r.*Uii;*Ki'tViW.e!^,ctU*t*A*^i\i^>,*- 4iPPH| iH^ttJc^^—^ 7/ BL 2785 .W45 1889 Wheeler, J. M. 1850-1898. A biographical dictionary o freethinkers of all ages u y- A \-. Biographical Dictionary -0 FREETHINKERS ALL AGES AND NATIONS t/ J. M. WHEELER. ' PROGRESSIVE PUBLISHINa COMPANY, 28 Stonecutter Street, E.G. 1889. J.ONDON : fiUNTED AND PUBLISHED BY G. W. TOOTE, AT 28 STONECUTTER STREET, E.G. PREFACE. John Stuart Mill in his " Autobiography " declares with truth that " the world would be astonished if it knew how great a proportion of its brightest ornaments, of those most distinguished even in popular estimation for wisdom and virtue are complete sceptics in religion." Many of these, as Mill points out, refrain from various motives from speaking out. The work 1 have undertaken will, I trust, do something to show Low many of the world's worthiest men and women have been Freethinkers. My Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who have rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation would rather be the task of an international society than of an individual. Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now inaccessible. Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom the world was not worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom in prison or at the stake. Some of the names of these are only known by the vituperation of their adversaries. I have done my best to preserve some trustworthy record of as many as possible. The only complete work with a similar design of which I have any knowledge, is the Dictionnaire des Athees anciens et modernes, by Sylvain Marechal with its supplements by Jerome de Lalande the Astronomer, An. VIII. (1800)-1805. That work, which is now ex- IV. PREFACE. tremely rare, gave scarcely any biographical details, and unfortunately followed j)revious orthodox atheo- graphers, such as Buddeus, Eeimmann, Hardouin, Garasse, Mersenne, in classing as Atheists those to whom the title wa3 inapplicable. I have taken no names from these sources without examining the evidence, A work was issued by Richard Carliie in 1826, entitled A Dwtmiary oj Modern Anti-Superstionists : or, " an account, arranged alphabetically, of those who, whether called Atheists, Sceptics, Latitudinarians, Religious Reformers, or etc., have during the last ten centuries contributed towards the diminution of superstition. Compiled by a searcher after Truth." The compiler, as I have reason to know, was Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task adequate scholarship and leisure. It was, however, conceived on too ex- tensive a scale, and in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only reached to the name of Annet. Julian Hibbert also compiled chronological tables of English Freethinkers, which were published in the Reasoner for 1855. Of the Anti-Trmitarian Biography of the Rev. Robert Wallace, or of the previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but little use. To include the names of all who reject some of the Christian dogmas was quite beside my purpose, though 1 have included those of early Unitarians and Uni- versalists who, I conceive, exhibited the true spirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the Freydenker Lexikon of J. A. Trinius (1759) my obli- gations are slight, but should be acknowledged. To Bayle's Dictionary, Hoefer's Nouvelle Biographie Generale, Meyer's Konvcr sat ions Lexikon, Franck's Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosopliiques, and to Larousse's Grand Dictio?inaire Universel I must PREFACE. V. also express my indebtedness. In the case of disputed dates I have usually found Haydn's Dictionary of Biography (1886) most trustworthy, but I have also consulted Oettinger's valuable Moniteur des Dates. The particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available sources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives dealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and relation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works of authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full a list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive Free- thought works ; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone wishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only work of a bibliographical kind is the Guide du Lib re Penseur, by M. Alfred Verliere, but his list is very far from complete even of the French authors, with whom it is almost entirely occupied. I should also mention La Lorgnette Philo- sophique, by M. Paquet, as giving lively sketches, though not biographies, of some modern French Free- thinkers. In the compilation of my list of names I have re- ceived assistance from my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for the opportunity of publication), Mr. \¥. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and Mr. F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers I am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and Mr. E. T. Craig, while Professor Dal Yolta, of Florence, has kindly assisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my indebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose Dizionario Biografico degli Scrittori Contemporanei. I have found of considerable service. My thanks are also due to O. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the titles of all Freethought works in the British Museum. VI. PREFACE. Some readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while omitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted many foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who, ostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be found in my purpose, which is to re- cord the names of those who have contributed in their generation to the advance of Freethought. No one can be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than myself, but I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that " though it be the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide wood, it is no discredit if he do not find it all " ; and the hope that what 1 have attempted some other will complete. The most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the claims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in this dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I designed it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and leave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of "the good old cause" ; a history which has yet to be written, and for which, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe. Should chis volume be received with an encouraging share of Eavor, I hope to follow it with a History of Freethought in England, for which I have long been collectincr materials. A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FREETHINKERS. Abaelardus (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher of philosophy at Paris, renowned for being loved by the celebrated Eloise. He was accused of teaching erroneous opinions, chiefly about the Creation and the Trinity, and was condemned by a council at Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140, at the instigation of St. Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent his last days as a monk at Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. "Abelard," observes Hallam, " was almost the first who awakened man- kind, in the age of darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence." Abano (Petrus de). See Petrus, de Ahano. Abauzit (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian family which settled in the South of France early in the ninth century, b. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted with Bayle, . attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by Voltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are. Reflections on the Gospels, and an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority of that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His Miscellanies were translated in English by E. Harwood, 1774. Abbot (Francis EUingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, 6 Nov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a Unitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned in 1869. He started the Index , a journal of free religious inquiry and anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he edited 1870-80. In 1872 appeared his Impeachment of Christianty . In addition to his work on the Lidex, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great deal, and has contributed to the North American Review and other periodi- 7 AB cals. He was the first president of the American National Liberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and defends his views in Scientific Theism, 1886. Ablaing van Giessenburg (R. C.) See Giessenburg. Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail (Abu J'afar) Al Ishili. Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. at Guadys, wrote a i)hilosophical romance of pantheistic tendency Hai Ibn Yakdan, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671, and into English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of The Improvement of Human Reason. Died at Morocco 1185. Abu-Fazil (Abu al Fadhl ibx MrBARAK, called Al Hindi), vizier to the great Emperor Akbar from 1572. Although by birth a Muhammadan, his investigations into the religions of India made him see equal worth in all, and, like his master, Akbar, he was tolerant of all sects. His chief work is the Ayin Akhary, a statistical account of the Indian Empire. It was translated by F. Gladwin, 1777. He was assassinated 1604. Abul-Abbas-Abdallah III. (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, caliph, son of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was a patron of science and literature, collected Geeek and Hebrew manuscripts, and invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He wrote several treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug. 833. Abul-Ola (Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn Sulaiman), cele- brated Arabian poet, b. at Maari, in Syria, Dec, 973. His free opinions gave much scandal to devout Moslems. He was blind through small- pox from the age of four years, but his poems exhibit much knowledge. He called himself " the doubly impri- soned captive," in allusion to his seclusion and loss of sight. He took no pains to conceal that he believed in no revealed religion. Died May, 1057, and ordered the following verse to be written on his tomb :— " I owe this to the fault of my father : none owe the like to mine." Abu TaMr (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of followers captured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the head of thirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943. 8 AC Achillini (Alessandro), Italiiin physician and philosopher b. Bologna 29 Oct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines or Averroes, and wrote largely upon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were published at Venice, 1545. Ackermann (Louise-Yictorine, nee Choquet), French poetess, b. Paris 30 Nov. 1813. She travelled to Germany and there married (1858) a young theologian, Paul Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his Christian faith, and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick William (afterwards Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four (184G). Both were friends of Proudhon. ]\Iadame Ackermann's poems (Paris 1863-74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and Atheist. " God is dethroned," says M. Caro of her poems (Revue des Deujc Maudes, 15 May, 1874). She professes hatred of Christianity and its interested professors. She has also published Thoughts of a Soli tar ij. Saintc Beuve calls her 'Hhe learned solitary of Nice." AcoHas (Pierre Antoine Rene Paul Emile), French juris- consult and political writer, b. La Chatre 25 June, 1826, studied law at Paris. For participating in the Geneva congress of the International Society in 1867 he was condemned to one year's imprisonment. In 1871 he was appointed head of the law facult}' by the Commune. He has published several manuals popular- ising the legal rights of the people, and has written on Marriage its Past, Present, and Future, 1880. Mrs. Besant has translated his monograph on The Idea of God in the Revolution, published in the Droits de I'Homme. Acontius (Jacobus — Italian, Giacomo Aconzio). Born at Trent early in sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in the Church of Rome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland in 1557. He subsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as a military engineer. To her he dedicated his Stratcgems of Satan, published at Basle 1565. This was one of the earliest latitudinarian works, and was placed upon the Index. It was also bitterly assailed by Pro- testant divines, both in England and on the Continent. An English translation appeared in 1648. Some proceedings were taken against Acontius before Bishop Grindall, of the result of which no account is given. Some passages of Milton's Areo- 9 AD pagitica may be traced to Acontius, avIio, Cheynell informs us, lived till 1G23. Stephen's Dictionary of National Biography says he is believed to have died shortly after 1566. Acosta (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a Chris- tianised Jew ; he was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching maturity, rejected that faith. He went to Holland, where he published a work equally criticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was excommunicated by the Synagogue, fined and put in prison by the Amsterdam authorities, and his work sup- pressed. After suffering many indignities from both Jews and Christians, he committed suicide 1647. Adams (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one month's imprisonment for selling the Oracle of Reason. Adams (Robert C), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. Author of Travih in Faith from Tradition to Reason (New York, 1884), also Evolution, a Summary of Evidence. Adler (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a Jewish rabbi, was b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at Columbia College, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell University from '74 to May '76, when he established in New York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he discourses on Sundays. In 1877 he pub- lished a volume entitled Creed and Deed, in which he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has also contributed many papers to the Radical literature of America. ^nesidemiis. A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first century. He adopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were in course of change, and argued against our know- ledge of ultimate causes. Airy (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. Alnwick 27 Jiily, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior wrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance astronomical science. His Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures 1876, proves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker. Aitkenhead (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who was indicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having called the Old Testament " Ezra's Fables," 10 At and having maintained that God and nature were the same. He was found guilty 21 Dec, 1696, and hanged for blasphemy, 8 Jan. 1697. Aitzema (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorcknm 19 Nov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, between 1621-68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at the Hague 23 Feb. 1669. Akbar (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the em- perors of Hindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide administration and improvement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration alike to Christians, Muhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith. He had the Christian gospels and several Brahmanical treatises translated into Persian. The result of his many conferences on religion between learned men of all sects, are collected in the Dabistan. Akbar was brought up as a Muhammadan, but became a Theist, acknow- ledging one God, but rejecting all other dogmas. Died Sept. 1605. Alberger (John). American author of Monks, Popes, and tJieir Political Intrigues (Baltimore, 1871) and Antiquity of Chris, ti'initij (New York, 1874). Albini (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he studied medicine in Paris. He has written on em- bryology and many other physiological subjects. Alchindus. Yakub ibn Is'hak ibn Subbah (Abu Yusuf) called Al Kincli, Arab physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the companions of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about 840. He was a rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies he was set down as a magician. Alciati (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At first a Eomanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually advanced to Anti-trinitarianism, whicli he defends in two letters to Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565 Beza says that Alciati deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but Bayle takes pains to disprove this. Died at Dant'zic about 1570. Aleardi (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, 11 AL b. Verona, 4 Nov. 1812. He was engaged in a life-long struggle against the Austrian dominion, and his patriotic poems were much admired. In 1859 he was elected dei)ut3^ to Parlia- ment for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878. Alem"bert (Jean le Rond d'), mathematician and philo- sopher, b. at Paris 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of Canon Destouches and Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from a church near which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards resided for forty years with' his nurse, nor would ho leave her for the most tempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of Berlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the problem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation of the earth's axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose opinions he was in complete accord, in compiling the famous Encyclopedie, for which he wrote the preliminary discourse. In addition to this great work he published many historical* philosophical and scientific essays, and largely corresponded with Voltaire. His work on the Destruction of the Jesuits is a caustic and far-reaching production. In a letter to Frederick the Great, he says : " As for the existence of a supreme intelli- gence, I think that those who deny it advance more than they can prove, and scepticism is the only reasonable course." He goes on to say, however, that experience invincibly proves the materiality of the " soul." Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous essays were printed in Paris. His works prove d'Alerabert to have been of broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge. Alfieri (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist^ b. Asti, Piedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tra- gedies are justly celebrated, and in his Essay on Tyranny he shows himself as favorable to religious as to political liberty. Written in his youth, this work was revised at a more advanced age, the author remarking that if he had no longer the courage, or rather the fire, necessary to compose it, he nevertheless retained intelligence, independence and judgment enough to approve it, and to let it stand as the last of his literary pro- ductions. His attack is chiefly directed against Catholicism, but he does not spare Christianitv. " Born among a people," 12 ALL he says, " slavish, ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the Christian religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience, and is unacquainted even with the name of liberty." Alfieri's tragedy of Sard has been prohibited on the English stage. Died Florence, 8 Oct. 1803. Alfonso X., surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon ; b. in 1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. He compiled a complete digest of Eoman, feudal and canon law, and had drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By his liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish literature. For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his independence towards the Pope and his free dis- posal of the clerical revenues, he has been stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed the well-known remark that had he been present at the creation of the world he would have proposed some improvents. Father Lenfant adds the pious lie that " The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy when a thunder- bolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to ashes." Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284. Algarotti (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, b. at Venice, 11 Dec, 1712. A visit to England led him to write Newtonkummfor the Ladles. He afterwards visited Berlin and became the friend both of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his Chamberlain. Died with philo- sophical composure at Pisa, 3 May, 1764. Alger (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachu- setts, 30 Dec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the advanced type. His Critical History of the Doc- trine of a Future Life, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot, is a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view. Allen (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. in Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, Oxford, and graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of Logic in Queen's College, Spanish town, Jamaica ; from 1874 to '77 he Avas its principal. Since then he has resided in England, and become known by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published works include Physiological .Esthetics (1877), The Evolutionist at Large (1881), 15 ALM Nature Studies (1883), Charles Dancin (1885), and several novels. Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle, and has written on Force and Energy (1888). Allen (Ethan) Col., American soldier, b. at Lichfield, Connecticut, 10 Jan. 1737. One of the most active of the revo- lutionary heroes, he raised a company of volunteers known as the " Green Mountain Boys," and took by surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing 100 guns, 10 May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and £100 offered for his arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken prisoner and sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was even- tually exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member of the state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition of Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 Reason the only Oracle of Man, the first publication in the United States openly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently reprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont, 13 Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont. AUsop (Thomas). "The favorite disciple of Coleridge," b. 10 April, 1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he lived till 1880. A friend of Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was implicated in the attempt of Orsini against Napoleon III. In his Letters, Conversations and Recollections of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he has imported many of his Freethought views. Aim (Richard von der). See Ghillany (F. W.) Alpharabius (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called Al Farahi, Turkish philosopher, termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest philosopher the Moslems ever had, travelled to Bagdad, mastered the works of Aristotle, and became master of Avicenna. Al Farabi is said to have taught the eternity of the world and to have denied the permanent individuality of the soul. His principal work is a sort of ency- clopedia. Renan says he expressly rejected all supernatural revelation. Died at Damascus Dec. 950, aged upwards of eighty. Amaury or Amalric de Chartres, a heretic of the thir- teenth century, was a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at Paris, where he gave lessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of Physion, condemned by a bull of Pope 14 AM Innocent III. (1204), lie is said to have taught a kind of Pan- theism, and that the reign of the Father and Son must give place to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were burnt at Paris 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and placed in the flames. Amberley (John Russell) Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell, b. 1843. Educated at Harrow, Edinburgh and Trinity College, Cambridge, where ill-health prevented him reading for honors. He entered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member for Nottingham. Lord Amberley contributed thoughtful articles to the Noi'th British, the Fortiiiglithj and Theological Reviews, and will be remembered by his bold Analysis of Religious Belief (187 G) , in which he examines, compares and criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley left his son to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of great ability and force of character; but the will was set aside, on appeal to the Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding's heretical views. Died 8 Jan. 1876. Amman (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b Lake Zurich 1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Pales- tine and Egypt, and afterwards published a curious book called Voyage in the Promised Land. Died at Zurich, 1658. Ammianus (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth century, b. at Antioch. He wrote the Romaii history from the reign of Nerva to the death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen are lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. He served under Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of the period to that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him " an accurate and faithful guide." Died about 395 a.d. Ammonius, surnamed Saccas or the Porter, from his having been obliged in the early part of his life to adopt that calling, was born of Christian parents in Alexandria during the second century. He, however, turned Pagan and opened a school of philosophy. Among his pupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He undoubtedly originated the Neo-Platonic move- ment, which formed the most serious opposition to Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died a.d. 243 , aged over eighty years. 15 AN Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, b. about 499 B.C., lived at Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 B.C. he was accused of Atheism for maintain- ing the eternity of matter and was banished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428 B.C. It is related that, being asked how he desired to be honored after death, he replied, " Only let the day of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys iu the schools." He taught that generation and destruction are only the union and separation of elements which can neither be created nor annihilated. Andre-Nuytz (Louis), author of Positwism for All, an ele- mentary exposition of ^Positive philosophy, to which Littre wrote a jjreface, 1868. Andrews (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Temple- ton, Mass., 22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent speaker, and the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His principle work is entitled The Basic Outline of Universolofjy (N. Y., 1872). He also wrote The Church and Religion of the Future (1886). He was a prominent member and vice-president of the Liberal Club of New York, a con- tributor to the London limes, the New York Truihseclcer, and many other journals. Died at New York, 21 May, 1886. Andrieux (Louis). French deputy, b. Trevoux 20 July, 1840. Was called to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his political pleading. He took part in the Freethought Con- gress at Naples in 1869, and in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three months for his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the Republic he was nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal council of that city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of Deputies. In 1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in 1881 and was elected deputy hy his constituents at Lyons. He has written Souvenirs of a Prefect of Police (1885). Angelucci (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near Tolentino 1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was banished from Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in Italy, he also made an excellent transla- tion of the ^neid of Virgil. Died Montagnana, 1600. AngiuUi (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. ANN 1837, author of a work on philosophy and Positive research, Naples 1868. He became professor of Anthropology at Naples in 1876, and edits a philosophical review published in that city since 1881. Annet (Peter). One of the most forcible writers among the English Deists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a schoolmaster and invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at school and corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on Freetliinking the Great Duty of Religion, by P. A., minister of religion. This was followed by the Conception of Jesus as the Foundation of the Christian Religion^ in which he boldly attacks the doctrine of the Incarnation as " a legend of the Romanists," and The Resurrection of Jesus Con- sidered (1744) in answer to Bishop Sherlock's Trial of the Witnesses. This controversy was continued in The Resurrection Reconsidered ?a\^ The Resurrection Defenders Stript of all Defence' In An Examination of the History and Character of St. Paul he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and even questions the authenticity of his epistles. In Supernaturals Ex- amined (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761 he issued nine numbers of the Free Inquirer, in which he attacked the authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this he was brought before the King's Bench and sentenced to suffer one month's imprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, once at Charing Cross and once at the Exchange. with a label " For Blasphemy," then to have a year's hard labor in Bridewell and to find sureties for good behavior during the rest of his life. It is related that a woman seeing Annet in the pillory said, " Gracious ! pilloried for blasphemy. Why, don't we blaspheme every day !" After his release Annet set up a school at Lambeth. Being asked his views on a future life h& replied by this apologue : " One of my friends in Italy, seeing the sign of an inn, asked if that was the Angel." " No," was- the reply, " do you not see it is the sign of a dragon." " Ah," said my friend, " as I have never seen either angel or dragon,, how can I tell whether it is one or the other? " Died 18 Jan. 1769. The History of the Man after God's Own Heart (1761) ascribed to Annet, was more probably written by Archibald Campbell. The View of the Life of King David (1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also falsely attributed to Annet. 17 B ANT Anthero de Quental, Portuguese writer, b. San Miguel 1843. Educated for the law at the University of Ooimbra, he has published both jDoetry and prose, showing him to be a student of Hartmann, Proudhon and Kenan, and one of the most advanced minds in Portugal. Anthony (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker family at South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a teacher, a temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent advocate of women's rights. Of the last movement she became secretary. In conjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury she conducted The Revolutionist founded in New York in 1868, and with Mrs. Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the History of Woman's Suffrage, 1881. Miss Anthony is a declared Agnostic. Antoine (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and divinity of Jesus, and w^as strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, 1632. Antonelle (Pierre Antoine) Marquis d\ French political economist, b. Aries 1747. He embraced the revolution with ardor, and his article in the Journal des Hommes Librcs occasioned his arrest with Baboeuf. He was, however, acquitted. Died at Aries, 26 Nov. 1817. Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius). See Aurelius. Apelt (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 March, 1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the standpoint of reason, and w^rote many works on meta- physics. Died near Gorlitz, 27 Oct. 1859. Aquila, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselj^te to Chris- tianity, but afterwards left that religion. He published a Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures to show that the pro- phecies did not apply to Jesus (a.d. 128). The work is lost. He has been identified by E. Deutsch Avith the author of the Targum of Onkelos. Arago (Dominique Francois Jean), French academician politician, physicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was elected to the French Academy of Sciences at the age of twent3^-three. He made several optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated the undulatory theorj^ of light. He was an ardent Republican and Freethinker, and took part in 18 All the provisional Government of 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the oath of alleg-iance after the coup cTetat of December, 1851. Died 2 Oct. 1853. Humboldt calls him a " zealous defender of the interests of Eeason." Ardigo (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone (Cremona) 28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to philosophy. In 1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, followed next year by Psychology as a Positive Science. Signor Ardigo has also written on the formation of the solar system and on the historical formation of the ideas of God and the soul. An edition of his philosophical works was commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one of the leaders of the Italian Positivists. His Positioist Morals appeared in Padua 1885. Argens (Jean Baptiste de Boyer) Marquis d\ French writer, b. at Aix, in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and served with distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great he invited d'Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his chamberlains. Here he resided twenty-live years and then returned to Aix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were published in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are Lettres Juives, Lettres CMnoises and Lettres Cabalistiques, which were joined to La Philo- sophie da hon sens. He also translated Julian's discourse against Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity of the World, Argens took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to that philosopher. Argental (Charles Augustin de Ferriol) Count d\ French diplomat, b. Paris 20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother of D'Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship for Voltaire. He was said to be the author of Menioires da Comte de Comminge and Anecdotes de la cour d'Edouard. Died 5 Jan. 1788. Aristophanes, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Socrates, Plato, and Euripides, b. about 444 B.C. Little is known of his life. He wrote fifty-four plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned in a public assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost boldness he satirised 19 AEI not only the the political and social evils of the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology of the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes' works under his pillow. Died about 380 B.C. Aristotle, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was born at Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 B.C. He was employed by Philip of Macedon to instruct his son Alexander. His inculca- tion of ethics as apart from all theology, justifies his place in this list. After the death of Alexander, he was accused of impiety and withdrew to Chalcis, where he died B.C. 322. Grote says : " In the published writings of Aristotle the accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for sustain- ing their indictment ; as, for example, the declaration that praj^er and sacrifices to the gods were of no avail." His influence was predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante speaks of him as " the master of those that know." Arnold of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against the papal authority and the temporal power, and the vices of the clergy. He was condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and retired from Italy. He after- wards returned to Rome and renewed his exertions against sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and burnt at Rome in 1155. Baronius calls him "the j^atriarch of political heretics." Arnold (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, b. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the Strayed Reveller, and other Poems, signed A. In 1851 he married and became an inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared Empedocles on Etna, a poem in which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives much secular philosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In 1871 he published an essay entitled ISt. Paul and Protestantism ; in 1873 Literature and Dogma, which, from its rejection of super- naturalism, occasioned much stir and was followed by God and the Bible. In 1877 Mr. Arnold published Last Essays on Church and State. Mr. Arnold has a lucid style and is abreast of the thought of his age, but he curiously unites rejection of superr- 20 ARX naturalism, including a personal God, with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said in his own words to wander " between two worlds, one dead, the other powerless to be born." Died 15 April, 1888. Arnould (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As journalist he wrote on VOpinion Nationale, the Rappel, Re/orme and other papers. In 1864 he published a work on Beranger, and in '69 a History of the Inquisition. In Jan. 1870 he founded La Marseillaise with H. Rochefort, and afterwards the Journal du Peuple with Jules Valles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of the Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He has also written many novels and dramas. Arnould (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. 1838, advocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a History of the Church 1874, and a little work on the Philo^ sophy of Liberalism 1877. ArOTiet (Frangois Marie). See Voltaire. Arpe (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 May, 1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (i.e., Rotterdam, 1712). A reply to La Monnoye's treatise on the book De Iribus Impostoribus is attributed to him. Died, Ham burgh, 4 Nov. 1740. Arthur (John) is inserted in Mare'chal's Dictionnaire des Athees as a mechanic from near Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and republished the Livocation to Nature in the last pages of the System of Nature. Julian Hibbert inserted his name in his Chronological Tables of Anti-Superstitionists, with the date of death 1792. Asseliue (Louis). French writer, b. at V^ersailles in 1829, became an advocate in 1851. In 1866 he established La Libre Perisee, a weekly journal of scientific materialism, and when that was suppressed La Pensee Nouvelle. He was one of the founders of the Encyclopedie GeneraU. He wrote Diderot and the Nineteenth Century, and contributed to many journals. After the revolu- tion of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected mayor of the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards one of the Muni- cipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878. 21 AS Assezat (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was a son of a compositor on the Journal des Dehats, on which Jules obtained a position and worked his way to the editorial chair. He was secretary of the Paris Society of Anthropology, contributed to La Pensee Nouvelle, edited the Man Machine of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works of Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876. Assollant (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 March, 1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire. Ast (G-eorg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. G-otha 29 Dec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Lands- hut and Munich. Wrote Elements of Pliilosopliy , 1809, etc. Died Munich 31 Dec. 1841. Atkinson XHenry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was educated at the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and Avrote in the Zoist. In 1851 he issued Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development, in conjunction with Harriet Martineau, to whom he served as philosoiDhic guide. This work occasioned a considerable outcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the National Reformer and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec 1884, at Boulogne, where he had resided since 1870. Aubert de Verse (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth century, who wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of blasphemy. Audebert (Louise). French authoress of the Romance of a Freethinker and of an able Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of Orleeins, 1868. Audififerent (Georges). Positivist and executor to Augusts Comte, was born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at Marseilles, and is the author of several medical and scien- tific works. Aurelins (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, b. at Rome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated, and lived a laborious, abstemious life. On the death of his uncle Antoninus Pius, 161, the Senate obliged him to take the government, but he associated with himself L. Verus. 22 AU On the death of Yerus in 169 Antoninus possessed sole authority, which he exercised with wise discretion and great glory. Much of his time was employed in defending the northern frontiers of the empire against Teutonic barbarians. He had no high opinion of Christians, speaking of their obstinacy, and it is pretended many were put to death in the reign of one of the best emperors that ever ruled. If so we may be assured it was for their crimes. Ecclesiastical historians have invented another pious miracle in a victory gained through the prayers of the Christians. Antoninus held that duty was indispensable even were there no gods. His Meditation, written in the midst of a most active life, breathe a lofty morality, and are a standing refutation of the V\qw that pure ethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, 180. Austin (Charles), lawyer and disciple of Bentham, b. Suffolk 1799. At Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won, much to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions, the Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he was sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley " I could have written a much better essay on the other side." He afterwards wrote on the other side in the Westminster Review. Successful as a lawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his influence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his heretical opinions. He says " He inclined to Darwinism, because as he said, it is so antecedently probable ; but, long before this theory broke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up." Died 21 Dec. 1874. Austin (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, 1790. A friend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he shared, he is chiefly known b}^ his profound works on jurisprudence. Died 17 Dec. 1859. Avempace, i.e., Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called Ibn alSaigh (the son of the goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and poet, b. at Saragossa, practised medicine at Seville 1118, which he quitted about 1120, and became vizier at the court of Fez, where he died about 1138. An admirer of Aristotle, he was one of the teachers of Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn Khakan represents him as an infidel and Atheist, and says : 23 BA " Faith disappeared from liis heart and left not a trace behind ; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did [the holy] name cross his lips." He is said to have suffered imprisonment for his heterodoxy. Avenel (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828. One of the promoters of the Encydopt'die Generale. His vindication of Cloots (1865) is a solid work of erudition. He became editor of la Repuhliqiie FrauQcdse and edited the edition of Voltaire published by Le Siecle (1867-70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was, by his express wish, buried without religious ceremony. Averroes (Muhammad Ibn- Ahmad Ibn Eushd), Ahii al Walid, Arabian philosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at Morocco 10 Dec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of Aristotle, and resolutely placed the claims of science above those of theology. He was prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the Muhammadan doctors, was spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the hour of pra^^er, and afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions, which incline towards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being condemned by the University of Paris in 1210. They were opposed by St. Thomas Aquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the Rennaisance through the Paduan school were again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513. Avicenna (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called Ihn Sina), Arabian physician and philosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the district of Bokhara. From his early youth he was a wonderful student, and at his death 15 June, 1037, he left behind him above a hundred treatises. He was the sovereign authority in medical science until the da3''s of Harvey. His philosophy was pan- theistic in tone, with an attempt at compromise with theology Aymon (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphine 1661. Brought up in the Church, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the Hague. He published Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion, and is said to have put forM^ard a version of the Esprit de Spinoza under the famous title Treatise of Three Impostors. Died about 1734. Bagehot (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Uni- tarian parents, Langport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died 24 BAG at fhe same place 24 March, 1877. He was educated at London University, of which he became a fellow. For the last seven- teen years of his life he edited the Economist newspaper. His best-known works are The English Constitution^ Lombard Street and Literary Studies. In Physics and Politics (1872), a series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he applies Darwinism to politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very original thinker, whorejected historic Christianity. Baggesen (Jens Immamiel), Danish poet, b. Kosor, Zealand, 15 Feb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzerland; at Berne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote popular poems both in Danish and German, among others Adam and Eve, a humorous mock epic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire. Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826. Bahnsen (Julius Friedrich August^, pessimist, b. Tondern, Schleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil, 1847. He fought against the Danes in '49, and afterwards studied at Tiibingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written several works, among which we mention 7he Philosophy of History, Berlin, 1872, and The Con- tradiction between the Knov^ledge and the Nature of the World (2 vols), Berlin 1880-82. Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25 Aug. 1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor of biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered from place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called New Revelations of God : A System of Moral Religion fur Doubters and Thinkers, Berlin, 1787, and a Catechism of Natural Religion, Halle, 1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792. Bailey (James Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the Tvrch, and the Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna : its Monarch and Inhabitants ; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the "Social Reformer's Cabinet Library," and some interesting Essays on Miscellaneous Subjects, at Leeds, 1842. Bailey (SamuelJ, philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His essay on the formation and Publication of Opinions ap- 25 BAI peared in 1821. He vigorously contends that man is not responsible for his opinions because they are independent of his will, and that opinions should not be the subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work was Letters from an Egyptian Kaffir on a VisU to England in Search of Religion. This Avas at first issued privately 1839, but after- wards printed as a Beasoner tract. He also wrote 'Ihe Pursuit he became distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to the German Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6 March) to two j'-ears' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected in '74. His principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future which is translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on the Mohammedan Culture Period (I88i:) and on Chris- tianity and Socialism. Beccaria (Bonesana Oesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan, 15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on Crimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794. Beesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Wor- cestershire, 1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854, and M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College, London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's Sy>itcm of Positive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political and social questions. 34 bek: Beethoven (Ludwig van), one of tlie greatest of musical composers, b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera " Fidelio," two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas, and are cha- racterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense passion, and tenderness. AVhen about the age of forty he became totally deaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March, 1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in the Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biograplui^ speaks of him as a "Free- thinker,' and says the remarkable mass in 0. " might scarcely have proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove, in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says : " Formal religion he apparently had none," and " the Bible does not appear to have been one of his favorite books." At the end of his arrangement of " Fidelio " Moscheles had written, " Fine. With God's help." To this Beethoven added, " man , help thyself." Bekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslav/ier (Fries- land) 20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity, and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Beivilched (1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are denied. His book, wdiich contains much curious information, raised a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June, 1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have " looked like the devil, though he did not believe in him." Belinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811, educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 Maj, 1848. His works were issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61. Bell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He was employed in the suppression of 35 BEL Thiigee. He wrote the Task of Jo-Day, 1852, and assisted tlie Reasomr, both with pen and purse, writing over the signature *' Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to devote himself to Frcethought propaganda, but by the advice of his friends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January, 1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12 Sept. 1887. Bell (William S.), b. in Alleghany city, Pennsylvania, 10 Feb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for mixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In 1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in Dec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Eevolution, and some pamphlets. Bender (Wilhelm), German Eationalist, professor of theology at Bonn, b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary, 1883, by declaring that thcAvork of the Reformation was incompleted and must be carried on by the Rationalists. Bennett (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New York Trutlmektr, b. of poor parents, Springfield (X.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him a Free- thinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of his own. The result was the Truth^eektr, which in January, 1876 became a Aveekly, and has since become one of the princi- pal Freethought organs in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment for sending through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the marriage question. A tract, entitled An Open Letter to Jrsns Christ, was read in court to bias the jury. A petition bearing 200,000 names was pre- sented to President Hayes asking his release, but was not acceeded to. Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage round the world. He wrote A Trntlucckers Voyage Round the World, Letters from Albany Penitentiary, Answers to 36 BEN Christian Qaesliom and Arguments, two lar^e voliimss on T-he Gods, another on the WorbVs Sages, Infideh and Thinkers, and published his discussions with Humphrey, Mair, and Teed, and numerous tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882. Bentham (Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the publisher of Tindal's Christiinitg as Old as the Creation. Was e'lucated at Westminster and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham is justly regarded as the father of the school of philosophical Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism ; as a jurist he did much to dis- close the defects of and improve our system of law. Macaulay says he "found jurisprudence a gibberish and left it a science.'* His most pronounced Freethought work was that written in conjunction with Grote, published as An Analysis of the Influence of Natural Edigion, by Philip Bsauchamp, 1822. Among his numerous other works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science of Mortality, an exposition of utilitarianism ; Church of Englandii^m and its Catechism Examined; Not Paul, hut Jesus, published under the pseudonym of Gramaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for the purposes of science. Beran^er (Jean Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet, b, Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured for him imprisonment. He was elected to the Consti- tuant Assembly 1848. Beranger has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs breathe the spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised as impious. He died 16 July, 1857. Bergel (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders, Leipsic, 1881, and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882. Berger (Moriz), author of a work on Miter ialiim in Conflict with Stiiritualism and Idealism, Trieste, 1883. Bergerao de (Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano. Bergk ( Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June, 1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both under his own name and psuedo- nyms. He published the Art of Thinking, Leipsic, 1802, con- ducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under the name of 37 BEK Frey the Trup. Religion, " recommended to rationalists and destined for tlis Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics, etc." Died Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834. Bergk (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above* 1). Leipsic, 22 May, 1812, author of a good History of Greek Literature J 1872. Berigardus (Claudius), or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet)) French physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His Circulus Pisnniis, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses of the formation of the world The work was forbidden and is very rare. His book entitled Dubitutiones in Dialogum Gcdilsei, also brought on him a charge of scepticism. Died in 1664. Berkenhout (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731, the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and in 1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on medical science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain and Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonyraousl3\ His principal work is entitled Biofjraphia Lilerciria, a biographical histor}'- of English litera- ture, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791. Berlioz (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical composers, b. Isere, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by liis dramatic sj^mphony of Romeo and Jidiet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Among his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his Memoirs he relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn " by laughing at the Bible." Died Paris, 9 March, 1869. Barnard (Claude), French physiologist, b". Saint Julien 12 July, 1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the Institute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote La Science Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10 Feb. 1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert calls him the introducer of deter- minism in the domain of physiology. 58 BER Bernier (Abbe). See Holbach. Bernier (Frangois), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about 1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, and he defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joU pMlosoj^he. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to India, where he became phy- sician to Aurungzebe. On his return he published an account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688. Bernstein (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic 1812. His first work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself to natural science and published works on The Rotation of Plavets, Hvmholdt and the Spirit of the Time, Qtc. His essay on The Origin of the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jocod was translated by a German lady and published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin, 12 Feb. 1884. Beiqnin (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489* Erasmus, his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred of the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment was pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to the Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of the 17th. The Parliartieut reformed the judgment and condemned him to be burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon at the Place de la Greve. He died with great con- stancy and resolution. Bert (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17 Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869 obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris, and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in '72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised himself by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French education on a Secular basis. His First Year oj Scientific 39 BES Instruction is almost universally used in the Frencli primary schools. It has been translated into English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His strong anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published several scientific and educa- tional works and attacked The Morality of the Jesuits^ '80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow. Bertani (A.gostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86. Berti (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816- Author of many scientific works, member of the Yenice Municipal Council and of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879. Bertillon (Louis Adolphej, French Anthropologist and physician, b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical study of , the French population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with A. Hovelacque and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological Sciences ('83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b, '53), prosecute similar studies. Bertrand de Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician, b. Puy-en Velay 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The Original Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work on Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organimtion, 1848. Has also written on Descartes as a Physiologist^ 1869. Berwick (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company in 1828, retired in '52. Author of AwasJMnd, or a Voice from the Ganges ; being a solution of the true source of Christianity. By an Indian Officer ; London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the Universe, '70. Died about 1872. Besant (Annie) nee Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Edu- cated in Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In " Holy Week " of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the 40 BEY week from the gospel. Their contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts as sin. In Dec. '67 she married the Rev. F. Besant,and read and wrote extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough caused doubts as to the goodness of God. A study of Greg's Creed of Christendom and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her scepticism. She became acquain+ed with the Rev. 0. Voysey and Thomas Scott,. for whom she wrote an Essay on the Deiti/ of Jesus of Nazareth, " by the wife of a beneficed clergyman." This led to her husband insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr* Scott, reprinted in My Path to Atheism ('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote in the National Reformer over the signature of "Ajax." Next year she took to the platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to the front rank as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor of the National Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution were republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested with Mr. Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy, After a brilliant defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt motives, and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed in Feb. '78, and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a petition in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the ground of her Atheistic and Mai thusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted the petition. In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued many pamphlets to be found in Iheological Essays and Debates. She wrote the second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with Christian evidence ; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and the Evolution of Society. She has trans- lated Jules Soury's Religion of Israel, and Jcsns of the Gospels; Dr. L. Biichner on the Influence of Heredity and Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of Force and Matter. ^ From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since '85 has given much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many Socialist pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member of the London School Board. Beverland (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew 41 BEY of iKaac Vossiiis, b. Middlebiirg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and became an advocate, but devoted himself^ to literature. He was at the university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum Originale (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin of Adam and Eve was sexual inclination, caused a great outcry. It was burnt, Bever- land was imjDrisoned and his name struck from the rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other curious works and died about 1712. Bevington (Louisa S.), afterwards GtUGGENBERGEii ; English poetess and authoress of Key Notcs^lSI^ ; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82 ; wrote " Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock " in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and Dec. '79), and on " The Moral Demerits of Orthodox}^ " in Progress, Sept. '84. Beyle (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous under the name of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier, merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De V Amour is his most notable work. He Avas an original and gifted critic and romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March, 1842. Prosper Merimee has pub- lished his correspondence. One of his sayings was " Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas " — God's excuse is that he •does not exist. Bianchi (Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man of letters, b. of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799 He conducted several papers in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life of Father Paoli Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward he was in constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on the clergy in H Repub- lieano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote a History of the Hehreivs, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account of the Revolution. His principal works are the History of the Pf>/)e.s until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism of the Gospel.^, 1853, which has gone through several editions. Died 16 May, 1862. Biandrata or Blaxduata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer, b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in arts and 42 BIC medicine at Montpellier, 1533. He was thrown into the prison of j:he Inquisition at Pavia, but contrived to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to Calvin. He left Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a leader of the Socinian l^arty. He was assassinated 1591. Bichat (Marie Francois Xavier), a famous French anatomist and physiologist, b Thoirette (Jura),, 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the Physiology of Life and Death was translated into English. He died a martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802. Biddle or Bidle (John), called the father of English Unitarianism, b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester Grammar School, but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He was also imprisoned there for so me time, and afterwards cited at Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained in prison till 1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658, but after the publication of the Acts of Uni- formity was again seized, and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662. Bierce (M. H.) see Grile (Dod). Billaud-Varenne (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Rochelle, 23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament ; denounced the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy 1 July, 1791, and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying " Thou beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme Being." Was txiled 1 April, 1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819. Bion, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian philosopher who flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave to a rhetorician, who afterwards gave him free- dom and ma'^e him his heir. Upon this he went to Athens and applied himself to the study of philosophy. He had several teachers, but attached himself to Theodorus the Atheist. He w-as famous for his knowledge of music, poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved, as that " only the BIR votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the temples, not those of the drowned " and "it is useless to tear our hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness." Birch (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4 Jan. 1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at New Inn Hall. Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy an d Religion of Shakespeare , \S^S ; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of the Bible, 1856 ; this work was translated into Dutch by " Rudolf Charles ;" Paul an Idea, not a Fact ; and the Real and Ideal. In the stormy time of '42 Mr. Birch did much to sup- port the prosecuted publications. He brought out the Library of Reason and supported The Reasoner and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has resided much in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity and Freedom. He is a member of the Italian Asiatic Societ3^ Mr. Birch has been a contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals, and has " devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity^ having many manuscripts upon the subject. Bithell (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, of pious parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the service of the Rothschilds. Has written Greed of a Modern Agaostic, 1883; and Agnostic Problems, 1887. Bjornson (Bjornstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His father was a Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national literature for Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged to leave his countiy and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been translated into English. In 1882 Bjornson published at Christiania, with a short introduction, a resume of C. B. Waite's History of the Christian Religion, under the title of Whence come the Miracles of the New Testament ? This was the first attack upon dogma tic Christianity published in Norway, and created much discussion. The following year he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North American Review upon the " Christian Religion," with a long preface, in which he attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation was entitled Think for Yourself The first edition rapidly sold out and a 44 BLA second one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing, repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had several con- troversies with the clergy. BlagOSVyetlov (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus, 1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection of Women he translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo (Cause). Died about 1885. Blanqui (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805, a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming a Communist, his life was spent in con- spiracy and imprisonment under successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but his sentence commuted to im- prisonment for life, and was subject to brutal treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He was soon again im- prisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles on Monotheism in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70, Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned, but was liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious book. Eternity and the Stars, in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto " Ni Dieu ni maitre " — Neither God nor master. Blasche (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April, 1776. His father was a professor of theology and IDhilosophy. He wrote Kriti/c dcs Modernen G sister glauhens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief), Philosophische Unsterhlich- iceitsl lire (Teaching of Philosophical Immortality), and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832. Blignieres (Celestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and religion, Paris 1857 ; The Positive Doctrine, 1867 ; Studies of Positive Morality, 1868 ; and other works. Blind (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolu- tionary leader among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and proscribed. In Sept. '48 he led the second re- publican revolution in the Black Forest. He Avas made prisoner : and sentenced to eight year's imprisonment. In the spring of 45 BLO '49 he was liberated by the people breaking open his prison. Being- sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon, then president of the French Eepublic at Paris, he was arrested and banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history,, and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim » opened her literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the name of Claude LaJce. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and the New, and written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland in the Eminent Women series. Blount (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at Hollo- way 27 April, 1654. His father. Sir Henry Blount, probably shared in his opinions, and helped him in his arti-religious work, Anima Mundi, 1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In 1680 he published Great is Diana ofth^. Ephesians, or the Origin of Idolatry, and the two first books of Apollonius Tyanius, with notes, in which he attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was condemned and suppressed. Blount also published The Oracles of Reason, a number of Free- thought Essays. By his Vindication of Learning and Liberty of the Press, and still more by his hoax on Bohun entitled William and Mary Conquerors, he was largely instrumental in doing away with the censorship of the press. He shot himself, it is said, because he could not marry his deceased wife's sister (August, 1693). His miscellaneous works were printed in one volume, 1695. Blumenfeld (J. C), wrote The New Ecce Homo or the Self Redemption of Man, 1839. He is also credited with the author- ship of The Existence of Christ Disproved in a series of Letters by "A Grerman Jew," London, 1841. Boerne (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b. Frankfort 22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish reli- gion, in which be had been bred, nominally for Protestantism,, but really he had, like his friend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in favor of political libert}^ and trans- lated Lammenais' Paroles d\in Croyant. Died 12 Feb. 1837. Bodin (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He studied at Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the laAV, and became secretary to the Due d'Alengon. His- 46 BO book De la Republique is higlily praised by Hallain, and is said to have contained the g:erm of Montesquieu' s " Spirit of the Laws." He wrote a work on demonomaina,in which he seems to have believed, but in his Colloquium Heptaplomcron coloquies of seven persons : a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a Pagan,, a- Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manu- script, he put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at Laon in 1596. Boggis (JohnJ is mentioned by Edwards in his Gangrena,. 1645, as an Atheist and disbeliever in the Bible. Boichot (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Su^ze 20 Aug. 1820,. entered the arm}^ In '49 he was chosen representative of the people. After the coup d'etat he came to Englan'^, returned to France in '54, was arrested and imprisoned at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived at Brussels, where he has written several works and is one of the council of International Freethinkers. Boindin (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and academician, b. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and resorted with other Freethinkers to the famous cafe Procope. There, in order to speak freel}^, they called the soul Margot, religion Javotte, liberty Jeanneton, and God M. de I'Etre. One day a spy asked Boindin, " Who is this M. de I'Etre with whom you seem so displeased ? " " Monsieur," replied Boindin, "he is a police spy." Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse was refused " Christian burial." Boissiere (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French writer, b. Valo- gnes Dec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He com- piled an analogical dictionary of the French language. Under the name of Sierebois he has published the Autopsy of the Soul and a work on the foundations of morality, which he traces to interest. He has also written a book entitled The Mechanism of Thought, '84. Boissonade (J. A.), author of The Bible Unveiled, Paris, 1871. Boito (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose opera " Mefistofele," has created considerable sensation by its boldness. Bolingbroke (Henry Saint John) Lord, English statesman and philosopher, b. at Battersea, 1 Oct. 1672. His political life 47 BON was a stormy one. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his Essay on Mem avowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at Battersea 12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who in 1754 published his works, which included £^ssa^s Written to A. Pope, Esq , on Religion and Philosophy , in which he attacks Christianity with both wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, believing in God but scornfully rejecting revelation. He much influenced Yoltaire, who regarded him with esteem. Bonavino (Francesco Oristoforo) see Franchi (Ausonio). Boni (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. Editor of a standard Biography of Artists^ published at Venice, 1S40. He also wrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on Reason and Dogma, Siena, '66, and contributed to Stefanoni's Libcro Pensiero. De Boni was elected deputy to the Italian Parliament. He has written on " Italian Unbelief in the Middle Ao-es " in the Annuario Fdosojico del Libera Pensiero, '68. Boniface VIII., Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of Ohristendom, 21 Dec. I2 3i. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of France charges were sworn on oath against Pope Boni- face that he neither believed in the Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the Virgin Mary " was no more a virgin than my mother"; that he did not observe the fasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the cardinals, monks, and friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the Pope had said "God may do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I believe as every educated man does, the vulgar believe other- wise. We have to speak as they do, but we must believe and think with the few." Died 11 Oct. 1303. Bormycastle (John), mithematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, about 1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathe- matics and became Professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, where he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private information assures me he was a Freethinker. Boom.3 (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker b}' trade, who wrote early in the eigthteenth century, and on 1 Jan. 171 4, was banished. 48 BOR Bonnot de Condillac (Etienne) see CoNDiLLAc. Bonstetten (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept- 1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and England to finish his education. Among his works are Researches on the Nature and Laivs of the Imagination ^ 1807 ; and tudiesouMan, 1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832. Borde (Frederic), editor of La Philosophie de VAvenir, Paris, 1875, etc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has written on Liberty of Instruction, etc. Born (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by the Jesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the Empress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works on Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and published with the name Joannes PhysiophiluK a stinging illustrated satire entitled Monchalogia, or the natural history of monks. Bosc (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, 29 Jan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose Memoirs he published. He wrote many works on natural history. Died 10 July, 1828. Boucher (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809 ; con- iributed to the Rationalist of Geneva, where he died 1882. Author of a work on Revelation and Rationalism, entitled Search for the Truth, AYignon, 1884. Bougainville (Louis Antoine de) Count, the first French voyager who made the tour around the world ; b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729. Died 31 Aug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his travels. Bouillier (Prancisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July 1813, has written several works on psychology, and contributed to la Libertt de Pemer. His principal work is a History of the Cartesian Philosophy." He is a member of the Institute and writes in the leading reviews. Bonis (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited La Libre Pensee and wrote a satire on the Jesuits entitled Calottes et Soutanes, 1870. Sent to New Caledonia for his parti- cipation in the Commune, he has since his return published a volume of political verses entitled Ajn-es le Naufrage, After the Shipwreck, 1880. 49 D BOU Boulainvilliers (Henri de), Oomte de St. Saire, French his- torian and philosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical work is an account of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a defence of Spinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an analysis of Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at the end of Djuhts upon Religion, Londres, 1767. A Lifeof Mtili2inmid, the first European work doing justice to Islam, and a History of the Arabs also proceeded from his pen, and he is one of those to whom is attributed the treatise with the title of the Ihree Impostors, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722. BDulanjer (N'icolas-Antains), French Daist, b. 11 Nov. 1722. Died 16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as engineer, and afterwards became surveyor of public works. After his death his works were published by D'Holbach who rewrote them. His principal works are Antiquity Unveiled and Researches! on the Origin of Oriental Despotism. Christimity Un- veiled, attributed to him and said by Voltaire to have been by Damilavile, was probably written by D'Holbach, perhaps with some assistance from Naigeon. It was burnt by order of the French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. A Critical Examination of the Life and Works of St. Paul, attributed to Boulanger, was really made up by d'Holbach from the work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations on Elisha, Enoch and St. Peter, and some articles for the Encyclopedie. Bourdet (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. Author of several works on medicine and Pos'tivist philosophy and education. Boureau-Deslands (A. F.) See Deslandes. Bourget (Paul), French litterateur, b. at Amiens in 1852. Has made himself famous by his novels, essays on contem- temporary psychology, studies of M. Renan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but his methods are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His insight is most subtle, and his style is exquisite. BouttevUle (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee Bonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and published an able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, 1866, for which the clergy turned him out of a professorship he held at Sainte-Barbe. 50 BOY Bovio (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the University of Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament ; is an ardent Freethinker. Both in his writings and in parlia- ment Prof. Bovio opposes the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between Church and State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience and has promoted the institu- tion of a Dante chair in the University of Rome. He has written a work on The History of Law, a copy of which he presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887. Bowring (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and writer, b. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant Carpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles he maintained in the Westminster Review, of which he Avas editor, 1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight's imprisonment he was released without trial. He published Bentham's Deontology (1834), and nine years after edited a com- plete collection of the works of Bentham. Returned to Parlia- ment in '35, and afterwards was employed in important government missions. In '55 he visited Siara, and two years later published an account of The Kingdom and People of Siam. He translated Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of many countries ; was an active member of the British Association and of the Social Science Association, and did much to pro- mote rational views on the Sunday question. Died 23 Nov. 1872. Boyle (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the purpose of serving in R. Carlile's shop when the right of free publication was attacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted and tried as " a man with name unknown " for publishing a blasphemous and seditious libel. In his defence he ably asserted his right to hold and publish his opinions. He read portions of the Bible in court to prove he was justified in calling it obscene. Upon being sentenced, 27 May, 1822, to eighteen months' imprisonment and to find sureties for fire years, he remarked " I have a mind, my lord, that can bear such a sentence with fortitude." Bradlaugh (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. Educated in Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his Sunday-school teachership and from his first situation 51 BRA tln-ougli the influence of the Rev. J. G. Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In Dec. 1850 he entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here he met James Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which lasted for many years. He got his discharge, and in '53 returned to London and became a solicitor's clerk. He began to write and lecture under the nom de guerre of " Iconoclast," edited the Investigator, '59 ; and had numerous debates with ministers and others. In 1860 he began editing the Nntimial Reformer, which in '68-9 he successfully defended against a prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities against blasphemy. In '68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament, and in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle with the House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took his seat in 1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation into which he was plunged will become as historic as that of John Wilkes. Prosecuted in '76 for publishing The Fruits of Philosophy, he succeeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous debates, several of which are published. He has also written many pamphlets, of which we mention New Lives of Abraham, David, and other saints. Who was Jesus Christ? What did Jesus Teach/ Has Man a Soul, Is there a God? etc. His Plea for Atheism reached its 20th thousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also published When were our Gospels Written, 1867? Heresy, its Utility and Morality, 1870; The Inspiration of the Bible, 1873; The Freethinker s Text Book, part i., dealing with natural religion, 1876; The Laws Relating to Bla^jthcmy and Herc^-y, 1878; Supernatural and Rational Morality, 1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh commenced a commentary on the Bible, entitled The Bible, What is it? In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form, dealing onl}^ with the Pentateuch. In 1882 he published Genesis, Its Authorship and Authenticity. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become a con- spicuous figure, and has introduced many important measures. In 1888 he succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirma- tions permissible instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30 April, 1856, has written on Mind Considered as a Bodily Function, 1884. Died 2 Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, b. 31 March, 1858, has written " Princess Vera " and other stories, " Chemistry of Home," etc. 52 BRA Braekstad (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjcm, Xfu-way, 7 Sept. 1845. Has made English translations from Bjornson, Asbjonisen. Andersen, etc., and has contributed to Harper s Mcif/azine and other periodical literature. Brandes (Georg Morris CohenJ, Danish writer, by birth a Jew, b. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills' Subjection of Women, and in the following year took a doctor's degree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is entitled the Main Current of Literature in the Nineteenth Century^ His brother. Dr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish Par- liament in 1881, despite his declaration that he did not believe either in the God of the Christians or of the Jews. Bray (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. 1811> He was brought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to Freethought. Early in life he took an active part in promoting unsectarian education. His first work (1835) was on The Education of the Body. This was followed by The Education of the Feelings, of which there were several editions. In 1836 he married Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell, and took the Sy.ytem of Nature and Volney's Ruins of Empires " to enliven the honeymoon." Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans (" George Eliot "), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to Italy. His Avorks on The Philosophy of Necessity (1841) and Cerehrol Psychology (1875) give the key to all his thought. He wrote a number of Thomas Scott's series of tracts : Illusion and Delusion^ Ihe Reign of Law in Mind as in Matter, Toleration with remarks on Professor Tyndall's "Address," and a little hook, Christianity in the Light of our Present Knowledge and Moral Sense (1876). He also wrote A Manual ofAnth ropology and similar works. In a post- script to his last volume, Phases of Opinion and Experience During a Long Life, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated that he has no hope, or expectation or belief even in the possibility of continued individuality after death, and that as his opinions have done to live by " they will do to die by." He died 5 Oct. 1884. Bresson (Leopold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, 1817. Educated at the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and served on public works. