the 4th chapter the tone of the book mani- 
 festly changes, and the latter division reflects the turbulent 
 period, regicides, etc. Reason in the first three chapters 
 for the overthrow of the kingdom clearly foretold, and an- 
 nouncing who shall be the authors of that judgment. In 
 the first part of the book, the Assyrians are not mentioned 
 by name, but in the subsequent chapters they are named. 
 In each of these three main sections of the book are three 
 Messianic passages, making the ends of as many subdivis- 
 ions. Those in the first section occur at the close of each 
 of the first three chapters. In the second section are three 
 promissory passages, 6 : 1-3 ; 11 : 8-11 ; 14 : 1-9. The pas- 
 sages are not only of increasing length, but are of growing 
 fullness and power. They are climactic in thought. Pre- 
 dictions of the book relate partly to the near and partly to 
 the remote future. 
 
 PREDICTIONS OF HOSEA. 
 
 I. Nearer predictions : (a) ch. 1 : 4, overthrow of the 
 house of Jehu, cf. 2 Kings 10: 30; 15: 10, 12. (b) The 
 complete destruction of the kingdom of the ten tribes, the 
 exile of the people, and the desolations of the land, 1: 4-6; 
 
 2 : 11-13 ; 3 : 4, et passim. 
 
 Locality of the Exile. — Forms of statement vary, and ap- 
 pear to conflict. 8 : 13, " They shall return to Egypt." 
 9 : 6, " Egypt shall gather them up, Memphis shall bury 
 them." But, on the other hand, 11 : 5, " He shall not re- 
 turn into the land of Egypt, but the Assyrian shall be his 
 
47 
 
 king, because they refused to return." 9 : 3, " They shall 
 not dwell in the Lord's land; but Ephraim shall return to 
 Egypt and they shall eat unclean things in Assyria." 
 11 : 11, " They shall tremble as a bird out -of Egypt, and as 
 a clove out of the land of Assyria." These varying decla- 
 rations seem to be : (a) They shall be carried into Egypt; 
 
 (b) not in Egypt, but Assyria ; (c) both into Egypt and 
 Assyria. Skeptics say this shows vacillation in mind of 
 prophet. But (1) they hold this book to be a continuous 
 history. But it is singular that the prophet should record 
 these vacillations in a continuous history. Vacillations 
 would seem to prove the book a compilation of fragments. 
 (2) There is, however, no contradiction here. It is not 
 necessary to suppose that the prophet was of different mind 
 in different periods of his ministry. The meaning either is, 
 (a) That while a portion of the people shall be scattered into 
 Egypt, and find graves there, the bulk of them shall not go 
 there, but to Assyria, (b) Egypt is here introduced in a 
 symbolic sense as the land in which their fathers had been 
 in bondage, and they should be carried not into literal 
 Egypt, but to a land w T hich shall be to themselves what 
 Egypt had been to their fathers. 
 
 In 1 : 7, he predicts that Judah shall not fall as Israel, 
 but shall be miraculously delivered. Cf. 2 Kings 19 : 35, 
 host of Sennacherib smitten by an angel. 8 : 14, subsequent 
 destruction of Judah's cities is directly threatened. The 
 captivity is not predicted, but presupposed, 1 : 11, and 
 2 Kings 25 : 8, 9. The destruction of the palaces of Judah 
 by fire was fulfilled 130 years after his death, in 588, B. C. 
 
 II. En addition to these predictions, H. predicts four 
 blessings belonging to the remote future, (a) 1 : 10, Im- 
 mense multiplication of Israel, as the sand of the sea. 
 (6) Return to God and enjoyment of his favor, 2 : 20, 21. 
 (e) Union with Judah under King David, the lawful prince 
 of David's line, 1 : 11 ; 3 : 5. (d) Their return thus united 
 from the land of their captivity, 1 : 11 ; 11 : 11. 
 
 Each of these is disclosed in contrast with existing or 
 threatening evils. These evils are : («) the impending de- 
 struction of the kingdom; (b) Their apostasy from God; 
 
 (c) Their schism from Judah ; (d) Threatened captivity. 
 From the judgments upon Israel, they might fear they would 
 be extirpated, and what is to become of the promises ? H. 
 discloses that the promises shall abide in their full force. 
 The work of purgation shall be the means of fulfilling the 
 
48 
 
 promise. The schism between Israel and Judah shall ter- 
 minate. In what are we to look for the fulfillment of 
 these predictions of blessings? They were partially ful- 
 filled before Christ. When some of the Israelites were 
 mingled with the tribe of Judah in the return under Zerub- 
 babel they never relapsed into idolatry, 2 Chron. 10 : 17 ; 
 11 : 13-16. This blending began before the captivity by 
 emigration. It is further asserted that the ten tribes were 
 carried into the same land, into which Judah was subse- 
 quently carried— Babylon. Mention is particularly made 
 of Levi, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh being with 
 Judah in settling Jerusalem, I Chron. 9 : 2, 3. After re- 
 turn from exile they are repeatedly called Israel, Rom. 9 : 
 6; 11 : 26; Ezra 2: 70 ; 6 : 16, 17. The twelve tribes are 
 recognized in the !N\ T., Acts 26 : 7. Paul was of the 
 tribe of Benjamin, Phil. 3 : 5 ; Anna, tribe of Asher, 
 Luke 2 : 36. While here are incipient and partial fulfill- 
 ments, we do not find what corresponds particularly and 
 directly to the terms of the predictions. There was no 
 multitude, as predicted, no complete conversion to God, 
 no inalienable possession of God's favor. The entire body 
 of Israel was not united to Judah. Zerubbabel was not 
 king, and all Israel do not return. As inadequately met 
 before the coming of Christ, we must look for the residue 
 since his coming. 
 
 This is explained in two ways, (a) The lineal descend- 
 ants of the patriarchs, Israel; (6) the spiritual seed, those 
 who are successors to the privileges of Israel. If we adopt 
 the former, the substance of the prediction is that the 
 lineal descendants will be as numerous as the sands of the 
 sea, be converted to God, and made His people. The theo- 
 cratic king of the house of David will be Christ on an 
 earthly throne ; thus the prediction becomes a wholly 
 national one, only applied to the ten tribes, or, at most, to 
 the descendants of Jacob. Any other application is sub- 
 versive of any real intent. According to the other view 
 the descendants of Israel are to be counted not in the 
 lineal descent of the tribes, but in a spiritual succession. 
 In favor of this latter view is urged : 
 
 1. Israel as God's people, and in the sense of the promise 
 never was co-extensive with Abraham's natural posterity. 
 Some excluded, others outside included. Ishmael and the 
 sons of Keturah cut off. The descent was counted in the 
 line of Isaac, Esau was cut off, and the line counted 
 
49 
 
 from Jacob. A provision was made at the same time to 
 give the seal of circumcision to those in tne house of Abra- 
 ham. In every period in the history of God's people has 
 this been the case, Ex. 12 : 38-49. Multiplication in Egypt 
 a mixed multitude, Ex. 12 : 49. Strangers as those born 
 in the land, at the same time those who violated the cove- 
 nant were cut off from the people, Gen. 17 : 14. This ex- 
 cision might occur on a large or small scale, might affect 
 individuals or whole nations. Ex. 1 : 10 — the ten tribes re- 
 jected. 2 Kings 17 : 18. God was angry with Israel. 
 When Christ came, another great excision occurred : those 
 who received Christ were called the true Israel, all others 
 being apostates. It was the faithful few who inherited the 
 promises, and at the same time their numbers were in- 
 creased by believing Gentiles, and thus the continuity was 
 preserved. God did not have one people under the 0. T., 
 and another under the N. T., not one church then, and 
 another now. It was Israel then and Israel still, by a 
 regular succession. Israel was a church as well as a nation, 
 and the promises were to Israel as a church. In the light 
 of the history of the case, believers are those to whom the 
 promises were made, and the church of the 0. T. continued 
 in that of the N. T. 
 
 2. The abundant and explicit testimony of the N. T. 
 favors this view, John 8: 39: Gal. 3 : 7; 3: 28, 29 ; Rom. 
 2: 28, 29; 4: 11, 12; 9: 6, 8; Rom. 11 argues at length 
 this view in the grafting in of the Gentile branch to the 
 original olive tree, and the ultimate conversion of the 
 original tree ; Eph. 2 : 12-20 ; Rev. 2:9; 3:9. These 
 are the most striking representations that believers in Christ 
 constitute the true people of God. 
 
 3. That this was the view taken by the apostles, and by 
 them made current in the early church, may be confirmed 
 in this : that if the Jewish converts were heirs of anything 
 particular in the church, they would not be blended with 
 others. If the promises had been exclusively to the de- 
 scendants of the patriarchs as such, they would not have 
 been permitted to blend with Gentiles. There would then 
 have been a distinction between Gentile and Jewish church. 
 
 4. This distinction not having been maintained between 
 Gentile and Jewish converts, it would now lead to a most 
 singular anomaly to claim that the Jews are to receive 
 honor above the gentiles, for if that be so the descendants 
 of the Jews who rejected the Messiah when he came are to 
 
50 
 
 be exalted above those who accepted him, for only the for- 
 mer can be recognized, as the latter are lost in their union 
 with the gentiles. 
 
 5. The very predictions of H. now in question are ap- 
 plied by two apostles to believing Gentiles : Paul in Rom. 
 9 : 25, 26 : Peter in 1 Pet. 2 r 9, 10. Thus applied by the 
 apostle of the uncircumcision and the apostle of the cir- 
 cumcision. Other arguments tending to the same conclu- 
 sion will be raised in taking up other prophets. 
 
 Conclusion.— The Christian church, considered as a body 
 of believers, is the heir of the promises, and it is to the 
 church that the promises are to be fulfilled. This is 
 not expecting a promise to be fulfilled to one when made 
 to another. ' Nor is it taking a promise in one sense, 
 and then using it in another, but Israel, in the Bible sense, 
 is the Christian church. How are we to expect these 
 promises to be fulfilled ? Ana.— In a form appropriate to 
 N. T. dispensation. This would modify the meaning so as 
 to make the healing of the schism— the unity of the church, 
 and the return— return to the circle of God's favor. This 
 is what the Holy Ghost intended in the promises. This is 
 the strict meaning, Israel of the promise are the people of 
 God, for (a) true believers are to be as numerous as the 
 sands of the sea ; (6) they are united under one head ; they 
 should he brought back to Canaan. 
 
 Objected :— Threatenings of H. against Israel are taken 
 literally, as against lineal descendants, while promises are 
 taken spiritually, as to the spiritual seed. But the church 
 was then as always made up of two classes. Threatenings 
 were directed vs. unbelievers, in which believers might be 
 involved ; promises were to believers, by which unbelievers 
 mio-ht be indirectly benefitted as far as these were accom- 
 plished under 0. T. dispensation, they were accomplished 
 in a form appropriate to O. T.; as far as they remained to 
 be accomplished, they will be accomplished in form of JM. 
 T. So as fulfilled under O. T., they were fulfilled literally, 
 both threatenings and promises. 
 
 Have the lineal descendants then no part.' les, but 
 not as Jews, but as believers in Christ. As to literal re- 
 turn to Canaan : (1) Restoration of the Ten Tribes at least 
 improbable. They cannot be any longer identified. {A) 
 As to the Jews, the K T. predicts their conversion but not 
 their return to Palestine. All the O. T. prophets who seem 
 to prophesy a return can be explained like Hosea. (6) it 
 
51 
 
 is remarkable, on the other hand, that the Jewish people 
 have been preserved distinct, and the land can now ac- 
 commodate them. We must however suspend our judg- 
 ment until the event. All prophecies can be explained 
 without this supposition ; but if it should occur, it would 
 not involve any inconsistency. 
 
 Critical Attacks upon i/osm.— Kuenen School. Hosea 
 gives a vivid picture of the prevalence of sin and corrup- 
 tion in the land, and is open in his denunciation of it, 
 especially of idolatry. On this critics base their attack, 
 and say idolatry was the primitive worship in Israel, and 
 that Hosea here attempts a revolution. And as all previous 
 books imply a pure form of religion, they must belong to 
 a later period, and be not what they claim to be, but spur- 
 ious. Ans.— (1) By showing the evidence which these pre- 
 vious books afford of their own genuineness. (2) By show- 
 ing the evidence which Hosea affords as to their genuine- 
 ness. _ (a) Hosea charges the people with apostasy. (6) 
 Contains many allusions to Pentateuch as a recognized 
 authority. But Kuenen says that Torah of which Hosea 
 speaks instruction, /. e., his own preaching, or a collection 
 of laws, but not Pentateuch. We therefore can argue 
 nothing as to his knowledge of the Pentateuch. Ans.— 
 But Torah uniformly— Pentateuch, and the Pentateuch as 
 a written law. Ch. 8: 12. 
 
 Kuenen says again, H. condemns the people's religiou 
 because it involved human sacrifice, not because it "was 
 idolatry. He might have approved of idolatry as the 
 national religion. Ans.— This is based on a false rendering 
 of 13: 2, and beyond this has no foundation. Objected- 
 The quotations in N. T. from 0. T. have been claimed as 
 showing the impossibility of K T. inspiration. Hos. 11 : 
 1 in Matt. 2 : 15. In H. this refers to the exodus of Israel, 
 therefore Matt, is uninspired. Ans.— Meaning of H. clear. 
 Matt, in applying this to Christ, must have'known what 
 the prophet meant. It is explained not as a new applica- 
 tion—too definite,— but as referred to Israel typically. 
 Israel was beloved of God, and beset by foes ; so was Jesus. 
 
 AMOS. 
 
 The prophet Amos was by some early fathers confounded 
 with Amoz, the father of Isaiah. This mistake arouse from 
 the two words being alike in the Greek. They are 
 
52 
 
 altogether different in the Hebrew. Amos means burden ; 
 Amoz means strength. He was taken from the herdsmen 
 of Tekoah, twelve Roman miles from Jerusalem, six miles 
 south of Bethlehem. The word " herdsman " is applied to 
 the king of Moab as the owner of flocks 2 Kings 3 : 4. Was 
 Amos an owner of sheep, or a tender of flocks belonging to 
 others ? We learn that he did not own them from 7 : 14, 15. 
 Thus his occupation as a herdsman is put on a level with 
 his o-athering of sycamore fruit. But this latter occupation 
 belonged to poorer people. Further he says he was not 
 a prophet — nor his previous vocation, not the son of a 
 prophet, i. <?., he had not been taught in the schools of the 
 prophets under Elijah, Elisha, etc. It would seem that he 
 was sent on this single errand to Israel from Judah, and 
 this may have been the whole of his ministry. 
 
 Turn. The time of the delivery of this message is seen 
 
 in 1 : 1. Compare 1 Kings 13 : 1. The time is still further 
 defined by saying it was two years before the earthquake. 
 Zechariah speaks of it, 14 : 5, the beginning of threatening 
 judgments. But this does not aid us, for we do not know 
 when it took place. Prove however that his prophecy was 
 not committed to writing immediately upon its delivery. 
 Since he could not have dated his ministry with reference 
 to an event still future. 
 
 Divisions— Che. 1-6, literal; 7-9, allegorical. Amos 
 consists of three parts. The three parts are : (a) ch. 1 : 
 2 ; 2 : 5, introductory ; (b) 2 : 6 ; 9 : 10, denunciatory ; (c) 
 9 : 11-15, promissory. 
 
 Theme. — The theme is announced in 1 : 2, a sentence 
 partly taken from Joel 3 : 16. («) He does so first in a 
 preliminary denunciation of seven nations in succession. 
 Six contiguous Gentile nations, Syria, Philistia, Tyre, 
 Edom, Amnion, Moab, and finally Judah. The judgments 
 are successive stanzas of like construction, suggesting argu- 
 ment a fortiori. If these heathen nations are to be pun- 
 ished, how much more Israel. The heathen are generally 
 contemplated as the foes of Israel ; in Amos it is different. 
 Also, if Judah is punished, how much more Israel. These 
 denunciations are embraced in seven stanzas of precisely 
 the same structure, opened and concluded in same way. 
 
 The sins against the nations are offenses against the 
 theocracy. In the case of Judah the sin is different. The 
 highest offense is violation of God's law. Gentiles vs. the 
 maltreatment of God's people. The only exception, if it 
 
53 
 
 be such, is the charge in 2 : 1, against Moab — offense 
 against the gentiles. Because probably at this time Edom 
 was a subject or ally of Judah. (b) Then follows the main 
 portion of the book, the denunciation against Israel. After 
 four chapters of literal, it is presented in the form of five 
 symbolic visions. The five are to represent not as many 
 distinct judgments, but are to be taken together as the 
 same judgment in different figures. 
 
 Visions. — 1. The first vision, 7: 1-3, presents the in- 
 struments of judgments, grasshoppers, under the symbol 
 of devouring locusts, being the symbol of foreign foes. 
 
 2. The second sets forth the source of these judgments, 
 7 : 4-7. It is a devouring fire, symbolical of God's de- 
 vouring wrath. 
 
 3. The third vision, 7: 7-9, exhibits the character of 
 the judgments, righteous retribution. A plumb-line is 
 seen, and all that is not perpendicular is thrown down. 
 This is the test of their uprightness. Here the prophet is 
 interrupted by Amaziah, the priest of Bethel, forbidding 
 him to prophesy any longer, and telling him to leave the 
 country. He then resumes the series of his visions in the 
 8th chapter. 
 
 4. The fourth visiou, 8 : 1-3, is intended to represent 
 the near approach of judgments. The prophet sees a 
 basket of summer fruit, and Israel is shown to be ripe for 
 judgment. It is more expressive in the Hebrew on account 
 on the sound of the vowels. 
 
 5. Then the last vision, 9 : 1, the actual infliction of 
 judgment. The Lord is seen standing by the altar of 
 idolatry, and striking down and slaying. The idol is help- 
 less to deliver. Hengstenberg makes this altar — that at Je- 
 rusalem. ISTo ground for this. Rather from the connection 
 (8 : 14) the altar at Bethel, which is denounced in other 
 parts of the book (3: 14; 4: 4,) and by another man of 
 God sent to Jeroboam I. (1 Kings 13 : 1.) 
 
 The main lessons taught by Amos are identical with 
 those taught by Hosea. 
 
 Nearer Predictions. — (a) 7 : 9. The house of Jeroboam 
 shall perish by the sword : fulfilled in 2 Kings 15 : 10, his 
 son killed after a reign of six months. 
 
 (b) He predicts further the destruction of the kingdom, 
 the desolation of the land, and the exile of the people, 
 which was fulfilled after the partial deportation by Tiglath- 
 
54 
 
 Pileser, was completed by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 2 
 Kings 17 : 6. This occupies the main body of the book. 
 
 (c) 6: 9-10. Account of great siege. As regards the 
 fulfillment of this we have no means of knowing, but from 
 2 Kings 17 : 5, we learn that the siege lasted three years ; 
 and 2 Kings 6 : 6-24, shows the great distress of Samaria, 
 famine and pestilence, on a former occasion. 
 
 (el) Predicts that the sons and daughters of Amaziah 
 shall fall by the sword, and he himself die in exile. Of 
 this we have no further account — no means of knowing 
 whether the prediction was actually fulfilled — no history on 
 the matter. 
 
 (e) The special predictions of desolation to Israel, 3: 14; 
 visit to altars of Bethel, 3 : 14; 5:5; Gilgal, 7:9: cf. 2 
 Kings 13 : 10-15. 
 
 More Remote Predictions, 9: 11-15. — Promissory portion 
 told at the close of denunciation : 9 : 8, 9, that the exile and 
 dispersion would not be a total destruction of the people, 
 but should be a sifting, so as to effect a separation between 
 the good and bad, the good are to remain. The fallen and 
 ruined tabernacle of David should be raised up, repaired 
 and restored, 9: 11. This means David and his royal house 
 shall be restored to former splendor, 2 : 5. The fall of 
 Judah is presupposed. That it is spoken of as fallen is not 
 sufficiently explained in that in his time the rule diminished 
 from twelve tribes to Judah, but that it should include the fall 
 of Judah also, and should entirely fall before the coming of 
 Christ. This was fulfilled in the fall of the royal line, after 
 the Babylonish captivity. The house of David ceased to be 
 royal, and was reduced to a private condition, but in Christ 
 this kingdom has been restored. The tabernacle of David 
 has been set up in Christ. 
 
 Again, Amos predicts that its sway shall extend over 
 Edom, and all the heathen which are called by the name of 
 the Lord, 9 : 12. This can not mean only those nations 
 which David had overcome, for this would merely mean 
 that the limits of the restored kingdom would be as exten- 
 sive as previously. No instance can be adduced of an ap- 
 plication of this name to any nation because it was tributary 
 to Judah or subject to it, but applied to the covenant peo- 
 ple of God, Deu't. 28 : 10. " Called by the name of the 
 Lord," wherever used, is applied to the covenant people of 
 God, 2 Chron. 7 : 14 ; Dan. 9: 18, 19; Jer. 25: 29. In 
 conformity with this usage, the meaning here must be that 
 
55 
 
 the re-created kingdom shall bear sway over Edoni and 
 other heathen nations, which shall in consequence become 
 a part of the covenant people. They shall thenceforth be 
 called by the name of the Lord. The conquest, from this 
 description of it, must not be by force of arms, but con- 
 quered in a spiritual sense. This, therefore, is a prophecy 
 of the calling of the Gentiles. As such is quoted in Acts 
 15: 15-17. 
 
 Further, he predicts the permanent restoration of Israel 
 out of captivity to their own land, 9 : 13-15, and never to 
 be removed from it again. This must be as parallel in 
 Hosea, partly fulfilled in the return from exile. The O. T. 
 forms must be replaced by N". T. corresponding things. 
 The rest was fulfilled in Christ. It will thus be seen that 
 Hosea and Amos agree entirely in predictions of the proxi- 
 mate future or Messianic period. The}' predict the fall of 
 the house of Jeroboam, and the utter destruction of the 
 kingdom of the ten tribes. Amos does not mention As- 
 syria as the instrument of judgment, which Hosea does, but 
 he threatens captivity to both Israel and Judah, by a nation 
 to be raised up, 6 : 14. This captivity is to be a distinct 
 one beyond Damascus, 5 : 27. 
 
 Special Predictions. — That the smaller kingdoms in the 
 vicinity of Israel should be desolated, direful mortality, 
 etc. In regard to Messianic periods Hosea and Amos agree 
 in a spiritual sense. They predict permanent restoration. 
 The} T shall be united and governed under the son of David. 
 Amos goes beyond Hosea. (a) In showing the prostrate 
 condition of the family of David; (b) the announcement in 
 express terms of the calling of the Gentiles, which we have 
 seen is implicitly set forth in Hosea ; (c) in clear statement 
 that nothing was to be hoped for by ten tribes except in 
 connection with Judah. 
 
 JONAH. 
 
 Son of Amittai, 1:1. Native of Gath-Heepher, 2 Kings 
 14 : 2-5. Which was in the bounds of Zebulon, Josh. 19 : 
 13. Tarshish, a Phoenician settlement in the south of 
 Spain. Jerome says Gath-Heepher was two miles from 
 Sephoris on the way to Tiberias. 
 
 Date. — Only data accessible are obtained from the fol- 
 lowing considerations, {a) 2 Kings 14 : 25. Israel's en- 
 
56 
 
 largernent by Jeroboam was said to be in fulfillment of 
 Jonah's prophecy, therefore Jonah prophesied upon close of 
 Jeroboam's reign, (h) Position among minor prophets in 
 the canon. It comes after Amos, who prophesied in later 
 years of Jeroboam's reign. So Jonah must have begun to 
 prophesy near the close of J's reign. But it comes before 
 Micah, who prophesied in reign of Jotham, therefore the 
 greater part of his ministry must have come before this 
 time, (c) Date of the first invasion of Israel was in reign 
 of Menahem, 2 Kings, 15: 19. J's mission to Nineveh was 
 for the warning of Israel. Therefore as this invasion was 
 the first assumption of a threatening attitude on part of 
 Assyria, a time after this invasion would be a proper time 
 for this mission. A few months of reign and twelve years 
 of interregnum are required by the chronology of the two 
 kingdoms after Jeroboam. We, therefore, argue that 
 2 Kings 14 : 25, and the book of Jonah were at different 
 periods. 
 
 Divisions. — (1) Chaps. 1, 2, first mission, Mercy. (2) 
 Chaps. 3, 4, second mission. 
 
 Contents. — Extraordinary nature of some of the events 
 has occasioned critical attacks. Abarband : whole account 
 of the fish was a dream of Jonah's while he was sleeping in 
 the side of vessel. Clericns : and by a vessel with figure- 
 head of a whale. Vanderhart : whole narrative a mere al- 
 legory. Others : a moral fiction conveying a lesson ; a 
 popular legend with an historical basis ; a heathen myth, 
 without any historical basis. We have no reason to believe 
 it is not historical, (a) The whale is the great stumbling- 
 block. But while the miracle is peculiar, it is no more 
 difficult than any other miracle. 
 
 Objected: No whales in the Mediterranean, and if there 
 were, their mouth is to small to swallow a man whole. 
 
