» # M^^''i oi t^« ®l»*"%faf ^ 5^^//. PRINCETON, N. J. >, BV 2105 .L3 Laurie, Thomas, 1821-1897 The Ely volume; or. The contributions of our THE "ELY VOLUME The Contributions of our Foreign Missions TO SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELL-BEING. By THOMAS \aURIE, D. D., FORMERLY A MISSIONARY OF THE A. B. C. F. M. And by the river upon the bank thereof, on this side and on that side, shall grow all trees for meat, whose leaf shall not fade, . . . because their waters they issued out of the sanctuary. — Ezekiel xlvii : 12. BOSTON : AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, CONGREGATIONAL HOUSE, 188 I. Copyright, i88i, BY THE American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Stereotyped by Thomas Todd, Cofigregatiotial Ho7tse, Boston. 5^ .T r r f ti to r fu" .IM c m o r w THE REV. ALFRED ELY, D. D., Monson, Mass., A ceo K DIN C. TU THE DESIRE o., p. 245. - Do., pp. 251, 252. •■ lilisswitary Herald, 1S3S, p. 384. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 13 tilling of the ground. The flesh is then cut off and thrown to the dogs, and the skeleton remains lashed to the poles till it falls to pieces. Such scenes, occurring alike among the Khonds of Hindostan, and so recently among the Indians of our own country, show the need of the missionary work which it is the object of this book to recommend. DR. WHITMAN. In his letter to the Prudential Committee of the Board, making provision for the preparation of this volume, Mr. Ely desired that some account be given of " instances where the direct influence of missionaries has controlled and hopefully shaped the destinies of communities and States." Perhaps no event in the histor)' of missions will better illustrate this than the way in which Oregon and our whole Northern Pacific coast was saved to the United States. Our right to the territory drained by the Columbia river was based on the purchase of all French claims in 1803, and all Spanish claims in 18 19, besides the title of discovery by Capt. Gray, in the ship "Columbia," of Boston, in 1791. Our possession of the region, however, was long thwarted by the agents of the Hud- son's Bay Company, whose forts and factors controlled it. The fur-trading posts of J. J- Astor were broken up by it, and his far-famed Astoria was oc- cupied by them, and called Fort George. In 1828, they took possession of the falls of the Willamette, with a view, as Sir George Simpson said, to the estab- lishment of a British colony in the valley above. Other colonies were planted at various available points, so that they practically held the whole country in 1832. Dr. Marcus Whitman and Rev. Henry H. Spaulding, with their wives, crossed the mountains in 1836, and established two stations, one on the Walla Walla river, and the other on the Clear Water. These missionary ladies were the first white women who ever crossed the Rocky mountains. Though neither of them was strong, their courage and patience, in performing the journey, astonished both hunters and traders. As a physician and surgeon, Dr. Whit- man often visited the forts of the Hudson's Bay Company, and saw how it was planning to secure that whole beautiful and valuable region for Great Britain, not only by immigration, but by creating the impression that wagons could never cross the Rocky mountains to the Columbia river. He felt that an American immigration must be brought over those mountains, or the whole region would be lost to the United States. In the autumn of 1842, he was sit- ting at the table in Fort Walla Walla, when a messenger came in, announcing the arrival of some British emigrants from Red river this side the mountains. Toasts were drank, and one of the company said, " Now the Americans may whistle ; the country is ours." Sir George Simpson, their Governor-General, in his published report,^ afterwards declared that " the colonists in the Willamette were British subjects ; " that " they- had no rivals but the Russians \ " and he "defied Congress to establish the Atlantic tariff in the Pacific ports." Dr. Whitman excused himself from the company, rode that night twenty-four miles to his home, sent his wife to the family of a Methodist missionary at the Dalles, donned his buffalo cloak, packed his pemmican ^ and flour on an e.xtra pon}', and started off to cross the continent, in mid-winter, risking cold, starvation, 1 Narrative of Voyage Romtd the IVorld in 1841 a7id 1842. - The English. » Dried buffalo meat. 14 THE ELY VOLUME. and hostile Indians, to save Oregon for his country. He reached Missouri in February, 1843, frost-bitten and exhausted, yet preached as he went a crusade to rescue the Pacific coast from the Hudson's Bay Company. He contradicted the reports that no wagons could cross the mountains, and engaged to pilot a colony, in the spring, to the Columbia river. In Washington, he called on Daniel Webster, then Secretary of State, and told his story. The secretary replied : " Wagons cannot cross the mountains. Sir G. Simpson, who is here, affirms that, and so do all bis correspondents in that region. Besides, I am about trading that worthless territory for some valuable concessions in relation to the Newfoundland cod-fisheries." Dr. Whitman replied : " I hope you will not do it, sir ; we want that valuable terri- tory ourselves." He then went to President Tyler, and said the same things. The President replied : " Dr. Whitman, since you are a missionary, I will believe you; and if you take your emigrants over there, the treaty will not be ratified," In March, after a hurried visit to Boston, he was back in Missouri, and led a thousand emigrants to Fort Hall. Capt. Grant, who commanded it, in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, asked where they were going, and, pronouncing the rest of the way impassable for wagons, ofiiered to change them for pack-horses, as he had done for others. The men were in great trouble at the news. Dr. Whitman rose up and said : " Friends, you have trusted me so far ; have I deceiv^ed you ? Continue to trust me, and I will take you, wagons and all, to Oregon." They trusted him, and he went before, mark- ing the road with stakes and bits of paper with written directions, till they reached his home, and at length the Willamette valley, Oregon was saved, and that by the patriotic energy and enterprise of a missionary.^ Dr. Whitman and his eight hundred emigrants emerged on the plains of the Columbia, September 4, 1843. On November 29, 1S47, he and his estimable wife were massacred by the Cayuse Indians. It may not always be safe to rest on circumstantial evidence ; but the intelligent freemen of these United States, when they ask how such an end could come to such a life, cannot for- get that between 1843 and 1847 a succession of intrigues was planned against Protestant and American influence ; that the introduction of measles and other diseases by. the emigrants of 1847 was represented to the Indians by the priests as "the judgment of God on the Americans for their heresy." They will remember the great kindness of the Indians to Dr. Whitman, up to this date ; that in the massacre, all connected with the Hudson's Bay Company, and the Papists, were spared, as a priest said they would be ; and that the very next morning this paj^al priest baptized the children of the murderers ; and that an Indian, whom Rev. Mr. Spaulding met riding with that priest, within three miles of the station, had started with him on purpose to kill that missionary also, but, having accidentally discharged his pistol just before meet- ing him, he could not do it then ; and before he had another opportunity to attempt the bloody deed, Mr. Spaulding had got out of reach by walking ninety miles, without food, traveling at night and hiding in the day-time. And yet it was not the Hudson's Bay Company that prompted the deed. Mr. Spaulding ' Rev. G. H. Atkinson, D. D., in Alissionary Herald, 1S69, pp. 76-.S0. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE, 1 5 writes : " Too much praise cannot be awarded to the Hudson's Bay Company, especially to Mr. Ogden, for their timely, prompt, judicious, and Christian efforts in our behalf. We owe it, under God, to Messrs. Ogden and Douglass, that we are alive to-day." ^ HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Our missionaries have done much for geography among the isles of the Pacific. The Hawaiian Islands have awakened great interest during the last fifty years. More than sixty volumes have been written about them in English, relating chiefly to missionary work. Little was known of them previous to 1820, when the missionaries went there ; now little relating to them is unknown. Their geography is as well known as that of any State in New England. They number twelve, lying in the North Pacific, extending three hundred and sixty miles from northwest to southeast, between latitude 18^ 55' and 22*^ 20' north, and longitude 154° 55' and 160^ 15' west. Their names and areas are : Hawaii, four thousand and forty square miles ; Maui, six hundred and three square miles ; Kahoolawe, sixty square miles ; Lanai, one hundred and fifty square miles ; Molokai, one hundred and sixty-nine square miles ; Oahu, five hundred and twenty-two square miles ; Kauai, five hundred and twenty-seven square miles ; and Niihau, seventy square miles ; with four small islets, named Molokini, Lehua, Kaula, and Bird Island ; in all, sixty-one thousand square miles. Only seven of them are inhabited. They are two thousand one hundred miles from San Fran- cisco ; three thousand four hundred miles from Japan, and nearly the same from China, Australia, and Panama. They are all of volcanic origin, and mountainous ; the arable land lying mostly in the valleys and in an alluvial belt along the shore. The uplands are fitted for grazing, and the mountains, cov- ered with dense forests, are unfit for cultivation. The trade winds strike their northeastern coasts, causing frequent rains, a fertile soil, and perennial streams. On that side the mountain forests are most dense ; and, while mosses have been found on the east of Mauna Kea at an elevation of more than twelve thousand feet, on the west side of Mauna Loa they disappear at the height of eight thousand feet. In one year^ 182 inches rain fell at Hilo ; 38.156 inches in March, 1847; 10.466 inches in a single day. On the west coast rain seldom falls.3 Sm-face. The three principal mountains of Hawaii are : Mauna Kea, thirteen thousand nine hundred and fifty-three feet ; Mauna Loa, an active volcano, thirteen thousand seven hundred and sixty feet; and Mauna Hualalai, seven thousand eight hundred and twenty-two feet. Kilauea, three thousand nine hundred and seventy feet high, on the eastern slope of Mauna Loa, is the largest active crater in the world. It is a pit eight miles in circumference, and one thousand feet in depth. Its activity is independent of the summit crater. Mauna Haleakala, on the eastern peninsula, is ten thousand two hundred feet 1 See Missionary Herald, 1S48, pp. 237-241 ; where is also a map of the vicinity. ^ 1846-7. 3 Anderson's Hawaiian Isia7ids, pp. 25-28. T. M. Coan, M. D., in American Cyclopedia. i6 THE ELY VOLUME. high, and on its summit is the largest crater known, two thousand feet deep and twenty-seven miles in circumference. The highest peak on Oahu is three thousand three hundred and ten feet high. Molokai presents a magnificent wall of precipices to the north. Nowhere in the islands can one journey far without seeing extinct craters, generally covered with vegetation. Many hundred square miles of Hawaii are covered with recent and barren lavas. Volcanic eruptions enlarge the area of Hawaii. That of 1843 poured out seventeen bill- ions, and that of 1855 thirty-eight billions, of cubic feet of lava. One part of south Kona has broad fields of jagged lava and a wild sea of slag and cinders. It is a terrible wilderness of vitreous matter, with a choppy surface, like the 'ocean suddenly petrified in a storm ; another part is beautiful and fertile, with groves of fruit trees and a perfect jungle of shrubbery and vines. Much of the scenery of the islands is exceedingly beautiful. An excellent map of the group, and six views of island scenery, may be found in Rev. H. Bingham's Twenty-ofte Years'' Residence at the Sandwich Jslafids. THE "morning star" APPROACHING HONOLULU. Harbors. That of Honolulu, on the south side of Oahu, is the best. It is protected by a coral reef, with twenty-one feet of water on the bar at low tide, and from four to six and a half fathoms inside. The anchorage is safe, and it is easy of access with all winds. A view of it is here given, with the missionary packet, "The Morning Star," approaching the shore. Hilo, on the northeast shore of Hawaii, has a good natural harbor, protected by a reef, and with from three to eight fathoms of water ; but it lacks good wharves. Lahaina, on Maui, has an open roadstead, with good anchorage. Kawaihai and CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 1 7 Kealakeakua, on the west of Hawaii, and Waimea, Koloa, Nawiliwili, and Hanalei, on Kauai, have tolerable harbors. Flora. The indigenous Flora numbers about three hundred and seventy- three species, and many more have been introduced. The cocoanut, banana, bread-fruit, pandanus, cordyline,^ and taro or kalo - belong to the first. The productions of the islands are, sugar, rice, coffee, cotton, sandal-wood, tobacco, arrowroot, wheat, maize, tapioca, oranges, lemons, bananas, tamarinds, bread- fruit, guavas, potatoes, yams, kalo, fungus, pulu,^ and ornamental woods. Fauna. The indigenous Fauna is small. Swine, dogs, and rats tell the. whole story in the line of quadrupeds ; and domestic fowls, a bat that flies by day, snipes, plovers, and wild ducks are the principal birds. There are only a few species of songsters, but many birds noted for brilliant plumage ; one of these, Melithreptes Pacifica, has a golden-yellow tuft of feathers under each wing, about an inch long. The war-cloak of Kamehameha I, four feet long, and eleven and a half round the bottom, was made of these, and it took the reigns of nine kings to complete it. Many varieties of fish frequent the shores, and form a staple article of food. Now cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs are raised. Herds of wild cattle, descended from those introduced by Vancouver, in 1793, roam in the mountain forests, and are hunted for their horns and hides. Commerce. The islands lie several hundred miles south of the route between California and China, and form a station between San Francisco and Australia, whither the trade of the islands now tends. Much of the sugar crop of 1873 went there. Three times have the islands sought to make a commercial treaty with the United States — in 1856, 1867, and 1869 — but in vain. The government even offered a harbor as an inducement, but that also failed to secure it. Commerce, till now, has been mainly with California. Its value from 1853 to 1873, including freights, passage money, and cargo values, in and out, exceeded $19,750,000. The American duties on Hawaiian sugar were $225,000 ; on rice, etc., $75,000 ; in all, $300,000 annually. The imports from the United States in 1873 exceeded $1,000,000. The sugar sent to California rose from 282,000 pounds in 1853 to 15,500,000 in 1872. The total export in 1873 was 23,129,101 pounds. The total value of exports in 1873 was $2,128,055, and of imports $1,349,448. The number of vessels arriving was one hundred and six, with a tonnage of sixty-two thousand and eighty-nine. The number of cargoes valued at over $10,000 was thirty-four; twenty-eight of them in American ves- sels, three in British, and three in Hawaiian. Whalers touching at Honolulu fell off from five hundred and forty-nine in 1859 to sixty-three in 1873. In 1872, eighty-sLx American vessels, twenty-two Hawaiian, fifteen British, six German, three Italian, three Norwegian, two Tahitian, and one Swedish vessel arrived at Honolulu, making the custom house receipts $218,375. Government. Up to 1839, this was an absolute monarchy. Then Kameha- meha signed a bill of rights, and in 1840 and 1842 granted constitutions, with 1 Ki. "^ A rum exulenttim. s Xhe fiber of the tree feru. 1 8 THE ELY VOLUME. universal suffrage, and a biennial parliament. Civil and penal codes of laws were enacted, and one third of the land was secured to the people, which for- merly all belonged to the king and chiefs. August 13, 1864, Kamehameha V altered the constitution so as to impose qualifications on suffrage and cen- tralize the government. Voters must read and write, pay their taxes, and have an annual income of seventy-five dollars. The executive department consists of the king, a privy council, and four responsible ministers. The legislature consists of the king, and a parliament of fourteen nobles and twenty-eight representatives, which discusses and votes in one body. The judiciary consists of a supreme court, composed of a chief justice, who is also chancellor, and at least two judges; four district courts, police, and other tribunals. In 1870 the income of the government was $456,000. The salaries amounted to half of this. That of the king was $22,500. Liberty of worship and of the press, free education, the right of petition, trial by jury, and the right of habeas corpus are guaranteed. There is no army or navy, though the king has a body guard. The condition of the people could not have been much worse than it was when the missionaries arrived. The chiefs were regarded with superstitious awe ; even their persons were much larger than those of their subjects. They owned not only the land, but the people, also ; the fish of the sea, and the bodies and implements of the fishermen. Everything that grew on land or in the sea was theirs. They were reverentially obeyed while living, and deified after death. Laborers did not receive more than one third of their earnings, paid in kind, and even that was separated by no line of demarcation from the property of their employers. If a tenant improved his ground better than his neighbors, it only marked him out for plunder. At the death of the king, every man was liable to be deprived of all he had. There was no law or courts to which any could appeal. Taxes knew no limit in amount or frequency of exaction, and the king demanded as much labor, and as often, as he wished ; hence no man dared to have a good house, a large hog, or a good dress. The system of tabu favored oppression. If the shadow of a subject fell on a chief, the penalty was death ; so, also, if he stood, instead of bowing down, when anything belonging to the king was carried by ; and many similar " inci- dents " were made excuses for murder. The priests also promoted this state of things. If human victims were needed for the altars, the king's enemies, or even those whom he disliked without cause, were selected for slaughter. When the king visited a place, he often required heavy stones and timber from the mountains, to build a temple ; and after their toil, some of the builders were sacrificed to consecrate the altars. If the priests demanded food, or land, or human sacrifices for the gods, they were given at once. Moreover, the husband must eat in one house, and his wife in another. The oven could not be used for both at once ; and if a woman ate pork, cocoanuts, bananas, or certain kinds of fish, she must die. The Hawaiians had four principal gods, Ku, Lono, Kane, and Kanaloa, and they were supposed to enter into their images only through certain ceremonies. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 19 They had an indistinct notion of a future state of rewards in Wakea, and a place of misery called Milu. One of their idols was made of a poisonous wood, and was often used as the most convenient method of destroying those whom chiefs or priests wanted out of the way. The vegetable food of the people was mostly kalo and sweet potatoes, with bananas, and a few cocoanuts and bread-fruit. For animal food they had dogs and hogs, and especially fish. Arrowroot grew there, but the people knew not how to prepare it. Sugar cane is of modern introduction. They made an in- toxicating drink from a narcotic root called awa. Having no iron, they used tools of stone, bone, and wood to build their huts and canoes and make their weapons and fishing gear. Their social state was about as bad as often exists, even among the heathen. The five or six inmates of a hut could hardly be called a family, for the men often had several wives, whom they changed for slight cause, and with little form of law. Women also frequently had several husbands, whom they changed with equal facility. In their huts, with the merest apology for clothing, in the form of a fringed girdle, they ate poi — a preparation of the kalo, or taro — with their fingers, from one calabash, and with or without a kapu ^ they lay down on the same mat. Some lived in caves, with the earth for a floor, and a small excavation in it, their fire-place and oven. Though they had a mild climate, and a fruitful soil in their valleys, with no winter to provide for, they were in a state of poverty, compared with which our poor are rich. But the worst of all was their moral condition. Society was one mire of pollution. Marriage was practically unknown ; husbands interchanged wives, and wives husbands, as an ordinary civility. Refusal of illicit intercourse was counted meanness. It is not strange, then, that parents often gave away their children as soon as born, or buried them alive, or killed them by other meth- ods, to get rid of the trouble of caring for them. Two thirds of the children thus perished. Mothers, instead of soothing their suffering infants, dug holes and trampled down the earth above their faint struggles and smothered cries. Often five, or even seven, in succession, were thus disposed of, that she might be more free for vicious indulgence. Their sports were at once cruel and licentious. In their boxing matches, sometimes quite a number were left dead on the field. They were exceedingly given to gambling. Their dances were utterly abominable and indescribable, and were protracted through the night. Their punishments were cruel and barbarous, and the bodies of those slain on the altar were left there to rot in the sun. Their modes of burial were revolting. The corpses of chiefs were allowed to decay till the bones readily separated from the flesh, when they were gathered together and preserved ; and the dead bodies of the people were buried secretly in the night, lest their bones should be made into arrows or fish-hooks. At the death of a chief, the people plunged unrestrained into all wicked- ness. They threw off what little clothing they wore, and stole, plundered, and glutted personal revenge with impunity ; promiscuous lewdness prevailed ; ' Coverlid. 20 THE ELY VOLUME. men knocked out each other's front teeth, as badges of mourning, and no one was safe from any kind of wrong or violence. The people were trained to be expert thieves. Robbery also was common ; and murder for the sake of robbery. In the island of Oahu lived a clan of notorious cannibals. The deformed, instead of receiving pity, were ridiculed and abused. If the chief took a man's land, his neighbors seized his personal property ; if his house burned down, his furniture was stolen. Aged parents were often thrown from precipices, or buried alive ; and the sick were often left to die a lingering death from neglect, while those who should have cared for them indulged in revelry out of the sight of their suffering and out of the reach of their cries. The treatment of their so-called doctors neither relieved suffering nor promoted recovery ; and the insane were often stoned to death. The children of prisoners taken in war were commonly put to death before the eyes of their parents, who were then, after various tortures, pounded to death with stones.^ When they bathed in the sea, no clothing at all was worn. Women left their pau - at home, and passed through the village going and returning. Even women of rank have thus called on missionaries, and sent their servant to bring the pau, and put it on in the missionary's presence. In one of the early years of the mission, a chief of Hawaii was reproved for his nakedness ; next time, he walked into the house with the addition of a pair of silk stockings and a hat.''^ They had no written language, and counted up to forty, as we do to one hundred, and then went back and counted ten forties as we do ten hundreds. MICRONESIA AND MARQUESAS ISLANDS. Besides the Sandwich Islands, the American Board has also occupied Micronesia, comprising the Marshall or Mulgrave Islands and the Kingsmill or Gilbert Islands, lying in the direction of New Guinea, two thousand miles southwest of ^Honolulu. Ponape, or Ascension Island, the largest of the Caroline Islands, is basaltic^ sixty miles in circumference, and rises in terraces from the mangrove-covered shore, to the height of two thousand eight hundred and fifty feet. It has riv- ers and waterfalls, and is a paradise, with a delightful climate, the thermometer varying for three years only seventeen degrees. Among its productions are the bread-fruit, banana, cocoanut, taro, sugar cane, ava, arrowroot, sassafras, sago, wild orange, and mango, with many timber trees ; while lemons, oranges, pine- apples, coffee, tamarinds, and other fruits thrive as exotics. Twenty varieties of birds fill the air with life, and a population of five thousand are hidden away in its forests. They belong to the Malay stock. Kusaie, or Strong's Island, is of similar formation, and produces the same growths. It is thirty miles in circumference, and rises, covered with woods, to the height of two thousand feet. The people belong to the same race ; and, for a wonder, polygamy is here unknown, and labor counted honorable. Northeast of this lie the Marshall Islands, divided into the Radack^and * Dibble, pp. 86-137. ^ Girdle. 3 Anderson's Ha-waiian Ishtniis, pp. 93 and 297. 4 Eastern. MICRONESIA. 21 Ralick ' groups, comprising in all about thirty good-sized coral islands, higher and more fertile than the Gilbert group to the south. The population is about twelve thousand, and were so noted for ferocity, that foreigners rarely venturecF: among them. Their forms are spare and athletic. The women wear their hair smoothly parted, and sometimes adorned with flowers. Their broidered skirts reach from the waist to the feet. The men also are very skillful and ingenious. The Gilbert Islands form sixteen groups of a fair size, "with many islets, and a population of thirty thousand. The cocoanut tree furnishes the natives almost everything they eat, drink, wear, or live in. Hats, clothes, mats, and cords are made from its leaves ; houses from its wood ; they eat the fruit, drink the milk, make molasses and arrack from its juice, besides immense quantities of oil. The people practice polygamy. Children go naked till ten years old ; when boys put on a girdle, and girls a broader covering. This nudity is some- what relieved by profuse tattooing. The language resembles Hawaii'an. All these islands were the homes of sloth and sensuality, of theft and violence. A race of tawny savages lived almost naked, swam like fish in the sea, and basked in the sun on shore, depending for food on their trees and plants, and also on their fish-hooks. The Marquesas Islands are six in number, about two thousand miles east of south from the Sandwich Islands, and nearly as far from Micronesia. They are volcanic, and rise to the height of four thousand feet, with grand and varied scenery. The climate is good ; and all manner of tropical fruits abound. The populntion, of about eight thousand, is Malayan, and the language like the Hawaiian. The people were athletic, but lazy, lawless, and ferocious. Personal vengeance and tribal wars never ceased. The, bodies of those slain in battle were distributed in morsels among the clan, and even children loved the horrid food. The men were hideously tattooed in the forms of lizards, snakes, and other animals, and the women smeared with oil and turmeric. Besides their cannibalism, their tabus compelled father, mother, and grown-up daughter, each to eat apart : and this was the missionary field to which Providence called the churches of the Sandwich Islands. Dr. L. H. Gulick furnishes a map and a detailed description of these islands, and the dates of their discovery, in the Missionary Herald? The ** Morning Star" has since discovered one new island, and was the first vessel to enter the lagoon of another. Dr. George Pierson, in view of the frequent intercourse between the islands — two hundred boats sometimes coming to Ebon in a day — and the fact that one man from that island was once driven by a storm more than sixteen hundred miles, has no difficulty in accounting for the original settlement of the islands of the Pacific, or even of the American continent. All that the world knows of Micronesia, the productions of its soil, the fishes of its seas, its languages, customs, and superstitions, it owes to our missionaries. True, ships had previously touched at the islands ; but, apart from specimens gathered by missionaries, vocabularies formed by them, and personal aid as interpreters, even government exploring expeditions have ac- ' Western. - 1857, pp. 41-48- 22 THE ELY VOLUME. complished little. Scholars at home are largely dependent on the materials thus gathered to their hands. Eight educated natives of the Hawaiian islands cooperate with our mission- aries in lifting the people of Micronesia up to the plane of civilization and intellectual life. ' Balbi and Ritter, Drs. John Pickering and A. P. Peabody, Prof. J. D. Dana, and Commodore Wilkes have all acknowledged in apprecia- tive words the debt the world owes to them. Had it been foretold forty years ago that a cultured, Christian native of the Samoan Islands would negotiate a treaty at Washington in 1877, and that our own Secretary of State would ascribe all that distinguishes him and his people from their former condition to missionaries, it would have seemed an idle dream. So, a prediction forty years ago of what has been done by our missionaries in the Pacific, for science, would have provoked a sneer. Even a single person, Joseph, a native of the Gilbert Islands, once a naked savage, but now speaking both English and Hawaiian, besides his native tongue, and rendering valuable service to the mission, both as a linguist and proof-reader, is in himself a living example of the elevating power of Christian missions. 11. GEOGRAPHY CONTINUED. JAPAN. The empire of Japan consists of three large islands, the largest containing one hundred thousand, another sixteen thousand, and the smallest ten thousand square miles, with many smaller islands ; making, in all, probably about one hundred and sixty thousand square miles. The population is not far from thirty millions. Rev. Dr. Blodget calls it a land of hills and valleys and lofty mountains ; a land of pure air, running streams, and fountains ; abounding in trees and flowers, and producing a good supply of food for man and beast. The soil almost everywhere is well cultivated. Ten million six hundred and ninety-five thousand seven hundred and sixty acres were cultivated in 1S78; equal to one half the improved lands of the State of Illinois. A British minister at Yedo said that " outside of England, there is nothing so green, so garden- like, so full of tranquil beauty," Of minerals, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury, coal, sulphur, and salt are found there. Japanese civilization has a Chinese root. Chinese is their learned language. Chinese classics have been their school-books, and many Chinese words are in common use. The ancient faith of the land was Shintooism ; but this, too bare and cold a system to be popular, has been supplanted by Buddhism among the people. The educated classes have long been Confucianists. The government has recently tried to revive Shintooism, but not very successfully. There is a historical sketch of Japan in the Missionary Herald for 1864, pp. 35-38, and of Protestant mis- sions in that country, pp. 65-70. See, also, jf apart as a Mission Field, by Rev, I. R. Worcester, D. D. The people are of middling size ; with a swarthy complexion, and black hair. They are active, exceedingly polite, and quicker of apprehension than other Asiatics, The poorest are taught to read and write, and their literature is somewhat extensive. Many mechanical arts are carried to a high degree of perfection, and commerce flourishes. This people were first made known to Europe by Marco Polo, in 1295, In 1543, Pinto, a Portuguese adventurer, was driven to Japan by a storm, and a Portuguese settlement was the result. Francis Xavier and others went there in 1549, were well received, and baptized many. In 1582, Japanese Christians sent an embassy to the Pope, and in 1591-92 twelve thousand were baptized; but some were put to death before the close of the century. The Dutch (23) 24 THE ELY VOLUME. reached Japan in 1600; and, when the government became hostile to the Por- tuguese, sought to turn that to their own advantage. The Papists, having destroyed some idols and their temples, were persecuted, and in 1622 many- were massacred. In 1629, they numbered one hundred thousand ; but, about the year 1637, having conspired with the Portuguese against the government, they were extirpated. The castle of Simabara, where thirty-seven thousand had taken refuge, was destroyed with the help of Dutch cannon, and all were slain. In 1641, the Dutch were shut up in the small island of Desina, near Nagasaki, and till 1873 the edict against Christianity remained in force. In 1846, Commodore Biddle, of the United States navy, failed in his endeavor to open friendly negotiations with Japan. In 1849, the United States ship "Preble," Capt. Glynn, was allowed to carry away some ship- wrecked sailors, but nothing more. March 31, 1854, Commodore Perr}% at the head of .nine ships of war, succeeded in making a treaty, having visited the bay of Yedo the year before. Two ports were opened to American ships for supplies. In June, 1857, Mr. Harris, the United States consul-general, began negotiations, and July 29, 1858, a treaty was signed, allowing Americans to reside at Simoda and Hakodadi, opening Kanagawa, Nagasaki, and Hakodadi to general trade, and securing religious toleration for Americans, with the right to build churches. In i860 Hiogo, or Kobe, for the place is known by both names, was also opened, and an American ambassador received in Yedo. The city of Kobe contains sixty-five thousand inhabitants. Between July and October 9, 1858, treaties were made between Japan and the Netherlands, Russia, Great Britain, and France, on the basis of Mr. Har- ris' negotiations. In May, 1859, two Episcopal missionaries arrived at Nagasaki, but were so hampered in their labors that, in 1868, Bishop Boone reported that he had no missionary in Japan. Other churches followed ; among them the English Church Missionary Society and the missionary boards of the Presbyterian and (Dutch) Reformed churches in the United States ; in November, 1869, the American Board began a mission, selecting Kobe for a station. Till recently, the Mikado, or Emperor, while nominally reigning, was really set aside, while the Siogoon, or Tycoon, administered the government, and a Daimio ruled each of the sixty-eight provinces of the empire. In 1868 a revo- lution changed all this. The ofifice of Tycoon was abolished — the word itself has become obsolete — and the Mikado, whose dynasty dates back to 600 B. C, again exercised his prerogatives. Beginning to reign in 1867, at seven- teen years of age, at eighteen he wielded all the power which his predecessors had lost since 1142, at which time a general, successful in putting down a rebellion, assumed the exercise of temporal power, leaving the emperor only a nominal supremacy. Now the one hundred and twenty-second of a long line of kings resumed his ancient rights ; and the Samurai, military retainers of the Daimios, fell back among the people. Their police system is almost perfect, including the danjodai, a secret imperial police, independent of the local constabulary, and often acting with- out its knowledge. Dr. Wallace Taylor was allowed to go, in 1875, to Okayama, JAPAN. 25 in Bizen, a province one hundred miles west of Kobe, on the inland sea, in a beautiful and populous valley. Rev. J. L. Atkinson went in 1876 two hundred and fifty miles from Kioto to the island of Shikoku. Rev. J. D. Davis and Dr. Gulick made a tour in the basin of Lake Biwa. Dr. J. C. Berry has also had large liberty of travel, on account of his medical skill. Preaching tours have also yielded geographical information. Rev. Jos. H. Neesima, a native, not being subject to the same restrictions as foreigners, learns much concerning all parts of the empire. Dr. A. O. Treat's letter in the Missionary Herald for April, 1875, is full of condensed information concerning the four large islands of Ni- phon, Yesso, Shikoku, and Kiusiu, and the smaller ones, all divided into eighty- four provinces and seven hundred and seventeen counties. It speaks of the Inland Sea, four hundred miles in length, and of the general surface of the country ; describes many of the hills as terraced to the top. As rice is the great staple, rice lands are worth five times as much as others. It treats also of the government before and since the revolution, of the people and their industries. Thousands of English text-books are now for sale in the bookstores of Japan, and many of them have been translated into Japanese, including works on geography, arithmetic, philosophy, and the higher mathematics. January I, 1873, beheld Japan wheeling into line with Christendom in the adoption of the Christian calendar. At the present date, there are oije hundred and six Protestant missionaries there, with forty-four churches, nine ordained native preachers, and more than two thousand five hundred members.^ Sixteen - of these churches are in connection with the Board, with five hundred and four- teen members. Eight of them have native pastors, and another ordained native preacher, Mr. Neesima, was educated in the United States. Newspapers in Japan date only from 1870 ; now there are more than a hun- dred, and the highest literary talent is employed on them. Subjects of public and international interest are discussed in them with a force and intelligence that will bear comparison with the best journalism of the times. The ancient literature of Japan consisted chiefly of history and philosophy, with poetry and fiction ; the last was read by all classes, and especially by the women ; but now the strong desire to become acquainted with foreign countries compels the creation of a literature that goes to satisfy this craving. A theological school for training preachers had, in 1879, more than one hundred and twenty-seven pupils. A girls' school at Kobe had as many as fifty- four different pupils in 1S78 ; the Kioto Home, cm: girls' seminary, twenty-five, and another at Osaka had thirty.' These general statements, gleaned from missionary communications, will now be followed by a resume of two papers by S. Wells Williams, LL.D., pub- lished in the Missionary Herald. The first, on Lewchew, appeared in 1854, pp. 178-184, and the other on Hakodadi, in 1855, pp. 86-88. 1 Dr. Clark at Syracuse. -Report, 1S79-80. Contributions were reported equivalent to an average of $20 in this country for each mem- ber. Missionary Herald, i?>?,o, pp. 433-434. 3 In 1879 the schools for girls, at Kobe, Kioto, and Osaka, had over one hundred and twenty pupils; and the course of study includes many branches taught in our high schools. 26 THE ELY VOLUME. LEWCHEIV. Dr. Williams went as interpreter to Commodore Perry, in his expedition to Japan, in 1853. The squadron touched at Napa, a port in the Lewchevv Islands. The natives call them Doo Choo, and the Japanese Riu Kiu; and the following statements show how faithfully he improved his opportunities, both then and in 1837, in the ship "Morrison." The island of Lewchevv is about sixty miles long, and from twelve to fifteen in width, and is the principal one of a group nearly equidistant from China and Japan. Including the Madjicosimah group to the southwest, the largest of which are Typing San, and Pa-chung San, the whole number of islands is thirty-six. On the map some of them have English names given them by their foreign discoverers — as Montgomery, Sandy, Crown, and Breaker Islands; and others have native names, as Tu Sima, Tunachi, Kukien, and Kumi San. The outline of Lewchew presents no prominent elevation to one approaching from the sea, though it rises by gentle acclivities to the height of one thousand feet ; but, viewed close by, the landscape is varied and agreeable. In the southern part the prevailing rock is limestone, overlying friable granite, which appears alone in the northern division. Coral reefs line the shores, in some places raised up, so as to form ledges along the beach. The climate is one of the most healthy and delightful in this part of the world ; seldom cold enough for fires, and with summer cooled by easterly and southwesterly winds. Vegetation is more tropical than in China, yet its grasses belong more to the temperate zone. Its produc- tions are less varied than either those of China or Japan. Among them are egg plants, cucumbers, squashes, melons, sweet potatoes, rice, tobacco, wheat, maize, two kinds of millet, and sugar cane. Fruits are not abundant, though the banana, peach, orange, lime, and guava are known. Timber and fuel are brought from the northern forests, where the camphor and tallow trees are found. The bastard banyan is common. Its flexible branches are often trained along the tops of walls, contrasting finely with the stones. Near the towns, copses of pine — some trees towering above the rest, with a large flat top — adorn the declivities of the hills. Most of the people are engaged in the cultivation of the soil, and the fields give evidence of great labor, in which woman takes a large share. The rice is transplanted, as in China, and taro plants are scattered among it. Rice-fields and patches of vegetables, contrasted with growing wheat, diversify the landscape, rendered still more beautiful by the groves on the hill- tops, and plats of green sward. The people are not tall, but compactly built, and well proportioned. A boat's crew of a dozen averaged five feet and an inch in height; and the gentry, who are taller than the rest, would not exceed five feet four inches. The women measure less than five feet. In general, the people are healthy, though their faces bear the impress of unceasing toil. This sad aspect strikes a visitor as soon as he lands. The wrinkled, grimy, and care-worn features of the women seen on the streets indicate their low position in society. They do most of the market- ing, and five or six hundred may be seen at once, each attending to her basket or stall, in the market of Napa. Ladies seldom go afoot, and when abroad wear a cloak over their dress, fastened only at the neck. The color of the people is a reddish olive tint, darker in general than the Chinese, but not with such oblique eyes or high cheek bones; indicating a different and southern origin. Among the aged were some who would not be distinguished from Malays. The population of the island is said to be more than one hundred thousand; nearly one half of it in Napa and Shui. Napa, or Nafa, is the seaport, stretching a mile into the interior, with most of the houses in sight from the harbor. Shui, or Shudi, is the capital, pleasantly situated on a hill about three miles from Napa, and connected by a broad, paved road, in places raised above the marsh with great labor. It is well built, and a stream, collected here and there into tanks as it descends the hill, and crossed now and then by massive stone bridges, adds greatly to its beauty. The palace is a collection of large buildings, enclosed by a solid stone wall, so situated as to serve for a fortress in case of need. The structures themselves are poor; but the stone steps, ornamented triple gate-ways, and paved courts, with detached trees and arbors, display some skill. The three largest buildings face one court, but are now sadly neglected. The LEWCHEW. 27 roofs are of tiles laid in ridges, and adorned with finials. The houses of Shui are scattered among trees and rocky ledges in a very picturesque way. The streets of both cities are partly macadamized, with open gutters at the sides ; some of them wide enough for carriages, though none of these are used. The common roads seem as rough as if they had never known repairs. The markets are held in the squares and street corners, and furnish only the com- monest necessaries of life. Though the villages are often prettily situated, all bear witness to the poverty and oppres- sion of the people. Widumai is so hidden in a grove as to be nearly invisible. The streets are lined with bamboo hedges that meet and form an arch overhead. The houses are also enclosed with them, so that each seems sheltered in a bamboo grove. In some villages these hedges are clipped down to the same size as the stone walls, with which they alternate very pleasantly. Most of the houses are thatched huts, and their whole aspect betokens poverty and untidiness. Some are not so good as sheep-cotes in Europe, and many not over ten feet square, having their sides thatched with straw, often without fire-place or window, or even any- thing to close the doorway. The arrangement of their houses is very simple, and fitted only for a warm climate. Each man studies to prevent others from looking into his premises, either by a dead wall in front of the gate, or by placing the gate at right angles with the street. The roof rests on a double row of posts, about four feet apart, the space between the rows forming a sheltered porch. The beams connecting the posts have grooves, in which panels slide, like the doors of some of our barns, and form the sides of the house ; and others in like manner, crossing the house, divide it into rooms. The floor is two feet above the ground, and usually covered with thick mats, on which felt carpets are sometimes spread. In cold, rainy weather — frost is unknown — sashes covered with oiled paper imperfectly supply the place of glass, and braziers of char- coal furnish warmth. The whole structure, porch and all, can be thrown into one room. No chairs or tables are seen. They sit and sleep on the mats ; low stands are used for writing desks, and a raised divan, in a few houses, furnishes a place for articles of value. Mats and carpets are alive with fleas, and mosquitoes are not wanting. The panels in the better houses are frequently ornamented with scrolls and pictures. The walls about their houses are often built of unhewn stone, fitted together in Cyclopean style, and the surface picked smooth with a hammer. Some of these are two centuries old. There are no walls of squared stone. To us a Lewchew house seems naked and cheerless, but its inmates, who know nothing better, are content. Their dress is a loose robe, lapping over in front, and secured by a girdle. Its capacious bosom is usually well filled with books or other things. Their grass sandals are held by a strap passing round the great toe. On occasions of ceremony a sock is worn, with a thumb- like appendage to accommodate the strap. Rich people vary the number of their robes with the weather. The poor have only one, and thousands of laborers only a waistcloth. The women are always modestly dressed. The men secure their hair with two large metal pins. It is done up in a coil on top of the head, surmounted by a bow, through which a large pin is passed. Much time is spent in arranging and oiling it. One pin with an ornamental head shaped like a flower is always in front. Women wear their hair in a knot on the side of the head. The ends soon become disheveled and do not look neat. Married women tattoo the back of their hands blue to the fingers' ends — a custom said to have originated with a faithful wife, who, when tried, thus destroyed her beauty to preserve her honor. Neither sex cover the head, but official rank is denoted by an oblong flat-topped silk cap, of different color, ac- cording to the rank of the wearer. In cold weather an overcoat of thick cotton is worn by the gentry. Animal food in Lewchew is chiefly fish, pork, and poultry. Goat's flesh is used, but beef rarely. Sheep are said to be unknown. Cattle are small, and are used for ploughing. Horses are small, but terribly underfed and overworked. The bare ribs of their saddles are not invit- ing to strangers. No buffaloes are seen, and scarcely a dog or cat. Small, uncomfortable sedans are used for carriages. Their boats are either open scows, paddled by men seated on the gunwale, or canoes that can scarcely hold two men, and without outriggers. Their junks copy Chinese models, though much better ones from Japan are always in their harbors. 28 THE ELY VOLUME. Their workshops are open to the street, so that all done inside can be seen. Their tools and manipulations resemble those of China. Some carpenters and blacksmiths were noticed, and two or three silversmiths making hair-pins. Women use rude looms and bamboo spin- ning wheels. Cotton is bleached, and woven in checked patterns with dyed thread. Some- times, however, the cloth is stamped with a small block of wood and a hammer. No statistics of commerce were attainable. Their language is a dialect of the Japanese, yet so different that the two nations cannot con- verse together. Chinese literature is much prized. The writings of Confucius and Mencius are studied, the people learning the Chinese characters through the Japanese, with their own pronunciation — a most circuitous road to knowledge. .Scholars speak Chinese with the J 'eking pronunciation. The masses are untaught, and no books are seen for sale, or placards, or advertisements on the walls, as in China. The people clip their words so that it is difficult to get the true pronunciation. Temples are numerous, in which ancestral worship is performed and both Buddha and Confucius adored. They are among the best buildings, affording lodgings for travelers and dwellings for priests. Most of them are protected by gigantic stone idols on each side of the entrance. Though the priests have little political influence, they receive a good support. The people worship stones to propitiate the gods of grain, and the bastard banyan to obtain long life. These trees, carefully guarded by stone walls, suggest to the Bible student the groves of the Canaanites. The tombs seem more costly than the houses. Some of them are excavated in rocks and hills, and some built of stones. They are shaped like a horse-shoe, and are kept very neat, but contain no inscriptions. A stone is removed from the back of those standing apart, and through the opening thus made the body is put in, and then the stone carefully replaced. Many of them seem to have been empty for ages. They occur everywhere, but chiefly in places where they think the spirits can have a good view of the water. Even over the bodies of foreigners the government has erected tombs, without waiting for orders or remuneration. In funerals, the mourners are attended by friends of both sexes, clad in dirty white cloth ; boys with banners lead the procession, followed by men two and two. The mourners follow, wail- ing aloud, and needing to be supported by domestics, in the abandon of their grief. The coffin is carried by four men, in a red lacquered bier, others holding banners aloft on either side. The children in front, and the women behind, join the men in wailing, which is audible at a great distance. The disheveled appearance of the women adds to the gloom of the cortege. No priests are in the procession, but the number of friends is a pleasant feature where so much is depressing. The government is a hereditary monarchy. The jaolitical institutions are based on the writings of Confucius. The islands have been under the control of Satsuma for more than two centuries. Old usages are maintained. The present sovereign ' is only thirteen years of age, and the administration is nominally in the hands of a general superintendent, or regent, assisted by three treasurers, one for each prefecture of the island. Local magistrates, assisted by many police, are found in every place. At present the queen dowager has some voice in state affairs, but in fact, the agents of the ruler of Satsuma have supreme control, and though they keep out of sight, yet all classes live in constant fear of them. Strangers cannot understand this. Neither soldiers nor arms are to be seen, yet the whole people seem cowed and terror- stricken. The explanation is a wide-spread system of espionage, that makes every man a spy on every other, and compels all to live in constant fear. They fear to be seen with foreigners or to receive anything from them. When they bring a stranger to his ship, from the shore, they refuse remuneration; and if the money is thrown into their boat, they bring it back, for every man fears to be betrayed by the rest. Situated between the powerful cm])ires of C:hina and Japan, the Lewchewans have sought to keep themselves secluded from both, and have shown kindness to all, as the only means of safety. In 1609, the Prince of Satsuma took their king to his capital, Kagosima, and compelled them to pay him tribute. No other Japanese are allowed to trade with them, nor can they go any- where else in Japan. An annual tribute is sent to Fuhchau, and the vessel brings back > x8s3. LEWCHEW HAKODADI, 29 Chinese books and merchandise. The gentry send their sons to learn Chinese literature, and speak of that empire with respect, but seldom refer to Japan, professing ignorance of Tuchara, as they call it ; they never admit that they are under its control. The position of the islands was not learned till the present century. The agreeable accounts of Capt. Basil Hall ' have been somewhat modified, for he never even suspected the espionage that was the real cause of much that he took for kindness. The same system of free supplies has been continued since, but the reason for it has only recently come to light, in the fear with which the people were inspired by those in authority, so as to maintain the non-inter- course in which they felt lay their only safety. In Lewchew we see the effects of a well-organized government, supported by a system of law and education, in preserving nationality, securing the respect of other nations, and a fair degree of comfort at home. Less energetic than Africans or New Zealanders, none of their institutions rest on brute force.' Confucius, not the war club, is the standard of right. Instead of tabu, cannibalism, and atrocity, are schools and regular officers of government. The benefits of a written language are also conspicuous, and show its value for the perpetuation of national existence. We must respect such a people, and a more full examination of their his- tory and policy will be of interest to the ethnologist. For their mildness and kindness they deserve our esteem, and it is to be hoped that Europe and America will Christianize the nationality that China and Japan have so long treated with respect.^ HAKODADI. Situation of Hakodadi. The town of Hakodadi lies on the southern coast of the island of Yesso, in latitude 41° 49' 22" north, and longitude 140° 47' 45" east, on the western shores of a small peninsula, which forms one side of the secure harbor before the town, and in full view of the Straits of Sangar. It belongs to the imperial fief of Matsmai, and is situated near the eastern boundary of the country of the Ainos, or aborigines of Yesso. There are few or none of these people now within this principality, and none are to be seen in the town. Hakodadi is a place of considerable native commerce, a large part of the supplies for the Ainos and the Japanese being stored here, as well as great quantities of produce brought in to exchange for these importations from the south. It lies about thirty miles eastward from Matsmai, the chief town in the principality, and is the second in importance on the island; the two are connected by a well-made road, running along near the coast, and both carry on a large trade with several small towns on the south side of the Straits of Sangar (more properly Tsugaru), and other ports farther south in Nippon. The word " Hakodadi " means " box shop," applied to the town because it is little else than a warehouse for the goods imported from Nippon and elsewhere ; the spelling " Chakodade," used in Golownin's Recollections, is incorrect. The town contains about eight thousand inhabit- ants, living in about a thousand houses, mostly stretched along for three miles in one main thoroughfare near the sea-side ; the remainder form two or three parallel streets further up the hill. The shape of the peninsula bears a slight resemblance to that of Macao; but the whole town being seen at once, added to the greater height of the hills behind it, renders the view much more imposing from the sea. The highest peak, just behind the town, is about one thousand feet ; the other three are upwards of six hundred ; all of them, bare upon the summits, have their slopes covered with a low growth of shrubs and a few patches of pine trees. The groves of pines, maples, and fruit trees behind the town add much to its picturesque appear- ance, and, with its large buildings, give the impression of a place of wealth and taste. The buildings are of one story, with an attic, occasionally making a commodious upper chamber, but usually only a dark cock-loft, where goods are stored or servants lodged. The height of the roof is seldom over twenty-five feet from the ground; the gently sloping sides are covered with pine shingles, not much larger than one's hand, which are kept in place by bam- boo nails and long slips of board, and over these are laid rows of cobble-stones, sometimes so thickly as to cover the entire surface. One object in using these stones is to hasten the melt- I1S.7. 2 A few sentences have been added from a journal of Dr. P. Parker, Missionary Herald, 1838, p. 204. 30 THE ELY VOLUME. ing of the snow from the roofs. This heavy covering is supported by a framework of joists and tie-beams. The singular appearance which this gives the houses is increased by the tub of water placed on the gable, which, rising above the porch, fronts the street in Dutch style. The tub contains a broom or two with which to wet the house in case of fire. In the street, the many rows of buckets and tubs filled with water, with a small fire-engine and hose here and there, show the dread of fires, and the precautions taken against them. Fire-alarms are made of a thick piece of plank hung under a little roof, to be struck by watchmen in case of fire ; while the charred timbers still lying about where a hundred houses had stood only a few months ago, prove the need of all these precautions. A few of the better houses and the temples are neatly roofed with brown wedge-shaped tiles, laid in gutters like the Chinese ; while the poor are content to shelter themselves in thatched hovels. The thatch, in many cases, is covered with a crop of grass, growing from seeds planted by birds, and presenting sad evidence of the poverty or unthriftiness of the inmates. The abundance of crows flying about the town reminds one of Bombay and other places in Southern India. Other birds, both land and sea fowl, were seen in great variety, but not in large numbers, except gulls and sparrows. The raised floor is covered with stuffed mats, and can be partitioned off into two or more rooms, by sliding panels and folding screens. In the center is a brick fire-place, about three feet square, tiled around the edge and filled with ashes ; the charcoal and wood are commonly brought in thoroughly ignited, and then burned on a brazier or handiron in the center. There is not much smoke when it is burned in this way ; but in the cottages the annoyance from smoke is almost intolerable. In a few houses, a hole in the roof or side allows the escape of some of it ; and then cooking is carried on in the same place. It may easily be imagined what gloomy abodes these are in rainy, wintry weather, with no glass windows to admit light, or chim- neys to carry off the smoke, and the wind whistling through every crevice upon the shivering in- mates. The poor spend much of their time in winter cuddling around the fire-place, while the rich load themselves with clothes to protect their bodies from the cold. In the largest estab- lishments, there are small open courts between the rooms, sheltered from the wind, by which a dim light can be admitted through the windov/s ; but the best houses in this town are cheerless abodes compared with even the glazed cottage of an English peasant; and one is surprised to see, among a people who have carried many arts to a high degree of excellence, so little progress in the art of living comfortably. Connected with most of the dwelling-houses is a yard, and in many of them is a kitchen or stable, also used for storing wood ; the yard is some- times used for rearing vegetables or cultivating a few flowers ; sometimes a kitchen garden, with fruit and shade trees, indicates the greater taste as well as wealth of the occupant. In the house of the officers, there was an arbor or fancy rock-work garden at the entrance, which showed invitingly from the street, and did credit to the tenant. Shops. The shops along the main street are often connected with the family residence in the rear, but quite as frequently with a mechanic's room. The goods in shops are packed in boxes or drawers as much as possible, only the coarsest pottery, grains, sandals, and common articles being exposed. The ceiling is about seven feet high, and the beams are hung with these articles. Besides the shops are numerous warehouses, built higher and with more care, and made as nearly fire-proof as possible. Their walls are two feet thick, faced with stone, and made of mud or rubble-stone, securely tiled on tojD, and entered by two or three large doors. Some of them have a loft ; the window-shutters arc of plank covered with iron. Some of the houses are entirely covered with fine plaster on the outside ; and their substantial appearance stands in strong contrast to the unpainted, pine-board dwellings near them. The shops in Hakodadi arc stored with goods such as a poor people require. Coarse, thick cottons, common earthen and china ware, lacquered bowls, cups, and stands, durable silks, cutlery, and ready-made clothes constitute the greatest portion of the stocks. Furs, leather, felted cloths, glass-ware, or copper articles are rarely seen ; nor are books and stationery very common. The provision stores contained rice, wheat, barley, pulse, dried and fresh fish, sea- weed, salt, sugar, saki, soy, charcoal, sweet potatoes, and flour, with other less necessary articles, and to all appearance in ample quantities. There is no public market, as neither CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 3 1 beef, pork, nor mutton is eaten, and not many fowls, geese or ducks ; vegetables are occa- sionally hawked about. The artisans are chiefly blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers, shipwrights, lacquered ware makers, potters, and stone-cutters. The signs of the shops are written on the paper windows or doors in various devices and cyphers; some in Chinese characters, and others in Japanese, or a combination of the two. Streets. The streets are about thirty feet wide ; and wooden fences cross them at intervals with gateways. No wheeled carriages are seen, and they are kept commendably clean, sprinkled and swept frequently. The yards are surrounded with board fences, built close and high to conceal the interior ; hedges and stone walls are occasionally substituted. The streets present a remarkable contrast to those in China, indicating less energy and traffic. No vociferous coolies or stalwart chair-bearers here thrust the idler aside; no clamorous dealers claim preference for their wares and viands ; no industrious craftsmen work their trade along the side of the way; but quiet reigns in the streets, broken now and then by a stout horse-boy hallooing to his unruly beasts, an official attendant bidding the people prostrate themselves to the great man coming, or the clang of a busy forgeman in a neighboring shop. Yet the gen- eral impression is made that Hakodadi is a town of considerable wealth and trade ; and the droves of pack-horses passing through the streets, the hundred junks at anchor off the town, their boats and fishing smacks passing from ship to shore and about the harbor, the tidy streets, and gentlemen with two swords riding through them on horseback, all strengthen this impression. Environs. The environs of Hakodadi present little to attract. Beyond the town, eastward, are two forts, dug out of the ground, to guard the entrance to the harbor. Stakes are driven along the cuttings to retain the earth, and two wooden buildings, apparently connected with magazines underground, stand in the excavated area, which is paved with stones. Embrasures for only two guns are opened seaward, and these are each nearly four feet wide. There is a building at the eastern end of the main street on the beach, which seems intended for a fort; but it may be a parade-ground. Clhnaie. The climate of Hakodadi is probably not subject to the same extremes as the coast of Manchuria, in the same latitude ; though the snow, lingering on the western hills on the first of June, showed that it is colder than New Bedford or Boston, about as far north, and with a similar exposure. At this date peach an^l apple trees were in full bloom, the wake-robin, sassafras, maple, willow, and snow-ball in blossom, and some of the trees around the town not yet fully leaved out. Food. The animal food of the inhabitants chiefly consists of fish, clams, crabs, shell-fish, and other -marine productions. Salmon are caught in the harbor in June, of a delicious flavor, be- sides herring, perch, plaice, shad, and eels. Poultry, eggs, and ducks, and perhaps a little rabbit or venison, afford additional variety ; dogs, cats, and crows are numerous, but none of them are eaten. The dog is like the common Chinese variety, and iLs very common. The horses are small-limbed, and some of those belonging to the officers resembled barbs; but most of the pack-horses appeared half-fed and overworked. The price of the latter is from twenty-five to thirty-five dollars, while a fine riding horse was rated over two hundred dollars. No wagons or carts were seen ; and all the internal freight is carried on horses, of which nearly a thousand were seen in the streets on one occasion. Wheat, rice, pulse of various kinds, greens, and barley, with a great assortment of sea- weed, principally a species of Lammaria, form the staples of vegetable diet. No fruits or fresh vegetables were in season when the American squadron was in port. Fully one half of the food of the people comes from the sea, and the rank odor of drying fish, and sea-weed meets one on the shore. The hamlet of Shirasawabi, on the eastern side of the peninsula, was insuffer- able from stinking fish; and its inhabitants presented a squalid appearance, which may probably be taken as the average condition of the people of Yesso, rather than that of the well- fed and'clean townsfolk in Hakodadi. It should also be mentioned, that not a beggar was seen amon;; them. 32 THE ELY VOLUME. Trade. The people are stout, Ihick-set, more sturdy than those of Simoda, and not va fawning or immoral. Their average height is about five feet three inches; heavy beards are common, but none are worn uncut. They are mostly engaged in trade and shipping, depend- ing on their importations for their breadstuffs. Junks come from the south side of the Straits of Sangar, from Sado Island, lying south of Matsmai, Yedo, Yechigo, Noto, Nagasaki, towards the western end of Niphon, and even Osaka and Owari on the south. The harbor con- tained more than a hundred junks, though it was the dull season, as the south wind had not yet begun to bring up vessels ; and the authorities regretted they could not supply our wants. They declined to sell any rice or wheat or flour, on account of the uncertainty of the arrival of fresh stocks. Rice, sugar, spirits, cotton cloth, silk, iron, porcelain, and hewn stone are imported, for which they exchange dried and salted fish, sea-weed, charcoal, wheat, barley, deer's horns, timber, and other produce of Yesso. There is not much likelihood of the port soon becoming a place of much trade with American ships, but it can easily furnish supplies of wood, water, fish, especially fresh or dried salmon and perch, sugar, boards, eggs, poultry, and other articles, the variety of which will doubtless increase with the demand. As a place for a retreat from the heats of Shanghai and Canton, Hakodadi may by-and-by attract visitors, who will by that time doubtless be allowed to investigate the resources and topography of the whole island. CHINA AND VICINITY. In regard to the geography of China, it is hardly needful to do more than to refer the reader to the full and accurate pages of Dr. S. W. Williams. On this and every other topic relating to China, his Middle Kingdom is an unfailing in- structor and most reliable authority. Dr. H. Blodget calls it the ripe fruit of his life-long studies, and a treasury of knowledge concerning Chinese affairs, which no student of the language can afford to be without. It is used as a text-book by the students of the British Legation in China. Though originally published in 1847, nothing has since appeared that supersedes it. It remains the most copious and trustworthy source of information on all that pertains to China.^ Volume I (pp. 1-42) describes the general outlines of the empire ; (pp_ 43-120) the eastern provinces, their climate, coasts, chief cities, rivers, and islands ; (pp. 1 21-150) the western provinces and their capitals. Then follows (pp. 151-205) a like account of Manchuria. Mongolia, Kokonor, Hi and Khoten, Tibet and Ladak ; (pp. 206-239) with an exhaustive treatise on the population 2 and statistics of tiie empire. The laws and plan of government (pp. 296-420), with its practical administration, are all set forth with a fullness of detail that leaves the scholar nothing to desire, save to master a work that gives him the key to everything Chinese. There is an outline map of China in the Missionary Herald for 1869, accompanied by valuable notes on a variety of subjects (pp. 1-5). Rev. Daniel Vrooman prepared a map of Canton and its suburbs, by which the British fleet was guided in its bombardment of the city in 1856. It was subsequently printed in i860. The Chinese Repository has many valuable articles on the geography of that -country, as, e. g., the valuable comments of Mr. J. R. Morrison on a native map of tlie empire (Vol. I, pp. 33-42, 113-121, and 170-179) i Gutzlaff's voyages forming the staple of Vols. I and II. There is a description of Canton, with a 1 Report has it that the author is preparing a new edition ; if so, he who has it will need little else on China. 2 See also Missionary Herald, i87<), PP- 5o-5'- CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 3S map (Vol. II, pp. 145-160, 192-211, 241-264, and 289-308) : a review of the article " Canton " in the Ejicydopcedia Americana (Vol. I, pp. 161-169) ; an excellent critique on two Swedish voyages to China in 1750 and 175 1, by- Peter Osbeck and Olaf Toreen, and on an account of Chinese farming by Capt. Eckeberg, London, 2 vols., 1771 (Vol. I, pp. 209-224) ; another on M'-. Tomlin's Journals fr07n Singapore to Siam a?id Malacca, by the editor. Rev. E. C. Bridgman (Vol. I, pp. 224-234) ; a review of Lewis LeComte's Memoirs and Remarks on China during ten years' travel, commencing in 1688 (Vol. I, pp. 248- 26S) ; national character of the Chinese (Vol. I, pp. 326-330) ; population of the empire (Vol. I, pp. 345-363, 385-397, and Vol. II, p. 32) ; climate of Can- ton and Macao, with meteorological tables (Vol. I, pp. 488-491) ; account of the island of Formosa, with a map (Vol. II, pp. 408-420) ; Chinese navy (Vol. II, p. 421) ; description of Peking, with a map (Vol. II, pp. 432-443, 480- 500) ; imports and exports of Canton (Vol. II, pp. 447-472). It would weary the reader to enumerate further, especially as the most val- uable facts are embodied by Dr. Williams in The Middle Kingdom ; yet, if any man thinks missionaries are men of only one idea, and make no additions to the sum of human knowledge, let him read over only the titles of other leading articles in these two volumes, and also in those that appeared after the publi- cation of the two valuable volumes of Dr. Williams. Volume I. A critique on an ancient account of India and China, by two Moslem travelers of the ninth century (pp. 6-15,42-45). A review of a native work on Chinese biography (pp. 107-108). The Language of Corea (pp. 276-279). Catechism of the Shamans, or laws of the Buddhist priesthood in China (pp. 2S5-289). The sacred edict, containing sixteen maxims of the emperor Kanghe, amplified by his son, the emperor Yungching, with para- phrase on both, by a mandarin (pp. 297-315). Intercourse of China with foreigners (pp. 364-376). Historical sketch of Portuguese settlements in China, more especially of Macao, of Portuguese envoys to China, of Papal missionaries in China, and of Papal legates to that empire (pp. 39S-40S, 425-446), which is an unvarnished tale of the lawless methods by which Portugal, against the unavailing protest of the Chinese, acquired her foothold on their territory. Early introduction of Christianity into China (pp. 447-452). Father Alvarez Semedo's History of China, translated, London, 1665 (pp. 473-4SS). Worshiio at the Tombs of Ancestors (pp. 499-503). Then, in every number of every volume was a monthly record of current events, filled with accounts of piracies, inundations, famines, misdoings of the authorities, and many other things, giving a good insight into every-day life in China. Volume II discusses the Chinese penal code (pp. 10-19,61-73, 97-1 11) ; the Introduction of Vaccination (pp. 35-41) ; History and Chronology of China (pp. 74-85, 11 i-i 28) ; The Bugis Language, with an alphabet (pp. 85-90); Malays (pp. 93-95); Idolatry (pp. 166-176); Cop- perplate Syllabary of the Corean Language (pp. 135-138); Buddhism (pp. 214-225); Chinese Botany (pp. 225-230) ; Systems of Buddha and Confucius, compared by a Chinese writer in 1 520 (pp. 265-270) ; Ophthalmic Hospital at Macao (pp. 270-276) ; Canton Dispensary (pp. 276-277); Disposition of Chinese toward Foreigners (pp. 277-281) ; Titles of Chinese Em- perors (p. 309); Chinese Theology (p. 311); Proportion of Mantchus and Chinese in Office (p. 312); Condition of Females '(p. 313); Navigation of the Yangtse Kiang (p. 316); Worship in Japan (pp. 318-324) ; Staunton's Embassy of Lord Macartney in 1793 (PP- ZZ1~ 350) ; Spanish Relations with the Chinese (pp. 350-355) ; Free Trade with China (pp. 355- 374, 473-477) ; Crawford's History of Indian Archipelago, Edinburgh, 1820 (pp. 385-40S) ; Seamen in Canton (pp. 4---425) ; Burmah (pp. 500-506, 554-563)- As The Middle Kingdom was published about the close of 1847, it may be of service to scholars to mention some of the titles in the closing volumes of the work. 3 34 THE ELY VOLUME. In 1S47, we have a list of Foreign Residents in China (pp. 3, 346, 412); Protestant Mis- sionaries there (pp. 12, 147); a notice of Rev. W. C. Mihie's seven months' residence in Ningpo (pp. 14-30, 56-72, 104-121); On the Chinese words for God (pp. 30-39, 99-121, 351); The Opium Trade (pp. 39-46,97-179) ; The Cotton Trade (pp. 47-50, 134) ; Mons. Hedde's Ex- cursion to Changchau (pp. 75-84) ; New Charts of the Coast; Rules of the Canton Chamber of Commerce (pp. 87-92); Asiatic Society of China — Its Beginr.ir.gs (pp. 92-96); Peter Os- beck's Canton and Whampoa in 1752 (pp. 136-141) ; A Trip to Fuhshan (pp. 142-147); Thos. Yeates's First Christian Missions in China (pp. 152-168) ; Biographies and Obituaries of Missionary Ladies in China (pp. 16S-179) ; A Demonstration under Major-General Aquilar (pp. 182-202, 252-265) ; The Religion of the Chinese (pp. 203-207) ; Chinese Grass-cloth (p. 209); Thomas Allom's Chinese Manufacture of Silk (pp. 223-236); Robert Thorn's Chinese Speaker, with notice of author (pp. 236-245) ; Manifesto from Chinese Merchants to English Merchants (pp. 247-251); Premare's Notitia LingUcC Sinica: (p. 266); Chinese Currency and Revenue (pp. 273-297) ; Obituaries of Mrs. Marshman and Mrs. Morrison (p. 297) ; Protest from Honan to the British Consul at Canton (pp. 300-363) ; Visit of the French to Cochin China (p. 310) ; Shipping at Canton, 1846 (p. 314) ; Shipping at Shanghai (p. 356) ; Peet's Plea for China (p. 321); Chinese Fire Regulations (p. 331) ; Letter of Mons. Grandjean (p. 335) ; List of Missionary Books published east of the Ganges (p. 369) ; Riot at Canton in 1846 (pp. 382, 425-465) ; Voyage from Canton to Shanghai (p. 39S) ; Bibliotheca Sinica by Dr. Milne (pp. 406, 448, 500) ; Commissioner Lin's Ocean Kingdom, with maps (p. 417) ; Read- ings in Chinese Poetry (p. 454); Fuhchau Fu, by S. Johnson (pp. 4S3, 513); Proclamation of Bishop Ludovic, of Shanghai (pp. 246, 506) ; Shanghai (p. 529) ; Fortune's Wanderings in China (p. 569) ; Bishop Le Fevre's Cochin China (p. 5S4). In 1848: English and Chinese Calendar (pp. i, 419); Infanticide, by a native writer (p. 11); Chinese Terms for God, by Bishop Boone (pp. 17, 57); by W. li. Medhurst (pp. 105, 161, 265, 321, 414, 489, 545, 600); Revision of Chinese New Testament (p. 53); Meadows' China (p. 90); Chinese Sacrifices (p. 97); List of Protestant Missionaries (p. loi); Report of Ophthalmic Hospital, Canton, for 1847 (p. 133) ; Attack on English Missionaries at Tsing- pu (pp. 151, 401) ; Medical Missions in China (pp. 188, 242) ; Address to Foreigners by Chinese against eating beef (pp. 260, 459) ; Colonial Surgeon's Report for 1847 (p. 313) ; Shangti not Jehovah (p. 357) ; Chinese Form of Prayer in Fulfillment of Vows (p. 365) ; Capt. Howe's Captivity in Cochin China (p. 366) ; Memoirs of Father Ripa (p. 376) ; Hedde's Description of the Silk Region of Shunteh (p. 423) ; Chinese Lexicography (p. 433) ; Cities of Kiating and Nantsiang (p. 462); Shanghai (pp.468, 530); Proclamation allowing Papal Missionaries at Sukia Hwui (p. 477) ; Murder of a Grandmother and Lynching of the Murderer (p. 480) ; Shower of dust at Shanghai (p. 521) ; Chinese map of military stations of Kiang Su (p. 536) ; Four Years' Thermometer at Shanghai (p. 527) ; Reminiscences of Shanghai, by J. R. Morri- son (p. 528); Illustrations of Scripture from Chinese Customs (p. 537); Chinese accounts of the regions west and north of China between the fifth and eighteenth centuries (p. 575) ; Illus- trations of Men and Things in China (p. 591); Chinese Moral Anecdotes (p. 646); Chinese Works of American Tract Society (p. 649). In 1S49: Eras in use in Eastern Asia; Calendar; List of Foreign Residents, Government officials (pp. i-i 2) ; Chinese Writers on Tea Plant (p. 13); Historical Sketch of Shanghai (pp. 18,384, 515, 574); Bibliographical Notices of English and French Works on Siam (p. 23) ; Report of Morrison Education Society for 1848 (p. 33) ; Chinese Philosophy (p. 43) ; Protestant Missions in China (p. 48) ; Biot's History of Public Instruction in China (p. 57); Bowring's Hot Springs of Yungmak (p. 86) ; Shin and Shangti (pp. 100, 102) ; by Dr. Bowring (p. 600) ; by Sir G. T. Staunton (p. 604) ; Prices current in Shanghai (p. 109) ; Bazin's Chinese Theatre, with Drama in Four Acts (pp. 113-155) ; Native Preacher on the Sabbath (p. 156); Chinese Moral Anecdotes (p. 159); A Chinese Dictionary of the Twelfth Century (p. 170); Memoir of the Philosopher Chu of the Twelfth Century, by Kau Yu of the Seventeenth Cen- tury (p. 187) ; Sale of Official Rank (p. 207) ; Hemp and Grass-cloth (p. 209) ; Capt. Ross's Land Trip from Hainan to Canton, in 1819; Annals and Genealogy of Confucius (pp. 254, 337, 393) ; Memoir of Abeel (p. 250) ; Oath of the Triad Society (p. 281) ; Foreign Trade with China in 1847 and 1848 (p. 295) ; Mulberry and Silkworms (p. 303) ; Cruise of the United States Slnnp " Preble " to Napa and Nagasaki (p. 315); Chinese Cosmogony (p. 342); Biot CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 35 on the Condition of Slaves and Servants in China (p. 347); Worship of Ancestors (p. 363); List of English and French Works on China (pp. 402, 657) ; Chinese Directions for Cotton Cultivation (p. 449); Philology of word Fung or Wind (p. 470); Ancient Intercourse with China through Central Asia opens a Way for the Knowledge of Christianity (p. 485); Mission- ary Hospitals in China (p. 505); Topography of Kweichau (p. 525); Assassination of Gov- ernor of Macao (p. 532) ; Indian Notices of Grass-cloth (p. 554) ; Meadows on Tenure of Real Estate in China; Topography of Yunnan (p. 5S8) ; Goddard's Vocabulary, and Meadows' Translations from the Manchu (pp. 604-642) ; Romish Missions in Mongolia, by Rev. E. Hue (p. 617). In 1850: Calendar, etc. (p. i); Labors of Dr. Bettelheim in Lewchew (pp. 17, 57); Chinese Terms for God (pp. 90, 185, 280, 345, 409, 445, 465, 478, 486, 524, 569, 625); Topography of Hupeh (p. 97); of Hunan (p. 156); of Shensi (p. 220); Island of Tarakai (p. 289); of Sz'chuen (pp. 317, 394) ; Shanghai (pp. 105, 227, 330, 390); Famine in Shanghai (p. in); Paul Su's Apology for the Jesuit Missionaries in 1617 (p. 118) ; Chinese account of Japan (pp. 135, 206) ; Etymologicon of Hiishin (p. 169) ; Military Achievements of the Kings of the Great Pure Dynasty (p. 241); Russian Ode to the Deity (p. 245); Movable Chinese Types (p. 247) ; Medical Missions (p. 300); Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, 1848 and 1849 (P- -53); Account of Some Chinese Deities (p. 312); Showers of Sand in the Chinese Plain (p. 328); Dr. Macgowan on Coal in China (p. 345); Rev. W. M. Lowrie (p. 491); Yellow River (p. 499) ; Foreign Trade with China for 1849 (p. 513) ; Two Mongolian Letters to Philip the Fair, in 1305 (p. 526) ; Pagodas in and near Canton (p. 535) ; Versions of the Bible in Chinese (p. 544) ; Buddhist Tenets in Siam (p. 548) ; Monument (Nestorian) at Singan Fu (p. 552) ; To- pography of Kansuh (p. 554) ; Hue's Tartary, Tibet, and China (p. 650). There were twenty volumes of the Chinese Repository. The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal commenced at Fuhghau iu May, iS6j, under the editorial care of Rev. S. L. Baldwin. Though the empire was long inaccessible, it has now been traversed exten- sively by our missionaries. Mr. Aitchison lived near Shanghai, and in one of his tours he was arrested and politely sent back. Dr. H. Blodget was the first Protestant missionary to enter Peking. In 1862 he ascended the grand canal to Tehchow. He also went to Pan mountain on the north, to Shensi, and to Lama Mian, five hundred miles north of Tientsin, a great cattle mart in Mongolia, He says the mountains of Shensi and Mongolia are in- teresting fields of labor. The colloquial Mandarin prevails in all the provinces north of the Yangtse Kiang, in Yunnan, Kweichow, and in parts of Hunan and Kwangsi. In iSyr he traveled two hundred miles southwest from Peking to Chingting fu. A Buddhist temple there contains an idol nearly one hundred feet high, and a Papal cathedral stands within a stone's throw. Opium was everywhere, and for two thirds of the time he was never out of sight of growing poppies.^ Peking is situated on a great plain, in 39' 55' north latitude, and 116' 28' east longitude. It is enclosed by distant hills on all sides but the south. It was made the capital of China first for a few years in A. D. 937. Kublai Khan again transferred the capital here in 1280. Having been removed to Nanking in 1369, it was brought back by Yungloh in 1411, and has remained here ever since. Peking consists of two unequal portions; the inner, or Tartar, and the outer, or Chinese city. A wall thirty-five feet high and twenty-five feet in breadth encloses the whole, and another wall four miles long divides the two, with three gates, always closed at night. The Tartar city includes (i) " the '^Missionary Herald, 1S71, p. 354. 36 THE ELY VOLUME. forbidden city," half a mile long and two thirds of a mile broad. Here are the palaces of the emperor. Outside of its high wall is a moat full of water, forty feet in width ; also (2) the imperial city, six miles in circumference, occupied by the nobility, soldiers, and numerous public buildings ; and lastly (3) the city proper, with a circumference of fourteen miles. The principal avenues are eighty feet wide, and on these are the shops and warehouses, like the one here represented. The side streets and lanes, from twenty to thirty feet in width, contain the houses and smaller shops. r.IliRCANTII.K WAREHOUSE, PEKING. The large engraving gives a view near one of the principal gates, and pre- sents a very lively scene. The numerous carts are waiting to be hired. The bridge seen here crosses a canal, and is so noted for their numbers in its vicinity that it is called the " Beggars' Bridge." Here is a specimen, also, of a Chinese memorial gate, erected to commemorate victories, or in honor of some great man. Not far from this bridge are the markets, theaters, and several large temples ; also the inns for the accommodation of the thousands who visit Peking for business, or to attend the literary examinations which are the measure of political preferment. The summer here is lonjrer and more debilitating than in New England. EAST INDIES. 37 The mean annual temperature is 53'' ; in winter 26 , and in summer 80 \ It is very dry in winter. No rain fell from October 17, 1873, till April 21, 1874^ and the next shower was on May loth ; but in summer the rains are abundant. In the summer of 1874 there were thirty-two rainy days, and the rainfall was eighteen inches.^ In 1875, Messrs. C. Goodrich, C. Holcombe, and A. H. Smith went to Singan fu, one thousand miles southwest from Peking, the ancient capital of the empire, where Nestorians planted churches long before Luther. On the way, two days of painful climbing up and down steep and rocky mountains, on an execrable road, brought them to a city in a region of coal and iron. Three days more brought them to the lovely central plain of Shansi, and its capi- tal, Tai-yuan fu. Many of the houses at a distance resembled turreted castles. Two more hard days brought them to the southern plain of Shansi, extending to the Yellow River. Crossing into Shensi, they reached Singan fu, where high ministers of state became Christians, and the Nestorian monument still bears its silent witness to the truth. It was erected eleven hundred years ago, and is waiting for tihe return of the whole region to Christ. Mr. Holcombe's jour- nal is full of geographical information.^ He estimates the population of Shansi at fourteen millions, and of Shensi at ten million two hundred and fifty thousand, with a climate as healthy as New England. Rev. J. T. Gulick writes of the region round Kalgan. He describes the Mongols as far behind the Chinese in civilization, yet in eastern Mongolia as well off; their houses built of mud, with paper windows ; most of them shepherds, carrying their frozen meat to Peking in winter, the whole family going mounted on horses and camels : yet they are not nomads, remaining year after year in the same place. It is significant of the scholarship and standing of our missionaries in China, that Dr. P. Parker, Dr. S. W. Williams, and Rev. C. Holcombe have been appointed secretaries of legation to our government in that empire. EAST INDIES. In a volume intended to set forth the tangible results of foreign missions, it would be unpardonable to overlook the deeds of some who, though not formally ordained to the work by man, were nevertheless truly called to it of God, and, in what some speak of as their secular callings, were as truly consecrated to the work as any ordained missionaries. The mercantile firm of Olyphant & Co., in Canton, may be taken as a worthy representative of this class. It was composed of D. W. C. Olyphant, Chas. N. Talbot, Chas. W. King, and W. H. Morss. It is a great pleasure to transcribe their names, for if the Lord preserves even the insects of previous eras in the amber of this, surely it is pleasing to him to preserve the memory of good men. They went to China, not to make money, but as servants of the Lord Jesus Christ, to improve every opportunity for the advancement of his kingdom. They felt it as much a duty to serve Christ in their business as the missionary in his preaching. According iDr. A. O. Treat in Missionary Herald, 1875, pp. 257-260. ^Missionary Herald, 1S75, p. 199; Transactions of No. China Branch of R. A. Society, Vol. X, pp. 55-70- 38 THE ELY VOLUME. to the testimony of one who knows/ American missions to China were begun in 1829, at the suggestion of Mr. Olyphant. He supported them when their expenses were startUng and the prospect of success very remote. The firm furnished a house in Canton rent free to the mission for thirteen years. The church to which he belonged in New York sent out, at his suggestion, in 1832, a complete printing office, called the " Bruen Press," in memory of their late pastor. When the Chinese Repository commenced, that year, he guaranteed the American Board against loss in the undertaking. He built the office it occu- pied in Canton for a number of years. The ships of the firm gave fifty-on*' free passages to missionaries and their families. But the special service which we wish to record was rendered in 1837. At that time the outlook for missions in eastern Asia was most discouraging. Excepting Singapore and Pinang, almost the entire Indian Archipelago was under the control of the Spanish or the Dutch. The former prohibited Protestant missions entirely, and the latter followed ver)' far in the same direction. Even in Bangkok, Canton, and Macao, where Protestant missionaries were allowed to live, their work was underground rather than in open day. They lived in hope of the opening of their prison doors. At such a time this firm purchased the brig " Himmaleh," and fitted her out from New York, at a cost of $20,000, to explore the coasts of eastern Asia, in the interest of science, commerce, and missions. The missionary Gutzlaff was expected to go on the tour, but, as he was hindered, Rev. E. Stevens, of the American Board, and G. T. Lay, agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, were sent in his place. Capt. Eraser was liberally supplied with presents, to open the way for the missionaries, but, both from the cargo and the presents, opium and fire-arms were rigidly excluded ; for even at that early day it was well known that Olyphant & Co. had nothing to do with the opium trade. The " Himmaleh " left Macao December 3, 1836, and arrived at Singapore on the 15th, where Mr. Stevens died, and Rev. J. T. Dickinson, of the American mission, and Rev. S. Wolfe, of the English, were taken in his place; but neither of them was proficient in the Chinese or Malay languages. Mr. Wolfe died at Zamboangan, in Mindanao, where, of course, his body was refused interment in the Papal Spanish cemetery. Mr. Lay felt, however, that the religious activity of the Spaniards was preferable to the apathy of the Dutch, for religion, though presented to the people under its most disadvantageous form, had yet done much to soften the hearts and enlighten the minds of the natives. The govern- ment paid a sincere respect to the priest, who was allowed to labor free from those restrictions and that constant interference which hampered the labors of the Dutch pastor. The brig returned to Singapore in August, and the effort was attended with so little success that she was sent back to New York. We give a few brief statements condensed from the journal of Mr. Dickinson. He left Singapore February i, 1837, and reached Makassar on the loth. The shore was lined with cocoa trees, and behind these appeared small patches of sugar cane and paddy fields. The situation ot the town is flat, and rendered unhealthy by the rice fields. It is enclosed by a wall one third of a mile long, 'Dr. S. W. Williams, Chinese Recorder, Vol. VII, p. 397. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 39 on each of the four sides. The houses were of brick, covered with stucco, and roofed with tiles. They stood in clusters, with cows and horses grazing near them. High mountains formed the background of the picture. In pott were thirty Bugis prows, two Dutch men-of-war, and a merchantman. The natives reside outside the wall, and its gates are closed at night. The Bugis live to the north, and the Makassars to the south, with the town between. The palace of the Bugis rajah was built of bamboo, with some European furniture. The district extends three miles along the shore, and half a mile into the interior of the island. Its population is twenty thousand : eight thousand Makassars (pronounced Mangkarsar), five thousand Bugis, three thousand Malays, one thousand Chinese, five hundred Dutch, and some from other islands. The Dutch school numbered fifty-three half-caste boys and thirty-eight girls. The principal had three assistant teachers. A Chinese school of sixteen boys con- tained thirty-three the year before. The Boni tribe here had been expelled by the English during their domina- tion, and Mr. Dickinson visited the tombs of their rajahs, a mile back from the town. The southern part of the island, between the Bay of Boni on the east and the Straits of Makassar on the west, is one hundred and forty miles long by sixty in breadth, and is the most important part of Celebes. Here are all the Makassars,^ and nearly all the Bugis.- Beginning at the northwest and follow- ing round the coast, are the districts of Sidenring, Barru, Sopeng, Panjana, Tanete, Marus, Tello, Makassar, Goa, Topo, Java, Turataya, Bontain, Bulukumba, Boni, Waju, and Luhu. Each of these is described in detail ; so is the lake Lubaya, twenty miles long, and one hundred feet above the sea. The mountains rise between five and six thousand feet. Many small rivers descend from them on both sides. The languages spoken are the Makassar and Bugis, both of which use the same alphabet; the Bugis adding a few letters. The classification of the let- ters follows the Sanskrit, and, though the proportion of readers is small among both, it is largest among the Bugis. The Portuguese arrived here in 1512 ; the Dutch followed in 1660, and in 1669 took Sambaopo, the last stronghold of the Makassars. The rajah is elected by the nobles, and women are eligible to the throne. In 15 1 2 Mohammedanism was scarcely known ; now it is the religion of this part of Celebes, having been forcibly introduced by the Malays. The Alfoors in the central and northern part of Celebes are heathen, resembling the Dayaks in their customs. The character of the natives is even worse than that of the Malays ; though energetic, they are proud, avaricious, and treacherous to an extreme. At Bontain, Mr. Dickinson landed under a mountain, whose top was hid in clouds, and its sides adorned with fields and forests. Here, in company with his Dutch hosts, he rode on horseback a mile along the beach, then climbed up by a winding path, through the richest vegetation, passing now fields of maize, now through fields of grass, and again under the shade of tall trees, whence he '•ioo.ocio. -600,000. 4° THE ELY VOLUME. looked down on the bay and the i le of Salayer, fifty miles away. Nearer, cocoanut groves dotted the beach, and tala palms grew in the ravines ; paddy fields, and here and there little cottages on the sides of the hills. The eye passed on from field to field, from smiling valleys to lofty cliffs, and from peak to peak up to the summit, turbaned with its wreath of clouds. At the end of the ride, they left ponies, shoes and stockings, and, clambering along the slippery rocks, reached a waterfall one hundred and fifty feet in height. It resembled Mont- morenci, only with scenery far superior. The rock of the mountain is trap. The population of Bontain is about fifteen thousand ; some are gardeners, and some traders. There are only eight Chinese, all of whom deal in opium. About fifty call themselves Christians, and the rest are Moslems, but there are no Arabs. Their Imams, who teach to read the Koran, are supported by the offerings of the people. The island of Salayer has perhaps sixty thousand inhabitants, all Moslems. Their language differs from the Bugis and Makassar, yet they use the same alphabet. Rice does not grow there, and maize is the principal grain. Passing the island of Butung, or Boutong, over one thousand five hundred feet in height, he saw a campong up two thirds of the ascent. There are four of the Xulla or Zula Islands : Tulyubo, Mungala, Bessy, and Lissamatula ; the two former, each fifty miles in length. On Ternati and Tidore he found land- scapes resembling those of Bontain. The conical peak of Tidore rose five thou- sand feet, guarded by five smaller cones. The shores of Gillolo (Halmaihera) were high and covered with verdure. The bazar at Ternati was well supplied with fruits, among them the durian and mangosteen. It is the land of fruits. Here he found a Dutch congregation of one hundred and fifty assembled for worship on the Sabbath. The streets and houses are neater and more comfort- able than in other islands. The fences are made of bamboo. Slats of the same form the sides of the houses, which are thatched with palm leaves. Shrubbery of all sorts abounds, from the coffee shrub to the tree of the forest. The roads are broad and smooth enough for carriages, and grand scenery appears among the hills. Here Mr. Dickinson ascended a volcano, breakfasted one thousand eight hundred feet above the sea, and was much interested in the marvels of the botany of the region. The rock here, too, was trap. The top of the crater is five thousand and sixty feet above the sea. The ascent occupied six hours and a half, and the descent three. Tne ascent of Table Mountain, at the Cape of Good Hope, was little more than half as laborious. At one place the stream of lava is half a mile wide, and can be traced by the eye from the sea to the crater. He visited the sultan of Ternati, passing from the gate of the palace between ranks of soldiers, some of them wearing the Dutch uniform. A few had hel- mets, shields, and breastplates, all of brass. A band of music played, and the room, sixty feet by forty, was furnished in European style, with sofas, chandeliers, and pictures. Conversation was carried on in Malay, Ternati, Dutch, and English. The sultan rules Motir, Makian, the Zula Islands, the northern part of Celebes, and the northern portion of Gillolo, which is only the name of a small CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 41 town on the island, originally mistaken for the name of the island, which the natives call Halmaihera.^ It is more than two hundred miles in length, but has only three thousand inhabitants. Halmaihera has six or seven different lan- guages. The southern portion is Moslem, and the northern heathen. The peo- ple whom Mr. Dickinson saw from there were nearly naked. The sultans of Ternati and Tidore have each fourteen thousand rupees annually from the Dutch, on condition that they destroy all the spices ; and they comply with the demand. The Moluccas, /. ^., Ternati, Tidore, Motir, Makian, and Batchian, produce cloves and nutmegs, and could easily supply the world. Milton speaks of . . . Teinate and Tidore whence merchants bring Their spicy drugs. But the natives make these names each trisyllables. Ternati has about five thousand inhabitants, and Tidore six thousand. The sultan of this last rules the southern part of Halmaihera, and a few small islets besides, his own island having not over twenty thousand subjects in all. The other sultan has at least four times as many. In Ternati there is a Dutch school of forty-five pupils, whose teacher re- ceives $700 annually, part from the government and part from his pupils. The population of the Moluccas does not exceed two hundred thousand, and the number of their languages is twelve. ^ One of our missionaries at Singapore made a collection of Malay and Bugis manuscripts, relating to the history, customs, and mythologies of native tribes little known. It is the best collection extant, and was brought to this country by the United States Exploring Expedition. As the " Himmaleh" had not returned to Canton, and there were seven Japanese shipwrecked sailors, the returning of whom to their homes Messrs. Olyphant & Co. hoped might prove the means of opening up the empire of Japan, they resolved to make the experiment at their own cost, and so sent thither the good ship " Morrison," Capt. David Ingersoll ; with him went Dr. Peter Parker, well supplied with medicines, vaccine virus, and anatomical and surgical plates, such as were fitted to interest intelligent natives; also Dr. S. W. Williams, as naturalist. Presents were sent with them, such as a pair of globes, a telescope, barometer, American coins, books, paintings, among them a portrait of Washington ; also documents in Chinese, such as Pearson's Treatise on Vaccinatiofi ; one gave an account of the shipwrecked men whom they sought to return. (Three of them were the sole survivors of a crew of four- teen ; their junk sailed from Toba in November, 183 1, and, after being driven about for fourteen months in the Pacific, was cast ashore in Oregon. The Indians plundered them and made them prisoners, but they were rescued by a factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, and sent to England, whence they had been forwarded to China.) Another document had for its subject the United States, its history and commercial policy ; and others made various friendly oifers of medical help and instruction. The ship proceeded to the Lewchew islands, and waited there a few days for the Rev. Mr. Gutzlaff, who was to 1 Great land. '^ Missionary Herald, 1S3S, pp. 171-179,227-232. 42 THE ELY VOLUME. follow in the British sloop-of-war*" Raleigh." Dr. Williams made the most of his opportunities here to learn about the islands and their inhabitants, as the reader may see in his journal published in the Chinese Repository ;^ zxidLT>x. Parker vaccinated a native physician, and left him a supply of virus, with Dr. Pearson's treatise. July 15th, Mr. Gutzlaff arrived, and the " Morrison," as soon as he came on board, left for Japan. The voyage is described at length by Dr. Williams," but we can only say here that, in spite of repeated attempts both in the bay of Yedo and in that of Kagosima, they were driven off most inhospitably at the cannon's mouth, one ball striking the bulwarks and plough- ing up the deck; that, too, though the "Morrison " had purposely left her armament at Macao, and Mr. King had taken Mrs. King with him, as an addi- tional token of friendly feeling. The Japanese knew all this, and those who visited the ship seemed friendly enough till compelled by superior authority to pursue another course. The captain did his part well, extricating his vessel with great skill and cool- ness from under fire on both occasions. The secret of this appears in his words when the first balls came whizzing over him : " Fire away! God knows we are here on a good errand, and he will not let you hurt us." Sixteen years after. Dr. Williams landed with Commodore Perry within a mile of the spot where the guns were planted, attended by an escort of six hundred sailors and marines, to carry the letter of President Fillmore to the Japanese emperor, and Commodore Perry named the steep point near by, Ingersoll Bluff, in honor of the good captain. Though those seven shipwrecked Japanese were thus cruelly forbidden to return to their families, two of them were the first-fruits of Japan to Christ, and also rendered assistance in translating Genesis and Matthew, John's Gospel and Epistles, into their language. Five of them main- tained daily j^rayer in Dr. Williams' house for two years, and their harsh repulse was one of the pleas they urged why God should send his Gospel to their countrymen. If Mr. King had lived till the signing of the treaty of Kanagawa, March 31, 1854, he would have found all the objects of the \'oyage attained in God's own good time and way.^ Meanwhile, by this voyage and his subsequent studies in Japanese, God was training Dr. Williams for the post that he filled so ably, of interpreter to the expedition of Commodore Perry. It is much easier to find officers for such expeditions than intelligent and trustworthy interpreters. SUMATRA. Rev. J. Ennis sailed from Batavia, June 29th, the same year, in a vessel of one hundred and fifty tons, which carried, in all, one hundred and fifty souls, including the crew and a company of native soldiers. July 8th he landed at Bencoolen, on the southwest coast of Sumatra. The territory of that name extends from twelve to fifteen miles inland, and thirty miles along the coast ; with a population of twenty-five thousand Malays. The Rejangs live still further in- land, with a language and alphabet of their own. Their annals, laws, and poetry they write on plantain leaves and bamboos. Some have become Moslems, but, though they swear falsely on the Koran, an oath by the graves of their fathers is held sacred. Southeast of these live the 1 Vol. VI, pp. 209-229. - Chinese Repository, Vol. VI, pp. 353-3!^o- 3 Chinese Recorder, Vol. VII, p. 3S7-39'^- SUMATRA, 43 Lampongs, who also write an alphabet of their own. The Dutch have a number of govern- ment officers among them. I'rom Bencoolen he sailed to Padang, and set out for the interior, July 31st, along a plain five miles in breadth, and in places marshy. This extends back to mountains that rise above the clouds, which were then drenching them with showers. Next day he crossed a river on a Malay ferry-boat, made of two canoes joined by a platform of plank, and drawn across by a rattan rope hung on posts across the river in reach of the ferryman. The road was good, and he passed eight or ten Malay villages in eighteen miles. The houses arc built on piles, a few feet above the ground, and in fine weather the sides are removed, leaving only the roof and floor. The first day the road lay through forests, entangled with vines and large-leaved plants ; on the second he passed through fields of corn and rice. Priests and churches were scarce, and so were schools. On the third day he entered the rug- ged scenery of the mountains, the solitude enlivened by the chatter of monkeys. Cascades were frequent — one fell over a rock a hundred feet, in one solid sheet. The houses were now better buiit, and both the dress and the gardens of the people showed a higher civilization. He found some women dressed in silk of home manufacture. The mountains were now eight thousand feet high, and not more than twelve miles apart, the space between full of waving rice fields. A garrison of two hundred soldiers held Fort Dekock, or, as the natives call it, Bukit Tinggi, the high mountain. On market days thousands of people throng the streets. Their chief amusements are cock-fighting and gambling. One third of the people he met carried fighting cocks. Even coolies had their favorite bird, and a kris or dagger in addition to their loads. Mr. Ennis saw about sixty game-cocks in the market, though it was not a market day, each fastened by its string to a peg in the ground ; two, armed with iron spurs, were fighting on a wooden platform, and three hundred men looked on with breathless interest, till one of the two fell dead. August 7th, Mr. Ennis left for Matua. The soil where he passed was a mixture of clay and sand, and the streams had worn ravines nearly two hundred feet in depth. The road was constantly ascending or descending. In a valley filled with rice fields, a lake about the size of the Sea of Galilee was hemmed in by mountains. The water was of a deep blue, and three or four white clouds hovered overhead in the calm, clear sky. Ten villages, with a population of fourteen thousand, lay around the lake.. In each was a mosque. He saw a war canoe seventy-four feet long. Bloody battles were formerly fought on the lake, between two hostile tribes. Under Dutch teaching, they now make silver spoons equal to the European pattern given them to copy. Those not Moslems pray and offer sacrifice to Satan ; and if a house burns, instead of water they bring mirrors, that the author of the mischief, seeing his ugly face in them, may flee and let the fire go out. Passing through Bambang, at Kumpulan he was within fifteen hours of the country of the Battas, but had to return to Matua on account of a war then raging. On the 17th, he was at Tandjang Alam, in a beautifully cultivated region, the rice fields irrigated by wheels turned by the stream, as in northern Syria. In Lima Puluh he found the people more highly civilized than elsewhere. Good roads — one of them sixty feet wide — were generally lined with hedges, while horses, cattle, goats, and poultry indicated wealth and thrift. To the northeast lies the country of the Siaks, who in language and appearance do not differ from other Malays. Their territory is populous and well cultivated, though little known. He passed through a district where one hundred thousand people are said to live within a circle of ten miles in diameter. From Alabang he went to Pogaruyong, where he was at the center of the Malayan people. They have a literature, though the proportion of readers is small. In manufactures they show excellent capacity. They make good brass cannon, and the work of their goldsmiths compares well with that of the same craft in Europe. They intro- duce gold threads into their silks. In agriculture they use the plough, hoe, and other imple- ments of their own. Their principal food is rice ; but they have also potatoes, yams, sugar cane, coffee, and many fruits. Mr. Ennis passed through a rice field eight miles in length and four in width, formed into successive terraces for convenience of irrigation. The people raise excellent fish in artificial ponds. Two or three mountain ranges run parallel with the southwestern coast of the island, some- times at a distance of fifty miles, and sometimes sending out spurs to the shore. Some peaks are from ten thousand to fourteen thousand feet high. In the forests, the elephant, tiger, deer, 44 THE ELY VOLUME. and wild hog abound. The tropical vegetation keeps the earth moist, and many small streams run down to the sea. Beyond the first range lie the cultivated regions already desciibed; but further to the northwest lie the populous Batta countries of Mandeling, Ankola, and Tobah, and Mr. Ennis set out for these from Natal, on foot, September iSth. The first day he passed over a muddy road, and got drenched in a shower. Ne.xt day he followed a foot-path through the grass, and now and then had to wade long distances up the stream. He crossed several streams, two of them by a bridge of rattans, so narrow that one foot could not rest by the side of the other ; a rattan rope was provided on each side, for a railing, and the torrent, one hundred and thirty feet wide, raged far below. Sometimes he had to wade up to his waist, and in the morning put on the wet clothes he laid off the night before. At the close of the fifth day he reached a small Dutch fort, and then began the ascent of the , last range. This required two days to cross, and was so steep in places that only the roots of trees enabled him to climb. The crest of the mountain was extremely narrow, with a deep gulf on either side. On it he passed several graves of men who had died on the journey. At the foot of the range he found the first village in Mandeling, and the people at work on a road that was to pass down on a lower level to Natal. Mandeling was overrun in 1817 by the Moslem Malays of Rau, thirty miles to the south- east, and ten years later was completely subdued and converted by force to Mohammedanism. The m^n of Rau killed their pigs, circumcised their men, and taught their young chiefs the Koran. Three years later the Battas invited the Dutch to help them, and they came to stay. Ankola has lately sought the same assistance, and Tobah has also received them. The present Dutch Resident represents the people to be the most docile in the world. The climate of Saninggo, where he resides, is temperate and healthy, and the villages are very numerous. Mandeling and Ankola lie between two of the ranges of mountains that run along the center of the island; on the east lies Tombusi, a fertile, populous district. The plain of Saninggo is twenty-five miles long by ten in width, surrounded by high mountains, and in four of its vil- lages has ten thousand people; forty smaller villages have about fourteen thousand more, making twenty-four thousand in all. The entire Batta people are estimated loosely at a million and a half. ' Mr. Ennis also visited the islands of Bali and Lombok, lying between Java and Sumbawa. during August and October, 1S38. The first contained a population of from seven hundred thousand to eight hundred thousand, and the last about one hundred and eighty thousand. For many interesting particulars about the country and people, we can only refer the reader to the Missionary Heraldiox 1S39, pp. 321-334. In recording the contributions of missionaries to geography, we must not overlook those made by our martyred missionaries in Sumatra, on their last fatal journey. April 7, 1834, Rev. Samuel Munson and Rev. Henry Lyman em- barked at Batavia, in the Dutch barque " Diedericka," for Padang. Their course lay round the western end of Java, through the Straits of Sunda, and along the southwestern shore of Sumatra, as far as Tappanooly Bay. We read in the journal of Mr. Lyman, the day he sailed, these words: "I thought I could say with all my heart, if I must be sacrificed to the untamed passions of cruel men, ' Even so, Father, for so it seemed good in thy sight.' He who could stay the flames of the fiery furnace can now do the same, so ' I will not fear what man can do unto me.' ' If God be for me, who can be against me? '"2 The voyagers give occasional glimpses of the scenery as they sail along the shores of Sumatra. When they first approach the island they speak of its beauty. '^ Missio7iary Herald, 1S38, pp. 364-3721 4o'-4o8. -There are two published records of this voyage: one in the Memoir of Munson and Lyman, by Rev. W. Thompson, D. D., New York, 1839, p. 196; the other, Henry Lyman, the Martyr of Sumatra, New York, 1856, pp. 43S ; a ]oving tribute of sisterly affection. SUMATRA. 