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian Railway Company. Wrote Idees Modernes^ 1880. 53 BRI Bridges (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, graduated B.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on Relifjion and Progress, contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and translated Comte's General View of Positivism (1865) and System of Positive Polity (1873). Bril (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. 1639. died 1700. His works were published at Amsterdam, 4705. Brissot (Jean Pierre) de Warville, active French revolu- tionist, b. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to the law, but took to literature. He wrote for the Courier de VEurope, a revolutionary paper suppressed for its boldness, published a treatise on Truth, and edited a Philosophical Law Library, 1782 — 85. He wrote against the legal authority of Eome, and is credited with Philosophical Letters upon St. Paul and the Chris- tian Religion, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784 he was imprisoned in the Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second imprisonment he went to England and America, returning to France at the ortbreak of the Eevolution. He wrote many political works^ became member of the Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party, protested against the execution of Louis XVL, and upon the triumph of the Mountain was executed with twenty-one of his colleagues, 31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish, and an earnest lover of freedom in ever}^ form. B ristol (Augusta), nee Cooper, American educator, b. Croy- don, New Haven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850 became teacher and gained repute by her Poems. In Sept. 1880, she represented American Freethinkers at the International Conference at Brussels. She has written on Science and it.s Relations to Human Character and other works. Broca (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. A hard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In 1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils Gratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated his treatise on Hyhridity. He established The Review of Anthropology , published numerous scientific works and was made a member of the Legion of 54 BRO onor. In philosophy he inclined to Positivism. Died Paris, 9 July, 1880. Brooksbank (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he wrote in Carlile's Lion, and has since contributed to the Reasoncr, the Pathfinder, and the National Reformer. He was an intimate friend of James Watson. He wrote A Sketch of the Religions of the Earth, Revelation Tested dy Astronomij, Geography, Geology, etc., 1856, and some other pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age at Nottingham. Brothier (Leon), author of a Popular History of Philosophy, 1861, and other works in the Bihliotheqite Utile. He contributed to the Rationalist of Geneva. Broussais (Francois Joseph Victor), French physician and philosopher, b. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in 1792 he served as volunteer in the army of the Eepublic. He studied medicine at St. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple of Bichat, he did much to reform medical science by his Examination of Received Medical Doctrines and to find a basis for mental and moral science in physiology by his many scientific works. Despite his bold opinions, he was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died poor at St. Malo 17 Nov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in which he declares his disbelief in a creator and his being " without hope or fear of another life." Brown (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in Essex Co., N.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he was expelled the church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. Dr. Brown edited the Herald of Irmation Concerning America, and in the next year followed his friend Priestl}^ to Philadelphia, established himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He also conducted the Emporium of Arts and Sciences in. that citv. He was Professor of Medicine at Carlisle College 90 COR '12, and afterwards held the chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in South Carolina College, of which he became President, 1820-34. This position he was forced to resign on account of his religious views. He translated from Justinian and Broussais, and digested the Statutes of South Carolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a Freethinker, in politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many pamphlets One on The Right of Free Discussion, and a little book on Geology and the Pentateuch, in reply to Prof. Silliman, were republished in London by James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, 1840.* Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, poet and writer, b. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through Spain and Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became thereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a profound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and Calvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by Satan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he communed neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of Delft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero's Dc Officiis, and other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590. Cordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe. See Sainf-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de). Corvin-Wiersbitski (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole of noble family, who traced their descent from the Roman Coiwinii, b. Gumbinnen, 12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met his friend Friedrich von Sallet ; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went to Leipsic and entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the Dutch Revolu- tion, 1841 ; the History of Christian Fanaticism, 1845, which was suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats in '48; was condemned to be shot 15 Sept. '49, but the sentence was commuted ; spent six years' solitary confinement in prison ; came to London, became correspondent to the Times; went through American Civil War, and afterwards Franco-Prussian * So varied -was the activity of T. Cooper clnring his long- life that his works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different persons of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single gentlemen will be rolled into one. 91 COT War, as a special correspondent. He has written a History of tlie New Time, 1848-71. Died since 1886. Cotta (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, Thuringia, 24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in Freiberg, where he was appointed professor in '42. His first production. The Dejidroliths , '32, proved him a diligent investigator. It w^as followed by many geological treatises. Cotta did much to support the nebular hypothesis and the law of natural development without miraculous agency. He also wrote on phrenology. Died at Feirburg., 13 Sept 1879. Cotta (C. Aurelius), Eoman philosopher, orator and states- man, b. B.C. 124. In '75 he became Consul. On the expiration of his office he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had a high opinion of him and gives his sceptical arguments in the third book of his De Natura Deorum. Courier (Paul Louis), French writ er, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. He entered the army and became an ofScer of artillery, serving with distinction in the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, directed against the clerical restoration, which place him foremost among the literary men of the generation. His writings are now classics, but they brought him nothing but imprisonment, and he was apparently assassinated, 10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the bigots would kill him. Coventry (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, Fellow of Magdalene College, Siutlior oi Letters of Philemon to Ilydaspiis on False Religion (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752. Coward (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at AVadham College, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards at London. Published, besides some medical works, Second Thoughts Concerning Human Soul, which excited much indignation by denying natural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered his work to be burnt. He died in 1725. Cox (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, w^as educated at Rugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the Church, but has devoted himself to history and my thology. His most pretentious work is Mythology of the Ai-yan Nations 92 CRA (1870). He has also written an Introduction to Comparative Mytho- lofjij and several historical works. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with the authorship of the English Life of Jesus, published under the name of Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an heretical paper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a Life ofBisho/) Colenso, 2 vols, 1888. Coyteux (Fernand), French writer, b. Euffec, 1800. Author of a materialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on physiology, Paris, 1875, etc. Craig (Edward Thoma s), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4 Aug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre '19; helped to form the Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. In '31 he became editor of the Lancashire Co-operator. In Nov. of the same year he under- took the management of a co-operative farm at Rahaline, co. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an history, '72. Mr. Craig has edited several journals and contributed largely to Radical and co-operative literature. He has published a memoir of Dr. Travis and at the age of 84 he wrote on Tlie Science of Prolonging Life. Cramer (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, 18 Feb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy '36 ; ordained priest in '42 ; he resigned in "58. In religion he denies revelation and insists on the separation of Church and State. Among his works we mention Separation from the Church, a Freethinker's annotations on the reading of the Bible, Stockholm, 1859. A. Confession of Faith; Forward or Back? (1862). He has also written on the Punishment of Death (1868), and other topics. Cranbrook (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents about 1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, became a teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent Church at Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies' College, Liverpool, some of his lectures there being published '57. In Jan. '65, he went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but his views being too broad for that congregation, he left in Feb. '67 but continued to give Sunday lectures until his death, 6 June, 1869. In '66 he pub- 93 CRO lislied Credihilia : an Inquiry into the grounds of Christian faith and two years later 7he Founders of Christianity, discourses on the origin of Christianity. Other lectures on Human Depravity, Positive Religion, etc., were published by Thomas Scott. Cranch (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. Alexandria, Virginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, Cambridge, Mass. '35, but left the ministry in '42. He shows his Freethought sentiments in Satan, a Libretto, Boston, 74, and other works. Craven (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the Bible entitled Triumpli of Criticism, published at Phila- delphia, 1869. Cremonini (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, 1550, was professor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he died. A follower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of religion and his tea ching the mortality of the Boul. He was frequently ordered by the Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errore he gave currency to, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused. Like most of the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between reli- gious and philosophic truth. Bayle says. " II a passe pour un esprit fort, qui ne croyait point I'immortalite de I'ame." Larousse says, "On pent dire qu'il n'etait pas chretien.'' Lad- vocat says his works "contain many things contrary to religion." Cross (Mary Ann). See Eliot (George). Crousse (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of Principles, or First Philosophy, 1839, and Thoughts, 1845. Curtis (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of Theology Displayed, 1842. He has been credited with The Protestant's Progress to Infidelity. See Griffith (Rees). Died 1847. Croly (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New York 3 Nov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in '54, and was subsequently a reporter on the New York Herald. He became editor of the New York World until '72. From '71 to '73 he edited The Modern Thinker, an organ of the most advanced thought, and afterwards the New Yo rk Graphic. Mr. Croly has wv\ttQB.ii Primer of Positivism, 'IQ, and has contributed many 94 cur articles to periodicals. His wife, Jane Cunningham, who calls herself "Jennie Jime,"b. 1831, also wrote in The Modern Thinker. Cross (Many Ann), see Eliot (George). Crozier (John Beattie), English writer ''of Scottish border parentage, b. Gait, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a scholarship to the grammar school of the town, and thence won another scholarship to the Toronto University, where he graduated '72, taking the University and Starr medals. He then came to London determined to study the great problems of religion and civilisation. He took liis diploma from the London College of Physicians in '73. In '77 he wrote his first essay, " Go d or Force," which, being rejected by all the magazines, he published as a pamphlet. Other essays on the Constitution of the World, Carlyle, Emerson, and Spencer being also rejected, he published them in a book entitled The Religion of the Future, '80, which fell flat. He then started his work Civilisation and Progress, which, uppesived in '85, and was also un successful until republished with a few notices in '87, when it received a chorus of applause for its clear and original thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography, fter which he proposes to deal with the Social question. Cuffeler (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law, who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on logic in three parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc., published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at AmxSterdam or Utrecht, 1684. It was without name but with the author's portrait. Cuper (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is sus- pected to have been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His work entitled Aixana Atheismi Revdaia, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced as written in bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God could not be proved by the light of reason. Cyrano de Bergerac (Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March, 1619. After finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth he devoted himself to literature. His tragedy "Agrippine" is full of what a bookseller called "belles 95 DA impietes," and La Momioye relates that at its performance the pit shouted " Oh, the wretch ! The Atheist ! How he mocks at holy things ! " Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi, Lamothe Le Vayer, Liniere, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of a short fragment on Physic^ a collection oi Letters, and a Comic W.story of the States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano took the idea of this book from F. Godwin's Man in the Moon, 1583, and it in turn gave rise to Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Voltaire's Micromegas. Died Paris, 1655. Czolbe (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819, studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on the Principles of Physiology, '44. In '55 he published his New Exposition of Sensationalism, in which every- thing is resolved into matter and motion, and in '65 a work on Ihe Limits and Origin of Human Knowledge. Ho was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died atKonigsberg, 19 Feb. 1873. Lange says " his life was marked by a deep and genuine morality." D'Ablaing. See Giessenburg. Dale (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn, under the title of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan Priests, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress of Idolatry and Super- stition, applied the historical method to his subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old and as extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708. DamilaviUe (Etienne Noel), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who became his friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d'Alembert, Grimm, and d'Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclopedie, and in 1767 published an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological Honesty. The book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and Holbach] was attributed by Voltaire, who called it hnpiety Unveiled, and by La Harpe and Lalande to DamilaviUe. Voltaire called him " one of our most learned writers." Larousse says " he was an ardent enemy of Christianity." He has also been credited with a share in the System of Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768. 96 DAN Dandolo (Vincenzo) Couvf, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758, wrote Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on TheNew Men, in which he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819. Danton (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28 Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred to study law. During the Eevolution his eloquence made him conspicuous at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension, and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the crisis of the struggle with Robespierre Danton declined to strike the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said when interrogated by the judge, " My name is Danton, my dwelling will soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of history." He main- tained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called fils de Diderot. Carlyle calls him " a very Man " Dapper (Olfert^, Dutch ph^^sician, who occupied himself with history and geography, on which he produced important works. He had no religion and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia, etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the City gy, Professor Haeckel has published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on Ereidvm in Science and Teaching^ published with a prefatory note by Professor Huxley, '79. 160 HAG Hagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year 1811 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Eobert Owen, and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby, where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views. Halley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime as " the Infidel Mathematician," b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656 ; educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the j^lanets and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena where he prepared his Catu- logue of Southern Stars, '79 He also found how to take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of Mercur^^ or Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later he made observa- tion on " Halley 's comet," and in '83 published his theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he Avas made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astro- nomer-royal. He then undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz: to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who conceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in his Bioyrophical Dictionary says. " It must be deeply regretted that he cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought it not beneath them to be Christians." Hammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v. Hamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright, of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding "that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly, a human invention, a mere fable." He had previously been set in the pillory and had both his ears cut oif . Hannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Due in 1812, and some time editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical Iheohxjy, '46; Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of 161 L HAN Philosophical Studies, '72 ; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life by sensibilitij. Hanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia, b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in London, and Avrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took part in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he became Advo- cate-General of the colony, and subsequentl}- in 1861 Chief Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Laio in Nature 1865, Jhe Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters to and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated hy C.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876. Hardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Harwicke, F.R.C.S., of Rotherhara, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and in '86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent of the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school of Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific periodicals. Hardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26 Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the principal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for Skin Diseases. Be- sides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up a press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled , the publishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of Mr. Foote ('84r), and Ecolution and Creation ('87). He has contri- buted to the Agnostic Annual, and has recontl}^ written Rambles in Spain, Italy and JMorocco ('89). Harriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says " He was a Deist." Died 21 July 1621. Harrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist b. London 18 Oct. 1831, educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He was called to the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor of Jurisprudence and Inter- national Law. He has written many important articles in the 162 HAR higli-class reviews, and lias published The Meaning of Ilistory, Order and Progress, and on llie Choice of Books and Other Literary Pieces^ '86, and has translated vol. ii of Oomte's Positive Polity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70, and of Newton Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine articles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters. Hartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessi- mist philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the publication of his Philosophy of the Uncon- scious in '69, he became famous, though it was not translated into English until '84. He' has since written numerous works of which we name Self- Dissolution of Christiinity and The Reli- gion oj the Future, '75. The Crisis of Christianity in Modern Theology, '80, 7he Religious Consciousness of Mankind, '81, and Modern Problem:^, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned his atten- tion to the philosophy of politics. Hartogh Heys Van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer, b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philo- sophy at Leyden, and graduated doctor of law in "64 and doctor of natural philosophy in '66. In '66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a treatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time professor of chemistry and natural histor}^ at the Hague, but lived at Delft, where he Avas made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled through Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of ffct Vaderland and was the guest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of Man and Expressions of the Etnotions, both Avith valuable annotations of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works of Ludwig Biichner and ^' Cams Sterne," from the German, and works from the ^ French, besides writing several original essays on anthro- pology, natural history, geology, and allied sciences, contri- buting largely to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In ^72 he visited the United States and the Pacific coast. Since ''73 he has resided at Assen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could not take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of the Provincial Archaeological Museum at Assen, and a member of the Dutch Literary Society the Royal 163 HAS Institution of Netherlands, India, and other scientific associa- tions. For a long while he was a member of the Dutch Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became president. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works, such as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin of Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately. Haslam (Charles Jvmius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April, 1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a Socialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations J showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their doctrines, '»8. This work went through several editions, and the publishers were prosecuted for blas- phemy. He followed it by Letters to the Bishop of Exeter, con- taining materials for deciding the question whether or not the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who are the Inf. dels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since lived. In '85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War. Hassell (Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May, 1824. He died in October 1826. Hattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had several followers. Died 1706. Haureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812, At the age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolu- tion by a work on The ^fountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced many important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy, '44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite Critical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50. Hauy (Valentine), French philanthrophist, b. Saint- Just 13 Nov. 1745. He devottd much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the institute for the young blind in 1781. He was on e of the founders of Theophilantr opy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till 1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris 18 March, 1822. 1G4 HAY Havet (Ernest August Eugene), French scholar and critic, b. Paris, 11 April, 1813. In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature at the Normal School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence at the College de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de ^Tesus in the Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards published sepa- rately. His work on Christianity and its Origins^ 4 vols. 1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism. Hawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about 1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman'' s Magazine and editor of the Adventurer, In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that author. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook for govern- ment, for which he received £6,000 ; but the work was cen- sured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of Providence. His novel Ahnoran anil Hnmet was very popular. Died at Bromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773. Hawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the terms of his will prohibited Christian burial. Hebert (Jacques Eene), French revolutionist, b. Alencon 15 Nov. 1757, published the notorious Plre Duchesne, and with Chaumette instituted the Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined 2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few days later. Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart, 27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tiibingen, but, becoming acquainted with Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopmdia of tie Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and two schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement of Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel said students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to have remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him, and he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried beside Fichte. Heine (Heinrich), German poet and litterateur, b. of Jewish parents at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, 165 HET Berlin, iuid Gottingeii ; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and Hegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and was baptised. The change was only- formal. He satirised all forms of religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel ^v'A8 received with favor and translated by himself into French. His other principal works are the Book of Songs, Wf^'ory of Recent Literature in Germany, The Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris, Avhere " the Voltaire of Grermany " became more French than German. About 1848 he became paralysed and lost his e^^esight, but he still employed himself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his •' mattress grave," he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and most influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the forces of reaction. Heinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician, b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn, and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne 1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work on the Prussian Bure- aucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune and the Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but returned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again " the regicide " had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He wrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenktr), first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati^ then in New York, and from '59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism, which appeared in The Reasoner 1856, P>em^, German Revolution, Thr. Heroes of German Communism, The Ri'jhts of Women, Mankind the Criminal, Six Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century, and What is Humanity ? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880. Hellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842, and in addition to many works on various countries has written an able Culture History, 1875. 166 HEL Helmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) Usrman scientist, b. Potsdam 31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers in Europe. Among his works we mention The Comercation of Force (1847), and Popular Scientific Lectures (18G5-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects the design hypothesis. Helvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18 Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted by reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general to devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work On the Mind (De L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII, 31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said " he told everybody's secret." It Avas republished at Amsterdam and London. He also wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and Education. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest of Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, wee Anne Catherine De Ling- viLLE, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her house was the rendezvous of Oondillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet, Cabanis, Destutt de Trac}^, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was known as the Societe d' Auteuil. Madame Helvetias died 12 August 1800. Henault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century, son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to see Spinoza. Bayle saj^s he professed Atheism, and had composed three different systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet is on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682. Henin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer, b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diploma- tist in England, Venice, and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at Areola, 26 Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of his Archives du Magnet i.^me Animal, he suggests that the miracles of 167 11 EN' Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of mag- netism learnt in Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes committed in the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841. Hennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809, author of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity^ first published in '38, a work which powerfully influenced *' George Eliot," and a translation of which was introduced to German readers by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced "George Eliot" to translate Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian Theism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married at London in '39, and died 2 Sept. 1850. Heranlt de SecheHes (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b- of noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought upas a friend of Buffon and Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawj^er and orator before the Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made President of the Convention, 2 Xov. 92. He edited the document known as the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at the national festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmit}^ of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins, 5 April, 1794. Herbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was made professor of philosophy at Gottingen, and in 1808 became Kant's successor at Konigsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously disposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was recalled to Gottingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841. Herbert (Edward). Lord of Cherbury,- in Shropshire, b. Montgomery Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his travels. On his return he was made one of the king's counsellors, and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the Protestants. He served in the Nether- lands, and distinguished himself b3' romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in '31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of Parliament. His principle work is entitled De Veritate, the object of which was to assert the sufiiciency of natural religion apart from revelation. 168 UVAl He also wrote Lay Rdi(/>'on, his own Memoirs, a Histonj of Henry VIIL, etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648. Hertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three small works criticising Christian Theo- logy, and exerted his influence in favour of State secularization. Hertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished to Viatka, whence he was per- mitted to return in '37. He was expelled from Eussia in '42, visited Italy, joined the " Reds " at Paris in '48, took refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set up in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works prohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in large numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42 ; Letters on the Study of Nature, '45-46 : Who's to Blame? '57 ; Memoirs of the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the magazine the Kololcol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son, Alessandiio Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes, learnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, wheie he did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated MB^udsley 8 Physiology of Mi7id, and published a physiological analysis of human free will. Herwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31 May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for Literature. His Gcdichte eines Lehendigen (Poems of a Living Man) aroused attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Swit- zerland and Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875. Hetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho, London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He also founded the Metropolitan Political L^^nion in March, 1830, which was the germ both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He resisted 161) II ET the " taxes upon knowledge " by issuing unstamped Ihe Poor Man's Guardian, a weekly newb[.aii«3r for the people, established, contrary to " law," to try the power of " might " against "right," '31-35. For this he twice suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards published The Unstamped. and his persistency had much to do in removing the taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40, he was tried for "blasphemous libel " for publishing Haslam's Letters to the Clergy^ and received four month's im- prisonment. Hetherington pui-lished -1 Few Hundred Bible Contradictions^ and other Freethought works. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Cliartism. He died 24 Aug. 1849, leaving, a will declaring himself an Atheist. Hetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland ; was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529. Heiisden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several works, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer, etc. Hibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the imprisoment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his publications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had received a gift of £1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner should not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly £1,000 in fitting up Carlile's shop in Fleet Street. He contributed " Theological Dialogues " to the Republican, and also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert set up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns, '27, and also Phifarch and Theophrastns on Super- stition, to which he wrote a life cf Plutarch and appended valu- able essay's " on the supposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar " ; " various definitions of an important word " [God], and a catalogue of the principal modern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary of Anti-Superstitionists, and 170 HID Chronological Tables of British Freethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left £500 each. Died December 1834.. Hidenin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the "Andra Kammaren " [House of Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical candidate, '61. Edited the Afton- Idndet, 74-76. Has written many radical works. Higgins (Godfrey), English archa3ologist, b. Skellow Grange, near Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar, but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was entitled horse Sahhaticse^ 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In '29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and Celtic Druids^ which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure of priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the origin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily for about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826, under the title of " Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of the Saitic Isis ; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations, and Religions." Hillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor at Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary move- ment in Germany, Karl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to France. He taught at Stras- bourg and Paris, where he became secretary to Heine. On the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During the Franco-Prussian war he was correspon- dent to the Times, and was taken for a Prussian sp3". In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he translated the poems of Car- ducci. Hillebrand w^as a contributor to the Fortnightly Review,. Nineteenth C entury, Revue des deux Mondcs, I^orth American Review , etc. His best known work is on France and the French in the second half of the nineteenth centur}'. Died at Florence,. 18 Oct. 1884. 171 HIN Hins (Eugene^, Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal Athenseura, Charleroi, b. St. Troiid, 1842. As general secretary of the International, he edited L'hiternaiimiale, in which he laid stress on anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberie, and was one of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les SoUdaires, and La Lihre-pensee of Brussels. He has written Tm Russie dc voilee au moyen de sa litterature populaire 1883, and other works. Hippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen, Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law, and became in 1780 burgomaster of Konigs- berg. His writings, which were published anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Broraberg, 23 April, 1796. Hittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences against Christianiti/ (New York, 1857) : has also written .1 Plea for Pantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California, a History of Sa7i Francisco, A Brief History of Culture CSew York, 1875), and St. Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883). Hoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July, 1836. He studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar, and in '51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He afterwards resigned his place and estab- lished a law firm. He was one of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in the public schools. Hobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April, 1588. In 1608 he beame tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire, with whoir he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Give. In 1650 appeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following year his famous Levi'ithan. At the Restoration he received a pension, but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness, passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, Chats worth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679. Hodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's System of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined 172 IIOE in Newgate for two years for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison he wrote The Commonwealth of Reason. Hoelderlin ( Johann Christian Friedricli), German pantheistic poet, b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at Tiibingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a fine romance (1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of thought. Died Tiibingen, 7 June, 1843. Heijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi, Delecarlia, 1 June, 1707. Was student atUpsala University '83, and teacher of philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his liberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he contributed much to Swedish eman- cipation. In 1808 he became Professor of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812. Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich and generous he was the patron of the Encyclo- paedists. Buffon, Diderot, d'Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac, and other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin, and Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the German several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English, Mark Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. He con- tributed many articles to the Encyclopedie, In 1765 he visited England, and from this time was untiring in his issue of Free- thought works, usually put out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam Christianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the Clergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was partly re- written by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural History of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard and Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published T/ic ///sfor^ of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus CJirist, Letters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Por^aWe 2 /leoZo^ry, attributed to Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais]. Religious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from the English. He also translated 173 HOL the Philosophical Letters of Toland, and Collins's Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a work with the title The Spirit of Judaism. Tliese works were mostly conveyed to the printer, M. Re}^, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the secret of their authorshij) was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The System of Nature, or The Laics of the Physical and Moral World. This text-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted by Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made a great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary under the title of Good Sense, attributed to the cure Meslier. In 1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last im- portant work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded upon Nature. D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to by many, was depicted in Eousseau's Nourelle Heloise as the benevolent Atheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789. Holcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies "Duplicity," 1781, and "The Road to Ruin," 1792, were verj' successful. He translated the Post- humous Works of PYedericJc the Great, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he was indicted for high treason with Hardy and Home Tooke in 1794, bui was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809. Holland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 183(: graduated at Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister at Rockford, 111. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has since written in the 2ruthsecker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His principal work is entitled Ihe Rise of Litellcctual Liberty, 1885. Hollick (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec 1813. He was educated at the Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion with J. Brindley at Liver- pool, in 1840, on " What is Christianity ? " On the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have had a large circulation. 174 HOJL Hollis (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious Reasons for Scepticism, 1796 ; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed Religion, 1799; and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 20 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an oppulent dissenting family, was distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his beneficence. Holmes (William Yamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced to two years' imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous and seditious libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain, and when in prison was told that *' if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was im- plied." On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and com- menced the open sale of all the prohibited publications. HolweH (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He prac- tised as a surgeon, went to Intiui as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah Dov. iah, w^as imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the " Black Hole," 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798. Holyoake (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27 Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of Robert Owen and Lis disciples. He took part in the agitation for the abolition of the newsftaper stamp — assist- ing when risk and danger had to be met — and he co-operated with his brother in the production of the Reasoner and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after this he printed and ■sub-edited the National Reformer, in which many of his Free- thought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentioned Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity^ Ihovghts on Atheism, the Book y Iwo of its own^\Rules (London, 1877). Liszinski (Oasimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing. Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the'sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of the National. His jedition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and Avrote the Literary History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie Positive. Littre also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy , '73 ; Literature and History, '75 ; Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in '63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in '71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in '75 211 LOH was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881. Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trail. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written muoh in Liberty and Lucifer. Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror of Faith. Died 1642. Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had mau}^ followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage. Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be un- historical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works. Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov, 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals. Longet (Francois Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Ger- main-en-Laye, 1811, -^whlishQdi ^.Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols, and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871. Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto. Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the ser- vice of the house of Conti ; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was con- demned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735. Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied 212 LUB law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He edits La Rejorme at' Brussels > the ablest daily exponent of Freethought aud Democratic doc- trines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army. " Lorm (Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landes MANN. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit, Vienna, '84. Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature "Demolilo." He has written Batttes of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, 2 he Church and Galeote, etc. Lubbock (Sir John), banker, arch^ologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in '56. By his archjeological works he has most distinguished himself. He has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Custom.^' of Modern Savages ('65). and The Origin of Civdisaiinn and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70). Lucretius Carus (Titus). Eoman philosophical poet, b. about B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work, De Reruni Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is Baid to have died by his own hand B.C. 55. Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuer-» bachs. He wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu^est ce que la Religion. In '56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg. Limn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841. 213 MAC Luys (Jules Bernard), Frencli alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at I'Hopital de la Charito, Paris, and author of a work on Ihe Brain and it!^ Functions in the "International Scientific Series." Lyell ("Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work. The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875. Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Edu- cated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47), translated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as " Atticus," contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Revieiv, etc., published Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888. Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, founded I Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Lihero Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Fiee- thinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Eome, 2^ Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten. Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death. Macdonald (Greorge), brother of the preceding. Wrote on 214 MAC the 'Iruthseeker, and now conducts Frecthought, of San Fran- cisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker. lilcDonnell (William), American novelist, b 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances. Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect, 1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity , '53, and Tlte 2'uhingen School, '63. Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote The Mtithological Astronomy of the Ancients,, Norwich, 1822-24, Pious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. SauU, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age of Mental Emancipation ^ '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846. Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical 7 heory of the Universe, ISiS, Siiu\ An Inquiry into the Nature of Jtesponsibility. Died 1850. MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881. Madach (Imre), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Oseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a 3''ear for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem ^4:; Ember Tragtdioja (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880. Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer. Maillet (Benoit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at 215 3IAL Leghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published " Telliamed " (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea. "Miinlaender " (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that " Mainliinder" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. " God is dead^ and his death was the life of the world." Malherbe (Frangois de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patron- age of Henry lA". He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628. MaHet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882). Malon (Benoit). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of the international ; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor on L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works. Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author of Za 5/6Ze Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was conden-ned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternite. MandeviUe (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published a poetical satire. The GrumUing Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In 1709, he published The Virgin Unmnsked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on Religion the Church and 216 MAX National Happiness. In the same year appeared his Fables of ■the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work was pre- sented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley in -1 Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquirij of Honor, and Usefulness of Christianity in War, 173L Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733. Mantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza,31 Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first book Ihe Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology of pain, spontaneous generation > anthropological works on Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romance II Dio Ignoto, the unknown god (1876). Man- tegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian writers. Manzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, 2i\&o 11 Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc. Marchena (Jose), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the Trench philosophers brought on him the Inquisitioii. He fled to France where he became a friend of Brissot and the Oirondins. He wrote a pronounced Essoi de Theologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Moliere's Tartu fc, and some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupins' Origine de tons les Cnltes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821. Marechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech (anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the etyle of the prophets. In 1781 he wrote Le Noiweau Lucrect^ In 1788 appeared his Almanack of Honest People, in which the iiame of Jesus Christ was found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the hands of the 217 MAK hangman, and Marechal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack^ 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men witho%Lt God, and Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned work, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt,. Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Marechal puts a host of bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published his famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared his For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande, Maret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre^ 4 March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical; w^as elected deputy in '81. Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her pro- tection to religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549. Marguetel de Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (0.) Mario (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the Tribune and Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In '60 he wrote a polemic against the papacy entitled Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883. Marlow (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canter- bury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge^ where he took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time tO' escape being tried on an information laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is dis- played in Jamburlaine and Dr. FauUus. Of the latter, Goethe said " How greatly is it all planned." Swinburne says " He i& the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature." Marr (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of Religious Excursions^ 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts. Marsais (Cesar Chesneau du). See Du Marsais. 218 MAR Marselli (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author of advanced works on the Science of History, Nature and Cwilisation, the Origin of Humanity, the Great Races of Huwianity^ etc. Marston (Philip Boiirke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service. Marsy (Francois Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763. Marten (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles's judges, and became one of -the Council of State. He proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words " and all fools." Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him "sworn foe of Cant in all its figures ; an indomitable little Pagan if no better." Martin (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She wrote the Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the "crime" for which they were imprisoned. In '43 she published Baptism A Pagan Rite. This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God's Gifts and Men's Duties, a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on the Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died Oct. 185U 211) MAS Martin (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin. 20 Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but aban- ■doned it for history. His History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838 — 53), is a monumental work of erudition, A con- iirmed Republican, he warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the National Assembly, '71. and senator, '76. He was elected member of the Academy* '78. In addition to his historical works he contributed to le Siecle, la. Liberie de penser, and V Encydopedie Nouvclle, etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883. Martin (Louis), author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by ^'^ictor Hugo cette-nohle page}, Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist. Martin (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811, editor of the Morale Independante and member of the Institute of Geneva. For his True and Fahe Catholics ('58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six months Be published the Annuaire Fhilosophique. Several of his works are phiced on the Roman Index. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875. Martinaud (M.), an ex-abbe who refused ordination, and wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, "Religion is the infancy of peoples. Atheism their maturity." Martineau (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political economy. The Letters on the Lows of Man's Nature and Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in '51, and disclosed her -advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In '53 she issued a condensed account of Comte's philosophy. She wrote a History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Auto- hiography, published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief. Masquerier (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot -descent, b. 1 March, 1802. Wrote The Sataniad, established 220 MAS Greenpoint Gazette, and contributed to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888. Massenet (Jules Emile Frederic), French musical composer^ b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie Magdeleine, and an opera, Herodiade. Massey (Gerald), poet and archaeologist, b. of poor parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent to a factor}^ to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and became a Freethinker and political reformei'. Inspired by the men of '48, he started The Spirit of Freedom, '49. It cost him five situations in eleven months. In '53 his Ballad of Babe Christahel, icith other Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his Book of Beqinnimjs and Natural Genesis, '81-83, in which he shows the mythical nature of Chris- tianity. Mr. Mfipspv has also lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don'<- G^d Kill the Devil ? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the title My Lyrical Life. Massey (James). See Tyssot. (S.) Massol (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b.Beziers, 18 March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in '30 and became a Saint Simonian. In '48 he wrote on Lamennais' La Kefoi me, and on the Voix dii Penple with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In '65 he established La Morale Independante with the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875. Maubert de Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen,. 20 Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal nuncio procured his release on con- dition of retaking his habit. This he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went to Switzer- land and England, where he was well received by Lord 221 31 All Bolingbroke. He published Lettrcs Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months.' Died at Altona, 21 Xov. 1767. Maudsley (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he gra- duated MD. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached eminence in his profession. From '69-'79 he was professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London His works on The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind ('67), Body and Mind ('70), Responsibility in Mental Di.^ea^e (73), and Body and Will ('83) have attracted much attention. His Natural Lairs and Supernatural Seemings ('80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition. JVEauviUon (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in body, he had a penchant for the arni}^, and joined the engineer corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieu- tenant-colonel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the French Revo- lution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux (Amsterdam, 1768) and The Only True System of the Christian Religion (Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title of False Reasmings of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794. Mazzini (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In '26 he graduated LL.D., in the Universit}'^ of Genoa, and plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in '33, he went to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in '37. In '48 he returned, and in March '49 was made triumvir of Eome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He wrote in the WeAminster Preview and other periodicals and and his works are numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, lore of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini " a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and noble- ness of mind." Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was a Deist. 222 MIS Meissner (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct, 1822. Has written Ziska, an epic poem, The Son of Atta Trolly Recollections of Heine, Qic. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885. Meister (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Biickeburg, 6 Ang. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and became acquainted with D'Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short li^e, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious Principles, 1762, and Natural Morality, 1787. Menard (Louis), French author and painter, b.. Paris, 1822. In '48-49 he wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged to leave France. Has Avritten on Morality before the Philosophers, '60, Studies on the Origin of Christianity, '67, and Freethinkers^ Religious Catechism, '75. Mendoza (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of distinguished famil}'^, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel, Lazarillo de Tonnes, •which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his Histoj-y of the Moorish Wars, \vhich remained unprinted thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza's •satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575. Mendum (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston Invest/gator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his imprisonment engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, ^he carried on the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of Freethought in hat city. Mentelle (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under C> MIL without religion, lie became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to the Westminster and Edinhurgh Beviews. Of the first he became joint editor in '35. His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally known. This was fol- lowed hy hm Principles of Political Economy. In '59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subse- quent works were Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67 ; Examination of Sir William Hamilton s Philosophy '65 ; Dissertations and Discussio7is, '59-'75 ; and the Suhjection of Women, '69. In '65 he was elected to Parliament for Weet- minster, but lost his seat in '68. In '67 he was chosen Eector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says " in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility." Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on " Nature," " Theism," and " Religion.'' Mille (Con Stan tin), Roumanian writor, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Mille contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Viitorul, edited by C. Pilitis. Milliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Cote d'Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the Proletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Stwlies he was, after the coup d'etat, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of '59. In '69 Milliere started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of Avhich he became one of the prin- cipal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris 26 May. 1871. He died crying " Vive VHumanite.'' Mirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secre- tary to the French Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a Critical Examination of the New lestament, (pub- 227 MIT lished under the name of Freret), llie World: its Origin and Antiquity^ 1751, Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soid inserted in the collection entitled Nouvelle libertes de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The Si/stem of Nature, attributed to Mira- baud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1 760. Mirabeau (Honore Gabriel Eiquetti Comte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue pro- voked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his Erotika Bihlion^ dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and col- lected materials for his work on The Prussian Monarchy . He returned to the opening of the States G-eneral and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen Presi- dent of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him " far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time." He died 2 April, 1791, Among his last words were, " Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep." Miranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their "War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806 — 11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dun- geon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill. Miron. See Morin (Andre Saturnin.) Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876) and Chi^est OS ; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in the National Reformer, using his initials only. 228 MIR Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as T^he ■Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell com- mitted suicide iu Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his iDOok. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was repub- lished in '81. Mittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Land- shut, where he became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part in the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction ■of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867. Mittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816. Mocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian philosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva, 1588, with the Peripatetic Question of CoesaL jiinus and the books of Telesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum Philosophic arum. Moleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at Herzogenbusch, 9 Aug. 1822 ; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator, and in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has written Circu- lation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches, and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him " the father of the modern Materialistic movement." Molesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 ;sat for Leeds. In '53 he was First CommissiO'ner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was for 229 MON some time proprietor and conductor of the Westminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition of Hobbea was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855. Mommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became Professor of Law of Leipsic, Ziirich and Berlin. Is best known by his History of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity. Monboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James). Monge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence of Condorcet was made Mini- ster of the Marine in 1792. He was one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Xapoleon made him a senator, created him Count of Pelusuin, and gave him an estate for his many services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Marechal and Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists. Mongez (Antoine), French archjeologist, b. Lyons, 30 June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said "he had the honor to be an Atheist.' He was one of the most ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835. Monroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Iroru chid Age, b- Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '^50 he went to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the Rochfonl Herald, and in July, '57, the Sf-ymoar Times. During the Civil War he was appointed sur- geon to the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to Indianopolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards Monroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a remarkable fund of 280 MON natural humor. Among his publications are poems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible Stoi'ies. Montaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he pro- duced his famous " Essays," which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in literature. Emerson says, " Montaigne is the frankest and honestest of all writers." Montaigne took as his motto : Que scais je ? [What know I ?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, " Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592. Monteil (Charles Francois Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rapptl. During the Commune he was secretary to Deles- cluze. For his Histoire (Vnn Frere Ignorant in, 74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, and condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000 francs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, pub- lished at Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La Republique Fran<;aise. In '80 he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has compiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French Avriter, b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the Frencn Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the Spii it of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, which 231 M(30 Voltaire pronoun(?ed to be worthy of Moliere. Died 10 Feb. 1755. Montgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended at Heidelburg the lectures of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and published at Munich in '71, The Kantian 'llieory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies, In '71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written in the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and Mind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary. Montgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June 1810. Mook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept 1844, studied philosophy and theology at Tiibingen, but gave up the latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to a free congregation at Niirenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus, published at Zurich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some poems. Moor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hiada Pantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840. Moreau (Hegesippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Miseltoe and the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected, with an intro- duction by Sainte-Beuve. Moreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. 232 MOR He became a distinguished alienist of the materialist scliool, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological works. Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. Vitry-le-Francais, author of a work called Code de la Nature, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755-' and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised. Morgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as 2 he Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was de- posed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited Radicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses " a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Farther Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, Miid Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over the signa- ture " Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. Lechler calls Morgan " the modern Marcion." Died at London, 14 Jan. 1743. Morgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of Sketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals, '19, The Examiner says, *' He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843. Morin (Andro Suturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the signature " Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Lil/re Penste of Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers, He was intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination of Clwistianity , in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his True Value has gone 233 MOR through several editions. His EsmI de Critique Religieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of the Bibliothnpie Democratique , to which he contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In 76 he was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and Avas cremated at Milan. Morison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In '63 he published the Life and limes of Saint Bernard. He was one of the founders of the Fortnightbj Review, in which he wrote, as well as in the Athenwrni. He con- tributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley's " Men of Letters " Series. In '86 he published his striking work The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would have been a noble con- tribution to literature; but the possession of a competence seems to have Aveakened his industry, and he never did justice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888. Morley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J. C. Morison. He contributed to T/te Leader and the Saturday Review, edited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, "67-82, in which appeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise, Voltaire, 72 ; Rousseau, '73 ; Diderot and the Encyclopsedists '78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in that feview. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. 86 was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland. 234 MOS Morselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide in the International Scientific Series, and a study on " The Religion of Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosojia Scientijico, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion. Mortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan (Isere), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in '49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written Materials to sei^e for the positive and philosopliical history of mart, '64. Tlie Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution to the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man, '82. He contributed to the /tfi'we Irdependante, Pensee Nouvelle, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885. Moss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of Freethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Godi, Man and the Lower Animals, 2 wo Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to the Secular Chronicle, Secular Review Freethinker, Iruthseeker, and other journals, and has had a written debate on " Was Jesus God or Man." A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been published, 1889. Mothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer. Mott (Lucre tia), American reformer, wee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the part}^ who preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights conven- tions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880. Muhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethiuking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died about 849. 235 Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tar khan (Abu Nasi.) ;See Alpharabius. Muhammad Ibu Yahya Ibu Bajjat. See Avempace. Muhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar. Muller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has con- tributed good articles to fh Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam. Murger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Recne des Devx Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in " Winter Nights " he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds lui que j'ai lu Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861. Musset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 1 1 Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the Romantic school. His prose romance. Confession ■d^iin Enfant du Si and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79. Orelli ( Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Ziinch, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in 2-12 OSB favor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Ziirich. Died 6 Jan. 1849. Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589 Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His A-hice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans •who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, for- bidding them to be sold. Died 1659. Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies " of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology." Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret). Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884. Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other journals, and has published Summer- land Skctchef!, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81 ; Physical Education, '82 ; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil. O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he " denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh ; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable ; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the Apostolike see erronious." " Ouida," See Ramee (Louise de la). Ouvry (Henry Aime), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question. 243 ow Overton (Ricliard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise on Man s Mortality (London, 1643, Amstel-dam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal. Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon after- wards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwel- lings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published Neiv Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the cre-ature of circumstances. In '24 he went to America and purchased New Harmon}", Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new com- munity, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In '28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Chris- tianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owens Journal , and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social Systom M'ith the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley,. etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of S'piritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy. Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov, 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 h& went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28, the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till '32. In that year he had a written discussion with 0. Bachelor on the existence of God^ and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840; Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition^ 244 PA He was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor lie secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d'affaires at Xaples in '53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877. Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christiamty (Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Beligious Cruelty (Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824. Paepe fCesar de). See De Paepe. Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes (1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Eepublic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800. Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited Life Lights of Song, '64. JHis Man Whfve, Whince,and Whither?, '67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Eobert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at New- castle on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879. Paget (Violet^. English authoress, who, under the pen- name of " Vernon Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Sin^e '71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contri- butes to the principal reviews, an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on " Responsibilities of Unbelief " being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct. 245 PAG Fag^eze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc. Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737 His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter of a an exciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embod}' their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in Lon- don, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1771, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the Penmylvanian Mayuzinc and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay. Com- mon Sense,- published early in 1776, advocating absolut® independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washing- ton's order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave liim a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robes- pierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of the Aye of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at New 246 PAJ Roclielle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England. Pajot (Francois). See Liniere. Paleario (Aonio), «e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Veroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul — modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova. Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a ph3'sician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he re- turned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology. Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Late ran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644. Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69 He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, ^r the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the Freethinker's Maxjn^ zinCy Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was 247 PAL cremated at Fresli Pond, his friend Col. R. G. IngersoU delivering an eiilogium. Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 179.3 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti- Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806 Panaetius (HavatTtos)^ Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis. Died in Athens 111 B.C. Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the imiwrtant Encycloptdie Methodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798. Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882. PapiUon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, '65 ; contributed to the Pievue de Philosophic Pontive and the Revue des Deux Mondes. His principle work is entitled Nature and Life, "73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873. Paquet (Henri Remi Rene), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his main 248 PAK attention to literature. Under the anagram of " Neree Quepat " he has published La Lorgnette Philoxophique, 72. a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Cerdury ^nd other works. Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealthy also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June. 1873. Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 50 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d'etat he took refuge in Belgium. In '71 was elected deputv and sat on the extreme left. Parfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of L' Arsenal de la Devotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of superstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des Pelerinages, '77, and other pieces. Died 1881. Parisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy ■devoiltepar la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have occasioned its suppression. Parker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24 Aug. 1810. From his father — a Unitarian — he in- herited independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in povert}^ he studied hard, and acquired a Univer- sity education while laboring on the farm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June, '37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so ihat even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion, '47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette's Critical Intro- duction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his 249 PAR duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his- library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library. Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 b.c». Is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nahu^e,. fragments of which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Eeason as our guide, and considered nature eternal. Parny (Evariste Desire de Forges de). Viscount. French poet, b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose the military profession. A disappointed pas- sion for a Creole inspired his " Amatory Poems," and he after- wards wrote the audacious Wai- of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been named the French TibuUus. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814. Parton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken to the United States when a child and edu- cated at New York. He married Miss Willis, " Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also written on Topics of the lime, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided in New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massa- chusetts. Parvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was issued in 1746. Pasquier (Etienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at Paris, Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader.. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked in a bitter satire, Catechisme dcs Jesuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615. Passerano (Alberto RADicAxidi) co'/w^. Italian philosopher of last century, attached to the court of Victor Amedee II.. For some pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and madetheacquaintanceof Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recite il de Pitce& •250 PAS tiirieui^es mr Jes matieres les plus inter essanUs, etc, which contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses), an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession^ and a Faithful and comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals^ by Zelin Moslem ; also a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in 1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by El wall the Quaker. Pasteur (Louis). French scientist b. Dole, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor in '47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion of honor in '53, he was made com- mander '68 and grand officer '78. His researches into innocu- lation have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the Academy as successor of Littre. He gave his name as Vice-President of the British Secular Union. Pastoret (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Mai-quis,. French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an EUge de Voltaire. B3' his works on Zoroaster,, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses Considered as Legis- lator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned History 0/ Legislation, in II vols. (1817— 37), in which he passes in review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the conversion of the church of Ste Genevieve into the Pantheon. On the 19th June, 1792, he pre- sented a motion for the complete separation of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the French Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor, and in '29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840. Pater (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug* 251 PAT 1839. B.A. at Oxford in '62, M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the Westminster Revieiv, Macmillan^ and the Fortnightly Review. In '73 he published The Renaissance, and in '85 Marias the hjiicurean, His Sensations and ideas. Paterson (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle oj Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months' imprison- ment. His trial was reported under the title God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering God as the plaintiff and in quoting from " the Jew book " to show the plaintiff's bad character. When released he went to Scotland to uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to fifteen months' imprisonment for selling "blasphemous" pub- lications at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Pater- son went to America. Patin (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beau- vais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His reputation is chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked superstition. Larouss^^ says *' C'etait un libre penseur de la famille de Rabelais." Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672. Patot. See Tyssot de Patot (S.) Pauw (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. AV'as esteemed b}^ Frederick the Great for his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the uncle of Anacharsis Clootz. Peacock (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817 He wrote many poems in the National Reformer, and in '67 published Hours of Reverie. Died 4 May, 1 77. Peacock or Pecock (Reginald), the father of English rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was succes- sively Bishop of St Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the fivor of Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be accommodated to ^' the 252 PEC doom of reason.'' He questioned the genuineness of the- Apostles' Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him, " Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan, How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man." His books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in 1460. His influence doubtless contributed to the Reformation. Pearson (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled Ihe Ethic of Freethouf/ht, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. '79, M.A. '82. Pechmeja (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he wrote a socialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, called Telephe, 1784. Died 1785. Peck (John), American writer in the Truthseeker. Has published Minicles and Miracle Workers, etc. Pecqueur (A.), contributor to the Rationaliste of Geneva,.. 1864. PeHn (Gabriel), French author of works on Spiritism Explained and Destroyed, 1864, and God or Science, '67. PeUetan (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy,, son of the following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lycee Louis le Grand. He wrote in La Tribune Frant^aise, and LeRappel, and since '80 has conducted La Justice with his friend Clemenceau, of whom he has written a sketch. PeHetan (Pierre Clement Eugene), French writer, b. Saint- Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in La Presse, under the name of " Un Inconnu," articles distin- guished by their love of liberty and progress. He also contri- buted to the Revue des Deux Mondes. In '52 he published his Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century, and in '57 The Law of T*rogrcss and The Philosophical Kings. From '53-'55 he opposed Napoleon in the Siecle, and afterwards established La Tribune Frangaise. In '83 he was elected deputy, but his election being annulled, he was re-elected in '64. He took distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After tht battle of Sedan he was made member of the Committee of 253 PEM National Defence, and in '76 of the Senate, of whicli he became vice-president in '79. In '78 he wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled Un Roi Philosophe, and in '83 Is God Dead ? Died at Paris, 14 Dec. 1884. Pem'berton (Charles Eeece), English actor and author, b. Pontypool, S. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world and wrote The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice, which with other remains was published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840. Pennetier (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the Museum of Natural History nt Rouen. Author of a work on the Orgin of Life, '68, in which he contends for spontaneous generation. To this work F. A. Pouchet contributed a preface. Perfitt (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the Path- finder, 'bd-6l. Preached at South Place Chapel. Wrote Life and Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, '61. Periers (Bonaventure des). See Desperiers. Perot (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on Man and God, which has been translated into English, 1881, and Moral and Philosophical Allegories (Paris, 1883). Perrier (Edmond), French zoologist. Curator at Museum of Natural History, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous ^'orks on Natural History, and one on Transformisme, '88. Perrin (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on T'he Religion of Philosophy, or the Unification of Knowledge : a comparison of the chief philosophical and religious systems of the world, 188.5. Perry (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced 1824 to three years' imprisonment in Newgate for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature. He became a chemist at Leices- ter and in 1844 petitioned Parliament for the prisoners for blasphemy, Patersonand Roalfe, stating that his own imprison- ment had not fulfilled the judge's hope of his recantation. Petit (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de Greve in 1665 as the author of some impious pieces. PetronitlS, called Arbiter (^TitusJ, Roman Epicurean poet at the Court of Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his veins and bled to death in a.d. 66, conversing mean- 254 PET while with his friends on the gossip of the day. To him we ■owe the lines on superstition, beginning '* Primus in orbe Beos fecit timer." Petronius is famous for his " pure Latinity." He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with the same excuse, Tiis romance being a satire on Nero and his court. Petruccelli della Gattina (Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples, 1816, has travelled much and written man}-^ works. He was deputy to the Naples Parliament in '48, and exiled after the reaction. Petrus de Abano. A learned Italian physician, b. Abano 1250. He studied at Paris and became professor of medicine at Padua. He wrote many works and had a great reputation. He is said to have denied the existence of spirits, and to have ascribed all miracles to natural causes. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as a heretic, a magician and an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was acquitted. He was accused a second time but dying (1320) while the trial was preparing, he was condemned after death, his body disinterred and burnt, and he was also burnt in effigy in the public square of Padua. Pejrpers (H.F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De Dijp, 2 Jan. 1856, studied medicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and good natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much to De Dageraad, and is at present one of the five editors of that Freethought monthly. Peyrard (Francois), French mathematician, b. Vial (Haute Loire) 1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of those who (7 Nov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An intimate friend of Sylvian Marechal, Peyrard furnished him with notes for his Dictionnaire deft Atht'es. He wrote a work on Nature and its Laws, 1793-4, and proposed the piercing of the Isthmus of Suez. He translated the works of Euclid and Archimedes. Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822. Peyrat (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. He wrote in the National and la Presse, and combated against the Second Empire. In '65 he founded VAvenir National, which was several times condemned. In Feb. '71, he was elected deputy of the Seine, and proposed the procla- mation of the Republic. In '76 he was chosen senator. 255 PEY He wrote a History of the Dogma of the Immaculate Concep- tion, '55 ; History and Religion, '58 ; Historical and Religious Studies^ '58 ; and an able and scholarly Elementary and Critical History of Jesus, '64. Peyrere (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and brought up as a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of Conde, and became intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. His work entitled P/'c«a(/am<7a?, 1653, in which he maintained that men lived before Adam, made a great sen- sation, and was burnt by the hangman at Paris. The bishop of Namur censured it, and la Peyrere was arrested at Brussels, 1656, by order of the Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of the Prince of Conde on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The following epitaph was nevertheless »iade on him : La Peyrere ici git, ce bon Israelite, hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite : Quatre relii^ious lui plurent a la fois : Et son indifference etait si peu commune Qu'apres 80 aus qa'il eut a faiie un choix Le bon liomme partit, et n'en choisit pas une. Died near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676. Pfeiflf (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. Editor of the free religious periodical, The Truthsceker, since 1882. He has also translated into Swedish some of the writings of Herbert Spencer. Pharmacopulo (A.P.) Greek translator ot Biichner's Force and Matter, and corresponding member of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Phillips (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b. London, 1767. He was hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher, republican. Sheriff of London (1807-8), and Knight. He com- piled many schoolbooks, chiefly under pseudon^-ms, of which the most popular were the Rev. J. Goldsmith and Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen most in his Million of Facts, Died at Brighton 2 April, 1840. Phillippo (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near Thetford, Norfolk. A deist who wrote an Essay on Political and Reliy ions Meditations, 1868. 256 PIC Pi-y Margall (Francisco), Spaiiish philosopher and Repub- lican statesman, b. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the Ruins of Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has written many political works, and trans- lated Proudhon, for whom he has much admiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and philosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with Cas- telar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic, being Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873. Pichard (Prosper). French Positivist, author of Doctrine of Reality, " a catechism for the use of people who do not pay themselves with words," to which Littre wrote a preface, 1873. Pierson (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 April, 1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical congregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor at Heidelberg. He resigned his connec- tion with the Church in '64. He has written many works of theological and literary value of which we mention his Poems '82, New Studies on Calvin^ '83, and Verisimilia, written in con- junction with S. A. Naber, '86. Pigault-Lebrun (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French author, b. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of Boulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and Le Citateur, 1803, a collection of objections to Christianity, borrowed in part from Yoltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 Napoleon threatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It was suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently reprinted. Pigault- Lebrun. He became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon, and died at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July,'l835. Pike (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, 1826, wrote My Reliyious Experience and What I found in the Bible, 1867. Pillsbury (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22 Sep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till '35, when he entered Gilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in '38 studied a year at Andover, was congregational minister for one 257 p PIR year, and then, perceiving the churches were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the ministry. He became an abolitionist lecturer, edited the Herald of Freedom, National Anti-Slavery Standard, and the Revolution. He also preached for free religious societies, wrote Pious Frauds, and contributed to the Boston Investigator and Freethinkers' Magazine. His principal work is Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles, 1883. Piron (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. His pieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of his profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being drunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even deity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried by his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written parodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book in the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered " Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin." Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1773. Pisarev (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and materialist, b. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the Scholastics of the nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July 1868. His works are published in ten vols. Peters- burg, 1870. Pitt (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman and orator,, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. 1808. The services to his country of " the Great Commoner," as he was called, are well known, but it is not so generally recognised that his Letter on Superstition, first printed in the London Journal in 1733, entitles him to be ranked with the Deists. He says that *'the more superstitious people are, always the more vicious ; and the more they believe, the less they practice." Atheism furnishes no man with arguments to be vicious ; but superstition, or what the world made by religion, is the greatest possible encouragement to vice, by setting up something as religion, which shall atone and commute for the want of virtue. This remarkable letter ends with the words " Remember that the only true divinity is humanity." Place (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 at Charing Cross. He early became a member of the London, 258 PLA Corresponding Society. He wrote to Carlile's Republican and Lion. A friend of T. Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Eoebuck, Hetherington, and Hibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was connected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left many manu- scripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are now in the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist — see Reasoncr, 26 March, '54. Died at Kensington, I Jan. 1854. Piatt (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author of popular works on Business, '75 ; Morality, '78 ; Progress, '80 ; Life, '81 ; God and Mammon, etc. PHny (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, b. Verona, a.d. 22. He distinguished himself in the army, was admitted into the college of Augurs, appointed procurator in Spain, and honored with the esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote the history of his own time in 31 books, now lost, and a National History in 37 books, one of the most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean Atheism appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 2t Aug. a.d. 79, he observed the erruption of Mount Vesuvius, and landing to assist the inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious vapors. Plumacher (Olga), Grerman pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and authoress of a work on Ptssimism in the Past and Future, Heidelberg, 1884. She has also defended her views in Mi7id. Plumer (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 June, 1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on account of scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the Legislature eight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was governor of New Hampshire, 1812-18, wrote to the press over the signature " Cincinnatus," and published an Address to the Clergy, '14. He lived till 22 June, 1850. Plutarch. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheronvea in Boetia, about a.d 50. He visited Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of Trajan. His Parallel Lives of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made him immortal. He wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works, including a 259 POE treatise on Superstition. He condemned the vulgar notions of Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds popularly ascribed to the gods, that he would rather men said there was no Plutarch than traduce his character. In other words, super- stition is more impious than Atheism. Died about a.d. 120. Poe (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe> who figured in the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His mother was an actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing Jamerlane and other Poems, '27, he enlisted in the United States Army, but was cashiered in '31. He then took to literary employment in Baltimore and wrote many stories, collected as the lales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor. In '45 appeared The Raven and other Poems, which proved him the most musical and dextrous of American poets. In '48 he published Eureka, a Prose Poem, which, though com- paratively little,^ known, he esteemed his greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His personal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not unlike that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849. Poey (Andres), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of French and Spanish descent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the Modern Thinker, and is author of many scientific memoirs and a popular exposition of Positivism (Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on Darwinism and Comtism. Pompery (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A follower of Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism, '79, and a Life of Voltaire, '80. Pomponazzi (Pietro) [Lat, Pomponatius], Italian philo- sopher, b. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua, where he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was appointed professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence with Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at Ferrara and Bologna. His treatise De Immortalitate Animx, 1516, gave great offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the hangman at Venice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo's intercession with Pope Leo X. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical pro- 260 PON cedure. Among his works is a treatise on Fate, Free Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive man, and was nicknamed " Peretto." He held that donbt was necessary for the development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation for upright conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525, and was buried at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory. Ponnat (de), Barov^ French writer, b. about 1810. Edu- cated by Jesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and democrat and a friend of A. S. Morin, with whom he collabo- rated on the Rationaliste of Geneva. He wrote many notable articles in La Libre Pensee, Le Critique, and Le Candide. for writing in which last he was sentenced to one year's imprison- ment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan, 1 he Cross or Death, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the Ecumenical Council at Eome (Brussels, '62). His principal work is a history of the variations and contradictions of the Eoman Church (Paris, '82). Died in 1884. Porphyry (nop<^uptos), Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia, 233 a.d. His original name was Malchus or Melech — a " King." He was a pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that he was of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards rejected Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and intelligence ; the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote (in Greek) a famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some fragments of which alone remain in the writings of his op- ponents. It is certain he showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian writings, exposed their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between Peter and Paul, and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. He wrote many other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and Pytha- goras. Died at Rome about 305. Porzio (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when lecturing at Pisa, the students cried " What of the soul ? " He frankly professed his belief that the human soul differed in no essential point from the soul of a lion or plant, and that those who thought otherwise were prompted by pyt/ for our mean estate. These assertions are in his treatise De Mente HumanCi. 2G1 POS " POSOS (Juan de)/' an undiscovered author using this pen- name, expressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary travels, published in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and trans- lated into German at Leipsic, 1721. Post (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From '28 she was a leading advocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman's suffrage and religious reform. Died Rochester, New- York, 29 Jan. 1889. Pottsr (Agathon Louis de.) See De Potter (A. L.) Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See De Potter (L. A. J.) Potvin (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the history of literature at Brussels. He wrote anonymously Poe^ee (t Amour '58, and Rome and the Family. Under the name of " Dom Jacobus " he has written an able work in two volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of a Freethinker. He was president of " La Libre Pensee " of Brussels from '78 to '83, is director of the Revue de Belgique and has collabora- ted on the National and other papers. Pouchet (Felix Archimede), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26 Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author of Mme. Bovary, and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched science with many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and wrote many mono- graphs and books of which the principal is entitled The Universe, '65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872. Pouchet (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In '80 he was decorated with the Legi on of Honor. He has written on The Plurality of the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Sikle, and the Revue des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive. Pouchkine (A.), see Pushkin. Pougens (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was blinded by small pox. He became an intimate 262 POU friend of the philosophers, and, sharing their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though it ruined his fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited the posthumous works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of the French language. His JockOy a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his Philosophi- cal Letters, 1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja, Franklin, etc. Died at Yauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec 1833. Poulin (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What is God ? What is Man ? a scientific solution of the religious problem (Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75, in which he maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that the only divinity is moral harmony. Poultier D'Elmolte (Francois Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31 Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of the King. He conducted the journal, L'Ami des his, and became one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceau Philosophiques in the Journal Encyclopedique ', Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine ; Discours Decadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures on the Nature and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821. Powell (B. F.), compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of Ancient Moralists ; published by Hetherington in 1837. Prades (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. Castel- Sarrasin, about 1720. Brought up for the church, he never- theless became intimate with Diderot and contributed the article certitude to the Encyclopedie. On the 18th Nov. 1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the doctorate, remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by a French theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul, the •origin of society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary to the dogmas of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the Gospels to those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great scandal. His opinions were condemned by Pope 263 PRA Benedict XIV., and he fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by d'Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Ohristian preface to de Prades' work on ecclesiastical history, published as Abrege de VHistoire ecclesiastique de Fleury^ Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice at G-logau (Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782. Prater (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he wrote on the Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to the American People, and Literary E-isays, '56. Died 20 July, 1835. He left the bulk of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep wound to bs made in his arm to insure that he was dead. fPreda (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation and Reason, published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of " Padre Pietro." Premontval (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Oharenton, 16 Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He studied mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He wrote Le Diogene de i)'ylZem?>er/, orFreethoughtson Man, 1754, Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vaes Philosophiqaes, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Theologie de L'Etre, in which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767. Priestley (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way to broad TJnitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in his Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of an indepen- dent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his 264 PKI History of the Corruptions of Christianity and Hidory of the Early Opinions Concerning Jesus Chri^it, which involved him iu controversy with Bishop Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with the French Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot, 14 July, 1791. After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally goaded to seek an asylum in the United States, which he reached in 1794. Even in America he endured some uneasiness on account of his opinions until Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804. Pringle (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersollin Canada J 1880. Proctor (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March, 1837. Educated at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge, where he became B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He maintained in '69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He wrote, lec- tured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty volumes, chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for a while a Catholic, but thought out the question of Catho- licism and science, and in a letter to the Neiv York Tribune^ Nov. '75, formally renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns, and other Science Gleanings, and his Sundaj^ lectures, indicated his heresy.. In '81 he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable papers, notably one (Jan. '87), " The Beginning of Christianity." He entirely rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he considered largely a rechauffe of solar myths. In other articles in the Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the coincidence between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also with stories found in Josephus. The very last article he published before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll in his controversy with Glad- stone in the North American Review. In '84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888. Proildhon (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker, b. Besancon, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a 265 PRO printer, and won a prize of 1,500 francs for the person "best iitted for a literary or scientific career." In '40 appears his memoir, What is Property ? in which he made the celebrated answer " C'est le vol.'''' In '43 the Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion, philosophy and logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical Contradictions^ in which appeared his famous aphorism, " Bieu, cest le maV In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when President, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while in prison. For his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church he was condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in '58. He took refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy, 19 Jan. 1865. Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated, '66. Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations, but he lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works have been published in 26 vols. Protagoras, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to have been a disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before he studied philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He wrote in a book on the gods, " Respect- ing the gods, I am unable to know whether they exist or do not exist." For this he was impeached and banished, and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek Islands, and died about 411. He believed all things were in flux, and «ummed up his conclusions in the proposition that "man is the measure of all things, both of that which exists and that which •does not exist." Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy " had the merit of bringing into forcible relief the ■essentially relative nature of cognition." Prudhomme (Sully). See Sully Prudhomme. Pueckler Muskau (Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer, b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations in a work entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by Tutti Frutti, '32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died 4 Feb. 1871. 266 PUS Pushkin (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des Dieux, and entitled the Gabrielade, the arch- angel being the hero. He was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire and Byron, put forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most popular is Eugene Oneguine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote some histories and founded the Sovremeniiik (Contemporary), 1836. In Jan. 1837 he was mortally wounded in a duel. Putnam (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected president in Oct. 1887. In '88 he started Free- thought at San Francisco in company with G. Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus, Adami and Heva ; romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings, and Gottlieb, and pamphlets on the Prohlem of the Universe, 2he New God, and The Glory of Infidelity. Putsage (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the Colins Philosophical Society at Mons ; has written on Determinism and Rational Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie de UAvenir of Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels. Pyat (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4 Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris, '47. After '52 he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded the journal le Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he pro- tested against the treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and condemned to death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice, and has sat as deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice, 3 Aug. 1889. Pyrrho (Tlvppov). Greek philosopher, a native of Elis, in 267 QUE Peloponesus, founder of a sceptical school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been attracted to philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself to Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great, and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus and Empiricus. duental. See Anthero de Quental. " auepat (Neree.") See Paquet (Rene.) Cluesnay (Francois), French economist, b. Merey, 4 June 1694. Self educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his lableau Econoinique, 1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral and social rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774. Uuinet (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's T.he Philosophy of History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks on Catholicism, the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in the Revolution of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on The Genius of Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his historical work on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at Versailles, 27 March, 1875. duintin (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in 1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and burnt at Tournay in 1530. Cturis (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has pub- lished some works on law and La Defense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864. Rabelais (Francois), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher, b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early 268 RAD age he joined the order of Franciscans, but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial temper, quitted the convent without the leave of his superior. He studied medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised at Lyons. His great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, "vV-as denounced as heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their order but their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was appointed cure of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 xipril, 1553. His writings show surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, " Be^^ond a doubt he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age." Radenhausen (Christian), German philosopher, b. Fried- richstadt, 3 Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a litho- grapher, he resided at Hamburg, where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.), '70-72 ; OsirL^, '74 ; The New Faith^ '77 ; Christianity is Heathenism, '81 ; Ihe True Bible and the False, '87 ; Esther, '87. Eadicati (Alberto di), Count. See Passerano. Ragon (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur- Seine, 1781. By profession a civil engineer at Nanc}^, after- wards Chief of Bureau to the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry, and The Mass and its Mysteries Compared icith the Ancient Mysteries, 1844. Died at Paris, 1862. Ram (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seven- teenth century, who was accused of Atheism. Ramaer (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland, 2 Aug. 1812. From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He afterwards became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also contributed largely to De Dageraad, often under the pseudonym of " Laghme." He had a noble mind and eacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16 Feb. 1867. Ramee (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French extrac- tion. Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of " Ouida," a little sister's mispronunciation of Louisa, she has published many popular novels, exhibiting her free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricoiin, Folk Farine, Signa, Moths and 269 A Village Commune. She has lived much in Italy, where the scenes of several novels are placed. Ramee (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth (Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aris- totle, was accused of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 2G Aug. 1572. Ramsey (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becom- ing a Freethinker early in life, he for som^ time sold literature at the Hall of Science and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in business for himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82 he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83, after a good defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment, and on Mr. Footo's release acted as printer of the paper. Ranc (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831, and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second Empire and was im- prisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He coTlaborated on La Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in 71, and Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other political works. Randello (Cosimo), Italia author of The Simple Story of a Great Fraud, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882. Rapisardi (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has translated Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The Last Prayer of Pius IX., '71, etc. Raspail (Francois Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras 24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the Church. He became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815 — 24 gave lessons, and after- wards became a scientific lecturer. He took part in the Revo- lution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of Honor but li3 refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks 270 1 RAU he was frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat on the extreme left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878. Rau (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied theology and became preacher to free con- gregations in Stuttgart and Mannheim. He wrote Gospel of Nature^ A Catechism of the Religion of the Future, and other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876. Rawson ("Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author, b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and art, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He has published many maps and typographical and philological works, and illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on the Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of Palestine, Lon- don, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine, maintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel is non- historical. Raynal (Guillaume Thomas Francois) Vahbe, French his- torian and philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris, 1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With the assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies (4 vols. 1770 and 1780"), a work full of reflections on the religious and political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, wag censured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parlia- ment 29 May, 1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near Paris, 6 March, 1796. Reade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland, 26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart of Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, 63, 1 he African Sketch Book, and in '73, The Stonj of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied as Times correspondent. In the Martrydom of Man ('72), he rejects the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions and is still worth reading. He also wvote Liherty lla'lyH novel, (jO;'lhe 271 REB Veil of IsU, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his last work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death ■upon him. Died 24 April, 1875. Reber (George), American author of Ihe Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the frauds and follies of the early fathers. Reclus (Jean Jacques Elisee), French geographer and eocialist, the son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la- Grande (Gironde), 15 March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at Berlin. He early dis- tinguished himself by his love for liberty, and left France after the coup cVetat of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57 in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself to studying the social and political as well as physical condition of the countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du monde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the North during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was taken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent men in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted to banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris, and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal Geography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface to Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works. Reddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birming- ham, Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself, and issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by Francis Neale, H. V- Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875. Reghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics, b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an able exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an Examination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the troubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at Brussels Aug. 1853. 