 Arts. — The species of fish is not defined. Heb. LXX. 
 Vulgate — " great fish." Modern interpreters hold it to 
 have been a species of shark, white, soft, long, which are 
 known to have swallowed men whole, (b) Repentance of 
 Ninevites incredible, and no mention of it by profane his- 
 torians. Ans. — (1) Apart from Spirit of God there was 
 great incentive. The Assyrians were greatly superstitious 
 and would be likely moved by the appearance among them 
 of a strange prophet, from a foreign country of whose 
 wonderful deliverance they may have heard. (2) The con- 
 dition of the empire, defeat of their armies, may have pre- 
 
\ 
 
57 
 
 disposed them to listen to the warning message. (3) It is 
 not mentioned by profane historians because they had no 
 Assyrian records for it. There were no records because it 
 was too evanescent, and because such events are not re- 
 corded, (c) Covering of beasts with sackcloth improbable. 
 Ans. — We learn from Herodotus that it was a custom to 
 make animals participate in their religious observances, 
 e. g., shaving hair from horses for religious rejoicing, (d) 
 Various myths have been proposed as substitutes for the 
 history. But (1) they had no resemblance to the narrative. 
 Oanes, half man and half fish. Resemblance merely in 
 name. Andromeda, chained to rock; delivered by Per- 
 seus. Resemblance merely in fact that A. was exposed to 
 a sea-monster. The oldest form is Hesione chained to a 
 rock. In 2nd century, A. D., was said she was swallowed 
 by a fish, and 5th century, A. D., was added that she was 
 disgorged. This shows how legends grow with the form of 
 history. (2) The Jews never adopted such myths. (3) If 
 they had they would have shaped this more to suit their 
 national prejudices. 
 
 Positive Arguments in- Favor of Historical Character. — (a) 
 Natural, obvious interpretation of the language. (6) Ad- 
 mission into the canon, (c) Authority of the 1ST. T., especi- 
 ally Christ's specific reference to Jonah as a type of himself. 
 Although of a genuine historical character, the narrative 
 is not given as mere history, but for the spiritual lessons 
 which it contains. This is proved : (1) Comparatively small 
 part of the book is occupied with historical occurrences, 
 and a moral lesson is implied in all that are related. (2) 
 Position in the canon — being among the prophetic books, 
 though not itself prophetic. If it had been mere history it 
 would have been classed among the historical books, e. g., 
 Samuel. It is put among prophetic books because the 
 events recorded are typical. (3) Character of his mission. 
 Designed not so much to secure repentance of Nineveh, nor 
 as a promise to Gentiles, as a lesson to Israel, cf. Jer. 27 : 
 2, 3. (4) No attempt at permanent result, as in cases of 
 Elijah and Christ with the Gentiles. (5) Testimony of 
 Christ, who calls attention to the spiritual lessons of this 
 book. 
 
 Lesson of this Book. — (1) A means by which other proph- 
 ets may justify themselves when their predictions fail, 
 Hitzeg. This is purely skeptical, based upon failure of 
 prophecy. (2) Salvation was to be by penitence and pious 
 
58 
 
 feeling, e. g. Sailors, Jonah. Ninevites repented and were 
 saved. (3) Narrowness of the Jews. Jehovah was God of 
 Gentiles also. To understand this we must see what were 
 the motives of Jonah's action, Fairbairn. If God should 
 overthrow N. for its sins, this would be a striking instance 
 of his justice, and would lead Israel to repentance. J. de- 
 sires this, but fearing God's mercy would save it, he fled. 
 Jewish tradition, more concerned for his country (Son) 
 than for his God. (Father.) Others find a motive in dif- 
 fidence ; risk of the undertaking, hopelessness of the task. 
 True view : J. feared to preach to N. lest it should be spared 
 for the overthrow of Israel. He desires to die after the 
 repentance of the city, because he felt that the doom of his 
 country was sealed, cf. Elijah at Carmel. 
 
 Symbolic events show Gentiles less obdurate than Israel. 
 Twofold application, (a) Admonitory — of the present. 
 J. cast into the sea for his disobedience ; mariners cry to 
 God and are saved. Israel had many prophets, yet had not 
 repented. N. repents at the preaching of one. (b) Typical. 
 J. cast out of ship, afterwards delivered; Jews rejected, 
 though not utterly destroyed. J. preaches to Gentile Nin- 
 eveh, who repents. Word of God will be preached to Gen- 
 tiles who repent. Plainly stated, Amos 9 : 12. Same truth 
 taught elsewhere in Scripture. Elijah was sent to widow 
 of Zarepta, 1 Kings 17. Elisha cures Naarnan, 2 Kings 5. 
 Christ preaches to woman of Samaria, John 4. Syrophce- 
 nician woman's daughter healed, Mark 7. Magi at the 
 Saviour's birth. Christ unfolds a still deeper typical mean- 
 ing in Jonah's being in the belly of the fish. Typical of 
 His death and burial. Not merely as to length of time ; 
 but the apparent destruction of Jonah was not end of his 
 work. It only paves the way for his miraculus deliverance 
 and preaching to the Ninevites. Same fact is apparently 
 used in Rom. 11 : 15. 
 
 Date of Composition. — Various views. Assyrian exile. 
 Time of king Josiah. Time of Maccabees. Those who 
 held to mythical origin place it as far as possible from time 
 of Prophets. This class argue (a) J. not the author because 
 he is spoken of in third person. This is the case in books 
 of undoubted authorship, (b) Numerous Aramaisms. No 
 more than in Hosea, whose date is acknowledged, (c) 
 Prayer of Jonah is taken from Psalms written after exile. 
 We may claim as well that Psalms were composed from J's 
 prayer. It is urged that it is inappropriate to condition in 
 
59 
 
 which J. was, therefore was not written by Jonah. Ans. — 
 
 (1) ISTo argument. For whoever wrote the book must have 
 thought it appropriate or he would not have inserted it, 
 and J. may have erred in this matter as well as another. 
 
 (2) It is appropriate, since he had reason to be thankful for 
 his deliverance from the sea. (8) It is natural that he 
 should base his prayer on Scripture, adapting figurative 
 language of others to his own real sufferings. (d) Use of 
 past tense in description of Nineveh, implying city not in 
 existence when book was written. But it merely implies 
 what it was when J. found it, and ch. 4: 11, God spared 
 N. (<?) Impossible size of city. Ans. — Measurements of 
 ancient historians agree with Jonah's. Modern historians 
 differ. Layard agrees with Jonah. "Three days journey '" 
 — circuit of city. Rawlinson thinks it means sum of lengths 
 of all the streets. Far-fetched. fNot necessary to suppose 
 all property occupied with residences. 
 
 Authorship of Jonah Proved. — (a) The introduction is 
 such as a prophet would claim for himself. This is a pre- 
 sumption in favor of its being production by Jonah. (6) It 
 is claimed for Jonah, 1 : 1. (c) Placed among prophetic 
 books. Its position is testimony of the collectors that it 
 was the production of Jonah, and the later the date of the 
 writing the less danger of mistake, (d) Hatred by Jews for 
 Gentiles makes its production at a late date impossible, (c) 
 Tradition favors authorship of Jonah. 
 
 ASSYRIAN PERIOD. 
 II.— PROPHETS OF JUDAH. 
 
 Condition of the Kingdom. It was not schismatic. Idol- 
 atry was introduced by the daughter of Ahab. The reac- 
 tion comes in more completely under Joash than under 
 Jehu in Jeremiah. There were four princes in this period. 
 The first ancf second were godly ; Ahaz, idolatrous ; Heze- 
 kiah, reformer. Evil was at no time totally eradicated. 
 Inflictions by Syria and Assyria. 
 
 There are five prophets in this period : Joel, Obadiah, 
 Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, and this is their chronological order. 
 There was conflict all the time between evil tendencies of 
 the people and influences of the good kings. The people 
 
60 
 
 being thus balauced, God employed both mercy and judg- 
 ment. In first reigns, mercy ; but the people became 
 proud; then judgment, but Judah being not yet ripe for 
 overthrow was spared. Their ministers differ from those 
 of their contemporaries in Israel. 
 
 1. They are ministers of gentleness rather than severity ; 
 of hope, rather than denunciation. They are either posi- 
 tive or negative. Micah, positive ; Obadiah, Nahum, nega- 
 tive ; Joel, Isaiah, both. The positive give greater space 
 to promise, and make these of a larger and fuller kind than 
 in Israel. Exactly one-half of Joel is promissory ; and 
 Isaiah, in the last twenty-seven chapters, devotes himself 
 expressly to the work of comfort ; Micah gives large space 
 to promise. The contrast of this period with Israel is 
 great. In Judah, the promises made are not all left to the 
 distant future, but include present deliverances. The nega- 
 tive are consolatory. Denunciation and downfall of their 
 heathen foes, because the overthrow of these is mercy to 
 Judah. Their overthrow is in order that the power may 
 be given to Israel. The heathen for a time will overthrow 
 the people of God, but it is added that they shall ultimately 
 be cast down, and the power given to God's people. This 
 is so in regard to Edom in Obadiah. Nahum tells of a 
 similar judgment on Nineveh and Assyria. Isaiah against 
 Assyria and Babylon. 
 
 2. The greater clemency of the Lord to Judah is shown 
 by granting to the prophets of the kingdom a range of 
 much greater foresight than to Israel. Not only do they 
 advise them of the events immediately before them, but 
 they also disclose the remote future, preparing the people 
 in advance for remote necessities, (a) A most appalling dis- 
 aster to Judah in the succeeding period, (b) Existence of 
 Judah not limited to this period, but continued, (c) Judah 
 is to be brought into contact with the greatest nations of 
 the world, and is to experience their hostility, (d) Need- 
 ful for prophetic marks of the Messiah to be given. For 
 these reasons a much greater range is given to Judah than 
 to Israel. The overthrow of the ten tribes aT5d its attend- 
 ing circumstances are almost the whole that is given to 
 Israel. To Judah, in addition : A series of successive judg- 
 ments against Judah; Assyrian invasion, and its failure; 
 captivity of Babylon and its deliverance ; overthrow of 
 Nineveh ; judgments against inferior foes ; and, lastly, the 
 overthrow of Babylon herself, the foe of the future. 
 
61 
 
 The body of the revelations just given has been various- 
 ly apportioned. Joel: A general overthrow of the future, 
 without distinctly specifying the events in it. Judah has 
 repeated strokes of judgment, and when it is brought to 
 itself by this means, God shall return to it, and execute 
 judgments upon its enemies. This is filled up more in de- 
 tail by other prophets. Micah dwells exclusively upon the 
 fortunes of God's people, their punishment for unfaithful- 
 ness, and their subsequent blessedness. Obadiah and JSahum 
 individualize the work of judgment upon the foes of God's 
 people. Obadiah tells of the fate of Edom, the hereditary 
 foe of Judah. Nahum, toward the close of this period, 
 foretells the downfall of Nineveh. Isaiah goes over the 
 ground in a general way marked out by Joel, but differs 
 from him in unfolding in their details what Joel gives in 
 general outline, while at the same time he goes beyond in 
 the fullness of the blessings of God's people. Micah : The 
 judgments against the foes exceeds Obadiah and JSTahum. 
 To no one is so large a view of the future given as to Isaiah, 
 until the time of Daniel. 
 
 Messianic Predictions. — The range of the Messianic pre- 
 dictions of the Judean prophets is also extensive. In 
 Israel it was negative. Judah does this, but goes far be- 
 yond this position. The people shall not only return to 
 God from their apostasy, as Amos says, but they shall also 
 be purged. All their foes shall themselves be humbled and 
 destroyed, all that is noxious in animal creation — even 
 death itself. No form of evil shall remain to the people of 
 God. The prophets of Judah are not confined to this nega- 
 tive view of the case. They develop the positive beauties of 
 the period, as to the people of God and the Gentiles. 
 
 1. The people of God, both in inward character and 
 outward condition, shall correspond to what they should be. 
 They shall be holy in their character, and have the Spirit 
 of God poured out upon them, and then their kingdom of 
 peace shall be universal, perpetually prosperous, and shall 
 sway the whole world, whose resources shall flow into it, 
 and contribute to its honor. 
 
 2. The calling of the Gentiles, and their conversion to 
 God, are more clearly revealed than in Israel. It was 
 shadowed forth by Jonah, stated limitedly by Amos, but 
 by the prophets of Judah in the most unambiguous way. 
 
 Person of Christ. — Besides this general development of 
 the characteristics of the Messianic period as respects the 
 
62 
 
 people of God and the Gentiles, the Judean prophets bring 
 into view the Person of the Messiah as was not done by 
 the prophets of Israel. The prophets of Israel predicted 
 the family of David, and its rise again, but do not view the 
 Person of Christ. The prophets of Judah say he shall ap- 
 pear during a time of oppression, and shall spring from the 
 house of David, born in Bethlehem, the son of a virgin. 
 He shall honor Galilee, be rejected by the Jews, but ac- 
 cepted by the Gentiles. By his death, he shall be brought 
 into glory, and establish a kingdom of righteousness. 
 Obadiah and Nahum simply refer to the Messianic period, 
 the former explicitly, the latter implicitly. They simply 
 refer to it in its negative phase, as to its deliverance from 
 and judgments upon the foes of God's people. Isaiah and 
 Micah, between whom there is a close connection, speak of 
 the Person of the Messiah, of his birth in Bethlehem, of 
 his deity, and of his kingly office as Messiah. Isaiah alone 
 gives the birth from the virgin, the sufferings and vicarious 
 death. The blessings are nowhere set forth so well and so 
 gloriously as in Isaiah. 
 
 Divisions. — This prophetic period, though strictly a unit, 
 may be divided into two portions : («) Outward prosperity 
 under the vigorous reign of the pious Uzziah, and before 
 the Assyrians had come, (b) Trial under Ahaz and Heze- 
 kiah. This is after the invasion by Syria and Ephraim, and 
 when the Syrians present a threatening aspect. To the 
 first, belong Joel, Obadiah, and the first six chapters of 
 Isaiah. The prophets endeavor to break the proud spirit 
 of the people, which prosperity had engendered, by setting 
 forth the comiug trials. To the second, belong Micah, 
 Nahum, and considerable of the remainder of Isaiah. 
 Here the downfall of Mneveh, and the Messiah as defender 
 and king of his people, are displayed. Isaiah's ministry 
 extends not only through both portions of this period, but 
 goes beyond the dowDfall of Sennacherib, and proposes the 
 way for the next period. These prophets of Judah in the 
 Assyrian period may be compared in minor points : 
 
 Personal and Family Relations. — Mention is made of the 
 fathers of Joel and Isaiah ; the residences of Micah and 
 Nahum are given ; but of Obadiah, only the name. This 
 is all we have of their personal history, except a few scraps 
 of Isaiah's. Probably all except Nahum belonged to Judah. 
 
 Duration of Ministry. — Isaiah under four kings ; Micah 
 under three kings. The ministries of Joel, Obadiah, and 
 Nahum were probably brief. 
 
63 
 
 Structure of the Books. — Isaiah in successive portions, 
 which are kept distinct ; Micah, a general summary of the 
 revelations made to him, without distinction of date. The 
 other prophets have done the same, unless, as seems to be 
 the case with Obadiah and jNahum, they have given us 
 only a single discourse. 
 
 JOEL. 
 
 From 1 : 9, 13, 14, some infer that he was of Levitical 
 descent. There is no warrant for this. 
 
 Date of his ministry is shown by his position between 
 Hosea and Amos. He must, therefore, have been of the 
 time of Uzziah, and during the part when Jeroboam, king 
 of Israel, was yet living. For Hosea's ministry began in 
 that part of Uzziah's reign when Jeroboam was living and 
 the ministry of Amos was begun and finished during same 
 period. So anything between these ministries must also 
 have been in that same period. Some put him at a still 
 earner date, as far back as Joash. The enemies given as 
 enemies of Judah can all be shown to have been enemies 
 in the time of Joash. This proves nothing, because the 
 powers mentioned were hereditary foes, and ready for war 
 at any time. Amos denounces the same nations, and ac- 
 cuses them of the same crimes. Others place Joel at a 
 later date than Hezekiah. This is claimed from 3 : 2, but 
 the " Israel " mentioned there means both branches of the 
 covenant people, and their captivity is future, and not 
 spoken of as past. Further, Joel must have preceded 
 Amos, since A. begins with words with which J. closes and 
 the way in which they appear in the two books shows that 
 A. is one who quotes. But A. finished his ministry before 
 that captivity, so J's could not have been after it. 
 
 There are two parts, of 36 vs. each : a 1 : 2 ; 2 : 17, the 
 judgment and exhortation to repentance, b 2 : 18 ; 3 : 
 21, the blessing, a is a description of unexampled distress 
 and scourge of devouring insects. Is it allegorical or real? 
 Whichever they were, they were symbolical of the punish- 
 ment to Judah by invading enemies. Some say there is 
 an allusion to the four great powers of the ancient world, 
 by which the people of God were successively assailed, b 
 
64 
 
 In the second, we pass from judgment to mercy, (a) Re- 
 moval of scourge. (2: 18-27.) (b) Bestowment of all 
 spiritual gifts. (2 : 27-32.) (c) Utter destruction of all 
 foes. Ch. 3. 
 
 The first part is a description of unparalleled distress 
 by a swarm of insects. There are different views as to what 
 kind of insects is intended, four terms being employed. 
 (a) They denote four kinds of locusts : (b) Different species 
 of the same kind ; (c) The same insect in successive stages 
 of its growth. Credner : " Gazam is the migratory locust, 
 which visits Palestine chiefly in the autumn, 'arbeh, the 
 young brood, yeleq, the young locust in the last stage of its 
 transformation, or before changing its skin for the fourth 
 time, and chasil, the perfect locust after this last change, so 
 that, as the brood sprang from the gazam, chasil would 
 be equivalent to gazam." (See Keil, " Minor Prophets," 
 Joel 1 : 1-4.) Palestine was first visited by the locusts 
 in the autumn, full grown ; this swarm laid its eggs and 
 perished in the Red Sea. The combined heat aud drought 
 favored the hatching of the eggs in the spring. Then de- 
 scribes a running or climbing. They have to cast the skin 
 four times before they come out perfect. Objections to 
 this view : (a) It requires an interpolation of the laying the 
 eggs, and hatching, and requires a different subject. (6) 
 While assuming distinct significance for three, four is a 
 species. This theory has been modified. But the only 
 proof that there would then be successive stages, is that in 
 verse 4 they occur in a particular order ; but in 2 : 25, they 
 occur in another order. 'Arbeh is not so used elsewhere, 
 but is the usual term for locust. Yeleq can not have this 
 meaning, because Nahum 3 : 6, makes it mean " full- 
 grown." In Ps. 105 : 34, 'arbeh and yeleq are synonymous: 
 so also 'arbeh and chasil in Ps. 78 : 46. Chasil, Deut. 28 : 
 38, expresses the act of devouring. On the whole, it is 
 best to consider them as poetic equivalents of the same 
 thing. The terms used really mean " gnawer," " swarmer," 
 " feeder," " devourer." 
 
 Do they mean actual locusts, or are they symbolic ? 
 Doubtless the latter, because : 1. They are a natural figure 
 for hostile invaders; cf. Rev. 9: 3-11, and often in SS. 2. 
 It is represented as a judgment of unparalleled severity, 
 and to be the last before the Messianic blessing shall come. 
 This would be exaggerated if actual locusts were meant. 
 Cf. 2 : 2, the darkness was to be before them, not by them, 
 
6o 
 
 the Lord's hosts. 3. Their ravages are not past nor pres- 
 ent—as they must be on the literal hypothesis, for it is im- 
 possible to suppose the prophet would spend so much space 
 in predicting a mere swarm of locusts, — but future. In 
 3 : 15, preterites are used and yet refer to the future, and 
 in 1 : 15, "the day of the Lord" is identified with locusts. 
 4. The connection of the prophecy demands an allegorical 
 hypothesis. The heathen are denounced for crimes not yet 
 committed. This can only relate to the crime predicted" in 
 3:7. In consequence of final judgment on the heathen, 
 strangers shall pass through Jerusalem no more, etc. 5. 
 The attributes of the locusts, and the terms used of them, 
 belong to a nation, as goy, 1 : 6, and am, 2 : 2. The latter 
 is twice used of ants, but never the former. They are 
 called " northern," 2: 29; but locusts come from the south, 
 and invasions from Babylon from the north. The reason 
 assigned for destruction is that they have done great things 
 and will be punished. They shall perish in two seas at 
 once, 2: 20, and so mere foes on all sides. 2: 17, priests 
 are to pray God for deliverance, that the heathen should 
 not rule over them, which is not because they are so re- 
 duced as to be a prey to the heathen, nor that they should 
 become a byword among them. 2 : 25,- speaks" of the 
 years the locusts have eaten. 2 : 4, 5, they are like horses 
 and chariots, which shows their true meaning. In 1 : 19, 
 20, the figure is changed to that of fire, which shows it to 
 be but a figure. Literalists say it refers to a drought, but 
 it is not said there would be one. 6. The allegorical view 
 is the oldest, and has also been most prevalent. Targum 
 substitutes names of people for locusts. Rufinus is & the 
 only Latin father holding the literal view. Some Jews 
 hold literal view. Bochart finds literal interpretation 
 among Christians, followed by rationalists. It is not neces- 
 sary that all the names, 1 : 12, should have separate signifi- 
 cation. It is a question whether the four different names 
 of locusts have different significations. Ephra?m Syrus re- 
 fers them to different invaders. Jerome, Cyril, and Ilengs- 
 tenberg refers them to the four world kingdoms of Daniel, 
 which should oppress Israel. Nothing is certain, except 
 that these are curious coincidences. Ch. 1 has descriptions 
 of judgment; ch. 2 has the same theme, but under differ- 
 ent aspects, agents are different, described in vs. 10, 11, 12, 
 etc.; then in v. 18 the tone changes to that of promise.' 
 These promises are of: 1. Removal of the scourge, and 
 restoration of all that had been lost, 2 : 18-27 ; 2. Bestow- 
 
66 
 
 rnent of spiritual gifts, 2 : 28-32 ; 3. Destruction of foes, 
 eh. 3. In 2 : 23 occurs in the English version an incorrect 
 translation. The correct meaning is " teacher of righteous- 
 ness." This includes all whom God commissioned to instruct 
 the people, and includes the prophet, and the greatest teacher 
 of all, the Messiah. " Teacher " is used generically. In 
 consequence of the people being thus led to righteousness, 
 God would give them abundant rains in the first " month," 
 as in the A. V., but it should be in the first " place." We 
 observe, 1. This has the sanction of all the versions. 2. 
 The usage of the word morch is not rain, but teacher, in 
 every other passage. In Ps. 84 : 7, the meaning is dis- 
 puted. 3. Expression " to righteousness " favors teacher. 
 If it means rain, it must mean that which iis suitable, a 
 sense it never has elsewhere. In A. V., "moderately" 
 should be "to righteousness." 4. Translation "former 
 rain " would introduce a tautology, for next clause has the 
 same. He pours out upon them a spiritual blessing. This 
 shall be upon all flesh, i. e., not only upon all mankind, 
 without national distinction, but also upon all classes of 
 men, irrespective of age, rank or sex. In Acts 2 : 16, 
 Peter tells us the fulfillment of the prophecy had begun 
 then, and also the marvelous outpouring of the Spirit was 
 not a final completion of the prophecy but only a begin- 
 ning. There were to be signal judgments upon the ene- 
 mies of God ; there were to be premonitory wonders, 2 : 
 30, 31. In ch. 3, we have an account of the judgment it- 
 self. This chapter is figurative, but in substance it has met 
 repeated fulfillment, as one after another of the enemies of 
 God has been destroyed, and it shall finally be fulfilled 
 completely in the universal judgment of the world to come. 
 In 3 : 2, the scene of judgment is laid in the valley of Je- 
 hoshaphat, which is supposed to be the same referred to in 
 2 Chron. 20 : 26. Others suppose from 3 : 16 that the 
 valley nearest the temple must be meant, so a Jewish lite- 
 ralism expects the final judgment there. Jehoshaphat, 
 Jehovah judged, hence, " valley of God's judgment." 3 : 
 1-8, charges against the heathen ; all nations are repre- 
 sented as leagued against the Lord, and are destroyed by 
 Him. 3 : 9-15, all people are called to come and witness 
 and assist in this affliction. 3 : 17-21, the blessed results : 
 His people are to be preserved. The type of the abund- 
 ance is expressed in 3 : 18, even the most desolate places 
 shall be blessed. Egypt and Edom are types of the foes 
 of Israel, and they shall be destroyed. 
 
