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 FROM THE LIBRARY OF 
 ROBERT ELLIOTT SPEER 
 
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CHINA 
 
 IN THE 
 
 LIGHT OF HISTORY, 
 
 BY 
 
 ✓ 
 
 IRew Ernst Jfaber, 2>r. ftbeol. 
 
 Allg. Ev. Protestant Miss. Soe. 
 
 JRANSLATED FROM THE pERMAN BY p, jVL 
 
 WITH APPENDIX: 
 
 A MISSIONARY VIEW OF CONFUCIANISM. 
 
 Shanghai : 
 
 AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 HO is not aware that China possesses the oldest civilization 
 the world ? But how many readers could clearly ex- 
 
 in 
 
 plain the peculiar characteristic of Chinese culture and 
 the relation it bears to Christianity. 
 
 Just now China has been pitifully humbled by Japan. Her 
 civilization seems old and effete, incompetent to cope with the serious 
 and unavoidable claims of modern life. Even China will be com- 
 pelled by force of circumstances to break off with the old and to 
 begin a new era. Unfortunately such a step is beset with even 
 greater difficulties in China than was the case thirty years ago in 
 Japan. The probable future of China is such an important question 
 in connection with the future of Europe that it is worth while to 
 offer an explanatory treatise. The future is, however, always the 
 outcome of various factors which are at work in the present. This 
 elementary truth needs no proof. The reason why it is universally 
 difficult, even for a careful observer of historical situations, to foretell 
 coming events with any certainty, is because it is seldom that all 
 the active principles are recognized in time, and because generally it 
 is difficult to estimate rightly the strength of each one in particular. 
 Then, too, the intricate workings of life are revealed in such manifold 
 ways that unforeseen circumstances may arise and bring about an en- 
 tirely different result to that expected by the wisest. The forces which 
 affect the social and political life in China may be classed under two 
 heads. These may be briefly expressed as “the Chinese traditional 
 instinct of self-preservation” and “the influence exerted from with- 
 out by the foreigners.” This foreign influence can be subdivided 
 into that exerted by merchants, politicians, scientific delegates and 
 missionaries. These are working with different methods for different 
 objects, but yet are all in opposition to the traditional customs of the 
 Chinese nation. 
 
 The Chinese nationality is, as every other, only an abstrac- 
 tion ; the real representatives being the Emperor and his family, 
 the ministers and officials, including military officers, the scholars, 
 generally called the literati, the peasants, merchants and artisans. 
 
u 
 
 Parasites and other dangerous elements abound too. Naturally 
 each class has its own special interests, and endeavours to promote 
 these at the expense of the others. The condition of any one 
 state is always the result of the balancing of the particular interests 
 of its various corporations. Individuals cannot exist in an isolated 
 state, but are by force of circumstances obliged to unite to protect 
 their own interests. Thus in China there are guilds for artisans and 
 merchants, clans and village communities for the country people, 
 associations for the literati and secret societies for the influential 
 political factions. 
 
 It is impossible to understand these without reviewing China’s 
 past history. To do this it would be necessary to have a circum- 
 stantial statement of the history of the existing state of affairs in 
 China, not only from a political, but also from a social point of view. 
 But as my time is fully occupied with Chinese work, and the 
 contents of a pamphlet must of necessity be too limited for the 
 purpose, I am unable to prepare an exhaustive work, which would be 
 enjoyable to German readers. Therefore a few original papers 
 must do duty until something better is offered from a more com- 
 petent source. 
 
 Note . — Chinese names have as far as possible been avoided. Should anyone de- 
 sire them the majority may be found in S. von Fries’ Abriss der Geschichte Chinas, 
 Vienna 1884. This is a short but very serviceable work, of which I have made some 
 use. China, by M. G. Panthier (in German by Dr. C. A. Mebold, Stuttgart, 1839), 
 contains important supplements. A short “History of China, by Boulger,” is more 
 detailed in the modern history. Mayer’s “The Chinese Reader’s Manual” contains 
 historic tables with Chinese characters as well as biographical notices in 974 numbers. 
 “Chinese Government,” by the same author, is also useful for reference. Watters’ Guide 
 to the Tablets in the Temple of Confucius, will be found helpful too. Unfortunately 
 a good Chinese history is still wanting. * To make use of Chinese authorities is most 
 wearisome, and takes up much time, so I was unable to scrutinize every sentence I 
 have written. This is really necessary, for the Chinese compendiums are not free 
 from faults. Even the large authorized editions of the history of the dynasties con" 
 tain errors. It is hardly possible to master all the material at hand in a single life- 
 time. Many experts have to clear the way by special researches. It has been my 
 endeavour as far as possible to allow facts, and indeed only authenticated facts to 
 speak for themselves. If a mistake has crept in unobserved the author would feel 
 grateful to be informed of it at the publisher’s address. 
 
 * I have in preparation a Student’s Hand-book of Chinese History. 
 
 E. F. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 1. Extent of the Chinese Empire. 
 
 2. History of the Extension of the Dominions. 
 
 3. Productions. 
 
 4. Organization of the State. 
 
 6. Local Administration. 
 
 6. Extracts from the History of the Emperors of China. 
 
 7. The Imperial Women. 
 
 8. History of the Imperial Family. 
 
 9. The Eunuchs. 
 
 10. Ministers and Officials. 
 
 11. On the History of Civilization in China. 
 
 12. History of Chinese Literature. 
 
 13. Taoism. 
 
 14. Confucianism. 
 
 15. The Temple of Confucius. 
 
 16. Buddhism. 
 
 17. Darkness of the Present. 
 
 18. Stars of Hope. 
 
 19. Dawn. 
 
 20. Break of Day. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Appendix : — 
 
 A Missionary View of Confucianism. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/chinainlightofhiOOfabe 
 
c Hire a ire the eight of history, 
 
 BY REV. EENST FABER, DR. THEOL. 
 Translated from the German by E. M. H. 
 
 I. Extent of the Chinese Empire . 
 
 t BOUT fifty years ago the empire of China reached its greatest 
 dimension, covering, according to the best computation, an 
 area of about 5,300,000 English square miles (nine English 
 square miles— about one German square mile). At the present time 
 . this area has been reduced to about 5,000,000 square miles, and about 
 20,000 square miles have been lost by the treaty with Japan, but still 
 an enormous territory remains. In size China is the third kingdom 
 in the world. The empire of Great Britain ranks first with 8,851,951 
 square miles, then follows Russia with 8,660,882 square miles, while 
 the United States of North America with 3,596,521 square miles, 
 and Brazil with 3,217,645 square miles, rank below China. 
 
 The entire German empire (without colouies) contains 208,590 
 square miles, and is therefore less than one-twentieth part of the 
 entire Chinese empire. It would take twenty-four German empires 
 to equal the extent, of the Chinese empire, while on the other hand, 
 the population of China is only eight times as great as that of 
 Germany, so that the average population of Germany is three times 
 denser than the average population of China. 
 
 The printed statements as to the excess of population in China, 
 which so often appear, are due to the superficial observations of 
 travellers who have only seen some of the main highways of com- 
 merce. Only the river-basins are overpopulat ed, whereas in the 
 interior vast districts are alm ost uninh abited. The lack of means 
 of communication is the chief hindrance to the increase of popula- 
 tion in districts which lie away from the rivers. The Chinese 
 empire consists of China Proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Turkestan, 
 Kokonor and Thibet. The former tributary-states of Chiua, i.e., 
 Burmah, Corea, Annam and Cochin China are no longer regarded as 
 forming part of the empire. The physical conditions of Chiua 
 Proper, are most favourable. High mountain chains with their far- 
 stretching ranges contain many valuable minerals. Several gigantic 
 and many smaller navigable rivers and also innumerable canals in- 
 tersect the laud and form the chief means of communication. 
 The wide-spreading river-basins and plains are extraordinari- 
 ly fertile and populous. An extensive and indented coast-line 
 
o 
 
 affords many very good harbours. Productive fisheries are carried 
 ou among the innumerable islands with which the coast is stud- 
 ded. Even the highlands of Thibet and Mongolia are adapted to 
 cattle-rearing, and were more populous in former centuries than at 
 present. The climate is moderate and varied, the rainfall, which 
 depends on the monsoons, is almost universally regular. With but 
 very few exceptions all parts of the great empire are well watered. 
 China ought therefore to be abl e comf ortably to support at least five 
 times the number of i ts present inhabitants, for not only are its 
 physical and climatic conditions more favourable than those 
 of Germany , but the Chinese are on the whole more frugal than the 
 Germans. Even this arithmetical proportion throws an unfavoura- 
 ble light upon Chinese administration of state. 
 
 II. History of the Extension of the Dominions. 
 
 The commencement of Chinese history is veiled in mythologic- 
 al darkness. Three huudred years before Confucius, he., about 800 
 B. C., the kingdom was of small dimensions, situated on the Yellow 
 River where it changes from a southerly to an easterly course, lb 
 lay on both sides of the river extending half way to the Yang-tse 
 on the south to nearly as far north as the promontory in the Shan- 
 tung province. The feudal states which were founded at the com- 
 mencement of the Chow dynasty were inhabited by aborigines, who 
 were partly independent. But by degrees the vassal princes subdued 
 their own subjects and extended the Chiuese dominion ou all sides. 
 They made war on one another for several centuries till at last in 
 220 B.C. the King of Ts‘in (west) put an end to all vassal states and 
 to the reigning dynasty. Then began the consolidated empire or rather 
 the struggle for a Central-government which has lasted with but few 
 intermissions until the present time. The whole period of the Chow 
 dynasty (1122-221 B.C.) was one of uninterrupted warfare, in which 
 millions of people were slain. The assertion that the Chinese empire 
 has existed since about 3000 B.C. is wholly unfounded. From the 
 fact that at the beginning of the historical period, 800 B.C., the 
 aborigines were very powerful, not only ou the borders and in the 
 inaccessible mountains, but also in various great vassal states, on the 
 rivers, and on the coast, it is plain that before the beginning 
 of the Chow dynasty, 1122 B.C., the Chinese empire proper must 
 have been limited to a very small territory. The so-called emperor 
 was possibly the suzerain of a number of chiefs who were the heads 
 of families or clans who assumed different titles according to the 
 number of their followers. It is supposed that there were 1800 of 
 these chiefs, but only 124 names have been preserved, and of these 
 fifty-five were tributary to the Chow dynasty. Only about twenty-four 
 
3 
 
 of these states ever became important. Five of them lay on the 
 north, the others south of the Yellow River. It was not until the end 
 of the Chow dynasty that the southern border of the Chinese empire 
 was extended beyond the Yang-tse. Under the Ts‘in monarchs the 
 eastern boundary reached to Korea, and the northern to a little 
 beyond Pekin. On the west the Empire only included the eastern 
 part of Ivan-suh and Sz-chuen as far as the present port of Chung- 
 king, while Annam formed the nominal border on the south. On the 
 north the boundary was restricted by the frequent incursions of 
 Mongolian tribes. The Chinese endeavoured to protect themselves 
 by walls, which were gradually amalgamated into the Great Wall of 
 China. It was begun as far back as 240 B.C. by three tributary 
 states, who had Mongols as neighbours, and even in the time of the 
 Mings, 1547 A.D., 800 li (Chinese miles) of wall were built north- 
 west of Peking. So the Great Wall is the work of 1800 years. 
 Since about 200 B. C. the sea has formed the natural boundary 
 on the east. On the west the boundary was never definitely settled. 
 An expedition to the west of thirteen years’ duration, from 135 
 B. C. ff , penetrated as far as the Caspian Sea, but without accom- 
 plishing any lasting result. From 1000 B. C. to within quite 
 recent times Chinese history is full of bloody wars carried on with 
 the barbaric tribes of the west — the Jung, Tanguts, Turfans, 
 Turcomans and Tibetans. It is well known that the Mongols 
 even penetrated into Europe until at Liegnitz 1241 they met with 
 vigorous resistance. But the Emperors of the Manohu dynasty 
 have been the first to incorporate the lauds to the North, i.e., Man- 
 churia and Mongolia, as well as the lands to the West, i.e., Thibet and 
 Turkestan, from Hami to Kashgar and Ili, with the Chinese empire. 
 Kang Hi carried on wars in Central Asia with enormous armies 
 from 1691. — 1720. Other military expeditions took place in the 
 same regions in 1724, 1729, 1734, 1756, 1759. In the year 1768 a 
 Chinese army 200,000 strong entered Burmah and made it a 
 tributary state. In 1791 the Gorkhas made an incursion in Thibet, 
 but were repulsed and pursued by 70,000 Chinese. 
 
 War was often carried on with Corea, viz., in 108 B. C., in 
 about 600, 610, 613, 645, 668, etc., A. D. But in the year 1593, at 
 the request of the Coreaus, a Chinese army repulsed a Japanese 
 invasion. China also often came into collision with Japan, as e.g., in 
 660, when the latter country helped one of the northern states 
 which had been subdued by China, though without success. In 
 1274 and 1281 Chinese expeditions against Japan proved failures. 
 But in 1374 a Japanese fleet was captured near the Liu-kiu islands. 
 In later times Japanese pirates often harassed the Chinese coast. 
 Iu 1873 the Japanese lauded a force on Formosa, because the 
 
4 
 
 Chinese government had refused to give compensation for the 
 murder of the crew of a stranded vessel. On the intervention 
 of England China agreed to pay 500,000 taels, and the Japanese 
 withdrew from Formosa till a more favourable opportunity should 
 offer. In the war which has just been concluded Japan has gained 
 an important advantage over China, and will in future probably 
 have a decisive voice in the politics of Eastern Asia. 
 
 From the above sketch it is obvious that it was by means of 
 her military power that China was enabled to achieve her impor- 
 tant successes. On the other hand, China could not hold her own 
 against the superior hordes of Mongolians and Manchurians, and 
 was ruled by these countries until they were absorbed into the 
 Chinese empire. In the same way Japan conquered by reason of 
 military superiority, and shows the same tendency to amalgamate 
 with China. But under existing circumstances Japauese charac- 
 teristics would remain predominant. This would be no misfortune 
 for the East, if Japan became more and more open to the influence 
 of Christianity. Eastern Asia formed into one well regulated 
 state or into a confederacy of states would be a guarantee for 
 universal peace, while the existence of a number of small states 
 would lead to internecine war and be a cause of jealousy if not 
 of avarice among the Western powers, with the possible result of 
 sanguinary struggles. 
 
 III. Productions. 
 
 Products are always the result of culture. The idea of Culture 
 includes a great deal, but one of the simplest meanings is that of 
 making nature subservient to human needs. This was done in China 
 in the most remote ages in a far more superior way than in the sur- 
 rounding countries. Agriculture was always highly thought of, es- 
 pecially the cultivation of grain, also of beans, melons and other fruits. 
 Cattle rearing was carried on in the prehistoric ages, for mention 
 is made of horses, oxen, pigs, dogs, sheep and goats, also of poultry, 
 the silk-worm, and somewhat later bees and another wax-making 
 insect (coccus), and also of fish breeding. Carts and ships were 
 used for transportations on land and water. Bows, arrows and 
 shields as well as other weapons were in use, and in the olden 
 times towns and market-places were fortified. In very early 
 Chinese pictures (the beginning of written characters) we find re- 
 presentations of all kinds of household and agricultural implements 
 and tools. As far back as 5000 years ago houses were built for shelter 
 as well as comfort, and graves aud monuments were in existence. 
 Outer aud inner, upper and lower garments, caps, shoes and 
 trinkets are probably as old. Both vegetable and animal food 
 
5 
 
 were used, and were prepared by cooking. Several industries were 
 carried on — weaving, working in stone and in metal, pottery and 
 ceramic art, joinery and other wood work. Goods were made of 
 bamboo, rushes and grass, fur and leather. Glaziers, builders, 
 armourers, tanners, rope makers, etc., were at work. Of the fine arts 
 music was largely practised, and eight kinds of instruments were 
 in use. Driving and shooting with the bow and arrow were re- 
 garded as an art. Skill in war was most highly prized. Until 
 lObO A. D. the Chinese excelled all surrounding lands in weapons, 
 in the organization of their armies and in military tactics. Medi- 
 cine was practised, and gradually about 1500 drugs came into use. 
 By cultivating the art of writing an extensive literature was greatly 
 developed, superior to that of the neighbouring lands. Gradually 
 painting, sculpture and the drama (acting) were developed. We 
 may mention also the important discoveries, some of which are more 
 than 2000 years old. The compass, gunpowder, printing, porcelain, 
 paper, pens and ink, woodcuts for illustrating and printing, brandy, 
 tea, perfume, fireworks, fans, mirrors, cosmetics, (rouge), umbrellas, 
 cookiug stoves, beds that could be heated, colours, sugar, oil, 
 mining and refining of gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, quicksilver, 
 cinnabar, iron, sulphur, alum, etc.; charcoal was mixed with earth, 
 pressed into moulds, and so prepared for cooking purposes. For 
 many centuries have been known the art of enameling, the use of 
 money, paper-money, canals, bridges, suspension bridges, high- 
 ways, weights and measures, scales, lanterns, lamps, varnish, lacquer, 
 embroidery, glass, horn and ivory goods, a state-calendar, state 
 newspaper, a postal service for governmental use as well as some 
 private post arrangements, hotels, water-clocks, astronomical in- 
 struments, machines for irrigation, etc. Horses, oxen, mules, donkeys, 
 yaks and sheep were used as beasts of burden. A few years ago I 
 had a list made from the great Chinese encyclopaedia of all the 
 natural and industrial products of China which are in use in modern 
 times, and I obtained 8093 names. Of grain 862, bamboo 257, 
 flowers and herbs 1972, vegetables 832, fruits aud other trees 1097, 
 birds 154, mammalia 251, scaled animals ( e.g fish, suakes, reptiles) 
 786, insects 297. Of industrial productions, mineral 263, botanical 
 151, animal 157. Of other human productions 654. Of the whole, 
 5020 belong to botany, 1848 to zoology, 1225 to industry. However, 
 many of the names can only be determined by comparing the different 
 articles. For this purposo a museum is indispensable. Many of 
 these products are unknown to other lands, and some of them 
 might perhaps become articles of commerce. Besides these there 
 are many more natural products, the value of which is still un- 
 known to the Chinese. 
 
6 
 
 IV. Organization of State. 
 
 Even in the earliest times in China ties of blood bound people 
 together in families. In course of several generations these 
 families grew into clans or tribes, of which the oldest father 
 was the natural head. In times of common danger probably a 
 number of clans united under one leader, who afterwards retain- 
 ed the dignity of chief for the common welfare. At first the 
 office was elective, the best man being chosen, but later on it 
 became hereditary. Yao, the first chief mentioned in the classics, 
 found it necessary to have helpers, and so chose capable men, each 
 of whom undertook some special business of state, consisting of 
 the superintendence of public works, such as the regulation of the 
 rivers and canals, supervision of workmen, of agriculture, instruction 
 in social duties, the administration of justice, the regulations of 
 forests and of religious observances, of music and singing. Special 
 care was bestowed on the calendar. As this was regulated by the moon 
 it had to be brought into accordance with the solar year, iu order to 
 maintain fixed seasons for agriculture, etc. Later on these old 
 institutions were changed to six Boards of Administration — those 
 of Civil Service, Finance, Ceremonies, War, Law and Public Works. 
 Each Board has two presidents and four vice-presidents. These are 
 controlled by two cabinets, which is composed of the chief secre- 
 tary’s office, four secretaries and two assistant-secretaries. Two of 
 these secretaries are Manchus. Ten councillors and about 200 
 other officials are attached. The imperial seals, twenty-five forms, 
 are preserved here. The chief cabinet council, which consists of the 
 heads of the Boards and of the other cabinets was only formed in 
 1730. Its resolutions are published in the Pekin Gazette. Mongolia, 
 Thibet, Hi and Turkestan are under the Foreign Office. Since Janu- 
 ary, 1861, all dealings with the Western Powers have been carried 
 on by the Foreign Office — the Tsung-li Yamen. It is estimated that 
 there are 20,000 officials of all grades employed in Pekin, three- 
 fourths of whom are Chinese and one-fourth Manchus. The divisions 
 of China Proper varied under different dynasties. During the pres- 
 ent century it is generally reckoned that there are eighteen prov- 
 inces, but recently Ili and Formosa have been counted in, so 
 that altogether there are twenty provinces. Of these only two — 
 Chili and Szchuen — have a viceroy each; thirteen provinces are 
 divided among six viceroys, and four are ruled by governors 
 only. As the eight viceroys are assisted by twelve governors 
 there are altogether twenty-four high dignitaries. There is a 
 viceroy over Manchuria, but it is governed iu a different way. More 
 
7 
 
 than 2,000 imperial officials are employed in the provinces. In 
 several respects the provincial administration is somewhat in- 
 dependent of the Central authority. The distances from Pekin 
 are in many cases too great, and the means of communication 
 too insufficient to enable this defect to be speedily remedied. 
 The telegraph has caused some improvement already. But the 
 need of a concentrated organization has been proved by the 
 late war with Japan. The fleet remained scattered, and only the 
 northern squadron came into action. It was the same with the 
 army. Even when different forces were united there was no united 
 generalship. As long as every high mandarin does what is right 
 in his own eyes, without reference to the general law, great success 
 is impossible. 
 
