U3RAHY OF PRINCETON 9 rj onno Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/historypresentco00russ_1 BARBARY STATES. NEW-YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS. 18 37. COMPREHENDING A VIEW OF THEIR CIVIL INSTITUTIONS, ANTIQUITIES, ARTS, RELIGION, LITERATURE, COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. BY REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D., AUTHOR OF "View of Ancient and Modern Egj-pt," " Palestine, or the Holy Land," " Nubia and Abysainia," &c. WITH SEVERAL ENGRAVINGS. NEW- YORK : PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET. 1 83 7. LIBRAIW OF PRINCETON j JUL 2 9 2003 i ^ ^L.., ._. i PREFACE. This volume completes the plan originally formed by the pubhshers for illustrating the History, the Antiquities, and the Present Condition of Africa. In the first instance, they drew the attention of their readers to the progress of Discovery in that vast continent ; describing the natural features of its several kingdoms, the social state of its people, and thereby bringing into one view all that appeared valuable in the observations of those travellers, whether in ancient or modern times, who have sought to explore the remote recesses of its interior. They next made it their endeavour to collect, within a nar- row compass, all that is known respecting Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, — those countries so full of interest to the scholar and the antiquary, and which are universally acknowledged to have been the cra- dle of the arts, so far as the elements of these were communicated to the inhabitants of Europe. The Work now presented to the Public has for its object an historical outline of those remarkable prov- inces which stretch along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, during the successive periods when they were occupied by the Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Arabs, and the Moors ; as well as a delineation of their condition since they acknowl- edged the dominion of the Porte. A2 vi PREFACE. No one who has read the annals of Carthage can be ignorant of the importance once attached to this singular country ; in which was first exhibited to the eye of European nations the immense poHtical power that may be derived from an improved agriculture, an active commerce, and the command of the sea. In the plains of Tunis, too, w^ere fought those battles which confirmed the ascendency of Rome, and laid the foundations of that colossal empire, whose ter- ritory extended from the Danube to the Atlas Moun- tains, and from the German Ocean to the banks of the Euphrates. The gigantic conflict between the two greatest republics of the ancient world was at length determined among the burning sands of Numidia, or on those shores which, for many centuries, have been strangers to the civilization and arts diffused around their camps by these mighty rivals for universal sovereignty. Nor are the kingdoms of Northern Africa less in- teresting in an ecclesiastical point of view. The names of TertuUian, Cyprian, and Augustin, reflect honour on the churches of that land ; and their works are still esteemed as part of those authentic records whence the divine derives his knowledge of the doc- trines, the usages, and institutions of primitive Chris- tianity. With relation to the same object, the inroad of the schismatical Vandals, and the conquest effected by the Arabs, present subjects worthy of the deepest reflection, inasmuch as they led to the grad- ual deterioration of the orthodox faith, till it was ejv- tirely superseded by the imposture of Mphammed. On these heads the reader will find some important details in the Chapter on the Religion and Literature of the Barbary States. PREFA<;jE. The writings of recent travellers have thrown a fascinating light over some parts of the ancient Cy- renaica, — a section of the Tripohne territory, which, having enjoyed the benefit of Grecian learning at an early period, still displays the remains of architec- tural skill and elegance, borrowed from the inhabi- tants of Athens and Sparta. The position of the several towns composing the celebrated Pentapolis, the beauty of the landscape, the fertility of the soil, and the magnificence of the principal edifices, have been, in the course of a few years, not only illus- trated with much talent, but ascertained with a de- gree of accuracy that removes all reasonable doubt. The conjectures of Bruce are confirmed, or refuted, by the actual delineations of Beechey and Delia Cella. The modern history of Barbary is chiefly interest- ing from the relations which so long subsisted be- tween its rulers and the maritime states of Europe,- who, in order to protect their commerce from vio- lence, and their subjects from captivity, found it occasionally expedient to enter into treaty with the lieutenants of the Ottoman government. The wars which, from time to time, were waged against the rovers of Tunis, Sallee, and Algiers, from the days of the Emperor Charles the Fifth down to the late invasion by the French, are full of incident and ad- venture ; presenting, in the most vivid colours, the triumph of educated man over the rude strength of the barbarian, coupled with the inefficacy of all ne- gotiation ■ which rested on national faith or honour. The records of piracy, which, not many years ago, filled the whole of Christendom with terror and in- dignation, may now be perused with feelings of com- riii PREFACE. placency, arising from the conviction that the power of the marauders has been broken, and their ravages finally checked. Algiers, after striking its flag to the fleets of Britain, was compelled to obey the soldiers of France, — an event that may be said to constitute a new era in the policy of the Moors, and seems to hold forth a prospect, however indistinct, of civilization, industry, and the dominion of law over brutal force and passion, being again established throughout the fine provinces which extend from Cape Spartel to the Gulf of Bomba. The Chapter on the Commerce of the Barbary States indicates, at least, the sources of wealth which, under an enlightened rule, might be rendered available, not only for the advantage of the natives, but also of the trading communities on the opposite shores of the Mediterranean. Everywhere, in the soil, in the climate, and in the situation of the coun- try, are seen scattered, with a liberal hand, the ele- ments of prosperity ; and it is manifest that the plains which w^ere once esteemed the granary of Rome, might again, with the aid of modern science, be rendered extremely productive in the luxuries, aa well as the necessaries, of human life. The assiduity of French writers, since the con quest of Algiers, has afl^brded the means of becoming better acquainted than formerly with the geology of Northern Africa, as well as with several other branches of Natural History. From the same source have been derived materials for the embel- lishments introduced into this volume, and also for improving the Map, which the reader will find pre- fixed. Edinburgh, March 16, 1835. CONTENTS. CHAPTER 1. Ancient History. Contrast between the present and ancient Condition of the Bar bary States — View of ancient Manners — Remains of former Magnificence — Revolutions in that Country at once sudden and entire — Countries comprehended in Barbary — Division, according to Herodotus — Origin of the term Barbary — Opin- ion of Leo Airicanus — Emigrants from Asia and Arabia — Mon- uments which denote an Eastern People — Colonies from Tyre — Foundationof Carthage— Supposed Extent of her Territory — Remark of Polybius — Carthaginians encouraged Agricul- ture — Various Tribes subject to Carthage, or in Alliance with her — The History of Carthage for a long time includes that of all the Barbary States — First Attempt on Sicily and Sar- dinia — Ambitious Views of the Carthaginians — Provoke the Resentment of Alexander the Great — First Punic War — Car- thage besieged — Second Punic War — Character of Hannibal — Scipio invades the Carthaginian Territory — Hannibal re- called — Is defeated at Zama — Third Panic Vi^ar— Fall of Carthage — History of Jugurtha — Subdued by the Romans — Marius and Sylla — Pompey and Caesar — Conclusion Page 17 CHAPTER 11. Constitution, Commerce, and Navigation of the Phoenician Colonies on the Coast of Barbary. Independence of the federated Towns, Utica, Leptis, &c. — Predominance