67 
 OBADIAH. 
 
 Shortest of all 0. T. books. Xot a fragment. Name borne 
 by others, ministry in Judah, of author's life, duration of 
 ministry, nothing known. Date of ministry inferred from 
 position in Minor Prophets. Comes after Amos, whose 
 ministry was in the first part of Uzziah's reign, and before 
 Jonah, whose ministry was ended before the close of Jo- 
 tham's reign. So O's ministry must have been in latter 
 part of Uzziah's reign or in first part of Jotham's. Some 
 place it as early as reign of Joram. Others as late as in 
 or after the Bab. exile. First view as to date confirmed (a) 
 perhaps by ver. 20, (b) indefinite allusions to Chaldeans, ver. 
 11. (c.) Denunciations of Edom in same period by Joel, 
 Amos,Isaiab. Three parts : vs. 1-9 the desolation to which 
 Edom was doomed, vs. 10-16 reason of it, his unbrotherly 
 treatment of Judah, vs. 17-21 contrasted restoration and 
 enlargement of Israel. Predictions. 1. Capture of Jerusa- 
 lem vs 11-11. 2. Hostility then shown by Edom, comp. 
 Ps. 137: 7; Ezek. 35: 5. 3 1 . Overthrow of Edom (a) by 
 the nations, ver. 1 fulfilled by Nebuchadnezzar, comp. Mai. 
 1 : 3, 4 ; (6) by the house of Jacob re-tored to their ancient 
 seats, ver. 18. 4. Day of the Lord upon all nations, vs. 
 15, 16, fulfilled successively and simultaneously. 5. Res- 
 toration of Israel, vs. 17-21. Saviour's human champions 
 and the Messiah. Correspondence with preceding and suc- 
 ceeding prophets, Jeremiah, ch. 49; not (a) independently 
 suggested to both, nor (b) servile imitation, but {<■) indica- 
 tion of oneness, (d) mutual sanction, (e) call attention to 
 what is about to pass into accomplishment. Incidental 
 evidence of genuineness and canonicity of earlier Scrip- 
 tures. Critical extremes, (a) pedantic minuteness and base- 
 less conclusions; (b) alterations of text to restore an im- 
 aginary conformity. 
 
 ISAIAH. 
 
 PRELIMINARY CHAPS. I.-VI. 
 
 This prophet is called the "prince of prophets." His 
 writings are the largest and clearest as to the work of the 
 Messiah. Singular fitness in his name. " Isaiah " means 
 " salvation of Jehovah," and such was his message. Ac- 
 
68 
 
 cording to Is. 1 : 1, he was the son of Anioz, of whom 
 nothing is known. He lived in Jerusalem, the " middle 
 city," 2 Kings, 20 : 4. He was married, and had at least 
 two children, 7:3; 8:3, 8. The name of one, Shear-jas- 
 hub, signifies mercy to Juclah, after the first coming judg- 
 ment. The name of the other, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, sig- 
 nifying speedy ruin to Syria. Some suppose a third son, 
 7 : 14, Immanuel, but the child thus spoken of is the Mes- 
 siah. There is no evidence that his wife was inspired; 
 8: 3, called prophetess simply from her relation to Isaiah. 
 
 Leading Events. — 1. Confronting Ahaz, ch. 7. 2. En- 
 couraging Hezekiah, ch. 37. 3. Healing of Hezekiah, 
 37—39 chs., and reproof of his vain display. Ch. 38 : 21 is 
 quoted in favor of his medical skill, but this is given only 
 in virtue of his prophetic office. 
 
 Duration of Ministry. — During the reigns of Uzziah, Hez- 
 ekiah, Ahaz, Jotham. Not during their entire reigns which 
 would be 113 years. .The earliest date in the book, 6:1, 
 the year Uzziah died ; latest date, 36 : 1. Between these 
 46 years is the shortest period that can be allowed. Prob- 
 ably his ministry extended some time beyond this. Some 
 say until the time of Manasseh, because (a) Jewish tradi- 
 tion says that surviving Hezekiah, he was sawn asunder by 
 Manasseh. Some refer to Heb. 11 : 37. (b) Refers the 
 rest (2 Chron. 32 : 32), of the acts of Hezekiah to a writing 
 of Isaiah, and this, they say, implies Isaiah survived Heze- 
 kiah. (c) A record of Sennacherib's death, Is. 37 : 38. (d) 
 Not forbidden by Isaiah 1:1; cf. Jeremiah 1 : 3, Dan. 1:21. 
 
 Structure of the Book. — I. Utterly confused, jumbled to- 
 gether, disorderly, and some seek to bring them into an 
 order which mangles the book. 
 
 II. Partial and orderly collections, receiving accidental 
 accretions, and ultimately blended. This, too, is arbitrary, 
 based on an assumption of disagreements in the book, and 
 on that of the collection of these parts by another than the 
 prophet himself. 
 
 III. Chronologically arranged as delivered. In favor of 
 this it is urged that all the dates which do occur in the 
 book are in chronological order. The two cases in which 
 a departure is assumed are chs. 1 and 6. Chapter 6, de- 
 scribed, it is affirmed, the inauguration of the prophet into 
 office. If this be correct, then ch. 6 is the first of all chro- 
 nologically. They assume that Isaiah, having put together 
 his prophecies uttered in the reigns of Uzziah and Jotham, 
 
69 
 
 appended to them his original commission in order to show 
 them that the denunciations which he had uttered were in 
 strict accordance with the divine command. But in ch. 6 
 the prophet describes not his original commission, but a 
 special dedication for a new and specific work. Ch. 1, all 
 suppose to be out of its original place. Not a discourse in 
 the outset of his ministry, but the last of all, and not pre- 
 pared until the whole was written. It is supposed that 
 this. chaper is the introduction prepared at the conclusion 
 of the whole. The decision ot the question rests mainly on 
 the interpretation of vs. 7-9, whether the preterite is his- 
 torical or prophetical. The latter indicates a future event 
 spoken of as having already occurred. The country was 
 not ravaged to the extent there mentioned until the time of 
 Ilezekiah. In general, then, the order is chronological. 
 
 IV. Others insist on a topical arrangement,, prophe- 
 cies relating to the same theme being classed together. 
 Vitringa, as follows: (a) chs. 1-12, prophecies relating to 
 Judah and Ephraim, from the earlier part of his ministry. 
 (6) 13-23, Relating to other nations, (c) 24-35, Punish- 
 ment of Jews and enemies of the church, (d) 36-39, His- 
 torical, (e) 40-66, Person and reign of Christ. Gesenins 
 divides substantially the same, but joins (d) and (?) as both 
 relating to the deliverance from the exile. 
 
 V". A better view is to combine the chronological order 
 and topical. — A record of his ministry in its leading fea- 
 tures as they were successively unfolded, viz. : (a) 1-6, Be- 
 fore the Syrian invasion. Exhibition of the certainty and 
 necessity of the coming judgment. The prophecies were 
 delivered to an outwardly prosperous people, under Heze- 
 kiah and Jotham. Little space is devoted to promises. All 
 that are given relate to the distant future. Messianic 
 period referred to brings out the present guilt and unfaith- 
 fulness. Necessity of judgments to prepare for the bless- 
 iugs of the future. Person of the Messiah only once alluded 
 to, and then only obscurely, (b) 7-37, Extending to the 
 Assyrian invasion. Alternate between judgment and mercy. 
 One judgment by Syria already sent, and another by 
 Assyria still in the future. Necessity of a severer judg- 
 ment in the future. The person of the Messiah appears 
 repeatedly in his kingly office. He is a pledge of his people's 
 preservation and deliverance from oppression, (c) 38-66, 
 Subsequent to the Assyrian invasion. The second judg- 
 ment by Assyria is past, but another more fearful one is yet 
 
70 
 
 to come, which shall not merely threaten the destruction of 
 the holy city, but shall actually accomplish it, and they 
 shall be taken away from their land, breaking the presump- 
 tion of sinners over Sennacherib's destruction, by this an- 
 nouncement. He yet gives comfort to the pious, who were 
 in danger of despairing, that though this calamity shall be- 
 fall them, it shall come to an end, and the oppressor shall 
 be overthrown. Cyrus named, Israel named. Here the 
 Messiah is again exhibited, not as a king but as a prophet, 
 and as a sufferer, the head of his people, and identified with 
 them in the accomplishment of that which shall avail for the 
 good of others, but suffering for himself. The last section is 
 adapted to a great necessity of the future, hence not distinct 
 discourses as the preceding, but one connected compo- 
 sition. 
 
 There is unity of plan in the whole book. 
 
 I. The denunciations of the early chapters increase in 
 vehemence, until they culminate in sentence of desolation, 
 by successive judgments pronounced by God himself, in 
 the vision of ch. 6. This is the germ of all that comes after. 
 The prophet is informed that the people instead of being 
 benefited by his ministry would continue in sin until the 
 land should be desolated, although they should not be 
 finally destroyed, because there was still a holy seed which 
 should be preserved. 
 
 II. Chi. 7-37. Subdivided, (a) 7-12, (b) 13-27, (c) 28-35 
 (d) 36-37. (a) Prophecies occasioned by the first of the pre- 
 dicted judgments, the invasion by Syria and Ephraim, 
 promising deliverance from this, but threatening a sorer 
 one to come, (b) Meaning of these predicted events to the 
 world at large. (<■) Occasioned by the approach of the sec- 
 ond judgment, the Assyrian invasion, promising its mirac- 
 ulous defeat. (//) Record of the Assyrian invasion and its 
 overthrow. 
 
 III. Chs. 38-66. (a) Chs. 38,39, occasion of predicting 
 the third judgment. (6) 40-66, comfort in view of this 
 judgment and assurance of ultimate deliverance. This 
 same work, of judgments upon the people for their sins, is 
 spoken of in general terms by Obadiah and Joel. They said 
 it would be carried to the extent of destroying the holy city, 
 but by what steps and foes, was unknown, until Isaiah re- 
 vealed it. No prophet of this or any other period is ex- 
 plicit except Daniel. 
 
 I. Subdivided into ch. 1, chs. 2-4, ch. 5, and ch. 6. Ch. 1, 
 vs. 2-4, charge of ingratitude and sin ; vs. 5-9, land to be 
 
71 
 
 ravaged in consequence ; vs. 10-15, observance of the 
 ritual could uot save them ; vs. 16-20, sin must be repented 
 of and forsaken ; or, vs. 21-31, it shall be wiped out by 
 judgment. Chs. 2-4 ; (a) 2 : 2-4, Zion's glorious destiny, 
 as the seat of a worship which shall attract and bless all 
 nations; (b) 2 : 5 ; 4:1, present failure to realize this des- 
 tiny, which is due to their sins, and shall be remedied by 
 judgments ; (c) 4 : 2-6, Zion shall be thus purged of evil, and 
 rise to her true blessedness and glory ; Branch of the Lord 
 and fruit of the earth denotes the Messiah ; (a) the Branch, 
 Jer. 23 : 5 ; 33 : 15 ; Zech. 3:8; 6:12, comp. Isa. 11 : 1 ; 
 (b) ancient and common explanation ; (c) no other satisfac- 
 toiw. Oh. 5, Parable of the vine and its application. Ch. 6, 
 The vision, commission and announcement. 
 
 The first period contains four distinct prophecies. In 
 each there is the same idea. They are so many arguments 
 for the necessity of judgment, and of purification, anterior 
 to the Messiah's coming. In the second discourse it is put 
 in the glorious destiny of Zion, and the seat of the true 
 religion. In the third discourse the same truths under the 
 emblem of a vineyard, carefully attended to, and }<et it pro- 
 duces wild grapes. In consequence of this the wall of the 
 vineyard is broken down. This prepares the way for the 
 last discourse, ch. 6, in which these denunciations culminate 
 in a sublime vision. The Lord appears in his templs with 
 majesty, and pronounces formal sentence on his people — 
 desolation and banishment, but not ot entire destruction. 
 According to the election of grace, a remnant shall be pre- 
 served. There is a holy seed to remain. 
 
 This idea which is here brought out is really the key- 
 note of the book, and shows reason for its arrangement 
 and structure. All the rest is built upon and grouped 
 around successive judgments. The future has thus far 
 been set forth in its general outline, but by what agents 
 the judgment is to be inflicted, is not yet declared. This 
 majestic vision of ch. 6, was seen in the year king Uzziah 
 died, ch. 6 : 1. As Uzziah was a leper during the latter 
 years of his reign, Jotham (2 Chron. 26 : 21) was then act- 
 ing monarch. For the remainder of Jotham's reign, we 
 have no distinct utterances. Whether the prophet was 
 dumb (Ezek. 33 : 22) or not, cannot be determined, if new 
 revelation was given him. The king had from his throne 
 pronounced judgment, and the prophet holds his peace. 
 
72 
 
 The decree heard in the temple enters on its first stage in 
 the clays ot Ahaz. Prophet was sent with message which 
 was constantly disregarded. 
 
 II. Chs. 7-37. (a) 7-12. Subdivision of chs. 7-12: 
 (1) Ch. 7, circumstances, deliverance from this invasion, 
 but a severer one from Assyria. (2) 8:1; 9:7, Both 
 from this present and that future distress Immanuel is a 
 pledge of protection to them that fear God. (3) 9:8; 10 : 
 4, Ephraim, the foe of the present, shall perish. (4) 10 : 
 5 ; 10 : 34, Assyria, the foe of the future shall likewise 
 perish. (5) Ch. 11 : 12, Blessings of Immanuel's reign. 
 
 The moment Isaiah met Ahaz was a critical one for 
 Judah, and their unbelief was the immediate cause of the 
 evils which followed. The question was distinctly proposed 
 to them, whether they would rely on God for assistance, or 
 on Assyria. The unfortunate king of the people chose the 
 fatal consequences. The Assyrian general, Rabshakeh 
 (36 : 2), stood on the conduit of the upper pool, where 
 Isaiah met Ahaz, and delivered his insulting message. The 
 direful vision of the first chapter is here given. In his dis- 
 course to the king, Isaiah (7 ch.) had sketched dark visions 
 of Assyrian invasion, and no relief. Severe chastisement 
 of sins, followed by the overthrow of foes. Such is the 
 future of the people of God. When Isaiah met Ahaz, he 
 delivered the message, 7 : 7-9. The sign given was the 
 virgin's child, comp. Ex. 3 : 11, 12, time of deliverance in- 
 dicated, vs. 15, 16. Alrnah, a virgin, (a) etymology, (6) 
 usage, (e) cognate languages, (d) LXX. A child miracu- 
 lously born, (a) Mat. 1 : 22, 23, (b) solemnity of the an- 
 nouncement, (c) the name and 8 : 8-10, (d) 9 : 6, 7. Not 
 the prophet's child, (a) mother a virgin, (b) 8 : 1-4. Three 
 views, (a) Messianic, (b) non-Messianic, (c) double sense. 
 8:1; 9:7, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, deliverance from pres- 
 ent and future judgments for those who fear God, of 
 which Immanuel is the pledge, scene of his ministry, 9:1, 
 2, its consequences, multiplication, joy, deliverance, end of 
 war, vs. 3-5, person and titles, vs. 6, 7, Jewish, Rationa- 
 listic and Messianic interpretations. 9:8; 10:4, over- 
 throw of Ephraim in four stanzas with like ending. 10 : 
 5-34, overthrow of Assyria, Sennacherib's march, cut 
 down as a forest. Chs. 11, 12, in contrast Messiah sprouts 
 from root of Jesse, filled with the Spirit, restores Paradise, 
 gathers the Gentiles and remnant of Israel, unites Judah 
 

73 
 
 and Ephraim, make them victorious over all foes. Mes- 
 sianic passages: 7: 14-16; 9: 1-7. Chs. 11, 12, progres- 
 sive climax. 
 
 Chs. 13-27 (b) ten burdens culminating in judgment on 
 the whole world, followed by triumph of the Lord's people, 
 two naturally corresponding series, twofold design, masah. 
 (1.) chs. 13, 14: 27, Babylon, the object of two burdens, 
 here first connected with Judah's exile, to be overthrown 
 by the Medes, 13: 17, and become a perpetual desolation, 
 vs. 19-22, in order to the deliverance of the chosen people, 
 who sing their song of triumph over the oppressor's down- 
 fall, 14: 1-23; Assyria's overthrow, vs. 24, 25. (2.) 14: 
 28-32, Philistia rejoicing in calamities of Judah, threatened 
 with a formidable enemy from the uorth, by whom she 
 shall be devastated in order to Zion's more complete estab- 
 lishment. (3.) chs. 15, 16, against Moab. (4.) chs. 17, 18, 
 Damascus, (a) 17: 1-11, denunciation of Syria, passing 
 over, v. 3, into one against Ephraim its ally in assaulting 
 Judah; (b) 17: 12-14, denounces all succeeding invaders, 
 however numerous and powerful, with special reference to 
 Sennacherib ; (e) ch. 18, his fall announced to Ethiopia and 
 other distant nations, who bring offerings to God. (5.) 
 chs. 19, 20, Egypt; (a) 19: 1-7, ruin under image of drying 
 the Nile ; (b) vs. 18-25, mercy, the salvation five times 
 greater than the destruction, v. 18, altar, v. 19, union of 
 Assyria and Egypt, 23, and of both with Israel, vs. 24, 26 ; 
 (<■) ch. 20, symbolical, action defining time of fulfillment. 
 (6.) 21: 1-10, Desert of the sea, i e., Babylon; Elam or 
 Persia joined with the Medes in its capture in a night of 
 festivity. (7.) 21: 11, 12, Dumah, silence, ?'. e., Edom. 
 (8.) 21: 14-17, Arabia. (9.) ch. 22, valley of vision, i e. 
 Jerusalem; (a) vs. 1-14, denunciation of the city; (b) vs. 
 15-19, degradation and exile of Shebna ; (c) vs. 20-25, ex- 
 altation and establishment of Eliakim. (10.) ch. 23, Tyre 
 to be overthrown by the Chaldeans, vs. 1-15, but to revive 
 after seventy years, and her gain to be consecrated to the 
 Lord, vs. 15-18. Ch. 24, General judgment of the whole 
 world. Chs. 25-27, Judah's triumph and blessedness. 
 
 The first five and the last five burdens constitute two 
 series. The first of each series are against Babylon, and 
 the rest against nations subjugated by Assyria and Babylon, 
 and by which the judgment was partially fulfilled. The 
 second and third in each are against minor nations near 
 Palestine. The third of each series is concluded with the 
 
74 
 
 time of its fultillment, " in the years of an hireling,'' mean 
 "years exactly measured." The object of the fourth of 
 each series is the true covenant people. Damascus is equiv- 
 alent to Israel here, because they are associated together. 
 The fifth of each series is against prominent heathen pow- 
 ers, both of which series end with promises, and here, too, 
 dates are given, but with reference to the duration and re- 
 moval of judgments. Twofold design of these burdens : 
 first, for the covenant people : second, for the nations them- 
 selves. All the nations named had been guilt}' of sins 
 against the people of God, and it is so taught in the first 
 six. Humiliation of Egypt is to remove objects (20 : 6) of 
 idolatrous trust from covenant people. The design of an- 
 nouncement to the Gentiles, is, first, that the judgment of 
 one (18 : 7) might lead others to trust in God ; and secondly, 
 the nations themselves are to be converted to God, e. g., 
 Egypt and Tyre ; Assyria is mentioned with Egypt, same 
 purpose toward all. These individual judgments are given 
 as parts of God's general judgment of the world, shown 
 both by the beginnings and ends of the burdens. Thus, 
 13 : 6-13, mentions convulsions of nature which did not 
 happen in the overthrow of Babylon, but they are put here 
 because it is viewed as one scene in God's providential 
 work of judgment, as in Matt. 24: 29; and in 14: 26, the 
 character of the judgment is stated, " upon the whole 
 earth ;" and in the 24th ch., the judgments terminate upon 
 the world at large. These judgments have same title 
 affixed to each, viz.: " burden." This word explained, 1. 
 derived from nasa — " to lift up the voice." Therefore it 
 means solemn utterance, a prophecy irrespective of the char- 
 acter of its contents. 2. From same root in sense of " to 
 lift up and carry," hence " a burden," i. e., a prophecy of 
 threatening import. Proof, a. universal usage of word, 
 being used with prophecies of grievous character, b. 
 agrees better with radical meaning of verb, and with the 
 ordinary meaning of noun. 3. Agrees better with syntax, 
 the noun stands, in construct, before name of that which is 
 object of prophecy e. //., burden of Babylon — load which B. 
 is to bear. The utterance of Babylon would not convey 
 the idea of the syntax. The fact that these were genuine 
 prophecy is strengthened by the use of such enigmatical 
 title, which would not have been used by a forger. In the 
 first six chapters exile of Judah is predicted, but hitherto 
 the agent has not been named, but now Assyria, though 
 
75 
 
 only a province, is here declared to be the agent, hence it 
 is the subject of two distinct burdens. In the 13th ch. 
 Babylon is to be overthrown by the Medes, and this in 14 : 
 1, 2, is declared to be for the deliverance of the covenant 
 people. Hence he reverts to the nearest foe, by whom the 
 first blow is to be struck. Ch. 14 : 24, 25, repeats Syria's 
 overthrow for the comfort of the people. The second bur- 
 den has a title in 14: 28, denunciation against Palastine in 
 the year Ahaz died, and they are threatened with destruc- 
 tion from the north. In the fourth burden, which begins 
 against Assyria, and then proceeds to prophesy against 
 Ephraim, since it and Syria were to be devastated by As- 
 syria. Then he passes to the most distant powers under 
 the name of Ethiopia, who are exhorted to behold how God 
 would destroy all his enemies. The fifth is against Egypt. 
 Five cities of Egypt are to embrace the true religion, to 
 one that is to be destroyed, and an altar is to be erected to 
 the Lord, which may mean that Jerusalem shall no longer 
 be the only place of sacrifice. If signifying altar of wit- 
 ness, it simply implies conversion of Egypt. Sixth burden 
 vs. Desert of the Sea. This Babylon v. 9. Sea — Euphra- 
 tes. This term sometimes applied to large rivers, especially 
 such as overflow their banks. Desert is a reference to what 
 it is to become. This second judgment vs. Babylon goes 
 beyond previous one since 1. Persia is added to Media as 
 an instrument. 2. The capture is predicted as happening 
 on a night of festivity. Seventh burden vs. Dennah. 
 Evidently means Edom, from resemblance to name Idumea. 
 It has reference to condition to which it will come, i. e., 
 silence and destruction. Eighth burden vs. Arabia. Ninth 
 burden vs. the valley of vision — Jerusalem where visions 
 and prophecies were given. Thus both branches of Israel 
 are included in these judgments, ten tribes in first under 
 Damascus: Judah in second under valley of vision. Reason 
 for judgment vs. Jerusalem is her association with Edom. 
 This is followed by prediction concerning two individuals, 
 a. 15-19 Shebna, whose degradation and exile is foretold 
 as leader and example of the sinning people, b. 20-25 
 Eliakin. whose exaltation and establishment is foretold as 
 type of faithful remnant. Tenth burden vs. Tyre, stating 
 time of her remaining under judgment, with promise of 
 restoration. Ch. 24, general judgment on whole world, 
 resulting in triumph of God's people and manifestation of 
 his glory. Chs. 25-27. Judah's triumph and God's glory, 
 an advance. 
 
76 
 
 (c) Chs. 28-35. As the time for the Assyrian invasion 
 came on, the warnings and the comforts needed to be re- 
 peated. Ch. 28 : 1-6, gives the overthrow of kingdom of 
 ten tribes, followed in rest of section by rebukes and 
 threatenings of Judah, with interjected promises of As- 
 syria's overthrow and Judah's deliverance. 
 
 (d) Chs. 36, 37. This section is wound up by these 
 two chapters which give the fact of the invasion by As- 
 syria. Isaiah's prophecy at the time, and the miraculous 
 deliverance 
 
 III. (a) Chs. 38, 39, are introductory. They give the 
 prophet's ministry. After such a judgment, and such a 
 deliverance, it might be hoped that the people would turn 
 to the Lord. But it is not so. A better prince than Ahaz 
 is now on the throne, and yet Hezekiah had not escaped 
 the taint of former kings. His heart was lifted up with 
 pride, and to the messengers sent to him by the king of 
 Babylon with messages of congratulation that he had re- 
 covered, he shows the treasures of the Lord's house. This 
 display of the treasures served to excite the cupidity of the 
 king, and caused him to take them away from Judah. The 
 people are not allowed to gloat over the defeat of Senna- 
 cherib. As far as this was allowed, it was committed to 
 Nahum. Isaiah announces the Babylonish captivity. From 
 this time he devotes himself to the work of comfort; not 
 here and there a ray of comfort, as in the preceding part 
 of the prophecy, but in the great body of what follows. 
 The captivity was so dreadful that some great thing was 
 needed to prevent the true people of God from falling into 
 utter despair. So Isaiah, a prophet of a former age, pre- 
 pared the way for them, It is for a like reason that Daniel 
 was sent to tell the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, which 
 were to come long after. Isaiah tells of God's great pur- 
 pose respecting his people. He shows the occasion, design 
 and issue of their suffering. Their sufferings (a) arose not 
 from God's weakness but their sins, (b) were designed to fit 
 them for and further the accomplishment of their task, (c) 
 would issue in the blessedness and glory. These topics are 
 intermingled in the chapter. 
 