 The number of minor officials whom each mandarin appoints 
 according to his own will and pleasure, or who fill permanent local 
 posts (on account of their acquaintance with all local details 
 they are indispensable to the maudarin) is considerably greater than 
 the number of actual mandarins. Then too there are a great 
 number of candidates who are only waiting for an opportunity of 
 taking office. It is a strange fact that many local officials receive 
 no salary, and therefore have to provide for their own present 
 maintenance and future support. On the other hand, the imperial 
 officials are paid so badly that they too are obliged to depend on 
 perquisites. The natural result of this uncertain income is that the 
 thoughts of the officials are too much set upon getting money, and 
 in many cases all official action is directed towards this end. The 
 welfare of the people is neglected, and China’s position among the 
 other nations of the world only receives consideration when cir- 
 cumstances compel. 
 
 But the people tolerate the office of mandarin, because it is not 
 reserved to a privileged class, but is open to all, and, as often 
 happens, a peasant or an artisan can rise to the highest office if he 
 passes the prescribed examination. A hereditary aristocracy does 
 exist, but it is generally only of the same duration as the reign- 
 ing dynasty, and only descends to the eldest son. The descendants 
 of an emperor sink a degree in the social scale in every generation, 
 until they reach the rank of the common people. 
 
 Y. Local Administration. 
 
 Although theoretically the Emperor has absolute power, his 
 despotism, and unfortunately also ofteu his best plans, are considerably 
 hampered by the mandarins. In the same way, though the mandarius 
 have considerable scope for despotism, they also are somewhat 
 controlled by superiors, observed by their underlings, and all in turn 
 
8 
 
 by the people. The people find their natural representatives in the 
 graduates. Many of these men formerly filled some high office, but 
 retired either on account of the legal twenty-seven months of mourn- 
 ing for father or mother, or for other reasons. Naturally they possess 
 a great influence in their own immediate neighbourhood. Some 
 have the right of presenting memorials straight to the throne, and 
 thus their influence is very great in the local courts and also with the 
 viceroy of the province. 
 
 There is considerable organization among tbe people. The larger 
 families or clans have their own headmen and assembly places in the 
 ancestral halls, where sacrifices, feasts and gatherings take place. 
 The elders can administer punishments, chiefly corporal punishment. 
 The punishment of death is illegal, but is sometimes imposed. Ex- 
 pulsion from the community, which is equivalent to the loss of all civil 
 rights, is of frequent occurrence. Very often clans and villages 
 coincide, but there are some villages where the people are of different 
 clans, and either live in separate quarters, or intermingle. In such 
 cases the village elders are chosen from among the old and respected 
 men. The observance of many village customs, which are enforced 
 by the elders, prove a heavy tax on the poor, e.g., subscriptions to 
 idol festivals, public theatricals, extravagant expenditure at weddiugs, 
 and on the birth of sons, at funerals, etc. Those concerned are 
 often obliged to pawn or sell their houses and lands, or even to sell 
 their girls, in order to be able to conform to these absurd customs. 
 Once in debt the people are almost sure to be ruined, for the rate of 
 interest is very high, 36^ or more. In towns and in the larger 
 market places the merchants form guilds, i.e., tea, silk, drug and 
 money guilds. Artisans, such as joiners, tailors, barbers, etc., have their 
 guilds too. Some high graduate is generally at the head of these guilds 
 to act as the mandarin’s attorney. These guilds exercise considerable 
 influence on the members, on the general public and on the local 
 courts. Even thieves and beggars have their societies. Policemen 
 are nowhere to be seen. Watchmen are to be heard at night, and 
 also protect from thieves during the day. On the other hand, begging 
 is allowed to all. Cleanliness is quite a personal matter. Everyone is 
 allowed to sweep in front of his own door if so disposed, or to stand the 
 most objectionable pails outside if he please, as is often the case. 
 The dead are buried anywhere, but innumerable coffins are to be seen 
 in the fields or in the open spaces within the cities, and the smell 
 proves that they are not hermetically sealed. Everyone has a right 
 to make a noise in his own house, or in the street outside, by day or 
 night, without fear of police interference. As a rule roads and bridges 
 are allowed to fall into ruius. Here and there a philanthropic gentle- 
 man or a society have them put into repair, but these efforts are quite 
 
9 
 
 local. The custom houses are the plague of the country. This does 
 not refer to those in the ports where the customs are controlled by 
 foreigners. In the interior of the country the custom houses are 
 farmed, and unfortunately a great number have to be passed 
 on one highway, as on the Rhine in the good old days. 
 These custom houses also preveut foreign goods from entering 
 the interior. Passports mitigate the evil somewhat, but cannot re- 
 move it, as all goods must pass through the hands of Chinese 
 traders. Confucianists have no religious communities, but both 
 Buddhists and Taoists have monasteries. The priests and mouks 
 are subject to penal law and to the mandarins like the people. 
 
 VI Extracts front, the History of the Emperors of China . 
 
 When one reads in books about China that Taoism teaches 
 that temperateness and silent endurance are the highest virtues, 
 that Buddhism requires self-denial and the preservation of life, that 
 Confucianism inculcates love and justice which is united with 
 strict subordination, one concludes, and in fact often finds it stated, 
 that the Chinese are a peace-loving nation, that their history, their 
 social and political relations are far superior to those of the Christian 
 lands of the West. The following facts will furnish the impartial 
 reader with subject for thought, and probably cause many a pre- 
 conceived opinion to he considerably altered. 
 
 The last Emperor of the Chow dynasty died while in captivity to 
 one of his vassal princes in 256 B.O. In 227 B.C. an attempt on 
 the Emperor’s life failed. In 194 B.C. the first Emperor of the Han 
 dynasty died of the wounds received in a fight with a rebel. After 
 the death of a childless Emperor in 73 B.C. his nephew was placed 
 on the throne by one of the generals aud dethroned again in twenty- 
 seven days. In the year 6 A I). one of the chief ministers poison- 
 ed the reigning Emperor. In 25 A.D. the Emperor had to flee before 
 a victorious relative, but was caught and executed. In the year 
 A.D. 147 the young Emperor was poisoned by the brother of the 
 Dowager-Empress. In 190 both the Emperor and his mother were 
 dethroned, at first imprisoned in the palace and then put to death. 
 In 214 a general caused the Empress and her father to be put to 
 death, and then married his daughter to the Emperor. In 313 the 
 Emperor was dethroned by a powerful prince, and after a banquet 
 he, his generals and chief ministers were all executed. His succes- 
 sor also was put to death in 317. The same year the heir to the 
 throne and the whole reigning house were murdered by a general, who 
 was thereupon slain with all his family. From 328-333 there was 
 a succession of murders of claimants to the throne. These horrors 
 continued some decades until the formation of seven states, which 
 
10 
 
 made war upon each other. In 419 a general of the army murdered 
 his Emperor. Three ministers dethroned the Emperor in 424, and 
 soon after murdered him. His successor died by the hand of his own 
 son. In 465 one Emperor was murdered by an official, and another 
 by a general in 477. The same general forced the succeeding Em- 
 peror to abdicate in his favour, but soon after murdered him and 
 his whole family. In 494 a great-uncle murdered successively two 
 Emperors and then slaughtered seven cousins and seventeen great- 
 nephews. In 500 the Emperor was dethroned by his brother, and 
 the latter was poisoned a year later by the vice-gereut. Another 
 general shut the reigning Emperor up in his palace and starved 
 him to death in 549; murdered the heir, and the following Em- 
 peror in 551. This general, who made himself Emperor, was de- 
 feated in battle and then executed. The next Emperor lost his 
 throne and his life ; his son abdicated in favour of a pretender, 
 but nevertheless was put to death. In 568 an uncle had two minis- 
 ters murdered and dethroned the Emperor. In the year 588 the 
 Emperor had to take shelter in a well with some of the ladies of the 
 palace from the soldiers of an adjoining state, who had captured his 
 capital. He was discovered, aud died in captivity. A sensual 
 Emperor was murdered by a distant relation in 61 8, as were also 
 his son and successor only six months later. The same horrors went 
 on in the separate states. One of the Emperors of the Northern 
 Wei fell by the hand of one of his servants in 452. In 471 an Em- 
 press poisoned her husband the Ex-Emperor. The Dowager-Empress 
 poisoned her son, the reigning sovereign, in 528, and together with 
 the new Emperor was drowned by a general. On the latter being 
 killed by the succeeding Emperor the brother of the murdered 
 general had an uncle of the Emperor put on the throne, but had 
 him strangled in 531. He soon after dethroned the next Emperor 
 aud placed his cousin on the throne, who was shut up in a monas- 
 tery by a vice-gerent and poisoned. His successor was poisoned in 
 535 by another vice-gereut. In 559 twenty-five families belonging 
 to the dethroned Imperial house were cut off by a usurper, who in 
 his turn was a few months later dethroned and then murdered by 
 his uncle. 
 
 This kingdom was put an end to by a neighbouring state and 
 the reigning house annihilated. In 557 an Emperor tried to get rid 
 of a powerful minister, aud was himself disposed of by murderers. 
 His successor and half-brother was murdered by the same minister in 
 561, who, however, was beheaded by the next Emperor. Once again 
 in 581 the entire imperial family was exterminated. In 684 the 
 Empress’ mother dethroned her sou, and had hundreds of officials 
 as well as some members of the Imperial house executed. The 
 
11 
 
 Emperor was poisoned by his wife in 710, and in 821 the Em- 
 peror was removed by the eunuchs. A powerful minister mur- 
 dered the Emperor in 905, forced his successor to abdicate iu 906, 
 but caused him to be murdered also later on. Another Emperor 
 violated his sons’ wives, and so was murdered by his eldest sou in 913. 
 The son in his turn was murdered by his brother, who finally took his 
 own life, because he was shut up in the capital by an enemy. In 926 
 the Emperor lost his life in a fight with the seditious musicians of the 
 palace. A usurper dethroned the Emperor iu 934 and caused him 
 and his favourite wife with her four sons to be put to death, but 
 after reigning three years was himself overpowered by the son-in-law 
 of the murdered Emperor, and so burnt himself to death, with the 
 imperial seals. In 950 the Emperor was killed in action against the 
 troops of a rebellious geueral. In 960 a general was made Emperor 
 by his soldiers, and the six-year old child, then on the throne, was 
 deposed. In 1125 the ministers forced the Emperor to abdicate iu 
 favour of his son. The latter was carried into captivity with his wives 
 in 1126 by the Gold-Tartars. One of the Tartar (Kin) sovereigns was 
 murdered by his cousin in 1149, who also murdered his mother, uucle, 
 brothers and cousins and took their wives into his harem. He was 
 murdered by his own soldiers. A minister murdered the Emperor in 
 1213, and in 1234 the then Emperor killed himself out of despair. 
 In the same year the last of this dynasty was killed in battle, and his 
 body afterwards decapitated. In 1276 the Emperor and his mother 
 were taken prisoners by the Mongols and kept in captivity till their 
 death. The last Emperor of the Sung dynasty, his mother and a mi- 
 nister drowned themselves in the sea in 1279. In 1324 the Emperor 
 was murdered by the son of a miuister, who was therefore executed. Iu 
 1330 the Emperor was poisoned, presumably by his brother. The 
 last Mongol Emperor fled to Mongolia. A fearful massacre was per. 
 petrated by the Emperor’s uncle in 1402. The Emperor fled disguised 
 as a monk, and died iu prison. Another uncle was defeated in 1426. 
 In 1450 the Emperor was taken captive by Mongols and released iu 
 1451. There is a suspicion that the Emperor was poisoned by the 
 eunuchs in 1620. The last Emperor of the Ming dynasty hanged 
 himself in 1644. Is it not enough to make one’s hair stand on end 
 that such human beings, the majority of whom were of very small 
 importance, some of whom were criminals, and all of whom led more 
 or less immoral lives, should be called “sons of heaven,” “representa- 
 tives of God on earth” and also “the Buddhas of the present age”! 
 That they should have presumed to claim not only supreme power 
 over all the rulers of the world, but also over the invisible world, 
 and the power to bestow upon the dead offices and honours, or to 
 iuflict puuishmeut on corpses ! The History of the Chiuese Emperors 
 
12 
 
 is the most striking refutation of Confucianism. Wholesome reform 
 must, begin in the imperial palace, or all attempts at reformation will 
 prove vain. Let the reader take Chapters VII-IX to heart. 
 
 VII. The Imperial Women. 
 
 Polygamy was introduced by Yao, the first ideal Emperor of Con- 
 fucianism, when he gave both his daughters as wives to his successor. 
 But the system of the harem did not come into vogue till 10(J0 
 years later. As a rule ouly one wife was considered Empress, 
 though the Mongols and Tartars had several, until modern time, 
 when only one was legally appointed. 
 
 But besides this one the Emperor has nine wives of the second 
 rank, twenty-seven of the third, eighty-one of the fourth, and in- 
 numerable others of lower rank. Sometimes the number exceeds 
 10,000, and is seldom less than 2000 or 3000. Several h ave to 
 be in attendance every day, but are exchanged daily by others. 
 The Empress is the head of them all, but as long as the Emperor’s 
 mother lives, is under her authority. This superiority is only 
 nominal and connected with ceremonial etiquette, for generally 
 a favourite wife rules the Emperor, and consequent!}’ the palace, 
 and sometimes even the Empire. Some such examples are to 
 be found among the famous women of China. Confucius’ success 
 in Lu, his native country, was ruined by eighty pretty girls, 
 who had been sent as a present to the duke by a neighbouring 
 state. Confucius was no longer listened to, and so sorrow- 
 fully withdrew to other lands 495 B.C. The story of the mother 
 of the powerful Emperor who destroyed the tributary states of 
 China, and is known as the burner of books, is hardly credible. 
 His mother is supposed to have been the secondary wife of a 
 merchant, who gave her to the prince, and theu became the mother 
 of the heir to the throue. After her husband’s death she returned 
 to her first husband, but he, fearing to keep her, gave her to another 
 man. The latter was betrayed, aud the king ordered him to be 
 torn in pieces by five horses, his two sons to be killed, whilst the 
 mother was banished ; twenty-seven officials who interceded for her 
 were executed, but the king listened to the 28th and recalled the 
 mother. The infamous Empress Lu, 194 B.C., caused a secondary 
 wife to be mutilated in the most inhuman manner, and poisoned her 
 son. When her own son, the Emperor, died, she caused the son of 
 one of the palace ladies to be made Emperor, but killed his mother, 
 so as to retain all influence over him herself. Soon after, she 
 murdered the boy-Emperor and ruled alone from 187-179 B.C. 
 In the year 71 A.D. the then Empress fell ill. The wife of 
 
13 
 
 a minister, who wished her own daughter to become Empress, 
 bribed the female physician to administer poison to the patient, who 
 died. Later on the same woman plotted with her two nephews to 
 dethrone the Emperor and place her own son on the throne. The 
 plan failed, she and her nephews committed suicide, but her son 
 was taken prisoner and cut in two. In the year 102 A.D. an Em- 
 press was degraded on the charge of magic. The King of the 
 Southern State, who had his residence at Nanking, kept 5000 
 actresses in his palace. His kingdom was taken from him by the 
 founder of the Tsin dynasty. In the year 300 A.D. the heir, who 
 was the son of otie of the ladies of the palace, was poisoned by the 
 Empress. The Emperor took no steps in the matter, but his 
 brother forced an entrance into the palace with some soldiers, killed 
 the Empress and dethroned the Emperor, but was defeated and 
 slain by two other brothers. A lady of the palace suffocated the 
 Emperor in 396, because he wished to put her away. In 471 the 
 Ex-Emperor was poisoned by his wife, and in 528 another Empress- 
 mother poisoned her son, the reigning Emperor, because he blamed 
 her immoral life. Therefore she was drowned by a general. 
 The Emperor Yano, 605-617, travelled from one residence to another 
 with a retinue of 4(JOO palace ladies. The all-powerful Empress 
 Wu began her palace career as an inferior wife of the Emperor. 
 After the latter’s death his son and successor took her into his 
 harem. She succeeded in ingratiating herself so highly in his 
 favour that she was raised to the position of Empress. She caused 
 hundreds of officials to be put to death, the crowu prince to be set 
 aside and had his brother poisoned. She set up and dethroned two 
 Emperors and then reigned herself until 705. She lived with two 
 lovers, who were then put to death. The sacred Buddhist writing, 
 “ The Great Cloud Sutra,” was dedicated to this woman, and in it 
 she is called “Maitreya,” the coming Buddha. She ordered this 
 writing to be distributed throughout the realm, and bestowed several 
 public posts on Buddhist priests. 
 
 The following reigning Empress had intercourse with a nephew 
 of the former Empress. She poisoned the Emperor in 710, and was 
 put to death by his nephew. A princes, who intrigued against the 
 succession, was taken prisoner and forced to commit suicide. One of 
 the palace ladies brought about the execution of the Empress and her 
 three sons in 737. The famous Yang Kwei-fi completely ruled the 
 Emperor, but still kept her own lover. She was put to death by the 
 soldiers in 756. In 948 the Empress Li wisely advised her husband 
 to make use of the accumulated treasure in the palace instead of 
 laying on more taxes, which was done. But the equally good advice 
 of the Empress of a separate state, that the Emperor should give up 
 
14 
 
 his senseless extravagance, was not followed. The horrible atrocities 
 which were the outcome of the jealousy of the women of the palace is 
 illustrated by a story from about the year 1000. Lady Li gave birth 
 to a son. Lady Liu stole the child and substituted a skinned cat, 
 which she showed to the Emperor. The latter was so horrified that 
 he dismissed Lady Li. The hoy was given to a slave woman to he 
 thrown into the river. The slave was arrested by the head-eunuch, 
 who gave the child to the Emperor’s uncle to he secretly brought up. 
 Later on Lady Liu grew suspicious, and caused the slave to he flogged 
 by the head-eunuch, in order to wriug a confession from her. How- 
 ever the latter allowed herself to be tortured to death without con- 
 fessing. The eunuch perpetrated this cruelty in order to save himself 
 and the child. 
 
 The capable Empress of 1044 was forbidden by the Prime Min- 
 ister to interfere in the government. In 1092 the Empress was degra- 
 ded, aud a palace lady put in her place. In 1190 the Empress sowed 
 mistrust between the Emperor and his father the Ex-Emperor. In 
 West Liao the Emperor’s sister practically reigned for fourteen years, 
 as the Emperor was too young : hut she led an immoral life, and so was 
 put to death by her father-in-law, a general. The favourite wife of 
 Emperor Hien, 1465-1488, plotted against the life of every lady of 
 the palace who was likely to have children. She murdered the 
 mother of the heir to the throne, who was secretly brought up by 
 the eunuchs. In 1621 the nurse of the Emperor, whose mother 
 died soon after his birth, was in power, hut was executed in 1626. 
 
 The success of the Manchus in China may also be traced back 
 to a woman’s influence. The wife of General Wu San-kwei, who 
 afterwards became Viceroy of Yunnan, had been carried off by Li, 
 the leader of the rebels. The latter had already taken Pekiug, and 
 hoped that Wu would join him ; but iu revenge for this deed Wu 
 called in the help of the Manchus and drove out Li. Then Wu 
 helped the Manchus to subdue China. Later on he rebelled, and 
 his revolt was only put down after several years of bloodshed. Women, 
 specially the mothers and widows of the Emperors, have very often 
 held the reins of government in China, but although they have ruled 
 peacefully their rule has not resulted in the development of this 
 enormous Empire, which needs a very strong hand at the helm. 
 There is no salvation for China as long as the imperial palace remains 
 in its present horrible condition. 
 