of Carthage — Constancy of her Government — Its Progress described — Originally a Monarchy, but gradually became aristocratical— House of Mago — Rights of the People exercised in pubHc Assemblies — And in the Election of Magis- trates — Decided in all questions in which the Kings and Sen- ate could not agree — Constitution and Power of the Senate — The Select Council— The Kings or Suffetes — Distinction be- tween the King and a General — Some resemblance to Roman Consuls and Hebrew Judges — Wise Administration of Justice —No judicial Assembhes of the People — Basis of Power oc- 10 CONTENTS. cupied by the Senate — Trade and Commerce of Carthage — Inherited from the Phoenicians — Her Position favourable — Engrossed the Trade of Africa and Southern Europe — Op- posed by the Greeks at Marseilles— Her intercourse with Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, and the Balearic Isles — The Mines of Spain attract her Notice — Carthaginian Dealers penetrate into Gaul— Colonies in the Atlantic — The western Coasts of Spain — Voyages to Britain and the Tin Islands — Poem of Festus Avlenus — Trade in Amber — Question whether the Carthaginians ever entered the Baltic — Voyage of Hanno towards the South — Colonies planted on the western Coast of Africa — The Towns built in that Quarter — The Carthagin- ians discovered Madeira — The Date at which the Expedi- tions of Hanno and Hamilco took place — Proofs that Carthage must have attained great Power and Civilization — Her Libra- ries — Agriculture — Splendid Villas — Rich Meadows and Gar- dens — Her extensive Land trade across the Desert — Her war- like Propensities — Causes of her Decline and Fall Page 45 CHAPTER in. Modern History of the Barhary States. Time when the Barbary States assumed an independent Exist- ence — The Libyans first inhabited Northern Africa— Influence of Phoenician Colonies — Ancient and Modern Divisions of the Countrj;- Extent of Roman Conquests — Revival of Carthage —Rebuilt from its own Ruins — Site and description of it — Remains of former Magnificence — Mercenary Conduct of Ro- manus, Count of Africa — Sufferings of the Tripolitans— Usur- pation of Firmus — Victories of Theodosius — Death of Firmus — Insurrection under Gildo — Wisdom and Bravery of Stilicho — Death of Gildo — Rebellion of Heraclian — Error of Bonifa- cius — He invites the Vandals — Progress of Genseric, their General — Death of Bonifacius — Continued Success of the Vandals — Fall of Carthage — Severe Sutferings of the Inhabi- tants — Policy of Genseric — He creates a Navy — Sacks Rome — Prosecutes a Maritime War — Marjorian meditates the Inva- sion of Africa — His Fleet is destroyed by Fire — Attempt of Ba- silicus — Loss of his Ships — Death of Genseric — Accession of Justinian — Usurpation of Gelimer in Africa — Belisarius takes the Command there — Victory over Gelimer — He reduces Car- thage—Conquest of Africa — Surrender of Gelimer — Decay of the Vandal Power — Africa gradually relapses into Barbarism —Commerce and Agriculture languish — Arrival of the Sara- cens — Conduct of the Prefect Gregory — Valour of Akbah — Dissension among the Caliphs — Akbah is slain — Conduct and Fate of Zobeir — Foundation of Kairwan — Hassan retakes CONTENTS. 11 Carthage — The Greek Imperialists defeated, and finally leave the Country — The Moors contend for the Sovereignty — Queen Cahina— Her Success and Defeat — Union of the Moors and Mohammedan Arabs — Revolt of Ibrahim — Dynasty of the Ag- labites— Other Dynasties founded by Rostam and Edris — Rise of the Fatimites— Of the Zeirites— Emigration of Arabs from the Red Sea — The Almohades and Alraoravides . Page 64 CHAPTER IV. Religion and Literature of the Barbary States. The Religion and Literature vary with the successive Inhab- itants — Superstition of the Natives — Human Sacrifices con- tinued by the Carthaginians — Worship of Melcarth, Astart^, and Baal— No sacred Caste or Priesthood — Religious Rites performed by the Chief Magistrates — Introduction of Chris- tianity — Accomplished by the Arms of Rome — Different Opin- ions as to the Date of Conversion and the Persons by whom it was effected — Statements of Salvian and Augustin — Learn- ing and Eloquence of the African Clergy, Tertullian, Cyprian, Lactantius, and the Bishop of Hippo — Works of these Divines —Death of Cyprian and Augustin — The Writings of the Latin Fathers chiefly valuable as a Record of Usages, Opinions, and Discipline — Church revived under Justinian — Invasion of the Moslem— Christian Congregations permitted to exist under the Mohammedan Rulers — Conditions of Toleration — Afri- cans gradually yield to the Seducements of the New Faith, and the Gospel is superseded by the Koran — Barbary States the only Country where Christianity has been totally extin- guished — Attempt made to restore it by the Patriarch of Alex- andria — Five Bishops sent to Kairwan — Public Profession of the Gospel cannot be traced after the Twelfth Century — A few Christians found at Tunis in 1533— Learning of the Arabs — Great Exertions of Almamoun — He collects Greek Authors, and causes them to be translated — He is imitated by the Fatimites of Africa — Science cultivated by the Mo- hammedans Five Hundred Years — Their chief Studies were Mathematics, Astronomy, and Chymistry — Their Progress in Chymical Researches — Neglect Literature, properly so caUed — Prospect of Improvement from the Settlement of European Colonies in Northern Africa .93 It CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. The Cyrenaica and Pentapolis. Modem Acceptation of the Term Barbary — Desert of Barca — District of Marmarica — Its desolate State— Remains of an- cient Improvement— Derna — Natural Advantages — Habits of the People — Want of good Harbours— Ruins — Opinion of Pa- cho — Excavations and Grottoes— Gyrene — Details by Herodo- tus — War with Egypt— Successes of the Persians — Form of Government — Gyrene subject to Egypt— Persians — Saracens — Present State of the Gyrenaica — Marsa-Suza — Ruins — Ap- oUonia — Monuments of Ghristianity — Tombs — Theatres — Style of Architecture— Amphitheatre — Temples — Stadium — Hypogea — Notion of petrified Village — Account by Shaw — Remark by Delia Gella— Journey of Captain Smyth — State of Ghirza— Fountain of Apollo — Description of it — Examined by Capt. Beechey — Plain of Merge — Barca — Histor}^ of— Doubts as to its real Position— Opinion of Delia Gella — Ptolemeta or Dolmeita — Fine Situation of the Town — Streets covered with Grass and Shrubs — Extent of the Gity — Ruins — Theatres — Magnificent Gateway — Supposed of Egyptian Origin — Hy- pothesis of Delia Gella — Disputed by Gapt. Beechey — Taucra, or ancient Teuchira — Unfavourable as a Seaport — Gomplete Demohtionof its Buildings — Ruins of two Ghristian Ghurch- es — Tombs — Variety of Greek Inscriptions — Mode of Burial — Bengazi, or Berenice — Miserable Condition of the Place — Plague of Flies — Population — ^^Gharacter of Inhabitants — Gar- dens of the Hesperides — Glowing Descriptions of them by an- cient Writers— Position indicated by Scylax — Labours of Gap- tain Beechey — Conclusion Page 114 CHAPTER VI. Tripoli and its immediate Dependances. Ancient Limits of the Pachalic— Great Syrtis seldom visited — Delia Gella and the Beecheys — Ghimines — Forts and Ruins — Tabilba — Remains of a Castle — Curious Arch — Braiga, a Seaport, and strongly garrisoned— Thought to be the ancient Automata — Sachrin, the southern Point of the Gulf— Shape of the Bay — Gato, Lucan, and Sallust — Muktar — Hudia — Linoof — Mahiriga — Fortress — Tower of Bengerwad — Suppo- sed to be that of Euphrantas — Charax — Medinet Sultan — Shuaisha — Hamed Garoosh — ZafFran — Habits of the Natives — Their Dress — The Aspis of Ancient Writers — Giraff— Gape Triero — Mesurata — Salt-marshes — Gulf of Zuca — Lebida— CONTENTS. 