 (b) Chs. 40-66. Each division, of nine chapters each, is 
 distinguished, sometimes by a particular event, without 
 being exclusively occupied by it. Babylon and Cyrus are 
 nowhere else named. This election is divided into — 
 
 (1.) Chs. 40-48, Deliverance from exile, characteristic 
 
77 
 
 chap. 45. (2.) Chs. 49-57, Sufferings and triumph of Mes- 
 siah, ch. 53. (3.) Chs. 58-66, Future glory of God's peo- 
 ple, ch. 60. Shadowed forth, 40 : 2. Mission of Covenant 
 People, includes work of Messiah, both embraced under 
 name Servant of the Lord ; (a) appropriateness of title ; (b) 
 analogies to seed of Abraham, the prophet, son of David, 
 Christ and His church in K T.; (c) N. T.— Acts 13: 47, 
 comp. Isa. 49 : 6 ; 2 Cor. 6:2; comp. Isa. 49 : 8 ; also Jer. 
 11 : 19 ; comp. Isa. 53 : 7 ; (d) applicability to all the pass- 
 ages. Can not mean Israel to the exclusion of Messiah ; 
 (a) called Israel 49 : 3, but distinguished from them, 42: 6; 
 49: 5, 6, as their mediator and restorer; (6) his atoning 
 death, ch. 53. Nor Isaiah or the prophets : (a) Mission not 
 to Gentiles, (b) nor sufferings vicarious. Nor Cyrus. Nor 
 even Messiah exclusively, for he is charged (42 : 9) with un- 
 faithfulness and sin. 
 
 1. Chs. 40-48. Ch. 40, Omnipotence of Him who offers 
 deliverance, voice crying in wilderness, v. 3. Ch. 41, con- 
 trasted impotence of idols; they can do nothing, but God 
 will raise up Cyrus and redeem His people. Ch. 42, des- 
 tiny of God's servant, which neither God's seeming apathy, 
 nor his own character and condition shall obstruct. Chs. 
 43, 44, God will certainly befriend His people in spite of 
 idols and diviners. Chs. 45-47, Cyrus predicted by name, 
 the humiliation of Babylon and the deliverance of God's 
 captive people. 
 
 2. Chs. 49-57. Ch. 49, Servant of Lord complains of 
 want of success ; he shall accomplish the salvation, not of 
 Israel only, but of the ends of the earth. The blessedness 
 thence resulting, 49: 12 ; 66: 8, confirmed by former bene- 
 fits, viz. : Multiplication of Abraham's seed, 51 : 2, deliver- 
 ance from Egypt, v. 9, and from Assyria, 52:4, and twice 
 interrupted by the sufferings of the Servant of the Lord, 
 50 : 6, and ch. 53. Blessings flowing from this vicarious 
 death, ch. 54, offered freely to all without restriction, ch. 
 55, expressly extended to sons of strangers and those cere- 
 monially debarred from covenant privileges, 56 : 1-8 ; the 
 heavy doom of apostates and sinners, 56 : 9 ; 57 : 21. 
 
 3. Chs. 58-66. The wickedness and hypocrisy of the 
 people the cause of their suffering, chs. 58, 59, and call for 
 divine intervention, 59 : 16, both for mercy and vengeance, 
 bringing salvation to Zion, chs. 60-62, and judgment on 
 Edom, the type of her foes, 63 : 1-6. The Servant of the 
 Lord for the last time, 61: 1-3; comp. Luke 4: 18, 19. 
 
78 
 
 The prophet's prayer for the speedy accomplishment of 
 these things, 63 : 7 ; 64 : 12. The Lord's answer, chs. 65, 
 66, the wicked shall be cut off, God's true servants pre- 
 served and blessed, new heavens and new earth, paradise 
 restored, God's people brought back, Gentiles made priests, 
 all flesh worship. Extension of salvation to Gentile fore- 
 shadowed in call of Abraham, Gen. 12: 3, recognized in 
 Mosaic period, Num. 14: 21, and by Psalmist, 22: 27, 28; 
 72 : 8, etc., and taught with great fullness by Isaiah ; this 
 was the design of (a) the appointment of the Servant of the 
 Lord, 42 : 1-4, 6 ; (b) the exaltation to be bestowed on Is- 
 rael, 2: 2-4; 60: 3; (c) the judgments on the heathen, 
 whether (a) the overthrow of an empire aspiring to be uni- 
 versal, 10 : 34 ; 11 : 9 ; (b) the punishment of individual na- 
 tions resulting in the conversion of others, 18 : 7, or their 
 own, chs. 19-23, or, (c) the judgment on all nations, 24: 
 14, 15; 59: 18, 19. Represented as (a) a subjugation, 11 : 
 14; (b) voluntary accession, 2: 3; 11: 10; (c) rendering 
 service, 14: 1, 2; 49: 22, 23, (d) union on an equal footing, 
 19 : 24 ; 56 : 6,8; 66 : 21, (e) substitution in place of the re- 
 jected sinners of Israel, 65 : 1, 2. Expressed mostly in 
 O. T. forms; coming up to Zion, offering sacrifices, etc., 
 yet occasional intimations of their temporary character, (a) 
 physical impossibility literally understood, 66 : 23 ; (b) un- 
 essential nature of outward forms, 1 : 11-15; 58: 2-7; (<?) 
 removal ofLevitical restrictions, 19: 19; 64: 4, 5. 
 
 GENUINENESS OF ISAIAH. 
 
 For correspondence of Isaiah, 2 : 2-4, and Micah, 4 : 
 1-3. ( Vide Alexander's Commentary.) Also of the four 
 historical chapters, 36-39, and 2 Kings 18: 13; 20: 19. 
 The burden of Moab, chs. 15 and 16 (see 16 : 13, 14,) in 
 consequence of its closing verses has been thought to be 
 the production of a prophet older than Isaiah, and simply 
 re- affirmed by him. It is more probable that Isaiah here 
 repeated an earlier prophecy of his own. This prophecy is 
 not in form, but substantially what has been predicted by 
 prophets before him. The question of genuineness is very 
 different from this. Every prophecy from the beginning to 
 
79 
 
 the close of the book which implies a foresight of the Baby- 
 lonish exile, is said to be spurious on the ground that such 
 foresight is contrary to nature, e. g., two burdens of Babylon, 
 13 and 14 chs., 21 : .1-10, and the comfort (40-66 chs.) given 
 to the people of God. 
 
 (1.) Skeptics from a disbeliet of prophetic foresight have 
 no influence with those who are Christians. It is simply a 
 begging of the question. 
 
 (2.) Objectors have not a pretext on any external ground. 
 The entire book claims to be the book of Isaiah. So as- 
 serted in Chron. 32 : 32. Alluded to in Ecclesiasticus 48 : 
 22-25. Of the 21 times in which Isaiah is mentioned in the 
 N. T. , 11 are from this section. No. MSS. or versions leave 
 them out. The book has been in Jewish custody from the 
 earliest times, and no doubt has been expressed until recent 
 times. They must have guarded it carefully. 
 
 (3.) The allegations that these sections differ in style 
 from the other parts of the book have been made in sub- 
 serviency to the objections already named. There was no 
 discovery of difference in style for 24 centuries, and it was 
 first brought forward when the book was given up on other 
 grounds. What one critic condemns as inelegant, another 
 lauds to the skies. They are quite at variance as to whether 
 these sections differ from one another. They all agree that 
 they difter from Isaiah's style in other places. When they 
 undertake to point to specific differences in style, they 
 bring up such words and phrases as do not oecur in other 
 parts of the book. This may be true if it be allowed that 
 nothing is to be accepted which is found in one book of a 
 writer, but not in another. As far as there is any differ- 
 ence of style in Isaiah, it may be accounted for by the dif- 
 ference of subject and occasion, or difference of purpose, if 
 it be admitted that the last seven chapters had a different 
 purpose. These differences of style are the variations of 
 style of a writer of great genius. The changes are due 
 partly to advancing years. The objection of the existence 
 of words and phrases which indicate a later time than that 
 of Isaiah, is established by most uncertain data. Supposi- 
 titious senses are laid to them. Words which occur in no 
 other writings of that time are said to belong to another 
 period. Sometimes words are found to agree with prophets 
 of an earlier period, and these are rejected. 
 
 (4.) It is impossible to account for the prophecies in 
 question being found in the canon if they were not his own. 
 
80 
 
 They were either put there innocently, or by fraud, but how 
 a writer in the time of the exile could succeed in passing 
 one of his writings for those of Isaiah, which were at the 
 time ot the formation of the canon is unimaginable, and the 
 greater the number of writers the greater the complexity. 
 How these chapters could have been innocently put into 
 the canon, it is impossible to see. How writings could have 
 appeared in the time of Isaiah, and been mistaker for his 
 is inconceivable. This difficulty is greatly exaggerated by 
 the number of spurious passages. It these passages were 
 taken away the symmetry of the book would be exceed- 
 ingly marred. It is objected to the two burdens of Baby- 
 lon, chs. 13, 14, 21 : 1-10, that the exile is not predicted, 
 but implied, therefore the writer must have lived in the 
 midst of the exile. Answer. — The prophets often speak of 
 future events as if they were present, their certainty is so 
 great. The exile had been already foretold by Isaiah, ch. 
 5. It had been foretold by Moses in Lev. 26. Isaiah in ch. 
 39 declares who the agents of this calamity were to be. He 
 speaks of the birth, death and sufferings of the Messiah as 
 past. Are we, therefore, to conclude that these portions 
 were written after the death of Christ ? 
 
 Positive Proofs of Genuineness. — (1.) The title of the first 
 of these burdens (13: 1) expressly alludes to Isaiah. It was 
 put there by the prophet himself, for (a) the title was neces- 
 sary to the understanding of the prophecy, (b) From anal- 
 ogy of other burdens, (c) Such enigmatical titles would not 
 likely have come from a forger. (2.) 14 : 24-27, The con- 
 cluding part of this burden is admitted to belong to Isaiah. 
 Critics have in vain attempted to find a place for this pass- 
 age in other portions of the prophecy. It refers to Assyria, 
 but where is there mention of Assyria at the time of the 
 exile, when Assyria had passed away long before ? (3.) 21 : 
 1-6, By the general structure of the burdens, and from the 
 enigmatical title, introducing the figure of the watchman. 
 The structure of these burdens is like all the others, there- 
 fore they were written by Isaiah. (4.) The prophetic fore- 
 sight will not be obviated by transferring him to the latest 
 period possible — exile. Even when Cyrus was before the 
 walls of Babylon, no one would believe he could overcome 
 the city. 
 
 Objections to 40-66. — (I.) The people are represented as 
 already in exile, but (a) this is possible far less frequently 
 than is alleged. Those passages which refer to the exile or 
 
81 
 
 return are few, and many which are said to relate to it, re- 
 fer to some other result ; e.g., " highway " refers to God's 
 preparation for conversion of the Gentiles ; " release of 
 prisoner " — release from trouble, " pools of water " joy- 
 ful changes^ of any kind, and when return from exile is 
 promised it is a return from all quarters, not merely from 
 Babylon, (b) this objection is inconsistent with the tact that 
 the prophet urges his prediction of coming events in proof 
 of God's foreknowledge and superiority "over idols 41- 
 22-27: 43: 9-12; 45: 3 ; 46 : 9-11. (c) These passages 
 show a better state of things existing before the exile. 
 The temple was still standing, 66: 6-20; 58: 2-6; 43: 
 24; 65: 11. Idolatry was still existing, 66 : 17; 65 ': 11; 
 and in such forms as more probably derived from 
 Egypt than from Babylon. The people are courting 
 alliance with foreign monarchs; their judgment is repre- 
 sented as future. The critics explain this by assum- 
 ing the record of these facts to be an earlier fragment. 
 But this is begging the question. {d)'The force of the 
 objection is derived from confounding the ideal with the 
 actual present. Such is the assurance of the prophet that 
 he regards these events as actually present. That these 
 events were regarded by the prophet as really future is 
 seen from the fact ; (1) that the terms are too "broad to be 
 confined to exile; (2) that some other deliverance than 
 return from Babylonish exile is referred to. For the evil 
 from which the deliverance foreshadowed and the glory 
 which followed it are different; (3) specific references to 
 Babylon and the exile are singularly few, but this could 
 hardly be the case if the writer was writing during the 
 exile. Admitted that the specific predictions with refer- 
 ence to Cyrus are remarkable, yet they are few and the 
 whole description is general. If they were uttered before 
 the event, there is prevision whether Isaiah wrote them or 
 not ; (4) the writer transports himself to various points of 
 time; e.g., exile, fall of Babylon, time of Messiah, time 
 of Israel's glory. But confessed not written after the latest 
 point. Therefore prevision is involved. 
 
 II. The predictions are plain till close of the exile but 
 vague thereafter, which shows the standpoint of the writer. 
 But (1) though the prediction of the fact of the exile and 
 its end are sufficiently clear to be proof of the divine fore- 
 knowledge, yet the expressions are mostly general. While 
 on the other hand, what is predicted of Christ and his 
 
82 
 
 work is more specific than the definite predictions referring 
 to the exile. (2) This apparent change of stjde is to be ac- 
 counted for by the fact that prophecy is the disclosure of 
 just so much of the future as will furnish useful lessons. 
 But in this latter part of the ministry of the prophet, the 
 thing most necessary was to prepare the people for the 
 next event of God's judgment, viz : their actual overthrow 
 by Babylon and ultimate glory of Israel. So the language 
 with reference to this event needs to be plain ; (3) in so far 
 as the fact alleged is true it rather makes against the critic. 
 For it would be naturally inferred from the statements of 
 Cyrus and return being followed immediately by Mes- 
 sianic predictions, that Messianic period was to come at 
 once. But if these predictions were written after these 
 events such an idea would have been impossible, for the poor 
 realization of any glory in the return would give the idea 
 that Messianic period was not at hand. But if written before 
 these events it involves prevision. If, however, written by 
 Isaiah as supernatural predictions the juxtaposition is ac- 
 counted for, because in all his prophecies Messiah is the 
 background. (4.) Josephus, (Ant. XI. 1, 2,) says that these 
 predictions were shown to Cyrus and were among the 
 things that induced him to rescue the people of God, which 
 would account for his restoration of them. This corrobo- 
 rated Ezia 1 : 2. (5.) The argument from expressions pecu- 
 liar to this section is balanced by the fact that there are 
 expressions here, which are found in acknowledged parts 
 of the book, e. g., Holy One of Israel, 12 times in previous 
 parts : 14 times here. 
 
 III. The theme is one which could have had no interest 
 to Isaiah or his contemporaries. He speaks of evils which 
 then had no existence, whereas the people wanted release 
 from present evils of Syria and Assyria. But (1.) We hold 
 that this is a question that is to be decided only by a sur- 
 vey of his writings, with relation to the times in which he 
 lived and wrote. Now, at the opening of his ministry, 
 which was in the prosperous times of Josiah, he declares 
 future judgments which he afterwards unfolds. When the 
 first blow (Syria) came, he declared its failure and yet an- 
 nounced a far more formidable blow from Assyria, which 
 however would not be successful. As neither of these was 
 to accomplish this judgment, it was natural that he should 
 show by whom it was to be accomplished, which he does 
 by declaring the overthrow of Babylon. Yet this is not to 
 
83 
 
 be complete. Thus we see (a) that in these acknowledged 
 portions of the book' the prophet speaks of a distant evil, 
 when another one was present before the people. There- 
 fore a similar method can not be made an argument against 
 the genuineness of this section, (b) That all these predic- 
 tions of judgments and ultimate deliverances, are but de- 
 velopment of one theme, and since same ideas of deliver- 
 ance and judgment are present in this section, the pre- 
 sumption is that it is the following out of the same theme. 
 (2.) On the contrary, it was a theme of intense interest to 
 Israel, since it concerned their national existence and the 
 accomplishment of God's promise. 
 
 IV. The theme has reference to an event too remote to 
 have affected Israel. (Captivity.) But (1.) This is assum- 
 ing that the critic has the right to determine the time over 
 which prophecy is to range. (2.) Messianic prophecies of 
 the book relate to an event much further removed than this. 
 (3.) On the hypothesis that these are the real declarations of 
 God, the propriety of their relating to a far distant event is 
 seen. (4.)We must remember that, while, from the develop- 
 ment of history, this event appears far removed from the 
 time of the prophet, yet its date was not known to prophet 
 or people at that time. As far as they knew the judgment 
 was imminent. (5.) This argument shows the inconsistency 
 of the theory, and since the very absence of remoteness is 
 urged by them against the inspiration of the book. 
 
 PREDICTIONS OF OLD TESTAMENT AS TO 
 SUFFERINGS OF THE MESSIAH. 
 
 They are not first revealed to Isaiah, but are really made 
 known from the first promise in the garden. Then they 
 are brought out in those Psalms which refer to the right- 
 eous sufferer. They reach their fullest development* 5 in 
 Isaiah. Lowly origin; despised of men ; obstacles to his 
 work; personal violence. After Isaiah they are taken up 
 by Daniel. Cut off for the people (9 : 24-26.) Then by 
 Zechariah. Lowly (9:9); an object of aversion (11:8); 
 sold for silver (11 : 13); smitten by a sword (13 : 7). Isaiah 
 combines the various methods of all the O. T. prophets. 
 He shows results viewed (a) from the appointment of Israel 
 and M. as servant of Jehovah ; (b) as judgments on the 
 heathen. Either judgments on individual nations, which 
 would bring the rest to acknowledge God, or judgments on 
 all, which would bring them all to^God. 
 
84 
 
 He shows the relations of the Gentiles to the Jews 
 subjugation (11 : 14), voluntary accession (60 : 3), a render- 
 ing of service (14 : 2), union on a level (56 : 6, 8), substi- 
 tution in place of Israel (65 : 1, 2). Their coming is mostly 
 described under the forms of the ancient ritual, while its 
 spiritual character is shown by coupling it with physical 
 impossibilities. 
 
 NAHUM. 
 
 Name.—" A comfort." Called " the Elkoshite." Proba- 
 bly not a patronymic, but a local designation— the place 
 where he was born or lived. But Elkosh is nowhere men- 
 tioned in the Bible. Jerome and Eusebius, — a small village 
 in Galilee. Some — same as Capernaum (village of Nahum). 
 Both are mere conjectures. 
 
 Date. — Nowhere distinctly stated. 1. From its position 
 among minor prophets it might be assigned any place be- 
 tween reigns of Hezekiah and Josiah. 2. The inferences 
 made rest really upon the interpretation of 1 : 9-14. Some 
 say this refers to the Captivity of Manasseh by king of 
 Assyria, and infer that it was the last invasion by Assyria. 
 But (a) it merely means that when God shall judge their 
 oppressors they shall be overthrown, not necessarily that 
 they shall never come again, (b) It is scarcely probable 
 that the prophet speaking in time of Manasseh, would 
 merely refer to the coming deliverance without allusion to 
 the kings, (c) According to this hypothesis he would be 
 the only prophet in the reign of Manasseh, which reign, 
 with that of Amos, is regarded as without prophecy, merely 
 separating between the Assyrian and Chaldean Periods. 
 
 A better interpretation refers the passage to the invasion 
 of Sennacherib in the reign of Hezekiah. Proof: — (a) 
 The bonds that are to be broken are not those of an indi- 
 vidual (Manasseh) but of Judah, the people, (b) The cir- 
 cumstances of that invasion seem to be specially referred 
 to. e.g. Evil counsel of Eabshekah. v. 11. Sudden over- 
 throw of Assyrians, v. 12. Murder of Sennacherib. Then 
 the only question remains as to whether it was before or 
 after the first invasion. If after, then the preterites are his- 
 torical ; if before, they are prophetical. 
 
85 
 
 Inferences have also been drawn from the mention of 
 the capture of No- Amnion, (Thebes) 3: 8-10. But the date 
 is uncertain. 
 
 Structure.— Double title. 1 : 1. Subject, the burden 
 of Nineveh : author — the book of the vision of Nahum, 
 the Elkoshite. Contents divided into 3 parts, (a) Ch. 1. 
 God coming to judgment: the object being Nineveh, (b) 
 ch. 2. Overthrow of Nineveh is exhibited to the prophet. 
 Preliminary of the siege, v. 2, 3. Assault, 4, 5. Ineffectual 
 defence, 6-8. Sack, 9. Resuulting desolation, 10-12. 
 Pledge of Jehovah for its fulfillment, 13. (c) Ch. 3. Repe- 
 tition of the same subject in which the act is justified 
 by giving reasons for it in form of charges against the city. 
 Crime and fraud, v. 1-3. Whoredoms and witchcrafts, 4- 
 7. i. e., the political and commercial management by which 
 Nineveh reduced nations to ruin. Fate of No-Amnion is 
 told as typical of Nineveh's downfall. This was fulfilled 
 in the taking of Nineveh by Cyaxeres and Nabo-Polassar, 
 606 B. C. From that date the city began to decline. The 
 instrument is not named, only described. The special men- 
 tion of cavalry corresponds to Media. 
 
 CHALDEAN PERIOD. 
 
 Separated from preceding period by the ungodly reigns 
 of Manasseh, 55 yrs., Anion 2 yrs., and the people under 
 them were very bad. Manasseh was worse than any king 
 Israel ever had. He erected altars of idolatry, even in the 
 temple, and he filled Jerusalem with innocent blood, 2 
 Kings 21 : 1-16 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 1-9. Manasseh repented 
 and reformed at the close of his reign, but with so little 
 effect upon the popular corruption that the author of Kings 
 passes it over in silence. 
 
 Such was the state of things when Josiah, at 8 years of 
 age, came to the throne. At 12 years of age, he began to 
 purge the land of idolatry. At 18 years he repaired God's 
 house, and abolished idolatry. After 31 years of reign he 
 was slain at Meg-iddo. Four king's followed, and all were 
 wicked. Of these, the first and last were sons of Josiah 
 by different mothers. Jehoahaz, 3 mos., was carried to 
 
86 
 
 Egypt, and died there. Jehoiakim, 11 yrs. ; he was placed 
 over the kingdom by the king of Egypt ; he exceeded the 
 others in wickedness. In the fourth year, Nebuchadnezzar 
 completed his preparation, and captured Jerusalem, Jer. 
 46 : 2. The first deportation of exiles was at this time, 
 and the 70 yrs. captivity must be reckoned from this time. 
 The city still continued for some years. The rebellion of 
 Jehoiakin (3 mos.) called for a new demonstration on the 
 part of Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah was a weak prince, in 
 fear of the nobles of the land. He did not protect Jere- 
 miah, or obey his message. His reign of 11 yrs. terminated 
 with the destruction of the city. 
 
 I. This period is distinguished from the preceding by 
 the greatly increased and increasing corruption. Several 
 signs of this : (a) The character of the kings was an influ- 
 ential cause of the state of things. In the former period 
 Ahaz is the only wicked king ; in this, Josiah is the only 
 good one. And even in his time the idolatry and corrup- 
 tion were only put down for a time. When this was past 
 they became worse than ever. (6) Obduracy in the face of 
 judgment. In the former period, on the approach of the 
 Assyrians, Hezekiah went in sackcloth, ancl in prayer to 
 God. But now Jehudi (Jer. 36 : 28, 24) cut in pieces the 
 roll of Jeremiah, and threw it into the fire. Zedekiah re- 
 fused to obey the prophets, though the enemy was before 
 the city, Jeremiah, chs. 37, 38. And the people were con- 
 firmed in evil, Jer. 44 : 17, 18. (c) Persecution and martyr- 
 dom of the prophets of God. The former prophets com- 
 plained that the people had not obej'ed their messages, but 
 there was no violence done them. Even judgments of which 
 they were forewarned were defied, Is. 5 : 19 ; Amos 5 : 18 ; 
 7 : 12, 13. Now they are the subjects of every form of 
 abuse, 2 Chron. 36 : 16 ; Jer. 26 : 20-23. (d) Prevalence and 
 influence of false prophets. The existence of false prophets 
 was intimated in the previous period, but now the}" appear 
 with an influence and a power such as they never had before. 
 By their promises they break the force of the messages of 
 the true prophets, Jer. 28. This is an index of corruption, 
 especially of the noble classes, (e) Presumptuous trust in 
 covenant privileges, even while disregarding the conditions 
 of promise, Jer. 7 : 4. Even the captivity of the ten tribes 
 instead of confirming to them the threats and warnings of 
 the true prophets, bolstered their conceit, because the fact 
 
87 
 
 of their preservation thus far proved God's special favor. 
 And Josiah's reformation seems only to have made them 
 self-righteous. 
 
 II. Consequent nearness of the divine judgment. God's 
 forbearance had reached its last period. The Assyrians 
 had passed off the scene. The Chaldeans are now charged 
 with the execution of this sentence. They began as soon 
 as good King Josiah died. 
 
