44^^Mm^m^4^r nji/'-i'-^'-^ <'-l'd '. V \^: ^^F pmclrS^ BP 172 .A75 1866 Arnold, John Muehleisen, 1817-1881, The Koran and the Bible THE ^ 'UL 33 1933 CORAN AND T BLE OK, ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY, BY JOHN MUEHLEISEN-ARNOLD, B.D., CONSULAR CHAPLAIN AT BATAVIA, LATE HON. SEC. OF THE MOSLEM MISSION SOCIETY. SECOND EDITION. LONDON : LONGMANS, GREEN, READER,. AND DYER. 1866. j_j WEST HAM, LONDON. PRINTED BY GEOEGE HAEMEK. PKEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. Eecext events in the East must have convinced us that we have not discharged our whole duty to- wards the Mohammedan world, by jDraying once a year that God may have ^' mercy upon all .... Turks, .... and take from them all ignorance, hardness of heart, and contemj)t of His word." Nor can it any longer sufGce to multiply learned treatises on Islam, without laying before the Church some really feasible proposition, how to reach the 200 millions of Moslems, so large a proportion of whom are under British rule, and who to this day con- stitute fuUy one-third of the entire Mission field of the world. This book avows a purely practical purpose. The foot-notes are intended for the few who mio-ht feel disposed to question certain statements, or to pursue the subject still further. The text is en- tirely independent of the notes; and those who VI PEEFACE. wisli to ignore them will not, it is hoped, object to being furnished with the authority for every imj^ortant statement^ and the original of every im23ortant quotation. It is not only since the Mahommedans have come so prominently before Europe, but many years ago, that the author first commenced gathering information upon the subject of this volume, — and that, during a sojourn in Egyj^t, Arabia, Palestine, East Africa, Abyssinia, and more especially in India. The work is now published with a view to cherish, if possible, the missionary spirit which has been called forth by recent events ; and to place some of the leading truths of Christianity anti- thetically to the falsities and perversions of the Koran, so as to render the comparison available for actual missionary operations. May God, in His infinite mercy, ^' stir up," by this, or any other means, ''the spirit of the rem- nant of His people," that they may no longer neo-lect to do this *' work in the house of the Lord of Hosts." Zell, February 10th, 1859. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. This book first appeared in 1859, under the title of '' Ishmael : or, a Natural History of Islamism, and its Relation to Christianit}^," since which time 800 copies have been circulated. It is now issued with some corrections and alterations, in a cheaper form, and under a less ambiguous title. The entire proceeds of the volume were devoted, as intimated on the original title-page, towards founding a special Society for Evangelising the Mohammedans. It is now purposed to give all farther profits to the Moslem Mission Society, which has since come into operation. The main body of the Work was left intact, excepting only the correction of a few mistakes. The last Chapter of the book, in its original state, chiefly advocated the need of a special Society ; the corresponding Chapter now limits itself to a general review of the present condition of the Mohammedan world, and a brief notice of Christian Missions to Moslems, in ancient and modem days. East Ham, E., Aug. 6th, 1865. CONTENTS. PART I. MOHAMMED AND HIS CREED. i. THE POEERXJNNEHS OP MOHAMMED,, p. 5 — 16. Islam the type of faith adapted to the Arab mind. The mystery of the Incarnation. General denial of the Divine Sonship of Christ in the Apostolic age. Cerinthus and his heresy. The heresy of the Ebionites. Who where the Antichrists in the days of St. John. The Samosatenians. The Arian heresy. Islam absorbed and snp- planted all the Christian heresies which previously denied the God- head of the Eedeemer. iii THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH^ p. 16 — 45. Name and character of the land of its birth. The hihabitants of Arabia. Ishmaelite descent of the Arabs. The character of the Arabs predicted. The wild ass or the Dsigetai. Ishmaelites and Israelites : the only two nationalities surviving of ancient days. The Patriarchal faith in Arabia. Admixture of idolatry. The Kaaba at Mecca, the ancient Pagan sanctuary. Composite nature of Islam. iii. THE AGE, AND CHAEACTEP. OF MOHAMMED, p. 54 99. Political aspect of the age in which Mohammed was born. His age m a religious point of view. State of Judaism in Arabia. De- plorable state of Christianity in Arabia : deification of the Virgin Mary. Arabia at that time a reputed place of refuge for persecuted heresies. Distraction of the Arabs amidst Christian heresy, Chris- tian orthodoxy, Judaism and idolatry. Honest minds groaning for light. The tribe of Mohammed. His family. His fits in child- hood. His private life. Career as a prophet. Struggles and bat- tles. The poisoned lamb of the Jewess. Mohammed's last moments. His appearance and habits. His character. Commenced his career in honest sincerity. Degenerates. iv. HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN, p. 99 — 142. Name of El Koran. Versions of the Koran. Eevoked passages. Original collection. Prevailing confusion. Real order of the Suras. A CONTENTS. The alleged divine character of the Koran. The Unity of the God- head. Attributes of holiness ; omnipotence ; mercy ; righteousness, Anthropology of the Koran ; creation of man ; immortality of the soul ; fall of man. Doctrine of Angels. Concerning the devil and genii. Eesurrection and judgment. Ceremonial injunctions: prayer and fasting. Alms and pilgrimage. Sacrifices and circumcision, V. WHAT MOHAMMED BOEROWED FROM JUDAISM^ p. 142 179. More acquainted with the Jewish traditions than with the Old Testament. Mohammed's mterest to borrow. Plagiarism from Judaism. Hebrew names and terms. Hebrew ideas borrowed from the Talmud. Docti-ines borrowed. Talmudic demonology. Moral precepts. Historical incidents : patriarchs before the flood and Eabbinical fables. Noah; Hud or Eber; Abraham; Isaac; Ishmael; Jacob ; Joseph. Moses a leading figure. Fables. The golden calf lowing or roaring. Korah's riches. Aaron. David and Solomon. Queen of Sheba and Talmudic legends. Elijah ; ''Jonah the niari of the fish." Job and Ezra. Vi. WHAT HE BORROWED PROM CHRISTIANITY, p. 179 218. More at home in the apocryphal traditions than in canonical Scrip- tures. The childhood of Jesus. Apocryphal Gospels. Parents of the Virgin Mary. Joseph never named. The bu'th of Christ. His childhood. The Arabic Gospel of the Infancy. Miracles of Christ. The Ministry of Christ. Denial of the crucifixion. Titianus. Christ's Ascension. Supposed Tritheism of the Christians. The Viro-in Mary said to be no goddess. Divinity of Christ denied. Titles given to Jesus in the Koran. The Gospel allowed to come from God. The Gospel of St. Barnabas alleged to have prophesied of Mohammed. Double opinion of Christianity set forth in the Koran : one assuming a perfectly peaceful, the other a hostile relation to Christianity. Importance of disabusing the mind of Moslems. Vii. SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAM, p. 218 — 253 = Spread over the whole of Arabia in twelve years. Syria and Palestine. Jerusalem capitulates to Omar. Egypt and North Africa: Alexandina ; embassy from Cyrenaica. Irak subdued. Persia. The Omayades. Islam introduced into Syria. The entrance of Tarik into Spain. Eeverses in Gaul by Charles Martel. Spread in China and India. Mongols and Tartars found the Ottoman empire. Bajesid: project to feed his horses at the high altar of St. Peter's at Rome. CONTENTS. Peaoeful spread of Islam by Missionary efforts in the interior of Africa, Causes of success and permanence enumerated, Viii. CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OP ISLAM^ p. 253 315. Flaws in the legislature of Islam. Oaths wantonly made and broken. Vain oaths and perjury. Injurious effects of the Sonna, Warlike and cruel fanaticism. Lust of persecution. Social and domestic sores. Polygamy, its prejudicial effects. Facility of Divorce. Slavery and Dulocracy. A hmt to the Statesmen of the present day. Form of Grovernment, Compulsion and bloodshed, islam Predestination, its effects. Sects and heresies of Islam briefly reviewed. Mystical Sufiism in Persia. Effects of Moslem sectari- anism. Effects upon literature, commerce, arts and sciences. Decay, depopulation, devastation and demoralisation. PART IL CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM CONTRASTED. Introduction, p. 316 — 821. i, INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, p. 321 355. Names, division and number of the books of the Old Testament. Collection of the books. Preservation by the Christians. Christian catalogues. Origin of various Eeadings. No wilful corruption on record. "Wilful corruption impossible. Internal evidence. Historical evidence. Versions: Chaldee, Septuagint, Peshito, Hexapla, Itala, Vulgata. Mysterious absence of Arabic versions. Early Arabic versions destroyed. Their early existence proved. ii. THE INTEGRITY OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, p. 355 397. The New Testament Scriptures known to the ApostoHc Fathers. Known to the Early Fathers of the Church. Quoted by enemies and heretics. Catalogues of canonical books. Origin of various readings. Collection and preservation. Instance of wilful corrup- tion and how dealt with by the Church. Proved by ancient Manuscripts. Ancient versions. The Peshito ; two other Syrian versions; Armenian and Egyptian translations. Latm versions. British versions in the days of Bede. Corruptions morally im- possible. Admitted by Moslems. A* CONTENTS. lii. THE BIBLE AND THE KORAN_, p. 397 — 435. Symptoms of imposture in tlae one case. Historical feature of the Old Testament shown in detail. Admissions of the Koran. Hint from the Hebrew Scriptures being read from right to left. Organic connection of the Bible acknowledged in the Koran. The Bible a standing miracle of God's power and wisdom. Is the Koran the so-called miracle it is pretended to be ? Internal connection of the New Testament Scriptures, and the contradictory character of the contents of the Koran. Absolute mistakes of the Koran which admit of no explanation. iv. TRINITY AND UNITY^ p. 436 — 447. Symbolical anthropomoi'phisms. The moral attributes of G-od. His metaphysical attributes. Distortion of the character of God in the Koran. Allah a metaphysical deity. The belief in the Holy Trinity. Caution to Christian Missionaries. The dogma of the Holy Trinity above reason. The creeds of the Church do not express the mystery, but seek to protect it against Unitarianism and Trithe- ism. Matter of fact evidence that neither the Incarnation nor the Trinity are irrational. Metaphysical Monotheism satisfies neither faith nor reason. V. CHRIST AND MOHAMMED^ p. 447 470. The Divine Sonship of Christ proved from the Koran. The mi- racles which Mohammed is said by tradition to have performed. If performed he is a lying prophet, smce in the Koran he repeatedly denies that he wrought any miracles. Are miracles in themselves a true evidence ? The miracles of our Lord. Misapplication of single prophecies in the case of Mohammed. A full system of prophecies fulfilled in Jesus Christ. "Why the crucifixion and the atonement are denied. Vi. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS TO THE MOSLEMS^ p. 471. AVhat was done by our ancestors. Eaymund Lully, the Martyr of Moslem Missions, and the founder of the Arabic Professorships at Salamanca, Bologna, Paris and Oxford. Other efi'orts of the Church of Kome. Henry Martyn the modern Apostle to the Moslems. The two Church Mission Societies. The Moslem Mission Society. Syud Ahmed Khan the reformer of Islam and author of a Moslem Commentary on the Holy Bible. Hopes and fears of the Church. Hopeful signs and circumstances. Presentiments and prophesies, Christ first appearing to Hagar. Special promises. PAKT I. MOHAMMED AND HIS CREED. CHAPTER I. THE FOEEEUNNEES OF MOHAMMED. " Who is a liar but he that denieth that Jesus is Christ ? He is Antichrist that denieth the Father and the Son. Whosoever denieth the Son, the same hath not the Father." 1 John II. 22. 23. 1. Islam is tlie type of faith which of all others was most adapted to the Arabian mind. The Arabs, remained equally unimpressibie to the poetiy of the Greeks, the Philosophy of Plato, and the teachings of Christianity, but in perfect accordance with the national predominance of the cold intellectual facul- ties, they threw themselves with enthusiasm into the subtilti^s of Aristotle. Just so much was adopted of Judaism and Christianiiy as commended itself to the intellect only, without any regard to the deeper yearnings of the heart. 6 FOEERUNNEKS OF MOHAMMED. [PART L Hence the unconditional rejection of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and of all the leading features of Christianity. The Arab could speak with con- tempt of the subtle controversies which Nestorius, Entyches and the Monophysites had fomented in the Eastern Church. Islam had no cause to dread similar troubles and comparisons; for it w^as a creed without miracles, and a faith without mysteiy. One of the earliest doctrines of Mohammed was the Unity of Allah ; and the assertion that God had no son and no partner was enough to cause the re- jection of the whole basis of Christianit}'. Moham- med, to originate his composite system of belief, purged from the existing creeds all that seemed mysterious and supernatural. It must not however be supposed that in thus rejectmg the fundamentum fiindamenti of the Chris- tian faith, Mohammed planted an absolutely new heresy. A cursory view of the early heresies of the Church will convince us that Islam gathered the al- ready existing elements of apostacy and reproduced them under a new type and in a new form of mis- belief, 2. The mystery of the Incarnation was puij>osely hidden from the world for a time. If we seek for the j^opular opinion of our Lord's person and character during. His lifetime, we find that Jesus, uj) to His thirtieth year, was siijjjposed to be the son of Joseph. After his baptism Christ was spoken of by Philip '' as Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph." When He commenced His public CHAP. I.] OPINIONS OF CHRIST. 7 ministry, the j^eople ask astonished : ** Is not this Joseph's son ?" At a later period they exclaim : ** Is not this the carpenter's son ? Is not His mother called Mary?" Only one year before His passion the Jews ask : "Is not this Jesus the son of JosejDh, whose father and mother we know?" The same opinions prevailed among the unbelieving masses long after the Ascension of the Eedeemer ; and even m the days of the Apostles, heresies sprang up within the Church, ado23ting the views then current, viz., that He was no more than ** Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph." Amongst the heretical teachers who in the apos- tolic age paved the way for Mohammed, Irenaeus mentions CerintJms, a Jewish convert, who subse- quently relapsed and was the first who dared to question the Divinity of Cluist, asserting that his entrance mto the world was according the ordinary laws of nature : ^ Epiphanius also writes that Christ was considered an ordinary man by the Cerinthian heresy, adding that it admitted His Cross and Passion, but distinctly denied His Eesurrection ; ^ and this is confirmed by St. Augustine. ^ * ** Cerinthus quidam in Asia docuit, Jesum non ex virgine natum fuisse, antem eum Joseph et Mariae filium similiter, ut reliqui omnes homines, et plus potuisse justitia et sapientia prae omnibus." Iren. lib. I. cap. 25. 2 Epiphan. lib. I. tom. II. pag. 53. ^ Vide August, tom. VI. haeres. That Cerinthus propagated his heresy in the days of the Apostles will appear from the well known incident, which Polycarp is said to have recorded viz., that St. John immediately left the bath at Ephesus on seemg that Cerinthus, *' the enemy of the truth," had entered the buildiug. Iren. lib. III. contra haeres. cap. 3. 8 FOKERUNNERS OF MOHAMMED. [PART i. Aiiotlier heresy of the same age and tendency as the precedmg, was that of the Ehionites, * who, hke the Cerinthians, adopted the poj^ular notion con- cerning Christ, wliich was current during His hfe- time/ There has been much uncertainty as to the minor, and for our purpose less important items of this ancient heresy, but however indefinite and multi- form^ their system of error may have been, one thing was clear and decided, that they denied the Godhead of Christ and lowered him to the level of mortal man. It is but due to Mohammed to add, that he abstained from going to the full leng-th of these early heretics, when he admitted the miracu- lous entrance of Christ into the world, which was by them denied.' These are the two chief heresies, which gained ground in the days of the Apostles, to refate wliich, was one of the objects which St. John had in view in ^vL'iting his Gospel and E23istles. The Evangelist indeed himself assigns a cause for writing as he does, in these words : " These are ^viitten that ye might believe, that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing, jq might have life tlirough His name." IrenoBus wtites : '' John the disciple of the Lord, ^ Ebion is probably tlic name of the founder of this heresy ; some however receive it as a cognomen, from the Hebrew Ebion, pauper. 5 ''Ebionaei ex Joseph Christum generatum esse dicunt.*' Iron. hb. III. Cap. 24. See also : lib. I. cap. 26. and 59. ^ Epiphan. lib. I. contra haeres. torn. 11. pag. 59. This was expressly done by Ebion. Epiph. torn. II. pag. 60. CHAP. I.] CERINTHIANS AND EBIONITES. 9 wishing by the preaching of the Gospel to refute the error, which had been spread by Cerinthus and still earlier by those who were called Nicolaitanes, commenced his Gospel with a view to confound and persuade them, that there is one God, who made all^things by His Word, and to establish a rule of truth in the Church." ^ St. Jerome says : " Even when John was still in Asia, the seeds of the heretics, Cerinthus, Ebion and others, who deny that Cluist came into the flesh, had already sprung up — whom in his Epistle he calls ^' Antichrists," whom Paul also frequently attacks — and he was compelled by al- most all the Bishops then in Asia, and by legates from many Churches to write more deeply concern- ing the Divinity of Christ." ^ Hence, what significance passages like these ac- quire : " Who is a liar, but he that denieth that Jesus is the Christ. He is Antichrist, that denieth the Father and the Son. Wliosoever^ denieth the Son, the same hath not the Father." Again : " Be- loved believe not every spirit, but try the spirits, whether they are of God, because many false pro- phets are gone out into the world." In the second Epistle, he complains of *' many deceivers, who confess not, that Jesus came into the flesh. Tliis is the deceiver and the Antichrist. Look to yourselves, 8 Iren. lib. III. cap. XI pag. 184. 9 Vide Hieronymus in proxim. Comment, in Matt. In his " Ca- talog. Script, ecclesiast." Cap. IX. the same Father adds : that St. John wrote the last Gospel ''at the request of the Bishops of Asia, against Cerinthus and other heretics, chiefly the Ebionites, y?-ho mamtained that Christ did not exist prior to Mary." 10 FOREEUNNERS OF MOHAMMED. [Part i. that we lose not those thmgs, which we have wrought, but that we receive a fiill reward. Whoso- ever transgresseth and abideth not in the doctrine of Christ, hath not God ; he that abideth in the doctiine of Christ, he hath both the Father and the Son. If there come any among you and bring not this doc- trine, ^^ receive him not into your house, neither bid him Grod speed, for he that biddeth him God speed, is partaker of his evil deeds." 3.' In the beginning of the second centuiy we have a revival of the above heresies under Carpocra- tes, Theodotus, and Ai^temonius. The first was a philosopher of Alexandria, and though his teaching is not clear on all points as far as ecclesiastical wri- ters notice him, yet his disciple Theodotus A.D. 146, a leather-merchant by trade, broadly affirmed the doctrines of the Cerinthians and Ebionites. ^^ Arte- monious followed in the same track of heretical teach- ing ;^^ whilst Paulus Samosatenus, Bishop of An- tioch A.D. 270 admitted that tlie Word and the Spirit have always existed in God, but denied then personality and self-existence.^^ Had we no other testimony concernmg this heresy we should have con- sidered it purely a revival of the Sabellian error; this 10 Which teaches, that Jesus is Christ the Son of God, 2 John 9. 10. and which the heresies in question rejected. 11 Eiphau. haeres. 54. pag. 462. Theodoretus lib. II. haeretic. fabul. cap. 5. pag. 220. 12 Eusebius lib. V. hist. Eccles. cap. 28. It has been suspected that he expunged the passage 1 John V. 7. from some of the an- cient Manuscripts. Theodotus and Artemonius were both cut oflf from the Church, the former A. D. 146., the latter A. D. 191. 13 Epiphan. lib. II. torn. II. hacr. 65. CHAP. I.] HEKESIES OF THE SECOND CENTURY. 11 error would of itself imply a denial of the personal Divinity of Clirist: there is however additional evi- dence that the Samosatenians dated the beginning of Christ from His birth of Mary, esteeming Him a mere man.^^ We must therefore take it for granted that the Word as conceived by Samosatenus, was something altogether different from Jesus Christ, or that his followers carried the denial of Christ's Divi- nity to a still greater extent, and thus, as is usually the case, out-stripped their leader. The Bishop was deprived of his office and his doctrine branded as heresy, but far from being eradicated, it was only cut down for a time to sprout up again with fresh vigour at a friture season. 