13 Ruins — Narrative of Captain Smyth — Tagiura — Fertility — Tripoli — Appearance — Tripoli believed to be of Moorish ori- gin — Old Tripoli destroyed by the Saracens — Opinion of Leo Africanus— Favourable Judgment formed by Mr. Blaqiiiere — Moral Character of the Tripolines — Statement by the Author of TuUy's Letters — Description of Tripoli by Captain Bee- chey — Pacha's Castle — Mosques — rTriumphal Arch — Inhabi- tants divided into Moors and Arabs — Manner in which the Turks spend their time — Peculiar Mode of conducting Con- versation—Bedouins — Their Dress and Manners — The Pia- nura or Fertile Plain — Visit to the Castle— Magnificence of the Apartments— Pacha's principal Wife — Mode of Saluta- tion — Refreshments — History of Tripoli — Knights of Malta — Rajoot Rais— Admiral Blake — Sir John Narborough — Major Eaton — Revolution by Hamet the Great — The Atrocities which attended it — Fezzan — Siwah — Augila— Marabouts — Scene witnessed by Captain Lyon — Drunkenness — Langua- ges spoken at TripoU Page 153 CHAPTER VIL Tunis and its Dependances. Lands included in the Pachalic of Tunis — History resumed — Abou Ferez — His Court, Bodyguard, and Council — Invasion of Tunis by Louis IX. — Carthage reduced — Sufferings of the French — Deatn of the King — Arrival of the Sicilian Crusa- ders—Failure of the Expedition — Rise of the two Barbarossas, Horuc and Hayradin — The former invited to assist the King of Algiers — He murders him and seizes the Government — The Usurper defeated and slain — Algiers occupied by Hayra- din, who courts the protection of the Grand Seignior — Plans an attack on Tunis — Succeeds in his Attempt — Excites the Resentment of the Emperor Charles V. — The vast Prepara- tions in Italy and Spain— Barbarossa prepares for Defence — The Goletta is taken — A general Engagement ensues — The Moors are defeated and Tunis falls— The Town is sacked and plundered — Muley Hassan restored— Conditions— Ex- ploits of Barbarossa — Spaniards expelled by Sehm II. — Tu- nisians elect a Dey — Government settled in a Bey — Rise of Hassan Ben Ali — Power absolute — Administration of Jus- tice — Description of Tunis — Soil and Climate — Army — Su- perstitions — Manners and Customs— Character of the Moors — Avarice of the late Bey — Population of the Regency — Revenue — Intemperance — Anecdote of Hamooda — Descrip- tion of Carthage — Cisterns and Aqueduct — Remains of a Temple — Appearance during the Fourth and Fifth Centuries 14 CONTENTS. — Details by Edrisi — Remark by Chateaubriand — Bizert^- Utica — Hammam Leif — Sidi Doud — Kalibia — Ghurba — Naba! — Keff— Tubersoke— Herkla — Sahaleel — Monasteer — Lemp- ta — Agar — Demass — Salecto — WoodJif — Gabes — Jemme — Sfaitla — Gilma — Casareene — Feriana .... Page 193 CHAPTER VIII. The Regency of Algiers. Origin of the term Algiers — Importance attached to its History — Boundaries of the State— Appearance of the Town — Its Interior — Population — Fortifications — Narrow Streets — His- tory resumed — Charles V. resolves to attack Algiers — His Force — Preparations of Hassan Aga — Storm disables the Spaniards— Loss of Ships and Men — Sufferings of the Army ■^Scattered at Sea — Fortitude of the Emperor — These Hos- tilities^ had an earlier origin — Policy of Cardinal Ximenes — Success of his Measures — Moors revolt, and invite Barbaros- sa — Spaniards deprived of Oran — Expedition of Philip V. — Oran destroyed by an Earthquake — French attack Algiers under Beaulieu — And under Duquesne — The City and Batte- ries destroyed— The Dutch, Danes, Swedes. Austrians, and Russians, adopt different Measures — English make several efforts to reduce the Corsairs — Insults during the reign of George II. — Resolutions by Congress of Vienna— Expedition of Lord Exmouth — Attack on Algiers — Terms acceded to — Captives released — French Governrhent offended — Expedi- tion under Bourmont — Account by Rozet — Present state of Algiers — Revenue— War between Algiers and Tunis — Bona — Tabarca — La Cala — Constantina — Antiquities — Mileu — Remains — Bujeya — Province of Titteri — Bleeda and Medea — Burgh Hamza — Auzea — Beni Mezzab — Province of Tlem- san— Capital — Arbaal — El Herba — Maliana — Aquae Calidae Colonia — Oran — Recent History — Inhabitants — Geeza— Ca- rastel — Mostagan — Jol, or Julia' Caesarea — Tefessad — Sher- shell — Vicinity of Algiers — French Government — Attempt at Colonization — Difficulties— Favourable Climate and Soil — European Powers invited to co-operate — Late Publications on the Subject 230 CHAPTER IX. Empire of Morocco. Boundaries of Morocco —Extent — Divisions — Fertility — Pro- ductions — Not fully cultivated — Metallic Treasures, Iron, Copper, Gold, and Silver — Population— History — Aglabites CONTENTS. 15 — Edrisites — Fatimites — Zuhites — Hamadrans — Abn-Has- sians— Abdallah-ben-Jasin — Almoravides — Almohades — Me- rinites— Oatazi — Shereef Hassan — Various Races of Men — Administration of Justice — Rude Government — Oppression— Court-dress — Arrogance of the Moors — Their patient Endu- rance — Equality of Rank — Mode of eatmg — Ceremony of Mar- riage — Religion — Treatment of Christians and Jews — Reve- nue— Melilla — Velez—Tetuan—Ceuta— Tangier — Arzillah — El Haratch — Meheduma — Sallee — Rabat — Schella — Maza- gan — Mogadore — Agadeer — Morocco — Population — Palace — Fez — Edifices — Decayed State — Terodant — Mequinez — Royal Residence — Manners of Inhabitants . . . Page 276 CHAPTER X. Commerce of the Barhary States. Benefits expected from a Trade with Africa — Plan of Bonaparte and Talleyrand to raise in it colonial Produce — French have alw^ays maintained Commercial Relations with Barbarj-^ — The Fertility of Central Africa— The Congo and Niger — Market at Bengazi — Ancient Trade of the Genoese — Exports from Tunis — Imports — Commercial Lists of that Pachalic — Trade diminished — Bad Policy of the Bey — System of Licenses — Coins, Weights, and Measures at Tunis — Trade of Algiers carried on by the Corsairs — Imports resemble those of Tunis — Manufactures and Exports — Mode of Shipbuilding — Pres- ent State of Commerce at Algiers — Trade with France, Eng- land, Italy, Spain, and Tunis — Trade of Morocco— Mogadore — Total Value of Exports and Imports — Intercourse with Negro Nations — Coins, Weights, and Measures — Physical Advantages of Northern Africa — Hopes of Improvement 298 CHAPTER XI. Natural History. Additional Knowledge of Africa supplied by the French — Ge- ology — Great and Little Atlas — Structure of the former — Succeeded by Tertiary Rocks — Supposed Extent of the Greater Atlas — Cyrenean Mountains — Reflections on the Des- ert — Relics of organized Bodies — Transition-rocks — Lime- stone — Talc-slate — Mineral Species — Secondary Formation — Limestone-shales — Marlstones and Sandstone — Imbedded Minerals — Extent of the Little Atlas — Metals — Tertiary Rocks — Calcareous Sandstone, Clays, Porphyry, Dolerite, Greenstone, and Basalt — Blue Marl or London-clay — Or- ganic Jtemains — Volcanic Rocks — Diluvian Formation — Soil 16 CONTENTS. of Metijah — Postdiluvian Formation — Uniform Operation of General Laws — Zoology— Scorpions and Serpents — Bfiska — Effah — Boah — Locusts — Quadrupeds — Horreh — Aoudad — Nimmer — Heirie — Camel — Desert-horse — Birds — Ostrich— El Rogr— Tibib— El Hage— Graab el Sahara— Ka- raburno — Burourou— Botany — List of Plants — Hashisha — Euphorbium — Silphium — Medicinal Qualities — Opinions of Delia Cella and Beechey — Reflections .... Page 309 ENGRAVINGS. Map of the Barbary States Tojace the Vignette. ViGNETTR— Fountain on the Road to Mount Bou Zaria. Berbers Page 65 Moorish Artisan and Female 89 Coffee-house and School at Byrmadrais 112 Rich Moor and Female 175 Moorish Lady and Fashionable Moor 211 View of Algiers from the Land 233 View of a Street in Algiers 238 Gate and Fountain of Bab El Ouad 254 View of O ran 265 Aqueduct of Mustapha Pacha 270 HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE BARBARY STATES. CHAPTER L Ancient History. Contrast between the present and ancient Condition of the Bar- bary States — View of ancient Manners — Remains of former Magnificence — Revolutions in that Country at once sudden and entire — Countries comprehended in Barbary — Division, according to Herodotus— Origin of the term Barbary — Opin- ion of Leo Africanus — Emigrants from Asia and Arabia — Mon- uments which denote an Eastern People— Colonies from Tyre — Foundation of Carthage — Supposed Extent of her Territory — Remark of Polybius — Carthaginians encouraged Agricul- ture — Various Tribes subject to Carthage, or in Alliance with her — The History of Carthage for a long time includes that of all the Barbary States— First Attempt on Sicily and Sar- dinia — Ambitious Views of the Carthaginians — Provoke the Resentment of Alexander the Great — First Punic War — Car- thage besieged— Second Punic War— Character of Hannibal — Scipio invades the Carthaginian Territory — Hannibal re- called — Is defeated at Zama — Third Punic War— Fall of Carthage — History of Jugurtha — Subdued