 VIII. History of the Imperial Family. 
 
 As far back as the commencement of the Chow dynasty three 
 sons of the deceased king allied themselves with the brother of the 
 dethroned sovereign against their brother Duke Chow, who was 
 
15 
 
 ruling as minister for the young king. Their attempt failed, and the 
 eldest son was executed 1114 B. C. His younger half-brother 
 murdered the ruling Prince of Wei 719 B. 0., for which both he 
 and 1) is accomplices were beheaded in a neighbouring state. The 
 Prince of Lu paid a visit with his wife to her half-brother, who ruled 
 in the state of 'l’shi. The latter was guilty of incest with his half- 
 sister, and caused her husband to be murdered. As the state 
 demanded satisfaction for Lu’s death the murderer was executed. 
 The guilty Prince of Tshi was afterwards murdered by a relative, 
 who suffered the same fate at the hands of an official 685 B C. 
 A younger half-brother of the king conspired with some barbaric 
 tribes in 648 ; but his plan of making himself king was discovered, 
 and he fled, but later ou was pardoned. In 64 A five princes 
 struggled for the succession of the state of Tshi. The first who 
 gained the upper hand was murdered, and an adjoining state had 
 to interfere to restore order. In one of the small tributary states 
 a son murdered his reigning father, because he had settled the 
 succession on a brother. In 520 also, after the death of the Emperor, 
 two sons disputed the succession. In the year 440 B. C. the eldest 
 son succeeded to the throne, but three months after was murdered 
 by his brother, who five months later was also murdered by a younger 
 brother, who then reigned for fifteen years. The hereditary prince 
 who entered a remonstrance against the massacre of the scholars was 
 banished in the year 213, and later on forced to commit suicide. In 
 209 his brother had twelve of his brothers murdered, together with 
 the families of several leading statesmen. Two brothers of the 
 Emperor rebelled in 177 B. C., but were defeated ; one took his own 
 life, the other was banished. Seven princes belonging to the imperial 
 family rebelled in 155 and forced the Emperor to have his minister 
 executed. Later on they were defeated ; three committed suicide and 
 four were beheaded. In 91 B.G. the hereditary prince was degraded 
 on the charge of using magic arts, which were supposed to have 
 Caused the Emperor’s bad dreams. As the prince fled he was caught, 
 and both he and his mother were executed. One of the ladies of the 
 palace was raised to be Empress and her sou appointed heir to the 
 throne. But in 90 B. C., at the Emperor’s command, she was forced 
 to take her own life, as the Emperor feared that after his death she 
 might misuse her power. In 80 the Emperor’s elder brother and a 
 princess conspired with two statesmen against the Emperor, but the 
 plot was discovered, and they committed suicide, but the two officials 
 were executed. One of the Emperor’s relatives created jealousy 
 by his military achievements, so was murdered in 23 A.D. The 
 year 300 A.D. was a time of horror. The Empress poisoned the 
 heir, the Emperor’s brother forced his way iuto the palace with 
 
18 
 
 soldiers, killed the Empress, banished the Emperor and ascended 
 the throne. Two other brothers made war ou and slew this brother 
 and restored the Emperor. Auother brother grew jealous of the 
 eldest of these two, so had him murdered by a fifth brother, who 
 lost his life at the hands of the other two. One of these fell in 
 battle with another, and finally still another brother, the 25th sou 
 of the Emperor, ascended the throne. The brother of the deceased 
 king of a separate state set aside the heir in 338 and took the throne 
 himself, but was overcome by a relative, who took his place. Similar 
 events happened in the year 349 in another state. The king was put 
 to death by his uncle, who seized the throne, but was murdered by 
 a relative six mouths later. The murderer fell by the hand of an 
 official after two months. This man caused the royal family to be 
 exterminated. Two years later he was defeated by an adjoining 
 state and executed. In 355 a king, who had cruelly slain many 
 people, was murdered by his cousin. In the northern kingdom the 
 Emperor was killed by a relative in 409, who was murdered by the 
 Emperor’s son. In 453 the Emperor wished to degrade his son and 
 heir, who thereupon murdered his father and ascended the throne, 
 but two months later was made prisoner and executed by his third 
 brother. In the year 465 the Emperor placed thirty-six young men 
 at the disposal of his sister, and was murdered a few months after. 
 The Emperor’s nephew assumed the imperial title in 466, but being 
 taken prisoner by the Emperor’s brother he was beheaded. The 
 Emperor adopted the son of one of his favourites and caused a 
 number of his family, who had nearer claims to the throne, to be 
 murdered. In 494 a great-uncle murdered the Emperor, and three 
 months later his brother and successor ; he then ascended the 
 throne, and had seven cousins and seventeen great-nephews put to 
 death. The Emperor was dethroned by his uncle in 568, who then 
 murdered two ministers and took the throne. The crown prince 
 poisoned his father, who wished to appoint another son as his 
 successor, and also two ministers. As Emperor he was the greatest 
 profligate. A degraded crown prince conspired with another brother, 
 but lost his life in 627. In 710 the Emperor’s sou broke into the 
 palace with soldiers and killed the Ex-Empress who had poisoned 
 her husband. A princess who plotted to set a prince of the direct 
 line on the throne in 713 was condemned to take her own life. 
 The Emperor’s eldest sou, who had not beeu appointed heir, 
 murdered his father in 761. In 913 the Emperor defiled his sous’ 
 wives while they took his part against a rival. For this deed the 
 eldest brother murdered his father, but was himself killed by his 
 fourth brother, who ascended the throne and shared the general ruin 
 of the state ten years later. In 926 an Emperor caused his three 
 
17 
 
 brothers with their mother to be put to death, so that they could 
 not dispute the throne which he had illegally gained by the help of 
 the ministers. In the same state an adopted son of the former 
 Emperor drove out the sou and successor and had him assassinated 
 with his wife and four sons. The son-in-law of the murdered Emperor 
 called in the help of the Tartars against the usurper, who burnt 
 himself to death in a tower with the imperial insignia. In the free 
 state Tshn the king was murdered by his brother in 961. As the 
 latter ruled most tyrannically he was incarcerated, and his brother 
 put in his place. But he did no better, and was conquered by a 
 neighbouring state in 962. A veritable monster of cruelty ruled the 
 Southern Han state for twenty-five years. His sou succeeded him 
 without observing any mourning for his father and was murdered 
 by his brother in the following year. The latter endeavoured to 
 surpass his father in cruelty ; this state ceased to exist in 971. In 
 933 the king of the free state of Min was murdered by his brother, 
 who was soon after killed by his own son, who three years later was 
 killed by his uncle, who was also assassinated. The assassin was 
 ruined by the fall of the state in 946. The sovereign of the free state 
 of Yen had his father imprisoned, his eldest brother murdered, and 
 assumed the title of Emperor in 911 ; but in 916 was conquered by 
 the founder of auother free state, and he and his whole family were 
 put to death. 
 
 In the year 976 the brother of the founder of the great Sung 
 dynasty ascended the throne on the wish of the Empress, as his 
 nephews were too young. But later this prince appointed his own 
 son as heir, and by ill-treatment forced his nephews to commit 
 suicide. In the free state of West-Hia, Tanguts, in the present 
 province of Kansuh, the reigning king was murdered by his son in 
 1G48, because he had taken his betrothed. In 1206 the king was 
 murdered by his brother. In 1149 the ruler of the Gold-Tartars was 
 murdered by his cousin, who also murdered his mother, his uncle, his 
 brothers and cousins. The wives of the latter he took into his harem. 
 In 1403 the Emperor of the Mings was driven out by his uncle, 
 and his two-year old son imprisoned. When after fifty-four years the 
 boy was released he had lost his reason. A prince of the Imperial 
 house revolted in 1519, but was captured and executed. In 1570 
 a Mongolian prince stole his nephew’s wife. The nephew went 
 himself to the court of the Emperor, but seems to have received 
 presents instead of justice. 
 
 In 1803 an attempt was made to take the life of the Emperor 
 Kia-hing. A number of the Emperor’s relatives were found to be 
 among the conspirators. In 1813 the Emperor was attacked in the 
 palace, and again princes were implicated ; many were put to 
 
18 
 
 death, and several hundred connections of the imperial family were 
 banished. The Emperor Tao-kwang’s sou died in 1831 at the age of 
 twenty from a blow inflicted by his father. The Emperor’s elder 
 brother eudeavoured to seize the throne in 1831. but failed. A 
 similar attempt in 1850 also proved a failure. In 1861 the govern- 
 ment of eight princes of the Imperial house was overthrown by a 
 palace conspiracy, headed by Prince Kuug and tbe widowed Em- 
 presses. The eight princes were taken prisoners ; one was publicly 
 beheaded, the others were privately allowed the use of the silk-cord 
 (straugulation). 
 
 IX. The Eunuchs. 
 
 The evil practice of keeping eunuchs seems to have beeu 
 introduced into China iu the beginning of the Chow dynasty, 
 1100 B. C., probably when the imperial harem was established. 
 This practice was naturally followed by all the tributary princes. 
 Castration was one of the five legal corporal punishments. Later on 
 it was inflicted not only on criminals, but on hoys who were bought, 
 or who were destined to this fate by their parents. Some parents 
 hoped to gain influence in the palace by this means. History 
 records nothing but evil of these men. But still there may be and 
 have beeu some noble characters among them, but these are the 
 rare exceptions. In any case much moral strength is needed to be 
 able to bear such a fate with resignation ; as a general rule the 
 natural disposition is embittered, and all evil passions roused by a 
 desire to take revenge on society. A few examples will suffice. 
 
 A feudal prince about 651 B. C. had a favourite wife and a 
 favourite eunuch. The latter was offended by the hereditary priuce. 
 He therefore poisoned the lady’s mind against the heir by lies. She 
 at last accused the priuce to his father of having designs against 
 herself, whereupon the prince ordered the eunuch to behead his sou ; 
 but the sou fled and escaped with difficulty. After his father’s 
 death he ascended the throne, and at once had the eunuch’s head 
 cut off. About the year 250 B. C. the Emperor kept 3000 beautiful 
 women. Among his eunuchs was one who became notorious. 
 First he helped the minister to get rid of the heir to the throne, and 
 then got rid of the minister. Iu 207 he dethroned and killed the 
 Emperor, but was thereupon murdered himself. China’s most 
 celebrated historian suffered castration by the Emperor’s orders iu 
 100 B. C., merely because he had brought forward a humane petitiou. 
 In the year 92 the Emperor caused the murder of a powerful 
 general by the help of a eunuch, and similarly iu 159 A.D. another 
 minister and his whole family were assassinated. At the instigation 
 of the eunuchs a scholar was put to death with over 100 of his 
 
19 
 
 pupils. In 190 the eunuchs murdered the brother of the Emperor, 
 but were all. it is said, to the number of 10, 000 butchered by his 
 soldiers The daughter of oue of the ministers was one of the 
 Emperor’s secondary wives, 300 A.l). The Emperor was to' be murder- 
 ed, in order to place his son on the throne. A eunuch introduced the 
 murderer into the palace, but the scheme failed, and so the eunuch 
 had the would-be murderer secretly poisoned, lest anyone should be 
 betrayed. In 722 a eunuch was sent to restore order in Auuam, 
 which he succeeded in doing. At the same time another eunuch 
 helped the dissolute Emperor to carry on his extravagances for fifty 
 years. A powerful eunuch caused the Empress and her two 
 sous to be murdered in 762, but a year later was secretly as- 
 sassinated at the instigation of the Emperor. One Emperor 
 was secretly got rid of by the eunuchs in 821, and in 827 another 
 Emperor was murdered while in a state of intoxication, and his 
 brother likewise. The following Emperor wished to break the 
 power of the eunuchs, but the latter forestalled him, butchered two 
 ministers with their 1000 (or 3000 ?) followers, and in 841 dethron- 
 ed the Emperor. They endeavoured to keep his successor under 
 their influence by providing, him with amusements. In conjunction 
 with a powerful vice-gereut they murdered the ministers and ten 
 priuees in the year 900. The Emperor wishing to interpose was 
 carried away captive, and only released after two months by an 
 officer, who had to kill the head-eunuch and some of the others. 
 The musicians of the palace, who slew the Emperor in 926, were 
 also eunuchs. In the year 1064 they sowed discord between the 
 Emperor and his mother, with the result that the latter had to 
 withdraw from the government. In 1403 a eunuch was sent on 
 a voyage of inquiry to Siam and Bengal, another to Java and 
 Sumatra aud a third to Thibet to invite the chief Lama to 
 Peking. 
 
 When in 1410 the Emperor set out on a hunting expedition he 
 commanded General Kang Ping to keep watch over his palace. As 
 the hitter feared evil reports he became a eunuch, and so was able 
 to refute the accusations which were eventually brought against him 
 on the Emperor’s return. The Emperor made him his head-eunuch, 
 aud after his death placed him among the gods. From that time 
 the eunuchs have considered him their guardian and have built a 
 special temple to his memory. 
 
 In 1443 the whole state government fell into the bauds of a 
 eunuch. Iu 1510 a conspiracy was discovered, headed by the 
 favoured eunuch, who was therefore beheaded with all his adherents 
 aud his head exposed to public view. In 1552 a eunuch caused the 
 death of the Emperor’s son-iu-law by false accusations. The 
 
 
20 
 
 Emperor’s daughter explained matters, and the eunuch was wrapped 
 iu cotton wool aud slowly burnt to death. Another eunuch opened 
 the gates of Peking to the rebel Li, but was rewarded by having his 
 head cut off. About the year 1621 there were 12,000 eunuchs iu 
 the palace. Some of them became very wealthy ; one kept over 
 10,000 horses, aud another had amassed 140,000 pounds of gold, 
 sixteen million pounds of silver, two quarts of diamonds, two golden 
 cuirasses aud more than 4000 girdles set with precious stones. In 
 1628 a head-eunuch anticipated his execution by taking poison. 
 His body was torn in pieces by the people, aud several temples 
 which had been dedicated to him were pulled down. Another 
 eunuch was made commander of the army against the Mauchus, 
 but took bribes, aud so was strangled. Iu 1662 a head-eunuch was 
 beheaded and 4000 of his colleagues driven out of the palace. A 
 law was passed that in the future no eunuch should be allowed to 
 hold office, but nevertheless iu the time of Kienluug eunuchs were 
 as imperious as ever. In 1736, at the instigation of au influential 
 minister, all the eunuchs were examined, aud many re-castrated, the 
 majority of whom died. The eunuchs were implicated in the 
 conspiracy of the “ White Feather Society,” which was almost 
 successful iu 1814, and over 106 of them were beheaded. Iu more 
 recent times the boys of distinguished rebel leaders were made 
 eunuchs, as for example Jakub Beg’s sons. Recently one who had 
 been forced by his parents, when twelve years old, to become a 
 eunuch, and belonged to the Dowager Empress, made himself famous. 
 The Empress allowed him a great deal of money and liberty. In 
 1867 with a retinue of thirty people he made au excursion into the 
 province of Shantung, but the whole company were captured by the 
 governor and executed by order of Prince Ivuug. After the death 
 of Tungchi iu 1874 the eunuchs endeavoured to get control of the 
 government, but the head-eunuchs were put to death by the 
 widowed Empress. 
 
 According to law the Emperor keeps 3000 eunuchs in the palaces 
 for various purposes. It is asserted (Stent, Journal C. B. Royal As. 
 S., Yol. XI) that at present there are not more than 2000. 
 Besides these each son and each daughter of the Emperor has 
 thirty eunuchs in his or her household. Each nephew of the 
 Emperor has twenty, each grandson ten, a great-grandson six and 
 his sous and each great-great-grandson of an Emperor, of whom 
 there must be a great number, four each. The hereditary nobility, 
 i.e., the descendants of the dignitaries who helped the Manchus to 
 conquer China, are not only allowed, but bound to keep twenty 
 eunuchs iu each family. There are also eighteen eunuchs in the 
 palace who discharge the office of Lama priests. They receive 
 
21 
 
 a double salary, but are mostly very ignorant men. Over 300 
 eunuchs are actors. The rest are divided iuto forty-eight classes, 
 each with a head-man, but are all under one chief eunuch. Most 
 of the eunuchs smoke opium, and so there are 7 or 8 opium-halls 
 iuside the palace walls. They all gamble and spend most of their 
 free time in these worthless pursuits. 
 
 Every three years a number of girls, between fourteen and six- 
 teen years of age (the daughters of banner-men), enter the palace as 
 embroiderers. They remain for five years, but wear men’s clothing, 
 and then are sent home with a present. Some services are also per- 
 formed by older women. 
 
 After perusing these three chapters on the “ History of the 
 Chinese Imperial Palace ” one might well echo the words of the poet 
 and say, “ The history of the world is the judgment of the world,” 
 and “all sin finds its own reward in the world.” Would it not be 
 the best thing that could be done for China to rid her of this sink 
 of iniquity? Would it not prove a far-sighted policy to compel 
 the Imperial Court to spend the enormous sums of money which 
 are now rotting in this plague-spot in improving the means of 
 communication by water and by high roads ? The Chinese people 
 (uot their lie-goats) would welcome such a deed. 
 
 X. Ministers and Officials. 
 
 The impression left on the mind of the unprejudiced reader by 
 the number of books about China, is, that the majority, if uot all the 
 state officials, must be exceptionally learned and intelligent men, as 
 they have been able to pass the stiff state-examinations, and also 
 that they are full of the wisdom and morality of Confucius. For 
 this morality chiefly affects personal character, causing men to act 
 suitably in all conditions of life, and also causing unconditional 
 obedience to the commands of superiors, specially of the Emperor. 
 But Chinese history does not at all confirm this supposition. 
 Really capable and trustworthy higher officials have also been the 
 exception, villains have been the rule. But the great majority were 
 of little importance, either for good or ill. They lived, discharged 
 their duties to their own satisfaction and that of their superiors, 
 made provision for au innumerable posterity and then died. Since 
 then their graves cumber up the land and hinder progress. 
 
 Only a very few examples can here be mentioned from the 
 classical period, but many more could be found in the “ Spring- 
 Autumn ” time of Confucius. In the tributary state of Sung, 682 
 B. C., a general murdered the reigning prince for an insult he had 
 received. In 606 B. C. the prince of another tributary state was 
 murdered by his minister’s nephew. In the Tshi state, 547 B. C., 
 
22 
 
 the minister of state murdered his sovereign, and then also three 
 chroniclers, because they insisted on recording the crime in the 
 aunals. In 505 B. C. a general had the body of the King of Tslm 
 taken out of its coffin and beaten, because the king had caused his 
 father to be executed. In 480 a minister in Tshi assassinated the 
 prince, because the latter wished to banish the minister’s powerful 
 family (clan). In the neighbouring state of Tsin three ministerial 
 families seized and divided the state amnug themselves, aud in 402 
 B. 0. were rewarded by the Emperor with their prize. The minister 
 of one of the feudal-states was assassinated by a paid murderer. 
 In 390 the reigning prince of Tslii was dethroned by his minister, 
 who seized the throne aud fixed his succession in his own family. In 
 the feudal state of Tshin a good minister was accused of high 
 treason. He fled to a neighbouring state, but was given up and 
 torn in pieces by five horses in 324. In the northern state of Yen 
 the prince was forced to abdicate in his minister’s favour 313 B. O. 
 The adjoining state. Tshi, took advantage of the confusion caused to 
 invade Yen, and both prince aud minister were put to death. At 
 that time two ministers became famous by making an alliance 
 between several states, but nothing permanent was achieved. A 
 faithful minister drowned himself in 298. because he was superseded, 
 a.ud this is the origin of the well known feast of the dragon-boats. 
 Twenty-seven councillors were executed one after the other, and yet 
 the 28th had the courage to give the self-same advice, viz., to recall 
 the mother of the Emperor, and his advice was followed. A few 
 years later the minister of this Emperor committed suicide in exile, 
 aud another minister was imprisoned aud then poisoned. The 
 hereditary prince and a meritorious general were got rid of by the 
 powerful minister Li in 209. He himself was later on put to death 
 with his entire family. In 209 several high state officials were put 
 to death with their families, merely on the suspicion of not approving 
 the succession. In the same year several captaius of the army 
 began to lay claim to the title of king, and fought over it for ten 
 years. Even the first Emperor of the Han dynasty had to wage 
 war with such would-be kings to the end of his reign, 194 B. C. 
 He had several put to death. The southern province, Canton, and 
 other districts made themselves almost independent under a similar 
 king, but were subdued and divided up in 113. The family of the 
 general who surrendered to the Huns, aud for whom the historian 
 mentioned above interceded, was sentenced to death in the year 99 
 B. C. Two officers of state wished to murder the minister and 
 dethrone the Emperor in 80, but were found out and executed. 
 The office of minister was held by the family of the Emperor’s mother 
 from 32 B. C. — 23 A.D. The last of this ministerial dynasty was 
 
23 
 
 overthrown by a rising, during which the palace was burnt dowu 
 and the minister was cut to pieces while attempting to flee. Many 
 faithful statesmen were put to death by the brother of the Dowager 
 Empress. He raised fifty-seveu of his owu relatives to high 
 offices, but by the Emperor’s orders botli he and his family were 
 killed by soldiers. During the years 184-265 almost incessant 
 war was carried on between the different generals. The empire 
 was divided into three, and during that time the rebels of the yellow 
 turban devastated the land for several years. In 322 the commander- 
 in-chief of the army marched against the capital, aud the Emperor 
 died of fright. Another commander followed his example in 327, 
 but fell in a severe fight in 328. In 356 an official murdered the 
 Emperor and his whole family, but was put to death in 352. Iu 
 371 a powerful general dethroned the Emperor and set up his 
 nephew. In 420 another minister founded a new dynasty ; after 
 having murdered one Emperor, forced another to abdicate, and put 
 several state officials out of the way. Three ministers dethroned 
 and murdered the Emperor in 424, but were put to death by his 
 successor. The commander-in-chief of the army murdered the 
 Emperor in 477, forced his successor to abdicate, took possession of 
 the throne in 476 and then murdered the ex-Emperor and family. In 
 566 many high officials were put to death, simply because the 
 Emperor did not like them. One general imprisoned the Emperor 
 iu his own palace and starved him to death iu 549. The same man 
 had the Emperor’s adopted son and the following Emperor 
 murdered. He set up the latter’s brother, than dethroned him, and 
 in 551 ascended the throne himself, but was defeated aud executed. 
 Iu 557 a high official caused his rival to be put to death, dethroned 
 the Emperor, forced the one whom he had himself set up to abdicate 
 aud then founded a new dynasty. In 613 insurrections broke out in 
 many places and robber bands harrassed the country. At that time 
 China was divided into various states, but all were iu the same 
 condition. Thus in another state a general drowned the Emperor 
 and his mother in 528, but was assassinated iu 530 at the instigation 
 of the new Emperor. Thereupon his brother had the Emperor 
 strangled, set up aud again dethroned a successor, but being con- 
 quered by other vice-gereuts, committed suicide iu 531. A vice- 
 gerent poisoned the Emperor in 535, and his sou dethroned the 
 next Emperor iu 550 and founded a new dynasty. Several other 
 short-lived dynasties were founded about this time by rebel ministers. 
 In 557 a powerful minister had his Emperor assassinated, because 
 he wished to remove him from office. He also murdered his 
 successor, but was put to death himself in 572. Iu 618 there were 
 eleven rebel leaders, calling themselves emperors or kings ; three 
 