4. Exactly fifty years afterwards, the Avian heresy arose, as another precursor of Islam ; it admitted our Lord to be a personal and self-existing being, but denied that He was "God of the substance of the Father, not made, nor created, but. begotten. "^^ Cln-ist accordmg to Arian teaching was a mere crea- ture, but one endowed with gifts and virtues of a superior character ; Jesus was the Son of God not by nature, but by adoption, and on account of His excellencies deserved to be called the Son of God in Holy Scriptures: our Lord was therefore considered i-^ ^'Paulini a Paulo Samosateno Christum non semper fuisse dicunt, sed ejus initium, ex quo de Maria natus est, asseverant, nee eum aliquid amplius, quam hominem putant. Ista haeresis aliquando cujusdam Artimonii fuit, sed cum defecisset, instaurata est a Paulo, et postea sic a Photino confirmata, ut Photiani quam Pauliani cele- brius nimcupentur." August, de haeres. 15 Arius a presbyter of the Alexandrian Church A.D. 320. / 12 FORERUNNERS OF MOHAMMED. [PARTI. not consubstantial with the Father, but of a diverse nature and essence, neither co-eternal, there being a time, when he did not exist. It assumes also that the power He possesses was received from Grod;^^ that the Son laiows the Father or His secrets only so far as was revealed to Him; that He is not to be worshipped in the flesh; that He was inclined to good and evil,^^ and that His kmgdom will ]3erish at the end of the world. This pernicious heresy was condemned at the Council of Nice A.D. 325 where 318 Bishops as- sembled to establish the faith in *' one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of / His Father before all worlds. Cod of Cod, Light of Light, very Cod of very Cod, begotten not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made."^^ Neither the sudden death however of its founder, nor the condemnation of the heresy could extinguish the flame which had been kindled; under the Emperor Yalens it spread over Creece, part of Asia, over Italy as far as Milan, and among the newly converted Coths."^^ Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra in Arabia, had already prej^ared the way for Aiianism in the Penmsula, denying, as he did, the pre-existence of Christ and with it the Codhead of the Eedeemer;^^ hence it was 17 Atbanas. Orat. contra Arianos. is Theodoretus lib. I. cap. 9, 13 Theodoret I. 11. Nicaenum fidei sjmbolum. 20 So mightily grew the evil: '^ut totus ingemisceret orbis, se- que tarn cito factum esse Arianum miraretur." Hieronym. advcrsus Lucifer torn. I. fol. 65. 21 Euseb. VI. 33. cfr. Grig. comm. ad Titum : hominem dicunt CHAP. I.] THE ARIAN HERESY IN ARABIA. 13 comparatively easy for Constantius to propagate the Arian ^eed among the Arabs. He sent Theophihis to the King of the Himyarites with considerable pre- sents to ask permission to build churches; one was accordingly built in his capital, Tapharon, a second at Adena, the now British Aden in South Arabia, and a third in the Persian Grulf ^^ 5. It is the object of these introductory re- marks to show that not only in truth, but also in error, remarkal3le epochs are gradually introduced and systematically fore-stalled. Mohammed's new creed, as far as we may designate it new, did not appear, until the world was in a measure prepared for it by heresies of a cognate and analogous charac- ter, such as those we are reviewing. We now anive at a period extending from the Nicence Council to the rise of Islam. Soon after its condemnation the Arian heresy split up into two distinct sections, which nevertheless agTced in denying the divme character of our blessed Eedeemer. The first section was that of the stiict Arians,^^ Dominum Jesum praecoguitum et praedestiiiatum, qui ante ad- ventum carnalem substantialiter et proprie non exstiterit, sed homo natus patris solam in se habuerit deitatem." Ullmann de Beryllo Hamb. 1835. 22 This happened 350. Theophihis was a native of India from the Island Divus (Diu) who had been sent as a hostage to Constan- tine the Great. He became an Arian Monk, and Eusebius of Nico- media ordained him a deacon, Philostorgius Hist. Eccles, epit. lib. II. 6. lib. III. 4. 23 The chief leaders were Aetius, a deacon of Alexandria; Euno- mius, described by Ruffinus as a man **corpore et animo leprosus/' and AcaciuS:, August, tom, VI, haeres, 54. 14 THE FORERUNNERS OF MOHAMMED. [PART I. who not only denied the Son of God to be of the same substance mth the Father, but declarfd Him to be altogether unlike the Father:^* the Semi-Arians, whilst rejecting the orthodox dogma, that Clnist is the substance of the Father, held that He was of a similar nature. It was this latter section which was by far the most powerful and numerous of the two; sufficiently so, to continue to distract the Church in the following ages, till Islam had grown potent enough, to arrest and supplant the heresy alto- gether. 6. That the creed of Mohammed absorbed the various heresies which denied the Divinity of Christ is evident, from the fact that they vanish from the Church on the rise of Islam; and it is not less / remarkable, that they remained dormant till the 13th ^ century, when Islam sustamed a fatal blow by the dissolution of the Kaliphate in the year A.D. 1258.^-'^ After the days of St. John many Antichrists went 24 Epiphan. torn. I. lib. III, pag, 388, Photinus, the Bishop of Sirmium being deposed A. D, 351, is said by some to have followed Samosatenus; but according to Augustine, he heartily joined the strict Arians, 25 Abbot Joachim was the first after Mohammed who denied the Divinity of Christ; his heresy was condemned by the Lataran Council A. D. 1215, Joachim was succeeded by his countrymen Laelius and Faustus Socinus A, D. 1546, from whom sprang the Socinian and Unitarian heresy. The following may serve as a correct estimate of their character: " Ab Ebione enim initium, ab Ario incrementum, a Photino caput erroris hauserunt. Ariani recte dicmitur, quia conveniunt in summo controversiae puncto, quod est, divinitas' Christi negatio." Quenstedt Theol. did.-pol. Pars I. cap. IX, pag. 367. CHAP. I. HEEESIES SUPPLANTED BY ISLAM. 15 out into the world, who for the space of seven centuries denied -that Jesus Christ was the Son of God. As they served merely as forerunners to a still more fatal error, they naturally retired when Mohammed and his successors arose, and presided over that system of error, which destroys the very foundation of our holy faith and brands the confession of Christ being the Son of God as idolatry and blasphemy. The Moslem admits the law and the Gospel to be of divine origin; he laiows however nothing of eitlier, except through the distorted medium of the Koran; and it is just because Islam aclaiowledges so many truths and borrows so many weapons from the Christian armory that it becomes so dangerous an adversary. We have to do, not with a heresy within the Church, which might be condemned at a general Council, but mth a conspiracy against the existence of the Church itself. The Christian dispensation is declared to have been su]Derseded and abrogated, as if decayed and waxen old ; the very identity of the facts and truths recorded in the Koran is destroyed by its misrepre- sentations, and in asserting that the Bible has been corrupted, Mohammed takes from us the most effectual means of proving his imjDosture. In order to give, as far as lies in our power, a correct view of the creed, thus introduced to the reader, we shall next inquire for the land of its birth, and the people among whom it first made its ap- pearance. 16 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [PART i. CHAPTER II. THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. «' For tliere shall arise false Christs and false prophets ; wherefore if they shall say unto you, Behold he is in the desert, go not forth/' Matt. XXIV., 24, 26. 1. A close affinity may be recognised beWeen the religions of the Pagan world and the respective countries, in which they obtain. Whilst true Ke- ligion is of a purely spiritual character and admits none of the natural and accidental elements of the country in which it was revealed, or in which it is planted, false creeds ever yield to the physical influences to which they are exposed. We could not conceive for instance that the Hindoo Mythology in all its exuberance could have sprung up in a poverty- stricken country like Arabia. There are several names descriptive of the position and character of the land in which Islam was reared. In the East it is called Bar-el- Yemen, or the '' land to the right," in contradistinction to Bar-esh-Sham, the "land to the left," by which S}a-ia is known. In Chaldea it was called the " land of the evening," and in Europe and Africa it was universally known as the ''land of the East." CHAP. II.] NAME AND CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 17 In the Bible, where it occurs four times it is invariably called Arabia,^* and the signification which it could alone have to the Hebrew in Palestine, is that of de- sert or wilderness and this is by far the most ap- propriate appellation, the characteristic feature of Arabia being that of an interminable desert. ^^ If there be a fountain, a rivulet, a green spot, a plea- sant garden or a fruitful vale here and there, it only the more painfully convinces the traveller, who sets his foot on its sandy wastes, that Arabia is indeed ''a desert land", and that no other name could ex- press its physical aspect more correctly. As the country, so the religion; for although Mohammeda- nism embodies some elements of a spiritual character yet beyond what it borrows from Judaism and Christianity, it only faithfully reflects the nature of the country, in which it originated, being poor, bar- ren, and highly expressive of the rigid severity of the land of its birth. We have only to travel through the length and breadth of Arabia, and peruse the Koran on our jour- ney, to be convinced of this remarkable analogy be- tween the physical aspect of the country, and the book in question. ^^ In the Koran we travel from •'* 1 Kings X. 15. 2 Chron.IX. 14. Isa.XXI 13. Jer. XXV. 4. iu the last passage we read of :i'^t ''5r''5; Kings of Arabia ; and the Arab is called "'^n^'.. "^ Ti'2!~^^ =r desert : the Arabs themselves speak of their native T T-: ^ land as Bar el Arab, the land of the Arabs ; the same term is used by their neighbours. ^^ A learned Prelate once observed in a letter to the author: "1 often felt during my studies of the Koran, as one, who has to B ] 8 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [part i. Sura to Sara, and all appears like a dreadful and howling desert, with sandy steppes and dark rocky hills without a single vestige of vegetation; we find indeed a few sparks of heavenly truth on its dismal pages, which have been borrowed from the Bible, and which are fairly represented by the solitary foun- tain, the occasional oasis, and the few green valleys, in which the weary and way-worn reader may repose for a moment. 2. The next point to be considered regards the inhahitants of Arabia, who were the first to embrace Islamism. They are either pure Arabs, said to have descended from Joktan '' ^ the great grandson of Ar- phaxad, the son of Shem; or Ishmaelite Arabs who were grafted upon the primitive stock. Otherwise they are classified into Haclesi, or Arabs who live in fixed habitations; and Bediims/'^ who now, as in olden times, are rovino- about with their flocks and tents in the vast desert betw^een the Euphrates and Egypt. The Hadesi who settled chiefly in Yemen, claimed their origin from Noah through Joktan. It is amongst them w^e find the ancient kingdom of the Sabians;''^ and according to the Koran the Queen •wade through the endless sands of the desert, and frequently I tur- ned aside to refresh myself at the fountain of Israel." ^^ Respecting these genuine Arabs or aborigines, kjs L*jf i^^^aJ! the Arabs of the Arabs , compare Joktan Il^iP^ ; amongst his sons we find NrilD so well known in Arabia. Gen. X. 26. 27. ■'^ Beduin, ^J(X-i from Badia, desert, which they inhabit. In Syriac: Ber Broie; hence Berber, Barbary. ''^ In the days of Lokman "the kingdom shone like a diamond on the forehead of the universe." The prophecy then: Nnp ""Db?: CHAP. II.] THE ARABS. 19 of Sheba came from tlience to hear tlie wisdom of Solomon. The time however arrived when the kings of Yemen were alternately dependent on Ethiopian and Persian monarchs ; and many of the tribes emi- grated and spread over the Peninsula. Amongst them there was one family, that of Rebia, which pushed towards the north and conquered Mecca, the sanctuary of the Pagan Arabs ; but owing to their corrupting influence it became the seat of a still grosser idolatry. In the year A. D. 464 they were expelled by the Koreishites , who took possession of the old heathen temple at Mecca. When Nauwash a Jew, the last king of Yemen persecuted the Christians in the sixth century, Nagush came from Abyssinia to espouse their cause. The Abyssinian host obtained a glorious victory and Nau- wash threw himself into the sea in despair. Encou- raged by their success the victorious army besieged Mecca with a large force including thirteen Ele- phants ; but Abd el Motalleb, a Koreishite hero, saved the town and the sanctuary A. D. 570. The Arabs subsequently counted their time from this "year of the Elephants", as it was called, till it was superseded by a new era in the days of Mohammed. ^^ Strange to say it was his grandfather, who saved Mecca from the Abyssinians. ^^""11?: ^^V^. N?P' "*^^ ^i"8''^ of Sheba and Seba shall offer gifts acquires force. Psalm LXXII. 10. 6° JOLflJI *.Lc, era of the elephants. The legend of the battle and its marvels: Wahl pag. 716. note to Siir. CV. which is called "the Elephant". B* 20 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [part i. 3. We have above mentioned that the Joktan Arabs were chiefly to be looked for in Yemen, whilst the Ishmaelite Arabs or theBeduins occupied "Arabia deserta" in contradistinction to "Arabia felix" or Yemen. Upon what authority however, may we ask, do we be- lieve that the Arabs in question descended from Ish- mael? Josephus in speaking of circumcision as being- administered among his own nation, on the eighth day, thus continues: "But the Arabians administer circumcision after the thirteenth year, for Ishmael the founder of their nation , the son of Abraham by his concubine was circumcised at that time of life."^^ According to Origen, "the Ishmaelites , who in- habit Arabia, practise circumcision in the thirteenth year; for this history tells us concerning them."^^ Still more ancient, and more important testimony is found in the Old Testament; there we have the names of the 12 sons of Ishmael, ^^ and their dwelling-place in after ages; namely, "from Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt as thou goest toAvard Assyria." This is confirmed by subsequent sacred writers. The Pro- phet Isaiah mentions Nebaioth and Kedar^* in con- nection with Sheba. Again Duma and Tema are ®^ Jqix^Iq de fitta erog tqIq xiu dtxaTov. ^I(jf.idi]kog yaQ 6 XTiarriQ dvtMV tov t'&vovg, \4^(jdf-((^ ytvo/neros in Tijg TraXXaxfjq h tovrm 7Tt(Jix^vvtrai no X^JOrco. Flav. Joseph. Antiqu. Jud. lib. I. cap. X. pag. 26. ^^ rovTO yuQ laroQeirai 7T€Qi dvtcoi. Origen torn. II. pag. 16. Edit. Bened. ^^ Nebaioth; Kedar; Adbeel; Mibsani; Mishma; Duma; Massa; Hadar; Tema; Jetur: Naphish; and Kedemah. Gen. XXV. 13 — 15. ^* Isa.LX. 6. 7. "They from Sheba": "flocks of Kedar"; "rams of Nebaioth". CHAP. II.] ISHMAELITE DESCENT OF THE ARABS. 21 mentioned in connection with Kedar, and this in a prophecy, conveying the burden upon Arabia. ^^ Je- tur and Naphish were overcome by the Reubenites in the days of Saul ; and their abode was the desert towards the East of Gilead.^^ Ishmael's posterity on multiplying, soon became mixed with other nations; the six sons of Abraham byKeturah,^^ who had been sent "eastward unto the east country", had in the days of the Judges , so far blended with the Ishmaelites, as to render the terms Ishmaelite and Midianite interchangeable. ^^ That the Edomites or Idumaeans mingled at an early pe- riod with the Ishmaelites is proved by Strabo, when he says that the Nabataeans or the descendants of Nebaioth w^ere one and the same people. ^^ Thus we see that the promise was speedily ful- filled: 'T will make him a great nation"; "behold I have blessed him"; "I will multiply thy seed ex- ceedingly, that it shall not be numbered for multi- tude".^^ In answer to the prayer of Abraham God promised that Ishmael should become the father of twelve princes analogous to the twelve Patriarchs that sprung from Isaac. A celebrated geographer whose judgment cannot be suspected of partiality, describes Arabia as "a living fountain of men, the stream of which had poured out far and wide to the East and ^^ Isa. XXI. 11—27. ^^ 1 Chron. V. 10. 19—21. «^ Gen. XXV. 6. ^^ Judges VIII. 1. 24. ^^ Na^atcfioi 5' iimv 6i 'UovjLiaoi. Strabo lib. XVI. pag. 10 ^^ Gen. XXI. 18. XVU. 20. and XVI. 10. The last words were spoken to Hagar. 22 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. to the West for tliousands of years. Before Moham- med's tune, the Arab tribes had spread throughout Asia Minor. In the middle ages they are found in India. In the whole of North Africa as far as Mor- rocco spread their wandering hordes ; and their ships went throuoh the Indian ocean as far as China; on the Molucca islands and on the coast ofMosambique they had their settlements. In Europe they popu- lated the south of Spain, where they ruled for seven hundred years, and remaining unsubdued themselves, the Arabs ascended more than one hundred thrones beyond their native soil."'^ We have seen that the descendants of Joktan and the posterity of the six sons of Abraham blended with the Ishmaelites, and that all these elements united in the population of Arabia, vet it is bevond doubt that the Ishmaelites gained the ascendency and impressed their character upon the rest. The above testimony may therefore be legitimately adduced to prove that God made good his words to Hagar: ''I will multiply thy seed ex- ceedingly, that it shall not be numbered for multi- tude." Again the character of Ishmael and his Arab- '^ ^Sh-ah'en tft eine tcl^rnbii'^e 9)?eiifc!(ieiu"iuelfe, bcrcn (Strom feit 3»at)r; taiifenben fid) lr>eit unb breit tn'^ SDZevgen? itiib 5((^cnblaiib crgeffen \)ai. 3?or ^TRitTuimmeb tefaiiben feme (Stcimme firf) fcf^on in ganj S^orberafien, tn £)fi; inficn frfuni im 2)?ittclaltcr, im ganjeu novbltdien 9(fnfa In^ 3}Jare!fo ifi c^ bie ar^tci^c iiKer 9i>aiibcrtiorbcn. 5)urc^ bcii (^angen inbifcficn £/cean tie ^^u ben 9}toliirfcn \)\n %\\U\\ fie frfion im ©cittclaltcr ?(nftebelnni]cn ; eknfo an ber .^iifte SO^ofombff, ivie \i)xt ©rfMfffn^)vt iiber ^interinbien h\^ (E()ina cjieng; in (5uro))a l^cvolferten fie (Siibf^mnien iinb tef)errfd)ten eg 700 ^^i^re lani^ ; unb ircitirenb fie felbft nnbe^tintngen blieben , fjaten 9(raber auf erfjalb if)reg (Stammlanbeg mel)r al^ 100 3:&rone kfttegen." Wittier. CHAP. II.] CHARACTER OF THE ARABS PREDICTED. 23 posterity was defined with wonderful precision by the Spirit of Prophecy: ''He will be a wdld man or a wild ass of a nian/^ his hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the presence of his brethren." The "wild ass", to whom Ishmael is here compared is described in the book of Job ' ^ as a wild , independent and haughty animal , living in the wilderness. He is known in natm^al history as the Dsigetai;^* a fine, strong and noble creature; of the size and bearing of a lightly-built horse , light-footed and slender, with a neck resembling that of a stag, which he al- Avays carries upright; the forehead is high, the ears long and erect. His colour is cherry brown, cream or grey, with a dark woolly mane, and a coffee brown bushy stripe of hair down the back; his limbs are nimble and his motions swift; he runs like lightning snufiing up the air , ' ^ and thus easily escapes the hunter. His wild and proud appearance indicates unsubdued power and perfect independence ; and indeed no one has hitherto succeeded in taming him. Even when caught young they prefer to die in their fetters, than to submit to the will of man. "For vain man would ''' d^N N^D Ht;'' N^m and he will be a wild ass-man. Gen. T T V V V •• • : XVI. 12. "^^ "Who has sent out the wild ass free? Or who has loosed the bands of the wild ass? Whose house I have made in the wil- derness, and the barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multi- tude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver." Job XXXIX. 5—8. '* Vide Naturgeschichte von H. Rebau pag. 320. ''^ "A wild ass used to the wilderness, that snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure." Jer. 11. 24. 24 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [part i. be wise, though man he born like a wild ass's colt.*'^^ Another very remarkable feature in the Dsigetai spe- cies is this, that thev only exist in treeless and in- terminable deserts, especially in Central Asia, where they live sociably together in herds from 15 to 100 in number. The strongest and most courageous of the males acts as guide and watchman , who in time of danger gives the signal for flight, running three times round in a circle. If the leader is killed the flock is instantly dispersed and falls a prey to the pursuers. The x4rab bears precisely the stamp of the wild ass, here described. He lives in herds and tribes and is as untamed and untameable. He feels as free as the air, whilst roving through boundless deserts; and delights to wander in wild and unfettered free- dom through the wastes of his inheritance. Like the wild ass he "scorneth the multitude of the city;" despising a civilised life with its comforts, and as little as the Dsigetai could he be subdued. ^"^ Only single portions of the Peninsula have been subjugated for short periods, although every man's hand has been against its wild inhabitants. The Abyssinians, ^^ The only parallel passage to the tl^N 5<^5 in Gen. XVI. 12. is in this place of Job XL 12. r^bl"' DIN N^S ^^^1 nn'r"^ ^^15 U3\NT 1 "T • T T VV • - : •• T * T • : and a vain man would be wise although he were born the colt of a wild-ass-raan. ''^ "Saraceni nee amici nobis unquam, nee liostes optandi, ultro citroque discursantes , quidquid inveniri poterat momento temporis parvi vastabant Omnes pari sorte sunt bellatores , per diversa rcptantes in tranquillis vel turbidis rebus; nee quidcm aliquando, sed errant semper per spatia longe lateque distenta, sine lare sine sedibus fixis aut legibus." Ammian. Marcellin. I. XIV. cap. 4. CHAP. II.] CHARACTER OF THE ARABS PREDICTED. 