by the Romans — Marius and Sylla— Poinpey and Cajsar— Conclusion. In entering upon a description of the Barbary States, the mind naturally turns, in the first instance, to a comparison of their actual condition, morally and politically considered, with the civilization to which they formerly attained under more enlightened governors. The contrast thus presented 18 ANCIENT HISTORY. IS rendered still more striking by a reference to the literature and science of Europe, of which the elements were, in many cases, derived from the northern shores of Africa ; as well when the Phoenicians extended their power to the Pillars of Hercules, as w^ien the lieutenants of the Caliph exercised authority over the mixed tribes who were compelled to ac- knowledge their dominion. Nowhere, indeed, is the effect of v/ise institutions more clearly distinguished than at the point whence the philosoph- ical eye marks the difference which prevails on the opposite sides of the Mediterranean. From the mountains of Spain the spectator may comprehend, at one glance, the abode of nations which, though in geographical position not farther distant than a voyage of a few hours, are nevertheless, in respect of religion, learning, and all the arts and feelings of social life, removed from one another by the lapse of man_ centuries. In passing the narrow channel which separates these two quarters of the globe, the traveller finds himse'^ carried back to the manners and habits of ages long past, and sees, as it were, a revival of scenes which must have attracted the notice of the earliest historians of the human race. On the one hand, he beholds an order of men who, like the patriarchs of Arabia, are still engaged with the occu- pations of the pastoral state, living in tents, and sustaining themselves on the produce of their flocks. On the other, he may see a community devoting their cares to the pursuits of traffic, and, like the ancient Ishmaelites, carrying the com- modities of foreign lands across their wide deserts ; thereby connecting, in the bonds of commercial intercourse, the re- motest nations of the Old World. In a third section of Northern Africa, his attention will be drawn to numerous tribes who, adopting partially the usages of both the other classes, refuse to abide by either ; but, like the descendants of Esau, with their hands lifted against every man who crosses their path, esteem it their highest honour to impose tribute and enrich themselves on spoil. Nor is the contrast less remarkable, when the present as- pect of the country is compared with the magnificence and cultivation which adorned it during several ages. In no other region of the earth has the flood of time committed ravages so extensive and deplorable, obliterating nearly all the traces of improvement, and throwing down the noblest ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 works of art. Amid the sand, accordingly, which covers the remains of ancient towns, are to be seen the finest specimens of architectural skill, mingled with the relics of a taste and luxury which distinguished the later years of the Roman em- pire. The fields, which once bore the most abundant crops, are now either deformed by the encroachments of the Desert, or overgrown with useless weeds and poisonous shrubs ; while baths, porticoes, bridges, theatres, and triumphal arches, have mouldered into ruins, or sunk under the hands of the barba- rous inhabitants. No people, once civihzed, retain so few marks of having risen above savage life as the present Moors and Arabs of Barbary. All other nations, however depressed with regard to power, wealth, and science, continue to exhibit some proofs of their former greatness, and to vindicate, at least by their recollections and desires, the rank which their ancestors enjoyed in ancient times. The Jews, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, though now little more than the nominal representatives of distinguished empires, cherish the memory of what they were ; extol the exploits of their fathers, and admire their works ; hoping even to restore their fortunes and to emulate their fame in a more auspicious age. But the rude tribes of Africa are strangers to all such ennobling sentiments. They know not that their country was one of the first seats of government and commerce, and took the lead, at an early period, in all the attainments which exalt human nature, and confer the highest blessings on society. They forget that Carthage held long suspended between her- self and Rome the scales of universal dominion ; that her provinces were opulent and enlightened; that she could boast of renowned sages and learned fathers of the church ; and that some of her towns were on a fooling of equality with the most celebrated in antiquity. Ignorant, moreover, of the history of those monuments which still give an interest to their wild shores and dreary plains, they even make haste to deface every thing whereon ingenuity has been lavished, and to remove every token which might serve as an evidence that men more polished than themselves had occupied their cities or ploughed their fields. These facts will appear less inexplicable, when it is called to mind that the revolutions in Barbary have, for the most part, been not only sudden and complete, but that, being 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. brought about by nations that had very little in common with those which they subdued, an entire change was introduced as often as new masters assumed the government. The Saracens, for example, who marched under the banners of Mohammed, had no respect for the institutions of the Ro- mans, whether conveyed thither from Italy or from the shores of the ^gean Sea. On the contrary, those fierce warriors felt themselves impelled by religious zeal to root out what- ever had been planted by Christians — to demolish the edifices in which they had worshipped — to destroy the emblems of their faith — and to treat with scorn every usage which could be traced to the hated Nazarenes. The barbarians who humbled the European portion of the empire, yielded their reverence, and even their belief, to the magnificent and im- posing ritual of the Church. Their own tenets were so ill denned, and rested on principles so extremely vague, that they were easily capable of amalgamating with any other system which simply recognised the doctrine of a Divine Providence, and the sanctions of a future state, as the re- ward of the good and the punishment of the guilty. But the disciples of the Koran were not allowed to make terms with the professors of any rival creed. An acknowledgment of their prophet, as an inspired messenger sent by Heaven, was ever held as a condition indispensable to the enjoyment of security, and even of those ordinary privileges in life, without which man may be said to forfeit all the advantages of asso- ciating with his fellow-creatures. Hence the irruption of the Arabian host produced, on the face of Upper Africa, eflfects hardly less violent and universal than if a second deluge had swept over it. The past could not have been more profound- ly forgotten, and the labours of former generations could scarcely have more entirely disappeared. The countries included under the general description of Barbary, of which it is our intention in the present work to give an account, may be conveniently understood as extend- ing from the Desert of Barca on the east to Cape Nun on the west ; a space which comprehends the Cyrenaica, Trip- oli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, and embraces more than 2,000 miles of coast. It is true, that the first of the districts flow specified is not usually attached to the Barbary States, being more closely connected with Egypt, both by its histor* leal relations and its natural affinity. But as the celebrate4 ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 towns, composing the Pentapolis of ancient authors, were not described in our volume on the kingdom of the Pharaohs, we have thought it expedient to introduce them here, in order that we may fully complete our undertaking, and lay before the readers of the Library all that is known respecting the great continent of Africa. The breadth of the territory which thus falls under our notice varies very much at different parts, according to the proximity of the sandy waste by which it is bounded on the south ; and this uncertainty