 Three prophets in this period ; Jeremiah, Habakkuk 
 and Zephaniah. These occupy an unequal amount of space. 
 From the long ministry of Jeremiah, we have full account 
 of his work. Prophecies of Habakkuk and Zephaniah are 
 brief, as their ministries were. These books may be short, 
 disconnected portions, or summaries of their prophecies. Of 
 their persons we know nothing. The condition of things 
 in Judah at this time was the same as that of Israel before 
 the captivity, which called for the denunciations. There is 
 this difference, however : (1.) The kingdom was not essen- 
 tially criminal, nor utterly apostate. (2.) It still retained 
 the body of God's people. (3.) The rejection, therefore, 
 was not to be so great nor final. The kingdom looked at 
 a future restoration, hence there is more room for promises, 
 direct and indirect, positive and negative. While, there- 
 fore, Jeremiah is like Hosea, and Zephaniah like Amos, 
 Habakkuk proclaimed the overthrow of Babylon is in con- 
 trast with Jonah. Jeremiah and Zephaniah are mainly de- 
 nunciatory, with few promises. And so are most of the 
 prophecies of this period. Habakkuk is chiefly consolatory. 
 Judgment is necessary in order to break the fatal security 
 of the people. For the sake of the people of God, in view 
 of the great judgment it was important that the design and 
 result of the judgment should be stated in advance. God 
 was not to break oft the covenant of grace, but his promises 
 would still be. fulfilled, Hab. 2: U{~3: 13. (1.) Jeremiah 
 had a long ministry, a large book of prophecy. The other 
 books are short, and their ministries likewise. (2.) Full 
 details of Jeremiah's life, while nothing is recorded of the 
 others. (3.) Jeremiah and Zephaniah principally judgment 
 on Judah, Habakkuk judgment on Babylon. (4.) Promises 
 given that the judgment should not destroy but purify, limit 
 set to the exile, people, city, kingdom, priesthood should 
 not perish forever, Jer. chs. 31-33. The exile (Jer. 29 : 10), 
 would be temporaiy. Every apparent loss should be more 
 than compensated. Sequel to the preceding period in Ju- 
 
88 
 
 dab. His promise was still to stand sure. The ark might 
 perish, but would not be missed. Every loss was a 
 real gain, Jer. 3 : 16, 17. The tables of the law might be 
 lost, but the law was written on their hearts, Jer. 31: 31-33. 
 The Chaldean period is a sequel of what had preceded it. 
 They were pursuing the same course with the same causes 
 and similar results. The same judgment was still before 
 them, but now nearer. (1.) The range of foresight of these 
 prophets did not reach beyond that of the preceding ones. 
 (2.) They reiterate the same predictions their predecessors 
 proclaimed, often stating them in the same language. They 
 thus conformed to the ancient prophecies, and at the same 
 time give authority for their own predictions. (3.) No new 
 or peculiar Messianic predictions. Habakkuk gives the 
 negative side of the future, the overthrow of all that ob- 
 structs the people of God. Zephaniah is positive, and tells 
 of the regathering of the people from captivity, and of their 
 future glory. Jeremiah is both positive and negative, and 
 at the same time goes beyond Habakkuk and Zephaniah, 
 by introducing the person of Christ, as Branch of David, 
 over Israel and Judah united. All three prophets declare 
 that the theocracy is now to break up, and that all nations 
 will one day be included in the kingdom of God. 
 
 JEREMIAH. 
 
 More details of Jeremiah's life are given than of any 
 other canonical prophet. His name signifies " he whom 
 God hath appointed," but the usage of the word makes it 
 mean, " he whom God will throw down," and his was a 
 ministry of overthrow and reconstruction, 1 : 10. He was 
 son of Hilkiah, priest in Anathoth. He was, therefore, of 
 priestly descent, like Ezekiel. Was Hilkiah the same as 
 the one mentioned in 2 Kings 22 : 4? It is not certain, but 
 probably they were different persons. For (1.) Jeremiah's 
 father is never called the High-Priest. (2)1 Chron. 9 : 11 ; 
 jSTehemiah 11 : 11. The High-Priest, Hilkiah, was from 
 Zadok, of the family of Eleazer, to whom this dignity was 
 transferred, 1 Chron. 24 : 35; 1 Kings 2: 35. (3.) In addi- 
 tion it has been alleged that the High-Priest must reside 
 
89 
 
 in Jerusalem. This is questioned. If the Hilkiah of Jer. 
 29 : 3, is the prophet's father, then the prophet had a 
 brother. The hostility of his house against him is recorded 
 in the 12th ch. 37 : 2, he had a cousin and an uncle. His 
 uncle is said to be the same Shallum who was the husband 
 of the prophetess Huldah, 2 Kings 22 : 14. Anathoth was 
 established for the possession of the priests, Josh. 21 : 18. 
 It was three miles north of Jerusalem. Here the prophet 
 was born, 29 : 27, and spent his early years. He was called 
 at an early age, 1 : 6. This was the year after Josiah began 
 his first reformation. He was, therefore, called early to aid 
 this pious king in his w r ork. His youth may not have been 
 so great as it seems to be from the expression, "-a child," 
 which is applied to him. This term is applicable from 
 birth to twenty years of age, and is so used in other pass- 
 ages. We do not read that he ever acted as priest, and we 
 know he was never married, 16 : 2. In the title of the book, 
 1:2, 3, mention is made of Josiah. But Jehoahaz and 
 Jehoiakin are omitted. His ministry was forty years, to 
 the capture of Jerusalem. Under Josiah, eighteen years, 
 13: 31; Jehoash, three months; Jehoiakim, eleven years; 
 Jehoiakin, three months; Zedekiah, fourteen years. Two 
 remarks ; (a) The omission of two of these kings made in 
 Jeremiah, is accounted for either by the brevity of their 
 reigns, or because nothing occurs to bring out anything 
 from the prophet, (6) The ministry of the prophet is spoken 
 ot as extending only to the captivity of Jerusalem, whereas 
 the prophecies of chapters 40-46 were after that date, Dan. 
 1: 21. 
 
 Jeremiah's task was to testify of the coming ruin. He 
 had done this for a long time. The kingdom was over- 
 thrown, and the people came into captivity. In order to 
 complete the picture, he traces the fortunes of the remnant 
 left behind in Jerusalem, and going from bad to worse. 
 We are not to understand, therefore, that his ministry, ex- 
 tended only to the captivity. Whatever he was to tell after 
 this was not so important Dan. 1 : 21, a parallel " until 
 the first year of Cyrus; " but we find him after the third 
 year of Cyrus. Yet the most important part of his minis- 
 try was before the first } 7 ear. 
 
 Three great events. 1. The reformation of Josiah. 2. 
 Capture of Jerusalem in the fourth year of Jehoiakim. 3. 
 Its destruction in the eleventh year of Zedekiah. With the 
 mention of 2 : 21 and 12 : 6 of the hostile treatment of the 
 
90 
 
 men of Anathoth, some have said he began his ministry in 
 the place of his birth, but meeting with persecution there, 
 went to Jerusalem. But 2 : 2 says he exercised his office 
 in Jerusalem from the first, its vicinity being such that men 
 of Anathoth could exercise hostility toward him there 
 easily. Was persecuted, 36 : 5 ; 22 : 2. The command, in 
 11 : 6, to the cities of Judah, does not say that his ministry 
 was itinerant, because 26 : 2, he is represented as doing the 
 same. > T o other prophet except Elijah met with such treat- 
 ment. He was persecuted by others as well as by citizens 
 of Anathoth. Even Elijah retired from persecution, Jere- 
 miah kept on. He was warned of this when he was com- 
 missioned of God. He was met with sneers, 23 : 33-40. 
 People upheld their false prophets who attempted to de- 
 stroy the force of Jeremiah's messages. The sight of this 
 evil from the people of God was almost too much for such 
 a prophet, and he 20 : 14-18, curses the clay of his birth. 
 It was not timidity, for no one can exceed him in courage, 
 20 : 11-13. His enemies were not confined to words, but 
 extended to acts, 20 : 1-6, put in stocks by Pashur. Ar- 
 rested on charge of treason 36 : 5, not imprisoned but under 
 restraint. So" that, 36 : 19, he could not with safety show 
 himself. Ch. 29 : 26, 27, his punishment was demanded 
 from Zephaniah. The prophet attempted to leave the city, 
 37 : 13. In spite of his denial of treason he was put in 
 prison 26 : 8. Cast into a pit in the court of the prison to 
 die, 39 : 15-18. His imprisonment must have lasted nine 
 months. During this time Zephaniah consulted him se- 
 cretly twice. Jeremiah came into Egypt when the Jews 
 fled thence, and he remained there. 
 
 Legends concerning Jeremiah. — That he was stoned by the 
 Jews, and that his grave is in Cairo. Alexandrian Jews 
 loved him because he had been with them in Egypt, and 
 they have many legends about him, 2 Mac. 2 : 1-7 ; 15 : 15, 
 16. From Matt. 16 : 14, it appears that at the time of 
 Christ, there was an expectation of his personal re-appear- 
 ance, which may be accounted for by the fact that no men- 
 tion is made of his death. Many think that he is one of 
 the two witnesses in Rev. 11. 
 
 The Septuagint differs from A. V. very considerably. 
 33 : 14-26, have been dropped. 46 : 46-51 are not only in 
 a different order among themselves, but the entire section 
 has been removed to stand after ch. 26. These differences 
 are remarked on by Jerome and Origen. Jerome — care- 
 
91 
 
 lessness of transcribers. The Septuagint made from a faulty 
 MS. Michaelis says there was one edition in Egypt after 
 the prophet's death. From the nature of the variations it 
 is evident that they cannot be traced to the ordinary differ- 
 ences in copying. They must have had a purpose. 
 
 Text and Plan of Jeremiah. — Discrepancies between He- 
 brew and Greek text, abbreviations, additions, alterations, 
 transpositions, remarked by Origen and Jerome. Theories 
 of Egyptian and Palestine editions of the original. Due to 
 the translator, (a) Their character ; (b) inaccuracies and ar- 
 bitrary changes in other books ; (c) 2 Chron. 36 : 20. 
 Prophecies not in chronological order. Hence many com- 
 mentators complain of want of arrangement and confusion. 
 Lightfoot and Blauey assume accidental dislocation. Eich- 
 horn's hypothesis is that there were different editions of this 
 book. (1.) These statements are based on a false assump- 
 tion. The disorder claimed does not exist. (2.) These 
 hypotheses are mere figments of the brain. The only solu- 
 tion they offer is a mere chance. (3.) Nothing can be safely 
 built on the roll of Baruch, 36, because the contents of it 
 are unknown. They were not for permanent preservation, 
 but for a special occasion, 36 : 32. (4.) These theories regard 
 the formation of the book as a mere mechanical work, 
 thrown about without any ideas at all. This excludes any 
 participation by the prophet in the arrangement of the book. 
 Reaction in Germau criticism, and now Ewald recognizes 
 an orderly arrangement. 
 
 The Book from Jeremiah Himself. — That the book in its 
 present form proceeded from 'the prophet is shown : (1.) 
 By the frequent use of the first person, both in the indi- 
 vidual prophecies, and the headings of the transpositions, 
 which show that he composed and arranged them, 12: 6. 
 (2.) In the fourth and fifth years of Jehoiakim, 36 : 2-32, he 
 reduced to writing what had been given him. He was again 
 told, 30 : 2, to write. That the prophetical book could not 
 have been produced at the time is evident from the fact 
 that these are productions after that time, and formulas of 
 transition. The arrangement topical, hinted 27 : 12. Not 
 written piecemeal in the course of his ministry, but a con- 
 tinuous composition prepared at its close. 1. Prophecies 
 of different periods put together, those of the same period 
 dispersed. 2. Prophecies accompanied by remarks made 
 at a later period, 25 : 1. 3. Allusions to succeeding por- 
 tions of the book. 4. Systematic disposition of the matter. 
 
92 
 
 Analysis of Jeremiah. — Three sections with a historical 
 appendix, ch. 52. I. chs. 1-33, Prediction of the judg- 
 ment and the restoration. II. chs. 34-45, History of the 
 judgment. III. chs. 46-51, Predictions respecting foreign 
 nations. First section subdivided. A. chs. 1-20, General 
 denunciation of Judah. B. chs. 21-23, Civil and religious 
 leaders. C. chs. 24-29, Design and duration of the judg- 
 ment. I), chs. 30-33, Blessing which would follow. 
 Threatening preponderates, but a few words of promise in 
 each division till the last. In A. not separate discourses, 
 but continuous treatment of one theme; no date except 
 3 : 6. Second section. A. chs. 34-38, Evidences of ripe- 
 ness for judgment. B. ch. 39, Destruction of the city. C. 
 chs. 40-45, Fortunes of the remnant. No promise to the 
 people, only one in each division to individuals, the Rechab- 
 ites, 35: 18, 19; Ebed-melech, 39 : 15-18 ; Baruch, ch. 45. 
 
 Contents of Jeremiah. — There is a larger number of sym- 
 bols than in any previous prophet. The symbols are of 
 three kinds. 
 
 Symbolic Visions. — Two occur in ch. 1 in connection 
 with the call of the prophet and signify the character of 
 his ministry, (a) 1 : 11, 12. " The rod ol an almond 
 tree," which God says means that he will hasten his word 
 to perform it. It comes from a root meaning " to be 
 awake." Thus God was about to waken to judgment. (6) 
 1 : 13, 14. " A seething pot and the face thereof is toward 
 the north," which God says means that out of the north an 
 evil shall break forth upon all the inhabitants of the land, 
 i. e. Babylon and its various sub-kingdoms were to desolate 
 the land ; these always entered Judah from the north, (c) 
 24 : 1-3, " two baskets of figs . . . one basket had 
 very good figs even like the figs that are first ripe ; and 
 the other basket had very naughty figs, which could not be 
 eaten they- were so bad." The good figs represented those 
 that had just been carried away captive by Neb., for the 
 captivity was to result in their good ; and the evil figs rep- 
 resented those who remained in Judea under Zedekiah, for 
 they were to suffer for worse evils, (d) 25: 15, 16. A 
 wine cup of which Jerusalem and all the nations were to 
 drink — the fury of God in his judgment from which the 
 nations were to be, as it were, intoxicated. This symbol 
 is used by other prophets, and by Jeremiah elsewhere. 
 
 Symbolic Actions. — (a) Ch. 13 : 1-11. The prophet is 
 directed to take a girdle and put it on his loins, After- 
 
93 
 
 wards to hide it in a rock by the Euphrates. Then com- 
 manded to take it out and he finds it all spoiled. Explana- 
 tion : Judah was bound to the Lord as a peculiar people, 
 but they rebelled and now their pride was to be broken by 
 the captivity, (b) 18 : 1-6. The prophet was directed to 
 go down to the potter's house, when he saw the potter make 
 one vessel out of the clay, and that proving defective he 
 made another. God could do with Israel as he pleased. 
 (c) 19 : 1-13. The prophet was directed to take an earthen 
 bottle and break it to pieces in the valley of Hinnom in 
 sight of people and priests. Exp. — Judah was to be utterly 
 destroyed, (d) 27 : 1-11, 12-22 ; 28 : 1-14. The prophet 
 is directed to take yokes of wood and put them on his neck 
 and send them to various nations. This is repeated in the 
 reign of Zedekiah. Hananiah, a false prophet, breaks the 
 yoke, wiiereupon the prophet is directed to make iron 
 yokes and repeat the action. Exp. — Judah and these nations 
 were to be brought under the rule of Babylon, (e) 32 : 
 6-15. The prophet is directed to purchase the field offered 
 to him by his uncle's son, which he does, weighing out 17 
 shekels of silver, subscribing the evidence and sealing it in 
 the presence of witnesses and recording the evidence of 
 the purchase and putting all the papers in an earthen 
 vessel. Exp. — Judah should be restored and reinherit her 
 own land. (/) 35. The prophet is directed to set wine 
 before the Rechabites, which he does, but they refuse to 
 drink because of their father's command. Exp. — They re- 
 garded the command of their ancestor, though Judah did 
 not recognize command of God and in consequence they 
 were to be blessed and Judah punished, (g) 43 : 8-10. 
 The prophet is directed to take great stones and to hide 
 them in the clay in the brick-kiln, which is in Tahpanhes, 
 in sight of the men of Judah. Exp. — Nebuchadnezzar 
 should firmly establish his throne in Egypt and completely 
 conquer the land, (h) 51 : 59-64. The prophet wrote in a 
 book all the evil that was to come upon Babylon, and gave 
 it to Seraiah who went into captivity along with Zedekiah 
 and commanded him to read all that was written in it when 
 he came to Babylon. After he had read it he should bind 
 a stone to it and cast it into the Euphrates. Exp. — Babylon 
 should be utterly destroyed. 
 
 Symbolic Names. — Passur, who persecuted the prophet 
 and prophesied falsely, is called Magor-missabib. Fear 
 roundabout. 20:1-6. Exp.— Refers to the terror and des- 
 
94 
 
 olation to come upon him and the nation by the Babylon- 
 ish captivity. Other names. Shallum, 22: 11; Coniah, 
 22 : 24 ; new application of Jehoiakim and Zedekiah, 23 : 
 5, 6 ; Sheshach 25 : 26. Merathaim, Pekod, 50 : 21. 
 
 ^ I. A. Ch. 1. introductory, describes character of his 
 ministry, first literally, then symbolically, in two visions. 
 Chs. 2-20, divided by headings into three parts. (1.) Chs. 
 1-6 argument of doom, (a) 2 : 1 ; 3 : 5 Judah guilty of 
 forsaking Jehovah, (b) 3: 6; 4: 2 Judah worse than 
 Israel. 3 : 14 Judah shall be brought back to Zion, and 
 God will recognize His marriage relation to them on con- 
 dition of their returning to Him. This will be fulfilled not 
 in the return of the entire body, but even to single indi- 
 viduals. Instead of the the foreign oppressors under whose 
 sway they were, 3 : 15, they shall have pastors like David. 
 1 Sam. 3 : 14 ; Jer. 3 : 16. (c) 4 : 3 ; 6 : 20, Judah to be 
 visited by desolation and exile. (2.) Mi. 7 : 13, Judah's 
 covenant privileges could not save him. The ark of the 
 covenant was to be destroyed even though Judah was re- 
 lying upon it. God will reveal Himself to the pious among 
 the people, in such a way as they had not experienced be- 
 fore. The whole city of God's people will be made what 
 the ark had been before, v. 17. All nations would be 
 gathered to Jerusalem. The promises of Jeremiah are 
 substantially a repetition of those of Hosea and Amos. 
 There are some differences however, (a) In Jeremiah there 
 is an enlargement of God's grace. The condition of prom- 
 ise is more individual, (b) The announcement of Judah's 
 fan is made with more distinctness, because the time of the 
 evil was so much nearer. The speaking of the ark of the 
 covenant as being taken away and destroyed implies a 
 change in the whole economy. The ark had given value 
 to the temple, and if that was gone, everything was lost, 
 unless a new order of things should come in to take its 
 place. A new dispensation here, and in ch. 31, was par- 
 ticularly appropriate because demolition was already about 
 to take place. The taking away of the ark is not under- 
 stood by those who think there will be a return to the 
 rituals of Judaism, for what will they be without the ark? 2 
 Chron. 35 : 3. The prophet then goes on to say that Judah 
 will be given into the hands of the heathen even as Israel 
 was. The temple would not save them, 7:4; nor their 
 sacrifices, 7 : 21; nor their possession of the law, 8 : 8; 
 nor the presence of God, 8 : 19 ; nor their circumcision, 9: 
 
95 
 
 25, 26. Jeremiah 12 : 14-17 contains a promise to the Gen- 
 tiles. God will return to them and bring them to His 
 heritage. The form of this promise gives us a hint as to 
 the literal method of interpretation. If this prophecy 
 does not and can not mean that the lineal descendants of 
 Babylon shall be built up again in their own land, then 
 why are we compelled to regard the promises in the case 
 of Israel as literally a return to their own land ? (3.) Chs. 
 14-20. Judah's doom terrible and inevitable. Yet there 
 is a promise of distant mercy in a form implying the nearer 
 judgment, 16 : 14, 15. 
 
 B. Chs. 21-23. The people having been sentenced, the 
 prophet turns to the leaders of the people upon whom the 
 guilt falls. He rebukes the kings of former days, and then 
 contrasts with them the future faithful shepherds, and espe- 
 cially Messiah. 
 
 C. Chs. 24-29. Purpose and duration of the exile de- 
 clared in the reign of Jehoiakim, " whom the Lord shall 
 raise up." The former Jehoiakim was only a parody of 
 the king who should come. Zedekiah, " the Lord our 
 righteousness." Here again the first is the mere parody of 
 the second. Jeremiah concludes the first sectiou of the 
 book with a series of promises. 
 
 D. Chs. 30-33. These four chapters are promissory of 
 blessings to follow the judgments ; as appears from title of 
 ch. 32. They are divided into two parts of two chapters 
 each. 
 
 (1.) Chs. 30-31. 1. Ch. 30. (a) To both branches of 
 the covenant people. (6) To the people separately. To 
 Israel, 31 : 1-21. To Judah, 31 : 22-30. The promise is 
 that they should be restored with David as their king. (2) 
 The promise is that God w T ill enter into a new and more 
 intimate covenant relation with them than formerly when 
 they came out of Egypt. And hence (31 : 31-34,) all shall 
 know the Lord. The covenant written upon stone shall be 
 engraved upon their hearts. The relation to the people 
 shall be indissoluble, fixed as the natural laws of God, 31 : 
 35-37. (3.) These three truths, (a) the restoration, (6) the 
 new intensity, (c) the perpetuity of the theocracy, having 
 been stated in literal terms (31 : 38-40), are again set forth 
 under a figure of the rebuilding of Jerusalem ; not only in 
 its former dimensions, but greatly enlarged. It shall be 
 rebuilt so as to extend over new territory outside, and for- 
 merly regarded as polluted, but now made sacred. Hill of 
 
96 
 
 Gareb, 31 : 39, the hill of the lepers, that profane spot out- 
 side of the city, where the lepers were banished. Goath 
 (31 : 39) : About the meaning of this there is a question. 
 Bat the derivation of the word will decide it. It may be 
 derived either from goah, to expire, or gaah, to groan. It is 
 probable that it denotes the place of the execution of crim- 
 inals. The temple is to include all these, and also, " the 
 whole valley of dead bodies ; " not the cemetery, but the 
 valley of Hinnom, which was a very unclean place, and the 
 image of hell. " And of the ashes." This place is the 
 spot to which the ashes from the temple sacrifices were 
 carried out of the city. " And all the fields unto the Brook 
 of Kedron." These fields Josiah had defiled by strewing 
 the ashes of the idolatrous vessels which had been burned 
 upon the grass of the worshippers of the false gods, Baal 
 and Astarte, 2 Kings 22 : 24-26. All these places were 
 profane, yet to be included within the limits of the restored 
 city, and to become holy to the Lord. Idolatry and pollu- 
 tion were not only not to come into the city, but the holi- 
 ness of the city should reach out and hallow even that 
 which before had been regarded as irretrievably unclean. 
 That these promises do not belong to the material Jerusa- 
 lem, nor to the natural Jerusalem as such, but to the spirit- 
 ual people of God, is apparent, (a) from inspired applica- 
 tion, Heb. 8:8; 10:15-17. (b) Also Jeremiah's words 
 elsewhere. God's promises not bound by nationality irre- 
 spective of character, 18 : 6-10 ; the true Israel preserved 
 in the faithful few notwithstanding the rejection of the un- 
 believing mass, 3:14; 24 : 4-10 ; and the building of 
 heathen in the midst of God's people, 12:6; when the 
 covenant of stone had been broken. God will put his law 
 in their inward parts and write it in their hearts, 31 : 33. 
 After the ark had been taken away (3 : 16), what is there to 
 give sacredness to Jerusalem, which is not possessed by 
 every other city which is spiritual ? Cf, John 4 : 21-23. 
 
 (2) Chs. 32-33. Promises by restoration repeated, re- 
 affirmed, and enforced by the symbol of the purchase of 
 the field of Anathoth, outside the city. This indicates the 
 certainty of a restoration. He then, in addition, gives : 
 1. Assurance of the perpetuity of royalty and priesthood 
 (33 : 17-18). The purpose of God in this matter is as fixed 
 as the succession of day and night. 2. The multiplica- 
 tion of those invested with royal and priestly dignity (33 : 
 22). Judah was on the point of being broken up and the 
 
97 
 
 temple destroyed, the throne of David cast down. But 
 Jeremiah would teach the people of God that these things 
 will not continue forever. A glorious future is before 
 them. The theocracy is not dissolved, but only interrupted, 
 to be restored again into a more glorious condition. The 
 promise (33 : 17, 18), is that David and the priesthood 
 should never lack successors. The marginal reading is the 
 true rendering. This secures from extirpation, but not 
 from temporary interruption. Cf. 2 Sam. 7 : 14-16 ; Ps. 
 89 : 29-37, with Jer. 33 : 22. These promises are fulfilled 
 in a threefold way. (a) In a partial fulfillment in Zerub- 
 babel, who, though not strictly king, exercised some regal 
 functions. (6) Further fulfilled in Christ, who is the seed 
 of David, [c) Finally in all the true people of God who 
 are all to be make kings and adopted into the house of 
 David. That this is intended appears from 33 : 22, where 
 the vast multiplication of the house of David is mentioned. 
 1. The perpetuity of the kingdom does not require such a 
 vast number of descendants. 2. Its fulfillment in the line 
 of natural seed is not only not verified by fact, but would 
 be preposterous and anything but a blessing. Therefore 
 the Septuagint dropped this passage. A reigning family 
 thus multiplied would be burdensome for the people to 
 support. 3. The language of the promise is in the precise 
 terms of that to Abraham. Therefore the entire family of 
 Abraham is merged in the house of David. 4. This was 
 the true idea of Israel, as the people of God. They were 
 (Ex. 19: 6) kings and priests. These functions for a time 
 were entrusted to individuals, but were to revert to the 
 people. 5. The 'N. T. teaches its fulfillment in all the peo- 
 ple of God, 1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1 : 6 ; 5 : 10. 
 