24 
 
 more were added in 622, but all were subdued by the founder 
 of the great Tang dynasty. In 690 the Dowager Empress caused 
 hundreds of officials to be put to death. Five of the highest officers 
 of state were beheaded by the Empress in 710. Iu 756 an officer 
 and favourite conquered the capital and took the title of Emperor, 
 but was murdered by his own sou in the following year. He in his 
 turn was assassinated by one of his underlings, who ascended the 
 throne. He was murdered by bis son, aud the latter again by an 
 underling in 763. In 762 the Empress aud her two sous were 
 murdered by a minister, who was therefore assassinated by the 
 Emperor’s orders. Several vice-gerents rebelled in 784 aud also iu 
 815. A celebrated minister, who had addressed the Emperor to give 
 up his faith iu Buddhist superstitions, was degraded and sent to a 
 distant post in 820. Thereupon a riot occurred in the army in 822, 
 aud several vice-gerents were murdered. The same thing happened 
 iu 860 and again in 868. A rebellion raged from 874-878, before 
 the rebel masses could be dispersed aud the leaders executed ; but 
 again the rebels collected, and under their new leader seized the 
 capital, which was not re-taken till 883. Thereupon the dissatisfied 
 rebels murdered their leader, but continued to exist as small bands 
 of robbers till the beginning of the 10th century. Several vice- 
 gerents were at war with oue another from 890 onwards, which 
 finally led to the downfall of the dynasty. Thirty officers of state 
 and nine imperial princes were put to death by the pretender to the 
 throne ; but a war lasting fifty years was carried ou by five short 
 dynasties. In 925 several officials who had ventured to remonstrate 
 with the Emperor were executed. In 925 the commander of the 
 guard took part in a palace insurrection, and so lost his life. In 
 901 a vice-gereut founded a new dynasty, which was overthrown by 
 its minister, who assumed the title of Emperor. In 948 the Emperor 
 had three unimpeachable ministers executed, only because they 
 opposed the giving of offices of state to retired military men. Two 
 geuerals were executed in 955 for want of success. Between the 
 years 890 and 979 twelve states asserted their independence at the 
 instigation of ambitious vice-gerents, which caused much bloodshed. 
 In 937 a minister dethroned two Emperors and ascended the throne. 
 At the commencement of the great Sung dynasty, 960, there were 
 still six independent states which had to be conquered. Free- 
 booters overran the south of China in 1042, and in the north there 
 was war from 1039-1044 with a state which was endeavouring to 
 make itself independent. The king cf this state, whose father had 
 been rewarded by the Emperor with the title of king, refused to 
 recognize the overlordship of China. Iu 1092 the clever minister 
 Wang An sclie brought about the dismissal aud banishment of more 
 
25 
 
 than 800 officials, so as to be able to put into office men wbo would 
 be tools for the carrying out of his own plans. The same method 
 was adopted by the imperial councillors in 1 101, which gained for 
 them the name of the sis robbers. In 1127 the gold-Tartars set up 
 a state official as Emperor of China, but be encountered such 
 universal opposition that he promptly resigned the throne. In 1140 
 a minister threw suspicion on a victorious general, and caused him 
 and his whole family to be executed. At the same time the imperial 
 troops suffered a great defeat from the gold-Tartars, brought about 
 by the disagreement of the commander-in-chief and a high officer. 
 In 1195 one minister intrigued against another, and consequently the 
 famous Clm Hi was deposed from office. A military officer, who 
 went over to the Tartars in 1206 and wished to deliver up four 
 Chinese districts, was murdered by his soldiers. In the same year 
 the Prime Minister was beheaded and his head sent into the Tartar 
 camp as the cause of the trouble. In 1225 the crown prince 
 was poisoned by tho minister, and in 1321 an upright minister was 
 murdered by several officials. In 1348 bands of rebels were organ- 
 ized, which resulted in the fall of the dynasty in 1367. Peace was 
 not universally restored till 1371. In 1381 a fresh insurrection had 
 to be quelled in Yunnan. In 1403 several officials and their families 
 were executed, because they would not submit to a usurper as 
 Emperor. A distinguished minister was calumniated after his 
 death in 1580, and so his family were banished and their property 
 confiscated. 
 
 In 1629 two separate rebellions broke out under different 
 leaders and the famous pirate Koxiuga fought against the Em- 
 peror, which led to the downfall of the dynasty in 1644. Struggles 
 with different claimants to the throne lasted till 1672. The father of 
 the pirate and conqueror of Formosa, who had submitted in 1648, was 
 put to death with two sons in 1661, because he could not force his 
 sou Koxinga to submit. Ivoxinga died in 1681, and his son surren- 
 dered himself and Formosa in 1683. During the Emperor’s minority 
 one of the regents was accused of high treason. Kanghi, who though 
 only fourteen years old, had taken the government into his own hands, 
 had him and his family executed in 1667. The Viceroy of Yunuau, 
 who had done most to establish the supremacy of the Manchus, re- 
 volted in 1673. After his death the struggle was carried on by his 
 grandsou till the latter committed suicide on the loss of his head- 
 quarters. All officers and officials connected with him were put to 
 death, some with torture. In Turkestan there were many distur- 
 bances. From 1691-1697 the Emperor had to wage war with the 
 Eleuts. The Chinese owed their success eutirely to the want of 
 union in the enemy’s camp. The enemy’s leader, Galdan, had 
 
26 
 
 murdered liis brother and taken possession of his brother’s son’s 
 betrothed. The nephew revenged himself by attacking him, and 
 later on by making an alliance with the Chinese. When at last, 
 Galdan poisoned himself Kanghi insisted on his body being given 
 up, and had his remains scattered abroad. Later on this nephew 
 also made war on China, conquered and plundered Lhassa iu 1709 
 and defeated the Chinese at Hami, so that a new Mauchu army was 
 required to reconquer Hami. He maintained his authority till his 
 death, which took place in 1727. His son ruled his territory with 
 great skill. The Chinese made war upon him without success from 
 1729-1734, but after his death in 1745 troubles broke out in his 
 camp. The Chinese Emperor sent an array of 150,000 men, 
 which was at first successful, but was afterwards destroyed. The 
 chief commander was executed by the enemy, and four generals 
 were sent to Pekin to be judged for their want of success. The 
 district was not subdued till 1759. A slight rebellion took place 
 in 1764. In 1812 disturbances began, which ended in a revolt in 
 1822. Kashgar was lost, but later on reconquered, aud the leader 
 executed. 
 
 In 1721 a revolt occurred in Formosa. The capital was taken 
 and all officials put to death; order was only restored by troops 
 from the mainland. Another rebellion took place iu 1786 and 
 lasted till the leader was captured and executed in 1787. The 
 Viceroy of Yunnan was summoned to Pekin and executed in 1746, 
 because he had failed to put down robberies. Much bloodshed was 
 caused in 1771 by the revolt of the Miaotsz. The leader submitted, 
 on the Emperor’s promise of pardon, but was nevertheless executed 
 in Pekin with his family. The general who was victorious iu the 
 Pamir fell into disgrace, and was publicly executed without any 
 given reason. In 1749 the Thibetans rose aud massacred the 
 Chiuese, but were soon conquered. A minister of state, having 
 amassed eighty million of taels, was beheaded on that account in 
 1796. Secret societies made attempts on the Emperor’s life iu 
 1803 and 1813. Iu 1830 insurrections broke out both in Formosa 
 and Hainan. The revolt of the Miaotsz in 1832 was only with 
 difficulty suppressed. In 1836 there were fresh disturbances in 
 Kashgar. Pirates made their appearance round Cautou in 1849. 
 During the years 1850-1864 the Taiping rebellion desolated several 
 provinces, and at the same time the Nietifei made trouble iu 
 some of the northern provinces. The Mohammedan Panthays 
 conquered Yunnan during 1855-1873, but they were put down 
 by a treacherous massacre iu the capital, when 30,000 were 
 murdered. Shausi and the neighbouring districts were devas- 
 tated by a contemporary Mohammedan rebellion of the Tungaui 
 
in 1862-1878. Jacob Beg made himself independent in Kashgar 
 in 1866-1877. 
 
 After reading this sketch the reader will be inclined to acknow- 
 ledge that China is in need of more important tliiugs than modern 
 weapons and machines. Above all she stauds in need of trust- 
 worthiness and moral uprightness in her officials. 
 
 XI. On the History of Civilization in China. 
 
 In the remotest times the condition of things socially was 
 patriarchal, the head of the family became the head of the tribe. 
 The head of the most powerful tribe, aided by favourable circum- 
 stances, gradually assumed a kind of supremacy over the other tribal 
 heads. The Chow rulers who belonged to a princely family, but 
 seized the supreme power by violence in 1120 B.C., gradually 
 constituted fifty-five hereditary dependent princes, thus the feudal 
 states were formed, and their rulers gradually forced the aborigines 
 to submit to their lordship and civilization, but they carried ou 
 almost incessant war one with another for several centuries till in 
 230 B.C. they were all absorbed into one. In the early days officials 
 were appointed to carry out the chief duties of the state (see above 
 Chapter IV). A clever minister of one of the leadiug feudal states 
 greatly increased the prosperity of his country in 680 B.C. by 
 encouraging new branches of iudustry, the produce of salt, mining, 
 etc., and also by extending the highways of commerce; but the 
 barbarity of these feudal princes is proved by the action of the chief, 
 who caused one of the priuces to bo slaughtered and sacrificed instead 
 of the usual auimal, simply because he came late to the assembly. 
 When the next chief of the feudal princes died in 623 B.C. one of 
 his sons, three children of the family and 177 other people, either living 
 or dead, were lowered into his grave in order to wait upon him in the 
 world below. This barbarous custom was abolished iu 220 by the 
 Emperor, who was branded with the name of the Burner of Books, but 
 was revived during the Ming period and then agaiu abolished in 1457. 
 In 371 a capable miuister in the state of Ts’iu endeavoured to bring 
 about a reform iu administration aud iu the finance system. He 
 introduced a system of taxation iu the place of the former socage, but 
 unfortunately it must have soon fallen into disuse, for the attempt 
 was reuewed iu 1070. He also recognized the necessity of fixed 
 official salaries, and made every ten families mutually responsible for 
 each other’s good behaviour ; and he divided the state into districts, 
 etc. He acted on the principle that severity of punishment deters 
 from crime. A universal disarming of the people was ordered in 
 219 B.C. The law which made the whole family suffer with a criminal 
 
28 
 
 was disannulled in 179 B.C., but, as innumerable examples prove, it is 
 still put into force. The right of coining money was granted to the 
 people in 177. At the same time forced military service was abolish- 
 ed, and instead military colonies were established on the borders. The 
 sale of offices of state is first mentioned about this date. It is said to have 
 taken place again in the year 1333 in order to raise money to buy rice 
 for the number of poverty-stricken people. Unfortunately the custom 
 of buying offices aud titles is still followed to raise funds for the allevia- 
 tion of crying needs. A sad proof of the want of charity aud benevolent 
 feeling in China! The punishment of mutilating noses, ears aud feet 
 was abolished in 167 and the bastonade and cutting off the hair 
 substituted. Capital punishment was limited, and universal mourn- 
 ing for the sovereign reduced to three days. An academy of learning 
 was founded in 136 and professors were appointed. It seems that this 
 soon failed, but was re-started in 502 and again in 640. The state 
 examinations date back to the year 134 B.C. The vine was introduced 
 into China from the West in 112 B.C. An exploring expedition into 
 the West occupied ten years. The recently created feudal states 
 were abolished again in 113. Computation of time, i.e., the calendar, 
 was again brought into accordance with the twelve musical tones in 
 104. Such harmony of the universe is oue of the axioms of Con- 
 fueian philosophy. The examination of accused persons by torture 
 was forbidden in 67 B.C. (but is still practised). In 53 a pavilion 
 was erected in the imperial gardens, in which the portraits of 
 eminent statesmen were preserved. Also in 627 A.D. the Emperor 
 had the portraits of twenty-four of his councillors hung up in oue of 
 bis palaces. 
 
 The old agrarian system of the equal division of the land (the 
 system of nine fields) was re-introduced in the year 9 A.D., and at the 
 same time slavery was legally abolished (but still exists). Mongolian 
 nomadic tribes were made to settle down, aud were then grauted 
 equal rights with the Chinese, and even allowed to enter Chinese 
 offices of state. About 6l)5 a canal was made between the Yellow River 
 and the Yang-tsze, for the Emperor’s convenience, it is true, who had 
 his dragon-ships propelled by 80.000 men. This canal was lengthened 
 during other dynasties, aud in 1291 the whole length of it was 
 repaired. In 821 the arrears of taxation were remitted and the army 
 reduced, in order to give financial alleviation. From 951-954 the 
 Emperor sought as far as possible to alleviate the condition of the 
 people. He excused the tribute money due from those who had been 
 provided with cattle at the expense of the state, and gave the fields 
 belonging to the state to the farmers as their own property. He re- 
 mitted the yearly presents to the Emperor, and even had the jewelry 
 removed from the palace aud destroyed. He also helped the subjects 
 
29 
 
 of neighbouring states by sending presents of agricultural produce 
 when their crops bad failed. His successor (955-960) had a statue of 
 a labourer and a woman spinning erected near all public buildings 
 as an incentive to agricultural labour. A capable and therefore 
 notorious minister tried (1070) to introduce some singular national 
 reforms in agriculture. He forced all land owuers to take money in 
 advance from the state in the spring, and then repay it after harvest 
 with an interest of twenty per cent. He also re-introduced universal 
 military service. During the long wars the land tax had been raised 
 considerably, so from 1296-1307 the Emperor remitted three-tenths 
 of it. He also generously assisted the people in cases of misfortune. 
 Taxes and socage, which both existed at the same time, were lessened 
 by the Emperor in 1426 ; the penal code was revised and the system 
 of public examinations regulated. The shaving of the front part of 
 the head and the wearing of the queue were forced upon the Chinese 
 in 1644 by the first Mancha Emperor of China. 
 
 These few facts show that China is not lacking in good begin- 
 nings ; but the improvements attempted were nearly all spasmodic and 
 isolated and not supported by equal progress in all departments. 
 For this reason some innovations were not salutary, because they 
 were not in unison with the general life of the nation. In China 
 men are too accustomed to regard what exists as good merely 
 because it does exist, and specially if it has existed for a long time. 
 If any inconvenience is felt it is ascribed to deviations from good old 
 customs. Therefore the attempt is made to repress the course of 
 history for ceuturies, if not for thousands of years, an undertaking 
 which, though often attempted, has always proved a failure, even ] 
 in China. 
 
 XII. History of Chinese Literature. 
 
 The curious Chinese writing has been developed from about 100 
 original signs which represented so many things. These simple signs 
 were then combined, two or more signs being used to form a character 
 which represented an idea ; but even thus no consecutive ideas could be 
 expressed in writing, so then the spoken sound, the phonetic element, 
 was introduced into writing. The possibility of a literature only 
 begins with phonetic writing. The beginning of phonetic writing in 
 China cannot reach very much further back than 800 B.C.; at the very 
 earliest it might be ascribed to the beginning of the Chow dynasty 
 (1100); but representations of the wld pictorial writing were in ex- 
 istence perhaps more than 1000 years previously on stoue or metal. 
 Unfortunately it is not yet possible to say much about these oldest 
 monuments, because the remainder of Chinese antiquities have not 
 yet been methodically explored, nor even the few which have been 
 
30 
 
 discovered are unearthed, only in inadequate illustrated descriptions 
 accessible. There is no museum where the things themselves can be 
 seen and compared. 
 
 It is greatly to be regretted that the Chinese have never thorough- 
 ly thought out their own system of writing. Instead of haviug the 
 syllables fixed as in Japanese, or, as in alphabetical writing, depending 
 upon sound, the symbols of sound were left to chance, so that there 
 arose an enormous number of signs which increases every year. 
 The growth of the language is influenced by this writing. Further 
 development is impeded. As every sign represents a word all words 
 from the oldest times have been retained, but new meaniugs added to 
 the old ; then the new ideas were separated and expressed by other 
 signs. Stationary forms of speech, pictorial expressions and synonyms, 
 etc., were formed ; but the writing was written for the eye aud not 
 for the ear. Phonetics remained subservient to the pictorial form. 
 From primitive times down to the end of the last century this style 
 of writing sufficed for all state purposes in China. It was possible to 
 communicate intelligibly what was desired, irrespective of the spoken 
 languages and dialects of the Chinese empire and the neighbouring 
 countries. For this reason none of the alphabetical writings which 
 were introduced into China ever took root there. The Buddhists 
 brought in Sanscrit and Pali and translated their sacred writings 
 into Chinese without making an alphabet for the transliteration 
 of names. They contented themselves with expressing syllables by 
 separate Chinese signs, and determined the pronunciation by the 
 initial and final sounds, i.e., by two Chinese signs, without attaining 
 any absolute accuracy. According to the Sui catalogue (about 600 
 A.D.) among the 1950 Buddhist writings there were a few which 
 treated of phonetic writing, but it seems that even these confined 
 themselves to initial and final sounds, e.g., king by ki and ying. In 
 Thibet the Sanscrit alphabet was modified and adopted for Thibetau 
 writing. The Mongols founded their alphabet on Uiguric, which 
 was adopted from the Syriac of the Nestorians. Manchu follows 
 the Mongolian with but few alterations. Both languages are written 
 perpendicularly (i.e., from top to bottom of the page), probably because 
 it is more convenient for the brush, and perhaps out of respect 
 to the Chinese, but the lines ruu from right to left. The neighbour- 
 ing states of Corea aud Japan in the East, Siam aud Burraab in the 
 West also used alphabetical writing (except syllabic writing in Japan). 
 Syriac was introduced by the Nestyriaus, Arabic by the Mohammedans, 
 Hebrew by a Jewish colony, but nevertheless China retained her old 
 writing aud maintained the ascendancy till she came in contact with 
 Western powers. Now this form of writing forms the greatest barrier 
 to intellectual progress. 
 
31 
 
 The literature in Chinese character is very extensive, and it 
 would be easy to collect over 100,000 volumes. It is generally di- 
 vided into four groups. 1. The Classics or sacred writings of the 
 followers of Confucius. These consist of thirteeu works of unequal 
 size. The commentaries and treatises on these amount to thousands 
 of volumes. To this group also belong the dictionaries, of which there 
 are many; one, e.g., which comprises over 100 volumes. 2. Historical 
 works. This group is very comprehensive, and is generally divided 
 into fifteen headings. Geography, biography, state manuals and 
 works ou antiquities are included. These volumes contain much 
 valuable material for the description of places, products and natural 
 phenomena — the history of almost every important town and monas- 
 tery, of every famous man, of the aboriginal inhabitants, of the 
 surrounding tribes and of many neighbouring states. 3. Works on 
 ■philosophy. But the Chinese term for philosophy does not convey 
 the same idea as our word. All arts and sciences as far as they can 
 be so-called in Chinese are included in the term ; hence there are works 
 on military tactics, agriculture, medicine, law, painting, music, as 
 well as encyclopaedias and works ou Confucianism, Taoism and 
 Buddhism. Confucian writings on ethics and statesmanship fall 
 under this group, and the sacred books of the Taoists and Buddhists 
 are included. The Buddhist sacred writings fill several hundred 
 volumes, the entire Buddhist literature several thousand, and pro- 
 bably Taoism has not many less. 4. The literature of art, poetry 
 and essays, etc., is at present the least known. The drama and 
 novels are excluded, as well as other daily literature which is 
 rather despised. Ouly writings which treat of politics or ethics 
 are accepted, none which are only aesthetic in character. Thus the 
 entire literature is marked by a good moral tone, though it does uot 
 follow that the moral standpoint as well as the ideal is of the highest 
 throughout. 
 
 The deepest thought is to be found in the Taoist classical 
 works. The remaining literature contains some good observations 
 on nature and human life, especially on human intercourse, the 
 cohesion of society and the organization of the state. The deeper 
 questions of human nature are hardly touched upon. Not things 
 eternal, but things temporal absorb the minds of the innumerable 
 Chinese writers, and only in so far as they appear to affect Chinese 
 government interests ; but the influence of Western literature is 
 already making itself apparent in the most recent publications. 
 The tone and spirit of Christianity which has already proved its 
 victorious power in Semitic, Arian and Egyptian writings will also 
 create new life in Chinese literature. This influence is now only 
 beginning. 
 
32 
 
 XIII. Taoism. 
 
 As a rule Laotsz is looked upon as the founder of Taoism. 
 This is probably true in the same sense as Confucius is said to be 
 the founder of Confucianism. It should rather be said that Laotsz 
 was the chief champion (or organiser?) of Taoism. Taoism 
 embraces the primeval religion of China and all the intellectual 
 tendencies which did not find satisfaction in Confucianism. To 
 these belong the various experiments in natural philosophy and in 
 connection with them the belief in the possibility of overcoming 
 death by means of the elixir of immortality. By this man enters 
 the everlasting life, leads a higher existence above the range of 
 material laws, in beautiful grottoes, on the sacred mountains, or on 
 the islands of the blessed, and so on. It is worthy of note that such 
 a belief which bears some faint resemblance to the Christian belief 
 of the Resurrection should have found acceptance from the earliest 
 to most recent times among the sober Chinese. There is a record of 
 the names of thousands of people who are supposed to have reached 
 this condition of immortality, and the life history of mauy of them 
 is preserved. It has even been asserted that more than 100,000 had 
 reached this goal. 
 
 That notorious Emperor who had the Confnciau books burnt in 
 220 B. C. was a Taoist. He sent a Taoist scholar in the year 217 
 with some 1000 children, boys and girls, across the sea towards the 
 East to seek for the three mountains (islands) of Genii. The making 
 of gold and magic arts were early practised atnougst the Taoists. 
 About the year 133 B. C. an adept persuaded the Emperor that he 
 could make gold out of cinnabar, and silver out of snow. This 
 alchemist died on a journey to the islands of the Genii. When the 
 Emperor had his coffin opened it was found to contain nothing but 
 his clothes. The rebellion of the Yellow Caps in 184 A.D. was 
 begun by Taoists, and the disorders lasted till a new reigning house 
 ascended the throne in 224. Knng Ming, the chief hero of the 
 warlike history of those times, was a Taoist magician. A general of 
 the same period, who was beheaded, became the Taoist god of war, 
 but soon after was worshipped by both Buddhists and Confuciauists. 
 Now he is regarded as the national god of the Chinese. In the year 
 446 an Emperor, who was strongly addicted to Taoism, had mauy 
 Buddhist priests put to death and their temples and monasteries 
 destroyed. Between 550 and 560 the Emperor of the Ishi state 
 endeavoured to combine Buddhism and Taoism. Four Taoists were 
 executed, because they refused to wear the tonsure and worship 
 Buddha, and the attempted union of the two soon proved a failure. 
 One of the Chow Emperors (561-578) prohibited both Taoism and 
 
33 
 
 Buddhism, had books and pictures destroyed and forced their 
 worshippers into apostacy. Another attempt at compulsory union 
 of the two was made in 1119. 
 