is still far- ther increased by the occasional movements of the Sahara itself, which, so far from being permanently fixed, is found from time to time invading the cultivated lands. According to Herodotus, the north of Africa is divided into three regions, which he distinguishes into inhabited land, the vnld beast country, and the desert; an arrangement strictly corresponding to the modern classification of Barbary, prop- erly so called ; the Blaid el Jerid, or region of dates ; and the Sahara. The first section contains Mauritania, Numidia, the territory of Carthage, Cyrenaica, and Marmarica ; that is, the northern parts of the present kingdoms of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. It was not wdthout rea- son that the father of history conferred upon this extensive tract the epithet of habitable ; for, though at certain parts its continuity is broken by the approach of the sands, it is, gen- erally speaking, uncommonly productive. By the Romans, indeed, it was, next to Egypt, esteemed their granary ; and its abundant returns long enabled the Carthaginians to main- tain armies able to cope with the conquerors of Europe. Beyond this favoured region a chain of mountains runs across the continent, begimung at the shores of the Atlantic, and reaching to the boundaries of Egypt. The whole line, it is true, has not been examined by recent travellers ; but the opinions of the ablest geographers favour the conclusion that, though it occasionally sinks to the level of the Desert, the range may be distinctly traced from the neighbourhood of the Nile to the Western Ocean. Its loftiest and broadest part, bearing the name of Atlas, occupies the southern prov- inces of Morocco and Algiers ; and in this vicinity, where water abounds, there are many wild beasts — the ground of the distinction attributed to it by Herodotus. The later Greek and Roman writers called it Getulia ; and it is cele- brated by their po^ts as the native haunt of savage animals. 22 ANCIENT HISTORY. By the Arabs, however, as already suggested, it is named the Land of Dates, from the vast quantity of that fruit which grows there, and which constitutes an article of food and of commerce extremely important to the various tribes who fre- quent its borders. The whole region comprises the southern side of Atlas, together with the territory lying near it, ex- tending as far as the Great Desert, between the 26th and 30th degrees of north latitude. This country, which is fertile only in those places where water is found, loses itself by degrees in the Sahara, the des- ert of Herodotus. Like the hills just mentioned, this barren tract occupies the entire breadth of Africa, and even stretches through Arabia and Persia into the provinces of Northern India. The width of the sandy belt is not everywhere the same ; the greatest being in the western parts, between Mo- rocco and the Negro Country, and the least between the present states of Tripoli and Kassina, where also the oases — those fruitful patches of well-watered ground — occur most frequently in the path of the caravans. It becomes again much broader as it approaches Egypt ; and, finally, forms a junction with the wilderness of Nubia, and thence, it is prob- fible, with the central portion of the African continent.* The origin of the term Barbary is lost, as well in the ob- Bcmity of the original language as in the fanciful hypotheses which have been framed to illustrate its meaning and appli* cation. Leo Africanus has recorded certain opinions enter- tained on this subject by those who wrote before his days, adding his own reflections, of which it may not be deemed severe to remark, that they tend not in the slightest degree to remove the darkness wherewith he found the inquiry en- veloped. According to his authorities, the word Ber signi- fies a desert ; while others, on the contrary, maintain that it denotes a rich soil ; the duplication of the term, Berber, con- veying the happy discovery that the land along the coast r.p- peared unusually fertile, more especially to eves fatigued with the bare and monotonous aspect of the wilderness.f * Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i., p. 7. Herodotus, book ii., c. 32. and book iv., c. 81. t Hujus subfusci colons incolae appellati sunt nomine Barbar, ^ verbo Barbara quod eorum idiomate idem sonat quod Latinis inurmuro : eo quod Africanus sermo Arabibus non aliter sonet jjuam beluarum vox, quae nullo accentu suas edunt vocifera- ANCIENT HISTORY. 23 Little aid can be derived from the classical authors, who took more dehght in gratifying their imaginations than in sto- ring their minds with knowledge. To them Africa appeared much in the same light as India and China did to the writers of the middle ages ; and while they crowded it with wonders of magnificence and splendour, they introduced into it all the monstrous and most terrific productions of nature. A tradition had reached the ears of Sallust, the historian, that a mixed horde of Asiatics, led by the fabled hero Hercules, after ad- vancing to the western shores of Spain and losing their chief> sought employment for their arms in Africa ; where, it was supposed, they finally incorporated with the natives, and as- sumed a new name. The Persians, it is said, upon landing on the desolate shore, inverted their barks and used them for dwellings ; supplying, as the annalist suggests, a pattern for the Numidian cottages, even as they existed in his own days.* Procopius has pledged his credit for the truth of a legend still more ancient than the one now quoted, and assures his readers that, in the time of the war with the Vandals, when he accompanied the great Belisarius into Africa in quality of secretary, there were yet to be seen, near a fountain at Tan- gier, two columns of white stone, whereon were inscribed, in the Phoenician tongue, the following words : — " We fly from the robber Joshua, the son of Nun." Whatever accuracy there may be in this statement, there is no doubt that the northern parts of the Africarr continent must have been peo- pled by emigrants from Asia. If any confidence can be placed in those traditionary records which descend from father to son, and constitute the history of all barbarous nations, it must be believed that successive multitudes, armed and un- armed, sought in the less populous countries which stretch out on either side of the IVIediterranean a refuge from the tyr- anny of Asiatic conquerors. The Moors narrate that their origin may be traced to Sabasa, a district of Arabia, whence their ancestors, under their king Ifricki, were expelled by a superior force, and reduced to the necessity of seeking a new tiones. AUi volant Barbar nomen rephcatum esse, eo quod Bar lingua Arabica desertum denotet. — Africa Descrip., hb. prim., p. 12. * Saliust. Bell. Jugurth.,c. 18. — lique alveos navium m\'ersos pro tuguriis habuere. 24 ANCIENT HISTORY. home in the remote regions of the West. This inroad, which could not be accompUshed without violence, drove the older inhabitants from the vicinity of the coast into the less fertile tracts that border on the Desert ; where they appear to have provided for their defence by forming caves in the mountains, as well as by erecting fortresses in strong passes and ravines. Even at the present day, there are found in Southern Numidia the remains of towns and castles, which present an air of very great antiquity. The Arabs, disdaining the protection of walls and the restraint of a stationary life, carried into Africa their wonted habits ; preferring the moveable tent to the "city which hath foundations," and watching their numerous flocks over unlimited pastures, rather than submitting to the drudgery of agriculture or of manufactures. The earlier in- habitants appear to have been less erratic in their mode of life, and, like the Egyptians, with whom, it is not improbable, they were connected, fond of excavating dwelHngs in the rocks, and of erecting lofty structures for ornament or safety. Hence the ruins, to which allusion has just been made, in the interior of Morocco, and which must owe their origin to a people different from the Sabaeans, who are supposed to have expelled them from their seats.