 Priesthood. — There is an analogous fulfillment with re- 
 spect to the priesthood. 1. Literal in the return from the 
 captivity. 2. Christ as perpetual priest. 3. All the true 
 people of God are priests, and are included in the family 
 of Levi. That this last is included appears not only from 
 the analogy of kingship but also because : 1. The thing 
 really contemplated in the promise is that the priesthood 
 should be perpetual. No stress was laid on its being in the 
 fleshly family of Levi. The point at issue was not the pre- 
 rogative of a tribe but the condition of the people. The 
 office should remain. 2. Jeremiah often intimates the abol- 
 ishment of the old economy, which implies a change of 
 outward form. The ark of the covenant (3 : 16) was to be 
 
98 
 
 taken away. This intimates the abolishment of the old 
 economy of which the ark was the great representative. 
 Ch. 31 : 1-2 says a new covenant was to supersede the old 
 covenant. 3. An older prophet speaks in like manner 
 (Isaiah 66: 21; 61: 6) of the entire people of God. 4. 
 From the providence of God. The priesthood of the tribe 
 of Levi has never been literally perpetuated, and could not 
 now be except by miracle, for all the tribal distinctions are 
 lost. If the prophecy of Jeremiah is to meet with any ful- 
 fillment at all, it must be spiritual. 5. Teachings of 1ST. T. 
 6. Even such a literalist as Henderson confesses this. " We 
 are shut up to the spiritual interpretation of this passage." 
 
 II. Chs. 34-45. A. 34-48, tacts adduced as specimens 
 and evidences of the prevailing corruption. Hebrew ser- 
 vants, ch. 34. Rechabites, ch. 35, Jehoiakim, ch. 36, Zede- 
 kiah, chs. 37, 38. B. ch. 39, Destruction of city. C. chs. 
 40-45. The wretched remnant, closing with personal promise 
 to Baruch. 
 
 III. Chs. 46-51. Probably in chronological order. 
 Promises to Egypt, Moab, Amnion and Elam ; none to 
 Babylon, 51 : 65. Ch. 52, historical appendix, perhaps 
 added by another. (1.) Jer. 51 : 64. (2.) Similar narra- 
 tive in ch. 39. (3.) Date of 52 : 31-34, twenty-six years 
 after the destruction of the city. (4.) Coincidence with 2 
 Kings. Contains no mention of return from exile. Jere- 
 miah's adoption of language of preceding books, especially 
 ch. 48, Moab ; 49 : 7, etc., Edom ; affords incidental proof 
 of their genuineness; variations not arise from corruption 
 of text. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS. 
 
 One of the five Megilloth, in Hagiographa or after Jere- 
 miah, catalogues of canon. Hebrew, Greek and Latin 
 names. Xot composed with reference to death of Josiah, 
 2 Chron. 35 : 25, nor on occasion of his death with fore- 
 sight of destruction of city, but on occurrence of this latter 
 event. Five sections of one chapter each ; all alphabetical 
 but the last ; ch. 3, triple recurrence of each letter ; chs. 
 2, 3, 4, transposition of Ayin and Pe. Not distinct elegies 
 relating to successive states of Jerusalem's overthrow. 
 
99 
 
 Written by Jeremiah, (a) unanimous voice of tradition, 
 verse prefixed in Septuagmt and Vulgate, Josephus, Origen, 
 Jerome, Talmud, (6) correspondence with character of 
 prophet, coincidences of statement of facts and forms of 
 expression, (c) no ground for disputing it. 
 
 HABAKKUK. 
 
 Of the present and personal circumstances of the prophet 
 we know nothing except from his book. It is inferred from 
 3 : 19, his last words, that he was of the tribe of Levi, and 
 one of the family engaged in sacred music of the temple. 
 This is plausible, and if true, it gives a real explanation of 
 the close resemblance of ch. 3 to the Psalms, and the adop- 
 tion there of so many technical terms which belong to the 
 Psalms. The title of ch. 3, and the subscription are both 
 modeled after the Psalms. Selah occurs three times ; and 
 the last verse is almost verbatim from the Psalms. If this 
 be held, it would be another instance of prophets taken 
 from the temple servitors. Jeremiah, Zechariah, and 
 Ezekiel were priests. While the prophets of the former 
 period were independent of the sacred orders, in this de- 
 generate age the fittest material was found among the 
 priests. 
 
 The date of the prophet is inferred from, 1. That the in- 
 vasion of the Chaldeans would be in the lifetime of that 
 generation, 1 : 5, 6. Hence not in the reign of Josiah. 2. 
 Chap. 2 : 20 implies that the temple was standing. Musi- 
 cal worship still continued in the temple (3 : 19). "This was 
 probably after the twelfth year of Josiah's reign. Hence 
 Habakkuk was a contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah, 
 and not more than 24 years before the invasion of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. 3. The order of minor prophets Some try 
 to fix the date more exactly, by comparing it with Jeremiah 
 and Zephaniah. Thus, it is said, that as'jeremiah is much 
 more specific as to the Babylonian conquest, while Habak- 
 kuk mentions only the bare fact, therefore Habakkuk was 
 before Jeremiah. This is sometimes the case, but not al- 
 ways, and therefore cannot be made the basis of argument. 
 Sometimes it is reversed, L </., Isaiah prophesied the over- 
 throw of Babylon more minutely than did Habakkuk. 
 Again, there are passages in which Jeremiah and Zephan- 
 
100 
 
 iah have borrowed the language of Habakkuk. Yet while 
 this is probably true, the argument as to priority is ques- 
 tionable, because it can be so easily reversed. The design 
 is both minatory and consolatory. Minatory to chastise 
 sinners in Judah ; consolatory to comfort the pious. As 
 to the prophecy of the overthrow of Babylon, observe : I. 
 Its dramatic power. First he speaks to God for the people. 
 Then God answers. Then the prophet speaks for himself. 
 Then God speaks to the prophet. Finally he gives utter- 
 ance to his prophecies of joy. What is peculiar is this reg- 
 ular alternation from beginning to end, and is an index of 
 the psychological condition of the prophet. He is in a 
 rapt, ecstatic state, and the form of the prophecy reprodu- 
 ces his own states of mind ; and the dramatism is not merely 
 a form, or due to fancy, but is what really took place, like 
 the visions of other prophets. The prophet is not an artist, 
 but a seer. But this ecstacy does not supersede his natural 
 faculties, but lifts them to a higher sphere. The fact is, 
 the prophetical inspiration has its analogy with spiritual 
 illumination. A real supernatural communication is made 
 ab extra. Yet the extraordinary method attaches itself to 
 the ordinary methods used by the Holy Spirit. The facts 
 revealed are not absolutely new truths. The unknown is 
 imparted as limited with what was previously understood, 
 and a sense of need is created which demands the new 
 truth ; and thus God revealed His purpose that the land 
 should be ravaged by the Chaldeans, and they in turn 
 overthrown. But this was disclosed as part of the spiritual 
 training of the people, and hence given in their moral 
 senses and relations. Judah was very corrupt. Fraud and 
 impiety were unchecked. God's law was disregarded. 
 Shocked by this, and personal wrongs, the pious, through 
 Habakkuk, appeal to God if He will longer tolerate it. 
 They are in extremity and look up to God. Then the an- 
 swer comes in a revelation adapted to this state of need. 
 God will punish by the Chaldeans. But with this come 
 fresh doubts and difficulties. The fear lest the fierce Chal- 
 deans should involve in punishment the good and bad to- 
 gether. Hence they appeal to God again ; and plant them- 
 selves upon His attributes and covenant relations. They 
 cling to the conviction that the Chaldean invasion was for 
 correction and not for destruction. They appeal to God 
 as governor of the world. Thus the new complexities of 
 Providence demand fresh solutions, and the prophet waits 
 
101 
 
 the answer. It then comes. The Chaldeans themselves 
 shall be trodden down, and the people abide the retribution 
 of Jehovah. And hence the people of God are prepared 
 for vengeance in the same way in which they are ever pre- 
 pared for new supplies of grace. But while this is true, 
 we must not confound the two methods. Here there is a 
 real disclosure of truth. The prophet does not infer a 
 judgment on themselves and upon the Chaldeans, and then 
 announce these results ; but he had a divine revelation 
 necessitating his belief. We have the same general provi- 
 dence to guide us, but we can not so supply it as to make 
 it reveal the future. Hence there was a real revelation, and 
 not a mere inference; which would be conjectural, delu- 
 sive, and unfulfilled. Still less is it a vaticinium post ecen- 
 tum. Nor is it a declaration of what was so near as to be 
 within the power of human foresight. On the contrary 
 the prophets declare that they would not believe it though 
 it were told them. And the fact of the overthrow of Baby- 
 lon could not be calculated upon. Hence the future is dis- 
 closed, not as mere disjointed facts, but as the laying bare 
 of the links which bound the future to the present. Thi3 
 la}^ the foundation of the propheticum curriculum a common 
 track which all pursue. They proceed from a charge of sin 
 to its penalty. And if in reference to God's people, they 
 proceed to fact of deliverance. Observe these especially in 
 Habakkuk. He begins with the sins in Judah ; passes to 
 their punishment by the Chaldeans; and then to the over- 
 throw of Babylon. While it is a revelation it is not merely 
 an anticipation of history. The prophet is true in repre- 
 senting the future ; yet the prophet so surveys it from his 
 own view that it is good evidence that it is prophetical and 
 not historical. Hence it is written from the prophet's own 
 historical standpoint, and by its structure indicates its own 
 prophetic truth. 
 
 Duisious of the Book. — The first complaint, 1 : 2-4. The 
 Lord's response, 1 : 5-11. The second complaint, 1 : 12 ; 
 2 : 1. The Lord's response, 2 : 2-20. The triumph, ch. 
 3. The injustice and oppression in Judah to be punished 
 by the Chaldeans, and the Chaldeans to be punished by 
 their overthrow. The burden, 2 : 4-20, consisting of a 
 brief preamble and five woes in successive stanzas. Mes- 
 sianic passage in the third. Ch. 3 a lyrical recapitulation, 
 resemblance to the Psalms in style, artistic form, title, sub- 
 scriptions and Selah. Applied by the fathers to the advent 
 
102 
 
 and work of Christ. Bengel's chronological hypothesis, v 
 2; vs. 8-15 not historical; (a) diversity in the explanation 
 of details ; (b) disproportionate length ; (c) tense of open- 
 ing verb, v. 3 (Hebrew). Prophetic of a divine descent to 
 judgment, which is to include whatever was most grand in 
 former manifestations of God, directed against the Chal- 
 deans and all other foes. Convulsions of nature poetic and 
 emblematic or suggestive of the final judgment. 
 
 ZEPHANIAH. 
 
 Habakkuk describes judgment on Chaldeans ; Zepha- 
 niah a universal judgment, in which, however, no allusion 
 is made to the Chaldeans, who are viewed, not as objects, 
 but as executioners of God's wrath. It has special refer- 
 ence to the unfaithful in Judah, and inferior contiguous 
 nations, from whose fate, as in Amos, an argument of 
 Judah's doom is derived, 3 : 6-8. Zephaniah and Jeremiah 
 more frequent allusions to former Scriptures than Habak- 
 kuk. Zephaniah 's ancestry traced through four degrees, 
 to Hezekiah, probably the king, (a) identity of name ; (6) 
 traced to so remote an ancestor ; (c) correspondence with 
 the date. Objections that he is not explicitly called king, 
 and that no such son of king Hezekiah is mentioned in the 
 history. Date, 1 : 1, probably after Josiah's twelfth year. 
 Other criteria inconclusive ; 2 : 13, predicted desolation of 
 Nineveh ; 1:4," remnant of Baal," cutting off Chemarim ; 
 1:8," the king's children ; " 3:4," the law." Ch. 1, uni- 
 versal and sweeping judgment, with particular application 
 to the wicked in Judah, vs. 4-13; exhortation to seek the 
 Lord as the only means of escape 2 : 1-3 ; enforced by 
 judgments on other nations, exhibited in three stanzas, of 
 four verses each, Philistia in the west. Moab and Ammon 
 in the east, Ethiopia and Assyria in the south and north. 
 In the middle stanza, Messianic allusion, as in Habakkuk. 
 Application to Jerusalem, 3 : 1-8. Promissory conclusion, 
 vs. 9-20. The heathen shall possess a pure language, and 
 take part in the restoration of God's people. Purity and 
 blessedness of Israel. 
 
103 
 PERIOD OF THE EXILE. 
 
 The course of degeneracy was now violently terminated. 
 It was followed by a period of seclusion and trial. In 
 order to effect the best results in this process, they were, 
 first, to be sifted, the best carried away, the worst left to 
 perish in Jerusalem. The good figs indicate those carried 
 into exile. The sifting was performed : 1. By the over- 
 ruling providence of God; 2. Natural causes. The Lord 
 had told the people by Jeremiah what was to come. Those 
 who believed the prophecy would be submissive, (a) to the 
 disposition of the people ; (b) to the intentions of the Chal- 
 deans. 
 
 Two things were needed in this period. 1. Influence 
 upon the people themselves ; 2. Influence upon the op- 
 pressors in behalf of the people. The former was exerted 
 by Ezekiel ; the latter by Daniel. Ezekiel dwelt among 
 the exiles for their instruction, comfort and elevation. 
 Daniel lived at the court of Babylon to protect the interests 
 of the people, and to consult for their welfare as Joseph 
 did before Pharoah. Hence Daniel is placed in the Hagio- 
 grapha. The work needed was of two kinds, according to 
 the period. The first part of the exile was a transition 
 period, during which there was the mere shadow of a king- 
 dom. The exile began in the fourth year of Jehoiakim. 
 This portion of the period of the exile, therefore, overlaps 
 the former, the Chaldean. Ezekiel, therefore, was living 
 contemporaneous with Jeremiah. His ministry was fitted 
 to the period. As long as Jerusalem still stood, the false 
 prophets indulged presumptuous hopes ; and hindered the 
 growth of that humility and penitence which the captivity 
 was designed to produce. Hence his discourses were de- 
 nunciatory, and full of warning, during this time. After 
 the city had actually been destroyed, a ministry of conso- 
 lation was needed to preserve the people from utter despair. 
 Up to the fall of Jerusalem his ministiw was like that of 
 Jeremiah, but afterwards it entirely changed. 
 
 Ezekiel and Daniel. — (a) Ezekiel was to build up the 
 theocracy from within, Daniel was to exhibit the kingdom 
 of God in its conflict with, and victory over, the enemies 
 of God. Both use figures, (b) Ezekiel draws his symbols 
 maninly from the sanctuary with which his position as priest 
 made him familiar. Daniel draws from other sources, (c) 
 There is the same variety in Messianic predictions. Ezekiel 
 
104 
 
 sometimes sets them forth from a priestly point of view. 
 Daniel exhibits it as the universal and unending empire of 
 the Son of Man. These prophets note the exact time in 
 which their prophecies were recorded, and sometimes the 
 very month. Ezekiel, 24 : 1-2, tells the fact of the siege 
 of Jerusalem the very day it began. The exile was the 
 conclusion of God's dealings with the Jews. The prophets 
 preceding the exile were limited to the judgments wrought 
 by or upon Babylon. Now they pass from "the Babylonish 
 exile to the future troubles of Israel, and the succession of 
 empire, until the Messiah, and the conversion of the world. 
 When the exile was at hand, it was necessary to prepare 
 the people for coming events, lest they should suppose that, 
 with the exile, all was lost. This opinion it was necessary 
 to correct, by showing that a long period must intervene, 
 succession of empires, and times of trouble come, before the 
 advent of the Messiah. 
 
 EZEKIEL. 
 
 Fewer details are given of Ezekiel than of Daniel. His 
 work was spiritual, and the events of his life had no special 
 effect upon his work. The record of his life is found in his 
 prophecy. 
 
 Name. — "One whose God strengthens him." He was 
 carried captive eight years after Daniel with Jehoiachin. 
 His ministry began (ch. 1 : 1) in the fifth year of Jehoia- 
 chin 's captivity, (this event dated from rather than Zede- 
 kiah's reign), the year after Jeremiah's message, Jer. 51 : 
 59, in the thirtieth year of his age, JSTum. 4:3. During 
 the early portions of his ministry, he was a contemporary 
 of Jeremiah thirty years. This was not from the first year 
 of Nabopolassar, nor from the last jubilee, nor the eigh- 
 teenth year of Josiah. 1. There is no proof that these were 
 eras. 2. There is no other date reckoned from them. 3. 
 If intended they would have been mentioned. 
 
 Scene of Labors. — 3 : 15, at Tel-abib, by the Chebar, same 
 as Habor/2 Kings 17: 6. Marriage, 24: 18. 
 
 Duration of Ministry. — Uncertain. 29 : 17, is the latest 
 date of the book, the twenty-seventh year of Jehoiachin's 
 captivity. The people were hopeful and yet rebellious. 
 
105 
 
 But the effect of his labors was shown by : 1. Frequent 
 consultation by elders and others, 8 : I ; 14 : 1. 2 Free- 
 dom in uttering his reproofs ; 3. Moral changes effected dur- 
 ing the exile. His Hebrew has more anomalies and foreign 
 forms than that of Daniel, who was both Hebrew and 
 Chaldee. This corruption is first found in Jeremiah. It 
 was natural that the change of language should affect the 
 dialect of the people. 
 
 Divisions of the Book. — I. Before the capture of Jerusa- 
 lem, chs. 1-24, denunciatory. II. Respecting foreign 
 nations, chs. 25-32. III. After the capture of Jerusalem,, 
 chs. 33-48, promissory. Opening vision, 1:1; 3 : 15, like 
 Isa. 6 and Rev. 4, based on cherubim over the ark. De- 
 sign not merely to make an impression of majesty and 
 gloiw but as preparation for this specific message. The- 
 Mosaic symbol its general signification. The God of crea- 
 tion and of temple present in profane land of captivity, and 
 about to make a communication to the prophet. Modifica- 
 cations, its particular application; (a) life and swiftness; 
 (b) fire, wrath, qualified b} r rainbow of the covenant. Ver- 
 bal commission and symbol of roll, 2:9; 3 : 3, cf. Rev. 10 : 
 9. After seven daj^s, connected prophecy to end of ch. 7: 
 Responsibilities of his office, four symbolic actions followed 
 by denunciation in literal terms ; («) tile, besieged city ; 
 warfare ; (//) lie bound 390 and 40 clays. Literal perform- 
 ance physically impossible, out of proportion to the end, 
 weaken the impression, chronological difficulty. Not rep- 
 resent days of siege, with which they do not correspond, 
 and the days stand for years, 4 : 6, either of sin or punish- 
 ment ; how reckoned, (c) bread, (d) hair. Chs. 8-11, one 
 year later. Presumption of inhabitants of Jerusalem ; effect 
 on exiles. 1. The crimes of Jerusalem and its certain de- 
 struction, 8:1; 11 : 13. 2. The exiles are God's true cove- 
 nant people, 11 : 14-21. Profanation of temple, not per- 
 haps actual, scenes of single idolatrous festival, or various- 
 forms of idolatry gathered there, but ideal concentration. 
 (a) Lev. 16 : 16-19 : (6) Ex. 20 : 3 ; (c) temple was Judah's 
 place of worship ; (d) justified by actual profanation at dif- 
 ferent times. Image of jealousy, chamber of imagery, 
 Jaazaniah, Tammuz, five and twenty men. Six men with 
 the man in linen. Five and twenty men at the east gate, 
 Pelatiah, son of Benaiah. Promises to exiles, (a) God will 
 be a sanctuary to them, 11 : 16 ; (b) bring them back to 
 land of Israel, v. 17 ; (c) give them a new heart, v. 19. 
 
106 
 
 Glory of God forsakes the temple. Denunciations contin- 
 ued until the day that Jerusalem is besieged, ch. 24. Seven 
 foreign nations, chs. 25-32. Amnion, Moab, Edom, Phil- 
 istia, Tyre, Zidon, Egypt. Promises : I. Deliverance from 
 foes, chs. 33-39. II. Restoration of the theocracy, chs. 40- 
 48. I. Evening preceding news of fall of city, second 
 formal call of prophet, ch. 33 ; deliverance from wicked 
 rulers, David their shepherd, ch. 34 ; from present foes, 
 Edom denounced, contrasted blessedness of Israel, valley of 
 dry bones, union of the two sticks, chs. 35-37 ; from future 
 foes, Gog and Magog, chs. 38, 39. II. Fourteenth year 
 after the city was smitten, 1st month and 10th day. 
 
 Different Opinions. — 1. Historical, of what had been. 2. 
 Mandatory, for the direction of the exiles. 3. Prophetic. 
 It can not be literal. 1. Historical, for (a) it did not cor- 
 respond with what had been ; (b) unnecessary if it referred 
 to the past ; (c) the language prevents such reference. 2. 
 It is not mandatory, because the exiles did not follow the 
 commands. 3. It can not be prophetic, for this would be 
 contrary to the declarations of N. T. and the intimations of 
 O. T. If prophetic, it would predict the return of the 
 Christian church to Jewish forms, but the Jewish ritual is 
 abolished by the sacrifice of Christ and the providence of 
 God. It is symbolic and ideal, for : 1. The original temple 
 was symbolical : made use of symbolically by Ezekiel else- 
 where, Jer. 31 : 38-40. 2 It yields a good and proper 
 sense. 3. There are many things in the vision which could 
 not be carried out literally, e. g., the size of Jerusalem and 
 the temple ; the stream proceeding from the temple and 
 healing the nations. 4. It is like Rev. 21 : 22. In fact 
 Rev. seems to be a commentary on this passage. Rev. is 
 symbolic. 
 
 II. 40-48, This last vision was at the beginning of the 
 year (40 : 1). These chapters contain 1. Description of the 
 temple. 2. Ritual service in the temple ; 3. final appor- 
 tionment of the land. Some take literal views, others 
 regard the temple as ideal. 
 
 This section is divided : (1.) 40-43 : 12, Measure of the 
 temple. The church of God is to be re-established on the 
 earth. Ezekiel's temple in the vision differs from Solo- 
 mon's real temple, (a) in dimensions, which are enlarged, 
 (b) Ezekiel gives more prominence to subordinate facts. 
 Nothing is left to the choice or direction of the builders. 
 He gives a great deal of time to the gates, the doors, the 
 
107 
 
 courts, etc. These interior parts have a new and sacred 
 importance connected with them. The court is exalted to 
 a sacred pre-eminence corresponding to the Holy of Holies 
 in Solomon's temple, 43 : 1. In the new temple the glory 
 of God is never to depart. In the old it did, 11 : 23. (2.) 
 43: 13; 47 : 12. This division gives a description of the 
 holy service. Priests, people and rulers should all he 
 united in the worship, 47 : 1-12. The trees by the stream 
 of life remind us of Paradise. To represent the blessings 
 brought by this stream it is spoken of as flowing to dead 
 localities, even to the Dead Sea, which shall be purified, the 
 Dead Sea being the symbol of all that is vile and lifeless. 
 Even this shall be vitalized and beautified by this stream of 
 life. The only places not reclaimed are those not reached 
 by this stream. (3.) 47 : 13 ; 48 : 35. Concluding Por- 
 tion, Division of the laud among the twelve tribes. Two 
 points of difference from the real division, (a) Unifor- 
 mity of division. All have an equal portion from W. to 
 E., and all are on the W. side of the Jordan. No tribe is 
 preferred above another, 47 : 22, 23 ; Rev. 7 : 5-8. It is 
 even said that strangers dwelling among them shall have 
 equal privileges, (b) Ezekiel's division leaves nothing to 
 the decision of men, but all fixed by God. We can not 
 conclude that the Christian church is ever to return to 
 Judaic forms. This last portion shows how 0. T. forms 
 may set forth N. T. things. 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 The name signifies " God's judge," i. c, " one who de- 
 livers God's judgments." According to 1 : 1, Daniel was 
 of the tribe of Judah, and of princely descent. He was 
 carried away in the first deportation by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 eight years before Ezekiel. Carried away at the beginning 
 of the exile, he survived its close, but did not return, proba- 
 bly because of advanced age. He was a favorite of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar on account of his wisdom and supernatural 
 endowments, which are referred to by Ezekiel, chs. 14 : 14 ; 
 28 : 3. He was set aside by Belshazzar, and reinstated by 
 Darius. The ministry of Daniel was mainly external, in 
 reference to the kingdoms of this world in conflict with the 
 kingdom and people of God. 
 