45 A range of hills, sometimes rising abruptly from the sea, and again having a gentle slope, variegated with woods and fields, is overlooked by another behind it, rising here and there into lofty peaks. Floating along their sides, or crown- ing their summits, were clouds, sometimes resembling a newly-fallen bank of snow. In the morning the rays of the sun, pouring through a rift in the cloudy canopy, made the water like a sea of molten silver. Again, the coast all day was exceedingly romantic ; lofty mountains, covered with woods and broken into ridges, plunged boldly into the sea. The hilly islands near the shore present many small bays and inlets, with vistas ending in a fisherman's hut, or a village in a level nook, hidden among cocoanut trees. The shore from Ayer Bangy to Pulo (island) Tamong is wild, mountainous, and deeply indented with bays. At Priaman the rolling surface of the hill north of the town is covered with green grass. The bay is made up of several small bays within a bay, all with fine headlands at their extremities, and gracefully curving inland, while behind rise loftier ranges, with Mount Ophir towering above them all. At Mene, in Pulo Nyas, Mr. Lyman writes : " Before us was the breaking surf, the white beach, and an intervale beyond, flecked with clumps of trees, fields, and huts, backed by a long range of undulating hills, divided between the wildness of nature and the improvements of man, their summits crowned with cocoanut groves and villages. The coast of the island at the southeast is much broken into bays, but the mountains are neither high nor rugged. Some of the hills are cultivated to their tops, with fine green plains at their base." They speak of meadows of velvet softness at Bencoolen, the grass not more than three inches high, twice as fine and four times as thick as in New Eng- land, the most elastic Turkey carpet not softer or more agreeable. This is surprising in the tropics, but it prepares us to hear that the climate in many places is unhealthy. Most of the islands are low and swampy, the vegetation rank, and, of course, decaying. June ist the wind was cold and damp, and a cloak comfortable on deck in the evening. In the isle of Nyas the days are warm, but a heavy dew falls at night. The hills, however, are healthy, and these constitute most of the surface, varying from five hundred to per- haps fifteen hundred feet in height. In one place they walked for a mile through grass higher than their heads, and then through thick forests. The shores are lined with cocoanut trees, and the sites of the villages are marked by the banyan trees that shelter their boats. Palm trees flourish, and the marshes along the shore are covered with mangrove trees, that seem to grow out of the water. The cotton tree is common, and a coarse cloth is made from it. The soil is a light sand, with a black mould formed of decomposed vege- table matter. They found much coral along the shore. Sometimes the bottom of the sea seemed covered with a fleecy cloud ; again it was white, mottled with dark spots. Here were snow-drifts, there trees and shrubbery, and again pillars, globes, and vases ; a rich and varied furnishing. Every year these coral banks narrow the limits of navigation, forming new reefs and islands or uniting old ones. Bencoolen lies on a point of land at the outer entrance to Pulo Bay. The northern portion of it is on high land, but a sand bank and coral reefs compel 46 THE ELY VOLUME. large vessels to anchor seven miles off. It has about five thousand inhabitants, of whom five hundred are Chinese and a few Europeans ; the rest Malays, with some Bugis and Nyas. It was founded by the English in 1685, and exchanged for Malacca in 1824. Fort Marlborough is a noble monument of English skill and enterprise. The houses are built of bamboo, with floors and verandas of the same, and stand on posts five feet high. The wheels of their buffalo carts ^ are solid, about three feet in diameter, and the body, three feet by five, rests on a frame one foot above the top of the wheels, with a roof like that of a Chinese house, higher in front than behind, and covered with mats. There is a small door in front. Padang occupies a beautiful situation on the river of that name, one hundred yards wide. On the land side it is hedged in by mountains from two thousand to four thousand feet high. It enjoys a fine sea breeze, and is comparatively healthy. Ships anchor under the lee of Pulo Pesang. On the plain of Padang are about forty thousand Malays, two thousand soldiers, two thousand slaves, seven hundred Chinese, and five hundred free Nyas. The goldsmiths produce excellent work with very few and simple tools. The city is embowered in cocoanut trees. Its business is carried on chiefly by four-hundred Europeans and the Chinese. The great export is coffee. The Malay bazar extends along both sides of a street for a mile and a half. Houses are mostly built of wood, on account of frequent earthquakes, one of which, not long before, dried up the river for a time, and then stocked it with fish of an unknown species. From Padang the missionaries took a Malay prahu, of eight tons burden, with one mast and a crew of seven Malays. The hold was filled with stores, the crew, and three other passengers, and six feet of it was divided off by mats for the missionaries, where they sat or slept, but could not stand upright or have a table. The crew were indolent, dilatory, and undisciplined. They came next to Pulo Batu,^' a group of one hundred and twenty islets, taking this name from a singularly shaped rock. The largest of them is called Tanah Massa. Nineteen of them have a population of about eight thousand in all. The chief place of trade is Telo, at the head of a fine bay on the east side of Si Boehari, three days from Padang, and half way between Natal and Ayer Bangy. It has six hundred Nyas, one hundred and fifty Malays, and thirty Chinese. The population was reduced one half by small-pox a few years before. The people pay no tax, and use sago instead of rice. The dress of the men is a strip of cloth thr-ee inches wide, passing between the legs and wound a few turns round the body, and, sometimes, several strips of different colors, with loose ends hanging down in front. The women are more modestly attired, with the sarong fastened round the waist and hanging down to the knees. In the street a loose cloth is thrown over the shoulders. On coming of age, the teeth of both sexes are cut down close to the gums and stained black. The villages here are surrounded by a stone wall like that of a New England field. Opposite the entrance is the ametjoer's ^ house. The other three sides are occupied by wooden houses, all fronting toward the center, where an idol of wood stands under a bamboo shed. The houses rest on posts seven iPadatis. = Rock island. 2 Head man's. SUMATRA. Mj feet high. The roof is thatched at a very steep angle, and in the center of it is a scuttle for light and air. The floors and doors display much skill. Several families occupy one house, and there is an outside door to only one in two or three ; the others are connected by doors in the partitions. They witnessed a wedding in one of these villages. But first let us look in on a Malay wedding in Batavia. There all the friends of both families are in- vited, and to one is assigned the furnishing of the flowers, to another the pastr)-, and so on throughout the list of articles required for the feast. The prepara- tion goes on at the bride's house three or four days, with music sometimes all night long. After a prescribed round of visiting, occupying several weeks, comes the wedding procession, led by two wicker-work images of a man with black face and tiger-like teeth, with a drawn kris in his hand, and a woman of the same color and construction, with a baby in her arms. These are eio-ht feet in height and very broad, a man inside of each furnishing the moving power. Next follows a band of native music, and then the presents, which are mostly artificial flowers, and paper cut into fanciful shapes. The friends of the bride- groom follow on horseback ; next the bridegroom himself, also mounted, load- ed with jewels, and fanned by a friend. Others on horseback, and a crowd of men and boys close the procession. Arrived at the house of the bride, gongs, cymbals, drums, fifes, and all kinds of music almost drown the cheers of the crowd. There the pair are seated on a bamboo platform, nearly stifled by the quantity of fancifully cut paper around them, and scarcely able to hold up their heads for the weight of jewelry. The guests care more for the loaded tables under temporary bamboo sheds outside than for this display in-doors. A New England Thanksgiving dinner is nothing compared to the variety and quantity of the food provided. The provincial wedding was somewhat different. In Pulo Batu they found one thousand guests assembled at the marriage of the daughter of an ametjoer. Near the shrine of the idol, in the center of the village, was a high pole, from whose top floated two streamers : one of scarlet, for the bridegroom, and another of yellow, for the bride. On either side were four other poles and streamers of different colors. One hundred and fifty dancers moved Vv'ith measured step around the center pole, each sex by itself, and all ranged according to age. The music, such as it was — for the Nyas are not given much to that art — was entirely vocal, a half-shouting, half-singing. Then half drew off, and half closed round the bride and her companions. Meanwhile, others at one end of the enclosure were slaughtering a score of hogs, and boiling meat, intestines, and all, in thirty huge caldrons. The pork that could not be got into the kettles was divided among the seven villages that furnished the animals ; and after the distribution of the presents — one shab- bily dressed old man giving gold ornaments worth $200 — all sat down to the feast of pork and rice, and a part was brought to their American guests, who performed their part as well as they could. Many of the women were stylishly dressed. The hair was fastened in a knot behind with gold ornaments. A band of gold passed round the forehead. They wore long golden ear-rings. A scarlet petticoat was fastened round the waist ; a long piece of calico was wound round the bust, and over it a berthe of yellow beads, terminating below 48 THE ELY VOLUME. in a fringe of little bells and shells. By way of girdle was a quantity of brass wire chain. Then there were necklaces, bracelets, and rings of gold and ivory, and below all, their bare feet. The Nyas are fairer than the Malays, and their type of features superior to the rest of the natives, yet they are said to be very treacherous. Under pre- tense of looking at it, they shoot a man with his own gun, and, professing to lead him to a fine hunt, they decoy him into an ambuscade. They are neat in their persons, and in each village is a bathing place for the women, walled in with stone. When one dies he is put in a coffin, and the family make a feast as at a birth. The coffin is laid on a platform in the thickest and loneliest part of the woods. The head is always laid in a plate, and the mat, clothes, and pillow of the deceased, with another plate, are fastened to a stake near by, to decay with their owner. In the northern part of Pulo Nyas the dead are buried. When a month old, the right ear of every boy is slit, and both ears of every girl, and a name is given to the child. Women are treated with a great deal of respect, and associate with the men. There is more regard shown to the wife and mother than among other natives of the Archipelago. Monogamy, of course, prevails, for such a state of things never co-exists with polygamy. On the death of a wife the husband may marry again after a few days, but a widow must wait as many months. No wife can be divorced whose character is good ; when one is divorced, the husband must pay her $20. Children are punished by their parents for lying, and when older liars refuse to confess and show pen- itence, they are fined $20. The thief who does not confess and restore the stolen property is bound hand and foot and thrown into the sea. Adulterers and murderers are beheaded ; but these crimes are so rare that some do not remember the occurrence of one of them. In the island of Nyas, the crime of stealing plantains is fined $50 ; stealing goats more than that ; and stealing rice or gold involves death ; so do adultery, murder, and fornication. In the latter case, both man and woman are put to death. Debts unpaid are doubled after one year, and doubled again after the second year, and the same is done with any portion that remains unpaid. After three years, by paying a bribe to the rajah, the creditor can generally get leave to sell the debtor and his family into slavery. So, if a man is proved to have poisoned another, he and his family are sold as slaves. The Dutch call these debtors, but they are slaves. They are brought to the shore bound, and during the sale are tied to a post ; then, with only a strip of bark about their loins, are fettered and fastened on board the vessel, to prevent their committing suicide. The government buys them for a term of years, giving them their food, clothing, and $1.20 per month, but none are ever known to be liberated or to return to their native iland. Where slavery exists, it opens the door to all villainy. The missionaries £aw two interesting orphans, a boy and a girl, who had been sold by their uncle, so that he might increase his own property bv their price. In the soutli- east districts of Pulo Nyas, whither the missionaries went next, men sometimes sell their neighbors, and a few dollars paid to the rajah keeps all quiet. Some- limes parents sell their own children, and children their parents. A man has NYAS. 49 been known to sell the children of his first wife to obtain the price of a second. Some say two hundred slaves are taken annually from the island, and others say a thousand from Simambawa alone. The government had a large prahu on the coast when the missionaries were there, with orders to get two hundred in six months. They pay $20 per head, and a premium of $4 more. Two years before, a French ship had taken four hundred to the Isle of France. We are not surprised to hear that in this island one may have as many wives as he can support. The price of one differs with the rank and wealth of her family. There is only one good harbor on the island, and the population is about two hundred thousand. One village they found with eight thousand inhab- itants, and another with six thousand. The village of Mene is palisaded by sharpened bamboo poles, and entered through gates at each end of a fortified passage twenty feet in length. There are five dialects spoken in Nyas, the court language being more soft and smooth than the others, but scarcely understood by the common people. Their farming tools are very simple. The men are well formed and manly, with fine foreheads, but no beards. Their hair is black and straight. The women are short, thick, and awkward in their movements, and neither so neat nor so intelligent as those of Pulo Batu. In the southern part of Nyas the villages are fortified, the houses oval or round, but small and badly built. The people have more enterprise and independence, but not the gentleness of the Batu people. The island is di- vided into districts. Each village has a chief, and over the whole district is a head chief. In the middle and northern districts, justice is administered by a council of chiefs. The greatness of a man is measured by the number of heads he possesses, and the more civilized the race that furnishes the head, the higher the rank of its possessor. The heads hang in a wicker frame con- spicuously in the house. Their weapons are a home-made spear and two krises, also of home manufacture, one longer than the other ; the smaller one is in constant use for all manner of purposes. Their defensive armor is a light, oblong wooden shield, a wooden breastplate, a jacket ^ reaching to the hips, or several of them worn one over the other, made either of cotton or the bark of trees. The jacket and shield are worth less than a dollar, and the spear and daggers are valued sometimes at $4 each. In the use of their weapons they are very expert, dodging with great agility, and, after throwing the spear, rushing to close quarters with the kris. From Nyas the missionaries crossed over to Tappanooly Bay, where the captain of the " Diedericka " was once invited by a chief to feast on a boy seven years old. Thirteen years before, the boy's father had killed the chief's brother. The boy, recently arrived in the place, had innocently told who he was, and was at once killed and eaten for the sin committed six years before he was born. Among such a people the missionaries now went, leaving their vessel, and traveling on foot through dense thickets and up and down steep rocks, only to meet the fate of that little boy, on the fifth day of their journey, June 28, 1834, at the village of Sacca. We have a brief account of the scene from one of their surviving attendants, and also learn that when the Battas ' Badjoe. 4 50 . THE ELY VOLUME, came to know what was done, they leagued together, and, in an hour when they looked not for it, burned up the offending village and slaughtered its inhabitants. Far different were the feelings of the mother of the martyred Lyman. Though even twenty years after, when that scene was alluded to, a sleepless night and pallid face told how the mother suffered, yet when the sad news was told her by Dr. Humphrey, then president of Amherst College, the first words that she uttered after she was able to speak were : " I bless God, who gave me such a son to go to the heathen, and I never desired so much as now that some other of my children might go and preach the Gospel to those who have killed my Henry," Such an utterance speaks more for the missionary work than all the scientific results it ever yielded. Through the kind exertions of the military command- ant at Tappanooly, their heads were not left to hang in the bamboo huts of their murderers, but were reverently returned to their native land. This martyrdom also furnishes a contribution to psychology which claims a passing notice. Mrs. Lyman was remarkable for the uniformity of her cheer- fulness, and her constant looking on the bright side of things ; but on June 28, 1834, she felt unaccountably oppressed. A heavy burden pressed her down all day long. She could not engage in her usual occupations. Again and again she said, as she sank into a chair : " I cannot throw off this depression. Why should it come to-day?" Next day she heard that a favorite nephew had died on the 27th, and she said: "Strange that I should have felt so the day after," Months passed, and when she came to enter Henry's death opposite the date in her Daily Food, to her surprise, she found that it was the day of her strange depression. Such facts suggest deep thoughts of the connection of the present with the future life, and the connection of God with both. BORNEO. A few facts respecting the island of Borneo and its inhabitants are here con- densed from the pages of the Missionary Herald, 1836, pp. 433-439. If we call Australia a continent, Borneo is the largest island in the world. It contains over three hundred thousand square miles of surface. The coast is indented by many bays. The rivers Borneo, Banjar, Sukadana, and Pontia- nak are navigable for more than fifty miles. Near the coast the land is often marshy, but inland there is great diversity of surface, and most beautiful scen- ery. A high range of mountains runs from northeast to southwest through the island, with a branch turning off to its southeast corner. The island was dis- covered by the companions of Magellan, in 1521. The Portuguese attempted a settlement in 1625, but were driven off. The Dutch erected a factory at Pontianak in 1643, and have maintained their hold ever since. The English sought to secure a position at Banjar Masin in 1706, and again at Pasir in 1772, but failed in both cases. Borneo proper is a district on the northwest coast, seven hundred miles long, with a breadth varying from one hundred to one hundred and fifty inland. The city of Borneo, or Bruni, stands on the river of that name, ten miles from its- mouth, built on posts within high- water mark. The palace of the sultan alone is on dry land. Its inhabitants are mostly Malays, and of uncertain numbers ; some say about twenty thou- BORNEO. SI sand. The district of Sambas, to the west of this, has been notorious for piracy ; nor is it alone in this. The southeastern part of the island, near Pulo Laut, also swarmed with pirates, who banded together a number of prahus, and lay hid among the small islets, ready to pounce on any native vessel that might come within their reach. They were not so ready to attack European vessels, though that also has been done, sometimes with success. The Malays furnish the pirates, as they live on the coast, and they also oppress the native tribes in the interior in a merciless manner. Crimes, too, go unpunished, unless where personal interest secures the repression of evil-doers. It needs no argument to show how such a state of things subverts moral prin- ciple, and keeps the people in continual unrest, if not in hopeless anarchy. There are some Malays, however, who do not fall in with the prevailing violence, else society could not be held together. The Chinese live chiefly in the northwestern part of the island. They are peaceful, industrious, frugal, and given to trade. They have been in Borneo for a century, but have not for- gotten their home training, and make good citizens. Most of them live under a government of their own, which punishes crime with great severity. Others live under the Malays or the Dutch. Many of them are agriculturists, and in some places they dig for gold and diamonds. They number probably between two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand. The Bugis engage mostly in trade and maritime pursuits, and compete in these with the Chinese. They are described as treacherous and hostile to Europeans, and, when they can, seek to get political power out of the hands of the Malays. They number about twenty-five thousand. In religion they are Moslems, like the Malays, but are in advance of them in many things, and among those on the coast some are wealthy. A few inoffensive and industrious Javanese live on the southern coast, but the mass of the interior population is Dyak, or Dayak. These are broken up into a number of petty tribes, having different languages, and frequently at war with each other. Seven dialects are spoken in the northwestern part of the island. They have very crude and indefinite ideas of religion. In person they are fairer and more manly than the Malays, but the women, as among the Patagonians, are not so well formed as the men. Polygamy is almost unknown among them, and in social intercourse they are kind and hospitable, though the missionaries found villages which formed an exception in this respect. While at one place, the people wanted to carry them on their backs through the jungle to their village ; in another, a young man would not bring even a drink of water, but set it down several feet off ; and all their intercourse par- took of that surly character. The Dyaks love the high lands, and are sure to be found there, and along the banks of the streams among the hills, where the water is cool and clear, unlike the swampy mangrove region along the shore. Some of the tribes are in the lowest barbarism, and know neither marriage nor dwellings, but rove like wild beasts, and at night sleep under a tree, with a fire to keep off beasts of prey. They are hunted like game by the other tribes, who kill the men but spare the young women. The children, however kindly treated, cannot be 52 THE ELY VOLUME, tamed, but flee to the woods at the first opportunity ; so that their feet are sometimes cut off to retain their services in paddling canoes. The Dyaks gen- erally cultivate the soil, but in a very bungling way. They cut down the forests, raise one or two crops from the virgin soil, and then leave it, either to grow up in lalang — a kind of wild grass — or to be cultivated by the industri- ous Chinese, while they move elsewhere, to repeat the same process, never staying more than six years in a place. At first their numbers were estimated at one million in Borneo proper, and two millions in the whole island ; but more intimate acquaintance with them has led to greatly reduced estimates. The largest known village does not contain more than four hundred and fifty souls, and their constant wars, and especially their habit of cutting off each other's heads to serve as household ornaments, in some places threaten their extinction. The missionaries tell of one expedition for heads that was attacked by a Dutch vessel, which they incautiously approached, and three hundred Dyaks were either killed outright or sank with their boats, which were broken into fragments by the cannon balls. Wherever the missionaries went they had to sit under these hideous trophies in the Dyak houses, sometimes as many as twelve or twenty adorning a single dwelling. The skin is removed, the skull is polished, and figures carved on it, while a bunch of rattan leaves is attached on either side. A man's standing is measured by the number of heads in his house ; and though it is not true, as a general rule, that a man cannot marry till he has cut off a head, yet sometimes this is the kind of dowry demanded. New heads are more valued than old, and those of women more than those of men. They 'are prized as charms that avert evil from the house where they are, and so their owners will on no account sell them. Like the vendetta or blood revenge of some countries, this never ends ; for, although the latest head may have been cut off in revenge for a previous murder, it creates a demand for retaliation, just as though it were the first in the series. When a head is obtained, the whole village comes together to give expression to its joy. The head is boiled till the flesh comes off, the scalp is buried with a rough wooden image of the vic- tim, and men, women, and children all feast together on swine's flesh, with music and dancing. The place for such orgies is generally under some trees, enclosed by a fence, with a platform and a bamboo pole in the centre, with a basket at the top, for offerings of fruit presented to the heads. It might seem as though the people who do such things must be exceptionally ferocious ; but this is by no means the case. They are not savage, but mild ; and in many places the custom is abandoned as they see how it is regarded by more civilized people, and no doubt it would quickly disappear before the Gospel. One tribe, the Jangkang, are cannibals, and so is another on the eastern coast. They boast of it, and claim that it makes them brave. " How could we be so," they say, "if we never tasted of human flesh ? " They do not eat the whole body, but pick out as tit-bits the tongue, the brain, and the flesh of the legs. The men of this tribe file their teeth to a point, like the teeth of a saw. They are unusually well-proportioned and muscular. They go nearly naked, wearing only a narrow strip of cloth or bark about the loins.' On the right ' Chowat. BORNEO. 55. side they carry a small ornamented rattan basket/ holding the apparatus^ of the chewer of betel-nut ; also a sheathed knife ^ with long, slender blade, used for ordinary purposes and trimming off the ears of heads. On the left side hangs the heavy sword* that can cut through both arm and neck at a single stroke. The dress of the Dyaks is similar. Their hair is black, and, worn long down to their shoulders, gives them a wild look. Some wear a string of cowries round their heads. The women wear a cloth extending from the loins nearly to the knees, and a cap of rattan. Their ears are usually pierced with a piece of bamboo nearly an inch in thickness. In southeastern Borneo the lobe is stretched so much in this way, over wooden rings as large as a dollar, that it sometimes breaks. Quantities of beads adorn their necks. Many rings are on their arms, mostly of brass, but some of jade-stone. A girdle made of rings of rattan dyed red and black is fastened over the waist-cloth by a clasp ; some wear one six or eight inches wide, adorned with many-colored beads. Their bust and arms are naked, unless when a loose cloth is sometimes thrown over them. Boys are naked, and girls wear a strip of cloth like the men. The bark cloth they use is sometimes printed in colors by rude blocks. The Dyaks have no alphabet, but they have a sign-language by which they communicate a summons to battle, like the red cross of the Highlanders. For this they use small wooden weapons such as they use in their blow-guns.^ The two opposite points represent the two armies, and the number of notches between, the number of days before the battle. A larger arrow has as many notches as the number of men demanded from the village. Sometimes one end is burned and the other painted red ; this means that the village of the enemy is to be burned, and the people slain. They have a similar sign- language for peace. Near the path, where the countries of two tribes joined, the missionaries once found a water-jar and spear, and were told that one tribe had placed them there as a token of desire for peace, and as long as they were left there by both parties, peace would continue. But what if some malicious person should remove them, or wild beasts displace them ? In counting, in- stead of advancing from ten to twenty, and so on, as we do, they stop at ten as we do at a hundred, and then say so many tens. The Dyaks are not given to stealing ; articles could be trusted to their care with safety, though they do not shrink from begging for what they want. They are treated with great severity by their Malay rulers, who take most of the har- vest for taxes, and do not leave enough to feed them till another harvest. The missionaries found the people in Karangan living on roots long before their crops were fit to eat, and when they ripened the tax-gatherer took the greater portion. So the people lose all incentive to labor, and this state of things between them and their rulers is a serious hindrance to missionary effort. Their houses are built on posts, in one continuous range, and divided by parti- tions according to the number of families, each with a front door. In front of the whole is a veranda about ten feet wide, on which they dry and thresh their rice. One door in the outer side of this veranda answers for several houses; 1 Tung king. = Sirih. ■' Sinda. * Lansa. ■' Siimpitans. 54 THE ELY VOLUME. and a log with notches cut in it, or two poles tied together with rattan, serves for a ladder from the ground outside. The roof is thatch/ and the sides en- closed with bark." The space under the bamboo floor serves for a hogpen, so that the houses are not very savory to Europeans. In southwestern Borneo large earthern jars stand in rows round the room, and indicate the wealth of the owner. The windows are in the roof, and, as they are open, serve for both window and chimney. Their roads are mere trails, sometimes hardly dis- cernible, and lead through jungle, up and down rocks, and now and then through swamps with water all the way from the knees to the shoulders. Some- times the missionaries had to stand in such a cold bath till some sort of a bridge could be arranged across a place that was over the head. Their streams are very rarely bridged ; though a bridge is described at Majan, made of poles and withes, in the form of an arch, about seventeen feet high in the middle, fastened to a tree at one end and stakes at the other, with long vines fastening the railing to the limbs of trees. Pontianak is described at the confluence of the Landak and Kapwas, four- teen miles from the sea, and directly under the equator. The river is navigable for vessels of four hundred tons, but a bar at its mouth causes difficulty to those over half that size. The population within a radius of six miles is six thousand Malays, two thousand five hundred Bugis, and two thousand Chinese. There are no Dyaks in the place. There is an unusual sound like the music of an yEolian harp, caused by the motion of boats on this river in the dry season, dependent on some -peculiar connection of the state of the atmosphere or the height of the water with the conformation of the shore. The Ladak river is so narrow in places that the missionaries had to chop through trunks of trees lying across it, before their boats could go on. The Dyaks have a custom which they call sabat, in which a little blood is taken from the shoulders of the high contracting parties, and, after being mixed with water, is drank by them as a pledge of brotherhood. This gives a stranger the freedom of the country. When a child is born, the father lies idle for a month, under the belief that, if he does not do so, the child will die. They be- lieve the rainbow is the reflection from the crest of a huge serpent, of a species called nabo, in training for a conflict with the sea-serpent ^ that lives in a whirl- pool in the center of the ocean, whom he will attack when he deems himself ready for the battle. The Dyaks wrap their dead in a white winding-sheet, and place them in a rough cofiin. After the grave is dug to the proper depth, they excavate a cham- ber at the side just large enough to hold the coffin, and, slipping it in, fill up the grave. They make a great wailing, and none in the village are allowed to work for three days after. They have great faith in omens. They will not attack the enemy till birds are heard on their right ; if on the left, it is a bad omen. So they delay some- times for a month after an attack is resolved on. If the cry is on both sides at once, success is doubtful ; but if that on the right is the stronger, they expect success with difficulty. If a bird swoops down flying over a sick man, he will lAtap. 'Kajan;::. " Nag.i. INDIA. r " •die ; if it flies upward, he will recover. When a bird flies into a house, thev think an enemy is coining, and if certain birds are heard in the night, they rise and go out, fearing an attack. Some of the tribes on the Kapwas believe in transmigration. After death they expect, like their ancestors, to become deer and orang-outangs ; hence they never eat the flesh of the deer. A map of western Borneo, prepared by the missionaries, may be found in the Missionary Herald for 1844, p. 314. Further west. Dr. D. B. Bradley, whose medical skill enabled him to go everywhere, explored many portions of Siam, and described intelligently what he saw. So also did Rev. S. Johnson. Hindostan, now traversed by railroads for thousands of miles, has become a well-known land. Missionaries penetrate all parts of it, and their journals bring the information obtained at once before the reading public. In 185 1 our own missionaries traveled more than six thousand miles. In 1864 Rev. G. T. Wash- burn visited fifty villages in an adjoining district, and more than two hundred in his own, in order to map out his work intelligently. Obviously, he could not help obtaining much geographical knowledge, and so with other missionaries in other fields. Missionaries are instructed to explore regions imperfectly known, in order to obtain the geographical knowledge essential to the wise prosecution of their work. The name India is derived from the river Indus, and was given to that country by the Persians, and so passed over to the Greeks. The Sanskrit name of the country is Bharat, sometimes called Bharat Khund or Jambhudvipa. The name Hindostan, from Hindu, black, and stan, country, was also given by the Persians, but comprises properly only the region north of the Nerbudda, west of Bengal, and east of Gujerat. The extreme length of India is more than nineteen hundred miles, and its breadth from the mouth of the Indus to the Brahmaputra exceeds fifteen hundred. Its area is one million two hundred and eighty thousand miles ; larger than that of the United States east of the Mississippi, and as large as all Europe south of Russia and the Baltic. The names of its provinces have differed at different times. Their limits are also indefinite, though they have not changed since the English occupation of the country. More than half of India is within the tropics. Nine tenths of it is further south than New Orleans, and its northern limit is in the latitude of South Carolina. Of course the climate is hot, but along the coast the heat is "moderated by the sea breezes, though south of Calcutta ice or frost is seldom seen. With few exceptions, the houses have no chimneys or conveniences for making a fire at any season. In the great plains of the Ganges and Indus the heat is very intense. In the north, snow and ice are frequent in winter. Cape Comorin is the southern termination of the Ghauts, called by the na- tives the Syadree mountains. They extend north nearly a thousand miles, at an average distance of forty miles from the coast. They vary in height from two thousand to four thousand feet, and at a few points are nearly five thousand. They rise abruptly on the west, but slope gradually on the eastern side, and are generally wooded. The Neilgherry hills lie east of these, between latitude 56 THE ELY VOLUME. 10^ and 11°, separating Mysore from Travancore. These rise to the height of seven thousand feet, and are much resorted to by Europeans as a sanitarium. Their climate is delightfully cool and bracing, and knows little variation during the year. The river Nerbudda, seven or eight hundred miles long, separates the Deckan from Hindostan. South of it lies the Sautpura range, and north of it the Vindhya. The Himalaya separate India from Thibet, extending more than one thousand miles, from the Brahmaputra to the Indus. As is well known, they are the highest summits on the globe, Dhawalgiri being twenty- seven thousand four hundred and sixty-two feet, and Chimborazo, the highest of the Andes, being only twenty-one thousand four hundred and sixty-four.' Among these mountains is every variety of climate, from the torrid to the frigid zone. Their scenery, the views of the immense plains below, the towering peaks above, and the endlessly varied heights and valleys, are the ad- miration of all who have been so favored as to see them. Bishop Heber speaks of range behind range, each more rugged and bare than the last, termi- nating in a vast battlement of ice, shooting ujd white, glittering spears from east to west as far as the eye could follow ; and Raper says : " From the edge of the scarp the eye took in seven or eight distinct ranges, till the view was terminated by the highest of all. The depth of the valley below, the progressive elevation of the intermediate hills, and the majestic splendor of the Himalaya formed a picture that inspired awe more than pleasure." Elphinstone also speaks of • their stupendous height, and the awful, undisturbed solitude of their eternal snows filling the mind with feelings which words cannot express. Simla, seven thousand three hundred feet high, on the southwest slope of the Himalaya, Darjeeling in the Sikkim territory, seven thousand four hundred feet high, Abu in Gujerat, Kandalla and Mahabuleshwur, on the Ghauts, east of Bombay, Ootacummund, six thousand five hundred feet high, Khottagherry, and other places on the Neilgherry and Pulney hills, are resorted to as health stations. Bengal, in some places along the Ganges, is perfectly level for hundreds of miles. The country, to one going up the river, seems one boundless prairie. The same is true of the lower Indus, and between that and Ajmere is a sandy desert for several hundred miles. Very little rain falls there, and the adjoining districts suffer much from drought. Gujerat is generally level and fertile, and so are some parts of the Deckan. The Indus rises in Thibet, north of the Himalaya, runs northwest for sev- eral hundred miles, and then, turning southwest, receives the Sutlej and Beas (which together form the Ghara), the Ravee, the Chenab, and the Jhelum, and empties into the Indian Ocean, after a course of seventeen hundred miles. The Ganges rises on the south side of the Himalaya, and flows sixteen hun- dred miles through the most populous parts of India, into the Bay of Bengal. It is not needful to mention its sacredness or its sacred places. It bears on its 1 Since then Kaiichinjanga — as A. Wilson spells it — has taken the lead, at the height of twenty-eight thou- sand one hundred and fifty, and then Gaurisankar claimed the crown, though its exact height has not been ascer- tained. Now Mount Everest reigns supreme at a height of 29,000 feet. The next news, however, may be that a new claimant has pushed that also from the throne. INDIA. 57 bosom a large commerce, though sudden changes in the channel often make navigation dangerous. The Godavery, Krishna, or Kistna, the Pennaur, and the Cauvery, of which the Coleroon is the largest mouth, all flow across the peninsula into the Bay of Bengal, but the great contrast between the rapid cur- rent of the rainy season, and the low water of the dry, renders them unfit for navigation. Their waters, however, carry life to the extensive region through which they flow, by furnishing the means of irrigation. These few hints on the geography of India are from the pages of Dr. Allen's work on India, which is highly commended both in the New Englander^ and in the Lo7idoJi AthencBiim. Rev. F. DeW. Ward also devotes twenty-six pages of his India and the Hindoos to the geography of the country. In these he describes the falls of the river Shirawaty, or Carawooty, that rises in the western Ghauts and falls into the ocean near Bombay. The stream is a quarter of a mile across, but, as the edge of the falls is elliptical, its sweep is much wider.^ The water rushes for about three hundred feet at an angle of 45'', in a sheet of white foam, and then plunges down eight hundred and fifty more, with a noise like thunder, thus quadrupling the heiglit of Niagara. He also describes that of Courtallum, a hundred miles north of Cape Comorin.' He mentions hot springs near the source of the Jumna, ten thousand feet above the sea, at a temperature of 1700 and even 194^ ; also in the Godavery, the valley of the Nerbudda, in Gondwana, Bundelcund, a village near Pooree, Setacuno, and a village near Delhi.* He also gives a brief description of many of the cities of India.^ The population of India was probably as large two thousand years ago as it is now. Previous to the annexation of Scinde and the Punjaub it was esti- mated— for no census of the whole has ever been taken — from one hundred and thirty-one million seven hundred and fifty thousand" to one hundred and forty million.^ Since the annexation of those countries, it was assumed to be one hundred and fifty million in the debates about renewing the charter of the East India Company. Later accounts give it an area of one million four hundred and twenty-seven thousand five hundred and forty-seven square miles, and a population of one hundred and seventy million eight hundred and thirteen thousand six hundred and sixty-eight ; but what the latest number is, in these days of war and doubtful annexations, would be hard to say. ' February, 1S57. - The writer sees no place for so large a river near Bombay. In Black's Atlas, edition of 1876, the Saraswatl empties into the Runn of Cutch, but is quite a small river. = pp. S-9. *p. 10. 5 pp. 20-26. 6 McCulloch. ' Elphinstone. III. GEOGRAPHY CONTINUED. WESTERN ASIA AND AFRICA. It would seem as though this ancient region needed no new exploration, but there is hardly any part of the world where missionaries have done more for the science of geography. In January, 1820, Messrs. Fisk and Parsons arrived at Smyrna, and as that port was the first visited at the commencement of our missions in Turkey, and has since been the landing-place of all our missionaries, whether intending to labor in Turkey, Syria, or Persia, it seemed fitting that the first glimpse of the Orient to so many should form the frontispiece of a volume designed to record their contributions to science, itself one of their gifts to the science of geography, for it first appeared in the Alissionary Herald, July, 1872. The view is reproduced from a photograph taken from a point :50mewhatto the south of the usual anchorage, and was very familiar to the writer during his quarantine on returning from Syria. Beginning at the right, the solitary cypress tree below the castle is the traditional site of the martyrdom of Polycarp, a personal friend and disciple of the apostle John, and the pastor of the church in Smyrna. The houses of the city fill the center of the engraving, the Turkish barracks forming a large paral- lelogram open to the bay. Beyond this appear the shipping and the mountains toward Manisa. This is one of the best harbors in Turkey, and is connected with the interior by two railroads, one running eighty miles southeast to Aidin, and another sixty miles northeast to Casaba. The population of the city is one hundred and eighty thousand ; made up of Turks eighty thousand, Greeks forty thousand, foreigners thirty thousand, Armenians seventeen thousand, and Jews thirteen thousand. Its exports of grain, cotton, fruit, madder, opium, wool, and valonia amount annually to $18,000,000, and the imports to $14,000,- 000. Greek is the language of commerce, and the Greek element predominates in society.^ In the same year that Revs. P. Fisk and L. Parsons landed at Smyrna, they made a tour among the seven churches of Asia, copying inscriptions and re- cording facts which were new and startling then, though more familiar now. Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, and Philadelphia were visited in November, and Mr. Fisk went to Ephesus in April, 1821. It gives some idea of the difficulties of travel in that day, that, though Mr. Parsons left Smyrna December 5, 1S20, 1 Rev. J. K. Greene, Missionary Herald, 1.S72, pp. 201-203. (58) CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 59 he did not reach Joppa till February lo, 182 1 ; but then he visited Rhodes and Cyprus on the way, and failed not to improve every opportunity for observation of the country and the people, as well as the openings for his work. In 1822 they went together to Egypt, where Mr. Parsons died, February 10. Next year Mr. Fisk and Rev. Jonas King went again to Egypt, ascending the Nile as far as Thebes, and both spent the summer in Mount Lebanon, intelligent observers of men and things, as well as devoted to evangelical labor. In 1824 REV. RUFUS ANDERSON, D. D. Rev. I. Bird joined Mr. Fisk at Jerusalem, and Messrs. Fisk and King visited Damascus, Antioch, and Aleppo. In 1829 Mr. Bird visited the Barbary states, and gave an account of his journey, by sea and land, from April 9 to July 31.^ While he was in Africa, Revs. R. Anderson and E. Smith were in Greece, making a thorough exploration of the Peloponnesus and the islands both east and west. The results of this tour we have in a volume of three hundred and thirty-four pages, published by Dr. Anderson, in Boston, 1830. ' Missionary Herald, 1830, pp. 207-213, 242-247, 274-279, 305-309, 338-342. 6o THE ELY VOLUME. It gives a very pleasant description of the scenery, productions, people, and institutions of that interesting land. It takes us through many places asso- ciated with classic antiquity, paints Arcadian landscapes, describes Corinth, the home of the Lernean Hydra, the scene of the Nemean games, with ancient Mycenai and its gateway. Laconia and its capital, Egina and Salamis, Corfu and Ithica, modern Navarino and the temple of Apollo Epicarius, all pass before us. The country is described just as it issued from the terrible wars of the Revolution. Ibrahim Pasha had left it only the year before. Dr. Howe was even then distributing American contributions to the starving people, and one night was spent among barrels of meal from the United States. In Elis no place was undestroyed ; in Achaia only one or two. Only Nauplion and a few small towns in Argolis escaped the general devastation. In Arcadia the Egyptians had ravaged every valley and hill, every village and hamlet. Fire and sword had been carried through Messenia, and in the upper province of that name half a million olive trees had been destroyed. In Laconia only the district of Mane escaped. Yet the people came out of their temporary shelters, entered with zest into the hilarity of their feasts, and looked forward to the future with bright anticipation. The book is full of interesting facts about Greek agriculture and commerce, national education and religion, churches and monasteries, the monks and the clergy ; the goverment, and especially Capo d'Istrias, the President of the young republic ; and, though not popular in the modern sense, is a valuable book of reference for the knowledge of Greece as she was in 1829. In this connection we will add that Rev. Drs. H. G. O. Dwight and W. G. Schauffler added to our knowledge of Macedonia, in their account of a journey in that province, published in the Missionary Herald for 1836, pp. 245-249, 284-288, 333-338, 369-372, giving an account of Samothracia, Salonica, Serres, Philippi, and Adrianople. Rev. Mr. Parsons also visited Serres ^ and Bul- garia." Rev. E. M. Dodd visited Berea and Larissa.^ He gives a more ex- tended account of this journey in the Bibliotheca Sacra (1854, pp. 830-836) ; criticizes Butler's map of the region, which makes the Astra^us flow into the Lydias, and makes the Haliacmon empty into the Gulf of Salonica twenty-five miles south of its present mouth, which would involve its crossing Mount Olympus. Mr. Dodd gives a corrected map of the region in Newcomb's Cyclopedia of Missions (New York, 1854, p. 750). The Lydias now ilows into the Axius. Rev. G. W. Leyburn also gives a view of the scenery of Laconia, and an account of Sparta (Missionary Herald, 1839, pp. 178-185). No wonder a writer in the British Quarterly (^Ta-WiZXY, 1878) says: "The missionaries in Western Asia found the soil rich, the climate delightful ; the vine, the olive, the mulberry, and rich fields of grain, reminded them of nature as set forth in classic song. Interesting in itself, the external world there is more interesting from the events of which it has been the theater. There is the battle-field of Issus ; there Pliny was governor of Bithynia, and Cicero wrote his beautiful letters as governor of Cilicia. It is sacred as well as classic ^ Missionary Herald, 1S51, pp. 25S-260. - Missionary Herald, 1S52, pp. 7S-S2. "'Missionary Herald, 1S52, pp. 235-23S. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 6l ground. There was the cradle of the race ; there God planted the o-arden eastward in Eden ; there Noah preached ; there Abraham lived, and Isaac ; there was Babylon and Nineveh ; there reigned Cyrus and Nebuchadnezzar ; there Isaiah and Daniel saw the visions of God ; and there Esther and Morde- cai, Ezra and Nehemiah did the work assigned them. Our missionaries could not help exploring such a region with the greatest interest, and we have the result in their writings." Dr. Anderson returned to Malta September 4th, and Rev. Messrs. E. Smith and H. G. O. Dwight left there March 17, 1830, on their long journey through Asia Minor, Armenia, Georgia and Northwestern Persia, from which they did not return till July 2, 183 1, having been absent fifteen months and a half. They were both accurate and intelligent observers. Mr. Smith had already had much experience in Oriental travel, and the rich results of their investiga- tions we have in two volumes, pp. 328 and 348, published in Boston in 1833, and republished in London the following year. These volumes contain a mass of information about the countries passed through : their scenery, soil, climate, and productions ; their inhabitants, their agriculture, buildings, dress, modes of life, manners and customs, the condition of woman, the modes of travel, edu- cation, religion, church polity and doctrines, ecclesiastical affairs, government, and social life. Three letters are devoted to Georgia. German colonies and German missions in that region are described. Two letters are occupied with Echmiadzin, and six with Persia; about half of these are filled with an account of the Nestorians of Persia, with all that could be learned about those in the mountains of Kurdistan. This was the first reliable information that Christen- dom had about their present condition, and it awakened intense interest. The mission to the Nestorians grew out of the information obtained on this jour- ney, and the facts it contains about the Armenians are still a standard source of information concerning that church and people. A valuable map accompanies the volumes. There is an interesting account of the under-ground houses^ of Armenia, formed by digging into a side-hill so as to bury three of the walls and leave only room for a door-way in front. The walls are of rough round stones, and the roof of unhewn logs, blackened by the smoke of years, with earth above, so as to restore the side-hill almost to its original shape. It contains, sometimes, only one room, occupied by both the household and the cattle, though generally there are other rooms behind, for cattle and stores. In the center of the principal room a round hole is dug for the tandoor^' three feet deep, and lined with clay. When bread is baked it is in the form of thin sheets, that are stuck on the heated inside, and drop off when baked ; and for purposes of warmth, the tandoor is covered with a bed-spread, under which the feet and legs of the household utilize the heat to the utmost. As for the need of heat in that region, our travelers, in returning as late as April 20, found the pass of Dahar so full of the winter's snow, now soft, that ravines of great depth were transformed into plains. The track led over abysses of unknown depth ; every few rods a horse sank in the soft mass, be- yond its own power of recovery, and had to be unloaded and lifted out. One 1 Vol. I, p. 1 16. = Oven. 62 THE ELY VOLUME. sank into a hole so deep that only its narrowness saved him, for his feet rested on nothing. Soon the rain became snow. Their Tatar disappeared to seek deliverance for himself. The day was near its close, and yet they had not reached the highest point. The path was now hidden by the falling snow, the wind blew a hurricane, and drove the damp snow into and through their clothes, so that the weight impeded their progress ; and what strength was left was exhausted in the constant loading and unloading of the animals. Once a blast struck them, so cold it chilled their very bones and induced a sense of faintness and bewilderment ; but this was the summit of the pass, and their journey was easier down to the village, which they reached after spendin;:;^ thirteen hours in riding a distance of six,^ and yet, though the muleteer and servant came in at nine o'clock, and the latter fell down helpless as soon as lie was inside the door, their Kiirdish host only mocked his distress, and refused even a morsel of food to revive him, leaving the missionaries to restore him as best they could. Going over this same ground. Dr. J. Perkins was able to give much more full information in his Residence of Eight Years in Persia among the Nestorians^ for his was not a journey only, but a prolonged residence. His volume abounds in rare and interesting facts, but unfortunately is not arranged topically. Everything — geography, history, archaeology, natural history, personal advent- ure or missionary narrative — is all thrown together en masse under the date when the .fact was ascertained or the event took place ; hence one may grope in it for hours and not find the information he seeks, though it is in the book, and v>'ould be of great value could it be found. As a specimen of the work, take a brief view of some of its statements concerning the different races of that region. An expedition of the Pasha of Erzrum against the Jellalee Kurds com- pelled Dr. Perkins to leave the direct road to Tabriz, in Persia, making a detour through Georgia. It will be seen that he was only passing though Russian territory, not intending to remain in it. Moreover, the health of Mrs. Perkins was such as to make every day's delay full of peril. In such circumstances, his treatment by Russian officials, if it cannot excuse, may yet serve to explain the virulent hatred against government now rife in that empire. After their names, object, and destination were taken down, they were permitted to cross the Arpa Chai and proceed to the quarantine. There their passports were de- manded, and they had one from the Russian ambassador at Constantinople. Twice after, on the same day, the same demand was repeated ; every servant and muleteer was recorded, numerous questions asked, and every letter in charge for Tabriz taken possession of. Like our prisoners in Andersonville, they were quartered in a hollow on the bank of a muddy brook. The sun beat on them by day, and the stench of unburied horses close by was intolerable. Scarce a day passed without a number of floggings within a few rods of their tent, some of them mercilessly brutal. Often they had nothing to eat till after- noon, and once or twice not a morsel all day. When milk came it was sour, and eggs were often more than stale ; yet their interpreter, within sound of those cruel blows, feared to utter a word of remonstrance. On the second day, their ' Distance is measured by hours, miles being unknown. -Andover, 1843, 8vo, pp. 512. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 63 boxes, made of extra strength in Constantinople, whicli had passed every Turkish custom-house unopened, were rudely split open and broken, and their contents strewed over the floor of the smoke-house, to lie there for fourteen days. A request after several days to be allowed to repack and repair, so as to save time, called forth the peremptory reply that they must lie there during the whole quarantine, then be closed, and again reopened at the custom-house. A humble petition to see the custom-house officer and explain their circum- stances met the gruff response that he was too busy to see them ; though they afterwards learned that he walked daily near their tent. After the tedious fortnight was over, Dr. Perkins put the boxes together as best he could, and hired a cart to take them to the custom-house. The officer received him rudely, and first demanded a list in Russian of all the books. Dr. Perkins offered one in English, but that would not do. He soon, however, abandoned that demand, as he could not understand the English titles, nor Dr. Perkins translate them. Then he attacked the medicine chest ; every paper and vial was opened and smelled of, and their names taken down ; a small paper of tapioca was marked for duty. At length the physician was sent for, and everything reopened. A small paper of oatmeal was pronounced magnesia, and the decision was that the books and medicines, as European goods not allowed to enter Russia, must go back to Turkey. Remonstrance was of no avail. The offer to have everything sealed, and the seals inspected on leaving the country, was met only by the reiteration : " The boxes must go back." We pass over the rude inspec- tion of, and still ruder jokes made over, the trunks of Mrs. Perkins. Any ex- postulation only called forth the curt reply : " I know my own business ; " and the interpreter dared not interpret, for fear of the lash. The examination was suspended at two o'clock, and no entreaty could induce the officer to resume it till just before evening. After passing by without speaking, he sent a servant to look at the rest, and then peremptorily ordered the whole back to Erzrum, except their wearing apparel. It may be thought that money was the object, and that had Dr. Perkins offered that, he had been spared all this. Not at all. As the animals had been hired for Tabriz, and the muleteer refused to abate one para, even though they went there without their loads, and it would ha very costly to hire another to carry them back. Dr. Perkins felt justified in offering a liberal sum, not to bribe injustice, but to purchase most undeniable justice, to say nothing of mercy. But all was of no avail. " Your boxes must go back," was the only answer the Russian officials gave, alike to entreaty, expos- tulation, or offers of money. Even so, when next day, at ten o'clock, the tent and bedding, with what clothing they were allowed to carry, was presented for inspection, he "was not ready to be seen." At one o'clock he examined them, and, after keeping Dr. Perkins waiting an hour for his passport to be returned, he sent him off without it, and detained his interpreter to carry it to him. At first the medicines were permitted to go, for the use of Mrs. Perkins, but even that permission was withdrawn. The interpreter was not allowed to leave till nine o'clock next day, after paying $5 for a certificate that the things taken with them had been examined.^ This precious morsel of knowledge of Russian ' ' Reside7ice of Eight Years in Persia atnong the Nestorians, pp. 123-142. 64 THE ELY VOLUME. character was procured at the cost of some two months' sickness of Mrs. Per- kins, who at first was unconscious of her sufferings, and was pronounced by- several physicians beyond the hope of recovery. The Kdrdish character is well described on another page,^ where, after two hundred horses with their loads were taken from a caravan, and a number of men killed on both sides, the loads were hardly in their hands before the women had rolled several boxes of sugar into a neighboring brook, and were calling on their husbands and children to come and drink sweet water. ^ It is said of them that, if they should remember that the Koran forbids to rob a liv- ing man, they would first kill the man and then rob him." Persian politeness is graphically sketched,' and Persian duplicity set forth in the portrait of a Moslem servant, who, having been absent on business some days longer than was needful, was found in a Mohammedan village, passing himself of? as the Emir e Nizam,^ and making the whole village serve him accord- ingly ; and when Dr. Perkins detected him in the act, he told the villagers that this Englishman was his friend, who had ridden forty miles in the rain to do him honor. At Erzrum the same person was beaten by a Turkish officer, in a quarrel ; but, though an entire stranger, Saudoc announced himself as the con- voy of an English nobleman, and demanded satisfaction with such an air that the Pasha bastinadoed the officer at once, without inquir}^''' Even Nestorians are not wholly uninfected by the prevailing duplicity. Moslem oppression sometimes awakens very bitter feelings in the oppressed, and some villagers who had come to condole with the family of their deceased Khan loudly lamented thus in their own language, fortunately unintelligible to their Moslem hearers : " The wicked old oppressor is dead. We rejoice. He is receiving the reward of his iniquity. May his family soon follow him." " The size of Persia and its physical aspect are described,^ and the mechanical ingenuity of the people.^ A Persian gunsmith made a pistol so exactly resembling one shown him by an English officer, that it was only through the inversion of one of the letters in the name of the English maker that he could distinguish the imitation from the original. He mentions a pear grown in Oroomiah, twelve inches in circumference, where fruit is very fine and abundant. Cherries ripen early in June, and, after that, apricots, plums, apples, melons, peaches, quinces, and so on, succeed each other till winter. Grapes are preserved tolerably fresh till cherries come again. All crops must be irrigated, as rain seldom falls in summer. Water is taken from the rivers where they come down from the mountains, and conveyed by canals to the plain, where a stream is taken out for each field and garden, and opened or closed with a spade, or even by the foot. The division of this 'water is often the source of fierce contention. Sometimes underground canals :are dug from wells to distant fields, openings coming at intervals to the sur- face, both to facilitate the making, and then the keeping them in repair. Their agriculture, the care of their vineyards, and their custom of eating fruit before meals, and not after, as with us, are described.'" >Do.,p. 114. ^Aveshereen. 'Do., p. 191. *Do.,p. 167. oComraatider-in-chief of the Persian army. "Do., p. 264. ' Do., p. 284. "Do., pp. I44-M5- 3Do., p. 149. "Do., pp. 425-429. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 65 Previous to this, Dr. A. Grant, the associate of Dr. Perkins, had pubHshed The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes, New York, 1841, pp. 385, which was repubUshed in London by Murray. This book made quite a stir at the time, and, though his identification of the Nestorians with Israel was not generally received, he held it firmly till his death. It was a source of inspiration to him as a mission- ary, and he collected written specimens of the language of the Jews in Assyria to fortify his position by the similarity of that to the Syriac of the Nestorians. He was the first European to traverse the perilous regions of central Kur- distan ; Mr. Schultz, the only one who attempted it before him, having been killed by the same chief whose guest Dr. Grant became shortly after he entered the mountains. No other before him had dared to scale the lofty barriers that enclosed the mountain Nestorians. "To the borders of their country," said the energetic Pasha of Mosul, " I will be responsible for your safety ; put gold on your head and fear nothing ; but I warn you that I can protect you no further, for those infidels know neither pasha nor king." So his cawass^ re- turned, but he went alone across the border ; and as, from the rocks above him, they demanded, "Who are you?" and " What do you want?" in the harsh gut- turals of the Syriac, he was startled, indeed, but not dismayed. When he replied in their own language, their jealousy was disarmed, though their fierce attitude and tone remained. His medical services also secured him favor. He had been advised to wait for an escort from the patriarch before venturing among them, but he hoped to win their confidence by showing confidence in them, and the result proved that he did not miscalculate the moral power of such courageous trust. So, at an early hour, October 18, 1839, he left the friendly house of the bishop of Duree, and, wearing native sandals, so as to stand where he could neither ride nor retain his footing in Turkish boots, he reached the summit of the mountain, and the country of the people he had so long sought lay before him. Wild precipices alternated with deep defiles, and bleak summits looked down on villages at the bottom of narrow glens, half hid among trees. Here in their " munitions of rocks " God had preserved a chosen remnant from persecution and from war. As he gazed he repeated, with a full heart, the stanza : On the mountain top appearing, Lo I the sacred herald stands, Welcome news to Zion bearing, Zion, long in hostile lands. Mourning captive, God himself shall loose thy bands ; and retired to a sequestered nook to pray. Take another scene from this journey. Dr. Grant has visited the people and their patriarch, and now passes out through the territory of Niirfilah Bey, the chief who had welcomed Schultz to his hospitality, and then sent him away with a guide charged to murder him at the first convenient place. The castle of the chief was visible long before he reached it, but, unexpectedly, he found ' Official ijiiard. 66 THE ELY VOLUME. him sick. He prescribed for him, and then retired to his quarters at the foot of the castle hill. Evening brought a message that his patient was worse, and wanted him at once ; but he sent back word to wait till the medicine had time to produce its effect. Midnight came, and the messenger again demanded his immediate attendance. Promptly he climbs the zigzag path up to the gate.\;^ The sentinels are sounding the Kurdish watch-cry as he enters through the outer door, plated with iron. A second iron door opens into a long passage leading to the room where the chief lay sick. He was evidently impatient, and the swords, pistols, guns, and daggers round the walls gave his guest a g^im welcome. He writes : " I was entirely at his mercy ; but I was also in the hands of One who has the hearts of kings in his keeping. With a silent prayer, I told him he needed more powerful medicine, which would make him worse for a time. I could use palliatives, but, if he followed my counsel, he would choose the severer course." He yielded, and took an emetic, after first making some of his attendants taste it. The doctor stayed with him the rest of the night, and in the morning he was better, and was profuse in thanks. His physician must sit at his side, dip with him in the dish, and take up his abode with him permanently. A writer in the British Quarterly Review for Januar}^, 1878, says: "The best description we have seen of the life and character of the Kurds is in the journals of Dr. Grant." Nor that only; but he settled some points in the geography of the region hitherto unknown. He ascertained that the Khabor rises near Julamerk, and flows within ten hours of Amadia, on its way to the Tigris, and is not the Bitlis Su, as McDonald Kinneir had asserted. While the Zab, also visible ten hours to the east, was the same as the Hakkary river of the maps. Even Colonel Chesney^ says that the Ravanduz tributary had been mistaken for the great Zab, up to the visit of Mr. Ainsworth, in 1841, and that mistake still found a place in Black's General Atlas, Edinburgh, 185 1 ; yet Dr. Grant discovered the true position of the Zab in 1S39, and published his discovery both in England and America one year before Mr. Ainsworth, whose journals were not published till 1S42. It is strange that Col. Chesney could make such a statement, when he refers to Dr. Grant's book on page 113 of the same volume. Dr. Grant also gave the Berdizawi in its true proportions to the Zab, but Mr. Ainsworth made it as large as that river. Both that and the Khabor should be laid down as in the map of Dr. Grant. From the top of the range behind Ashitha, Dr. Grant took the bearings of Ashitha and Sinjar southwest by south ; Amadia south ; the great bend of the Zab east southeast ; Julamerk and Sillee northeast ; Leihun north northeast ; Chuniba northeast by east ; Jelu cast by north ; and Zacho west southwest. These bearings do not agree with Mr. Ainsworth's map. His distance of Amadia from Ashitha is too little by half, while from Van it is far too great. The writer, with Dr. A. Smith, in August, 1844, was thirty-four hours and three quarters going from Mosul to Ashitha — exclusive of stops — and yet, according to Mr. Ainsworth, they made only thirty-five minutes of latitude. Again : we were seven hours from a point north of Madinki and east of Kumri Kala to Ashitha, and yet ^ Jiu/i/trates and Tigris, Vol. I, p. 24. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 67 his map would make us travel only three or four miles. At Julamerk we were told that Van was three days over the mountains, and Mosul five, via Jezira • yet Ainsworth's map would rather lead one to think of going to Jezira via Mosul, so great is its inaccuracy. At Lezan is no bridge of ropes, such as Mr. Ainsworth describes, but one made of long poplar trees ; so that Col. Ches- ney, who, on the strength of this, says that the Zab is crossed " by means of rope bridges," is led into a mistake.-^ Speaking of bridges brings to mind one at Dizzeh, which we crossed Sep- tember I, 1844. The long poplar trees rested on rude piers on either side of the river, and bent downwards uncannily over the middle of the rushing tor- rent. The wicker hurdles that served for a floor were so dilapidated that our mule had to be lifted on it by main force ; nor did he go far before one of his fore legs broke through, and, in struggling to get that out, the opposite hind foot followed after, so that he lay flat on the bridge. By dint of hard lifting he was got out, but the only way we could get him across was to lay down the rug on which one of us slept at night, in front of him ; and after he stepped on that, the bed of the other traveler was in like manner spread before him, and so alternately, till he got safe across. It had been intended to give some account of Turkish oppression here; but an. article prepared some years ago, viewing that oppression in connection with one of the parables of our Saviour, is here given instead. It may show how new aspects of the things contained in Holy Scripture are continually suggested to the thoughtful dweller in Bible lands. AN ORIENTAL VIEW OF THE PARABLE OF THE UNJUST STEWARD. Commentators pronounce this parable one of the most difficult things of Scripture ; not through obscurity in the terms employed, or in the grammatical structure, but because, as generally interpreted, Christ is made to hold up for imitation an act of downright dishonesty ; for he sets before us the conduct of the steward as an instance where a man of this world is wiser than the children of light, and, therefore, worthy of imitation; while the common interpretation makes the change he made in the accounts of his master's debtors a dishonest act. It does not help the matter much to say that Christ would have us imitate the prudence of the act, and not its moral character, for he was not shut up to select an act wrong in itself by which to teach us prudence. This difficulty is so generally felt that all will welcome any legitimate relief. Let us, then, inquire whether it is necessary to interpret the parable so as to give occasion for the difficulty. The common view is, that the steward took bills which had been made out correctly, and altered them so as to make them incorrect, and, therefore, unjust; but does Christ say this? Not at all. He tells us that the steward made a change in them, but does not say whether it was from wrong to right, or from right to wrong. In either case the steward was unjust, for it is unjust either purposely to make out a bill wrong at first, or to change it afterwards from what had been correct. Now, may not the in- justice have been extortion in the first instance, which was rectified by the ' F.xpediticiji io Euphrates, etc., Vol. I, p. 122. 68 THE ELY VOLUME. subsequent change ? and in that case, is not this teaching of our Saviour reHeved from all suspicion of evil? It may be said, however, that the general agreement of commentators shows that the common interpretation suggests itself most readily to the mind. No doubt it strikes us as most natural, with our Occidental modes of doing business; but would it strike an Oriental in the same way? The writer has long felt that Oriental usages point -to the opposite view as the most natural interpretation, but has hesitated to bring it forward, because the man who thinks that he has found an improved mode of interpreting any passage in a book that has engaged the best intellects for centuries, is apt either to revive an old blunder or to add another to the crowded list of misapprehensions of Holy Scripture. But as a recent commentator ^ gives it as the true interpre- tation, the writer feels emboldened to state the facts which have led him to the same conclusion. These facts were observed a number of years ago, and some changes may have taken place since then, though things do not change so rapidly in the East as with us. They are not selected from private life — though many might have been drawn from that source — because, however strong any current of evil may be in society, there will always be found eddies where the stream seems to flow in the direction of right, the practices of a few contradict- ing those of the many. For this reason, it has seemed best to go into govern- ment buildings rather than into private counting-rooms for our illustrations, more especially as we know that the present system of farming the revenues in Turkey is the same that was practiced, under the Romans, by the publicans in the days of our Lord, when the parable was spoken. It is to be hoped that, bad as things were then, they were not quite so bad as at present in the interior of Turkey. The pashas, or governors of provinces in the Turkish empire, are appointed by the central government at Constantinople. Generally they secure their ap- pointments by purchase, and, where there are several applicants for the same office, it is sold to the highest bidder. Sometimes, however, even before the new pasha has fairly entered on his pashalic, it is sold to another, who either pays a larger bonus or promises a larger revenue ; and it is easy to see how this spurs each one to reimburse himself for the purchase money in haste, lest an- other get his place before that is done. Such is the way in which the pasha secures his olfice ; and so long as the stipulated payments are made at Constan- •tinople, no inquiry is ever made into his mode of assessing or collecting taxes. The bills of the steward are never called for by his lord ; he may assess what he will, and as often as he can, without any fear of being called to account. It is not surprising, then, if he adds to the amount promised to the central gov- ernment, and the necessary expenses of the pashalic, as much as he thinks it safe to put in his own pocket. Sometimes, indeed, when a pasha is known to have accumulated wealth, he is thrown into prison and made to disgorge his ill-gotten gain ; but that produces no relief to the tax-payer ; his successor is sent, to do after the same manner, and the process goes on as before. Mean- while, the pasha sub-lets the taxes of the several districts of his pashalic to the highest bidders, and these in their turn emulate his example in adding to their > Van Oosterzee, in Lungi s Commetitary on Luke, pp. 245-246. American edition. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 69 budgets, also ; so that before the tax reaches the tax-payers, it has been greatly increased. Hence it comes that taxes in the interior of Turkey are seldorrv collected without the use of force ; for the troops of the pashalic are at the ser- vice of the collectors, and if the money is only forthcoming, no questions are asked here, either, as to the manner of the collection. It is a satisfaction to think that this particular field of observation was one of exceptional severity, so that the whole country may not have suffered to the same extent. Nevertheless, as the facts there observed strikingly illustrate this view of the parable, they are stated just as they occurred. When the writer first went to Mosul, Mohammed Injeh Bairakdar^ was pasha of that province, extending from Bagdad to Diarbekir, and from the desert of Mesopotamia through Kurdistan to the borders of Persia. When the Kurds rebelled against his extortions, their villages were laid waste ; and while many were put to death in different ways, some of them were impaled alive near the bridge that crosses the Tigris at Mosul, just as Assyrians had put prisoners to death more than two thousand years before ; only, while they inserted the stake at the breast of their victims, he seated his on its sharp point, and left it to work gradually upwards in their writhings, till death came to their relief. This was before the sultan had taken away the power of inflicting capital punishment from his subordinates, and shows that it was taken away none too soon. In pass- ing to and from the country of the mountain Nestorians, the writer has often passed three or four villages in succession utterly desolate, and others were but little better than ruins. The fault was not in the climate or the soil of these fertile valleys, but it was the result of merciless oppression. According to the accounts of those who still remained, the tax-gatherer was accustomed to overestimate the crop, and demand the larger part of it for taxes ; and if the owner Avas known to have money, he had to redeem it at double the market price. Sometimes whole villages fled from an oppression too terrible to endure ; and it shows how terrible it was, that when, under his successor, the men of one village, after vainly asking some alleviation of their burdens, left their homes, set fire to their ripening grain, and fled into the territory of Badir Khan Bey, saying it was easier to do that than to reap and thresh the harvest for the Turks, the remark in Mosul was : " Under his predecessor they would only have dared to flee singly and in the night-time."^ The writer was sitting with the late Dr. Azariah Smith in the divan khaneh of a Turkish officer, in Dawoodieh, when a Nestorian came in with the taxes of his mountain hamlet. The sum to be paid was three hundred tcherkies — a man from this same place afterwards told me, with great satisfaction, that he had obtained a situation near Mosul, where, besides his food, he got half a piaster, equal to one tenth of a tcherky, a day — and a bag was produced, so covered with patches one could hardly tell the original material, and the tax- payer began to undo the fastenings. The Turk snatched it from his hands, and cut it open with his dagger. Among the pile of base Turkish money that poured from it were some ancient Polish and Venetian coins, taken, doubtless, from the head-dresses of the women, where they had been preserved for many » Mohammed the Little Ensign. ^ Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestorians, pp. 207-209. 70 THE ELY VOLUME. generations ; a small gold coin, most likely from the same source, was carefully wrapped up by itself, and sewed inside one corner of the bag. The fact that the women never part with such heir-looms except under the pressure of the ■direst necessity, shows the extremity of these poor villagers. But the Turk, counting these much below their market value, pronounced the amount twenty-three tcherkies short, and bade the astonished rayah bring the deficient twenty-three, with fifty more to pay him for his trouble, within two days, or tell his people to flee, if they had a place to flee to, for he would come and help himself at the head of his soldiers. It may give a further insight into the dealings of these Oriental stewards to add that Mohammed Pasha wrought a sulphur mine near Mosul, and made his own powder. He sent the surplus sulphur to Bagdad for sale, and, when that market was glutted, divided the stock on hand among the various sects of the rayahs in Mosul ; and, willing or unwilling, each had to buy so much sulphur at double the market price. The rural districts were often drained of money ; then their taxes were received in kind ; and what was not needed for the com- missariat of the pasha was disposed of in the same way. If an animal died on the road or was eaten by his soldiers, its ears had to be paid for as though it were alive. A Mdslem told Dr. Grant that he had to pay more for a certain monopoly than the amount of the article sold. " How, then, can you pay it .' " " Oh, last year I farmed another article and prospered. The pasha heard of it, and this is the result."^ The knoivii amount of his exactions for the year 1841 — for many of them would not bear to be published — was three million one hundred and ninety-five thousand five hundred (3,195,500) piasters. The ex- tent and severity of his oppression is recorded only too legibly in the decrease of European imports from nine hundred and sixty-six (966) bales in 1835 to ninety-four (94) in 1841.''' Now, if the same pressure brought to bear on the unjust steward were visited on one of these collectors of Turkish revenue, would he change his tax- bills from right to wrong, or from extortionate excess to justice ? This would make the tax receipts tally with the amounts paid in at headquarters, and legitimately expended in the pashalic ; and it would also make him friends among the late victims of his rapacity, especially if, as an Oriental would be sure to do, he represented the change as proceeding from himself, contrary to the wishes of his superior. Granting that these facts present one of the worst phases of the matter, for Mosul lies far in the interior, out of the reach of the ameliorating influences that affect the sea-ports of the empire, and Mohammed Pasha was noted for energy and severity, yet some of his successors, though possessed of less ad- ministrative ability, abated no jot or tittle of his rapacity. It was the old story of Solomon and Rehoboam over again ; and this state of things in Bible lands to-day illustrates this parable spoken to disciples, some of whom had them- selves sat at the receipt of custom, and, therefore, belonged to a class odious then, for the same reason that it is to-day. Those Jews who were willing to iDo., p. 20S. ^Do., pp. 207-211, 2S-30; see also Col. Chesney's Eu/ihrates Expedition, Vol. II, Appendix E. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 71 encounter the odium of being publicans incurred it for a consideration, and we find Zaccheus promising at liis conversion to restore the proceeds of false charges fourfold. Why, then, go out of the way, at least in the view of an Oriental, to make our Saviour even seem to present acts of injustice for our imitation, when the probability is that they were rather acts of righteous restitution ? Perhaps it may be objected that the steward was said to waste his master's goods — and writing fifty wrongfully for a hundred looks more like wasting than to write it so when truth required it. The objector, however, fails to notice that this wasting was done previous to the changing of the bills, and must, therefore, refer to something that had already taken place ; and what can that be but this extortion so common in Eastern lands, both now and then? Besides, is not anything wasted when it is turned aside from its proper use and from its lawful owner ? and was not the money embezzled by this unjust steward literally wasted when it was not only plundered from his master, but, like most ill-gotten gains, squandered by himself? — for, with all his stealing, he had laid up nothing, and, if he lost his place, had no alternative but to beg or engage in the lowest manual labor. While in office, his superior had never looked after his management so long as he received the rent agreed on, but, now that he hears the steward has been receiving so much more than he has paid over, he demands a sight of the accounts ; and the guilty one meets the emergency, not by honest confession of his wrong-doing, but by such a covert manceuver as he hopes will both set him right with his employer, by inducing him to think that the receipts of the tenants have corresponded with the pay- ments to him, and at the same time secure the good will of the whilom victims of his own injustice. Is it said, still, even so there is deceit and wrong? To this we make two replies. First, the wrong is not in the thing done, but only in the motives for doing it. Even though it may be done from a wrong motive, it is intrinsically right to rectify a false charge, and so at least we get rid of the burden of supposing that Christ commends an act dishonest in itself to our imitation. Second, the Lord himself is careful to notify us that the transac- tion does not proceed from right motives, when he presents it to us as the act of one of the "children of this world," seeking mere worldly good, from worldly considerations, and so actuated wholly by worldly motives. It is not intended to give a detailed exposition of the parable, but only to rid it of what so many feel to be a grievous burden in the current exposition, and to do this on grounds entirely Oriental, in distinction from philosophical or even grammatical. No violence has been done to any word, phrase, or gram- matical construction ; and if it were necessary, it could easily be shown that the moral force of the lesson which our Saviour intended to teach is in no way weakened by this interpretation, but only rid of a grave dilBculty that attaches to the prevailing mode of exposition. An incident at one of the villages deserves mention in this connection. After passing several villages totally desolate, on our way to Ashitha, in April, 1843, we came to Bastawa, the home of the chief of Mezfiry, also deserted. His wife was there, with a few attendants, securing their rice. Entirely differ- 7 2 THE ELY VOLUME. ent from those about her, her appearance awakened our interest. The tassels of a silk shawl depended gracefully from the lower part of her turban. A green silk saltah or jacket, lined with fur, but now much the worse for wear, covered a dress of coarse blue cotton, suggesting a sad contrast between former wealth and present poverty. Her features, once beautiful, now showed a spirit roused rather than broken by misfortune. Dr. Grant asked if she could furnish us lodgings for the night. At the word, the smouldering fire burst forth. Rising to her full height, she threw back her braided hair with one hand, and, pointing with the other to the roofless houses and her ruined home, " See there ! " said she; "you have stripped us of all ; you have driven us forth to beg ; and now do you ask our hospitality? Go to those with whom you have still left some- thing; and may God be judge between us." She said much more, but this was the substance of her words, translated by our servant. Gesture, look, and tone could not have been improved, and yet there was no lack of self-control. Her spirit would not yield to the violence of passion. There was a dignity of sor- row that moved us even more than her words, and made them understood even before they were translated. We were heartily ashamed of our Turkish cos- tume, that led her to mistake us for her oppressors. When she learned who we were, she at once offered to share with us the few comforts she had brought with her to the village ; but as there was nothing for our horses, we had to go on, thinking more of the heroine of Bastawa than of our own discomfort.^ As an illustration of the results of such oppression in the interior of Turkey, take the following scenes witnessed in Amadia during the same journey, which, after the lapse of thirty-seven years, abide in the memory like a vision of the lost. In the court of a synagogue we found some thick masses of wet leaves, cov- ered with mould — we could not call them books. They were volumes of the Talmud laid out to dry. Inside, the rough posts that sustained the roof were rotten. The rain had worn deep holes in the soft clay floor ; we could scarce find a place hard enough to stand on. The damp, heavy air was intolerable ; yet this was their regular jDlace of worship, and here more than forty rolls of beautiful Hebrew manuscript were going to decay. Dr. Grant went from there to see a sick man ; and, on leaving the ruinous shelter, we were surprised to hear that it was the home of one of their leading men. If the houses of the rich are so comfortless, what must be the homes of the poor ? We soon found out, but how shall we describe them ? Without door or window, save holes in the wall, half choked with rubbish ; scrambling down the loose slope, one enters what looks like a dungeon, so dark he can scarce discern its emptiness. A cradle and earthen pot composed the whole outfit of one ; two earthen pots and a pile of rags the inventory of another. The rags on the inmates hardly served the purposes of decency ; and how they endured the cold we could not imagine, for our path, when we left the town, in the pass over the mountain lay over the unmelted snow. In some places night brings relief to wretchedness ; but in many of these houses was neither a rug to keep them from the damp earth or cover them from the cold. We were • Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestor ians, p. 292. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 73 not surprised to learn that numbers had died of hunger, and others — a thino- most unusual in this land — had put an end to the existence too miserable to endure. One Jew had first killed his wife and then himself.^ Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Fefrcea, in i8j8, by E. Robinson and E. Smith, was the most valuable contribution ever made to the geography of Syria. Three volumes were published in 1841, at Boston, London, and Halle. Another volume, embodying the results of travels in 1852, was published at Boston, London, and Berlin, in 1856. The work wrought a complete revolution in Biblical geography, both in this country and in Europe ; nor has it been superseded by any later production. It still holds unquestioned supremacy, as the most full, accurate, and trustworthy description of that country, though the publications of the " English Palestine Exploration Fund " furnish the results of more recent and thorough exploration of particular localities. The writer found that the volume describing the region passed through, in any part of his journey through Palestine, was a better guide than any native he could procure on the spot. It told just the things he wanted to know, and no cross-questioning was needed to get it. No small part of the minute accuracy of this work is owing to the familiar acquaintance of Dr. Smith with the language and the people. As Dr. Robin- son says himself : " I count m3^self fortunate in being associated with one whose familiar and accurate knowledge of Arabic, acquaintance with the peo- ple of Syria, and experience in former journeys, fitted him for the work. In- deed, to these qualifications of my companion, combined with his taste for geographical and historical researches, and his tact in eliciting and sifting information from Arabs, are mainly to be ascribed the more important and interesting results of our journey ; for I am well aware that, had I traveled with an ordinary interpreter, I should have undertaken much less than together we accomplished, while many points of interest would have been overlooked, and many inquiries remained without satisfactory answers." ^ Then, in the preface to his later volume, he adds : " That very much of the success and comfort of the journey depended on the long and familiar acquaintance possessed by my companions with the language and character of the people, I need not here repeat." Dr. Smith accompanied him on this last journey to Jerusalem, Hebron, and as far north as Hasbeiya ; Dr. W. M. Thomson to Banias and Damascus, and Rev. S. Robson thence via Baalbek and the Cedars to Beirut. Each kept his own separate journal, and the volume was compiled from them all. If Dr. Robinson studied thoroughly the works of previous writers on Biblical geography. Dr. Smith also studied with equal assiduity the writings of Oriental authors on the same subject ; made out full lists of places, so far as he could get them from Arabic books, or acquaintances familiar with the several localities, and then verified them on the spot, with a tact and thoroughness that would have been impossible to a stranger to the Arab char- acter, even though he might have known the language. One hundred and fifty pages relating to Arabic names, in the third volume, are his work, and the whole ' Do., pp. 299-300. - Biblical Researches, Vol. I, p. 2. First edition. 74 THE ELY VOLUME. I of the manuscript of the three previous volumes was revised and corrected by his accurate pen. Manuscript maps of Rev. I. Bird, another missionary, gave fullness and correctness to Dr. Robinson's map of Mount Lebanon. Rev. G. B. Whiting furnished many valuable hints to Dr. Robinson, in Jerusalem, suggested by his residence for a number of years in that city. It was his re- mark, that the stones at the southwest corner of the temple had always seemed to him a portion of a large arch, that suggested to Dr. Robinson the idea that it formed part of the ancient bridge from the temple to the Xystus. Dr. Rob- inson himself had thought it only a bulging of the wall occasioned by an earth- quake.^ If, then, as Americans, we are jDroud " that it was reserved for a fellow countryman in our own day to furnish the learned of both continents with the most accurate and thorough work ever written on that interesting country,"^ let us not forget how much, in this instance, geographical science is indebted to foreign missions. The first number of the Bibliotheca Sacra, issued by Dr. Robinson in Febru- ary, 1843, is occupied as far as page 88 with corrections and additions to the Biblical Researches, received from Dr. E. Smith and Dr. S. Wolcott, who wrote an article on maps of Palestine in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1845, PP- 5^5-590- Prof. C. E. Stowe, in introducing a letter from Dr. H. Lobdell — stating that the people of Mosul, Moslems, Christians, and Jews, all agree that Jonah's gourd was not the ricinus communis, as scholars generally suppose, but a kind of pumpkin (Arabic, k^er^d) — takes occasion to say : "The interest of mission- aries in the Bible, and their familiarity with its original languages, give a pecul- iar \alue to their personal investigations, beyond those of ordinary travelers, however well qualified otherwise." " Dr. Robinson's invaluable Biblical Re- searches could not have been made in their present perfection without the aid of the learned missionary, Dr. E. Smith." ^ Rev. S. H. Calhoun gives a beautiful description of the cedars of Lebanon,* in the Bibliotheca Sacra, and the writer published two articles in the same periodical,^ on Mount Lebanon : its geographical connections, rivers, geology, scenery, climate, productions, zoology, roads, population, and antiquities. Rev. L. Thompson gives an account of "the religious sects of Syria,"" in which much valuable information is brought together, at the cost of no small labor. Life Scenes Amo7ig the Mountai7is of Ararat, by Rev. M. P. Parmelee, sketches some delightful home pictures of Oriental life in northeastern Turkey, and gives many valuable and interesting geographical facts. Rev. C. H. Wheeler's Ten Years on the Euphrates, though mainly devoted to the history of missionary work, does not lose sight of other things. It gives us a vivid portraiture of the people ; and, among other things, a map of that missionary field, containing many names of villages not found elsewhere. It '^ Biblical Researches, Vol. I, p. 424. First edition. = Address of J. Pickering, first president of American Oriental Society, at its first annual meeting. See Jour- nal 0/ American Oriental Society, Vol. I, p. 22. ^Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S55, p. 398. * Do., 1S57, pp. 200-201. •''Do., i86g, pp. 54i-57>) 673-712. ''Do., 1S57, pp. 525-537. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 75 gives a vivid sketch of a very successful endeavor to make even very poor missionary churches self-supporting; and his Letters from Eden give interesting interior views of the missionary work in its details and results. Dr. W. M. Thomson is almost without a peer in the variety and value of his contributions to the geography of Syria ; though his principal work, The Latid and the Book, is devoted to bringing out the relations existing between the Bible and the lands in which it was written. He found the names of per- sons, places, things, and incidents all around him illustrating and confirming Holy Scripture, and sought to make all Christendom partake with him in the light his long residence in Syria poured upon the pages of the Word of God. The Bibliotheca Sacra truly says of it : " If the Syrian mission had produced no other fruit, the churches which have supported it would have received in this book an ample return for all they have expended. The plan of the book is unique. It is a book of travels, a book of conversations, a running comment on the Scriptures, and a pictorial geography and history of Palestine, all in one." Dr. A. P. Peabody says of it : '' Of literature illustrative of the Bible, I know of no work so well arranged, so affluent, and so equally adapted to the purposes of reference by the scholar and of familiar use by the ordinary reader." ^ His original work, with maps and engravings prepared expressly for it, em- bodied all that was of value for the illustration of Scripture in our knowledge of Palestine up to that date. Since then others have followed him in the same line of investigation, and now he is re-writing the work on a larger scale. The first edition was reprinted in England, and the new one appears simultaneously from the presses of the Messrs. Harper in New York, and of Thomas Nelson & Sons, Edinburgh, Scotland. As yet only the first of three volumes has ap- peared ; a goodly broad octavo of 592 pages, and got up without regard to expense. The illustrations were good in the first edition ; now they are not only exact reproductions of the scenes they represent, but the engravings are in the highest style of art. More than most missionaries. Dr. Thomson has traversed over and over again^ the scenes which he describes so graphically. From the beginning of his missionary life, in February, 1833, his attention seems to have been drawn to this line of study, and in this work we have the ripe fruit of nearly fifty years of careful observation. He is the pioneer in this branch of knowledge, and readers of the Bible the world over owe him a debt of gratitude for this labor of love. . One great value of this new edition is that all the latest discoveries are embodied in his description of the various localities. The thorough work of the " English Palestine Exploration Fund " and the cream of other travels go to increase the value of the book. It is not a wooden building repainted and patched up here and there, but it is a stone structure taken down to the foun- dation and rebuilt with much new material on a better plan. In the former edi- tion he began at Beirut, and took his reader along with him to the south. In this he lands at Joppa, and enters at once on the promised land. Many of the old facts are repeated, but in better form and new connections, and new facts ' North A merican Revieiv. 76 THE ELY VOLUME. are collected from all sources, composing sometimes more than half the chap- ter; making this by far the best work on the subject now, as the first edition at once took the lead in 1859. The spirit of the work appears in the following paragraph : ^ " The range of topics, historic, moral, social, and religious, that illustrate the Bible, is wide and surprisingly diversified. Think, if you can, of a Bible with all these left out, or others essentially different in their place — a Bible without patriarch or pilgrimage ; with no bondage in Egypt, or deliverance therefrom ; no Red Sea; no Sinai, with its miracles ; no wilderness of wandering, with all the associated incidents ; without a Jordan with Canaan over against it, or a Dead Sea with Sodom beneath it; no Moriah with its temple, or Zion with its palaces. Whence could have come our divine songs and psalms, if the sacred poets had lived in a land without mountain or valley ; with no plains covered over with corn, no hills planted with the olive, the fig, and the vine ? All are needed, and all do good service, from the oaks of Bashan and the cedars of Lebanon ' even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall ; ' we can dispense with none of them. The tiny mustard seed has its moral, and the lilies of the field their lessons. Thorns and thistles utter admonitions and revive sad memories. The shepherd and his flock, the sheep and the fold, the ox and his yoke, the camel and his burden, the ass and his owner, the horse with neck clothed with thunder ; lions that roar, wolves that raven, foxes that spoil, harts panting for water brooks, and roes feeding among lilies; doves in their windows, sparrows on the house-top, storks in the heavens, eagles hasting to the fray ; things great and small ; the busy bee and the careful ant laying up store in harvest — these are merely random specimens out of a world of rich materials, all congre- gated in this land, where their presence was needed to enrich and adorn the revelation of God to man." Again : "']'he physical features of Jerusalem and the regions round about it are made to furnish the natural basis for one of the most delightful prophecies in the Bible.^ Ezekiel was a priest, occupied with the temple service, and, therefore, perfectly familiar with the outlook from the temple down the valley of the Kedron out into the desert, and away southeast to the Dead Sea. He also knew the different fountains along the valley, and their peculiar action. Underneath the temple platform are immense cisterns, and from them, as is supposed, water descends in a small stream to the remitting fountain of Mary, for, at the end of the first thousand cubits, ' the waters were to the ankles.' Further down, near the pool of Siloam, the stream, much enlarged, reappears : ' the waters were to the knees.' At the end of the third thousand cubits, be- low the well of Job, where the water even now breaks out from many places, forming a lively mill-stream, 'the waters were to the loins.' This, however, only occurs, in our day, during long-continued and heavy rains. I saw such an outflow once, and then many of the inhabitants of Jerusalem were gathered there in holiday costume, rejoicing at the rare event, which is believed to promise abundant harvests. Farther down, still other tributaries swell the stream into ' a river that could not be passed over.' Inn i-.^-i^R 2Ezek. xlvii: 1-12. w CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 77 " There were many things peculiar and significant in this : its source, ' at the south side of the altar ; ' its course, ' toward the east country,' ' into the desert,' ' into the sea,' /. e., the Dead Sea ; its rapid increase from a mere rill at the beginning to a river ' to swim in ; ' and, last of all, its effects : ' Everything shall live whither the river cometh.' On either bank 'grow all trees for meat, whose leaf shall not fade, neither shall the fruit thereof be consumed.' What a contrast to the present banks of the Kedron — a wilderness — with nothing to relieve its frightful desolation ! But wherever this river from under the sanctuary comes, the desert blossoms, the banks are shaded with trees, and vocal with music of birds. And, more wonderful still, the river ' being brought forth into the sea, the waters shall be healed.' Now, this sea of Sodom is so bitter that, although the Jordan and other streams have poured into it sweet water for thousands of years, it continues as nauseous as ever. Nothing lives in it ; neither fish, nor reptiles, nor even animalculse ; but when the waters from the sanctuary come thither, the shores will be robed in green, its depths shall teem with fish, and ' fishers shall stand on it from En-gedi even unto En-eglaim : they shall be a place to spread forth nets : their fish shall be as the fish of the great sea, exceeding many' — not that a physical miracle is here predicted, but only a spiritual allegory, which foreshadows miracles of mercy in store for the whole world." ^ It would be pleasant to transcribe other descriptions, but these must suffice. The reader of the work will find no lack of them in any part of it. In Turkey, Rev. W. H. Gulick visited Arjish Dagh,- near Kaisarieh,^ and noted the resemblance of its volcanic rocks to those of the Sandwich Islands. Rev. W. A. Farnsworth made the first ascent of it in recent times — a note- worthy fact, as, with the single exception of Ararat, it is the highest in the Turkish empire. Like that, though a spur of the Taurus range, it stands alone in a vast plain, a huge cone thirteen thousand feet in height, and covering an area of three hundred square miles. It is an extinct volcano, and many cones rise along its sides, some of them higher than Mount Washington, The peo- ple say that the giant who built the mountain let these fall through the bottom of his basket. The peak is bare for three thousand feet. On September 13, 1827, Rev. E. Gridley reached within four hundred feet of the summit,* but died in consequence of exposure in the ascent. In 1873, Mr. Farnsworth attempted to reach the summit, but got no farther than Mr. Gridley, the same precipices preventing his advance ; but now, on the 25th of August, 1874, he succeeded in attaining to the highest point. He pitched his tent high up, near the limits of perpetual snow, as the base of operations, and went up with horses as far as the old crater, or crater valley, surrounded by precipices on three sides, the northeast side alone being broken down ; from this place he climbed on foot the southern wall, and reached a semi-circular ridge, as regular as the rim of a bowl, on which he advanced for three hours, so steep on the north that one could not step down even a few feet but at the peril of his life, and on the south so steep and smooth that large stones once started went down till the eye 1 pp. 422-426. 2 Mons Argsus. 3 Cxsarea. * Missionary Herald, 1828, p. 259. 78 THE ELY VOLUME. could no longer keep track of their descent, though nothing intervened to hide them. Arrived at the precipices that stopped Mr. Gridley, he was in doubt whether to try to pass round by the south or the north side. Some small stones rush- ing down on the north decided the party to try that, and soon they stood on the base of the peak above the wall of rock. Here some concluded to stop ; but Mr. Farnsworth went on alone for an hour of hard climbing, when, rejoined by one of his companions, an easy walk of twenty minutes brought them to the summit. To the south and east, the air was clear, and the view exceedingly grand ; but in other directions it was blurred by a fog, caused by the wind from below striking the huge banks of snow. It was of no use to wait, for they were where the clouds were made, and they saw the process going on. The air, clear at a little distance, grew thick as it approached the snow at their feet, and drove over the edge of the rock, not ten feet away, like drifting snow. Bleak and bare as the peak was, a little bird was flitting about, and a tiny flower bloomed in a sheltered nook on its southern face. Thinking it might be easier, they went down on the southern side of the crag, but found it more difficult and dangerous than the other. On the ridge they found a practicable path down to the bottom of the crater, and descended more than twelve hundred feet in a few minutes, providentially unharmed. Here the snow was more abundant than on the ridge. In one place the bank of snow was unbroken for a mile, and dotted over with innumerable pebbles, and here and there a boulder that had fallen from above. These rolling stones constitute the chief danger of the ascent. The two reached the horses at the same time with the others, and arrived at the tent as Jupiter and Venus began to show themselves near the summit. The party consisted of two Americans, two Armenians, and a Turk; and had the atmosphere allowed it, the whole of Cappadocia, and parts of Galatia, Lycaonia, Cilicia, Pontus, and Armenia would have been visible.^ Rev. G. W. Dunmore traveled more than six thousand miles in Turkey, and one thousand in Persia and Russia. There is much geographical information in the Memoir 0/ Dr. Lohdell, both ancient and modern, concerning the coun- try from Beirut via Aintab and Diarbekir to Mosul ; from Mosul to Bagdad and Babylon ; and to Kurdistan and Persia. Rev. J. H. Shedd gives an account of a tour in Kurdistan,'-' and another across the uplands of Media to Hamadan,^ the summer residence of Cyrus, as Shushan was his winter home. Its population, mostly Moslem, is sixty thousand. The climate, owing to the snow of Mount Elvend, is colder than Oroomiah. A part of his route was new to Europeans. The Jews there he regards as probably descended from the lost tribes. In places the soil is so rich in fragments of the precious metals, rthat it is sold by the donkey-load, and washed by the Jews. He describes the tomb of Mordecai and Esther, in Hamadan.* Rev. T. D. Christie gives the following description of a scene in the heart of the Taurus mountains : We crossed the gorge of the Gaok Su by a road cut '^Missionary Herald, 1875, pp 122-124. " Do., 1870, pp. 191-194. 3 Ecbatana. * Journal of A merican Oriental Society, .'Appendix, 1871. CENTRAL TURKEY. 79 zigzag down a perpendicular cliff for a thousand feet, and as steep in the ascent on the opposite side. We approached Hadjin from the north, over heights of seven or eight thousand feet. The road winds round one of these peaks, and all at once a valley like an immense mill hopper lies before you, surrounded by lofty mountains. Two thirds down, a narrow ledge projects towards the south, and ends in a precipice at the center of the valley. This is covered with houses — its top, its sides, tier below tier, five streets down, if you can call them streets. The houses rest on tall posts where the rock is not wide enough for an entire foundation. It is a hive containing twenty thousand human beings ; resembling a huge honey-comb cut open so as to show the cells. One could almost toss a biscuit on the flat roofs a thousand feet below. We wound down the stair-like road till, as we neared the houses, though still high above them, there were signs of commotion in the hive ; the roofs began to swarm with people, and we could see others hurrying towards us in the nar- row paths between the houses. It must have been a dreadful degree of violence and insecurity that drove human beings to select such a place to build their homes. ^ Rev. L. H. Adams also describes the scenery of Giaour Dagh,- a mountain- ous region three days nortiivvest from Aintab. There, in some places, the rocky strata stand perpendicular, like our own Palisades, forming walls for miles, hundreds of feet in height. He also describes the mountaineers, who set the Turks at defiance, or obey them only in a way to suit themselves.^ Dr. Hamlin's volume. Among the Turks, gives some interesting geographical information concerning southern Macedonia, and abounds in graphic pictures of Turkish life, government, institutions, and religions. In it v/e have the con- clusions of one whose opportunities for observation have rarely been equaled, and who adds to personal narratives other incidents, which let us into the inner life and character of the people. CENTRAL TURKEY. The following account of Central Turkey, by Rev. Henry Harden, of Marash, is a good specimen of the contributions of our missionaries to the science of geography in Western Asia. " The Coimtry audits Products. The mission field called Central Turkey lies around the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea, extending inland some two hundred miles. It includes Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul, and Antioch, where the disciples of Christ were first called Christians. The Taurus Moun- tains, extending from Smyrna to Ararat, ten thousand feet high, with snow on their summits nearly the whole year, cross its northern borders. Between Antioch and the sea is the Amanus range, with the famous pass called the Syrian Gates, and north of Tarsus, in the Taurus, are the Cicilian Gates, both famous in ancient history. East of Tarsus is Issus, the battle-field of Alex- ^ Missionary Herald, 1879, p. 303. = Infidel mounalr. 2 Missio7iary Herald, 1S67, pp. 243-244- 8o THE ELY VOLUME. ander and Darius. The old Euphrates, one thousand feet wide and ten feet deep, flows through the eastern part, on its way to the Persian Gulf. "The face of the country is about equally divided between mountains and plains. The mountains are high ridges of whitish limestone, some without a tree or shrub, others covered with a scanty growth of bushes, while here and there are seen straggling forests of oak and pitch-pine. The valleys are fre- quently watered by cold, clear streams, flowing directly out of the mountain side, and are very productive. The soil in the plains is rich and deep. From December to May it rains perhaps one fourth of the time, with an occasional sprinkling of snow ; but from May to December not only is rain almost un- known, but rarely is a cloud to be seen, especially in the interior, while the sun pours down its scorching heat day after day. The mercury seldom rises in the shade above iio°, except in the lower plains. On the mountains the air is cool and refreshing. Wheat and barley are sown in November, and harvested in May and June. The grains are wheat, rice, millet, barley, and Indian corn. Vegetables are grown in irrigated gardens in summer. The varieties are onions, garlic, egg-plant, okra, tomatoes, melons of all kinds, squashes, and carrots. Cotton and tobacco are grown in many localities. The plow is the crooked stick of Abraham's day, with an iron point. This plow and a common pickaxe are the chief farming implements, for harrows, cultivators, hoes, and rakes are unknown. The watered ravines in the mountains are generally filled with orchards of apricot, peach, mulberry, pomegranate, fig, plum, pear, English walnut, and almond. On the shore of the Mediterranean are large groves of orange and lemon, with here and there a date palm tree and cactus hedge. The domestic animals are camels, horses, mules, donkeys, cows, sheep, goats, and buffaloes. No hay is gathered, and there is but little grazing, except for sheep and goats. All other animals are fed, especially in winter, with barley and straw. "Grapes of the finest quality are raised in immense quantities. Some cities have twenty-five square miles of vineyards spread over the neighboring hills and mountain sides ; and though the grapes are so abundant and delicious, not a drop of rain is expected from the time the vines leave out till the grapes are gathered, and they are never irrigated ! The grapes are eaten fresh, are dried for .raisins, and are also made into sweetmeats of many varieties. An intoxi- cating drink called ' rakky ' is made to some extent, but wine is seldom seen. The use of intoxicating liquors is confined largely to government officials and soldiers, and to those men who have come more or less into contact with the civilization of southern Europe. Tobacco is never chewed, but is smoked by all classes. "77/^ Cih'es — ^/le People. Aleppo and Adana are the chief commercial cities, whence European merchandise is sent hundreds of miles into the inte- rior. The chief seaports are Alexandretta and Mersin, which are visited every week by steamers from Marseilles and Constantinople. There are no carriage roads, but mere trails from city to city. The great thoroughfare from Alexan- dretta to Aleppo and Bagdad, though used for perhaps forty centuries, is CENTRAL TURKEY. 