* "Whoever were the original possessors of Africa, it is con- firmed by the general voice of history that the Phoenicians, about 900 years before the Christian era, founded a variety of colonies along its shores. The narrow territory on the Asiatic coast originally occupied by this enterprising people, who had already carried their trade to all parts of the known world, soon suggested the expediency of removing the super- abundant population to less crowded countries. Political broils on many occasions produced the same effect ; sending the disaffected from the parent state to seek an asylum in re- mote regions, where their opinions could not be so strictly watched, and where their impatient spirits would be freed from the control of an imperious master. But other motives, unconnected either with commerce or civil liberty, might also operate in withdrawing the inhabitants from the Phoenician monarchy. Carthage, the most powerful of their settle- ments, according to a tradition, the truth of which there is ♦ Procop. de Bello Vandal., lib. ii , p 37. — Morgan's Complete History of Algiers, p. 9. ANCIENT HISTORY. 25 tio reason to question, owed its origin to the crime of the King of Tyre, who, urged by avarice or ambition, murdered his brother-in-law, the priest of Melcarth, their national god. Many of the citizens, offended and alarmed by this atrocityj resolved to leave their native land ; and placing themselves under Elissa, the widow of the murdered prince, they put to sea, and directed their course towards Africa. They dis- embarked in the bay in which Tuneta and Utica were already built ; and fixing on a narrow promontory which runs out into the sea, they agreed to pay for it a price, or perhaps an an- nual tribute, to the Libyans, who claimed the property of the soil. Here they erected a place of defence, to which they gave the name of Betzura, the fort or stronghold, but which the Greeks, according to their usual practice, changed into Byrsa, a term referrible to their own tongue ; and as this •word, so interpreted, denotes the skin of a bullock, they in- vented the popular tale, describing how the Tyrians imposed upon the unsuspecting savages in the bargain for their first Eossession. Appian gravely remarks, that the Africans lughed at the folly of Dido, who begged only for so small a quantity of land as she could cover with the hide of an ox, but much admired the subtlety of her contrivance in cutting it into thongs.* Virgil, using the privilege of a poet, has raised upon the facts now stated a beautiful fictjon, which, like the Paradise Lost of the great Milton, conveys a commentary so striking as to supersede, in ardent minds, all recollection of the more scanty record which it was meant to illustrate. Regardless of dates, he connects the voyage of ^neas, after the fall of * Appian in Lybicis. The word Betzura, Bitzra, or Bozrah, is of Hebrew etymolo- gy, and signifies a fort or castle. It is the name of the Idumean capital, the chief town in the country of Edom. — Morgan, p. 10. The legend of the ox-hide seems to have gone round the world. Hussun Subah, the chief of the Assassins, is said to have acqui- red in the same manner tlie hill-fort of AUahamowt. The Per- sians maintain that the British got Calcutta in the same way. An English tradition avers that it was by a similar trick Hen- gist and Horsa got a settlement in the Isle of Thanet ; and it is somewhere stated, that this was the mode by which one of our colonies in America obtained their land of the Indies.— Foreign Quarterly Review, No. xxvii., p. 213. 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. Troy, with the expedition of the Tyrian princess to the coast of Libya, and thereby interests his reader in the early fates of those two proud commonwealths, whose mutual strife so long agitated the shores of the Mediterranean, and died its waves with blood. The accuracy with which the bay of Car- thage is described may justify a quotation, which, though not comparable to the splendid original, will communicate at least a topographical outline of the scene : — " Within a long recess there lies a bay : An island shades it from the rolling sea, And forms a port secure for ships to ride. Broke by the jutting land on either side, In double streams the briny waters glide Betwixt two rows of rocks : a sylvan scene Appears above, and groves for ever green : A grot is formed beneath, with mossy seats, To rest the Nereids, and exclude the heats : Down through the crannies of the living walls. The crystal streams descend in murm'ring falls : No halsers iieeil to bind the vessels here. Nor bearded anchors ; for no storms they fear."* ■ It has been remarked, that Carthage was from the begin- ning an independent state, after the model of the trading towns which were planted along the Phoenician coast. Tyre and her colony, without claiming dominion or acknowledging subjection, observed to each other that mutual regard which, in those early times, was expected between communities sprung from the same root. The former, as Herodotus ob- serves, constantly refused to Cambyses the use of her fleet whenever he wished to attack Carthage ; and the latter granted a place of refuge to the inhabitants of Tyre when that city was besieged by Alexander the Great. She hke- wise continued a long time to her neighbours the pacific pol- icy which her original condition rendered expedient. Built on the margin of an extensive continent, peopled by fierce and lawless tribes, she endeavoured to maintain a good un- derstanding with the original nations that occupied the ad- joining territory ; and it is said that the rent which she con- sented to pay to the lords of the soil was continued till the Dryden's translation of the iEneid, book i,, line 228, &c. " Est in secessu longo locus ; insula portum JJfficit objectu laterum," &c. ANCIENT HISTORY. 27 days of Darius Hystaspes. There are, no doubt, in the ear- liest history of her citizens, unquestionable proofs that she departed from this amicable policy as soon as she found her- self sufficiently strong to dispute the pretensions of the Liby- an princes, and even had recourse to arms, in order to vindi- cate her independence, or to extend her borders. Opposed to uncivilized hordes, the Carthaginian generals usually found their efforts crowned with success ; though it is admitted that, by their conquests, they only obtained subjects who em- braced every oportunity to throw off their yoke. No records are left which might enable the historian at this distant period to determme the extent to which they car- ried their triumphs over the natives, or what were the con- ditions proposed to the vanquished as the vassals of this ri- sing republic. Those who imagine that they subdued all Barbary, or indeed any very considerable part of it, are chargeable with a great mistake ; though some writers have gone so far as to assert that the whole of Northern Africa submitted to their sway, and that the Mauritanian princes consented to receive their diadems from the senate of Car- thage. The Latin authors, however, do not warrant the con- clusion that they were at any time masters of more land than that which constituted the provmce usually associated with their name, together with the principal harbours between the eastern confines of Tripoli and the shores of the Atlantic. There is besides good reason to infer, that in ordinary cir- cumstances their authority did not extend much beyond the walls of their seaport towns, especially of those which, more with the view of pursuing commerce than of enlarging their dominions, or of establishing political power, they had been permitted to erect within the boundaries of Numidia.