25 Babylonians, Jews, Persians, Romans and other nations have made war against them, but bj no na- tion, however powerful, could they at any period be permanently subdued. To rob whomsoever they can, is no crime, for they allege that Ishmael was turned out oi his father's house and received the wilderness for his inheritance wdth permission to take what he could. Like theDsigetai, each tribe chooses a leader, a Sheich, fi-om among its own people, under whose direction they fight, rob, and rove about from place to place. However united they may appear as a nation they nevertheless present the scene of a "house divided against itself," the respective tribes maintain- ing the most inveterate and interminable feuds with one another. It is a proverbial saying among them: "in the desert every one is the enemy of the other." That these animosities commenced in the days of Ishmael, we may conclude from the wild and mis- anthropic disposition , which was first of all exempli- fied in his own person; and the marginal reading of the account of his death would lead us to infer, that he ''felV in the act of fighting. ^^ "He grew, we read, ^^ "And they, viz. the twelve princes, dwelt from Havilah unto Shur that is before Egypt, as thou goest toward Assyria; and he fell in the presence of all his brethren." :b23 TTl&i "b^D ^HB "h'S Gen. XXV. 18. Having examined all the passages M'here the verb btj occurs, we find that with, or without qualification, it invariably means, falling by violent means. Where this is not the case, it is always specified ; and we have no reason to depart from this ordinary sense. Vide Gen. XIV. 10. Exod. XXII. 28. Josh. VIIl. 25. Judg. IV. 16. V. 27. VIIL 10. Xn. 6. XX. 44. ISam. IV. 10. XIV. 13. The usual term for dying is: 3>^^'^1 he gave up the ghost; or riTi^T and he died. Then the preposition by before '^p.S implies opposition; over, againat the face of all his brethren. See the meaning of by 26 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. and dwelt in the wilderness and became an archer."' That there was many a ''cunning hunter" amongst his brethren, whose hand was against him, w^e have reason to judge from several incidents, which are re- corded of those early days; and it is most natural that the fore-father of the Arabs should have perished or fallen in one of those conflicts , of wdiich he was the author. The meaning of the expression; "He shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren," is determined by the context; it implies not only that Ishmael and his posterity should have a fixed boundary within which they should ''chvelT\ but also that they would assume a posture of hostility tow^ards their brethren. There is hoAyever another reason for as- suming that the dwelling together could not be of so peaceable a nature , as we might suppose from the English version. The words "He shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren", would be more correctly rendered as in most translations; thus, "He shall dwell cigainst all his brethren;" signifying, that not only would Ishmael's hand be against every man in general, but even in dwelling with his brethren, he would maintain his characteristic hostility. Not with- out peculiar significance was it predicted that Ishmael should "dwell opposing all his brethren"; and that his death should be recorded in these words: "He fell whilst opposing all his brethren". ^^ What a 2 Kings XIX. 22. He fell then in the act of opposing his brethren ; in resisting them to the face. ^^ The angel saith before Ishmael's birth: rnij "Vd "^pS. -byi. rl^^*: after bis death we read: TD; VnN "b^ ^?D. "b? In both cases not: ^pDb as in 1 Sam. XIV. 13. but: --pS. -b? CHAP. II.] ISHMAELITES AND ISRAELITES. 27 marvellous book that of the Bible, to sketch a people's character, to pourtray a nation's destiny so many thou- sand years in advance with such accurate precision, and in so few, simple, yet graphic words! 5. The word of Jehovah thus set forth the future character of the wild man Ishmael, in it most dis- tinctly fore -shadowing that of His posterity. The fact however which stands out most prominently in the history of the world is this, that out of all the nations of antiquity, only those descended from the two sons of Abraham have preserved their nationality. Phenicians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians have either altogether disaj^peared, or they exist only in degenerated remnants. The Chinese and Hindoos remain only in two great masses, inert and torpid, their ancient vigour of life having utterly decayed. ^^ The Greeks and Romans of the present day are essentially different from the Greeks and Romans of classic times: but the sons of Israel and the sons of Ishmael to this day stand in the world as two separate and distinct nations, unchanged from what they Avere in the pristine ages of their existence, retaining their ancient manners and customs to a considerable extent, and what is still more remarkable, their distinctive peculiarities of character. That the Ishmaelites should have preserved their independence and nationality in their desert wilds, is indeed less surprising than that the Hebrews should have con- ^° They hare moreover mixed with other nations , who hare successively conquered them. Each wave of foreign conquest left its deposit upon the native soil. 28 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti tinned a separate people after having been dispersed and persecnted ii'om eighteen to twenty four centuries among all nations. The peculiarity of the Jewish type in matters of religion is a blind adhesion to the vain traditions of their ancestors , as well as to the dead letter of the Old Testament, which has virtually become a sealed book to them. ^ ^ The Ishmaelites with their egotism, their indomitable love of freedom and their ruling principle of embracing everything with the under- standing, proved the very soil for the growth of Is- lamism^ and in a rehgious point of view we may take the Mohammedan as a true type of the Ishmaelite. Of all people therefore, the Jews and the Moham- wedans are the most determined opponents to Christ- ianity; Judaism being the embodiment of a dead orthodoxy and Islamism the personification of a cold religion of the understanding, such opposition is easily accounted for. It is a principle Avith the Mo- hammedans to believe only what is intellectually tangi- ble; or to use their own expressive words, they receive nothing with their hearts, "which does not fall into their heads." They are acquainted with some of the leading facts of Divine Revelation, but after having corrupted what they have borrowed, like Ishmael, ^^ "They are drunken, but not with wine; they stagger, but not with strong drink; for the Lord hath poured out upon you the spirit o^ deep sleep; and hath closed your eyes. The prophets and your rulers, the seers, hath he covered. And the vision of all is be- come unto you as the words of a book that is sealed : ^£5" ■'t?^'^^. : D^rnn which men deliver to one that is learned saying : Read , I pray thee and he saith: I cannot for it is sealed." Isa. XXIX. 9—11. CHAP. II.] ISKMAELITES AND ISRAELITES. 29 they ^'lyioclc' at the truth. Being mflated wdth gross superstition, wild fanaticism, inconceivable pride and a special animosity against the Christian, the Moham- medan is far more difficult to convert than even the Jew. Having noticed the position Avhicli these two na- tions assume with regard to the Church of Christ, we now refer to their distinctive features of natio- nality. The Ishmaelites cling to the hostile and nomadic habits of their patriarch Ishmael, and up to this day follow exactly the same rude and natural mode of life which existed among them 3500 years ago. They jDrefer a wild and independent life in the desert to the comforts and conveniences of a civilised state, and no foreign power has ever been able to impose new manners and customs upon them; a fact without parallel in the annals of nations. In the Jews we perceive a finer and more delicate shade of na- tionality ; they are more flexible and of a less untrac- table spirit than the Ishmaelite. They accommodate themselves more easily to the strangers amongst whom they dwell, without however endangering their national character. With nothing to call forth the higher and more spiritual aspirations of the immortal soul they throw themselves with double zeal and energy upon the material world. The Jews aud Ish- maelite Arabs reciprocally indulged in an international hatred, the hand of the latter being especially directed against the jDosterity of Isaac, whom they supposed to have acquired the blessing, which legitimately be- longed to Ishmael, as the first-born of Abraham. 6. After considering the land in which Islamism 30 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. was first planted, and the people who first received it, we now revert to the religion of the ancient Arabs. If we discover fragments of truth in INIythologies, more remote fi'om the fountain of primitive revela- tion, ^ ^ whv maA^ we not in Arabia, where there existed proximity of locality, analogy of language, unity of ancient tradition and consanguinitv of descent? In the Pagan creed of the ancient Arabs w^e find a dis- figured Patriarchal faith. The celebrated symbol of the Mohammedan creed, "there is no God but one" v>as known to the Arabs before Islamism existed. '^^ In times of peace and security they resorted to idols, theh apology, as preserved in the Koran, being, "we worship them only, that they may bring us nearer to God;" but thev instinctivelv fled to the Most Hiah God in time of peril and danger. >sor is it difficult to account for their knowledge, superficial as it w^as, of the true God. We have direct evidence, that the ancient Arabs were brought into contact with reveal- ed Religion, since it is generally admitted, that the book of Job was written in Arabia i"^^ if this be the ^^ "When we compare the Pagan systems of belief with the most ancient records of the Bible , we discover that the history of the primitive days of the human race and the primary elements of sacred tradition constitute the foundation of every ancient system of Pagan Mythology." Arnold's True and false Eeligion. Vol. II. pag. 211. **'^ The following was a form of prayer usual amongst them: "I dedicate myself to thy service; 0 God! Thou hast no compa- nion, except thy comj)anion , of whom thou art absolute Master, and of whatever is his." Abulfarag pag. 160. ^* Uz the chief part of Idumaea. Lam. IV. 21. Job is not without cause considered the same as king Jobab , the king of Edom. Gen. XXXVI. 31. 32. That Job was a king, a prince, see CHAP.il.] PATRIARCHAL FAITH. 31 case, it doubtless embodies views and ideas, wliicli were current in that land. Again, we can scarcely conceive that Moses could have lived, forty years in Arabia, and ]eave no good seed behind him. Nor could the host of Israel sojourn forty years amidst the ancient Arabs, who must have heard of the miracles which God had wrought on their behalf, Avithout re- vivino; ancient traditions and exercisinp* a directly beneficial influence upon the inhabitants of that country. Indeed the Rechabites, one of the tribes of Arabia with their zeal for the true God might serve as a testimony, that there was a remnant of God-fearing people among them ; the character of Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, who was a pure Arab, and a Priest of Midian, might also be men- tioned. The queen of Sheba's coming from the south of Arabia, where it was customary for women to in- herit sovereign power, also confirms the idea, that some light of truth had found its w^ay into the deserts of that great Peninsula. As the vdse men are also supposed to have come from Arabia to see "one Job 1, 2. chap. XXIX. XXXI. 37. His friends are called kings, in the book of Tobit II. 14. and are also found in Idumaea as like- wise belonging- to the familj^ of Esau. See Gen. XXXVI. Isa. XXXIV. 6. LXIII. 1. Aristeas, a heathen writer, is reported to have said in his "Historia Judaica" that "Jobum ex Esavi liberis in Idumaea atque Arabiae finibus habitasse et cum justitia turn opibus precipuum fuisse." Eusebius lib. IX. praepar. Evang'. fol. 251. St. Chrysostomus speaks of Arabia as "terrara illam, quae Jobi victoris certamina et crucem oihni auro preciosiorem suscepisset." Chryso. homil. y. At the end of Job the LXX interpreters have these words : ovtoq eQjurjreverai h. Trjg ZvQmxfjg ^i^Xov, m> f.dv y^ /.aroiKQjp T7] /Ivoitidi , inl roTg ogioig tijg ^Idovfxmag y.al \4Qa^iaQ^ TiQovTrrjoiB 8h avrco oroiaa ^loo^a^. Xaiiojv de yvvaixa 'Aqa^iaoav, yevvu vibr, co orofxa^Evrcov. 32 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. greater than Solomon," they doubtless were m pos- session of the remarkable prophecy of Baalam, which was delivered in Arabia, by an Arab prophet, in the hearing of an Arab king. This is not the place to enter upon the history and character of Ba- laam ; all we wish to maintain is this, that there was in those days still a priest , or a prophet of the true God among the Arabs , who uttered remarkable pro- phecies in His name. Nor did God disdain to ad- minister counsel to Moses through Jethro his father- in-law. What this priest of Midian taught his Arab countrpnen, we may gather from his confession of faith: "Now I know that the Lord is greater than all Gods."^'^ To refer only to one more point. When Ishmael was sent away into the desert with his mother, he doubtless took with him something more than "bread and a bottle of water;" nor can it be supposed that Abraham in sending his six sons^^ by Keturah into Arabia failed to add to the "gifts" which he is said to have bestowed upon them, the parting injunction that they should keep the way of the Lord , which they had learned from their father: ''For I know him, that he will comma7id his children and his house- hold after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and judgment."^' ®^ What makes this the more important was his acknowledge- ment of the covenant name, Jehovah; he said: Exodus XVIII. II. t]^-'b.^n -bD72 rrrr^ bi^> -^3 ^^.^Jl nny ®^ Ziraran, Jokschan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, Shuah. Gen. XXV. 2. 6. 87 Gen. XVm. 19. CHAP. II.] ADMIXTURE OF IDOLATRY. 33 7. Together witli the many noble traths, pre- served among the first settlers m Arabia, which were subsequently revived by the sons of Abraham , and still later by the sojourn of Moses and the Israelites, an admixture of superstition and idolatry existed. In tracing out these Pagan elements w^e meet with no small difficulties. The native writers are strangely silent on the subject, and that because they were taught by the Koran ^^ to consider themselves supe- rior to any other nation, even in "the time of igno- rance," as they call the days prior to Mohammed. It was natural, they should dwell as little as possible on a point, which humbled their national pride. It the Koran however eight idols are mentioned; and as the destruction of these external marks of idolatry formed an essential part in the spread of Islamism, we become incidentally acquainted with several par- ticulars relating to it. The chief feature seems here, as indeed in all ancient Mythologies, to be a worship of the heavenly bodies; perhaps the noblest efibrt of man without revelation to represent "the Father of lights," and the least degrading species of idolatry. ^^ It was the ^® "Ye are the best nation, that hath been raised up unto mankind." Sura III. 106. ®^ "Lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou seest the sun and the moon, and the stars, even all the host of heaven, shouldest be driven to worship them and to serve them, which the Lord thy God hath imparted {meted or measured out "P^n '^^i^), unto all nations under the whole heaven. Deut. IV. 19. This ''^meting out'' may be taken in the same sense as the words : OS tv taig 7iaQ(0)(T]ijLhaig yevsixTg eiaae ndvta ta t&vr} nogeved'&cci, raig odoig ccvzojt. Act. XIV. 16. C 34 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [part i. first step in the downward conrse of superstition, when Babylon, that "mother of harlots" considered the heavenly bodies as the representatives of the in- visible Majesty of the Lord of Hosts. Bel or Belus for instance, throughout appears as the solar deity, whose temple still stood in the days of Herodotus. Another not less celebrated temple of the moon stood atHaran; the well-known sojourn of Abraham. Terah had already taken Abram and Lot from Ur of the Chasdim or Chaldees; and if Chasdim or Chaldees signifies "worshippers of idols" as has been thought by an eminent scholar, we can easily account for the exodus of Terah's family from Ur. When Haran however proved no better shelter from idolatry, as we infer from the early existence of the lunar temple there, Abraham was altogether removed from his native country. ^^ That the Arabs fell into the snare of worshipping the heavenly bodies at an early period, may be gather- ed from various authorities. Job, himself an in- habitant of Arabia, bears witness to the fact of the existence of this idolatry amongst the Arabs of his day. ^ ^ An Arab author of the eighth century, writes : "The Arabs also held the religion of the Sabians:"^^ ^0 Gen. XI. 31. and XII. 1. ^^ "If I beheld the sun when it shiued, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand } (an idolatrous practice still in vogue , and witnessed by the author) this also w^ere an iniquity — for I should have denied the God, that is above.'' Job. XXXI. 26 — 28. Compare also Ezek. VHI. 16. ^- (w?v*JI RjoU^sJI ^^j>j Jo (JO^ j^w^-o^ Samsaddin ad-Dimaski in his Kosmograj)hy. Zeitschr. der Morg. Gesellschaft Yol. V. 392. CHAP. II.] ADMIXTURE OF IDOLATRY. 35 which explains the following admonition: "worship not the sun neither the moon, but worship God, who hath created them; if ye serve Hini."^^ Twice oc- curs the name of "servant of the Sun" in the list of the Himyaretic Kings; for as in the Bible we find the names of God associated with "nomina propria" so the ancient Arabs called themselves the servants, slaves, and property of their idols ;^^ according to the Musnad-inscription , Samir Jaras reared a temple to "the Lord, the Sun."^'^ In a Sabian Al- manac, under the month Subat or February it is stated: "They fast in it seven days, commencing on the ninth day of the month, and this fast is held in honour of the great Lord , the Sun , the Lord of all Good." According to Strabo, the descendants of Nebaioth offered up sacrifices to the sun on the roofs of their houses. Nor was this luminary alone worshij^ped by the Arabs; for there existed among them seven tem- ples in honour of the presiding deities of the days of the week, consisting of sun and moon and five j)la- nets.^^ Like other nations, the Arabs had proceeded from a more or less pure Monotheism to consider the ^^ Sur. XLI. 37. ^* e. g. inST from *;rO and 'jnj, given of Jehovah ; bN^^2'iJ from i*^3t3 (not bs^^ as might appear) and b^ God: "God hatli heard." In the same way we have "the servant of the sun" and "the prince of Manat," among the Arabs. ^^ The parallel to this 'i^l2^r\^:2 Jer. XLIII. 13. ^^ Sun and moon ; Aldabaran, Jupiter, Canopus, Sirius, and Mercury. Abulfarag histor. dyn. pag. 160. See Studien iiber die vorislamitische Religion der Araber von Dr. E. Osiander ; Zeitschriffc der deutsch. Morgenland. Gesell. Band VII. 1853. pag. 463. 36 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. heavenly bodies as symbols of tlie Divine Majesty; tlie next step was to worship them as self-existing deities; this being done, the third step to actual idolatry was rendered comparatively easy. Nor was this new element an entirely distinct form of error. It will be necessary, distasteful as it may be, to glance at the more corrupt form of superstition, wdiich in a measure co-existed with Sabeism and. a par- tial retention of the patriarchal faith. Beginning in the South of Arabia, we meet with a mountain of ^^dtchcraft near Hadramaut, in one of the caves of which, resided the master of sorcery, who exercised considerable influence upon the benighted Arabs around him. In Hadramaut itself w^e find the tw^o idols Gahad and 3Iarhal The capital of the Him- yaretic Kings contained the colossal and gorgeously ornamented temple of Giandan. ^ ^ The god Hiam w^as also worshipped in Sana,^^ to whom sacrifices were offered, and at whose temple oracular informa- tion was sought. It is not improbable that we have a parallel of this oracular deity in Baal, of wdiom king Ahaziah in his sickness inquired. ^^ The temple ^^ Sahrastani adds these words: SwP^yif jv^wl ^5-^? i* was de- dicated to Venus. Her worship being* established in Sana, it is not only probable, but almost certain, that the name Athatar : •.Xa£. so frequent in the Himyaretic inscriptions might be the same as the Phenician idol: ninn'vD?. Judges 2, 14. X. 6. 1 Kings XI. 33. ^® Riam, the exalted one; in Ethiopic, heaven. It is perhaps not too much to think, that this deity was the same as 'by'2, if the goddess was rmn'sI^J^. They are always put together in Scripture. 99 2 King. I. 16. CHAP. IL] ADMIXTURE OF IDOLATRY. 