8 1 in some places a single donkey path. All transportation is done by cara- vans. The people live either in cities or villages, with their houses built as close together -as possible. Cities have no suburbs, and the outside rows of houses are the poorest and cheapest. No man dares to live at a distance from neighbors. The village houses are generally made of sun-dried brick, some- times of mud and cobble-stones, while the larger cities are built of well-cut limestone, with flat earthen roofs. Thousands of people live in tents made of black hair-cloth or merely reed matting. The population is made up of five or six distinct nationalities. " The great Aleppo plain is dotted over with the black tents of the Arabs. The Antioch plain has many villages of Turcomans. These Turcomans are a branch of the Turkish race, living in tents as shepherds, and quite separate from other classes of the population. A little further north are thousands of Kurds, descendants of the ancient Carduchi whom Xenophon, 400 B. C, found in these same mountain fastnesses. Two thirds of the population of the cities and towns, and the entire population of numerous villages, are Turks, lineal descendants of the wild Tartar warriors, who came down from Central Asia hundreds of years ago and conquered all Asia Minor. The government is still in their hands. Upwards of one hundred thousand Circassian refugees from Turkey in Europe were scattered through Central Turkey in 1878. They are merely armed tramps, feared and hated by all classes. The other third of the population of the cities, including some mountain villages, are Armenian Christians. In the eastern part of the field are a few thousand Syrians, the remnant of an ancient race. " In nearly every city is a community of Roman Catholics, sometimes number- ing several thousands, as in Aleppo, while various fragments of other Christian sects are scattered here and there. The Arabs, Turcomans, Kurds, Turks, and Circassians are all Mohammedans, with scarcely an exception. The Armenians, Syrians, and various smaller communities, are nominal Christians. They, with the Ktirds, are descendants of the original inhabitants" of the land. The con- quering Moslems gave them their choice between the Koran, tribute, and the sword. The Kurds, who had never become Christian, accepted Mohammedan- ism. What Christians were left after the bloody wars, still adhered to their faith and paid tribute. Each sect retained its own language, forms of worship, and customs, and their religion apparently consists largely of lifeless formalities, without influence upon the character. " The Languages and Religions. The language of the Arabs is Arabic, the Kurds speak Kurdish,»the Circassians, Russian ; but while many individuals of these classes speak also Turkish, the Turcomans and Turks speak only Turk- ish, except in Aleppo and vicinity, where they speak Arabic. Yet every Mos- lem performs his religious services in the sacred Arabic. It is not considered essential that he understand the prayers he repeats five times a day ! All the Christian sects have been so overshadowed by the Turks that they have learned their language. However, the Armenians generally in their homes speak the modern Armenian, but conduct their church services in the ancient Armenian. 6 82 THE ELY VOLUME. The Syrians speak the modem Syriac at home, Turkish in the street, and wor- ship God in the ancient Syriac. No one doubts that Babel was somewhere in this vicinity. "In Central Turkey the Christian population is chiefly Armenian. They are a fragment of the old Armenian nation that in the time of Christ, and perhaps in Abraham's day, was located near Mount Ararat. They have maintained their national identity most remarkably. It is claimed that in the third century their king was converted and ordered the nation to be baptized, when doubt- less some pagan rites received a christening. Chosroes, emperor of Persia, persecuted them. A few centuries later the nation was overrun by the Turks, large numbers were put to death without mercy, others fied from their homes, and their descendants are now found in all parts of the Turkish empire, and many have emigrated to other lands. Despite this rough treatment, for these hundreds of years. they have clung with wonderful tenacity to their Christian name, and to the forms, at least, of a Christian faith. '■'■ Aintah — The Arme?iians. In the city of Aintab there are thirty thousand Turks, with sixty mosques, from whose minarets their muezzins five times every day shout the call to prayer. There are ten thousand Armenian Christians, with their church edifice, built centuries ago. If we could look into their church as it appeared thirty years ago, we would find an audience of perhaps a thousand men. The priest stands before the altar and reads from a prayer- book in the ancient Armenian, which is probably understood by no one in the audience, and possibly he himself merely repeats what he has memorized. The people know when to bow, when to kneel, and when to cross themselves. They perform their part and the priest performs his, and at the close of the service the men come forward, kiss the sacred crosses on the huge Bible, which none of them can read, cross themselves before the pictures of saints upon the walls, and go home. But where are the women and daughters ? They are not allowed to enter the body of the house, but, closely wrapped in white sheets, climb up the dark stair-way to a narrow gallery, and sit behind a lattice, where, unable to hear anything, they can only have a sociable by themselves. Such were the religious privileges of these ten thousand nominal Christians. " Mission Progress at Aintab. The first missionary was stoned out of the city by a mob, at the instigation of an Armenian priest, but a few earnest men gladly received the truth, and a little church was organized. Then followed Sunday schools, prayer meetings, day schools, pastoral \work ; and the first con- verts, like Philip, brought many a Nathanael to Jesus. " Thirty years have passed. There are now in Aintab two thousand enrolled Protestants, two churches, more than six hundred church members, admitted on the same conditions as in New England, two Sunday schools with from seven hundred to eight hundred members in each, day schools for all the Protestant children, with gradations of primary, middle, and grammar schools. These two churches have their ordained native pastors, with deacons and ■ CENTRAL TURKEY. Sj, church committees. For a dozen years they have managed their own affairs,, and have paid the current expenses of tlieir churches and schools. The missionaries now have no control over them, and wish none. The missionaries found only one woman in the city who could read, but now nearly every woman in the Protestant community can read her Bible. " Look into one of these Sabbath schools and see eight hundred men, women, -and children study the Word of God. All are present who attend the preach- ing service. Both teachers and scholars give close attention to their work. Many among them can repeat the Bible story from Genesis to Revelation. An hour or two later they gather for worship. The preacher conducts the service in Turkish after the manner of the evangelical churches in America. The hjmms are Turkish translations of our sweet songs of Zion, and are sung in the same old tunes by the whole congregation. That kind-faced deacon near the pulpit helped stone the first missionary out of the city. The man in the mid- dle of the audience, with a deep scar on his brow, is a converted robber. A third congregation of some two hundred has recently been gathered in the cit}% and is working its w-ay up towards self-support. " Change Among the Armenians — The Moslems. Look with me again into the old Armenian church. You hear again the service in the sacred language of the fathers, but at the close there is a sermon in Turkish by the priest, at the de- mand of his audience, who have learned from the Protestants that religious services should be understood. Near by the altar stands an Estey organ from Vermont. The pictures have mostly gone from the walls, and, side by side with the ancient Bible, which few if any could read, there lies the plain Turk- ish Bible, fresh from the mission press. In the Armenian schools close by, you will find the Protestant text-books, and very likely a Protestant teacher. It is said that, before missionaries came to Turkey, there was not in the whole em- pire a school in which the spoken language was used, while geography and arithmetic were quite unknown. The Bible is in a large number of Armenian houses, where it is often read with thoughtful interest. The effect of Protestant light can now be seen on the dark background of the Moslem faith. The old bitterness that forbade a Christian to speak the name of his Master in the presence of a Turk gives place to kind regard. It is not uncommon for a Christian not only to defend his faith before Moslems, but to plead with them to look to Christ and live. " The attitude of the government towards Christianity still represses all spirit of inquiry among the Moslems. It cares but little how much the despised Christians change about from one creed to another^ but there is yet practically no religious liberty for the Moslems." ^ " Marash — The Outlook for Tu7-key. In Marash, our other center of mission work, instead of a college, the Theological Seminary is training men for the pulpit, and two thousand five hundred Protestants and three self-supporting churches indicate the progress of evangelical faith. Oorfa, Acliaman, Kassab, ^ His account of the college at Aintab is omitted, as that belougs to another chapter. 84 THE ELY VOLUME. Killis, Adana, and Hadjin have each from three hundred to one thousand Protestants, with a self-supporting church. More than thirty other cities and villages in Central Turkey have their churches and schools, their prayer- meetings and Sunday schools. " The missionaries reside at Marash and Aintab, there being generally three men, their wives, and two unmarried lady teachers in each of these two cities. The ladies have charge of the boarding-schools at the centers, and a general supervision of the schools and special work for native women in out-stations. The missionaries at Aintab have charge of the College, and the missionaries at Marash of the Theological Seminary; while from each place as a center they supervise the general mission work, making frequent tours over the field on horseback, preaching as occasion may require. " These same evangelical influences are at work in all parts of the empire. But few cities or towns are now without a community of Protestants, with its church and school. In Asia Minor alone there are more than two hundred places of worship where the living preacher every Sabbath proclaims the Gos- pel message in the languages of the people. The whole Turkish empire is indeed starred all over with churches and schools, with Christian homes and family altars, each a center of life and light, sending out its sacred influences into the surrounding darkness. " It is said that Turkish birds never sing. But, one summer morning, I wandered down through the gardens for an hour's rest. In the hedge by the path a nightingale was pouring forth its song, so sweet, so pure, it seemed like an echo from the upper world. So the sweet sound of the Gospel is heard here and there all through the land, waking the nation into life from the sleep of a long, dreary night." ^ The following description of Antioch, from the same pen, may show that devotion to missionary work does not interfere with interest in, and the intelli- gent promotion of, all useful knowledge. "Antioch, situated on the southeast bank of the river Orontes, twenty miles from its mouth, was founded by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 300, and its site, like that of Rome, was determined upon by the flight of eagles, Seleucus Nicator, having defeated Antigonus, compelled five thousand Athenians and Macedonians to tear down his rival's capital, Antigonea, and convey the materials down the Orontes, to his new city, which he called Antioch, in honor of his father. Its site is romantically beautiful, and strategically commands the only level road to the sea from Mesopotamia and upper Syria. The space between the Orontes and Mt. Silphius being quite narrow, the city in its glory was very long in proportion to its breadth, and contained a single street four miles long, bordered on either side by vast colonnades, so contrived as to shelter the crowds from the heat as they traversed the city. The Orontes opposite Antioch originally contained an island adorned by palaces, and con- nected with the main land by magnificent bridges, a feature of the city that no longer exists. I Missionary Herald, iSSo, pp. 44-5°- ANTIOCH. 85 "The walls of Antioch, famed throughout the East, originally built by Anti- ochus Epiphanes, enlarged by his successors, and repaired by Tiberius, starting from the river, crossed the city, ascended the mountain, stretched along its summit, and then descended again to the river, whose city bank was strongly fortified. Much of this wall still exists on Mount Silphius, and is a splendid specimen of ancient patience and skill in warlike defenses. Antioch was a favorite retreat of most of the great Roman rulers. Caesar, Augustus, Caligula, and Herod of Judea, all executed vast architectural works and improvements — as aqueducts, baths, and basilicas — until the city was famed even in Rome for its magnificence, and at one time contained six hundred thousand souls, being the third city in the world. The climate added to the city's fascinations. If, according to Euripides, ' the Greeks were ever delicately marching through the pellucid air,' this was preeminently true of the denizens of Antioch. The purple light of the hills, with the exquisite softness and transparency of the atmosphere, vividly reminded the homesick Athenian of his beloved Attica. " Beautiful as was Antioch, it was well-nigh eclipsed by its famous suburb, Daphne, a vast elliptical garden over three miles in diameter by the longer axis. Here, in a splendid temple dedicated to Apollo, was a famous image of the god, sixty feet high. Serpentine walks adorned at intervals by superb statuary from Greek chisels, marble baths overflowing with crystal water from the adjacent hills, exquisite miniature temples, beautiful arches, and tiny bridges over the little winding streams that were taught to flow, now from the mouths of huge dragons, now over precipices into deep grottoes shaded by lofty trees full of singing birds, all created a delicious coolness in the fierce heat of a Syrian sun, and a luxury so dangerous that the Roman soldiery were strin- gently forbidden to approach the place. Here, in purple and jewels, the most accomplished courtiers lived and reveled in pleasure. But now, the half-naked barbarian herds his goats among the ruins of Apollo's worship, and chases the fox and jackal over the ashes of classic glory, " As to morals, we cannot praise the ancient people of Antioch. It was at once the greatest and the worst of all Greek Oriental cities under the sway of Rome. Nevertheless, Christianity in Antioch won vast trophies during the early centuries, and here was founded the church of the Gentiles ; at one time there were, in the city limits, three hundred and sixty churches and monasteries. From here, Paul and Barnabas, with other devoted souls, went forth with the Gospel into the West, and as a result we are now rejoicing in its blessed hopes. Ten councils holden here, at which Arianism and other heresies were con- demned, give Antioch a prominent place in church history. Among the power- ful patriarchates of the early church — as Constantinople, Rome, ^lerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch — the latter occupied a conspicuous place, and exists, under the Greek (and Jacobite) churches, until this hour. In letters and oratory the city furnished some distinguished names, such as Ignatius, Theophilus, John Chrysostom, Severus, and Sergius, all famous in the church. "The political history of Antioch is most eventful, and might be introduced by the statement that the city has been wholly or partially destroyed by earth- quakes nearly twenty times, the last one occurring in 1S72. On two of these S6 THE ELY VOLUME. occasians, two hundred and sixty thousand souls perished in three minutes. Since the Christian era the city was captured and plundered by Sapor, of Persia, A. D. 260. Justinian rebuilt and called it ' The City of God,' in A. D. 536. After it was captured and burnt by Chosroes, Justinian rebuilt it, A. D. 562. It was destroyed again by Chosroes, A. D. 574 ; was captured by the Saracens, A. D. 638, and retaken by Nicephorus Phocas, A. D. 966. One hundred thousand Saracens perished in an attempt to recapture it, A. D. 970, but it was betrayed to them by its governor, A. D. 1080. After a terrific siege, Godfrey of Bouillon captured the city June 3, 1098, and next it fell into the hands of the Sultans of Egypt, A. D. 1268. It was, however, speedily turned" over to the Turks, who have remained its masters to this day, except during a brief period from 1839 to 1840, whea it was held by Ibrahim Pasha, of Egypt, who was compelled by the interposition of England to restore it to the Turks. " At the present time Antioch contains about thirteen thousand souls, con- sisting of Moslems, Greeks, Pagans, Jews, Armenians, Catholics, and Protest- ants, whose numbers, commencing with the largest, follow the order of this enumeration. Missionary operations are carried on by the American Board and the Reformed Presbyterians of Ireland. The latter, using the Arabic language, have large and flourishing schools under the care of Rev. James Mar- tin, M. D., with Sabbath and weekly preaching services, attended by consider- able numbers. There is a church here, with a native pastor, connected with the mission of the American Board. The congregation numbers about sevent)' persons, and the church twenty-two. Efforts towards self-support are promis- ing. Surely, in the missionary efforts put forth in Asia Minor, this ancient home of Christians should not be forgotten. ^ " The accompanying view is an excellent representation of Antioch as it was about forty years ago. Since then the wall has been in many places over- thrown by earthquake, and large sections of it have been used by Ibrahim Pasha and others in the erection of buildings. The city extends higher up on the side of the mountain than it did a few years ago." AFRICA. Africa has been less known than any other quarter of the world. Stanley may well call it "the Dark Continent.'' A French writer justly styles it "a sphinx devouring those who would solve her enigmas." Rev. D. Lindley, who was a missionary there for forty years, says: "Ordinary accounts of African travelers may be classed under three heads : half-true, untrue, and nonsense. Their information comes through interpreters, who may not know, and if they did, would not impart their knowledge to a stranger one time in a hundred." South of the equator missionaries have been the principal explorers. Secu- lar enterprise has done much. It sent seventeen expeditions in forty years to explore the Niger. Nineteen leaders perished in the attempt, besides scores of subordinates ; yet the world commends the heroism of these martyrs to science. African missions also count their martyrs. The Moravians landed on the gold ' Missionary Herald, iSSo, pp. 2.(4-24(1. WESTERN AFRICA. 87 coast in 1736, and braved its deadly clime till eleven had fallen. Seventy-five years later the Wesleyans began at Sierra Leone, in the same spirit. Scores fell, but volunteers sprang to the vacant places. Among our own missionaries, Rev. A. Bushnell, W. Walker, B. Griswold, I. M. Preston, H. A. Ford, M. D., and others, have penetrated the country sev- eral hundred miles from the coast, explored its streams, and discovered many towns. They have ascended the Ogova^ three hundred miles, and visited places on the Ragali, a branch of the Gaboon, never seen by white men before. They have collected information concerning the first-known occupants of that region ; of the Mpongwes, a later immigration ; of the Shikanis, another fierce tribe, also from the interior, now nearly extinct; of the Bakeles'^ and Pangwes, who followed after. These last are a superior race ; of fine physique, and from a healthy climate. Mr, Bushnell thus describes them to the American Oriental Society, July, 1856 : "They are numerous and warlike, independent, and a ter- ror to their neighbors. In person they are large, well-formed, and a shade lighter than other tribes. They wear little clothing, save a preparation of powdered redwood and oil. From native ore they make beautiful and well- tempered knives, two-edged swords, and spears, and use them with skill. They have also cross-bows and poisoned arrows. They are cannibals, but only in connection with war or criminals. Their spiritual ideas are very gross." In July, 1864, Mr. Preston explored the coast as far south as the Fernando Vaz, the southern outlet of the Ogova, a mile in width. The people speak a dialect of the Mpongwe, Up the river to the southeast, Dikele is spoken. Mr, Bushnell wrote, in 1859, that a Frenchman who had ascended the Nazareth^ several hundred miles found the country beautiful and densely peopled, and the inhabitants ingenious and industrious. He crossed prairies sixty miles long, abounding in wild cattle. Cotton and tobacco were largely cultivated,* The Ogova, or Nazareth, bends round east of the Gaboon, and one branch comes down from the north, probably from a great lake described to Mr. Preston by a Pangwe who had come from its western shore. He could not see across, and of its other shores he knew nothing. Mr. Preston visited a lake named Ndogo, in latitude 2° 4' south, forty miles long and from five to ten in width, never seen by white men before. Mr, Preston thus describes the scenery in the upper part of the Nkama river, an aifiuent of the Gaboon, Jiduma is twenty miles above Nenge-nenge, and there the river is half as large as the Muskingum at Marietta : " In half an hour above Jiduma — to which the influence of the tide extends — we left the mangroves behind ; and in an hour we had reached the hills. The river became narrower, and the current stronger. Never have I seen more beautiful scenery. The river wound between hills on either side, rising steeply five or six hundred feet. They were clad to their summits with immense trees, and these again festooned with vines covered with flowers and fruit. Here monkeys of various sizes and colors gamboled and chattered, and there sang birds of gayest plumage. At one point a land-slide had left huge piles of bare ' Ogowai of Stanley. - Bakalai of Stanley. ^ Supposed to be the northern outlet of the Ogova. * Missio7iary Herald, 1S59, p. 186, as THE ELY V(JI.CME. rocks, and nearly closed the river wiih fallen trees. At another, the rocks, covered with strange lichens, rose perpendicularly from the water thirty or fifty feet. Yonder a small stream comes tumbling over the rocks, forming a beautiful cascade, though it is a mountain torrent in the rainy season. Here a cavern yawns, which the want of a light forbids me to explore. In an hour and a half we had passed this range of hills running northwest and southeast, and emerged into a level plain, which is overflowed in many places in the time of flood. Through this region, covered with rank vegetation and dotted with trees, roam various wild animals — hogs, cattle, deer, and elephants." ^ It was the desire of Richardson to found a mission on Lake Tshad that led him to cross the Sahara in 1850. The most important result was the dis- covery of a large river flowing into that lake from the south, and of the Binue, explored a year or two later by Bishop Crowther, himself an African and a missionary.- But the best exposition of the contribution of missions to geography in Western Africa is the work of Rev. J. Leighton Wilson on that country.^ This is one of several similar works by missionaries, which we would like to put into the hands of any one who is " not aware that missionaries had ever done any- thing for science." It is written by no transient visitor who "could see nothing but the surface of things," but by one who had spent more than eighteen years in that country ; had visited every place of importance along the coast, and made extensive excursions in the interior. He had reduced to writing two of the native languages, and had more than ordinary facilities to become acquainted with the life of the people, their moral, social, civil, and religious condition, as well as their peculiar ideas and customs. It is not a book of travels, in which the writer is his own hero, but a treasury of facts drawn from all available sources, especially his own personal observation, thoroughly digested, well arranged, and written in a style so transparent that the reader seems to look on the scenes and occurrences which it describes. The only fault to be found with the book is that it has no index — a great defect in a volume so rich in rare and valuable facts. He gives an account of the ancient inhabitants of Africa, its principal divisions, ancient discoveries in that con- tinent ; its natural scenery, its rivers, mountains, seasons, and climate. He narrates at length the Portuguese discoveries and dominion there, and the early enterprises of the English, French, and Dutch. Then he describes in detail Senegambia, the two great rivers that combine to form its name, and its people, the Jalofs, Mundingoes, and Fulahs ; the characteristics of each, and their rela- tions to each other. So he goes over northern Guinea, comprising Sierra Leone, the grain coast, its different tribes, their peculiar customs, style of build- ing, agriculture, social condition of the people, products of the country, their food, the domestic habits and dress of the women ; the government, their deliberative assemblies, with specimens of their oratory. In like manner he describes the Ivory and Gold Coasts ; Ashanti, its history, its wars with the British; the caboceers or nobles; the royal revenues; life in the palace; ^Missionary Herald, 1853, pp. 13-18. = Kingston's Great African Travellers. ^Kew York, iSsS, 121110, pp. $2-;. WESTERN AFRICA. 89 gold mines ; and human sacrifices, which last are perhaps without a parallel in the history of the world, and are made annually to the manes of the king's ancestors. The government is a most absolute and barbarous despotism, alike over noble and peasant ; whoever opposes the will of the king, even in the most trivial matter, is guilty of high treason, and the spies of the king report every word that comes to their ears, so that no one is ever called to the palace without trembling lest some evil report about him has been carried to the king, or lest his blood be wanted to water some royal grave. In describing the slave coast, our author gives an interesting account of the origin and history of Abbeokuta — literally " Understone," from the cavern where its founders found a hiding-place — and the attacks made on the place by the king of Dehomi, whose despotism and cruelties rival those of his neigh- bor in Ashanti. Wars were often waged solely to obtain human skulls to pave the court-yard and adorn the walls of the palace. The Abbeokutans were trained to resist one of his desperate assaults by an American missionary', who had learned war with our army in Mexico, and they attribute to him their success on that occasion, when they would have captured even the king himself had it not been for the frantic fury of his Amazons ; for, while he had three thousand women in his harem, he had selected from the stronger women of the country five thousand for his army. These are so brave and loyal that he makes them his body-guard, and assigns a chief place to them in important battles. They are led by officers from among themselves ; and when they would brand each other as cowards, they say, "You are a man." Before leaving northern Guinea he describes their belief in God and in future retribution, and their system of fetich, which is inwrought into the whole texture of society. A stranger lands under a canopy of fetiches, meets them wherever he goes, at every cross-road or ford, at eveiy large rock or tree, at the entrance of every village, over the door of every house, and around the neck of every one he meets. Kindred to this is the universal belief in witchcraft. Every case of sickness, and especially every death, is believed to be caused by this ; and no class, age, or sex is exempt from the dire suspicion awakened by such an event. Broth- ers and sisters, fathers, and even mothers are accused of the unnatural crime. The priesthood have ample scope here for malice or revenge, and are not slow to use it, though they themselves often fall under the same condemnation. The accused can be cleared from the charge only by submitting to the ordeal of the " red water," which in northern Guinea is prepared from a tree of the mimosa family, and in southern Guinea from a plant called nkazya. If this produces nausea and vomiting, the person is acquitted, and attains to greater honor than before. If, on the contrary, it occasions vertigo, he runs the risk of being killed on the spot by the fury of the mob. This superstition and the ordeal connected with it are constant sources of mischief, and the evil is hardly lessened by the liability of the accusers to undergo the same ordeal which has cleared the accused. Passing on to southern Guinea, he describes the country, its climate and peoples ; the difference between the Ethiopian and Nigritian races ; European go THE ELY VOLUME. settlements ; trade, productions, food ; the slave trade, and the cunning dis- played by the natives in trade, of which he gives some specimens that would be most amusing did they not involve an utter lack of truth and honesty. He gives a clear statement of the difference between the people of the coast and the interior ; their dwellings, furniture, social institutions, and government. It is a delight to read what he says of the respect shown by youth to old age, both in northern and southern Guinea. They esteem it one of the greatest crimes for the young to treat the aged with disrespect. They never come into the presence of aged persons without taking off their hats. In handing them a glass of water they do it on one knee, and address them as father or mother. Yet, before a king is inaugurated, every man, woman, child, and even slave, may say what he pleases to him, lecture him on his future duties, or remind him of past wrong-doing ; and it would be deemed most unkingly to resent it, either then or afterwards. No less cheering is the account he gives of African natural affection, blunted indeed by heathenism and the slave trade, but not eradicated, and needing only the Gospel to make them the most affectionate people on the earth. Among the Krus — whose name he derives from the fact that more than any other tribe they were sought for to make up the crews of ships in those seas — robust men, whose faces indicated anything but gentleness, might be seen carrying infants in their brawny arms, and lavishing on them most tender care ; but here, of course, the mother excels, and no one can doubt the love of the Afri- can for his mother. Her name, dead or alive, is ever on his lips. " Strike me," says a Mandingo proverb, ''but don't curse my mother." She is the first one he thinks of when he wakes, and the last one he remembers when he retires to rest. To her he confides his secret^. For her alone does he care in sickness. She alone must prepare his food or his medicine. He flies to her in distress, for he knows that, though all the world is against him, she is stead- fast in her love. It is a common saying that, if wife and mother are equally in peril, the mother must be saved, for no second person could ever take her place. Then, while the love of the father may be divided among several families, in that home of polygamy, and he must often decide quarrels against the children, the mother always befriends her own, and so secures their earliest, strongest love. A missionary in eastern Africa met a native carrying a moldy and moth- eaten European coat, who, in answer to the question, "Where did you get it?" replied : " Ten years ago a white man gave it to me, who treated black men as his brothers \ whose words were always gentle, and his actions always kind ; who knew the way to every heart, and whom it was a privilege to serve." Do these words bear more decided testimony to the goodness of his old employer, Dr. Livingstone, or to the capacity of that grateful African to be transformed into the image of Christ ? ^ Then follows a particular account of several of the divisions of the Pongo country, where the author lived for many years on the Gaboon river, with a description of the Shekanis, Bakeles, and Pangwes, the kingdoms of Loango ■ Missionary Herald, iS8o, p. 2go. WESTERN AFRICA. 91 and Kongo, and the marked failure of Papal missions there and in Angola; with a chapter on natural history, and another on their superstitions, witchcraft, and secret societies, among both men and women. One chapter in the book was written in England, on his way home, when the British people, discouraged with their long and apparently ineffectual efforts to suppress the slave trade, were about recalling their war vessels from the coast. It was published in one of their magazines, and showed so plainly the need of continuing the blockade only a little longer in order to success, that the whole matter was reconsidered, and the work, so long and so faithfully prosecuted, was carried out to its triumphant issue. He showed that the presence of their ships had abolished piracy in those waters ; had restored peace to more than two thousand miles of sea-coast, and created a large and flour- ishing commerce in the natural productions of the country, besides protecting missions and every agency employed to promote the well-being of Africa ; and therefore had accomplished results that more than compensated for all that it had cost. The chapters on Sierra Leone and Liberia are very valuable repositories of facts concerning these countries, giving a vivid, yet terse account of what has been accomplished there for good, with their prospects for the future ; while some suggestions are made about Liberia, in the line of giving more attention to the cultivation of the soil, and a less exclusive devotion to trade. The coffee grown there is of a very fine flavor, and, if only cared for as it ought to be, might equal any in the world. Already millions of plants are exported, to supersede in their own soil the famous coffee trees of Java. He mentions the need of more thoroughly educated missionaries, and their exclusive attention to missionary work ; the importance of the people being trained to sustain their own schools and churches, and seeking to elevate the vast mass of heathenism within their borders — hints which, if carried out, would greatly promote the prosperity and usefulness of that republic. The volume everywhere presents views of the people of Africa which could proceed only from one who had long lived among them, and had been an intel- ligent observer of their daily life. It is interesting to note the estimate such a writer forms of their capacity for improvement and self-government. He reminds us that the same variety of mental endowment we find at home is also to be expected there. While a general type of character may mark the people as. a whole, he does not look for them to equal the Anglo-Saxon in energy and enterprise, though they will excel him in other traits equally commendable. Naturally social, generous, and confiding, when Christianized, unlike the Afri- can among us, they exemplify the beauty and consistency of their religion more than any other race. The obstacles to their elevation have arisen from their circumstances, and are not inherent in themselves. Compared with our own Indians, or South Sea Islanders, they appear well. No one can live among them and not note their energy and shrewdness, the cunning with which they "drive a bargain," the adroitness with which they practice on the credulity of white men, who are overreached even when most vigilant. They learn more about a white man in a few hours than he will of them in as many months. 92 THE ELY VOLUME. They cultivate the soil, possess cattle, have fixed habitations, are skillful mechanics, and show both taste and aptitude for trade. In Africa they have none of that improvidence so noted among them here. They have little taste for logic or abstract discussion, but have excellent memories, vivid imagina- tions, and accurate observation of men and things. They have no written litera- ture, though the Veys have invented an alphabet, itself no mean attainment. Mr. Wilson gives a page in this character, containing fifty-six different let- ters. Many of them are good practical botanists, mineralogists, and zoologists, though without definite system. They abound in legends, fables, allegories, and proverbs, which they are fond of repeating. Our missionaries have traversed the country north and east from Natal. Dr. Lindley and two associates commenced a station nearly one thousand miles north of Cape Town, but wars compelled them to journey circuitously thirteen hundred miles to Port Natal. Rev. Messrs. J. Tyler and S. B. Stone, in urg- ing the establishment of a new station one hundred and fifty miles west of Sofala, one thousand miles north of Natal, sent home a manuscript map of the region they proposed to occupy, with all the geographical facts known con- cerning it. In eastern Africa, Dr. Krapf and his associates at New Rabbay, near Mombas, have made important discoveries. With Rev. J. Rebman he traveled on foot, at different times, nine thousand miles, over an unknown region, extend- ing five degrees south from the equator. On one of these journeys they discov- ered the snow-crowned Kilima Njaro, eighteen thousand five hundred feet high; and when English geographers denied its existence, they discovered a similar mountain,^ and heard of a great inland sea beyond. This, again, led to the sending out of Speke and Grant, who discovered Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika. Thus a question mooted from the days of Ptolemy was settled, and the true sources of the Nile made known — a result, sa}''s Colton, the cartog- rapher, "that would not probably have been attained for years but for these missionaries." They were sent out by the Church Missionary Society. It would be a crime to close this account of missionary contributions to our geographical knowledge of Africa without alluding to the valuable series of papers now appearing in the Missionary Hej-ald, from the pen of Dr. J. O. Means. Not only do they give the cream of all that is now known of that continent, but they draw a most inspiring picture of its capabilities when re- lieved from the incubus that has hitherto hindered its development. With actual facts for a basis, and the analogy of the advance of other lands for a guide, he ventures into the future, and draws a picture of Africa as she shall be, that thrills every lover of his race. Nor is it the baseless fabric of a vision, but an anticipation of the near future, which the reality may soon show fell far short of the truth. Take, for example, his terse estimate of the future busi- jiess of Africa.^ The annual business of Great Britain is at the rate of $ioo for each of her population ; that of France is $50 for each, and of our own country about $30. Taking the world over, the average is about $11 for each person ; but the total annual business of Africa now is at the rate of only $1.10 ' Kenia. ^ Missionary Herald, i?,%o, -p. j,o2. CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE. 93 for each one of her two hundred miUions. Now let that only come up, as it soon must, to the general average, and what a change does that imply in the condition of that vast and naturally productive continent ! No one can form a correct idea of the present and prospective condition of Africa who has not read those papers. It would seem as though the Lord had been preparing their author for this work from the period — many years ago — when he was an officer on board of one of our national vessels on that coast, down to the time when they issued from his pen. In this rapid review of our missions, we have found them all adding to our geographical knowledge. In this alone we have an ample return for all their cost. If the contribution of our United States Exploring Expedition to geo- graphical science justified its outlay of one and a half million dollars ; if Polar expeditions are still sent forth at very great cost, though their results have been less satisfactory, these contributions to sound learning by our own missionaries demand a generous appreciation. Every station is not only a center of observation, but also a starting-point for explorers to regions beyond. The friendship of the natives, secured by missionaries, enables them to obtain more reliable guides, and make better preparations for their work. There is scarcely an exploration in any land, says Mr. Colton, the cartographer, that does not thus acknowledge its indebtedness to our missionaries. I IV. GEOLOGY. Our missionaries, widely scattered over the globe, have good opportunities to study its geological formation, and they have not been remiss in improving them. Attention began to be devoted to this science at a very early period in the history of the Board. In the month of November, 1819, Rev. Levi Par- sons, in the cabin of the vessel that conveyed him from Boston to Smyrna, studied Prof. Cleaveland's treatise on mineralogy and geology, as well as French and Italian, and in February, 1820, sent to Prof. Hall, in Middlebury College, a box of minerals from Smyrna, among them a specimen of Malta stone, a fragment broken off from St. Paul's cave in that island ; also specimens from the castle of Smyrna ; a specimen from the amphitheater where Polycarp suf- fered martyrdom, a specimen from ruins near Diana's Bath, two miles from Smyrna, and a specimen of the mortar of the amphitheater. It may seem stra:ige that he should send this last, but the writer has seen old mortar in Syria so tenacious that quarriers who resorted to ancient ruins for materials to use in new buildings often broke the stones themselves in spite of all their efforts to extract them whole, for the mortar along the lines of junction was stronger than the original structure of the solid limestone ; and it is of some interest to examine the composition of mortar that retains such tenacity after the lapse of so many ages.^ The greater part of Micronesia consists of low coral islands, built up by the labors of minute animals belonging to the class of the aciinozoa, which have the power of secreting hard structures of the nature of a skeleton. They are also called coralligertous zoophytes. They belong to the radiated animals, and to the orders of the zoa7itharia, rugosa, and alcyonaria. They live and labor at a depth not .exceeding twenty-five fathoms, or one hundred and fifty feet, and are confined to seas where the temperature does not sink below sixty- six degrees Fahrenheit — or not more than eighteen hundred miles on either side of the equator; and their headquarters are in the central Pacific. They build up land in three forms : fringing and barrier reefs, and atolls. Fringing reefs line the shore, and have no great depth of water between them and the land. Barrier reefs are formed at a greater distance, and the water on both sides of them is deep, but deepest on the outside. Atolls — and this is the form most common in Micronesia — are in the shape of a ring enclosing a ' Memoir of Rev. Levi Farsotis, pp. 269, 289-291. (94) CORAL ISLAND. 95 lagoon. These central lakes are generally connected with the ocean by one or more channels on the leeward side of the island. In the largest of these enclosed lakes the navies of the world might ride at anchor, but the ring of land is so narrow that one can walk across in a few minutes. The soil is quite poor. There are no springs, and of course no hills, few land-birds or flowers. Flocks and herds could not survive long on them, but multitudes of men find there a home. Others of these islands are volcanic ; that is, they are the result of the action of volcanoes, bringing up material from below the surface, and piling it up in the form of mountains, from whence lava, ashes, and cinders flow down on all sides. These islands are very diversified in surface, and though in some places very rough and bare, yet where the lava has had time to distintegrate into soil, and is watered either by rain or irrigation, it becomes exceedingly fertile, and LAGOON ISLAND IN MICRONESIA. produces an abundance of trees and plants. Tropical fruits and vegetables flourish in it with great luxuriance. The parish of Rev. Titus Coan extends fifty miles along the eastern shore of Hawaii, and is very picturesque. Within a distance of thirty-five miles sixty- three streams rush headlong to the sea. Fourteen of their ravines are from two hundred to one thousand feet in depth, and the rest smaller. The perpen- dicular sides of many can be ascended or descended only on the hands and knees. ^ He has given some vivid pictures of volcanic eruptions on these islands. In 1840, the crater of Kilauea had gradually filled up four hundred feet, leaving a depth of only nine hun- '^ Missionary Herald, 1S37, p. 36. 96 THE ELY VOLUME. dred ; till, near the close of May, its whole area raged like the ocean in a storm, and waves of liquid fire dashed with such force against its rocky sides as to shake the whole mountain and hurl huge masses of rock from near the top into the fiery gulf below. On Sabbath, May 31, worship in adjacent villages was interrupted. Fiery outbreaks grew more frequent and terri- ble, but the molten mass seemed to pause as if uncertain which way to turn. All were in con- sternation, for none knew at what point it would plunge down the descent of four thousand feet, or what ruin would mark its path. On Monday it began to flow northeast, and on Wednesday evening it reached the sea, at an average rate of half a mile an hour. Sometimes it rushed on at ten times that speed, and then stopped to fill up valleys and break away the hills that stood in its way. The lava broke out in a forest at the bottom of an old crater, four hundred feet deep, eight miles east from Kilauea, which it had reached by a very deep subter- ranean gallery, whose position could be traced by the fissures on the surface, and the escajDing steam and gas. Disappearing here for a mile or two, it gushes up again, filling an area of fifty acres. A third time it passes underground three miles, and reappears in another wooded cra- ter, consuming the trees, and partly filling the basin. Once more it disappears, fissures from six inches to twelve feet wide marking its course. Trees, split from the bottom almost to the top, form gothic arches across some of these, and then some seven miles away it breaks forth, sweeping forest, field, and hamlet before it, till it leaps from a.cliff, fifty feet high, one unbroken sheet of fire, into the sea, with a thousand unearthly sounds. Picture Niagara, as red as gore, thus plunging into the ocean — two gigantic forces, fire and water, in dire collision — the atmosphere not only filled with steam and gases, but the lava itself shivered into millions of minute particles, thrown back into the air, falling in showers over the region. A new cape, with white sandy beach, extended a quarter of a mile into the sea, and three hills rose in the water from two to three hundred feet in height. For three weeks this river flowed with small abatement. The fishes in the vicinity were killed, and the ocean heated to a distance of twenty miles. Its entire length was forty miles, with a breadth from one to four miles, conforming itself to the surface, and it was half a mile in width where it fell into the sea. Its depth varied from ten to two hundred feet ; and all that time night was turned into day on eastern Hawaii, while its glare was seen on the western shore. It was visible, also, one hundred miles at sea, and at the distance of forty miles fine print could be read at midnight. Hills melted down like wax, deep ravines filled up, and majestic forests disappeared like feathers in the flames. In some places the stream separated and then reunited, leaving islands between seared by the heat. Sometimes large trees were enclosed by the lava, and their trunks consumed, leaving holes from ten to forty feet deep where they had been, each like the bore of a cannon. While the stream was flowing, men could approach very near to windward ; but to the leeward no one could come within many miles for the smoke and deadly gases, while showers of fire destroyed all vegetable life. Exten- sive tracts of land were undermined and floated off like rafts on the fiery flood. Sometimes the lava, obstructed in its subterranean course, swelled the surface into dome-like hills ; and one man, suddenly raised with the ground on which he stood, had barely time to flee before his standing-place became a fountain of fire.' January 10, 1843, an eruption began on Mauna Loa, thirteen thousand feet above the sea, and thirty miles from Hilo. After being kept awake many nights, watching its varying devel- opment— for the eruption was in plain sight from his bed-chamber, and he could see the rising of lofty pillars of fire, and the fearful flow of the molten sea — on the 6th of March Mr. Coan set out to visit it with Mr. Paris. The first day they ascended the almost dry bed of a river, leaping from rock to rock, crossing and recrossing as they could find a way round the deep pools, along the steep cliffs, and over the masses of drift-wood, composed sometimes of entire trees torn up by the roots and flung in wild confusion across the gorges. The second day still found him and his attendants in the solitary forest, under the frowning battlements of dark lava, deafened by the mountain torrent, or soothed by the song of birds that filled every shrub and tree with living joy. The third day, at noon, they emerged from the ravine, and found the- mass of Mauna Kea rising high before them. At its base was an open country, occupied by herds of wild cattle. They now crossed a rolling plateau, dotted with orchard-like clumps of ^Missionary Herald, 1841, pp. 283-285. HAWAIIAN VOLCANOES. 97 trees to the southwest, with the peaks of Mauna Kea on the right, and at evening came in sight of Mauna Loa, and camped under an ancient wooded crater, four hundred feet hi"-h. Here they had a splendid view of the highest crater, twenty-five miles away, and of the flood of lava that had poured down the northern side of the mountain, about five miles off. They were now about seven thousand feet above the sea, and a thunder-storm raged below them, while he saw hail for the first time since his arrival in the islands. As darkness set in, the lurid fires gleamed from the foot of Mauna Kea all along the intervening plain, and up to the snow-crowned peak of Mauna Loa, like countless furnaces flashing through the gloom. In the morning, both mountains were mantled with snow. Thursday morning, they pitched their tent near an old tree-covered crater, surrounded by a vast field of bare, jagged scoria, deposited by former eruptions, which left the hill like an island in the sea. Leaving the most of their attendants to collect fuel and prepare the camp, they set off for the nearest flow of lava, two miles distant, into which they thrust their staves, and took out some of the viscid mass, to be carried off as a memento. The day was spent on the great plain between the two mountains, examining the products of the eruption, some cooled and some yet in igneous fusion. The scoriform masses lay in ridges from thirty to sixty feet high, forming jagged and almost impassable barriers. Between these were broad streams of slag, solid on the top, like rivers covered with ice. This was smooth, and of a lustrous black, revealing in places the fiery river that still flowed beneath, sending up gory jets through cracks and seams. They were amazed at the immense area of this surface. One broad stream had gone west toward Kona, another to the base of Mauna Kea on the north, dividing there into two, one flowing northwest toward Waimea, and the other northeast toward Hilo. Together they would form a river six miles broad, the longest being nearly thirty miles in length. They were still both advancing slowly toward the sea. Weary, but intensely interested, Mr. Coan returned to the tent to spend another night " in a sea of electricity." Next morning early, they set out for the crater, twenty miles distant, committing some ex- tra wraps and a little food and water to two strong natives. These, however, were so impeded by their loads and the sharp, jagged scoria, that they could only advance at the rate of a mile an hour; and so all baggage was left, except some biscuit in their pockets, and their cloaks on the shoulders of the guides. Soon they moved more rapidly over compact, smooth lava, hop- ing to reach the summit and return the same day, as a night in that high region of cold might be fatal. The path lay now on old deposits, now on new ; here on broad fields of smooth, shin- ing lava, and there across ragged scoria full of spurs. Ten o'clock found them at the foot of the cone, and the ascent became steeper. At noon their guides were out of sight in the rear, and the rarity of the air compelled frequent stops for breath. Soon they reached an opening of some sixty feet by thirty, and, looking down, at the depth of fifty feet they saw a vast subter- ranean tunnel with smooth vitrified sides, and in this, with headlong speed, a river of fire rushed down the steep declivity. The sight of this pyroduct was startling. It made them dizzy to look down, but one glance at it would have repaid a journey of a thousand miles. For hours, without knowing it, they had traveled over this fiery flood. They found similar openings afterwards ; and large stones thrown down, instead of sinking, were borne out of sight upon its surface. Sometimes irregularities on the sides of the tunnel projected masses of melted matter with terrible noise and startling force. They did not reach the summit till three o'clock, having waded through snow for the last three miles. Here they found two immense craters of vast depth, in terrific action; but they had to hurry away without minute investigation, utterly exhausted. Night found them hardly able to move, and their camp still ten miles away. A fog now shut out all things, even the volcanic fires ; but after an hour this dispersed, and they reached the camp at eleven o'clock.^ At half past three on the morning of February 17, 1852, a small beacon light again appeared on the summit of Mauna Loa ; at first a star, it soon became a moon, and sailors on watch said, "What is that? Is the moon rising in the west.'" In fifteen minutes, a flood of fire burst forth, and again traversed the northern slope of the mountain. Streams of light flooded the earth and filled the firmament, illuminating the chambers of distant Hilo. The splendor was surpassing, but it lasted only twenty-four hours. February 20, another eruption burst out ^ Missiotiary Herald, 1S43, P- 4!J3 ; do., 1S44, pp. 44-47- 7 98 THE ELY VOLUME. half way down the mountain, facing Hilo, and soon the molten flood headed directly for the town. Ere long it reached the forest at its base, having traversed a distance of twenty miles. A canopy of cloud and smoke hung over the mountain, murky, blue, white, purple, and scarlet, as the light played on it from below. At times it assumed the form of a mountain inverted over the other, peak to peak ; then, curving gracefully, it swept off like the tail of a comet, further than eye could follow. Ashes and cinders fell on the decks of ships approaching the islands. Vitrified filaments, called " Pele's hair " by the natives, fell on the roofs and in the streets, and the whole atmosphere looked pale and sallow. Mr. Coan again started for the crater February 23, with Dr. Wetmore and four natives. Their way led through a dense forest, thirty miles broad, so tangled with vines, ferns, and brambles that no animal penetrated it, and they could only advance about a mile an hour. Many trees were of immense size, and one fern measured nine feet in circumference. At noon of the second day they could see over a part of the surrounding country, and found the lava only six miles away, and advancing steadily toward them. Here Dr. Wetmore returned, but Mr. Coan kept on. At the close of the day he camped on a hill, and at half past three in the afternoon of the next day reached the crater and stood alone in the light of its fires. He says : " It was a moment of unntterable interest. I seemed to stand before the burning throne of God. I was ten thousand feet above the sea, in a solitude untrodden by man or beast, amid a silence unbroken by created voice, almost blinded by the brightness, deafened by the clangor, and petrified by the terrific nature of the scene." The heat was too intense to approach the crater within one hundred and fifty feet from the windward, and probably it would have been unsafe two miles to the leeward. The eruption had begun on the summit, but the immense pressure of the pent-up mass broke through the side of the crater, rending the mountain from the summit to the point of exit, three thousand feet below, where the fiery flood was thrown from one to five hundred feet in the air. A rim more than a hundred feet high surrounded the vent, like a truncated cone, half a mile in circumference at the base, and tapering to the top. From this horrid throat a continuous column of red-hot and white-hot matter rushed with deafening noise, and a force that threatened to rend the mountain. The sound varied ; now a premonitory rumbling, and then an explosion like a broadside at sea. Sometimes it resembled the roar of ten thousand furnaces ; sometimes it was like the dash of the waves in a storm on the rocks, and again like thunder. The eruption was continuous, and the force such as to shiver the column into millions of fragments of all shapes and sizes, some of them falling back again into the crater. Every particle shone most brilliantly, and all kinds of geometrical figures were constantly formed and dissolved. No pen or pencil could set forth its beauty or terrible sublimity. As evening came on Mr. Coan retired about a mile, and all night long saw the lava at a white heat ascend continually in the form of pillars, pyramids, cones, towers, spires, and scimetars, while the descending showers poured incessantly fragments large enough to sink the largest ship. A large opening in the lower side of the rim allowed the melted mass to flow off at the rate of ten miles an hour, in a stream that the eye could trace for more than twenty miles, till it disappeared from sight.' November, 1S51, Mr. Coan found smoke still issuing from crevices in the lava of 1840, and some fissures too hot for the hand to be held over them.^ It illustrates the felicities of travel- ing in the islands, that, on this tour, going across the mountains from Hilo to Kcalakomo, he was two days passing a dreary desert, without inhabitants; and, though the rain fell almost incessantly, he found no shelter, not even a dry log or stone on which to rest. Three days later, in returning along the shore to Kalapana, he walked over black lava, glowing in a tropi- cal sun, without water or even "the shadow of a great rock " to refresh him. Yet in the same region, in 1841, he had to cross raging streams once in half a mile for thirty miles, running at the rate of twenty miles an hour, and abounding in falls from ten to one hundred and fifty feet perpendicular. Across some he swam, landing far below the point where he entered, and others could only be crossed by the aid of a rope, which had to be grasped with might and main to prevent being swept away by the stream that dashed over iiim. At one j^lace it was three hours Ijeforc he found a place where he could use even a rope with any hoi)e of safety.^ ^Missionary l/nra/il, 1S52, pp. 225-227. "Do , p. 162. ^Do., 1S42, p. 157. GEOLOGY. 99 On the 27th of March, 1868, a series of earthquakes again alarmed the people of Kona and Kau. Next day eruptions of steam and fire were visible at four points on Mauna Loa. The streams of lava rushed down the mountain in divergent lines, the largest towards Kahuku in Kau. Shocks more vigorous and frequent were now felt all round the island. The fiery mass surged against the walls of the great caldron, throwing down avalanches of rocks, and burst- ing through into a lateral crater. The stone church at Kahuku and the buildings of foreign residents there were now shaken down. Suddenly the smoke and fire on the mountain dis- appeared. All eyes were turned to it, and the inquiry ran along, " Where is the eruption ? " The rapid jars and tremblings of the earth told how it was forcing its way underground. Till April 2, the earth hardly rested between the shocks. At the quietest point of the intervals the quivering of the island was like the trembling of a ship under the firing of a broadside. On that day there was a shock such as the traditions of Hawaii had never recorded. The earth rose and sank like the ocean in a storm ; trees swayed to and fro ; stone walls fell flat ; houses reeled — some nearly slid from their foundations, and a few fell; furniture was moved or thrown down, and all houses were filled with debris; chimneys fell over; ovens were broken ; sugar boilers and cooling vats nearly emptied. The shock was terrific. The earth opened in fissures from one inch to two feet in width. Avalanches of rocks and earth poured from the cliffs along the shore ; streams ran mud ; the sea swept over the low shore, and con- sternation reigned everywhere. The noise of the cracking earth, falling stones, and crashing timber was bewildering. The acids and drugs in an apothecary's shop were compounded in a way not prescribed in the Pharmacopceia, and threatening ignition. One woman was killed by the falling rocks, and others escaped as by a miracle. Some children, playing under a ledge, huddled together like frightened sheep, and prayed, the rocks falling all around and leaving them unharmed. Many left their houses and camped out ; some did not sleep in their houses for many days. But if things were bad at Hilo, at Kau all was wreck and ruin. At Kapapala and Keaina a mass of rocks, mud, and earth, two or three miles long and as many in width, suddenly buried a whole village with all its cattle. It was as sudden as a shot ; and there was no escape. The marvel is, that the mass was cold. The noise of the explosion and the crash- ing of the ^rata beneath was as if the rocky ribs and pillars of creation were being broken up. Looking seaward, the stone church at Punalau, six miles off, was prostrated, and a tidal wave some twenty feet high swept off the debris of that and the houses all along the coast, into the sea. Thus, in a moment, that shore was desolated. The statistics of the loss of life could not be obtained. Some were buried alive, and others suffocated by the volcanic gases. A great stream of lava flowed into the sea near Waiahinu, filling all that region with a glare of light; and Kilauea sunk down hundreds of feet, looking like a vast pit of blackened ruins. The melted lava has flowed off, and wide fissures yawn along its upper rim. Mr. Coan's descrip- tion, written April 9, closes thus : ■ " Our earthquakes still continue, but they are not severe. A.S the lava flows above ground in Kau, we hope relief is near. Our trust is in Him 'who looketh on the earth and it trembleth; who toucheth the hills and they smoke.'" As late as 1879, Mr- Coan communicated to the Atnerican Journal of Science and Art an account of " a recent silent discharge of Kilauea," 2 very different from the one described above. Rev. Lewis Grout speaks of the terraced character of Zulu-Land, from the coast all the way up to the Kwahlamba, or Drakensberg mountains, six thousand feet above the sea. The coast is a beautifully variegated strip of country, ten or fifteen miles wide. The underlying rock is mainly granite, though here and there ledges of sandstone and trap are washed by the waves. One thousand feet above this lies another shelf of about the same width, and one thousand feet more brings us to the midland terrace, about twenty miles in width, and, like the rest, very diversified in surface. Fifty miles from the sea we find still another, three or four thousand feet above the sea, stretching away for fifty or one hundred miles to the Kwahlamba. From the summit of this '^ Missionary Herald, t868, pp. 219-221. -American Journal 0/ Scietice attd Art, p. 227. lOO THE ELY VOLUME. last, which, like the mountain at the cape, is not a peak, but an immense table surface, the land slopes gradually down, for two thousand miles, to the Atlantic coast, requiring all that distance to get down again to the same level which, on the eastern coast, is only one hundred and fifty miles distant. The mountain behind Maritzburg, the capital of Zulu-Land, is a few hundred feet lower than Table Mountain. It is a quadrangular block of nearly equal sides, with a pasture-clothed top of four square miles, or between two thousand and three thousand acres, separated from the surrounding surface by bodily upheaval, leaving sheer precipices of old sandstone, without fossils, all around, and accessible only at one point. From this summit one looks down on tlie irregular surfaces of the terraces below, that here appear level, except where the short, rapid rivers that break their way through to the shore seem to have washed down the originally level surface into all sorts of shapes, leav- ing here and there a fiat portion to show what had been there before. Lower down, a more recent and finer-grained sandstone occurs, containing impressions of vegetable remains. The trap rock is of various ages, some closely associated with the granite, and some newer than the more recent sandstone. The older is generally amygdaloidal, with small fragments of the more ancient rock embedded in it like almonds in paste. The newer trap rocks vary in com- pactness, and therefore disintegrate more readily, so that boulders of trap are often strewn very thickly over the surface. The granite hills are low and smoothly rounded, in contrast with the truncated cones of the trap rocks. ^ Dr. W. M. Thomson describes an earthquake that occurred in Syria, January i, 1S37.2 In Beirut it took place at 4.30 P.M., unheralded by anything remarkable; only a pale haze obscured the sun, and there was an oppressive calm. The mission church was at the com- munion table, when suddenly the house began to shake and the floor to rise and fall ; the con- gregation rushed out unharmed, and the building was cracked from top to bottom. In the city a few houses were seriously shattered, and some near the river thrown down. During the week news of disaster began to come in, and in Safed some said that not one in a hundred had escaped, and others, more correctly, that six thousand had perished out of a population of ten thousand. A collection was taken up in the city, and Dr. Thomson and Rev. Mr. Caiman were sent to oversee its distribution among the survivors. On the 13th, seven hours' riding brought them to Neby Yoonas, and next morning, leaving early, they soon entered Sidon. Here they took with them the consular agent and his two sons to assist them. At 10 p.m. they reached Tyre, cold and hungry, to lie down without a fire, in a house shattered by the earthquake. Some of the streets were impassable with the debris of fallen houses. At Sidon over seventy houses had been injured, and Tyre was nearly ruined ; even the best houses needed to be rebuilt. Twelve persons were killed here, and thirty wounded; but things were reported so much worse in Safed, they hurried away on the 1 5th, though it was the Sabbath, and spent the night at Kanah, where the earth still continued to tremble. On the 17th they reached Rumaish, to find it in ruins, and the people living in booths made of old boards, mats, brush, and anything that could afford shelter from cold and rain. Thirty people had been killed in this small village, and more would have shared their fate had they not been in the church, which was not seriously injured. After visiting the wounded, and giving them help, they pushed on to Burcyam, where fourteen had been killed and many wounded. They stopped for the night at Jish, an hour beyond ; here not a house remained, and one hundred and thirty-five persons were buried under the ruins of the church; only the priest escaped. The entire vaulted roof dropped instantly, and escape was imijossible. Fourteen bodies still lay unburied, ^ Zuhi-Land, pp. 255-269. '^Missionary I/erald, i><37, pp. 433-442. Land atid Book, Vol. I, pp. 42S-433. EARTHQUAKE IN SYRIA. lOI and two hundred and thirty-five in all had perished. The survivors, sixty in number, had gone elsewhere, leaving their sheikh, with five others, to dig out the property from the ruins, and bury the dead. The atmosphere about the church was unendurable. The hill here is of volcanic origin, and the houses had been built of volcanic stone. As the pigeons here were left without owners, the sheikh authorized Dr. Thomson's servants to shoot some of them for the evening meal. A large rent in the mountain, to the east of the village, about a foot wide and fifty feet in length, was gradually closing up. The road now- lay over a plain strewed with volcanic rock. A small lake occupied an e.xtinct crater. They passed Kudditha, nearly destroyed, and, in the afternoon, Ain Zeitun, in utter ruin. Just at the ascent of the Mountain of Safed, they met a merchant of Sidon, returning home with his wid- owed sister. Her husband had been buried up to the neck by his fallen house, and in that pitiable condition remained several days, begging for help, till he died without it. During the ascent, several rents appeared in the earth and rocks. But all this was forgotten when they reached the city. No language could overstate the ruin. Of the Jewish half, which held four thousand inhabitants when Dr. Thomson was there before, not one house remained. The town was built on a side-hill so steep that the roof of one house formed the street for the next above; and when the highest fell on the one below, and these together on the third, and so on to the bottom, no wonder the inhabitants of the lower streets were buried beyond the reach of help. Though some were rescued even seven days after the shock, still alive, a larger number were never reached at all, or only lifeless bodies rewarded the labor. One found his wife dead, and the child, with the breast of the dead mother yet in its mouth, had also died of hunger. Parents heard their little children calling on father and mother in fainter tones, till the feeble cry ceased altogether before it was possible to reach them. What a night that was when, in the darkness, three fifths of the population lay under the ruins, and the shrieks and groans of the wounded mocked the inability of their friends to help them 1 the earth trembling the while, as though shuddering at the ruin she had wrought. As far as the eye could reach, nothing was even now to be seen but one vast, mingled wreck of stone and timber, furniture and clothing, in horrible confusion ; men everywhere at work, worn-out and woe-begone, in search of the mangled bodies of friends, while here and there companies of two and three bear away a dreadful mass of corruption to the grave. Of the wretched survivors, some were weeping, others laughing, as though their power to weep was exhausted. In one place, an old man sat alone on the site of his once crowded home. In another, a child was at play, too young to know that it was left alone. Kind words unsealed the fountain of tears in some, others seemed dazed with sorrow; parents were childless, and children were new-made orphans, and many- remained the sole survivors of large households. Most had extemporized such shelters as were described at Rumaish, and some, unable to move, lay under tottering wails, that might at any moment fall over and end their misery. As soon as possible the party began their labors, but they soon found that the first thing to do was to extemporize a hospital. Eight lay in an old vault, accessible only by a hole in the roof, the air tainted beyond endurance. Others, bruised and swollen out of shape, and partly mortified, had no shelter at all. On the 19th the hospital was ready; yet, even then they had, in some cases, to carry the wounded to it with their own hands, or pay their relatives exorbitant prices for the service! In one case, a woman lay on the ground, with a number of wounds, all in a state of mortification. One foot had dropped off, and the bones of the leg were bare. There was nothing to do for her but to relieve pain, as far as possible, till the end came, which was not far off. Even before the shelter was ready, some of the wounded were brought and laid down, waiting for its completion. Half of the Christian population had perished, and the survivors occupied one great tent. Here, too, were wounded and orphans needing attention. Even while Dr. Thomson was there, the shocks continued. On the 19th, while nailing boards on the roof of the building, a cloud of dust rose from the ruins all round, and the people rushed out with loud cries, beating their breasts and tearing their garments in despair. The workmen, too, threw down their tools and fled. One jerk was so sudden and violent as to affect Dr. Thomson like an electric shock. After some days, leaving his asso- ciates to care for the sufferers at Safed, Dr. Thdmson passed down to Tiberias, where the destruction was not so great. Only seven hundred perished out of two thousand five hundred ; 102 THE ELY VOLUME. while at Safod four thousand Jews and Christians were killed, and one thousand Moslems. Yet even here the only physician, who is wealthy, had his wife and children killed at his feet, and his own leg broken below the knee. He was held fast in that condition two days, begging for some one to come and set him free. At length he offered three hundred dollars, but in vain. When the flies got to his wound, in despair he sought to end his life and suffering together; but he did not succeed, and at length found relief and healing. Kefr Kenna sustained no injury; Nazareth, a little. The upper story of the house of the Nazarene who had since been helping Dr. Thomson for five days fell down, but, providentially, no one was hurt. The lower part, built very strong, stood firm, and here Dr. Thomson was entertained, with many tons of rock and earth piled on the floor above. Only five were killed here, though a little more would have brought down the Latin convent on the heads of the monks. Workmen were now busy on it repairing damages. V. METEOROLOGY. TURKEY. The missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions early gave attention to observations of the climate in their fields of labor. February ist, 1825, Rev. W. Goodell, then in Beirilt, Syria, in answer to a letter of inquiry from Rev. R, Anderson, gave some account of the climate in that place. He had kept a regular journal of the temperature for eight months, and reported the highest temperature in January 64°; lowest, 49°;^ average at 9 a.m., 54.5°, and at 3 p.m., 56.5°. On ten days the wind was southwest, accompanied by rain, and five days without rain. One day it was southeast, and two days northwest ; eight days it was northeast, two days it was north, one day west, and two north-northeast. The temperature, winds, and rain were much the same in December, 1824, and in both months there was more cold, more northeast wind, and less rain, than in the same months the year before. That year thunder-storms were frequent and sometimes terrific, but this year they were rare. The rain came almost invariably from the southwest, not in a steady storm, but in showers that poured down torrents. The southwest winds were the most pleasant. Northeast and north winds were dry and cold. Though within twenty or thirty miles of a New England winter, he was sitting without a fire, still, after a few hours of study, need- ing to walk a little to keep warm. It was characteristic of him to 'add, "We are reminded of Him who walked in the temple in Solomon's porch, for it was winter." The summer was not oppressively hot. It was often 85° at 9 A.M., and 87° at 3 p.m. ; and one day it rose to 90°. There was usually a refreshing breeze from the southwest, and, by eating fruit and abstaining from hearty food, he was able to study successfully the entire summer. He closes his letter thus : " The hail is now rattling on my windows. The birds of the air have just sought refuge in my study ; and though I have on a surtout, and a plaid cloak over that, with my hat on my head, yet I have barely warmth enough to assure you that I am truly and always yours, W. G." March ist, he writes that the average temperature for February was nearly 49° at 9 A.M., and 51° at 3 p.m.; the lowest 35", and the highest 6t°. On the coldest morning he found ice nearly half an inch thick. One day there was snow, with a northeast wind, and another, rain, hail, and snow on the 1 In these pages the temperature is measured always on the scale of Fahrenheit, and never on that o£ Reau- niur, or Centigrade. (103) I04 THE ELY VOLUME. ground most of the day, with the same wind. On eight days there was rain with a southwest wind ; five days, a little rain, with the same wind ; and on three days there was a little rain, with both northeast and southwest winds, and one day with only a northeast wind. Two days the vj'md was north and dry. Two days, southwest without rain, and four days northeast without rain. Once it was northeast and southwest and dry. Part of the month the weather was colder than it had been for half a century. Many persons thirty vears of age had never seen ice before, and could not tell v/hat it was. Some called it glass, and others insisted that it was a new kind of snow, but how it got into their houses they could not imagine. There was a good deal of suffering ; the cold stone walls were damp ; the flat roofs leaked, and there was no fire or place for a fire in the houses. Mr. Goodell says : " They were wet with the showers of the mountain, and embraced the rock for want of shelter." We wonder that we acknowledge no more the hand of that great and good Being who "hath set all the borders of the earth; who hath made summer and win- ter ; " " who preserveth our lives from destruction, and crowneth us with loving kindness and tender mercy." March 31st he wrote that the lowest temperature v/as 48° during the month, and the highest 64°. The average for 9 a.m. was 56°, and for 3 p.m. 58°. There was rain on two days with a south-southwest wind, and on three days with a southwest wind ; a little rain on five days with a southwest wind. The same wind another day brought rain and hail. Twice a northeast wind brought a little rain, and once a northwest wind did the same. Eight dry days the wind was northeast, and five of them southwest. Once a north wind, again a northwest, and at another time a north-northeast wind, were equally dry. The quantity of rain was not large. March 9th, six water-spouts were in sight, from the roof, out at sea, moving to the northeast, and on the 20th there was severe thunder and hail, which broke a window before Mr. Goodell could close the shutters. The extremes for the three months were 35° and 64°, and the mean at 9 A.M., 52°, and at 3 p.m., 55°. Half of the ninety days there was more or less rain, and on two of them it snowed and hailed, and almost all the rain came with a southwest wind.^ On Mount Lebanon, which was in plain sight from the house, the snow of winter continued visible, not only through the spring, but even beyond the middle of July, while the thermometer set out in the sand rose to 120°. Arab poets say that Lebanon bears winter on his head, spring on his shoulders, and autumn in his bosom, while summer lies sleeping at his feet. Mr. Goodell spoke of Beirut as a healthy place, compared with other locali- ties in the vicinity, and especially with the island of Cyprus. He also gave some rules for preserving health which might not prove altogether without profit to-day. Among these were, to wear flannel under-clothing all the year round, to avoid sudden exposure to cold air while perspiring, and to adhere rigorously to a simple vegetable diet during the heat of summer. In 1826 he reported the spring as unusually backward, and the following is an abstract of his meteorological observations for April, May, June, and July, and also for October and November of that year: ' Missionary fferald, 1825, pp. 345-348. METEOROLOGY OF WESTERN ASIA. loS Hig hest. Lowest. Range. General Range Mean. Months. 9 A.M 3 P.M. 9 A.M 3 P-M. 9 A.M. 3 P.M. 9 A.M. 3 P .M. 9 A.M. 3 P.M. Wind. Weather. April 68° 70° ,54° 58° 14° 12° 56° 64° 61° 68° 6i° 63° S.W.i Rain 7 days May 76° 79° 66° 71° 10° 8° 70° 72° 73° 76° 71° 74° S.W.i " 4 " June 82° 84° 75° 79° go 5O 76° 80° 80° 83° 78° 81° S.W.i " I " July 83° 86° 80° 83° 3° 3° 80° 81° 83° 85° 81° 84° S.W. " 0 " Results 83° 86° 54° S8° 29° 28° 56° Si° 61° 85° 72° 75° S.W.I " 12 "2 October 79° 84° 70° 74° 9° 10° 74° 78° 76° 8i° 74° 77° S.W. and N.E. " 3 " Nov. 78° 79° 64° 66° 14° 18° 66° 69° 68° 72° 67° 71° S.W.I " 5 " Results 79° 84° 64° 66° 15° 18° 66° 78° 68° 81° 70° 74° S.W. and N.E. " 8 " * Occasionally northeast for several days; sometimes northwest. 2 Often small in amount, generally from the southwest. Snow was in sight on Lebanon till July 28. -Missionary Herald, 1826, pp. 1S3-185. These early contributions to the science of meteorology in Sj^ia were sup- plemented eighteen years later by a more extended series of observations reported by Dr. H. A. DeForest in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1844, pp. 221-224. He kept a record for fourteen months in Beirut, latitude 33050' north, longi- tude 550 30' east, a little above the level of the sea; and at Bhamdun, in Mount Lebanon, five hours southeast from Beirut, and four thousand feet above the sea. Dr. C. V. A. Van Dyck kept a like record at Aitath, three hours east- southeast from Beiriit, and at an elevation of nearly three thousand feet. Rev. G. B. Whiting, also, and Rev. J. F. Lannean recorded for Jerusalem, latitude 31" 46' north, longitude 35° 13' east, and two thousand six hundred sixty feet above the sea. Instead, however, of reporting these alone, an abstract of similar observa- tions made at different points by our missionaries in Western Asia, and pre- pared by Rev. Azariah Smith, M. D., for the American jfouryial of Science^ is here inserted. Smyrna is on the seashore, in latitude t^?)"^ 26' north, longitude 27° 9' east. Constantinople lies on the Bosphorus, in latitude 41° north, longitude 28° 59'. Pera is on the hill directly above Galata, and Bebek is half way up the Bos- phorus, on its northern shore. Brusa lies fifty-seven miles east-southeast from Constantinople, at the foot of Mount Olympus. Trebizond is on the southeast coast of the Black Sea, in latitude 41° i' north, and longitude 39° 46' east. .Erzrum is one hundred and twenty miles southeast of Trebizond, and not far from six thousand two hundred and twenty-five feet above the sea. Mosul is in latitude 36° 19' north, longitude 43° 12' east, in a plain on the banks of the Tigris. Oroomiah, or Oormia, is in latitude ^^f 2,° north, and about longitude 45'' east, four thousand five hundred or five thousand feet above the sea. Mount Seir is in latitude 37° 28' north, and seven thousand three hundred and thirty-four feet above the sea. ^Dc, 1846, pp. 72-85. io6 THE ELY VOLUME. Place and Month. Year. Average sunrise Average 2 V.M Average 9 P.M General Average Coldest, and date. January. Oormia (Oroomiah) . . . Erzrfim - Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) . Brusa Smyrna . Beirut , Aitath . . Jerusalem Mosul . . Oormia . Erzrum February. Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) . Brusa Smyrna . Beirut Jerusalem Mosul . . March. Oormia , Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) . Brusa Smyrna . Beirut . Aitath . . Jerusalem Mosul . . 1845 1839 1844 1845 1844 1845 1S40 1841 1S44 1845 1844 1843 1844 184s 1843 1844 1844 '845 1836 1837 1838 1839 1844 1845 1844 1845 1840 1841 1844 1845 1844 1843 1844 1845 1S44 1844 1S45 1836 1837 1838 1839 1844 1844 1845 1840 1841 1844 1845 1844 1843 1S45 'S43 1844 1844 *i6.27 *i6.8 ti7-8i *4i.i6 44.52 »39.64 38.70 40.1 §37-35 §42.7' 35- 36.32 39. 54. 50. 46.74 46. 44-63 38. 22. + 16.37 t22.39 19-51 t47-39 4S.35 42.13 47-73 41-35 45-48 41-5 46.S1 49- 59-25 59- '4 57.90 53-30 51.09 47- II8.54 45.68 39-40 42.19 **39-35 **43-35 38- 39-1 42.65 tt57-36 52.04 49-19 ttso. 47-45 tt46 15-67 15-29 46.18 40.07 43-34 39-68 43-85 38.17 40.74 43-55 56.88 53.76 51.28 49-75 47-72 43 67 39 28th, 31 i2th, 31 20th, 24 20th, 30 18 29 27th, 24 i6th, 25 27th, 27 51 23d, 44 36 42 40 25- ♦25.93 *i9.o8 123.37 ♦46.56 50.1 ♦46.46 47-0 40.14 §37-59 §3725 47-5 40.38 47.02 56-71 52.80 52. 82 50.02 44. 40. 127.67 t2I.8l 25.06 t46.92 5285 48.9 45-33 41.04 42.82 55-5 47-36 59-48 63.85 62.33 64.03 58.09 tt55- 28. Ili4.i8 51.96 49-3 40.57 **38.07 **38.57 50.0 41. iS 50-39 +t6i.S9 5525 54.10 53.07 51- 31. 20.S7 51.04 48.4 42.01 38.90 3958 51.0 42.97 52.3 60.82 56.79 56.98 53-73 50. 20th, 38 2d, 26th 22d, 1 8th 36 iS 25 31 , 36 23-5 . 32 S3 48 47 45 3 5 26. *3o.75 *37-4i t34-o6 *43-4i 50.26 46.29 47-13 §37-84 §39-19 45- 50.13 47-93 57.16 57-87 50.23 53- 5'- 37- t35-87 t34-ii 35-87 t43-45 52-84 5.. 16 55-26 42.52 43.29 53- 59-65 60.93 65-32 69. 58-14 69. 62. II24.05 50.52 44-9 49.19 II39.06 II40.06 47-5 5255 50-21 tt58.88 S9-70 tt52.5o 58.03 tt58. 31- 31-33- 51.21 47-45 50-53 39-81 40.S4 48.5 54.11 53-02 60.32 62.19 53-62 60.01 57- nth, 22 14 >5 39 17th, 40 31st, 38 3d, 34 24 29 25th, 3& 2 5lli. 35 i5tli, 39 50 49 40 47 17th, 45- Index to signs: * 9 a.m. t 4 p.m. t 8 a.m. || 8 p.m. § 7 a.m. P.M. tt Sunset. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN WESTERN ASIA. 107 Place and Month. April. Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Para) Brusa Smyrna Beirut Aitath Jerusalem . • Mosul • May. Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) Brusa • Smyrna Beirut Aitath Jerusalem Mosul June. Erzrum Trebizond (i6th to 30th) Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) Briisa Smyrna Beirut Aitath Jerusalem Mosul Year. 1836 1839 1844 1844 1845 1840 1845 1844 1842 1843 184s 1843 1844 1844 1836 1837 1838 1838 1839 1S44 1844 1845 1840 1S41 1844 1845 1S44 1842 1843 1845 1843 1843 1844 1S36 1837 184s 1S38 1S43 1S44 1844 184s 1840 JS41 1844 1844 1842 1843 1843 1843 1843 1S44 Average sunrise. *46.5 *46.83 t47-23 *5i.i3 *47-73 45-79 45-7 52-63 §43-03 §48-23 44- 53-04 44-43 61.13 59-07 52-97 49.04 50- *52.22 *4o. t54-3o ♦63.23 *6o. 12 57-42 55-3 60.26 §58.03 §56.13 57- 62.81 5S.35 66.13 68. 26 59-45 §6l.2I 64. 66. *65.83 ♦65.66 51- *7i-73 69. 64-77 62.23 65.07 §62.7 §67.27 64. 65-9 72-77 64.60 §65-30 80.1 76. Average 2 P.M. t5o.is tsi-13 48.02 151.76 t47-9 48,68 52.29 64-43 5°-37 55-3 53- 69.03 62.33 67.23 71.15 63-17 64. 62. t55-3i t6o. 58.57 t63-55 t6o.46 61.61 62.22 72.84 67.48 65.36 67. 79-35 74-13 72. 68 76 39 7i-'3 73-14 69. t65.96 67-9 t70.2 76. 70-37 7.'^-43 77-6 71.03 74-57 80. 82.33 77-97 75.27 77-56 92-31 96. Average 9 P.M. II36.63 45 55 **44 **49 48. 58, 52 tt64 62 tt57 51 tt57 II46.5 58.48 55-18 64-35 **6o.32 **5S. 60.5 68.23 64.23 tt69.io 67.64 tt64.io 69.32 64.06 74- General Average 43-96 47.04 47-75 57-53 45-82 51-17 48-33 60.25 52-95 67.80 64.16 64.07 57.80 54-70 56-33 Coldest, and date. 59-17 57-53 65.82 61.94 59-83 61.5 70-13 65-57 73-83 69.30 70.76 64.89 67.89 65.69 74- 70- 67- 67.38 64-43 70.32 67.2 69.96 *64-73 66.15 ♦69.03 70.29 70.5 68. 1 7 72.14 73-46 75-43 75-43 75-39 69-23 69.70 72.16 71-74 tgo.14 87.52 83. 86.67 13th, 13th, 3d, i2th, 3d, 4th, 14th, 34 41 30 39 44 33 36 34 35 40 34 34 35 63 55 46 42 38 38 Warmest, and date. 3d, 6th, 5th, ist, 4th, 43 58 36 66 62 loth, 57 7''i. 56 56 52 59 7t>'. 54 22d, 62 62 64.5 73 54 29th, 66 27th, 74 2o:h, 80 61 64 28th, 76 12th, 85 2Sth, 80 92 74 85.5 76 72 30th, 75 72 66 67.5 70 70 20th, 70 17th, 8r 31st, 22d, 31st, 21st, 87 81 75 77 93 84 92 83 97 82 90 83 24th, 91 80 71 79 80 79 29th, 78 29th, 94 86 76 80 2gth, 96 30th, 92 84 82 84 88 100 19th, 104 Index to signs : *9A.m. t 4 p.m. J 8 a.m || 8 p.m. § 7 a.m. ** 10 p.m. ft Svmset. io8 THE ELY VOLUME. Place and Month. July. Oormia, 15th to 31st Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek), 19th to 31st . Constantinople (Pera) ........ Brusa Beirut Aitath Bhamdun, 20th to 31st Jerusalem Mosul August. ■Oormia Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek), ist to 8th . . Constantinople (Pera) Brusa Beirut . . Aitath Abeih El Abadiyeh Bhamdun Jerusalem Mosul September. Oormia Erzrum Trebizond > • • Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) Brusa Smyrna Beirut Aitath Abeih El Abadiyeh Bhamdiln Jerusalem Mosul Index to signs : * 9 a.m Average sunrise. 1S44 1836 1837 1S45 1838 1843 1844 1844 1840 1844 1842 1843 1843 1843 1843 1843 1844 1S44 *,83r, IS37 1845 I83S 1843 1844 1844 1840 1844 1842 1843 1843 1843 1843 1843 IS43 IS43 1844 1836 1837 1838 1843 1844 1844 1840 IS44 1843 1842 1843 1843 1843 1843 1843 1843 1843 Average 2 P.M. 66.59 *69.s6 *69.o4 58.5 *74-77 70. 72.8 71.92 §73-03 7'-5 78.1 5 71. 16 §72-35 82. 1 •86. 77-°7 64.1 1 65.03 65.64 §68.25 81.03 57- *S5-37 ^60.65 *73-i7 65. 68.13 65.28 §65-43 63. 60.2 72.77 64.87 59-52 62.47 70.2S 71.71 Average General 9 P.M. lAverage t75.11 76. s t75-03 78. 79-57 82.04 81.23 87.5 84.74 78.71 84.44 100.97 10.6 83- tSo.5 79-5 t75-32 80. 77.91 83- 77-87 84.0 84.61 77-05 72-94 75-54 79.06 98. 78. 164.19 t72.93 73- 73-83 76.31 72.87 79- 76.51 82.13 72-93 6S.69 72-13 77- iS 87-69 66.5 72. 75-7 75-15 *74.i 78.5 81.67 75.26 75-23 tt94-48 95- 73- 67.5 70, tt92 64 66. 69.56 68.3. **67-3 68.5 tt74-83 tt69.io tt64.i5 tt68.67 69.27 tt83.55 75-58 67.17 73-33 76.02 76-37 76.12 79.17 82.38 81.52 75-04 73.50 77-34 92-52 95-67 74.67 68.83 73- 77-47 76.28 72.91 75-17 S3 .00 St. 13 71.26 68. 4 1 73.29 69.16 72-55 90.64 46.33 68. 70-51 6993 68.53 70.17 6S.27 82.67 76.5S 68.97 64.12 67.76 7 ■•83 72.24 80.98 Coldest, and date. 15th, 64 56 56 46 70 60 9th, 68 25th, 60 66 24th, 63 76 74 64 68 66 74 loth, 78 lolh, 57 62 56 52 70 45 26th, 67 68 65 19th, 61 78 75 66 74 24th, 50 38 44 68 59 23d, 63 29th, 60 60 2,Sth, 5S 5' 78 70 59 54 58 62 62 30th, 68 t 4 A.M. t 4 P.M. II 8 P.M. § 7 A.M. 10 P.M. tt Sunset. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN WESTERN ASIA. 109 Place and Month. October. Oormia . Erzruin Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek), ist to iSth Constantinople (Pera) Brusa Smyrna Beirut Bhamdun, ist to 15th . . Jerusalem Mosul November. Oormia ErzrOm Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) . Brusa Smyrna Beirut Jerusalem Mosul . . December. Oormia Erzrum Trebizond Constantinople (Bebek) Constantinople (Pera) . Brusa . Smyrna Beirut . Aitath . . Jerusalem Mosul . . Year. 1844 ■835 1836 1S37 1838 1843 1844 1844 1840 1S43 1844 1843 1S42 ■843 1843 1843 1S44 ■835 1836 1837 1838 1843 1844 1840 1S44 1S43 1842 ■ 843 1844 •843 1843 1844 1835 1836 1837 1838 1843 1844 1S44 1839 1840 1844 '843 1842 1843 1844 .842 1843 Average sunrise. 48. ♦51.69 *48.i9 t4S-52 *6o.95 63-74 60.56 59-53 §57.58 57-31 57-5 55-32 §64.08 65-3 36. *35-43 *33-52 t35-32 *58.85 57- 55.21 §52-53 53- 49.90 61.10 59-77 56.08 56-43 28. *22.C *I9. t22.C, *45-7 .44- 51.26 52.71 Average 2 P.M. 65. t57-48 tsS. 48.87 t62.i5 69.86 67-75 69.56 63-94 69-35 69. 70-73 74.04 78.65 56. t4i-07 t4o-78 40.17 t59-38 61. 61.72 57-3 62.5 60.34 67.41 71.70 62.08 62.5 31- $24.09 124.05 26.04 t46.67 49.29 44-2 46.1 40.48 44- 50-93 58.63 60.87 50.08 49-36 Average 9 P.M. *4o.96 65.42 63.11 60. ♦59.29 59-83 61.5 62.15 67.13 tt74-7' II33-13 58.17 56.03 *54-i3 57- 53-67 62.21 63-47 58.63 59-4 HI7-55 45-67 40.19 *43.97 *38.26 39- 41-39 tt52.52 54-42 47.06 47- General Average 45.12 66.34 63.81 63-03 60.27 62.15 62.67 62.73 79.82 67-33 68.42 72.89 44-67 36.21 58.72 57-65 54-65 57-5 54-64 68.56 63-57 64.98 58.93 59-44 29-33 46.54 41-36 44-49 3S.6 40. r 7 43-78 60.13 53-93 56. 51.87 47-38 46.27 Coldest, and date. 13th, 2d, 20th, 2 ist, 23 6 13 24 45 46 29th, 39 31 29th, 34 40 58 52 47 31st, 5th, 23 6th, 24 26 52 42 46 42 36 Warmest, and date. 12th, 72 65 66.5 62 9th, 76 17th, 76 77 79 77 79 90 82 22d, 87 7th, 68 50J 54 S3 48 69 loth, 76 66 loth. 8th, 46 44 39 57 62 2 ist, 54 15th, 53 54 55 •3th, 55 62 70 66 70 66 58 57 Index to signs : * 9 a.m. t 4 p.m. t S a.m. || 8 p.m. .§ 7 a.m. ** 10 p.m. tt Sunset. THE ELY VOLUME. Place. Erzrfim • Oormia . Bebek . . Brusa . . Trebizond Smyrna • Jerusalem Mosul . . Beirut . . 6,225 5,ooo(?) 150 50 2,500 39 57 37 30 41 7 40 5 41 I 38 26 31 47 36 19 33 5° 40 57 45 'o 28 59 29 10 39 45 27 7 35 14 43 10 35 28 1844-45 1844 1844 1843-44 1843-44 1843-44 1843-44 1843 43-6i 50. (?) 58.01 58.22 59-5' 61. (?) 62. So 67.80 68.32 Coldest. Warmest. 0 0 -20 84 3 89 24 86 24 98 31 86 26 85 36 94 30 114 44 90 REMARKS ON THE PRECEDIXG TABLES. The coldest day at Beirut from April, 1842, to April, 1843, was March 23d, when the mercury stood at sunrise 50°, at 2 p.m. 57°, and at sunset 53° ; average, 53.33°. The warmest day was August 7th: at sunrise 77°, 2 p.m. 95°, sunset 83°; average, 85°. Difference between the extremes, 45°, The average of December was the lowest, 60.13°, "^^^^ ^f July the highest, 83°. The average difference between Beirut and Bhamdun from July 25th to Octo- ber 15th was 12.1°, and between Beirut and Aitath, 7.11° in the same time. During the year ending April 30, 1843, ^^i'^ ^^^^ ^^ Beirut on seventy-three days, or an average of one day in five. There was none from June 2d till September 21st, and from that date till November ist, only four slight showers ; and no rain at Bhamdun till October i6th, save a slight sprinkle September 2ist, and a shower October loth. The rainy days at Beirut were as follows : April, two days; May, eight days; June, one day; September, one day; October, three days ; November, eleven days ; December, twelve days ; Janu- ary, twelve days ; February, nine days ; March, seven days ; April, nine days ; May, five days; at Aitath, in December, 1842, eight days; and in January, 1843, ten days. In February no record was kept. March had nine, April seven, and May four days. At Beirut, during summer, west and southwest winds go down after sunset, and between 8 and 9 p.m. a land-breeze sets in and makes the nights com- fortable ; after sunrise the sea-breeze sets in. Five sixths of the time the wind is west or southwest. In May, 1843, the coldest day at Jerusalem was the 4th. Mercury at sun- rise 49°, and toward sunset it rose to 50°. The warmest was the i4tli, with sirocco: at sunrise 70°, 2 p.m. 86°, 3 p.m. 90°, and sunset 75°; average, 80.25°. In the same month Beirut averaged 4.92° higher at sunrise, 0.46° lower at 2 p.m., and 0.22° lower at sunset; general average, 1.41° higher at Beirut. The high average at Jerusalem was owing to tlie prevalence of the sirocco for ten days ; in Beirut and Aitath it prevailed only two. In Western Asia, rain is very rarely known to fall during several weeks in summer. In Syria, this period reaches from the beginning of June to the end of September, with little rain in May and October. At Mosul, the dry season begins a month earlier, and at Erzrum a month lat,er; but Oroomiah is seldom without rain a month at a time, owing to the neighboring lake. All of these places are subject, more or ^' rtS^ rT^J J^t^^, - <" t r v^ METEOROLOGY OF WESTERN ASIA. HI less, at all seasons, to the hot and dry sirocco, which prevails several days, and causes excessive languor. In the north of Asia Minor it usually blows from the south ; but in Cyprus it comes from the north, and in Syria it has no uniformi direction. At Erzrum, more than a mile above the sea, the winter is cold. The mer- cury, Mr. Parmelee says, is sometimes 20° below zero, but with fewer sudden changes than in Vermont. The air, however, is so dry, pure, and bracing, and there is so little wind, that the cold is easily borne. The stars shine with unusual luster, and he pronounces it the healthiest climate in the world/' The nights are cool during the entire year ; but though the region is so elevated, neither field nor garden can flourish without irrigation ; and this is true of all Turkey, the southern shore of the Black Sea excepted. Even among the mountains of Tiary and Jelu, no land can be cultivated without a stream of water. Still, there are exceptions, as Dr. Smith found, when, on June 21st and 22d, 1845, ^^^ encountered a storm on the plain of Erzrum that left the ground covered with snow to the depth of six or eight inches. Few of the inhabitants had ever known such an occurrence. Trebizond is noted for its abundant moisture, and the small range between its extremes of heat and cold. Everything there rusts, moulds, or gathers dampness. The situation of Constantinople, between the Black Sea and the Marmora, exposes it to northerly and southerly winds ; northeast is the pre- vailing direction. Its temperature in winter is milder than the same latitude in America, but it is more chilly than the bracing air of New England. It is a common saying there that one must keep his best fuel till March. The vicinity of Mount Olympus, seven thousand feet high, causes a large range of temperature at Brusa ; yet invalids crowd there in summer to the hot baths that nature provides in that vicinity. At Smyrna the annual range is not great, but the daily average is 14°, and the dampness of winter makes it uncomfortable to Americans. Mardin is in about 37° 18' north latitude, on the southern face of Mount Masius, and looks down from its lofty eyrie on the vast plain of Mesopotamia. Rev. W. F. Williams describes its climate as in winter bleak and boisterous, with rain and snow. Clouds cling to the mountain side, and make it dark at noon. The summers, however, are clear and delightful, and the temperature is like that of New York city ; drier and cooler than Aintab.^ The climate of Mosul is very hot, though the snow-clad peaks of Jelu are in sight from the city. January, 1844, the lowest temperature was 30°, and in July the highest was 114° — range, 84°; average of July, 95.67°, and of the year, 67.80°. This is extreme for north latitude 36° 19'. All classes sleep on the roofs from May till September, Clouds or dew during summer are alike unknown ; but winter is the rainy season, damp and chilly. Then the earth is covered with rank vegetation. In January the grass is almost up to the horses' bellies, but the whole region is a sere desert in June. The wheat harvest is finished in May, though near Oroomiah it is not over till the middle of Jul}^ and, on the high lands near Julamerk, wheat was still green at the end of '^ Life Scenes A 7nong the Mountains of Ararat, pp. 57-5S. ^ Missionary Herald, i860, p. 172. THE ELY VOLUME. August, 1844; and well might it be so late, when in Ashitha, April 27th, 1843. everything was covered with sleet, which next day changed to snow ; and May 3d and 4th, rain, hail, and snow fell each day. Even that was counted un- usually mild for the season, for the feast of Mar Guwergis (May ist) is usually celebrated on the surface of the unmelted snow. Near Mosul, in the summer, the soil gapes open in cracks. In July, 1852, the mercury rose to 117° in the shade, and in 1844, it was sometimes 100° at midnight, and the wind at that hour seemed to come from the mouth of an oven. At that season siroccos sometimes fill the air with fine sand, that pen- etrates every closet and sifts into every drawer and trunk. The heat is stifling, in-doors and out, and the air seems almost impervious to light. Summer there makes sad havoc with furniture. If fastened with glue, it falls to pieces. The ivory handles of knives and forks split open, and it is impossible to keep a piano in tune in the terrible heat.^ Dr. DeForest gives the temperature of several fountains in Lebanon, as follows : 1842, June 2. Bhamdun 55° " 9, Ain Aiiub 64° " 9, Ain Bsaba 66° " 9, Ainab 59° " 10, Abcih 59° " 10, Aleih 61° " 10, Khan Kehaly 64° Sept. 5, Below Ain Zhalty 58° " 5, At Ain Zhalty 62=' 1842, Sept. 5, Baruk 53^^ " 7, Tezzin 55° " 7, 'Ammatur 57° " 27, Falugha 62'' " 27, Kefr Sihvan 54° " 28, On road to Sunnin 50° " 29, Ain Mustuleh 47° " 30, Karnail 59-" Oct. I, Ain ed Dilbeh 57° Ain Mustuleh is at the base of Jebel Sunnin, and the amount of water at Ain Zhalty, Baruk and Jezzin, and Ain el Dilbeh, is large enough to turn two pairs of mill-stones, with a fall of only six or eight feet. The last is one of the sources of the river of Beirut. Rev. G. C. Knapp describes Bitlis as abounding in springs, some of them mineral and effervescent. He sent home a sample of the water of one of these last, which was analyzed by Prof. E. H. Swallow, of Harvard College, with the following results: In the gallon, 13.5 grains of calcium; magnesium, 2.1; sodium, 10.2 ; potassium, 6.1 ; iron, 2.8 ; sulphuric acid, 12.6 ; chlorine, 6.6 ; car- bonic acid, 43 ; boracic acid, 5.3. In India the heat is more intense at the same latitude than in America, and the difference between the temperature in the sun and in the shade is greater ; hence, exposure to the £.»an is more injurious. The Anglo-Saxon race cannot perform so much labor or for such a length of time as at home, without risk of serious injury, though the natives suffer but little from the heat. The same degree of cold causes greater suffering than with us, and to the natives more than to Europeans. The mean temperature of Calcutta in January is 67°;^ in Madras 77'', and in Bombay 78°. The mean temperature of May, generally ' Dr. Grant atid the Mountain Nestorians, pp. 201-202, 229, 307. 2 F. DeW. Ward says: In Calcutta 69.5°, Bombay 77°, Madras 78. 15 °. India and the Hindoos, p. 12. METEOROLOGY OF INDIA. II3 the hottest month of the year in Calcutta, is 83°/ in Madras 87°, and in Bom- bay 85°; showing that the average of the coldest months is several degrees higher than that of the hottest months in cities situated in the same latitude on this side of the Atlantic. The punka is used in houses to mitigate the heat. These are frames cov- ered with cloth, of the length of the room, and two or three feet in width. They are suspended by ropes, and swung to and fro over the inmates of the apartment, by native attendants. They are used in churches as well as houses. The curtains hanging before doors and windows are also kept wet, so as to cool the air passing through them. These things are as essential in India as stoves and furnaces in America.^ Instead of our four seasons, in India there is the rainy and the dry season. In the central and northern provinces they speak of the rainy, the cool, and the hot season ; and on the eastern coast they sometimes divide the year into the southwest and northeast monsoons. The southwest monsoon lasts from June till September, and is the rainy season. Its coming is indicated by a moist haze, fleecy clouds on the hills in the morning, and lai-ge banks of clouds in the afternoon. In the more elevated regions, severe thunder-storms mark its commencement and close. It commences at Cape Comorin and advances northward, passing by the Coromandel coast. The greatest rains fall along the coast and among the mountains. On the western coast the quantity varies from seventy to one hundred inches. On the east it is generally less. On the Ghauts it often exceeds two hundred inches, and occasionally reaches three hundred. Their summits are wrapt in clouds, and the rain is almost incessant. On the Coromandel coast rain falls in October and November. Hence they speak of the southwest and northeast monsoons, for their rains come from the Bay of Bengal. In Bengal the rains come from the south, and pass up the valley of the Ganges to the Himalayas, where they gradually cease. The rainy season is the season of growth, and combined warmth and moist- ure render that growth very luxuriant. The change in the landscape is surprising. The rivers fill their dry channels, and the bare fields are covered with a luxuriant vegetation. On high table-lands the rains often continue into October. After that, the weather is fair ; there is seldom a shower or a cloud. The atmosphere is often smoky, the ground is parched to the depth of several feet, and the wind raises clouds of dust ; vegetation dies except where the land is irrigated ; cattle become lean, and require to be fed as in our winter. Those districts that have no forests are very desolate, and trees must be deep rooted or perish. Water, of course, becomes very scarce, and in March, April, and May, the mirage is common, called "deer water," because the deer so often are seen running after it, in the vain hope of quenching their thirst. All classes then long for and welcome the first signs of the approach of the rainy season.^ ' F. DeW. Ward says: In Calcutta 88.6^, Bombay 85°, and Madras 89''. The observations were probably ill different years. "India, Ancient and Modertt, pp. 3-5. ' India, A ncient and Modern, pp. 5-8. 114 THE ELY VOLUME. SI AM. There is great uniformity of temperature in Siam. During the five years 1840-1844, Rev. J. Caswell did not find the thermometer at Bangkok rise above 97° or sink below 61°; though in January, 1845, i^ ^^'^ ^^ ^<^^v ^s 54°. In 1844 the thermometer was placed outside the house, and sometimes stood three or four degrees lower than it did inside in the morning. During the first four months of 1845 the greatest daily range was 24.16°, 15.15°, and the smallest 10.8°, 3.4°; average daily range, 16.03°, 12.64°, 10.90°, 10.60°. During the hot season, from the middle of February to the middle of May, in the morning the mercury seldom stands below 77° or above 83°. In the hot- test jDart of the day it is seldom below 87° or above 93°. The rainy season lasts from the middle of May till the first of November, when two or three weeks of warm weather j^recede the northeast monsoon. The temperature of morning during this season varies little from that of the hot season, but that of the afternoon is five degrees lower.^ SYNOPSIS OF MEANS. , SYNOPSIS OF EXTREMES. . SYNOPSIS OF RAINY DAYS. 1S40. 1S41. 1S42. 1843. 1844. 1S40. 1841. 1S42. 1843. 1844. 1840 1841 1842 1S43 1844 January. . 77.16 78.77 79-32 77-53 74.59 61. 89 65.90 66. SS 64.89 62.90 1 ^ I 0 2 February . 80.80 80.84 83.13 79.50 79-32 71.91 70.90 74.90 70.90 62.92 3 I 2 9 2 March . . 83.5s 85-73 83.73 83.7> 85.79 73.94 76.94 77.91 73-93 11-^1 2 I II 3 4 April . . . 83.60 87-25 84.50 85.03 85.32 75.95 75-97 77-93 77-94 73-97 9 5 10 5 8 May . . 84.0S 84.67 83.41 84.75 84.58 75-73 78-94 78-93 76.96 73-97 18 19 20 10 18 June . . . 82.27 84.40 83.12 84.44 82.50 76.91 78.93 77.91 77-95 75-90 21 15 23 12 21 July . . . S2.66 84.39 81.92 82.51 81.2S 76.91 80. 9 1 77.90 77.90 75-90 16 14 12 18 20 August . . 82.38 84.84 82.16 82.75 80.07 76.91 79-93 76.90 77-9' 74-88 '9 '7 II 15 25 September. S2.83 83. 48 82.02 82.01 80.15 75-93 7S.89 75-92 75-92 74-88 14 12 18 21 21 October. . 81.77 84.55 80.57 Si. 27 79.70 74.91 77-93 72.91 71.90 74-89 9 '7 14 9 16 Novembet 81.15 82.58 78.92 80.83 77-52 68.89 75.90 68.88 70.90 64.86 8 II 4 2 12 December . 76.34 So. 40 77.11 75-45 76.98 65.87 70.90 62.88 61.88 63.88 6 ■ 5 I 6 3 Mean of Year. F.xtre7nes of Year. — 81.55 1 83.75 1 81.66 1 8. .65 1 S0.65 61.96 65.97 62.93 61.96 62.97 126 118 127 no 152 The temperature of China in general is moderate ; softened in winter by winds from the ocean, and mitigated in summer by those from the mountains. In the north the cold is severe and long-continued. The thermometer at Peking sinks to 20° below zero. In the south, summer heat ranges from 75° to 96°, and in winter from 30° to 55°. Violent winds often occur about the autumnal equinox.- The people are not, as in India, deluged witli rain one monsoon, and parched with drought the other. The average temperature of the empire is lower than that of other countries in the same latitude, and the coast is subject to extremes like our own Atlantic States. The climate of Peking, though sub- ' Chinese Repository, 1845, pp. 337-339. -Do., Vol. Ill, p. 123. METEOROLOGY OF CHINA, II5 ject to extremes, is salubrious. Water is frozen from December to March, and the mercury ranges from io° to 25°. Violent storms occur in the spring. In summer the temperature rises sometimes to 95° or 105°, but is usually from 75° to 90°. Autumn is the pleasantest part of the year ; the air is mild, the sky serene, and the winds calm. The unsheltered position of the region at the foot of mountains intensifies the extremes of heat and cold. Near rivers and marshes the climate is unhealthy, and produces fever and ague.^ The climate of Ningpo and Chusan is made pleasanter by the hills in the vicinity. The thermometer ranges from 24° to 107° during the year, and changes of twenty degrees in two hours are not uncommon, and open houses make this harder to bear. Fires are needed, but the natives only put on more clothing. The river never freezes, though ponds do. Snow does not remain long, though it is frequent. Ningpo and Fuhchau are healthy, for they are not so hot as Canton or so variable as Shanghai. The climate of Amoy is pleas- ant, but less so than that of the adjacent main land. The city is only a few feet above the tide, and the thermometer ranges from 40° to 96° during the year. The heat lasts longer and has not the sudden changes of Ningpo. The spring is rainy, and typhoons occur in August ; but the air is clear and bracing from November to March. On the whole, the climate of Canton and Macao is better than that of most places between the tropics. In July and August the thermometer averages from 80° to 88'^, and in January and February from 50° to 60°. The highest in 183 1 was 94° in July, and the lowest 29° in January. Thin ice sometimes forms, but not so as to be used. Two inches of snow fell at Canton in Februarj^ 1835, and remained three hours ; but it was so unusual that some called it falling cotton, and sought to preserve it as a febrifuge. Fogs are common in February and March, requiring fire to dry the houses, though it is not needed for warmth. Most of the rain falls in May and June. From July to September is the monsoon season, with wind from the southwest, and frequent showers temper the heat. After that, northerly winds begin, and from October to January the temperature is pleasant, the sky clear, and the air invigorating. Woolen clothes are worn in January and February, but the natives do not use fires for warmth. The monsoons do not extend above 25° north latitude. The climate of Macao and Hong Kong has not so great a range as that of Canton. Few cities of Asia excel Macao in climate, though not many natives attain a great age. Its maximum temperature is 90°, and the summer average 84°. The minimum is 50°, and the winter average 68°, with almost constant sunshine. Fogs prevail on the river, and northeast gales are common in spring and autumn, lasting sometimes three days. In winter trees cease to grow, and grass becomes brown ; but March brings out the bright gre'en leaves. The unhealthiness of Hong Kong is due to bad drainage. Rain is more abundant there than in Macao. In March new walls drip with moisture, dresses mildew, and cutlery and books are injured by the damp. Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan are the most unhealthy of the eighteen provinces, and the central parts of the empire are the most healthy, being more uniform in their temperature. 1 Middle Kingdotn, Vol. I, pp. 45-46. 11,6 THE ELY VOLUME. Shanghai suffers from the rapid changes of autumn and spring, and pul- monary and rheumatic diseases prevail. The maximum temperature is ioo°, and the minimum 24° ;' but ice is not common, and snow does not remain long. The summer average temperature is 80° to 93° by day, and 60° to 75° at night. The average in winter is 45° to 60° by day, and 36° to 45° at night. The mercury ranges in a day from twenty to twenty-five degrees.^ The east winds are unusually chilly. Sixteen years' observation at Canton gives seventy inches as the annual fall of rain. During four years there were only fifteen rainy days from October to February. Thunder-storms are not severe, but a few persons are killed by lightning every year.^ The climate of Manchuria is colder than Moscow, and the houses are very poor. Vines must be covered up from October till April. It is too cold for the mulberry, so the leaves of a tree resembling the oak furnish food for their silk-worms. The ground is said to freeze seven feet deep in Kirin, and about three in Shingking. In winter the cold is 30° below zero. The snow, driven by fierce northeast winds, is so fine that it penetrates clothes, and ev-en the lungs. On the road, the eyebrows become a mass of ice, the beard a huge icicle, and the eyelashes freeze together. The wind pierces the skin like needles, and the ground is frozen for eight months of the year.* Mongolia, also, owing to its dry air and want of shelter from the winds, is excessively cold. Near Chihli the people make their houses partly under- ground for shelter. Neither rain nor snow falls sufficient for the purposes of agriculture, except on the slopes of the mountains. North of Gobi, as far as to the Russian possessions, the cold in winter is 30° to 40° below zero, and the changes are great and sudden. No month is free from frost ; yet on the steppes the heat of summer is intense. Even in cold weather the cattle find food under the thin covering of snow.^ The climate of Thibet is exceedingly dry and pure. The valleys are hot, though close to snow-capped mountains. On the table-lands the sky is clear from May till October, and in the valleys the harvest is gathered in before the gales and snows of October. The extreme dryness of the air makes the trees wither, till their leaves may be powdered between the fingers. The people cover the wood-work of their houses to protect it from the destructive dryness. Timber there neither rots nor is worm-eaten — it becomes brittle and breaks. Flesh exposed to the air becomes so hard it may be powdered like bread, and will keep for years ; no salt is used in the process, nor does the meat ever become tainted. It is eaten without any further cooking.'' There is a brief notice of typhoons in the Middle Kingdom^' and an article on "Typhoons in the Chinese and Japanese Seas" in the Chinese Repository, 1839, pp. 225-245. There is a very elaborate article on the meteorology of the island of Chusan, from September, 1840, to Februar3^ 1841, in the same periodical, 1841, pp. 353-371 ; but as it is the v/ork of officers in the British navy, it does not come within the range of this volume. 1 Dr. Lockhart says 1 5=. Chinese Repository, 1848, p. iSq. = Dr. Lockliart says 30' to 40°. Do. , do. , do. 8 Middle Kingdom, Vol. I, 46-49- ■* ^°-> "^°'- ^' P" '59- "Do., Vol. I, p. 165. "Do., Vol. I, p. 19'. ' Vol. I, p. 49- METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. 117 Meteorological Tables of Observations in Canton and Macao, in 1831. The following tables of average for 183 1 were published in the Chinese Repository, Vol. I, p. 491. Those at Canton were taken from the Canton Reg- ister, and those at Macao from a private diary. They were prepared by Dr. E. C. Bridgman. MONTH. January . February . March . . April . . May . . . June. . . July . . August . September October . November December THERMOMETER. 