* The writings of Polybius afford the most authentic infor- mation that can now be obtained respecting the territorial possessions of Carthage at the time when she first began to attract the attention of Europe. Speaking of the Africans who fought in her armies, he always makes a distinction be- tween her proper subjects and the free people who served for pay. The former he universally calls Libyans, never apply- ing to them any more particular or characteristic appellation ; ♦ Heeren's Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Nations of Africa, p. 53, -of Stilicho — Death of Gildo— Rebellion of Heraclian— Error of Bonifa- cius — He invites the V^andals— Progress of Genseric, their General — Death of Bonifacius— Continued Success of the Vandals— Fall of Carthage — Severe Sufferings of the Inhabi- tants — Policy of Genseric — Recreates a Navy — Sacks Rome — Prosecutes a Maritime War — Marjorian meditates the Inva- sion of Africa— His Fleet is destroyed by Fire — Attempt of Ba- silicus — Loss of his Ships — Death of Genseric — Accession of Justinian— Usurpation of Geliaier in Africa — Belisarius takes the Command there — Victory over Gelimer— He reduces Car- thage — Conquest of Africa — Surrender of Gelimer — Decay of the Vandal Power — Africa gradually relapses into Barbarism — Commerce and Agriculture languish — Arrival of the Sara- cens — Conduct of the Prefect Gregory — A^alour of Akbah — Dissension among the Caliphs — Akbah is slain — Conduct and Fate of Zobeir — Foundation of Kairwan — Hassan retakes Carthage — The Greek Imperialists defeated, and finally leave the Country — The Moors contend tor the Sovereignty — Queen Cahina — Her Success and Defeat — Union of the Moors and" Mohammedan Arabs — Revolt of Ibrahim — Dynasty of the Ag- labiies— Other Dynasties founded by Rostam and Edris— Rise of the Fatimites — Of the Zeirites— "Emigration of Arabs from the Red Sea — The Almohades and Almoravides. As it was not till about the time when the ascendency of the Turks was established in the Eastern Empire, that the modern kingdoms of Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, claimed the notice of the geographer or historian as separate, and in some degree independent governments, the annals of Northern Africa, down to the end of the fifteenth century, THE BARBARY STATES. 65 Tvill be most conveniently presented under one head, and as applicable to the whole country which stretches from Gyrene to the Western Ocean. It has been already remarked, that this region, if we follow the line of the coast, may be estima- ted at not less than 2,000 miles ; though its breadth, confined between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, does not exceed 150, even where the sandy border is farthest removed. Berbers. Till the arrival of the Phoenicians, that fertile colony was inhabited by the Libyans, accounted by ancient writers among the most savage of mankind — a race of wandering shepherds, who, in our times, are more familiarly known by the appellation of Berbers, from which the whole maritime district has taken its name. The proximity of the Tyrian settlement produced, to some extent, on their character and habits, those changes which a civilized people hardly ever 66 MODERN HISTORY OF fail to accomplish among rude tribes, strangers to reflection, and to all the artificial enjoyments of hfe. But, even at the present day, the descendants of those simple Nomades occu- py a prominent station in the land of their fathers ; and are, it is thought, easily distinguishable from the Moors, as well as from those other families of later origin, whose lineage be- longs to the central parts of Asia or even of Europe. The preceding representation exhibits the features and dress of these children of the Desert, who, it will be observed, bear no slight resemblance to the inhabitants of Southern Arabia, with whom their oldest tradition connects them. It has appeared that, under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, the neighbouring land became the centre of com- merce and of empire ; though the remains of that renowned commonwealth must now be sought in the disorderly states of Tripoli and Tunis. The Numidia, which was the object of contention between Jugurtha and Masinissa, is at present subject to the military government of Algiers ; though a large portion of that kingdom was withdrawn in the reign of Au- gustus, and erected into a proconsular province, under the title cf Mauritania Caesariensis. The true country of the Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was denominated Tingitana, is placed in our maps as the sovereignty of Fez. The Romans extended their sway as far as the ocean, comprehending Sallee, once so infamous for its piracies ; and Mequinez, a residence of the Emperor of Morocco, may still be identified as one of their foundations. Under the fostering care of the imperial government, more especially as administered by Augustus, the first of its sov- ereigns, Carthage emerged from itl^ruins, and became once more the capital of Africa Propria, the territory to which the senate thought it meet to restrict this designation. In truth, if a judgment may be formed from the relics which still remain, it must be admitted that the principal grandeur of the new city was bestowed upon it, at a period subsequent to the age of the beneficent ruler just named, and when ar- chitectural taste had already somewhat declined. Several of the mutilated statues, we are told, are in the worst style of the Lower Empire. There are, notwithstanding, many proofs that the birthplace of Hannibal must have been occupied soon after its first and violent destruction ; several of the walls and fven of the towers being composed of ancient fragments con- THE BARBARY STATES. 67 fusedly piled together. Most of the arcades and pubh'c build- ings, too, appear to have been made up of massy blocks of sandstone and conglomerate, disposed in layers, without ce- ment, or with a species of it which has almost entirely dis- solved. The greatest care seems to have been lavished upon the temples. These edifices were constructed in a style of the utmost magnificence, and adorned with immense columns of granite and marble ; the shafts of which, general- ly speaking, consisted of a single piece. Even here, however, there are indications that the Roman Carthage was indebted for some of its decorations to the Car- thage founded by the Phoenicians. Many of the pillars now found are of the Corinthian order, and belong, of course, to an improved epoch of the art : but among them are also seen enormous masses of a different description, displaying capi- tals and triglyphs, which render it extremely probable that a structure of Doric architecture had previously occupied the site at present covered with their common ruins. The more modern city, at all events, must have been encompassed with strong walls of solid masonry, furnished with magnificent gates, and ornamented with spacious porticoes. It was divi- ded, too, from its principal suburb on the east by a river, the mouth of which, forming an extensive basin, was called the *' Cothon," defended at its narrow entrance by two strong fortifications, connected with which were a couple of moles, still seen stretching out under the water. On the banks of this stream, the bed of which continues to be occupied by a rivulet, are the remains of various aqueducts, and some large reservoirs in excellent preservation. Between the prin- cipal cisterns and a torrent which passes to the westward of Leplis, some mounds have been constructed across the plain, by means of which the winter rains were conveyed for the use of the city. On the eastern bank of the river already mentioned are the vestiges of a galley-port and of numerous baths, together with a circus richly ornamented with obelisks and columns. The whole plain, indeed, from the Margib Hills to the Cinyphus, presents unequivocal proofs of great opulence and a dense population.* ♦ Beechey, p. 74. Leo Africanus remarks, " Notissimum hoc • atque antiquissisimum oppidum a quodam populo extructum fuit qvu ex Syria hue venerat. Alii vero a Regina quadam conditum 68 MODERN HISTORY OF These fragments of ancient magnificence leave no doubt as to the care bestowed by the Romans upon the capital of their Africa, however difficult it may be to determine the proportion of them which belongs to a remoter period. Nor can it be necessary to remark that the second Carthage, with the provinces subjected to its jurisdiction, shared largely in those vicissitudes and political commotions which shook the empire itself, both before and after the reign of Constan- tine. At one time three hundred cities are said to have ac- knowledged her authority, after she had risen with new splendour from her ashes, and when she had once more ac- quired, as a provincial metropolis, all the advantages which can be separated from independent sovereignty.