37 of RiaiD was first destroyed on tlie establishment of the Jewish kingdom among the Himyarites, and a second time, when Islamism was introduced. Another idol in the Himyar country was Nasar;^ he was worshipped , as his name implies , under the form of an eagle. Two days journey from Sana to- wards the north, we meet with Yauk, another deity mentioned in the Koran ;^ which like Nasar, Waad, Sowa, and Yagut is said by the Koran, to have been worshipped before the days of Noah. He was adored under the image of a horse. ^ Yagut had his temple at Djoras or Goras not far from the road leading from Mecca to Sana ; and was the deity of the tribe of Madhig , but that his name was revered among other tribes is proved by the fact of its ap- pearing among them as a component part of their surnames. This deity was worshipped under the figure of a lion, and in the choice of this image there may be an allusion to the corresponding sign of the zodiac, as that also was an object of divine worship among the ancient Arabs.* Different from Naser, Yank and Yagut, who were worshipped under animal forms, are the two * wv«o ; compare with it the Assyrian "^^^.pS Isa. XXX. 38. The eagle entered largely into all the systems of ancient Mytho- logy. Nasar is mentioned Sur. LXX. 23. 2 ;vaJ, Yauk, the refrainer; deus averruncus. 3 Horses dedicated to the sun at Jerusalem. Were destroyed 2 King. XXIII. 11. * Ideler Untersuchung uber die Stern, pag. 161. The lion is a celebrated religious symbol, and has frequently become an object of religious worship. 38 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. otlier deities, Soiva and Waad, who are named with the former in the above-mentioned passage of the Koran. ^ Sowa was adored nnder the image of a woman, Waad under the figure of a man. All five are said to have been antediluvian idols, ^ which beinp- discovered after the flood came to be wor- o shipped by the Arabs. Sowa was worshipped at Ruhat north of Mecca, and Waad on the north east of Arabia among the tribe Kalb, but we notice them in this place, because they were associated in the Koran with the idols, to which we have just alluded. Resuming our northerly route, we proceed from Goras the seat of Yagut, to Talabah, a town Jour days journey south of Mecca; in this place we meet with the goddess Chalasah,*^ whose temple was of such reputation, as to be considered a rival of the sanctuary of Mecca, and called, "the Kaaba of Yemen." We now enter the province of Hedgas , and in Taif, about sixty geographical miles south of Mecca, a place otherwise important in the history of the Arabs , we find the great goddess of the Takif tribe, Allat,^ who was represented under a white square ^ Sur. LXX. 23. ^ They are always mentioned with the addition: jvjjij jv^ao & ^ The temple of Chalasah seems to have been in Yemen what that of Gumdan w^as in Sana ; namely a temple to Venus. The in- timation of Fasi that Chalasah was introduced from Syria, is there- fore worthy of notice. Sprenger's Life of Muhammed, pag. 7. not. 1. ® The name of Allat : ^JJI was derived by the ill-disposed Meccans from '»l!\ Allah. Herodotus calls her 'Alilcct or 'Ahtta, CHAP. II.] ADMIXTURE OF IDOLATRY. 39 stone, upon wliicli a temple was built. This idol was carried with that ofUzza before the army in battle ; ^ and was one of the goddesses, whose names are re- corded in the Koran: — "What think ye of AUat, alUzza and Manah that other third goddess." From the fact that Mohammed frequently protested against the goddess Allat, and from other more direct evi- dence , the importance of her rites and the extent of her worship is sufficiently established. There can be no doubt that this square-shaped idol, called by the Arabs "the Goddess," ^^ represented an astro- nomical deity; and from reasons, unneccessary here to specify, it could only have been the moon. That this luminary was worshipped among the Takif and the adjoining tribes Beder and Hilal we know from other sources.*^ In the valley Nahlah^^ we find Uzza, the second great goddess of the Arabs, mentioned in the Koran; she was worshipped under the form of the tree , Sa- murah. ^^ This is not the only instance in which trees were adored by the Arabs. The Koreishites worshipped a palm-tree, offering up sacrifices, and ^ Caussin de Percival III. p. 9. Sur. LIII. 6. ^° Al-Lat, unlike other deities, always has the article. We never hear of a goddess "Lat". ^^ \Jo name of a tribe means "full moon"; Jlj^j Hilal- — ■ another tribe, signifies "newmoon". ^^ Valley of dates. ^^ The 5y4-w — Samurat, species of Acacia, called spina Aegyptiaca". The sanctuary was called Boss. Uzza is thought to be the lunar deity like Allat. 40 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. hanging their arms upon it. At Nagran they cele- brated an annual festival in honour of a sacred palm- tree, on which occasion they adorned it with the garments and ornaments of women. The traveller in Arabia may at this day see Acacia trees, hung all over with rags of divers colours.^* Over the "vegetable" idol of Uzza a temj)le was built, and w^henBoss, the name of this sanctuary, was destroyed by Chalid , one of Mohammed's generals, after mur- dering the priestess , who had rushed forth with her hair dishevelled, and her hands on her head as a suppliant, he uttered these words: "0 Uzza, I deny thee, I praise thee not: I have seen how Allah has humbled thee!"^^ When Mohammed heard of the success of the expedition he exclaimed: "This is Uzza, never again shall she be served." Mecca became the centre of the Ante-Moham- medan religion of the Arabs , about the beginning of the first century B. C. Arab historians have very little to say as to how matters stood during the time of the Gurhamites;*^ except that they took away the golden gazelles, and the weapons which were hung- up in the Kaaba, when they were driven away from Mecca. ^^ They left however some traces of their idolatry behind, which it is needless for us to examine. ** A fine specimen of these rag-'Clad Acacia trees could be seen some time ago in the desert between Cairo and Suez. ^® ;5V*^' or ,^'y£- Uzza, the most mighty and powerful. *^ Ley, de templi Meccani origine, Berlin 1851. ^^ Remarkable is it that among its ancient kings , we find one wdth the Christian name, Abd al-Maseeh, '''servant of Christ". CHAP. II] ADMIXTURE OF IDOLATRY. 41 The Kaaba itself, which was the sanctuary of the Pagan Arabs, and remained such after they had em- braced Islamism, is a building about thirty four feet high and about twenty seven broad, so called from being almost a perfect square, as the name implies. ^^ In this building we find no less than 360 idols, the chief of them, Hubal,^^ was at once the presiding god in the temple, and the principal deity of the Koreishites, who were its guardians. The pre-eminence of this idol was evinced by the fact, that before it, the casting of lots with arrows took place. Prior however to its obtaining this honour, it passed through a term of probation, for we learn upon good authority, that for a considerable period it stood outside the walls of the Kaaba, patiently waiting for its admission. ^° It was probably introduced when. the sanctuary of the Koreish tribe was converted into the Pantheon of the whole of Arabia. The name of Hubal remains a mystery. ^^ The opinion that it is synonymous with the Babylonian and Syrian Baal or Bel is sup- ported by the testimony of Arab authorities, according ^® iLoiX;!, the square or the Kaaba. ^^ Hubal was |V^Lv-ol ^Jh^\ the most excellent of the idols; and was said to hare been brought from Mesoxjotamia, by Amru ben Luhai. ^° The man to whom it was indebted for its promotion was Amru ben Luhai. He according to Sharastani introduced it ^^ Pocock, who is still the great authority, since his "Specimen historiae Arabum" has not yet been surpassed , derives Hubal from b^n or bynn, bsir^; nor is this derivation to be censured. Vide pag. 97. 98. 42 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [parti. to whom Hiibal was originally imjDorted from Sp'ia; these do not indeed maintain that Hubal was Baal, bnt they admit him to be an astronomical deity; there is therefore nothing which militates against the idols being identical. Again when it is stated by Abulfeda that the image of Abraham occnjDied the chief place in the Kaaba, and that he was represented by Hubal, we may take it for granted that Hubal had a double character, like Baal, who was both the founder of the Babylonian empire and the solar deity. Nor is the popular notion of the Arabs, which considers Ishmael to be the original founder of the Kaaba, to be entirely rejected. The well-known adherence of that extraordinary people to their ancient customs seems to warrant the high antiquity of that sanctu- ary. That j^atriarchal associations were connected with the Kaaba will appear from a practice which is censured in the Koran. The Pagan Arabs used to compass the sanctuary naked, because they con- sidered garments to be signs of disobedience to God. Then the celebrated black stone, fixed outside the Kaaba, towards one of the corners, indicates an ac- quaintance with a Patriarchal custom. ^^ The Arabs attribute its introduction to Ishmael himself, and their superstitious regard for it, is just what might ^' Weil gives the following from the Manuscripts Insan and Chamis: 2)er fd)lvnvje @tctn \cax nrf^riincilirf) etn ©lu^el, ber 5Ibam im $arabiefe ]6eJimd}cn feHte , itnb iHtn ®dii itad) 5(bamg <2unbe in cinen <^k\\x I'teniHwbelt umrb. @r ivirb akic am ?(uferj!el}unggtac3e fid) mit ^anb, Dfjren, Sunge imb ^(itgcn eri^eben, unb ben frommen ^ttgern ; Amr ben Luhaj raised seven idols in this Yalley. Reiske, primae lineae p. 124. ^^ ^:dIa^, Manat. As we have no further information touch- ing the character and worship of this goddess , we naturally think of the Chaldean deity '^5^, Meni; see Margin Isa. LXV. 11. and the lunar goddess Mr^vij. 44 THE LAND OF ITS BIRTH. [part i. name of Saad. Several other Arabian deities were worshipped near Medina, ^^ but excepting their names scarcely any thing has been handed down. We have however seen enough to convince us, that the Arabs had widely swerved from their original patriarchal faith. Many of their idols were of a rough and uncouth appearance , square stones , white or black, trees and solid rocks, figures of birds and beasts, images of men and women, all served to re- present their imaginary deities. There is however reason to think, that some of the Arab idols were artistically conceived and skilfully shaped. The utter destruction by the Mohammedans of every vestige of Paganism as regards idolatry , prevents our forming any accurate opinion upon the subject; but the fact of Arabian poets comparing beautiful women to idols, and the proverb "more beautiful than an idol,"^' would seem to indicate, that the Arab idols were not all of them without some degree of form and beauty. In reviewing the religion of the Pagan Arabs we find remnants of the Patriarchal faith, the Sabian worship of the heavenly bodies , and the elements of a more corrupt idolatry, amalgamated together. The custom of visiting the Kaaba; the rite of circum- cision ; the doctrine of the Resurrection , ^ ^ to be in- ^^ We hear of Nuhm, Huraam, Halal, Bagir, Ruda, Aud, Awab, Manaf, Gaum, Kais, Durigel, Fuls, Dariban, and others. ^' iLyocXJI i^x> (^^.jwwb^l and ,j^Ui \^ ^j.M*.Si,\ more beau- tiful than an idol. Arab. prov. I. pag. 408. prov. 195. ^® "I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at the latter day upon the earth: and though after my skin worms CHAP. III.] ELEMENTS BOEIIOWED. 45 ferred from the Heathen custom of tying a camel near the grave of the departed ; the behef that de- mons are transformed into serpents ; abstinence from wine ; preference for green among the colours ; the custom of sacrificing the first-born of the camel ; the habit of swearing by religion ; the national traditions, especially the stories relating to Abraham, Ishmael, and other early characters of Bible history ; these Mohammed already found among his countrymen, and the same motives, which induced him to adopt the ancient sanctuary and the Pagan rites of the Kaaba as the groundwork of the ceremonial part of his religion, would naturally suggest the adoption of Arabian tradition as the basis of his doctrinal pre- cej3ts in the Koran. CHAPTER in. THE AGE, HISTOEY AND CHAEACTER OF MOHAMMED. " Who is more wicked than he who forgeth a lie concerning God ? or saith, This was revealed unto me, when nothing hath been revealed unto him V Sur. VI. 93. 1. No ordinary mortal ever exercised such an immeasurable influence upon the human race in a religious, moral and political pomt of view, and this destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God. Whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not another." Job XIX. 25. 26. 27. This was written in Arabia. 46 AGE, HISTOKY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED. [PART I. during a period of twelve centuries, as did the man, whose age, history and character we are about to consider. Although not one of these extraordinary individuals, endowed by divine Providence with ge- nius and power to break up long established institu- tions and to strike out new paths in the history of politics and religion, yet Mohammed, a man of li- mited powers of mind and apparently too destitute of materials for the formation of a new religion, suc- ceeded m tlxL^owing his seemingly indestructable net of doctrine and practice over millions of souls and in impressing a uniform stamp upon the thoughts and actions of the heterogeneous tribes and nations, scat- tered over Asia and Africa. The learned Professor Weil, who has done more perhaps towards producing a correct biography of Mohammed than any one else, deems it one of the most mysterious things, that the life of a man who established a religion, which till now flourishes in the most beautiful parts of the old world, should be so little Ivnown or studied. Yet such is the case. It cannot therefore be without interest to trace out some of the details connected with this remark- able character and the age in which he appeared. The period which ushered Islam into the world was marked by great changes and startlmg convulsions. The Western Empire was already overrun by the Northern Barbarians, whilst the Eastern and Greek portion of it enfeebled by luxury, fell a prey to all its enervating consequences. Persia torn to pieces CHAP. III.] THE AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 47 by intestine divisions botli political and religious liad now become incapable of any vigorous resistance. Whilst these empires were declining, Arabia on the contrary, which had hitherto displayed no conspicuous part in the history of the world , retained the vigour and energy, which characterise nations, untainted by luxurious habits. ^^ The attempt of [the Pharaohs of Egypt , of the Persians , the Abyssinians , and the Romans to subdue that country was equally un- successful. ^^ The Arabs continued an independent race, and it was left to God's more special and direct Providence to rouse them, and to accom23lish the mysterious purposes of Him, of whom it is written: "The fierceness of man shall turn to thy praise, and the fierceness of them shalt thou refrain." "^^ Islamism being a grand apostacy from the truth it was natural that it should start up, when true and vital religion had reached it lowest ebb. On examining the records of the CJmrch at that period, we discover the grossest corruptions in doctrine and practice. The Western and Eastern Churches being abandoned to the most degrading immorality, became agitated in those days by violent and rancorous controversies, which extinguished all true piety and practical devo- tion. ^* The earliest simplicity, which flourished ^^ The ancient Greeks and Romans, and those very nations which destroyed the Western empire, may serve as examples. ^^ What classic historians record of the successful inroads of Sesostris and Cambyses, Crassus, Aelius, Gallus and Trajan refer only to partial and temporary conquests. ^3 Psalm LXXVI. 10. ^* We refer to the fierce controversies connected with Arian 48 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [parti. among the suppressed and persecuted Christians had passed away. When the Church was no longer ex- posed to trials, but favoured and honoured by the first Christian Emperors , it began to fade and lose its primitive power ; and it was then, to use the words of St. Chr^^sostom that the world entered the Church. ^^ Bishops struggled for the highest and most lucrative sees;^^ and as once when the "tree of knowledge" was perferred to "the tree of life" the greatest evil was produced, so now a curious ]3bilosophy being substituted for vital godliness , it led to the most la- mentable consequences: those who were to feed the Church indulging in fearful controversies , mutual persecutions followed in rapid succession as the con- tending parties alternately came into power. The interests of Christianity were made the pretext for carrying out ambitious views and vindictive feelings. The worshijD of Saints and images had reached such a scandalous pitch, that Christian Churches rather resembled Heathen temples, the objects of adoration only, being changed. This humiliating exhibition might well convey the idea that Christianity was and Semi-Arian heresies, which agitated the Church up to the be- ginning of the seventh century, when Islamism absorbed them. ^^ "Eratque super his admire facilis , quae donabat, Christia- nam religionem absolutam et simplicem anili superstitione confun- dens: in quo scrutanda perplexius , quam componenda gravius ex- citavit dissidia plurima ; quae progressa fusius aluit concertatione verborum , ut catervis antistitum , jumentis publicis ultro citroque discurrentibus per Synodos , quas appellant, dum ritum omneni ad suum trahere connatur arbitrium, rei vehiculariae succideret nervos." Aramianus Marcellinus fine libri XXI. de Constantio. '^ Ammianus lib. XXVII. records the case of Damasus and Orsicinus. CHAP. Ill ] THE *AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 49 merely another system of idolatry, a notion still cur- rent among Mohammedans, who judge of our faith only by the meaning and vain ceremonial of fallen Churches.^^ Wlien religion was thus turned into faction, and the Church of the East indulged in dis- putes on mysterious subjects, in deciding abstruse metaphysical questions by seditious councils, in fab- ricating spurious Grospels, and in anathematizing some of her less corrupt members, Grod raised up instruments of his displeasure to remove the candle- stick from many a place, and to introduce a strong- delusion," that she might '' believe a lie."'^^ As long as the light of the Holy Scriptures, remained in the Church, the means of ultimate re- ^'^ By au oversight the old garbled version of St. Eligius' exposi- tion of the Whole Duty of a Christian in paying tithe and discharge a few ritual observances was formerly here mserted. This was the more blameable as both Dr. Maitland's refutation and Mr. Ilallam's retractation were before the public when this work was first published. The truth is that St. Eligius did mention certain formal observances as binding on a good Christian, but that he also at much greater length on those moral and religious duties about which all Christians agree. Mosheim picked up so much as suited his purpose of depreciation, but he had the decency to leave some marks of omission. His English translator left out the marks of omission, and Eobertson — who is still read at Oxford — and a host of others copied one from the other, till poor St. Eligius was made to give a description of a perfect Christian altogether unlike what he intended to give, 38 Thus it happened that some who were most zealous in sup- porting the interests of their own party, were foremost in abjuring Christianity in toto. Individuals who would not part with an ab- struse notion or a favourite term of expression for the peace of the Church, did not hesitate to abandon her community altogether, when it was their worldly interest to do so. Vide Predaux's ad- dress to the reader, prefixed to his ''Life of Mohammed." D 50 AGE AND CHARACTER OF MOHAfCMED. [PARTI. fonnatioii was retained, but the "strong delusion'' wliicli Islamism introduced destroyed tliis remedy. The Western Church in preserving the Bible amidst the corruptions to which she fell a prey, preserved the element by which her reformation was alone rendered possible. Both the Eastern and Western Churches however were faUen, and it is not a little remarkable, that judgment began hi each at the same period ; for Mohammed announced his career as a prophet about the same time, that Pope Boni- face V. by vhtue a grant from the weak and tyran- nical Emperer Phocas assumed the title of Universal Bishop.^^ Arabia itself presented in the sixth century a most miserable spectacle, being torn by the intestine commotions of civil and religious warfare. Jews and Christians were so numerous and powerful in the country, as to struggle for the government, and each 39 It has been considered by students of prophecy, that these two rival ecclesiastico-political powers were represented by the Eastern and Western horns. Dan. VIII. 5. 