 In the year 666 Laotsz received the title of “ High and August 
 Emperor,” and was worshipped with divine honours. In 674 the 
 oldest sacred book of the Taoists was adopted as a text-book in the 
 schools for examinations by imperial orders. In 824 the Emperor 
 died from effects of the life-elixir, as did also his successor in 846. 
 The latter founded two high offices of state for Taoists. In 859 
 another Emperor succumbed to the elixir. One of the Sung 
 Emperors (998-1022) gave himself up to all the superstitions of 
 Taoism, but since that time Taoism has had little influence over the 
 Imperial court. The first Mongol Emperor, Kublai Khan, had all 
 Taoist books, with the exception of the Taoist canon, burnt at the 
 instigation of the Lama priests after his unsuccessful war with 
 Japan about 1282. In 1403 the Emperor ordered all Taoist books 
 which mentioned the elixir to be burnt, but from 1488 onwards the 
 Emperor busied himself with its restoration, aud about 1540 the 
 then Emperor sent into all provinces to find this means of gain- 
 ing immortal life. The Taoist pope still rejoices in the dignity 
 accorded to his first predecessor by the Emperor when the title 
 “Heavenly Teacher” was bestowed on him in the year 423 A. D. 
 From that time on, the title remained hereditary in the family. 
 The Chinese believe that this pope is head over the gods and spirits 
 which are worshipped throughout the realm, that he iustals or 
 suspends, exalts or degrades them according to imperial — not 
 divine ! — command. He grants an audience to the gods on the first 
 of every mouth, and all attend, those of the heavens, the nether world, 
 the ocean, ete. He has possession of the magic sword, with which 
 he controls the demons aud shuts them up in earthen pitchers. He 
 rules as the representative on earth of the Jasper-god and grants the 
 Taoist monasteries their license. Taoist priests are allowed to marry. 
 They are kuown specially as exorcists, makers of magic charms, 
 amulets and medicines. Taoist idolatry differs but little from that 
 of Buddhism. A Triuity stands at the head of the pantheon, aud 
 next in rank comes the Jasper-god. The latter was exalted to the 
 highest place among the gods by the Emperor as late as the 12th 
 century according to our reckoning. Below him rank the many 
 star-gods, the 28 constellations, the 60 cycle-stars, the 129 lucky 
 or unlucky stars ; then the gods of the 5 elements, of natural 
 phenomena, of sickness and of medicine ; the animal gods, such as 
 the fox, tiger, dragon, etc.; the gods of literature, specially the 
 innumerable local divinities, at the head of which stand the city 
 gods. The religious community of the Taoists is exclusively 
 
34 
 
 monastical. Taoism affects the people by its idol worship, its 
 exorcism and specially by means of the oracle, bnt no preaching is 
 done, and all instruction is written. 
 
 The older sacred Taoist writings are the most profound in 
 Chinese literature. Fresh commentaries are constantly being issued. 
 Unfortunately there are uo critical editions, and the text has suffered 
 considerably during the lapse of time. Two recent Taoist books are 
 especially popular on account of their moral teaching, and the stress 
 laid on the doctrine of retribution, and partly on account of terrify- 
 ing pictures of the punishments in hell. When one reviews the 
 history of Taoism in the past one can make no favourable prog- 
 nostication for the future. Its inward development has been from 
 better to worse, from the light of truth to the darkness of supersti- 
 tion. Even the bestowal of power on the Taoist pope has brought 
 about no improvements. Although popes have existed for nearly 
 151)0 years there is no record in Chinese history of any one of them 
 opposing an imperial libertine, or of causing any wild rebel to 
 relinquish his cause and settle down peacefully. In this respect 
 the popes of Rome and the Byzantine patriarchs have had a very 
 different influence on history. 
 
 XI Y. Confucianism . 
 
 Although Confucianism also had its origin in Chinese antiquity, 
 yet it is really a reform-movement caused by a reaction against 
 religion and morality as they existed in the 6th century B. C. 
 The relation between the two is similar to that between Protest- 
 antism and Roman Catholicism. Confucius did not wish to introduce 
 anything new, bnt to reinstate the old in a pure form. He was 
 essentially not opposed to religion. Some expressions are misquoted 
 far too often by foreign authors. The sacred Confucian books prove 
 incontrovertibly what is to he understood by Confucianism. These 
 hooks are generally termed the Chinese classics. There are thirteen 
 of them. Eight have been put into English, two others (Chow-li 
 and I-li) into French ; there are still three to be translated. These 
 thirteen classics contain a diffused system of religious customs, 
 some attempts at theoretical explanation, but certainly no system of 
 dogma and still less of science. 
 
 In the early days three groups of diviuities were recognized — 
 those of the heavens, the earth and of men. Besides these ances- 
 tral worship was largely practiced. Various kinds of sacrifices were 
 offered, according to strictly enforced ritual, at appointed times. 
 Oracles were consulted before even the smallest undertakings. 
 Domestic as well as public life was then as now interwoven with 
 
35 
 
 religions customs. Each of the thirteen classics is a proof of this, 
 but it appears most clearly in the three works on Rites (li) and also 
 in the three explanations (clineu) of Spring-Autumn (Annals of 
 Lu , particularly of Tso. Confucius and his followers laid special 
 stress upon morality, but Lao-tsz and his school did so no less. 
 One sees plainly that it was not this setting morality against 
 religion that distinguished Confucianism from Chinese antiquity, 
 but rather the accentuation of active as opposed to passive morality, 
 that is, to indifferentism. Confucianism also made a stand against 
 sensuality and against utilitarianism in politics. Confucianism ema- 
 nates from the noble aspirations of humanity which it endeavours 
 to make supreme in private life, in the family and in the state. 
 The mainspring of authority, i.e ., the will, not force of circum- 
 stances, controls the morality and the politics of Confucianism. 
 It is true this will is not a man’s own will or freedom, but the 
 authority of his fellow-men and of superiors, and is therefore subordi- 
 nation, the subjection of his own self-will. The father rules in the 
 family, age in the community (village, etc.), the Emperor in the 
 state, and antiquity, as revealed in the classics or sacred writings, 
 rules over all. 
 
 In Confucianism, as in Taoism, religion, ethics and politics, are 
 closely interwoven ; there is but little of physics, which is quite sub- 
 servient to the other three. Confucius owes the success of his cause 
 to the fact that he collected the ancient writings and made them the 
 text-books of his school It is true that centuries passed before 
 the ascendancy was gained, but the national thought engendered by 
 his school proved irresistible. At first by slow degrees the old rival» 
 Taoism, was overcome, but not before Confucianism had been so far 
 influenced by its ingenious counteraction as to undergo various 
 changes. While this struggle was going on another great rival ap- 
 peared from India in the shape of Buddhism. This too was overcome 
 by Confucianism, but not without its again undergoing changes. So 
 Confucianism must be regarded under four heads : 1. The Confucian- 
 ism of the classics. 2. That altered by Taoism. 3. That influenced by 
 Buddhism, and 4. The modern critical tendency caused by Western 
 influence. The first period is that of original production in classical 
 form, at the same time ethical and ritualistic. The second period is 
 exegetical. The worship of spirits had already degenerated into 
 idolatry, and a supernatural importance was attached to rites. 
 Dualism and the theory of the five elements were developed. More 
 stress was laid on fate, and so the influence of astrology and fortune- 
 telling increased. The search after the wonderful stifled every 
 critical impulse. The third period was metaphysical; philosophy on 
 nature specially flourished, for everything was traced back to 
 
36 
 
 original force and original matter. The stndy and consideration of 
 nature and her ever active laws was neglected for that of anti- 
 quated wisdom aud phrases. Exegesis was at the service of theory. 
 In the most recent times the attempt is made to proceed gramma- 
 tically, exegetically. In connection therewith we find the beginning 
 made of a critical examination of the texts. Critical investigation 
 of the contents is not altogether absent, but consists in sporadic 
 attempts. 
 
 XY. The Temple of Confucius. 
 
 The history of the temple dedicated to Confucius proves the 
 degree of worship accorded to Confucianism. It is remarkable 
 that no Emperor of the Chow dynasty deemed Confucius worthy 
 of any consideration, although he devoted himself to reestablish 
 the fallen power of sovereignty. In the year 195 B. C. the 
 founder of the Han dynasty was the first to pay a visit to the 
 grave of Confucius, who had died 481 B.C., nearly 300 years before. 
 The first temple was erected fifty years later in the native place of 
 Confucius. In the year 1 A.D. the Emperor had a temple built, in 
 which offerings were made to Confncins and to the Duke of Chow. 
 In the year 72 A. D. the Emperor himself made offerings to Con- 
 fucius and his disciples. Somewhat later, but during the adminis- 
 tration of the same Emperor, ceremonies were performed with 
 musical accompaniment. In the year 178 the ancestral tablet was 
 replaced by an image. Sacrifices of blood were offered in 267 in the 
 Imperial Academy and every quarter in his birth-place. In 472 an 
 edict was published, in which women were prohibited to pray for 
 children iu the temple of Confucius. About the year 480 a temple 
 was erected in the capital. In the state of North China a temple 
 was built in every magisterial city, in which Confucius was 
 worshipped with his favourite disciples. Iu 624 Confucius was 
 made the associate of the Duke of Chow. After several years a 
 temple was erected by order in every prefecture aud county town. 
 Iu addition to this twenty-two worthies were canonized to share 
 in the sacrifices. In the year 712 another disciple was appointed 
 associate. Several years after, the class of ten wise men was 
 introduced in the temple. Iu 960 earthen images were used 
 instead of wooden ones. Mencius was made third associate in 1084. 
 In 1267 the four associates, as they still exist in the temples (the 
 grandson of Confucius being the 4th), were elected. A Confucian 
 temple was built in Peking in the year 1306. Sacrifices were 
 ordained, to take place semi-annually, in 1368, and two side-aisles 
 were annexed to every temple for the disciples’ altars. In 1530 
 a general revision of the temple was undertaken, and wooden 
 
37 
 
 tablets again took the place of earthen images. The Emperor 
 ordained in 1645 that the chief civil magistrate of every district 
 should conduct the celebrations. Kang-hi commanded the military 
 mandarin also to take part. He raised Chu-hi to a place amongst 
 the wise men, and as another was added later the number became 
 twelve. Since then the arrangement of the tablets has been 
 altered several times. At present the temple contains four dis- 
 ciples, besides Confucius. They are in a way his special com- 
 panions at table. They figure in the rank of the holy or blame- 
 less ones. The twelve wise men follow them. They are recognized 
 able Confucianists. The nest iu rank are the seventy-nine worthies. 
 There are many amongst them who are known only by name, 
 as history is sileut iu regard to their character and accomplish- 
 ments. The sixty-six model scholars occupy the lowest places 
 in the temple. This gives us a sum total of 161 names. Adjoining 
 the temple since 1008 there is either at the back or on the east 
 side an ancestral hall for the father of Confucius. His fore- 
 fathers to the 5th generation have been set up siuce 1724. The 
 fathers of the four associates aud five founders of the philosophy of 
 Snug are also to be found since 1437 aud a half-brother of Con- 
 fucius since 1857. These fifteen persons, with the above 161, make 
 altogether 176 sharers in the honors of Confucius and partake in 
 the celebrations of about 2000 temples, which are dedicated to 
 Confucius in China. That this honour is but a vain one is proved by 
 the fate of many tablets, some of which were permanently banished ; 
 others removed for a number of years or decades only, and then 
 again reinstated, others again, which were exalted or degraded. 
 
 Confucius’ posterity, also, was honoured by the Emperor. The 
 head of the family inherits the rauk of governor. The whole num- 
 ber of his descendants amounts to thousands. They are the pro- 
 tectors of their great ancestor’s grave, as also of his temple iu his 
 birth-place. In close proximity to the grave of Confucius are the 
 graves of the heads of the family, representing seventy generations, 
 a cemetery peculiar to itself. To the superficial observer this cult 
 seems something imposiug. However, to the question, What 
 influence has this oldest family of Chinese nobility had on the 
 history of China? we seek an answer iu vain, for the simple reason 
 that there is nothing to be said about it. The princes of the Kuug 
 family have been the keepers of the grave and mouldering bones, but 
 not of the spirit aud moral stamina of the master. It is true that 
 there were learned men of some significance among them, but no 
 prophet raised his voice iu time of moral corruption to stay the 
 rain of the people. No champion of the poor aud oppressed arose 
 in times of tyranny. No one preached the ideal calling of the 
 
38 
 
 nation when China was being trampled nnder the feet of warlike, 
 barbarous peoples. If shown auywhere that Confucianism is dead 
 it is shown by the posterity at his grave. Confucianism belongs to 
 the past, and is no living power in the present. 
 
 XYI. Buddhism. 
 
 There can be no doubt that China, even in the remotest ages, 
 perhaps already in the prehistoric period, had benefited by its inter- 
 course with foreign countries. The knowledge of astronomical 
 signs for planets, months, the cyclical designations of twelve uames 
 and ten, the characters for the same, the numerical signs, the pro- 
 duction of silk, domestic auimals, metal work, etc., is taken for grant- 
 ed in the most ancient times and ascribed to mythological sovereigns. 
 In any case it is worthy of note that every good thing is produced 
 by an Emperor, or by some minister in obedience to an imperial 
 command. The overland route from China to Western civilization 
 could only have been through Turkestan to Persia and thence to 
 India ; perhaps, also, from Persia to Ckaldma and Arabia, possibly 
 extending thence to Egypt. But np to the present time nothing 
 certain is known of these relations. The same may be said of the 
 water-way passing through the Strait of Malacca to India and 
 thence into the Arabian and Persian sea. It is also questionable 
 whether Buddhist missionaries came from India to China as early 
 as the 3rd century B. C. Three hundred years later, however, 
 Buddhism won imperial favonr, and so gradual extension through- 
 out the empire and beyond. In the year 355 Chinese subjects were 
 permitted to take the monastic vow. Fa-hieu, a mouk, visited Iudia 
 in 399 and returned in 414. His report of his travels has been re- 
 peatedly translated. In accordance with an edict of the Emperor in 
 42(5 the Bnddhist idols and books were destroyed, and many priests 
 were killed. It was not until 451 that permission was given to 
 erect a temple in every city with forty or fifty priests in connection 
 with each. The first Emperor who himself accepted Buddhism was 
 Hien Wen, who ruled a part of China in 466-71 and waged bloody 
 wars. In 467 he had a statne of Buddha made, the height of which 
 was forty-three feet, and which contained 10,000 pouuds of bronze 
 and 600 ponnds of gold. Ere long he resigned in favour of his five- 
 year old son, so that he might dedicate himself solely to Buddhism. 
 However he had his wife’s favourite killed, for which she in return 
 poisoned him. At the beginning of the 6th century there were more 
 than 3000 Buddhists from India in China. They were favourably 
 received. In the year 515 a number of priests were executed because 
 of alleged witchcraft. In 518 a priest went to India to collect books, 
 and returned with 175 Buddhist works. Emperor Wu, of the Liang 
 
39 
 
 dynasty, became a monk in 527. He only ruled over a part of 
 China, and being imprisoned in his own palace by a rebel he was 
 starved to death. The Empress-mother poisoned her son, the reign- 
 ing Emperor, in 528, because he rebuked her for her unchaste living. 
 She was, nevertheless, a zealous Buddhist, and had a number of 
 pagodas erected, which were several hundred feet high. Emperor 
 Wu, of the Chen dynasty, 557-59, was also a Buddhist ; but this did 
 not restrain him from having the sixteen-year old Emperor, who had 
 resigned in his favour, executed. Hieu-tsnng, the distinguished 
 monk, started for India in the year 629. He brought back 657 works. 
 He with twelve monks, translated them while nine others revised. 
 At this time there were 3716 monasteries in China. The sacred 
 writings were combined into one collection in 684. In the year 714 
 12,090 priests were compelled to return to the world, and writing 
 books, as well as making idols and buildiug temples, was prohibited. 
 An Emperor of the great Tang dynasty, 763-80, interpreted the 
 Buddhist writings in a public hall before an audience numbering 
 hundreds. He conferred upon a priest the title of prince. During 
 his reign Thibetan insurrectionists burned the imperial palace. 
 Somewhat later, 806-20, an Emperor favoured Buddhism, especially 
 the worship of relics, and in 819 a bone of Buddha was received 
 with great solemnity. The same Emperor favoured Taoism still 
 more, but on account of his murderous disposition he was disposed 
 of by eunuchs. The Emperor, who reigned 841-46, turned to Taoism 
 on account of his aversion to Buddhism. He commanded all monks 
 to allow their hair to grow, which evidently meant to return to the 
 world. 44,660 temples and monasteries were, at this time, confiscated 
 or destroyed; in connection with these were 260,500 monks and nuns 
 and 150,000 slaves. 3000 Nestoriau monks shared the same fate. 
 His successor restored Buddhism, but prohibited Chinese subjects to 
 enter a monastery. 860-73 the Emperor very lavishly distributed 
 presents among the mouks ; he himself copied the sacred books, 
 and had a relic of Buddha fetched from a distant monastery. Since 
 915 Pu-to, an island south of Niugpo, is an imperial gift in posses- 
 sion of the Buddhists, as is also the mountain of Tien-tai, in the 
 province of Cheh-kiang, since the 4th century. Both are covered with 
 monasteries, and are renowned for pilgrimages. The Emperor reign- 
 ing from 955-60, had the bronze Buddhist idols melted down and 
 made into coin. More than 30,000 temples were confiscated, and 
 all monks were forbidden to practice self-mutilation or self-torture. 
 In the year 965 a monk brought forty volumes of Buddhist books, 
 which were written on palm leaves. From 1055-1101 a zealous 
 patron of Buddhism ruled the Liao (North-realm), who spent large 
 sums of money for the same. The Emperors of the Mongols specially 
 
40 
 
 favoured Buddhism. At this time there were 42,318 temples and 
 monasteries and 213,148 monks within the boundaries of the empire. 
 The number of sections (kueu) of the sacred books was raised from 
 4271 to 4661. A priest was appointed chief over all Lamas and im- 
 perial counsellor in 1260. By this act Lamaism was introduced into 
 China. The translation of Buddhist writings from the Thibetan and 
 Sanskrit into Mongolian (Uignrian writing) was completed in 1294. 
 Auother translation was finished, 1324. Between 1308 and 1311 
 an imperial command was issued, decreeing that any one who 
 should strike a Lama should lose his baud, anyone who should insult 
 a Lama should have his tongue cut out. In the year 1324 the monks 
 received authority to require post-horses, which the people were 
 obliged to deliver with food for the same. The monks at this time 
 were leading immoral lives and had great influence over the princes- 
 ses. From 1329-32 the chief Lama was received with great honours 
 at the imperial palace; the courtiers had to serve him on their knees. 
 The sacred writings were written with golden letters in 1296 ; 3200 
 ounces of gold being used for the purpose. The characters in a new 
 edition, in 1317, contained 3900 ounces of gold. About this time 
 costly gifts were made to the monasteries. In the year 1330 the 
 Emperor sent 2000 ounces of gold for copies of the sacred writings. 
 In 1332 volumiuous Buddhist works were written with golden 
 letters in Uigurian language at the commaud of the Emperor. 
 1800 monks, who bad entered the monasteries before the 40th year, 
 were dismissed in 1403. Five bronze bells, each weighing 120,000 
 pounds, were changed into coin. In 1450 it was prohibited that 
 more than sixty acres (6000 square feet) of land should belong to a 
 temple. Two Emperors reigning respectively from 1465-87, and from 
 1488-1505, were zealous patrons of Buddhism. The same may be said 
 of the one reigning from 1522-66, who also promoted Taoism and 
 degraded Confucius. The number of mouks amounted to 530,000. 
 
 Shun-chi, the first Emperor of the Manchu dynasty, shaved his 
 head after the death of his favourite wife in 1661. As early as 1653 
 the chief Lama of Thibet had visited the Emperor, who conferred upon 
 him the title of Dalai-lama, meaning Ocean-lama, because his under- 
 standing was as deep and unfathomable as the ocean. At what time 
 the ruling Emperor of China adopted the title “Buddha of the 
 Present,” is unknown to me. In this the Emperor reserves to him- 
 self the authority over the Dalai-lama, not only in life, but even 
 after his death, as he may forbid him to be born again in a child. 
 This may be read in print in the Peking Gazette of 18 <7. The 
 sixteen Theses of Morals of Kang-hi, as well as the Explanations 
 of his successor and others, are very strongly expressed, and warn 
 the people most earnestly against taking any part in Buddhism. 
 