* The first calamities which Roman Africa endured, arose from the ferocious character of her neighbours, and the ava- rice of those who were sent by the imperial court to exercise the government. In the reign of Valentinian, about the mid- dle of the fourth century, the military command was in- trusted to a chief whose sordid views were the leading mo- tives of his conduct, and who, on most occasions, acted as if he had been the enemy of the province, and the friend of the barbarians by whom it was assailed. The three flourish- ing cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sabrata, which, under the name of Tripolis, had long constituted a federal union, were obliged, for the first time, to shut their gates in order to pro- tect the lives and property of their inhabitants from the sav- ages of the Desert. After much suffering, the civic rulers applied to Romanus, entitled the Count of Africa, entreating him to march to their relief, and promising to raise, without delay, the supplies of money and camels which he had made the condition of their obtaining his protection. But the mercenary general, hoping that the fears of the Tripolitans would hasten their gifts, delayed his assistance till many of the citizens were surprised and massacred, thear villages burnt, their suburbs plundered, and the vines and fruit-trees of their fine territory rooted up or consumed with malunt.— Quare nihil est in praesentia quod de hujus conditori- bus affirmem ; nam praeterquam quod vari^ Afri atque historio- graphi inter se dissentiant, nemo est illorum qui inde aliquid Bcriptum reliquetit nisi post Romani imperii decrementum.— P. 553, edit. 1632. ♦ Strab. Geog., lib xvii THE BARBARY STATES. 69 fire. A deputation to Rome was instantly resolved upon by the assembly of the three cities, the members of which were instructed to inform Valentinian of their deplorable condition, and, at the same time, to convey to his ears the well-founded complaint, that they were ruined by the enemy, and betrayed by his lieutenant. The count, however, contrived to anti- cipate this intelligence, which must have endangered his command and perhaps his life, and to impress upon the minds of the imperial council, that the m>irmurs against him had no other foundation than the cowardice or disafi'ection of the provincialists. An investigation was commanded by the emperor, who appears to have been animated with a sincere desire to discover the truth, and to pronounce an award ac- cording to justice. But Romanus experienced as little dif- ficulty in deceiving or corrupting the commissioners, as he had to encounter in his attempts upon the honesty of the supreme government. The charge against him was declared to be false ; the information lodged by the people of Tripolis was interpreted as the proof of a conspiracy ; and orders were given to prosecute the authors of it as traitors to their lawful sovereign. The inquiries were managed with so much dexterity, that the citizens of Leptis, who had sus- tained a siege of eight days, were compelled to contradict the truth of their own decrees, and to censure the behaviour of their own deputies. A sentence, sanctioned by Valenti- nian, condemned the president of the Tripolitan council to death ; and, accordinglv, this distinguished person, as well as four others of similar rank, was publicly executed, as accomplice in an imaginary treason.* This cruel and unjust decision, by showing the subjects of the Roman colony th::t they were excluded from the benefits of an equal government, diministied whatever affection or confidence they might entertain towards the masters of Africa. An occurrence soon took place, which exposed their alle- giance to a severe test. Firmus, the son of Nabal, a Moor- ish prince, had forced his way to the occupation of his bar- barian sovereignty by destroying the hfe of a brother, whose birth gave him a better claim, and who, moreover, enjoyed the patronage of the Romans. Imitating the conduct of Jugurtha, this usurper had recourse at once to policy and * Ammian. Marcell., lib. xviii., c. 6. 70 Modern history op anns ; but finding the former unavailing, and that the count was about to prove an inexorable enemy, he took the field at the head of a pov(?erful body of troops, and bade defiance to his resentment. The authority of Firnius was soon estab- lished in all the provinces of Numidia and Mauritania ; while the indiscriminating fury with which he pursued his con- quests along the shores of the Mediterranean, compelled or induced many of the provincialists to join his standard.* Romanus, whose talents were only displayed in the arts of oppression and fraud, found himself unequal to oppose the victorious insurgents, who already possessed, as confederates or vassals, nearly all the towns between Caesarea and the ocean. Africa, accordingly, must have been severed from the empire, had not Theodosius been sent to restore its affairs, and to repel the ravages of the Moors. Firmus, though his arms and treasures were still undiminished, gave way to despair as soon as he learned that a commander so renowned had landed on the coast. At first, he had recourse to an apparent submission, with a view to deceive the vigil- ance of his opponent ; and he even attempted to corrupt the soldiers whom he dared not to encounter in the field. The imperial lieutenant, who was not ignorant of the character of the prince with whom he condescended to negotiate, listened to his expressions of repentance and promises of fidelity ; but, at the same time, kept a watchful eye over his proceed- ings, and was busy in making preparations for the war in which he was aware that all their professions of mutual friendship must ultimately terminate. Nor was it long be- fore these suspicions were realized. A conspiracy, which aimed at the life of Theodosius, was detected, and involved in capital punishment seme of the principal adherents of the Mauritanian chief, although he himself, who was ready to profit by their success, effected his escape into his native do- minions, and left them to their fate. But the Roman general having determined that his life also should pay the penalty of his rashness, in presuming to attack the subjects of the empire, pursued him into the fastnesses of Mount Atlas, and finally succeeded in making him prisoner. Firmus, however, resolved to disappoint the triumph of his adversary, who had meant to make him a public, example ; and, adopting the * Ammian. Marcell., lib, xxix., c. 4. THE BARBARr STATES. 71 maxims of his age and country as to the right of the human being to shorten or protract his own existence, relieved him- self from shame by committing suicide. A. D. 386. But the death of this tyrant did not secure permanent tranquilUty to the African provinces. Gildo, his brother, had been allowed to retain the vast possessions which had been forfeited by treason ; and as his fidelity and services to the empire seemed to merit a still higher reward, he was raised to the dignity of a count, and invested with the command of the Roman territory. As, however, his power increased, his insolence and cruelty became daily more in- tolerable : and, profilmg by the dissensions which preceded the accession of Theodosius to the throne, he hesitated not to announce himself the sovereign of Africa. During twelve years, the country groaned under the domination of an up- start, who seemed at once to disregard his native land, and to encourage the factions by which it was divided. At length, when Arcadius was elevated to the government of the East, the count, who had promised to respect the au- thority of Honorius, his rightful sovereign, chose to transfer to the former his allegiance and aid, which the ministers of that weak prince advised him to accept. But at this impor- tant crisis the councils of the West were directed by Stilicho, a brave soldier and experienced statesman, who prevailed upon the senate to denounce Gildo as a rebel and public enemy. Troops were assembled and transports were pre- pared to carry the revenge of the republic against the un- grateful Moor, to strip him of the honours which he had abused, and to punish the numerous crimes laid to his charge. The command of a small army of veterans was confided to Mascezel, another son of the house of Nabal, who, being obliged to fly from the ferocious jealousy of his brother, had sought refuge in Italy, where he heard of the inhuman mas- sacre of his wife and children, whom he was compelled to leave behind.* A. D. 398. Gildo, who soon received notice of the prep- arations which were making against him, exerted his utmost activity aijd means to collect an army that might successfully repel the meditated invasion. He endeavoured, by the most profuse liberality, to secure the attachment of the regular » Claudian. de Bell. Gild., v. 389,