272 REG Regnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante (Nievre), 20 March, 1836, author of Esmis d'Histoire et de Critique Scientijiqiie (Paris, '65) — a work for which he could find no publisher, and had to issue himself — in which he proclaimed scientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet and Clemenceau, the Bevue Encyclopediqne, which being suppressed on its first number, he started La Libre Pensee with Asseline, Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes a condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote Neiv Researches on Cerebral Congestion^ '68, and was one of the French delegates to the anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of political science, dated Londres, 78; a Histonj of England since 18l5; and has translated Biichner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate to the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85. Regnard (Jean Francois), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709. Regnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21 Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclina- tion for its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained a canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22 Oct. 1613. Reich (Eduard) Dr., Grerman physician and anthropologist of Sclav descent on his father's side, b. Olmiitz, 6 March 1839. He studied at Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides editing the Athenamm of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain, '83. Of his works we mentio:: Man and the Soid, '72 ; The Church of Humanity, 74 ; Life of Man as an Individual, '81 ; History of the Soul, '84 ; The Emancipation of Women, 84. Reil ( Johann Christian), German physician, b. Eauden, East Friesland, 20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine ; after practising some years in his native 273 s REI town he went in 1787 to Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin University. He wrote many- medical worke, and much advanced medical science, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the accusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle he was attacked b}^ the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813. Reimams (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Ham- burg, 22 Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England ; and was appointed rector of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on The Principle Jruths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the Wolfenbiiltel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg, 1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862. Reitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant ehurch. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker of a Freethought congrega- tion at Washington for seven years. Is now editor of Der Arme Tciifd of Detroit, and says he " shall be a poor man and a Revolutionaire all ray life." Remshurg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848^ Has written a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker^ False Claims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking Thomas Paine, and a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes and vices sanctioned by scripture, '85 , Renan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Treguier (Brittany) 27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to study. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his studies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48 he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages, after- wards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he pub- 274 EEN lished his work on Averroes and Averroi'sm. In '56 was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 Bent on a mission to Syria ; having in the meantime published a translation of Joh and Song of Songs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In '61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of France, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his chair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain to attack him personally as a " French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus is part of a comprehensive Histonj of the Origin ofCkrisli- anity, in 8 vols., '63—83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti- Christ, The Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end of the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on Religious History ('58^. Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments {'76), Spinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture on the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '8i ; New Studies of Religious Histor7j,'8'i ; The Abbess ofJouarre, a drama which made a great sensation in '86; and 2 he History of the People oflsj-ael, '87 — 89. Renand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelk Symbolique, on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, pub- lished at Brussels in 1861. Rengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and free- thought friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879. Renard (Georges), French professor of the Academic of Lausanne; author of Man, /v he Frcef 1881, and a Life of Volta/ire, '83. Renoxvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Mont- pellier, 1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among his works are Manual of Ancient Philo- sophy (2 vols., '44) ; Republican Manual, '48 ; Essays of General Criticism, '54 ; Science of Morals, '69 ; a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78 ; and A Sketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85. Renton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in Germany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The Logic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological estimate of that hero, '76, 275 RET Has since published a romance of the last generation called Bishupupool, '83. Rethore (Frangois), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac, or Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's Classification of Sciences. Reuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12 Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and Natural Science, '71, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875. Revillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy, b. Saint-Laurent-les Macon (Ain), 29 Dec. 183 2. At first a lawyer in '57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and published many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy. Rey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed all the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's, and conducted the Journal des Savans. Reynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathema- tician, b. Paris, 12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He was teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1841. Reynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For a time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the Enryclope'die Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly of '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great success. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at Perigueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863. Reynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher, but was converted to Freethought. He was pro se- cuted for blasphemy at Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20,. 1887, and was defended by Col. Ingersoll The verdict was. one of guilty, and the sentence was a paltry fine of 25 dollars Has written in the Boston Investigator, Truthseeker, and Ironc lad Age. 276 KEY Reynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many novels. Wrote Errors of the Christwii Religion^ 1832. Eialle (J. Gieard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He wrote in La Peme'e Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Lin- quistique et de Philologie comparee, and has written on Comparcu tive Mythology, dealing with fetishism, etc., 78, and works on Ethnology. Ribelt (Leonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several political works and collaborator on La Morale Indtptndante . Ribeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot) 1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat ; edited the Emancipation of T oulouse, and La Reforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo, he shared in his exile at Jersey, Died at Rio- Janeiro, 13 June, 1861. Ribot (Theodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Cotes du-Nord) 1839 ; has written Contemporai~y English Psychuhgy *70, a resume of the views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology he has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; 2^he Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '7 i; The miladies of Memory, personality and Will, 3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue Philosophique. Ricciardi (Guiseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte (Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of Camaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In '32 he founded at Naples // Progresso, a review of science, literature, and art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned eight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he wrote in the Revue Independante, pointing out that the Papacy from its very essence was incompatible with libert3\ Elected deputy to the Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History of the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris *49). Condemned to death in '53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from 1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the Eucumenical Council he 277 RIC called an Anti-eouncil of Freethinkers at Naples, '69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend Mauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884. Richepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b* Medeah (Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the Franco-Grerman war took to journalism. In '76 he pnhliBhed the Song of the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphemes, which has gone through several editions. Richer (Leon), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. Ho was with A. Gueroult editor of VOpinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and edits VAvenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker to a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the emancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the Women's Rights congresses he Id in Paris. Rickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he also published an excellent portral t painted by Romney and engraved by Stiarpe. Riem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the Academy of Paintin g. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklarinj. Died 1807. Ritter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has tr iQslated into French Strauss's Essay of Religious History, Gkorge Eliot's Fragments and Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian B lur and the Tdhingen School. SjRoalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edin- burgh to uphold the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a manifesto setting forth her determina- tion to sell works she deemed useful " whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy Scriptures and the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The Ageof Reison, Ihe 278 ROB Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention of continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to two months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation con- tinued the sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880. Robert (Pierre Frangois Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of Brissot and Danton, b. Giranee (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up to the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Repuhlicanism adapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the death of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Recohitions de Paris. Died at Brussels 1826. Robertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New York, 1835. Robertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He became journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on the National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt Whitman in the "Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method, '89, and has con- tributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on Mithraism, March, '89, The Wtstminster Review, etc. He has also issued pamphlets on Socialism and Malthusiasm. and Toryism and Bar- barism, '85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion '89. Roberty (Eugene de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth, b. Podolia (Russia), 1843 ; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81, and 'Ihe Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of philosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled The Unknowable, '89. Robin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator mem- ber of the Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b Jasseron C^ix), 4 June, 1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littre he refounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many important medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was struck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God, and it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same year 279 liOB he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He has been decorated with tne Legion of Honor. Robinet (Jean Baptiste Eene), French philosopher, b. Eennes, 23 June, 1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish his curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint and to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the Secret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took part in the Recucil Philosopliique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died at Rennes, 24 March, 1820. Robinet (Jean Eugene Francois), French physician and publicist, b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of his executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and Life of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65, The Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the " Bibliotheque Utile," vol. 66, '81. Boell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in 1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718. Rogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April, 1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend mass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in '65 was sentenced to five years' im- prisonment for writing Les Propos de Labienus (London, i.e. Ziirich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote some excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gavche. In '71 he assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but declined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself " Atheist." Is still living in Paris. Rokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the Vienese school in medicine, b. Koniggriitz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804. studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of Doctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy, '42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878. 280 ROL Eoland (Marie Jeanne), nie Phlipon, French patriot, b". Paris, 17 March, 1754. Fond of reading, PlatarcK's Lives influ- enced her greatly. At a convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their writings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist, and deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with Agnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Eoland de la Platiere (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies of her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre of a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her " the creature of Simplicity and Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and " the noblest of all living French- women." On the fall of her party she was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband, then in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself, 15 Nov. 1793. Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father, Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems, '84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883. Eomagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist, b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work on penal legislation. Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are borrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature He became Professor of Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy, he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In '21 he wrote Elements of Philosophij , followed by What is a Sound Mind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy , '32. A somewhat obscure writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology. Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse which excited some commotion among the theologians. Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the ^81 RON Convention in 1792. In Sept. 1793 he introduced the^new Republican Calendar, the plan of which was drawn byJLaland, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He advocated the Fetes of Eeason. Being condemned to death, he committed suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805. Ronge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischop- walde (Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau, and became a Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold preaching soon led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing tho worship of " the holy coat," exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves, made much clamor. Excom- municated by the Church, he found many free congregations^ but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took refuge in England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In '61 he returned to Frankfort, and in "73 settled at Darmstadt. Died at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887. Ronsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of Scotland. Eeturning to France, he was a great favorite at the French Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585. Roorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia (Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled about '64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed to the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland), 23 Oct. 1887. I • Roquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Eupescina, early French reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the Franciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprison- ment at Avignon 1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this has been disputed. Rose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light to Lighten the Gentile)^, 1881. Rose (Ernestine Louise) nee Siismond Potowsky, Eadica] refoi-mer and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Hei father was a Jewish Eabbi. From early life she was of a bold 282 EOS and inquiring disposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris during the Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she embraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here she mar- ried Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal viewg. In May '36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the Republic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system, the formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against slavery in the slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition to give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one of the inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses have been published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech at the Hartford Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to England where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public was at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in '76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face and head, and though aged and suffering, i-etains the utmost interest in the Freethought cause. Roskoff (Georg Gusiav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30 Aug. 1814. . He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written works on Hebrew Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth, '60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69. Ross (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844, Author of poems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The Agnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures published under the pen name of " Saladin." Rosseail (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the name of L. Russelli. He published separately the I emale Followers of Jesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Lihre Pensee, and was editor of VAthee, Died 1870. Rossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents, London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet artist he exhibited the richest 283 ROS gifts of orignality, earnestness, and splendour of expression. Died at Westgato on Sea, 9 April, 1882. Rossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College, he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being an edition of Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is Chairman of the Commitee of the Shelley Society. Rossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March, 1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many scientific works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among his writings are Man in the Mirror of NiUure. '-iQ — 55. The History of the Earthy '68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867. Roth ( Juliiis), Dr., German author of Religion and Priest- craft, Leipzig, 1869 ; Jesuitism, '71. Rothenbnecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook of Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884. Rotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in 1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his University in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal views. He was for- bidden by government to edit any paper and was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death, which occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World (9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views of history which had then appeared. Rousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June, 1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported himself. In 1715 he obtained a prize from the academy o^ Dijon for negative answer to the question " whether the re-establishment of the arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals." This success prompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music, the New Heloise (1759), a love stories in the form of letters, which had great 284 ROU success, and Einilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which he condemns other education than that of following nature. In this work occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar ^ discarding the supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament condemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled to Switzerland, Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and Rousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that he returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England in Jan, 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with Hume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on condition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his Confes^i.onf!, of which he had previously composed the first six books in England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent and eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his own life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died near Paris, 2 July, 1778. Rouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written several brochures and novels, notably Le Momie Renverse, 1872, and Ciet ca, ca etla, ideas upon moral philosophy and social progress. Writes in Malon's Revue Socia lisfe, and is one of the editors of Les Droits des Femmes. Roy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity, 1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, 'QQ. Has also translated Marx's Capital. Royer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830, of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our language and literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at Lausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared with Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In '62 she translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface and notes. In '64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work is on The Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian creed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites, '76 ; Two IJypothcse.< of Heredity '77 • 285 RUB The Good and the Moral Law, ^81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de Philosophie, Positive, Revue iVAnthropoloyie, etc., and has assisted and spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings. Ruedt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and "apostle of -unbelief," b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsiuhe, he studied philosophy, philology, and jurispru- dence at Heidelberg University, '65-69. Dr. Riidt became acquainted with Lassalle, and started a paper, Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for participation in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published. Ruelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of The History of Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69. Ruge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Riigen), 13 Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of the Tugenbuni was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in '30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the Hallische Jahrbiicher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he started Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the Extreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote New Germany in " Cabinet of Reason " series, and trans- lated Buckle's History of Civilisation. He acted as visiting iutor at Brighton, where he died 30 Dec. 1880. Ruggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Atmanachs in 1604, which he issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial. Rumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress, and The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg^ 1858). Edited Das Freire Wort (Basle, '56). Russell (John). See Amberley. S Ryall (Mai thus Questell), was secretary of the Anti- Persecution Union, 1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Orach of Reason und The Movement. Died 1846. 286 RYD Rydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Joukoping, 18 Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention Tlie Last Athenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have been translated into English. Rystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty upon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time, he was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511. Sabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about 1218 of noble family. About 1249 he cor- responded with Frederick II., replying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271. Sadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied the resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine of predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and punishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees. Saga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566. Saigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern Physics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics of Voltaire, '74. Died 1875. SaiUard (F.^, French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris, '69), and The Organisation of the Republic, '83. Sainte Beuve (Charles Augnstin), French critic and man of letters b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine, which he practised several years. A favor- able review of V. Hugo's Odes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As a critic he made his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal works are his History of Port Royal, '40 — 62; Literary Portraits, '32 — 39 ; and Causeries du Lundi, '51 — 57. In '45 he was elected to the Academy, and in '65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative, comprehensive, and impartial. Saint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de, French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Nor- 287 SAI rnandy), 1 April, 1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became major-general. He was confined in tlie Bastile for satirising Cardinal Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles II. He died in Lon- don, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God, he replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works, consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in 3 vols. 1705. Saint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about 1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant religion more freely ; was captain in the service of the States, and assisted on the Eotterdam Gazette. Heading Spinoza, he espoused his sj'stem, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into French, under the title of La Clef du Sanctiialre, 1678. This making much noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to Ceremonies Super stitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses d^un Esprit Besinteresse, 1678. Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer, b. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches, published at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire published his Diner Du Comte de Boidainvillitrs under the name of St. Hyacinthe. Saint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord. Saint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean Francois de), French writer, b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became a devoted adherent of Vol- taire and an admirer of Madame dn Chatelet. He wrote some articles in the Encyclopedic, and many fugitive pieces and poems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured him admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and Bolingbroke, and Le Catechisnie Uni- versel. His Philosophical Works were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803. Sale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated at Canterbury. He was one of a society which 288 SAL undertook to publish a Univerml History, and was. also one of the compilers of the General Dictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran, with a preliminary dis- course and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died 14 Nov. 1736. Salieres (A.), contributor to VAthee, 1870. Has written a work on Patriotism, 1881. Sallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent, b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the- army, he was imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he attended Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He wrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he takes New Testament texts- and expounds them pantheistically — the God who is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Eeichau (Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843. Salmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco, 1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist ; a deputy to the Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Eepublic of '73, He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Phil>sophy and Arts, '78, and his own works were issued in 1881. Salt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept 18B1 ; educated at Eton, where he bacame assistant master A contributor to Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on Shelley, and a Life of James Thomson, "B.V.^' 889. Saltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June 1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he published a sketch of Bulzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of Disenchnntment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer and Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of JSegntion, a sketchy account of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle, '86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His brother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of jDoems (Philadelphia, '73.) 28i^ T - v;.; SAN Salverte (Anne Joseph Eusebe Baconniere de), French philosopher, b. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. "Wrote Epistle to a Reasonable Woman, an Essay- on What should he Believed, 1793, contributed to Marechal's Diciionnairedes Athees, published an eloge on Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the Death of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm partisans of liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not be recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his work on Ihe Occidt Sciences, '29, which was translated into English, '46. To the French edition of '56 Littre wrote a Preface. He died 27 Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices. Sand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore DupiN, afterwards baroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and brought up by her grandmother at the Chateau de Nohant. Reading Rousseau and the philo- sophers divorced her from Catholicism. She remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom after some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her whole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of '48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated Mazzini's Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant, 8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was thought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better appreciation of her work and genius is making way. Sarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828) editor of Le XfXe. Siecle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerinal articles. *' Sarrasi," pseudonym of A. deC ; French Orientalist b. Department of Tarn, 1837, author of D Orient Devoile, '80, in which he shows the mythical elements in Christianity. SauU (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote 290 SAU on the connection between astronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in Kensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington. Saunderson (Nicholas), English mathematican, b. Thurleston (Yorkshire), 2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when but a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge University, explaining New- ton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said, " They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put in Saunder- son, who believes in no God at all." Saunderson said that to believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739. Sauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of the editors of UOpinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and Education ('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instruc- tions of the Jesuits ('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious Congregations Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died at Paris in 1883. SaviUe (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman, b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign of James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test Acts. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious account of his opinions, which he probably tones down. SawteUe (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of Ignorar.ce, or the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself, Salem, Oregon, 1868. Sbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838; studied jurisprudence. He published a work on Ihe Philosophy of Research^ '66. In '70 he dedicated to Mauro M.q.gq\i\ di. hook on T he Task f the Nineteenth Century^ 3,nd pre- sided at a congress of Freethinkers held at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino to Mazzini, '86. Schade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was impri- 291 SCH soned for his opinions on the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775, where he died in 1795. Scherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April, 1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva, but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants, and in the Revue de Jheologie et de Philosophic Chretienne, '50-60, put forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also wrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Dcux-Mondes. Some of his articles have been collected as Melanges de Critique Religieuse, '60 ; and Mdanges d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in '71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left, Died 1889. Scherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3 Oct, 1817. Educated at Ziirich and Tiibingen, he wrote in '43 with his brother Thomas a Popular ffistorg of Religions and Philosophical Ideas^ and in '57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became Professor of History and Literature :it Ziirich, and has written many able literary studies, includ- ing histories of German and English literature. Died at Ziirich, 21 Nov. 1887. Schiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Berne, '54-63 ; of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has written many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as materialistic Schiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and historian, b. Marbech, 10 Xov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems, a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805. Schmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has illustrated its application in manv direc-» 292 L SCH tions, and published an able work on Jhe Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the " International Scientific Series." Died atStrasburg, 17 Jan. 1886. Schmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth, 25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Konigsberg, first theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of " Max Stirner " he wrote a system of individualism The Only One, < nd His Possession (Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of Reaction in two parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth of Nations and Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin, 25 June, 1856. Schneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has written some popular novels under the name of " Arthur Storch," and was one of the founders of the German Freethinkers' Union. Schoelcher Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July 1801 While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel Vaidern, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about '26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works on the subject. On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the Navy, and caused a decree te be issued by the Provisional Government enfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for Martinique *48 and '49. After 2 Dec '51, he came to London, where he wrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned to France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In '71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected a life senator. SchoU (Aurelien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He began life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune, etc., and writes on VEvenement. Has written several novels, and le Procts de Jesus Christ, '77. SchoU (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free reli- gious bodies of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became a minister '44, but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His first important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg, '52), and in '61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection of extracts from French, 293 SCH English, and American Freethinkers. In '70 he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, ^^■ Werde Lichtl which continued for many years. Has published many dis- courses, and written Truth, from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Reliyion of Humanitij , '79. Schopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b* Danzig, 22 Feb. 1788. The sou of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied at Gottingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of the East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to obtain pupils at Berlin, lie took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815 he wrote his chief work, T-he World as ir«7Za«(/if/ea, translated into English in '83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is the one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground Problems of Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection of essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena (51). Died at Frankfort, 21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of every form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms ; they require darkness to shine in. Schroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover* 4 June, 1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free- religious communion in '45. In '50, he went to America* living since '53 in Sauk City, and frequently lecturing there* In '81, he attended the International Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor to the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888. Schroot (A), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865), Natural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life (Hamburg, 1873). Schnenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Ham- burg, 3 April, 1826. He joined the " Freie Gemeinde," and was expelled from Prussia in 48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part in democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason, but acquitted. In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing tours over the States settling at San Francisco. Schultze (Karl August, Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May, 1846, studied at Jena, Gottingen and Miinich,ha8 294 SCO written an able study on Fetishism, Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Eeligion in German Schools, '72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant and Darwin, '75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in Jena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80, Philosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of Spiritualism f 1883. Schumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8 July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He started a musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His lyrical compositions are unsur- passed, and he also composed a *' profane " oratorio. Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions are illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856. Schweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Konigsberg, 12 July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking part in the events of '48, after the reaction he went to Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life, also a Life of Auerhach. He wrote the preface to Bulk's hrgang des Lehen's Jesu, 1884. Schweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort, 12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidel- berg ; became after Lassalle's death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was sent to Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity, '62, The Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875. Scot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Dis- coverie of Witchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished in 1886. Scot died in 1599. Scott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X, of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among the clergy and cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount Pleasant, Rams- gate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds, F. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which were given away. He issued a challenge to the 295 SEA Christian Evidence Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox. Ihe E7iglis-h Life of Jesus 71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little known outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should secure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878. Seaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25 Aug. 1810. In '37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investuialor, and during Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which he continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been publislied with the title Occasional Thou^/hts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he helped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of all Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration was delivered by Colonel Ingersoll. Sebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseu- donym of "Dr. Fabricus," published God, Man, and his latter end^ a medico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters Jrom a Materialist to Mgr. Dufjanloupj 1868-9. Sechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863, published Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The work made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into French by Victor Derely, and published in '84 with an introduction by M. G. Wyrouboff. Secondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu. Seeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters b. London, 1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he graduated in '57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in London University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the Life and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord Shaftes- bury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of hell. In '69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and has since written some important historical works as well as Natural Religion ('82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society. 296 SEG Segond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, ^author of a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of several medical works. Seidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah, and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He wrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Fo undatiims of the Christian Religion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament in the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter. Sellon (Edward), English archaeologist, author of The Mono- lithic Temples of India ; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus, 1865, and other scarce works, privately printed. Semerie (Eugene), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67 published a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which he maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetish- ism. This work was denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply to M. Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon and director of the ambu- lance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited the Politique Positive, .and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73, and The Law of the Three States, '75. Died at (irasse. May, 1884. Semler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical criticism there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New Testament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791. Serafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism ^or Female Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce (Salerno, '73). Serveto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, •Spanish martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject of the Trinity, against which he 297 SEU wrote De Trinitatis Errorihas and Christ la niwii Rcslit'itio^ which excited the hatred of both Catholics and Protestants. To- Calvin Servetiis sent a copy of his last work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic authorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to Naples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of Calvin,, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,. 26 Oct. 1553. Seume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissen- fels, 29 Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian, but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an adventurous life, travelled extensively,, and wrote Promenade to Syracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810. Sextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and phy- sician, who probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era He left two works, one a summary of the doc- trines of the sceptics in three books ; the other an attack on all positive philosophy'. Shadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk, 1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe>- Shadwell's plays are not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles 11. Died 6 Dec. 1692. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Coopkk), third Earl, b. London, 26 Feb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was- elected M.P. for Poole, and proposed granting counsel to pri- soners in case of treason. His health suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets occa- sioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed^ by his Moralists and Sen.sns Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples, where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under the title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions, and did much to raise the. character of English Deism. Shakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists, b. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his life are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to- London, where he became an actor and produced his marvellous- 298 SHA plays, the eternal honor of English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and retired to his native town^ where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas warrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green says^ " Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life and death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the common theological solutions around him." His compre- hensive mind disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in what the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religien of Shakes- peare, sustains the position that he was an Atheist. Shaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec» 1841. Brought up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army, took part in some battles, and was- wounded. He afterwards entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March, '83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he publishes bold Freethoughc articles. He rejects all superna- turalism, and has written The Bible, What Is It ? Studies in Theology, The Bible Against Itself, etc. SheUey (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4 Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag^ he went to Oxford. Here he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he was expelled the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley, also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and met Miss West- brook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children had been born, they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,^ but, in March, '17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter to Lord Ellenhorough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30 Dec. '16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wools tonecraft. In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him, he left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron, composed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,. 299 SIC Epipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty, the glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia, 8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Free- thought. Trelawny, who knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last. Siciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina, 19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophi/, Socialism, Darwinism, and Modern Sociology, '79 ; and Modern Psychogeny, with a preface by J. Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85. Sidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament, and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained abroad till 1677, but being im- plicated in the Rye House Plot, was condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678. Sierebois (P.) See Boissiere. Siffle (Alexander Francois), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May, 1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He wrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed to de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg, 7 Oct. 1872. Sigward (M.),b.St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris '89, and is one of the editors of Le Danton. Simcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argu- ment in the Fortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature " H. Lawrenny." Simon de Tournai a Professor at Paris University early in the Xlllth centur3^ He said that " Three seducers," Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, " have mystified mankind with their doctrines." He was said to have been punished by God for his impiety. Simon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May, 1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished himself by bold erudition. His Critical His- tory of the Old lestament, 1678, was suppressed by Parliament. 300 SIM He followed it with a Critical History of tho New 'le t'imenf,\x\\\Q,h was also condemned. Died at Dieppe, 11 April, 1712. Simonis. — A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio^ published at Cracow, 1588. Simpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put forward a Refutation of the Arg anient a priori for the being and attributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the signature " Antitheos." Died about 1844. Sjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo f Finland), live& near Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures at Stockholm. Skinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was credited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, pub- lished by Carlile in 1819 Slater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-opera- tion. He was on the Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester. Slenker (Elmina), nee Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents, 23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work. Studying the Bible, afterwards published at Boston, '70 ; she conducts the Children's Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed to most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way ('78), Mary Jones, The In/idel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79), Free- thought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia. Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799, graduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850, but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family, he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion, originally a Presby- terian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote The Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology, '67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874. Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm, 8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays 301 soc his Freethought in his poems published under the name of ** Sventrost." Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b Siena, 5 Dec 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562), and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he ■went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3 March, 1604. Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from ^57, and was a distinguished Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874. Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the Truthseeker. Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12tl\ Duke oJ\ Td. 20 Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married 2. daughter of Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, "'34-35, and was Lord of the Treasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In 72 he startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy entitled Christian Iheology ■and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885. Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842- In '65 he became librarian at the Bibliotheque Rationale. He has contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes^ Revue Nouvelle and other journals, and has published important works on The Bible and Archeology, '72 : Historical Studies on Religions, '77 ; Essays of Religious Criticism, '78 ; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated into English, together with an essay on '^Ihe Religion of Israel from his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new direction in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary of the History of Materialism, '80 ; Naturalist Theories of the World and of Life in Antiquity, '81 ; Natural Philosophy, '82 ; Contempo- rary Psychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary History of the Old Jestament, '73 ; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution, '79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84. 302 sou Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He Served with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social missionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol, for an article in which on " The Jew Book ' lie was tried for blasphemy 14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in England and Scotland ; wrote Christianitij Proved Idolatry^ '44 ; Apology for Atheism^ '46 : Difficulties of Christianity, '48 : Super- stition Unveiled; llie Impossibility of Atheism^ which he held on the ground that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer to G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45, Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860. Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of his opinions. Sozzini See Socinus, Spaink (Pierre Francois), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862, and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen names **A. Th Eist." and "F.R.S.' Has translated Eomanes' Scientific Evidences of Organic Evo- lution, Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza. Hegel, etc. Died 1888. Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July, 1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular History of the Worlds Development, which has gone through several editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers' Union. Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chap- man met Mill, Lewes and " George Eliot."' His first important 303 SPI work was Social Statistics^ ^51. Four years later appeared hit? Principles of Psychology^ which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology, '64 : Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form part of his " Synthetic Philosophy "' in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the phe- nomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work onEducation '61 ;. Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals, '71 ; The Sttit/y of Sociology, '72 ; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86, an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against Socialism ; The Coming Slavery, '84 ; and Man and the Slate, '85,. and has contributed many articles to the best reviews Spinosa (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the- study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of hi& doubts, was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656» About the same time he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic's- dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until his deaMi. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Jheologico- politicus, which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was gentle and self- denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and a blas- phemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist, Spinosa is now generally recognised as among- the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb. 1677. His Ethia^ was published with his Ope7-a Posthiuna. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address from M. Penan. Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.),. 19 Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was .4 Deist's Reply to the albged' Supernatural Evidences of Christianity . He started letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecu- tions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor or Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887. Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli. Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The 304 STA Religion of Action^ translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to England, went to America, Aug. '54. Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855, was for some years chorister at a Eitualistic Church, but discarded theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid sec, was auditor and sub- sequently vice-president. Started Republican Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican , and in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Pro- gress, Oar Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker. Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in which he criticises preceding religions. Stanton (Elizabeth, nee Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American Review notably on " Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885. Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of Chris- tianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869. Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in the " International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family, in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach. Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerini (0.) 305 u STE Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In '59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was sup- pressed by the Aiistrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of Freethinkers and the organ 11 Libera Pensiero^ in which he wrote A critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately 2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philo- sophical Dictionary, '73-75 ; and wrote several romances as Vlnfcrno, The Red and Blade of Rome, etc. He translated Biichner's Force and Matter. Morin's Jesus reduit. La Mettrie's Man-machine. Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions, and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion. Steinbart fGotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Ziillichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof, of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy, '78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809. Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Grobzig, 16 May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology. Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work, Pilatus liberatoris Jesu suhsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674. " Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.) Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Eev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted Essays hy a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity , '73, and some valuable legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87. Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of pre- ceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge, where he graduated M.A., '57. He married a daughter of 306 STE Thackeray, and became editor of the CornhiU Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written an important History of English Thotight in the Eighteenth Century, '76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and 2he Science of Ethics, '82, besides many literary works. Stern (J)., Rahhiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Eabbi of the town. In '58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected in his first book, Gottesfamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Rdigion and Positivism, and Is the Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism. " Sterne (Oarus) " ; pseud. See Krause (E). Stevens(E. A.),of Chicago,late secretary of American Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and con- tributor to the American Freethought journals. Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London, 20 Feb. 1822. " Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar). Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the- Oder. In 1002 he published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German Spi- nozists, and says ''Stosch curtly denies not only the imma- teriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704. 807 ■ STO Stout ('^^ Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In '67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the . General Assembly in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been Minister of Education of the Colony. Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to bring the prisoner " to Jesus." He professed himself influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71 ; The Speaker'' s Commentary Reviewed, '71 ; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74 ; ^Ihe Legends of the Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity , '75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884. Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tiibengen, was ordained in '30, and in '32 became assistant- teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated, '35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the Ziirich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines (2 vols.), '40 In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the ISew, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant 308 STR of truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874. Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian Eousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent rationalistic works, as TJie Bed Chamber and Marriage. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists in Sweden. Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887. Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558, and being exhorted by the Due de Guiso to think of Jesus, he calmly declared himself an Atheist. Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besancon, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He vfvoiQ Miscellanies of Literature, Qic. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817. Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugene), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857. Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859). Sully Prudhomme (Rene Francois Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of the Academy, His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion. Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slave rv move- 309 SUT ments. He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years pre- ceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, '47 ; Book of Human Nature^ '53, and Ideology^ 3 vols., '86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885. Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels. Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Qulnquenergia ; or. Proposals for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion. Swilll)urne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon^ a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconven- tional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In \\m Songs before Sunrise, l^ll, he glorifies Freethought and Eepublicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melo- dious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies. Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesle3^an College, Richmond, and in '67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin^ Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My Religion, '84 ; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc. Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in '62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in 310 TAI iiaZ?/, 7 vols., completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.O.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April. 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Oondorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In '56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Centuri^, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature ; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote on English Positiinsm, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made him D.O.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy ; his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France. Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in the National Pi^eformer, Eeturned to Paris in '70 and became professor at the Lycee Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais and has written in Oar Corner on that grea Freethinker. Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife She wrote The Pessimists and their Opponeiits, 1873. Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866. Taurellus (NicolausJ, German physician and philosopher, b. Montbehard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tiibingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how the Aristotlelian doctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which is Philosophisi Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606. 311 TAY Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton 18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomases Hospital, and became M R.O.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started " The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and started " The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with discussion ; also edited the PhiU. alethian. In '27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work. The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contri- buted a weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on " an infidel mission " about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in The DeviVs Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844. Taylor (Thomas), known as " The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835. Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing's Nathan 312 TCH the Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms, 1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religious views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who ivas theFather of Jesus Christ"? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ- Also wrote largely in the Monthly Preview, replying therein to the Abbe Barruel ; and the Critical Review when edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836. Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky. " Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo, '13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to " Joseph Webb," 1735-87 ; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America ; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same person. Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philo- sophy. He wrote in Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed the Aristotleian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590. Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618. Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Stoi'ia di Gesu di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son of Guiseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi. Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have 313 THE inspired Lessing's work on Ihe Education of the Human Race Died 28 Oct. 1828. Theodorus of Gyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished fer Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312 b.c. When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air. Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satijriques^ he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Due de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626. Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on 7he Problem of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Xineteenth Century Club. Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden ; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritcinkaren. Thomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he afterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including his famous " City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with other poems in '80). *' Vane's Story " with other poems was issued in '81, and "A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed in '84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a volume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes " The Story of a Famous Old Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed much of his genius in the service of Free- thought. Died 3 June, 1882. 314 THO Thomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The Distribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women^ "'25 ; Labor Reivard, '27, and in the Co-operative Magazine. Thorild (Thomas), or Thoben, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslan, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In 1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political Tvork was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a Sermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated. Thulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthro- pologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, ^'Realism." In '66 he published a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensee Noavelle, defending the views of Biichner. He has written an able study. La Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of the Paris Municipal Council. Tiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has written many articles on comparative reli- gion, and two of his works have been translated into English, viz.. Outlines of the History of Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88 ; and Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82. THlier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, 11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, of which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat. Tindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Church- man, he was induced to turn Romanist in the reign of 315 TOL James II., but returned to Protestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work was much attacked by the clerg3^, who even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London. Toland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and became the cor- respondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious, which was " presented '' by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, Sept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning Eikon Basilike, he referred to the " sup- positious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons." For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackball before Parliament. He replied with Aniytor, in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters to Serena (1704), which, says Lange, " handles the kernel of the whole question of Materialism." In 1709 he pub- lished Adeisidsenon and Orifjines Judaic8s. InlllSNazarenuSyOV Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he a gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote i B four pieces entitled Jetradymus and Pantheisticon ,^h.\c\i described ' a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly. Tollemache {Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron (s Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles in Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) ; as Stones of StumhUng, '84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84 ; ^ Recollections of Pallison, '85; and Mr. Ro7nanes's Catechism, '87. j. 316 TOX Tone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, 1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken prisoner and committed I suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798. [ Topinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle- Adam I L830. Editor of the Revae cV AnlhropoLgie, and author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science. Toulmin (Greorge Hoggart), M.D., of "Wolverhampton. Author of The Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825. Tournai (Simon de). See Simon. Traina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics ofHerhert Spencer, Turin, 1881. Travis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and literary executor to Robert Owen. In '51 — 53 he edited Robert Owen's Journal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral Freedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed to the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884. Trelawny (Edward John),b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son^ '31 ; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him " World-wide liberty's lifelong lover." Trenchard. (John), English Deist and political writer, b. ■Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and twas appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. Iln conjunction with Gordon he wrote Cato\s Letters on civil and 317 TRE religious liberty, and conducted Ihe Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as MP. for Taunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but La Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723. Trevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B , a writer in the Reasoner and National Reformer. Published 2 /^e Insanity of Mankind (Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878. Trezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a Sceptic, '78 ; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To the first num- ber of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les Dieiix s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84 ; and a Monk on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87. Tridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents- who were rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in Le Journal des Ecoles,hm remarkable study of revolutionary history Les Hehertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide, the precursor of La Libre Pensee^ »66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International Students Congress at Liege his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop Dupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in Le Candide and La Libre Pensee, and in Ste Pelagic contracted the malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies of the Jewish religion^ only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70, he founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected depnty to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration of peace He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after 318 TRU the collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium. Truebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884. Truelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was secretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw in his lot with the New Harmony Com- munity, Hampshire. In '52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He published Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances^ Paine's complete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma and Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on Tyrannicide , by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In '78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment for publishing R. D. Owen's il/ora? Physiology. Upon his release he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns. Trumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists, Tschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708. Tucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April, 1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston. Turbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1642, author of a work on Spinoza and the transformation of his Jhoughts, 1875. Tnrgeuev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels. Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil 319 TUK lie has depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883. Turner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of William Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows him- self an Atheist. Tuuk (Tilia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the editors of Be Dageraad. Twesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Krcl, 22 April, 1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870. Tylor (Edward Burnet), D.CL., F.R.S., English anthropo- logist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study of the races of mankind, and is the first lining authority upon the subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61; Researches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Cidture; being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation, '81 ; and contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of the Anthropological Society. Tyndall (John),LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlo w, 1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he has 320 UEB published popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions. Tyrell (Henry). See Church. Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of "Jacques Masse" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Eeimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle. Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826 ; studied at Gottingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Konigsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying " He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist." Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Kothen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was sus- pended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magde- burg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and published in America. Died at Madgeburg, 23 March, 1872, Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Ndtur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876. Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61. was wounded and held prisoner in Eichmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court Sit Chicago. He has had numerous debates ; those with the Eev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Ivfuence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of Freethought, New York, 1876. Vacherot (Btienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philo- 321 V VAC sophy at the Sorboime. For his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols, crowned by the Institute, '46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and ai the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy, '64, and La Religion '69. Vacquerie (Auguate), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director of Le Rappel. Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Yierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris. Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes, 1677 : imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity. Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism; its Source arid Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Lift of Paine, '41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866. Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas." VaHa fLorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Yalla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457. Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He irrote La Beatitude des Chrestiens on le Fleo de la Foy, for which ke was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de GreVe, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574. Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History of Gods (Leip., 1815) ; The Eternity of the World, '75^ Catechism of Human Duty, '76, etc. 322 VAN Van Cauberg (Adolplie), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Free- thinkers. Died 1886. Van Effen. See Effen. Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius C^sar), Italian philo- sopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otrauto), 1585. At Eome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order^ and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 ho visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of MortaU. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of if/^ior?/ of France binder Louis XIII., writes " I saw him in the tumbril a they led him to execution, mocking tlie Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. ^ He sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.' " Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberie d". Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal,but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in '73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature, 1883-85. Varnhagen von Ense (Karl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Eussian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex, von Humboldt, and shared his 323 VAU Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary. Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis ; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, foUoived hy Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770. Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin His w^orks, De Officio Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a tine. Died 1685. Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der AUgeist, 1874, and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic. Vereschagin (Tasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842 He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo- Turkish war, and has travelled widely- The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows his free opinions. Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advo- cate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. AVith Gensonne and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said : " Reason thinks, Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them. Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, 324 VER La Libre Pense'e, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme Being. Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Lihre-Penseur- (Paris, 1869) ; collaborated La Libre Pensee, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup's Atheisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisnie et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment. Vermersch (Eugene), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers. Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published Melanges de Critique Rcligieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele. Veron (Eugene), French writer and publicist, b. Paries 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, founded ia France Republicaine at Lyons, and VArt at Paris. Besides historical works he has written VEsthetique in the " Library of Contem- porary Science," '78; The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliotheque Materialiste, '84 ; and La Morale, '84. Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800 came to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siecle. In '41 he founded the Revue Independante with " George Sand," and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen, '71. Died 1883. Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations. 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743. Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Ponnerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his reputation. He was chosen 325 VIS deputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution. Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigs- burg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of and is Jahrhiicher der G^e<7e«w^arf, '44,was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In '5.5 he became Professor at Ziirich. His work on uEsihctic, or the Science of the Beautiful, '46-54, is con- sidered classic. He has also written. Old and New, '81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887. Vitry (Guarin de") French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869. Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life — translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited ?i\%o De Levenshode, 1865, etc. Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. "Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (59-65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since '80 has been " sprecher " of Freethought associations and since '85 editor of the Neues Frdreligioses Sonntag>t-Blatt, at Magdenburg. In '88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, '89. Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune da Peuple, which he edited. Vogt (Karl), German scientist^b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the on of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and 326 VOL became acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters, Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland. Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg "29 — 32 ; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor '63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, *52 ; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and the first Christian Ages, '82, etc. Volney (Constantin Francois Chassebouf de). Count, French philosopher, b. Oraon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy land- lord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Pudns appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concor- dat, April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820. Voltaire (Frangois Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirioal pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Eohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His Lettres Philosophiques translated as " Letters on the English," 1732, 327 voo gave great offence to the clerg}" and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Chatelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778. Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to De Dageraad. Voamaer (Oarel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858 — 9) and Spectator (1860—73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at Montreaux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888. Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, York- shire, '61 — 71, and deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published . He has also issued Fragments from Reimaras, '79, edited The Langham Magazine and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc. Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed 328 WAG on account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887. Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his "Lohen- grin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois^ he was admitted to the Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice o the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year a.d. 200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives. Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to the Free- thinkers* Magazine. Walferdin (Frangois-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795* A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880. Walker (B.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True'? and What is Blasphemy f 1843. Walker (Edwin C), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play^ Valley Falls, Kansas. Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In '77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. Id '85 he was convicted for lecturing 329 WAL on Malthusiaiiism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union. Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University. Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington *nd became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled Dynamic Sociolo(jy. He has contributed the Popular Science Monthly. Ward {Mar}' A.), translator of AinieVs Journal^ and authoress of a popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888. Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an active part in Robert Owen's communistic experi- ment at New Harmony, Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a " time store " at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874. Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer,b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. He aftewards resided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been pub- lished. He now edits the Boston Investigator. Waters (Nathaniel Eamsey), American author of Rome v. ReoHin, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience. Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London to 3:^0 WAT Leeds. In Feb. '23 lie was arrested for selling Palmers Principles of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the Bepuhlican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment for selling 2he Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature, Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874. Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847. Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835 Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and .America, with Dr. Sexton, Eev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He wrote a portion of 2'he Freethinker'' s Text Book, and has published Christianity : its Origin, Nature and Inflnence ; The Teachings of Secularism com- pared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures. Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Con- ducts Watts's Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annued. Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol. 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the Rcasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the Natio7ial Reformer. He edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published several pamphlets, L^ogic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin oj Man,Is Man ImniortaU The Devil, Who ivere the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866. Watts (of Lewes, Sussex^, author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out. Webber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century wrote heretical works On the TemptcUion of Christ and The Seductij t' Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpasscu in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he 331 AVEB wrote The True Origin, Continuance and Destruction of Satan, Died in 1679. Weber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, 1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Gotlingen. He lived for a while in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20 ; Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany^ '26-28 ; and Demokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832. Weitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magde- burg, 1808. He was a leader of " Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just, and published at Ziirich llie Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote Humanity, As It Is and As It Shoidd Be. He emigrated to America, where he died 25 Jan. 1871. WeUhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May 1844, studied theology at Gottingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78, etc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Westbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike CO., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60, and has since written 2'he Bible : Whence and What f and Man : Whence and Whither ? In '88 Dr. West- brook was elected President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion. Westerman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856—68, an active co-operator on De Dageraad. Westra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, " De Dageraad." Wettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April, 1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine, 2 he Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union. White (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated 332 WHI in '53 ; travelled in Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The Warfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in the History of Civilisation, '85. Whitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Gi-ass, with its noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as " the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed." It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands at Seventy, This " good gray poet " has also written prose essays called Democratic Vietas and Specimen Days arid Collect. Wicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in '85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante Malin. Represented Swedeu at the Paris Conference of '89. Wieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the Gods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,20 Jan. 1813. His last words were " To be or not to be." Wiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on the Elements of Natural Laws, 1863. Wiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875). Wigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Gottingen, 10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870. 333 AVIG Wightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last person burnt for heresy in England. Wihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16 Jan. 1882. Wilbrandt (Adolf), German 'author, ^b. Eosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Holderlin, the poet of Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno, 1874, and also some novels. Wilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89. Wilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah an able Examination of Dr. Godwins Arguments for the Existence of God, published at Bradford, 1853. Williams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the con- nections. In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Moi-alify, which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816. Willis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after carne_ to London, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza, '70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. H© also wrote on The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age, and A Dialogue hy Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878. Wilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, 'author of Thoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.] Wirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingeheelde Chaos, 1710. Wislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 334 WIT 20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister, but in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the Light of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Ziirich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work. The Bible for Thinking Readers, was published at Leipsic in '63. Wittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739. Wixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the " Children's Corner '' in the Jruthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator. WoHliy (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to iwhieh he professes himself an Atheist. WoUstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began her literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She also wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke, and Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in childbirth. Wooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877; Career of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885. Woolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He published in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he be^an his Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailad in forcible, homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one 335 WRI years imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733. Wright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College, '26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti- Slavery Society, and edited the Abolitionist and Commomcealth. He was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator, the Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His funeral oration was delivered by Col. IngersoU. Wright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined Owen's experiment ; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette, and afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was published at New York in '29, in Avhich she boldly gives her Tiews on religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted in founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852. Wright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 16 Aug. 1870. Wright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the course of which she was continually interrupted. Wundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), 16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He ■tudied medicine at Tiibingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in '64, and has aince held chairs at Zurich aaid Leipsic. His principal works 336 YOK are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74 ; Manual of Human Physiology ; Logic, '83 ; Essays, '85 ; Ethik, '86. Wuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohen- stein, 1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828. Wyrouboff (Gr.), Count ; Eussian Positivist, who established the Revue de Philosophic Positive with Littre, and edited it with him from 1867—83. Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded the Bleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image. Ximines (Augustin Louis), Marquis ^, French writer, b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817. York (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the States. Yorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christi- anity, London, 1882. Youmans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N. Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the *' International Scientific Series," and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887. Zaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond). French scientific writer, b. La Creche, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74 ; Pre-historic Man, '78 ; Origin of Languages, '79 ; Ihe Great Apes, '81 ; Scientific Curiosities, '83. Zambrini (Francesco). Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted him- self to literature and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887. 337 X ZAR Zarco (Francisco). Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited El SigloXIX and La llastracion, in which he used the pen-name of " Fortun.*" He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the reactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869. Zeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Wurtem- berg), 22 Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tiibingen and Berlin, became professor at Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur ; gave up theology for philosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has written a memoir of Strauss, '74 ; Out- lines of the History of Greek Philosophy^ '83 ; Frederick, the Great as a Philosopher, '86 ; and other important works. Zijde (Karel van der). Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen he wrote The DeviVs Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam. Zimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England since '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahineh. Zola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April, 1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougoji Macquart, he made himself the leader of the " naturalist " school, which claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as it is without the ideal. Zorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de- Osma, 1834, became a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was prosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since been exiled for his Republicanism. Zouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh. Zuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June, 1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the demo- cratic movement of '48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal Law in the University of Pavia. 338 SUPPLEMENT. Jhose which have already appeared are marked * Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin. Abu Abd'allah Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of Empedocles and other Greek philosophers- Accused of impiety, he left Spain and travelled through the East. Eeturned to Spain and collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were publicly burned at Seville. * Acosta (Uriel), the name of his work was Examen TradL torum Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam. Acuna (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about 1854. Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The DoWs House, and other educational works. * Adams (Robert C), American Freethought writer and lecturer, the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written in Secular Thought the Iruihseeker and the Freethinkers'' Magazine, and published rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In '89 he was elected Presi- dent of the Canadian Secular Union. Admiraal (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede 13 Oct. 1833. At first a schoolmaster, he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at Schoonhoven. He wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over the anagram "Aramaldi.'' In '67 he published The Religion of the People under the pseudonym " Bato van der Maas," a name he used in writing to many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble constitution. He died 12 Nov. 1878. 339 AIR Airoldi (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829 ; a poet and writer of talent. Albaida (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis)j one of the founders of the Eepublican party. Was expelled for his principles ; returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869. * Alchindus. Died about 864. * Aleardi had better be deleted. T am now told he was a Christian. Alfarabi- See Alpharabius. Algeri (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil, pitch, and turpentine at Eome in 1566. Alkemade (A de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contri- buted to De Dageraad, and also published a work containing many Bible contradictions, 1862 ; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name '' Alexander de M.'' Allais (Denis de). See Vairasse. Allais (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847. Almquist (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist ; pro- fessor of philology at the University of CJpsala. An active defender of new ideas and Freethought. Altmeyer (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20 Jan. 1804. "Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History ofHnmamty, '36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877. Amari (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7 Jul}-, 1806. In '32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote a standard History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of Garibaldi, he was made head of public Instruction in the island. He took part in the anti- clerical council of '69. Died at Florence, July 1889. * Amaury de Chartres. According to L'Abbe Ladvocat his disciples maintained that the sacraments were useless, and that there was no other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell than ignorance and sin. 340 AND Anderson (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2 Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and was for some time editress of a periodical De livmtigste Eeuw (the twentieth century),. She has also written some novels. She resides now at Wurmburg, Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. Aspen-name she formerly used that of " Meirouw Quarles " and now " Dr. Al. Dondorf." * Anthero de Quental. This name would be better under Quental. Apono. See Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano. *Aqmla. Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of the Scriptures. Aranda (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman, b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclopasdists, and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister to France. He was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799. ArgUleres (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and after- wards a Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561—2, for having eight years previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle in Bresse. * Arnould (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist Revue and La Societe Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Liherte, in which many a battle for Freethought has been fought. Ascarate (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest Radical [parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of Krause. He has written Social Studies, Self-Govermnent and Monarchy, and other political works. Aszo y Del Rio (Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist, b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important works on various branches of science 341 AUB In his political works he advocated the abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814. * Auhert de Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza, which I have not been able to see. Auerbach (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extrac- tion, b. Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having previously published an historical romance on the same subject. Died Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882. * Aymon (Jean). La vie ct VEsprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye, 1719) was afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three Impostors. * Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this enfant ter- rihle of the German Aufklarung fill 120 volumes. * Bailey (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He sufiered much on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk erected a monument to his memory. * Bancel (Francis Desire). In his work Les Harangues de PExil,3 vols., 1863, his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in La Revue Critique. Barnaud (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphine. Lived during the latter half of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany, and to him is attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le Calnnet du Roy de France, which is largely directed against the clergy. Barreaux. See des Barreaux. Barth (Ferdinand)^ b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he attained reputation as orator to working men and took part in the revolution. When A^ienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich, where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought. Bartrina, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died in 1880. Bedingfield (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823, wrote in National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight/70. Died 14 Feb. 1876. 342 BER *BerigardTls (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578. *Bertilloil (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, Apil, '68, lie said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died 1883. * Berwick (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate. with the signature of " Presbyter Anglicanus." Blein (F.A.A.), Baron^ French author of Essais Philosophiques, Paris, 1843. Blum (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He took an active part in progressive political and religious movements, and published the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican party. He was one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna, and showed great bravery in the fights of the students with the troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848, * Blumenfield (J. C), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym. Bolin (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied at Helsingford, '52, and became Doctor of Philo- sophy in '66, and Professor in '73. He has written on the Free- dom of the Will, The Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland ; he has been repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical views on religious questions. Bolivar (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas. Boppe (Herman C), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A. Borsari (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator of Freethought. Bostrom (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4 Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866. Boucher (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was published at Avignon, 1884. 343 BOU Bourneville (Magloire Desir), French deputy and physician, b. Garancieres, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in 79 was appointed physician to the asylum of Bicetre. He was Municipal Councillor of Paris from "76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he was elected deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75 ; Hysteria in History, '76 ; and a dis- course on Etienne Dolet at the erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889. Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867; wrote in La Pensee Nouvelle, '68: is author of a large and able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has edited the posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870. * Bovio (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author of a dramatic piece, Cristo alla/esta di Purim, and of a History of Law in Italy. Signor Bovio delivered tlie address at unveiling the monument to Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889. Boyer. See Argens. *Bradlaugh (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to repeal the Blasphemy Laws. Braga (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a History of Portugese Literature. Is one of the Republican leaders. Branting (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. i860. Sentenced in '88 to three months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social Democraten. Braim (Eugen), Dr. See F. W. Ghillany. Braim (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised many of the Bible stories. Died 1860. Brewer (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school books, and compiled a Dictionary of Miracles^ 1884. Brismee (Desire), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor of Le Drapeau he underwent eighteen months' im- prisonment. The principle founder of Les Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that society, and his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards the history of Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of his Freethought 344 BRO orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888. * Brothier (Leon), Died about 1874. * Brown (G. W ) Dr. Brown's new work is published at Eockford, Illinois, and entitled Researches in Jewish History^ including the rise and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity. * Bruno (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and • that he died impenitent. Signer Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister of Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore his martyrdom with great fortitude. Buen (Odon de), Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, 'of Madrid, b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition From Christiania to Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the Paris Freethought Con- ference, 1889. Calderon (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits La Justicia. Has written several books on law. Calderon (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas. Calderon (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846; professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels in Central America, and written largely on geological subjects. Calvo (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A pronounced Republican and Freethinker . * Canestrini (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec 1835. Cassels (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of Supernatural Religion, a critical examinatiour of the worth of the Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three 79). Has written under his own name Eidolon and other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published A Reply io Dr. Lightfoot's Essays. 345 CAS Castro (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Free- thinker, and had a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years. Cavia (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of the Liberal of Madrid. * Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He sei-ved in the navy during the first China War, 1840-42. Pub- lished accounts of the siege of Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also " Eide over Rocky Mountains," which he accom- plished with great hardships in '50. Was private secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in '54-'58. Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861. Cornette (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in VAvenir of Brussels and the Revue Socialite^ he has published separate works on Freemasonry ^ 1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80 ; Frcethought Dariuinism, etc. Curros (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the Bishop of Santiago, of Gralicia, for his collection of poems entitled Airs of my Country, but he was acquitted by the jury. Czerski (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12 May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church, associated himself with Eonge, married, and was excommunicated. Has written several works against Eoman Catholicism, and is still living at Schneidemiikl-Posen . D'Ercole (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at variance both with reality and with themselves. Deschanel (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov, 1819. He wrote in the Revue Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Liberie de Penser ; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went 346 DES to Belgium. He has been Professor of Modern Literature at the College of France, and written many important works. Desnoiresterres (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters, h. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVIL and XVIII. Skcles, 1881, &nd Voltaire et la Societe Fran^aise au XVIII. Steele, an important work in eight vols. * Desraimes (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835. Diogenes (ApoUoinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived in the fifth century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at Athens through his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to the State. He held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced to nothing ; that the earth was round and had received its shape from whirling. He made no distinction between mind and matter. Donius (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work, Be Natura Bominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit, to motion. The title of his second book is ■*' Omnes operationes spiritus esse motum et semum." Dosamantes (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher ; author of works on Absolute Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees (mystics and materialists), '89. Druskowitz (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley, Berlin, '84 ; a little book on Ireewill, and The Neiv Boctrines, '83, Dufay (Henri), author of La Legcndedu Christ, 1880. Duller (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He wrote a History of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People (Frankfort, '47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853. *Du Marsais (Cesar Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anony- mous work on The World and its Antiquity and Ihe Soul and its Immortality, Londres, 1751. *Fellowes (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6 Feb. 1847. Figueras-y-Moracas (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator, b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon mani- fested Eepublican opinions. In '51 he was elected to the 347 FIT Cortes, was exiled in '66, but returned in '68. He fought the candidature of the Due de Montpensier in '69, and became President of the Spanish Eepublic 12 Feb. '73. Died poor in 1879, and was buried without religious ceremony, according to his wish. Fitzgerald (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge, Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in '30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the Quatrains of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883. Galletti (Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated Feuerbach on Death and Immortality^ and also translated from Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887. Ganeval (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author of a work on Egypt and Jesus d^vant Vhistoire na jamais vecu. The first part, published in '74, was prohibited in France^ and the second part was published at Geneva in '79. Garrido (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic, Cadiz 1843, a work on Contemporary Spain, pubtished at Brussels in '62, The Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious Persecutions, a work rendered into English in con- junction with C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884. Gerling (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist to an Idealist, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi contributes a preface. Geroult de Pival, French librarian at Rouen ; probably the author of Doutes sur la Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772. Goffin (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Liege and President of La Libre Pensee of Brussels, and one of the General Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23 May, 1884. Goldhawke (J. H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the greater number of personages mentioned in the Cld and New Testaments are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853. Gorani (Guiseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with Beccaria, D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism, published anonymously, 1770 ; defended the French 348 GOV Eevolution and was made a Freiich citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819. Govett (Frank), author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessi- mistic reply to Sir J. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life, Mr. Govett rejects the consolations of religion. Guimet (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist and philanthropist, b. Lj^ons, 2 June, 1836. the son of the inventor of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has visited most parts of the world and formed a collection of objects illustrating religions. These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he also founded a library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine museum which cost several million francs, he presented to his country, and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he began publishing Aimales du Muse'e Guimet, in which original articles appear on Oriental Eeligions. He has also written many works upon his travels. He attended the banquet in connection' with the International Congress of Freethinkers at Paris, 1889. Guynemer (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy, 1852, and an anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many points of theology are discussed in alphabetical order. Hamerling ^Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March, 1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Eome '66. The King of Sion ; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translated Leopardis' poems '86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, 1889. Heyse (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin, 15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many popular plays and romances, of we specially mention The Children of the World, '73, a novel describing social and religious life of Germany at the present day, and In Paradise. 1875. Hicks (L. E.) American geologist, author] of A Critique of Design Arguments. Boston, 1883. Hitchman (William), English physician, b. Northleach, 349 HOE Gloucestershire, 1819, became M^R.O.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangeriy BaTaria. He established Freelight, and wrote a pamphlet. Fifty Years o/Freethought. Died 1888. HoeflFding (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843, Has been professor since '83. Is absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on the newer philosophy in Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work special attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German editions have been published of his works Grundlage der humanen Ethik (Basis of Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umries (Outlines of Psychology '87). and Ethik 1888. Hoist (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish Society for Religious Liberty. Ignell (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought up as a priest, his free views gave gi-eat offence. He trans- lated Kenan's Life of Jesus, and did much to arouse opposi- tion to orthodox Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864. Jacobsen (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede, 7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia, translating the Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his novels we may name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII . century, and Niels Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This able young writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885. Kleist (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18 Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795, quitted it in four years and took to study, Kant's Philosophy made him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide together with a lady, near Potsdan, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly known by his dramas and a collection of tales. Letourneau (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray (Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pensee Nouvelle, and has published Physiology of the Passions, '68 ; Biology, '75, translated into English by W. Maccall ; Science and Materialism '79; Sociology based on Ethnography, '80; and the 350 LIF Evolution of Marriage and the Family, '85. He has also trans- lated Biichner's Man According to Science^ Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals^ Haeckel's History of Creation and, Letters of a 7 raveUer in India J a.nd'H.erT.en' 8 Physiology of the Will. Lippert (Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship, Bel-liny 1881; The Universal History of Priesthoods/ 83; and an important Culture History of Mankind, '86-7. Lloyd (William Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons, London 1865, in which he criticises Eafael and the New Testa- ment side by side. He has also written The Age of Pericles, and several works on Shakespeare. Lucian, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer, and torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance can be placed. On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has been supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that piece is genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth- loving, and an enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his account of Alexander, the false prophet. Maglia (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June, 1859, began writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards published V Union RepuUicana. He founded the Freethinking group " El Independiente " and edits El Clamor Setahense and El Pueblo Soberano. Was secretary for Spain at the Anti- clerical Congress at Rome in '85, and in '89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned to six years' imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas. disciples, whom he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averroes. Died Oct.— Nov. 931. His works were publicly burned at Seville. Mata (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University 351 MEN of Madrid. Author of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851 ; a Treatise on Human Reason, '58 — 64 ; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68. Mendizabal (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz, 1700. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid, 3 Nov. 1853. * Meredith (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Ponty- pool College, he became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the claims of Chris- tianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet of Nazareth he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels, but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889. Miralta (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer, b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one of the writers on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Me^noirs of a Poor Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament Exposed, His work on the 'ihe Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has greatly encouraged civil marriages. Moraita (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous History of Spain. In '84 he made a discourse at the University against the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his excommunication b}^ several bishops. He was supported by the students, against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the Spanish Free- masons. Moya (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power. Nakens (Jose), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of ^El Motin, a Republican and Freethought pap.er of 352 -^* NEE Madrid, in connection with which there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta — the Pick-axe. Nees von Esenbeck (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist, b. Odenwald. 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819. and Breslan, '3L He was leader of the free religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the political agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858. Nyblaus (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has l)ubli8hed some anti-Christian pamphlets. ,Offeii (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected with the Free Discussion Society. He wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848. Palmaer (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug, 1801. Author of Ihe Last Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died atLinkoping, 7 July, 1854. ' Panizza. (Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a materialist work on Jhe Piiilosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887. Perez Galdos (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b* Canary Islands lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention Gloria, which has been translated into English, {ind La Familia de Leon Roch, 1878, in whioh he stoutly attacks clericalism and religious intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales, and many historical novels. Regenbrecht (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. Brannsberg, 1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of the free religious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849. R^Aert (Roberto). Spanish anti-clericat satirist, b. 1817. Becqrae famous by his mordant style, his most celebrated wor^ being The Rogues of Antonio, The Times of Mari Casania, Ihe fudmmer of the Centuries. Died in 1870. ^3 Y M RUP Rupp (Julius), German reformer, b. Konigsberg, 13 Aug. 1809. Studied philosophy and theology, and became in '42 a minister. He protested against the creeds, and became leader of the Free-religious movement in East Prussia. Ryberg (Y. E.) Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct 1828. He has translated several of Mr, Bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular literature. Sachse (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At Magdeburg he did much to demolish the remains of theism in the Free-religious communities. Died 1883. Sales y Ferre (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b about 1839. Professor at the University of Seville. Has published several works on geology and prehistoric times. Schneider (Gcorg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mann- heim, 1854. Author of ^Ihe Human Will from the standpoint of the New Development Theory (Berlin, 1882), and other works. Schreiner (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in South Africa. Authoress of " The Story of an African Farm," 1883. Serre (...de la), author of an Examination of Rclifjion, attri- buted to Saint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament of Paris. Siiner y Capderila. Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. Became deputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses against Catholicism. TOCCD (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. Catanzaro, 12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and Bologna, and became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the Rivista Bolognese on Leopard i, and on '*■ Positivism " in the Rivasta Contcmporanea. He has published works on A. Bain's Theory of Sensation, 72 ; Thoughts on the History oj Philosophy, '77 ; The Heresy of the Middle Ages,' 84 ; and Giordano Bruno, '86. Tommasi (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work ,on Evolution, Sciener, and Naturalism, Naples 1877, and a little pamphlet in commemoration of Darwin, '82. 354 TCB Tnbino (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, 1838, took part in Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, and has ■contributed to the Rivista Europea. Tuthill (Charles A. H.), author of Ue Origin and Development of Christian Dogma, London, 1889. Vernial (Paul), French doctor and member of the Antro- pological Society of Paris, author of a work on the Origin of Man, 1881. Wheeler (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 Jan, 1850. Converted from Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Has contributed to the National Refor mer Secularist, Secular Chronicle, Liberal, Progress, and Freethinker which he has sub-edited since 1882, using occasionally the sig- natures "Laon," ''Lucianus" and other pseudonyms. Has i^whW^hedi Frauds and Follies of the Fathers '88, Fodt steps of the Past, a collection of essays in anthropology and comparative religion '86; and Crimes of Christianity, written in conjunction with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited Sepher loldoth Jeshu. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge in the cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the service of Freethought. 355 E E E A T A . Preface V. line 30, for Dal Volta read BaWa. Volta. Page 8, line 17, fur translated read translated. P. 16, line I, for Anaxagorus (some copies) na