29 38 44 55 64 74 79 75 70 57 65 59 69 75 78 84 88 85 84 78 68 65 BAROMETER AT CANTON. S:5 30.22 3013 30.17 30.03 29.92 29.S8 29-83 29.85 29.91 30.01 30.16 30.23 30.50 30.50 30.50 30.25 30.10 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.10 30.20 30.55 30.35 30.00 29.60 29.95 29.85 29.80 29- 75 29.60 29'55 29.70 29.50 29.95 30.15 BAROMETER HYGROMETER RAIN CONTINUANCE OF WINDS AT MACAO. AT MACAO. AT CANTON AT CANTON. MEAN OF FOUF YEARS IN DAYS. MONTH. .2 1 0 Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 128. NATURAL SCIENCE. T29 Cultivatio7i. It is raised mostly by small farmers, who cultivate a few score of the shrubs on their own land. There are few large tea plantations. The seeds are planted in beds, and when the plants are a foot high they are trans- planted into rows four feet apart. There they are kept down from three to six feet high, though the wild plant in Assam reaches the height of thirty feet ; and usually they present a dense mass of foliage growing on a multitude of small twigs. The leaves are picked when the plant is only three years old ; but it does not attain full size before six or seven years, and lives from fifteen to twenty, being gradually killed by the frequent picking of the leaves. Three crops of leaves are gathered annually : one about the middle of April, when the leaf buds begin to open and are still covered with a whitish down ; these yield the finest tea ; but no tea can be made from the thin, scentless petals of the blossom. The second harvest is in the beginning of May, when the leaves are of full size. The weather has great influence on their quality and quantity. At this time the whole population, men, women, and children, are busy, picking the leaves into baskets and taking them to the curing-houses. An average pick is thirteen pounds a day, for which the wages are about six cents ; so that, even though the plant would grow in the United States, we could never compete with the cheap labor of China. A third crop is gathered in the middle of July, and also a gleaning in August, but these are mostly used by the poor at home. A pound of green leaves weighs three or foyr ounces when dried. ^ The camellia and the tea plant have the same name in Chinese. Botanists call it Thea, and it is still disputed whether the different sorts are distinct species or mere varieties. Perhaps cultivation in different soils and climates has produced the changes that now distinguish the plant in different localities. DeCandolle makes three species — bohea, viridis and cochin sinensis. Mr. For- tune found Thea Viridis in Fuhkien and Kiangsu, and Thea Bohea in Canton ; and that green and black teas were made from either, the difference in color depending on the mode of preparation. Green tea can be changed into black by the application of greater heat, but not vice versa. The native names of teas are significant. Bohea means from the Bu-i hills^ and is not the name of any one kind, for several kinds grow 'there; though the name is given at Canton to a poor kind of black tea. Sunglo is tea grown on the hills in Kiangsu. Among black teas, Pecco^ or " white hairs," so named from the whitish down of the young leaves, is one of the best. Orange Pecco, called Shanghiang, or "most fragrant," differs from it slightly. Hung muey, meaning " red plum blossoms," is named from its red tinge. " Prince's eye- brows," "Carnation hair," "Sparrow's tongue," "Dragon's pellet," and " Dragon's whiskers," are translations of other names. Souchong means " little plant," Pouchong, " carefully packed," Campoi, " carefully fired." Chulan is scented with the flower of that name. Gunpowder, in Chinese Machu, is "hemp pearl." Tachu, "great pearl," and Chulan, "pearl flower," are two kinds of Imperial. Yu tsien means before " the rains," denoting young, tender leaves ; it is also called Hichun, " flourishing spring." Twankcy is the name 1 Dooliule's Social Life, etc., Vol. I, p. 4«. ' Pekoe. T30 THE ELY VOLUME. of a stream in Chehkiang. Oolong, "black dragon," is a black tea with the flavor of green, brought from a place so named. The leaf is dark green, of an oblong oval form, and the flowers are white, single and inodorous. The seeds are like hazel-nuts in size and color. One husk contains three. They yield an acrid and bitter oil. The annual produce of a large plant is from sixteen to twenty-four ounces of dried leaves, but the common average is not over six; and one thousand square yards contain from three hundred to four hundred plants. There is so much difference in the flavor of plants raised in adjoining localities, that rich Chinese tea-drinkers are as particular to know the place they came from as German wine-drinkers to know the name of the vineyard that produces their supplies. They sometimes pay $15, or even $100 per pound, for choice kinds. Mode of Curing. The quality depends as much on this as on the soil or the age of the leaf. The flavor of some sorts is quite changed during the process of drying. The leaves are first sorted, and the useless ones thrown away ; then they are spread thinly on bamboo trays, and dried in the wind until they grow soft. They are now rolled and rubbed till red spots appear ; from the labor of this process it is called Kiingfu, or worked tea, hence the name Congo. This process is omitted in some of the cheaper sorts. They are now sprinkled on a heated iron pan, till each leaf pops, and they are brushed off before they become charred. One man turns and stirs them, while another tends the fire. The heat forces out the oil, and the leaves, cracked and softened, are rolled on tables made of split bamboo, with the round side upward, to drive out the oily green juice. They are now shaken out loosely on basket trays, and dried gently in the air. After this, they are thrown in larger quantities into the pans a second time, and subjected to a lower heat, being stirred the while, that all may dry alike, and none be scorched. This makes them curl more closely, and as they grow hotter, they are stirred and tossed up till completely dry. This usually takes an hour. Sometimes they are placed over a covered fire of charcoal, and dried there for two or three hours, which makes the leaves darker than when rapidly dried in pans ; or, instead of being returned to the pans the second time, they are scattered on a fine sieve held over the fire, and slowly turned over till thoroughly dry. Then the fine and coarse leaves are separated by a larger sieve. This mode of drying leaves them with a greenish hue, but the common black sorts are sometimes left in the sun after firing for a longer time, till partial decomposition sets in. When intended for exportation, a longer rolling and stirring in the pans is required, to prevent them becoming mouldy on the voyage, than when they are to be used at home. The delicate flavor of Pecco and other fine kinds would be spoiled on the hot pans ; so they are dried in baskets, after careful rolling. The round pellets of Gun- powder tea are rolled up singly while yet clamp. When over the fire for the last drying, tuberoses, jessamines, olea, aglair, and other fresh ilowers are placed on a basket beneath, and the tea stirred in another basket over them, so as to impart to it an aromatic flavor. The tea must be packed immediately to preserve it. Only the finer kinds are thus treated. Green tea is cured NATURAL SCIENCE. 131 more rapidly over the fire than black, but throwing the leaves into red-hot pans and then exposing them to the sun, and drying them over a slow covered fire makes them black. It must be expected, however, that when so many men, over so wide an extent of country, perform this w^ork of curing, there will be considerable variation in the process. Packing. The finer sorts are enclosed in canisters or small paper packa^-es, and packed in boxes lined with lead ; but the common kinds are packed simply in tubs and boxes. At Canton the tea has often to be repacked. In such cases it is fired again — for so they style the process of drying it over the fire — and put up in chests such as go abroad ; but much of it reaches the interior of America or New South Wales in the original packages that started from the interior of China. The making of the chests, lining them with lead, and conveying them to the ship, furnishes employment for thousands of carpenters, painters, plumbers, printers, boatmen, and porters, besides those who roll, sort, and cure the tea. It is a wonder that, after so much labor bestowed on it, some of the cheaper sorts are sold to the foreign merchant at Canton, more than one thousand miles from the place where it grew, for eighteen cents a pound. There is comparatively little adulteration. In selecting teas, the color, clearness, taste, and strength of the infusion are the principal criteria. Some have thought that the peculiar effect of green tea on the nerves, and its taste, were owing to its .being cured on copper ; but copper is never used, and can- not contract verdigris over the fire, even if it were. The cause is more likely the larger amount of oil left in it, but it may be due more to an artificial color- ing used to give uniformity of color to different lots. Tea is made yellow by being sprinkled in the pans with turmeric, and then with a mixture of gypsum and indigo, or Prussian blue, to impart a bluish tinge. Use among the Chinese. Mr. Doolittle says^ that the common beverage of the Chinese is a weak decoction of black tea. It is said they do not use green tea. The poorest of the poor must have their tea, looking on it as a necessity. Neither they nor the Japanese, says Dr. Williams, ever use milk or sugar, but always take it clear, and, if convenient, as hot as they can drink it. They pour boiling water over it and let it stand covered a few minutes. One would be deemed inhospitable if he did not offer a caller some hot tea as soon as possible after his coming; so that tea with the Chinese takes the place of coffee among the people of western Asia. The Mongols press the tea into the shape of bricks, and so carry it W'ith them in their wanderings. In Thibet, I^arley meal is stirred into tea before it is drank, making a thin gruel. The people there also use a strange mixture of water, flour, butter, and salt, boiled with the tea.^ Dr. Williams says that the general use of tea among the Chinese is not injurious, and the idea among any that it is so, is caused by the use of strong green tea ; but if the same persons will adopt a weaker infusion of black tea, they will find it harmless." The opening of China to the blessings of Christian ' Doolittle's Social Life, etc., Vol. I, p. 46. '-Middle Kingdom, Vol. I, p. 196. '■'Do., Vol. II, p. 137. 132 THE ELY VOLUME. civilization, resulting from the trade in this article, is one of the most interest- ing results that ever flowed from commerce.' The Flora of Japan is very beautiful. Mrs. J. D. Davis thus describes it : ^ *' Four days we rode over mountain passes and through valleys, among the most lovely scenery I ever saw. Now, at the end of October, when the maples, sumachs, and many other trees are changing their color, the mountains are one continual picture. I have heard much of New England scenery in autumn, but I think the colors on these hills surpass it in the proportion of evergreens, the rich dark background of the cedars and pines setting off the rich varieties of red and yellow in these other trees. In the morning, the hills seemed a perfect flower garden, and for four days our eyes were almost satiated with the diversities of color. It crowned the beauty of the scene when, in some places, we caught glimpses of the snow of the higher peaks above and beyond these glowing hills. "I enjoyed the valleys also. This month (September) was the rice harvest, and the country was golden with the ripening grain. On the lower levels the women were cutting it and setting up the bundles to dry ; still further down they were threshing it, drawing the stalks through something like a coarse comb, which strips off the kernels. Then, at almost every farm-house were great undershot and overshot water-wheels for working the heavy rice-stampers to crack the outer husk of the rice. Up in the colder regions was less rice, but everywhere millet, and beans of all varieties, which form a large part of the food of the people. The beans were either growing or cut down and dry- ing in the fields, or shelled and drying on mats, on both sides of the road in the villages, and in front of the farm-houses." Among the trees of Borneo are iron-wood, cocoanut, and the tallow tree, which bears a nut that yields very good tallow, used both in cooking and for light. The sugar palm, Sagiienas Saccharifer, called also Arejig, yields very good sugar, and all kinds of fruit trees flourish. Rice is a staple production. Paddy is the name of the growing rice plant. Munson and Lyman found the plantain, the pine-apple, rose-apple, shaddock, lime, durian and betel palm among the fruits of Sumatra. Oranges grow on the main land, but not on the island of Nyas. Potatoes and sago are cultivated extensively. The sago groves in the marshes are so dense as to make it dark at noon, and the air is like that in a cellar. Sago and cocoanut milk form the principal food of the Nyas, and making cocoanut oil is their principal business, twelve or fourteen nuts yielding a quart of oil, worth twenty cents. Rice is of the upland species, and is planted twelve inches apart, in May or June, and harvested four months later, yielding from forty to one hundred and fifty-fold. The best yield is one ton to the acre. Sugar cane flourishes, but from it the Nyas make molasses only. Sweet potatoes are plenty, but only enough of coffee is raised for home consumption. In the spice plantations at Bencoolen, they found the nutmeg tree resembled ' See Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 126-137 ; and Social Life of the Chinese., Vol. I, pp. 46-50. ^ Life and Light, 18S1, p. 46. NATURAL SCIENCE. ^33 the apple tree at home, but with horizontal branches, and a more acuminated top. The male tree yields only flowers. On the female, flowers and fruit in all stages of growth were found at the same time. The fruit is like the peach, and when ripe bursts open and exposes the nutmeg, partially covered with red mace. An acre yields about two hundred and sixty-six pounds. The clove tree is most elegant in form, and has a flower of most exquisite fragrance. It yields three hundred and twenty-eight pounds per acre. Both trees were intro- duced by BrofT, in 1798. Rev. L. Grout, in his Zulu-Land, gives much information concerning the Flora of that region ; and as it lies on the borders of the tropics, and rises to the height of six thousand feet, it is rich and varied in its botany. The trees are seldom very large, and do not grow in what we call forests, but are scattered and small, with occasionally a tree of commanding size. Among trees noted for their wood are the yellow-wood {Taxus elongata — a species of yew), the iron-wood, and a laurel {Laurus bullata) — the trunk of which is sometimes four feet in diameter and eighty feet in height, and gives off an irritating dust when wrought ; the mangrove grows along the shores and fur- nishes a durable wood for building. There is also lance-wood, of which asse- gais are made ; milk-wood, good for axles ; the tamboti, used for gun-stocks, and the red-ivory wood, or African mahogany. The wood of some is hard, and of others soft ; of these tough, and of those brittle ; yet the leaves of most are evergreen, and many have beautiful blossoms, as, for example, the Syringa. There is a great variety of mimosas ; but v/oe to the garments that come too near the branches of the spring mimosa, or thorn tree. Of fruit trees, the banana is indigenous. Its fruit used to be called the king's food, because the chiefs made it a capital offense for any to taste it without leave. The tree grows twenty feet high, with leaves two feet broad and eight or nine in length, with panicles of fruit weighing thirty or forty pounds. There are several species of fig trees. Sometimes the seed of the Ficus Africana is dropped by a bird in the cleft of a species of Erythrina, and the roots, reaching down to the ground, gradually enclose, and finally strangle, the original tree ; though while it lives, the dark green foliage of the fig affords a fine contrast to the scarlet flowers of its victim. Orange and lemon trees are common. Pomegranates flourish, but apples do not thrive near the coast. Pine-apples abound. The tall, stiff, succulent-stemmed Euphorbias attract the notice of strangers, shooting up forty or fifty feet into the air. They yield an acrid, milky juice, yet the central pith is edible. The castor oil plant {Ricinus) grows in old kraals that have been forsaken. In September and October, the south African spring, the fields are covered with flowers of all colors. The lilies are well represented, so are the Amaryllidce and the iris family. The aloe projects its orange flowers above its leafy chevaux-de-frise. There are three species of Cyrtanthus of surpassing beauty. One Amaryllis has a large, almost spherical bunch of scarlet, fringed with white stamens ; another {Hemanthus) looks like a huge sunflower, only formed of a multitude of blossoms on stalks, surrounded by an involucre. The Natal lily {Amaryllis Belladonna) is indeed the " beauti- 134 THE ELY VOLUME. fu] lady " of the bulbous tribes, and south Africa is the headquarters of the AmarylUdie. From one Hemanthus the natives used to get the poison for their arrows. The gladioli family are variegated and conspicuous, but the pride of the Irids in Zulu-Land are the Ixia^ unequalled for grace and elegance, like pendulous wood grasses bearing fiowers. One species on Table Mountain is three feet in height. There are many species of this flat-flowered sedge. One exogenous flower has a large petunia-like white blossom, which covers itself with black lines and patches as it withers, till it merits the name of " Ink plant." The male fern (Lastrca athamantica) abounds, and is among the Zulus a remedy for the tape worm. There is also a splendid climbing fern, with a stem half an inch in diameter, hugging the bark of trees to the height of forty feet, throwing out at intervals of a foot a glossy frond, unequally pinnate, five feet in length, and with twenty or more pairs of smooth lanceolate leaflets from six to twelve inches long. Here, too, grows the beautiful tree fern, Cyathea Arborea, with stem ten inches through and ten feet in height, surmounted by a tuft of thirty similar fronds six or seven feet in length. The fan palm grows along the coast, producing the so-called vegetable ivory. Mr. Grout gives a curious description of the Strelitzia Alba, too long for quotation.^ He also describes the wild date and the wild olive. Harvey estimated the south African species of plants, in 1838, at one thou- sand eight3'-six genera, and eight thousand five hundred species. Now it will not fall short, probably, of eighteen thousand species. The predominating family is the compositcc, constituting one sixth of the whole, or one hundred and eighty-two genera and one thousand five hundred and ninety-three species, many of the former and most of the latter peculiar to that land. Next to them comes the LegumincE, comprising nearly six hundred species, two thirds of them in the western provinces. Indigofera, Psoralea, and Aspalathus are its prominent genera. The third great family is the Gramineae, embracing ninety-five genera and three hundred and fifty-nine species, only six of the genera peculiar to south Africa. Certain plants, however, quite limited in their area of dispersion, give dis- tinctive physiognomical features to the country. The chief of these are the ProteacecB, named from the diversity of their genera, which are eleven, with two hundred and eighty-eight species. Their favorite habitats are dry, stony mountain slopes, or sandy regions. After them come the heaths, amounting to four hundred and ten species, which reach their limit at Natal. Not less characteristic are Mesembryace(P. and the genus Stapclici, and in addition the Buchu family, or Diosmecc, the sorrel tribe and the rope grasses. Advancing toward Natal, Protcacece, Ericas, and Restiacece. become rarer, and make room for families which merge into its sub-tropical Flora, Every- where the gigantic Euphorbia canariensis is seen, with thorny acacias, the speck- boom {Portulacaria afra), and a profusion of fleshy plants. These, with the Strelitzia regi?ta -Andjuncca, the Tecoma capaisis, the elephant's foot, and the palm- like Lycadec?., or Kafir bread-fruit trees, give character to vegetation. Besides NATURAL SCIENCE. 135 grasses and composita;, the most prominent orders are Malvaceae, Capparidcae, Celasirineae, Sarindaceae, Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Amaryllideae, advanc- ing into the still more tropical types of Rhizophoreae, Anotiaceac, Sienu/iaceae^ Malphigiaceae, Connaraccae and Palms. ^ ■ Missionaries have not given a great deal of attention to zoology, yet it has by no means been neglected. As far back as 1824, Rev. J. C. Brigham gives this information concerning the wild cattle and horses of the pampas of Buenos Ayres.^ The cattle farms are very large, some persons keeping as many as fifteen or twenty thousand head of cattle. A large corral, or yard, enclosed by poles inserted perpendicularly in the ground, is formed near the house. At night each one of the peons, who usually number from eight to twelve, places his horse in the corral, ready for use the next morning, and at dawn they ride off among the herd, and bring a portion of it to be counted, and marked, if neces- sary. They seem to know every animal of their charge, and speak of hundreds of them in the course of an evening, calling each by name. They know a horse also, by his gallop, at a great distance. Sometimes the horses, in the exuber- ance of their spirits, ran for leagues by the side of the coaches, prancing and snorting, with mane and tail erect; and several times even cattle and sheep, deer and ostriches, joined in the race, though the bird outstripped them all. The best of the horses are left ungelded, and each becomes leader of a small tribe that follows him alone. Sometimes a bloody battle occurs between two of these leaders. During the fight their respective followings look on, but (do not interfere, and after it is over both parties follow the victor. Now and then the vanquished leader renews the conflict with such desperation as to conquer the conqueror. In that case, the whole company follow him as they had done the other, and he is responsible for their defense from tigers and wolves. When a bull becomes old he follows the herd for a time, at a humble dis- tance ; and when he becomes too infirm to do even that, he takes up his abode near a spring of water, and spends his last days in solitude, sometimes living thus till gray, and even white, with age. The venados, or deer, are seen in almost every estancia, in flocks of fifty or one hundred, very little shyer than the cattle ; for, though they might readily be killed in great numbers, cattle are so plenty that deer are seldom disturbed. The avestruz, or ostrich, is quite common, and sometimes is domesticated. Its extreme length is five feet ten inches ; length from tip of one wing to the tip of the other, when extended, five feet four inches ; length of its legs, two feet nine inches. Its color is dark gray, and its plumage not so handsome as its African compeer. Its eggs form a pleasant article of food. There are two kinds of partridges, one of which is often tamed. Wild ducks are abundant, but the variety of wild birds is not great. Mr. Brigham speaks of three kinds of parrots ; one of them a small green species, easily domesticated, but seldom living more than three years, while the others live almost as long as men. In 1833, Rev. T. Coan described the animals of Patagonia.'' The principal ^Zulu-Land, pp. 270-2S8. -Missionary Herald, 1S26, p. ^6. ^Missionary Herald, 1834, p. 380. 136 THE ELY VOLUME. one is the guanaco, a species of llama, larger than the deer, with long legs and neck. It has cloven feet, and a hump like the camel. Its color is a pale red or sorrel, and white. Its head and ears resemble those of the horse, and it neighs like a colt ; but, unlike these, it wears a fleece of long, fine wool, inter- spersed with longer hairs. Generally slow in its movements, when hunted it is very fleet, and hardly seems to touch the ground. Its flesh is excellent, and, if domesticated, the animal might prove as useful as the ox and cow. It is generally taken by means of the bolas. This consists of three balls covered w'ith hide and attached to leather thongs from four to five feet long, which are fastened together. One ball is held in the hand, and the others whirled round the head till sufficient momentum is gained. When thrown at the legs of the guanaco, it winds around them and entangles it till the hunter comes up and despatches it with his knife. The ostrich is found here as well as in Buenos Ayres, and Mr. Coan speaks of one of its eggs as fourteen inches in circumfer- ence, and tasting very much like those of the hen. Lions are also found here, and the Indians use their flesh for food when they can get it. One chapter of Rev. S. Parker's Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains'^ is devoted to zoology. He mentions the elk, the moose, three species of deer, the antelope, the beaver, land and sea-otter, hairy seal, Rocky Mountain sheep and goats, the panther, tiger-cat, wild-cat, and lynx \ five species of wolves, four of bears, the buffalo, and many smaller animals. In the next chapter, among fish he describes the salmon, sturgeon, anchovy, and trout. The rock cod made its first appearance at the mouth of the Columbia while he was there. Among birds, he enumerates the white-headed, and golden eagle, three or four kinds of hawk, two species of jay, the magpie, ravens, and crows; two or three species of grouse, and a species of water ousel, which stays under water at least two minutes, moving on the bottom with as much seeming ease as on dry land. The red-winged blackbird and robin remain through the year; swans, geese, and ducks abound in autumn. Black cormorants, and other birds of that genus, are common on the Columbia, among them one splendid species of a violet-green color ; with gulls, loons, terns, auks, and petrels. Eleven species of warblers, six of them new, add to the charms of spring. Six species of wrens, three of titmice, and two of nut-hatches, are mentioned. Of seven species of thrush, two are new ; of eight fly-catchers, three arc new ; and of thirteen finches, three are an addition to our ornithology. Four new species of wood-peckers occur out of eight, and one new swallow out of five. He also mentions a large new bulfinch, and describes the splendid Nookta humming- bird. The only quadrupeds originally found in the Sandwich Islands were hogs and dogs, a small lizard, and an animal between a mouse and a rat. As early as 1823, cattle and goats had been introduced from America, and a few horses and sheep. Women were not allowed to eat the flesh of swine, but in 1824 some missionaries on a visit to Kau noticed an illustration of natural history not usually found in books. A good-sized pig formed part of the social circle round the hearth of their host. At supper he held up his snout and icceived 'pp. 19S-21 r. NATURAL SCIENCE. 137 his portion from the sisters of the master of the house. After the meal, he drank the water in which they washed their hands ; and when, at bed-time, the young ladies lay down on their mats in the same clothes that they had worn through the day, his pigship waited till they were in place, and then very quietly stretched himself between them. So far from resenting the intrusion, one of them pulled the coverlid over him up to his ears, with her head on the pillow by the side of his. The comical picture was too much for the politeness of the missionaries, who laughed aloud ; though it did not speak much for the eleva- tion of woman at that early day.^ Dr. A. A. Gould, in his volume on mollusca and shells, in connection with the United States Exploring Expedition, acknowledges indebtedness to Mrs. C. Richards and Henry Dimond for rare and valuable shells. Prof. J. D. Dana, in his volume on geology, in connection with the same expedition, makes frequent acknowledgments to missionaries " for many valu- able facts," especially to Rev. T. Coan. He quotes repeatedly from him, and also from Rev. L. Andrews, Dr. G. P. Judd, Rev. S. Dibble, and others. Spending, himself, only five days in the islands, he appreciated the aid of educated missionaries long resident there, and familiar with their natural his- tory. He relies on Rev. S. Parker's Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Moun- tains for his account of the geology of Oregon. Rev. L. H. Gulick, M.D., writes^ on Ponape, describing its geology and meteorology, its botany and zoology. He recorded many species of plants, and gathered one hundred species of shells. Rev. J. T. Gulick, of North China, wrote ^ " on the variation of species as related to geographical distribution, illustrated by the AchatinelliiicE. types of the Hawaiian Islands Hellecidcs. The Helliderella was discovered and described by him.'* He also published a paper ^ " on a diversity of evolution under one set of external conditions," and another, conjointly with E. A. Smith,^ describ- ing some species of the Achati?iellincB, their habitats and affinities, with an account of a new species, named by naturalists, in honor of him, Apex Gulickii. One of these papers was republished in Germany. Rev. O. H. Gulick, of Japan, has also contributed to the American your- na/ 0/ Science'' a. pzper on the volcanoes of Kilauea, Sandwich Islands. Rev. H. Bingham noticed a remarkable shower of meteorolites,^ and sent home several specimens. Rev. J. Goodrich wrote four papers for the same journal.* Rev. C. S. Stewart wrote two articles^" — one of them was reprinted in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal ^^^ and Rev. T. Coan wrote as many as twenty papers for the American Journal of Scictice. Dr. E. R. Beadle, of Syria, was a zealous naturalist, and sent home valuable fossils from Mt. Lebanon. His own cabinet was very rich, and noted for the beauty of many of its shells and minerals. Dr. A. Smith, of Aintab, wrote a number of essays on scientific sub- ^ Bingham's Sandwich Islands, p. 208. - Aino-icajz Journal 0/ Sciejice, Vol. XXVI, pp. 34-49. '^Nature, Vol. VI, p. 262, seg. *Do., p. 406. ^ J ournal of Linmean Society, 1872, pp. 496-505. ^ Proceedings o/tJte Zoological Society of Londoti, 1873, pp. 73-89. 'Vol. XXXVII, p. 416, seq. *Do,, Vol. XLIX, pp. 407-40S. »Vol. XI, pp. 1-36; Vol. XVI, pp. 345-350; Vol. XX, p. 228, seg.; and Vol. XXV, pp. 199-203. "Do., Vol. XI, pp. 362-376, and Vol. XX, pp. 229-248. '» (New) Vol. Ill, pp. 45-60. 138 THE ELY VOLUME. jects, several of them for the journal of Science. Dr. W. M. Thomson, of Eeirut, wrote, in the journal of the A?ncrican Oriental Society^ on traces of glacial action on Mt. Lebanon. In his great work on China, Dr. S. Wells Williams gives us a glimpse of its zoology. Under Qiiadrinnani he specifies Siniia nc7noeus^ and adds a descrip- tion. The Fi Fi, Sing Sing, and Haituh are set before us. Bats, bears, lynxes, wild-cats, and several species of deer pass in review. To the common domestic animals China adds the buffalo, or water-ox. The cat they call the family fox. Game animals are enumerated, and fishes, among them the gold-fish. Chinese birds are described ; fly-catchers, grackles, thrushes, and goat-suckers. Larks are called the hundred-spirit birds, and $25 are often paid for a. good singer. The swallow, also, is a favorite. Sparrows and crows are common. One crow is blue. There are several species of robins. The red-billed magpie is beauti- ful, so are the jays. The Chinese call the cuckoo kuku. A kingfisher is mentioned, no larger than a sparrow. One kind of parrot is a native of China. Gold and silver pheasants are not now found wild unless in the interior. The Fhasiamcs superbus is a magnificent bird. The argus pheasant takes that name from the eye-like coloring of wings and tail. Then tJiere is the peacock pheasant and the medallion pheasant, and the peacock. The Gallinaceous order, as partridges, quails, francolins, and woodcocks, are plenty. Doves are reared. Snipes and many kinds of waders, or grallatores, are common ; so is the orto- lan. The jacana is a native bird. The stork is made an emblem of longevity. Many water-fowl are mentioned, among them the mandarin duck. The Chinese have several fabulous animals. Among them they describe the phcenix as a kind of pheasant. To the dragon they assign the head of a camel, horns of a deer, eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a snake, belly of a frog, scales of a carp, claws of a hawk, and palm of a tiger. Its breath becomes sometimes water and sometimes fire, and its voice is like the jingling of copper pans, which the Chinese count excellent music. Speaking of insects, he says the character for bee means, the awl insect; for the ant, the righteous insect ; and for the mosquito, in view of the marking of its wings, the lettered insect. - In Borneo, the orang-outang is found. The people turn out en jjiasse to hunt wild hogs when they make their appearance, nor rest till they get them into the caldron, quite undisconcerted by their strong odor. They eat all kinds of reptiles — dogs, rats, and snakes — without squeamishness. Singing birds abound, and, among insects, mention is made of butterflies and ants. Mosquitoes are troublesome where there is water. On the shore of Sumatra, Lyman and Munson saw sometimes three or four species of monkeys at once, iilling the solitude with their shrill babblings. They swarm also on the islands. Wild hogs are common ; snakes not infrequent. Deer of several kinds inhabit the jungles. Among domestic animals are hogs and fowls. Buffaloes have been introduced among the Malays ; but the Nyas prefer swine, and as pork is a sine qua nan in their feasts, it is said they can neither marry the living nor bury the dead without it. Goats abound, and the groves are full of birds ; iVol. X, pp. 185-1S8. ^ Middle Klugdom, \o\. I, pp. 2^j-2ys- NATURAL SCIENCE. 139 among them a small green parrot and Java sparrows. The Nyas eat a great deal of the fish and shell-fish that abound along their shores. Dr. Allen has given a brief notice of the animals and other productions of India, ^ and Rev. F. DeW. Ward, in his India and the Hindoos I' has done the same. He passes in review the elephant, rhinoceros, wild boar, camel, bear. Then he describes a novel bear-hunt with no weapon but a rope. The bear started toward some men near the edge of a precipice, and almost on its edge stood a young and very elastic tree. One of the men sprang up this tree, followed by the bear. Near the top he fastened a small rope, and let it down to his com- panion, who drew it down with all his might. The weight of the other, added to that of the bear, who followed close after him, brought the tree down almost horizontally. The man now slid down the rope, which was securely fastened to another tree near the ground, and as soon as the bear began to back down the rope was cut. The tree instantly swung back to its upright position, and hurled the baffled enemy over the cliff, where he was dashed to pieces on the rocks below. Of the deer tribe, he partially describes the antelope, musk deer, Ceylon deer, Nepaul stag, Tamboo deer, spotted axis, hog deer, roebuck, white oryx, chira, chickara, nylghau, and the Cashmere goat ; then the buffalo, Indian ox, Brahminee bull, and wild oxen, such as the ganjal, arnee, and yak. Horses, wild asses, mules, and the dziggetai, that goes in droves in the far north, follow monkeys, the gibbon, entellus, wanderer, and togul ; also a few orang-outangs take their turn ; after these, bats, porcupines, the sloth, the armadillo, the mangoose, the Bengal loris ; and among rats, the ratel. Among carniverous animals, the tiger, lion, panther, leopard, and Nepaul tiger-cat, the jackal, striped hyena, lynx, caracal, ounce, Thibet dog, represent that species. Also the crocodile, lizard, gecko, scorpion, centipede, tarantula, cobra, ticpolonga, whip-snake, anaconda, and boa constrictor do duty for the reptiles. He men- tions a tortoise four and a half feet long and fourteen inches high, and gives a humorous account of the insects to be guarded against, and the means of pro- tection. Thirty-five species of birds are noticed, and twenty-four kinds of fish. He tells of the herbarium of the East India Company's museum, containing about nine thousand species, and specifies a few of them, also some of the forest and fruit trees ; and alludes to the mineral wealth of India, her useful metals, and her precious stones. Rev. S. F. Fairbanks, D.D., of Ahmednuggur, a devoted missionary, is also a zealous naturalist. He is both an observer and discoverer, and a thorough botanist; but his chief contributions have been to ornithology and conchology. He has described various birds, and discovered quite a number of shells. Conchologists have given his name to several species. Mainly through his labors, the number of species in one genus became so great that a new one was formed, to which the name Fairbankia was given. He wrote papers on the Rotella, in the Annals of the Neza York Lyceum for 1S53 and 1858. He addressed the American Oriental Society, in 187 1, at Boston, in reference to his collections of natural history, then in their hands, which had been of much use to the scientists engaged in the geological survey of India. ^ India, Ancient and Modern, \>\). 14-17. 'PP-^? >l I40 THE ELY VOLUME. And here the writer cannot refrain from making some extracts from a letter just received from Dr. Fairbanks. He says : " Natural science has afforded me all along the most restful and healthful recreation, and if, without it, I had lasted so long, I surely should not have retained such cheerfulness and vigor. Several years ago, feeling the need of rest, I gave so much time to overhauling and arranging my collections, that Mrs. Fairbanks asked me if I was not giving too much time to them. Seeing how she felt, I said, ' Well, dear, if you think so, I will not touch them again till you think best.' Three weeks had not passed, however, before she brought a box of shells to me, saying, ' I was mis- taken, you need them ; you are getting run down. I won't complain of them again.' She often went with me in search of ferns on the Palani hills. Such excursions made us strong. " I began collecting shells for Prof. Adams, of Amherst, in 1850. First, I sent him thirty-three species from Bombay. He replied, telling me how to find more ; and my next remittance comprised one hundred and sixty species. I continued to collect till I had three hundred and forty-one species. Pfieffer named a Bulimus found on the hills near Ahmednuggur, B. Fairhaiikii. Then Benson, long the prince of Indian land conchologists, described several of my new shells in The Annals. W. T. Blanford, his successor, published an account of many more that I sent him from the Palani hills. Of one, Dipp/ofn- mati?ia Fairbankii, only three specimens were found, and two of those were destroyed by the breaking of a vial on my journey home. Blanford also named the second species of Opisthostoma which I found on a square rod of the hill- side at Khandale, O. Fairbankii. I afterwards obtained it alive, and Blanford and I saw its operculum. Three of these shells would lie loose in a mustard seed, and yet it is of a most remarkable form, like a scotched snake in a twist. The first species of the genus were found by the Blanfords, on the Nilagiris, and all but one were lost by the foundering of the ship in which they were sent home. Blanford named a genus of estuary shells in Bombay, Fairhankia. Nevill has called another that I sent him, Mangelia Fairbankii. Though I have published nothing but an imperfect list, these names have introduced me to the students of Indian conchology. " My attention had been previously given to the botany of this Presidency ; and though I still find new plants, I know the names, habits, and uses of the plants of the Dakhan, and prepared a key to the natural orders of the plants of the Presidency, in the style of a similar key in Wood's Botany of United States of America. This was printed by the government, as it supplied a lack in Dal- zell's Bombay Flora. On the Palani hills I collected one hundred and fifteen species of ferns. One of them was named by Mr. Beddome, the author of The Ferns of India., Lastraea Fairbatikii. "In 1864, driven for three months to the Mahabuleshwar Sanitarium, I took up ornithology, and entered with interest into the collection and study of our birds. Since then, the pursuit of birds, mammals, and reptiles has prompted to the exercise my health requires. Five years since, I prepared a Popular List of the Birds found in the Marathi Country, with Short Notes, which government published in the Bombay Gazetteer. This gave the English, native, and scien- NATURAL SCIENCE, 141 lific name of each, with notes on locality, habits, song, oology, etc. Afterwards my strictly scientific lists of the birds of this district were published in Stray Feathers, our Indian ornithological journal. On the Palani hills I found two new birds, Callene Albi-vetitj-is^ and Trochaloptero?i FairbaJikii'} " Two years ago I prepared lists of our reptiles, and of those of Gujerat and Sindh, which were published in the Boinbay Gazetteer. Then, last year, while engaged in special famine duty, I described the thirteen species of rats and mice of this region, especially those in the fields, which that year de5tro3'ed half the crops over several thousand square miles.^ So my recreations resulted in several contributions to natural science." Rev. H. J. Bruce has made a complete collection — eight hundred speci- mens— of our birds, and presented them to the museum in Springfield, Massa- chusetts ; also to the cabinets of Amherst College, Mt. Holyoke Seminary, and Abbott Academy, Andover. There is an article from his pen on Indian birds, in the American Naturalist^ Salem, Massachusetts, 1S72 ; but his greatest con- tribution to science is his Anatotny, Human and Comparative, printed first in English by his children,* and then translated into Marathi, Government took most of the edition of three thousand copies for the libraries of its public schools. Rev. George Champion, of South Africa, was a zealous naturalist. He writes in Silliman's your7ial^ on the scenery, topography, botany, and geology of that region; and Rev. L. Grout ^treats with some fullness, besides these, of the zoology, ornithology, entomology, and herpetology of Natal. The lion is found in the interior of the country. The leopard is more com- mon near the coast, disposed to retire if he sees one coming, but a terrible foe if only wounded by his assailants. They are taken in traps and pitfalls. The tiger-cat, though nearly as tall, is not more than half as heavy, and, like the leopard, loves fowls. The civet cat, or genet, has the same taste for chick- ens. A kind of fox prowls at night, and so does the howling hyena, who acts as scavenger for lordlier beasts, though sometimes he kills his own game. The cattle, when attacked by wild beasts, form a ring, with the weaker in the center and the boldest on the outside of the circle. The wild dog, called by different names, as Hyena picta, Canis pictus, Hyena venatica, Lycaon tricolor, is a savage brute, with a large blackish head, a white ring round the neck, and a shaggy, mottled body. They go in packs, and make sad havoc among cattle. The buffalo is found in the mimosa forests and jungles. The elephant is still found in Zulu-Land, though so mercilessly hunted ; also two species of rhinoc- eros, one white, the other black and the larger of the two, with two horns. The hippopotamus finds a home in some of the rivers. There are two species of wild hogs, very destructive in maize fields, and caught in pitfalls ; also an earth-pig, or ant-eater, who thrusts his long snout, and longer tongue, into ant- hills, and swallows the inmates at his leisure. The porcupine {Hystrix cristata) is no stranger here, and rats and mice rejoice in the absence of the cat. Mon- keys and baboons inhabit the jungles. 'Fairbanks. - Blanford. ^ Af/Vi/'owcry //^ra/a?, 1879, pp. 3S9-390, * i2mo, 264 pp. ® Vol. XXIX, pp. 230-236. ^ Ztdu-Lattd, Philadelphia, 1865, pp. 351. 142' THE ELY VOLUME. There are many species of the antelope. There is a blue buck scarcely- larger than a rabbit, and the oribi, or ourebi, weighing about thirty pounds, and making good venison ; also an eleotragus, of a reddish fawn color, with long ears, large eyes, black horns a foot in length, curved forward and annulated, hair long and tail bushy ; it weighs from eighty to a hundred pounds. Another red buck is a little larger, and a large dark brown one of similar size. Along the coast is a small red bush buck, also the graceful steinbuck, and now and then the blesse buck. Then there is the harte beest, the eland, and the kudu {Strepsiceros capensis). The gnu sometimes visits Zulu-Land in winter.' The rivers are too rapid to contain tnany fish, but reptiles abound. The alligator occupies some of the rivers, as Mr. John A. Butler found to his cost, when one seized him by the thigh in crossing the Unkomazi ; and though the victim held on to the horse's mane with a death-grip till he floundered into shallow water, where the natives speared the assailant, yet he carries the m.arks of five of the teeth of the reptile to this day. A foot square of flesh and skin was torn from the flanks of the horse. The iguana is a monstrous aquatic chameleon, two feet long, with a tail of three feet. There is a land animal of the same stamp, said to milk the cows. Of snakes, the python {Hortulia Natale7isis) is the largest ; eighteen or twenty feet in length, able to swallow a goat entire. The imamba, though much smaller, is more dangerous. Its bite is fatal. Yet, when one was slowly crawling through a hole in the wall of the house, one of the missionary ladies held it by the tail while her husband went round outside and broke its head. One of them advanced to attack Mr. Grout on horseback, who by a free use of the whip escaped. There is a flame-colored serpent seven feet in length, with a fin-like crest,'-^ said to be very venomous, and a kind of cobra di capello. Then the vipera caudalis will lie in the path, and notify you of his presence by his hissing. A smaller one is echidna inornata. The dark glossy umanjinge- lana sometimes creeps into beds, as well as houses. Besides these, he men- tions the inyandezulu, a slender green snake, the umzinganhlu, the ivuzamanzi, a black water snake, the ifulwa, a green water snake, the ukokoti, long and yellow, the inkwakwa, reddish, and the umhlwazi, long and greenish brown. Mr. Grout gives a description of the poison and poison fang, and the remedies for those who are bitten ; also a list of lizards, and an account of the cha- meleon, with a native tradition of the fall, in which that animal has a prominent part.^ In describing the insects, he mentions among the Orthopterous : locusts, grasshoppers, the phasmidae, or specter insects, crickets, butterflies, cicadas, bees, and ants; the white ant holding a position between orthopterous and hymenopterous insects; the common brown ant, from which nothing is safe that is not isolated by tar; ticks, spiders, moths, and the ant lion {tnyrnickoti). Among birds he specifies pheasants, partridges, quails, teal, wild ducks and geese, wild bustard, koran. Guinea-fowl, snipes, storks, cranes, and pelicans ; a large black eagle, falcons, kites, hawks — among them insect hawks — and owls ; two species of vulture, and the crow. In the bush are parrots, toucans, ^Zulu-Land, pp. 28t;-3o4. =The inhlonhlo. ^Zulu-Land, pp. 305-3 '9- NATURAL SCIENCE. 145 lories, king-fishers, wood-peckers, the sugar-bird and canary, and the lono--tailect Kafir finch. The secretary bird is described, and the honey-bird, and a beauti- ful crescent-necked dove, called ijuba.^ Rev. J. L. Wilson affirms that no richer field for the study of natural history exists than western Africa. The most common wild animals are : the ele- phant, buffalo, tiger, wild boar, many varieties of monkeys, apes, orang-outangs, or chimpanzees, antelopes, gazelles, jackals, the genet, civet cat, porcupine, hippopotamus, crocodile, boa constrictor, and many other reptiles. The woods abound with birds of every variety and of the richest plumage ; among them, the grey parrot, the green parrakeet, whydah bird, flamingo, crown bird, trumpet bird, wild pigeon, ringdove, quail, wild hen, and Guinea fowl. The rivers and bays teem with a great variety of fish, and the field of entomology is unlimited in extent and variety. The Pangwes destroy whole droves of elephants by enclosing them with a vine which they dislike exceedingly, and then scattering poisoned plantains among them. The elephants will not break over the vine, and, when weakened by the poison, are killed with spears. . Sometimes, some of the hunters are killed in the encounter. The flesh of elephants is not only eaten fresh, but dried also, and is highly esteemed. They, at some seasons, destroy large fields of plantains and bananas in one night, and the natives are glad to frighten them away by beating old brass pans, rather than run the risks of a battle. African elephants are never tamed, but one hundred tons of ivory are exported annually from the Gaboon, involving the slaughter of about eleven thousand elephants. The xAfrican tiger, or leopard, is very formidable, and is held in superstitious dread as another form of wicked men, who have, power to transform them- selves into this animal. Women are frequently killed by them, children carried off, and whole villages abandoned by the people in their terror. More formidable still is the njena, or troglodytes gorilla. This animal was first discovered by Mr. Wilson. In 1846 he found the skull of one, which he saw at once belonged to an undescribed species. After some search he found another ; the natives, he learned, were familiar with the animal, and described its size, its ferocity, and some of its habits, and promised in due time an entire skeleton. The information obtained awakened great interest among natural- ists. Since then, perfect skeletons have been taken both to England and f ranee, as well as our own country. It belongs to the chimpanzee family, and is the largest and most powerful species known. Its aspect is hideous, and its muscular power amazing. Its face is intensely black and savagely ferocious. Large eyeballs, a crest of long hair, which projects forward when angry, an immense mouth, full of terrible teeth, and large, protruding tusks, make it thoroughly frightful. The natives, even though well armed, avoid it. The skeleton Mr. Wilson presented to the Natural History Society of Boston is five and a half feet high, and is not far from four feet across the shoulders. The animal invariably attacks a man when he appears alone. It will wrench a gun out of his hands and cru&h the barrel between its jaws. Mr. Wilson saw a man, ^Zulu-Land, pp. 320-331. 144 THE ELY VOLUME. the calf of whose leg was bitten off by one of them, and who would have been torn to pieces had not his companions come to his help. The boa constrictor is found throughout western Africa, especially in thick jungles along the streams. Mr. Wilson has seen one twenty-five feet long, and they are said to grow much larger. He once helped to extricate a favorite dog from the folds of one of them, and, though no bones were broken, it took a week or two to get rid of the varnish with which the reptile had covered the dog, preparatory to deglutition. Some tribes eat the flesh of this serpent. Mr. Wilson gives an interesting account of two species of African white ants. One builds turreted domes of clay, eight or ten feet in diameter and ten or twelve feet high, surrounded by half a dozen conical turrets, apd with a wonderful arrangement of recesses and cross streets in the interior. Near the center is the palace of the queen, who is ten times larger than the rest, and almost incapable of locomotion, but is well guarded by faithful soldiers. The mound must be demolished with great haste, or she is carried off. The ants are about a quarter of an inch in length, with very sharp pincers, and their bite seldom fails to draw blood. They are very pugnacious if their dwelling is invaded. Break off one of the turrets, and instantly one mounts the breach, surveys the damage, and in two or three hours the injury is repaired by several hundreds of laborers, who deposit their mouthfuls of clay with geometric pre- cision. There is no opening above ground ; all their movements are subter- ranean. The other species are not so bellicose, but prey on furniture, clothes, books, and the wood of buildings. They are smaller than the others, and have no weapons apart from the disagreeable odor they give out when disturbed. They build no mounds, but make their nests under ground, and from these they issue at night on their forays. Entering a box of clothing, they first cut holes through the whole mass from top to bottom, as if to render it useless in the shortest time possible. Sometimes they feed on the inner edge of books for days, before their presence is suspected. No box of books or clothing is safe on the floor for a single night; it must be insulated by water or pitch. They build a covered arch-way to the point they wish to attack, at the rate of two or three inches an hour. Break it down, and they immediately rebuild. Do this twenty times, and twenty times they will renew it. Their perseverance is indomitable. Nothing but arsenic will compel them to desist ; even then, they sometimes build another tunnel along-side of the poisoned one. A wooden post is sometimes eaten entirely hollow by them, while the outer surface remains unbroken. There are also black, or dark brown, ants, called " drivers " {termes bclli- cosa\ which attack every living thing that comes in their way. They move by day and night, in trains sometimes half a mile in length, when they change their abode or go in quest of food. Pioneers are sent forward to explore and give note of danger. That given, the soldiers instantly rush to the spot, while the rest stop or turn back ; and when the danger is past, all move on again. When about to cross a path, the soldiers form an arch of their bodies, under which the rest cross in saf'ety. The arch is made by interlocking feet, one ant NATURAL SCIENCE. 145 Standing upright on one side, another on the other, and a third stretched acrcss between them, and so extending indefinitely. Mr. Wilson has often raised sections of the arch from the ground by inserting the point of his cane ; and though they held together for a time, when they saw how matters were, instead of dropping to the ground, they made for his fingers at the other end of the cane. When disturbed in this way, the soldiers attack the intruder, and bite unmercifully, so that a horse can scarcely be forced through the swarm ; and a dog clears them with a bound, glad if even so he does not get them on his feet, and, in trying to detach them thence, feel their pincers on his lips. If they find a dead body, they do not leave it till every morsel is consumed, even though it be an elephant, and furnish them work for several days. They even attack living animals ; and a horse or cow in a stable would be harassed to death in a few hours, and its bones be clean in less than forty-eight hours. They ransack every nook and crevice of a house, and no insect, however small, eludes their search. Mice are overpowered by their numbers, and noth- ing is left but a little hair and some bones. The family may have to flee, but in a few hours they may return and find their house empty, if not swept and garnished, and the floor strewed with the wings of cockroaches. Even men, if unable to move, and there is no one to move them, are sometimes devoured. Mr. Wilson has seen them, in crossing a small stream, where the current would have swept them away singly, fasten themselves together into rafts, and con- trive to cross so as to strike some projecting point on the opposite shore, where the living raft broke itself up and joined the column as it re-formed for the march. Rev. H. J. Van Lennep, D.D., in his Bible Lands,^ gives much valuable information on the geography and natural history of western Asia, arranged as follows : Physical characteristics of the country ; water — life upon it and in it ; cereals, horticulture, vineyards ; trees, flowers, fruits ; domestic animals ; wild animals ; scavengers, both beasts and birds ; birds of passage ; reptiles and insects. The following beautiful description is taken from page 250 : " We have repeatedly taken our stand on some isolated cliff at the edge of a plain, to study the varied sights and sounds of an Oriental summer's eve. The day may have been still ; even the voice of the birds hushed by the heat, and only the monotonous concert of the ' cicada ' heard from the shady groves. This also grows silent as the mountain shadows lengthen and the sunlight dies away. The rays of the moon are hardly perceptible ere the song of the cricket begins. The cry of a solitary jackal sounds from the edge of the wood, and is answered first by one, then by another and another of his companions, till the grand chorus echoes from the hills. The fox barks close by ; the owls screech, and the great owl in the wood utters its mournful cry, as it watches for the hare darting through the shadows. We can hear the steps, and now and then catch a glimpse, of a herd of wild boars, hastening from the woody coverts of the mountain to wallow in the mire of the marsh or dig among the roots of the plain, it seems as if nature were keeping Ramazan — fast asleep all day, and waking at eve to spend the night in revelry. But when a panther is in the ' New York, 1S75, bvo, pp. 832. 10 146 THE ELY VOLUME. vicinity, it is as if the scent of blood filled the air, telegraphing the danger to every creature. The evening may be even more beautiful, but as the song of the cicadaclies away, and that of the cricket succeeds, the liorses and cattle hasten home, and those without shelter gather together in anxious groups. No wild hog liastens to luxuriate in the marsh • no jackal or fox utters a cr}^ ; not a sound breaks the stillness. All seem resolved to fast rather than by any movement to draw the attention of the common foe, who they well know is stealthily seeking whom he may devour." Dr. Van Lennep's valuable collections in natural history, and manuscript lectures on natural science in Armenian, were burned with the mission house in Tocat, March, 1859. We are indebted to Rev. W. M. Thomson, D.D., for an interesting account of the locust. In 1837, on the hill-side not far from Ain el Barideh, on the western shore of the sea of Galilee, he noticed something very unusual, and, on riding up to see what it was, to his amazement, the whole mass began to stir and roll down the declivity. His horse was so terrified that he had to dis- mount. It was a swarm of locusts too young even to jump. They looked like minute grasshoppers, in countless numbers, and, in their efforts to get out of his way, rolled over and over like a layer of semi-fluid lava, an inch or two in thickness. Early in the spring of 1S45, they appeared along the lower spurs of Leba- non, on the western side. Having laid their eggs, they disappeared ; but the people looked forward with fear to the time when they would be hatched. Toward the end of Ma}^ millions of them were on their march up the mountain, and at length they reached the lower edge of Abeih. Summoning all the men he could muster, Dr. Thomson advanced to turn them, if possible, from the village. He had often passed through clouds of them in the air, but these were without wings — about the size of grown-up grasshoppers. The whole surface was black with them. On they moved like a living deluge, setting the laws of gravitation at defiance ; for it -lowed uphill, and struck the beholder with a vague terror. They dug trenches and dragged timbers along the bot- toms of them, crushing all in the trenches ; they kindled fires to burn them ; they beat them with poles ; but all in vain. The living wave poured up the rocks and walls, covering everything, those behind filling the places of the slain as fast as they were vacant. After a long contest, he went down the mountain to see how long the column was, but he could see no end to it ; so, tired and discouraged, he abandoned the struggle. Next morning the column had reached his own premises, and, hiring half a score of men, he resolved at least to defend his garden, and, by dint of great exertion and constant fires, he suc- ceeded in a measure; but it was appalling to watch that living river How up the road and climb the hill. At length, worn out with ceaseless toil, he gave up the battle, and, carrying the choicest flower-pots into the parlor, he surrendered the rest to the enemy, and for four days they moved in solid phalanx up the mountain. In early spring they deposit millions on millions of eggs in the warm soil. This done, they vanish like morning mist, and in six or eight weeks the very NATURAL SCIENCE, 147 dust seems to become alive and begin to creep. Soon they assume the form of grasshoppers, and, moving with one impulse in the same direction, begin their destructive march. In a few days their voracity ceases, and, like the silk-worms, they fast, and repeat their fast four times before they assume their wings. Yet when they eat, they devour every green thing. A large vineyard in Abeih was green in the morning, at night it was naked as a new-plowed field. The noise made in marching and devouring is like the noise of a heavy shower among the trees. Joel says,^ " He hath laid my vine waste and barked my fig tree. He hath made it clean bare ; the branches thereof are made white." They strip the vines of every leaf and berry, even of every green twig. Many large fig orchards were " clean bare," not one leaf remaining ; and, as the bark of the fig tree is silvery white, their bare branches were " made white " under the burning sun. Joel says,' "Is not the meat cut off before our eyes?" and here whole fields of grain disappeared like the shadow of a dissolved cloud, and the hope of the husbandman vanished like smoke. The prophet says, " The herds are perplexed ; the flocks are made desolate." ^ This is literally true. Not even a goat can find a green thing in such a desolation. " The land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness ; yea, and nothing shall escape them," * are words that involuntarily rise to our lips when we look on such desolation. " They shall climb the wall like men of war ; and they shall not break their ranks." ^ When the head of the column reached the wall of the castle of the Emir, they did not go round it ; they marched right over it ; and so, in spite of all his efforts, they climbed straight up the walls of the residence of Dr. Van Dyck, and passed over the roof with unbroken ranks. "They shall enter in at the windows like a thief." ^ It was only untiring vigi- lance that saved the contents of the flower-pots carried into the house. Some find difficulty in Nahum (iii : 17), but in the cool evenings at Abeih they literally camped in the hedges and walls, covering them like a huge swarm of bees; and when the morning sun grew warm, they resumed the march. One day was unusually cold, and then they scarcely left their camps; indeed, many did not move at all till the following day ; those that did seemed cramped and stiff, but in the heat their movements were brisk and lively. So cool days pro- long their stay, but under the hot sun they literally " flee away." Even those that have no wings manage to disappear. Yesterday the whole earth seemed in motion ; to-day there is not a locust to be seen. David complains that he was " tossed up and down as the locust," '' These flying squadrons are tossed up and down and whirled about by the changing currents of the mountain winds. Solomon says,^ "They have no king, yet go forth all of them by bands ;" and nothing about them is more striking than the common instinct with which all of them pursue the same line of march. Moses said to Pharaoh,'* "They shall cover the face of the earth so that one cannot see the ground ; " and that picture was so stamped on the brain of Dr. Thomson that for nights he could not close his eyes without seeing the whole earth in motion, and could not rid himself of the unpleasant image.'" ''1:7. -i:i'). " i : iS. * ii : 3. ^ii:?. ''ii:g. '^ Psalms cix : 23. ' Proverbs xxx : 27. " Exodus X : 5. '" The Land and the Book, Vol. 1 1, p. 102-108. VII. ARCHEOLOGY. Among the benefits which missions have rendered to science are their con- tributions to archaeology. This may be defined, the science of antiquities, including in that all remains of ancient times, whether ruins, inscriptions, coins, or literary productions. All missionaries cannot contribute to this science, for some labor among nations without history or ancient monuments. Only those having both, possess materials for such contributions. Moravian missions could add little to archceological lore, but the American Board has labored among some of the most celebrated nations of antiquity. Its field of operation includes the primeval Paradise and the mountains of Ararat. It has had one mission at Nineveh, another in Jerusalem, and a third in Athens. It has preached the Gospel in Antioch, has a theological seminary on Lebanon, and relighted more than one of the candlesticks of the seven churches. It has labored at the home of Zoroaster in Persia, and among the ancient civilizations of India and China. The intelligence of our missionaries qualifies them for such investigations, while their permanent residence among these relics of the past, and familiarity with the languages of these countries, give them great advantage over the pass- ing traveler. They can obtain accurate information on the ground, about discoveries made by others. When gold coins of Philip and Alexander were dug up at Sidon, in 1853, specimens were sent home by our missionaries. When the sarcophagus of the Phoenician king, Ashmunazer, was discovered, January 20, 1855, they sent transcripts both to American and German savants} At Mosul they not only described the excavations of Messrs. Botta, Layard, Rawlinson, and Loftus,- but filled the Assyrian rooms at Amherst, New Haven, Williamstown, and elsewhere, with specimens of sculpture and inscriptions from ancient Nineveh, which we may study for ourselves. An ancient Assyrian seal is described in Dr. Grant and the Mountain Ncs- torians ;^ also an earthen vase and Assyrian copper bust found by Dr. Grant in Salaberka.* Dr. Justin Perkins gives an account of Nimrud and Khoyunjik,"' and of Susa, or Shushan.*' Dr. Henry Lobdell makes us acquainted with Mr. ' Joitrjial American Oriental Society, Vol. V, pp. 228-230; The Land and the Book, Vol. I, pp. 198-202. - i\Tissio7iary Herald, 1S45, pp. 40-42 ; Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S4.S, pp. 14S-154. ^ Dr. Grant and the Mountain Ncstorians, pp. 289-290. ■* Do., p 1S6. ^ Missionary Herald, 1850, pp. 57-59 ; Journal American Oriental Society, \i<[. 1 1 . jip. 1 12-119. •-Do., Vol. Ill, pp. 490-491. (148) ARCHAEOLOGY. 149 Loftus's excavations at Khoyunjik, Warka, and Mugheir.^ He speaks of his journey from Arbeel to Herir as the first made by a Frank; but Dr. Grant passed over the same route twelve years before,- and saw both the Assyrian pillar at Sidek and the kelishin ^ at the top of the mountain beyond, on June II, 1842.'' Rev. D. O. Allen's account of the mode of building a temple at Kaygaum, in the. Marathi countr}^, shows how missionary observation may illustrate archce- ology.^ An inclined plane of earth was made to follow the walls as they rose, and the interior was filled up in the same way. Up this slope two or three hundred men drew one stone at a time, in a low car with wheels of solid wood. So mound and wall rose together, till the top stone was put in its place, and then the mound was cleared away, disclosing the perfect temple. Was this the way that the huge blocks in Nineveh and Baalbec were raised to their places ? Missionaries, however, can only attend to antiquities in the intervals of leisure from more important duties. Dr. Lobdell writes to his teacher and biographer,'^ " It is only as a recreation from severe missionary labor that I can justify myself in exploring the geography, history, and effete religions of Assyria. I never regret that God has cast my lot in Mosul as a missionary rather than as an antiquarian." These sentences occur in the preface to his notes on Xenophon's Anabasis, that fill twenty-four pages, describing the cities, arms, dress, and customs of the people, the modes of travel, measures of dis- tance, and modes of crossing streams ; making his personal acquaintance with modern Assyria illustrate the description of it by the Greek historian twenty- two hundred and eighty years ago. Prof. W. S. Tyler, in his introduction to the notes on the Anabasis, after stating that classical and sacred geography, history, and antiquities are greatly indebted to missionaries, and giving some reasons for the superior accuracy of their knowledge, goes on to say that Dr. Lobdell added to these peculiar per- sonal qualifications of his own a quick eye, an almost intuitive sagacity, a curiosity never sated, an activity that never tired, and a marvelous power of concentration, that enabled him to carry on many labors at the same time. The quarries that furnished the limestone blocks for the palaces at Nimrood were discovered by him, and he prepared forty-seven boxes of archaeological specimens with his own hands, to be sent to this country. These spoils from ancient Nineveh will instruct our educated youth in archaeology through com- ing ages. Even the sight of them kindles an enthusiasm in young men for such studies ; so that Dr. Lobdell could not in any other position have done so much for this branch of science. Just before his last sickness, he was pre- paring to write for the Bibliotheca Sacra a full account of his journey from Nineveh to Babylon and back. Missionaries lack, also, the learned and costly books of reference needful to the highest attainments in archeology. Nor are dissertations on such themes >Do., Vol. IV, pp. 472-4S0; Vol. V, pp. 26S-270. -Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestorians, pp. 219-225. 'Green pillar. * For a further account of it, by Rev. D. W. Marsh, see Missionary Herald, 1S50, p. 4"i> and by Dr. Per- kins, Journal American Oriental Society, Vol. II, p. 76; also by Dr. A. H. Wright, Do., Vol. V, pp. 262-263. ^Missionary Herald, 1S36, p. 302. " Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S57, p. 231. 150 THE ELY VOLUME. suited for the pages of a missionary periodical, though, as we have seen, the journals of learned societies eagerly avail themselves of contributions to their pages from missionary pens. The popular nature of this volume limits us to the briefest mention of some of the more interesting of these, though this brevity may make them still less adapted for general reading, while they must fail in that minuteness of detail which scholars require in such matters. To remedy this, references will be given to the original sources of information. Rev. Isaac Bird^ gives an account of a tower in the island of Jerba, ofif the southern coast of Tunis, where, after a battle on the 12th of May, 1560, in- which eighteen thousand Spanish soldiers were slain, their bones were gathered by the Moslems and built up with mortar into this grim trophy of their victory. He also gives brief descriptions of the grand reservoir of ancient Carthage,^ consisting of seventeen cisterns side by side, with vaulted roofs, and covering a space of four hundred and twenty feet by fifty-four, with a depth of twenty feet, which were filled by an aqueduct fifty miles in length from Mount Zguan. He had previously described the ruins of the ancient subterranean corn magazines of Tripoli, mentioned by classic writers.^ Messrs. Fisk and King give an account of the ruins of Luxor, Karnac, and Burnou, in the Missmiary Herald, 1823, pp. 347-350. There is a description of Jerusalem, by Messrs. Fisk and King, in the Missionary Herald, 1824, pp. 40-42. The cedars of Lebanon are described by Mr. Fisk, Missionary Herald^ 1824, p. 270 ; and the ruins of Baalbec, pp. 271-272. Dr. H. G. O. Dwight gives some Armenian traditions about Ararat.* On the east is a district called Arnoiodn, i. e., at Noah's foot, for here he stepped out from the ark. Farther east is the town of Marant, /. o., 1841, pp. 208,237 ; Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, pp. 455-458. 1' See Prof. Hadley's rendering of it, Journal A vtericaft Oriental Society, Vol. VI, pp. 550-555. '^^ Missionary Herald, 1841, p. 2 3g. ^3 Bibliotheca Sacra, 184S, pp. 3-5. "Do., p. 6. i^Do., pp. 7-g. "5 Do., pp. 10-13. "Do, pp. 15-16. '"^V>o.,^.m. 154 THE ELY VOLUME, Still eighty-two and a half feet high. The basement seems to have been a magazine ; the first story is a church, with groined roof and clustered pillars, and a circular stair in the southern wall leads to a large room above that. East of this artificial summit are some massive foundations and walls built probably by the Arvadites, with the Phoenician bevel, and narrow windows that taper to a point at the top. There is an account of Safeeta, with an engrav- ing, in the Missionary Herald, 1868, pp. 73-75. The castle of Markub ^ covers a triangular summit of trap-rock about one thousand feet high, joined to the main range by a low ridge fortified by a fosse, and a tower seventy feet high, with walls of basalt sixteen feet thick. The vaults of the castle could hold half of the grain of Syria. Two thousand families might live in it, besides half that number of horses. The ruins of Seleucia Pieria, built by Seleucus Nicator, extend from the Nebaa el Kebir (Great Fountain) two miles to the sea. Its inner harbor was enclosed by heavy walls with towers and gates. The entrance was cut through a spur of the coast range. Another harbor, one hundred and fifteen paces from this entrance, was built out into the sea in the form of a horseshoe, with overlapping sides. To protect the inner harbor from a mountain torrent, a massive wall was built across its bed to the mountain ; then a passage twenty- two feet wide was cut in the mountain, till the sides rose to the height of one hundred feet ; then, from this point a tunnel was cut, twenty-one feet square, for a hundred and ninety-six paces, whence it again continued open to the sea. Through this the torrent still flows, and alongside of it is the public highway. The ruins on Mount St. Simon" are towns and temples, castles and cities, built of hewn stones, often ten feet long by two in width, without mortar. Many of the private houses are spacious, with porticoes above and below, sup- ported by columns of a peculiar pattern. The principal ruin is called El Kalah (the castle), though it was a temple, and more recently a church. It is cruci- form, two hundred and fifty-three feet and a half long on the inside, by seventy- six feet, with an octagonal area in the center, eighty-nine feet six inches in diameter. Two Corinthian columns adorn each of the eight angles, and from their entablatures spring eight arches thirty-two feet high, which support the dome. Eight shorter columns stand above the first row. Above these, again, were niches for statues, and the interior surface of the dome, eighty feet from the ground, was elaborately ornamented. A pedestal of rock, directly under the center, may have held the famed pillar of Simon Stylites, though some place it on a mountain east of Suadeea. The southeast transept has been transformed into a church. The rock beneath contains vast cisterns, still resorted to by neighboring shepherds. In all this region no arch is found in the most ancient ruins, and the Phoenician bevel does not cross the coast range. The antiquities of Aleppo, Zobah, and Khanasir^ are also described. Dr. Thomson found many ruins in Jebel el Aala, at Kurk burj * (forty towers), and at BehiyQ, where the pillars taper at both ends like a barrel ; also at Bshindelayeh, where among temples and tombs was a square monolith, "^ Missionary Herald, 1841, p. loi ; Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, pp. 253-254. - Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S48, pp. 462-466. »Do., pp. 466-461) and 475-4S0. -"Do., pp. 667-66S. ARCHEOLOGY. 155 twenty-five feet high, with niches for statues, and a cistern forty by eighty feet, which never fails in the driest seasons. But we cannot go into details, when this mountain contains twenty times as many Greek and Roman antiqui- ties as all Palestine, massive, unique, and in a wonderful state of preservation. Similar ruins abound in Jebel Armenaz, all the way to Edlip and Riha. The whole region lies as much outside the routes of modern travel as of the line of march followed by ancient conquerors. El Bara,' however, deserves special mention. Here, as in Pompeii, many palaces, mansions, temples, tombs, and churches are nearly perfect. For three hours Dr. Thomson could only run from one structure to another, unable to settle down to any. Some buildings had served as a quarry for the castle, whose builders had left immense arches all around, which they did not dare to pull down with the rest of the walls. Dr. DeForest describes one structure which needed only a new roof and floor to be ready for occupancy. It had a veranda in front and an addition behind, with out-buildings, garden, and sum- mer-house. Flat arches crossed the principal room, and on these lay smooth slabs of stone accurately fitted together for a ceiling, while a gable roof had surmounted all. Dr. Thomson had time to examine only one church, a hundred and fifty feet by a hundred, with outer and inner colonnade of Corinthian columns. The city is without inhabitants, but the scratches {gmphitce) of idle boys, with their rude drawings, are yet visible on the walls. Chambers, baths, kitchens, and tombs tell of ancient lives, with their fleeting enjoyments and their end. At Maarat-Hermel ^ was another picture of the past. Surly shepherds were drawing water for their flocks. Two of them drew up the leathern bucket hand-over-hand from the deep well, to a monotonous song, and, when thirsty, each man pulled away a sheep from the stone trough, and thrust his own head into the vacancy. Yet, not even for money would they give water to Dr. Thomson, or let his horse drink ; fit men to drive others from the well (Exodus ii:i7), or even toss them into the nearest pit (Genesis xxxvii:24), of which several were within reach. At Kefr Tob^ — is this the land of Tob (Judges xi) 1 or the "Ish-tob " of 2 Samuel x:6 ? — a life-size monolith of an enthroned goddess, in black basalt, lies mutilated on the ground. Dr. Thomson makes Khan Sheikhoon the She- hoa of Benjamin of Tudela, which his translator, Mr. Asher, says is a mistake for Riha, a place two days from Hamah, instead of half a day, as this is, and as Rabbi Benjamin says that it is. He describes Hamah * and Salemiyeh ^ on the authority of Dr. DeForest, Hums,*^ and Zephron,^ one of the landmarks of Canaan (Numbers xxxiv), but we pass them all to reach Apamea,^ a city grander but more ruined than El Bara. The northwest corner of the wall is well preserved, and the north gate is almost perfect. A grand avenue extends from this for more than a mile to the south gate. It is lined on both sides with a Corinthian colonnade about thirty feet high, composed of about eighteen hundred columns only six and a half feet ^Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, pp. 674-677. 2 Do., p. 678. ^ Do., p. 679. «Do., 1S48, p. 680. = Do., p. 682. 6 Do., p. 6S3 ' Do., p. 684. « Do., p. 685. 156 THE ELY VOLUME. apart. The sidewalks were twenty-four feet wide, and the roadway sixty-nine ; and the columns, being three feet in diameter, made the avenue a hundred and twenty-two feet wide in all. The shafts for a certain portion of the way were plain, then for a like distance fluted, then double fluted, or both convex and concave, then spiral, and again with a square rib between the flutings, but all in regular order. Here and there large squares on the avenue were lined with a peristyle of larger pillars, and the cross streets had smaller ones. Occa- sional groups of columns among the ruins point out the sites of temples, palaces, agorae, and the other public buildings. One wanders from square to square, till, sated and weary, he ceases to note details. In 18 12 Kulaat el Madyook, the only inhabited part of the city, was occupied by a rebel chief, so that Burckhardt could not enter it, and thus failed to see the most remarkable ruins in northern Syria, The city was built by Seleucus Nicator, and named in honor of his wife, Apamea. Riblah, the scene of Zedekiah's sufferings, and where Jehoahaz was imprisoned, is described,^ and the kamoa of Hermel, a solid structure thirty feet square and eighty feet high, with a pyramidal apex, adorned on the lower portion with hunting scenes in alto rilievo? Dr. B. Schneider^ describes some tombs in Oorfa, excavated in the hill-side, where the visitor enters first an apartment from twelve to fifteen feet square and about eight feet in height, with loculi on three sides, each side having one large enough for an adult. Sometimes other rooms opened out of this, each with its three loculi. One of them had been recently opened, and the remains of bones were still to be seen ; also fragments of glass lachrymatories. In Cyprus he had seen them of alabaster. He was interested especially in a groove just outside the threshold and extending to the left, large enough to receive a round, flat stone, of the size and thickness of a millstone, which evidently closed the entrance when rolled directly in front, and opened the tomb when it was rolled in the groove to the left. In one case this stone hindered his going in, because it was not rolled away, and it was too heavy for him to move alone. He uses these to illustrate the mode of closing the sepulcher of our Lord, and does not wonder that the women felt unequal to rolling away the stone from its door. (See Matthew xxvii : 60, and Mark xvi : 3-4.) He says the stone must be rolled away, not raised or lifted. He refers also to the appropriateness of the expression " entered," /. e., on a level, and not going down, as though excavated beneath one's feet instead of in the hill-side ; also of the " young man sitting at the right side" (Mark xiii:5), just as one might have done in these tombs. He also points out the appropriateness of the word " rolled back" (Matthew xxviii : 2), which could not be true save of precisely such a stone, and situated in the groove as these are. The only difficulty is in the angel sitting upon it, but this he says might be simply leaning against.* He also describes the supposed site of the famous school of Edessa, with some of ' Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 693. 2 Do., p. 69s ; The Land and the Book, by W. M. Thomson, D D., Vol. I, p. 362; Bible Lands, by H. J- Van Lennep, D.D., p. 255. In both of these is an engraving of it. 3 Bibliotheca Sacra, 1862, p. 849. * See, nlso, Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S79, pp. 553-555- GATEWAY AT SIVAS. ARCHiEOLOGY. I -7 the ancient wall still standing, and remains of marble pillars scattered about, but above all a tower, which seems to have been built for a belfry, though now used as a Moslem minaret. The engraving opposite is the gate-way of a college built in Sivas, the ancient Sebaste, for the study of the Koran. There are three or four such ruins in the city, witnessing both to the wealth and architectural skill of their builders. They are much injured by time and by the spoliation of the Turks, who make them quarries for the materials of their meaner structures. The stone is a white marble, grown dingy by long exposure. The coarser parts of the structure are built of the red sandstone that underlies the gypsum of this region. The style is Saracenic, in distinction from the Moorish architecture of Spain. The ornamentation may be deemed excessive, but not more so than some specimens of Gothic. The tracery is so delicate, and the patterns so exquisite, that one cannot help enjoying them. So far Rev. Edward Riggs describes it, but the writer cannot forget how he stood a long time in the deso- late court, enjoying the sight of this relic of the past, in the year 1842. The upper center of the front has fallen. The line of Arabic inscription below the fracture is still legible, and gives a good idea of that style of writing. Another similar line is seen running round the bottom of the conical recess above the door. Still another is seen over the opening in the tower to the right of the man standing in the door.^ Rev. S. Wolcott, D.D., diligently improved every opportunity to carry out the work begun by Dr. Robinson, who calls him "an active and intelligent observer of men and things,"" and says that "the results of his investigations were of sufficient importance to be laid before the public."^ Ritter also quotes him with commendation.* He discovered a vaulted passage under the Mosk El Aksa, in Jerusalem, and introduced Mr. Tipping, an English artist, there.^ He also first explored, at no little risk, the dragon well (Hamam Esh Shefa'), near the Haram connected with the subterranean water-courses of the ancient city.'' He discovered and explored the portion of the aqueduct from Solomon's pools within the city.'' He first identified the valley of Berachah (Wady Bereikut) ;^ also Beth zur (Beit sur) ;^ also Beth anoth (Beit Ainun).^" He first visited Sebbeh, and verified Dr. Robinson's conjecture that it was the ancient Masada." He also identified Caparcotia with Kefrkud,^- and visited and con- firmed Dr. Robinson's identification of Lejjun with Megiddo.^^ He disproved James Ferguson's identification of Mt. Zion with Mt. Moriah," opposed Mr. Grove's location of the cities of the plain north of the Dead Sea,^^ and replied to Dean Stanley's attempt to identify Moriah with Gerizim.^'' Some writers had made the river Sajour empty into the Euphrates, and others into the Coik. Rev. A. T. Pratt, by personal examination, found that its natural channel flowed into the former, but an artificial channel carried a ' Missiotiary Herald, 1873, p. 104, and H. J. Van Lennep's Bible Lands, p. 788. ^ Bibliotheca Sacra, 1843, P- '7- ^Dq., p. ,0. * Geography 0/ Palestine, Vol. II, p. 163, and Vol. IV, p. 331. "Bibliotheca Sacra, 1843, pp. 17-22. ''Do., 1S43, pp. 24-28, and Hackett's Smith's Bible Dictionary, sub voce. '' Bibliotlieca Sacra, 1843, p. 31. 'Do., p. 43. ODo., p. 56. i<>Do., p. 57. "Do., p. 62. "]3o.^p .76. >=Do.,p. 77. "Do., 1866, p. 684; 1867, p. 116. 15 Do., 186S, p. 112. 10 Do., p. 765. 158 THE ELY VOLUME. part of its waters to the Coik, passing through rocky tunnels and crossing other streams on aqueducts, thus confirming the idea of Carl Ritter.' There are many brief notices of antiquities in the Missionary Herald. Rev. Drs. H. G. O. Dwight and W. G. SchaufBer describe the antiquities of Saloniki.^ They correct Butler's classical Atlas in its location of Mount Olym- pus, Mount Ossa, the rivers Echedorus and Axius, and the lake of Pella,'^ and describe the ruins at Philippi.* Rev. G. W, Leyburn describes the scenery of Laconia, Sparta, and the tombs of Scandia.^ J. King, D.D., narrates his ascent of Parnassus and visit to Delphi.^ Rev. J. B. Adger, D.D., furnishes glimpses of Magnesia and Hermas, Sardis and Philadelphia, Thyatira, Pergamos, and Nice.'' Rev. J. O. Barrows describes some curious stone structures in Cesarea. They are from twenty to thirty feet high, and octagonal, though two or three are round, but all with conical roofs. Some have only one door, on the east or northeast ; others have another opposite to that one, and there are a few with four doors. They were probably Turkish tombs. In all is a stone floor, several feet above the ground and on a level with the door-sill. The bodies probably lie below this. One of them is seen in the view of Cesarea, p. 77.^ Rev. O. P. Allen, of Harpoot, describes the ruins at Farkin (Mia Farekin ?).* It was once a large city. The wall is broken down in only a few places. At the southeast corner is a stately pile of ruins, said to have been built by St. Marutha over the martyrs slain by Shapoor, king of Persia. Its outside walls, with some of the pillars and arches, are still standing. A few polished columns of porphyry had fallen. Their capitals, resembling a basket of wicker-work, were carved from a softer stone. The ground around is paved with grave- stones. There are many inscriptions, but none very ancient. An extensive ruin at the northeast corner of the city seems to have been a palace. Much of the space inside is now cultivated. At the west is a beautiful mosque, built in 624 A. H. (12 13 A. D.), by Modhuffer ed Dunghazi, nephew of Salah ed Din (Saladin). The ruins of a church are much older. Its walls, three feet thick, were built of large hewn stones. Three of its walls are standing, and the gables show that it had a slanting roof. There was a semicircular apse at the eastern end, which seemed to have been frescoed ; above this was a beauti- fully carved cornice. The interior width was seventy-five /eet ; the length one hundred and eight ; and the height to the eaves thirty feet. There is a watch- tower outside the walls of the city, one hundred feet high, overlooking a valley. The present ruins are more recent than the Christian era, but some mounds and scattered stones point to an earlier date. Some suppose it to be the ancient Carcathiocerta. Charran, Harran, or Haran, is situated not far from Oorfa, to the southeast, on an irregular platform nearly half a mile square, with an average height of twenty-five feet above the plain. This is enclosed by a wall of hewn stone, about forty feet in height; the stones in the upper courses weigh from a quarter to half a ton each. Outside this was a wide moat. It is strange ' Erdkunde Theil, Vol. X, p. 1034. - Missionary Herald, 1836, p. 246. ''Do., p. 2S6. ^Do.,p. 333. 8 Do., 1839, p. 1 7g. "Do., 1840, p. 360. "Do., 1839, pp. 206,226; 1S44, p. 55 ; 1858, p. 108. 8 Do., 1S71, p. 258. "Do., 1869, p. 30. ARCHEOLOGY. 159 that a wall like this should have been built twenty-five miles from the nearest quarry. More thorough search may, however, reveal one much nearer. If not, its location at the junction of two great highways, from Assyria and Baby- lonia to Palestine and Asia Minor, making it a strategic point of great impor- tance, may account for so great an outlay. It is mentioned in the inscriptions of Tiglath Pileser I, B. C. 11 00. Conspicuous among the ruins is a tower seventeen and a half feet square at the base and one hundred and two high, visible fifty miles distant. The stairs inside have fallen. Perhaps it was connected with the Temple of the Moon, or with the worship of that luminary, for this was a noted center of Sabianism. The pointed roofs are comparatively modern, though the foundations of the walls may be older. The broken column in the engraving is fourteen feet five inches in circumference. It is of white marble streaked with red. Broken monolithic columns lie around, and a beautiful octagonal stone fountain is still perfect. A castle at the southeast corner has a number of small rooms in an inner core, like the cells of our state prisons. The ancient name was Carrhae. Here Caracalla was assassinated, 217 A. D., and here Crassus suffered his famous defeat by the Parthians, B. C. 51. Now it is empty and desolate.^ The Bible student will be interested in the accompanying view of ancient Derbe, which is thus described by Rev. L. H. Adams.^ Derbe, now called Divle, lies in a deep, winding ravine, at the western base of the Karamanian Taurus. The ravine is nearly level, from a quarter to half a mile in width, is finely watered, and abounds in trees. Its sides are limestone cliffs from one to two hundred feet in height, and full of caves and winding passages. The population is Moslem, and numbers about four thousand five hundred. Though there are few ruins, yet scholars recognize it as Derbe, because it is the only place that could sustain a large population between Karaman and Eregli. It lies very near the ancient road from Tarsus to Lystra. It is nearly in sight of this last place, and only eleven hours from it, by an easy road, and Paul would more naturally flee towards his friends in Tarsus than to his enemies elsewhere ; then, the many caves, where a fugitive could easily defy pursuit, suggest that the apostle was as shrewd in retreat as he was bold in advancing on the kingdom of Satan. We are able, also, to furnish a view of Lystra, the other city of Lycaonia mentioned in the fourteenth chapter of the Acts, from the pages of the Herald^ and a description based on a communication from the same missionary pen. Kara dagh * stands alone on a great plain between Koniyeh and Karaman. It is fifteen miles long, six miles in width, and three thousand five hundred feet high, lying north and south. On the western side, in a large valley opening out to the northwest, on the plain of Koniyeh, stands the modern town of Maaden Shehr,^ called in the vicinity, also, Bin bir kineeseh.'^ This is the modern representative of ancient Lystra. Its ruins cover a space a mile in length and three quarters of a mile in breadth. They date back only to the eighth century, when an Armenian king established a theological school in the 1 Rev. L. H. Adams, in Missionary Herald, 1874, pp. 377-379- "^Missionary Herald, 1871, p. 225, 31871, p. 193. * Black mountain. 0 Mine city. 0 Thousand and one churches. l6o THE ELY VOLUME. place. Besides countless ordinary buildings, twenty large structures may be distinguished, some of them little injured. They are circular, oblong, octag- onal, and square, with wings, porticoes, arches, and some with bay windows. The friezes, cornices, and mouldings show great beauty of design. The material is a hard, brown stone, cut and polished exquisitely. Many of the walls are perfect. A beautiful tomb, twenty by fifteen feet, and twelve feet in height, attracts attention. Its polished walls are uninjured. Some distance out on the plain are the ruins of a large structure on an eminence. Was this the temple of Jupiter "that was before their city?"^ The structures now standing were erected from the ruins of a more ancient city of great splendor. The view across the plain to Iconium is very picturesque, and Timothy had only to climb the cliffs above his home to enjoy a magnificent view of Lycaonia and part of Cappadocia. Some make Latik, a poor village near Antioch, represent ancient Lystra ; but would the apostle, fleeing from his persecutors in Iconium, go back into the jaws of his enemies at Antioch, from whom he had just escaped ? Would he not rather go on twelve hours across the plain in the direction of his home ^ Besides, Latik is built of mud, with little to intimate antiquity. Lystra seemed empty and desolate ; but a few bandit-looking fellows emerging from holes under ground, and pertinaciously dogging his steps, induced the missionary to leave the place almost as expeditiously as the apostle. Mr. Adams gives an account of the ruins of the ancient Soli — whence our word solecism, because they used barbarous Greek, They are on the shore, five miles west of Mersin. The city, founded by the Achasans and a colony from Rhodes, was the port of entry for Iconium, and was greatly enlarged when Pompey, B. C. 69, conquered the pirates of Pisidia and Cilicia, and compelled them to settle here, changing its name to Pompeiopolis. Forty out of two hundred columns are still standing, most of which appear in the engraving, and in 1859 a splendid Roman theater stood here, nearly perfect. It was built of white marble, with wreaths and tragic masks in alto rilievo on the cornice, and in the center of the structure were the broken fragments of a statue of Venus ; but the Turks then ruined it, making it a quarry to supply stones for a mosque in Mersin.^ Mr. Adams also describes some Roman ruins half an hour southwest of Kharnu in the Giaour Dagh. The space enclosed by strong walls of black basalt was on the west side one thousand six hundred and fifty feet, on the east one thousand five hundred, and north and south each one thousand one hundred and sixty-seven. The walls were twenty feet high and six feet thick. Those of the inner citadel, one hundred and sixty-eight feet square, were much more massive. The upper story of the castle had fallen, and the lower one rested on strong brick arches. Underneath were vaults, that seemed to have been finished yesterday. North of Kharnu, the Dul Dul Dagh rises eight thousand five hundred feet. In a deep gorge here the Romans commenced, high up on the face of the cliff, to cut a deep channel in the solid rock, building up massive piers where neces- •Acts v: 13. ^ Jifissionary Herald, 1871, p. 129. ARCHiEOLOGY. l6i sary, till they brought out a large stream of water at a great elevation above the plain. The aqueduct is still in use ; and in like manner Aintab lives by an old Roman aqueduct twenty miles in length, that seems good for a thousand years to come.' In addition to these antiquities described by Mr. Adams, we cannot refrain from alluding to a more ancient profile which he describes.^ He was journey- ing north from the monastery of Sis, up among the mountains. After crossing the eastern branch of the Seihoun, he turned sharply to the west and climbed the opposite declivity. Here, two miles or more to the west, the sun seemed to shine through a hole in the mountain. More wonderful yet, the profile of a Grecian face appeared, as perfect as a painter could draw it, with only a slight defect in the lower part of the chin. It must have been from two hundred and fifty to three hundred feet in length, and just before it, on a pedestal of rock, stands a smaller image, leaning its head against th^e end of the huge nose above it. It was through the hole thus formed that the sun was shining. Rev. Henry J. Van Lennep, D.D., has given some interesting accounts of antiquities in his Travels m Asia Minor? He describes the ancient wells,* or cisterns, at Amasia and Tocat, running down into the rock, at an angle of 45 degrees, to a depth of about seventy feet, with steps down to the bottom ; also^ the tombs of the kings of Pontus at Amasia, and an aqueduct cut in the rock above that city, about five feet in width and the same in depth, for a distance of three miles. He gives us a view of the traditional cell of St. Chrysostom,^ among the ruins of Comnena Pontica, near Tocat ; ^ and a description of the foundations of the treasure house of Mithridates, on the summit of Yooldooz Dagh,^ half way between Tocat and Sivas. Two miles east of Boghas Keuy,* not far from Yozghat, is Yazile Kaya,'" where the faces of large rocks, enclosing an irregular space, have been smoothed with the chisel and covered with sculpt- ures in bas-relief that seem to commemorate the introduction of the Assyrian gods into Pontus. The whole is carefully delineated by the facile pencil of Dr. Van Lennep, and forms a valuable accession to our antiquarian treasures." A few hours to the north of this, near Karahissar, are the remarkable structures of Euyuk, composed of a black, hard granite. Here a passage eleven feet four inches broad and thirty feet eight inches in length is terminated in front by two huge blocks fifteen feet high and seven feet square, one on each side of the passage, with a large sphinx carved on their front faces, as bulls or lions stand on each side of the entrances of the palaces at Nineveh. A block that has fallen in front of this has six men, one behind the other, in the same marching attitude and wearing the same dress. On the outer walls that extend at right angles on both sides are sculptures representing the image of a bull on a pedestal, with an altar in front, and priests with offerings of a goat and oxen ] a woman and other figures, one climbing a ladder, another blowing a wind instrument, and another striking a lyre, etc. These are on one side, and ^ MissioKUry Herald, 1867, p. 244. *Do., 1870, p. 405. 'Two vols., !2mo, pp. 343, 330. New York: 1S70. * Vol. I, p. 88. "p. 90. *p. 323- ' Vol. II, p. 70-75. * Star mountain. » Village of the Pass. "The inscribed rock. " Travels in Asia Minor, pp. 112-128. II 1 62 THE ELY VOLUME. a figure seated on a throne, with three priests facing it, occupies the other. In front of these last is a large block, representing a lion seizing a sheep in his fore paws, the rest of his body still retaining the attitude of the leap that reached his victim. Dr. Van Lennep considers the structure and bas-reliefs the work of Egyptian artists.' An inferior lion and other sculptures are found at Yozghat. The Euyuk antiquities are illustrated in detail, as well as the lion at Yozghat. Another lion at Angora, and a temple of Augustus there, are described,- with a solitary marble column. The remains of the theater at Pessinus, now Balahissar, with an antique carving from the temple of Bacchus there, are also delineated,"^ besides an elaborately ornamented door at Bagh luja.* Perhaps the most interesting antiquity described in these volumes is the statue of Niobe, carved out of the living rock, on the eastern side of Mt. Sipylus, four hundred feet above the plain, near Smyrna. Homer sang of this {Iliad, xxiv, 614): "And now among the rocks and solitary cliffs of Sipylus, where they say are the couches of the divine nymphs, who dance upon the banks of Acheloiis, Niobe, though turned to stone, still broods over the jDain inflicted by the gods." Pausanias said of it: "Close by, the rock does not show to the spectator the form of a woman, but if you stand off a little, you think you see a woman weeping." Dr. Van Lennep found the rock cut smooth to the top, fifty feet overhead ; an outer niche thirty-five feet high and over six- teen feet wide contains an inner and deeper one, in which the bust, eight feet high, rests on a pedestal twelve feet in height; the shoulders are nine feet wide, and the head four feet two inches high. It is so arranged that the dripping of the rain from the rock above pours down the face, which is discolored as if by channels of tears. One dark blue vein pours from the right eye over the lower part of the face, drops on the breast, and thence, falling on the pedestal, flows in two broad streams to the foot. Ovid says : " There, fastened to the cliff of the mountain, she weeps, and the marble sheds tears yet even now." {Met. ii, p. 310.) For fuller details the reader must go to the pages of Dr. Van Len- nep/'^ He also describes an image of Sesostris on Mount Tmolus, the southern wall of the plain of Smyrna, not far from an ancient palace of the Byzantine emperors. The face of the limestone is smoothed forty-five feet high and sixty feet broad, and is best described in the words of Herodotus: "It represents a man four cubits and a spithame in height,*^ holding a spear in his right hand and a bow in the left, with the rest of his costume also half Egyptian and half Ethiopian. Across his breast, from one shoulder to the other, is an inscription in Hieratic characters: ' I by my shoulders gained possession of this country.' " {Herodotus, Book II, Section 106.)^ Rev. J. W. Parsons describes the excavations of Mr. Wood at Ephesus, ibringing to light the quay, the wool market, the Odeon, and other buildings of great magnificence, the theater mentioned in Acts xxix : 31, and an inscription that put him on the track of the Temple of Diana, which he has since discov- ered.* ^ Travels in Asia Minor, \o\.\.\.,^V. iz^-iA,^. =pp. 190-191. ^pp, 2,2-213. ''p. 220. Spp. 300-317. « Six and a half feet. "^ Travels in Asia Minor, Va\ 11,317-325- * Missionary Herald, 1S69, p. 179. ARCHEOLOGY. 16-^. Rev. N. Benjamin describes Thermopylae/ and Rev. E. M. Dodd, Berea and Larissa.^ Mr. Dodd also gives an account of some ancient buildings in Thes- salonica, now used as mosques, but originally Pagan temples, and after that churches. One of them is sketched in the Missionary Herald for July, 1836. In the yard of one is an ancient be77ia, or pulpit, cut from a single block of marble, and in another is one cut from a solid block of verd-antique. He describes, also, a Roman aqueduct from Mount Khortiateh, still in use, and many fragments of ancient architecture in the city.^ Rev. H. N. Barnum, of Harpoot, describes some Assyrian antiquities near the source of the eastern Tigris.* The river flows out of a cavern directly under the mountain, in a stream ten or twelve feet wide and a foot deep; but a third of a mile above, the same stream, apparently, enters the mountain in a cavern about one hundred feet high and sixty feet wide, grander than the arch of a cathedral. Mr. Barnum followed it in some two hundred feet, as it dashes among rocks fallen from above. On the face of the rock, fifteen feet above the exit of the stream, is a cuneiform inscription, which Col. Rawlinson once read : "This is the third time that I, Belshazzar, king of Assyria, have conquered this region." This must be one of the earlier tejitative readings, for we have no record of any Assyrian king by that name ; but Tiglath Pileser,^ on his third invasion of Nahiri, the Assyrian name of this region, " set up a tablet by the sources of the Tigris, recording his conquests, which remains there to this day."^ Shalmaneser II" also went to the sources of the Tigris, and carved a tablet in the rock near the town of Egil, in which he gives an account of his triumph over Benhadad,^ B. C. 845. He went again to Nahiri, and in a cave from which the Tigris issues, carved another memorial of his conquests.^ Tugulti Ninip 11,"^ 891-8S5 B. C, "set up a commemorative tablet at the sources of the Tigris." Near the river Mr. Barnum traced the wall of an ancient fort, with the foundations of towers here and there in it, enclosing about eight acres. The wall was carried to the top of the mountain, where a cistern was cut in the rock, and near it stairs, also cut in the face of the rock for several hundred feet, ending in a door-way to two rock-hewn passages leading down to the cavern through which the river flows. The road to Erzrum, which must have been the highway from Nineveh to Armenia, passes a few rods distant. This must have been an Armenian stronghold, and, in capturing it, the king of Assyria captured the region. By the side of the inscription is an Assyrian figure with a staff (or mace) in his right hand, and his left hand pointing to the tablet. There were two other large caves, one of them fortified at the entrance and extending far into the mountain. A mile and a half in, a cistern was filled with water from the roof, and another beyond that. Dr. J. Perkins gives an account of Elkosh and the convent of Rabban Hormuz ; " also of an ancient tomb in Geogtapa, where a skeleton was found 1 Do., 1S41, p. 411. = Do., 1S52, p. 236. ^ Bibliotkeca Sacra, 1S54, pp. 831-S32. * Missionary Herald, 1870, pp. 128-129. •' > 120-1100 B. C. ''' Ancient History of Assyria. By George Smith. New York, 1876, p. 32. ' 860-825 B. C. * Ancient History of A ssyria, pp. 51-52. "Do., p. 53. ^"Do., p. 35. " Missionary Herald, 1850, p. 84; Bihliotheca Sacra, 1852, p. 642. 164 THE ELY VOLUME. with copper spikes driven into its skull ; and of another skeleton in an earthen sarcophagus, with a pot of silver coins, found about twelve miles from there. ^ He also describes an ancient sculpture on an isolated cliff in the plain of Salmas.^ Rev. D. W, Marsh gives a vivid picture of an ancient convent in Jebel Tur.^ Rev. T. C. Trowbridge corrects some mistakes about the rock at Van.* A. Grant, M. D., describes an ancient church in Jeloo,^ gives an inter- esting account of the ancient usages of the Nestorians," and furnishes valuable information about the Yezidees.^ Further information about that strange people is given by the writer* and by Rev. H. Lobdell, M-D.** The Ansairiyeh in northern Syria are described by Dr. Thomson ^" and Rev. E. R. Beadle." Dr. C. Hamlin, of Constantinople, has translated an essay by Dr. Paspati, of Greece, on the language of the gypsies in Turkey. ^^ In India Dr. D. O. Allen mentions inscriptions in the rock temples of Joonnur;'^ he also describes some of the magnificent structures of Shah Jehan, at Delhi.^* The Jumma Musjid, or royal mosque, cost half a million of dollars. This may seem incredible ; but a court-yard four hundred and fifty feet square, paved with granite inlaid with marble, and the mosque itself, two hundred and sixty-one feet in length, with three domes of white marble, and two graceful minarets, the whole interior, floor, walls, and ceiling covered with white marble, may explain how so vast a sum could be expended. The gardens of Shalemar, with baths, fountains, and statues, a mile in cir- cumference, cost more than four millions. When the Mahrattas stripped off the silver ceiling of the audience hall of the palace, the money coined from it amounted to $800,000. The splendor of this palace may be inferred from one part of the royal throne, which resembled the expanded tail of a peacock, its brilliant colors imitated by sapphires, emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones, giving variety to a mass of diamonds and other brilliant gems. Tavernier, who saw it, and was himself a jeweler, estimated the value of this alone at thirty millions of dollars. The Taj Mahal, ^^ the mausoleum of the favorite wife of Shah Jehan, who died 163 1 A. D., exceeded in splendor all his other buildings. It occupies the center of a spacious park on the banks of the Jumna, which was most elabo- rately adorned and kept in perfect order. The entrance is by a gate-way of red sandstone, inlaid with mosaic and inscriptions from the Koran in white marble. The central avenue, seen in the engraving, contains eighty-four fountains, with a marble reservoir in the center, forty feet square, containing five large jets of water, and bordered by rows of cypress trees. Birds sing in the shrubbery, while roses and orange blossoms perfume the air. In the center of this beauty and fragrance, the Taj, built of white marble, stands on a terrace of marble thirty feet in height, with a minaret at each corner. The dome, shining like 1 Missionary Herald, 1S3S, \t. 458- ' Biblioiheca Sacra, 1852, p. 229. 'Missionary Herald, 1S52, p. 109. ••Do., 1859, p. 48. ^T)o.., 1842, p. 217. ^ The Nestor ians, or the Lost Tribes. London and New York: 1841. ' Missionary Herald, 1841, p. 1 17 ; 1S42, pp. 310-318. « Biblioiheca Sacra, 1848, pp. i54-i7i- '^ Missionary Herald, 1S53, p. 109; Memoir, by Prof. Tyler, pp. 213-226. ^° Missionary Herald, 1841, p. lo^. " Do., 1S41, p. 206. ^"i Journal American Oriental Society , Vol. VII, i>p. 143-270- '^'^ Missionary Herald, 1836, p. 63. »« India, A nc ient atid Modern, p 1 34. '" Crown of the world. ARCH.t:OLO(;V. i5e burnished silver, is seventy feet in diameter, and the structure is two hundred and seventy-five feet from the terrace to the golden crescent at the top of the spire. The whole of the Koran is said to be inlaid on the building, in black marble outside and in precious stones within. Three thousand eio-ht hundred =^j^ - I |f^'''^r'lHTl''i''i^?^^^'-^^^P TAJ MAHAL. and seventy pounds of opals, four thousand six hundred and forty-four of rubies, eight thousand three hundred and forty-two of emeralds, twelve thousand four hundred and seventy of sapphires, seventy-seven thousand four hundred of carnelian, twenty thousand six hundred and forty of turquoise, thirty-seven thousand eight hundred and forty of lapis lazuli, and forty-three thousand of l66 THE ELY VOLUME. agate and onyx were used in its inscription, besides immense quantities of less valuable material. In the center, under the dome, is the tomb, enclosed by an open screen of white marble inlaid with mosaic. The walls of the cenotaph itself are of snow-white marble, inlaid with flowers that look like embroidery on white satin. Thirty-five different kinds of carnelian are used in one leaf of a carnation, and in one blossom not larger than a dollar, twenty-three different gems may be counted. A single flower is said to contain three hundred different stones. The name and virtues of the queen are recorded in the same costly manner. Tavernier tells us that the building of this edifice occupied twenty thousand men for twenty-two years. It was finished not far from 1650, and cost nearly $16,000,000 in gold.' Perhaps the best description of this marvel of architecture is that given by Rev. W. Butler, D.D., in the third chapter of his Land of the Veda. He gives the name of the queen in whose memory it was erected, Moomtaji Mahal," and the architect, who, it seems, was a Frenchman, Austin de Bordeaux, and who also built the palaces at Agra and Delhi. He is eloquent in his description of the whole structure, and ' speaks of the echo of the dome as "more pure, prolonged, and harmonious than any other in the world." One writer is quoted as saying that, "of all the complicated music ever heard on earth, that of a flute played softly in the vault below, where the tombs are, as the sound rises to the dome, amid a hundred arched alcoves, and descends to the floor above in heavenly reverberations, is perhaps the finest to an inartificial ear. We feel as if it were from heaven and breathed by angels. It is to the ear what the building itself is to the eye." Then, on another page ^ he tells us that "on the end of the tomb, facing the entrance, are the words : 'And defend us from the tribe of unbelievers' — Kafirs; the word being a bitter term of contempt for Christians and all who reject Mohammed." And he adds : " Heaven would not answer this fanatical prayer, but has placed the shrine itself in the custody of those she hated, who enter the building freely, and smile with pity at the impotent bigotry which asked heaven to forbid their approach." He himself, "with a band of missionaries, in the presence of these words, sang the Christian doxology, while the echo sweetly repeated from above the praise to ' Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.' '' This, no doubt, forms a very pretty tableau; but one is led to ask whether, after all, the Indian queen meant any more by the words el kafireeii than a good Methodist woman would mean by the term Calvinists. The word Kafir means one who covers and hides, and, as he says, is applied especially to one who does not believe in the dogmas of Mohammed. Now, we do not believe in them, and are not ashamed of our unbelief; why, then, should we be offended by the title.'' Then, though the means of verifying it are not at hand, the probability is that the sentence, as it stands, is a quotation from the Koran, and is a general prayer for deliverance from unbelievers, and not any special prohibition from approach to that building. Indeed, such a prohibition would not be necessary ; for Moslems do not allow Christians access to their holy places, either in Mecca, Hebron, ^ Dr. W. Butler and Col. Anderson, in Missionary Herald, 1874, pp. 201-202. 2 Ornament of the palace. - Land of tlie Veda, \^. m.^;. ■ < Do., p. 147. ARCHAEOLOGY. 