108 
 
 Divisions of the Book. — 1 : 1-6. Personal history of 
 Daniel and his friends, historical. 2 : 7-12. National, 
 prophetical visions. The book does not profess to be a 
 history of the exile, or a conneeted biography of Daniel, 
 but a series of pictures of exile life. 2:4; 7 : 28, is in 
 Chaldee ; the rest of the book is in Hebrew. The number 
 and greatness of its miracles mark it out as a special object 
 of hostility to skeptics. Celsus and Porphyry, English 
 deists and German rationalists, have attacked it, and the 
 book has been referred to the time of the Maccabees. The 
 best treatise in reply to the following objections is Heng- 
 stenberg's " Authenticity of Daniel." 
 
 Objections. 1. Greek words : (a) their number exagger- 
 ated ; (6) readily accounted for ; (<?) like charge against still 
 older books of Bible ; (d) abandoned as untenable. 2. 
 Position in canon. (//) Division of canon not chronological ; 
 (6) Jewish tradition ; (c) accounts for nothing, true explan- 
 ation. 3. Needless multiplication of miracles. But (a) 
 needed by people; (b) prepared the way for their restora- 
 tion ; (c) present effect on the heathen ; ((/) future consola- 
 tion. 4. Definite dates and minute details of the prophe- 
 cies, (a) Natural istic views ; (b) explicitness of other 
 prophecies, 70 years' captivity, 65 years Ephraim, 3 years 
 Moab, 15 years Hezekiah, fall of Babylon, Zechariah 9 : 
 13, same conflict with kingdom of Greece ; (c) provide for 
 the future wants of the people. 5. Definite predictions 
 only to death of Antiochus ; (a) like limitation in other 
 prophecies, Jacob, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah ; 
 (b) date of Messiah's advent, rise of Roman empire. 6. 
 Self-laudation, but (a) so Moses, Paul ; (b) impartiality of 
 sacred writers ; (e) Daniel relates facts or repeats words of 
 others. Proofs, of genuineness. 1. Purports to have been 
 written by Daniel ; 1st person in second part, and unity of 
 the whole shown by consistent plan, like expressions, recip- 
 rocal allusions, change of language; can neither be fiction 
 nor fraud. 2. Canon closed in time of Ezra and Neherniah. 
 3. Our Lord Son of Man, kingdom of heaven, Mat. 24 r 
 15, 30; 26 : 64; John 5 : 28, 29; Apostles Heb. 11 : 33, 
 34; 1 Cor. 6 : 2; 2 Thes. 2:3; 1 Pet. 1 : 10-12, Revela- 
 tion. 4. Josephus, 1 Mace, Greek version. 5. Character 
 of the Hebrew, of the Chaldee, use of both languages as 
 in Ezra. 6. Acquaintance with the history, shewn in 
 character of Daniel, Nebuchadnezzar, Darius, Belshazzar, 
 no error in dates, Nebuchadnezzar's adorning Babylon, 
 
109 
 
 prophetic dream, insanity, circumstances of Babylon's 
 capture, Darius the Mede, 120 princes, Medes and Persians^ 
 Persians and Medes. 7. Knowledge of customs ; land of 
 Shinar, 3 : 2, fed from king's table, changing names of 
 Daniel and his companions, years of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 reign, punishments, collossal image, music, women at enter- 
 tainments, gold chain, king's edicts immutable, the magi. 
 9. Abundance of symbols as in Ezekiel ; book inconsistent 
 with assumed Maccabean origin. 
 
 Prophecies. — The disclosures in the second and seventh 
 chapters are parallel. The second chapter has Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's dream — four empires, Babylon, Medo-Persia, 
 Macedon, Rome. The seventh chapter contains the vision 
 of the four beasts=the same four empires. The lion with 
 eagle's wings=Babylon. The bear with three ribs=the 
 Medo-Persian ; greedily revenous propensity. The leopard 
 with four wings and four heads^the Macedonian Empire, 
 portioned into Svria, Egypt, Thrace and Macedon. A non- 
 descript animal with ten horns and a little horn=the Roman 
 empire, whose attack no animal is fierce enough to 
 withstand. Ten horns indicate ten successive kings, and 
 the little horn=Antichrist. St. John sees only one beast, 
 which represents all Daniel's beasts in one. The seven 
 heads of John's beast represent the seven empires in which 
 one ungodly power was embodied. The Apostle says five 
 had already existed, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Syria, 
 Macedon. The one standing in Rome. Another is yet to 
 come. The intrepretation so depends on historical facts 
 that all orthodox writers agree as to its meaning, Skep- 
 tics have invented other meanings for symbols. They are, 
 1. To divide the Medo-Persian empire into two. But (a) 
 this was only one. Media and Persia was the same empire. 
 Persians were confederated with the Medes, the only 
 change being that of the reigning family. (6) It is always 
 thus spoken bv of profane and sacred writers; Esther; 
 Daniel 5 : 28 ; 6 : 8 ; 12 : 15. (c) The skeptics make the 
 leopard represent the Persian empire ; but the leopard has 
 four heads, and Persian empire was not so divided. 2. 
 To divide the Macedonian empire into two, Babylonian, and 
 Medo-Persian, the Macedonian empire of Alexander, and 
 those of his successors being made separate. But (a) the 
 leopard with four heads represents the empire broken into 
 four parts, (b) The fourth empire is stronger and more 
 terrible than its predecessors, cf. 8 : 22 ; 11 : 4. (e) Then 
 
110 
 
 no explanation would be given of the ten horns. 
 
 Chs. 8-12 are supplementary. In chap. 8, the ram= 
 Syria. The he-goat=the Macedonian empire. The horn 
 between his eyes=Alexander the Great. The four horns 
 springing up=Syria, Egypt, Thrace, Macedon, into which 
 the empire was divided at Alexander's death. Out of the 
 Syrian kingdom grew a little horn which waxed greater. 
 This was Antiochus Epiphanes who was monarch of the 
 kingdom, the persecutor of the Jews. 
 
 Ch. 9, revealed in the first year of Darius the Mede, 
 which is the 69th year of the captivity. The prophet was 
 praying for the restoration of the people when further, full 
 disclosures were made to him. It might be supposed that 
 immediately, at the expiration of the captivity, the king- 
 dom of the Messiah would come. But the angel tells the 
 prophet that the seventy weeks are about gone, but that 
 there are yet to come seventy more years to finish the trans- 
 gression by atonement. All relates to the work of Christ. 
 Within these seventy weeks of years, all these Messianic 
 functions shall be performed. This is made more precise 
 by dividing these seventy weeks into three periods of seven, 
 sixty- two and one weeks. He informs us from what point 
 of time the seventy weeks are to date, viz., the going forth 
 of the commandment to rebuild Jerusalem. This is not 
 the permission of Cyrus to return to their own land. Down 
 to the time of Nehemiah, the city was still in ruins, Neh. 
 2 : 3. The first effectual measures were taken by him, 
 after that he receive permission to rebuild, Neh. 2 : 5, 6, in 
 the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus. This is the 
 exact time from which the seventy weeks were to begin. 
 There is some difference among historians as to the length 
 of Artaxerxes' reign. Ilengstenberg goes into an elaborate 
 argument to show that the time of the prophecy was exact. 
 The entire resturation of the city would be accomplished 
 though in the midst of much trouble. After sixty-nine 
 weeks would be the Messiah's public appearance ; in the 
 midst of the last week. His effectual sacrifice, followed by 
 destruction of the city and sanctuary. What distinctly 
 belongs to the last week is shown in 9 : 27. 
 
 Chs. 10-12. The last vision of the book. In the third 
 year of Cyrus, Daniel was in mourning because of the 
 events in Ezek. 4 : 1-5. The subject of ch. 8 is here re- 
 sumed and dwelt upon in literal language. Prediction in 
 literal terms of the overthrow of the Persian empire by 
 
Ill 
 
 Alexander. Division of his empire at his death. Persecu- 
 tion of Antiochus set forth. As a relief from these dark 
 pictures he gives the brightness of the future, the resur- 
 rection and external glory. Reluctant testimony of skep- 
 tics to the truth of the prophecies. Apocryphal sections 
 are added in the Septuagint. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION. 
 
 The period of captivity is now over. The decree has 
 been procured from Cyrus that the Jews may return to 
 their own laud. Ezekiel has prepared the people inwardly 
 for their return, and for the establishment of the forms of 
 the theocracy. The people had been sifted at the close as 
 at the beginning of the exile. The work of Ezekiel and 
 Daniel had been amongst this better class. It was the bet- 
 ter and more pious people who would leave their houses 
 and return to Jerusalem to rebuild that desolated city. 
 Returning to their own land, new opposition meets them 
 from the Samaritans, and other enemies. The exiles were 
 under strong temptation, therefore, to succumb to bespatr. 
 Haggai and Zechariah cheer them under present trials and 
 discouragements, by showing: 1. That their present weak- 
 ness was no indication that God was not with them. For 
 in spite of present adversities they should rise higher than 
 ever before. They were shown also that the heathen 
 nations should be brought low, and pour in their resources 
 to them ; Ezra 5 : 1 ; 6 : 14. 2. The altered condition and 
 disposition of the heathen nations. Haggai and Zechariah 
 appear to be summoned to the prophetic office within one 
 month of each other, and they labored together. The book 
 of Zechariah, indeed, seems to be an expansion of the 
 smaller one of Haggai. It was the mission of both to 
 show the people that their present condition was due to 
 temporary causes, and should not last forever. But in 
 comforting the people, and in promising them that there 
 was danger that they would think the glory was to come 
 immediately, Zechariah prepares them for additional 
 troubles before the promises should be fulfilled, and de- 
 clares how signally they would be delivered out of them. 
 He dwells chiefly on the external condition of the people. 
 
 Malachi is different. The people must not think that 
 the divine blessing would be given to them without regard 
 to their own character. The altered tones of the prophe- 
 
112 
 
 •cies grew out of the different circumstances in which they 
 were uttered. The ministry of Malachi was later than that 
 of Zechariah and Haggai ; and the temple had been built, 
 but the long years of suffering had brought to light certain 
 -evil tendencies. It had shown a measure of hypocrisy. 
 These must be removed if they would enjoy the blessings 
 which the older prophets had predicted. Thus we have 
 the O. T. prophets forming themselves into a grand scheme, 
 and each period forming the preparation for that to come. 
 The prophets are, therefore, not isolated individuals, but 
 are to carry forward from age to age one divine scheme. 
 
 HAGGAI. 
 
 The name signifies " a feast." A relation has been 
 found or fancied in the fact that he labored for the restora- 
 tion of the feast of the Jewish rituals. He is mentioned in 
 Ezra 5 : 1 ; 6 : 14. The duration of his ministry is unknown. 
 The discourses in his book were all delivered within four 
 months. It would be precarious to say from this that his 
 ministry lasted only four months, as it would be, from 
 Ezra 6 : 14, to say that it lasted through the entire reign. 
 
 There are four discourses, the dates of all which are 
 accurately given. It is not probable that these are the only 
 discourses be ever uttered. They are the only ones for the 
 benefit of the church in the time to come. Cyrus had no 
 sooner died, than the adversaries obtained from the king 
 decrees adverse to the building of the temple. Haggai 
 strives to waken them to courage, to the rebuilding of the 
 temple. These discourses were delivered in the second 
 year of Darius. 
 
 The first (ch. 1) was addressed to Zerubbabel, governor 
 of Judah, and to Joshua, the high-priest, Hag. 1:1. It 
 reprimanded them for the suspension of the building of 
 God's house, while they content themselves with dwelling 
 in their own houses. He urges them to go at once and 
 bring wood to build the house. The effect was that the 
 people began that same month to build. 
 
 The second discourse (2: 1-9) there was danger that the 
 people who had seen the former temple would despise the 
 latter one ; and there is need that Haggai should tell them 
 that the glory of this latter house would be greater than 
 
113 
 
 the former. This universal shaking of all nations includes 
 convulsions to take place through all the world. It is the 
 convulsion of states and nations which is shown forth, and 
 it is to take place for the glory of God. The people of 
 God were weak. Their enemies were powerful. But the 
 shaking of the world would begin in a little while, and it 
 should be destroyed. After all had been shaken' down, 
 God's house should remain. The design for which this is 
 to take place should till this house with glory. A common 
 interpretation is that " the desire of all nations " (2 : 7) is 
 the Messiah. Therefore the meaning would be, that the 
 shaking of all nations would be in order that " the desire of 
 all nations," i. e., the Messiah should come. There are 
 many things attractive in this interpretation, and it coin- 
 cides well with the result. Still • an inspection of the 
 prophet's language in the original will do away with this 
 interpretation. The verb " come " agreeing with " desire 
 of all nations," is in the plural, though the noun " desire " 
 is in the singular, feminine. The agreement, therefore is 
 m sense and not in letter. " The desire of all nations "'is, 
 in the Septuagint, " the most desirable of all nations; " that 
 is, the result will be the conversion of the choicest nations. 
 This is closely allied to the real meaning. " The desire of 
 all nations "—those things that the nations desire— their 
 valuables. It is applied to jewels and other precious ob- 
 jects. The present structure seems mean and poor in com- 
 parison with the temple of Solomon, but the prophet tells 
 them that God would shake down all nations till they 
 should lose their hostility to Him. And they would delight 
 to help Israel to fill the house of God with glory. They 
 should bring their treasures to it, or more probably the 
 £l°£} 7 .~ the treasures themselves. In order to assure them 
 of His ability to accomplish this, He adds further promises. 
 Consequently at any time He pleases, He can give peace to 
 His people. Upon this interpretation we are not clear to 
 the very letter of the passage. The real temple signifies 
 the spiritual. 
 
 Third discourse, 2 : 10-19. This relates to the first dis- 
 course. Everything is vitiated by their former neglect, but 
 God's blessing will attend their reviving zeal. 
 
 Fourth discourse, 2 : 20-23. It is related to the second. 
 I he shaking of the heavens and the earth, the overthrow 
 of hostile kingdoms, while Zerubbabel, as the representa- 
 tive of the royal house of David, is chosen and protected 
 
114 
 
 ZECHARIAH. 
 
 Name, parentage, priestly descent, age, beginning of 
 ministry, its duration. Matt. 23 : 35. Three parts : 1. Chs. 
 1-6, series of visions. 2. Chs. 7, 8, answer to a question 
 proposed by the people. 3. Chs. 9-14, prophecies in literal 
 terms relating to future fortunes of God's people. Difficulty 
 in the citation, Matt. 27 : 9 ; various solutions, Zechariah 
 not the author, error in transcription, a peculiar order of 
 the prophets, combined reference to two passages. Genu- 
 ineness of chs. 9-14; objections; (a) style and character; 
 (b) incidental allusions, Judah and Israel, 11 : 14, or 
 Ephraim, 9 : 13 ; 10 : 6, 7 ; but see 1 : 19 ; 8 : 13, Ezek. 37 : 
 16 ; king of Gaza, 9 : 5, Assyria and Egypt, 10 : 10, 11 ; 
 idolatry, 10 : 2 ; 13: 2. # No allusion to any king in Judah. 
 Position in this book not explicable otherwise. I. Chs. 
 1-6, eight visions. First, 1 : 7-17, man on red horse ; sec- 
 ond, 1 : 8-21, four horns and carpenters; third, ch. 2, mea- 
 suring line ; fourth, ch. 3, high-priest in filthy garments ; 
 fifth, ch. 4, candlestick and two olive trees ; sixth, 5 : 1-4, 
 flying roll ; seventh, 5 : 5-11, woman in an ephah ; eighth, 
 6 : 1-8, chariots issuing from between two mountains. 
 Symbolical section, 6 : 9-15, the crowned priest. II. Chs. 
 7, 8, continued observance of fasts ; 7 : 4-14, rebuke of 
 spirit in which they had been kept ; ch. 8, happy future. 
 III. Chs. 9-14, scenes from future fortunes of God's peo- 
 ple, from their protection in the time of Alexander to final 
 overthrow of all enemies. Ch. 9 : burden of Hadrach, 
 pledge of protection, vs. 9, 10 in Zion's King, Maccabean 
 deliverance, v. 13. Ch. 11 : Desolation of land, vs. 1-3, its 
 predicted cause, vs. 4-14, the treatment of the good shep- 
 herd, Beauty and Bands, three shepherds cut off, his price ; 
 vs. 15-17, abandoned to foolish shepherd. Chs. 12, 13 : 
 Jerusalem assailed, delivered, outpouring of spirit, mourn- 
 ing by families, fountain opened, sin abandoned ; judgment 
 to follow the smiting of the shepherd. Ch. 14 : Jerusalem 
 besieged by all nations, taken, miraculous rescue, living 
 waters, judgment on gathered foes, universal consecration. 
 
115 
 MALACHI. 
 
 Name, date, self-righteousness of people (a) claiming 
 that they had fulfilled their duty; (b) demanding a better 
 recompense. Two parts : I. 1:2; 2:16, their obligations 
 and sins ; (a) 1 : 2-5, their obligations to God ; (6)1-6- 
 2 : 9 sins directly against God ; (6)2: 10-16, against their 
 brethren. II. 2:17; 4:6, the judgment and recompense : 
 (a) 2: 17;. 3: 6, severity of the test which the Lord shall 
 apply at his coming; messenger to prepare the way, An°-el 
 of the covenant, Christ contemplated not as a redeemer but 
 a judge; (b) 3 : 7-12, their desert of the curse with which 
 they had been visited ; (c) 3 : 13 ; 4 : 6, distinction to be 
 made between the righteous and the wicked. Elijah ; the 
 last of the prophets ends with the announcement of the 
 herald of the new dispensation. 
 
 MICAH. 
 
 _ Name, Morasthite, in days of Jotham, Ahaz and Heze- 
 kiah. Title disputed, (a) from form of prophet's name. 
 But various forms used interchangeably in same passage ■ 
 and masoretic note to Jer. 26 : 18 no proof of later usage ; 
 (b) from subject of prophecy, but see 1 : 5, 6 ; (c) from Jer'. 
 26 : 18, but this does not limit his ministry to reign of 
 Hezekiah ; (d) from contents of book, but disagreement of 
 those who allege it ; 4 : 9, 10 does Dot refer to carrying 
 away of Manasseh ; denial of prophetic foresight. 
 
 Summary of prophet's ministry, not distinct discourses. 
 J.hree sections ch. 1, 2, chs. 3-5, chs. 6, 7. In the first 
 judgment preponderates, and negative side of coming sal- 
 vation. In the second, mercy, the positive salvation, per- 
 son of Messiah. In the third, the threatenings justified, 
 and promises appropriated. 
 
116 
 THE FULFILMENT OF PROPHECY. 
 
 Abridged from Dr. Green's article in Princeton Review, Jan., 1861. 
 
 Between prophecy and its fulfilment in history, there 
 can be no discrepancy ; but there may be, and there is, a 
 very wide difference in the mode of their representation. 
 Prophecy surveys its objects from its own definite point of 
 view. History sets each in its proper position in respect of 
 time and attendant circumstances. 
 
 The prophetic differs from the historical mode of re- 
 presentation chiefly in respect, first, to the time, and 
 second, to the form of the events predicted. Prophecy 
 very commonly neglects the relations of time. It was sel- 
 dom necessary, in order to the lesson to be drawn from the 
 future events, that anything should be known as to the 
 time of their occurrence, their precise duration, or the 
 intervals which were to separate them. Again, the reve- 
 lation of time might defeat the design of the lesson itself. 
 The knowlege that a judgment was still far off, might 
 convert it for the present into a temptation to carnal 
 security. 
 
 Where any important end was to be answered by it, 
 the time was definitely revealed. 
 
 To Abraham, Gen. 15 : 3, the four hundred years of 
 oppression. 
 
 To Isaiah, 7 : 8, the sixty-five years within which 
 Ephraim was to cease being a people ; also 16 : 14, the 
 three years to the humbling of Moab ; 21 : 16, the one year 
 to the reduction of Kedar ; 23 : 17, the seventy years ot 
 Tyre's depression. 
 
 To Jeremiah, 29: 10, the seventy years of the captivity. 
 
 To Habakkuk, 1 : 5, its occurrence in the life-time of 
 his hearers. 
 
 To Daniel, 9: 24-26, the seventy weeks to Messiah's 
 coming. 
 
 Sometimes where the precise time was unimportant, 
 some idea of its relative duration was desirable. (Jf. Ezek. 
 4 : 5, 6 ; 29 : 9, 12. In Revelation, the three years and a 
 half of the humiliation of the church, the three days and 
 a half of the triumph of antichrist, and the thousand years 
 of the reign of the saints. All the above Dr. Green cites 
 with a " perhaps." 
 
 Relations of time may be disregarded in four ways : 
 
117 
 
 1st. The logical method ; when events are grouped 
 agreeably to their affinities or their relation of cause and 
 effect; irrespective of their chronological position. Thus 
 a denunciation of the penalty may immediately follow upon 
 a charge of sin, because the}' are indissolubly linked 
 together, whatever interval of time may separate them. 
 
 Any event in the progress of God's plan of grace may 
 be set in connection with the ultimate result to which it 
 looks, and of which it is a necessary or important ante- 
 cedent. The curse upon Canaan, Gen. 9 : 25, did not enter 
 upon its accomplishment until ages after it had been uttered. 
 The promise to the patriarchs, Gen. 26 : 4, was that they 
 should have a numerous posterity, possess the land of their 
 sojournings, and all nations be blesssed in them. The sal- 
 vation of the world is here joined with the multiplication 
 of their descendants aud their settlements in Canaan, and 
 there is no intimation that the events may not be simulta- 
 neous or immediately successive. ITabakkuk, 2 : 14, fall 
 of Babylon and the glory of the Lord filling the earth ; the 
 destruction of that great oppressing power one of the neces- 
 sary antecedents to the perfect triumph and universality of 
 the Kingdom of God. 
 
 The prophets often present events in classes according 
 to their respectiue characters. Joel throws together all the 
 evils to be experienced by the chosen people under the 
 symbol of the ravages of locusts ; then the blessings they 
 were to experience ; and lastly, the judgments upon their 
 foes. Yet these three were intermingled throughout the 
 entire course of history. Cf. Is. 10 : 11 ; 40 : 66: Jerem. 
 33; Messiah and return from Babylon. Zech. 9: 8, 9. 
 
 2d. The complex method : events, which occupy long 
 periods in their performance and advance by successive 
 stages, are condensed into a single picture. The character- 
 istic features which it assumes at different periods, belong 
 still to one common subject, and are properly included in 
 its complete delineation. Thus, the fall of a great empire 
 is commonly not accomplished in a moment. The heavy 
 blow which initiates the process of decline ma}^ be separa- 
 ted by centuries from the complete ruin. The prophets 
 give to the whole its unity and connection by exhibiting 
 it in a single scene. Isaiah, 13 : 17-22 links the capture of 
 Babylon by the Medes with its final and utter desolation; 
 its decline began with the conquest of Cyrus, although it 
 continued for a Ions: time to flourish. 
 
118 
 
 The prophets often link divine judgments upon partic- 
 ular nations with the final judgment upon the whole world ; 
 these different acts being but parts of the one continued exer- 
 cise of his punitive justice. Is. 13 : 6-13, fall of Babylon 
 connected with the day of the Lord when the sun and stars 
 shall be darkened and the earth removed out of its place. 
 Mat. 24, destruction of Jerusalem linked with end of the 
 world. Zech. 9 : 9, 10, Christ riding upon an ass and 
 reigning from sea to sea ; his work in humiliation and ex- 
 altation, being viewed in its totality. Cf. Joel, 2 : 28-32, 
 the beginning and end of the Messianic period is presented 
 in its unity. 
 
 3d. The apotelesmatic method ; the last of a long series 
 of events is described to the exclusion of the others, in 
 order to exhibit the matter in its mature form. As the po- 
 litical philosopher often neglects to describe a constitution 
 in its earlier and undeveloped form, speaking of it only 
 in its completion ; so the prophets most frequently pre- 
 sent the Kingdom of Christ in its triumph and glory. It 
 is to be judged by what it shall be when all opposition is 
 vanquished, and it is allowed, without restraint or foreign 
 commixture, to put on its own proper form, and to reveal 
 its true nature. Is. 11, rod of Jesse immediately followed 
 by the wolf dwelling with the lamb. Cf. Dan. 2 : 44. 
 
 4th. The generic method ; predictions are made, not 
 of an individual event, but of a series, in each of which 
 they have a separate fulfilment. They are commonly such 
 as reveal a principle in the divine administration, which 
 secures a fixed result from given antecedents ; as often as 
 the conditions exist, so often will the predicted consequence 
 follow. Jesus announced this rule, Matt. 24 : 28. 
 
 Deut. 4 : 25, ff, transgression to be punished at the 
 hands of the heathen, and mercy to follow repentance ; 
 again and again fulfilled. So, too, Is. 40 : 3, " voice crying, 
 prepare the wav of the Lord." So, too, outpouring of the 
 Spirit, Joel, 2: "28. 
 
 Three varieties of the generic prophecy : 
 
 (1.) One event, as being important or most fully realiz- 
 ing the common idea, is alone described. Deut. 18 : 18, the 
 expressions employed are applicable to all the prophets, but 
 find their highest application in Christ. 
 
 (2.) No one of the events exactly represented, but 
 individual traits borrowed from many in the series and 
 blended. 
 