9. Be this as it may : the sins of both Churches did find them out, bringing down upon them a corresponding judgment. The heresy of the Eastern, and the sujperstition of the Western Church were both visited in one hour ; the former received its retribution in the Arch-heresy of Is- lamism ; the latter was chastised by the Spiritual and temporal tyranny of the Pope. As they crynologically coincided as to their rise, so we trace between them points of sympathy and antipathy. What Mohammed was to the East, the Pope became to the West. The "Key of Heaven" to Mohammed was the sword ; the Pope held the Keys of St. Peter. Both united in their persons the supreme civil and ecclesiastical power. Both are actmg the part of Antichrist by " casting the truth to the gTOund ;" and not without reason is it supposed by many, that as they commenced at the same period, so they will perish together. CHAP. III.] THE AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 51 party succeeded in raising kings to the throne, who were followers of their respective creeds. We have already adverted to the persecutions of the Christians by the Jewish king of Yemen, in which many who would not embrace Judaism were executed; nor was the Christian prince Abraha, who was placed upon the throne by Nagush, more successful in gaining the esteem and affection of the different sects, ex- tant at that period in Arabia. Judaism as a religion had greatly degenerated from its original purity. When Mohammed charges the Jews in the Koran with believing Ezra to be the Son of God,*^ we may at least take for granted that they manifested a superstitious reverence for his memory: although they retained the Monotheism of the Old Testament, yet Jehovah, according to their view, was no longer the God of the Universe, but ex- clusively the God of the Jews. In the Talmud, which was already considered a standard authority in mat- ters of faith, God is represented "as roaring like a lion in each of the three watches of the night, and as shaking his head;"*^ and according to it the "divhie Spirit" was heard "moaning like a dove out of grief for Israel" as often as the Amen was responded to in the synagogue.*^ Strangers naturally shrank *o &-UI j0.j| y^^&. dy^^X^ Lili* "the Jews say: Ezra (Ozeir) was the son of God." Sur. IX. 30. *^ Talmud I. Sect. 1. ^ *^ blp n5 invariably signifies the Divine Spirit in Talmudic Theology. D* 52 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part I. from the exclusive creed of a hated nation , who had made themselves obnoxious by the spirit of persecut- ing proselytism,*^ to which we have alluded, and this produced a desire for a religion, whose blessings were not confined to one j^articular race. That Christianity prevailed in Arabia to a great extent cannot be doubted, when we read of so many Bishoprics having existed in divers parts of the coun- try**. When the Jewish Kingdom was destroyed by the Christians about forty years before the birth of Mohammed, a Church was built in Sana eclipsing the temple of Mecca in beauty and magnificence. But how corrupt the doctrines and practices of the Arab Christians were at that period, will appear partly from the Koran *'^, and partly from the writings of the Church historian Epi23hanius, who speaks of a Christian sect deifying the Virgin Mary, and offering a twisted cake on her altars, from whence their name Coll}Tidians.*^ That Mohammed made use of spu- *^ Essai sur I'Histoire des Arabes arant I'lslamisme , pendant I'Epoque de Mahomet. Par A. P. Caussiu de Perceval torn. 1. p. 128. 129. ** "2)ie Sef)re '^t\vi l)aih feftr frii^e in 5(raBien S3e!cniicr gcfmibcii, iinb eg fmb bafel6ft verfdnebene ©iotfntmev unb in met)veren ^tatiten 9Jletro5 ipolitanfirdicn ernrf)tet c^civcfen. 93om britten 3iif;vt)unbert an naf^men aud^ bie in anbern £'dnbern 9(ficng vevfoUiten iinb bebrangten d;viftlicf)cn ^sartcieu ifjre 3uf!ud)t unb ^reijlatt in 5trabien." ®af)I pag. 15. *^ Jesus is asked whether it was true that he said to men : aJJ! Mji^ i^V"^ r^-^'^ l5^S (c^^<^"^^^ "accipite me et matreni meam in duos Deos praeter Deum." Sur. V. 116. "Again they are certainly infidels who say God is the third of three." Sur. V. 77. to which Jelladin adds: iOoL .— u^xC j^|y:5*JvJ» "the others are Jesus and his mother." *^ Ej^iphanius speaks of a sect, which he describes as: avti, CHAP. III.] THE AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 5 3 rioiis Gospels, and that these Pseudo-Gospels counte- nanced the deification of the Virgin is equally cer- tain.*^ Amidst the bloody feuds of the Eastern Church, many of its corrupt members fled to the Huns and Vandals in Africa and some into Arabia; in most instances carrying with them nothing but a Christian Paganism; hence their proselytes were but a shade superior to the Pagans. As an additional proof of heretical teaching in those days, may be added, that the mysterious and blessed dogma of the holy Trinity was converted into a positive Tri- theism; thus representing, Father, Son and Holy Ghost as three distinct Gods.^^ From these scanty allusions to the condition of the Eastern Church in general, and to that of Arabia in particular, it will be sufficiently clear, that Christianity in the age in which Mohammed appeared, had been reduced to a mere carcase, and "where the carcase is, there the eagles will be gathered together."*^ S-eov tavtrjp (i. e. the Virgin Mary) iraQHOayeTv onovdatovreq. Haeres. LXXVIII. 79. And d'Herbelot Orient. Lib. HI. 398. ob- serves that the oriental Christians have given to Mary the title ; SlXa^wiJi : domina, and that the Greek Father Cyi'il styled her the supplement of the Trinity. Then the S'fotoxog which was so stoutly defended , gave cause to corrupt teaching. Vide also the article : "Das Theologumenon vom Trpavficc ayiov als der Mutter Christi." Nitzsch "Theologische Studien". Vol. 1. 1816. . *'' Origen. in Joan. Vol. IV. pag. 63. ed. de la Rue, ^Eav ds TTQoaierai rig to xa^' ^Ei-^^jaiovg ivayyihov , tvd^a dvtog 6 G(x)trjQ q)^aiv' a(jTL eAa/^e /us // piritriQ laov, to ayiov nvev fxa ii> fiia tojv tQiyjiSv jLiov mxl dm^veyxs ixs dg to fjiiya Gd^oQ. *® This was done e. g. by the celebrated Joannes Philoponus, who died in 610. the very year of Mohammed's Mission. Leontius de sectis act. V. 6. *^ Dr. Grant's Nestorians pag. 267. The Arab independence 54 AGE, HISTORY" AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. Lastly the Arabs themselves at that period were roused and per23lexed by the discordant elements of a corrupt Judaism, and a depraved Christian Church, on the one hand, and by native idolatry, blended with noble remnants of a Patriarchal Monotheism on the other. The Jews, they thought, in rejecting their last prophet, had forfeited their ancient dignity; and they considered that the Christians had run into an opposite extreme by ascribing to him a divine character, and surrendering the doctrine of the di- vine unity. They deemed the time now come for them, to have a prophet of their own, who would restore the religion of Abraham, and put an end to the state of ferment, into which the Peninsula had been thrown by the concussion of Judaism, Chris- tianity, Sabaism, and the idolatry which they in- herited from their fore-fathers. As a proof that such was the state of things we refer to certain signs of dissatisfaction with the state of religion, some years prior to the alleged Mission of Mohammed. ^° On the occasion of a great meet- ing of the tribe of Koreish four men sat in secret conclave and imparted to each other the following sentiments: "Our fellow- countr}Tiien are in a wrong path, they are far astray from the religion of Abra- of thought displayed itself among- the Christians in the acceptance of nearly every kind of heresy. Ebionites, Beryllites , Nazaraeans, Arians, Semi-Arians and Collyridians vied with each other to' de- stroy the Church, which was planted by St. Bartholomew, St. Pan- taenus and St. Simon Stylites. Epiph. de Haeres. lib. I. Haer. 40. and Sozom. Hist. Eccles. lib. I. cap. 16. 17. Sale's Prelem. remarks Sect. H. pag. 24. 25. ^^ Lectures on Mahometanism by Cazenove pag. 47. CHAP. JiL] THE AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 5 5 ham. What is this pretended divinity to which they immolate victims, and around which they make solemn processions? A dmiib and senseless block of stone , incapable of good and evil. It is all a mis- take: seek we the truth, seek we the pure religion of our father Abraham. To find it, let us quit our country, if need be, and traverse foreign lands." "^^ Three of these became acquainted on their travels with the truths of Christianity; but one of them, Zaid, having been kept back by his relatives, who were offended at his evident estrangement from pa- gan superstition , went day by day to the Kaaba, and prayed the Almighty to enlighten him.^^ Not knowing the truth, he opposed what he knew to be false, testified against superstition, for- bade men to eat the flesh of victims offered to idols, and protested against the practice of destroying their infant daughters. When imprisoned by his uncle he escaped and after wandering from place to place, he heard from a Christian monk, that an Arab pro- phet was preaching the religion of Abraham at Mecca. Zaid hastened back to hear Mohammed, but was robbed and murdered on the road. ^^ Nor were ^^ These four men were Waraca, son of Naiifal; Othman, son of Houwayrith ; ObaydaJlah, son of Djahcli; and Zaid, son of Amer. The three first became Christians, and thus satisfied their craving after truth. ^^ He might he seen leaning his back against the wall of the temple , repeating the prayer ; "Lord if I knew in what way thou didst will to be adored and served, I would obey thy will; but I know it not." Caussin torn. I. p, 321. ^^ This ])recursor of Mohammed, says M. Caussin de Perceval, has been hitherto almost unnoticed by European Savans, 66 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part I. others wanting during the life-time of Mohammed who sought to control the stream of national feeling, and asserted rival claims. Amongst them w^e may mention Ommaiah,^* who died an early death; and Toleicha and Moseilama; the latter was so successful in making disciples; that even to this day an Arab tribe in western Africa trace their religion back to him and his inmiediate followers. "^^ From this cursory glance at the age w^hich gave birth to Islamism, we can well understand that a creed embodying the elements of all the religious systems extant among the Arabs and yet avoiding their flagrant excesses would be acceptable to the nation: what it desired was, a religion possessing a simple formula of belief, coming apparently from in- disputable authority, freely open to all, and affording to believers the enjoyment of a sensual Paradise; and this was most skilfully contrived and adapted by the man, whose personal history w^e are now to consider. 2. Mohammed ^^ was born in the month of April ^* He was grandfather of Moviah, who usurped the Kali- phate. Dr. Dullingcr's Muharamed's Religion" pag. 4. ^^ Relation des voyages de Saunier, a la cote d'Afrique p. 217. ^^ iX**^:^^ or iX«..=i>-', from jvS^, to laud; (Xt^^ laudavit, signifies "laudabilis, multa laude dignus." Compare the Hebrew 'n73n desideravit ^llynlO and r^'i'^on. Gesenius Hebrew Lexicon. Called Muhammed, Mehemet, Mahomet, better Mohammed. This is the pronounciation also of the modern Arabs, The faith which he founded is called by Europeans : Mahommetanism , Mahometism, Mohammedism, or better Mohammedanism; but by himself and his ■■ followers exclusively; ajLwI, Islam (from Lx>Lww, to spread peace, in the fourth sense ; to be saved , to be put in a state of happiness) CHAP. III.] THE AGE IN WHICH HE APPEARED. 57 A. D. 571 or 286 of the piocletian era, his bio- graphers however do not agree as to the exact date, beino' more anxious to chronicle the marvels which are stated to have accompanied his birth, than to ascertain the precise period, when it took place. ^^ We are furnished with a genealogical table compris- ing thirty generations, tracing Mohammeds descent from Ishmael through his second son Kedar. The tribe to which he belonged was that of Koreish, and the family that of Hashem, princes of Mecca and the hereditary guardians of the Kaaba. Hence they were called "Ahal Allah" or "the people of God." Mohammed therefore was "Arab al Araba" or a pure Arab. Yet in spite of his noble descent he inherited only poverty from his ancestors. Abdallah, his father dying two months after Mohammed saw the light of the world, the whole proj^erty which remained for the support of his widow, Amena, and her infant son, consisted of a house, five camels, an Abyssinian female slave, a few sheep, and as some say, a slave called Sakran. Notwithstanding the marvels which are said to have attended the birth of her child, Amena had which signifies: resignation, submission. The Germans retain the Arabic Islam; the French transform it into Islamisme, and the English generally adhere to Islamism Moslem is the appellation for the believer in the Koran ; the plural Moslemin. The trans- formation into Musselman and Musselmen, is therefore incorrect. ^'^ Pagan images fell to the ground, the sacred fires of the Parsees were extinguished, demons were expelled from heaven: the drying up of the lake Sawa, inundation of the desert of Saraawa, illumination of the whole earth, white clouds, voices from heaven, and other prodigies are recorded to have solemnised his birth. 58 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. difficulty in procuring liim a nurse ; at last one was found in Halema, a Beduin woman, who failing in her attempt to procure an infant at Mecca, whither according to custom, she had come to seek one to nurse, ^^ rather than return without a charge accept- ted the orphan prophet; and Amena confided him to her care for the space of two years. ^^ On restoring the child to his mother at the end of that time , the nurse for some reason begged, to be permitted to resume her charge for a longer period; in conside- ration of his health, Amena willingly consented , but to her surprise, within two months the child was returned in consequence of spasmodic fits , which Halema attributed to evil spirits/^ It is not to be expected, that the biographers of the Pseudo-prophet would allow this period of his infancy to pass over, without ascribing to it events of a marvellous cha- racter, and such are gravely recorded upon the au- thority of his nm'se ! ^ ^ ^^ The Meccan mothers still send their children to the country, to live with the Beduins in tents till they are eight or ten years old. ^^ The time of weaning a child, is after two years. iSee Lane's modern Egyptians I. 59. Also Sur. II. 234. ^^ The term, which Abulfeda and Sirat Arrasul apply to these attacks, to which we shall have occasion to refer at a future period, signifies to be overcome by misfortune , to be mortally injured, but is specially applied to people, possessed, "//ear," said the husband of Halema, "^/ws child is poiisessed, take him to his people before it becomes known." The fable of Mohammed's chest being opened by two angels to remove the tares of lust and to fill it with prophetic light, is assigned to that period. Sur. XCIV. 1. 2. ^^ The mule on which Halema rides home with her charge, tells her that he carries the best of prophets, the Lord of Apostles, and the darling of God and the world. Sheep courtesy to the little CHAP. III.] HIS PRIVATE LIFE. 59 At the age of six, his mother having taken him to Medina to visit his relations, died on her way- home. The orphan being now left to the care of the female slave Barakat, was brought by her to his grandfather Abdalmutalib who willingly receives him, and shortly has occasion to take him to a monk near Okaz for the benefit of his eyes, which had been deemed incurable at Mecca. On losing his grandfather two years later, the young Mohammed was adopted by his uncle Abu Talib, whom he accompanied, in his ninth or twelfth year, on a mercantile journey to Bussora, their cara- van was entertained by a Christian monk, called by some Bahira, by other Serdjis, who being so much pleased with the boy predicted his future great- ness.^^ In his sixteenth year Mohammed accompanies Zu- beir, another uncle on a mercantile trip to southern Arabia, and in his twentieth year he is seen on the battlefield with the same relation. ^ ^ After this no- boy, the moon bends down to his cradle ; he is endowed with speech immediately after his birth , etc. etc. Weil's "Mohammed der Pro- phet" pag. 26. 27. ^^ Bahira according to the Sirat al Zuhra quoted in the Chamis of Hussein, Ebn Mohammed was formerly a Jew, and this explains his second name. He was "n^ns or ^^ti'2 and on his baptism was called Georgius, which name the Arabs changed into ijM^yM, Serdjis or Djerdjis. Christian writers mention a Nestorian monk, loL^V^j, Bahira, who being expelled from his Monastery in Syria, fled to Mecca. After Mohammed had extracted all the information he required, he put him to death to prevent his divulging the secret. Whether these two monks are identical is a disputed point. ^^ This w^ar against the Beni Kinanah is called "vicious'\ be- 60 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [parti. thing is heard of him till his twenty fifth year, except the facts of his obtaining his livilihood as a shepherd near Mecca, ^* and of his joining the business of a linen-trader named Saib, in whose company he visit- ed the market at Hajasha, six days journey south of Mecca/ ^ In the latter place Mohammed makes the acquaintance of Hakim Ebu Chuzeima , who re- commended him to his rich widowed aunt Chadija as an honest and trustworthy young man;^^ being compelled by famine, Mohammed offered his services to her as a mercantile agent. Chadija having at that time many goods to send to Syria engaged him in her service and promised him double wages, viz. two female camels. His success in this transaction was so great, that his mistress made him a present in addition to the promised wages, and as a proof of her confidence subsequently sends him to the south of Arabia upon other business.^' This occupation of traffic, in af- cause it commenced in the four holy months, in which wars by ancient custom were interdicted. ^* Prof. Weil gathered this fact i)revionsly unknown in Europe from the "Insan Aluyun" byAli Halebi ; M. S. of four folio Volumes, and the „Channs" by Hossein Ebn Muhammed Ebn Alhasan Addi- arbekri in two folio Volumes , M. S. ; both being biographies of M. of the sixtenth century, obtained in Gotha. "Mohammed der Prophet" pag. 33. ^* This also unknown fact is derived from the "Insan Aluyun" and explains how Chadija came to take M. into her service. Ali Halibi has it from the Uyun Alather by Hafiz Abul Fath. ^^ M. had already acquired the cognomen: "Amin", the trust- worthy. ^' Tradition endows the journey to Syria with strange marvels. In Bussora M. meets Nestor, another monk, who recognises a CHAP. III.] HIS PRIVATE LIFE. 6 1 fording Mohammed an opportunity of acquiring a knowledoe of the world became in after hfe of the greatest service to him. ^^ Mohammed having for some time conducted Chadijas affairs so much to her satisfaction , in spite of the great dis j)arity of age ® ^ and the opposition of her father she at length deter- mined to raise him from the position of her servant to that of her husband ;^^ having made a feast Chadija helped her father so bountifully with wine, that becoming drunk he gave his consent to their marriage. After this event Mohammed still continued tra- ding, but soon lost all his fortune;'^ nevertheless his acknowledged honesty made him so res]3ected that he was frequently called upon to act the part of umpire in matters of strife. In his thirty fifth year, when prophet in tlie merchant: because he has red eyes and a cloud every-where overshadows hhn; and because a withered tree under which be sits begins to blossom, and bear fruit. He also cured two camels on the road. Chadija saw him on his return overshadowed by the wings of two angels. ^^ The Meccan people chiefly depended on commerce for sup- port, and their habits strongly remind us of the company of Ish- maelites coming from Gilead , with their camels laden with spicery, balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. Gen. XXXVII. 25. ^^ Chadija was forty, M. only a few months past twenty five. Other traditions make him twenty nine, thirty, or thirty seven, and Chad, twenty eight, thirty or thirty five. '° Chad, offered her hand through Nafisa, a female slave, and appointed the hour of meeting. ^^ Insan Aluyun says respecting M's stay in the cave of mount Hara: "He could not remain a month in it, because his circum- stances were not so favourable as to provide a month's provision." It is also stated , that Abubeker had to advance his travelling ex- pences at his emigration to Medina, 62 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. tlie chiefs of Mecca quarrelled, as to who should re- store the black stone on the occasion of the rebuil- ding of the Kaaba, he settled the dispute to the satisfaction of the contending parties by laying the sacred stone on a carpet, and requesting the four pretenders to lift it up by the four corners, whilst he himself took the stone and put it in its place. "^^ For the next five years Mohammed lived more and more in retirement; he frequently, especially during the sacred month of Ramadhan resorted to a cave in mount Hara, sometimes with Chadija, but generally alone. His grandfather Abdalmutalib was accustom- ed before him to ascend this mountain for religious exercises, and there to feed the poor. ^^ It was doubtless during this period of seclusion that Mo- hammed projected his scheme of becoming the re- former of the religion of his peo]3le; there also he had leisure to digest his impressions of the Jewish and Christian religions. 3. In his fortieth year intending to avow his pro- phetical Mission'* and "the night approaching which," according to Abulfeda "was to cover him ■ '^ "@r lie^ ben (Stein auf einen gro^en au^geBreiteten ^Te^^n'o!^ legen, nnb bfefen wn ben ^^retenbentcn in bic ^o()e BeBen , Big an ben Crt ivo tx Binfommen follte. ^ieranf naf)m er alebann felBji ben Stein mit eigenet ^anb wm JeVlMcf) anf, nnb Brarf).te i()n an ben €rt, \vo n liegen mnfte." sffiat)l pag. 24. E. ^^ Thus All Halibi in his Insan Aluyun, who quotes Ebn Ala- thir. The same in Sirat Arrassul by Ibrahim Halibi, fol. 36. whose biography, compressed in sixty three lines of poetry was printed at Bulak 1248 of the Hedgra with a Turkish commentary. ^^ This period was no doubt fixed upon in accordance with an ancient Arabic tradition , that God never called a prophet before the fortieth year of his age. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 63 with glory" Mohammed withdrew to the solitary cave in the recesses of mount Hara; and it worthy of notice that his pretended revelations here began with those spasmodic convulsions, to which he had been subject as a child, and which had frequently attacked him during the interval. That Mohammed was subject to a species of epileptic fits has been recorded by Theophanes and other Christian writers who followed him ; and though some learned critics, who might have been better informed, have accused these authors of slander, ^ ' ^ yet the fact is established and placed beyond the shadow of a doubt by the oldest and most faithful Moslem biographers. As this subject is of the ut- most importance for a just appreciation of the real nature of Islamism, we must be permitted to subjoin the testimony of those , whose interest it might have been to deny the matter. Ali Halibi writes in his history of the prophet: "Ebn Ishak relates , what he has heard from his masters, viz., that Mohammed was subjected to the treatment of an exorcist , when in Mecca before the Koran was revealed to him. "^^ On the cominpf down '^ This was done by the learned Frenchman Gagnier in his work: "La vie de Mahomet; traduite et compilee de I'Alcoran des traditions authentiques de laSonna et des meilleurs auteurs Arabes," A. D. 1732; which has become the foundation of almost every other European biography since his day; and it is not perhaps to be wondered that more modern authors should have followed his views on the subject in question. See also Ockley Hist, of the Saracens, Vol. 1, pag. 300. ^^ The word applied signifies: "Treated or cured by an ex- orcist." That this could not refer to the attacks which M. had as 64 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAmiED. [part i. of the Koran tlie same attacks returned wliicli he had before. Prior to that period he was subject to fainting fits after violently trembling; with closed eyes he foamed, and roared like a young camel. "^"^ Chadija (God be gracious unto her) then said: I will fetch somebody to cure thee (an exorcist); but he replied. I want nobody at present." ^^ After the first alleged vision of the angel Gabriel Mohammed coming to Chadija trembling and damp with perspiration, exclaimed: "Cover me;'^ I fear for my soul." Chadija said: "rejoice: God will not put you to shame, thou art so kind to thy relations, sincere m thy words, afraid of no trouble to serve a child is clear from the fact , that this was not in Mecca , but in the country; and then, the Moslem saw nothing in that attack but the effect of M's breast being" opened by the angel. " Ali Halibi adds to this term: "this is an attack which Mo- hammed sometimes had; referring especially to the fainting which was caused by demons, on which account M. said to his wife I fear for my soul." "^ See the Arabic text: "Journal Asiatique, Juillet 1842."' '^ Sur. LXXni. with an allusion to this fact, M. is called "the wrapped up," JoOw«.J|, the participial form, which is used per syn- copen instead JoojJuJI; and Sur. LXXIV. 1. he is addressed: "0 thon covered one": ji'tX^JI- "CS^ t)at atle 93eniuttr)uiis3 fiir firf), ba^ fd^on jener, 5tmme unb 3)lutter in (gctirccfen fe|cnbe ^Infall, ii>el(f)er \i)\i in ber friil)eften ^iiib^eit erf(l)utterte, in n?eld)cm bie Stmme gerabc^^u (gatan^ SBerfe crblicfen lucllte (Abulf. Vit. Muh. cap. IV.), nicl)tg anbere^ gelrefen ift oX^ iwag unr Sannncr unb 93ofeg SCBcfen ju nennen ^^jieoien. SBar 3)1. ein gall-' fud:)ttger, fo erflart ee fid) t}icraug am Icidjteften, ba^ i^n feine imc|taubigcn Beitgenoffen einen 33efeffenon, daemoniacum, nannten ^a\\ l)atte bie ©enuV(ml)eit, [old)e ju 33oben geftrcdtc, jittenibe ^^-allfiidjtigc, iral)renb ber franu^fliaften fd;mttclnben 93crjurtungen , nm bcm $(uge ben graufanien 5tnblic! ju entjiel}en, ober urn ben iiklkriic^tigten Bnfall ju yertufc^en, nitt ©eivanb ju bebecfen obet in ^leibev cinjuptlen." Wahl pag. 639. 643, CHAP, m.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 65 thy neighbour, supportmg the poor, given to hospi-s taHty, and defending the truth." From these words it is clear that Mohammed was all but certain of being under the control of an evil spirit. According to Janabi, Chadija had the difficult task of consoling her husband, whilst in her own mind she was troub- led as to the nature of the vision. She went with him to Waraka, a relation and a Christian priest, who told her that a holy angel would flee at the sight of an unveiled woman, but that an evil spirit could bear the sight. ^^ Chadija was determined to apply the test,^^ and requested her husband to in- form her when the vision should next ajDpear; Mo- hammed did so; and on her removing the veil from her face he declared, the angel was gone; which cir- cumstance convinced her that it was a holy angel and not the devil! As it is of the utmost importance to establish the connection between the visions of Mohammed and these dreaded^* attacks, we refer to other evi- dence derived from Ali Halibi, who records the ac- ^^ Probably an allusion to the words of St Paul : dia tovto oqieiXei rj yvrij i^ovalav exeiv im rfjg KscpaXfiQ , dice tovg dyyeXovg. 1 Cor. XL 10. ^^ Ali Halibi records that Chadija made M. sit in different positions and that in each of them he declared, he saw the angel, till she removed the veil, wdien he saw him no more. "Then said she: "by God! it is true, it is true, it was an angel and no devil." To this tradition the author of the Hamzij ah refers, when he writes : „She threw her veil away to know whether it was a true revelation or a fainting produced by demons." ®^ As a proof of Mohammed's misgiving as to the source, from which, his revelations proceeded, may be added, that he used to tremble and shake violently, when the time of his visions drew near. £ 66 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. count given by Ayesha. We read in his Insan Alu- yun: "A tradition, wliicli is founded upon Ayesha s testimony, says : the prophet was exceedingly oppress- ed, as often as the angel appeared; the sweat fell from his forehead during the coldest weather, his eyes became red, and at times he roared like a young camel." ^^ Zaid, an eyewitness adds: "As often as the prophet received a revelation, it was as if his soul was to be taken from him, he had a kind of fainting, and looked like a drunken man." Abu Ha- riri,^* says: "when the revelation came down to Mohammed, none dared to look at him ; according to another account, he was angry if any one looked at him: his face was covered with foam, his eyes were closed, and sometimes he roared like a camel." Harith Ebn Hisham asked the Arab prophet: "In what manner dost thou receive the revelation? He answered: sometimes an angel appears in the form of a man^'^ and speaks to me; sometimes I hear sounds ^^ like those of a bell; then I become very bad, and when he (the angel) leaves me, I have received the revelations."^^ From these facts w^e gather, that Mohammed ^^ Weil "Mohammed der Prophet," pag. 44. note 48. ZaId Ebn Thabit repeats the same , and adds that he was frequently at- tacked when riding on the camel. ^* In "Moslem's Collection of traditions". ^^ Generally in that of his friend Dihja, the subsequent am- bassador to the Persian Monarch. ^^ Noise in the ears is one of the well-known symptoms of epilepsy. ^^ See the MSS of Insan Aluyun and Chamis. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 67 was subject to violent spasmodic attacks at various periods of liis life; that he himself considered them the work of an evil spirit ; that he j)ut himself under the treatment of an exorcist; and that even after his alleged Mission he expressed his misgivings as to the nature of the demon which inspired him; and we can easily understand the reason why his coun- trymen constantly charged him with being possessed by a devil, even after he and his followers had per- suaded themselves to the contrary. ^^ Waraka, Ebn Naufal, the cousin whom Chadija had consulted, was a learned priest, converted to Christianity from Judaism "in the time of igno- rance," well read in the Old and New Testament, ^^ and is said to have translated the Gospel into Ara- bic ;^° all this explains the influence which he had ^^ "Why will they not understand," he makes God complain "that there is no evil spirit in their fellow-man." Sur. VH. 183. Gagnier makes M. a hypochondriac and Noel des Vergers pag, 8 considers him mad; "atteint de folie." Others class him with Montanists, quakers and jumpers, and thus account for his alleged inspirations. Theophanes was of opinion that M. put forth the vision of an angel to hide his disease , but the disease no doubt was the cause of the vision , only in a different sense from what is commonly accepted, as will be shown towards the end of this chapter, SIrrat Arrusul fol. 36. \^X^J ^15^ <,^X^J ^1 iJJI ^LCO U (J^JSXj^^| ^JO iuo^xJlj ^^♦JS. tXi' IvAa5^ Chamis second leaf of the chapter "Of the events at the beginning of the prophetical mission." See also Mamizade pag. 53. £♦ 68 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. witli bis cousin and Mohammed in removing the suspicion that his attacks were caused by satanic agency. That Mohammed held this man in great esteem and acquired from him much of his know- ledge of Judaism and Christianity is sufficiently known to require any further corroboration: and this may account for the importance, which Mohammed attached to Warakas testimony, that he was the great prophet, who had been prophesied in the Scriptures. In the first three years of his Mission,^* Mo- hammed required his friends and relatives only, to acknowledge him as a prophet; among the first who did so, were Abubeker, a man two years his junior, Zaid, Mohammed's slave and Ali, a youth whom Abu Talib adopted during the famine, ^^ who after- wards became his son-in-law. It will be remembered when Mohammed asked, who would he his Vizier or assistant to share the burden of his office, and none ventured to answer that Ali, then a mere youth, rose and spake: "I, 0 prophet am the man, whom thou seekest, whoever he be that shall rise up against thee, I will knock out his teeth, will tear out his eyes, will throttle him and grind his bones. Let me 0 prophet be thy Vizier!" This ^^ Respecting the day and month of his mission, the traditions do not agree , and it is a disputed point whether the celebration of 5 JJiJI xJLJ, the night of power or destiny, which falls on the twenty seventh of Ramadhan, is correct. See Lane's Modern Egypt II. pag. 238. and Abulfeda ed. Noel des Vergers pag. 107. ^^ Ali was only from eight to eleven years old; some say four- teen years, at all events he was a mere lad. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 69 shows the spirit of the youth , and explains , why Mohammed afterwards called him the "lion of God." Among the first Moslemin may also be reckoned Arkam, — in whose house their meetings were held after having been surprised and maltreated in the cave, — the dwarf AbdallahEbnMasud, and the brave Abu Ubeida. Among the women we have besides Chadija, Um Afdal, the wife of Abbas, Um Eiman or Baraka the Abyssinian, and Asma, the daughter of Abubeker. The total number of Mohammed's followers, during the first three years of his Mission, amounted scarcely to forty, mostly young people strangers and slaves, yet a beginning was made. In the fourth, or as some state the fifth year, Mohammed resolved to go a step further and openly proclaim himself a prophet ;^^ first combating the idea that he was possessed by a devil. ^* In this bold step, from which he evidently shrank for some time, he met with the most decided opposition. On one occasion when threatening his relatives with hell-fire, he was loaded in return with imprecations: and on denouncing their idols as impotent, and their fathers as having lived in a state of ignorance, he ^^ To this he receiyed a special commission: "Wherefore pub- lish that which thou hast been commanded and withdraw from the idolaters. We will surely take thy part against the scoflfers." Sur. XV. 94—99. ^* "The devils did not descend with the Koran (as the infidels give out) it is not for their purjaose , neither are they able (to pro- duce such a book) for they are far removed from hearing Shall I declare unto you upon whom the devils descend ? They descend upon every lying and wicked person." Sur. XXVI. 210. 211. 221. 222. 70 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. would have been strangled in the Kaaba, had not Abubeker come to his assistance. ^^ Equally dangerous became the position of his followers; Mohammed therefore advised them to leave the country; consequently eleven men and four women sailed for Abyssinia, Avhere with others who followed, they found an asylum, till Islamism became estabhshed in the Peninsula. ^^ The next step taken by the enemies of Moham- med was to plot against his life , and a price of a hundred camels and 1000 ounces of silver was set upon his head: but Omar, who had undertaken to murder him,^^ when about to perpetrate the deed, relented and became a Moslem. Notwithstandino- this escape Mohammed's position soon became un- tenable, and he was so cast down and discouraged, that either from fear or with a hope of conciliating his enemies, he made a most dangerous concession; that of restoring the idols of the Arabs to the rank of mediators between God and man. Subsequently however being reassured by the protection of his uncle he declared this concession to have been made at the instigation of Satan. ^^ ■ •' Abu Talib being no longer able to protect M, requested his connections to share the responsibility. ■ ^ These emigrants were pursued to the coast, but managed to escape in a ship. Nor did the bribe afterwards sent to the Abys- sinian prince, induce him to give them up. ^^ Omar, afterwards one of the staunchest defenders of Isla- mism was then only twenty six years of age. On his way to murder M. he is told by a secret Moslem , that his sister Fatima was a convert ; going to her he finds her learning the twentieth Sura, and the result is his own conversion. ^^ The concession is alluded to Sur. XXII. 51. where Satan is CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 7 1 Abu Talib fearing further attempts on the hfe ' of his nephew, removed him to his fortified castle in the country, whither he was followed by many ad- herents of the new creed , who during the space of three years shared IMohammed's privations. ^^ The Koreishites exasperated at his escaping through the assistance of his uncle, resolved to outlaw him and his friends as enemies of the peace , which they did by affixing a document to that effect on the walls of the Kaaba. Whilst an exile from Mecca two instan- ces of conversion are recorded , the first being that of a Christian caravan from Nadjran, the second that of an exorcist, who hearing that Mohammed was possessed, offered to cure him, instead of which, he himself caught the infection of Islamism. ^ When at the end of three years, the interdict was removed, Mohammed returned to Mecca, and shortly after said to have put wrong things into all the prophets before him; and Sur. XVII. 75. 76: "It wanted little (but the unbelievers) had tempted thee to swerve from the instructions , which we had re- vealed unto thee, that thou shouldst devise concerning us a different thing , and then they would have taken thee for their friend , and unless we had confirmed thee thou hadst certainly been very near inclining to them a little." ^^ It was only during the sacred months that they were per- mitted to enter Mecca; for during the festivals (mausam) hosti- lities were still suppressed, according to the Chamis and Jannabi. ^ These two conversions were brought to light by Weil , who refers to Insan Aluyun, where Ali Halibi quotes Ujun Alather. M. said to the exorcist; "Thou professest to be able to deliver men from demons? Only God we may intreat for help; whom he guideth no one can lead astray, but whom he leads into error, no one can deliver. Confess that there is one God , who has chosen me to be his apostle." In this period fell the revelation of Sura XXX. and the prediction of the conquest of the Persians by the Greeks. 72 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. sustained the loss of liis uncle, who died as a Pagan, never having acknowledged the Mission of his nephew: for although he protected him from first to last, he like most of his contemporaries considered his visi- ons to be nothing but the effect of satanic inspi- ration.^ Within three days of his uncle's death Mohammed lost his wife Chadija, but was, it ap- pears, less afflicted at this event; for although his consideration for her prevented his taking other wives during her hfe time, only a month elapsed be- fore he married Sanda a refugee widow in Abyssinia, and shortly after he was betrothed to Ayesha , the daughter of Abubeker, who was then only seven years old. After the death of his uncle Mohammed's ene- mies became more violent than ever and expelled him from Mecca. In Taif, two days journey east of his native town, whither he fled for safety, he received no protection, although connected with its inhabi- tants , but was hunted out of the place by slaves and children, and compelled to return to Mecca, where happily through the influence of Mutim, a respectable non-Koreishite citizen of the town, he was re-ad- mitted. In spite of all the misfortunes connected with this disastrous occurrence, the persecuted prophet re- ^ The homage of the Genii is related Sur. LXXII. 1 — 14. The rapture to heaven is a traditional legend, which is recorded in ex- tenso: Gagnier, "La Vie de Mahomet" XL img. 195—251. and is looked upon by many Moslemin as a mere vision, whilst the night- journey to Jerusalem is admitted by them as real See Sur. XVII. 61. where M. speaks of this also as a vision; compare verse 1. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 7 3 entered Mecca greatly strengthened by the hom- age of the demons, and the celebrated journey to heaven, whither he had been carried by a winged horse, and where he was saluted by God as the most beloved of messengers, and most excellent of crea- tures. The relation of this marvel exposed him to fresh outbursts of ridicule and contempt, and many of the faithful left him in consequence.^ Yet du- ring the ensuing festival, Mohammed found some willing ears among the pilgrims from Medina; his new disciples could not indeed alter his precarious position, but they could use their influence on return- ing to their country to circulate his doctrines. In this they prospered to such an extent, that we find in the following year A. D. 621 a double number of con- verts in Medina, able to afford protection to refugees from Mecca.* On the occasion of the next annual festival, when Mohammed was fifty three lunar years old, no less than seventy three pilgrims came from Medina, all Moslemin; the meeting on Akaba was resumed, and a treaty offensive and defensive concluded between them, with the request that Mohammed should emi- grate to Medina. The prophet however remained for the ^ His own aunt , Um Hani thought it so incredible , that she took hold of his garment and conjured him not to make himself more contemptible in the eyes of the Koreshites. Weil pag. 171. » * The men first taught by M. on mount Akaba belonged to the tribe of Chazradj , with whom he was connected through his mother , and who had long been allies of the Jews at Medina ; through the latter they must hare heard of a great prophet , the expected Messiah. 74 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. time at Mecca, but in September 622, in consequence of a conspiracy to murder him, lie fled to Medina;^ meeting the tribe Beni Sahm on his way, he gained them as converts , and their chief Bureida taking off" his turban and tying it to his Lance for a flag, accom- panied him to Medina. Arrived at Yathrib the ancient name of Medina, the latter simply signifying "town", —Mohammed's first acts were these, to institute the rehgious rites, to give a new home to the emigrants, to build the first Mosque , ^ and to organise a fraternity between the Meccan and Medina behevers, which extended even to mutual inheritance at the expence of their own relatives. In the seventh mouth after his arrival he mar- ried Avesha in her ninth year, the wedding break- fast consisted of a cup of milk, which Mohammed ^ For three months Abubeker had two camels in readiness to carry them away at a moment's notice. After his followers had left , M. was exposed to imminent peril , for expecting he would follow, his enemies surrounded his house to murder him. M. having been acquainted with their design ordered Ali to be put into his bed, whilst he escaped on the other side of the house and retreated with Abubeker to a cave one mile East of Mecca; leaving it on the fourth day they went towards Medina by a less frequented road along the Red sea. From this flight or rather emigration, dates the era of the Mohammedans ; Hwjs\5i5, emigration; ^=s^^\S^, the emigrant. The flight is confirmed by Sur. Vtll. 30. ^ Date trees were cut down, the dead hurried beneath them exhumed , and a simple structure was reared of five to seven y^-ds high, and a 100 square. At night it was illuminated with burning pieces of wood, till oil lamps were provided by some generous Moslem. The Kaliphs transformed it into a gorgeous temple, which is to this day a place of pilgrimage. By the side of it was built a harem, for Mohammed's favourite wives. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 75 obtained from Zaad, who withAsad alternately sup- plied him with food. His daughter was shortly after married to Ali; her outfit was two garments, a kohel-apparatus , two silver bracelets, a leathern pillow of palm-leaves , a cup and a few water jars. Her bridal bed was a sheep-skin; and a dish of dates and olives composed the wedding feast. With a view to gain the Jews Mohammed made several concessions; such as the turning of the face towards Jerusalem, the retaining of the celebration of the Sabbath, and the adherence to other Mosaic ordinances; he even went so far as to command the observation of the fast, Yom Kipur, or the tenth day of the month Tishri, with which the Jewish year commences; but failing in his scheme, these con- cessions were subsequently rescinded."^ His most important act during the first year of the Hedgra was the proclamation of war, as the heaven-or- dained means of spreading the faith. He could not yet venture on open warfare, but contenting himself with the irregular exploits of a robber, he plundered the Meccan caravans, which passed near Medina on their w^ay to and from Syria.* As the Koreishites however, were too cautious to be entrapped, he resorted to the base and treacherous measure of attacking them during the four sacred "^ The Jews desired to retain all their laws and rites ; and re- jected M's claim, mainly because he was not of the house of David. ^ M. once issuing forth with seventy men against a caravan the expedition ended in a league ; a second was attempted against 2500 camels, a third against 1000, but both failed. 76 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. months, when they considered themselves perfectly safe. ^ The first actual engagement at Beder between the rival parties took place in the month of Ramad- han, in the second year of the Hedgra; this time also Mohammed set out against a richly laden cara- van, returning from Syria. But its chief, Abu Sofian having received news of his movements, sent for troo23S from Mecca, which came forth to meet Mohammed, whilst the caravan safely passed another way. In this struggle between 314 Moslemin and 600 Meccans;^^ the latter lost seventy men on the spot, many being made prisoners. Mohammed took no active part in the battle, but was engaged in prayer, hence the victory was ascribed to the help of angels. "^^ This success with its rich spoil so far increased his ranks, that he now felt strong enough to revenge himself upon the Jews.*^ After a few assassinations open war was made against the tribe of the Beni Keinukaa, some of whom lived in Me- dina; on their refusing to embrace Islamism they were made prisoners, and would have been masacred, ^ Great scandal was occasioned by M. sending Abdallah against them with sealed orders and it required a divine sanction to justify , his murderous attack. 8ur. H. 217. ^0 Journal Asiatique VH. p. 97 etc. and Sur. III. 124. 125. VIII. 9. 10. 16. ^* Sur. Vm. 41. ^^ Tlie first victim was Asma , the daughter of Mervan who had written some satyres against him ; the second a Jew who was 120 years old. Weil, p. 117. 118. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 7 7 had not Mohammed been prevented from carrying out his purpose/^ For thirteen months Mohammed continued phni- dering the caravans of Mecca with impunity , until the Koreishites determining to revenge themselves sent 3000 men against Medina. The prophet was compelled to meet them and in the battle of Ohod, lost seventy of his best men, amongst whom was his uncle Hamza; he himself being wounded was for some time considered dead. ^* Many other misfortunes followed the battle of Ohod, which fell specially upon the Missionaries of Islamism, several of whom were murdered. With a view therefore to indemnify his followers Mohammed attacked another Jewish tribe, ^^ but being well for- tified in their castles they held out for some time and he permitted them to emigrate with part of their substance. As the spoil was gained without the sword, Mohammed's followers were disappointed by his claiming it for himself. These and other success- ful depredations caused another army of 10,000 men to be raised against Mohammed; it was commanded by Abu Sofian the head of the Koreishites.*^ The ^^ They were put In fetters, that he might slay them the more easily, but Abdallah, under whose protection they were, prevented it; Sur. V. 59. 60. was revealed to rebuke him for his interference. ^* He was found in a ditch, and had lost one of his front-teeth; had he not been recognised by Kaab through his armour and hel- met, he would probably have perished on the field. ^^ The Beni Nadhir, see Weil p. 134 till 139. and Sur. LIX. 1—16. ^^ This was In the fifth year of the Hedgra, March A. D. 627. 7 8 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF M0HA:MMED. [part i. prophet now dreading an open engagement, en- trenched hmiself within the waDs of Medina, working himself at the fortifications. But Avant of courage to storm the place, unfavourable weather, and discord among the besiegers induced them after twenty days to raise the siege. Mohammed however wish- ing to revenge the siege upon the Jewish tribe, Beni Koreiza, who on this trying occasion had joined the allied army against him, ordered a wholesale mas- sacre of the men and the women to be sold as slaves or exchanged for horses;^' one of them, Rihana was converted and added to the number of the prophet's 18 Wives. The humiliating siege of Medina, and the domes- tic affairs of Mohammed stirred up a party among his followers headed by Abdallah Ebn Ubej who had long looked upon his growing power with extreme jealousy; having uttered some severe remarks on the '^ Respecting the siege of Medina and this infamous war with the Jews: see Weil, pag. 160 — 170. A description by M. is found Sur. XXXni. 9—14. 20. 25. 26. ^^ Shortly before this M. had married the beautiful widow Um Salma , and Zeinab the wife of his liberated slave Zaid , whom he had persuaded to divorce. As it caused great offence to his fol- lowers he received a special licence from heaven. Sur. XXXIII. 4. 5. 37 — 39. Another wife he had lately taken was Barra, one of the 200 captives from the Beni Mustalik. We cannot be surprised that the faithfulness of Ayesha was called into question at this time , when so many rivals were added. To silence her accusers, Sur. XXIV. 11 — 20. appeared. The case of Rihana reminds us of the words of Homer : Thq 6' tXa^' elGf-X&wp n^JuxiLiog inayag ayyi. 6' a^a dag Xe(j(JiP "'Ay^iXXfjoq Xdih yhfara, Kal y.vas X^^^^^S /itivag, d'Pd(JOcp6vovg, m 6i noXacxg xtdroT viag. Iliad, fl L. 477. CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 79 prophet, — who had not then the power to resent the affront — Abdallah was requested by his tribe to seek Mohammed's pardon, to which he replied: '•'you asked me to become a behever, and I became one; you commanded me to pay taxes for rehgious purposes, and 1 paid them; now nothing is wanting but that I should, worship Mohammed."*^ The prophet having thus raised a powerful feeling against himself, felt it necessary in order to recover his position and revive the enthusiasm in his cause, to take a fresh public step, and therefore proclaimed a pilgrimage to Mecca, inviting both his followers and alHes among the Pagan Arabs to join him. This scheme however partialy failed, for in spite of having mustered only 700 men, he was compelled to start at once for Mecca in consequence of a dream, ^^ trusting that the Koreishites would forbear active hostilities during the sacred months. Changing his armour for the garment of a pilgrim and taking seventy camels, whom he had marked for a sacri- fice,^^ he set out, and without molestation reached ^^ This produced the infallible Sura, called "the hypocrite," which came down during one of his so called epileptic fits. See Sur. LXm 1. 2. 5. 7. 8. ^0 Great murmurring was also caused by his cruel destruction of the palm-trees , which served as a means of subsistence to the Jewish tribe, Ben Nadir, whom he afterwards drove into exile and the appropriation of the entire spoil , which the verses , Sur. LIX. 1 — 8. 11 — 16. could not allay. 2^ M. dreamed that he entered Mecca, and as his dreams were revelations from God, in order to be consistent, he was compelled to go. ^^ The mark consisted in a cut on the back of the animal, and a piece of leather or an old sandal round the neck. The first was called "ishar" the latter "taklid." 80 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. the vicinity of Mecca; failing however to gain ad- mittance, the ceremonies of the Haclj or pilgrimage were j^erformed at a distance; and a truce with the Meccans was made for ten years with the promise that at a future festival Mohammed migfht enter their city as a pilgrim and remain for three days.^^ To divert the discontent of his fellow-pilgrims under these discouraging circumstances, he proposed war aoainst the Jews of Cheibar and Fadak, who dwelt about four days journey north-east of Medina: some of their fortified places were stormed, and the rest submitted, engaging to j)ay half of their income as tribute.^* Not satisfied with the fifth part of the spoil, which he always claimed as divine right, he appropriated an additional wife, in the cajDtive Jewess Safia, whose husband he had killed on account of his hiding some of the treasures. ^^ Zeinab another Jewess seeking to revenge the death of her relatives prepared a poisoned lamb, for the prophet, who did not however take sufficient of it to cause his imme- diate death; yet he believed his health to have been destroyed fi'om that hour. ^'^ On his way back to ^^ Resjiecting this visit at Mecca see Sur. XLVIII. 1 — 27. ^* Mohammed's progress resembled that ascribed to Caesar by the Roman poet: Acer et indomitus, quo spes, quoque ira vocasset, Ferre manum, et numquam temerando parcere ferro ; Successus urgere suos — — — — Impellens, quidquid sibi summa petenti Ostaret; gaudensque viam fecisse ruina. Lucan. lib. I. 146. ^^ Gagnier "La vie de Mahomet" H. p. 57. ^^ When Zeinab was charged with the crime, she said; "Thou knowest how my people are treated by thee ; I thought therefore : CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 81 Medina two other Jewish tribes were conquered and made tributary. Just at this period, returned the exiled Moslemin from Abyssinia, bringing with them a report of the kind treatment, they had received from the Prince of that country, ^ ^ and this circumstance probably em- boldened Mohammed to send MTitten demands to foreign potentates, ^^ requiring them to acknowledge him as a divine projDhet and to embrace Islamism. Some are said to have complied with this demand, others doubtless from fear of his marauding bands, treated the ambassadors with courtesy and respect ; but Chosroes, the Persian king tore up the epistle before he had finished reading its contents, and Amru, the Ghassanide killed the ambassador. To revenge the murder, Mohammed sent 3000 men against Amru, but the latter, being supported by Greek troops, de- feated them near Mutta, and thus for the first time were Moslem forces brought into contact with a Christian army. After Mohammed had performed a pilgrimage to Mecca, staying only three days according to the treaty, the Meccans broke their faith with him by art thou only a prince I shall obtain rest; art thou a prophet, thou wilt be instructed of it." Traditions do not agree whether she was executed or pardoned. ^'^ Amongst them was the widow of a Christian , Um Halibi , to whom he was betrothed before her return to Arabia, and by whom he enriched his Harem. 28 To the Persian king Chosroes II ; the Abyssinian king ; and the Emperor Heraclius ; the Goyernor of Egypt and the heads of various Arab tribes. 82 AGE. HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. rashly attacking a tribe under his protection. Re- jecting an offer to renew the treaty, the pseudo- prophet advanced with 10,000 men against Mecca, and when he unexpectedly encamped before the town, the inhabitants were only able to save them- selves by acknowledging him as a sovereign and a prophet. Order being restored, Mohammed circumambu- lated the Kaaba seven times, each time kissing the sacred black stone. The 360 idols without and within the sanctuary were then destroyed, and these idolatrous remains being removed, the prophet commenced his prayer; after which he received the homage of men and women on mount Safa. Whilst Mohammed was occupied in consohdating his power in the town his generals went through the provinces, destroying idol temples, murdering priestesses and propagating Islamism. Mohammed had not yet however subjected all the Arab tribes; a strong army was now arrayed against him in the valley of Honein which being too numerous for his troops, the Moslemin narrowly escaped a most disastrous defeat. Equally unsuc- cessful was Mohammed's attack upon the strongly fortified tomi, Taif: for after twenty days he was compelled to raise the siege; then having settled a violent dispute in his army, and ordered the afiairs at Mecca, he returned to Medina. The ninth year of the Hedgra bringing embas- sies from various tribes in Arabia, was therefore called "the year of the deputations." Mohammed CHAP. III.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 83 now felt sufficiently strong to think of revenging his defeat at Mutta , and proclaimed a holy war against the Byzantine Empire; he perceived however but little enthusiasm among his troops, notwithstand- ing his promise of pardon for sins past and future to those, who should engage in it. Some dreaded the intense heat of the season, others were occupied with the date-harvest, or could not afford the neces- sary provisions, but the greater part doubtless feared to measure their strength with the Greeks a second time on the field of battle. Half the army return- ed the next day to Medina under the disaffected Abdallah Ebn Ubej, regardless of the menacing Suras, which were hurled against them. Mohammed then proceeded to Tabak, but his army being reduced and discontented, he could not venture further, and had the mortification of being obliged to return to Medina amidst the reproaches of his disappointed soldiers. Added to this vexation, a domestic occur- rence at this juncture occasioned so much scan- dal that he deemed it unsafe to make a pilgrimage this year to Mecca, he therefore sent Ali to proclaim to the pilgrims there assembled, that no league between non-Mohammedans should be valid after the expiration of four months; that the sanctuary should hereafter be approached only by Moslemin; and finally Ali was to recite among them the ninth Sura. On the following year the tenth of the Hedgra, Mohammed made his pilgrimage to Mecca in perfect safety at the head of at least 40,000 pil- 84 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part I. grims ; it was his last visit, and of this he seemed to have a presentiment. Some months after his retm'n from Mecca to Medina, Mohammed prepared for a third expedition to Syria, which indeed was never carried out; owing to his sudden ilhiess. Doubtless excited by fever, he rose up one night desiring his slave to accompany him to the burial-place of the town; on reaching the spot he saluted the dead, and said to Abu Munhaba: "To me is left the choice to remain in the world, whose treasures are opened to me till the last day or to meet my Lord earlier, and by God, I have chosen the latter." He then prayed for the dead saying, he was commanded to do so. On his return home Ayesha complaining of headache, he said; "let trie rather complain, I feel in great pain." From this moment his illness rapidly increased, he nevertheless continued his routine among his wives; when at last with Maimuna, he called them all together and requested, that he might be allowed to remain in Ayesha's house, which adjoined the mosque. Here his fever reached such a height, that seven skins of water were poured over his head; when relieved he said: "Now I feel that the poison I took at Cheibar tears the vein of my heart." He then went to the mosque to announce his end; and there commending Abubeker and Usuma, — the latter of whom he had appointed general of his army against the Greeks, — he concluded with this charge: "Whosoever among you has anything on his con- science, let him rise, that I may ask God's grace on [CHAP. II.] HIS CAREER AS A PROPHET. 85 his behalf." A man who was considered a good Moslem rose saying: "I was a hypocrite, a liar and an indolent Moslem." Omar vociforated; "Woe to thee, why revealest thou, what God has hidden!" Mohammed rejoined: "0 son of Chattab, it is better to blush in this life than in the life to come;" and continued: "Have I beaten any of you, here is my back, let him smite me in return; have I injured the honour of any, let him attack my own; have I robbed any one of money, let him receive it back, and fear no anger on my part, for that is not my way." When a man came forward to claim three denars, he gave them, repeating: "better to blush in this world, than in the world to come."^^ Return- ing to Ayesha's house he fainted; Abbas caused them to give him some medicine; which so annoyed him, that on recovering his consciousness, he made all present take a dose. During the last day of his life he appeared much better: but a fresh attack coming on, before losing his consciousness he granted liberty to his slaves, caused them to divide seven denars among the poor, and prayed : " God stand with me in the agony of death." He then expired A. D. 632. in the arms of Ayesha, his last words being: "to the highest companion in Paradise!" His body remained, contrary to all eastern custom, two or three days uninterred, whilst his friends and relations were occupied with the task of ^^ M. visited the mosque several times after, but with one ex- ception, never took an active part in the worship. Abubeker ge- nerally acted for him , which doubtless favoured his subsequent election as Kaliph. 86 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. choosing a successor; when the contest was decided in favour of Abubeker, they at last agreed on his being buried in Ayesha's house , where he died, which was accordingly carried into effect at night. 4. Mohammed is said to have been of middle stature; to have had a large head, strong beard, round face, and reddish-brown cheeks. His biogra- phers state, that his forehead was high, his mouth wide, his nose long, and somewhat of an aquiline shape; that he had large black eyes; that a vein which extended from his forehead to his eyebrows enlarged, when excited by anger; that his splendid- ly white teeth stood far apart; and upon his lower lip was a small mole. His hair hanging over his shoulders retained its dark colour to the day of his death: he sometimes dyed it brown but more fre- quently applied to it odoriferous oils. It was only at his last pilgrimage that he had his head shaven. He trimmed his moustache and his finger-nails every Friday before prayer. His neck, it is said, "rose like a silver bar upon his broad chest." Between his shoulders he had a large mole, which was looked upon as the prophetic seal. A physician once wish- ing to remove it, Mohammed objected, saying: "He who made it, shall also heal it." His hands and feet were very large, yet his step was so light, as "to leave no mark on the sand." Mohammed spoke but little, yet occasionally per- mitted himself a joke. A woman once came to him, saying: "My husband is ill and begs thee to visit him;" upon which he enquired, "has not thy hus- CHAP. III.] HIS HABITS. 87 band something white in his eye?" She returned in order to examine it; on her husband asking, what she was doing, she rephed: „I must see, whether you have anything white in your eye , for the Apostle of God asked the question." Her husband at once re- cognising the joke convinced her, that this was com- mon to all eyes. On one occasion when an old woman conjured him to pray for her, that she might enter paradise; he replied: "no old woman dares enter paradise!" As she began to weep, he reminded her of the verse in the Koran which declares that perpetual youth will be restored to women. The Arab prophet was compassionate towards animals , and would wipe down his horse , when it perspired with his sleeve; but this was nothing extraordinary among his countrymen. His cat was lifted up to share his own dish; and a white cock, which he had, he called his friend, considering him a protection against devils, genii, witchcraft and the evil eye! What he could do for himself, he never allowed to be done for him by others. He bought his own victuals in the market , cleaned and mended his own clothes, milked his own goats, and often had no fire for cooking purposes for several days to- gether. From the time he had tasted the poisoned lamb at Cheibar, he never received food from stran- gers, before they had themselves partaken of it. He was very superstitious and prognosticated good or evil from the most trivial incidents. His dress was simple, usually consisting of a cotton shirt, and an upper linen garment of native 88 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. manufacture, but on festive occasions lie wore a yellow mantle. His woollen cap was sometimes tur- baned with a white or black piece of cloth ; to trow- sers he only accustomed himself in after life. ^^ He constantly used a tooth-pick, and even died with one in his hand. His sleeping apartments accorded with the general sim|)licity of his habits. He slept on straw-mats covered with a cloth; his pillow was a leathern cushion filled with the fibres of the palm. The prophet however displayed considerable vanity in his toilet: he always carried with him a mirror in which he loved to contemplate his person, also a comb, a pair of scissors, odoriferous oil and paint for the eyelashes. On the battle-field Mohammed was anything but brave, generally wearing a double shirt of mail and a helmet with a visor, which covered the whole face, the eyes only excepted. After these preliminary remarks on the personal appearance, habits and manners of Mohammed, we arrive at the difficult task of defining his extraordi- nary character. No character has ever been painted in more varied and opposite colours than that of this remarkable individual; some authors applying to him every opprobrious term that could be invented ; others representing him a pattern of greatness, power and ^" „53et auperorbent(id)er 33eranlaffimg fcefianb fein gro^ter ^U\ai in ein^ jclncn (gtiicfcn, iretcf)e er i\m\ (S5cfd)eiif cvl^alten i)aik , in eincm l^om ^aifer ^erafline gum ®efd)enf erl^altcncn turfienen, niit Scibe bnrcf)lre&ten imb ge; fiidten ©en^anbc, cinem ^aar yom ^onig yen 5th)ff"'ien gefcBenf ten fd^luar; gen, Buntgemalten (Stiefein, eincm gvc^en ^o^^fftunb, unb einem ®nrt ober SBe^rge^enf i^cn ^n^^ferbled^ mit filbcrner (EdtnaHe , filfcernen ^aftfpangen, bret filbcrnen 9iingen nnb fiI6ernem ©ebrdme. 