1 67 or elsewhere. No doubt that music, as its liquid echoes floated down on those listening ears, was very sweet. Sweetest of all was the thought that the Lord Jesus was here worshiped for the first time, amid so much that was beautiful to the eye and grateful to the ear. Still, we cannot help remembering that the rightful guardians of the place, had they known it, would not have consented to the act. Was it, then, obeying the injunction to "be courteous," to take such an advantage of the permission given to enjoy its beauty ? It may be replied that Christ is rightful Lord of all. True, but his way is to stand at the door and knock till they that are within open it for his admission ; and we believe that he is much more glorified by waiting till the rightful own- ers sing his praise with their own lips, as they will one day, than to have his people thus use the property of others contrary to their wishes. When David would erect an altar on the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite, though he did it at the express command of God, he first bought the property from its proba:bly heathen owner, and paid the money, before he used it as a place for the worship of God. Dr. Allen describes a similar mausoleum erected by Aurungzebe for his favorite wife, at Aurungabad, in the northwest corner of the Nizam's do- minions. The spacious park, the aqueducts watering the shubbery, the elevated terrace, the marble structure, lofty dome, cenotaph, and marble screen around it, are all there, only on a much cheaper scale, as the cost was only $400,000.' Dowlutabad is also described by Dr. Allen ^ and Dr. Burgess, eight miles northwest of Aurungabad. It is mentioned by the historian, Arrian, under the name of Tagara, two thousand years ago. Its present name is Mohammedan. The area of the walled city is nearly covered with ruins. The fort was origi- nally a granite mountain five or six hundred feet high. One third of the way up it is scarped so as to present on every side a perpendicular clifE of a hun- dred and forty feet. At the base of this a deep ditch, twenty feet wide, is excavated in the rock. The only ascent is by a long, dark, winding tunnel, from two to three hundred feet long and ten or twelve feet square, hewn also in the rock. This is fortified by towers at its entrance near the base of the cliff, and comes out near its upper edge. So many side-ways turn off from it that a guide is needed for the ascent. The labor expended on this huge mass of granite must have been im.mense, and it could defy the assault of every foe except famine ; yet it has been taken six or seven times in as many centuries. A similar fort, though not so strong, is described by Rev. G. T. Washburn,^ in southern India, at Dindigul, a town thirty-eight miles north northwest of Madura. It was mentioned by Ptolemy as Tangala, and sixteen hundred years later it was famous in the wars of Hyder Ali and his son, Tippoo Sahib. The English captured it in one day in 1767, and again in 1790. Its name signifies '• pillow rock," and it is a great brown mass of granite from three to four hundred feet high, accessible only on one side, and crowned with a substantial fort. The engraving gives a view of it from the east. Part of the town of Dindigul is seen on the right hand of the picture. ^Missionary Herald, 1835, p. 458; 1S41, pp. 311-312. -Do., 1835, p. 458. " Do., 1876, p. 209. l68 THE ELY VOLUME. Dr. Allen describes Beejapur as formerly one of the largest and most splen- did cities of India. Native writers assign to it a population of nine hundred and fifty-four thousand. Its wall is eight miles in circumference, built of hewn stone, with towers at intervals of a hundred yards, and surrounded by a deep ditch, cut much of the way in solid rock. The Jumma Musjid,^ in which Dr. Allen lodged, is a splendid structure, two hundred and ninety feet by one hundred and sixty-five, with wings each two hundred and ten feet by forty-five. The roof is one large dome surrounded by smaller ones, and supported by walls resting on pillars. The kiblah has many extracts from the Koran, beauti- fully engraved in stone, and gilt. No wood is used in its construction. It was erected in A. D. 1666, by Ali Adil Shah, and is in good preservation; though only a dozen worshipers attend now at the hour of prayer, where kings and countless throngs once assembled. Near this is the mausoleum of Sultan Mohammed, or Mohammed Shah, two hundred and forty feet square. The interior is one vast room, covered by a single dome. On a lofty platform in the center are the monuments of himself and family, seven in all. Their bodies lie in vaults beneath. At each corner of the building is a large minaret ; from these, horizontal passages extend to the base of the dome, where a magnificent view of the interior bursts on the spectator. Men on the floor appear like pigmies, yet the ceiling of the dome seems as high as from the pavement a hundred feet below, while all the upper parts of the building appear much larger. The sound of voices from the oppo- site side is loud and distinct. This mausoleum was erected by Mohammed Shah, who died A. D. 1660." One of the most beautiful of the holy places in Madura is the Teppa Kulam.^ Its neat solidity and tasteful arrangement make an impression of perfect symmetry. It is twelve hundred yards square. The sides are faced with hewn granite, surmounted by a granite parapet, and midway in each a broad flight of steps leads down to the water, ornamented with mythological figures. Between the wall and the water extends a paved gallery, affording a cool and pleasant walk. In the center of the tank is a square island, visible in the engraving, faced with the same granite blocks. At its corners are small temples, and in the center of all rises a lofty-domed pagoda, the intervening space being filled with ever-blooming fruit trees and shrubbery. As the water is deep and clear, the effect of the whole is very pleasing. Timul Naik expended in its construction $50,000, and, to meet the cost of its annual festival, endowed it with lands yielding a yearly rent of $5,000. At this festival, the parapet, island, and temples are lighted up with a hundred thou- sand lamps, and the idols of the great pagoda are drawn round the ishuul for several hours, on a gaudily ornamented raft, after which they are taken to a pavilion on the island to rest from their fatigue. On a clear night, the illumi- nation and the fire-works connected with it attract thousands of spectators from all directions.* Just before his lamented death, Rev. D. C. Scudder was exploring some > Great mosque. -Missionary Herald, 1837, pp. 209-210. s Raf t tank. 'Rev. - Missionary Herald, 1837, pp. 209-210. . J. T.'Noyes, Missionary He'ndd, 1S72, p. 297 iriiwTiiiiiaiiMte«ii ARCHEOLOGY. 169 cromlechs among the Pulney hills. Clambering along their sides by a romantic footpath, and crossing brooks, where he noticed recent traces of elk, he found the ruins on a projecting ridge overlooking a long and beautiful valley. On a raised platform, twenty-four feet square, facing east and west, were a number of these structures, falling to ruin. They consisted of three slabs of unhewn stone placed on end, like the three walls of a house, with an immense slab covering the whole, and one end left open for a door. One of these primitive apartments measured eight feet in length by four in breadth. Crawling under the stone roof, he dug away the soil at several points with a hoe, and found a flat stone that sounded hollow beneath. There were three rows of cromlechs, and six in each row. The platform was faced with square, unhewn stones, to the height of three feet. Two rods down the hill were several others, but not faced like this one. Next day he uncovered one of the floor slabs, a foot in thickness, three feet wide, and five in length, but he could not move it to learn what was beneath. Two miles distant he found on another projecting spur of the mountain a similar platform and cromlechs, larger and better preserved. One perpendic- ular slab was eight feet high, six feet long, and a foot and a half thick ; and abreast of it were two rooms, each six feet by three, and four feet high, but roofless. On the opposite side of the square stood another row, very ruinous^ and at one end of it a smaller one, facing at right angles to the others. The slabs evidently came from the stratified gneiss of the mountain close by, which naturally splits into such blocks, and the places where they came from were plainly marked. Mr. Scudder longed to excavate below the floors, but had not the means for that. Their antiquity is doubtless equal to the Celtic ones in Britain. The natives here have no tradition about them. Near a village belonging to Mana Madura, the rims of a dozen earthen pots a foot and a half or two feet in diameter projected above the surface of the ground. He dug up one, found it two feet deep and full of gravel. In the bottom he found two small pots, of a form now unusual, and in one was the half of a skull, its form preserved by the earth in which it was embedded, with some teeth and remains of other bones. He opened four more, and in each found bones, though all were exceedingly decayed. On the outside of one were a number of vessels of various forms, one like a finger-bowl. No one knew anything about the origin of the jars, but it was manifestly an ancient grave-yard. There was a tradition that it belonged to a caste that was buried alive, with a little rice and water in the cups — manifestly a mere guess. Two months later he found an old piud fort near his own home at Periaku- lum, and close by some circles of rough stones like those found in Dindigul. Not far oiT he heard of some pots larger than those just described. A native picked up near them a rusty iron weapon like a cleaver, and another had ploughed up a piece of iron like a sword, and in a small stone house had found a horse made of pottery, much superior to those manufactured now. Setting off himself, he found a cromlech about six feet by three, choked up with dirt, and, by digging, several earthen vessels were brought to light. In one end of the structure was a round hole, with a stone set up against it outside, like some on jjO THE ELY VOLUME. the Nilagiris. It is supposed that the body was introduced through this open- ing. Among other discoveries he made was a pot on four legs, and two large pots, like those at Mana Madura, lying on their sides, facing the door, with many fragments of others. He also found some covers for the pots, and some pieces of iron too much destroyed by rust to determine their exact shape ; also some bones. He thought, also, that decayed bones were the cause of a white powder in the soil. The room faces due east, and the slabs are six feet thick by seven or eight in height. The end ones are three feet wide by seven in heio-ht. There is no place where they could have been brought from nearer than a mile. These are the dry bones of several sprightly letters filling eleven pages of his memoir.^ See Rev. W. Tracy's account of similar tombs and cromlechs, six years later, in Journal American Oriental Society, Vol. IX, ]>. xlv. He thinks the urns, and apparently the cromlechs also, are Buddhistic. Rev. E. Burgess describes the celebrated caves of Ellora.^ These are a mile in length, containing twenty-three excavations, three of them two stories high, and one three stories. Nine of them are each more than a hundred feet long, but the average size is eighty-one feet by fifty-two. Pillars, round, square, and octagonal, are left at regular intervals to support the roof, and the walls are covered with images of the gods. One called Kylus'is a complete temple, with its rooms, verandas, domes, and spires cut out of the rock. A passage fourteen feet wide and forty-two feet long leads from the outer court to an inner one two hundred and forty-seven feet by one hundred and fifty, and in the center of this stands the great temple, one hundred and forty feet by nijiety-five, and ninety feet to the highest turret. A veranda twenty feet wide extends along the back of the court and half-way down its sides ; the wall is covered with sculptures. The temple of Minatchi, at Madura, is described by Rev. J. R. Eckard^ and by Rev. W. Tracy .^ A granite wall, thirty-seven feet high, surrounds a court eight hundred and forty feet by seven hundred and twenty. The gate-way towers, represented in the engraving, are one hundred and fifty feet high, three of them completely encrusted with bas-reliefs of the gods. Within this wall are nearly fifty granite buildings. The stone roof of one of these rests on a thousand granite monoliths. One is now building, at an estimated cost of 700,000 rupees. When Tirumal Naick repaired this temple, in the early part of the seventeenth century, he endowed it with an annual income of 223,500 rupees. Across the street from the great temple of Minatchi is the Puthu Manda- pam, or new choltry. It is also called Vasanta,^ because built as a cool retreat for the god Siva in May, their hottest month. It is three hundred and thirty- three feet long by eighty-one in width, divided in the interior into a nave and two side aisles. In beauty of finish it excels all other structures in Madura. The flat roof is composed of immense granite slabs, resting on one hundred and twenty-eight pillars twenty-five feet high, each hewn from a single block ■^ Life and Letters of Rev. D. C. Scudder, pp. 356-366. * Do., 1841, pp. 311-312. See, also, Dr. Allen's India, Ancient and Modern, pp. 391-396. » Paradise. * Missionary Herald, 1836, p. 169. ^Do, 1S68, p. 105. '• Siiriiig. ARCH.^OLOGY. lyr of granite, and carved in Hindoo style. The labor of carving and of erecting: them in position must have been enormous. Among the ornaments are ten groups of stone sculptures, representing the ten Pandian kings, of heroic size,, with their wives in smaller figures. A massive platform in front, with twelve pillars smooth as glass and black as jet, supporting a canopy, are wrought out of black Madura granite, a dark Syenite sprinkled with a green variety of Scapolite. (See engraving.) The work was begun in 1626 by Tirrumala Nay- agan,' who was crowned king of Madura in 1623, and reigned thirty-six vears; and was finished in seven years, at a cost of ^20,000. Others say it was twenty-two years in building, and cost more than a million sterling.- Rev. Dr. Winslow describes the gate-towers of the temple at Seethumbarum' as peculiarly magnificent. They are three hundred feet high, and the granite lintel of one, more than thirty feet above the threshold, is twenty-five feet long. Inside of this the temple looks like a city, so numerous are the build- ings. There, too, is a choltr}-, whose thousand granite pillars support a solid granite roof. Does this illustrate Solomon's house of the forest of Lebanon ? Rev. W. Tracy describes the pagodas at Seringham,^ where are a thousand houses for Brahmans, with a choltry like that described abVDve. The treasures connected with it are a palanquin covered with plates of fine gold, a crown, and back and breastplates of fine Venetian gold ; fingers and toes of rubies, aigrettes set with diamonds, necklaces and bracelets of topazes and pearls, one bird made of pearls and another of gold and diamonds, and various vessels of pure gold, all valued at 1,312,500 rupees.^ In the interior of Sumatra, at Pogaruyong, not far from Padang, Rev. J. Ennis found in front of the dwelling of the chief, three stones seven feet by four, with inscriptions in the ancient Kawi character. The largest one has thirty lines, each containing about sixty letters. The stone is very hard, the workmanship superior, and the straight lines and graceful curves showed that the chisel had been held by hands more skillful than those of the present inhab- itants. The face of the whole country is covered with ancient monuments. Fortifications, mounds, walls, and roads appear everywhere, overgrown with trees, and of these antiquities the natives have only the slightest and most unsatisfactory tradition s.'^ A pagoda in China is not strictly a temple, though a temple may be con- nected with it. The native account of the erection of the first structure of the kind in China may help us to form an idea of its character and object. In the year A. D. 260, Kang-tsung-huei, a Buddhist priest, appeared at Nanking, and performed many wonderful feats. He told the emperor that Buddha had left many relics, whose miraculous power was great ; and the emperor promised to build a pagoda for it, if one could be procured. A bone of Buddha was brought in a bottle, and its radiance lighted up the palace. In his eagerness to examine it, the emperor poured it into a copper basin, which was instantly broken by its touch. The priest assured the king that this was only one of its wonderful powers, for diamond could not scratch, fire burn, or the heaviest maul 1 Probably same as Tirumal Naick, p. 170. 2 Rev. J. T. Noyes, in Missionary Herald, 1873, pp. 241-242. ^V)a., 1837, p. 361. *Do., 1839, p. 23. ''jS656,2SO. '^Missionary Herald, 183S, p. 370. 172 THE ELY VOLUME. break it. The story goes that the emperor ordered an athlete to pound it with- a sledge-hammer. The sledge flew into fragments, but the relic was as entire and effulgent as ever. So the emperor built the far-famed porcelain tower of Nanking to enshrine the wonderful relic. This was one of the most beautiful structures ever built in China, costing, it is said, $3,000,000. Its nine stories flashed the sunlight from their crystal surfaces, and its clear-toned bells, rung by the wind, made pleasant melody, till the Taeping rebels destroyed it in 1856. These buildings are supposed to ward off evil and secure the favor of Buddha. The devout Buddhist believes that business will be brisker, crops more abundant, education more flourishing, and general prosperity more marked where such structures are found. They vary in height from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet, and the number of stories varies from five to thir- teen, though seven or nine is the favorite number. They are generally built of brick or stone, sometimes solid and sometimes hollow, and provided with, stairs. The one in the engraving stands near the northern wall of T'ung-cho ; is built of coarse brick, and has thirteen stories. It is forty feet in diameter and one hundred and fifty feet in height. T'ung-cho is twelve miles east of Peking and seventy miles north of Tientsin, and has been one of our mission stations since 1867.^ The celebrated Nestorian inscription in China, as it has been translated by one. of our missionaries, Rev. E. C. Bridgman,^ demands mention here. It was discovered bv a Chinese workman, in the year A. D. 1625, in or near the city of Singan fu, which for many centuries was the capital of the empire, and was such at the time this monument was erected, A. D. 781. The city is situ- ated on the river Wei, latitude 34° 16' north, and between 109° and 110° east longitude. The tablet is a slab of marble, about ten feet by five, with a pyramidal cross on tojD, and was found covered by rubbish, but was at once removed to a temple by the Chinese magistrates. It contains a Chinese inscription in twenty-eight lines, with twenty-six characters in each line, besides a heading over the top in nine characters, and another on the right side in seventeen. Dr. Bridgman gives Kircher's translation in Latin, Dalquie's in French, and the original Chinese, besides his own version in English. The whole is printed in four columns, covering two pages, all visible to the reader on the opening of the book. Twenty-two pages are thus filled with the inscrip- tion and translations, and five pages more are occupied with notes by Dr. Bridgman. Some of these notes, and the whole of Dr. Bridgman's version, are given in the Middle Kingdom? Dr. J. Murdock, in his edition of Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, "^ says that at the bottom is a Syrian inscription in Estrangelo characters, containing a catalogue of Nestorian ecclesiastics. The inscription is partly historical and partly theological, giving an account of the creation and the incarnation, and of the attitude of a number of the Chinese emperors toward the religion of Christ, some of them favoring it and sending gifts to the 'A. O. Treat, M. P., in Missionary Herald, 1875, pp. 369-371. ^Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV, pp. 201-229: Vol. XIX, p. 552. •Vol. II, pp. 291-297. *Vol. I, p. 422, note. A PAGODA AT TUNG-CHO. ARCHEOLOGY. 173 church, and having their portraits hung upon its walls. It is interesting to notice that it calls the Magi who visited the Babe in Bethlehem, Persians ; and among other things said of the disciples after Christ had left the earth is this : "They beat the wood, sounding out the voice of benevolence and mercy." Dr. Bridgman, in his note on this, says it alludes to some usage with which he is unacquainted. Does it not refer to the piece of sonorous wood suspended in some eastern churches too poor to own a bell, which is struck by a mallet in order to summon the people to prayer ? The inscription mentions a persecu- tion by Buddhists in A. D. 599, and another slight opposition in A. D. 713. It speaks of Olopun as a man of superior virtue, who made his way through dangers, bearing the Holy Scriptures, and arrived at Chang ngan, one of the districts in the department of Singan fu, in A. D. 736. There was a metro- politan in Peking by that name in A. D. 714, The missionary labors of the Nestorians ceased when the Mongols were expelled in A. D. 1369, and some have thought that all trace of their labors had disappeared ; but a missionary in Ningpo tells of a stranger coming to his chapel from a western province,^ and listening attentively, who after service said that he and his ancestors worshiped only one God, the Creator. He knew of Moses and Jesus ; said he was not a Romanist or Moslem, but that his doctrine had been handed down from many generations, and that thirty families in his town belonged to the same religion. Was not this a living witness to the fruitfulness of labors put forth many cent- uries before, by Nestorian missionaries, fit to go along with this marble testi- mony to the same ? ^ * Singan fu is west of Ningpo. -Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestorians, p. 51. VIII. CABINETS AND CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. The contributions of missionaries to our museums and cabinets demand our notice. The Missionary Museum at the Congregational House in Boston is a rich treasure for the student in natural history, especially in conchology and mineralogy. Messrs. Bingham, Thurston, Goodrich, and Coan have sent contributions from the Pacific, Messrs. Beadle and Wolcott from Syria, Drs. Dwight and A. Smith from Turkey, Rev. D. T. Stoddard, Drs. Perkins and Wright from Persia, Dr. Winslow, Dr. Fairbanks and Rev. H. J. Bruce from India, and Dr. S. W. Williams and others from China, with many more. Besides idols from heathen lands, it contains many weapons of war, instru- ments of agriculture, and household utensils ; and among its illustrations of archaeology are an ivory image Dr. Grant obtained in the mountains of Kurdis- tan, and the base of a marble fountain from Tripoli in Syria, brought home by the writer, containing the lower extremities of a statue, and the end of a club carved into the likeness of a head, from whose mouth the water issued. The Rev. M. Hopkins, D.D., LL.D., thus writes of missionary contributions to Williams College : " Like other institutions, we had, quite early, numerous specimens of clothes, clubs, spears, oars, and the like, from the Sandwich Islands ; native iron from Africa, and spears made from it ; also specimens in geology, mineralogy, and botany ; but the things most worthy of notice are the specimens of Assyrian sculpture sent by Dr. D. W. Marsh from the palace of Sennacherib, in Nineveh, which he obtained from Mr. Layard for the college. They are among the very finest, and were the first brought to this country. They made quite a sensation, and determined other institutions to obtain simi- lar ones, if possible. In this several of them succeeded, and so that branch of study, since pursued with so much zeal and profit in our land, we owe to our missionaries. We are greatly indebted to Dr. Marsh, and much credit is due him for his zeal and care in the matter. He had to saw the slabs into sections small enough to be carried on the backs of camels to the Mediterranean." In the Woods Natural History Cabinet at Amherst College is a collection of more than twelve hundred minerals, chiefly from Asia, sent mostly by mission- aries, and numerous enough to give a tolerable idea of the geology of Syria, especially Mount Lebanon ; also of northwestern Persia, and the Ghauts of India. They were sent by Revs. P. Fisk, S. Hebard, G. B. Whiting, D. Bliss, and H. B. Morgan, of Svria ; Drs. B. Schneider, H. J. Van Lennep, and C. (^74) CABINETS AND CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. I7C Hamlin, Revs. P. O. Powers, J. S. Everett, O. P. Allen, H. A. Homes, and H. Lobdell, M.D., of Turkey, and H. Hallock, of Malta and Smyrna; Revs. J. Perkins, D.D., J. L. Merrick, and D. T. Stoddard, of Persia; Rev. Dr. D. Poor and N. Ward, M.D., of Ceylon ; Rev. E, Burgess, of Ahmednuggur ; Rev. Dr. E. Bridgman and Dr. I. McGowan, of China ; and Revs. J. Goodrich, E. Spaulding, and A. Chapin, M.D., of the Sandwich Islands. Dr. Van Lennep sent a geological map of the region round Smyrna, and some fragments of sculpture from Ephesus; and Dr. Perkins, when other materials failed, used extra articles from his wardrobe to pack his specimens safely.^ Since that volume was published,- many and valuable specimens have been received. Dr. E. Hitchcock, Jr., writes: "Rev. W. Walker, of the Gaboon river, in western Africa, sent a skeleton and skin of the gorilla, which at that time were worth a thousand dollars, as but few specimens existed either in Europe or America. Rev. J. Tyler, of the Zulu mission, sent hundreds of specimens of the rare quadrupeds of South Africa. The unique horns he sent have done more to ornament the cabinets than any other contribution. Among his gifts were a fine lot of skins and skeletons of the cony, the feeble folk of Proverbs xxx : 26, which are very difficult to obtain, either in Syria or South Africa ; and also a monster boa constrictor, with a number of other serpents. " Dr. S. R. Brown, of Japan, has sent us the male and female of the giant crab, the largest that, so far as we know, has ever existed, and a quantity of the spun-glass corals ^ found near Yokohama. Rev. H. J. Bruce, of Satara, India, has furnished valuable specimens of birds and mammals, including bats ; and his skill in preparing the skins is remarkable. The sons of the late Rev. H. Ballantine have secured hundreds of specimens of Indian birds. Rev. C. Hartwell has sent many valuable shells, plants, and minerals from Fuhchau, in China, and Rev. D, Bliss has performed like service for the cabinet in Syria." The Nineveh Gallery of Amherst College is a monument to the memory of Rev. H. Lobdell, M.D., for its contents were almost all procured by him. It is sixteen feet by twelve, lighted from the roof, and paved with imitations of Assyrian bricks. It is paneled to the height of seven feet with slabs from Nimrud. Above this are reproductions, in stucco, of some of the best of the Assyrian sculptures. The slabs are, first, a richly dressed human figure with the wings and head of an eagle, which some identify with the Nisroch of 2 Kings xix : 37 ; second, an idol with two horns lying horizontally, one above the other, on his mitre, or crown. It is seven and a half feet high, with large wings growing out of his shoulders, a basket in his right hand, and in his extended left hand a cone, or pine-apple. The sacred tree is on this slab as well as on the first, and across its entire breadth is a belt of cuneiform inscription eighteen inches wide. The third differs from it only in having three horns bent round the tiara, one above the other. The fourth represents King Assur-nazir-pal^ with a bow in one hand and a censer in the other, as if offering incense on return from war. The "^ Reminiscences 0/ Amherst College, by President Hitchcock, pp. 75-77. ^1863. ■• Hyalonema * Literally, the god Assur is the protector of his son. J76 THE ELY VOLUME. fifth resembles the second and third, except that his head is covered with fil- lets. The left hand holds what seems to be a branch of the sacred tree, and the right is lifted as if in worship. The sixth is the same as the first. In this o-allery are three horizontal cases filled with various Assyrian and Babylonian relics ; also several large bricks, some from the palace of Assur- nazir-pal, at Nimrud, and some from Babylon • also a number of beautiful agate and chalcedony gems from Mecca and Greece ; Babylonian, Assyrian and Sassanian cylinders ] Sassanian, Persian, Greek, Hebrew, and Cufic seals ; frag- ments of alabaster jars, of a winged bull, one of these last containing a fossil Pteroceras, also many inscriptions from Babylon. There are fifteen Greek silver coins, twelve of them of Alexander the Great, thirty-one of the Seleucida, eigh- teen of the Arsacidae, three of the Sassanidae, sixty-three Roman coins, from Vespasian to Alexander Severus, and eight Cufic. Of antique copper coins there are thirteen Greek, forty-eight Roman, forty-nine of the Eastern Empire, and two hundred and sixty Cufic, besides other things. Miss L. W. Shattuck, who has charge of the cabinets of natural science in Mount Holyoke Seminary, writes : "Our gifts from missionaries have been so numerous, and have extended through so many years, that it is almost impos- sible to give a full account of them. When I began the botanical collection here, I -found hundreds of plants in the bundles just as they were sent. I have had them put up carefully in large tin boxes, but I do not know who sent them. From China, Ceylon, Persia, Palestine, Turkey, Spain, Africa, Labrador, and some of our North American Indian missions, many valuable collections of t)lants, woods, and seeds have come to us, and beautiful collections of algse and ferns have been sent from numerous localities. In the department of zoology, we have from Africa birds, serpents, fishes, shells, eggs, insects, and horns and skins of quadrupeds ; from India, shells and birds ; from the Mar- shall and Sandwich Islands, shells and corals ; and the same from Burmah, China, and Japan. Rev. Mr. Bruce and Rev. Dr. Fairbanks have sent hun- dreds of specimens, both in zoology and botany. It would leave an immense gap in all our cabinets to take away our missionary treasures. The incidental work done by our devoted missionaries for the advancement of human knowl- edge would compare favorably with all that governments have done who have made that the sole object of national exploring expeditions." Accompanying the above is a list of thirty-one missionaries who have sent curiosities from all parts of the world. Minerals were also received from Rev. C. F. Muzzy, India; Mrs. M. A. J. Chamberlain, Sandwich Islands; Mrs. A. G. Gulick, Spain; Mrs. B. Labaree, Persia; Rev. Dr. Chamberlain, Rev. W. B. Capron, Rev. H. J. Bruce, and Mrs. M.Anderson, India; and Mrs. J. Ballagh, of Japan. George Champion sent specimens of mineralogy and natural history to the cabinets of Yale College, from South Africa. Rev. G. H. Apthorpe sent a valuable collection of corals from Ceylon. Rev. J. Goodrich sent a collection of specimens of lava and sulphur from the volcanoes of Hawaii. The writer has made repeated applications for information from the college itself, but so far has received only promises of future communications, perhaps because of the lack of material to report. CABINETS AND CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 1 77 To the list of these contributions of Assyrian antiquities to our college cabi- nets is appended the following communication from the pen of one who, but for his connection with missions, had never taken any interest in such studies. CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. The difficulty of deciphering cuneiform inscriptions to-day is nothing com- pared to what it was at first. Mons. P. E. Botta was the first to bring to the light of day the buried wonders of an Assyrian palace. After working all day in the trenches at Khorsabad,^ under a scorching sun, he spent the evening, and indeed many subsequent days, in the effort to find a clue to the meaning of the records which he transcribed so carefully. He classified the characters noted resemblances between them, and the frequency of the occurrence of those that were often repeated, but after all his labor he could not decide whether they should be read like English, from left to right, or like Hebrew, from right to left, though he felt satisfied that they must be syllabic and not alphabetic. Compared with the difficulties of those days, we may say that they are now read with ease. The wonder is that any had courage and perseverance enough to attack the difficulty and conquer it ; and yet, compared with other studies, the difficulties are still so great as to dishearten anything short of the most hearty devotion and unflinching perseverance. It is not with any design of discouraging the study, but rather in order to induce those who are looking in that direction to count the cost, and summon up the resolution requisite to success, that we venture a few remarks on the difficulties of deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions. The first to confront the student is the great number of the characters. The syllabary of Prof. A. H. Sayce gives five hundred and twenty-two ; but of many of these he gives more than one form, and yet this by no means exhausts the list. Even a tyro finds characters which he cannot identify with anything there. It is exceedingly difficult to keep in the memory only the more frequently recurring forms, especially when they resemble each other in gen- eral appearance, and differ only in some point not apparent without close examination. This, however, is not the worst of the difficulty. Some of these represent almost as many sounds as an ordinary alphabet. >~, the first in the list, according to Prof. Sayce, has twenty values: seven Accadian, and thirteen Assyrian. Another, >^, has four Accadian values and fifty-one Assyrian — fifty- five in all. This is an extreme case, yet there is no character that has only one value. This is disheartening, unless one makes up his mind to turn to the 1 Bit Sargina, the house of Sargon. 12 lyS THE ELY VOLUME. syllabary in every doubtful case ; but what if none fit it ? or, worse yet, if several fit it equally well ? The different value in Accadian and Assyrian calls for explanation. The Accadians ^ came originally from Media, on the northeast, and settled in Baby- lonia. Their language was Turanian, not Shemitic, and they seem to have been the inventors of the cuneiform system of writing. Originally hiero- glyphics, copying the form of the object described, these were soon changed for the easier and angular cuneiform ; and when the Assyrians subdued Baby- lonia, they appropriated the written characters of the conquered, with a simplification of the form and a variation in the value ; for the same character was applied to the same object in both languages, and so represented different sounds as it was read by the two nations. Beginning with visible objects, this diversity extended to other parts of speech. Then, having thus commenced the use of polyphones, they went on enlarging the number, using affixes, and sometimes prefixes, to specify the pronunciation required. In this way poly- phones came to be used in different words in the same language, and a certain collocation of different characters determined the pronunciation of both. Thus, -^y is ood or doo, or par or tam, or eight other sounds ; but after <^ which is mat, or sad, or lat, etc., it denoted that a. ^J was to be pronounced Aksood=I conquered. There are many sources of this diversity in the value of characters. One is the use of the same one both as a syllable and as an ideograph, or sign for a word. Thus, >tJ^ may be the syllable moo, or the ideograph soom = name, or sanna == a year ; and -^T may be as above, or the ideograph oomma = day, some- times pronounced yoomoo, like the Hebrew and Arabic. ^J>- is the syllable si, or the ideograph enu = eye. Another source of this diversity is the use of certain characters as determin- atives, denoting that the word following belongs to a certain class of objects ; e. g., >->-y is the syllable an, or it is the ideograph 11 = God ; or, as a determin- ative, it denotes that the word following is something divine ; e. g., "^j is yoomoo, = day, but >->-Y'^Y is Samas = the sun, reverenced as a god. ■<^»7f- is the syllable im or ni, or the ideograph Roohhoo = wind, or breath, or spirit; but •^•"T-s^^f ^^ ^^^' ^^ Rammanu, the God of the Atmosphere (2 Kings, v : 18). »"^yy may be the syllable ir, or aloo = city, or a determinative, denoting that the word following is the name of a city ; e. g., *^X^\ *^^\ Ninua = Nineveh ; literallyFishtown; >-^yy <^^ >{- ^\ Di-mas-ka = Damascus ; '^^yy [tf ,^ =-^^yy 4^>^ >^ Ur-sa-ii-im-mu=Jerusalem. y is the determinative for proper names ;">-y ^^"^ is Seen = the moon, one of the chief gods of the Babylonian and Assyrian Pantheon, being masculine, and the eldest son of Bel, while Samas, the name of the sun, is feminine ; and ^Yy' is Khamis- serit = fifteen, but >->-y ^Yy^ ^^ ^^^^ goddess, Istar, that takes the place of both Venus and Bellona ; for she presides over both love and war, and was the favorite goddess of some of the Assyrian kings, especially of Assur-bani-pal. Another fruitful source of diversity is the interchange of M and V ; e. g., ^Y may be either ma or va, and scholars debate whether to read *-^Q *^ Akmoo or Akvoo= I burned. So also there is a like uncertainty in the read- ing of some forms of what is called the mimmation of words ; an intensive form corresponding to the Arabic tennween, or nunnation, which adds n to the a, e, and u of the three cases, as this adds m. The Assyrian mode of writing, without capitals, punctuation marks, or spaces between words and sentences, is another source of very great difficulty to the reader. He never knows where one word ends and another begins, but has to puzzle it out as best he can ; for a line may often be divided up in more ways than one, and characters may be used either to denote syllables or ideographs. One help, however, is afforded us in our perplexity. A line never ends in the middle of a word. If the last word is too short to fill it out, the characters are dilated horizontally to fill the space. If too long, they are crowded together more closely, or an ideograph is used instead of several syllables. The Jews dilated or contracted their letters in the same way, but they had no ideographs. It also is a source of great perplexity, that the structure of a character gives no clue to its sound. With us a p is ap, and apt, apt, but it is not so in Assyrian ; e. g., >^]^ is i s, but with ^ prefixed, /jZ^TY, it is lam ; g^< { is eru = brass ; but with the same prefix it becomes soon = their, and yy^, Kha, before it, makes it goog = worried. ""^YTY is lib = heart, but l8o THE ELY VOLUME. ■^yy, though just distinguishable, is roo or nadanu = to give, or isbu = evening. ^^ is soo, but ^y>= is pakh, or lab, or lool, or rookh, etc. ffy^y is dhoo, but ^yyy^y is rair. Perhaps no example of this is more striking than this unusually long character : j^y/' <^ ^^- ^^^^^ ^^^^ P^*"^ °^ ^^^'^' including the two upright wedges, is si, or, as an ideograph, nadanu = to give ; add the four slanting wedges = zib, and it becomes pooloo = cattle ; but add the rest, which alone is na, and the whole, as it stands, is tsalam = image. These difficulties are not at all diminished by the great similarity of some characters to each other, so that one has to look very carefully to distinguish them. Indeed, they are not only mistaken for each other by the reader, but also by transcribers from the original monuments or cylinders, and by editors or printers of works intended to assist beginners. Thus, ^yy^, dan, or rib, is often mistaken or written for ^jy y, oon, or nis = man ; and j^IJ, ip, is often put for yiyf, oor, and V2ce versa. In less than one half of the thirty-seventh plate of the first volume of The Inscriptions of Western Asia, corresponding to pages 35-38 of George Smith's Histoiy of Sennacherib, there are six variations in the text of the two volumes; also one determinative is left out. One num- ber is given differently. The names of Warka and Sippar vary, and the syllable ra occurs in one where the determinative for city is found in the other ; e is given for Kan. The Assyrian engravers of the original inscriptions also were not always infallible, as different copies of the same inscription testify. Another difficulty arises from the similarity of sound between certain letters. The Hebrew has two h's and the same number of k's, t's, s's, and z"s. The same is true of the Syriac. The Arabic has three h's, two d's besides Dhad, two t's, two k's and s's besides Ain and Ghain. It is to be expected that there will be confusion in distinguishing these sounds in the Assyrian, especially as that language seems to change the sounds of characters evidently corresponding with Hebrew consonants in certain words common to both languages. So different Assyrian scholars write the same characters differently in English letters. And the syllabic character of the language greatly increases the diffi- culty, nor is that difficulty diminished by the crowded lines of many inscrip- tions, making the distinction between letters very obscure ; for often it is almost impossible to decide whether a wedge or wedges belong to the character preceding, changing, of course, its value, or to the one that follows, making out of it an entirely different sound. Again : Prof. Sayce's Syllabary gives the Accadian and Assyrian renderings of characters, with their meaning in English ; but, out of his five hundred and twenty-two characters, thirty-nine have no Accadian rendering. Seven have no Assyrian, and forty-six have no English meaning assigned to them ; twenty-six have neither Assyrian rendering nor meaning in English ; and eighteen have nothing whatever but the bare character — no sound given to it, either in CABINETS AND CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. iSl Accadian or Assyrian, and no definition in English; a mere testimony that the character exists, and, so far, defies all attempts to understand it, while many of the pronunciations and renderings that are given are marked as doubtful.^ Then, the same character has very different forms in different inscriptions. It is like puzzling out bad chirography in English manuscript to try to read some of them, so great is the variation. Even the same character does not always look alike in the same inscription ; now, this part of it is enlarged and that made small, and then the large and small are reversed in another occur- rence of the same character. We can guess that ^^YT Y, um, and ^=YYT are the same, and we learn from fc^y7| that short perpendicular wedges may some- times take the place of those that go from top to bottom of the line. Other specimens might be given of characters yet more unlike, but still identical, could types be procured that would truthfully set forth the want of resemblance. Who would suppose that \l]_± and \y\ were the same character? Yet, on close inspection, one recognizes the three perpendicular wedges and the two slanting ones in both, ^ ] [ sa, as ordinarily printed, is ^TY in the inscriptions of Sennacherib, Inscriptions of Western Asia, published by the British Museum, Vol. I, and >— <*"!, na, becomes there >£![. These are some of the difficulties in the prosecution of such studies, yet they are by no means insurmountable. Indeed, this grouping of them together may make them appear greater than they really are ; for they are to be met only one at a time, and, that one being overcome, the learner is ready to advance to victory over others in their order ; and in spite of them, there is a strange fasci- nation in searching out the meaning of words graven by hands that more than twenty-five hundred years ago moldered into dust. Just as in our own tongue we distinguish at once between the ball that is tossed from hand to hand, and the ball that is kept up all night long by merry dancers, so here, without any special marks, the learner gradually comes to distinguish between things that differ ; and such works as Prof. A. H. Sayce's Lectures on the Assyrian La7iguage and Syllabary, by explaining the reasons for the usage, or giving the history of its genesis and growth, enable us to read with greater ease these wondrous records of the past, cotemporary with the most interesting portions of Old Tes- tament history, and most strikingly corroborative of their truth. The light they throw on the much-vexed question of the date of the original institution of the Sabbath, and many other Biblical subjects, amply repays the labor of deciphering their meaning.^ It has been said that part of the inscriptions are Accadian, and part Assyr- 1 The cuneiform type used in these pages is from the celebrated firm of Harrison & Sons, 45 St. Martin's Lane, London, W. C, who furnished the type used in the late George ?im\X\^^ Histories 0/ A ssur-bani-pal and Sen- nacherib, and also in the Syllabary of Prof. A. H. Sayce. 2 See Catholic Presbyterian, Vol. Ill, pp. 37-45, and Rev. W. DeL. Love in Bibliothtca Sacra, 1879, p|> 744-46. l82 THE ELY VOLUME. ian. There are also Persian, and other varieties ; but the Assyrian belongs to the same family of languages as the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, and it may be interesting to trace the family likeness in a few particulars. We may see it in the resemblance of common words, bearing decided testimony to the affinity of the languages, as in the following list, which is put in Eng- lish letters as the only way to put the comparison within reach of the mass of intelligent readers: English. Assyrian. Hebre7v. Arahi Syriac. Spirit Roohhoo Rooakh Rooh Rookha God Ilu El, Elohim Allah Alaha Heaven Samu Shemaim .Semaa Shemaya Earth Irtsitu Arets Ardh Araa Water Mie Maim Ma Maya Man Nis Ish, Enosh Insan PI. nas Nasha Father Abu Ab Abu Aba Mother Ummu Aem Ini Aema Brother Akhu Akh Akh Akh a House Bitu Beth Beit Beitha Door Bab Baba (of the eye) Bab Babtha (of the eye> Son Pal, Ablu Ben Ibn Bar Daughter Bintu Bath Bint Bartha Body Pagaru Phejer Phejer Pagra Soul, Life Napistu Nephesh Nephes Naphsha Forest Kharsanu Khoresh Khursh Way Darragu Derrek Tarik Sun Samas Shemesh Shems Shemsha Star Kakabu Kokab Koukab Kaukba Day Immu, Yomu Yom Youm Youma Light Noor Or Noor Noora Right Imna Yamin Yemin Yamina Left Sumela Semohl Shenial Semala Heart Libbu Laeb Libb Libba Head Risu Rosh Ras Risha Tongue Lisanu Lishon Lesan Leshana Eye Enu Ayin Ain Aina Ear Uzun Ozen Idhin Adna Mouth Pi Peh Fum Puma Face Panu Paneh Silver Kasap Kesef Kaesfa Iron Parzil Earzel Parzla King Malku Melek Melek Malka Throne Kuzzu Kissae Kurseh Kursya Horse Susu Sus Susya Dog Kilbelu Keleb Keleb Kalba Sheep Tsseni Tsohn Dhahn Heifer Agalu E'jlah I'jl^lt Ae'galtha Shade Tsulul Tsasl Tsui Taslala River Nar Nahar Nahr Nahra Fish Nun Nuna The affinity of Assyrian with Shemitish languages is still more npp.irent in the use of particles, of which the following are examples : CABINETS AND CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 183 £}igl/sk. Assyrian. Hebrew. Arabic. Syriac. No, Not La Lo La La Without Balu B'lo Bila Bila And U, Va Va Va Va As Ki K' Ka Aik Like Kima K'mo Kima Akma Before Pani, Lapani Lifnae With Maa Aam Maa Aam Whether Lu Lu Lou Lau Upon Illu A'l A'la A'l In many of its grammatical forms the Assyrian language vindicates its Shemitish affinity. Thus, nouns have the absolute and the construct state. The designation of cases corresponds to the Arabic. In that language the nominative is Madhmum, /. ^., marked by the vowel "u." The genitive is Maksur, or marked by the vowel " e," and the accusative is Maftuh, or ■denoted by the vowel " a," and it is precisely so in Assyrian. The Assyrian verb, in its forms, closely resembles the other languages of the same family. The names of its principal conjugations are the same. Its moods are similar, and its tenses almost identical in forms and in the number of persons. Any one familiar with Arabic, Syriac, or Hebrew will have no difficulty in conjugating an Assyrian verb. The likeness extends even to the kind of verbs. There is the same distinction between complete and defective verbs. There are, also, gutturals in the first, second, and third radical. The difference in its forms is just enough to suggest new ideas of the philosophy of language, and give a better knowledge of the growth of existing forms. This fam.ily affinity of the Assyrian appears also in the meaning of verbs, as may be readily seen by a few examples : Assyrian. Hebrew. Arabic. Syriac. English. Bakharu Bakhar Bakhar To prove in order to choose. Banu Bana Bana Bana To build. Ebiru Aabar Aabr Aabar To cross over. Ezibu Aazab Aaz'b To leave, Forsake. Karabu Karab Karab Kareb To approach. Khalaqu Khalak Khalak To destroy. Lamadu Lamad Lamed To learn. Maatu Muth Mat Meet To die. Malaku Malak Malak Malak To consult, Reign. Malu Mala Mala Mala To fill. Naparaku Farak Farak Farek To break. Pakadu Fakad Fakad Fakad To set over, Appoint, Visit. Patakhu Patakh Fatakh Fatakh To open. Sadharu Sadar Shatar (a writing) To write, To put in a row. .Sakaru Shakar Sakar Shakar To drink to excess. Salalu Shalal Sail Shalel To carry off. To plunder. Saalu, Sahalu Shaal Saal Shael To ask. Salamu Shalam Shalam To complete. Samca Shamaa Samaa Shamaa To hear. Satuu Shatah Eshti To drink. Tsabatu Tsabat Dhabat To seize. Zacaru Zacar Dhacar Dakar To remember. IX. PHILOLOGY. This chapter was originally written by Prof. W. S. Tyler, of Amherst College, in 1869. As the paper was too long for insertion in the present volume, it was condensed by another ten years later. If, then, the subject is not brought up to the present standard of philological science, the blame must not be laid at the door of the original author, who did his part well at the time when it was done. T. L. Robert Boyle, the founder of the Royal Society of London, laid it down as the especial object of that institution, to propagate Christianity along with and through literature and science ; and he has the honor of being, also, the founder of the first Protestant society for the propagation of the Gospel. He instituted the Boyle lectures for the defense of Christianity, and had translations of the Bible made and published at his own expense. Leibnitz, when invited by Frederick III to form the plan of a National Academy at Berlin, proposed that it embrace four departments : (i) Physics, including medicine ; (2) Mathematics, mechanics, and astronomy ; (3) The Language and History of Germany, and (4), to use his own words, " Oriental learning, particularly as it concerns the propagation of the Gospel among infi- dels." The king adopted the plan, made him president for life, and gave the academy the oversight of foreign missions, becoming himself their patron. He made it a prominent object of this national association for literature and science, that by institutions extending not only to adjoining Christian lands, but also to the remotest barbarians, a zeal for extending the Gospel of our Saviour, Jesus Christ, might gradually be extended over the whole earth. According to this "Leibnitz plan of missions," literature and science were to be an important means of extending the knowledge of the Gospel. He held that both learning and religion would thus be advanced, and Christian and heathen lands reap mutual benefit, since literature and science would aid the mission- aries, who, in turn, would send home the knowledge of new facts from their distant fields. The name of Leibnitz had great influence in introducing the same ideas into the academies at Halle and Wittenberg, Vienna and St. Petersburg. It is interesting thus to see religion and literature starting out together for the con- quest of the world, and ever since we find them marching, shoulder to shoulder, from victory to victory. Between missions and philology the connection is obvious and intimate. In order to preach in a foreign language, missionaries (184) PHILOLOGY. i8S must study it ; and, to be masters of it, they must continue the study while they live. There is no way of studying the radical tendencies and abiding traits of a people like the study of their language ; for that not only reflects the fleeting thoughts of individuals, but photographs the characteristics of the race, especially those forces that have most profoundly impressed them ; and of these none is so all-controlling as religion. Nothing, then, so molds language as religion, and nothing so expresses the religion of a people as their language. As the fossils of a country record the forms of life that have existed in it, so does its language record every influence that in succession has entered into the character of the nation. It can make the generations that have spoken it pass before us, with their deepest feelings and controlling thoughts laid open to our view. Max Miiller, in the preface to his Chips from a German Workshop, shows how language continues to bear the impress of the earliest thoughts of man, defaced, it may be, yet still legible to the eye of the scholar; and the continuity in the growth of religion is even more striking. We find its roots as far back as we can trace the history of man. An intuition of God, a sense of depend- ence on him, a belief in his government of the world, discrimination between good and evil, and a hope of a better life, he counts as radical elements of all religions; a part of the original dowry of the soul, without which religion had been impossible. He quotes Augustine to the effect that " what is now called the Christian religion existed among the ancients from the beginning; but when Christ came, the previously existing true religion began to be called Christian." Another father remarked that "if there is any agreement between the doctrines of the Greeks and our own, it is well to know it ; and to learn how they differ •will confirm us in that which is better than theirs." Just as the most degraded jargons of barbarians contain the ruins of former greatness and beauty, so the most barbarous forms of faith and worship contain some sparks of the true light that can be rekindled by the Gospel. This learned philologist may press these views to an extreme, yet the gen- eral idea is founded in both reason and Scripture ; and if there is any founda- tion for such views of the relation of the science of language to the science of religion, both scholars and missionaries have a lesson to learn. If prophets foretold Christ as the desire of all nations, and apostles preached the true God as Him whom the heathen ignorantly worshiped, whom they were feeling after, if haply they might find him, then are we justified in finding unconscious prophecies of Christ in the literature of all ages, and missionaries should be quick to discern germs of truth in the darkest minds, and by means of them lead men to the knowledge of the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom he hath sent. Thus the science of philology deserves the atteiUion of Christian scholars. The Bible suggests a connection between language and religion, in the account of the original confusion of a single language into many mutually unintelligible modes of speech, whether it was a sudden and miraculous change, or a picture of the more gradual divergence of dialects under natural causes; for it shows J 86 THE ELY VOLUME. that changes in language are connected with moral and religious causes, and sin, which separates man from God, also sunders him from his fellow. Even if the gift of tongues in connection with the apostolic church was only an out- ■ward sign of the wonder-working power of the Spirit, it is yet a significant expression of the fact that God has interposed to counteract that sundering power of sin, and reunite men to each other and to himself. Does it not sym- bolize the spirit of Christ, bringing men on opposite sides of the globe to believe the same truths, cherish the same feelings, and speak the same spiritual lan- guage— a union that may ultimately assimilate language as well as thought and feeling.^ In the Pentecostal gatherings of the latter days, may not men hear each other speak in a language which all can understand, the wonderful works of God ? So, in the removal of linguistic barriers between man and man, may the prophecies be fulfilled that " Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low," and " There shall be no more sea." The relation of missions to philolog}^ is illustrated in the steps taken to secure a uniform mode of reducing spoken language to a written form. The first missionaries of the Board among our Indians, feeling the need of some uniform system in their different fields, consulted the eminent philologist, John Pickering, concerning the possibility of a common alphabet, and in 1820 he communicated to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences his Essay on a Uniform Orthography for the Indian Languages of North America. He would represent each elementary sound by a distinctive character. The system was approved by the academy and adopted by the missionaries, and, with the approval of the Board, was applied not only to the languages of our own abo- rigines, but also in the isles of the Pacific and in Africa. In 1848 Rev. H. Venn, secretary of the Church Missionary Society, pre- pared Rules for Reducing Unwritte?i Languages to Writing in Roman Characters. These were approved by several English societies, and applied to several African languages. A more complete alphabet, however, was needed for gen- eral adoption, and Prof. R. Lepsius, of the Royal Academy at Berlin, prepared his Standard Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters. This was approved by a committee composed of Profs. Bopp, J. Grimm, Pertz, Gerhard, Busch- mann, and J. Miiller. The progress of missions, meanwhile, so increased interest in the subject that the Chevalier Bunsen called a meeting, at which were present, among others. Profs. Wilson, Miiller, Owen, Dietrich ; Sirs C. Trevelyan and J. Herschel ; Rev. Mr. Stanley; Messrs. Norris, Pertz, Babbage, Wheatstone, and Cook ; Rev. Messrs. Venn, Chapman, Koelle, and Graham, of the Church Missionary Society ; Rev. Mr. Arthur, of the Wesleyan, and the Rev. Messrs. Underbill and Trestrait, of the Baptist, Missionary Societies. Prof. Lepsius was also present, and his alphabet was adopted by the meeting. Prof. Lepsius holds that the matter has both a scientific and practical end : the former to bring these languages more within our reach, and the latter to facilitate the propagation of the Christian faith among those heathen nations that have no written language. So Lepsius carried out the designs of Leibnitz in this twofold service to language and to missions. The alphabet at once was PHILOLOGY. 187 approved by a number of missionary societies, including our own Board, and within five years had been applied to fourteen African and seven Asiatic lan- guages, and has already done immense service both to philology and missions. In the first stage of linguistic research, missionaries have rare facilities for gaining accurate knowledge. They learn both the written and spoken lan- guage, read learned books, and talk with the massed, and that, too, not for a visit, but through life. There can be no better authority on anything relating to a distant country or people than an observant, well-educated missionary. The earliest contributions to the modern science of language were made mainly by Papal missionaries ; and the beginnings of comparative philology rose from a comparison of translations of the Lord's Prayer in the fifteenth century. In 1784 Hervas published his polyglot vocabulary in one hundred and fifty languages, and the Lord's Prayer in more than three hundred. When not only single words were compared, but also the grammatical struct- ure of languages, as in the Mithridates of Adelung and Vater, the grammars and lexicons prepared by missionaries still furnished no small part of the mate- rials for comparison ; and as there is now scarce a nation on the face of the whole earth where missionaries have not been sent, scarcely a language which missionaries have not used, we see how abundant the materials are. And as philology can be perfected only by collecting and collating all the facts, in order to discover the laws that govern all languages, missionaries must be not only pioneers, but laborers to the end. We need only to look at the number of the missionaries of our own Board, their distribution over the earth, and the nature of their work, to see their facilities for collecting materials for the science of language. In 1879 it had sixteen missions, occupying seventy-five stations and five hundred and ninety- eight out-stations ; fifteen hundred and sixty-four laborers in all, including three hundred and ninety-four from this country ; two hundred and sixty-one churches, with fourteen thousand six hundred and seventy-five members ; twenty-three training and theological schools, with seven hundred and twenty- five pupils ; twelve hundred and two girls in boarding schools ; and six hundred and twenty-six free schools, with twenty-six thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven pupils. These missions are in the four quarters of the earth : in many provinces of India and China ; in Turkey and southern Africa ; among our own Indians ; and on the isles of the Pacific. The languages used belong to the three great classes of the uninflected, inflected, and agglutinated ; and the peoples using them belong to the principal races of mankind. Our missionaries have been, and are, among the best masters of the Chinese language, the Tamil and Marathi, the modern Syriac and Kurdish, the Turkish, Armenian, and Bulgarian, also the Arabic, which is understood by intelligent Moslems from China to Liberia ; the modern Greek ; the Zulu Kaffir, of South Africa, and the Grebo, Mpongwe, and other languages of the western coast ; the Cherokee, Choctaw, Dakota, and Ojibwa, of our North American tribes; besides the Hawaiian and other languages of the Pacific. Books or tracts have been printed by the Board in forty-six languages. Besides those just men- tioned, and the English, we name the Hebrew, Spanish, ancient Syriac, Gujerati, l88 THE ELY VOLUME. Sanskrit, Hindostanee, Portuguese, Persian, Telugu, Siamese, Malay, Bugis, Dyak, Japanese, Marquesas, Micronesian, Dikele, Creek, Osage, Ottawa, Seneca, Abenaquis, Pawnee, and three in Oregon, Twenty of these languages were spoken by missionaries, at the house of Dr. Anderson, on the evening after the fiftieth anniversary of the Board, and more than twenty have been reduced to writing by our own missionaries ; among them the Grebo, Mpongwe, Dikele, Zulu Kaffir, modern Syriac, Dyak, Hawaiian, several in Micronesia, the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Osage, Ottawa, Ojibwa, Abenaquis, Dakota, Paw- nee, and three languages in Oregon. The Roman character is used in all these except the Syriac and Cherokee. Grammars have been prepared and published of modern Greek, Armenian, Arabic, ancient and modern Syriac, Hebrew, Tamil, Chinese, Hawaiian, Grebo, Mpongwe, Zulu, and Dakota ; and dictionaries of the Armenian, Hebrew, Tamil, Chinese, Hawaiian, Grebo, Mpongwe, Zulu, and Dakota. One has also been prepared of modern Syriac, containing ten thousand words. No one can read the contents of the journals of the American Oriental Society and not be struck with the number of articles furnished by missionaries of the Board. In every volume are mentioned from four to twenty donations of books from missionaries, mostly in foreign languages. Of the five hundred and ninety-one pages of the first volume, one hundred and fifty-three are filled by five missionaries ; in the second volume, eight occupy one hundred and thirty-four of its three hundred and forty-two pages ; nine fill one hundred and fifty-seven out of five hundred and three pages in the third ; eight claim one hundred and ninety-eight pages out of four hundred and eighty in the fourth ; thirteen take up two hundred and one of the four hundred and forty- four pages in the fifth, and four occupy three hundred and seventy-two out of five hundred and seventy-six pages in the sixth — considerably more than one third of the whole, chiefly on subjects connected with philology. The Hawaiian language has five vowels, a e i o u, having the Italian sounds, and seven consonants, h k 1 m n p w. Every syllable ends with a vowel. To express foreign, especially Bible names, nine consonants were added. This simple alphabet soon made the ability to read almost universal. The language is further modified by tones or accents, varying the meaning of words composed of the same letters. A majority of words can be used either as nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, not by changing their form so much as their place in the sentence and their adjuncts. As in all uncultivated lan- guages, there is a great lack of generic terms, but the language is rich in specific epithets. The Hawaiian dictionary by Rev. L. Andrews (1865, 8vo, 559 PP-) defines fifteen thousand five hundred words — as many as the first edi- tion of Dr. Johnson's English dictionary. The Hawaiian grammar by the same author (1854, 8vo, 156 pp.) shows the peculiarities of Hawaiian orthogra- phy, ethymology, syntax, and prosody in a systematic manner, worthy of any ancient or modern language. Prof. Whitney says of the Malay Polynesian, or oceanic family of languages: " A few nearest to further India have alphabets and a scanty literature, coming chiefly through the introduction of religion and culture from India. The PHILOLOGY. 189 Malay has adopted the Arabic alphabet. For islands so scattered, these lan- guages have a noteworthy correspondence of material and structure. Their family coherence is unquestionable, but the degrees of relationship among its members are only partially made out as yet. Missionaries act an important part in laying them open to knowledge, as well as in diffusing knowledge through them." The Hawaiian Missionary Society, daughter of the American Board, already has missions in the Marquesas, Marshall, and Gilbert Islands, and the " Morning Star " is running to and fro among these groups, one thousand miles from each other, conveying to them the knowledge of Christ, and bringing back to us knowledge of geography, language, and whatever pertains to man. In these islands are different dialects of the same language, not to call them different languages, in which different versions of the Bible, while imparting to the natives the true wisdom, furnish us with data for a better knowledge of philology. [Rev. S. Dibble, in his History of the Sandivich Islands, pp. 5-7, gives the Lord's Prayer in Tahitian, Rarotongan, Hawaiian, Marquesan, Samoan, and the New Zealand and Tonga languages, from an article by Rev. Mr. Davies, one of the oldest missionaries in the Pacific, in the second volume of the Hawaiian Spectator. He also gives a list of words from the Malay and Poly- nesian languages, showing their affinities and resemblances ; also the ten numerals in Tahitian, modern Tahitian, Marquesan, Rapan, Rarotongan, Hawaiian, Paumotuan, Samoan, Fijian, Malayan^ Javanese, and in the lan- guages of New Zealand, Easter Island, Tonga, Tana Island, Islands of Savu, Ceram, Isle of Mosses, Islands of Sampoor, Cocos, New Guinea, Madagascar, New Caledonia, Caroline and Pelew Islands, Mindanao, the Tagals and Battas, and the language of Acheen, in Sumatra, pp. 8-1 1. — T. L.] The languages of North and South America belong to one family, though, owing to a great variety of climate and a roving manner of life, dialectic differ- ences have become extreme. Indeed, they are still undergoing great and rapid changes. In more than one of them, books prepared by missionaries have become almost unintelligible in three or four generations ; yet all are probably derived from one parent language, for, from the Arctic ocean to Cape Horn, the construction of all of them is polysynthetic, tending to abnormal agglomeration of elements in their words. Names thus are cumbrous compounds,' and the languages tediously polysyllabic ; e.g., in the Mexican, the word for goat signi- fies "head tree (horn) lip hair (beard)," or "the horned and bearded one." la Delaware and Araucanian, the sentence " I do not wish to eat with him " is one word ; and in Cherokee, the word-phrase " Wi ni taw ti qe gi na li skaw lung ta naw ne li ti se sti" means "They will by that time have nearly finished grant- ing favors at a distance to me and thee." ^ Thirteen of the languages reduced to writing by our missionaries represent five groups .gf Indians : the Florida group, Iroquois, Algonquin, Dakota, and Oregon. The Cherokee alphabet deserves a passing notice. A Cherokee named Guess, or Sequoyeh, who knew only his native tongue, conceived the idea that he could represent all its syllables by separate characters. They numbered ' Whitney's Language aiid Shidy of Language, Lect. IX. igo THE ELY VOLUME. eighty-two ; and to express them he took our letters and various modifications of them, and, adding to these some marks of his own invention, made out the requisite number of characters, and soon was able to correspond, by means of them, with other Indians who had learned no other alphabet. Four other signs were subsequently added, making eighty-six in all. A Cherokee has only to learn this alphabet, which he can do very readily, and he is able to read at once. Events which have affected the destiny of the Cherokees have hindered the success of this alphabet, yet it remains a rare achievement of native genius. Every syllable in Cherokee ends with a vowel, unlike other North American dialects, though this peculiarity, I believe, prevails in nearly all of them. Hence the number of syllables in them would not admit of such an alphabet ■without becoming very cumbrous, like the cuneiform. Even in the Hawaiian, ninety-five syllabic characters would be required, whereas the present alphabet, as we have seen, requires only twelve letters. The grammar and dictionary of the Dakota language, by Dr. Stephen R. Riggs, fills Volume IV of The Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. It con- tains more than sixteen thousand words, and fills three hundred and thirty- eight pages, quarto. The grammar fills sixty-four pages, quarto. The alphabet has five vowels and twenty-four consonants. Syllables, with few exceptions, end in a pure or nasalized vowel. Three fourths of the words with two or more syllables accent the second syllable, and most of the remaining words accent the first. Personal pronouns have a dual number, as well as singular and plural ; and nominative, possessive, and objective cases. They make no distinction in gender. Nouns have only two numbers, and no possessive case. Gender in them is denoted by termination or by different words ; most frequently by adjectives denoting sex. Verbs have three persons, the third being the simple form, and the others formed by the addition of the personal pronouns. In this, and in having three numbers, the verb resembles the He- Ijrew. It has three modes : indicative, imperative, and infinitive ; and only two tenses : an aorist and a future, which is also like the Hebrew ; but the variations in form and meaning of some of the verbs are very numerous. Adjectives have three numbers, and are compared only by means of adverbs. Preposi- tions follow the nouns they govern, like the Turkish, and are often incorporated as prefixes, suffixes, or insertions, with nouns, verbs, and adverbs. The verb follows both its subject and object, the last coming between the subject and the verb. Its arrangement of sentences is very primitive. " Give me bread " becomes " Bread me give." So the best interpreters begin where the speaker leaves off, and go backwards. The same is true in translating Scripture sentences. Our North American languages furnish a problem by no means easy of solution, but missionaries have contributed important data towards it. Missionaries of the Board have reduced four African languages to writing ; published grammars and dictionaries in them, the Bible in whole or in part, and also other books of instruction. They have also written articles of great philological value for periodicals at home. The first volume of the journal of ike Aviericati Oriental Society contains three such contributions. PHILOLOGY. igi The Bibliotheca Sacra for November, 1847, contains " a comparison between the Mandingo, Grebo, and Mpongvve dialects," by Rev. J. L. Wilson, The editor says of this article : "It communicates a variety of facts about the lan- guages of western Africa deeply interesting alike to the Christian and the philanthropist. The phenomena adduced are a striking conlirmation of the scientific value of Christian missions. Though an indirect and undesigned effect, it amply repays all the cost incurred. The missionary thus cooperates with the scholars and philanthropists of Christendom in extending the bound- aries of knowledge and civilization." Mr. Wilson arrives at the general conclusion that, in the northern half of Africa, the number of languages is very great, with little if any affinity for each other; while south of this one great family prevails, down to the Cape of Good Hope. The languages of the north and south show that these two families of blacks, whatever physical resemblances they possess, must have had different origins. Selecting the Grebo and Mandingo from the languages of the north, and the Mpongwe from those of the south, he shows radical differences between them and a marked correspondence between the character of the people and their languages ; e. g., the Grebo language, like the people, is harsh, abrupt, energetic. It is also indistinct in enunciation, meager in words, abounding, in nasals and gutturals, has but few grammatical inflections, and is very- difficult to acquire. The Mpongwe, reflecting the character of that people, is soft and flexible, distinct in enunciation, methodical in grammatical forms, almost free from nasals and gutturals, and very easy of acquisition. GrebO' is in great measure monosyllabic. Mandingo has only about one fifth of its words so short, and almost all nouns have two or more syllables. In Mpongwe are not over a dozen monosyllabic nouns, and only two or three monosyl- labic verbs. Grebo has few or no contractions, but the other two languages abound in them, making one word out of three or four. The Mandingo for "sister" is literally "my mother's female child." Still, the contractions are not so numerous as in some of our own Indian languages. The alphabet of Mr. Pickering is used in writing all these languages, but expresses the two- others more adequately than the Grebo. There are no inflections in any of them to distinguish gender or case in nouns. Gender is denoted by uniting with the noun the word for man or woman. Subject and object, having the same form, are only distinguished by position, as -in English. The possessive is formed in Grebo by inserting "it," and in the other languages "his," between the possessor and the thing possessed ; e. g., "The child // of John," and "John his child." These three languages have few adjectives. The deficiency is made up by the use of a noun and verb. Thus, for " He is hungry," they say " Hunger works him." They have no degrees of comparison ; yet they are rich in pronominal forms, not to express gender or case, but importance, insig- nificance, emphasis, and the like. Verbs have no distinguishing form of gender or number. In Grebo they have three modes and thirteen tenses. The passive voice is never used when it can be avoided. This seems to be true of all the languages of northern African negroes. Mpongwe verbs have 192 THE ELY VOLUME. four modes and four tenses ; they always end in " a," are very regular, and rich in causative, frequentative, and similar forms, denoting the varied relations of actions. Regular verbs have five simple and six compound conjugations, thus : Afikamba, I talk ; Kambaga, to talk constantly ; Kambiza, to cause to talk; Kainbma^ to talk with some one ; Kambagatnba, to talk at random; and by com- bining these we have: Kambazaga, to cause to talk constantly; Kambinaga, to talk constafitly with sojne one; Kambinaza, to cause to talk with some one ; Kam- bagambaga, to talk at random constantly ; Kambagambiza, to cause some one to talk at random ; Kambagambina, to talk with some one at random. There is no word common to any two of these languages except the letter " m," a contracted form of the pronoun " I " in Mpongwe and Mandingo, and " ne," meaning "is" in Grebo and Mpongwe; though there are some general resemblances in grammatical forms. About the time that Lepsius devised his standard alphabet, our missionaries at Natal, on account of the close affinity of some languages in that vicinity, desired a uniform mode of reducing them to writing, and took some steps to secure it, but, on learning of his more comprehensive plan, adopted that. Among those most active in this were Rev. J. C. Bryant and Rev. L. Grout. The former soon died ; but Mr. Grout, in 1859, wrote a grammar of the Zulu language, which, for fullness and accuracy, will bear comparison with any of the standard grammars of ancient or modern languages. The title-page is sug- gestive. It speaks of Mr. Grout as both a missionary and corresponding mem- ber of the American Oriental Society, and is published both in South Africa and London. All South African languages except the Lechuana and the Hottentot have many of the characteristics just mentioned in the Mpongwe. The Zulu alphabet has thirty-two letters, twenty-two of them the same in form with the English, though not all having the same power. Five are vowels, twenty-four consonants, and three clicks, which are sounds peculiar to South Africa. The accent is generally on the penultimate. All nouns consist of a root and a prefix or incipient. This last is also peculiar to South Africa. There are eight declensions, distinguished by different incipients and different ways of forming the plural. Gender rarely affects declension. There are three cases, distinguished by inflection. Among these is a locative case, denot- ing the place at or in which a thing is or is done, or whence or whither it pro- ceeds. There are few adjectives in Zulu, the deficiency being made up, as in West Africa, by the use of nouns and verbs. They are inflected by prefixes which conform to the incipients of the nouns with which they agree in class and number. For numerals, the Zulus use the decimal system, suggested by the ten fingers; and count by pointing out the things counted with their fingers, begin- ning with the little finger of the left hand, and ending a decade with the same finger of the right hand. The names of the numbers indicate this ; thus, five signifies "finish the hand;" six, "take the thumb ;" seven, "point with the fore- finger;" eight, "leave two numbers," and so on. Pronouns are an index to the nouns for which they stand, by a marked resemblance to the nominal incipient, the radical part of the pronoun being PHILOLOGY. 193 often a mere image of that. Personal pronouns have different forms for numbers, but not for gender or case. The verbs resemble in form the Mpongwe. They are mostly regular ; the root always begins with a consonant, has two or more syllables, and ends in *' a." Their chief characteristic is the number, variety, and yet perfect regu- larity of the conjugations, expressing relative, causative, reflective, reciprocal, and other significations, as in the Mpongwe. Mr. Grout thinks, with Mr. Wilson, that, with the exception of the Hotten- tots and Bushmen, South Africans form glottologically but one family, and have all come from the north, crowding and crowded to the south. The clicks, the conjugations, and the incipients are marked indications of their affinity. In a paper read before the American Oriental Society, but not published, Mr. Grout expresses the conviction that there is a genetic connection between the Copts and the Hottentots, a portion of the former people having been detached from the rest and driven gradually south to the position now occupied by the latter.^ Our knowledge of African languages remains nearly where the missionaries leave it. [Mr. Stanley gives a tabular comparison of one hundred and ten of the most common words in fifty-four African languages, in the appendix to his Through the Dark Contiuent, but for some of these he is indebted to mission- aries. Twenty-four of the fifty-four were collected by himself in the course of his various wanderings in that land. — T. L.] Prof. Whitney says : "- " The extraordinary activity of missions and geograph- ical discovery in Africa within a few years has directed study toward African dialects. A great mass of material has been collected, and examined suffi- ciently to give a general idea of the distribution of races in that continent, but a vast deal still remains to be done." To those accustomed to hear only one language, the Turkish empire, also, seems like one great Babel of barbarous tongues. The missionary there needs to be a living polyglot ; and some have spoken several languages with the flu- ency and propriety of natives. Dr. E. Riggs began his work by translating the Bible into modern Greek, continued it by a version in the Armenian, and now has added to that the Bible in the modern Bulgarian. The unifying influence of this last is already manifest in the language, which had not only widely departed from the old Slavic, but had divided into two dialects. This trans- lation, however, in which Dr. Riggs was aided by Dr. Long, of the Methodist mission north of the Balkans, strikes the balance so happily between the dia- lects, and meets with such a hearty welcome, that it is becoming the fixed standard of a common language. A thousand years have elapsed since the Bible was translated into the old Slavonic, also called the Church Slavic, because adopted by a large part of that race as their sacred language ; and it is a curious coincidence, pointed out by Prof. Whitney, " that our knowledge of Germanic and Slavonic speech begins, ' Froceednigs 0/ Americajt Oriental Society, Vol. VII, p. Ivii. - Langitage and the Study of Language, Lect. IX. 13 194 THE ELY VOLUME. like that of many a dialect to-day, through a version of the Bible made by the missionaries," Cyril and Methodius. In 1859 and i860, Rev. C. F. Morse published a grammar and vocabulary of the modern Bulgarian, in which he was aided by Bulgarian scholars. The so-called Cyrillic alphabet consists of thirty-four letters. The ancient one had forty-one. Bulgarian nouns have three genders ; names of inanimate objects are some- times masculine or feminine, and names of persons sometimes neuter. The dual of the old Slavic has become obsolete. Only the nominative, accusative,, and vocative cases are in common use. The dative is used occasionally, and there are traces of the old genitive. The instrumental and prepositive cases are yet more rare. The adjective, like the noun, is varied to express gender, number, and case, though it has also lost many of the ancient inflections. It is always compared by prefixing the words more and most. The dative is in^ constant use in personal pronouns. The only moods marked by distinct forms^ are the indicative and imperative. There are seven tenses, three of them hav- ing two forms. Most verbs have two or three conjugations, to express single, repeated, or conditional action. Their number and regularity constitute a. peculiarity resembling the African languages. As in English, the infinitive is marked by the preposition "to." The noun follows the adjective, and the subject precedes the verb. Dr. Riggs sent to the Oriental Society, in 1862, translations of Bulgarian songs, from a collection of more than six hundred, taken from the mouths of the common people. Among various meters, the most common one resembles Longfellow's "Hiawatha."^ Dr. Jonas King's greatest philological service, perhaps, arose from his influ- ence in promoting the introduction of the modern Greek Scriptures into the schools of Greece, and securing their extensive circulation among the people. To say nothing of the spiritual blessing thus conferred on the nation, or the service rendered to good government, he, in this way, did much to restore the modern language to the purity and beauty of the ancient, and fix it permanently for the future ; for the history of the English and German Bibles shows that nothing so much elevates and settles the language of a people as a good ver- sion of the Bible. Though the Armenian language is very old, its literature also begins with the introduction of Christianity in the fifth century. The alphabet was then invented by St. Mesrob, who was one of the translators of the Bible into that language. Ancient Armenian is not now understood by the people. Dr. Riggs is the author of the first grammar of the modern Armenian. The alphabet has thirty-eight letters. Its syntax resembles the Turkish, and differs both from ancient Armenian and European languages. In the order of a sentence the circumstances of place and time are mentioned first ; then the subject, preceded by its adjective, if it has one ; then the object of the action, followed by the manner or instrument ; and, last of all, the verb. Though the language belongs ^yournal 0/ American Oriental Society, Vol. VII, p. Iviii. PHILOLOGY. 195 to the [ndo-European family, Dr. Riggs finds in it roots common to it with the Hebrew as well as with Latin and Greek. As the Armenians are scattered over Persia and India, as well as Turkey, their spoken language differs widely ; but the translation of the Scriptures into modern Armenian, the preparation of the grammar of the language, and the religious literature created in it, have formed a common standard which is working powerfully to settle the language, as well as enrich it with spiritual truth. Scattered among the mountains of Kurdistan, and clustering along the ■western shores of the lake of Oroomiah, are the Nestorians, whose early mis- sions extended to China, and whose churches one thousand years ago, like a chain of outposts, connected that empire with western Asia. Their language is a modern dialect of the Syriac, cognate with the Hebrew, and more nearly related to the " Syro-Chaldaic " spoken by our Lord. [A Nestorian, if he wished to expostulate with his friend for leaving him, would say : '" Lima sa- bachthani" (Matt, xxvii : 46) ; and a Nestorian mother, if she wanted her daugh- ter to rise up, would still say, " Koomi " (Mark v : 41), though to her son she would say "Koom," "i" being the feminine termination of the second person singular of the verb. So, in the mountains, Chaepa (Cephas) is a stone, and Simon Peter is Shimon Chaepa, pronounced Tshaepa. T. L.] Modern Syriac differs from the ancient more than the Greek of the present day from that of Plato, and less than Italian and French from Latin. Dr. J. Perkins was the first to reduce it to writing, in 1836. As he taught his first class to read the Lord's Prayer, he understood why Dr. Chalmers pronounced the Indian boy in the woods, learning to read, the sublimest object in the world ; and when he laid the first printed proof of the Bible before his assistants, they exclaimed, " It is time to give glory to God." He translated the entire Bible, and printed it in parallel columns with the ancient Syriac.^ His contributions to American periodicals and his work on Persia are noticed elsewhere. The first attempt at a grammar of the modern Syriac was a brief but excel- lent sketch by Rev. A. L. Holladay. The grammar of Rev. D. T. Stoddard is written with constant reference to the Hebrew and ancient Syriac, and so far forth is a comparative grammar. He' found the roots of verbs identical with those of ancient Syriac, but the inflections and scheme of conjugations differ- ent. Like other modern languages, it has broken up the original form of the verb, and uses new auxiliaries both in the active and passive voice. The first mission of the American Board was to the Marathi people in India, and the first station was Bombay. Rev. E. Burgess wrote a grammar of the language, which is closely related to the Sanskrit, using the same alpha- bet, consisting of fifty letters, sixteen of them classed as vowels, and thirty-six consonants.- Roman letters are also employed in the method recommended by Sir W. Jones. This grammar has the merit of originality and simplicity. It does not follow all the intricacies of Sanskrit treatises on grammar. Instead of their eight cases, it makes three according to meaning, and only two accord- ing to form. ' Peshito. ^Two of them seem to do service in both capacities. ig6 THE ELY VOLUME. Our Tamil mission has not only translated the Scriptures into that language, and furnished to the people a Christian literature containing more than three hundred works, but has collected ample material for the study and classifica- tion of the language. It belongs to the Dravidian group, which includes, also, the Malabar, Canarese, and Telugu, and to the Turanian, or Scythian family. The people speaking these languages have been driven to the southern part of Hindostan by the superior race of the Hindoos, and have adopted their religion and literature. Rev. H. R. Hoisington, in his " Brief Notes on the Tamil Language,"^ argues for the Shemilic affinity of the language and people. Rev. E. Webb^ accepts the evidences of their Scythian affinity. Prof. Whitney inclines to the same view, but waits further evidence. ^ yournal of American Oriental .'Society, Vol. IIL pp. 387-398. =Do., Vol. VII, pp. xliv, xlv. X. ETHNOGRAPHY. Closely connected with the contributions of missionaries to philology are their contributions to the related science of ethnography. Indeed, the same facts furnish material for both these sciences. Ethnography is " that branch of knowledge which has for its object the description of the different races of men, with their different characteristics, circumstances, manners, and habits." Ethnology is " the science which treats of the division of man into races ; their origin and relations, and the differences which characterize them." Anthro- pology is "the science of man, considered in his entire nature, as composed of body and soul, and as subject to various modifications from sex, temperament^ race, civilization, and the like." " Ethnography embraces the descriptive de- tails, and ethnology the rational exposition." Both sustain the relation to anthropology that parts do to a whole. They run into each other, " their dif- ferences being mainly those between the particular and the general ; between the orderly collection of local facts and the principles according to which they are grouped and interpreted. Ethnographists deal with particular tribes, and the particular institutions and customs prevailing among them. Ethnolo- gists bring simultaneously under review superstitions, legends, customs, and institutions which, though scattered in distant regions of the earth, have some common basis or significance." The science of ethnology does not date back of the present generation. The word ethnography occurs perhaps for the first time in the Atlas of Balbi (1826).^ As the science is so new, it is not strange if the enemies of religion seek to pervert it to their purposes. It is always so. The "god of this world " tried thus to make the sciences of astronomy and geology subservient to his king- dom ; and if the effort was made to preempt the science of the heavens and the earth for the service of irreligion, it is nothing strange if the science of the races inhabiting the earth meet with the like treatment. The intelligent Chris- tian is not, on that account, an opposer of the science, but, knowing that the God of the Bible " made the world and all things therein, and hath made of one blood all nations of men to dwell on all the face of the earth," he does all in his power to help it on, knowing that in his own time the Lord will take possession of it for himself, and that unscientific theories, formed on the basis of ' Elie Rechis, in Encyclopcedia Britaimica, ninth edition. (197) 198 THE ELY VOLUME. a too hasty and one-sided induction of facts, will soon give place to a more comprehensive induction, that shall bring this science also into line with all others, in their harmony with the written word. The distinction just made between ethnography and ethnology shows us where to expect to find the toiling hands of our missionaries — not among those at the center, who have time to build up the structure of ethnology, but among the careful observers of the facts of ethnography, who furnish the materials for that structure. In this incipient stage of the science, too, their help may be more efficient in collecting the simple facts than in deducing from them gen- eral truths, which may require to be modified by other facts, collected from other quarters, before they become of universal application. It is also to be expected that these facts, however valuable when they come to be seen in position in the finished structure, may not show to equally good advantage when viewed separately and apart ; just as the large blocks of stone lying scattered round the site of the intended building do not appear so well as when each occupies the place assigned it by the architect. The contributions of missionaries to comparative philology furnish impor- tant help for the classifications of ethnology. The study of Sanskrit — and our missionaries stand high among those who are acquainted with that ancient language — has taught Germans and Scandinavians to trace back their gen- ealogy till its separate stems unite in India, and the variation of words in each language determines the era when those who use it left their ancient home. In the hand of modern scholars, philology has become a telescope, by which we penetrate the secrets of the distant past. It discovers bonds of parentage between those who, like the Greeks and Persians, reproached each other as barbarians, and detects a diversity of origin between others, who, like the Greeks and Egyptians, thought themselves closely allied. The old Aryan vocabulary reveals that race as ploughing with oxen, using carriages and boats, and keeping cattle. As it does not mention the ass and cat, it shows they had no dealings M'ith the Egyptians. As it speaks of bears and wolves, but not of lions and tigers, the people that used it must have lived north of Assyria, where lions hunted and were hunted, and did not extend to the southern shores of "the Caspian, where tigers still seek their prey. Our missionaries in the Pacific distinguish the natures of different groups not only by their peculiarities of body, but by the relations of their languages to other known languages of Asia and the speech of other islands ; and this knowledge will be more accurate and thorough as the power to compare these languages and detect their deepest contrasts and resemblances increases. It is already ascertained that the Hawaiians form one of the families of the brown Polynesian race — radically distinct from the Malay, and more akin to ;the Papuan — which inhabits, also, the Marquesas, Tonga, Society, Friendly, and Samoan groups, as well as New Zealand, Their similarity of language is so great that the Hawaiian and the New Zealander, though living five thousand miles apart, readily understand each other. They are of a swarthy complexion, inclining to olive, with hair black, glossy, and wavy. They have large eyes, a broad nose, and full lips. They are well-knit and active. Their stature is ETHNOGRAPHY. 199 good, but their chiefs are larger and taller than Europeans. They are expert in swimming, make good fishermen and sailors, and are of a yielding and imita- tive disposition, laughter-loving, and capable of a fair degree of elevation. The population of the islands is steadily decreasing. In 1822 it was esti- mated at one hundred and forty-two thousand ; ten years later, the official census gave one hundred and thirty thousand three hundred and thirteen. In 1836 it was one hundred and eight thousand five hundred and seventy-nine ; in 1850, eighty-four thousand one hundred and sixty-five; in i860, sixty-nine thousand eight hundred; and in 1872, fifty-six thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine. This decrease is due to many causes — chiefly to diseases intro- duced by contact with the whites^ and to intoxicating drinks; and, but for the missionary work, would have been much greater than it is — if, indeed, the race had not, ere this, like some others, been wholly extirpated. A thorough collation of the vocabularies and grammars prepared by our missionaries among the North American Indians may throw light on their place among the nations, and on many an ancient migration now unknown or only guessed at through the mists of time. So the scholarly works in philology written and published by our missionaries in India may yet throw a flood of light on the origin and migrations and other changes of the one hundred and fifty millions in that peninsula. Dr. D. O. Allen " speaks of the Sanskrit as a polished language, " of won- derful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either."^ H. H. Wilson, Oxford Professor of Sanskrit, says : " The music of its composition must ever be inadequately expressed by any other tongue." It has not been spoken for centuries, but at an early period was vernacular in the valley of the Ganges, and probably came from the northwest. Dr. Allen thinks it was not the parent of the vernacular languages of India, but that they were the languages of the aborigines, previous to the introduction of the Brahminic system; and that, as the Sanskrit was the repository of all the Brahminic learning, theological, scientific, and technical terms were transferred from that into the other languages. The Sanskrit, even at the early period when the Hindoo dramas were written, seems to have been confined to the higher classes ; for, while the parts spoken by the learned are in that language, persons of low caste are represented as performing their parts in the vernacular.^ He thinks the Tamil, Canarese, Telugu, Marathi, Oriya, Bengali, Hindui, Gujerati, Scindi, Punjaubi, and Hindostani ai-e dis- tinct from the Sanskrit and from each other, each representing its own aboriginal population;^ nearly all of them have different alphabets. The Tamil is more polished and contains more literature than any of the rest. While the learned in other parts of India wrote in Sanskrit, the learned among the Tamil people used their own tongue.^ Besides determining the relations of different African tribes to each other through the affinities of their languages, Dr. J. L. Wilson has shown how the 'Dr. Anderson's Hawaiian Islands, pp. 269-278. T. M. Coan, M. D., in American Encydopcrdia. 2 India, A ncient and Modern, pp. 43 1-433- • ^ Quoted from Sir William Jones. * India, Ancient and Modern,^. ^-H. »Do.,p. 435- "^Do.jp. 436. 200 THE ELY VOLUME. languages of Western Africa reveal the contact of tribes there with various European nations, by words borrowed from their languages. So the dialects of South Africa bear witness to the presence of the English and Dutch in that quarter, as those of the eastern coast indicate the vicinity of the Malagasy ; while in the north, intercourse with the Arabs and Copts is detected through the traces of that intercourse left in the languages of that region. Rev. L. Grout gives a very full account of the Zulus and their language. Taking language for his guide to the knowledge of their relations, he concludes with Dr. J, L. Wilson that all the aborigines of South Africa, save the Hotten- tots and Bushmen, had a common origin. This variety, extending north to equatorial Africa, includes the Zanguebar and Mozambique tribes ; the Zulu and Kosa ; the Bechuana, Bayeye, and kindred tribes in the interior ; and the Ovaherero, Ovampo, Kongo, and Mpongwe on the west. Their moral and physical characteristics, mental type, and religious notions corroborate this view. They are known as the Zingian or Bantu race. The Hottentots seem to have been separated from their kindred in northern Africa, and crowded before the advance of this other race to the southern extremity of the conti- nent. While other things point at this fact, the similarity between the Coptic and Hottentot languages gives the most reliable evidence of its truth. The Zingian race seems to be Hamitic ; belonging to those called in the Hebrew Scriptures by the name of Kush. Its language is alliterative, or prefixional, called by some agglutinate, like the Turkish and Tatar. ^ One peculiarity of the language is a curious smack in one out of a dozen words, called a click, which may be made with the tongue and front teeth, with the tongue and palate, or with the tongue and double teeth on either side. Another is, that the formative letters generally precede the root, thus : umfana, boy ; abafana, boys ; inkomo, cow ; izinkomo, cows ; ilizwi, word ; amazwi, w^ords. So in the adjective : umfana omkulu, large boy ; abafana abakulu, large boys ; inkomo enkulu, large cow ; ilizwi elikulu, large word. So in the posses- sive pronouns : abafana bami, my boys ; izinkomo zami, my cows ; ilizwi lami, my word ; showing an alliterative euphony. Mr. Grout illustrates this by other examples. No language has more regularity, flexibility, and precision. Nouns are of eight classes, according to their first syllable and the form of their plural. The plural of the first is made with aba, the second with ama, the third with izin, each class and number having its own form of the pronoun, personal, relative, or possessive, and so on. This may seem complicated, but it is so exact and regular that not even children are at a loss for the right form, or make mistakes. The language also avoids the softness arising from too many liquids, and the harshness caused by a superabundance of consonants. Its greatest defect is the paucity of terms for moral and religious ideas. Yet the language is capable of development and enlargement. One root is capable of many modifications ; thus, from bona, to see, comes bonisa, to cause to see, bonisisa, to cause to see clearly, bonela, to see for, bonelcla, to see and do the same, to imitate, banana, to see each other, botie/ana, to see for each other, bonisana, to cause each other to see, bonakala, to be visible, bonakalisa, to make '^ Zulu- Land, pp. 59-65. ethno<;raph\ . 201 visible, itmboni, a seer, iimboneli, a spectator, imibonelo, a spectacle, umbonisi, an overseer, umbofiiso, a show, isibono, a sight, a curiosity, tsiboniso, a vision, isi- bonakalo, an appearance, isibonakaliso, a revelation ; and so it might be traced through the passive voice also ; as, boiiwa, to be seen, boniswa, to cause to be seen, boiiisiswa, to cause to be clearly seen, and so on. Like the German, it forms compound words : impiima langa, east, from pu7na, to come forth, and ilafiga, thQ sun ; inchona langa, west, from chona, to sink, and ilanga; so inhlilifa, heir, from two words, meaning "to eat the estate of the dead one." Their names, also, are significant. Amanzimtoti is " sweet water; " one who wears spectacles is called " glasses,"' and the like.^ Mr. Grout gives some specimens of their literature, but we have not room for specimens, as they are not marked for either beauty or profundity. - The people are of good stature, erect and slender ; their limbs well propor- A ZUI.U KRAAL. tioned, and their frames well developed. Their color is from a copper to a jet black. Dark brown is, in their eyes, the height of beauty, or, as they say, "black with a little red." Their eyes are black, and their teeth well set. The features of the face var}' from those of the negro to those of the Caucasian. Their huts are built of wattles, in the form of an old-fashioned bee-hive, round a cattle-pen, with a corresponding palisade outside. The doors are so low that one must enter on all-fours, and window there is none. The huts are from twelve to fifteen feet in diameter ; there is one for each wife or other depend- ent. The calves, dogs, goats, and sheep occupy them along with their human inmates, though generally railed off from them. The fire-place is a shallow excavation in the midst of the calabashes, water-pots, millstones, and other paraphernalia of the household. The food is maize, first boiled, and then mashed between two stones. This is eaten with milk, generally sour. Their ' /.ulu-I^aud^ p]). T.S7— K^j;. ' Do., pp. 193-200. THE ELY VOLUME. beer is drank from earthen pots or closely-woven baskets. In drinking from a brook, they wade in and toss the water with the hand into the mouth, like Gideon's three hundred. Their grain is threshed with flails, winnowed by the wind, and deposited in summer in bins of wicker-work, but in winter in bottle- shaped pits dug in, or rather under, the cattle-fold, and covered, first with stones and then with earth and the contents of the yard, to make it rain-proof. Their wardrobe is too scanty for description, being, for a man, an apron half a foot v/ide and twice as long in front, and another a little larger behind. The women wear a dressed cowhide, reaching from the loins down to- wards the feet.^ Men wear a ring of hair on the head, sewed full of gum and charcoal, and polished like our boots. The women gather theirs into a knot, glued together with grease and red ocher. Beads they wear in great profusion wher- ever they can make them stick, even astride the nose and over the eye- brows. Bracelets of shells, armlets of brass, and glittering rings are worn by all, with many bones and bits of wood, teeth and claws of beasts or birds as amulets, and, to crown all, feathers stuck in the hair. The skin is also sometimes adorned by scars ; and if, in a fit of anger, the husband cuts these off from his wife, she is in disgrace till she can raise up other ridges in their place. They use great quan- tities of snuff, which they carry in gourds, reeds, or buffalo horns, and convey to the nose with a bone spoon till the tears flow. The pipe is also a great favorite, and is used to disgusting excess. The chief business of the men is war. They also build the kraal and make the fences ; leaving the women to thatch, make the floors, and raise the crops. Mr. Grout gives graphic descriptions of their watching the crops to keep them from being carried off by birds and beasts ; also the process of Zulu milking.- There is also a detailed account of 7ai1u govern- ment and law ; their political institutions ; their courts of justice ; their elo- quence ; and also their superstitions, which resemble those already described iThe engraving opposite shows these peculiarities of the dress of both sexes, as well as the practical work- ing of the superstition which looks on all sickness as caused by the witchcraft of some one whom it is the duty of the prophetess to point out for punishment. It illustrates what was said on page 89, concerning west- ern Africa.— Missionary Herald, 1R72, P- ■^'^^• '^ /.jtln-Land, pp. 04-1 M- A ZULU WARRIOK, N C f c c R ETHNOCJRAPHV. 203 in western Africa. Tlie worship of the Amahlozi, or shades of their ancestors, is dwelt on, and its debasing effects ; also their customs on the occasion of deaths and burials.' His chapter on women and marriage is a very sad one. The men were not allowed to marry till the chief gave them permission to leave the army. The women were sold for cattle without the least reference to their own choice, and generally to those able to pay the highest price, who were apt to be old men with a number of wives already. Mr. Grout tells of a poor girl who had attended the mission schools and got an idea of a better life, who fled to the bush among the wild beasts, from her relatives, who sought to force her into such a union. She came at midnight to his house, and begged with WOMEN IN AFRICA. tears that he would save her, declaring that she would prefer death to the fate before her ; but her pursuers followed and insisted on their rights, in spite of the missionary's arguments and the girl's tears. Twice did she get away and come to him for help, but British law forbade him to do anything, similar cases having previously been decided against him in the courts ; and he was com- pelled, amid his own tears, to give her up, and never heard from her again. - The people in that warm climate lack the energy and forethought produced by our northern winters ; but they are honest, though untruthful. Stealing is rarely known, and doors are not fastened, as in more civilized countries. They are light-hearted and cheerful ; polite, and possessed of a fine sense of justice, but passionate, and apt to lose control of themselves in their passion. - Do. , pp. 132-162. 2 Do., pp. 167-170. XI. GENERAL LITERATURE. The literary work of the missionaries of the American Board in foreign languages is so voluminous that anything like a complete catalogue of their writings is out of the question. This chapter can only aim at a general view of the nature and amount of the work accomplished. They have been much more intent on working than on keeping a record of their work. It would be interesting, also, to know the writer or translator of each publication, but this, also, is no longer possible, for the authors of some have been forgotten ; oth- ers have been the product of several co-laborers ; and still others have been so altered by repeated revision that one does not know to whom to assign them. Even translations have sometimes been so modified to meet the wants and modes of thought of the people for whom they were made, as hardly to retain the form of the original. So there has been no attempt to specify authorship, save in a few cases that could not well be avoided. A list, such as it is, which much research and a good deal of correspondence has succeeded in getting together, may be seen in Appendix II. A writer in the Westminster Review says : " The literature of a country is not composed entirely, or even principally, of the products of high genius. It does not depend on genius for its existence, or even for its utility. Great poets and great thinkers appear at long intervals, and make their eras memo- rable for generations. They are too few to constitute at any period a current literature." Doubtless some of the writings of missionaries are of ephemeral interest ; but much from their pens has served its generation well, and some of their productions will survive as long as the languages in which they were written. That there was need of their laying the foundations of a national literature among peoples that had not even an alphabet, is plain ; but the literature of most of the heathen nations that had already one of their own was so full of falsehood in science, superstition in religion, and gross immorality and filthi- ness, that it only created a necessitv for a new literature, free from these fatal defects. In India the lullabies of the nursery, the stories of childhood, the dramas of the stage, the rites of the priest, and discourses of philosophers were full of silliness and impurity. The popular mind was preoccupied by absurdity and (204) GENERAL LITERATURE. 205 obscenity; and though the government had published school-books and some works of general literature, no opposition to the corruption of idolatry had been allowed. The character of the native literature, even of the sacred books, demanded the creation of a Christian literature if the people were to be lifted out of their pollution ; and the Rev. T. J. Scott, a Methodist missionary, says that a small library of Christian books can already be collected in India: ''The Bedford tinker repeats his immortal allegory in at least seven languages there, and the Holy War is fought over again on the plains of India. Sandford and Merton rehearse their useful story to Indian youth, to whom we can now give Line upon Line in several languages. The children also have a Peep of Day, and even The House We Live In has been rebuilt for them, and the good Dairy- man's Daughter leads her beneficent life over again in Hindostan." ^ Another Wesleyan, Rev. E. E. Jenkins, in an address delivered in London, 1870, asks, Who translated the Bible into fifteen Indian languages ? The missionaries. Who wrote the best grammars and lexicons of these languages ? Beschi, Yates, and Winslow, missionaries. Who were the pioneers in those researches which, under Wilson and Max Miiller, bring out the treasures of the Pali and Sanskrit ? Yates, Gogerly, and Spence Hard}', missionaries. Who have given to literature the most minute and reliable accounts of the manners and customs, the religion and the castes of the Hindoos ? The missionaries. Dr. John Murdock, writing to Lord Napier in 1872, said: "It would be better for India if its whole indigenous literature were to share the reputed fate of the Alexandrian Library.'' A writer in the Indian Evangelical Review said that "the issue of books and pamphlets was increasing in India enormously, very few of the best vernacular books being free from obscenity, while the great mass of novels and poetry published in Bengal are distressingly iilthy." Even the Vedas cannot be translated into English, on account of their impurity. The same was true of the literature of ancient Assyria. In translating the Legend of the Deluge, George Smith says of some parts of it : "These I do not give, as their details are not suited for general reading." - They described the amours of Ishtar.^ The Japanese love books, especially history, and have an extensive polite literature, but that also greatly needs purification ; and while the mythology of China is free from the defilement that marks the Hindoo Pantheon, the same cannot be said of all its literature. The apostles had a like corrupt literature resisting their efforts to elevate the community in their day, but they had no press to help them, for, in the great plan of God, the time for that had not yet come ; though it seems that if Paul could have sent his epistles to the press, and so circulated them among all the churches, the history of the world might have been different from what it is; but then we must remember that the influence of the press may be for evil as well as for good, and which of the two shall prevail depends on the character of those that use it. It might have been that, if there had been a press in their day, it had been subsidized more by the enemies than by the friends of God and ^Allahabad Conference, p. 433. -Assyrian Discoveries, p. 173. Chaldean Genesis, p. 220. *The Assyrian Venus. 2o6 THE ELY VOLUME. man. It is one of the beneficent arrangements of Providence in our day, that the missionary not only has true science and a divine religion to sow broadcast over the nations, but the church at home supplies him with this mighty engine, aware of its capacities, and determined that they shall be employed for good. The late Dr. Osgood calls the press the people's university, whose graduates outnumber those of all others ; the modern cathedral, whose daily morning and evening service is never intermitted, and whose pulpit finds no reluctant hearer. Even the home periodical literature of foreign missions is not to be over- looked. In i860 Dr. Anderson estimated the entire number of copies at three million ninety-seven thousand one hundred and twenty-seven, and some of the annual reports of the Board embody material most valuable for the future his- torian of modern progress. In consulting them for material in connection with this volume, the writer has been impressed more strongly than ever with their exceeding value. Destroy them, and it would be obliterating the mile-stones of progress. It would be like blotting out the records of the debates of the con- vention that formed the constitution of the United States, or of those sessions of Congress that adopted its successive amendments. During the first fifty years of the operations of the Board, its issues in forty- six foreign languages v^^ere more than one billion five hundred million pages. At that time as many as twenty different races liad received from it a written language, but the Micronesians were counted at that time as only one, and since then that one has become five. The Ponapean language has been reduced to writing by Rev. L. H. Gulick, M.D., and Rev. A. A. Sturges; the Kusaian by Rev. B. G. Snow ; that of the Marshall Islands by Rev. G. Pier- son, M.D., and Rev. E. T. Doane ; that of the Gilbert Islands by Rev. H. Bingham, Jr.; while the Mortlock islanders were indebted for the same service to Obadinia, the daughter of a chief of Ponape, and a spiritual child of our mission there. Besides these, languages in western Africa and elsewhere need to be added to the list. TURKEY. In 1822 Rev. D. Temple took out a press to Malta. Fifteen thousand dol- lars had been subscribed in Boston for its working capital ; and, after printing twenty-one million pages, chiefly in Greek, it was removed to Smyrna in 1833. Mr. Hallock went with it, and a font of Armenian type ; also one of Arabic, ordered by Dr. King from Paris and London, at the expense of friends in France and England. Among others, the celebrated Mrs. Hannah More sub- scribed ;^5. After printing about twenty million pages at Smyrna, mostly in Armenian, the press was removed to Constantinople in 1853. As far back as 1830, more than thirty-five million pages were printed in eleven languages, and these not only created readers by the facilities they fur- nished for learning to read, but often a small tract produced great results. In 1S32 Dr. Goodell dropped a copy of The Dairyman'' s Daughter, which he had translated into Armeno-Turkish, at the door of a church in Nicomedia. Years after, he learned that a boy gave it to a priest, who not only read it himself, but GENERAL LITERATURE. 