119 
 
 2 Sam. 7 : 12-16, the perpetual royalty of David's seed 
 includes all his descendants who sat upon the theocratic 
 throne, and also Christ. Some of the expressions are con- 
 formed to one, others to another of the subjects to which 
 it was intended to appl}-. In the later prophecies of Isaiah, 
 ■" the servant of the Lord " applies to the chosen people 
 and to the Redeemer; they had the common commission 
 to perpetuate and spread the true religion. Israel had a 
 part in these predictions, for his name is given to this 
 " servant," 49 : 3 ; and he is charged with unfaithfulness, 
 42 : 19. Yet the title belongs in its high sense only to the 
 Messiah, for the vicarious atonement is ascribed to him, 53. 
 The fulfilment by Israel falls within the prediction, but the 
 work of the Messiah is coincident with it. 
 
 No mystical or hidden sense is in the words, the same 
 fact or principle, which is represented in the one, appears 
 likewise, but in greater perfection in the other. One of the 
 events may even be past. Thus the Messianic psalms have 
 a partial application to experiences of David and Solomon, 
 or, as in Ps. 8, to man in general ; but the terms employed 
 would be extravagant, if nothing more was intended by 
 them. The only adequate explanation is their additional 
 reference to Christ. 
 
 (3. The prophecy may be restricted to what is common 
 to all the events. 
 
 A generic element is more or less involved in all 
 prophecies. The facts may not occur again in the precise 
 form ; but the laws are permanent, and will have other ex- 
 emplifications. This explains why later prophets, in adopt- 
 ing the language of their predecessors, not unfrequently 
 make a new application of it. Jer. 48 : 43, 44, about Moab, 
 quoting what Is. 24 : 17, 18, had said of the whole earth. 
 Also Jer. 11 : 19, with Is. 53 : 7. Nahum 1 : 15, with Is. 
 52 : 7. Revelation resumes the ancient prophecies concern- 
 ing Babylon. 
 
 Prophecy may also depart from the strictly historical 
 form. 
 
 In this the same two-fold design as in the neglect of 
 time ; viz. the partial obscuring of the events revealed, and 
 the greater distinctness and force of the lessons conveyed. 
 
 Had God seen best, he might have revealed the details. 
 He often did so. Cyrus predicted by name, Is. 44 : 28 ; 
 likewise Josiah, I Kings, 13 : 2. The birth of Christ of a 
 virgin at Bethlehem, &c. 
 
120 
 
 Two method? adopted. 
 
 1st. The identity of the object predicted is retained 
 with a mere diversity of form. The future object is spoken 
 of, not as it shall actually be at the time of its fulfilment, 
 but as it is at the time of the prediction. It was spoken of 
 as the people know it, being thus more intelligible to them. 
 
 Thus, objects common to the two dispensations are, 
 as a rule, called by their O. T. names and presented in their 
 O. T. form. God's people constantly called Israel, their 
 habitation ; Canaan, the seat of God's worship or his dwell- 
 ing place ; Jerusalem, Zion of the temple. The conversion 
 of the heathen is represented by their erecting altars in 
 their land and engaging in the ritual worship, Is. 19 : 19 ; 
 offering incense and oblations in every place, Mai. 1:11; 
 keeping feast of Tabernacles, Zech. 14 : 16 ; paying annual 
 or. even monthly and weekly, visits to Jerusalem, Is. 66 : 23; 
 and enrolled amongst the Levitical priesthood, Is. 66 : 21 ; 
 although at the time to which these predictions refer, this 
 particular mode of worship would be abolished. 
 
 The outpouring of the Spirit, Joel, 2 : 28, is described 
 under the form of speaking with tongues, though sanctifi- 
 cation was the universal manifestation. 
 
 Names of nations, hostile to the Kingdom of God, are 
 used to those in whom this hostility is perpetuated. Joel,, 
 3 : 19, Egypt and Edom. cf. Mic. 5 : 5, 6 ; Is. 11 : 14. 
 
 Unity of the people under Messiah is represented by 
 the healing of the breach between Juclah and Israel, Is. 
 11 : 13 ; Jer. 3 : 18. Messiah to sit on David's throne, Is. 
 9 : 7. Cf. Ezek. 84 : 23, Hos. 3 : 5. We of to-day con- 
 stantly use the words Canaan, Israel, Zion. 
 
 The statements, however, are not false nor inaccurate ; 
 simply there is no disclosure made of the changes to be ef- 
 fected in the plan of grace. Even so everything is not 
 made known to us now that is to be revealed hereafter. 
 We have glimpses of, but cannot imagine precisely the 
 future. From the glimpses given to the prophets of the 
 future, they invariably return to the representation of the 
 future under forms then existing. Isaiah connects with 
 the new heaveu and the new earth, 65 : 17, building houses 
 and inhabiting them, planting vineyards and eating the 
 fruit, 66 : 22. ^ Cf. Joel, 3 : 17 ; Zech. 14 : 16. 
 
 The literalists maintain that the predictions respecting 
 Israel, Jerusalem and Canaan, in the days of the Messiah 
 
121 
 
 and the establishment of his Kingdom in Zion, are to have 
 a national and local fulfilment. They should 
 
 1. Remember the principle underlying the whole mat- 
 ter, which is far more comprehensive than the particular 
 cases in dispute. 
 
 2. Interpret all prophecies consistently and upon some 
 settled method. 
 
 2nd. Another similar object may by a figure be sub- 
 stituted for it. This may be a figure of speech or symbol. 
 Is. 2 : 2 " Mentioned of Lord's house shall be ex- 
 alted above the hills ; " in strict sense of words, a physical 
 change, but doubtless a moral change of analogous nature 
 is intended. 
 
 In the symbolical prophecy, one thing not merely il- 
 lustrates another, but is substituted for it. The symbol 
 may be 
 
 a. Presented to the senses. Zech. 6 : 11, the high 
 priest Joshua, crowned with silver and gold brought from 
 Babylon, symbolizes Messiah as both priest and king, to 
 whom all in distant lands should lend their aid. The sym- 
 bolical action of the prophets are instances of the same 
 kind. 
 
 b. Exhibited in vision or dream. The temple and its- 
 worship, Ezek. 40 ; the image of Nebuchadnezzar's dream ? 
 Dan. 2, symbolical of the future state of the theocracy. Cf. 
 Dan. 8, Zech. 1. 
 
 c. Simply described, and thus partake of the nature of 
 allegory. The locusts, Joel, 1 : 2, represent the foes of the 
 covenant people. Cf. Hos. 1:3; Ezek. 17 : 23. 
 
 Aids in interpreting sjmibolical prophecies are three : 
 
 (1.) The prominent qualities and associations. Sym- 
 bols in the Scriptures not like letters of the alphabet, arbi- 
 trary and with no resemblance between the sign and the 
 thing signified. The locusts, Joel, 1 : 2, are a natural 
 emblem of foreign invaders; filthy garments, Zech. 3 : 4 r 
 of sin ; crowns, Zech. 6 : 11, of royalty. 
 
 (2.) Established usage. Symbols must have a uniform 
 signification, if they are to be an intelligible medium of 
 communicating ideas. 
 
 Some interpret the brazen serpent as a healer, and re- 
 fer to the serpent in Egyptian symbolism, where it denotes 
 healing, and to its use in the worship ot ^Esculapius. It 
 is more natural, however, to conclude that either the ser- 
 pent form in Num. 2 : 8, is not symbolical ; or else that it 
 
122 
 
 retains its constant signification of destroyer (Cf. Rev. 12: 9; 
 20 : 2 ; and Gen. 3), and, being transfixed and harmless, in- 
 dicates a victory over the destroyer. 
 
 Many symbols borrowed from the Levitical institutions ; 
 being familiar, sacred and significant of the very truths 
 with which prophecy was concerned. The signification, 
 belonging to them in their original connection, is always 
 retained. Cherubim, Ezek. 1, and temple, 40. 
 
 If the symbol be not illustrated by scriptural usage, 
 we should consider the symbolical use of the same object 
 among other ancient nations, especially those with which 
 Israel was brought into contact. 
 
 (3) Authoritative explanation furnished by inspiration 
 sometimes given by the prophet himself. Daniel states the 
 symbol and adds the interpretation of Neb.'s dream. 2. 
 
 Sometimes by a letter writer of scripture. " Son of 
 man," Dan. 7 : 13, is applied by Christ to himself. The 
 little horn of Daniel's fourth beast, 7, with 2 Thes. 2 : 3. 
 
 Sometimes the explanation is indirectly given by ming- 
 ling literal language with the description of the symbol. 
 Cf. Zech. 3:1. 
 
 To distinguish prophecies which adhere to the histori- 
 cal form from those in which it is neglected, the following 
 suggestions suffice : 
 
 1. In prophecies already accomplished, the criterion is 
 to be found in the fulfillment. That Christ should rise 
 from the dead without seeing corruption, Ps. 16 : 10 ; that 
 his garments should be parted, &c, Ps. 22: 18, are shown 
 by the event to have been literally intended. The drying 
 up of the river of Egypt, Is. 19 : 5, coming of Elijah, Mai. 
 4 : 5, are shown to have beeu figurative. Perhaps, how- 
 ever, the prophecy has as yet been but partially fulfilled and 
 what was only figuratively true of the past may come to 
 pass literally in the future, Is. 13 : 10. 
 
 2. Comparison with other prophecies in the O. or N. 
 T. relating to the same subject, is valuable. The figures 
 of one may be detected by the literal language of another, 
 or by the figures of another with which they would be in- 
 compatible if literally understood. 
 
 Heathen, when converted, build altars, and offer sacri- 
 fices in their own land, Is. 19 : 19-21 ; and that in all parts 
 of the earth, Mai. 1 : 11. Yet they are said to go up to 
 Jerusalem to worship, Is. 2 : 3. 
 
 Cf. Joel, 3 : 18 with Ezek. 47 : 1, Zech. 14 : 8. 
 
 Cf. Ezek. 38 : 2 with Rev. 20 : 8. 
 
123 
 
 3. N. T. teaches that the restrictions of the old econ- 
 omy and its ceremonial are now abolished. Consequently, 
 if any prediction speaks of these obsolete forms in connec- 
 tion with Messianic times, it must be understood, not ac- 
 cording to its letter, but according to its spirit. See Gal. 
 4:9; Acts 15 : 10 ; Heb. 10:1,2; John 4 : 21 ; Eph. 2 : 14. 
 
 4. The figurative character of a prophecy is often stated 
 ■or suggested. Ezek. 37 : 11, declares the resurrection 
 of the dry bones to mean the restoration of Israel. Also, 
 Dan. 7 : 8, Joel, 2 : 4, 5, 20, Zech. 10 : 11, Jer. 25 : 15. 
 
 5. When the terms of a prediction stand in evident re- 
 lation to the past histoay of the chosen people, or to typi- 
 cal events and institutions, there is reason to suspect that 
 these may be figuratively employed. 
 
 Thus a second dividing of the Red Sea, Is. 11 : 15. 
 See, also, Ezek. 20 : 34-38, Is. 48 : 21, Ezek. 38 : 22, 
 Is. 11 : 6-8, 65 : 25. 
 
 6. If the literal explanation would involve a physical 
 imposibility, or a manifest incongruity, this is a clear index 
 of the figurative character of a prediction. 
 
 Ezek. 42 : 16, a temple of this size could not be placed 
 upon Mt. Moriah. See, also, Rev. 21 : 16, Joel, 2 : 20, 
 Ezek. 39: 12. 
 
 7. The general literary style of a prophet affords a hint 
 as to the character of a particular passage in his writings. 
 
 8. In prophecies yet unfulfilled, the developments of 
 Providence must decide. It could not have been known in 
 advance that the prophetic appellations, Josiah, 1 K. 13 : 2, 
 and Cyrus, Is. 45 : 1, 4, were to be real names; and that 
 Immanuel, Is. 7 : 14, was not. See, also, Mai. 4 : 5. 
 
 9. The line between figurative and literal prophecies is 
 not to be too sharply drawn, as though these formed quite 
 distinct classes. The same prophecy ma}' be intended 
 and fulfilled in both senses. Opening the eyes of the blind 
 and the ears of the deaf, Is. 35 : 5, was fulfilled literally in 
 the miracles of Christ and figuratively in the blessings of 
 the gospel dispensation. See, also, Hag. 2 : 7-9, Zech. 9 : 9. 
 
 The literal fulfillment sometimes serves to identify the 
 subject of the figurative. That John came preaching in 
 the wilderness of Judea, was an external sign that he was 
 the voice spoken of by Isaiah as crying in the spiritual wil- 
 derness, "Prepare." John 19: 36, a literal mark of simili- 
 tude, identifies Christ as the true paschal lamb. 
 
 The study of a prophecy is for the purpose of drawing 
 therefrom instruction, and is therefore quite distinct from 
 
124 
 
 the study of its fulfillment. As to the latter, two directions 
 are important. 
 
 1. It should be preceded by a thorough study of the 
 prophecy itself. The reversion of this order has led to the 
 most extravagant results. Some of the old Dutch inter- 
 preters found in the O. T. prophecies all the events of the 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 
 2. The student should proceed from the plain to the ob- 
 scure, from the fulfilled to the unfulfilled. When engaged 
 upon prophecies which are clear, or where the fulfillment is 
 before his eyes, the student is in less danger of error, and 
 may correct his result by the divine exposition afforded by 
 the event. Having thus tested and adjusted his methods, 
 he may adventure prudently and cautiously into those whose 
 fulfillment is still future. 
 
 Uses of the study of the fulfillment of prophecy. 
 
 1st. Practical ; it sheds light upon duty and the incen- 
 tives to its faithful performance. We learn also the nature 
 of the events which are transpiring around us and their 
 place in the divine plan. Thus the early Christians antici- 
 pated the destruction of Jerusalem and made good their 
 escape. 
 
 2nd. Apologetic ; there is no clearer proof of Divinity 
 than infallible foreknowledge of the distant and contingent 
 future. There are so many plain prophecies, that the 
 strength of the argument could not be increased by the ad- 
 dition of more. 
 
 To the question, whether all the prophecies of Scrip- 
 ture have been or are to be fulfilled, a negative answer 
 has been returned by two very different classes of inter- 
 preters, and on essentially different grounds. Many be- 
 lievers in the inspiration of the prophets have contended 
 that certain prophecies contain implied conditions upon 
 which their fulfillment or non-fulfillment, according to the 
 tenor of their announcement, is suspended. The Socinians 
 held it to be inconsistent with the liberty of free agents 
 that their acts should be foreknown or certainly deter- 
 mined beforehand : all predictions relating to the free acts 
 of men must, consequently, upon this theory, be contingent 
 or conditional. The schoolmen distinguish three sorts of 
 prophecies — prophetia prcedestinationis, prophetic prcescientice, 
 and prophetia comminationis. The prophec}^ of predestina- 
 tion is when the event depends wholly upon God's will, 
 without any respect to the will of man, as the prophecy of 
 the incarnation of Christ; the prophecy of prescience is 
 
125 
 
 ot such things as depend upon the liberty of man's will ; 
 and the prophecy of commination denotes God's denunci- 
 ations of heavy judgments against a people. The first 
 and second rest upon the Divine decree and foreknowledge, 
 and they always take effect; the third is a simple declara- 
 tion of what is deserved, and, in the existing state of things, 
 is to be expected, but which need not follow if the antecedent 
 conditions are altered. 
 
 The decisive objection to this view, on whatever loot- 
 ing it is placed, or bv whatever grounds it is defended, is 
 that the inspired criterion for distinguishing true from 
 false prophets, is the accomplishment of their predictions, 
 Deut. xviii. 22. This test would be practically rendered 
 nugatory if predictions of specific events, expressed in ab- 
 solute terms and with no intimation of any condition, 
 might fail of fulfillment, and yet be true prophecies. And 
 that Jeremiah xviii. 7—10, had no intention of nullifying 
 this test, appears from his appeal to it in his contest with 
 Hananiah, Jer. xxviii. 9. The righteous dispensations of 
 God towards men are indeed conditioned by their charac- 
 ter and conduct, so that a change in them is followed by 
 a change in his dealings with them, which the Scriptures, 
 employing the language of men and speaking according 
 to the outward appearance, often described as a change in 
 the Divine mind. But God's eternal purpose _ never 
 changes. His foresight of the future is not conditional, 
 but absolute, and he may, if he pleases, reveal it absolutely. 
 When a specific good is unconditionally promised, therefore, 
 it is because it is certain to the divine mind that his mercy 
 will not be taken away from the object of his favor. 
 When a specific evil is similarly threatened, it is with the 
 certainty that they who are thus doomed are incorrigible 
 and will not repent. Even where this is the case, as in 
 Isa. vi. 9, etc., the prophecy is not useless, as Fairbairn 
 objects. It still serves two important purposes. It is a 
 witness on God's behalf and against the obdurate offen- 
 ders, that judgment did not come upon them without just 
 cause, or without antecedent warning ; and it may be the 
 means of leading individuals to repentance and salvation, 
 though the unbelieving mass persist in going on to ruin. 
 There may be no claim upon God, ab extra, to fulfil his 
 threatenings, but the reasons of his acts are in himself, and 
 his inviolable truth and justice stand in the way of his re- 
 voking them. Whenever the moral effect of a prophecy 
 required that it should be conditional, it is made so in ex. 
 
126 
 
 press terms. Or, the same end may be answered by leav- 
 ing it indefinite, announcing some general principle of the 
 Divine administration, without specifying when or how it 
 shall go into effect, or, at least, leaving the time undeter- 
 mined. But whatever is absolutely declared by the proph- 
 et, is to be absolutely understood. The most plausible 
 exception is that derived from the case of Jonah. Nineveh 
 continued to stand, notwithstanding his having been sent 
 of God with the declaration, " Yet forty days and Nineveh 
 shall be overthrown." But, as Hengstenberg has well said, 
 we have only this general statement respecting Jonah's 
 preaching there, not the preaching itself. No doubt this 
 was such as to indicate the only hope of escape lay in a 
 timely repentance. It was, at least, so understood by the 
 Ninevites, and they acted accordingly. Jonah's displeas- 
 ure at the sparing of the city cannot be urged in proof of 
 the unconditional character of his prophecy ; for there is 
 reason to believe that this did not arise from the fear of 
 his being discredited as a prophet, but rather from his dis- 
 tress at seeing the mercy of God transferred from obdurate 
 Israel to their penitent foes. Jer. 26 : 18, 19, to which 
 Caspari* appeals in proof of the conditional character of 
 Micah's prophecy, iii. 12, is still less to the point. It sim- 
 ply repeats the opinion of certain elders, without vouching 
 for its correctness. The prediction in question relates to 
 an event whose time was not defined by the prophet, al- 
 though intimated, iv. 10, and it was fulfilled to the letter. 
 
 On the other hand, unbelievers in the inspiration of 
 the prophets allege that several of their predictions failed 
 of accomplishment, thereby showing that they had no 
 certain knowledge of the future. Thus De Wette :f " Jer. 
 xxii. 18, etc., xxxvi. 30, appear not to have been fulfilled,, 
 comp. 2 Kings xxiv. 6 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6. The following- 
 are not fulfilled : Amos vii. 11 ; Hosea ix. 3, xi. 5 ; Isa. 
 xxii., xxix., xvi. 14; xxiii. ; Jer. xliii. 8, etc., xlix. 7, etc.; 
 Ezek. xxxv., xxix., xxxviii., etc. ; not accurately fulfilled, 
 Isa. vii. 17, etc., viii. 4, xiv. 23, xvii. 1 — 3, xxxiv. 9, etc." 
 But even if we were not able to prove that these particular 
 
 * Caspari on Micah, p. 160. 
 
 f Einleitimg in die A. T. § 204. In the translation of this work by 
 Theodore Parker, the translator has mistaken his author's meaning, when 
 he makes him say, " The definite predictions of Ezekiel xii. xxiv. 25, 26,. 
 xxxiii. 21, 22, seem not to have been fulfilled." De Wette merely alleges 
 these as instances of the prediction of specific events, without denying 
 their fulfilment, this being too plain to be questioned. 
 
127 
 
 prophecies have been accomplished, this would not affect 
 the argument of inspiration from the remainder, many of 
 which have been most signally and undeniably fulfilled. 
 This is sufficient, likewise, to show that we should be slow 
 to admit the non-fulfillment of any prophecy uttered by 
 those who are so clearly attested as the messengers of God. 
 Nothing but the plainest and most undeniable evidence 
 can justify such an admission. But so far from this being 
 afforded, an examination of the passages adduced by De 
 Wette, will show that his denial rests in every case upon 
 a false interpretation of the passages themselves, a want 
 of historical knowledge, or the groundless assumption that 
 the prophecies contemplate only the immediate future. 
 Amos vii. 11, ' Jeroboam shall die by the sword,' is not the 
 language of Amos, but words which Amaziah slanderous- 
 ly puts into his mouth, to make him odious to the king. 
 The real words of Amos were, vii. 9, " I will rise against 
 the house of Jeroboam with the sword,' which came to 
 pass, 2 Kings xv. 10. Ezekiel's prophecy respecting Gog, 
 chaps, xxxviii., xxxix., relates to events still future. Isaiah, 
 ch. xxxiv., blends the final judgment with the judgment 
 upon Edom. Isa. vii. 17, the invasion of Juclah by the 
 king of Assyria ; Isa. xiv. 23, the utter desolation of Baby- 
 lon ; and Jer. xlix. 7, etc.; Ezek. ch. xxxv., that of Edom, 
 have been fulfilled to the letter, and the length of time 
 which intervened between the predictions and their accom- 
 plishment, only enhances the evidence of prophetic fore- 
 sight. According to 2 Kings xv. 29, xvi. 9, the riches of 
 Damascus and the spoil of Samaria (not the city, but the 
 kingdom) were taken away before the king of Assyria 
 within the time predicted, Isa. viii. 4. That Damascus 
 was in consequence temporarily desolated, Isa. xvii. 1 — 3, 
 is as credible as the desolation of Samaria and Jerusalem 
 in their respective captivities. In regard to Isa. xvi. 14, 
 the overthrow of Moab within three years, Isa. xxiii., the 
 humiliation of Tyre for seventy years, and its subsequent 
 revival, and Jer. xliii. 8, etc., Ezek. xxix., Nebuchadnez- 
 zar's subjugation of Egypt, the sole difficulty arises from 
 the deficiency of historical records. We know nothing 
 of Moab's history, except from the incidental references 
 occasionally made to it in the Old Testament. But it was, 
 in all probability, devastated by the Assyrian armies, which 
 so often invaded Palestine. It is well known that Tyre 
 was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar for thirteen years, and 
 there is good reason to believe successfully, although the 
 
128 
 
 fact of its capture does not happen to be mentioned in 
 express terms. It cannot, at any rate, be disproved ; 
 neither can his conquest of Egypt, which is, moreover, 
 asserted by Josephus, Antiquities, x. 9, 7, who quotes Me- 
 gasthenes and Berosus to the same effect, Antiquities, x. 11, 
 1. These positive statements are certainly sufficient to 
 outweigh the silence of Herodotus and Diodorus. The 
 indignities threatened to the dead body of Jehoiakim, Jer. 
 xxii. 18, etc., xxxvi, 30, are not discredited by 2 Kings 
 xxiv. 6, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, for there is no conflict between 
 these passages and the prophecy. Nor is there any reason 
 to question Josephus' explicit testimony to its fulfillment, 
 Antiq. x. 6, 3, notwithstanding its rejection by De Wette. 
 The difficulty in Isa. xxii. 29, is not so much to discover a 
 fulfillment, as to decide between different events which 
 have a claim to be so regarded. The invasion of Sennacherib 
 seems to have been more immediately regarded in both 
 •cases. Elam and Kir, chap. xxii. 5, denote troops from 
 those nations in the Assyrian army ; and the sudden and 
 miraculous defeat, xxix. 5, etc., is that of the host of the 
 Assyrians. But with this is blended the foresight, in chap. 
 xxix., of other trials and deliverances ; and perhaps, in 
 chap, xxii., of the later sieges by Esar-haddon and Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. Hos. ix. 3, " Ephraim shall return to Egypt," 
 and xi. 5, " he shall not return into the land of Egypt, but 
 the Assyrian shall be his king," are mutually contradictory, 
 if regard be had merely to the letter and the form of ex- 
 pression. In thus affirming and denying the same propo- 
 sition, the prophet must, if he is to be absolved from the 
 -charge of inconsistency, have intended it in different senses. 
 Two explanations are possible, either of which is satisfac- 
 tory. He may mean, Ephraim shall return to an Egypt, 
 i. e., he shall be reduced again to a servitude like that 
 which he formerly experienced in that land — not in the lit- 
 eral Egypt, however, but in Assyria. Or he may mean 
 some of the people shall return to Egypt, fugitives from 
 Assyrian invasion ; the mass, however, shall be carried not 
 to Egypt, but to Assyria, Upon either of these hypoth- 
 eses, the language of the prediction accords with the event. 
 And these explanations will still hold good, though xi. 5 
 be translated with De Wette, interrogatively, Shall he not 
 return into the land of Egypt ? There is no note of inter- 
 rogation in the Hebrew, however, so that the declarative 
 form, adopted in the common English version, is to be 
 preferred. 
 

 
 Date Due 
 
 
 N 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f)