41 
 
 Notwithstanding this, Kien-lung favoured Buddhism very liberally. 
 His bust is found iu many Buddhist temples, where incense is 
 burnt in his honour, as well as in honour of other idols and 
 Buddhist disciples. The services of both Buddhist and Taoist 
 priests are employed, even at many religious ceremonies of state. 
 During the Tai-ping rebellion thousands of monasteries and 
 temples were destroyed, and no doubt many monks were put 
 to death. In some places ruins can still be found, but in others 
 the sites have been beautified by more handsome structures, and 
 the number of similar institutions is increased. Unfortunately 
 there are only a very few of them, whose inmates are intellectu- 
 ally active. The incessant repetitions of the litany blunts the 
 senses of the people. A large percentage are given to opium. 
 Otherwise, also, their morals are not of good repute. They serve 
 the people, particularly by repeating the litany at fuuerals and 
 by their horrid pictures of hell, from which they claim to rescue 
 the dead. The sacred writings of the Buddhists are far too 
 profound for the people, only a few learned men are able after 
 a long time of study to decipher their meaning. The popular 
 literature especially emphasizes works of merit, which atone for 
 past sins. Schedules have been prepared, iu which the amount of 
 merit or guilt for every act is given in figures. According to this 
 everybody can keep his own eternal account. If he finds that he 
 is laden with guilt, he selects those good works which insure the 
 greatest prize with the least trouble. Yea, according to this form, 
 it would not be difficult for any one to make the officers of retribu- 
 tion his creditors. It is evident that the degradation of goodness to 
 a mere matter of business means the death of all noble, moral 
 aspirations. The poles of Buddhist religious life are fear of 
 punishment as the results of evil acts, and self-righteous conceit, 
 if the scales seem favourable. There is neither room for love 
 toward God nor toward man. It is beyond doubt that the fol- 
 lowers of Buddhism have morally benefited by the same ; but 
 its influence is greatly over-estimated by chamber-critics. The 
 Mongols uuder Timur and to this day, are no such mild lambs as 
 Buddhists are imagined, nor are the Lamas of Thibet and Peking, 
 according to all reports. At Chicago I heard a distinguisbsd 
 Japanese Buddhist, who gave public expression to deep hatred of 
 foreigners. In spite of all encouragement experienced by Bud- 
 dhism it could not ennoble the morals of the Chinese imperial court. 
 The blood of the murdered, executed, and such as were killed in 
 battle still flowed. Tens of thousands died of starvation, pestilence, 
 floods, etc., which might have been prevented had wise measures 
 been employed. 
 
42 
 
 A great part of the influence, which issued from Buddhism, 
 must be accredited to the fact, that the Buddhist missionary was 
 also a bearer of Indian culture. The so-called Buddhist architec- 
 ture, painting, sculpture, even some of the substance of the Buddhist 
 sacred writings are all of Indian origin, and have only assumed a 
 Buddhist colouring. Unfortunately this important fact is ignored 
 in the estimate of Buddhist influence, and so that which really 
 belongs to Indian culture has been ascribed to Buddhism. The 
 same is true of Mohammedanism as a religion and the bearer of 
 Arabian culture. It might be correct to say that Chinese Buddhism 
 consists, one-half of Chinese elements, namely three parts Taoist and 
 two parts Confucian, in addition to three parts Indian culture and 
 perhaps two parts actual Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism is at pre- 
 sent in a most wretched state, not at all qualified to instil China’s 
 millions with new strength and life. It has accomplished one 
 thing : it has kept minds awake to the fact of there beiug a future 
 life and requital in the same, but Buddhism has no idea of the joy 
 of faith and beautifying love. 
 
 XVII. Darkness of the Present. 
 
 In the course of time many changes have taken place since the 
 golden age of antiquity! No Chinese scholar considers that the 
 golden age of the past is mere fiction. The idea corresponds to the 
 Confucian ideal state. The actual conditions constantly departed 
 more or less signficantly from the same. A connection between 
 the present and past still exists, more remarkably so in China than 
 in any other country on earth. Just a few facts may be pointed 
 out here. A detailed description and discussion of each custom 
 would fill several volumes. 
 
 The Emperor is, as such, still as much the chief-priest as in the 
 remotest ages. Annually he has at least forty-three different sacri- 
 fices to offer, which are divided into three classes of rank. To the 
 first class belong three different sacrifices, which are in honour of 
 Heaven or the highest God, one for ihe earth, one for the ancestral 
 tablets of all the deceased Emperors of the dynasty, one for the 
 field and fruit god, the tutelar god of the dynasty. Before each of 
 these six sacrifices he is obliged to fast and live isolated for three 
 days. To the second class belong nine sacrifices, namely for the 
 sun, moon, the names of former Emperors (from Fu-hi as the first 
 these amount to 190), Confucius, god of agriculture, god of silk, 
 gods of heaven, gods of earth and the god of the year. Two fast 
 days are appointed for every sacrifice. To the third class belong 
 twenty-eight sacrifices, namely, for the gods of wind, rain, thunder, 
 mountain, sea, river, road, gate, flag, cannon, stars, etc. There is 
 
43 
 
 but one fast day appointed for these. Nevertheless, the Emperor 
 must fast sixty-four days iu the year. A few must still be added for 
 extraordinary occasions. Every mandarin in his city must, as well 
 as the Emperor in the capital, annually attend stated sacrifices and 
 perform certain ceremonies, for instance, twice annually in the 
 temple of Confucius, the god of war, the deity of literature, the 
 queen of heaven, the god of jasper, the dragon-god, river-god, etc. 
 The city-god, god of cereals, district-god, and local deities iu general, 
 are not worshipped by the mandarins, who are higher iu rank 
 themselves. All depends upon the titles, which are granted by the 
 Emperor. 
 
 The gods of riches are, almost without exception, worshipped by 
 the people. Their shrines are seen in every shop and frequently 
 before the house door. The kitcheu-god is not absent iu any house- 
 hold. Ancestral worship is, however, most commonly practised. The 
 ancestors are considered to be the true patron saints of the family 
 and lineage. Ceremouies in their honour take place in the house, 
 ancestral hall and at the grave. There is an extensive caleudar 
 of festivals, and about fifty greater or lesser idol festivals are cele- 
 brated annually, many of them connected with much pomp and show, 
 processions or even theatrical performances. It is chiefly because 
 idolatry offers so much which the multitudes delight in that it has 
 such a bewitching power over the people. These are also the only 
 occasions upon which women, married as well as young girls, can 
 show themselves iu public. This happens in spite of many prohibi- 
 tions on the part of the government. There are no other public 
 amusements, except the New Year’s festival, which, however, has also 
 a religious tinge. The dragon boats and feast of lanterns are also idol 
 worship. Kites and battle-door and shuttle-cock serve as amuse- 
 ment for the youths and boys. Social feasts are popular amongst 
 the men, as well as gatherings in the tea-shop around the tea or 
 fusel. Drunkenness is not rare, but does not come before the public. 
 
 The use of opium does not originate in antiquity, neither can it 
 be justified by the classics (nor the smoking of tobacco), but it is 
 increasing annually. The imports are indeed less, but is on account 
 of the high duty ; cultivation in the interior has been multiplied in 
 the last decade. Some of the northern provinces export opium to 
 fc the other provinces, and also Sze-chuau, in the west. The middle 
 and southern provinces are also progressing iu the cultivation of the 
 drug. The consumption is increasing to such an extent, where 
 opium is produced, that even women and children partake of it. 
 The results will soon appear. Opium does not promote welfare, nor 
 physical strength, nor the intellectual development of the inhabi- 
 tants. Japan was wise enough to keep this evil out of its boun- 
 
44 
 
 claries. With earnest effort China would have been able to do this 
 as well as Japan. The fault is pre-eminently China’s own. I would 
 not justify the English opium policy more than any other com- 
 mercial policy, which recognizes only money and no higher or more 
 humane interests. Such policy usually avenges itself after a short 
 time. A rapid gain, which impoverishes a nation, injures commerce. 
 A healthy commercial policy must see to it that the traffic raises the 
 productive power of the nation, for only on this condition can trade 
 be expected to continuously flourish. 
 
 The antiquated educational methods are at present working 
 more destruction in China than the opium aud other vices. What 
 was good 1000 or more years ago when the neighbouring countries 
 were living in a state of barbarism or had borrowed their civilization 
 from China ; what was good when China had to maintain only one- 
 tenth of its present population within its boundaries, is now good, for 
 nothing under the completely changed circumstances. The China- 
 man learns nothing but reading, writing and literary matter, phraseo- 
 logy in particular. His whole scholarship consists in this. He 
 learns nothing of real science ; only antiquated stuff, which does 
 more harm than good. The difficulty of Chinese writing has already 
 (XII) been put forward. A large percentage of the Chinese popula- 
 tion, especially of the women, learn no reading whatever. Many learn 
 only as much as is necessary to carry on their business, but they can 
 understand no book. The more gifted of the business men acquire 
 enough knowledge to be able to read light matter and perhaps a 
 newspaper with some intelligence. The true scholars work only for 
 their examinations. They must commit a number of the classics to 
 memory as well as the authorized interpretation of the same, and 
 besides they must, above all, be acquainted with the technicalities of 
 the essays and poetical compositions. Chinese history is studied 
 from compendiums, as is also the general Chinese literature. The 
 Chinese scholar is obliged to commit to memory a vast amount of 
 matter. This is his strength. But the matter is not sifted, and 
 therefore cumbersome ; it is not grasped and intelligently mastered, 
 and is therefore not serviceable. Much which can only be accom- 
 plished with much labour is nevertheless valueless, and should have 
 been omitted from the beginning. Other matter might be abridged 
 which would make its appropriation much less tedious. Further, 
 very much is false, and should be replaced by the truth ; other 
 matter is inaccurate, which needs correction ; some again is 
 inadequate, and should be complemented. The Chinese draws his 
 self-conceit and contempt for all foreigners as barbarians from 
 the ancient works. His familiarity with ancient literature makes 
 it impossible for him to examine anything foreign without pre- 
 
45 
 
 3 ud ice or to rejoice over anything excellent. It will be more 
 and more evident that the Chinese writing is the strongest hind- 
 drance to the thorough scientific education of Chinese youth. This 
 writing is very good when there is little or nothing more to learn. 
 But if everything is dependent on a thorough and real education 
 then writing must become subordinate to those main interests, and 
 the simplest form of writing is the best. The various ■superstitions, 
 such as geomancy, astrology, fortune-telling, witchcraft, fear of 
 spectres, choice of days, omens, amulets, magic symbols, etc., are 
 also based upon an insufficient education in the real sciences. The 
 rubbish that is believed by the Chinese people is simply astonish- 
 ing, as is also the fact that the grossest nonsense is apt to cause 
 great excitement. The Chinese are particularly worried by their 
 ancestral worship. It might be said that they are slaves for life on 
 account of this. We must distinguish this from the filial reverence to 
 living parents. This cannot be too strongly emphasized. Only the 
 Ch ristian religion can dispense comfort and light as regards the dead. 
 To be with the Lord, transformed in the fellowship of the blessed, 
 in full enjoyment of all heavenly gifts and free from every earthly 
 woe, — this is a refreshing hope. It has its foundation in the com- 
 plete revelation of God as a being of love. The personal being of man 
 has its origin in the love of God, and this insures a glorious comple- 
 tion of the personal existence iu eternity as the love of God is eternal. 
 
 The popular religion of the Chinese knows nothing but want 
 in the hereafter, which must be relieved by the living descendants. 
 All facts connected with ancestral worship, as it is commonly 
 practised, are based upon this. This is iu contrast to the Buddhist 
 doctrine of Karma and metempsychosis. This is a further verifica- 
 tion of the statement that the Chinese people are not Buddhists. 
 Although it must be admitted that Buddhist ceremonies are partly 
 used to help the deceased out of hell, actual ancestral worship 
 knows no hell of eternal torture ; the continuation of life in the here- 
 after rests on the same conditions as life on earth. Mandarins with 
 their courts, prisons, tortures and executions are “ over there ” as 
 well as here. Even bribes are as necessary there as on earth. 
 
 Heathenism is hopeless night, in spite of the rays of light that 
 flash through, here and there. 
 
 XVIII. Stars of Hope. 
 
 China lies in the dust. The Manchus are languishing, the 
 mandarins corrupt, the scholars petrified, the soldiers cowardly, the 
 people ignorant, the rabble immoral and insolent. What is to 
 be done. Reform measures must be applied ! This is easily said, 
 but the progress is very slow on accouut of the resistance offered. 
 
4G 
 
 Only a few thoughts shall be suggested, which have been impressed 
 upon my mind by a thirty years’ acquaintance with the facts of 
 Chiuese life. In order to give a clear summary of them they are 
 condensed into a few sentences. 
 
 I. Utilization. 1 . Of all natural resources. 2. Of every working 
 power. II. Removal. 1. Of all profligacy in the imperial palace and 
 among the nobility, 2. Of extravagant expenditure connected with 
 idolatry, etc. 3. Of public misery. 4. Of vice, opium, gambling, etc. 
 III. Prevention. 1 . By education. 2. By sanitary arrangements. 
 3. By means of communication. 4. By military protection. IV. Pro- 
 motion of General Welfare. 1 . By administration of justice. 2. By 
 duties aud taxes to meet the needs of the state. 3. Simple habits and 
 customs. 4. Marriage, and training of children. 5. Religious liberty, 
 though barring any degeneration. 6. Regulation of the poor laws, 
 hospital regulations, and insurance methods. 
 
 I. Utilization. 1. China carried on agriculture, cattle rearing, 
 mining and industries, even in prehistoric times. But there is 
 no doubt that China has fallen behind the Western countries in all 
 things. All products could easily be multiplied (see above under III). 
 The treasures under ground have hardly been touched. 2. This offers 
 good opportunities for making unimproved or wrongly used working 
 powers productive. It is remarkable that this important idea is so 
 little appreciated in official circles, even in the Western countries. 
 Worki ng powers are more valuable than gold. Nevertheless a con- 
 siderable percentage of human force is wasted, including all who have 
 no definite employment, sluggards, both rich and poor. Of course 
 we do not only mean manual labour, but mental labour, scientific 
 aspirations, benevolence, etc.; in fact every occupation which will 
 prove a benefit to one’s self and to others. Mendicity, still more, 
 of course, theft, smuggling, etc., are an abuse of working power. 
 Much working power, especially in China, is unfortunately forced 
 into erroneous ruts, on accouut of the lack of opportunity and 
 encouragement to do productive work. The state should provide a 
 labour department with au adequate number of subordinates, whose 
 duty it should be to supply every person, who is able to work, with a 
 suitable occupation. It has a demoralizing influence when able per- 
 sons seek work for a long time in vain. This is not always the fault 
 of the individual as much as of the government. Further diffi- 
 culties are caused by the labour organizations which have already 
 made such rapid progress in the Western countries, particularly in 
 large factories, but also in wholesale agriculture, cattle-rearing, etc. 
 The more wholesale production takes the place of smaller business, 
 the more simple the relations will become in many ways. It will 
 lead to the concentration in the management of the main industries, 
 
47 
 
 not only in the city unions, but in the organizations of entire states’ 
 Even now we speak of English or Japanese coal, of German or 
 Euglish iron, of American, English or German machinery, of 
 Chinese or Indian tea. The market of the world is to be con- 
 sidered, that is, the commercial intercourse between all states. No 
 sentimental policy will do any good, but only a thorough understand- 
 ing of the existing economic circumstances of all countries on the 
 face of the globe. But if all that is possible had been accomplished 
 in a satisfactory manner — as far as these two principles are concern- 
 ed, the application of all natural matter and the appropriation of 
 every working force — still China could not flourish without thorough 
 dealings with the four points under : 
 
 II. Removal. 1. From the historical sketch, VII-IX, it is 
 readily perceivable what mischief was caused by the Emperor’s 
 harem and the eunuchs connected with the same. Monogamy must 
 be firmly established. It is a disgrace to the Western powers that 
 such conditions as exist in China, and similarly in Turkey, are still 
 tolerated. The moral provisions of healthy governmental relations 
 should be insisted upon. The corruption of the maudarius also 
 finds its cause in polygamy. The necessary expense of maintaining a 
 large family, and the various appendages for many women, compel 
 the officer to use extortions in order to provide for his family, and, if 
 possible, even against an uncertain future. 
 
 2. The expenditure for material, which is annually wasted on 
 the idols, is enormous, not counting the meat-offerings, which, after 
 they have been exhibited to the idols or the ancestors, are enjoyed 
 by the worshippers. The annual cost of candles, incense, paper 
 things (imitation money, furniture, houses, animals, etc.) and silks 
 amounts to many millions of dollars. If to all this be added how 
 many persons are kept from useful occupations, the cost of temples, 
 which serve no other purpose, we might reckon billions. I do not 
 in the least consider money the greatest good for humanity, but only 
 as the means by which the highest objects may be attained. The 
 curse of idolatry is, that the higher and highest interests of man are 
 injured thereby. Religious and moral degradation are always con- 
 nected with idolatry. Common idolatry is also the economic ruin of 
 a country. The same is true of the enormous outlay for ancestral 
 worship in China. Besides what is burnt, there must still be reckon- 
 ed all that is customarily laid in the coffin and grave, as also the 
 graves which are not all within the limits of a cemetery, but may 
 be seen everywhere, even in the best fields and gardens ; there are 
 also a number of mausoleums, one of which cost several millions of 
 dollars. We will not count the ancestral halls, as they serve also 
 as schools and assembly places (for village communities). 
 
48 
 
 3. Includes everything which distresses the nation and to 
 which the individual can afford no relief. Scarcity and famine, as 
 well as floods, visit some part of China almost every year. Small 
 pox, cholera and pest occasionally appear as epidemics. Minor or 
 greater riots, robbers and pirates, too, make their appearance -every 
 year in some part of the empire, on land or sea, at times simul- 
 taneously in different places. Wild animals are not numerous, 
 although tigers, leopards, bears, wolves and even venomous serpents 
 are found in some regions. 
 
 4. We have already (XVII) spoken about opium. It is beyond 
 doubt that opium indulged in for pleasure can bring no blessing to 
 China. Without reference to the injurious influence on body aud 
 mind, the loss of time through smoking is significant. The pecu- 
 niary loss is incalculable, because the imported quantity, for which 
 about §70,000,000 goes to foreign countries, is small in comparison 
 with the consumption of the home product, which would amount to 
 several times more. Although the money does not go to foreign 
 countries, yet soil and labour are withdrawn from other cultivation. 
 Other luxuries, such as tobacco, brandy and tea are no less consumed. 
 Gambliug is a national evil, and will only be removed when better 
 amusements or recreation are provided. Not only do the gamblers 
 waste precious time, but they become so subject to this passion that 
 they lose all inclination and all capacity for work which requires 
 any exertion ; they also stake fortune, wife and children, and after all 
 has been lost their only alternative is to commit suicide or pursue 
 a crimiual career. The pecuniary and moral damage is not easily 
 estimated. There are other evils which weigh heavily in the scale, 
 of which nothing can now be said. 
 
 It is an old truth taught by experience that it is not euougli 
 to remove evils, but care must be taken that they do not return. 
 This leads to — 
 
 III. Preventive Measures . — First of all, education is necessary. 
 See what has been said in the last chapter. 2. What a good 
 education does to the mind, corresponding sanitary arrangements 
 do for the body. In this respect China is no better off than a 
 barbarian kingdom in the Dark Continent.. No provision is made 
 auywhere for good ventilation, pure water, cleanliness in the 
 streets and in the houses, or even of the clothes and skin of man 
 and beast. 
 
 3. In order that a dense population may be tolerable, and that 
 over-population of favoured places may be lessened, good thorough- 
 fares and means of communication are essential. Life in the interior 
 then becomes possible when other circumstances make it desirable. 
 Scarcity and famine, too, can be more rapidly removed, trade and 
 
49 
 
 commerce facilitated, and the safety of person and property made 
 more certain. 
 
 4. An ample military force, well equipped and drilled, must exist 
 where great masses of people dwell together, not only for protection 
 against the foreigner, but also against disturbances or individual 
 transgression at home. The state must guarantee safety of life and 
 property to every one of its citizens, not only within its own boun- 
 daries, but also beyond, if possible on the whole globe. On the other 
 hand, every criminal must he convinced that he cannot transgress the 
 law without suffering punishment. Security of peace and welfare 
 in civil life rests on this principle alone. 
 
 IV. Promotion of General Welfare. 1. The common welfare also 
 demands a benevolent administration of justice by which the sense 
 of right is satisfied. Not only that wickedness and lawlessness may 
 be held in check, but difficulties arise almost daily in the various 
 phases of modern commercial life that must be peaceably regulated 
 or they will gradually lead to important crises. 
 
 2. It is an elementary truth that duties and taxes, indeed all 
 customs, must be levied only for public welfare, and not to enrich 
 officials. But more than one generation will pass away ere China 
 reaches this standard. The entire financial system is in a state of 
 almost hopeless ruin. 
 
 3. Many customs and practices carried on at weddings, burials, 
 at the erection of new buildings, New Year’s festivals, etc., are con- 
 nected with expensive ceremonies, which absorb much time, and from 
 which the individual cannot without danger withdraw himself. Only 
 a wise government can successfully, even with every possible indulg- 
 ence, advance against the tyranny of deteriorating popular customs. 
 
 4. It should be the endeavour of humane statesmanship to 
 make marriage in maturity a possibility. It is not possible to 
 make a definite income, sufficient to support a family, conditional for 
 everybody. Simple board might easily be combined with the schools 
 for the poor. The state would, by this means, raise thousands of 
 strong people and save at least some of the money spent on prisons 
 and hospitals. 
 
 5. Religious life thrives best where there is liberty, and is most 
 beneficial for the individual as well as for the state. The govern- 
 ment should certainly not be irreligious, but should not force any 
 particular form on the individual. The government must of course 
 restrict excrescences, such as idolatry, mouachism, street proces- 
 sions, etc. Ou the other hand, no religion should be prohibited to 
 deliver lectures in suitable places for the purpose of propagation. 
 Religious criticism and controversy should also be permitted, but not 
 
50 
 
 in a frivolous manner, which ridicules what is sacred and injures 
 and harms the religious sense. 
 