207 read it to another priest; and not they alone were brought to the knowledge of Christ, but others also. Nor did Dr. Goodell know anything of the good work thus originated, till the priest came to him in Constantinople, six years after- wards, for help in evangelizing that vicinity. Dr. H. G. O. Dwight found there a company of sixteen, who seemed all of them to have been " led by the Spirit of God" (Romans viii : 14). Two years later he found that a merchant from Adabazaar had carried several books there also, and that was the beginning of a good work in that city. A priest was converted, and though persecutions arose, yet more than fifty attended the meetings before a missionary had ever seen the place. So at Aintab, Arabkir, Tocat, Sivas, Killis, Zeitun, and many more places, the good work began before missionaries had been on the ground. Dr. E. E. Bliss said that the issues of the mission press went all over the land in advance of other books, and furnished the Armenians two thirds of their reading. In one village a noted thief bought a Bible and learned to read it. The result was his own conversion and the gathering the nucleus of a church in a very convenient chapel ; another Bible which he sold gath- ered as many as fifty people in a village forty miles distant to hear it read. A colporteur found seventy men in a stable at Perchenj listening to the read- ing of the Gospel. The missionaries at Harpoot went there, and a revival followed, numbering twenty-one converts, growing in two years into a church of forty members, with native pastor, chapel, and parsonage. They sent out brethren, two by two, to neighboring villages, and in one, fifty hopeful conver- sions took place, resulting in a church whose pastor is one of the men who first went there with the Bible. A young man begged an Armenian Testa- ment, got another man to read it, and gathered his friends every Sunday in a cave on the mountain to hear it, and so began the Protestant community of Albistan, which, in five years, numbered one hundred and fifty souls. Such incidents illustrate the working of the leaven; and when we remember that in 1872 two hundred and eleven different works had been published in Turkey, numbering one million two hundred and nineteen thousand five hundred copies, and two hundred and eighty-nine million two hundred and sixty-one thousand one hundred and eighty pages, of which seven hundred and eleven thousand seven hundred were bound volumes, and one hundred sixty- seven thousand four hundred of them school-books, from primers and arith- metics up to works on astronomy and mental and moral science, and one hundred and sixty-six thousand five hundred Bibles, entire or in portions, we get some impression of the magnitude of the work that is being done and the change that is going on. Well might Dr. Hamlin say : ^ " Those who measure the work by the num- ber of churches and schools wholly misapprehend it. The change wrought in the religious convictions of millions testifies more fully to its power than all tabulated statistics." In his Ajnong the Turks he says: "The Moslem treats Christians with a respect he never did before. They will converse on religious subjects with a freedom impossible thirty years ago. In a steamer on the Bosphorus I once overheard some Turks attributing the change to American ' Missio7iary Herald, \^T2., p. 48. 2o8 THK LLY VOLUME. missLonaries, wholly unaware that one of them was within liearing. By their books, schools, periodicals, and versions of the Bible, they have exerted a wide influence outside of their direct labors."^ Dr. E. E. Bliss recognized the good hand of God in the preservation of the press. Though the enemy punished Protestants with fines, imprisonment, and the bastinado, and burned their books, they never tried to stop the press which produced the books. Dr. Schauffler called it " the one battery which the enemy could never silence." An English writer said, in 1873: "The missionaries translated the Script- ures j they wrote books and edited newspapers, reviews, and magazines ; the^ engaged in works of practical benevolence ; they established schools ; they poured out a flood of light from their printing presses ; they expounded the Word of God. At Bebek they trained numbers of young men in sound scholar- ship for the work of the ministry. In the various languages of Turkey they circulated four hundred thousand Bibles, besides five hundred thousand other useful books, many of them translations of our favorite classics, besides a host of school-books and works on science." SVE/A. In 1826 Syria was much excited over Dr. Jonas King's Farewell Letter Xo his friends, giving his reasons why he could not be a Papist. It was first circu- lated in manuscript, and then printed in Arabic. That translation was by Asaad El Shidiak. Another into Armenian, by Bishop Dionysius, was sent in manuscript to Constantinople. There, also, the effect was wonderful. A meeting of all the Armenian clergy in the city was called to hear it read at the Patriarchate. Its proof texts were verified, and, by commoa consent, it was agreed that the church needed reform. It was also translated into Greek, and did good service there. Nor was its usefulness confined to its own pages, for it was the stone dropped into the stagnant lake, that caused ever widening circles in the form of The Thirteen Letters of Mr. Bird, Dr. Mishakah's works, and others. Dr. King issued many works afterwards, some much larger and more elabo- rate, but none that produced an effect like this. Perhaps no man ever stirred a nation more intensely than Dr. King did Greece by his writings. It is owing to him that the Word of God is not bound in that kingdom. His power lay in his Luther-like courage, his pure doctrine, consistent life, and steadfastness under hierarchical oppression. Up to 1835 our Arabic printing was done in Malta. One million forty-four thousand pages were printed in Beirut in 1839. Mr. G. C. Hurter began his labors as printer with the new type in April, 1841. Ten years later, he had only one hand press and two fonts of Arabic, less than that of English, a foundry and bindery. In 1853 a power cylinder press was added, with a third font of Arabic, and a fourth in 1S58. The pocket Testament of i860 was one of the most beautiful books in the language. As soon as it appeared, four *P- 354- GENERAL LITERATURE. 209 thousand two hundred and ninety-three copies were sold for eighteen thousand three hundred and ninety-five piasters, in spite of the war and its desolations. In 1862 six million eight hundred and sixty-nine thousand pages were printed, and the whole number of pages up to that date was fifty million ;^ in 1877, twelve miU'ion six hundred and thirty thousand seven hundred pages. At this date the printing office contained three steam power presses, two hand presses, a lithographic press, and electrotype apparatus. Here, too, incidents illustrate the working of the truth. The learned Michael Mishakah, of Damascus, was led to Christ by reading the Bible and other issues of the mission press, and in his turn sent books to friends in other cities, as to Hums, where is now a Protestant church. In a war on Lebanon, a Bible from a plundered village opened the eyes of the plunderer to his sins, and brought him and several of his relatives to Christ. The church at Marsovan, in Turkey, grew out of a tract bought at Jerusalem eighteen years previously, by a pilgrim from that place. A man called one day on Rev. J. L. Lyons, in Tripoli, and gave a written statement of faith in Christ, learned wholly from the Gospel under the teaching of the Spirit alone. So the flood of an Arabic Christian literature is making the desert to bud and blossom as the rose. PERSIA . Mr. E. Breath introduced the press into Persia in 1841, and by the end of the year had printed half a million pages in modern Syriac. In i860 there had been printed fifteen million two hundred and sixty-three thousand and twenty pages. In 1869 the whole number of pages amounted to nineteen mill- ion five hundred and twenty-nine thousand one hundred and fifty. The first press established by the Board was at Bombay, in December, 18 16. The following March fifteen hundred copies of a Marathi tract of eight pages were printed, and in May they began to publish the Gospel of Matthew. Their type was then so uneven that it had to be trimmed with a penknife to get a legible impression. As a token of the progress made since that day, a speci- men of the type now in use is inserted opposite page 242, for the inspection of the reader. The New Testament was finished in 1828. In 1834 a hymn- book appeared, and in 1840 about thirty-one million pages of educational and Christian literature had been printed. At this time the marked success of the mission press roused its opponents to start several periodicals, some in support of idolatry and others advocating infidelity ; but the grand answer to them all was the Marathi Bible in 1847. Opposition, however, was encountered from other quarters, whence it was least expected. It seems almost incredible to- day, that, after the British government in Ceylon had granted permission for the establishment of a mission press — for when the missionaries asked to be allowed to labor in Jaffna, with far-seeing wisdom, they asked for that also, and their request was granted — when Mr. J. Garrett arrived, in August, 1820, to take charge of it, the lieutenant-governor, Sir Edward Barnes, refused to allow > Oriental Churches, Vol. II, p. 366. 14 2IO THE ELY VOLUME. him to remain on the island. To a memorial praying for a reconsideration of the order for the printer to leave in three months, he replied haughtily that the Brit- ish government was abundantly able to Christianize its own heathen, and that Americans had better be employed in converting their heathen at home, but at any rate Mr. Garrett must leave at the time specified. The missionaries then asked that he might remain in a private capacity till after the monsoons, when sailing would be more safe ; and begged leave to suggest that, to supply India with the same religious privileges enjoyed in England, would require thirty thousand missionaries, or five times the number of ordained ministers in Eng- land. Therefore, they feared many generations would perish before they could hear the Gospel, and they hoped that, however inferior to others, they might be allowed to do some humble part in the work ; but Mr. Garrett had to leave Ceylon, in obedience to the mandate of an English governor, who "could not enter into the other parts of the memorial." ^ The mission at Madras was mainly a literary depot. In 1838 eight iron printing presses, a lithographic press, and fifteen fonts of type, in English, Tamil, and Telugu, a foundry and bindery, with hydraulic press, were pur- chased from the Church Missionary Society.^ A font of Hindostani was added afterwards, and in 1840 the profits of the press more than supported the mission. That year eleven million six hundred and sixty thousand seven hundred pages were printed.'^ The Tamil Bible was printed in 1844, and the entire issues up to i860 were three hundred and fifty-seven million nine hundred and sixty-one thousand six hundred and twenty-one pages — almost as many million pages as days in the year. Mr. E. S. Minor, who had charge of the press at Jaffna in 1839, ascribed the changes going on in India largely to the influence of the printed page. The creation of a Christian literature has always been prominent in missionary work in India. Hindooism is losing its hold on the people. They feel that the Gospel is slowly but surely supplanting the Vedas, and the attitude of the gov- ernment now is in marked contrast to the regime of the East India Company. The London Quarterly Revietv^ says: "Twenty-five missionary presses in India are remarkably active, and in the last ten years have issued three thousand four hundred and ten separate works in thirty-one languages." These presses from 1842 to 1862 issued one million six hundred and thirty-four thousand nine hundred and forty copies of parts of Scripture, and eight million six liundred and four thousand and thirty-three volumes of Christian literature, including school-books. A letter from Rev. A. Hazen, dated October 16, 1880, states that a prize offered for the best essay on an important practical subject was adjudged to a native of low caste, who, but for our schools, had never learned to read ; that, too, though a Brahman was one of the competitors. Three of the committee of award were gentlemen not connected with the mission, and nothing was known of the writers till after the awarding of the prize. In this way missions lift up men of low degree, and open the fountains of a native religious literature. ''■Missionary Herald, 1821, pp. 179-183; Tracy's History of the American Board 0/ Commissioners /or Foreign Missiotis, pp. 89-gi. 2 Tracy's History of American Board of Commissioners far Foreign Missions, p. 361. 3 Do., p. 4ri. •'April, 1S75. OTjjc 3lortiV Scraper, in €amiL I-/ ITiiJ SOT L_ eO fE/ fi w) eS (TR Loessr L^eO ^ ^ p Q,g'iuiulliLj(9&i^GLjne^il/ €(S(^p ^"(T^ih, jsirih'BeiT (s\'iiiseTr Morning Star. - Rise of knowledge. 2l8 THE ELY VOLUME. As far back as 1844, The Bombay Witness, a religious paper in English, was published by the missionaries ; also The Bombay Temperance Advocate, a total abstinence paper. Rev. George Bowen, who went to India in 1848 under the American Board, established the Bombay Guardian, also a religious paper. In Ceylon the Morning Star, a semi-monthly, partly in English, but mostly in Tamil, was commenced some years previous to 1853. A monthly in Tamil, entitled The Children's Friend, also issued from the press in 1868. At Madras, in 1844, a semi-monthly in Tamil, called The Aurora, made its appearance. In i86g Rev. George T. Washburn commenced a monthly called The True News Bearer, which is the only distinctively Tamil religious paper on the continent. He is also editor of the Satthiawarttama?ii, in Tamil and English. The Rev. C. W. Park established The Indian EvaJtgelical Review, a quarterly journal of missionary thought and effort, in 1873, and closed his connection with it at the close of the sixth volume, in 1879. Each volume is an octavo of about five hundred and fifty pages, A few of the topics treated of are : I. Relations of the Native Aristocracy to the British Government ; Early Glimmerings of Divine Truth in India ; Old Canarese Literature ; Buddhism ; Shiah Posh Kafirs ; Education in Bengal; Subjects for Investigation in India; The Garos; Use of Sacrificial Terms in the Languages of India ; The Afghans ; Buddhist Prayers ; The Ram Sneh Religion ; Notes on Indian Prosody and Poetry ; Siam and its Rulers ; Education in India as Related to Christianity. II. Indian Disestablishment and Disendowment ; Rights of Native Chris- tians; Logic of the Vedanta ; Female Education in Benares; Propagative Re- ligions ; Late Lieutenant-Governors ; How to Teach Greek to Natives ; Rela- tions of Europeans and Natives ; Wurm's Indischen Religion ; Syrian Christians of Malabar; Christian College for Southern India; Native Christians in Ben- gal, by one of them ; The Bhagawad Gita ; Cochin China ; The Karens as a Race ; Bengali Christians, by one of them ; Name of Our Lord in Urdu and Hindi. III. Apostolic and Indian Missions Compared ; Canarese Lullabies ; Hin- doo and Jewish Sacrificial Rituals ; Social and Religious Movements among the Mairs ; Rise, Progress, and Prospects of the Brahma Samaj ; History of Protest- ant Missions in India ; Theological Schools in India ; Caste in the Native Church; John Wilson, D.D. ; Duty of Friendly Relationship between Catholic and Protestant Missionaries ; English-speaking Natives of Upper India, by one of them. IV. Work of a Translator of the Bible in India ; Rome's Relation to the Bible; Gwalior; The Kingdom of Kashgar; Indian Divorce Act and Native Christians ; Child Marriage in India ; The Gospel and Islam ; Translation of the Tract "Ram Pariksha ; " Hindoo and Mosaic Cosmogonies, by a native; The Kudumi ; Our Indian Bible; Ajudhia as it Was and Is ; Caste in its Rela- tion to the Church; Notes on South Indian Comparative Philology; Asceti- cism— its Relation to Mission Work. V. Christians of Salsette and Bassein ; Sahet Mahet, the Metropolis of B.uddhism ; Woman's Work for Woman ; Polyandry in the Himalaya ; French Annual Review of Hindoo Literature, Dr. Duff. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 219 VI. Roman Catholics in South India; Self-support among the Bassein Karen Converts; Oudh ; Dr. Duff; F\'imine and the Gospel; The Parsi Holy- Books ; Missionary Methods ; The Sinless Prophet of Islam ; Jagjiwan Das, the Hindoo Reformer; Recent History of Keshab Chandra Sen's Brahmism • The Bungalore Conference. There are a number of other articles more distinctively religious or theoloo'- ical, but these give an idea of the literary range of the work, and so are more appropriate for quotation here. The Revieiv is now published at Calcutta, under the editorial care of Rev. R. S. Macdonald. ' The need of a Christian periodical literature in India will appear sufficiently from the fact mentioned as early as 1845,^ that there were then in Bombay three weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine opposing Christianity ; also a paper at Poona, and a monthly magazine in the Gujerati language, with three papers in the same tongue, besides two in Persian and one in Hindos- tani, all uniting to retail the works of Paine, Voltaire, and more recent assailants of the Bible. In Japan, though the work there is so recent in its origin, the Shichi Ichi Zappo'^ was established in 1876, and, though thoroughly Christian, has a large and increasing circulation. The editor is Rev. O. H. Gulick. It is met with on the railroad car, on the inland and ocean steamers, and on the Osaka river boats. Men live in the heart of the empire who have never seen a missionary, but have been led to Christ by its pages. It informs Christians in Japan of the prog]:ess of the Gospel in their own country and throughout the world. It is the only Christian newspaper in Japan, where Buddhists, alarmed for their system, sent over one of their leaders a few years ago, to gather in his drag-net every work against Christianity that could be found, and where several periodi- cals are dealing out to the people the precious things that he was able to col- lect as ammunition for their warfare against the truth ; among others a slanderous and scurrilous so-called Life of Jesus Christ. An edition of eleven hundred and fifty copies is issued weekly, giving an account of the religious, political, "and scientific progress of the world. Besides its distinctively religious articles, The Weekly Messenger contains articles from the pen of Dr. Berry on topics of social science, such as. The Principles of Hygiene; Wise Sanitary Arrangements and Proper Drainage; also on such medical themes as vaccination for small-pox, the treatment of cholera, fever, and the like. Among the Zulus a periodical was issued in 1861, called The Mor?iing Star, with quite a respectable native subscription list. It has since given place to The Torch-Light^ which goes throughout Zulu-Land, giving light to them that sat in darkness. Among our own Indians, the Dakota Lapi Oaye'^ commenced its rounds among that tribe in 187 1, under the editorial charge of Rev. J. P. Williamson. After his death Dr. S. R. Riggs and Rev. A. L. Riggs took charge of it. It was received with such enthusiasm that in a year the size was doubled, and twelve hundred copies printed instead of five hundred ; and this, with its illus- * Missionary Herald, p. 30. - Weekly Messenger. ' Word Carrier. 220 THE ELY VOLUME. trations, made it more popular than ever. The Indians not only pay for it — they write for it ; and its influence is ever more salutary, and the circle which it reaches continually increases. These missionary periodicals, published in so many languages and in so many unevangelized portions of the globe, furnish an instrumentality full of promise both for bringing those now in darkness to the knowledge of Christ and for building up new converts in the knowledge of his truth, and should constantly enlist our prayers that their editors may be so guided by the Holy Spirit that He may use the truth they set forth for the upbuilding of the king- dom of our Lord Jesus Christ. XIII. MUSIC. Missionaries have opportunities to study the music of a people to an extent to which no traveler could possibly attain, and several of them have given us the results of their investigations in this department. Rev. A. L. Riggs ^ gives us an account of Dakota songs and music. He gives specimens of war songs, love songs, songs of sacred mysteries, and social songs. They are very simple, and abound in repetitions, but perhaps for that reason are the more true to nature. Of these we quote only one, expressive of a widow's grief : Lo, greatly I am distressed, Lo, greatly I am distressed, My child's father, My child's father, My child's father, My child's father, Lo, greatly I am distressed. Sorely am I distressed, Sorely am I distressed, Sorely am I distressed. The earth alone continues long, I speak as one not expecting to live, Sorely am I distressed, » The earth alone continues long — words expressing unutterable heart-weariness and despair. Their music is of the simplest kind. It has only melody with rude accom- paniments, more for marking time than for harmonic effect. In their dances the men sing the song, and the women a shrill falsetto chorus of a single note, like " ai, ai, ai," keeping time with the drums. Like other uncivilized peoples, they do not appreciate harmony. The minor key is their favorite, especially in their love songs, though the major occurs in their war songs. The following is a specimen of their amatory melodies : * Gospel A mo7tg tlie Dakoias, pp. 450-484. (221) 222 THE ELY VOLUME. im^^^^^^mm^^mmmmmi y 1/ He uan zhln we He nan zliin we uk ta ce uk ta ke ya ca Warn . 45-46. MUSIC. 227 procured to be written by native converts, in their own meters, and adapted to their own melodies, with most satisfactory results. He translated a number of them to the audience, who listened with much interest. He read specimens, also, in the original, of a highly artificial construction, with elaborate rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. He described, also, the musical modes of the Hindoos, known throughout India under the same Sanskrit titles, indicating their relation to our own scale, and showing their adaptation to the expression of different emotions.^ Rev. G. T. Washburn took up the work thus begun by Mr. Webb, and car- ried it on to a larger success. In 1863 he carried through the press two volumes of Tamil lyrics. These were not translations of English hymns in English meters, but devotional songs by native converts, in Tamil meters. India excelled Greece in ancient times in her cultivation of music ; and though no new tunes have been written for centuries, those of the best periods still exist, and for these the hymns were composed. Some of them are equal to our best English hymns. - Rev. W. W. Howland prepared a volume of tunes for the Tamil hymn-book of Dr. Spaulding. 1 Journal of American Oriental Society, Vol. V, p. 271 ; Vol. VII, p. v. Missionary Herald, 1854, p. 150; 1858, pp. 59-60. ^Missionary Herald, 1S70, p. 130. XIV. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. English literature began with our English Bible. There was none before the time of Wickliffe, and Chaucer gives evidence of having read Wickliffe's version of the Scriptures. Ever since then the Bible has quickened the intel- lectual life of all who use the English language. Take out of the literature of England and America all that has flowed into it from the Word of God, and a few broken fragments only would remain of the magnificent structure we proudly call our English literature. Now, missionaries, in translating the Scriptures into other tongues, seek to confer on others the same inestimable blessings which the Bible has conferred on us. Dr. W. Goodell said : " I never saw anything do such execution as the Bible does. It is becoming the great book in the East." Not less than one hundred and eighty ^ translations of the Bible, in whole or in part, have been made by modern missionaries. Since 1804^ new translations have been made in two hundred and twenty-six languages.^ One hundred and eighty-seven of these were published in connection with the British and Foreign Bible Society, and forty-one of them by the American Bible Society. The first object of a Protestant mission is to give the Word of God to a people in their own tongue, wherein they were born, and in which the family converses at home. The first Bible printed in America was John Eliot's Massachusetts or Mo- ' This is the statement of Dr. Mullens. 2 Rev. C. E. B. Reed, Mildmay Conference, 187S, pp. 230-231. Dr. Anderson, who wrote in i860, differs from him in his estimates. Mr. Reed says the entire Bible has been rendered in about fifty-five languages (Dr. Anderson thirty-nine), the New Testament in eighty-four (Dr. Anderson thirty-tive), and parts only in eighty-seven (Dr. Anderson forty-eight) (^^r^/|^« i?//.M/o«.v, p. 112). Dr. Anderson said, in i?,6c) {Foreign Missions, -p. 212), that scarcely less that one hundred millions of copies of Scriptures in whole or in part have been issued since 1804, and not less than one tenth of these have gone outside of Christendom, and these last were more than double the whole number printed in Christiap lands up to that date (1804), during three centuries and a half, and more than were in existence from Moses to the Reformation. The difference between Dr. Anderson and Mr. Reed is ex- plained by the later and more complete investigations of the latter. See his tables of new versions during the present century {Mildmay Conference, 414-428). 3 0f these two hundred and twenty-six translations, fifty-five are of the whole Bible, eighty-four of the New Testament, and particular parts eighty-seven. In the seventy-fifth Amiual Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Berlin Branch, 1S79, p. 67, it is stated that Bibles or parts of the Bible have been printed in three hundred and eiglu languages, and sixty or seventy languages have been reduced to writing by missionaries. {Foreign Missions, by Chrisllieb, p. 19.) The seventy-sixth Annual Report of the same (p. 260) enumerates three hundred and sixteen versions of the Bible or parts of it, which have been published by Bible societies. (228) BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 22Cf hican Bible, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1663, the New Testament having ap- peared two years earlier. The title is Mamussee Wunneetupanatamwe Up- Biblum God, Naneeswe Nukkone Testament kah wonk Wusku Testament. Ne quoshkinnumuk nashpe Wuttineumoh Christ noh oscowesit John Eliot; /. e., the whole holy his Bible God, both Old Testament and also New Testa- ment. This turned by the servant of Christ, who is called John Eliot. The work is now exceedingly rare, and commands a great price. The following is this version of John 1:1-5: . Weske kutchissik wuttinn<9^waonk ohtup, kah \^uttoo wonk <9C'wetddtamun Manit, and ne kuttc(9onk Manittoooomoo. 2 yeu nan weske kutchissik weetchayeutamun God. 3 Wame teun- teaquassinish kesteausupash nashpe nagiim, and matta teag kesteausineup webe nashpe nagum ne kesteausikup. 4 Ut wuh- hogkat pomantamoonkohtop, kah ne pomantamoonk oowe- quaiyeumuneaop wosketompaog. 5 Kah wequai sohsumoomoo pohkenahtu, and pohkenai matta wutattiimunnmooun. In the fourteenth verse, the clause, "full of grace and truth," reads thus : numwabehtunk kitteamonteanitteaonk and wun- namuhkuteyeuonk. In 18 18, Rev. C. F. Dencke, a Moravian missionary at New Fairfield, in Upper Canada, sent the Epistles of John in Delaware to the American Bible Society, and an edition was published shortly after. In 1832, John and Peter Jones, Ojibwa Indians in the service of the Method- ists, had their version of the Gospel of John in Ojibwa published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in London. In 1838 an edition was issued by the American Bible Society,^ The same society issued the entire New Tes- tament in 1844. Dr. James had previously printed his own translation in 1833. The Gospel of Mark was translated by Peter Osunkerhine, a missionary of the Board, into Abenaquis, his native tongue, and printed at Montreal in 1845. In 1700 Rev. Mr. Freeman translated the Gospel of Matthew into Mohawk, and some chapters were printed by the Gospel Propagation Society, New York, 17 14. In 1787 another translation of Matthew,^ by Joseph Brant, a Mo- hawk chief, was printed in London at the cost of the Crown, and another edition, with English in parallel columns, by the New York District Bible Society, in 1829. The Gospel of John was translated by a Cherokee natural- ized among the Mohawks, and published in London, 1805, by the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the first year of its existence. Another edition was published in New York, 18 18, by the American Bible Society. In 1832, the three epistles of John, translated by Rev. Mr. Williams, and the Gospel of Luke, translated by A. Hill, a Mohawk chief, were printed in New York by the Young Men's Bible Society, and in 1835, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles to ' Bagster's Bible of Every Land, p. 372. 2 Do., p. 376, but the Brinley Catalogue says that Mark appeared in 1787. 230 THE ELY VOLUME, the Romans and Galatians, by the same translator. In 1836, the same society pubUshed the Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians, to Timo- thy, Titus, and Philemon, translated by an educated Mohawk named Hess. In 1829 the American Bible Society printed the Gospel of Luke, translated into the Seneca language by Rev. T. S. Harris, a missionary of the American Board. In Cherokee, the first Gospel printed was Matthew, in 1832, followed by Acts, in 1833, at New Echota ; the third edition of Matthew appearing in 1840, at Park Hill, at the cost of the American Board. In 1844, the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles to Timothy were printed at the same place, in the Cherokee character, and in 1859 the entire New Testament was completed and printed under the superintendence of Rev. S. A. Worcester and Rev. C. C. Torrey. The first part of the Bible published in Choctaw was the Acts of the Apostles, Boston, 1839, at the cost of the American Board. The Epistles of John appeared at Park Hill in 1841, and the Epistle of James in 1843 ; ^^1^1 iii 1848 the entire New Testament, prepared by Rev. Alfred Wright and his asso- ciates, was published by the American Bible Society. Portions of Scripture had been issued at different times by our missionaries to the Dakotas, but the entire Bible was printed in 1879. It is a thorough work, by thorough scholars. Dr. S. R. Riggs and Rev. T. S. Williamson, M.D., devoted themselves to it for many years. But the following account of this work from the Bible Society Record, mostly in the language of the venerable surviving translator, tells the story so graphically that, with a few unimportant omissions, it is transferred to these pages. It is headed "The Making of a Bible." 1 The beginning of missionary work among the Dakotas dates from the year 1834, when two brothers from Connecticut, by the name of Pond, built their cabin on the shore of Lake Calhoun. Dr. Williamson and Mr. Stevens followed the next year, and on the first of June, 1837, after a journey of nearly three months from Massachusetts, the Rev. Stephen R. Riggs and his wife Mary landed from a steamer at the point where the Minnesota empties into the Mis- sissippi, and there entered into the wilderness in which they were to sojourn forty years as the friends and teachers of the Dakota Indians. Their first business was to master the language, and in this they had the meager aid of a vocabulary of five or six hundred words, which Mr. Stevens had gathered from the brothers Pond. Beyond this they must get their ears opened to catch strange sounds, and their tongues trained to utter them ; and the fleeting sound must be presented to the eye and perpetuated by fixed char- acters upon the written page ; since, as Dr. Riggs says, " for the purposes of civilization, and especially of Christianization, we have found culture in the native tongue indispensable." How great the task, we must let our author tell in his own way : " To learn an unvv^ritten language, and to reduce it to a form that can be seen as well as heard, is confessedly a great work. Hitherto it has seemed to exist only in sound. But it has been, all through the past ages, worked out and up by the forges of Iniman hearts. The human mind may not stamp purity nor even goodness on its language, but it always, I think, stamps it with the »E. W. Oilman, D.D., in liible Society Record, iSSo, pp. 145-6; he quotes from Mary aiid I, by Dr. Riggs. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 23 1 deepest philosophy. So far, at least, language is of divine origin. The un- learned Dakota may not be able to give any definition for a single word that he has been using all his life-time, yet, all the while, in the mental workshop of the people, unconsciously, and very slowly it may be, but also very surely, these words of air are newly coined. No angle can turn up but by-and-bv it will be worn off by use. No ungrammatical expression can come in that will not be rejected by the best thinkers and speakers. New words will be coined to meet the mind's wants ; and new forms of expression, at first bungling, will be pared down so as to come into harmony with the living language. " But it was no part of our business to make the language. It was simply to report it faithfully. The system of notation had in the main been settled upon before Mary and I joined the mission. It was, of course, to be phonetic, as nearly as possible. The English alphabet was to be used as far as it could be. These principles controlled the writing of Dakota. In their application it was soon found that only five pure vowel sounds were used. So far the work was easy. Then it was found that x, and v, and r, and g, and j, and f, and c, with their English powers, were not needed. But there were four dicks and two gutturals and a nasal that must in some way be expressed. It was then, even more than now, a matter of pecuniary importance that the language to be printed should require as few new characters as possible. And so n was taken to represent the nasal ; q represented one of the clicks ; g and r rep- resented the gutturals ; and c and j and x were used to represent ch, zh, and sh. The other clicks were represented by marked letters. Since that time some changes have been made ; x and r have been discarded. In the gram- mar and dictionary, which was published fifteen years afterward, an effort was made to make the notation philosophical. The changes which have since been adopted have all been in the line of the dictionary. " When we had gathered and arranged the words of this language, what had we to put into it for the Dakota people ? What will you give me ? has always been their cry. We brought to them the gospel of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, as contained in the Bible. Not only to preach Christ to them, that they might have life, but to engraft his living words into their living thoughts, so that they might grow into his spirit more and more, was the object of our coming. The labor of writing the language was undertaken as a means to a greater end." A HUMBLE HOME. After three months spent at Lake Harriet, Mr. Riggs joined Dr. William- son at Lac-qui-parle, two hundred miles in the interior, where the latter had erected a log-house, a story and a half high. In the upper part were three rooms, the largest of which, ten feet by eighteen, was appropriated to Mr. Riggs and his wife. He says : " That room we made our home for five winters. There were some hardships about such close quarters, but, all in all, Mary and I never enjoyed five winters better than those spent in that upper room. There our first three children were born. There we worked in acquiring the language. There we received our Dakota visitors. There I wrote and wrote again my ever-growing diction- ary. And there, with what help I could obtain, I prepared for the printer the 232 THE ELY VOLUME. greater part of the New Testament in the language of the Dakotas. It was a consecrated room." EARLY ACHIEVEMENTS. At Lac-qui-parle the missionaries had a stanch friend and interpreter in Mr. Renville, a Christian half-breed and fur trader. "Dr. Williamson and Mr. G. H. Pond had both learned to read French. The former usually talked with Mr. Renville in French, and, in the work of translating, read from the French Bible, verse by verse. Mr. Renville's memory had been specially cultivated by his having been interpreter between the Dakotas and the French. It sel- dom happened that he needed the verse re-read to him ; but it often happened that we, who wrote the Dakota from his lips, needed to have it repeated, in order to get it exactly and fully. When the verse was finished, the Dakota was read by one of the company. We were all only beginners in writing the language, and I more than the others. Sometimes Mr. Renville showed, by the twinkle of his eye, his conscious superiority when he repeated a long and difficult sentence, and found that we had forgotten the beginning. By this process, during that first winter at Lac-qui-parle, a pretty good translation of the Gospel of Mark was completed, besides some fugitive chapters from other parts. In the two following winters the Gospel of John was translated in the same way. " Besides giving these portions of the Word of God to the Dakotas sooner than it could have been done by the missionaries alone, these translations were invaluable to us as a means of studying the structure of the language, and as determining, in advance of our own efforts in this line, the molds of many new ideas which the Word contains. In after years we always felt safe in referring to Mr. Renville as authority in regard to the form of a Dakota expression. SOME PECULIARITIES OF THE LANGUAGE. " The language of counting in Dakota was limited. The ' wancha, nonpa, yamne ' — one, two, three — up to ten, every child learned, as he bent down his fingers and thumbs until all were gathered into two bunches, and then let them loose. Eleven was ten more one, and so on. Twenty was ten twos or twice ten, and thirty, tejt threes. With each ten the fingers were all bent down, and one was kept down to remember the ten. Thus, when ten tens were reached, the whole of the two hands was bent down, each finger meaning ten. This was the perfected ' bending down.' It was opawinge — one hundred. Then, when the hands were both bent down for hundreds, the climax was supposed to be reached, which could only be expressed by 'again also bending down.' When something larger than this was reached, it was z great coimt — something which they nor we can comprehend — a million. " On the other side ol one the Dakota language is still more defective. Only one word of any definiteness exists — hankay, half. We can say hankay- hankay — the half of a half; but it does not seem to have been much used. Beyond this there was nothing. Apiece is a word of uncertain quantity, and is not quite suited to introduce among the certainties of mathematics. Thus the poverty of the language has been a great obstacle in teaching arithmetic ; and that poorness of language shows their poverty of thought in the same line." BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 233 COLLATERAL WORK. "A grammar and dictionary of the Dakota language had been growing through all these years. It was in the line of our missionary work. The ma- terials came to us naturally in our acquisition of the language, and we simply arranged them. The work of arrrangement involved a good deal of labor, but it brought its reward in the better insight it gave of their forms of thought and expression. Thus, when we had been a year or more in the country, the vocab- ulary which I had gathered from all sources amounted to about three thousand words. " From that time onward it continued to increase rapidly, as we were gather- ing new words. In a couple of years more the whole needed revision and rewriting, when it was found to have more than doubled. So it grew. Mr. S. W. Pond also entered into the work. He gave me the free use of his collec- tions, and he had the free use of mine. This will be sufficient to indicate the way in which the work was carried on. How many dictionaries I made, I can- not now remember. When the collection reached ten thousand words and upward, it began to be quite a chore to make a new copy. By-and-by we had reason to believe that we had gathered pretty much the whole language, and our definitions were measurably correct. " It was about the beginning of the year 185 1 when the question of publica- tion was first discussed. Certain gentlemen in the legislature of Minnesota, and connected with the Historical Society of Minnesota, became interested in the matter. Under the auspices of this society a circular was printed, asking the cooperation of all who were interested in giving the language of the Dakotas to the literary world in a permanent form. The subscription thus started, and headed by such names as Alexander Ramsey, then governor of the Territory, Rev. E. D. Neill, the secretary of the society, H. H. Sibley, H. M. Rice, and Martin McLeod, the chiefs of the fur trade, in the course of the summer amounted to about eight hundred dollars. With this sum pledged, it was considered quite safe to commence the publication. The American Board very cheerfully consented to pay my expenses while carrying the work through the press, besides making a donation to it directly from their treasury. "From these sources we had $1,000; and with this sum the book might have been published in a cheap form, relying upon after sales to meet any deficiency. But after taking the advice of friends who were interested in the undertaking, it was decided to offer it to the Smithsonian Institution, to be brought out as one of their series of contributions to knowledge. Prof. Joseph Henry at once had it examined by Prof. C. C. Felton and Prof. W. W. Turner. It received their approval, and was ordered to be printed. " I went to New York City, and was, the next seven months, engaged in get- ting through the press the grammar and dictionary of the Dakota language, '•Of the various hindrances and delays, and of the burning of the printing office in which the work was in progress, and the loss of quite a number of pages of the book, which had to be again made up, I need not speak. Early in the summer of 1852 the work was done — I believe to the satisfaction of all 234 THE ELY VOLUME. parties. It has obtained the commendaticn of literary men generally, and it was said that for no volume published by the Smithsonian Institution, up to that time, was the demand so great as for that. It is now out of print, and the book can only be bought at fancy prices. "•The question of republication is sometimes talked of; and should that take place, some valuable additions can be made to the sixteen thousand words which it contains. The language itself is growing. Never, probably, in its whole history, has it grown so much in any quarter of a century as it has in the twenty-five years since the dictionary was published. Besides, we have recently been learning more of the Teeton dialect, which is spoken by more than half of the Sioux nation. And as the translation of the Bible has pro- gressed, thoughts and images have been brought in which have given the lan- guage an unction and power unknown to it before." PROGRESS. The various steps of progress in translating the Bible are not distinctly traced, but the general outline is given as follows : " Late in the fall of 1839 ^^""^ Gospel of Mark and some other small portions were ready to be printed, and Dr. Williamson went with his family to Ohio, where he spent the winter. The next printing of portions of the Bible was done in 1842-1843, when Dr. Williamson had completed the book of Genesis. We had now commenced to translate from the Hebrew and Greek. This was continued through all our missionary life. So far as I can remember, there was no arrangement of work between the doctor and myself ; but while I com- menced the New Testament, and having completed that turned to the Psalms, and, having fmished to the end of Malachi, made some steps backward through Job, Esther, Nehemiah, and Ezra, he, commencing with Genesis, closed his work, in the last months of his life, with Second Chronicles, having taken in also the book of Proverbs. " In the latter part of 1863, Mr. Riggs devoted himself to a revision and com- pletion of the New Testament, and in the following autumn he spent three months in the Bible House, reading the proof of the New Testament. Dr. Williamson had also added a revised Genesis and Proverbs, and the Bible Society began at that time to make electrotype plates of the version. "The multiplication of Dakota readers during the next few years gave a new impulse to the work of translating the Scriptures, and by 1870 the Psalms, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, and Isaiah, together with the other four books of Moses, were added to what had been printed five years before. In the summer of 1872 the book of Daniel was translated, and, in the winter thai followed, the first copy of the minor Prophets was made. "The Bible in its complete form, translated, electrotyped, printed, ar.d bound, appeared in the spring of 1879, and not long after. Dr. Williamson, who had contributed so much to its excellence, fell asleep at the age of eighty years. '• These extracts indicate with sufficient fullness the difficulties and the delays incident to the rendering of the entire Bible into a barbarous tongue ; but the Book has power to waken thought, to quicken conscience, to convict of BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 235 sin, and to manifest the love of God. It is a civilizing and evangelizing power, effectual in building up the kingdom of Christ. The Dakotas are a different people to-day from what they would have been had not Riggs and Williamson given them the Scriptures."^ There is one peculiarity of all the versions of Scripture made by our mis- sionaries in the islands of the Pacific. Each one commenced with a Gospel translated and printed for immediate use, and so grew up into the form they now possess. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John, in the Hawaiian lan- guage, were printed at Rochester, New York, in 1828 ; Luke and Acts in 1829, at Honolulu. Other portions followed as they were finished. The New Testa- ment was completed in 1832, and the whole Bible, February 25, 1839, in a volume of fourteen hundred and fifty pages. All these were published at Hon- olulu. Different revisions have since been issued. The New Testament was printed by the Bible Society, at New York, in 1857, with Hawaiian and English in parallel columns. Quarto and octavo reference Bibles were issued from the same press, and so the Word of God was given to the Hawaiian Islands. Rev. H. Bingham, Jr., printed the first chapters of Matthew, in i860, in the language of the Gilbert Islands, and completed the New Testament in 1873, in a i2mo of six hundred and eighty-four pages. A revised edition was issued at Honolulu in 1878 — a priceless gift to thirty thousand people. The Gospels and Acts were issued for the use of the Marshall Islanders in 1875, though the work was begun in 186 1, by Messrs. Doane, Snow, and Whit- ney. The book of Genesis has also appeared in that language. Rev. B. G. Snow prepared Mark, John, and the Acts for the natives of Strong's Island in 1869, and the remaining Gosj^els in 1S71. Rev. L. H. Gulick and Rev. A. A. Sturges gave John to the Caroline Island- ers in 1862. Luke and Acts were printed in 1866, Matthew and Mark in 1S70, Galatians and Titus in 1873, and Genesis and Exodus in 1875. Other parts of the New Testament are nearly ready for the press. Rev. R. W. Logan printed in Honolulu, in 1880, the Gospel of Mark for the Mortlock Islands. The Gospel of Matthew was printed at the same place for the Marquesas Islands, in 1853,^ and in 1857 Mr. Bicknell went in the "Morning Star" to that port, to superintend the printing of the Gospel of John.^ "The Marquesan version of the Gospel of Matthew was prepared by the Rev. James Bicknell, missionary of the Hawaiian Board of Missions, and son of an English missionary to the Society Islands, and printed at Honolulu about 1865, by the Hawaiian Board. The Marquesan language was first reduced to writing by the English missionaries to those islands,* early in this century. But the American missionaries from the Sandwich Islands studied the lan- guage later with still greater care, some of the results of which I possess in the form of a manuscript grammar and vocabulary ; and as you see by my list in Dr. Anderson's volume, they published several works." '^ '^ Bible Society Record, iSSo, p. 146. -Dr. E. W. Gilman, in Gospel /or all Lands, October, 1S80. ''Rev. H. Hinoham, Jr., in Story of the Mor7iing Star, p. 27. * London Missio'.'.ary Society. ''Letter of Rev. Edward W. Gilman, D.D. 236 THE ELY VOLUME. A few specimens of some of these versions are here given : THE lord's prayer IN HAWAIIAN. E ko makou Makua iloko o ka lani, e hoanoia kou inoa. E hiki mai kou aupuni ; e malamaia kou makemake ma ka honua nei, e like me ia i malamaia ma ka lani la : e haawi mai ia makou i keia la i ai na makou no neia la ; e kala mai hoi ia makou i ka makou lawehala ana, me makou e kala nei i ka poe i lawehala i ka makou. Mai hookuu oe ia makou i ka hoowalewaleia mai ; e hoopakele no nae ia makou i ka ino ; no ka mea, nouke aupuni, a me ka mana, a me ka hoonaniia, a mau loa aku. Amene. IN MARQUESAN. E to matoa Matua iuna i te aki, ia hamitaiia to oe inoa : la tuku mai to oe basileia ; la hakaokohia to oe makemake i te henua nei me ia i hakaokoia i te aki iuna; a tuku mai i te kaikai no matou i te nei mau a. A haka oe i ta matou pio, me matou e haka aku i ta telahi pio ia matou nei : auwe oe tilii ia matou ia oohia matou i te pio : A hoopahue ia matou ko oe te basileia e ta mana e ta hanohano i te mau pokoehu atoa kakoe e pato. Amene. IN THE GILBERT ISLAND LANGUAGE. Tamara are i karawa, e na tabuaki aram. E na roko ueam : E na tauaki am taeka i aon te aba n ai aron tauana i karawa. Ko na ahanira karara ae ti a tau iai n te boii aei. Ao ko na kabara ara buakaka mairoura n ai arora hkai ti kabara te buakaka mairouia akana ioawa nako ira. Ao tai kairira nakon te kaririaki, ma ko na kamaiuira man te buakaka; ba ambai te uea, ao te maka. ao te neboaki, n aki toki. Amene. IN THE MARSHALL ISLAND LANGUAGE. Jememuij i Ion, en kwojarjar et^^m. En itok am aili;/. Jen k^m^nm^n ankil am i \o\ enw^t dri b;/. Ranin, letok non kim kijim ranin : Im jolok amuij jerawiwi, enwot kimuij jolok an armij jerawivvi jen kim. Im jab tellok 7wn mon, ak drcbij kim jen nana. Bwe am aili//, im kajur, im wijtak in drio. Amen. IN THE KUSAIEAN LANGUAGE. Papa tumus su in kosao, .£"'108 oal payi. Togusai" lalos tuku. Orek ma nu fwalu, ou elos oru in kosao. Kite kit Icn si i;a ma kut mo«o misi/zi : A nunok munas nu ses ke ma koluk las, oanu kut nunok munas sin met orek ma koluk nu scs. A tiu kol kit kut in mel, a es kit la liki ma koluk, tu togusaY lalos, a ku, a mwolanu, ma patpat. Amen. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 237 A few portions of the Bible were translated by Papal missionaries in China, but no approach to an entire version. In 1307 Pope Clement V made John de Monte Corvino archbishop of Cambalu,^ and he translated the New Testa- ment and the Psalms into the language of the Mogul Tartars. It is with great pleasure that the writer records this exception to the general custom of Papal missionaries.^ Neander says : " This distinguished man, displaying the Uj til i A O m ± It T I*. m HE, 7 7^ mm B3 'I* m % it ^ ifi. ± ff^ fi<] ^ '}L- A ^ II :! ^■. n s ?i M iJiS * ?c &^, S ±. EI S 11 @ it A ft!l fl-i 5!;n in A Ri 'ii^ >1- S^ S WAS! iiiS -Ji It II * -Mi m A If ffi ffl, in \n lu -In k •;* I'y /!iiL S 'i^ ":i^ t ffi m m. ffi A ^0 'ii» ft . ii. KH ^ ^ JliS y§ ^ 6^. m at i?-i A * S ft 3fl ^ 1 fi^ la llrS A Wt -¥- El W i& ■M m 111 ffi m> ti^ if] m li. 'ji' 'M M m ffi » f1 ® fi^. n^ m m A % ffi. la, ii^' A ii i§: ft •14 fi w A lliJ M if Uj A. fil ± f». 1 14. m. ft ft « l*j iTm Tb :^i fii 'd^ ^ ra fj?) s -S A M ffi ft- 7I in m_ ffi Ji;> iiis HiJ & mi P fi S//I ffi (PI MATTHEW V: I-13. wisdom of a genuine missionary, spared no pains in giving the Word of God to the people in their own language, in encouraging education, and training up missionaries from among the people.'"^ Matthew v : 1-13 is here given in the Mandarin colloquial dialect, as a speci- men of the Bible in Chinese. ' Peking. - Chinese Repository, Vol. I, p. 451 ; Dr. Anderson, in Missionary Herald, 1838, p. 295. ^History 0/ the Christian Religion and Church, Vol. IV, p. 57. 238 THE ELY VOLUME. Dr. Morrison made the nucleus of his version a Chinese manuscript trans- lation from the Vulgate, found in the British Museum, and written by order of Mr. Hodgson, in 1 737-1 738. In 1836, a revised edition of the New Testa- ment was prepared by Messrs. W. H. Medhurst, of the London Missionary Society, E. C. Bridgman, of the American Board, C. Gutzlaff, and J. R. Mor- rison. The version called the Delegates' Bible vi2.s published in 1855. Dr. E. C. Bridgman was one of four who prepared the New Testament of that version. The Bridgman and Culbertson version, prepared by those mission- aries, appeared in 1859. On this Dr. Bridgman spent thirty-two years of his missionary life, and Dr. Culbertson finished it after Dr. Bridgman's death.^ Different editions were published in 186 1, 1863, and 1865, and the transla- tion was regarded by the Russian archimandrite at Peking, himself a translator, as the best that he had seen. All these are in the Wen Li, the classical or written language. Besides this are what some call dialects, but which are hardly more so than the Italian, French, and Spanish languages are dialects. The Mandarin colloquial, so called because used by the Mandarins throughout the empire, and in court circles at Peking, is called Kwan Wha, and is the spoken language north of the great Yangtse Kiang^ River, Perhaps two hundred millions have some knowledge of this, and steam and electricity promise to make it the Chinese language. The Bible was translated into it, and com- pleted in 1874, by a committee of five, of which Rev. H. Blodgett, D.D., was an active member. The Old Testament was translated by Dr. Schereschewsky, of the American Episcopal Mission. The other dialects differ so much from each other that interpreters are needed between them, and foreigners sometimes thus mediate between Chinese. The Shanghai and Fuhchau coUoquials are spoken by about eight millions each, and that of Canton is one of the principal languages of the empire. The colloquial of Ningpo is spoken by about five millions.'' There was, also, a New Testament printed in the book language at Ningpo, in 1853 ; in the Fuhchau dialect, 1863, and 1866; in the Ningpo dialect, with Romanized letters, in 1868; Hong Kong dialect, 1870; Shanghai dialect, 1872 ; Amoy dialect, 1873; and another in Ningpo Romanized, 1874. A version of the whole Bible is now being prepared in the Shanghai dialect, and another in the Fuhchau dialect is also approaching completion, on which several of our missionaries have bestowed much labor. Rev. L. B. Peet trans- lated and published the New Testament at his own expense, in 1863. It reached the fourth edition. Another version of the New Testament, by Dr, C. C. Baldwin and C. Hartwell, aided by Dr. Maclay and O, Gibson, appeared in 1866, and a revised edition in 1875. These later versions are a great advance on those of Marshman and Mor- rison, but yet the work of translating the Bible in China is not complete. To say nothing of unfinished versions, scholars are not yet agreed on the terms wherewith to render in Chinese our words Jehovah, God, and Spirit. Still, the publications of our North China mission reach two thirds of the entire popula- tion of the empire. 1 Bible Society Record, i8So, pp. Si-84. -Son of the great water. ■■ Bible Society Record, 1.S76, p. 147. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 239 The following tabular statement, prepared by Rev. L. H, Gulick, M.D., formerly a missionary of the American Board, and showing the debt which China owes to so many devoted missionaries, is taken from the Annual Report of the American Bible Society for 1880, pp. 114-115 : ^1 II Dialed. Books. 1859 Classical Bible 1874 Mandarin Old Testament 1872 ** New Testament 1S72 Shanghai Coll. " 1880 The Gospels 18S0 Ningpo Coll. New Testament Tratislaiors. Rev. E. C. Bridgman and Rev. M. S. Culbertson. Rev. S. I. J. Schereschewsky, D.D. Committee, consisting of Rev. J. S. Burden, D.D., Rev. H. Blodgett, D.D., Dr. Schereschewsky, Rev. J. Edkins, Rev. W. A. P. Martin, D.D. Rt. Rev. W. J. Boone, Revs. J. S. Roberts, E. H. Thompson, J. M. W. Farnham, D.D. Rev. by committee of Revs. J. M. W. Farnham, D.D., E. H. Thompson, and J. VV. Lambuth. Rt. Rev. W. A. Russell, Revs. H. V. Rankin, W. A. P. Martin, D.D., W. T. Morrison, and others. Re- vised, 1S6S, by Revs. F. F. Gough and J. H. Taylor. Again revised, 1S79, by Rev. F. F. Gough. I87I " Genesis and Exodus Rev. H. V. Rankin. 1879 " Isaiah Rev. E. C. Lord, D.D. 1 855 Fuhchau Coll. Matthew Mark Rev. R. S. Maclay, D.D. Rev. 0. Gibson. " « Luke Rev. C. C. Baldwin, D.D. " It John Rev. C. Hartwell. • ( *' Acts Romans Revs. Gibson and Hartwell. Dr. R. S. Maclay, D.D. <( « ist and 2d Cor. and Gal Eph., Phil., Col., ist 2d Thess., Tim., and Rev. 0. Gibson, and" Ti-f-Rev. C. Hartwell. tus. « (( Hebrews Rev. R. S. Maclay, D.D. <( « James to Revelation Rev. C. C. Baldwin, D.D. X87S K Genesis 1 1876 « Exodus i-Rev. C. C. Baldwin, D.D. 1878 ii Leviticus, Numbers I 1878 " Deuteronomy J 187s " Joshua Rev. J. R. Wolfe. 1S78 " Judges Dr. C. C. Baldwin. 1875 " Ruth, I Samuel 1878 " 2 Samuel • Rev. S. F. Woodin. 1879 (( I Kings 1880 " 2 Kings 1879 " Ezra, Neh., Esther Dr. C. C. Baldwin. 1866 <( Job Dr. R. S. Maclay, D.D. 1867 « Psalms Revs. L. B. Peet, S. F. Woodin. 1866 <• Proverbs Rev. S. L. Baldwin, D.D. 1880 « Ecc. and Song of Sol. Dr. C. C. Baldwin. 1866 « Daniel Dr. C. C. Baldwin. '873 Amoy Coll. Psalms Rev. J. Stronach. 1872 " Matthew Rev. J. V. N. Talmage, D.D. 1863 « Mark Rev. A. Ostrom. 1S68 " Luke Rev. J. V. N. Talmage, D.D. 1871 •' John Rev. E. Doty. 1867 " Acts Rev. J. Stronach. 1871 " Gal., Eph., Phil., Col. Rev. J. V. N. Talmage, D.D. 1 868 " ist and 2d Peter Rev. J. Stronach. 1869 « Epistles of John Rev. J. V. N. Talmage, D.D. 1S6S ti The Revelation Rev. J. Stronach. 1879 Swatow Coll. Genesis Rev. William Ashmore, D.D., and Miss A. M. Fields 1872-3 Canton Coll. Matthew, Mark, Luke Rev. G. Piercy. 1S72-3 " John, Acts Rev. C. F. Preston. 240 THE ELY VOLUME. In Japan, though it is too soon to look for a complete translation of the whole Bible, the work has been well begun. As far back as 1837-1839, Rev. Charles Gutzlaff and Dr. S. Wells Williams improved their acquaintance with some shipwrecked Japanese in Macao, in making a beginning. The former translated the Gospel of John, which was printed at Singapore in 1838, in the Katakana character, at the press of the American Board. The latter trans- lated Genesis and Matthew, but they were never printed. He sent the manu- scripts to Rev. S. R. Brown, D.D., in Japan, but they were burnt with his house in 1867. Rev. B. J. Bettleheim, M.D., translated the New Testament into the dialect of the Lewchew Islands. He printed one of the Gospels at Hong Kong ; afterwards the British and Foreign Bible Society printed Luke, John, and Acts, at Vienna, in 1872. The first part of the Bible printed in Japan was Mr. Goble's version of Matthew, in 187 1. Dr. J. C. Hepburn, with the aid of Mr. Okuno, a native Christian, had translated the four Gospels previous to 1870, and published Mark and John in the autumn of 1S72, and Matthev/ in the spring of 1873. The American Presbyterian, Episcopal, Baptist, and Re- formed Missions, together with that of the American Board, united to form a committee of one from each mission, for the translation of the Scriptures into Japanese, which began its work in June, 1874, and finished the translation and revision of the New Testament November 3, 1879. Dr. S. R. Brown, of the Reformed Mission, was chairman of the committee ; J. C. Hepburn, M.D., LL.D., represented the Presbyterians ; Dr. R. S. Maclay the Methodists ; and Dr. D. C. Greene the American Board. The Gospel of Luke was printed in August, 1875 ; the Epistle to the Romans in March, 1S76 ; Hebrews and Mat- thew,^ January, 1877 ; Mark,- April, 1S77 ; Epistles of John, June, 1877 ; Acts, September, 1S77 ; Galatians, January, 1S78; Gospel of John,'' JNIay, 1878; i Corinthians, August, 1878; 2 Corinthians, September, 1878; Ephesians, Philippians, and i and 2 Thessalonians, June, 1879 ; and Philemon, James, I and 2 Peter, Jude, Colossians, and Revelation, April, 1880. So that the New Testament appears under the sanction of a committee representing most of the Protestant missionaries in JajDan. In a country where Chinese literature has had such an influence on the lan- guage, it was difficult to know in what literary style the translation would be most useful; but the translators avoided on the one hand the quasi-Chinese style, intelligible only to the highly educated, and on the other hand the vulgar colloquial, v^^hich would make the work contemptible, and chose a style which, while respected by the literati, was intelligible to all — a pure, classical Japan- ese style ; and the result shows the wisdom of their choice. No foreigner could make an idiomatic translation without the aid of a mative scholar, and Mr. Okuno, Mr. Takahashi, Mr. Miwa, and Mr. Matsuyama were the native assistants in the work. The first had more to do than the •others in the first work of translation till other duties obliged him to leave; and whatever value there is in the text is mainly owing to the scholarly ability of the last, his perfect knowledge of his own language, and his conscientious care. Dr. Hepburn and he led the committee in thanksgiving to God at the conclu- 1 Revised. -Revised. s Revised. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 24! sion of their labors on the New Testament. Dr. N. Brown also made a version for the Baptists, having clone a like work before in Assam, and published it some months previous to the version of the committee. The Old Testament will, doubtless, be rendered into Japanese as soon as possible. Dr. Greene in 1879 prepared Bridgman and Culbertson's Chinese New Testament for use in Japan,^ the same as the Kunten mentioned below. The American Bible Society has published an edition of the Japanese New Testament, as translated by the committee, in Roman type, prepared under the direction of Dr. Hepburn, who feels, in common with many, that there is im- perative need of reform in the mode of writing Japanese. It has been said that ideographic written characters are a great obstacle to progress in China, and the same burden is carried by Japan in her swift advance, for they are used in that empire also. A printer in Yokohama, who had metal type for fifty thousand Chinese characters, still needed to cut three or four new characters every day. A man who knows seven or eight thousand characters will find reading comparatively easy; yet even he will often need the dic- tionary, unless he is content, like many of the Japanese, to guess at the meaning. Few among the work- ing classes can acquire and retain even two thousand characters. It is safe to say that three fourths of the adult Japanese cannot read the better class of newspaper editorials ; and if the more popular papers add ^ ^^ '^^ phonetic characters to explain the others, this renders their pages dis- tasteful to scholars. There ought, then, to be a phonetic literature for those who have not time to commit to memory so many Chinese characters. Half of the time now vainly spent on the Chinese characters, if given to the study of Roman letters, would make reading a delight to millions who now regard it as an odious task. Besides this edition in Roman type, the same society has published, or is publishing, four other stereotype editions, samples of which are given : (i) is the Kunten. This name is given to the small Japanese phonetic characters written on the right of the Chinese ideographs, to give the termination of Japanese verbs and particles, not found in Chinese. Then certain numerals and arbitrary signs are also placed on the left of the column, to mark the Japan- ese order of thought. The Chinese classical version of Bridgman and Culbert- son is thus translated substantially into Japanese. (2) is the Katakana, for the use of scholars, but not familiar to female readers. (3) is the Hirakana, intended for those more dependent on phonetic helps ; and (4) is a tentative edition, in which the Chinese is used, and always in subordination to the 1 Dr. J. C. Hepburn, in Bid/e Society Record, iSSo, pp. 81-84. 16 (4) (3) (2) (I) W 7C 7C A ill >5 m 1/) y] m 5I 242 THE ELY VOLUME. Hirakana. It is written on one side of, and not in, the column. The standard edition is printed in the type marked (3).^ In India^ Messrs. G. Hall and S. Newell commenced a version in Marathi, and the New Testament was issued before Mr. Hall's death, in 1826 ; a revised edition was printed in 1831, and a second revision, to which Rev. H. Eallan- tine devoted several years of assiduous labor, appeared in 1845. The Bible followed in 1847, and a thorough revision in 1855. Two years later saw another revision, and in 1858 a New Testament with references — revised again in 1868; for the motto of our missionaries is, "As nearly perfect as possible, and still more perfect." ^ Mr. Ballantine's revision was used for ten years, and was the basis of the standard version now in use ; Dr. A. Hazen and others being prominent in its preparation. The Old Testament has also under- gone careful revision, so that a most excellent version is now in the hands of the fifteen millions of the Marathi people. Dr. S. B. Fairbanks furnishes these additional facts: Dr. D. O. Allen trans- lated the books of Samuel previous to 1S46, and edited the larger part of the first comJ>/efe edition of the Bible, 1850-1852. Mr. Graves was a careful and exact translator, and gave the best part of his missionary life to that work. He always used a common word if there was one. Dissatisfied with the New Testament then in use, the Ahmednuggur mission published another translation of the Gospels and Acts. It was the work chiefly of Mr. Ballantine. Then Dr. Hazen took up the work of revision, and edited the Jubilee edition of the Bible,^ which, with the exception of the minor Epistles, is the one now published by the Bombay Bible Society. Dr. Hazen's edition is nearer the originals than any other, especially in the New Testament. The Lord's Prayer in Marathi and Gujerati, in two different types, is here given as a specimen of those languages. The Tamil version is pronounced, by competent judges, one of the best ver- sions to be found in any language. First appearing in 1S44, a revised edition was issued in 1850, and on that Drs. M. VVinslow and L. Spaulding, both accu- rate Tamil scholars, spent many years of unremitting toil. Few will ever know how much time and strength was given to this life-work, or how much the in- creased perfection of different editions was due to untiring effort. The notes left upon it are a valuable legacy to future revisers. Dr. Anderson says that in accuracy, conciseness, elegance, and idiomatic correctness, it is a great advance on anything before it. The Madras Bible Society calls it the standard version. Rev. G. T. Washburne pronounces it truer to the original than our English version. What a boon to the almost fifteen millions of the Tamil people ! The Nestorians had the Bible in the ancient Syriac, but, as modern Syriac is their vernacular, they needed a version in that, also. When the mission was established, that language was not reduced to writing. There were no printed books, and but few manuscripts, in what was, to them, an unintelligible lan- guage. The four Gospels were translated into the modern Syriac, and printed in Oroomiah, in 1844, and the whole New Testam.ent, with ancient and modern 1 Dr. David C. Greene, in Missionary Herald for iSSi, pp. 2S-29. ' 1868. "Dr. Anderson's hidia, p. 109-110. u^ mk. wr BTrTrr^Ttrf rrm* q"*-?T^rf^ 5# f=EgT ^rrc^ sirrfr. (J^lje same, in small t^pe. 3TRrr5rr^ ?t# T^t^w ^?Fr c^^r =^r ^rfr. ^nr^ Trr%\TfTr% ^vt "^rir ^- ^r^ ^. m^ i(b ^Tfifr ^ft^^ w^\^ mrim, ^^ ^ ^fjt^f ^^ ^FfTF^r ^ft- €1S)C ItotD'^ l^tapct, in <25ujctati. 2iL^* ^s-Ht^i iL6/ iS>in 5>iiH* n ^^'m ia>i ■^■nl ^16/ n^i H^Li^s.'H n^i '^(II'hi xi^iiH^icn s^Hi ni^SL^i (l\]t same, in small tupc. ^14 <5v>i >>ii5si^i>ii ci>i H3,2{'-(l H3, cti(ii\^ ^iH* ^ i ^>\ (§>ii?,i ^Hi^i'^in >ii!^ ^{l*t* EIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 4J. Syriac in parallel columns, in 1846. Before the close of 1852, the entire Bible' had issued from the press. New editions of the New Testament appeared in: 1853 and 1854, and in i860 the Bible with references. Dr. Perkins, who was at the head of the translation of the Scriptures for nearly twenty years, also published a commentary on Genesis, in 1867. In the work of translation he was aided by the revision of the scholarly Stoddard,^ and the fine taste and linguistic attainments of Rev. A, H. Wright, M.D., who received the formal thanks of the mission for his careful revision of the modern Syriac New Testa- ment, and at the time of his death was at work on a translation of the Bible into the Tartar, or Azerbijan Turkish. The amiable Stoddard thus writes of the modern Syriac Bible : ^ " That Bible which we clasp so joyfully to our hearts, which is the basis of our heavenly hopes, is now given in simple language to the entire people. It is to visit their rude homes and sit beside them in their daily employment. This is a work which cannot die. We may all pass away, and much that we have done be forgotten ; but this Bible will live and preach to young and old, on the plain and in the mountains, and bring forth the fruits of righteousness long after we slumber in the dust. Had the churches of America conferred on the Nes- torians no other blessing, this one thing would amply repay their efforts." lord's prayer in KOORMANJIE KURDISH. Matthew vi:g. Ya have m^, ko tu lu «zman^ lotd's ^ ® i'4/, ^/ e?<_ MODERN SYRIAC. ! ^ fio ^S v..^3 ;ii2 : ;33oi^ ^ ^,?!?^ ^° : f X<..a3.jcXo : !\«mO : ^^ i : pci >^ . ^2 ^^1 ^ ^^r^!^^ •v^^^^^^^ BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 245 scholars were employed, and in 1848 his preparation was complete. At his death, in 1S57, the New Testament and Pentateuch were nearly ready for the press ; seven of the minor prophets, and fift}'^-two chapters of Isaiah ; but his standard was so high that he regarded only Genesis and Exodus, with ten chapters of Matthew, as really finished. After his death the work was com- pleted by Rev. Dr. C. V. A. Van Dyck, whom Providence had fitted for the place by his wonderful mastery of the Arabic. The New Testament was pub- lished early in i860, and the whole finished in August, 1864, and printed in March, 1865. So great was the demand for it that ten editions, containing forty thousand copies, appeared that year. The accuracy of its renderings, the idiomatic excellence of the style, and even the beauty of the type, which Dr. Smith had prepared especially for it, and which surpassed all that had gone before as much as the translation excelled all previous effort, made it popular among all classes, so that even the Moslem was forced to commend the Bible of the Christian. The completion of the great work was celebrated with fitting services, amid general rejoicing. No literary work of the century exceeds it in importance, and it is acknowledged to be one of the best translations of the Bible ever made. As Rev. S. H. Calhoun has beautifully said in one of his letters, just as Syria, once lighted up with the oil made from her own olives, is now illumi- nated by oil transported from America, so the light of revelation that once burned brightly there, lighting up the whole earth with its radiance, long suf- fered to go out in darkness, has been rekindled by missionaries from America, in the translation of her own Scriptures into the spoken language of her present inhabitants.^ The effect of its distribution was as marvelous as the eagerness to obtain it. It is undermining error on all sides, and vindicating the truth from all misrep- resentation wherever it goes. Voweled Testaments go among the Moslems, Bibles enter the convents, and copies go to Liberia on the west and Canton on the east. Ghubreen, an influential Greek ecclesiastic in Syria, said : " But for the American missionaries the Word of God had well-nigh perished out of the lan- guage; but now, through the labors of Eli Smith and Dr. Van Dyck, they have given us a translation so pure, so exact, so clear, and so classical, as to be acceptable to all classes and all sects." ^ If any wonder why so much pains should be taken to make a version not only accurate but idiomatic, let them read the following words of Luther in 1530: "In translating, I have striven to give pure and clear German, and it has verily happened that we have sought a fortnight, three, four weeks for a single word, and yet it was not always found. In Job we so labored, Philip Melancthon, Aurogallus, and I, that in four days we sometimes barely finished three lines." Again he writes : "We must not ask the Latinizers how to speak German ; but we must ask the mother in the house, the children in the lanes, ' See Forei^^n Missionary, 1S75. ■ Annual Report, 1866, p. 102; Missionary Herald, 1S60, p. 176. 246 THE ELY VOLUME. the common man in the market-place, and read in their mouths how they speak, and translate accordingly. Then they understand, for they see that we are speaking German. Take that word of Christ, Matthew xii : 34, /. c, now should I follow the asses ? They would thus translate : ' Out of the super- abundance of the heart speaks the mouth.' Now tell me, is that spoken Ger- man.? No German would say that — for 'superabundance of heart 'is no German, any more than superabundance of house, superabundance of bench — but thus speaks the mother in the house : ' Whose heart is full, his mouth runs over.' That is Germanly spoken, as I have tried to do, but, alas ! not always succeeded." The following words from the venerable Rev. E. Riggs, D.D., LL.D., of Constantinople, who has stood at his post in Turkey for fort3^-eight years, are worthy to come after these of the Reformer. In a letter to the writer, dated August 5, 18S0, he raises the question, "Why does a missionary require eight or ten years, at least, to complete a translation of the Bible in a foreign lan- guage ? Let the candid friends of the Bible consider : " First. The amount of matter comprised in the volume. Let him count the number of words on a page, multiply it by the number of pages, and then compare the amount with that found in ordinary volumes, and he will find that he has in the Bible a library rather than a single volume. " Second. The conscientious translator cannot give a hasty or superficial rendering, or one in accordance with the views of any commentator, unless, after thorough investigation, he has made them his own. Few form an idea of the work of thoroughly mastering any document in a dead language. "Third. The translator of the Bible must not only be master of Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek, but also of the language into which he translates. Is it said he should have this knowledge before he begins ? I reply that, however thorough that previous knowledge may be, experience will soon show him that in the field of every language are terrce incog}iit(Z which he must explore and map out before he can go on with confidence; e. g., names of trees, plants, ani- mals, and gems may be little regarded by common readers, yet the translator cannot neglect them, and must bestow much labor to form a decided judgment as to the meaning of the original words, and then of the right terms to express that meaning in his translation. So of the orthography of proper names. It would be a blemish if the same name were spelled in four or five different ways ; yet this is true of our own justly esteemed English version. To secure the right spelling of proper names, a complete list should be made out and be at hand for reference. The Old Testament contains more than twenty-six hundred such names. "Fourth. If one knows a foreign language, let him try the experiment of translating the amount of a page in the Bible from that language, or from Eng- lish into it. Then, after some days, let him carefully revise it, or get another familiar with both languages to look it over with him, so as to secure accuracy. Now let him multiply this by the number of pages in the Bible, and he will know something of the time needed for such a work. Then there is the time required for comparing the different parts, in order to secure consistency in the renderincr of the same terms. BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 247 " Fifth. Sometimes tlie strange language has not been previously used for the expression of Christian ideas. In this case it is hard to set a limit to the labor, investigation, and care needful to secure the right terms for these ideas, and avoid those that would be misleading and injurious." It may deepen our impression of the greatness and the difficulty of the work of translating the Bible into a foreign language, if we remember that while at the Reformation, and afterwards, learned men in Europe rendered it into their own languages that they had used from childhood, our missionaries are called to transfer it into a language that they never knew till they had reached adult years, and in some cases had not even an alphabet till they gave it one. Then the very words of a language are so contaminated by heathenism that it is exceedingly difficult to find terms for Christian ideas. The Teloogoo Bible unfortunately employed the word bailiox sacrifice, and not until after it had been in circulation some time was it discovered that that term denoted " a bloody offering to a malignant deity ; " while in the Vedas, yagna meant " a sacrifice to a propitious God." It is not necessary to enlarge on the mischief wrought by such a rendering. No one can read the article of Dr. S. W, Will- iams, on "The Proper Translation of the words 'God' and 'Spirit' into Chi- nese,"^ and not be profoundly impressed with the magnitude of some of the difnculties our missionaries meet with in this work. Then every translator has his own peculiar difficulties. Read Dr. Van Dyck's account of the labor attending his translation of the Old Testament : " In the first place it must be carefully made from the Hebrew ; then compared with the Syriac version of the Maronites, and the Septuagint of the Greeks ; the various readings given, and in difficult places the Chaldee Targums must be consulted, and hosts of German commentators ; so that the eye is constantly glancing from one set of characters to another ; then, after the sheet is in type, thirty copies are struck off and sent to scholars in Syria, Egypt, and even Ger- many. These all come back with notes and suggestions, every one of which must be well weighed. Thus a critic, by one dash of his pen, may cause me a day's labor; and not till all is set right can the sheet be printed."^ Rev. D. C. Greene says : " We have been surprised to find that the Gospel of John is one of the most difficult books in the New Testament to render into Japanese. It abounds in passages which, while they seem natural enough in Greek or English, would, translated literally, almost destroy the connection of thought. Even the long involved sentences of Paul are often easier to manage than the seemingly simple statements of John." ^ And another missionary says : "The Japanese have never cultivated their own language, but spent their time in corrupting the Chinese. No one here reads a Chinese book as it is written. It has to be translated into a mongrel dialect by the reader as he goes, and the Chinese characters shifted about in the sentences to make them intelligible." Then the want of a native literature increases the difficulty of translation. They have no literary standard by which we may measure the adaptation of "^ Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. XXXV, pp. n2-n?>. -Bible Society Record, 1862, p. M/- 3 Do., 1S7S, p. 57. 248 THE ELY VOLUME. our work to meet their wants. The best informed among themselves are unable to agree as to what will best suit the people, and much less can we decide for them. An intelligent native, who had devoted himself to the culti- vation of his own language, said to a missionary in Yeddo, that he hoped the Bible would supply this need of his countrymen.^ The accompanying specimen is the Lord's Prayer in Japanese. The reader will notice that where a Chinese character is used a Japanese one is placed by the side of it, to assist the reader. The Japanese begin at the right hand and read each column from top to bottom. Though this type occupies so much space, the same sounds printed in English letters would occup}^ only one sixth of it. Before looking at Dr. Goodell's labors as a translator, it is well to read his own account of the difficulties he encountered. The great work of his life was the translation of the Bible into Armeno-Turkish, or Turkish written in the Armenian character.- His attention was called to it on his first arrival in Malta, in 1823, and his final revision was completed in 1863. The printing of the first edition of the New Testament was begun at Malta in 1835, ^"<^^ ^^ November, 1S41, the translation of the Old Testament was finished, and printed at Smyrna. A second edition of the New Testament was also printed there in 1843. After he went to Constantinople ^ he tried to carry it on with other missionary work, but accomplished next to nothing. His room must be a study, not a church ; his mind, instead of being distracted, needed to be com- posed, like that of Elisha and the inspired writers whose words he would trans- late ; and his attention strictly confined to this work alone. It was not like giving the Gospel at first to the heathen, where haste is more needed than accuracy, and a more critical examination of difficult passages reserved for the future ; but it was giving the Scriptures to a nation that had them in two lan- guages already, though neither tongue was generally understood, and the more learned of the people were more ready to compare, in order to find discrepancies, than to be guided into the truth. In some cases he spent more time on a single passage than he should have employed on a whole chapter, had he been throwing out to a starving population for the first time this bread of heaven. In doing this his feelings often went along with those of the sacred writers, so that, when reading a page alone perhaps for the seventh time, he had to wipe away the tears, or offer up the prayer or praise of which his heart was full. He said that he could almost wish that all the Lord's people were translators, that they might see with their own eyes the very words and style 'in which God expressed his thoughts to man. God's Word is indeed a great deep. It is divinely beau- tiful ; it is fraught with the riches of eternity. His helpers, when they learned from him the peculiar idioms of the Greek and Hebrew, insensibly tried to conform their translation to it; so that he 1 B/i/e Society Record, i?s-]i>, pp. 53-54. 2 Armeno-Tuikish and Greco-Turkisli lequire a word of explanation. Many Armenians and Greeks read tlieir own characters, but are not able to read the Arabic letters in which Turkish is usually printed, and perhaps a third of the Armenians have lost the use of their own language, and tan speak only Turkish. To accommodate Ihese the Bible is translated into Turkish, but printed in their own characters, with which they are already familial-. 3 June 9, 1S31. THE LORD'S PRAYER IN JAPANESE, TRANSLATED BY AMERICAN MISSIONARIES. X lA il ^^ z^ s /r H 9 ^ii> } 0^ i^^ 'N r /i ,^, ^ m ^ A ? -T" 1 ;^4 i i; ^ v^;^ BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 249 needed constantly to guard against that tendency, which would have made the work of little use. Then he put parts of it into the hands of men in various positions, to see whether the style was intelligible. Sometimes he did the same with men esteemed as scholars, but carefully, so as not to get the style above the comprehension of the masses. His proof-reading, too, cost him sleepless vigilance ; for he found, by dear bought experience, that natives could not be relied on for accuracy ; and, after all, he felt that he only approximated the perfection he desired.^ In the early part of his work Dr. Goodell was aided by the Armenian Bishop, Dionysius Carabet ; and later his most efificient helper was Panayotes Constantinides, with whom he was associated for thirty years. Together they revised the New Testament three times, and the Old Testament once. " We pressed on together," says Dr. Goodell, " returning thanks at the end of every chapter, that we had been brought so far together on our journey; but his strength failed him when yet there was but a little further to go, so he laid himself down, and the angels carried him to his home in heaven." On the day of the completion of the work, he wrote to his old teacher at Andover, John Adams, LL.D., "Thus have I been permitted by the goodness of God to dig a well in this distant land, at which millions may drink ; or, as good brother Temple would say, to throw wide open the twelve gates of the new Jerusalem to this immense population." A version in modern Armenian was issued in several editions, for those Armenians who still use their ancestral tongue. Dr. E. Riggs devoted most of his time to its preparation and revision for seven years, aided at first by Rev. J. B. Adger. Dr. Riggs also prepared a version of the New Testament in ancient Armenian, and in Greco-Turkish. Dr. W. G. Schauffler, aided by Rev. Mr. Farnam, of the London Jews' Society, and Rev. Mr. Schwartz, of Berlin, prepared several editions of the Old Testament in Hebrew-Spanish, printed first at Vienna, and afterwards at Smyrna, for the Jews in Turkey; also an edition in Hebrew-German. After the giving up of the mission to the Jews, he devoted himself to the preparation of a version in the Osmanli-Turkish, which was thoroughly revised by Dr. Riggs, Rev. A. T. Pratt, M.D., until his death, and Rev. G. F. Herrick, aided by a missionary of the Church Missionary Society. In this they had also the cooperation of a native pastor and some learned Moslems, and the result is a standard version in the Turkish language, which it is intended shall supersede the Greco-Turkish and Armeno-Turkish versions, so that the testimony of the Word may be the same in all. That is, it will be printed in Greek letters for Greeks, in Armenian characters for Armenians, and in Arabic letters for Moslems ; for the process of assimilation has gone so far among the different races in the Turkish empire, that it is no longer needful to accommodate the different dialects that once existed, caused by the use of different languages ; but all can understand the same version, and derive more advantage from the present uniformity of the text, than from former accommodation to their provincialism. The version which thus unifies 1 See his letter to Rev. S. H. Calhoun, Nove.Tiber 6, 1841, in his Memoir, pp. 266-272. '■5° THE ELY VOLUME. the language of the empire was completed May 25. 1S78, and the event was celebrated by appropriate religious services. It is now in use. Previous to this, another very important version was prepared for the Bul- garians in European Turkey. Methodius and Cyril gave the Bible to the Sclavs in their own language one thousand years ago ; but the Sclavic is no longer a spoken language. The four Gospels translated by Seraphim, of Eski Zagra, and Sapoonoff, of Trevna, was published at Bucharest in 1828. In 1840 n native version of the New Testament was published, and the Old Testament had been translated by Mr. Constantine Photinoff, at Smyrna, who died just as he was about to revise it with Dr. Riggs. Since then the language itself has undergone a change, conforming more to the Eastern dialect, or Sclavic, which now takes precedence. The need of revision was so manifest that even the government censor encouraged Dr. Riggs to go on. Two Bulgarian scholars, skilled in both the Eastern and Western dialects, were called to his aid, as well as Dr. A. L. Long, of the Methodist mission. Dr. Riggs devoted to this version the most of his time for twelve years; the first edition was printed in an imperial octavo of ten hundred and fifty-four pages, with the references of our English Bible, and at the first annual meeting of the newly organized Bulgarian mission,^ Dr. Riggs laid on the table the only copy that had come from the bindery in Constantinople.- Now the Bible is sold all over the Turkish empire, and the Bible House at Constantinople is quite as prominent t/iere as either the Bible House at New York is Aere, or as the one in London is in Great Britain. The Scriptures are sold there in more than twenty languages, and infuse new life into both litera- ture and religion.^ 1 1871. "^ Missiotiary Herald, 1872, pp. 76-79. 3 As an illustration of the extent to which these translations find their way to the people for whose benefit they were made, read the following from the Annual Report of the American Bible Society for iSSo: At Constantinople the following editions left the press in 1879 : 5,000 copies Imperial Svo Reference Bible in Turkish (Armenian letter). 1,000 " " " " " " Armenian (from plates). 3,100 " New Testament in .Armenian (from plates). 300 " Imperial Svo Reference Testaments in Turkish (Armenian letter). 2,000 " Psalms in Armenian. 2,000 " Proverbs in Armenian. 1,100 " Psalms in Armenian (.Ancient). 1,500 " Proverbs in Turkish (Osmanli). (,500 " Job " MaWnga total at Constantinople of 17,500 copies. At Beirut there were printed : 4,000 Bibles in Arabic. 4,100 Testaments in Arabic. 4,852 Portions in Arabic. Making a total at Beirut of 12,952 copies. The entire production of these two centers amounted to 30,452 copies, or 11,304 more than in 1S78. The work of the American Bible Society [Annual Report for iS8i] in the Turkish Empire has, under the rbiessing of God, seen from year to year a gradual but most encouraging increase. The following tabulated view of statistics, taken from the reports of 1S70, 1875, and 18S0, will indicate the progress in each period of five years : 1870. 1S75. 1880. Books printed S.ooo 22,500 35>2io Additions to stock 15. 594 24,552 50,080 Circulation '7.554 27.483 40,123 Colporters and booksellers 34 66 129 Receipts from sales $5,098.60 $8,190.22 sJi2, 727.29 BIBLE TRANSLATIONS. 251 In Africa the Gospel of Matthew, translated into Mpongwe by Rev, W. Walker, was printed at the Gaboon River in 1850. The Gospel of John, translated into the same language by Rev. A. Bushnell, and revised by Dr. J. L. Wilson, was printed in New York by the American Bible Society, in 1852 ; i2mo, 144 pp. As a specimen of it, John xv : 1-5 is here appended : EWONJO XV. Mie nle ogale reti, nla Reri yam nle oma o penjavenja wo. 2 Ivare yedu gore mie ny'ayana ilonda, e tomba nyo : nl'ivare yedii nyi jana ilonda, e senga nyo, inle ; nyi ga wunie ilonda imienge. 3 Vena anuwe re pupu nrigamba ny'awulini mie'niiwe. 4 Loanlani nla mie, ka mie nla'nuwe. Ga ntaga ivare ny'alenge ngulu yi jana ilonda nyome, kao nyi doana nl'ogale : yena re ke anuwe ayana ilonda, kao anuwe doana nla mie. 5 Mie nle ogali, anuwe nle ampare'. Omedu o doana nla mie, ka mie nla ye, oma me e jana ilond' imienge'; kande aza mie, anuwe lenge ngulu denda mpongwa. Mr. Walker translated the book of Proverbs into Mpongwe in 1853, but it was not printed till 1859, when it was printed in New York, along with Genesis, Exodus and Acts, under Mr. Walker's supervision. Paul's Epistles appeared at New York in 1867. A third edition of the Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Daniel, the minor Prophets, and Isaiah i-xxix appeared in 1879, from the press of the American Bible Society, in New York,^ and from that edition the Lord's Prayer herewith presented is taken : Reri yazyo yi re g'orowa, ini nya nyi ga loanl' orunda; 2 Inlanga nya nyo ga vie ; ntandinli ya yo ga yanjo go ntye ga nte dendo yo g'orowa. 3 Va zue inya si keka zue nlanla winla. 4 Nyeza zue inuani sazyo, ga nte nyeza zue mengi wi nuana zue. 5. Arcianla zue gw'isyario, ndo romba zue avila gw'ibe. Kande ipanginla, nli ngulu, nl'ivenda iya egombe zodu. Amen. Matthew and a few of the Psalms were prepared by Mr. Preston in the Dikele language, and the Gospel of John was printed in New York in 1879. The American Bible Society issued from its press in New York, in the Benga language, Matthew in 1858, Mark in 186 1, Luke and Genesis in 1863, 1 Letter of E. W. Gilman, D.D. 252 THE ELY VOLUME. and John and Acts in 1864, and a new edition of the Gospels and Acts in 1881. Mr. Preston wrote in January, 1865/ " I know nothing of printing except what I have taught myself here in Africa," — and for tools he had only an old hand press and ink balls ; but the Gospel of Luke had been printed and sent to New York to be bound ; Mark had been revised and printed ; and the Psalms translated by Mr. Walker had been printed as far as Psalms Ixv : 10, In what language this work was done he does not say. The Gospel of John was translated into the language of the Zulus in i860, and printed in 1861. The New Testament appeared in 1865, at Natal, a second edition in 1872, and a third in 1879 ; the two books of Kings, Ezra, Daniel, and the minor prophets in 1868-1869. The report of the Bible Society for 1880 states that the whole Bible in the Zulu tongue will soon be complete. lord's prayer in ZULU. Father our who (art) in heaven. Let it be hallowed name thy, Ubaba wetu o s'ezuluini, Ma li dunyisiie igama lako, Kingdom thy let it come. Will thy let it be done on earth umbuso wako ma u ze, Intando yako ma y'enziwe emhlabeni here as in heaven. Us give to-day bread daily our. apa jenga s'ezuluini, Si pe namhla isinkua semihla setu, Us forgive sins our, like as we them forgive those Si yekele izono zetu, jengokuba tina si ba yekela bona who sin against us. Thou not us lead into temptation, abonayo ku ti, U nga si zisi eku-lingueni, but us deliver from evil. For kingdom it is thine. kodua- si kulule eku-oneni, Gokuba uiiibuso u ngo wako and power it is thine, and glory it is thine, forever, Amen, n'amanhla a nga ako, nobukosi bu ngo bako, kubengunapakade. Amen.^ As a specimen of the changes that have to be made in the first tentative translation of Scripture after missionaries become more thoroughly acquainted with the language, the version of the same prayer, from the second edition printed at Natal, in 1872, is here subjoined : I Baba wetu o sezulwini, Ma li hlonitywe igama lako ; 2 Umbuso wako ma u ze ; Intando yako ma yenziwe em- hlabeni njenga sezulwini ; 3 U si pe nahmla ukudhla kwetu okwaneleyo ; 4 U si tetelele amacala etu njengokuba si ba tete-lela aba namacala kiti ; 5 U nga si ngenisi ekuli-ngweni, kodwa u si sindise koku-bi ; 6 ngokuba umbuso u ngowako namandhla, nobukosi, ku ze ku be pakade. Ameni. ' A nmial Report of A vierkan Board, 1S65, p. 59. -'Rev. James C. Bryant, in Jviirna.1 0/ the A vtericau Ori.iital Society, Vcl. I, pp. 3"•• PP '5-'6. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 269 was taught every accomplishment, and supplied with all that rank and wealth could procure, but he soon learned to despise them. The tradition is that, in the year after his marriage, he met at the east gate of the city a Deva in the form of an aged man with white hair. Again the same Dev appeared at the south gate, as a man laboring under disease. At the west gate he saw a dead body carried out to be buried, and at the north gate a begging priest in the garb of an Ascetic. To the question who he was, the priest replied, " I am a Bikshu,' practising sacred duties and obtaining the reward of freedom from action," then vanished from sight. The prince felt "This man knew my fears of old age, sickness, and death, and has pointed out the way of deliverance," and from that time resolved to become an Ascetic. At the age of twenty-five, on the seventh day of the second month,- — though according to a statement on page thirty-four, it was in his twentieth year — three years after his marriage, while thinking of the life of a recluse, light shone out from his body and reached to all the palaces of the Devs — we give the story wiithout note or comment — who came to congratulate him, and, by their aid, he left his father's house in the night, and went forth to the lonely slopes of the Himalayas. There he lived on hemp and barlej^, and drank melted snow, till, at thirty years of age, he attained the knowledge of the true condition and wants of men. After having passed through the grade of Piisa,^ he attained to the rank of Buddha in his thirty-fifth year, on the seventh day of the second month. Thirty-five days after that he went to Benares, having, at the urgent request of Brahma and Indra, refrained from entering the state of Nirvana,* and consented to open the gate of " the sweet law " to mortals. On the way he sat by a pool in a state of ecstatic trance ^ for seven days, and the light that radiated from him restored a blind snake in the pool to the form of a young man, who then became his disciple. On the seventh day of the third month, the spirit of the tree under which he lay in his trance, troubled at his long fast, induced two merchants passing by to give him barley, mixed with honey, in four bowls of fragrant stone. He took them, and in their sight formed the four into one, and administered the vows of discipleship to the two merchants, imposing on them the five prohibitions. At Benares he discoursed on the fact of misery, the need of separation from the entanglements of the passions, and the extinction of these miseries and entanglements by reformation. Godinia and four others listened and asked permission to begin the monkish life. This he granted, and discoursed further of the non-permanence of human actions, the emptiness of the outer world, the non-existence of the Ego, deliverance from thraldom by the cessation of faults, and the consequent attainment of the rank of Arhan'' — the highest of the four grades of disciples. Thus the world had six Arhans, and the three precious ones, viz. : Buddha, Dharma, i. e., the revolving of the wheel of the doctrine of the four truths, and Sanga, /. e., the company of the five Arhans. This was the foundation of the Buddhist assembly of believers distinguished by vows of 1 Religious mendicant. - Chinese Buddhism, p. 18. 3 Inferior god. * Eternal unconsciousness. ''Samadhi. « Fourth grade of wisdom. The fourare Sudawan, Sidagam, Anagam, and Arhan.— Chinese Buddhism, p. 182. 270 . THE ELY VOLUME. celibacy, abstinence from animal food, and the occupations of social life. The Sangarama' and Vihara," or monastery, was soon a necessity. Upasakas, or lay brothers, who kept the rules at their own homes, were also received, and as soon as the whole number reached fifty-six Shakyamuni dis- missed them all, to go about living on the alms they begged, and everywhere preach the doctrine of the four miseries. Thus monastic vows, living in communities, voluntary poverty, and universal preaching formed the basis of the structure of Buddhism. In a few years India was filled with communities of monks, and in the cool season Bikshus, or mendicant preachers, everywhere taught the true way to Nirvana. On the banks of the Nairanjana Buddha again met the king of the devils, who had once tried to prevent his attaining to that rank, but now himself sought to enter the Nirvana. Buddha, however, refused him, as not vientally prepared for that change. He did not, however, refuse applicants from other worlds. He ascended to the Tushita paradise, one of the four Buddhist para- dises, to teach the'new law to his mother. On the banks of the same river, five hundred Guebres were led by his discourse on the four miseries to become Arhans and throw their implements of fire worship into the stream. The king of Rajagriha and all his leading men, Brahmans, and people, became disciples, and here Buddha taught for many years. Three years later he was invited to Shravasti, to the house and garden of Jeta, provided for him by the king's eldest son and a rich noble ; and here he made laws for the punishment of theft, slander, and assassination. After twelve years' absence, his father sent for him to return. Buddha sent a disciple to perform certain magical works before him, and the king came out thirteen miles with an escort of ten thousand to welcome him, and ordered five hundred noble youths to become monks. Buddha's own son, Rahula, joined the number, with fifty youth of the nobility as his companions. While boys were received, with their parents' consent, from twelve years of age and upward^ they did not take the full vows till they were twenty. Women also asked and received permission to take them. Thus, in twelve years, Buddhism had spread over sixteen kingdoms of India. Buddha taught morality by rules of great strictness, and made metaphysics the staple of his teaching. That took the place of theology, and duty was viewed only on its human side. Obedience to the law of God was not taught ; hence the absence o£ the idea of sin against God in his teaching, which dealt only with human misery, and ignored human guilt. A charm was employed to rescue a disciple from the snares of a harlot, and then Buddha sought to strengthen him against temptation by a grand display of dialectics. Philo- sophical negations were his cure for immorality. He failed to express the relation of morality to God. He knew the longing of man for deliverance from misery, and the struggle in the human heart between good and evil, but he was destitute not only of Bible, but even of Confucian light, though his defects could not destroy the witness of conscience to the distinctions of eter- nal and immutable morality.^ 1 Assembly garden. ^ Cloisters. ^ Chinese Buddhism, p. 37. RELIGIOUS DEI.IEFS. 2'JV Hence, among his reasons for abstinence from animal food, we find no' ''Tlius saith the Lord," but (i) the danger of eating a relation, who, througln the changes of the metempsychosis, may exist in the form of the animal eaten :; (2) the unclean smell and taste; (3) the fear caused by the smell among vari- ous animals ; and (4) it interferes with the success of charms and magical devices.^ Compare with this the Bible reason for the prohibition of murder. Genesis ix:6, "For in the image of God made he man." In its idea of duty Buddhism leaves out the idea of obligation to God, and dwells only on the duty of lessening human misery and increasing human hap- piness. So we find ^ that if a woman lacking beauty and health prays to a certain Bodhisattwa'^ she will, for a million of kalpas, have a pretty face, and they M'ho perform music before the same deity, shall be shielded by thousands of spirits from all unpleasant sounds. As one reads such things, he is tempted to ask whether Buddhism is creeping stealthily into the Christian church? Dr. Edkins gives details of his literary productions, which cannot be here reproduced. He is said to have visited one of the heavenly paradises and taught Devas, P'usas, Buddhas, and Bodhisattwas. All were counted subordi- nate to Buddha, the self-elevated sage, and subject to his commands, ruling the world according to his law. The " central Shastra " sets out with the attempt to prove that creation was not the act of the great " self-existent God,"* nor of the god Vishnu ; nor did concourse, or commixture, or time, or the nature of things, or change, or neces- sity, or minute atoms, cause the creation of the universe. In the Buddhist view these deities are also subject to death, and men by certain specified virtuous acts may be born hereafter to become their successors.^ One of the writings of Shakyamuni is called the Prajna Paramita." There are six Paramitas, and one of them contains six hundred chapters and one hundred and twenty volumes — eighty times the size of the New Testament. The entire series of Buddhist books in A. D. 141 o, reached to six thousand seven hundred and seventy-one kiuen, or sections. Three fourths of it is trans- lated into Chinese from the Sanskrit, and though much abbreviated and con- densed in the translation, is seven hundred times the size of the Chinese New Testament. Buddha made much of reciting these voluminous works. He directed the king of Shravasti, in order to avert national calamity, to have a hundred priests recite the Prajna Paramita twice in one day ; that on journeys it should be car- ried a hundred paces in advance of royalty, on a table adorned with gold, silver and jewels, and that at home it should be kept on a lofty throne, and honored daily with reverential worship.'' It is not every author that secures such honor for his writings, though it would be very strange if the spirit that narrates such incredible stories as Buddha's visits to heaven, and the instruction he gave to the gods, as veritable facts, does not diminish the measure of rever- ence he demanded for his writings. Wonderful stories are told of the rulers of India leaving their thrones to their brothers, on hearing them, and adopt- ing the monastic habit. '^ Chinese Buddhism, p. 20^. ^Do., p. 195. ^ An inferior deity. * Ishwara Deva. * Chinese Buadhism, p. 219. ^The utmost of wisdom made known. ' Chinese Buddhism, p. 41. 272 THE ELY VOLUME. At seventy-one years of age Buddha gave instruction in his esoteric doc- trine, which is for the Boddhisattwas and more advanced pupils. It is an inner meaning added to the exoteric form. Early Buddhism favored no castes ; all were equal in the eyes of Buddha, and this made it very popular. He also denied that one intelligent, personal God created and governs all things ; but held that innumerable causes, constituting a moral fate, are con- stantly working out retributive effects by their inherent energy. Toward the close of his life Buddha dwelt much on the doctrine of the Nirvana. The king of Kaushambi made an image of Buddha, five feet high, in sandal wood, covered with gold ; and King Prasenajit made another of 'purple gold. These images radiated light, while the sky rained flowers, and Buddha said to them : " After my entrance into the state of extinction and sal- vation, I give my disciples into your charge." His aunt could not bear to have him leave her, and with her five hundred women, came and worshiped him ; then returned and did marvelous things, such as walking on the water, or in the air, sitting or lying on vacancy, fire and water issuing from their sides and mouths, and then together they entered the Nirvana. Seventy thousand Lohans^ also entered the same state. Buddhism seems never at a loss for numbers, however large. On the fifteenth day of the second month, Buddha was in the city of Kushinagara, in a spot between two sala trees. ^ A loud voice proclaimed : "To-day the world's honored one will enter the Nirvana; whoever has a doubt, let him now come for its solution." The great Bodhisattwas, the various kings of the Jambhudvipa continent, the kings of the Devas, the kings of the rivers and mountains, of the birds and beasts, and his personal disciples, all came with their olTerings, but he firmly and silently declined them. They then be- sought him to discourse on the cessation of permanence, on misery, on empti- ness, and on the negation of self. So he instructed them in the four antitheses, viz., the permanence which is not permanent, the joy that involves sorrow, the I that is not I, and the purity that contains impurity. They besought him to remain, but he referred them to his writings, which would be the same as his personal presence. The king of Magadha had killed his father, and therefore suffered from a painful ulcer ; and when he lamented that Buddha was going where he could not heal him, Shakyamuni radiated pure and cool light as far as the king, and healed him. He, with his queen and five hundred and eighty thousand sub- jects, then came to the city to see the sage, and were taught, and his guilt was thus much lightened. We pass over other things which are mere repetitions. Ananda asked him : " Who shall be our teacher? " He replied, "The Shipara system of discipline." " Where shall we live ? " Answer : " In the four places of meditation, (i) Meditation on the body. The body and the moral nature are identical in vacancy. (2) Meditation on receptiveness. Reception is not 1 Chinese form of Arhan. . ^Tlie Sala tree is regarded in China as having been the liorse chestnut (^^^fa/«j).— Letter of Dr. S. Wells Williams. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 273 inside, nor is it outside, nor is it in the middle. (3) Meditation on tlie heart. It is only a name. The name differs from the nature. (4) Meditation on the law (Dharma). The good Dharma cannot be attained, nor can the evil Dhar- ma be attained.^ Brahma not appearing in the assembly, the angry multitude sent for him, but his city was found extremely filthy, and the messenger died. Buddha created a diamond king by his magical power, who went, and, pointing to the filth, transformed it into good soil ; he then pointed at Brahma, and by the use of a little of his strength made him come to Buddha. Buddha then proceeded with his instructions, referring them to the book of discipline called Pratimoksha Sutra, which details the duties of priests; and, re- clining on his right side, with his head to the north, his feet to the south, his face to the west, and his back to the east, at midnight, without a sound, he entered the Paranirvana. He lay between four pairs of sala trees. Two pairs lying east and west became one tree, as also the two pairs lying north and south, and in their grief changed to a stork-like whiteness. When he was placed in a gold cofifin, it was found that it could not be moved, but Buddha himself lifted it to the height of the sala trees, and the coffin moved of itself in and out of the gates, going the round of the city seven times, and slowly proceeded to the place of cremation. After all was consumed, his mother came down from heaven, and the coffin opened of itself. The honored one rose up, joined his hands, and said, "You have condescended to come down here from your abode far away ; " and to another, " For an example to the unfilial of other ages have I risen from my coffin to address my mother."' Kashiapa was instructing five hundred disciples at a distant mountain, when an earthquake told him his master had gone, and at once he came with his disciples to the coffin. Buddha pitied him, and again the coffin opened of itself, and revealed the golden and purple body of Buddha, strong and beautiful. These stories are repeated just as they are given, that the intelligent reader may compare them with the gen- uine miracles of Holy Scripture. Seven days after the cremation, Indra Shakra opened the coffin and took out a tooth of Buddha. A Raksha also took out two teeth. The citizens filled eight golden pots with relics.^ On another page,'' we learn that one tooth in a temple in China is "two inches and a half thick, and ten by thirteen in width (and depth .?)." When his father welcomed him home, he is described as " sixteen feet in height," and his color a brilliant golden.* Chinese tradition says Buddha was born in a palace, with a halo of glory round his head. One of the first things he did was to walk seventeen steps toward the four cardinal points, declaring aloud, " In heaven and earth is none greater than I,"^ The accounts of his marvelous strength and endowments are ludicrously incredible. The accompanying engraving gives a good idea of the exaggerated way in which his worshipers love to represent Buddha. This image is of bronze, fifty feet high. The reader can judge of its size by com- paring it with the men in front. This image is at Kamakura, near Yedo, in '^Chinese Buddhism, p. 54. -Do., p. 5S. ^Do. , p. 250. ^Do., p. 32. •'■ Nevius' China atid the Chinese, p. 85. 274 THE ELY VOLUME. Japan. There is a door behind, by which one may pass inside. In 1871, an American sat on one of the thumbs and sang the doxology.' Dr. Edkins gives the following specimens of Buddhist teaching. Kuma- rada, the nineteenth patriarch, says : " Activity comes from doubt, doubt from knowledge, knowledge from a lack of perceptive power, and this last from a morbid mind. Let your mind be pure and at rest, and without life or death, victory or defeat, action or retribution, and you have reached the eminence of the Buddhas of the past. All vice and virtue, action and inaction, are a dream and a delusion." ^ Kumarada died A. D. 23. Haklena, the twenty-third patriarch, to the question : " How to attain to the true knowledge of things ? " replied, " Do nothing. If you do anything there is no merit in it. By doing nothing you follow the system of Buddha." ^ The reader will not be surprised to knov/ that a reformed Buddhist sect appeared in the beginning of the sixteenth century, called Wu Wei Kiau.* It is described by Dr. Edkins, pp. 371-379. The following story is one of their traditions. The patriarch Haklena was told by Manura that five hundred of his disciples, who sought to delude him into showing them favor, had once been born as storks; and when he intimated a wish to get rid of them, they were induced to fiee away with loud cries by the utterance of these words: "The mind follows the ten thousand forms in their revolutions. At the turning points of revolution there really must be darkness. By following the stream, • and recognizing the true nature, you attain a position where there is no joy or sorrow."^ A little work of the Tang dynasty, called Twan-tsi-sinyau, says : " To be- come Buddha the mind needs only to be freed from its affections ; not to love nor hate ; covet, rejoice nor fear; to do, or aim at doing, what is virtuous or vicious, is to leave the heart and go out into the tangible world. It is to become entangled in the metempsychosis in the one case, and much trouble and vexa- tion in the other. The right method is in the mind ; it is the mind itself. The fountain of knowledge is the pure self-enlightening mind. This is the method taught by all the Buddhas. Let the mind do nothing, observe nothing, aim at nothing, hold fast to nothing — that is Buddha. Then there will be no difference between living in the world and entering the Nirvana. Then human nature, the mind, Buddha, and the doctrine he taught, all become identical.® It is no wonder that one of their schools — the Lin-tsi, its founder died A. D. 868 — teaches the following enigmas: "Is it to search in the grass where there is the shadow of the stick, that you have already come here ? " And, "To kill a man, to strike with the sword a dividing blow, and the body should not enter the water." Such sentences certainly discourage the exercise of thought, and favor a hopeless, intellectual apathy. The proton pseudos of Buddhism is its denial of God. Not that it denies the existence of gods, but it denies Godhead, leaving the name without the reality it represents. The Sanskrit name for- God is Di\^, or Deva, correspond- ing to the Greek Theos, and Latin Deus, but Buddhism teaches that these are mortal, and limited in power, so that men can rise to their level, or, as in the ^ Missio7tary Herald, iSjq, p. 77. ^ Chinese Buddhism, p. 82. 'Do., p. S4. 'The Do Nothing Sect. ^Chinese Bnddhism, p. S4. ^' Do., p. 163. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 275 case of Buddha, have them sit at his feet to learn what he alone can teach them. Southey followed out Buddhistic ideas when, in his curse of Kehama, " he made him, though a man, a terror to the kings of the Devas." ' And here we need not go beyond the sparkling pages of Mr. Edwin Arnold, who, in introducing Buddha to an English audience, adorned with all the charms of poetry, cannot be supposed to introduce anything into the beautiful picture that would needlessly prejudice his hero. He says : "Nay; it may be some of the gods are good, And evil some, but all in action weak. Both pitiful and pitiless, and both — As men are — bound upon this wheel of change, Knowing the former and the after lives." That is, subject to metempsychosis, or transmigration, as well as men. His Buddhist goes on : " For so our Scriptures truly seem to teach. That — once, and wheresoe'er, and whence begun — Life runs its rounds of living, climbing up From mote, and gnat, and worm, reptile, and fish. Bird, and shagged beast, man, demon, deva, God, To clod and mote again." ^ Note the teaching : God climbs from mote, and worm, and reptile under the pressure of inevitable causes,^ up to his high position and back to clod and mote again. The same substance now a clod may, after countless ages, or kalpas, become a god, and then, after a like lapse of duration, become a clod again. How different from " the Father of lights with whom is no variableness, or shadow of turning." James i: 17. To whom the pious heart adoring saith, " Thou Lord in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou remainest, and they all shall wax old as doth a garment, and as a vesture shalt thou fold them up, and they shall be changed ; but thou art the same, and thy years shall not fail." Psalms 011:25-27. Hebrews i : 10-12. And again: "From ever- lasting (eternity) to everlasting (eternity) thou art God." Psalms xc : 2, It may be replied that, in another place, the poem says : " Only great Brahm endures. The gods but live." 4 True, it is in the poem, but it is there as an expression of a Brahmin faith, which Buddha denies, and the sacred books of Buddhism say : "A wise man can never be born in the abode of Brahma, because that god, in his ignorance of causes,^ asserts that he can create heaven, earth, and all things. No wise man would live in the heaven of one so arrogant."® So boldly does Buddhism deny the Creator. Is it strange that, having thus dethroned God, the wretched Buddhist suffers the righteous penalty of such atheism in his dreary, desolate '^ Chinese Buddhism, p. iqy. - Light of Asia, t^. <)(>. ^ Karma. * Light of Asia, -p. ii<). ^' i. t , the Buddhist causes, which »hat system puts in the place of a living, personal God. "Edkins, p. 224. 276 THE ELY VOLUME. hope only of annihilation ? In Christian lands, some in their pity for the lost, try to think that, instead of suffering forever, they will cease to exist, but Buddhism, having denied the living God, leaves for Buddha himself no better portion than a dreary hope of eternal unconsciousness. Most righteous Nem- esis ! — that those who cry " no God " must also cry "'no heaven." The most influemial leader of the Chinese Buddhists was Matsu. He said to his disciples : "You all believe that the mind itself is Buddha." . . . "The true method is to have no method. Out of the mind is no Buddha. Out of Buddha there is no mind. Virtue is not to be sought, nor vice to be shunned. Nothing should be regarded as pure or pelluted." To the question. How to attain excellence in religion ? he answered : " Religion does not consist in the use of means. To use means is fatal to attainment." And again, on the sub- ject of advance in religion, he says : " Human nature suffices for its own wants. All that is needed is to avoid both vice and virtue ; he that can do this is a religious man."' A great change has taken place in Buddhism. Instead of the early promi- nence of BuddhT, is now that of Kwan-yin ; and in place of the much coveted Nirvana, the western paradise is now held up as the goal of desire. In its early days, retribution and the future life were prominent ; now this last has gone into the background, and Buddhist monks are lazy, immoral, and profit- less members of society. Yet Buddhism has in some things prepared the way for Christianity, and furnishes 2, point tP appuiiox religious appeals. Dr. Edkins has an interesting chapter on this subject.^' In an imaginary dialogue, written in the History of the Sung Dynasty, con- cerning the merits of Buddhism and Confucianism, the Buddhist says : "Con- fucius refers only to one life, and does not allude to the unending results of a future state. His good man only benefits his posterity, and vice only entails present suffering. But the doctrine of Shakya has illimitable aims. Heaven and earth do not circumscribe its knowledge. Having, as its own idea, mercy seeking to save, the renovation of all the living does not satisfy it. It speaks of hell, and men fear to sin ; of heaven, and they desire its bliss." The Confucianist replies : " To be virtuous from a desire of heaven, is below doing right for its own sake. To keep under the body from the fear of hell, is not so good as to do so from a sense of duty. Worship offered to secure par- don, does not spring from piety. A gift made to secure a hundred-fold recompense, is not sincere. To praise the bliss of Nirvana, promotes sloth. By your system distant good is looked for, while present animal desire is un- checked. Though you say Boddhisattwas are freed from such desires, yet all men have them without exception," — and so the debate goes on.'' The geography of Buddhism deserves mention in a volume devoted to mis- sionary science. Buddha's world has the Sumeru mountain for its center, separated by a wide sea from eight other mountains, which again are separated by another wide sea from a great circular iron mountain. A thousand of these > Chinese Buddhism, p. 130. ■ Do., Chapter XXII. pp 353-370. 2 Do., pp. 96-97. See also a curious paper on the same subject, Chinese Repository, 1S33, pp. 265-270. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 277 circular ranges make a small world, and three thousand of them a large world. Within each iron enclosure are four continents, with a sun and moon. In Jambhudvipa, the southernmost continent in our world, is India. Mt. Sumeru, to the north of it, is one million one hundred and twenty thousand^ miles high, and of like depth under the surface of the sea; the highest of the Himalayas is five and a half miles high. It is composed of gold on the east side, silver on the west, lapis lazuli on the north, and crystal on the south. South of Jambhud- vipa it is three hundred and sixty thousand six hundred and sixty-three yojanas to the iron enclosure. A great yojana'- is sixteen miles, and a small one eight miles, making the width of the Southern Ocean either two million eight hundred and eighty-live thousand three hundred and four, or five million seven hundred and seventy thousand six hundred and eight miles. This iron wall is three hundred and twelve yojanas in height above the sea, and the same depth below its surface. Its circumference three million six hundred and ten thousand three hundred and fifty yojanas. Each iron-bound world has a Sumeru moun- tain in the center. Over the world are thirty-two celestial regions : four called paradises, ten of them called worlds of desire, and eighteen called heavens of form, because free from the passions that exist in the others, and these eigh- teen are divided into four stages of contemplation. Three of these heavens are in the first stage, and a like number in the second and third stages, and nine in the fourth. In the highest of all, called Akanita, is the Maha Ishwara.'' The four highest derive their names from the ideas of vacancy, knowledge, want of properties, and negation of thought.'' Some of the Buddhist hells are under the region inhabited by man. One is one hundred and forty thousand miles below it, and the hell of unintermitted torment is two hundred and eighty thousand miles below, or twice the depth of the other.'^ As to Buddhist measures of time, a kalpa is the period consumed in a change of the universe. These are large or small. In the small kalpa, the age of man dwindles from an immeasurable length to ten years, and increases again to eighty thousand years. Eighty of these make a large kalpa. In twenty of them the world is made. Twenty more it remains the same. In twenty more it is destroyed, and then vacancy remains for twenty more. We live in the second of these twenties, and eleven small kalpas must pass before destruction begins.® Buddhism is emphatically the religion of China. The emperor Ming ti, either prompted by a dream which he had in A. D. 6i, or by the words of Con- fucius, already mentioned, or, as now seems more likely, by his own desire to learn more of Buddhism, sent to the west for religious teachers. His mes- sengers returned with this new religion A. D. GjJ 1 Dr. D. O. Allen {India, p. 20), says that Mount Sumeru is six hundred thousand miles high, and one hun- dred and twenty-eight thousand below the surface of the earth, making a difference of one million five hundred and twelve thousand miles, but in such numbers a variation of even that amount makes very little difference. Around its base are said to be trees S,Soo miles high, bearing fririt as large as an elephant. 2 Of these two yojanas, one equals four goshalas, and the other eight, and a goshala is the distance that the bellowing of a bull can be heard. Edkins, note, p. 223. ^The great self-existent one. * Edkins, pp. 223-224. '' Do., p. 225. 'Do., pp. 221-222. 'Do., p. 87. 278 THE ELY VOLUME. Besides faith in Buddha, Chinese Buddhists hold to inferior gods, called P'usa, who have not yet become perfect in knowledge ; and, as they are nearer mankind, and so capable of greater sympathy with our race, they are more worshiped. There is a Northern Buddhism, whose sacred writings are in Sanskrit, and a Southern, with its holy books in the more recent Pali. In Thibet and Mongolia, the system is political as well as religious, and has for its head the Grand Lama, the reputed incarnation of Buddha, whose spirit at death is supposed to pass into the infant whom he selects for his successor. In China and Japan, though the system is not without a hierarchy, it has no political power.' Buddhists believe in a benevolent God, associated with inferior ones, who seek to save men from evil, in the transmigration of souls and the efficacy of good works. Their rites consist of prayers, works of merit, and religious austerities to make provision for the wants of a future life.'^ Their temples are numerous, costly, and imposing, built in high places, in seclusion among the hills. They consist of several separate buildings, minutely described by Mr. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese,^ and by Mr. Nevius.* In front of the three large images of Fuh is generally an image of Kwan shi yin P'usa, a virgin worshiped as the " Conferrer of sons," and generally represented like the Papal Mar}',^ with a child in her arms. Kwan shi yin, or Kwan yin, was introduced into Indian Buddhism not long before the Christian era. In China he was worshiped probably in the Han dynasty. A modern change has taken place in his image, Down to the begin- ning of the twelfth century he was represented as a man, but in later times as a woman. The popular taste favors a goddess rather than a god. Hence the appellation. Goddess of Mercy. This indicates that the Buddhist mind in China assigns feminine attributes to mercy. Salvation by teaching is a characteristic conception of Chinese Buddhism. It applies to all those fancied personages called Fuh and P'usa. The mission of Kwan yin for the salvation of men, is symbolized by her thirty-two metamor- phoses for that end. Among these are the eighty-four thousand arms and hands with which she guides them. She teaches the non-existence of matter, and the infinite knowledge and mercy of Buddha. All evil is summed up in ignorance. To know the emptiness of existing things is to be saved, and so she seeks to save.^ There are also in some of the temples, several rooms representing the tor- ments of hell, answering to Papal pictures of purgatory.'' The idols are sup- plied with artificial entrails^ through a hole in the back, if of clay or wood; but in the bottom, of those made from metal. Unlike the Pantheon of India, there is nothing indecent or calculated to inflame base passions in Chinese idols, but rather fitted to inspire reverence and awe.® Some temples have five hundred '^Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 258-259. -Do., Vol. II, p. 251. 3 Vol. I, pp. 239-242. * pp. 86-96. B Doolittle, Vol. I, p. 261. ^Chinese Buddhism, pp. 382-3S3, and see- pp. 241, 245, 250; and Dr. Williams' Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 255-257. 'Doolittle, Vol. II, p. 100; Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 257. 'Do., Vol. II, p. 276; Chinese Buddhism, p. 251. ^Middle Kingdom., Vol. II, p. 131. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 279 priests, and in their picturesque mountain locations are the favorite watering- places of wealthy families in the summer. Buddhist priests generally become such early in life, because of orphanage or poverty, or on account of troubles that come later in life, or even through crime, as the disguise of a priest facili- tates impunity from punishment. They take vows of celibacy, live on vege- tables, and wear nothing made of wool or skins of animals. They shave the head, and wear a priestly robe. Their income is from the lands of the temples, free-will offerings, and money paid for services at funerals, and begging. They ,r-:. W^^^^iS^^ A BUDDHIST HEK.MIT. burn candles, use incense, and prostrate themselves before their idols. Some priests live as hermits, and others are walled up in rooms for years, only a small aperture being left open for the admission of food. This is sometimes done for hire, rich men paying a certain price for the supposed merit of the act, but sometimes it is for life.' Occasionally the hermit lives in a cave or cell in 1 Williams' Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 250, also 273 ; Doolittle's Social Life 0/ the Chinese, Vol. I, pp. 23S-246; Chinese Repository, Vol. I, pp. 285-289. On Buddhist idols in Siam, see Chinese Repository, 1850, pp. 548-551- 250 THE ELY VOLUME. the woods or among the mountains, to which access is obtained only by such methods as are employed in the engraving. The worshipers in Buddhist temples are chiefly old women, who, in their bitter experience ^ here, seek to become men in the future state, by their auster- ities. The priests appoint certain days for^' selling tieh ; /. c, receipts for money payable in Hades. They tell them that, when they die, it may be hun- dreds of years before they return to earth, and, meanwhile, they are on expense there, as here, and money will fee the judges, so that their cases will come up sooner and be treated with more favor. So these drafts are bought, sealed with the temple seal, the words Na-mo 0-me-to Fuh,"* repeated over them some thousands of times, and they are laid away to be burned at their funeral, and so transferred with them to another world. As only one tieh can be bought on one day, the women eagerly purchase them, and spend their time at the temple in gossip, and in repeating over and over " Namo Ometo Fuh." They have rosaries to aid them in keeping count of the repetitions.'' They also seek ad- vantage in the future world by worshiping certain books; /. e., prostrating themselves before each character in the volume, just as they do before the idols, so getting over about a page a day, and their horoscope decides how often they must go over the book in this way to have all their debts remitted in the life to come. These things, however, like the immuring in the cell, may be done by proxy, and the credit inure to the one who pays for the perform- ance.'' Papists recognizing the resemblance of Buddhism in many things to Romanism,^ have charged Satan with counterfeiting the true religion ; for be- sides the resemblances already mentioned, Buddhists'' pray in an unknown tongue^ to saints and intercessors, especially to the Virgin and child." They pray for the dead. They have monasteries and nunneries, works of supereroga- tion, a formal daily service of chants, burning of candles and incense, sprink- ling of holy water, religious fasts and feasts, processions, images and pictures, and worship relics both real and pretended. The Buddhist nunneries are in deservedly bad repute for their immoralities. One in Fuhchau was summarily suppressed by the civil authority, about 1835, and has never been reopened, at least as a nunnery.'" We cannot find a more appropriate ending to these remarks on Buddhism than is furnished by the following excellent summing up of the case by Rev. E. E. Strong in the Missionary Herald, for 1881, pp. 7-9: A LIGHT THA T DOES NOT ILLUMINE. Since the publication of Mr. Edwin Arnold's Lighf of Asia, the life and teaching of Gautama Buddha have been quite generally discussed in our lead- in"- reviews. The coincidences and the contrasts between the history and the teachings of the great Buddhist hero, and of Jesus Christ, have been presented iNevius, p. 103. -Middle Ki,igdovt, Vol. II, pp. 253-263. 3 Ometo Fuh is Chinese for Amilablia, or Amida Buddha. 4Nevius, pp. 106-109; Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 274-275- ■•Nevius, p. mo. *Do p 112 ; Middle Kingdom, Vol. 11, p. 257. ' Middle Kingdom, Vol. 1 1, p. 252. «The' Sanskrit. " Kwan shi yin. lODoolittle's Social Life Among the Chinese, Vol. I, p. 253; Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 255-257; Uevius' China and the Chinese, p. 102. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 281 very fully. That some of these coincidences are striking, no one will deny ; that the contrasts are as striking will probably be denied by some, but certainly not by any who look beneath the surface. Gautama was of a gentle, yet in- tensely earnest spirit, and seems to have been moved with compassion for the multitude like that which filled our Lord. He took upon himself the task of a reformer in the midst of a Brahmanism which was cold and proud and cruel. We would not question his benevolent purpose. But his particular object, and his method for attaining that object differ from those of Christ as night differs from day. Gautama was oppressed by the suffering about him ; Christ was burdened for the world's sin. To the Indian prince the great evil was pain ; to Jesus there was no evil to be compared with wickedness. The Buddhist would make men happy ; our Lord would first make them holy. And as to the remedies suggested, the contrast is still more striking. Gautama taught that misery is inseparable from existence, and hence the only way to avoid pain was to escape from the prison of endless existences. This goal of unconsciousness, his highest good, could be gained not by help from without, for there were no gods even who could help, but by one's own efforts. He who would attain Nirvana must abandon all affection, check all desires, and by meditation seek to lose personal consciousness. But Jesus sought to quicken and not to be- numb the affections; he would inspire every faculty to a more intense activity; he proposes to deliver his followers from their sin, and so bring them into con- scious and blissful fellowship with the God of their salvation. Gautama sets before men eternal sleep, but Jesus offers them eternal life. But it is in view of the lofty character of Shakyamuni and of the general purport of his doctrines, that Mr. Arnold has termed him "The Light of Asia." It has seemed to us that the propriety of this title can be settled in a better way than by investigating his life and teachings. Every one knows that it is the function of a light to enlighten. It is certainly miscalled if it cannot irradiate some definite area. Even if a light is hid under a bushel, it will cer- tainly illumine the bushel. But the Buddhism of Gautama has not been thus hidden. For twenty-five hundred years it has had its opportunity to mold society throughout a vast area in the Eastern world. It has been received in India, Burmah, Siam, China, and Japan. Mr. Arnold boasts that more than a third of mankind owe to it their moral and religious ideas, and that countless millions daily repeat the formula, "I take refuge in Buddha." There can, therefore, be no plea that the religion of Gautama has not had the fullest opportunity to reveal its power, and it is fair to ask, after twenty-five hundred years, whether that religion has been efficient in the regeneration of individuals or of society. The sufficient answer to the claim that Gautama was the Light of Asia is — the Asia of to-day. This has been the field of his conquests, but what have they secured for that continent ? Hundreds of millions worship him, but is it a /igkt in which they are walking? We need make no wholesale accusations against society in those nations, as though all wickedness prevailed there while all was light about us. We recognize fully the many good qualities found in the Hindoo, the Chinese, and the Japanese. We have no doubt that the in- 202 THE ELY VOLUME. coming of Buddhism did much to ameliorate the harshness of Brahmanism, though it is more of a question whether it improved upon the Confucianism of China. But after admitting all that can reasonably be claimed as to the good qualities of these Asiatic races, every man who has seen the light of the West- ern world knows that those races, as races, are walking in moral and spiritual, as well as intellectual, darkness. Individuals may be lifted much above their surroundings, but the common people are sunken in what we can only call degradation. There can be no dispute about this. The laudations sometimes paid to the virtues of Orientals are only fair as answers to the wholesale depre- ciation in which a few indulge unwisely. Every man knows that the West is not looking to the East for light, but that the East, as it catches some gleams from afar, is slowly awaking to the consciousness that she is sitting in dark- ness, and, therefore, sends eagerly to Christendom for instruction. Look at the people over whom Buddhism has had sway. Are they walking in the light, or are they giving light ? Though Buddhism was driven from India, yet Mr. Arnold's claim is probably true that '■ the most characteristic habits and cus- toms of the Hindoos are clearly due to the benign influence of Buddha's pre- cepts." I^ut how far can they be called benign when India is left where she is to-day, weak, emasculated, ignorant; her people the victims of superstitions, her religion little more than mendicancy, her two hundred and forty millions of inhabitants so inefficient and incapable that they are subject to a nation of thirty-three millions, of an alien civilization, and living many thousand miles away. Look at Burmah, where the fullest fruits of Buddhism may be seen. The recent stories of atrocities in that land, due not less to the degradation of the people than to the corruptions of the court, show that darkness reigns there. In China, while Buddhism counts its millions of adherents, their religion is of so little account to them that they will at any time worship at either a Confucian or Taoist shrine. It has no other effect upon their lives than to make them more indolent. In Japan the reformed Buddhism is not that of Gautama at all, but, in all essential doctrines, the very opposite. Indeed, all the so-called reformations of Buddhism, of which its best followers have felt the need, have been reformations not backwards towards the teachings of Gautama, but away from them. Yet neither the old nor the reformed Buddhism has lifted the Japanese out of their darkness. The truth is that Buddhism offers to man no power to attain the virtues it depicts. Human nature needs not merely to be taught concerning the way of righteousness, but to be helped along that way. Gautama revealed no such helps, neither from God nor man. He took away all spring from life, he sought to stifle every emotion, to crush every affection. He called men not to the active exercise of their powers, but to drowsy meditation. He left no place fgr woman in his system ; it was only for men. He sought, by ignoring the gods, to stifle the instinct for worship ; an endeavor so contrary to human im- pulses that his followers began to worship him. And now they worship his teeth, and hair, and images. When one looks at the condition of society, and especially of women, throughout the Buddhist world, and considers the super- stitions and ignorance of the mass of Gautama's followers, it seems like a RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 283 sarcasm to call him "The Light of Asia." So ignorant are they of their own sacred books, that they are coming to the Christian scholars of Europe to teach them to read what their own saints and heroes have written. Gautama was a gentle and pure spirit, melancholic but benevolent, wise in many ways, but not wise above mortals. Better than most of his race, he is justly conspicuous. He was a star in the night, bright, because of the gloom in which he appeared, but he was not the sun to drive that night away. If he were the light of Asia such thick darkness could not remain there. Asia still waits for the Light that enlighteneth the world. When her millions receive Him they will no longer walk in darkness. The Tau sect, called Rationalists, and also Mystics, sprang from Laots, a philosopher born B. C. 604. His work, Tau Teh King,^ is noted in Chinese literature. Tauism takes its name from Tau,- the first character in the title of that book.^ He was a contemporary of Confucius, who visited him, but did not comprehend him. His followers despised the simple, practical doctrines of Confucius. Tauism, however, has passed from philosophy to superstition, and has busied itself in seeking the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone. Its characteristic is materialism ; matter, according to it, is eternal. The grosser part tends downward, and constitutes the earth and human bodies ; the more refined essences tend upward and assume the form of stars, and human souls. The five elements are metal, wood, water, fire, and earth, and their sublimated essences form five stars, called by their names, and exercising a mysterious in- fluence on human destiny. They come down to earth and enter into relations with men. In connection with this system, alchemy and astrologv flourish.* The popular belief is that Laots existed as a living principle before creation. After the transformations of thousands of years he was personified as " Holy Ruler of Wonderful Nonentity;"^ again, after countless ages, as " Holy Ruler of Wonderful Entity ; " and next as " Holy Ruler of Chaotic Confusion." After the creation of man, he appeared repeatedly as king, and as teacher. As the philosopher Laots, he came down from heaven in the form of a sunbeam, shaped like a particolored ball, and fell into the mouth of a sleeping virgin, who bore him after a gestation of eighty-one years, his hair already white, and his name meaning " the old boy," He is not a favorite object of worship, in- ferior deities being favorites, as more likely to be interested in men — showing equally with Buddhism how humanity craves the God-man, Immanuel, God with us. Lu tsu, the god of medicine, is a great favorite, because he is supposed to pity men in sickness, and comes from heaven for their relief. He lived about one thousand years ago, and on his way to attend a literary exami- nation was put to sleep at an inn, by one of the genii, and dreamed that he rose to become prime minister. When he woke, the jin told him his dream, ' Car.on of Reason and Virtue. 2 Reason. •'John Chalmers, of the London Missionary Society, in Canton, has translated the work. ^Dooiiulc, Vol. I, pp, 246-250; Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 242-249; Nevius, pp. 114-116. . ^ Nevius, pp. 116-117. 284 THE ELY VOLUME. and when recognized as one of the genii, added, "When the reality is all over, what is it but a dream ? " The young scholar determined to renounce the world, and his unearthly visitor offered to aid him in getting the thousand de- grees of merit needed to become one of the genii, by enabling him to turn everything he touched into gold, so that he could relieve much want, and acquire merit speeciily. " But," asked the youth, " will the gold ever revert to its original state?" "Yes, after many years." "Then," said Lu tsu, "1 decline the offer, for I would not confer a transient good to be followed by disappoint- ment." The reply was : " This magnanimity makes up the requisite amount of merit. You may be one of us now." ^ Lue kung and Lue po, the thunder god and his wife, are also idols of Tau- ism. He has a beak, wings, and claws, and holds in his hands a hammer and drum, with which he makes the thunder. His wife has mirrors on her hands and feet, whose reflections, when moved, produce the lightning.^ The " Three Pure Ones," who teach men, are supposed to be one form of Laots. The "Three Rulers," /. e., of heaven, earth, and sea, are indispensable gods of Tauism. They are described as a "trinity in unity." ^ The dragon, also, a prominent object of worship in China, is another god of the Tauists.* His domain includes every watery surface of sea or pond, and every living thing in the waters ; also the rain.^ The throne of China is the dragon throne. A dragon is the royal coat of arms, and is counted a real ex- istence ; and under him are inferior dragons, as subordinates under an emperor, the dragons even supposed to have literary examinations, like Chinese literati. The Tuti P'usah,^ the lowest of the gods, is, for that reason, the most pop- ular among the masses. Every neighborhood, hill, and bridge has one of its own.'' The Tauist priests are comparatively few, and while the Buddhists seek after Nirvana, these seek to become a sien jin, or one of the genii. Even ani- mals are supposed to have power to attain the same condition. The Tauists have ceremonies both for warding off evil and recovering from sickness, and also for inflicting evil on men through the genii.^ Their temples are compara- tively few, because they do not offer a deliverance from evil.'" Dr. Edkins devotes a very interesting chapter" to Buddhism and Tauism in their popular aspects, showing how the latter, with its magical superstitions, promotes popular delusions — though the massacre at Tientsin grew out of hatred of the French, the delusion about their getting children's eyes for medi- cine, and official playing on popular ignorance. He also has a very full and philosophical account of the geomancy of China, or their wind and water superstition, called Feng Shui, which richly repays perusal.'^ These three religions are not professed by different and opposing sects, but 1 Nevius, p. 118. -Do., p. 119; Doolittle, Vol. II, p. 301. ^ Nevius, p. 120. *Do., pp. 120-123; Middle fCingdojn, Vol. I, p. 267,309; Doolittle, Vol. I, p. 292, Vol. II, pp. 118, 119, 264-267. " Missionary Herald, 1876, p. 376. " Earth god. "Nevius, p. 123; Doolittle, Vol. II, pp. .(i;5-.i56. sjjevius, p. 125. ° Do., p. 126. '"Do., p. 129. " Chinese Btcddhism, pp. 380-397. ^2 Do., pp. 327-352. See also Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 264. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 285; each person forms an eclectic religion of his own, partaking more of this, or that, according to his individual preference; and this course is favored by the fact that they are supplementary to each other. Confucianism has to do witln morals in this life; God and our relations to him, a future existence, and our own destiny there hardly entering into its sphere of thought. Buddhism, on the contrary, has much to do with the idea of God and a future state. Yet, as it favors seclusion from society, Tauism comes in to supplement this deficiency, by its filling earth, and sea, and sky, with gods who care for the wants of this present life. In their fundamental characteristics, Confucianism is moraI„ Buddhism metaphysical, tending to fanaticism, and Tauism materialistic, tend- ing to superstition.^ The only forms of worship which are universally adopted, are ancestral worship, the worship of the kitchen god, and the worship of heaven and earth on New Year's day. Let us look a moment at each of these. Ancestral worship was practiced long before Confucius, and sanctioned by him. It is the oldest and most deeply rooted forrri of idolatry in China. It is deemed essential to filial piety, and children engage in it. hoping thus to win the favor of deceased parents and enjoy their protection. The objects wor- shiped are wooden ancestral tablets, about a foot in height, recording the names and the hour of the birth and death of their progenitors, with the names of their sons. It is supposed that each man has three spirits ;' one of which dwells in this tablet, another in the tomb, and the third in Hades. They also worship the portraits of deceased parents, taken after death. The worship consists of prostrations, offerings of cooked food, the burning of candles, incense, and paper money ; also theatrical plays. Family temples are like other temples, onl}', instead of idols, are these tablets ranged on shelves across the building, and from the floor upward. These tablets sometimes date back a thousand years. The openly immoral are neither allowed to worship or be worshiped after death. These temples, if we include single rooms in the dwelling-house set apart for this purpose, are very numerous in China, and constitute it the most sacred spot of earth to a Chinaman. Here rest the spirits of his ancestors, and here he expects his own spirit to find rest, and share in the homage of his posterity.^ The worship of the kitchen god is equally ancient and universal. He has no temple, or image, but his picture is the household deity of China, who notes all that transpires in the family during the year, and near its close reports it to the chief of the gods. On that night, five days before New Year, they make him a feast, so that his report may be as favorable as possible, and at the close his picture is burned, and so dismissed to the gods, and a new one installed for the coming year.* The state worship is that prescribed by the book of rites, for all rulers from the emperor down. The people have no part in it, and it is the most formal iNevius, 149-152 ; Doolitde, Vol. 1,236-253. - Compare the similar belief of the Dakotas, p. 260. 3 Nevius, p. 132 ; Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 259, 268-270; Dnolittle, Vol. I, pp. 86, 96, 222, 229, Vol. II, PP- 45. 372, 388, 424. ^Nevius, p. 134; Missionary Herald, 1875, pp. 241-242; Doolittle, Vol. II, pp. 81-85, 185, 186, 286 THE ELY VOLUME. of all Chinese worship. It is offered to three classes of objects: First, to heaven, earth, spirits of deceased emperors, and gods of the land and grain. Second, to the sun and moon, the deceased spirits of former dynasties, Con- fucius, patrons of agriculture and silk culture, gods of heaven and earth, and of the year. Third, to the spirits of deceased physicians, philanthropists, statesmen, and martyrs to virtue ; also to clouds, rain, wind, thunder, moun- tains, and rivers.^ The whole number of temples in China may be estimated at one million, costing from $500 to $100,000 each. Of these, more than one third are for ancestral worship, about one third for the state worship, and the remaining third for Buddhist and Tauist deities.^ Dr. Williams "' speaks of fifteen hun- dred and sixty temples of Confucius, where sixty-two thousand six hundred and SIX pigs, rabbits, sheep, and deer are annually offered on the altars and eaten by the worshipers. To these accounts of Chinese religious belief the writer adds the following very remarkable prayer, offered by the emperor, Taou Kwang, July 25, 1832, copied from the Chinese Repository, Vol. I, p. 236 : * Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented to cause affairs to be heard. Oh, alas ! Imperial Heaven, were not the world afflicted by extraordinary changes, I would not dare to present extraordinary services. But this year the drought is most unusual. Summer is past, and no rain has fallen. Not only do agriculture and human beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and in- sects, herbs .and trees almost cease to live. I, the minister of heaven, am placed over mankind, and am responsible for keeping the world in order, and tranquillizing the people. Although I cannot now eat or sleep with composure ; though I am scorched with grief and tremble with anxiety, still no genial showers have been obtained. Some days ago I fasted, and offered rich sacrifices on the altars of the gods of the land and of the grain, and had to be thankful for slight showers ; but not enough to cause gladness. Looking up, I consider that the heart of heaven is benevolence and love. The sole cause is the daily deeper atrocity of my sins, but little sincerity, and little devotion. Hence my inability to move the heart of heaven, and bring down abundant blessings. Having respectfully searched the records, I find that in the twenty-fourth year of Keenlung, my imperial grandfather, the high, honorable and pure em- peror, reverently performed " a great snow service." I feel impelled by ten thousand considerations, to look up and imitate the usage, and with trembling anxiet}% rashly assail heaven, examine myself, and consider my errors; looking up, and hoping that I may obtain pardon. I ask myself whether in sacrificial services I have been disrespectful ? Whether pride and prodigality have had place in my heart, springing up there 1 Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, pp. 233-240; Nevius, p. 135 ; Doolittle, Vol. I, pp. 353-375. - Nevius, p. 153. '•'■Middle Kingdom, Vol. II, p. 239. ■•Do., Vol. I, pp. 369-371. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 287 unobserved? Whether, through the lapse of time, I have grown remiss in at- tending to the affairs of government, and have been unable to attend to them with that serious diligence and strenuous effort which I ought ? Whether I have uttered irreverent words and deserved blame ? Whether perfect equity has been observed in meting out rewards and punishments ? Whether in rais- ing tombs, and laying out gardens, I have distressed the i^eople and wasted property ? Whether in appointing officers I have failed to select fit persons, and thereby government has become vexatious to the people ? Whether the oppressed have found no means of appeal ? Whether in persecuting heretical sects, the innocent have not suffered ? Whether the magistrates have refused to listen to the affairs of the people ? Whether in the wars on the western borders there have been the horrors of human slaughter for the sake of imper- ial rewards ? Whether the largesses bestowed on the afflicted southern provinces were properly applied, or the people left to die ? Whether the efforts to exterminate or pacify the rebels of Hunan and Kwangtung were properly conducted, or whether the people were trampled down as mire ? To all these topics I ought to lay the plumb line, and strenuously seek to correct what is wrong, still recollecting that there may be more faults than have occurred to my thoughts. Prostrate, I beg imperial heaven, Hwang Tien, to pardon my ignorance and stupidity, and to grant me self-renovation, for myriads of innocent ones are involved by me, a single man. My sins are so numerous it is hard to escape from them. Summer is past, and autumn come ; to wait longer is impossible. Knocking head,^ I pray imperial heaven to hasten and confer gracious deliver- ance, a speedy and divinely beneficial rain ; to save the lives of the people, and in some degree redeem my iniquities. Oh, alas ! Imperial heavens, observe these things ! Oh, alas ! be gracious to them ! I am inexpressibly grieved and alarmed. Reverently this memorial is presented. Dr. Bridgman, who translates this, adds : " It is very remarkable that none of the priests of Taou, or Buddha, were ordered to pray, as has been usual on similar occasions — showing in how low estimation they are held by the em- peror." Dr. Williams adds that heavy showers followed the imperial supplica- tion the same evening, and appropriate thanksgivings w-ere ordered, and sac- rifices presented before the six altars of heaven, earth, land, and grain, and the gods of heaven, earth, and the revolving year.^ Does not this prayer of a Chinese emperor illustrate the apostolic teaching, that the heathen, having not the law, are a law unto themselves, who show the work of the law written on their hearts ; their conscience also bearing them witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another? Romans ii : 14-15. Does it not also show how the invisible things of God, from the creation of the world, are clearly seen ; being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead ; so that they are without excuse ? Ro- mans i : 20. ' i. c, on the ground. - Middle Kingdom, Vol. I, p. 371. THE ELY VOLUME. DRUSES. After recounting: the information missionaries bring to us of the inhabitants of large empires, where other churches, and even different nations labor side by side, it would seem inconsistent in a volume devoted to the work of the American Board, to pass by the Druses of Mt. Lebanon, where, for so many years, that society was sole occupant of the field. Their Territory. The Druses occupy Mt. Lebanon from its southern ex- tremity, opposite Sidon, as far north as the latitude of Beirut — or, from Jezzin to the Metn ; yet they are not the exclusive occupants of that section. Maron- ites and Greeks share it with them. They have one hundred and twent}' villages of their own, and share about two hundred and thirty with these Chris- tian sects. They also extend from the southern part of this district across the Litany into Wady et Teim, on the southwest of Jebel esh Sheikh. Besides this, they are found in El Bellan, on the opposite side of the same mountain, and in the Hauran, in smaller numbers ; also in Jebel el Aala, towards Aleppo, and in the mountains of Safet. A few also live in Ras Beirut. Population. Volney estimated them at one hundred and twenty thousand ; but this estimate was too large. Rev. Mr. Connor made their number seventy thousand,^ and so did Dr. Anderson;- also Mr. Bird.^ Others have put them at one hundred thousand. Col. Churchill says sixty thousand,* and Rev. J. Wortabet, the son of one of our church members at Beirut, a graduate of our schools, and for a time the pastor of the church at Hasbeiya, but now a profes- sor in the Syrian college, makes them only fifty thousand. The writings of such an one may surely be counted among the contributions of the American Board to literature." He divides the Druse population as follows : Mt. Leba- non, twenty-seven thousand ; Wady et Teim, seven thousand ; El Bellan, Damas- cus, etc., four thousand ; El Hauran, eight thousand ; mountains of Safet and Acre, fifteen hundred ; Jebel el Aala, two thousand ; and Ras Beirut five hundred. Race. The Druses are Arabs, descended from the Beni Hummiar, who emi- grated from Arabia to Irak Ajemi two hundred years before Mohammed. In his day they occupied Jebel el Aala, near Aleppo, and in the year 821 A. D., under the emir Fowaris Tnooh, emigrated to southern Lebanon, then compara- tively waste. Abeih became the center of the Beni Tnooh. The Beni Raslan settled round Shweifat, and the Beni Shweizan in the vicinity of Deir el Kamr. The Beni Rabeea followed, under the emir Maan, in 1145, and settled in Bak- leen, in a district called the Shoof, or " Lookout," because it was a post of obser- 1 Missionary Herald, 1S21, p. 31. '- Oriefiial Churches, Vol. I. p. 236. ^Missionary Herald, 1S32, p. 325. * Mt. Lebanon, Vol. I, p. 104. cTo his Researches into the Religions 0/ Syria, a volume which furnishes much of the material for this notice of the Druses, and his works on Anatomy and Physiology, may be added among the same contributions of the Board, the works written by Naseef el Yazijy, Michael Meshaka, Butrus el Bistany, and others. See Appendix II, under the issues of the press at Beirut. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 289 vation against the Franks, who passed along the coast to and from the Holy Land. Religion. To understand this we must go back to previous religions ; for outre as the tenets of the Druses are, there is hardly one that has not been adopted from some previous Oriental belief, with more or less of modification, and it is hard to say which is the more extravagant — the creed of the Druses, which seems to have concentered in itself the extravagances of many previous ones, or some of its predecessors, which were made up of nothing else. The primary principle of the ancient Persians was the Zerwane Akerene, or endless time. Everything except this was made. Time was the creator, itself infinite, absolute, eternal. And the Druses believe in a God without attributes ; for his attributes are, according to them, other personalities who emanated from him — as the Universal Intelligence, the Universal Soul, the Will, the Word, Justice, and the like. They hold that he can neither be comprehended nor described. Col, Churchill says : ^ " None can define his essence. Imagination cannot grasp him. The eyes even of those who look on him cannot comprise him. The most profound reflection cannot comprehend him. Human reason cannot attain to a knowledge of his works, and confesses its utter inability to under- stand even that which it knows of him — his incarnation." Hamze addresses him as " indefinable in thy essence, whom no description can reach, and to whom no quality is applicable." In another place, "who art exempt from all qualities," ^ which is a very different thing from a God whose ways are past searching out. Compare with it the Gnostic idea of God as " the unfathomable abyss," locked up within himself, unnamable, incomprehensible, to whom Basi- lides would not even ascribe existence.^ With them, every other attribute seems to be lost in his unity. Worship, according to them, consists in a thorough apprehension of this one idea, and perfection is a mystical absorption of thought and feeling in this unity. Hence they call their religion Unitarianism, and themselves Unitarians. The ancient Persians also believed in a good god, Auramazda, and in a god of evil, Ahri- man, and the Druses believe in ministers — for so they style the personified divine attributes — that are good, and others that are evil. The Intelligence created from the essential light of God is good. He is also called " The Cause of Causes," but he sinned in looking on the glorious light of which he was formed, with complacency, and therefore God created another minister out of him, called "The Antagonist,"* pure darkness out of pure light, who, when re- quired to obey the Universal Mind, refused, and so became a rebel. The Mind seeing the evil he had done, repented, was forgiven, and God gave him for associate the Universal Soul, created partly from the light of the Mind, and partly from the darkness of the Antagonist. The Antagonist then felt the need of a companion, and God created the Foundation, or Companion, out of the Mind, the Antagonist, and the Soul, who refused to obey the Mind and ^Mi. Lebanon, Vol. II, p. 5. =Do., Vol. II, pp. 6 and 58. ^ Schaff's Hiiiory 0/ Christ ian Church, Vol. I, pp. 227 and 237. * Compare Satan = Adversary. ^9 290 THE ELY VOLUME. Soul, and took the part of the Antagonist. Compare with all this the Gnostic idea of God sending forth the ^ons from his bosom ; that is, the attributes and unfolded powers of his nature ; the ideas of the eternal spirit world, such as mind, reason, wisdom, power, truth, and life — who, according to Valentine, emanated in pairs, with sexual polarity.^ It is curious that the Druses hold to the same idea, even to maintaining that the same person is male in relation to one, and female in relation to another. Thus the Soul is female in relation to the Universal Mind, but male in respect to the ministers that were created after- wards ; such as the Word, the Preceder, and Succeeder.- So in matter heat and cold stand in this sexual relation to each other.^ The souls of men, they hold, were created at the same time and in the same way as the Word, the Preceder, and Succeeder ; and as the Universal Soul was derived both from light and darkness, so are the souls of men. They also hold that the number of souls in existence has never varied from the first moment of creation until now, nor will there be either increase or decrease in the future. As they think the soul incapable of knowing without a corporeal form, bodies were also created at the same time and in the same number, so that at once the world was peopled with infants, adults, and old men and women, just as it is to- day. Of course, with them, our race is not descended from one Father.* And this carries with it the doctrine of Metempsychosis, or the reappearance of the same soul in different bodies, which is the only tenet of the Druses that they openly acknowledge. They compare it to a change of garments, or pour- ing water from one vessel into another, and advance in proof of it, the manifest inequality of human conditions in this life, to be explained, they say, only by the conduct of the same soul in a preceding body. So they say Christ affirmed John the Baptist to be a reappearance of the soul of Elijah, and they ask how could the blind man have sinned, so as to be born blind, if he had not sinned in a preexistent state ; thus antedating some American opinions. They tell a thoroughly Arab story of a child five years of age, going from Jebel el Aala to Damascus, and recognizing his surroundings in a previous life as a rich man in that city, even to pointing out a debtor who had not acknowledged his debt, and unearthing a sum of money he had hidden in the floor of a cellar.^ While the Ansaireeans believe that the souls of the wicked go into the bodies of brutes, the Druses hold that they can go only into human bodies. "For," says Hamze, " it is contrary to divine justice that a man, endowed with reason, should be punished as a dog or pig, which has no conscience, and could have no idea of its fault."*' The Doketae denied the true incarnation of the Redeemer, and maintained that his body was not real, but only an appearance ; and so the Druses, while they teach that God has appeared in human form, affirm that it was only as a phantom, having neither flesh nor blood, nor any property of matter, except the outward form. They compare it to the reflection of a human body in a mirror, ' Schaff' s History 0/ the Christian Church, Vol. I, pp. 228 and 2.to. -Cliurchill's Mt. Lebation, Vol. H, p. 71. 2 J. Wortabet's Religions of Syria, p. 305. * Churchill's Mt. Lebanon, Vol. II, pp. 171-173 ; J. Wortabet's Religions 0/ Syria, pp. 304-30A. "J. V^ovlahcX's Religio7is 0/ Syria, pp. 307-309. "Churchill's 71//. Lebajion, Vol. II, p. 177. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 291 and affirm that it was only intended to convey to men the idea of God, since otherwise they could not have known him. Instead of saying, " He became flesh," they use the expression, " He veiled himself," or, took for a veil the noblest of his creatures, and maintain that he has existed from eternity in a human form.' They say that this veil has been assumed ten times : in El 'Alee, El Bar, Abu Zakarieh, 'Ali, El Mu'il, El Ka'im, El Mansur, El Mu'iz, El Aziz, and El Hakem bi amr Allah.^ They speak of sixty-nine appearances between El 'Alee and El Bar, but these were probably of the ministers and not of the deity. They say that after each appearance were seven religions, and after each religion seven ministers, each one of whom continued one hundred thousand years : af- ter the second appearance, Enoch, whose wife was Seth, and after him other ministers taught the unity of God. Then there appeared seven teachers : Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Mohammed the son of Ismail, and Saeed. These were all appearances of the Antagonist, i. e., of Satan, and founded seven religions, which literally understood were false, but allegorically inter- preted, in accordance with the Druse ideas, were true. No wonder the Druses hide their opinions from the Moslems when they teach that Mohammed and Jesus Christ were both incarnations of the devil. It will be noticed that while there were only two appearances of God from the creation down to the time of Mohammed, son of Ismail, about 150 A. H., or, 762 A. D., there were no less than eight between him and El Hakem, who was born A. H. 375 = A. D. 987. In speaking of Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, Hanize says: "Tliese may be counted among those who possessed temporal learning and knowledge, such as medicine, philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and rhetoric ; but they taught men a vain and empty worship. They knew not the Lord, whose name he glorified. They only knew the Preceding;^ that was the height of their attainment. It was he and 'the Following'^ at the same period, who furnished them with instruction. And though the Universal Intelligence and the Soul were present among them, they knew them not." Then, as if this was not blasphemy enough, in their catechism they go be- yond those Gnostics, who taught that the redeeming JEor\, called Jesus, united himself with Jesus Christ at the baptism and forsook him at the passion ;^ for that says : *' The Gospel is true, for it contains the word of the True Messiah, who, in the time of Mohammed, bore the name of Salman Faresi, and who is Hamzd, son of Ali. The false Messiah is he who was born of Mary, for he is the son of Joseph. The true Messiah was one of his disciples ; he dictated the words of the Gospel, and instructed the son of Joseph, prescribing to him the rules of the Christian religion, who at first received his instructions with docility, but afterwards disregarding them, the teacher induced the Jews to crucify his disobedient pupil. Then the true Messiah stole him from the grave and hid him in the garden, spreading abroad the report that he had risen from the dead. It was Hamzd, also the slave of our Lord Hakem, who entered the place where the disciples were assembled, the doors being closed for fear of the Jews." 1 Churchill's Mt. Lebanon., Vol. II, pp. 63, 66. - Wortabet, p. 317; Churchill, Vol. II, p. 44. 3 Who in the fifth century of the era of the Hegira was Selama, son of Abdelwahab. * Moktana Bohaeddin. 6 Schaff's History of Christian Church, Vol. I, p. 230. 292 THE ELY VOLUME. It is well known that ancient kings were so often assigned a place among the gods that the word Apotheosis was coined to express the idea. And some of the Roman emperors arrogated to themselves this honor while yet in the flesh. Simon Magus also gave himself out for a sort of emanation of deity. "He is said to have declared himself an incarnation of the creative world spirit,"^ but it was reserved for the Druses to exalt an insane tyrant to the throne from which they sought to cast down the Son of God. It is instructive to see how God can punish such audacity by simply leaving its perpetrators to themselves. Let us look at the god of these Druses. Abu Ali el Hakem bi Amr-illah was born A. D. 987, and ascended the throne of the Fatimite Caliphs when only eleven years old. His reign of twenty-five years was distinguished for its madness and cruelty. The first five years were noted for the capricious change of his public officers. In the year A. D. 997 Ibn Ammur was dismissed from the office of Waseet,^ and afterwards put to death. Bardjewan, the tutor of the young king, who procured his dis- missal, and succeeded to his office, was himself assassinated in Hakem's pres- ence and by his consent, because he would not allow him to take rides for pleasure. In the year A. D. looi he persecuted the Sunnees and the Chris- tians. One of these last was Abu el Naja, a courtier, who, because he would not turn Moslem, was sentenced to receive one thousand lashes. When eight hundred had been inflicted, he asked for a drink of water. It was offered on condition of his becoming a Moslem. He refused, saying, " Christ has given me water to drink," and expired ; but El Hakem ordered the rest of the lashes to be laid on the dead body ; and this was not the only instance of the kind.^ Col. Churchill tells of the patriarch Isa, who was tortured to death. He now stuck up on the walls of the mosques, large inscriptions in golden letters, anathematizing Ayescha, the wife of Mohammed, Abu Beer, Omar and Othman.* One day his horse took fright at a dog, and forthwith every dog in Cairo was killed.^ He filled a large magazine with reeds, rushes, and acacia wood, and his pub- lic officers, fearing they were to be burnt alive, implored his mercy. Colleges were established, and libraries, at great cost, opened free to the public, and then destroyed. Professors were invited to teach in them, and then cruelly butchered." Five hundred churches and convents were destroyed.^ Women were not allowed to appear outside their houses, or even to look out at the windows, and shoemakers were forbidden to make them shoes. One day, hearing a noise in a bath, as he passed, he found it was occupied by women, and on the spot he had the doors and windows walled up, and those inside left to perish of starvation.^ Old women were employed to report who was absent from the harems. The absentees were immediately escorted to the palace by soldiers, and when enough were got together, the whole of them were sown up in bags and thrown into the Nile. At one time the gates of the city were ordered to be open all night and closed all day. At another, the doors of ■ Schaff's History of Christian Church, Vol. I, p. 235. = Mediator. sWortabet, p. 292. ••Churchill, Vol. I, p. 360. SDo.,p. 362. Wortabet, p. 293. " Wortabet, p. 293. ' Churchill, Vol. I, p. 3«i. * Do., Vol. I, p. 36S. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 293 shops and houses were to be left open at night, with a promise of indemnity in case of loss. In one night four hundred articles of value disappeared, and the men whom he had sent to steal them were hung for the theft, on the accusa- tion of a statue, within which he had concealed a man to give the proper answers to inquiries about the losses.^ One day he dismounted in front of the mosque, knocked down an attendant, and ripped him open with his own hand ; and it was his custom when he put any one to death to make the family spend the night with the dead body.^ Irritated by a practical joke of the women, Nero-like,^ he ordered his soldiers to sack the city, massacre the citizens, and burn their houses ; and one third of the city was reduced to ashes, and half of it plundered, while multitudes were slaughtered, and their wives and daughters given up to the soldiers.* He employed old women to go round and gather up family secrets, and then sought to establish a reputation for omniscience by retailing them to those concerned. And this is the man whom the Druses wor- ship as the latest manifestation of God ! A madman, who so wore out the patience of his suffering people that he was assassinated during a morning ride, in the year 1021 A. D. If any ask how it is possible for men to be so given over to believe a lie, the answer is : that previous to his day, Moslem sects had sprung up, who discarded the literal meaning of the Koran, and insisted on interpreting it allegorically. In other words, under that pretext, they put their own meaning on its phrases, and this mode of exposition having been established, Hamze, who belonged to one of these sects, and is the real founder of the Druse religion, explained all the insane freaks of El Hakem in the same way. The most atrocious madness was only an allegory, intended to convey a recon- dite truth. It speaks well for the Egyptians that, when Mohammed ibn Ismail EI Dorazy undertook to read his book in the mosque at Cairo, affirming that El Hakem was a manifestation of God, the indignant people rose and slew many of his followers, though he himself, protected by his patron, fled to the Wady et Teim, and there, partly by the free use of money from Egpyt, and partly by the license he gave to lust, succeeded in securing adherents among a people^ already trained to believe in this allegorical interpretation of the Koran. The Batenites,*^ literally the Esoterics, taught that there were five ministers on earth : The Natek,^ Asas,^ Iman,^ Hodja,^" and Dai;" and in many other of their teachings there was a close resemblance to, or even identity with, those of the Druses. The Druses have seven commandments, designed to supplant the seven requirements of Mohammed : (i.) Veracity. This takes the place of prayer, but it is required only towards those of their own religion. To all oth- ers they are at liberty to lie without stint, and it must be confessed that in this practice has made them perfect. No confidence can be put in the word of a 1 Churchill, Vol. I, p. 382. 2 Dq., Vol. I, p. 385. ^Do., Vol. I, p. 374. *Do., p. 376. ''The Katebites allowed wine and fornication, or anything else forbidden by the law, and denied the need of prayer. Churchill, Vol. I, p. 309. '"' Arabic, Batenieen. ' Prophet. • Foundation. ' Leader. 10 Teacher. " Caller. 294 THE ELY VOLUME, Druse when it is for his immediate interest to tell a lie. It is doubtful whether there is another people on earth accustomed like them to conform to the pre- vailing religion ; not through compulsion, but from policy ; go through with its observances of worship, repeat its creed and its prayers, while at heart they hate and renounce them all, and do so openly as soon as it is for their interest to pretend to accept a different one. It is the inevitable consequence of this utter duplicity that Druses are very rarely converted. Again and again have they made a great show of interest in the truth, begged for schools, and ap- peared to hunger for the bread of life ; but the simulated zeal passed away with the political occasion that called it forth. The writer cannot speak for the present state of things in Syria, but long after he retired from the field, one family and one young woman were the only fruits of extensive and protracted missionary labors among the Druses of Lebanon. (2.) Love to their co-relig- ionists. This takes the place of alms-giving. (3.) Renouncing the worship of idols. This takes the place of fasting. (4.) Repudiation of devils and delusions. This means other religions, such as Mohammedanism and Christianity, and it is instead of pilgrimage to Mecca. (5.) Profession of the unity of God in the Druse sense. (6.) Secresy in religion, including every method in which it is possible to conceal their true belief. Jesuits might go to school to them in this department. And (7.), resignation to the will of God.^ The Druses believe in what they call a resurrection ; not a raising up of the dead, but a period of judgment, ushered in by war between the Moslems and the Christians ; and while their armies are preparing for a great battle near Mecca, an army of two million five hundred thousand Unitarians ^ from China, under the command of " the Universal Mind," and the five ministers will ap- proach, to which both the Moslem and Christian army will surrender. Then El Hakem will reappear, and, at his command, thunders will raze the very founda- tions of the Kaaba. The five ministers, on thrones of gold, will then judge the world. The sins of Druses will be forgiven, costly gifts of clothing, weapons, and horses will be bestowed on them, and they will traverse the earth, every- where killing the infidels and plundering their treasures. Thenceforward they will be supreme, and all others will be in poverty and servitude, each wearing a badge of subjection.^ In such teachings we find an explanation of the atrocities of i860 in Leb- anon and vicinity. The story is too horrible for recital. Let one act in the bloody drama suffice. Osman Bey, the Turkish governor of Hasbeya, at the instigation of Sitt Naaify, sister of Saeed Bey Jumblatt, demanded the arms of the Christians, then refugees in the castle of the town, and they were given up on the faith of a written guarantee pledging their personal safety. Then they endured the double misery of imprisonment and starvation; their ordinary food was bran, dried beans, and vine leaves. The women tore off their ornaments and gave them to the soldiers to move their pity. They pleaded in vain to Sitt Naaify. No tears or entreaties touched her heart. Ali Hamadi, a Druse chief, interceded for them. " No," said she, " my brother's orders are that not a Christian is to be left alive from the age of seven to seventy." The castle was ^Wortabet, p. 319-322. 2 Druses. s Wortabet, pp. 322-326. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 295 three stories high, with chambers and corridors round a central court. The Christians, under the promise of a safe conduct to Damascus, were scattered through the corridors, gathering together the remnants of their property in order to commence the journey. They were all ordered into the great central court, the Turks prodding them with their bayonets as, weak' and faint, they reeled along. As soon as the soldiers left the helpless crowd, the butchery began. The Druses first fired a volley into the mass, and then sprang on their victims with axes and yataghans. The first victim was Yoosuf Reis. He clung to Osman Be}', to whom he had paid two hundred pounds for protection. The ruffian kicked him on the mouth, and he was cut up piecemeal, beginning with the extremities. He was secretary to the Emir Saad ed Deen, who was next beheaded ; and so the mass was hewn into from the front. Many had lips and ears cut off before the final blow. Mothers vainly sought to hide their sons, and, failing in that, clasped them in their arms, only to have the yataghans strike through them both. And so the work went on. A prominent member of the Protestant church was butchered while on his knees in prayer; oth- ers of that church, while exhorting their fellow-sufferers to trust in Christ, though the name only called forth the taunt: "What can he do for you now? Don't you know God is a Druse ? " Truth, however, requires the statement that the massacre was free from the atrocious vileness toward the women that marked similar scenes that year, when the Turks were the principal actors ; for the Druses, as a race, are opposed to immorality .■• The Druse era is 408 A. H. = 1020 A. D., the first year of the appearance of Hamze. Their sacred books are contained in six volumes, containing one hundred and eleven treatises, written by Hamze and the other four ministers, in imitation of the style of the Koran ; but only an imitation.^ In later times their learned men have written other books. They were kept secret till tlie wars of 1837-1842, when some of them were plundered, and translated in France, by M. Sylvestre de Sacy. The Druses are divided into the Juhhal,^ forming the mass of the community, and the Ukkal,^ who alone are initiated into the knowledge of their creed. The form of initiation, which is always dated — month and — year of the ser- vant of our Lord, whose name be glorified, Hamze, son of Ali, son of Ahmed, reads as follows : "I , son of , in sound reason, and with full preference, do now loose myself from all religions which contradict that of our Lord El Hakem of infinite power, and confess that there is no God in heaven, or Lord on earth, save our Lord El. Hakem (may his name be exalted ! ). I give myself, soul and body, to him, and engage to submit to all his orders, and know noth- ing but the obedience of our Lord, who appeared in Egypt in human form. I shall render the homage due to him to none else — past, present, or to come. I submit absolutely to his decrees. I shall keep the secrets of my religion, and speak of them to none but Unitarians. If I ever forsake the religion of our ^ Churchill, Vol. IV, pp. 16S-173 ; Missionary Herald, 1S60, p. 250. ■ Wortabet, p. 298. sjcrnorant. *Wise. 296 THE ELY VOLUME. Lord, or disobey one of his commands, may I be separated from the adored Creator, and from the privileges of the ministers ; and I shall justly deserve im- mediate pmiishment." ' There is a higher class of Ukkal, called Iwa}dd.- All the Ukkal dress simply,^ and abstain from profanity, obscenity, intoxicating drinks, and tobacco ; and they may not eat in the house of a ruler, or partake of anything obtained by extortion ; but the Ivvayid dress still more plainly. Their turban is a narrow strip of white cloth wound round a red cap in a spherical form, and their coat is of home-spun wool, striped black and white. Their manner and style of speaking is very sanctimonious. They never engage in trade, but cultivate the soil. They are kind and hospitable, and resigned in sickness and afifliction, yet their creed recognizes no act of mercy or deed of kindness as acceptable to God, only as it wins esteem for themselves and their religion. An Akil was once imprisoned in the liouse of the governor, for murder, and while there sent to another house for water to drink, because he would not drink from a vessel ■which was the wages of unrighteousness. The worst thing about the murder, in the Druse mind, was the scandal it occasioned to their religion. The Druses hold their meetings in khalwehs,* /. e., places for secret meet- ings— rude stone structures, containing a few mats, and sometimes accommoda- tions for strangers who are Druses. They meet on Thursday evening, which with them belongs to Friday, when they read, or rather chant, their sacred books, and sing h3rmns expressive chiefly of joy in the prospect of the resurrec- tion already described. They have simple refreshments, and in the klialweh at Neeha a lamp is kept burning night and day. Prayer they do not offer, except rarely in private ; and after the chanting and singing is finished, politics, and Druse national interests form the subject of discussion. Here all plans of policy in peace, and campaigns in war, are discussed and settled, so that, though few, they maintain a unity in action, which more than makes up for the lack of numbers, and secures to them the control of southern Lebanon. They have secret signs and passwords. One is the question : "Where do farmers in your country sow the seeds of the mysobalanus ? " and the answer is : " In the hearts of believers," ^ Polygamy or concubinage is not allowed among them, nor can a wife once divorced return to her husband.® The wife is held to be in all respects on an equality with the husband. If the divorced wife is to blame for the separation, the husband retains half of her property ; if otherwise, she takes the whole of what she possesses in her own right. A woman may become an Akileh, but she must not be exposed to view in :the khalweh. (For their strict ideas of propriety see Churchill, Vol. II, pp. a 68, 237-242, 262.) The Druses are very proud, and among themselves quar- jels relating to matters of etiquette are frequent. An Akil nev-er begs, and a poor Druse would rather put himself in the wrong than have it supposed that a Christian dared to initiate a quarrel with him without first having been insulted.'' ' Wortabet, p. 329. *The engaged. » Wortabet, p. 330. * Do., p. 335- ODo., p. 338. 0 Churchill, Vol. 11,294. " Do., Vol. II, p. 324. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 297 Churchill speaks of the hautetir z.w6. self-sufficiency expressed in their demeanor.^ The self-conceit of Hamzd may be seen in his statements : "I am the root of the creatures of God, distinguished by the gift of his wisdom. I am the way and the truth. I am he who knows his will — I am the master of the last trumpet. It is through me that men become acceptable before God, and enjoy his presence. I am he who abrogates all preceding laws. Through me all grace flows, and vengeance will fall on the polytheists. I am the chief of the age."-^ According to their writers, the door was closed twenty-six years after the beginning of their era^ against all accessions to their number from with- out, so that since 1056 A.D. no one not then a Druse has become one. It has been supposed that the Druses worship a calf, because the image of that animal has been found in their khalwehs; but it is a symbol of the Antagonist; or, as we would say, Satan, and also of his emissaries. THE PAPAL SECTS IN SVJ?/A.* The Maronites. These are found in most of the cities of Syria, a few in Egypt, and some even in Constantinople. As peasants they are found from Tripoli as far south as Safed, but the main body of them are in the districts of Besherry, Jibeil, and Kesrawan. There are also a few in the north of Cyprus, but of two hundred and twenty thousand souls in all, one hundred and eighty thousand are in Mt. Lebanon. Their nobility is of two grades : (i) E7nirs, of the family of Shehab in the Druse part of Lebanon, and of the family of Abi el Lema in the Metn ; and (2) Sheikhs, of the families of Khazin Habeish and Dehdah, in the Kesrawan and Futuh. They are of Syrian origin, and their liturgy is still in Syriac, though as they speak Arabic, their Scripture lessons are translated into that language, but written in the Syriac character called Syro- Arabic, or Karshuny. Other pecul- iarities point them out as the relic of a distinct nation. Their head is a patriarch styled " Patriarch of Antioch and all the East," chosen from among the bishops, by themselves assembled for that purpose, and confirmed by the Pope. If no one has a majority of votes, then the Pope chooses one for them. He has no firman, and no agent at the Porte, and governs according to the canons of the Maronite council, called the council of Lebanon. He resides in summer at the convent of Kannobin, in Besherry, and in winter at that of Bkerky, in Kesrawan, both of which belong to him ex officio, with another called Diman. Their income amounts to one hundred thousand piasters per annum. He is also entitled to a direct tax of two pias- ters from every adult Maronite ; but, as it is farmed out to the bishops, he re- ceives only a part of it. Every priest pays him annually five piasters ; also six piasters for every mass he performs. From all sources his income may amount lUo., Vol. II, p. 251. 2 Do., Vol. II, pp. 120, 122. 340SA. H. ^This is the substance of a communication that appeared in the Missionary Herald, for 1843 (pp. 314-319 and 354-357)' Some of its statements are now, no doubt, obsolete; but it shows how carefully our missionaries note the facts that compose the warp and woof of history, and how accurately they can state them, going into minutiae that would not be thought of by many, but are of inestimable value to the historian. 298 THE ELY VOLUME. to two hundred thousand piasters, or about $8,000. In 1S45 the patriarch was Yusuf Butrus Habeish, being a sheikh of that family. The bishops are thirteen, of whom nine are diocesan. The diocese of Sidon extends from Akka to the Damur, and east to Anti Lebanon. Its in- come is twelve thousand piasters. The bishop^ resides at the college of Mish- musheh, in Jezzin. The diocese of Beirdt extends from the Damur to Antelias. The Episcopal residence is in Beirut. Income, twent}^ thousand piasters. The bishop in 1845 was Tobia (Tobias) Abu Aun. That of Cyprus extends from Antelias to Nahr el Kelb,^ and includes the Maronites of Cyprus. The bishop, Yusuf Jaja in 1845, resided at the col- lege of Kurnet Shehwan, in the Katia, on an income of twelve thousand piasters. That of Damascus reaches from Dog river to the middle of Kesrawan, including the Maronites of Damascus. Yusuf (Joseph) El Khazin, bishop in 1845, resided at Zuk Mikail, on an income of ten thousand piasters. The diocese of Baalbek extends from the middle of Kesrawan to Jibeil. The bishop, Anton (Anthony) El Khazin in 1845, resided in the nunnery of Buklush, on an income of twenty-four thousand piasters. The diocese of Jibeil extends from Futuh to near Tripoli. Its income is fifteen thousand piasters. The patriarch is ex officio bishop, and governs through a vicar. Sim'an (Simon) Zuwein was vicar in 1S45, ^^'^'^ resided at the college of Mar Yohanna Maron. The diocese of Tripoli extends north to Akkar. Bulus (Paul) el Akury was incumbent in 1845. The village of Ehden alone constitutes a diocese, of which Estefan ed Duweihy was bishop in 1845. In the same year Bulus (Paul) Arutun was bishop of Aleppo, resident in that city. These diocesans are chosen by the people, and the patriarch must approve them, unless canonically disqualified. If the diocese fails to elect, the patriarch may select one of the candidates voted for ; or, in case of delay to elect, he may fix a time beyond which, if no one is elected, he will appoint one. The incomes of these dioceses are from glebes ; masses, at the rate of four piasters each ; tithes ; and presents at baptisms, funerals, weddings, etc., and are, of course, somewhat uncertain as to amount. In 1845 t^^^ bishops without dioceses were : Yusuf (Joseph) Rizk, vicar of the patriarch over the college of Ain Warkah ; income from the college. Filli- bus (Philip) Ilabeish, superior of the convent of Mar Jirjis 'Alma ; income from the convent. Bulus (Paul) Mas'ad, vicar and privy counsellor of the patriarch ; income from the Patriarchal See ; and Nikola (Nicholas) Murad, agent of the patriarch at Rome. The consecration of bishops belongs to the patriarch, assisted, however, by other bishops in the imposition of hands. They receive circular orders from him every year. The priests ?.re from seven hundred to one thousand. Of these, also, only some Iiave parishes. Parish priests are allowed to many, but only before ordi- ^ Then Abdailah Bistany. - Dog river. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 299 nation, and if the wife dies no other can be taken. The priests are distin- guished by their dress. Each parish elects its own priest, generally from among themselves. The bishop may compel an election, but cannot control the choice; he must ordain the one elected if there be no canonical objection. If the vote is inconclusive he can select one of the candidates, though the matter may be carried up to the patriarch. If a parish becomes dissatisfied with its priest, it may procure his dismission by the bishop, if the objections are valid ; and the bishop also has power to suspend him for crime. Every candidate for the priesthood must know Arabic and' Syriac, so far as to read it ; also casuistry ; and must be examined in these, and as to his moral character, by a person appointed by the patriarch. Ordination is either by the patriarch or bishop of the diocese. The parish priest baptizes, ratifies espousals, marries, visits the sick, admin- isters extreme unction, says mass daily for the people, reads prayers in the church at least on Saturday and Sunday afternoons, hears confessions, gives the communion, watches over the flock, and once a week reads over by himself the book of offices. They also collect the tithes for the bishop, settle quarrels and entertain strangers. Their income is from an amount of produce agreed on with the people, and received at the harvest season ; two piasters for each mass, baptism, espousal, marriage, or burial, and varies from two thousand to nine thousand piasters. A committee of the parish take care of the glebes, and use the income for repairs of the church, and for schools. No priest may engage in any trade, handicraft, or other profession. They only take care of theii own land, and are usually poor. The priests without parishes are usually unmarried. Some are in the em- ploy of the higher clergy; some are judges, and others superiors of convents. Their income is about the same as the parish priests, and is derived from their offices, masses, burials, and the like, for which they are paid the same prices as the others. These also are forbidden all secular employments. In case of sickness all priests fall back on the sect for a support, and all are exempt from the "kharaj," or poll tax. Co7ivents and JVunneries. Maronite convents are regular or irregular. The regular belong to the Country, Lebanon or Aleppine orders. The first of these is most numerous ; the last least so. Each order has its own organization and superior general, independent of the others. Each convent has its own su- perior. The superior general is assisted by four managers. Under their inspection only has he the control of the pecuniary affairs of the convents. His authority is independent of the patriarch, except by appeal. The income of the superior general of the Country order is eight hundred piasters weekly for masses, one hundred and thirty thousand piasters annually from glebes, and half of the gifts to the convent of Kuzheiya ; and is greater than that of the Patriarchal See. Each superior general carries the staff,^ wears the miter, and holds the cross at high masses, but cannot ordain priests. This is done by the bishop of the diocese, who has also some rights over the convents, 1 Crosier. 300 THE ELY VOLUME. though they are so absolutely under their superior generals that these last have prisons of their own. The superior general, his managers, and the superiors of convents, together with those who have held any of these offices, constitute a convocation which meets once in three years to choose a new superior gen- eral, who may be reelected at pleasure. The same convocation elects, also, the managers and the superiors of convents. Each superior governs his con- vent according to the rules of the order, and looks after its property. The monks take the vow of chastity, poverty, and obedience, after a trial of one year in the Lebanon order, and of two years in the others. Till then, they can go back and marry, but not after they put on the cowl. No entrance fee is required. Poverty or indolence prompts the step. Their dress is a black, coarse serge gown, with cowl and leathern girdle. Silk they may not wear, nor carry more than ten piasters in their purse. If more is found on their dead bodies, they are denied Christian burial. Meat they never taste, nor do they smoke; but they eat fish and take snuff. Some plough and reap, others weave, or make shoes, and they are kept hard at work. They are generally ignorant, and very stupid. Hardly one in seven can read. The benefit of the convents to the people is extremely small ; all together do not maintain more than a dozen very common schools. They are generally the source of ignorance, supersti- tion, and intrigue. They are shameless beggars. Every year they swarm forth on that en-and, and rarely leave a house without something, though generally better off than their benefactors. The return made is a mass on Saturday for the souls of all who help them. In 1844 all the monks north of the river Ibrahim rebelled against their su- perior general. They drove away all the superiors, armed themselves, and took possession of their convents. The patriarch interfered, but they only turned against him. The emir repeatedly sent soldiers against them, but accomplished nothing. Even the mandates of the Pope fell powerless. They were supported by the communities round about them. The irregular convents are independent of these orders and of each other. They are founded by families, and one condition is, that the superior shall belong to the family of the founder. Their superiors retain office during life, and they are all under the bishop of the diocese, who inspects their accounts. Nunneries are also regular and irregular. The former belong to the same three orders, and must be forty cubits distant from a convent. The entrance fee varies from five hundred to ten thousand piasters. Nuns take the same vow of chastity, poverty, and obedience. They learn to read Syriac ; at least, so as to assist in worship, in which they take a part, especially in chanting. Schools for children they have none. Their work is with the needle, chiefly embroider- ing what are called " garments of the virgin," a species of charm which they make for sale. They dress in black cotton cloth. The irregular, or devotee, nunneries differ from the convents for males only in frequently changing their superiors. The nunnery at Aintura is subject to European rules and is supported from abroad. The income of all the conventual establishments is estimated at six or seven millions of piasters : about one million from masses, gifts, and vows, the rest RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 30!. from real estate. The old Emir Beshir Shehab is said to have given six hun- dred thousand piasters annually, for masses to be said for the Shehab family.. The landed property of the convents is immense, and, till the civil war in 1845,, was rapidly increasing. Formerly it was not taxed, but now shares the burdens of other real estate. Then follows a list of these establishments, with an estimate of the number of their inmates in 1845, giving three convents to the diocese of Sidon, with one hundred and forty-five inmates, and one nunnery with fifteen ; ten con- vents to that of Beirut, with one hundred and ninety-eight inmates ; eight to that of Cyprus, with two hundred and fifty-nine inmates. Damascus follows, with four convents, and fifty-one monks, and eight nunneries, with two hundred and eighty-one nuns. Baalbek has seven nunneries, with one hundred and seventy-one nuns, and five convents, with sixty-two monks. Jibeil counts nine convents, with three hundred and fifty-three, monks, and one nunnery, with forty nuns. In the entire list are three convents, with one hundred and twenty inmates each. The largest nunnery contains eighty, and the next in size sixty. Besides the above are many coenobia, or houses of entertainment for monks on a journey, fourteen of which are mentioned in such places as Damascus, Beirut, Tyre, Sidon, Akka, Deir el Kamr, etc. The total number of monks is eleven hundred and two, and of nuns five hundred and seven. Among the nuns are no deaconesses. Preachers. The priests generally are unable to compose a sermon ; nor do they regard preaching as a part of their duty, beyond a mere exhortation ; but eight men in 1845 were authorized to go about as preachers. None others were allowed to preach without a written authorization. Generally these preachers are ordained, but not always. The patriarch, when he reclaimed the college of Mar Yusuf Aintura from the Lazarists, increased its income to thirty thousand piasters per annum, and set it apart for the residence and sup- port of preachers, who were to go forth teaching priests and people, and preaching and hearing confessions in the churches, always returning to the col- lege from every circuit ; but the plan, in 1845, was not fully carried out, and was even in danger of coming to nothing. Latin monks sometimes preached, but, owing to their imperfect Arabic, were neither understood nor respected. Education. They have common schools in cities, towns, and large villages. The teachers are appointed by the leading men, the bishop, or the priests, ac- cording to their zeal in the matter. But the bishop must see that they exist. Some places have school funds ; if not, the parents pay so much for each book the child learns to read. The bishop sometimes pays for the poor, and some- times the teacher instructs them gratis. A teacher's income is ordinarily from six hundred to one thousand piasters per annum. Sometimes it is five thou- sand piasters. Arithmetic, grammar, and geography are not taught ; ^ and the school is carried on Arab fashion, with much noise and confusion. As a result, one fourth to one third of the adult males can read in the Kesrawan ; but the 1 1845. 302 THE ELY VOLUME. education of girls is neglected. Hardly any except the daughters of the no- bility can read. Of colleges there are eight : three general, i. e., they receive pupils from all quarters, three diocesan, and two conventual. The general colleges are : (i) Ain Warkah, east of Ghusta, in the Kesrawan, originally a nunnery, founded by the family of Stefon. Sixty years ago Bishop Yusuf Stefon (Joseph Stephen) made it a college, under the patriarch, reserving to his family two free scholar- ships and the presidency. This last right the patriarch has now set aside, hav- ing made Bishop Yusuf (Joseph) Rizk president. The number of scholars varies from twenty to forty. Its income is from one hundred thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand piasters ; (2) Rumieh, in upper Kesrawan, origi- nally a nunnery founded by the family of Sufelr. It became a college about 1830 ; has from ten to fifteen students, and an income of thirty thousand to forty thousand piasters ; (3) Mar Abda Her-her-eiya, in the Futuh, near Kesra- wan, commenced about 1833. It was also a nunnery, founded by the house of 'Asaf ; has from twenty to twenty-five scholars, and an income of one hundred and fifty thousand to two hundred thousand piasters. The funds of these col- leo-es are invested largely in real estate. Each diocese sends two free scholars, nominated by the bishop ; others, also, are beneficiaries ; but these, when six- teen years of age, take an oath of obedience to the patriarch, and remain sub- ject to him for life. Hence his power to persecute Asaad el Shidiak, who was one of them. They are clothed and fed, as well as taught, gratuitously. Their food is served in European style, and each has his own room. During their entire residence, they are never allowed to leave the premises, nor to converse with any from outside, nor even with each other, except during recreation. The families of the founders may also send two free scholars. The number of paying scholars is not limited. These, if Maronites, pay one thousand to twelve hundred piasters per annum, and furnish their own clothing and beds ; if from another Papal sect they pay two thousand to twenty-four hundred piasters. Infidels and heretics are never admitted. The pupils have a pro- fessor and tutors, a confessor, a superintendent of deportment, and inspector of food. To be admitted, one must be able to read Arabic and Syriac ; be over twelve years of age, and have a recommendation from his bishop. He is first received on trial, and if found unpromising is sent away. The time spent in the school is from five to eight years. The studies are Syriac, Arabic grammar, logic, moral theology, and preach- ing; and in Ain Warkah, Latin, Italian, rhetoric, physics, and philosophy. Doctrinal theology was once taught; but as it led to discussion tending to Protestantism, it was given up. There are only two classes, and each has but one study at a time. The patriarch examines each school every year; he re- wards each pupil according to his conduct and progress, to the amount of fifteen piasters or less, and the name of each, with his standing, is written down, attested by the seal of the patriarch, and affixed to the door of the col- lege. The graduates, up to 1845, were one hundred and five, most of whom became celiba-te priests. They are teachers, judges, superiors of convents, or agents of the higher clergy. A few remain laymen. There are some among them of enlightened and liberal minds. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 303 The diocesan colleges receive students only from their own diocese, and are subject to the bishops. They are : Mar Yohanna (St. John) Maron, in Je- beil, founded in 1832, with an income of thirteen thousand piasters, and twelve to eighteen scholars ; Mismusheh, near Jezzin, founded in 1833, under the auspices of the Emir Beshir, with an income of twenty thousand piasters, and the same number of students ; and Kurnet Shehwan, in the Katia, founded in 1844, with an income of twenty-five thousand piasters, and a like number of students. The rules and studies are the same as in the general colleges. The schools for monks are at the convents of Bir Sumeih and Kefan, both together having sixty pupils, who are taught reading and writing in Syriac and Arabic, with casuistry ; nothing more, not even arithmetic. The Maronites have the right to send six free pupils to the College of the Propaganda, at Rome. They have one printing press at Kuzheiya. The monks do the work, and the profit goes to the convent. They print mostly in Syriac or Karshuny, and their issues are mainly prayer-books and others used in the churches ; but their price puts them out of the reach of all except the rich, or churches and con- vents. Many books are also printed at Rome for the Maronites. The Greek Catholics are converts from the Greek Church, and in 1S45 num- bered between thirty thousand and forty thousand. They retain the Oriental calendar, the communion in both kinds, leavened bread in the Eucharist, and the marriage of the clergy. In intelligence and enterprise they take the lead of other sects. Their patriarch is styled " Patriarch of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria." He has no firman, and his income may amount to thirty thou- sand piasters. Maximus Mazlum filled the ofiface in 1845. They had then nine bishops; one the vicar of the patriarch, the rest diocesans of Akka, Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Zahleh, Baalbek, Aleppo, and Diarbekir. Their income is from masses and other rites. The sect had only at that time fifty-five priests, mostly unmarried. In cities the monks discharged the duties of priests, which ac- counts for their small number. Their fourteen convents and three nunneries were of two orders : Mukhal- lisiyeh and Shuweiriyeh. Their rules resemble those of the Maronites. Their income may amount in all to seven hundred and fifty thousand piasters. Be- sides these were ten Coenobia. The number of monks was two hundred and fifty, and of nuns ninety. They had one press at the convent of Schweir, but small and nearly worn out. It printed only ecclesiastical books. Though they have few schools they are generally able to read, their children attending the schools of other sects. Their patriarch tried to found a college at Ainteraz, in the Jurd, but the build- ing was burnt by the Druses in the war. The convent of Mukhallis having a library, receives scholars and promotes education ; more before the Druse war, however, than after. The At-nienian Catholics are very few. They are converts from the Arme- nian church. Their patriarch resides at Bzummar, in the Kesrawan. They have two more convents in the same district ; Beit Khashboh and El Kureim. They have three bishops and fifty monks. 304 THE ELY VOLUME. The Syrian Catholics differ but little from the Maronites. In Lebanon they have two convents ; one at Er Rughm, in the Metn, and the other at Sherfeh, in the Kesrawan, These people are found in Damascus, and north as far as Aleppo, but are very few. The Latins are found chiefly in Jerusalem, Ramleh, Yaffa, and Nazareth, and number only a few hundreds, ministered to by the monks of the Latin con- vents in those places. There are five European monastic orders in Syria : Capuchins, Carmelites, Lazarists, Franciscans, and Jesuits. The Capuchins have four convents : one at Beirut, with seven or eight monks ; one at Solima, with two or three ; one at Ghuzir, now empty, and one at Abeih, with a single inmate. (One of the vivid recollections of the East, that remains with the writer, is that of going up to Abeih on the day of the battle. May 9, 1845, alone with the cawass of the American Consul ; passing through a part of the Druse army, and reaching the village just in time to see Dr. Thom- son carry his flag of truce to the beleaguered Maronites in the castle of the Emir Asaad. As soon as they were safe out of the place, under the care of the British Consul General, I found the partially burned body of a monk lying in the open street, and with great difificulty induced some of his own people to help me carry it to the convent and bury it under the earthen floor of the chapel.) They do not know the Arabic, and so do not preach ; nor have any schools, except one at Abeih, with twenty children. They are proverbial for their hermit-like life, though they confess such as come to them. The Carmelites have one convent on Mt. Carmel, well known to travelers as the most commodious hotel in Syria, and a most substantial structure. Its few inmates do little outside the convent. The Lazarists have one convent at Aintura. Its three or four monks have a good boarding school, in which are usually thirty or forty scholars. The Shehab and Khazin families have the right to send two free scholars. Others pay from twelve hundred to twenty-four hundred piasters per annum for board and tuition. The studies are Italian, French, Turkish, Arabic grammar, and a little astronomy and mathematics. The inmates must attend worship with the monks, and receive religious instruction. They have two months' vacation in summer, and remain in the school as long as they please. The convent re- ceives its support from France. Its inmates do nothing outside their school. The Franciscans are the monks of the Terra Santa. They have two con- vents at Jerusalem, with sixty monks ; one each at Bethlehem, Ain Kerim, Ramleh, Yaffa, Nazareth, Akka, Damascus, and Harisa in Lebanon, with near one hundred monks in all ; in each, one acts as priest of a native congregation. The rest of the monks do not learn Arabic. Near Harisa they try to preach in the native churches, as missionaries of the Pope. In Palestine most of the convents have common schools connected with them. In Jerusalem they have RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 305 also a girls' school. The income of those who do not speak Arabic is from abroad. The Jesuits had once convents at Solima, Bukfeiya, Aintura, and Zgharta, which passed into other hands till the order returned in 1836. Their number^ is not over eight or nine ; but they have abundant means, and large plans. At Beirut they expended one hundred thousand piasters, till the government or- dered them to stop ; and as they had no European protection they had to obey, though they retained their property, and kept on with their school, which has one hundred pupils, some of them Druses and Moslems. It is only a common day school, with some classes in Arabic grammar, Italian and French. They have three native teachers, and tuition is free. The Jesuits personally are the teachers of religion and morals. They themselves study Arabic. They have also bought a palace at Ghuzir, for one hundred and sixty-five thousand piasters, which they are fitting up for a boarding-school. Meantime, they have a common school with thirty scholars. In the Capuchin convent at Solima, they have another school of the same size ; and a smaller one at Bukfeiya. At Zahleh they made an ineffectual effort to erect a building. Out of Beirut and Lebanon they have no foothold, and were it not for their helping him against the Protestants, the Maronite patriarch would not tolerate them. They are looked on as learned, prudent, self-denying, and suave ; also as meddlers in politics as well as religion ; but even Papists complain that their scholars do not learn much. They seem to have all the funds they want from the French Propagation Society at Lyons, France. The Pope has always a legate in Syria, residing in his own convent at Ain- tura, who makes annual circuits among all the Papists, reporting to his supe- rior whatever needs attention. He is expected to burn heretical books, and judge certain cases brought before him ; but he has no claim on Syria for income, though he receives presents from the clergy of all ranks, and the lead- ing men of the laity. The Pope allows him, beside, sixty thousand piasters. Any bishop may address the Pope, either directly or through his patriarch ; but they may not visit Rome in person without first obtaining permission. The reader will have noticed that in this account of Papal sects in Syria, , nothing has been said of the Greek Church there. Instead of statistics of its clergy and convents, which may vary every year, the following account of a so- ^ called religious ceremony, now happily confined to that church, is presented ; for the character of a church may be learned from the spirit and style of such religious ceremonies as are peculiar to itself. Judged by this standard, the spirituality of the Greek Church cannot be rated very high ; for, after other churches in the East have renounced the impo- sition of the holy fire, as too glaring to be endured, that church still retains it as the chief attraction of holy week at Jerusalem. It takes place on the Satur- day preceding Easter, in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In that immense I184S. 20 3o6 THE ELY VOLUME. Structure, the Greek Church is the most spacious and splendid of the many churches gathered within its walls ; and when illuminated with its hundreds of gold and silver lamps, the light reflected from the gilded surfaces on all sides, makes an impression of surpassing splendor. The main scene of this perform- ance, however, is in the large rotunda west of that, directly under the principal dome. Near the center stands the sepulcher, so-called, like a small chapel enclosed by the spacious edifice, and covered by its lofty roof. Outwardly it is twenty-six feet by eighteen, and is surmounted by a small cupola, though the inner apartment, said to represent the sepulcher, is only six and one-half feet long by six feet wide ; and forty-three lamps, suspended from the low ceiling, lio-ht up its beautiful walls of verd-antique marble. From the outside of this to the circle of huge square pillars that support the dome, the marble floor is entirely clear. Galleries extend from pillar to pillar, tier above tier, as in a theater, for the accommodation of spectators who would be safe from the perils of the crowd below. Early in the day, or as soon as the doors are open, a dense mass of men, women, and children rush in and fill the area. As the day advances they overflow into the adjoining chapels, and every available niche and corner, gallery, balcony, and possible standing place is filled. It is to be expected that such a crowd will not be silen.t ; but this is noisy in the extreme. Outside of heathendom, one can hardly find a so-called religious observance so noisv. Turkish soldiers are there with heavy whips, which they use without mercv, to keep open a narrow lane in the living mass round the sepulcher. Should they have occasion to escort any one through the crowd, their korbadjes^ fall heavily on the heads of those in front, who sink down at once to allow them to pass over their bodies, and rise up again the moment they have passed. Meanwhile, the narrow lane is filled up by men running around the sepulcher, sometimes singly, sometimes in quaternions, bearing four men standing on their shoulders, shouting, yelling, singing, and waving handkerchiefs and head- dresses, in a frenzy of excitement. The women all this while keep up their shrill zughareet, or zulagheet, which once heard can never be forgotten, though others must hear it to know the piercing noise a crowd of Oriental women can make in their excitement. This grows louder when the runners overturn one of those animated human towers, or when some notable victory crowns the fierce quarreling on all sides ; it culminates when, after some hours, the arrival of the governor announces that the event of the day is near. The Greek clergy then march round the tomb, holding aloft painted banners, swinging censers of burning incense, and chanting the appointed liturgy. Their loud voices, however, are drowned by the shouts of the men, the screams of the women, and the cries and blows of the soldiers who clear the way. When the bishop enters the sepulcher alone, the scene around it beggars description. Men cursing and swearing fight furiously to gain the place nearest the opening ■whence the fire is to issue ; for he who gets it soonest, gets the greatest blessing. Large sums are sometimes paid for the first privilege, though how it is secured to the purchaser is hard to see. The soldiers sometimes have to separate the combatants. Now comes the climax of the frenzy. The moment the fire ap- 1 Like our rawliicles, only made of rhinoceros skin. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 307 pears it were hard to tell whether each struggled hardest to secure it for him- self or to hinder the success of his neighbor. They seem as eager to put out the tapers of others as to light their own ; and no sooner do they secure the fire than they pass it over their faces, wash their hands in the flames, open their dresses and thrust the burning tapers into their bosoms, believing that it will not burn ; and if beards are scorched, flesh is burned, or some feminine finery vanishes in a blaze, this is charged to the unbelief of the sufferer, while the faith of the mass remains unshaken. Some years more serious results fol- low the fanatical performance. In 1834 Dr. Thomson saw several hundred pilgrims crushed to death in their frantic efforts to escape from the suffocating fumes of an unusual number of tapers. Even the celebrated Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, who was present, was with difficulty rescued by his guard. And it is no unfrequent occurrence that a number are trampled to death in the resistless surgings of an excited crowd pent up in so confined a space. Yet the Greek clergy still keep up the imposition, and the crowds still carry their burial robes to be imbued with saving virtue by contact with this holy fire, and carry home the extinguished tapers as possessing similar power. It is distressing to see such scenes enacted in the place where some would have us believe that our Redeemer arose from the dead ; and though we may satisfy ourselves that the real scene of the Resurrection is not thus desecrated, that does not diminish the dishonor done to Christ in the presence of scoffing Moslems, who are thus taught by so-called Christians to "blaspheme that worthy name by the which [they] are called." — James ii : 7. It is some comfort, however, that the increased spread of the light, through the labors of missionaries, is compelling even this work of darkness to hide itself for very shame. The annual crowd grows smaller, though when the writer saw it, twelve years after Dr. Thomson, the crowd was not diminished. But we hope that at no distant day it may dis- appear from among the Easter observances of the holy city.^ YEZIDEES. ]\Iuch less is known about the Yezidees than has been learned about the Druses. Personal investigation has not been so thorough or so long continued ; and the fate of war has not given their sacred books into the hands of scholars, as it did those of their Lebanon contemporaries. Though they are an illiterate people, yet there is little doubt that they possess sacred books ; but Mr. Layard, much as he had done for them, and cordially as they were attached to him, never could succeed in getting a sight of them.^ Name. There have been various opinions about the origin of the name Yezidee. Moslems trace it to the Ommiade Caliph Yezd, the persecutor of Ali. Some would derive it from the city Yezd. Cawal Yusuf told Mr. Layard that their ancient name for God was Azed, and that this was the origin of their name.^ Those living in Sheikhan also call themselves Daseni; from Dasen, the ancient name of that district.* 1 TJie Land and the Book — volume on Southern Palestine and Jerusalem — pp. 47S-4S1. - Babylon and Nineveh, p. 92. " * Do., p. 94. * Lost Triies, p. 47. 3o8 THE ELY VOLUME. Territory. They occupy various regions in the vicinity of Mosul. Two large villages, Baasheka and Baazani, lie about four hours distant to the north- east, at the foot of Jebel Maklub, and their villages extend thence along the western base of the mountains, almost to Jezirah, This region is called Sheikhan. Their religious center is Sheikh Adi, a valley in the outlying hills to the south of the Gara range. Its irregular surface, shaded by leafy groves, and irrigated by clear streams of \vater, forms a delightful contrast to the bare dreariness of the plains below, and is just such a place as the denizens of old Nineveh, as well as the citizens of Mosul, its modern representative, would choose for a summer retreat. Their political center is Baadri, a village about five miles north of Ain Sifni, and to the south of the hill below Sheikh Adi. Besides this region, they also occupy Jebel Sinjar, a mountain range fifty miles long by eight in breadth, that rises out of the Mesopotamian plain. Its eastern point is eighty-three miles west of Mosul, and its western seventy miles south of Nisibin. The districts of Kherzan and Redwan, occupying the angle en- closed by the Tigris and the Serf rivers, are also peopled by Yezidees. Some of them are found, also, in the pashalic of Aleppo, in northern Armenia, and in Georgia.^ Population. Concerning this there is no definite information. Dr. Grant said we must reckon them by tens of thousands,^ and Dr. Lobdell m.akes their number a hundred thousand ;^ but we must wait for more accurate statistics. If different writers make different estimates, we must remember that in the merciless persecutions of the past they were subject to wholesale massacre. In 1833 Kur Bey of Ravan-dooz, having driven the population of Sheikhan for refuge to Mosul, the poor fugitives found the river Tigris in flood, and the bridge of boats taken away ; so they fled to the level top of the mound of Koyunjik, and there their pursuers finally overtook and slaughtered the whole of them — men, women and children — in plain sight of the citizens of Mosul, across the river. Ten thousand are said to have perished at the hands of the bloody Bey of Ravan-dooz ; and after this, Mehemet Reshid Pasha subdued Sinjar, destroying three fourths of the population, and Hafiz Pasha,^ after a second slaughter, carried off more than thirty thousand into slavery, till even as far off as Samsoon, on the Black Sea, Yezidee girls were sold for thirty pias- ters.^ Then Mohammed Pasha robbed them by his merciless exactions, and killed such as dared to murmur or expostulate.*' The Yezidees have suffered persecution from the Moslems for centuries. The harems of southern Turkey have been filled with them, after the men, and such women as they did not care to carry away, were slaughtered. An annual Yezidee hunt was one of the sources of the revenue of Badir Khan Bey, and the pashas of Mosul and Bagdad hushed the clamors of their spahis for arrears of pay, by letting them loose on the Yezidees. There may have been some original provocation for all this, but however > Dr. Grant andiJie Mountain Nestcrians, p. 121 ; Memoir of Dr. Lobdill, pp. 215-226 ; Layaid's BxbyloK and Nineveh, p. 47; Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230, 232: Eraser's Mesopotamia, and Assyria, pp. 147, 148, 285-289. ^Lost Tribes, p. 48. ^Memoir, p. 214. *Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, pp. 229-230. "A piaster is worth four cents. " Bibliothcca Sacra, 1S48, p. 165. RELIGIOUS PELIEFS. 309 that may be, it is not strange that such treatment roused a fierce revenge, which improved every opportunity for retaHation. One of the kotcheks at Sheikh Adi gloated over the memories of such retaHations, as he recounted them to the writer in 1844.-^ Since the terrible inflictions of Mehemet Reshid and Hafiz Pashas, they have resigned themselves to their fate with a passive despair, and yet with a steadfast devotion. They invariably prefer death to apostasy from their religion. Even children brought up in Turkish harems, secretly adhere to their sect and their cawals (priests)." Origin, Dr. Grant was led by his theory of the origin of the Nestorians, to claim that these also were descended from the ten tribes of Israel ; but a Scotch jury, after hearing his arguments, would bring in the verdict " not proven." Others see in them a remnant of the ancient Chaldeans. But we need resort to neither of these theories. Their language, Kermanj, or Kurdish, would in- dicate that they are the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the districts they now occupy. Layard tells us " that they have a tradition that they came originally from Busrah and the lower Euphrates ; settled first in Syria, and afterwards in the Sinjar and farther east. The particular race represented by them cannot be certainly known till their dialect of the Kurdish has been more thoroughly studied, and its affinities ascertained, or their tribal traditions more accurately understood. Hussein Bey traces his ancestry back to the Sassanian dynasty.'* Personal Appearance. The families of the cawals intermarry, and are re- markable for the beauty of both sexes. Their complexion is dark, but their features regular. Their dress is as tasteful as the material will admit of. At their feasts the women weave flowers into their hair, or bind a wreath of myrtle round their black turbans. They wear amber, coral, agate, or glass beads round their necks. The black skull caps of some are covered with imbricated strings of coins. A yellowish check plaid, tied over one shoulder and falling in front over the ziboon,^ is a peculiarity of their costume. The sketch given on the next page, the same as in Dr. Grant and the Mountain JVestoria?is, p. 120, is from a sketch by Claudius James Rich. The married cover the neck with a white kerchief. Others leave it bare. Bright colors are worn by the girls. Older women are content with plain white.'' The more wealthy among the men wear gay jackets and turbans, with rich arms in their girdles. The women of Sinjar have a sallow complexion and irregular features. The girls wear white underclothing and colored silk ziboons, open in front and confined at the waist with a girdle ornamented with pieces of silver. The men have dark complexions, black, piercing eyes, and often forbidding features. They are short, but well proportioned ; muscular, and capable of great fatigue. Their dress consists of a shirt," loose trowsers,* and cloak ^ — all white — with a black turban, below which their hair falls in ringlets. Their long rifles, and '^ BibliotJieca Sacra, 184S, p. 164. - Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 231. 3 Do., Vol. I, p. 252 ; Babylon and Nineveh, p. 254. * Life 0/ Lobdell, p. 215. ^press. c Babylon and Nineveh, pp. S7-88. " Camees. s shalvvar. " Abba. 3IO THE ELY VOLUME. swords, the pistols in their girdles, and the reed cartouch cases on their breasts, make them look as ferocious as their reputation.^ There is a curious discrepancy in the accounts of the dress of the Yezidees, as given by Mr. Layard and our missionaries. He says:^ "They are forbid- den to wear the common Eastern shirt, open in front, and theirs is always closed tip to the neckJ' Dr. Lobdell speaks of the peculiar shape of their garments — all crescent-shaped at the neck;^ while the writer'* says : " Their dress resembles that of the Kurds, with the exception that while the garment of the latter is fas- tened close round the neck, that of the Yezidees is open for some distance down the breast, the two sides not meeting till they overlap near the girdle. The popular explanation is that Satan wears an iron collar with a projection in front, and they leave that space open in his honor." This agrees with Dr. Lob- dell, but not with Mr. Layard ; and yet, while I saw them only occasionally ^Babylon. a7td Xinevek, p. 254. '^Memoir, p. 215. -Do., p. 254. * Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S4S, p. 160. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 311 during a short time, he mingled with them intimately and repeatedly during a number of years ; so that his testimony ought to be the correct one. The dwellings of the Yezidees, unlike most in the East, are scrupulously clean and neat.^ Before appearing at Sheikh Adi they wash their persons and clothes in the streams; and Layard- says he never saw such assembled cleanli- ness in the East. Their clothes, mostly white, were spotless. Their year is the same as that of the Christians. They have no real Sabbath ; but the women do not wash on Wednesdays,® though other work goes on. Some always fast on that day.* They have an era of their own, of which the year 1550 corresponded to our A. D, 1846, suggesting some connection with Manes.^ Some of them fast three days at the beginning of the year, but they do not keep Ramazan. There are no religious observances connected with their marriages, nor is the number of wives limited ; and polygamy is common, though only one wife is strictly lawful. The couple merely appear before a sheikh, who ratifies their mutual consent to the union. A ring, or some money, is then given to the bride, and a day is fixed for the feast, when they drink and dance. Fathers had been in the habit of asking large sums for their daughters; but in 1849 Mr. Layard, with Mr. Rassam, induced them to diminish their demands.^ He describes the marriage of the daughter of a cawal as follows : ' On the first day the parties entered into the contract before witnesses. On the second, the bride was led to her new home, with music, in the midst of a festive throng. A thick veil covered her from head to foot, and she was kept behind a curtain in the corner of a dark room for three days, after v/hich the bridegroom was allowed to see her. All day long, and through most of the night, the tahlehl of the women and the music were kept up. On the third day the bridegroom was led from house to house, receiving at each a small present. Then a circle of dancers wet small coins and stuck them on his forehead till they fell off into a kerchief held before him. Some of the richer guests were also carried off by a party of young men and locked up till they ransomed themselves ; and amid the feasting, and raki drinking that followed, Mr. Layard left the village. Concubines are not forbidden. In case of adultery, the wife may be di- vorced, and the husband marry again, with the consent of the sheikhs ; but the divorced wife cannot marry again. Formerly, the wife guilty of adultery was put to death.^ At their funerals the body is washed in running water, and buried with the face toward the north. If a cawal is not present, the first one who comes prays over the grave. The widow dresses in white, and throwing dust over hei head, accompanied by her female friends, meets the mourning procession, dancing, and holding the sword or shield of her husband in one hand, with locks cut from her own hair in the other.^ They have not a good reputation in the matter of temperance ;^'' but they will ' Memoir of Lobdell, p. 215. ''■Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 237. 3 Lobdell, p. 218. * Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 249. ''275 A. D. '^ Babylon and Nineveh, y^.^i,. ^ Do., p. 205, 206, "Do., p. 93. "Do., p. 94.. ^'> Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 161 ; Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I. p. 249. 312 THE ELY VOLUME. not eat lettuce or okra — called there bamiyah — or pork. In slaughtering ani- mals for food they observe the Mosaic and Moslem rules, respecting the blood. Blue is to them an abomination, as it was to the Sabeans ; making the conscrip- tion which began in 1847 ^^'^Y offensive to them, as the Turkish uniform is of that color. Through the efforts of Sir Stratford Canning, afterwards Lord Redcliffe, they were relieved from this; and Mr. Layard carried the welcome news to them, along with one of their cawals, who had been sent to Constanti- nople to petition for its abolition. Their keblah is the north star, toward which they turn the faces of their dead;^ though the east is called this by Mr. Layard in his former work.^ There was a like uncertainty about that of the Sabeans ; some making it the east, and others the north star. The Yezidees show great reverence for fire. They pass their hands through a flame, rub them over their right eyebrow, or even the whole face, and then kiss them. They also kiss the object which the rays of the sun strike first in the morning.^ One of the sacred buildings at Sheikh Adi is dedicated to Sheikh Shems (the sun). * Mr. Layard saw a drove of white oxen driven into a pen attached to this building, that were dedicated to the sun, and never slain except at feasts, when their flesh was given to the poor. The classical scholar will rec- ognize in this a resemblance to other ancient religious systems. Sheep also are offered here, and likewise at other noted tombs, the flesh being cooked and distributed among the visitors, or given to the poor.^ At Sheikh Adi numerous lamps are lighted at night.*^ A kotchek told the writer one hundred and eighty-three one night, and the same number of differ- ent ones the next, making three hundred and sixty-six every two nights ; or, one for every day in the year; each in honor of some Yezidee saint — some of them mere oiled wicks, and others more elaborate arrangements. They are lighted from the lamps kept burning constantly in the temple of Sheikh Adi. It took nearly an hour to light them all, scattered as they were up and down the valley; and a woman on some nights — not on all — followed the lamplighter, burning incense before each. Every morning they go round and kiss the black, greasy spots left on the stones. They also kiss the sides and threshold of the temple. This temple is only a larger and better specimen of the houses of Sheikh Adi, seen in every Yezidee village. These consist of cubical structures of stone, surmounted by a fluted cone, instead of a dome. The whole is covered with plaster, and appears very white in the sunlight. There are a great num- ber and variety of buildings at Sheikh Adi. Besides the temples are houses for the entertainment of distinguished guests, such as Sheikh Nasr and Hussein Bey; and inferior ones for others. Every village has its own, occupied by its people when they go up to the annual feasts. Then there are arched passages, like the monkish cloisters, built over every path that leads to the sacred place; ;and ruder shelters scattered throughout the valley. The principal temple is -divided by pillars and arches into three apartments or aisles, in one of which is the large reservoir in which children are baptized naked, by immersion, and for 1 Babylon and Nineveh, p. ij4. - yinevch and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 248. ^ Lost Tribes, p. 45. ^ Bibliotheca Sacra, 1848, p. 158. ^ Lost Tribes, p. 363; Life 0/ Lobdcll, p. 22: ; Baby iott and Nineveh, p. 255. ^Bibliotheca Sacra, 184S, p. 165. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 313 a consideration in money, though adults receive the same ordinance by affu- sion ; and the cawals carry with them a bottle of the sacred water from Sheikh Adi, wherewith to baptize infants too distant to be carried there. The water is very clear, and, as the deposits of lime in various places show, is impregnated with that mineral. On the north side of this is a mustubah,^ called the seat of Sheikh Adi. In another apartment is his tomb. There are no ornaments inside the temple, and only a few symbols rudely carved on the stones of the wall outside ; such as birds, serpents, combs, and crosiers. One or two Arabic inscriptions are also built into it. These premises are held so sacred that no one is allowed to enter the temple court without taking off his shoes. They have four orders of priests : pirs, sheikhs, cawals, and fakirs. The offices are hereditary, and descend to women as well as to men. Indeed, women seem to be much respected among them. Yet Dr. Lobdell - says that their ignorance is very great. One of his female patients told him that the women never pray ; that she did not know that there was any life beyond this ; nor did she know who Christ was, or what he proposed to do. A pir, or saint, is reverenced next to their great sheikh. They are believed to have power to cure disease and insanity. A sheikh is next in rank. They have charge of the sacred premises, keep up the holy fire, and entertain pil- grims. They also sell the little balls of clay made from the dust of the temple, which are believed to possess great healing power. They are not sectarian in this superstition, for Hussein Bey, in the presence of Dr. Lobdell, begged some of the sacred dust that lay thick on the tombs of the Chaldean patriarchs, in the convent of Rabban Hormuz, for the same purpose of healing.^ The cawals, who are preachers, visit their different communities, like Metho- dist circuit riders. They are skillful performers on their sacred instruments — the flute and tambourine ; and wherever they go they collect the sacred offerings for Sheikh Adi. These are divided into two equal parts ; one for the mainte- nance of the sanctuary, and the other is given — half to Hussein Bey, and half to the cawals. While the dress of the sheikhs is white — all save the skull-cap inside the turban — these wear black turbans with their white garments. The fakirs, called also rahban (monks),* are the lowest order of the priest- hood ; do all the drudgery at Sheikh Adi, and wear a coarse dark dress, with a red kerchief tied across their dark turbans.'^ Those among these four orders devoted to the care of the sacred buildings at Sheikh Adi are called kotcheks.*' Hussein Bey is both their civil and religious head;'' though Mr, Layard** makes him the political, and Sheikh Nasr the religious, head ; and so does Dr. Lob- dell.^ But as in 1846 he was quite young, he delegated his religious duties to Sheikh Nasr, chief of the sheikhs of Sheikhan, and made Sheikh Jindi the peesh namaz, or leader, in the performance of their ritual. Mr. Layard de- scribes Hussein Bey as handsome ; his features regular, his eye lustrous, and the long curls hanging from under his turban of the deepest black. A white cloak of fine texture covered his rich dress. ^*^ The Yezidees pretend that it is 1 Raised seat. -Life of Lobdell^ p. 225. ^V)o., p. 215. ^ Bibliotheca Sacra, 184S, p. 160. ^ Niueveh and its Reinains, Vol. I, p. 251. ^ Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S48, p. 160, 161 ; Babylon and Nitieveh, p. 85. ' Babylon and Nineveh, p. 93. * Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 227. ^ Life, p. 215 and 220. '^^ Nineveh and its Reinains, Vol. I, p. 227 314 THE ELY VOLUME. unlawful for them to learn to read ; but as they are not noted for veracity, this may be only an excuse for their general ignorance. Mr. Layard says there are only one or two among them who can read and write ; and even Sheikh Nasr does not know the alphabet. He took an Arabic book from the writer, and contemplated its pages very solemnly upside down.^ In some things they resemble the Druses, with whom they claim connection.'' Like them they refuse to receive others into their sect ; as the Druses say, " the door is shut." They practice circumcision like them, and yet the Yezidees per- form it at a much earlier period than the Moslems, and in a different style, as Dr. Grant explained one day to the writer. They also conform in many things to the Moslems, whom, like the Druses, they both fear and hate. They are also more favorably disposed toward Christians, as Dr. Grant learned the first time he went among them.'' They do not pray, even to Satan ;* and Mr. Layard says^ that, as far as he could learn, they neither offered direct prayer or sacri- fice to God. Sheikh Nasr " evaded questions on this subject, and shunned with superstitious awe every topic connected with the thought of God ; " and we have seen how the Druses put veracity in place of prayer, and neither pray to God, nor speak the truth to men not Druses. It is hardly necessary to point out the similarity of the two sects in carefully concealing all knowledge of their peculiar tenets. Sheikh Adi himself seems to correspond very much with the Druse Hamze, one of the divine manifestations, which they call the five ministers of God. One of these is called "The Preceder," and Sheikh Adi says: "I am the rul- ing power preceding all that exists." Both Hamze and Sheikh Adi claim to be the Creator. The latter sa3^s : " I am he who spread over the heavens their height;" and again: "Everything created is under me;" and again: "I create and make rich those whom I will;" and yet he claims to exist apart from God, saying : " I am he to whom the Lord of heaven hath said, ' Thou art the just judge, and the ruler of the earth ; ' " and even to be a man, saying : " I am Adi of Syria (or Damascus), the son of Moosafir."*^ And we know that Hamzd was associated with the caliph El Hakem, and claimed to have been incarnate repeatedly before that. The religion of the Yezidees is agreed to have Sabeanism or Zoroastrian- ism for its basis,^ Mr. Layard says :^ "They have more in common with the Sabeans than with any other sect." And again :^ "There is in them a strange mixture of Sabeanism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, with a tincture of the doctrines of the Gnostics and Manicheans. Sabeanism, however, seems to be the prevailing feature." From Christianity they appear to borrow the con- ception of Sheikh Adi as creator of all ; and yet a human being, one to whom God speaks, and on whom he confers dignities. So from Islam they learn to speak of the Mehdi,'" and other things peculiar to Mohammedanism. They believe that Christ will come to govern the world, and after him Sheikh Mehdi ' Niiieveh andiLs Remains, p. 252 ; Btbliotheca Sacra, 1848, pp. i6i, 163, 170 ; Life 0/ Lobdell, p. 222. - Bibliotheca Sacra, 184S, p. 169; Life 0/ Lobdell, p. 224. '^ Lost Tribes, p. 44- ^Li/e 0/ Lobdell, p. 224. ^Nineveh and ils Remains, Vol. I, p. 245. '^ Babylon and Nineveh, pp. 90-91. ''Life 0/ Lobdell, p. 224 ; Bibliotluca Sacra, 1848, p. 169. ^Xinevch audits Remains, Vol. I, p. 248. »Do., p. 252. '"Guide. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. 315 will appear and have special charge of those that speak Kurdish. According to them, the general resurrection will take place in the vast plain of Bozan, near Baadri.^ Query : Is this resurrection like that of the Druses, described on page 294; or, like that spoken of in the Word of God .-' They profess to hold intercourse with the spirits of another world, like our Spiritualists.^ They believe that all must pass through an expiatory hell into heaven, but that none will suffer eternally.^ Hence their care to avoid giving offence to Satan, who, they believe, will be restored to favor, and so be able to reward his friends.* God, they say, is so good he need not be propitiated ; but it is needful to keep on good terms with the evil spirit. They speak of him as Melek Taoos,^ and the cawals carry round with them brazen images of a bird on a sort of Oriental candlestick, as vouchers for their mission, and a means of blessing to their followers. There is here given an engraving of it, from Layard's Babylon and Nineveh^ p. 48. One of them gave Dr. Lobdell the following ac- count of the origin of this name : In the absence of his disciples, Satan, in the form of a dervish, took Christ down from the Cross and carried him to heaven. Soon after the Marys came and asked the dervish where Christ was. They would not believe his reply, but promised to do so if he would restore the chicken he was eating to life. He did so; and when he told them who he was they adored him. When he left them he promised always to appear to them as a beautiful bird, and so the peacock became his symbol.*^ They say that Melek Taoos so loved Christ that on one occasion he snatched an arrow from a Jew, with which he was about to kill him ; and just before he was nailed to the Cross he conveyed him away and substituted another in his place, who was put to death". '' They cannot endure that any should pronounce a word even remotely resembling the name of Satan. Hence Shat, the Arabic name of the Tigris, and naal,^ from its resemblance to laan,^ both come under the ban.^" Mr. Layard once came very near causing a great commotion through inadvertently forgetting this ; and, though he recollected himself before he got the word half uttered, and stopped, it was some time before the Yezidees recovered their composure.^^ Indeed, he tells us that they are said to have put to death some who had outraged their feelings in this way.^" Mr. Layard describes a part of their worship, which he was allowed to at- tend ; for there were parts of it at which he could not be permitted to be present. He speaks of thousands of lights in the darkness, glimmering among the trees, dancing in the distance, and reflected from the streams and tanks — for he estimated that seven thousand persons were present. Suddenly the hum of ^ Life 0/ Lobdell, x>. 21J. ^'Do.,-p. 2ij. ^ Babylon and Nineveh, p. (j^. ^ Lost Tribes, p. 46; Biblioiheca Sacra, 1848, p. 169. "King Peacock. '^Memoir, p. 223. "Biblioiheca Sacra, 1848, p. 169. ^ K horse shoe. "A curse. '^'^Biblioiheca Sacra, 1848, p. 169. ^'^ Nineveh and its Remains, Vol. I, p. 238. ^-Do., p. 245. 3l6 THE ELY VOLUME, voices was hushed, and a strain, solemn and sad, rose from the valley ; music so sweet and pathetic he had never heard in the East. It reminded him of the cathedral chants of old England — voices of men and women, blended with the soft notes of flutes, broken at intervals by the loud clash of cymbals and tambourines. He hastened to the sanctuary, and found it lighted up with torches and lamps, throwing a soft light on the white walls and green foliage. The sheikhs were ranged on one side, and thirty cawals were seated opposite, each performing on tambourine or flute. The fakirs stood around in their dark dresses, and the women priests in pure white. No others were allowed in the court. The music lasted for an hour. He could not catch the words. As the time quickened, the tambourines broke in more frequently ; the sad music gave place to a lively melody, and this was finally lost in a confusion of sounds. The tambourines beat furiously, the voices were raised to the highest pitch; the men outside took up the sounds, and the women raised their shrill tahlehl, till the performers threw their instruments into the air ; and he never heard a yell so frightful as that which followed. Then the noise gradually died away, and the crowd dispersed.^ Another writer describes it thus : "It is at night that they adore the being without name, with songs and dances, to the accompaniment of the tambourine. The peacock of the angels has his seat in the midst ; and when he is perfectly satisfied with the honors paid him, announces it by a yell that reverberates through the mountains, and the tambourines vibrate without the touch of mor- tal hand."^ This is of course overdrawn. The writer heard it once, though not allowed to see it, and thus described it:" "After midnight we heard a loud lamentation, as though from one in extreme terror, broken by bursts of weeping. It gradually came nearer, till it entered the temple. It resembled nothing so much as the remonstrances of a Hindoo widow, forced to ascend the funeral pile ; now and then varied by a burst of uncontrollable despair." It is pleasant to note that nothing indecorous or immodest takes place in this midnight worship. Neither Dr. Azariah Smith nor the writer, in 1844, Mr. Layard, in 1846 and 1848, nor Dr. Lobdell, in 1852, saw the slightest approach to anything of the kind. The Yezidees may have been merciless in the days of their power ; but what people can point to a faultless past ? They may be very untruthful now ; but on that point what Oriental people are without blame ? Everything that we know concerning them leads us to wish to understand them better, and to see what a beautiful character would blossom out of these worshipers of Satan, when brought under the quickening power of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. 1 Nmeveh and its Remains, Vol. I, pp. 241-242. ^ Kelly's Syria and the Holy Land, p. 50. ^ Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S4S, p. 170. XVI. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. Missionaries have more to do with making history than with writing it. Still that does not hinder others from preparing a modest record of their labors. Neither the brilliant rhetoric of a Macaulay, nor the vivid portraiture of a Prescott, have yet been employed in setting forth their work ; but that work itself does not shrink from comparison with any deeds that have called forth the exercise of the highest genius. Dr. Joseph Tracy prepared a history of the American Board down to the year 1841, in the form of annals, which bears the marks of his characteristic accuracy. This work reached a second edition. After the stream of history had advanced more than a score of years beyond the point where he left off, historical sketches of the various missions, in the form of octavo pamphlets, be- gan to be issued by the Board, as an aid to pastors in their preparation for the monthly concert. One, of the Ceylon mission, by Rev. W. W. Rowland, and of the Madura and Madras missions, by Rev. J. Herrick — forty-eight pages in all — bears the date of 1865. Others of the Marathi (thirty-two pages), by L. Bissell, D.D. ; Turkish (forty-eight pages), by G. W. Wood, D.D. ; Syrian (thirty-two pages), by T. Laurie ; and Nestorian and Assyrian missions, (thirty- two pages), by J. Perkins, D.D., and T. Laurie, were issued in or previous to 1866. The missions of the Board in the Pacific were described by Dr. S. C. Bardett (thirty-two pages), in 1869 ; and a pamphlet describing our missions in Africa (thirty-two pages), by Rev. W. Ireland, appeared without date. They may seem small things to mention, yet one of them has been referred to as authority in a recent history of the Christian Church, by Philip Schaff, D.D.^ The same work refers twice to Smith and Dwight's Researches in Armejiia ,'^ once to Dr. Perkins' Residence of Eight Years in Persia;^ to Dr. Dwight's Christianity Reviewed in the East; * and to the Memoir of Rev. D. T. Stoddard.^ In the year 1861 Dr. Anderson, the then senior Secretary of the Board, published a memorial volume of its first fifty years, giving an account of its ori- gin and early history ; its constitution and relations to ecclesiastical bodies ; 1 Vol. II, p. 733. 2 Do., pp. 730 and 782. 3 Do., p. 730. 4 Do., p. 7S2. "Do , p. 733. (317) 3l8 THE ELY VOLUME. its founders, meetings, committee, correspondence, library, and cabinet ; its finances, agencies, relations to governments, and deceased secretaries. Then its missions were described in their constitution and origin ; their development and laws of growth; the missionaries themselves; their churches, schools; their preaching, and printing ; their intercourse with the Board ; their literary- labors — and the wliole was brought down to the close of the half century. This was followed by a volume in 1864, giving an account of the Hawaiian Islands, and their advance under missionary labors. The year 1872 saw two more volumes from his pen, devoted to our missions in Western Asia; and 1874 brought two additional volumes : one on the Sandwich Islands, and the other on India ; when he who had done such good service and so long, rested from his labors, waiting for the summons that so recently called him home — not to cease from service, but to render it still, in ways so much better that to know them we must wait till we also follow after. In the year 1878 a smaller set of historical sketches were issued in i2mo pamphlet form, prepared by Rev. Dr. S. C. Bartlett — one on our missions in Africa, of thirteen pages, from the same pen, having appeared in 187 1. They were : On our missions in Turkey, thirty-four pages ; those in India, twenty-nine pages ; in China, twenty-four pages ; among the North American Indians, forty- seven pages; in the Sandwich Islands and Micronesia, thirty-four pages. Dr. I. R. Worcester, for many years editor of the Missionary Het-ald, wrote one on our missions in Japan, twenty-four pages, and another on the same in Papal lands, twenty-eight pages; both published in 1879. Various missionaries have written histories of the countries where they have labored. Among these. Rev. S. Dibble and Rev. H. Bingham have written of the Hawaiian Islands, includ- ing not only the progress of the people under the influence of the Gospel, but all that was know^n of their history previous to the arrival of missionaries among them, and giving an account of the native traditions that go back to the ages preceding their discovery by Capt. Cook. Rev. Drs. E. Smith and H. G. O. Dwight preface the account of their travels in Armenia with a sketch of its ancient history,^ going back to the traditional origin of the nation, from Haik, the grandson of Japhet, and bringing it down to the present time, through all the varied and intensely interesting fortunes of that nation. One hardly recognizes the familiar names of history in their Ar- menian dress. Tigranes indeed cannot be concealed under Dikran ; but one hardly suspects Ajtahag to be the same as Astyages ; or thinks of Arsaces in connection with Arshag ; or of Mithridates, when reading of Mihrtad ; or of finding Barzaphanes in Pazapran, Artaxerxes in Ardeshir, or Tiridates in Dur- tad ; though Pacorus can be recognized in Pagoor. Passing by the persecu- tions of the Persian fire worshipers, the Seljookians, Tamerlane, and others who drenched the land in blood, it is distressing to read of Shah Abbas the Great drawing through the land a broad intrenchment of desert, as the best defence of his western frontier, and driving off, like so many cattle, the entire popula- tion to Persia — families separated, multitudes drowned in crossing the rivers, and destroyed in many other ways before reaching their place of exile. Five ' Vol. I, pp. 13-41. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 3x9 hundred thousand Georgians and Armenians were thus torn from their homes, and deported into Persia.^ Dr. Allen devotes two hundred and eighty pages of his large work on India to the history of that countr}'. He begins in the mythical antiquity of their own yugas. These are said to have been from eight hundred and sixty-four thousand to one million seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand years in length, and it takes four billion three hundred and twenty million years to make a kalpa, or day of Brahm." He then describes the original inhabitants, now existing only in widely separated fragments of the present population ; as, Bheels in Central India, Coolees in Gujerat, Goands ^ in Orissa, and Shanars, and others in the South.* The Hindoos are next described as an invading race from the northwest, as was done by Mr. Hoisington. The distinctions of caste, the Vedas, the insti- tutes of Menu, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and Mahabharat, all pass under review.^ Then the invasion of Darius, nearly twenty-four hundred years ago — about 500 B. C. — followed two centuries later, by that of Alexander the Great, when Porus and Sandracottus " reigned and fought, and Palibothra was a noted city in the land/ The Mohammedan period next passes before us, from Mohammed Kasim, sent with six thousand men by the Caliph Waleed, who, landing at Dewal, sacked a number of cities in Scinde, but was at length driven from the country, down through the more permanent invasion of Subuctajee, to the reign of his son Mahmoud,^ who captured the great temple of Somnat. The house of Ghori, who reigned A. D. 1 160-1206; Cuttub ed Deen and his successors, A. i). 1206-1288, including Altumsh, Bulbun, and Kei Kobad, and the house of Khiljee, A. D. i288-i4r2i, follow in succession.^ During this last period, the house of Toghluck, A. D. 1321-1412, reigned, and Tamerlane devastated the region.-"^ Baber, A. D. 1526, Humayoon five years la,ter, and Acber, A. D. 1556, carried the Mogul empire up to the zenith of its glory. Acber's camp equi- page consisted of tents and portable houses framed of the most costly materials, in an enclosure of high canvas walls, fifteen hundred and thirty j'^ards square. This contained large halls for public receptions and banquets, galleries for exercise, and chambers for retirement. All was fitted up for the most luxuri- ous enjoyment, and seemed like a castle in the camp, which stretched away on all sides in regular streets, and covered a square space five miles across — an immense city of tents. On festivals, the Emperor's usual place was on his throne, in a royal pavilion, in the center of two acres spread with silk carpets interwoven with gold, and adorned with hangings as rich as velvet, embroidered with gold, pearls, and precious stones could make them. The nobility interchanged visits in pavilions only less costly. Their turbans sparkled with diamonds, and were adorned with waving heron plumes ; and they received royal gifts of dresses and jewels, horses and elephants. Acber himself was weighed in golden scales against gold, silver, perfumes, and other precious things, which were then scat- ' Do., pp. 39, 40. - Dr. D. O. Allen's India, A ncient and Modern, pp. 19-20. ^ Khonds. * Dr. D. O. Allen's India, Ancient and Modern, p. 22. ^Do., pp. 23-26. ^ Chandragupta. ' Ur. Allen's India, pp. 27-32. ^Dc, pp. 38-5O. ^Do., pp. 56-83. '^^Y)o., pp. 83-94. 32 O THE ELY VOLUME. tered among the spectators, while his own hand showered gold and silver fruit among his courtiers. Hundreds of elephants passed before him in review, the reading, ones wearing gold plates glittering with precious stones on head and breast. Acber, though a deist, delighted in discussions concerning religion and phi- losophy, and invited the Papal priests of Goa to teach him their religion ; but when they saw the homage he paid to the sun, and himself accepted from the people, feeling that they made no impression, they left him and returned. After a reign of fifty-one years, he was succeeded by his son, Selim, A. D. 1605, who assumed the title of Jehangeer,^ and made the famous Noor Mahal ^ his empress.''' Khurrum, his son, after various fortunes succeeded to the throne, and at once put to death his brothers and their families, leaving no descendant of Tamerlane except himself and his own children. He seemed to prosper for a while; erected splendid palaces and mosques in his principal cities, and was so fond of pomp and show that he spent $7,500,000 on a single festival. Among other wavs of getting rid of so much money on such occasions, he had vessels full of gold coin and jewels poured over him and then distributed among the o-uests. Such extravagance did not lighten the burdens of the people. We have already seen how he mourned over the death of the empress, for whose mausoleum he erected the celebrated Taj Mahal ; and for seven years before his death, he was imprisoned in his own palace, by his son Aurungzebe. After him the Mogul dynasty dwindled away, until it became a mere appa- nao-e of the East India Company. The reader may well be startled by the suddenness of its decadence; but in this it does not differ from any other Mohammedan power. Where is the splendid magnificence of the Caliphate of Bagdad? Where the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt? And where, but for the European powers, whose jealousies prop up dead dynasties on the thrones of Turkey and Persia to-day, would be those Mohammedan empires? Where, too, is the throne of Tamerlane at Samarcand ? And what is the condition of Tunis and Morocco in the West? It is easy to say that other empires have had their rise and fall, and so also these ; but no empire that has fallen has fallen without a cause ; and these form no exception. - It may be said that their fate proves that "they that take the sword shall perish by the sword." A more complete reply is : They fell, because, in the very nature of things, they could not stand. The elements of which they were composed made prosperity impossible, for — First. They trampled on the rights of man. Instead of admitting that manhood gave to every man the right to live, and seek his own happiness, so long as he did not infringe on the rights of his neighbor, they held that no man had a right to live unless he was a Moslem, or purchased immunity from death, by tribute. The sect or nation that thus sets itself in opposition to humanity, cannot prosper. It would be an argument against Providence if it did. The same divine law that makes it impossible for a nation of robbers or pirates to prosper, forbids a Mohammedan nation to do so, unless it practically 1 Conqueror of the world. " Light of the world. ^ Ur. Allen's /niiia, pp. 103-114. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 321 renounces that article of its creed. But that is a fundamental principle of Islam. Second. It may be replied : But they believe in God ? That depends on what is meant by faith in God. If by it is intended an intellectual appre- hension of the abstract idea of the unity of God, that they have ; but if love to God is included, that they have not ; for, " if a man love not his brother, whom he hath seen, how can he love God, whom he hath not seen ? " And so their abstraction is lifeless. Third. In common with many forms of idolatry, Mohammedanism tramples woman in the mire by its legalized polygamy, and all its attendant abomina- tions. The writer can never forget a scene in Mosul, in 1843. A Moslem woman came to Dr. Grant for medicine for her little boy, ten years of age. She was unusually prepossessing in appearance, and was still young. As the doctor was busy, he did not notice her at first, and she began to plead, among other things, " He is all I have ! " " What ! have you forgot your husband .'' " " Husband ! " she repeated ; " can a husband love ? He is a stranger to me, and I to him. Ah ! the religion of Christ is better than ours. It does not tol- erate such evils." Others had been taken into the harem since her, and she was cast aside ; while her more favored rivals did their utmost to embitter a life already crushed. Even her son had been trained to despise her; and while she was pleading for him with the doctor, he was mocking her appeals, and ordering her to "shut her mouth."' After receiving medicine for him, she began to tell her own ailments ; but their roots were too deep for medicine. It was a little incident, but it gave a sad insight into the suffering hidden behind the windowless walls of a Mohammedan city. Does the reader point to the Taj Mahal ? That told of love for an individual, whose personal excellence had awakened something like love in a sated voluptuar}'- ; but the harem con- tained just as many inmates as before, and just as imbruted. The virtues of Moomtaj availed only for her own elevation ; her sex were no less slaves than before. And a religion that thus destroys the homes of a people, destroys the foundation of all prosperity. Fourth. Mohammedanism is a religion of unmingled selfishness. It has nothing but hatred and contempt for those outside its own pale ; and within that, it makes men Pharisees of the Pharisees. No follower of the Talmud is more devoted to quibbles about things lawful and forbidden. Is it replied that the Koran enjoins almsgiving? Yes ; but why ? Is it for the sake of the poor who are relieved ? Not at all. But solely for the sake of the reward it is expected to bring to the giver — thus turning even that show of benevolence into the worst of selfishness. It appeals to no higher motive than the promo- tion of one's own interest. It knows no other. Fifth. It is destitute of that spiritual life that is in Christ, and can come from him alone. If he said to his own, in daily communion with him, " As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself except it abide in the vine, no more can ye, except ye abide in me," much more is it true of these. Sixth. Its false doctrine of inevitable fate, independent of human agency, cuts the sinews of public prosperity, and makes a nation without energy. The 21 322 THE ELY VOLUME. only enthusiasm it is capable of is enthusiasm in slaughtering those who repu- diate its dogmas ; for, as the reward of that, the}- expect the delights of a sen- sual paradise. Seventh. This utter selfishness, when crowned with even such transient prosperity as marked the Mogul empire in India, unhinges the faith of men in God, and leads to a reckless scramble for a share in the spoils. Hence " truth falls in the streets, and equity cannot enter." Men learn to lie; and sin brings few retributions in this life more dreadful than when a nation ceases to be truthful, and no man can rely on the word of his neighbor. Yet this is the character stamped by every false religion on the nation that receives it ; and it is preeminently true of Islam and the nations cursed by its presence to-day. When such a system intruded itself among the Hindoos, bringing with it only slaughter and oppression, it is no wonder they did not love it. What was there in it to call forth their love ? Its costly splendor was nourished by the robbery of their own possessions. And if — " High though his titles, proud his name, Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, Despite those titles, power and pelf, The wretch, concentered all in self, Living, shall forfeit fair renown, And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dnst from whence he sprung. Unwept, unhonored, and unsung " — it is not strange if a whole dynasty of such characters passed away unregretted, or that the plundered even enjoyed the despoiling of their plunderers by the hordes of Nadir Shah. Dr. Allen passes from the Mohammedan into the European period ; and here his pages become intensely interesting, for they give full accounts of inci- dents already familiar, and give them, too, in their connection with each other. The beginnings of the Portuguese, French, and English power in India are spread out before us. The horrors of the Black Hole of Calcutta are given in detail. The romantic career of Lord Clive, from a simple writer sent out by the East India Company, until he became the head of their government in India, is given in full ; and so is the career of Warren Hastings, doomed by Edmund Burke to immortal infamy. Lord Cornwallis, of Yorktown celebrity, also passes across the stage ; and so through a host of others, from Bombay to Burmah, and from Cashmere to Cape Comorin, down to the year 1S50, the whole covering one hundred and forty-five 8vo pages ; or, if we include his account of the government and European population, sixtj^-two pages more — two hundred and seven in all. Without following him through this deeply interesting history, let us content ourselves with a glimpse of Papal missionary effort, and of the secular enterprise of Protestant countries, here afforded. Vasco da Gama sailed from Lisbon for India in July, 1497, only five years after the discovery of America by Columbus. His first voyage effected little, and he awakened great indignation by carrying off several natives to Portugal. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 323 The next enterprise, under Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, carried eight Franciscan friars, who, according to their own historian, DeBarros, were instructed " to carry fire and sword into every nation that would not listen to their preaching." Certainly a little different from the sort of instructions given by the American Board to its missionaries. It meant something, however, in view of the twelve hundred men in the thirteen ships that formed the expedition. Cabral, annoyed by the Mohammedans at Calicut, plundered one of their ships, and they, in turn, attacked the Portuguese factory, and killed fifty out of seventy of its inmates. Then Cabral seized ten ships, and, after plundering their cargoes, burned them, and cannonaded the city — strange mixture of war and missions. After his return, the king of Portugal, by authority from the Pope, assumed the title of " Lord of the navigation, conquest, and commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India," and proceeded to take possession of those countries, peace- ably if he could, forcibly if he must. Fifteen ships now sailed under Vasco da Gama ; and, on nearing India, he took a large Moslem ship, and after plundering it, fastened the crew in the hold and set it on fire, burning alive, according to Lafiteau, three hundred persons. At Calicut he collected fifty natives, and threatening to put them to death if his demands were not complied with in an hour, coolly carried out his threat. Then mutilating — some sa}' fifty more — by cutting off a hand or foot, sent them ashore, and bombarded the city. In 1505 a large fleet, under Francesco Almeida, after some encounters with the Egyptian fleet, attacked the city of Dabool, and besides giving it up to plunder and massacre, set it on fire. Neither age nor sex were spared. The streets streamed with blood, and in a few hours the city was a smoking ruin. The wife of the governor could not purchase his life with the offer of all her wealth. Children were torn from their mothers' arms, and their brains dashed out against the walls ; so that the cruelty of the Portuguese became a proverb in the land. It was their custom to plunder all ships found without a license from them- selves ; and if any city refused to trade with them on their terms, they attacked it. Three times during five years they did this to Calicut, burning, destroying, and making slaves of the crews of the ships taken. More than seventeen other cases of similar attacks are recorded on one page (164), between the years 1507 and 1531.^ What could the Hindoos think of a religion that lent its authority to such doings ? Is it said that the English were also cruel, unjust and treacherous ? That is true; and Dr. Allen covers up none of their misdeeds — neither the glaring wrongs of Clive, or Hastings, nor the grinding oppression of Lord Cornwallis, who required three fifths of the produce of the land as tax from its cultivators, and required it in cash. His no less unjust law that the official Zemindars should be counted the proprietors of the lands of which they had been only the tax-gatherers, is not covered up ; nor the unjustifiable dealings of other gov- ernors with the natives. The wicked dealings of French with English, and ^Dr. Allen's India, pp. 152-166. 324 THE ELY VOLUME. English with French, are also laid bare. The wonder is that Hindoos ever consented to receive a religion introduced among them under such auspices ; but there is this wide difference between the two cases : In the one, all the wrong, cruelty, and bloodshed were committed under direct and explicit authority from the Pope, whose missionaries were on board the fleets, guilty of the out- rages. In the other, men without the pretence of any ecclesiastical authority, but as individuals, bent on their own gain, or banded together exclusively for that purpose, were guilty of grave misdeeds ; but they claimed no church authority for them. On the contrary, when Protestant missionaries came, they were at once ordered away, and the attitude of the East India Company was at first that of decided hostility to all missionary effort. Even the good men whom they sent for to minister to their own spiritual needs could not at first do anything for the natives, however much they desired it ; and began to do so only in a very cautious way, as any one may see who reads their biographies — so that there is no parallel between the two cases. The truth is, there was as decided antagonism between the old East India Company and Protestant mis- sionaries as there is to-day between the emissaries of the Pope in heathen lands and the missionaries of the Gospel of Jesus Christ ; and it is well for the cause of Christ to-day in India that it was so; for no missionary zeal could have overcome the prejudice awakened by alliance with such a body. HISTORY OF CHINA. The chapter in the Middle Kingdom on the history and chronology of China^ is full of interesting information on matters which we outside barbarians know little about. It is not the only chapter relating to history, in the broad sense of a Macaulay ; but this one relates especially to the rulers and their personal history. Dr. Williams first refers us to works which treat of the subject — such as Mailla, and Pauthier, Du Halde, Grosier, and Gutzlaff ; then states that though some Chinese historians preface their histories with much that is mythical, yet they themselves do not receive it as sober fact, and their real records are much more worthy of credit than such legends would imply. The ancient history of China is clearly distinguished from her mythological history. Chinese historians begin with the creation, which they suppose was effected by the retroactive agency of the yin and the yang — the male and female princi- ples— which first outlined the universe, and then were influenced by their own creations. Heaven was a chaos ; but order was produced, and out of it came the universe. The male principle (yang) first formed the heavens, and the heavier matter coagulated and formed the earth, while from the subtle essence of heaven and earth the dual principles yin and yang were formed, and from their joint action came the four seasons; and these produced all terrestrial objects. The condensed effluence of the yang produced fire, and that again the sun. The condensed exhalations of the yin produced water, and that the moon ; and the seminal influence of sun and moon the stars. It is not strange that this explanation was too transcendental for the common people, who pre- ' Vol. II, pp. 193-229. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 325 ferred the story of Pwanku, toiling with mallet and chisel for eighteen thousand years among huge masse's of granite, fashioning the universe. Heaven, earth, and Pwanku each grew six feet every day till he died ; then his head became mountains, his breath winds and clouds, and his voice thunder; his limbs pro- duced the four poles ; his veins rivers ; his sinews the undulations of the earth's surface ; and his flesh the fields. His beard was turned into stars ; his skin and hair into herbs and trees ; and his bones and marrow into rocks, metals and precious stones ; his dropping sweat increased into rain ; and lastly, the insects that infested his body were changed into men and women ! Such is the lucid idea the Chinese have of the creation. Pwanku was succeeded by three monstrous forms called the celestial, terrestrial and human rulers, who continued another eighteen thousand years, and invented all useful things. These were followed by Yu chau and Sui jin, the last of whom, like Prome- theus, invented fire. This mythological period ends with Fuhhi, whom some identify with Noah. According to the Chinese, he flourished in B. C. 2852, or 1152 after the crea- tion, according to Usher ; or, according to Hales, who agrees better with Chinese dates, B. C. 3155. Chinese history begins three hundred and three years after the deluge, and forty-seven years before the death of Noah ; and possibly some of his descendants found their way to China in less than three hundred years after the flood. Fuhhi and his seven successors reigned seven hundred and forty-seven years. The common chronology brings the deluge thirteen years after the accession of Yau, and the death of the last of the seven, B. C. 2205, or twenty-five years after the dispersion at Babel ; but according to Hales, one hundred and twelve years before the call of Abraham. These eight kings would then be cotemporary with the patriarchs between Shem and Abraham, from Salah to Nahor. The capital of Fuhhi, near Kaifung fu, in Honan, favors their entrance through the Kiayii pass, in Kansuh. It is worthy of note that the Chinese fix the establishment of the sexagenary C)'cle in the sixty-first year of Hwangti, B. C. 2637, ^^^ hundred and eighteen years after the deluge. It was invented by Yau the Great. Three reigns intervened between Hwangti and Yau, but nothing is recorded of their doings, only that they were elected by the people, like several of the judges of Israel. A great deluge occured in the reign of Yau, B. C. 2293. But Dr. Williams inclines to regard it as a local overflow of the rivers in the north of China. The kings thus far may be tabulated as follows : ^ Names. Length of Reign. Began B. C. Other Events. 1. Fuhhi 115 2852 The deluge B. C. 3155. 2. Shinnung 140 2737 Death of Noah, B. C. 2805. 3. Hwangti 100 2697 4. Shauhau 84 2597 Death of Arphaxad, B. C. 2715. 5. Chiuenliiuh 78 2513 Death of Shem, B. C. 2555. 6. Kuh 78 2435 From B. C. 2715 to B. C. 2082, 7. Yau 102 2357 8. Shun 50 2255 sixteen dynasties ruled in Egypt. * Do., p. 203. 326 THE ELY VOLUME. The Chinese Dynasties. I. Yu, the first of the Hia dynasty, B. C. 2205, is said to have been nine cubits high, a little more than Og of Bashan ; and a rain of gold is said to have occurred in his days, which may have been a meteoric shower. Kieh Kwei, B. C. 18 18, the last of the said dynasty, is said to have been a cruel and oppressive voluptuary. He made a large pond of wine, at which three thou- sand could drink at once, surrounded by pyramids of viands, which no one might touch till intoxicated. Drunken quarrels were common, and the vilest orgies were practiced in the palace ; while those who remonstrated were either killed or exiled. The people rose up in their wrath and dethroned him. II. The Shang dynasty began B. C. 1766, one hundred and twenty years before the Exodus, and reigned six hundred and four years. The first of this line, Chingtang, is said to have worshiped Shangti, the name given to the Supreme Being. Images are not mentioned till B. C. 1198, or four years after the death of Samson. Chausin and Tanki are represented as counterparts of Nero and Messalina, and were dethroned by III. Wu Wang, the founder of the Chau dynasty, B. C. 1122. Like Ching- tang, a worshiper of Shangti, he removed the capital to Singan fu, in Shensi. Duke Chau is said to have invented the compass, B. C. 11 12. These three dynasties, Hia, Shang, and Chau, extended from B. C 2205 to B. C. 249, or from the residence of Terah in Haran to the reigns of Antiochus Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphus, who translated the Septuagint. During the first, occurred the call of Abraham, and the descent of Jacob into Egypt. Dur- ing the second, the Exodus and the death of Samuel ; and during the third, the accession of Saul; the return of the Jews from Persia; and the accession of Alexander the Great. IV. The next dynasty, the Tsin, lasted only three years, B. C. 249, B. C. 246. V. Chi hwangti, the first of the After Tsin dynasty, B. C. 246, has been called the Napoleon of China. His capital was Hienyang, on the banks of the Hwai. He drove the Huns into Mongolia, and built the great wall. He also destroyed all the records of his predecessors, that he might appear the first emperor ; and even buried alive five hundred of the literati, that he might not be reproached for the vandalism.. VI and VII. Kautsu founded the Han dynasty B. C. 202, and literature flourished during his reign. The removal of the capital to Lohyang occasioned a split, called the Eastern Plan dynasty. Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born during this period — during the reign of Pingti,^ — and the Western world was consolidated under Rome. During the reign of Mingti, A. D. 65, the deputation was sent west that brought back with them Buddhism from India. This king and his successor, Chingti, sent their armies as far west as the Caspian Sea, where they heard of the Romans. VIII. The After Han dynasty began A, D. 211, and continued till A. D. 265. 'The Emperor Peace. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 327 IX. The Tsin dynasty then came in, and flourished till A. D. 317 ; though Shensi was under the Hans till A. D. 352. The Eastern Tsin dynasty, which removed the capital to Nanking, and was Buddhist in religion, reigned till A. D. 450. During this time Constantine built his eastern capital on the Bosphorus, and Attila invaded Italy. Then follow several dynasties : XI. The Sung, from A. D. 420 to 479. XII. The Tsi, from that date till A. D. 502. XIII. The Liang, till A. D. 557. XIV. The Chin, till A. D. 589 ; and XV. The Sui, till A. D. 618. XVI. The celebrated Tang dynasty then began its reign of two hundred and eighty-seven years. These were bright years for China, though " Dark Ages " for Europe. During the reign of Tai-tsung, A. D. 627, schools were established, an accurate edition of the Chinese classics published, and a code of laws drawn up. The empire also was extended from Kansuh as far as the Caspian Sea. Sogdiana, part of Khorassan, and the region of the Hindoo-kush, obeyed him. Nipal (Nepaul) and Magadha (Bahar) in India — even the Emperor Theodosius — sent embassies to Singan fu in A. D. 643, carrying presents of rubies and emeralds. Nestorian missionaries also came, and the emperor built a church for them at his court, and examined translations of their books. He also invaded Corea; but only after his death did his son complete its conquest. None of his successors equaled him, though the empress of his son showed energy enough — not always righteously, or well. XVII. Then followed several dynasties ; as the After Liang, till A. D. 923. XVIII. The After Tang, till A. D. 936. XIX. After Tsin, till A. D. 947. XX. After Han, till A. D. 951 ; and XXI. The After Chau, till A. D. 960. XXII. The Sung dynasty then succeeded, from A. D. 970 to A. D. 1127. Under this the Tartars drove the Chinese south of the Yellow River in A. D. 1 1 18, and retained all north of it till A. D. 1235. XXIII. The Southern Sung dynasty, so designated from that loss, con- tinued till A. D. 12S0. Then Southern China was also subdued with great slaughter, and XXIV. The Mongol Chief Kublai Khan founded the Yuen dynasty in that year. He was energetic and magnificent ; dug the grand canal, and had Marco Polo to admire and record his greatness. XXV. The Mongols were expelled in A. D. 1368, and the Ming dynasty was founded by Hungwu, or Chu Yuenchang. He established his capital at Nanking, and reigned thirty years. Yungloh, his son, removed the capital to Peking, and framed the code of laws which is still in force. During the reign of Kiahtsing the Portuguese came to China, and in 1580 the Jesuits arrived. About this time the Manchus, or eastern Tartars, began to threaten the empire, and overran the northeastern provinces, but did not overturn it till A. D. 1644, when Shunchi, the Manchu Khan, inaugurated XXVI. The Tsing dynasty. He" subdued the Chinese so thoroughly as to 328 THE ELY VOLUME. compel them to wear the queue, which has been borne ever since as the badge of submission to the Manchus, though many at first lost their heads rather than submit to it. Kanghi, who ascended the dragon throne in 1661, showed a vigor, prudence, and success, that made his name illustrious. He reigned sixty-one years — longer than any of his predecessors, save one — and extended the empire to Kokand and Badakshan on the west, and Tibet on the southwest, consolidating it, and marking it with that stability that has produced the impression abroad of the unchangeableness of Chinese institutions. He subdued the Eleuths, and other tribes near the Celestial mountains ; settled the frontier between China and Russia; carried out a mathematical survey of the empire; and in his reign there was published a dictionary of the language. His son, Yungching, who succeeded in 1722, sought to put down Christianity and restore ancient usages. Kienlung followed in 1736, and reigned sixty years, during which he managed to annex Tibet, under cover of aid against the Nepaulese. Kiaking ascended the throne on the abdication of his father in 1796, and his reign of twenty-five years was disturbed by insurrections and pirates. Taukwang suc- ceeded him in 1820, and had a constant succession of troubles. Turkestan rebelled in 1828 ; there were insurrections in Formosa and in Kwangtung in 1830 ; and v/ar with England in 1840. Heenfung followed him in 1850, who was succeeded by Tungche in 1859, and he in turn by Kwangseu, the present emperor, in 1875, then a mere child in his fourth year. Table of the Emperors of the Ming and Tsing Dynasties. Contemporaries. Tamerlane. Richard II. Manuel Paleologus. Henry IV (England). James I. Henry V. Amurath II. Henry VI. Albert II. Cosmo de Medicis. James II. Nicholas V. Mahomet II. Edward IV. James HI. Ferdinand and Isabella. Bajazet II. James IV. James V. Henry VII I. Solyman II. Mary. Philip II. Selim II. Elizabeth. James I. Henry IV. Othman II. Philip IV. Amurath IV. Charles I. Innocent X. Frederic the Great. Mahomet IV. Cromwell. Charles II. Clement IX. Mahomet V. George II. Osman HI. George HI. Selim III. Napoleon. Mahmoud. George IV. Victoria. Alexander II. A. Lincoln. Abdul Aziz Khan. U. S. Grant. M. Grevy. Title. Accession. Years of Reign. I. Hungwu 1368 30 2. Kienvvan 139S 5 3. Yungloh 1403 22 4. Hunghi 1425 I 5. Siuentih 1426 10 6. Chingtung 1436 21 7. Kingtai 1457 8 8. Chinghwa 1465 23 9. Hungchi 1488 18 10. Chingtih 1506 16 II. Kiahtsing 1522 45 12. Lungking 1567 6 13. Wanleih 1573 47 14. Taichang 1620 I 15. Tienki 1621 7 j6. Tsungching 1628 16 a. Shunchi 1644 18 ■_2. Kanghi 1662 61 3. Yungching 1723 13 4. Kienlung 1736 60 5. Kiaking 1796 25 6. Taukwang 1821 29 7. Heenfung 1850 9 8. Tungche 1859 16 q. Kwangseu 1875 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 329 The whole number of emperors in the twenty-six dynasties during four thousand seven hundred and thirty-two years, from B. C. 2852 to A. D. 1880, or from Fuhhi to Kwangseu, is two hundred and forty-six ; giving to each dynasty an average of one lumdred and eighty, and to each monarch an average of nineteen and one third years. In England, during the seven hun- dred and seventy-one years from William the Conqueror to Victoria, there have been thirty-four sovereigns, averaging twenty-two years and two thirds of a year to each reign. The mere reader may find this resume of Chinese history rather tedious ; but the student will, it is hoped, find it a valuable aid, especially toward an intelli- gent understanding of the many references in works on China to dynasties whose date and character are unknown to ordinary readers. Dr. Williams, in the closing chapters of the Middle Kingdom^ gives a very elaborate, impartial, and discriminating history of the origin of the so-called opium war between England and China, in 1840 — its progress and results. But it is impossible to give even a resume of them, as so much depends on the accurate statement of minute details. The chapters are well worthy the study of all who love to note the methods of that wonderful Providence which deals with the greatest complication of wrongs in a way to correct the evils of all, and make them productive of the greatest possible good. The unjustifiable attempt of a Christian people to force a poisonous drug on a heathen empire has been fully exposed — we wish we could add forsaken — and the blind arrogance of an ignorant nation has been most effectually rebuked. The issue is sure to furnish another endorsement of the truth that the kingdom of God shall come, while guilt and retribution are measured by the degree of light resisted, and the amount of truth "held [down] in unrighteousness." As to the population of China, see Middle Kingdom^ Vol. I, pp. 206-239. Dr. Williams thinks that it is less now than in 1812 ; for the Taeping rebellion probably destroyed twenty millions. He would not place it much higher than three hundred and forty-three millions.^ Dr. Happer estimates the present population at three hundred millions.^ ASHANTI. Dr. J. L. Wilson makes several valuable contributions to our knowledge of the history of Africa, besides an account of its ancient races, and a 7'esumk of Phoenician attempts to circumnavigate that continent.* He goes very fully into the history of .Portuguese discoveries in Western Africa, the doings of that nation in connection with the slave trade, and their other commercial relations with its people.^ The early enterprises of the English, French, and Dutch in the same region, come in for their share of attention.^ But we pass on to his notice of Ashanti, as a specimen of his contributions to African history.' Originally a small district, Ashanti grew till it covered an area nearly three hundred miles square. Osai Tutu, one of the most renowned of her kings, and his successors, during the eighteenth century added to it Buntuku and Denkera ' Chapters xxii, xxiii, Vol. II, pp. 468-604. "Missionary Herald, 1879, pp. 50, 51. 3 Do., 1881, p. 85. ^Do., pp. 13-22. 15 Do., pp. 33-45- "Do., pp. 45-69. 'Do., pp. 157-173. $Z° THE ELY VOLUME. on the northwest, Sarem on the north, and Axim and Warsaw on the south. The origin of the people is unknown, and the time when they first took posses- sion of their territory. Their language is essentially the same with that of the Fantis, and so are their physical characteristics. Probably both tribes were driven from the valley between the Kong mountains and the upper waters of the Niger, by the Mohammedans. The Fantis crossed first, followed and attacked by the Ashantis, till the help of Europeans enabled them to hold their own. Ashanti alone of Western African kingdoms has a history; and that goes back only to the opening of the eighteenth century. At that time their weapons were the bow and spear. Osai Tutu, after two desperate battles, routed the army of Denkera, and slew its king, whose bones, stripped of their flesh, became fetiches at Kumasi. The king of Axim, the ally of Denkera, lost an immense number of soldiers ; and in a third battle his army was utterly destroyed. He became tributary, and promised four thousand ounces of gold toward the expenses of the war. Failing to pay this, he was attacked again ; but Osai Tutu was killed, and his harem and court taken captive. The army took a terrible revenge for the loss of its leader ; and, though they never recovered his body, sacrificed hosts of their foes to his manes at the capital. Osai Tutu was much beloved, and great confusion ensued at his death ; many tributary tribes improving the opportunity to shake off the yoke. Osai Apoko, his brother, at length became king, and subdued the rebels, besides quelling a conspiracy at home; dying in 1742, he was succeeded by his brother, Osai Akwasi. He engaged in war with Dehomi, now the only rival of Ashanti. The king of that tribe had induced three provinces to revolt and join him ; but Osai Akwasi defeated them all in a battle near the Volta. Crossing that river into the heart of Dehomi, he suffered an equally signal defeat himself ; and, dying soon after of his wounds, his nephew, Osai Kudjoh, ascended the throne in 1752. He was immediately called to suppress an exten- sive revolt, and not only succeeded in that, but subdued additional provinces, till even the king of Dehomi sent to congratulate him, and seek his alliance. When he became old and infirm, the smothered flames again broke out ; and before his army could march to subdue the rebels, he died. His grandson, Osai Kwamina, succeeded him in 1781, and vowed not to enter his palace till he had the heads of the leaders of the revolt ; and they are still to be seen among the trophies of Kumasi. He, however, was deposed for favoring Mohammedanism. Osai Apoko II began to reign in 1797 ; but the kings of Gaman and Kongo united to reinstate the deposed king, and in the first battle the new king met with a severe defeat. Another battle followed, in which he was victorious, though he soon after died, and gave place to his brother, Osai Tutu Kwamina, about 1800. In the course of a few years he fought a battle at Kaha with two Moslem chiefs, who had burned the capital of Banna, a tributary province, and com- pletely routed them, one of them dying of his wounds in the Ashanti camp. This battle added the Moslem provinces of Ghofan and Ghobago to the pagan kingdom of Ashanti. The king also subdued Gaman, and consolidated his kinirdom. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 33 1 Two tributary chiefs of Axim now took refuge among tlie Fantis, whom the king requested to surrender them. Their reply was the slaughter of his messengers, which called forth an invasion, and the combined armies of Fanti and Axim were defeated. The chiefs now pretended to be about to submit, but really only sought time to prepare for another battle, and again put his messengers to death, which led the king to swear that he would never return to Kumasi without their heads. He invaded Fanti, and wrought a desolation scarcely paralleled in history. Towns were destroyed ; all ages and both sexes were butchered, and provisions of every kind destroyed. The Fantis fled to the shelter of the English forts on the coast, but the king followed them to the gate, cut to pieces the population of the town, and assailed the fort itself, despite the deadly fire of its guns. Night, however, stopped his advance. Still the walls were mined, all ready for explosion, when a flag of truce was dis- played from the fort. One of the offending chiefs escaped during the negotia- tions, but the other was delivered up, and afterwards subjected to most cruel tortures at Kumasi. Not less than twelve thousand persons are supposed to have fallen that day. This was in 1S07. Four years later the king sent an army to Elmina to defend that town from the Fantis ; but no marked results followed. In 1817 he invaded the Fanti country a third time, and reduced the people of Cape Coast to such straits that the English governor thought it best to pay the fine the king had imposed on them ; whereupon the Ashantis withdrew. These repeated incursions so interrupted trade that the English sent an envoy to Kumasi, to negotiate a treaty of commerce. The Ashantis had no quarrel with the English, but only with the Fantis, who became insolent, rely- ing on the forts for help. The result was that the four ounces of gold paid monthly by the English, as rent to the Fantis, was paid over to the king of Ashanti. Mr. Hutchinson went to Kumasi as British Resident, and Mr, Dupuis was sent from England as Consul to Ashanti, to promote commerce with the interior. On his arrival at Cape Coast, Ashanti was at war with Gaman. Mr. Hutchinson had returned from Kumasi, and the appointment of Mr. Dupuis did not please the local authorities. Soon the news of the defeat of the king led to great rejoicing among the Fantis, which, if not favored, was yet not rebuked by the English ; and other insults were offered by the Fantis, which the governor refused to notice, though pointed out to him by the king, and matters became threatening. Mr. Dupuis, long thwarted, was now permitted to set out on his embassy. He was kindly received, and a treaty made, equally advantageous to both par- ties. But on his return to the coast the treaty was set aside, and the British naval officer, siding with the authorities, refused to send the king's commis- sioners, whom Mr. Dupuis had brought with him from Kumasi, to England. So the latter sent word to the king to be patient till he heard from England ; and himself went there to expedite affairs. The charter of the African Company was now abolished, and Sir Charles McCarthy appointed Governor-General of the British Possessions on the Gold Coast. He found everything in confusion in March, 1822. The ambassador 332 THE ELY VOLUME. of the king, having waited two months beyond the time set by Mr. Dupuis to hear from England, had returned, and the place was virtually under blockade. Had Sir Charles known the true state of things, his course had no doubt been more pacific; but he was misled by the Fantis, and his name resounded along the whole coast as their deliverer. The king looked on all this with sullen silence, and in secrecy prepared for war on a large scale. At first a negro sergeant in the British service was carried off and put to death. This led to reprisals ; and hearing that the king was on his way to the coast, the governor resolved to meet him ; but, unfortunately, without waiting for the arrival of some regular troops, he crossed the Prah with such an army of natives as he could muster. Next day, January 21, 1824, the war-horns of the Ashantis sounded to battle. A heavy fire was kept up most of the day, and the English ammunition began to fail. The Ashantis, however, were driven back by the bayonet ; but some who had crossed the river higher up attacked the English army in the rear, and cut it to pieces. Sir Charles, being wounded, fell back to where the king of Denkera still stood his ground, and tried to check the advance of the Ashan- tis, by bringing a field-piece to bear on their thickest ranks ; but they pressed on steadily and irresistibly, till Sir Charles and his officers were slain. His secretary was taken prisoner, and locked up every night in a room with the heads of his master and associates. It is said the heart of Sir Charles was devoured by the chiefs, in order to imbibe his courage ; and his flesh was dried and eaten by their subordinates, for the same object. His bones were long kept in Kumasi as national fetiches. Capt. Raydon was sacrificed to the town fetich. Two other staff officers, who had not been able to reach the field in time, now hastened to put Cape Coast castle in a state of defense. The allied arm}^ though thirty thousand strong, could not be induced to make another stand; but the Ashantis, instead of pressing their advantage, made overtures of peace through the Dutch governor of Elmina. The Ashanti deputies there met the acting governor of Cape Coast, and assured him that the king wished no war with the English ; only the surrender of the vice king of Denkera ; and in token of their sincerity, they surrendered Secretary Williams, and suspended hos- tilities. The vice king of Denkera meanwhile crossed the Prah and attacked the Ashantis ; and the English followed up this bold stroke, only to be driven back to the gates of Cape Coast castle. At this crisis a reinforcement arrived, and another desperate battle was fought before the arrival of the king from Kumasi, but with no decided advantage to either side ; then, as the natives were unwill- ing to do more, the troops were withdrawn into the fort. Soon the new king arrived, and marched his army up in full view of the fort. Every preparation was made for defense. The marines of the men-of-war and the sailors of other ves- sels were landed, a large native force was collected, and in the battle that ensued both sides fought with desperation till night separated them. The engagement would have been renewed next day, but dysentery and small-pox compelled the king to retreat. The other side was not much better off, and but for the arrival of rice from England more would have died of famine than in the war. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 333-, The Ashantis now found that there was another nation as strong as them- selves ; and in subsequent battles cannon and grape-shot turned the scale. Sir Neill Campbell, a new governor, came with peremptory orders to put an honorable end to the war. The Fantis would fain have humbled the Ashantis still more, but the governor was firm. Peace was secured, and the Ashantis were required to deposit four thousand ounces of gold at Cape Coast, to pur- chase ammunition for the allied army, should they provoke another war, besides sending two of the royal family as hostages to Cape Coast. This was not done, however, till 183 1, when his son, and the son of his predecessor, with six hundred ounces of gold, were sent as security for the good behavior of the king. And thus the Ashanti claim to the government of the country of the Fantis was virtually renounced. Both of these young men were afterwards educated in England, and are now in Ashanti ; one of them is a missionary. This fragment of West African history shows how nearly the history of a savage African tribe resembles that of the most civilized nations, in being mainly a record of war and violence. It also shows the opportunities missionaries have for learning the facts of history, and the intelligence and impartiality with which they improve them. Dr. Wilson "nothing extenuates, nor sets down aught in malice." He is allied to one side by the ties of race and religion, and to the other by the interest the missionary feels in the people, to benefit whom he consecrates his life. A his- torian from Cape Coast might not have held the balances so evenly. KINGDOM OF CONGO. Dr. Wilson, however, has written a chapter of history more appropriate for the present volume, in his account of the kingdom of Congo. ^ It was dis- covered by the Portuguese about A. D. 1485. It lies on the south side of the river Congo ; bounded on the east by the mountains of Matamba,^ which divide it from the savage Giaghi,^ west by the Atlantic, and south by Angola. It extends two hundred and fifty miles along the coast, and three hundred and fifty into the interior. It was divided into six provinces : Sogno,* Bamba, Pembe, Batta, Pango, and Sundi ; whose chiefs the Portuguese called dukes, counts, and marquises. Sogno and Bamba were the largest, the latter as large as Sicily, and the former still larger, and more important as the entrepot of commerce. San Salvador, the capital,^ was in Pemba, fifty Italian miles south of the Congo, and one hundred and forty miles northeast of St, Paul de Loando. It was situated on the summit of a mountain, and counted healthy for Europeans. Here were the headquarters of the missionaries, and of many Portuguese merchants ; and in the early part of the seventeenth century, it is said to have contained forty thousand inhabitants. The palace was of wood, partly enclosed by a stone wall. For many years a bishop and chapter, a col- lege of Jesuits, and a convent of Capuchins, were supported here by Portugal. Besides a large cathedral, were ten smaller churches. The other important ' /-Fc-i^t'r« ^yV/ca;, pp. 313-346. '^(^■ae.xy: Dembo of Stanley ? 3 Query : Enkoji of Stanley ? ^ Sonyo of Stanley. ^ Congo, or Grundy, of Stanley. 334 THE ELY VOLUME. towns were the capitals of Sogno and Bamba, neither of which had more than six or eight hundred houses. In both were convents of Capuchins, and in Sogno six churches. This was the seaport of Congo. Diego Cam, who dis- covered the river and kingdom of Congo, hurried back to Portugal to report his discovery, and the king and court were so interested in it that he was sent back with three Dominicans. Two of these soon died, and the third was some years after killed by the Giaghi, while chaplain of the army of Congo. On his third voyage Diego took with him twelve Franciscans. The count of Sogno and the king of Congo were among the first converts. The latter was very zealous till he found that he would have to give up his harem, when he returned to heathenism. His son and successor was a devoted Papist, and when his heathen brother excited a rebellion, St. James was seen fighting for the king, and victory of course was his. His brother, taken captive, refused to turn Papist, and was executed. Soon after a large reinforcement of missionaries was sent out by the Society de Propaganda Fide, and in the course of twenty years the entire population of Congo were within the pale of the Papal Church. In the middle of the sixteenth century the army of Congo was scattered like chaff before the warlike Giaghi, and San Salvador was burned. The king then appealed to Don Sebastian of Portugal for help, and Don Francis Gouvea was sent with some seven hundred troops. As soon as he was joined by three hundred more from Angola he attacked the invaders, and after several battles drove them from the kingdom. Don Alvaro I, in his gratitude, promised the king of Portugal an annual present of slaves, and offered to acknowledge him as sovereign ; but this last was generously declined. The missionaries, reinforced by new recruits from Europe, reestablished Popery throughout Congo, and extended their labors into neighboring tribes. North of the Congo they were very successful in Loango and Kakongo. The capital was rebuilt, commerce was more extended than before, and the country more prosperous than ever; but in 1636 civil war broke out between Congo and Sogno, occasioned by an effort of the king to transfer Sogno to the crown of Portugal. This excited the indignation of the people of Sogno, and the king, with a large army and eighty Portuguese, made war on the recusants. In the first battle the army of Sogno was beaten, and the count slain. His son, how- ever, continued the war, and not only defeated the royal army, but took the king and many Portuguese prisoners. These last had the choice of death or slavery, and choosing the first, were immediately executed. The king obtained his liberty by acknowledging the independence of the count, and ceding to him additional territory. Soon after the king renewed the war, but with no better success. He even sought the aid of Prince Maurice, then in Brazil ; but the count sent another messenger in the same ship, with presents of equal value, and the prince decided to remain neutral. The missionaries were now driven out of Sogno across the Congo; but some of their followers seized the count and drowned him in the river near the place where he had driven out the missionaries. On the other hand, Don Alvaro 1 1 sent to Pope Urban VIII for more missionaries ; twelve were sent, part of whom went to Sogno, and the rest were welcomed CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 335 by Don Garcia II, who by this time had ascended the throne. He was suc- ceeded by Don Antonio I, whose wickedness and brutahty nearly extirpated Popery from the land. The Portuguese of Angola were roused to attack him with an army of one or two thousand natives and four hundred Portuguese. The missionaries affirm that the king had nine hundred thousand men ! But this is incredible, especially as the main 'army was entirely routed by four hun- dred Portuguese musketeers. Don Antonio was killed, and his crown taken to Loando. They did not seize on the kingdom, however, for the kings of Congo had generally been as obedient to the Pope as the king of Portugal himself ; and they had all been crowned according to the Popish ritual, and the crown itself was the gift of the Pope. Order was soon restored, and another king ascended the throne. Father Carli, in 1667, saw the great duke of Bamba, the leader of the royal forces, soon after disbanding an army of one hundred and fifty thousand, with which he had failed to subdue the count of Sogno. Twenty years later and that great duke had also renounced allegiance, and we hear no more of the kingdom of Congo. Cut off from the sea, both by way of the river and Loando, the king sank down to the level of the petty chiefs round about him. This chapter of history derives its chief importance from its connection with the question of the permanence of the results of Papal missions. It is said that their failure in India is owing to the ascendency of a Protestant nation there. England rules India, and, therefore, Papal missions are at a disadvan- tage. But the East India Company opposed Protestant and Papal missions alike, and now even idolatry is guaranteed all its rights. The courts protect the worshiper of Brahma as impartially as the servant of Jesus Christ. Popery has free course in England herself, so far as any political oppression is con- cerned ; and what hindrance does she meet with from the government in India .>' So it has been said that Popery failed among our own Indians, because these tribes have been overshadowed by more powerful races, without allowing time for the development of its peculiar principles. But the same hindrance lies in the way of Protestant missions among the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chippewas, and Dakotas. Why does it not in their case produce the same results ? If there has not been the same success among the tribes that murdered Dr. Whit- man, Rome knows better than all others why it was wanting. But even there, despite her efforts to stamp out the fire of the truth, travelers find Indians who read God's Word and observe family prayer. Why, then, is the kingdom of Congo, which, according to her own missionaries, was for more than two cent- uries as completely under her influence as any kingdom in Europe, so blotted out that no relics of its Christianity can be found to-day ? Rome here had the field all to herself, with nothing to interfere with her, and everything favorable politically, and what are the results ? During the eighteenth century every trace of Christianity disappeared, and the whole region has fallen back into the darkest heathenism, and even into greater poverty and weakness than before the coming of the missionaries. Stanley, though he passed along the northern frontier of this kingdom for more than three hundred and fifty miles, and si)ent nearly two months on its borders, never once even mentions its name ■ — so utterly has that once flourishing Papal kingdom perished from the earth. ;^;^6 THE ELY VOLUME. Capt. Tuckey, who explored the lower part of the Congo in 1816, states that three years before, some missionaries had been murdered in Sogno, and a Por- tuguese pinnace cut off by the natives; but he found no traces of Popery, except a few crosses and relics mixed up with native charms and fetiches, no doubt scattered by the Portuguese slave-traders, who still frequent the river. One man introduced himself as a priest, with a diploma from the college of Capuchins at Angola, without education, and having a wife and five concu- bines ! The nearest allusion Stanley makes to the kingdom of Congo is the following : -^ " Some natives of Congo were here, and it appeared to me, on regarding their large eyes and russet brown complexions, that they were results of miscegenation, probably descendants of the old Portuguese and aborigines." • We know not the extent of the civilization of Congo ; but Prof. Carl Ritter states on the authority of the missionaries, that the great duke of Bamba could at any time raise in that province four hundred thousand soldiers. Dr. Wilson doubts whether the king himself could raise more than twenty thousand. And if that is true, do not such statements by the Papal missionaries go far to explain the utter disappearance of their work ? It was the structure of wood, hay, and stubble, built on the one foundation that we are forewarned should be burned. — I Cor. iii : xv. What are the facts ? The missionaries and Portuguese planted gardens, cultivated fruit trees, and erected substantial dwellings and churches ; but f/ie people still lived in bamboo huts, and were clad in the scantiest apparel, while multitudes wore no clothing at all. Their roads were mere foot-paths; and the one between the capital and Loando was so infested with wild beasts that the traveler required an armed escort! They had no beasts of burden, nor car- riages, nor occasion for either, for their commerce was mainly in slaves ; show- ing that they had not felt the quickening power of true religion in secular activities. We know not the number of missionaries, though Father Merolla mentions incidentally at least one hundred, representing almost every order in the Papal Church. In the province of Sogno were eighteen churches ; and in the whole kingdom not less than a hundred, and perhaps twice as many places set apart for worship." The king and chiefs vied with each other in their attendance on mass, and scrupulously observed the ceremonies of the church. Nor were the jieople in these things behind their leaders. One missionary states that in a village the women rushed on him like "mad women," to have their children baptized. When an adult woman presented herself for baptism, surprise was expressed that one had so long neglected the ordinance; and one complains that he found no children to baptize, because another priest had just preceded him. Then the authority of the priests in all civil, as well as religious matters, » Through the Dark Coniincnt, Vol. II, p. 426. 2 The view here inserted of St. Paul de Loando, from the ^Tissio^tary Herald, 1880, p. 4S6, shows some of these churclies and ecclesiastical establishments as they appear to-day, in that neighboring province. Loando is a city of ten or twelve thousand inhabitants, one third of them being whites. It was once the great shipping port of slaves to Brazil. Now the city is connected with Lisbon by a monthly line of steamers, and with Liverpool by another line. Its lawful trade in the products of the country is quite extensive. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 337 was paramount. No acts of penance were ever inflicted by Rome on the sovereigns of Europe, in the Dark Ages, that were not submitted to by the chiefs of Congo. Nor was this a transient excitement. Successive generations of mission- aries labored with untiring assiduity for two hundred years. Some of them were among the most able and learned ever sent forth from Rome. And what is the end of it all ? A people that in morality, industry, comfort, and intelligence, are lower to-day than millions in Africa who never heard the name of Christ. What is the explanation of this ? Is the African incapable of being civilized and Christianized ? The fruits of Protestant missions among them show that ST. PAUL DE LOANDO. that is not true. Is it said that the Portuguese power declined ? A'ery true. But are there, therefore, no Portuguese traders in Congo ? And if traders, why not missionaries too, where their churches once filled the land ? For the same rea- son the climate cannot be the cause ; for traders live there in spite of that same climate. There are more foreigners there now than there ever were mission- aries at any one time. Besides, if a mission cannot live after being nursed by royal nursing-fathers for two centuries, when can it live with a vitality of its own ? Does not the character of the religion planted there explain the mystery ? Instead of translating the Bible, crosses and relics supplanted the charm and the fetich. Instead of instructing -in the truths of the Gospel, the outward 22 338 THE ELY VOLUME. form of baptism was the power that transformed heathen into Papists — we cannot say Christians. The heathen mind is proverbially slow in apprehend- ing Bible truths ; but one missionary in Chiava chianza baptized five thousand children in a few days. Another baptized twelve thousand in Sogno in less than a year. Father Merolla states that in less than five years he baptized thirteen thousand ; another missionary fifty thousand ; and a third, during twenty years, more than one hundred thousand. Being thus made Papists, the mass was celebrated, the confessional erected, penances imposed, and the people learned — what? To make the sign of the cross, and wear medals, while ceremonies resembling their heathen customs took the place of those customs. It may be questioned whether it is worth while to send the Gospel to the heathen, if it produces no better results or lays no surer foundation for Chris- tian character. The new religion had no more to do with their moral and intellectual natures than the old one. If they showed reverence for Papal rites before the missionaries, they were no less punctilious in their own pagan observances behind their backs. Laboring among such an ignorant people, the missionaries gave full swing to their Romish miracles. Devils fled at their coming ; trees withered under their rebuke ; if a comet appeared, it came at their call ; if the small-pox broke out, that also was to chastise the disobedience of their followers. But the mission- aries forgot that African sorcerers wrought miracles even more wonderful. In energy, in scope of intellect, and in mechanical skill, the negro yields at once to the white man. But in the realm of the unknown and the mysterious, where imagination has full scope, he has no rival ;^ and so the missionaries only brought themselves and their religion into contempt. So long as they confined themselves to the requirements of baptism and the rosary, they were obeyed; b)ut when they assailed polygamy, they were astounded at the opposition they called forth, and then they found the weakness of their power. What could they accomplish who left " the Gospel of Christ which is the power of God imto salvation" out of the list of their instrumentalities? They then had recourse to that constant resource of Rome, the secular arm ; and from that moment they threw aside every other means for advancing their work. The severest laws were enacted against polygamy, the heaviest penalties were visited upon any who took part in heathen rites. Sorcerers were declared outlaws, were burned alive, or sold into slavery. If the chiefs were slow to execute the laws, the missionaries took the law into their own hands, and carried it out with unsparing severity. Corporal punishment was administered without restraint. Slight infractions of church rules were punished by public flogging, sometime , inflicted by the missionaries themselves, and even mothers were stripped aiul flogged in public. ' ' We have an inkling of this in tlie Voodooism of our own Southern States. - As some may tind it difficult to believe that any professed servants of Christ should so far forget themselves, let them read this part of a lette.- from the celebrated Francis Xavier co the king of Portugal, dated January 20, 154S ; " I very earnestly desire you to take an oath, invoking most solemnly the name of God, that if any governor neglects to spread the faith he shall, on returning to Portugal, be imprisoned for a num.ber of years, and all his prop- erty be sold and devoted to works of charity. Then, that none may deem this an idle threat, you must declare CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 330 The countenance the missionaries gave to the slave trade — and that in the scene of its most savage atrocities, where whole villages were surprised, resist- ance put down by the sword, and the miserable residue sold into a foreign bondage from which there was no return — was doubtless one main cause of their failure. They even participated in it themselves. Idolaters were given up to them, and by them sold to the slave-traders. After that, it mattered little that the price of blood was given to the poor. So many were thus disposed of that masters of slave-ships could always depend on the missionaries for aid in making up their cargoes. Father Merolla tells that he presented a slave to a captain in return for a flask of wine given him for the sacrament ; and provided the slave was baptized, and was not sold to heretics, they saw no evil in the traffic. No wonder such missionary work came to naught. So long as the power of the king was witl> them, and that was upheld by the power of Portugal, they practiced and prospered ; but the moment Portugal felt constrained to withdraw her help, and the power of the king of Congo o-rew weak, the hatred of the people against the missionaries broke forth. The count of Sogno revenged himself on them for the indignities he had been made to suffer, and the people abandoned them on journeys in the most dan^-erous places, or in sickness they refused to help them. In Bamba six missionaries were poisoned at one time, and an attempt was made to kill a seventh, who came for their property. Philip da Silesia was killed and eaten. Father Joseph Maria da Sestu was poisoned. Merolla himself almost died from the same cause. So that they seldom traveled without an antidote for poison • and all this after two centuries of unbroken prosperity, as they deemed it. Then they abandoned 'traveling, and ultimately left the country, and when they departed Popery disappeared with them. How could a building stand that had no foundation, or a tree grow that had no root? EARLY MISSIONS TO INDIA AND CHINA. The intelligent Christian who reads of the Nestorian monument discovered in China,^ desires to know more of the missionary labors of that ancient church, and several documents prepared by those connected with the American Board, though they do not satisfy, stimulate that desire exceedingly. Let us bring together some of the facts they furnish. Mar Shimon has for his title "Patriarch of the East," and the following facts go to show the appropriateness of the designation. Judea was the original center of the kingdom of God, and the history of events occurring there were given in detail. It was not so with occurrences in regions more remote. The Acts of the Apostles are almost exclusively con- fined to a history of the labors of one man not belonging to the original twelve. unequivocally that you will accept no excuses; but that the only way to escape your wrath is to make as many Christians as possible. The only reason why every man in India does not confess the divinity of Christ, and pro- fess his holy doctrine, is the fact that the governor, who neglects to make this his care, receives no punishment from your majesty." Missionary Life and Labors of Francis Xavier, taken from his own correspondence, by Rev. H. Venn, B. D., London, 1S62, p. 161. It is not strange that he solemnly proposed to the same king that the conversion of India should be taken out of the hands of missionaries and confided to the civil authorities. Do., p. 137. iSee pp. 172-173, 340 THE ELY VOLUME, Other apostles also labored, but we have little or no account of their labors. Yet, if Paul, besides his abundant labors in Asia Minor and Greece, as well as Syria, had his mind fixed on a journey into Spain also, the extreme west of the ancient world, is it not natural to suppose that other apostles in like manner extended their labors to the east ? True, we have no record of those labors, but neither is it said that they did not go forth in obedience to the command, "Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature ; " a com- mand addressed more personally to them than to the subsequent apostle. We have a hint, however, of a church at Babylon, as well as at Rome, and Corinth [I Peter v:xiii]. Then we know that, while there were none from Greece or Gaul present on the day of Pentecost, there were Parthians, and Medes, and Elamites, and the dwellers in Mesopotamia. The thoughtful reader will have noticed that these are mentioned first, as though those lands were the most important, most populous, and best known ; with whom, also, there was the most frequent intercourse. We cannot forget that in this direction lay the most ancient empires, more ancient than even Egypt ; and roads were then open that now have long been closed. The sources of information concerning the progress of the kingdom in these regions during early times are indeed meager to-day. There was no press to chronicle the labors and sufferings of missionaries in apostolic times ; and the ruthless hand of war has often blotted out church and home alike, and buried all records of church labor in the bloody graves of them that performed it. But the progress of modern discovery is now moving in this direction. There is more known to-day than was known a few years ago, and the old secular ruins of Ephesus, and Ilium, of Babylon, and Nineveh, can claim no monopoly of interest. The kingdom of Christ moves on under the eye of its divine head, and he can bring to light in his own time the records stored up in his secret treasury concerning his church, as well as those relating to the ancient empires of Assyria and Parthia. Moultan was the ancient Malli, Herat was the ancient Aria or Artacoana ; Samarcand, then called Maracanda, was once a chief mart of commerce. Still more important was Bactra, the predecessor of the modern Balkh, "which, lying on the Oxus, at an equal distance from China and the Mediterranean, and near the gold region of India, was the heart of the Asiatic trade." ^ The ancient topes'^ in countries adjacent to Cashmere and Cabul, enclose ruins containing sometimes treasures and ancient coins. Inscriptions on some of these date from the most ancient period of Persian history. Dr. Lord obtained in Kunduz, north of Afghanistan, and west of the Himalayas, two silver paterae of exquisite Greek workmanship — genuine relics of Alex- ander's kingdom of Bactriana, and a Greek coin of King Eucratides, the son of Heliocles and Laodice.^ Throughout this region relics of almost every ancient nation are sown profusely in the soil. Such facts enkindle hope in two directions. First, they show how inter- course in ancient times was maintained between western and central Asia ; and second, if the relics of the classic age are thus brought to light in those ' Chinese Repository., 1849, p. 48S. -Query : Teppes? 3 Burnes' yourney to Cabul, p. 72. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 341 comparatively inaccessible regions, may we not hope for similar souvenirs of a Christian antiquity to reward more thorough exploration ? Let any one look at the ground covered by that statement in Acts ii : 9, and he will see reason for expecting rich discoveries to follow a better acquaintance. Mesopotamia lay between the Euphrates and the Tigris ; Elam was situated northeast of the Persian Gulf ; Media occupied a place between that and the Caspian Sea ; and Parthia lay to the east of that sea, toward India and China. Now, if lines of connection between the Gospel of Christ and those remote regions were formed so early as the day of Pentecost, A. D, 2,3, is there not reason to suppose that the movement, thus providentially begun, went forward to some extent, if not part passu, with like movements toward the west? Join- ing the caravans of commerce, apostles may have traversed these ancient routes, healing the sick, casting out devils, and preaching the Gospel of the kingdom in a way fitted to make a deep and wide impression throughout Asia that that kingdom had indeed been set up on the earth. Ancient tradition tells us that the fingers to whose touch Christ offered the print of the nails, and the hands which he invited to explore his side, were stretched forth in these lands to point others also to the Lamb of God that taketh away the sin of the world. Both Greek and Syrian writers affirm that the apostle Thomas preached the Gospel in Hyrcania, Margiana, and Bactria. These countries, with Parthia, lie east of the Caspian Sea, south of the river Oxus — called also Jihoon and Amoo Dari — and west of the head-waters of the Indus. They say, also, that the Gelae, a people between the Caspian Sea and the sea of Aral, received the Gospel from a disciple of the apostles. Sophronius says that Andrew, the apostle, preached in Scythia, and in Sogdiana, which lies between the Jihoon and Jaxartes, and is also called Transoxiana.^ Gregory of Nazianzen says- that Thomas preached the Gospel to the Indians;^ and Neander also mentions a tradition which makes him an apostle to the Parthians. But he is very cautious about giving credit to these witnesses, saying in the words of Carl Ritter:'* "What European science cannot prove is not, there- fore, to be rejected as untrue, but only to be regarded as problematical for the present ; by no means, however, is any structure to be erected on it as on a safe foundation." The Syrian chronicles relate that " Thomas, having gone through Mesopo- tamia, Chaldea, Persia, and Parthia, and visited the churches in those countries, went to the utmost confines of the East ; " and in the epitome of the Syrian canons, quoted by Assemani, he is called " the apostle of the Hindoos and Chinese."^ If, however, the apostle Thomas ever was in these regions, we should expect to find some trace of his labors. What traces yet may be discovered we can- not tell ; but in the year 1806 Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan found Christians on the coast of Malabar, having the Scriptures in the ancient Syriac — the language spoken by our Lord — with churches, clergy, and a ritual, who claimed to have iDr. Anderson, in Missionary Herald, 1838, p. 291. ^ Oratio, p. 25. SNeander's History, Vol. I, p. 82. * Erd-Kunde von Asien, Bd. IV, iste Abtheilung^, s. 602 ''Chinese Repository, 1847, p. 154. 342 THE ELY VOLUME. received bishops from the church at Antioch almost from the time of the apostles — Dr. Buchanan says for thirteen hundred years previous to A. D. 1503. While the writer was in Mosul he formed the acquaintance of Joseph Matthew, a priest of this body of Christians, who had come to be ordained bishop by the Jacobite patriarch at Deir Zafran, and who returned to his people as Mutran ^ Athanasius. He was a simple-hearted, evangelical Christian, who heartily cooperated with our mission in Mosul, and seemed to be devoted to the spiritual good of his jDeople. And this leads to the remark that we mistake in supposing these Syrian Christians to be Nestorians. True, the N'estorians sent missionaries after- wards, even to China, and these Christians in Malabar use the Estrangelo character, which is rather peculiar to the Nestorians ; but the fact seems to be that the church in Malabar was established before the division of the ancient church of Antioch into Nestorian and Jacobite, and so it continued to go to the patriarch of Antioch, as the Jacobite patriarch is still called, for the ordina- tion of its bishops. Dr. Anderson in his " Missions of the Nestorian Chris- tians in Central and Eastern Asia,"^ already quoted, says ^ that the patriarch Jaballaha sent a metropolitan to Maru (Merw), in Korassan, in the year 420 A. D. This shows that there were numerous Christians and churches already in that province ; but it also shows that Nestorius had nothing to do with it ; for he was not made bishop of Constantinople till A. D. 428, nor deposed by the council of Ephesus till 431. All this missionary work in the East must have been before Nestorius was known to the original Syrian church that after- wards espoused his side in the dispute with Cyril. In the year 334 A. D., Barsabas, a Syrian Christian, i. c, one belonging to the church of the patriarch of Antioch, fled into Korassan from the persecution of Sapor, king of Persia, and there became bishop of Maru (Merw).'' But to return to these Syrian Christians. Dr. Buchanan gives an exceed- ingly interesting account of their Christian simplicity ; their churches, with bells cast by themselves ; their women, so different from the heathen around them ; and their child-like attachment to the Word of God. He also describes the persecutions they endured at the hands of the Papists, who, when they dis- covered them in 1503, demanded their subjection to the Pope. "Who is the Pope ? " was the reply ; " we never heard of him. We are of the true faith — whatever you may be — for we came from the place where the disciples were first called Christians," The Inquisition at Goa was let loose on them.^ Their bishop. Mar Joseph, was sent prisoner to Lisbon. The rest of the clergy were accused of being married, and observing only two sacraments ; also that they neither invoked saints, nor worshiped images, and had no orders in the church, save bishop, priest, and deacon. These errors they were required to abjure or suffer suspension from the ministry. All their ecclesiastical books were burned, ' Metropolitan. '^Missionary Herald, 183S, pp. 289-298. ^Do., p. 29r. * Assemani Bib. Orient., Vol. IV, p. 426, quoted by Dr. Anderson, in Missionary Herald, 1S38, p. 291. "This reminds the writer that a manuscript fasciculus of the record.- of the Inquisition at that place, that had long found a place among the curiosities in the cabinet at the old Missionary House in Pemberton Square, strangely disappeared one day, after the visit of a clerical stranger, who was allowed access to the room unattended. Rome does not like to have documents where they may expose the falsehood of her denials of unpleasant facts. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 343 " in order," said the Inquisitors, " that no pretended apostolical monuments may remain." The churches near the coast were compelled to submit; but those in the interior took refuge with the native princes, who improved the opportunity to reduce them to poverty, till Christians in England rallied to their help after Dr. Buchanan's discovery of this persecuted church. Now the Syriac liturgy of this church in the office for the celebration of St. Thomas, says : " By the blessed St. Thomas the error .of idolatry vanished from among the Hindoos. By the blessed St. Thomas the Chinese and Chushiths ^ were converted to the truth. By the blessed St. Thomas they received the sac- rament of baptism and the adoption of sons. By the blessed St. Thomas they believed and confessed the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. By the blessed St. Thomas they kept the faith of the one God, By the blessed St. Thomas the illuminations of the life-giving doctrine arose upon all the Hindoos. By the blessed St. Thomas the kingdom of heaven was extended ^nd opened to the Chinese." And in an antiphone they say : " The Hindoos, the Chinese, the Persians, and other regions, they of Syria, Armenia, Greece, and Rome, offer memorials of celebration to the sacred name of Thomas."^ This is cer- tainly claiming for him a great deal, and must be interpreted as meaning simply that he laid the foundations for such magnificent results. Antonius Govea writes of the traditions current among the Syrians of Mala- bar : " Thomas, the apostle, say they, having arrived at Cranganor, continued some time with the king of Malabar ; and when he had founded many churches there, went to Culan, a city of the same country, and there brought over many to the faith. Then he went to the country now called Coromandel, and, hav- ing converted the king of Meliapore, and many people to the Christian faith, went thence to China, and preached the Gospel in the city of Cambalu,^ and there built a church." "On his return, on account of the numerous conver- sions of people to the faith of Christ, two Brahmans, moved with hatred, excited an uproar against the apostle, and buried him under a shower of stones. An- other Brahman, perceiving that he was yet alive, thrust him through with a lance."* They say his body was carried to Calamina,^ near Meliapore, and buried there. The metropolitans of these Syrians in Malabar retain the name of China in their titles. When the Portuguese went there, Mar Yakob subscribed himself Metropolitan of Hindoo ^ and China ; and so did Mar Yoosuf, who died at Rome. Trigautius says that the most ancient title of this church is " Metro- politan of all Hindoo and China." ^ The inquiry remains: How much are these statements and quotations worth ? To determine this we must follow back the line of the centuries, and see how far back we can trace this Syrian church in Malabar. 1 Ethiopians ? 2 Assemani, Tom. Ill, part ii, p. 516, quoted in Chinese Repository, 1847, p. 156. See a similar statement by Du Halde, do., p. 158. " Peking. 4 Chinese Repository, p. 157. 6 Is this the mina, or harbor, of Gala? and the same as Caiicut, /. e.. Kali's Ghat, or landing-place, identical with the meaning of Calcutta, in Bengal ? 6Hindostan. "> Chinese Repository, -p. -1^. 344 THE ELY VOLUME. Cosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes, on account of his travels in India, found Christians at Taprobane,' at Male, where the pepper grows,- and Calliana. Neander, who quotes him,^ says tliis was perhaps Calcutta. But the site of Calcutta, previous to its foundation by the English, in A. D. 1690, was occupied by the mean village of Govindpour. It was much more likely Calicut, a sea- port of this same Malabar, where those churches still exist.* Indeed, one does not see how it well can be anything else. This, then, confirms the existence of churches in Malabar in the^ year 585 A. D., and even before that ; for, though Cosmas wrote in that year, he had visited the country several times in previous vears, and only then recorded the result of his observations ; and the churches were then numerous and well-established, with ordained clergy, a state of things that in that age could not have grown up all at once. Going still further back, Theophilus, a native of Diu, a city on the western coast of India, north of Bombay, to quote the words of Neander,^ "found here still existing the Christianity which had been already planted in that region at an earlier period y Now^ Theophilus had been sent as a hostage to Constantinople, during the reign of the emperor Constantine the Great, who became sole emperor in 323 A. D. Here, then, in the early part of the fourth centur}^, we find churches still existing in India, dating back from a much earlier period ; and if here, may there not have been also in other places, according to the above extract from their ritual ? Though we must make much abatement from the sweeping generality of its statements. The last evidence to be adduced is a fact mentioned by Dr. Buchanan, in his account of SyriaJt Christians in India. He speaks of " six metal tablets belong- ing to them, the engraving on the largest being thirteen inches long by about four broad. Four of them are closely written on both sides, making in all eleven^ pages. On the plate reputed to be the oldest is writing engraved in nail-headed or triangular-headed letters, resembling the Persepolitan or Bab)-- lonish." Dr. Buchanan tells us that copperplate fac-sifniles of these tablets were deposited by him in the library of the university in Cambridge, England. When Neander wrote, they were slill undeciphered ; but now that cuneiform inscriptions are made to yield up their secrets, we may hope that these, if not already deciphered, soon will be.'' While we are groping after knowledge relating to them, it is interesting to see how the Chinese spoke of the West. They seem to have caUed the Roman empire Tatsin, or the Great Tsin (China). The Orientals spoke of China as Tchin and Matchin, or Tsin and Matsin, just as they call Tartary Jagiug and Magiug (Gog and Magog),** and the Chiiiese counted the magnificence of Rome i Ceylon. 2 Malabar. ^ History, YoX. l\, \->. nj. •« Chiftese Repository, 1S49, P- 494- ^'History, Vol. II, p. 117. "Ten ? 7 A letter to Prof. A. H. Sayce, of Queen's College, Oxford, brings the answer that "the metal tablets vnentioned by Dr. Buchanan have no bearing on the subject. They must be some of the metal tablets of which so inany exist in southern India, inscribed in ancient forms of the Dravidian alphabet, and varying in date from A. D. 600 to A. D. 1300. For an account of them consult Burnell's Elements 0/ South Indian Palceography, where the early Dravidian alphabets are deciphered, and the metal tablets, and palm leaves on which they are inscribed, are translated. Fac-siiniles are also given of some of these plates. The inscriptions generally relate to grants of land. But they have nothing to do with the Christians." « Chinese Repository, rS47, P- '54. CONTRIBUTIONS TO HISTORY. 345 a reflection of their own. They supposed it to be ten thousand li ^ west of Shensi, and also west of the Western Sea. The capital, the}' said, was a hun- dred li - in circumference. They seem to have known it in the time of the republic, for they represent the king as elective ; and the character used in books they describe as of a strange form ! Here is a specimen of their fables : "In the north of Tatsin, a species of sheep is produced spontaneously from the earth, their navels being joined to the soil. If anything is struck near them, and they are frightened, they instantly die. In the forests are found birds from whose saliva is formed jasper-colored pearls. Conjurors lift their feet, and pearls and gems drop from them." They also give a singular account of the manner of collecting coral." It is said that trade was carried on by sea between India and Ngansih, with profits of a hundred-fold ; and that, though the Romans desired to send envoys to China, the people of Ngansih hindered them. But what country that repre- sented is not known. About the year i66 A. D., however, Antun^ succeeded in sending an embassy, and another followed about 270 A. D. Such facts are interesting, as showing the difficulties attending communication, and yet its possibility. The Nestorian^ patriarchs are said to have sent metropolitans to China as early as the fifth century, which implies the existence of bishops and churches there, and that Christianity had been established for some time.*' This brings us again to the celebrated inscription of Singan fu, and here, having already described the monument, we confine ourselves to the history there set forth. It records that the .mission entered China in the days of the Emperor Talcum. In the twelfth year of his reign, A. D. 639, an imperial edict was issued in favor of Christianity, a church was built by the emperor, and twenty-one assistants given to Olopuen. The mission prospered under the reign of Caocum, his son, A. D. 650-6S4, when churches were built in the ten provinces of China. Persecutions raged in A. D. 699, and also in A. D. 713, but peace returned under Hivencum. A second mission arrived in China under Kieho, John, and Paul, and the emperor Socum built a number of churches. Christianity also was favored by the emperor Taicum, A. D. 763- 780, and his successor, Kiencum, or Tecum, A. D. 780-805.'' The monument was erected in the second year of Kiencum, the seventh day of the month of Autumn, on the Lord's day, Himciu being bishop of the church of China. Syrian names, arranged in eight classes, and other particulars, are given in the Chinese Repository? Six metropolitan electors were appointed for the ordination of a patriarch, chosen from the six nearest dioceses, viz. : Elam, Nesib, Perath (Euphrates), Assyria, Beth Germa (Garmae), and Halach (Holwan), who should convene with the patriarch every four years. But the other metropolitans, viz., of China, Hindia, Persia, of the Menozites, of Sciam (Siam), of the Raziches, the Hariuns 1 Twenty-eight hundred miles. -Twenty-eight miles. ^ Chinese Repository, I'&i,'^ p. 4gi. * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. o Syrian ? 6 Mosheim, Historia Tartarorum Ecclesiastica, pp. S, 9, quoted by Dr. Anderson, Missionary Herald, 1838, p. 292. 'The reader will note that the ending of all these names is the same. " 1S47, pp. 161-163. 346 THE ELY VOLUME. (Arians ?), and Samarkand, which were far off, were excused from attendance, and required only to send letters every six years, giving a narrative of their affairs.^ A list of the Nestorian metropolitan seats is also given in the same volume, from Assemani, as follows : Elam, Nisibin, Perath mesin (harbor of the Euphrates), or Busra, Adjaben (Adiabene) and Mosul, Beth Germa, or Beth Selucia and Carach, Halavan, or Halach, Persia, Maru in Chorasan, Hara in Cumboja, Arabia, China, India, Armenia, Syria, Cardo (Kurdistan ?), or Ador- begen (Aderbijan), Raju and Tarbistan, on the shores of the Caspian, Dailem, Samarkand and Mavar al nahr, Cashgar and Turkestan, Balach (Balkh) and Tocharestan, Segestan, Hamadan, Chantelek, Tanguth in Great Tartary, north- west from China, and Chasemgar and Nuachet. The patriarch Timotheus, A. D. 778, selected Subchaljesu from among the monks of Beth Aben, or Beth Abe, at the foot of Mount Niphates, north of Diarbekir — a man skilled in Arabic, Syriac, and Persian — and, ordaining him bishop, sent him to the Dailamites and the Gete, east of the Caspian ; and at the same time wrote to the king of the Tartars, and others, exhorting them to become Christians. Subchaljesu had great success in his field, and penetrated as far as China, but was slain on his way back to Assyria. Timotheus without delay ordained Kardagus and Jaballaha, and sent them in his place.^ It is easy to write or read these statements ; but when we remember that Peking is four thousand miles from Bagdad, and that a caravan spends six months in going from Samarcand to Peking, and that Marco Polo was a year on the way from Bokhara there, we get a glimpse of the difficulties of so long a journey among barbarous and hostile tribes, and the courage involved in the undertaking. Missionary journeys to-day are trifles alongside of those old Nestorian travels across the continent of Asia.'^ Two Arabian travelers found Christians in China in the ninth century, and report that at the taking of Canfu by rebels, in A. D. 877, besides Chinese, one liundred and twenty thousand Moslems, Jews, Christians, and Parsees were slain.* Mosheim says : ^ The Nestorian s in the tenth century introduced Christianity into Tartary, beyond Mount Imans, and among the powerful horde called '^Ckitiese Repository, 1S47, P- '63. -Dr. Anderson, in Missionary Herald, 1S38, pp. 292-293. ^ The reader who desires a full and thorough exposition of the traces of intercourse between China and the West, from the days of Isaiah (xlix : 12) to the present, will find it in the twenty-first chapter of that thesaurus of all that relates to China, the Middle Kingdom (Vol. II, pp. 417-467). Dr. Williams reviews the notices of it in Horace, Arrian, Ptolemy, Ammianus Marcellinus; The Chinese Embassy, A. D. 61 or 65; Changkian.s's Expedi- tion to the Caspian Sea, A. D. 126; The Mission of the Emperor Antoninus; The Arab Travelers Wahab and Abuzaid ; Marco Polo; Mission of the Pope to the King of the Tartars, and Reply; Rubruquis; The Armenian Prince Hailho; The Arab Ibn Batuta; Journal of the Friar Oderic ; A Chinese Work relating to A. D. 1506; Rafael Perestrello, the first European who sailed to China (1516); Ferdinand Andrade and brother (15 17), and many subsequent Portuguese voyagers ; Magaillans (1723); The Spanish admiral Legaspi (1543), and many more Dutch, French, Russians, Austrians, and English. There is a most interesting account of a Dutch pastor, Hambro- cock, who became a voluntary martyr about the year 1660. Sent by a Chinese leader to persuade a Dutch fort to surrender, he exhorted his countrymen to hold out, as the enemy v/as growing weary of the siege, and then went back to his wife and children in the hand;; of the enemy, to be butchered, with five hundred of his countrymen, to whom he hoped to be of service in their last hours (pp. 440-441).