 6. The benevolent instinct common to all is naturally desirable, 
 and should be encouraged. But as a more lasting blessing is brought 
 about by intelligent control, suitable departments should be instituted 
 to this end, but without paralysing the freedom of the movement. 
 Alleviation differs from cure in the care of the poor as well as the sick. 
 It is not always in the power of the individual to remove causes; even 
 organized societies are not always equal to the task. The govern- 
 ment should lend a helping hand whenever advisable. The same 
 may be said of the banking and insurance systems. But enough of 
 these suggestions. They are, of course, only elementary ideas. 
 Uufortunately China is in want of just such healthy elementary 
 foundations for a vigorous development and a more promising 
 future. As a friend of this country with its 400,000,000 needy 
 inhabitants one must not mind pointing out such things as are need- 
 ful. All such reforms, however, resemble the stars of night. They 
 are consoling and kind, but offer only a weak light and no life-giving 
 warmth. 
 
 XIX. Dawn. 
 
 The dawn proclaims the approach of day. Its light comes from 
 the sun, but is only the advance rays, not the sun itself. This is true 
 of Western civilization, which is finding its way to China. It is 
 penetrated by the spirit of Christianity in spite of the fact that the 
 bearers of this civilization do not wish to acknowledge it, or even go 
 as far as to deny Christianity. Christianity was and still is the inner 
 motive power of Christian lands. It is also a fact that only Christ- 
 ian lands have reached the height of civilization ; also that the whole 
 earth is gradually passing under the rule of Christian states. There 
 are three principal Christian powers that are advancing in Asia : 
 R ussia, which even now rules over the greatest part ; England, which 
 commands the best part ; and France, which has taken a compara- 
 tively small and difficult part under its protection. Although not one 
 of these powers has made the extension of Christianity its business, 
 still each makes mission work possible, even if each follows a dif- 
 ferent method — Russia and France, unfortunately, within exclusive, 
 sectarian limits. These three powers have already encroached on the 
 boundaries of China, and have broken off pieces for themselves. But 
 rays of Western civilization have also peuetrated into the iuterior. 
 
 Commerce stands first. Portugal, Spain, Holland, and then 
 England and the other Western powers sought to establish commer- 
 cial relations, first intermittently, then permanently, with China 
 ever since the end of the 15th century. But we shall only point 
 
51 
 
 oat to what extent commerce brings Western civilization. We 
 must admit chat this is the case, because the products of Western 
 civilization become known and accessible through commerce. It is 
 true that not all commercial products serve to materially raise or 
 morally benefit the Chinese. Many a foreign product, however, is 
 produced in ever increasing quantities in China. Opium predomi- 
 nates, then follow tobacco, cotton, Indian corn, potatoes, peas, various 
 vegetables and kinds of fruit. There are also articles of daily use 
 which can be imported finer and cheaper than the Chinese can 
 produce them. Such are cotton and wool stuffs, needles, knives, etc., 
 weapons and military requisites, also all kinds of machines, dyes, etc. 
 In this striving after rapid profit the significance of the individual 
 as compared to the whole of the present conditions as regards the 
 future is overlooked. Avarice and sensuality are also encouraged. 
 Competition is awakened, and in its train we find falsehood and 
 deception. If trade is to have a healthy development the exports 
 must correspond to the imports, so as to keep an even balance. This 
 is only possible when the demand for the now saleable articles is 
 increased in the West, or when new articles of export are found or 
 produced. In case of the earlier articles of export the production of 
 the same by other nations must be considered, as for instance Indian 
 tea lessens the export of China tea. The increase of imports is 
 dependent upon the paying capacities of the Chinese, and this in 
 turn is regulated by the exports. Whatever hinders the increase 
 of exports must necessarily hinder the increase of imports. An 
 important increase of export might be brought about, bub not with- 
 out a number of internal improvements. It is a still more pressing 
 need that the host of labourers, particularly women and children, 
 who lose their means of existence on account of cheap imports, 
 should be able to fiud other occupation ; otherwise they will become 
 a burden to their countrymen and will lessen the purchasing power. 
 In addition to all this a progressive, suitable education is an impera- 
 tive necessity. It may be said that the influence of the trade of 
 an eulightened nation on a half-civilized race is ruinous, unless 
 much energy is expended in elevating the latter until an eveu 
 balance is at least approached. 
 
 On account of the foreign trade China has several hundred 
 foreigners iu her Customs’ service. It must be acknowledged that 
 a number of them are very remarkable men. The high salary 
 makes a careful selection possible. The head-Customs’-offioials 
 speak Chinese well, and are familiar with Chinese writing and busi- 
 ness habits. They are all accustomed to treat the Chinese officials, 
 as well as the people, with due respect. Many excellent arrange- 
 ments are due to the able management of the Customs’ service, such 
 
52 
 
 as light-houses and other beacons, order in the harbors, accurate 
 surveying along the coast, good maps and exact statistics about 
 imports and exports, also pamphlets on the main articles of trade. 
 The income of the Chinese government is constantly increasing. 
 One might be incliued to take for granted that these gentlemen 
 stand in high favour with the Chinese. The contrary, however, is 
 the case. The Chinese are anxious to be relieved of the foreigner 
 as soon as possible. Many Chinese look with envy upon the high 
 salaries and high life of these foreigners, who enjoy the same at the 
 expense of the Chinese empire. Their achievements on behalf of 
 China, as a whole, are not appreciated by the avaricious Chinaman. 
 It has never come to my knowledge that one of the Customs’ officials 
 has ever converted a mandarin to the ideas of Western civilization. 
 
 Besides these Customs’ officials an increasing number of technol- 
 ogists and instructors are in the service of the Chinese mandarins or 
 rather the Chinese government. These are found in the mines, 
 foundries, spinning mills, silk establishments, arsenals, powder 
 magazines, wharves, and in the naval, military and language schools. 
 The pupils here number hundreds, yea, thousands. One would 
 think that from such institutions much light must be dispensed. 
 This intercourse cannot be without its influence, but it is limited to 
 a narrow circle. Its full significance will not appear until after 
 several generations, when these pupils have reached an advanced 
 age, and others, even abler, are in the prime of life. The number is 
 still too small in comparison to those who are bigoted supporters of 
 ancient Chinese wisdom — about 1 to 1000 or more. 
 
 The Consular officials of the Western countries also form a no- 
 table power. All the greater governments have Consuls employed in 
 the chief places. These are, of course, men who are thoroughly 
 cultured and in every respect worthy of esteem. They are consider- 
 ed of equal rank with the highest Chinese officials in their respective 
 places. Many of them speak Chinese, some are also able scholars. 
 Officially and socially they frequently come into personal contact with 
 the highest Chinese officials. This has been going on for several 
 decades. Many a contention between Chinese and foreigners has in 
 this manner been satisfactorily settled. But there has been no ap- 
 proach of the Chinese to the foreigner, nor any confidential relations 
 between them. The Chinese gentry are usually, it is said, quite as 
 pleased at the conclusion of au interview as the Consuls themselves. 
 
 We might expect most from their Excellencies the Ministers 
 and Ambassadors at Peking. They come from the highest circles of 
 their respective countries, are equipped with eminent endowments 
 and scholarship, are surrounded by the glory of their lofty positions, 
 their secretaries are able scholars, their interpreters are distinguished 
 
53 
 
 sinologues; all the helps of Western civilization are at their com- 
 mand. “ When a man is elevated by nature it is no wonder if he 
 achieves something.” Unfortunately I am not in a position to sum 
 up the grand accomplishments of these illustrious diplomats, for they 
 are entirely withdrawn from my judgment, even my knowledge, as 
 I have as yet had no opportunity of paying a visit to the capital of 
 China. At times yon hear it whispered that each of these eminent 
 gentlemen keeps a hobby which bears the name of commercial policy. 
 The enactment of beneficial commercial negotiations as a sort of 
 broker is said to be the mainspring of this hobby. There is also 
 sufficient leisure to be thoroughly engaged with “ what one eats and 
 drinks in China,” and now and then to strike a blow at missions. 
 
 The Chinese Ambassadors and Consuls with t heir staffs of select 
 scholars in the different states of the Western countries, do much to 
 make the cultured Chinese, even in the highest circles, more familiar 
 with the peculiar civilization of t.he West. The reason that this is 
 not more noticeable as yet lies in the lack of thorough linguistic 
 preparations of these Chinese. They are also aware of t lie fact that 
 they dare not be carried away by sympathy with the foreigner, as 
 this would call forth the hatred and opposition of the influential 
 circles of China. It is their duty not to give up one iota of their 
 inherited Chinese prejudices; on the other hand, however, to be as 
 liberal with bows and polite phrases as occasion demands. 
 
 A greater impression is made by the thousands of labourers, 
 who return from foreign lands every year, after an absence of 
 several years. The chief places to which the Chinese emigrate are 
 Singapore and the Malay possessions of England, Borneo, Sumatra, 
 Java, the Philippines, Tongkiu and Annum, Siam, Bnrinah, Japan, 
 the Hawaian Islands, United States, Canada, Peru, Chili, Australia, 
 New Zealand, West Indies, Congo Free State and other parts of 
 Africa, and also Corea and Siberia. Naturally the experiences of 
 these labourers are not always the same, and not always pleasant. 
 Still they become acquainted with other circumstances and find many 
 things preferable to those at home, and they generally bring back 
 quite a sum of money. After spending again some time in the home- 
 land, some begin to notice the stress of circumstances, aud foreign 
 lauds appear to them in rosier hues. 
 
 Newspapers , too, have an influence. English newspapers, 
 published in Hongkong and Shanghai, are read in the Yameus of 
 mandarins of high rank. Subscriptions for Chinese newspapers are 
 increasing from year to year. The most important news from all 
 quarters of the globe is made known to a large number of Chinese 
 readers. By this means many au ancient Chinese prejudice is broken 
 down. However, the circulation is still limited to the ports and 
 
54 
 
 their immediate vicinity. The many millions in the interior still 
 grope in their old inherited darkness. 
 
 The Chinese government had translations of scientific works 
 prepared and published, for example : works of Geography, History, 
 Ship-building, Navigation, Powder Manufacture, Chemicals, Mining, 
 Physics, Engineering, Botany, Iron, Materia Medica, etc. Although 
 these were oidy applicable to certain purposes, arsenals and schools, 
 yet from these centres they were destined to spread some light ou 
 actual science and industry. But the first elementary ideas of foreign 
 science are unknown to the mass of Chinese scholars, and they are then 
 incapable of reading works of this kind with intelligence and profit. 
 The first need is a large number of primary schools. At any rate we 
 can rejoice over these rays of light, even if they are broken by the strata 
 of terrestrial atmosphere, for they are the heralds of bright day-light. 
 
 XX. Break of Day. 
 
 Christ is the Light of the World, and the light shines in the dark- 
 ness. Missions are as old as the Christian church. As far as we 
 know the Nestorians were the first to come to China as missionaries, 
 the Catholics following. In the 17th century a start was made by 
 Protestants on the island of Formosa, but in too limited a locality and 
 for too short a time for the work to become deeply rooted. The Dutch 
 government suppressed it in order to transact commercial business 
 with the Japanese (see China, Reveiw, Vol. xiii). A history of Protes- 
 tant missions is not to be expected here, only a few outlines will be 
 given to make a more intelligent, judgment possible. Our mission has 
 no other purpose but to carry out Christ’s commission: “ Go ye into 
 all the world and teach all nations.” Our motive, too, is the command 
 of Christ, not the misery of the heathen world. There is misery 
 enough in all lands, so that every missionary would find enough to do 
 in the home-laud. Christianity will never put an end to misery until 
 the end of days. Christ appeared for all the world; His salvation is 
 for all people. The tidings we bring are those of Saving Grace, the 
 invitation to the kingdom of God. 
 
 The missionary is not only a preacher of words, but an example 
 of Christiau life. Not that he is to have or could have a perfect 
 knowledge of it, but the life itself, healthy and sound, mast exist in 
 him as a heartfelt, personal appropriation. No man can completely 
 free himself from the associations from which he has received his 
 impress. Every missionary stands in connection with some definite 
 church and more or less with some theological movement. These are 
 the humanly and locally defined differences in Protestantism, which 
 are quite conspicuous in missions. In China there are representa- 
 tives of over fifty different missionary societies, which again repre- 
 
55 
 
 sent about as many separate bodies of Christians. Some missionaries 
 are in duty bound to strictly adhere to the peculiarities of their sect 
 and to establish them in their native churches. There are also the 
 national differences of English, Americans, Canadians, Germans, 
 Swedes, Australasians and Danes to be considered. This renders 
 the unity of spirit more difficult amongst 1500 missionaries (now 
 already <1500 men and women). Still ideal unity exists, and occa- 
 sionally finds expression. Superficial observers, however, are easily 
 misled. There is no harm in variety, but rather gaiu. Differences 
 become destructive only when they degenerate into sectarianism ‘and 
 mutual condemnation as heresy. The truth, of course, cau be only 
 one, but the conceptions of the same truth always differ and depend 
 upon the condition of the individual. Spiritual truth can also be 
 divided into innumerable individual truths and no person will ever be 
 able to attain to a knowledge of the sum total of all truth. Where 
 there is life there must be variety, and the better this life is nurtured 
 the greater and the more numerous will be the variations. This is 
 the case in all culture. We should, therefore, rejoice over the rich 
 variety in Protestantism and thank God for the same, but we must 
 bear in mind the fact that the same life, life from God, throbs in 
 every living member, and that the Spirit of Christ is the bond of Love. 
 
 The missionary is also, voluntarily or involuntarily, whether at 
 home a scholar or a labourer, a bearer of Western civilization. There 
 are habits or customs common to all, such as cleanliness and truth- 
 fulness, and there are scientific results known to all, e.g., the ex- 
 planation of eclipses. An elementary pupil of the West can speak 
 fluently about things which still lie beyond the horizon of the Chinese 
 scholar. But the value of a diffusion of the most common elementary 
 truths amongst the masses of China must not be underestimated. 
 The power of superstition and prejudice is thus broken. Even the 
 simplest missionary can alleviate some distress and instil some good. 
 Furthermore, the ordinary morality of the missionary is higher than 
 that of the best Chinese in monogamy, sense of truth, cleanliness, 
 purity, honesty, sympathy, etc. The missionary’s influence »on the 
 Chinese, therefore, can be and is only for blessing. We must not, 
 however, expect a moral ideal to be attained within one generation. 
 The individual in China stands in too close a connection with the 
 whole community to make an uninterrupted development possible. 
 The Chinese have been moved to some deeds of benevolence and 
 moral aspirations by missions, as is proved by foundling asylums, 
 public schools, hospitals, preaching halls, improved methods for the 
 care of the blind, the poor and the aged. 
 
 The missionary is also a citizen of his respective state, and as 
 such is furnished with a passport by his Consul. As long as pass- 
 
56 
 
 ports are issued it is a matter of honour for each government to see 
 that the citizen concerned is treated according to existing treaties. 
 Without regard for justice it would be poor policy to allow any 
 room for the arbitrariness of mandarins. In any case, it should be 
 immaterial to Consuls and Ministers, whether the person in need 
 of protection or justice be travelling in the interests of scientific 
 research, of trade, missions or anything else; legally he is the holder 
 of a passport, and should be treated as such. It is unfortunate 
 that enlightenment on this subject seems to be necessary in some 
 places. Of course we do not mean that the missionary should, under 
 all circumstances, claim his rights. But enough of this. Much con- 
 fusion will be avoided iu future if the above three points are kept in 
 mind. The missionary is the bearer of the Gospel of Divine Life, 
 of Western civilization, and of a passport of citizenship. 
 
 Nothing need be said about present mission work and its suc- 
 cess. In a few weeks a hand-book* will leave the press, which will 
 offer all information. Our work for the Chinese is not iu vain. 
 I have been able to convince myself that the Gospel is a power of 
 God in the heart of men, which changes sinners into blessed children 
 of God. But it must be proclaimed as the power of God, which 
 renews the hearts. All Christian virtues, social reforms, and also 
 political regeneration, will in due time appear as the natural results 
 of this new life, as do the blossom and fruit on a living, healthy tree. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I would ask my reader to draw his own conclusions and to 
 ponder on his own relation to Christ, on His salvation of the world, 
 His missionary command, the kingdom of God, and on China in the 
 Light of History. 
 
 * Since been issued — E d. Rec. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 a flOissionar? IDicw of Confucianism. 
 
 In order to avoid misunderstanding the reader is reminded that 
 Confucianism is not identical witli Chinese life. There have always 
 been other agencies at work for good and for evil in China. Though 
 we do not confine Confucianism to the person of Confucius, nor to the 
 teachings of the Classics, fairness requires us to regard as genuine 
 only such later developments as can be shown to have their roots in 
 the Classics. The Classics again have to be explained in the spirit of 
 the whole contents of the Canon, and care must be taken not to force 
 a meaning into single passages which may be contrary to that spirit. 
 To the question: How far is Confucianism responsible for the present 
 corrupt state of Chinese life ? the correct answer seems to be, so far as 
 the principles which led to this corruption are sanctioned in the Clas- 
 sics. The missionary view of Confucianism cau treat of nothing but 
 the relation between Confucianism and Christianity. When we speak 
 of such a relation we mean that both systems have points of similarity 
 aud agreement. A clear statement of these and the cheerful acknow- 
 ledgment of their harmonious teaching makes mutual understanding 
 between adherents of the two systems possible and easy. There are 
 also points of difference and antagonism, and a clear perception of these 
 will guard against confusion and perversiou of truth. There are 
 other points which may exist in a rudimentary state in one system 
 and be highly developed in the other, or may only occur in one aud 
 be absent in the other. This points to deficiencies in one system 
 which may be supplemented from the other. Our subject divides 
 itself accordingly into three parts : — 1. Points of similarity which 
 form. a basis of agreement between Confucianism and Christianity. 
 2. Points of antagonism which form obstacles and must be re- 
 moved. 3. Points of deficiency in Confucianism which are perfect in 
 Christianity. 
 
 I. Points of Similarity. 
 
 1. Divine Providence over human affairs and visitation of human 
 sin are acknowledged. Both Confucius and Mencius had a firm belief 
 jn their special mission. A plain aud frequent teaching of the Clas- 
 sics, on the other hand, is that calamities visit a country and ruin 
 overcomes a dynasty through the displeasure of heaven. The meta- 
 physical speculations of Chu Fu-tsze and his school (Sung) only 
 differ in their explanation of it, not iu the fact. 
 
58 
 
 2. An Invisible World above and around this material life is 
 firmly believed in. Man is considered to stand in connection with 
 spirits, good and bad. 
 
 3. Moral Law is positively set forth as binding equally on man 
 and spirits. The spirits appear as the executors of the moral law. 
 This is, however, little understood by the Chinese people who attempt 
 to bribe and cheat the spirits as well as their mandarins. Still the 
 Moral Law is proclaimed in the Classics. 
 
 4. Prayer is offered in public calamities as well as for private 
 needs, in the belief that it is heard and answered by the spiritual 
 powers. 
 
 5. Sacrifices are regarded as necessary to come into closer contact 
 with the spiritual world. Even its deeper meanings of self-sacrifice 
 and of a vicarious sacrifice are touched upon, which are two impor- 
 tant steps toward an understanding of the sacrificial death of Christ. 
 
 6. Miracles are believed in as the natural efficacy of Spirits. 
 This is a fruitful source of superstition among the people. Western 
 science, on the other band, lays all stress on force inherent in matter 
 and stimulates scepticism. We can point to the great power of the 
 human intellect over the material forces. God’s intellect is all com- 
 prehensive. God is working miracles, not by suspending the laws of 
 nature, nor by acting contrary to them, hut by using them, as their 
 omnipotent Master, to serve His will and purpose. The Divine 
 purpose distinguishes God’s miracles from miraculous occurrences. 
 
 7. Moral Duly is taught, and its obligations in the five human 
 relations — sovereign and minister, father and son, husband and wife, 
 elder brother and younger, friend and friend. There are errors con- 
 nected with the Confuciau teaching of these duties pointed out below 
 II, 8-13 and defects, illustrated III, 13. It remains, nevertheless, an 
 excellent feature of Confucianism that moral duty is inculcated, and 
 that the social obligations are made so prominent. We may say that 
 it is the quintessence of Confuciau education. 
 
 8. Cultivation of the Personal Moral Character is regarded as 
 the basis for the successful carrying out of the social duties. That 
 self-control should not be abandoned in private when no mortal being 
 is near to observe it, is repeatedly emphasized. 
 
 9. Virtue is valued above riches and honor. The strong tendency 
 of the great mass of Chinese is certainly to money and pleasure, but 
 it is to be regretted that foreign improvements are too often recom- 
 mended on account of their profit , or because they would improve the 
 material conditions of comfortable living. The Christian view is first 
 of all the kingdom of God, then all other things as natural results. 
 The dominiou of virtue, though not identical with the kingdom of 
 God, is a close approximation to it. It is a solemn lesson which we 
 
59 
 
 may learn from ancient and modern history, that wealth has ruined 
 more nations than poverty. 
 
 10. In case of failure in political and social life the moral self- 
 culture and the practice of humanity are to be attended even more 
 carefully than before, according to opportunities. This is the great 
 moral victory which Confucius gained, and the same may be said of 
 his distinguished followers, the greatest among whom are Mencius 
 and Chu Fu-tsze. None of these pillars of Confucianism turned to 
 money-makiug or sought vain glory in the service of the State by 
 sacrificing their principles to gain access to official employment or 
 by a promise to keep their couviction secret in their own bosoms. 
 They gained greater ultimate success by their failure in life. The 
 cross of Christ has a similar meaning, and we should not expect 
 worldly triumph as long as our Lord is despised aud even blasphem- 
 ed among the higher classes of China. 
 
 11. Sincerity and truth are shown to be the only basis for self- 
 culture aud the reform of the world. This gives to self-culture a high 
 moral tone. It is not only external culture such as fine manners and 
 good works, nor is it intellectual improvement but a normal state of 
 the intentions of the mind, combined with undefiled feelings and emo- 
 tions of the heart. We should not question whether any Chinaman 
 ever reached this ideal, but ask those we have to deal with, Have you 
 attained it? If not, what is the cause of your failure ? Will you 
 not seek and find it in Christ ? 
 
 12. The Golden Rule is proclaimed as the principle of moral 
 conduct among our fellow-men. This is egoism ennobled by altruism. 
 The rule is given not only in a negative but also in the positive form. 
 It cau, however, be fully understood and carried out only by one bora 
 of God, whom the love of Christ constraineth. Still, that this rule 
 entered a Chinese mind and found expression from the mouth of Con- 
 fucius raises Confucianism to a high standard of morality. We may 
 welcome it as a powerful assistance to bring about a couviction of siu 
 among the Chinese; for who ever acted up to it ? 
 
 13. Every ruler should carry out a Benevolent Government for 
 the benefit of the people. He must not endure the suffering of the 
 people. If the Chinese emperors and mandarins would really act up 
 to what they pretend to be (viz., the fathers aud mothers of the people) 
 with the same care, affection and even self-sacrifice, as good parents 
 do for their children, China would be in a different condition. Still, 
 we can avail ourselves of this high ideal aud show its fulfilment in 
 Christ who gave His life for the world. 
 
 II. Points of Antagonism. 
 
 1 . God, though dimly known, is not the only object of religious 
 worship. This cannot be regarded as only a deficiency, it is a fatal 
 
60 
 
 error. Polytheism is taught iu the Classics. Idolatry is the natural 
 consequence, and all the superstitious iu connection with it among 
 the people are its inevitable results. 
 
 2. The Worship of Spiritual Beings is not done in spirit and in 
 truth, but by punctilious observance of prescribed ceremonies to the 
 minutest detail. The offerings and sacrifices consist in materials pro- 
 curable with money. Though the Classics also point to a deeper mean- 
 ing, this superficial ritualism, with absence of elevatiug devotional 
 feeliugand renovating influence in heart aud life, has grown from the 
 seed sown by the Classics. 
 
 3. The Worship of Ancestral Spirits , tablets and graves, we have 
 to regard as a sin, for it takes the place of the worship of God. It is 
 an error so far as it rests on wrong notions in regard to the departed 
 in the other world ; their happiness being thought dependent on the 
 sacrifices from their descendants and the fortune of the living as 
 caused by the dead. It is an evil, because selfish considerations 
 take the place of moral and religious motives. The superstitions of 
 geomancy, spiritualism, exorcism and all kinds of deceit practised 
 by Buddhist and Taoist priests, have their origin in it. Confucianism 
 is responsible for all this religious corruption, for sacrificing to the 
 dead is taught as the highest filial duty in the Classics, and Mencius 
 sanctions polygamy on its account. The ritual duties for the dead iu 
 dressing the corpse, burial, mourning and periodical sacrifices, are so 
 numerous, onerous aud expensive that, if carried out conscientiously 
 by everybody very little of wealth and of energy could be left for 
 anything else. Christianity acknowledges no other duty to the dead 
 beyond a decent burial and tender memory, remembering and honor- 
 ing all their good for our imitatiou. This is in accordance even with, 
 some Confucian teaching in the Classics. 
 
 4. The Erection of Temples to great warriors and to other 
 men of eminence in which sacrifices are offered and incense is burned 
 to their shades. They are invoked to be present at the service; 
 prayers are offered, and help is asked and believed to have been 
 received more or less frequently. This goes far beyond the honor 
 due to benefactors of mankind. There are certainly over a hundred 
 thousand such temples in China. They absorb a great proportion 
 of the revenue without giving any return but the increase of 
 superstition. Noble ambition could be inspired more effectively 
 in the Christain way. Though the practice of building temples to 
 heroes arose shortly after the classical period its roots can be 
 found in the Classics. The spirits of departed benefactors were 
 appointed by Imperial authority to certain offices in the invisible 
 world. This is one of the Imperial prerogatives in Confucianism. 
 We consider it, of course, either as a sacrilege or as nonsense 
 
61 
 
 The myriads of War-god Temples, dedicated to Kwan-ti, an ancient 
 warrior, may suffice as a striking example of the extent of this error. 
 
 5. The Memorial Arches erected to persons that committed 
 suicide, especially to widows, are throwing a sad light on the 
 morality of a community where such crimes are necessitated. Con- 
 fucianism is responsible for it by the low place it allows to women, 
 bv the wrong feeling of honor it awakens in men and women and 
 by the meagre religious consolation it can provide for the afflicted. 
 Death is sought as the only escape from unbearable misery. 
 
 6. Oracles , by stalks and the tortoise-shell, are declared necessary 
 for the right conduct of human affairs. They certainly point to the 
 need of a revelation of the Divine Will. It is, however, sought in a 
 mechanical way, and chance is taken instead. Astrology and magic, 
 in all its modern forms, are the evil results, and a confusion betweeu 
 what is right and wrong is the moral consequence. The interpretation 
 of the oracles is in the hands of shrewd persons who take advantage 
 of it for their own benefit. The whole system of divination is a 
 caricature of biblical revelation and its corresponding human side of 
 inspiration. God reveals Himself, but the human miud must be 
 prepared to receive it as an inspiration, i.e., must come under the 
 influence of God’s spirit. 
 
 7. Choosing Lucky Days is a sacred duty demanded by the 
 Classics and enforced by law. This duty involves much loss of 
 valuable time to all Chinese. The yearly publication of the Imperial 
 Almanac, the standard for this absurdity, demonstrates the fossilized 
 state of the Chinese mind. European astronomy has been taught 
 to the Chinese Imperial court for over three hundred years ; many 
 books have been published too, the influence of which is so 
 imperceptible because only the Confuciau Classics fill and shape the 
 Chinese mind. Many other superstitions prevail for the same reason. 
 
 8. Polygamy is not only wrong; it has ever been a curse in 
 Chinese history. Many intrigues, crimes and wars have been caused 
 by it. Confucianism has not only no censure for it, not even for its 
 detestable accumulation in the Imperial palace, that greatest slum of 
 the world, but sanctions it in the Classics. Confucianism is, there- 
 fore, responsible for this great social and political evil. The misery of 
 eunuchs, secondary wives, slave-girls, feet-binding, degradation of 
 women in general, are accompaniments which magnify this vice. 
 Instead of extolling the Confuciau moral teachiug on the five human 
 relations all Confucianists, together with their foreign admirers, ought 
 to hide their faces in shame that the most important of the human 
 relations is treated so viciously. 
 
 9. Rebellion. Confucius praising Yao and Shun as the highest 
 pattern of moral accomplishment points principally to the fact that 
 
62 
 
 both rulers selected the worthiest of their subjects to become their 
 co-regents and their successors. This high example has not found 
 one* follower among 244 emperors (according to Mayer’s Reader’s 
 Manual) of China, from Confucius’ death to the present day. This in 
 spite of Confucianism as the state-religion of China. Confucius him- 
 self appears to have regarded with favor rebellious movements in the 
 hope of bringing a sage to the throne. Mencius is certainly very 
 outspoken in this respect. He justifies dethroning and even the 
 murder of a bad ruler. No wonder then that rebellions have occurred, 
 on a large scale, over fifty times in about 2.000 years, and local 
 rebellions are almost yearly events. It is impossible to calculate how 
 many hundred millions of human lives have been sacrificed daring 
 these rebellions. Confucianism is to blame for it. Neither Confucius 
 himself, nor one of his followers, ever thought of establishing a con- 
 stitutional barrier against tyranny and providing a magna charta for 
 the security of life and property of the ministers and people of 
 China. The hands of the executioner ended the noble lives of many 
 of China’s best men. It cannot be otherwise as long as the caprici- 
 ous will of a self-conceited ruler is supreme law. The remedy has 
 been found in Western (Christian) countries in the separation of the 
 executive from the legislative power. Law is no more the will of one 
 man, but of the majority of the people, its formulation is done by 
 an assembly of chosen men, etc. The people must also have a legal 
 way to make their grievances known and find relief in a peaceful 
 manner. Confucianism, however, regards the people as little children 
 that must be fed, protected and taught their duties. They have 
 only the right to obey under these circumstances and to rebel 
 if the contrary should become intolerable. 
 
 10. Confucianism attaches too high authority to the Emperor. 
 He is called the son of Heaven, the only supreme authority on earth. 
 Every law and custom must emanate from him. The emperor of China 
 caunot acknowledge another sovereign as his equal. In this respect 
 he can be compared with the pope of Rome. The treaties with foreign 
 powers have already upset this fundamental doctrine of Confuciauism. 
 
 11. Patria Potestas. Corresponding to the extreme view of 
 Imperial authority Confucianism has also fostered an extreme idea of 
 paternal power. A father may kill his offspring, may sell even grown 
 sous and daughters in slavery. Their property belongs to him under 
 all circumstances, even their families are absolutely subject to him, 
 as long as he, the father, lives. 
 
 12. Blood Revenge. It is a strict demand of Confucius in the 
 Classics, that a son should lose no time iu revenging the death of his 
 father, or of a near relative. A younger brother has the same duty 
 iu regard to the death of an older, and a friend to a friend. This 
 
63 
 
 means that they have to take the law into their own hands. They 
 will be guided by their feelings, aud in many cases more serious wrong 
 is done by their revenge thau by the original act which may preseut 
 mitigating circumstances, or be not murder at all, perhaps even 
 justifiable under eulightened examination. If the accompanying 
 circumstances are not taken into consideration by impartial judges, 
 where and when cau the shedding of blood be stopped? Logically 
 only with the total extermination of oue of the respective families. 
 Even several families may share this fate, as friends have to take up 
 the same cause. The jus talionis belongs to a primitive period of 
 human society. Moses mitigated it and brought it under the control 
 of impartial legal authority. Confucius not only sanctioned an 
 ancient usage, but raised it to a moral duty, poisoning by it three of 
 his five social relations. As the remaining two relations have been 
 shown as vicious in part (see above Nos. 4 aud 5) Confueiauists have 
 really no reason for their extravagant boasting. 
 
 13. The absolute Subordination of sons to their fathers aud 
 of younger brothers to their eldest brother during life-time, is also a 
 source of many evils. It may work well enough in a primitive society 
 and in wealthy families, but not in a dense populatiou among poor 
 people. In China the inevitable result has been much misery and 
 contention in families; ruins everywhere testify to it. Progress is 
 also made impossible, as there will always be some old people obsti- 
 nately against any modern improvement. Nepotism also is made a 
 moral obligation by the Classics. 
 
 14. Official corruption is to a great extent due to the custom 
 of making presents to the superior in office. This bad usage is 
 sanctioned in the classics and by Confucius himself carrying such 
 presents with him ou his journeys. Its worst abuse is the sale of offices 
 and bribery. Present-giving and receiving should be confined to friend- 
 ly intercourse, but official relations should be kept free from it under 
 penalty of dismissal from office. See the Old Testament on this point. 
 
 15. The Sacredness of a promise, coutract, oath, treaty, etc., is 
 often violated when opportunity is favorable to a personal advantage. 
 Though Christian nations commit also too many trespasses of this 
 kind, the difference is, that the teaching and example of Christ and 
 His apostles is against it, even against falsehood of any shape. But 
 Confucius himself broke a solemn oath and excused it. The Chinese 
 moral sentiment is, therefore, misguided, whereas the Christian 
 feeling is up to the standard. Lying aud deceitfuluess are so highly 
 developed iu China, probably to a great extent, from this cause. 
 
 16. The Identity of physical, moral and political law is presumed 
 by Confucianism and fiuds its canonical expression especially in the 
 I-kiug or Book of Chauges. But the same idea runs through all 
 
64 
 
 the Classics and later doctrinal developments of Confucianism. The 
 truth of th is doctrine can only be sought in the person of one 
 almighty God, but it is a serious error when applied to man, especially 
 to sinful man. This is the deeper root of Coufucian pride and of much 
 nonsense in regard to natural events. It is also the source of Taoist 
 magic, charms, etc., shared by modern Chinese Buddhism. 
 
 III. Points of Deficiency in Confucianism which are perfect 
 in Christianity. 
 
 1. The God of Confucianism is the majestic Ruler on High, in- 
 accessible to the people. The emperor of China is the only person 
 privileged to approach Him. God is not known in His nature of 
 love as our Heavenly Father. 
 
 2. The Coufuciau Divine Providence appears in conflict with 
 the Confucian notion of Fate. Providence presupposes a personal 
 God, omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent, a God who can feel 
 compassion with living creatures, as in Christianity. 
 
 3. Confuciauism acknowledges a Revelation of God in nature 
 and in human history, but a revelation of God’s nature, will and 
 intentions (plan) for the salvation and education of the human race 
 remains unknown. See II, 6. 
 
 4. There is no conviction of an unconditioned Responsibility to 
 God, the majestic Ruler of the universe who will judge in righteous- 
 ness. Therefore a deep sense of sin and siufulness is absent. 
 
 5. The necessity of an Atonement is not conceived, because neither 
 ihekoliness of God, nor the depth of human sin aretaughtin theClassics. 
 
 6. As the deepest cause of death and of all the evils in the 
 world is not sought and found in sin, therefore the need of a Saviour 
 is not felt ; salvation is sought in external performances, in self- 
 correction too, but not in the grace of God who sent the only true 
 Saviour from Heaven to Earth to reunite man with God. 
 
 7. Confuciauism has produced many theories on the Nature of 
 Man , but none that man is the image of the persoual God. Hence 
 the perfect union of the divine and the human, as it has been realized 
 in the person of Christ, has never been anticipated by a Chiuese mind. 
 
 8. As every man has to save himself there cannot bo a Univer- 
 sality of salvation in Confuciauism. Such can only be the case when 
 salvation is God’s work ; God was in Christ and reconciled the world 
 to Himself. The conditions of a participation cannot be in man’s 
 own judgment, but are laid down by God himself — faith in Christ. 
 Through it every man can become a partaker of God’s grace. 
 
 9. Confucianists remain, in spite of their best efforts, estranged 
 from GocL They may improve themselves and come into communion 
 with the spirits of the departed (?), but not with the Spirit of God , 
 
65 
 
 for enlightenment in eternal truths, for strength to a holy living, for 
 comfort in the struggles of life, for peace and hope in death. 
 
 10. Confucianism teaches the immortality of the soul, hut in a 
 disembodied state dependant for all its needs on the goodwill of living 
 men. Resurrection in a spiritual body for eternal happiness in God’s 
 glory is unknown. 
 
 11. The highest ideal of Confucianism, its summum bonum, is 
 political, the government and state of China. This has ever remained 
 an utopian idea, a fiction like the republic of Plato. Christ shows us 
 another ideal, the Kingdom of God. It begins in the heart of the 
 believer which becomes regenerated. It then extends to the Churoh, 
 i.e., a brotherhood of men in Christian spirit, embraces all nations 
 and finds its glorious perfection at the second coming of Christ in the 
 resurrection of the dead, i.e., the reunion of all generations of man- 
 kind and the new heaven and new earth, when God will be all in all. 
 
 12. Christianity can supplement striking deficiencies not only 
 in religion proper but also in the morality of Confucianism. Self - 
 examination, for example, one of the excellent fundamental principles 
 of Confucianism, has a deeper meaning in Christianity. We attend 
 to it before God, the most holy one, who is perfection in every sense, 
 and who is our pattern, especially in His incarnate form of Christ. 
 Every other merely human model has imperfections, Yao and Shun 
 had theirs, and Confucius was conscious of his own. We certainly 
 estimate Confucius higher for his expressions of humility than for 
 the pompous eulogies from his haughty followers, 
 
 13. Self-oulture also has a deeper sense in Christianity. It im- 
 plies 'purity in every way. Sexual impurity is tolerated by Con- 
 fucianism to a shocking extent. Confucius himself was pure, and 
 the Classics are remarkable for the spirit of purity that permeates 
 the whole of them. There is, however, nowhere an intimation given 
 of the importance of consistent purity of soul and body for the 
 improvement of personal character as well as for society. Internal 
 purity and external cleanliness are deficient qualities in Oonfucian 
 morality. It has not even the same moral standard of purity for 
 male and female persons. We have to confess that there is still 
 much impurity even publicly exhibited, in Christian lands, but it is 
 of heathen origin, against the principles of Christianity, and true 
 Christians feel ashamed of it. 
 
 14. The Human Relations. The grave errors of Confucianism 
 in regard to the social relations have already been exposed (II, 8-13). 
 But there are besides deficiencies apparent, for the five do not ex- 
 haust all human relations. One important relation has become 
 prominent in all civilized countries in our times, that of the employer 
 to the employed, or as it is sometimes put impersonally of “capital 
 
66 
 
 to labour. 5 ’ Christian brotherhood contains the solution of this 
 problem (see Paul’s letter to Philemon, etc). There is another 
 relation of the Wealthy to the Poor and Needy. Christ’s answer to 
 the question, “ Who is my neighbour,” is the best possible. There is 
 a relation to Foreigners. In this we know it is our duty to bring the 
 Gospel and its blessings to all creatures. When compared with 
 this universal spirit of the Christian human relations* Confucian- 
 ism appears primitive and clannish. 
 
 15. Confucianism keeps certain days as festivals, but has no 
 regular day of rest, no Sabbath-day. This deficiency leaves not only 
 the working classes without a relief in their hardships, but allows 
 the nobler aspirations of human nature to be submerged in the un- 
 broken turmoil of daily life. The Christian Sabbath is no more the 
 Jewish Sabbath of the law, but God’s rest in the re-born heart of 
 man as His temple, and man’s rest from earthly toil and care, a 
 foretaste of the eternal rest in God. 
 
 16. The Fulness of Christian Life. Christians become, through 
 faith in Christ, children of God, members of the body of the glorified 
 Christ, co-inheritors of the heavenly kingdom. Christ is born in the 
 hearts of His believers. Our bodies are then temples of the triune 
 God and become gradually instruments of His glory. Although on 
 earth our treasure is kept in earthen vessels, though we still live by 
 
 faith, not by sight, though it has not yet appeared what we shall be 
 
 still we have the assurance of it in the ever present communion with 
 God in His grace. Confucianism has nothing of the kind. Its cold 
 abstract morality and cool ceremonial religion cannot produce the 
 warmth of feeling on which human life depends. There is nothing 
 approaching to the Lord’s prayer in Confucianism, nor to that con- 
 cise expression of the fullness of Christian life in the apostolic 
 blessing, “the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God and 
 the communion of the Holy Spirit be with you.” Although theo- 
 logians differ in their metaphysical explanations of this mystery, the 
 trinity of divine life animates every true Christian’s heart. Its ab- 
 sence separates the non-Christian from the Christian. What Con- 
 fucianism really needs is this Divine Life. May God’s Spirit move 
 the field of dry bones 1 
 
 * I cannot possibly attempt here to treat exhaustively the subject of “ Christian 
 Ethics.” We might go on and add a relation to enemies, another between teacher 
 and pupil, another between the individual and the community, political as well as 
 ecclesiastical. The Confucian relation between “king and minister” can also not 
 exhaust our present complicated relations to a modern civilized state, nor can the 
 Confucian “ husband- wife” relation solve all the preplexed “ woman questions,” etc. 
 
67 
 
 Dr. Faber’s other publications may be had at the American 
 Presbyterian Mission Press, 18 Peking Road, Shanghai. 
 
 T2f 
 
 In Chinese there are : — 
 
 Western Schools, 1 vol. ff m 
 On Education, 1 vol. -fjj 
 
 Chinese Theories of Human Nature, 1 vol. 'f^ $$ $j| 
 Commentary on Mark, 77 sermons, 5 vols. |§ rT Bff jg. 
 
 „ „ Luke, 1821 skeleton sermons, 6 vols. }D ffj 
 
 Meditations on the Old Testament, 3 vols. |7G ^ H? ]£. 
 Civilization, East and West (the fruits of Christianity compared 
 with those of the Chinese religion), 5 vols. g M fg )|j. 
 
 The Human Heart. Illustrated Tract, BJJ ]gjj. 
 
 Sheet Tracts, 20 kinds. 
 
 An Examination of the Thirteen Classics and the Development of 
 Confucianism If! 7(\ M (2 vols. issued ; others in preparation.) 
 In English there are : — 
 
 A Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius. 
 Introduction to the Science of Chinese Religion. 
 
 The Mind of Mencius (Triibner’s Oriental Series), out of print. 
 Second edition in preparation. 
 
 Prehistoric China, Journal C. Br. Royal Asiatic S., Vol. xxiv, 1. 
 Paul, the Apostle in Europe, a Guide to our Mission Work. 
 
 The Famous Men of China. 
 
 „ „ Women of China. 
 
 „ Status of Women in China. 
 
 In German there are : — 
 
 Eine Staatslehre auf ethischer Grundlage, i.e., Menoius. 
 Der Naturalismus bei den Chinesen, i.e., Licius, 
 
 Der Socialismus bei den Chinesen, i.e., Micius 
 
DATE DUE 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CAYLORO 
 
 
 
 PRINTED IN U. S.A . 
 

DS706.F11 
 
 China in the light of history, 
 
 1 1012 00023 4429