3)ie garBen feiner ^leibung tcarcn [cine SieHingefarten Jx^eip, fd;tuarg, griin, ond; rott}." 2Baf)I pag. 73. CHAP. III.] HIS CHARACTER. 89 virtue. Nor can we be surprised at tliis contrariety of views , when we remember bow one excess is ge- nerally followed by another, and re-action is the na- tural consequence where truth and justice have been outraged. ^ ^ It is indeed no easy matter to form a just esti- mate of a character composed of such consummate duplicity. If we regard Mohammed as acting the part of a conscious impostor or as a monster of cruelty and injustice, we shall find it hard to re- concile with our view the sparks of real devotion which here and there appear in his life, and to account for the moral and religious revolution which he accomphshed among the nations of Asia and Africa in so wonderfully short a period. Again, if ambition alone is put forth as the main-spring of Mo- hammed's mind, we must remember that the love of power manifested in one party, is always opposed by the instinctive unwillingness of the other to be go- verned; if then there had been no admixture of truth in his work and character, or if a want had not been felt, to induce men to submit to his claims, his pas- sion to rule would have met with but little result. To judge from the manner in which Mohammed constantly alludes to his impression that the Jews and Christians had corrupted their Scriptures he ^^ Before the twelfth century it was hardly understood in the West , that M. was only a false prophet and not a pretended divi- nity; and still earlier he was known as Maphomet, Baphomet, Bafum (whence the French words bafumerie and momerie our Eng- lish mawmetry and mummery, see M. Renan and Trench "on the study of words"), and believed to be a false god to whom human sacrifices were offered ! 90 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. must at one period of his life have believed, that the ancient prophets wrote of him as the last prophet: never deeming it necessary to give an account of their dishonest transaction but always taking it for granted as a well-known fact. He accuses them^^ of having been bribed by their spiritual guides to suppress those prophecies, which referred to him. He censures the envy of the Jews ^ ^ which would not allow them to admit, that any other nation, besides their own, could give a prophet to the world. Again he declares^* that having killed their prophets, no one need be astonished that they should corrupt their Scriptures with a view to reject him. He also tells the Christians that in perusing their books, they might as certainly recognise his divine Mission, as a father would recognise the features of his son ,- but in the wickedness of their heart they denied him.'^^ That Mohammed was strengthened in this faith by his friend Waraka, who was a Christian priest and acquainted with the Old and New Testa- ment, has been already seen in this chapter. Taking these and other matters into conside- ration, we cannot possibly side with those who con- sider Mohammed to have been a thoroughly self- conscious impostor at the comniencem.ent of his career. If the question therefore be raised whether we are to consider him as an impostor or a misguided fanatic, 32 Sur. m. 185. 33 See Sur. II. 89. ^4 g^^. m. 21. 103. 3^ He flatters them, especially the monks , to induce them to give up the writings they had secreted , and proceeds to threaten them and the Jews with awful judgments, if they would not deliver those prophecies, which they had so long withheld. CHAP. III.] HIS CHARACTER. 91 we answer, that he was neither wholly the one nor the other, and yet he was both. Mohammed in our opinion commenced his pseudo-prophetical career with honest intentions. Though Satan contrived to delude him with consummate craft, and even though there was in Mohammed's own heart the germ of all the evil of which he became the author, it still remains to be proved, that he was from the begin- ning an hopelessly wicked impostor. A man may be in error, and yet be sincere; those who killed prophets and apostles, thought that they were doing God service; nor can we ascribe want of sincerity to Saul the Pharisee, when raging against the Church and destroying her members. We have seen in the previous biographical sketch of Mohammed, that in his infancy as well as in after life, he was afflicted with a kind of epileptic fit, which was considered both by himself and others to be the effect of demoniacal possession. He was treated by an exorcist with a view to the expulsion of the demon. When his alleged revelation com- menced, it was accompanied with the same spas- modic convulsion which he had had before, and Mo- hammed himself, as well as his friends, was at first impressed with the idea, that it was an evil spirit, which influenced him. It was no doubt from a fear, of sanctioning this apparently superstitious view of the native Arabs, — whose testimony in the matter has been deemed too doubtful and unintel- ligent to be regarded by European savans — that these facts have been wholly disregarded in forming 92 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED, [part i. an estimate of Mohammed's character. But have we not a parallel case^^ m holy Scrij^tures, where a youth is described as being possessed of a devil, who was precisely affected in the way , in which we find Mohammed is represented to have been in the wri- tings of his own followers? Mohammed's attacks are considered to be of an epileptic character: and no 23hysician will fail to recognise the same type of disorder in the case brought before us in the Gospel. If in the latter instance the author of the evil was the devil, why should we not assume him to be the author in the case of the false prophet? ^^ Independently of Mohammed's own impression, the belief of Chadija, Abu Talib and the generality of their contemporaries in Arabia, we cannot resist expressing our conviction that the assumption of Satanic influence can alone solve the mystery which envelops the origin of this fearful "delusion." Even supposing that no evidence existed of Mohammed's •^^ "And one of the multitude answered, and said: Master I have brought unto thee my son, which hath a dumb spirit, and wheresover he taketh him (xataXd^ri cfr. the asabahu of M.) he feareth him , and he foameth , and gnasheth with his teeth , and pineth away {^riQixivetai cfr. ighmaii in M's case). And they brought him unto him ; and when he saw him , straight way the spirit tare him {ioTTaQa^sv), and he fell on the groimd and wallowed foaming (M's face was covered with foam). And the spirit cried (M. roared like camel), and rent him sore, and came out of him ; and he was as one dead, insomuch that many said he is dead." Mark IX. 17. ''^ It need scarcely be added that the ordinary cases of epilepsy present some of the most unaccountable and perplexing phenomena to medical science, since post mortem examinations entirely fail to discover the slightest trace of disease in any part of the body , a circumstance , we believe , without parallel. But , alas we have altogether swerved very far from Biblical views as regards maladies in general, their true source and the secret of healing ! CHAP. III.] HIS CHARACTER. 93 having been afflicted with such a malady — one which was invariably ascribed to the immediate agency of the powers of darkness, — could we con- sider it possible, that so grand, comprehensive and lasting an apostacy as that of Islamism should have been conceived, and have obtained such a fearful dominion over nations , some of whom were polished and civilised, without the direct co-oj^eration of the prince of darkness? Mohammed the Arab prophet must be considered a type of Antichrist , if that last great enemy of the Church is to win his temporary power through the abounding of heresy among Christians, and is to claim that position in the world, which is due only to the Son of God.^^ If this be so, may we not assume, that his coming would be also "after the working of Satan with all power of signs and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteous- ness in them that perish ?"^^ How natural therefore that Satan should aj^pear to Mohammed as an "angel of light ;"^^ and if we assume, that he took the form and acted the part of the angel Gabriel, we account ^^ It can only be ascribed to the sceptical views of too many of our learned men , that they so carefully avoid this point of satanic agency at the commencement of Islamism. See 1 Chron. XXI. I. John XIV. 30. Lu. XXH. 3. 31. Math. XEI. 25. 29. ^^ 'Ov ianv rj TtaQovala xar' hsQyeiav rov Gatccfd iv Tzdari dvvai^isi, Kcu orjiitioiq kol tsQacFi xpsvdovg, xal Iv Ttdari ayan^ rfjg dSmag h toig dno'kXvfievoig. 1 Thess. II. 9. 10. **' "For such are false Apostles {ypfivdoaTiootoXoi , cfr. Uy**^^ aJLJI) deceitful workers, transforming themselves into the Apostles of Christ: And no marvel; for Satan himself is transformed {ixtta- Gjiiiiaiitf^Tai) into an angel of light " 2 Cor. XI. 13. 14. 94 AGE, HISTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAIVOIED. [part i. not only for the mysterious origin of Islamism and its potent spell among the nations of the world , but also for the otherwise inexplicable contradictions in the character of the false prophet. If ever it has been fulfilled that: "God shall send them strong — or energetic — delusion, that they should believe a lie,"*^ it was in this instance. Assuming then that Mohammed had the vision of an angel, or rather of a devil "transformed into an angel of hght," we may take it for granted that he began his work of reformation with honest inten- tions, and not with the consciousness of acting the part of an impostor. If we consider the imposture as the master-piece of Satan, framed and carried out under the immediate co-operation of the powers of darkness; if we allow for the workings of Moham- med's natural fervent imagination, at a period when his nation expected a prophet; and if we regard the mature age, at which he announced his Mission; the convictions of Chadija, Abubeker, Omar and others, who had the opportunity of judging of his real state of mind; his endurance for twelve years, of every kind of insult, abuse and persecution; his rejection of all offers of riches and power, when made on the condition of abandoning his infatua- tion;*^ the simplicity of his mode of life to the day ** Ka\ dia rovto n8H\\)ti avtolq 6 Geog htQysiav nXdfTjs , iig to maevaai dvtovg rep xpevdsi. 2 Thess. II. 11. *' According to the Sirat Arrassul a Koreishite said to him at the beginning of his Mission: "Resign thy faith, wilt thou money, beautiful women, or desirest thou for power? Say what thou wilt, it will be granted unto thee ; seest thou a spirit from which thou CHAP.III.3 HIS CHAEACTER. 95 of liis death : — taking these and other considera- tions into account we camiot beheve that Moham- med commenced his work merely as an ambitions conqueror, or a base imposter, who had no faith, in himself or his Mission. He was perhaps the unconscious instrument at first for originating an unparaUeled delusion, which should maintain the most active and lasting anta- gonism to Clnist's religion ; and he was urged on in his work by some superhuman impetus which in the course of time he vainly persuaded liimself to be the inspiration of Heaven. Thus having set liis bark afloat, his zeal kindled, his work prospered and in his enthusiasm he may have interpreted tliis success as a mark of God's favour and support. His new re- ligion was not therefore on his part a premediated scheme of deception, but was suggested to him as the most appropriate means of uniting the professors of the three creeds, then prevalent among his countrymen, and of thus satisfying an acknow- ledged want among them. Thus led on step by step, Mohammed soon came to act the part of a con- scious and decided impostor : in whatever way, there- fore the question as to his individual g-uilt at the beginning may be determined, there can be no doubt of that guilt as his scheme ripens. The following alleged revelations, incontrovertibly stamp Moham- med as a false prophet ; first the Sura which had for its object to re-estabhsh the innocence of Ayesha his canst not free thyself, we will pay the exorcist with our own money." Sirat Arassul fol. 47. 48, 96 AGE AND CHAEACTER OF MOHAMMED. [PART I. favourite wife ; then the authority to empower him to many the wife of his adopted son Zaid, to enlarge his Harem at pleasure ; and to obtain a larger proportion of ihe spoils, made by his army/^ The first di'op of blood which was shed in his name by Abdallah during the sacred months, marked him as a man, who had now entered the path of deception, and wilful unposture/* He might possibly persuade him- self that he was acting in the spirit of Moses, and following the steps of some sincere Christians, when he declared war against the unbelievers, and agreeably to the practice of his age and country he might justify single instances of murder ; but he could not desecrate the sacred months by plunder and bloodshed without having some real or pretended revelation to sanction the act : yet according to his most orthodox biogTaphers, this sanction was not 43 In Sur. VIII. 41, the fifth part is apportioned to the prophet. The Sura respecting the innocence of Ayesha is XXIV. 11 — 20. also 4 — 5. The answer to the mnrmnrs which were caused by his marrying Zeinab, the wife of Zaid, is found Sur. XXXIII. 4. 5. 36. 39 — 39. ]Sfo one will be surprised when Maraccius commences his *' Eefutationes •' to this Sura with these words: *' Inter alia quae manifesto demonstrant Alcorarum non esse a Deo, illud est praecipium, puod in eo Mahometus omnia fere ad commodnm suum metitur." This will also aid us to define Mohammed's character. 4* The letter which was given to Abdallah Ebn Djach contained these words : " In the name of the Most Merciful, the Most Grracious go with thy companions, God's blessing be upon thee, mto the valley Nachala, and watch there the caravans of the Koreishites, perhaps thou canst bring me word about them." The last sen- tence seems a Moslem addition, to protect M's character. Sura II. 217. refers to this transaction. Weil, pag. 98 — 102. CHAP. III.] HIS CHARACTER. 97 given till a considerable time had elapsed after the retiiTn of Abdallah from his infamous expedition. The mystery with which he confides to him an am- biguously written letter to be opened only after he had travelled a few days from Medina, again stamps Mohammed as an impostor, who was con- scious that he was committing an act of injustice and treachery. Again the "Sura of Joseph",*^ composed by Mo- hammed in Mecca, before his flight, is given as a direct revelation from Heaven, and appealed to as a proof of his divine Mission, though it contains incon- trovertible proof of having been partially borrowed from the Bible and still more largely from Rabbini- cal tradition. Here was no delusion, no deceivable vision or satanic inspiration, which could have been mistaken for divine revelation, but a wilful fraud, and palpable deception. But even granting the sup- position that Mohammed justified base means by the good end he had in view, before his flight, we still find him acting with a crafty, inconsistent and shortsighted policy throughout his stay at Medina. He first flatters the Jews and makes surprising con- cessions in order to win them to his cause but being disappointed in his expectations, he rescinds all his former concessions in their favour and becomes their deadliest enemy. Some he pardons through fear of Abdallah, others he slaughters like a flock of *^^ Sur. Xn. was written in a romantic style and was meant to attract the Arabs, whose taste for such compositions is notorious. G 98 AGE, fflSTORY AND CHARACTER OF MOHAmiED. [part i. slieep. To day lie limits the number of wives, to morrow lie transgresses liis own laws in the name of God.*^ The mm-derer may save his life by paying a ransom , but the thief is to have his hand cut off. In critical moments he seeks the advice of others, which he carries out against his own will.*' His strange shortsightedness became apparent, in his neglecting to choose a successor. It was comparatively easy for Mohammed to gain the assent of his Pagan contrymen to his pro- phetical dignity without any distinguished talent, for his creed was unquestionably of a higher order than their own; added to which his attractive man- ners, his eloquence, hberality and general upright- ness were sufficient to secure him many admirers. At Medina, success was attributable rather to his good connections, the prospect of spoil, the dis- union of the tribes, and his own powers of deception than to his personal bravery or talents as a general; he deemed no means too base to rid himself of an enemy, where he felt strength and courage to do so: his art consisted in first acquiring every possible information and then surprising the enemy; hence he preserved the greatest secresy on all occasions, *^ Sur. XXXIII. 47. 48. 49. After mentioning various degrees of affinity, within which the prophet may marry it is added, "and any other believing woman, if she give herself unto the prophet, in case the prophet desireth to take her to wife. This is the pe- culiar privilege unto thee above the rest of the true believers." *''' At Ohod he goes forth against his will; during the siege of Medina he wished to make a separate league, and at Taif he com- mands the storming, although he knew it would be fruitless. CHAP. IV.] HIS CHARACTER. 99 and only in one instance did he inform his army be- fore-hand of the plan and object of his expedition.*^ In reviewing the character of Mohammed, we find that it decidedly deteriorates from the time that he had assumed the office of a prophet, and this most significant fact ought to be specially borne in mind. In his early days of religious reform he commenced as a sincere fanatic , mistaking dreamy visions and Satanic influence for divine inspiration; but he com- pleted his career as a licentious impostor, who brought forth his pseudo-revelations whenever he found it necessary to sanction the most unjustifiable acts. It now devolves upon us to examine the history and the general character of the document, con- taining those revelations bequeathed by Mohammed to the world. CHAPTER lY. HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. "They have seen vanity and lying divination saying: The Lord saith, and the Lord hath not sent them: and they have made others to hope that they would confirm the word. Have ye not seen a vain vision and have ye not spoken a lying divination, whereas ye say : The Lord saith it ; albeit I have not spoken." Ezek. XTH. 6. 7. The Koran ^^ purporting to be the work of Mo- hammed could not long remain an indifferent book *^ This was the expedition against the Greeks to Tabak. *^ ^IjJul Koran from \Ji legere ; hence lectio, liber lectionis, 100 THE HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. to tlie literary and religious world, hence we possess a considerable number of printed editions in the ori- ginal ;^^ various translations being also made into other languages. The first Latin version appeared in the days of St. Bernard A. D. 1143. When at the request of Peter, abbot of the Monastery at Clugni, the Koran was translated by Robert of Retina an Englishman, and Hermann of Dalmatia a German, but it remained hidden in the cloisters for nearly 400 years, when A. D. 1543 it was published at Basle by Theodor Bibliander^^; and though scarcely de- serving the name of a translation it was again ren- dered into Italian, German and Dutch. ^^ iSi'np.'^S in the same sense among the Jews: Another name .LSwi, IP^'ns, Foorkan; often only i.,,AJC5^ ^^^^oq, liber answering to "nCD ^° The Koran was ^r&i printed in the original Arabic at Venice, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, under the short title : „Alcoranus Arabice. Venet." but no copy seems now to exist. Hinkelmann edited it in Hamburg 1694. In the year 1698 Ma- raccius followed with his edition : "Alcorani textus universus" etc. The next was by the Russian Emp. Catharina II: "Al Koran Ara- bice. Petropoli 1787." Anno 1829: "Muzihi-el-Koran in Calcutta; Arabic and Hindustani." The same in Serampore 1833; with an English version, Cawnpore 1834, Again at Calcutta in Arabic and Persian 1831; the same at Cawnpore 1835. G. Fliigel edited it 1834 Lips. Another followed in Leipsic 1837. and in Calcutta appeared the same year an edition with two Pers. Com. and an interlin. Hindi translation. ^^ "Machumetis saracen. princ. ipseque Alcoran quae ante an- nos CCCC Petrus Abbas Cluniacensis ex Arab, lingua in Lat trans- ferri curav. Haec omnia in un. Vol. red. sunt op. et st. Th. Bibli- andri Eccles. Tigur. Ministri . . , Basil. 1543. Fol." ^^ The Italian appeared at Venice 1547. "L' Alcorano di Macometto nel qual si contie ne la dottrina, la vita, i costumi e i legge sue." The German version by Sal. Schweiger appeared 1616 and 1623 at Nurnberg, and the Dutch 1641 at Hamburg. CHAP. IV.] EUKOPEAN EDITIONS AND VEKSIONS. 101 The learned Maraccio published his work, con- sistino: of the Koran in Arabic, a Latin version, with notes and refutations A.D. 1644/^ This Latin trans- lation was published separately in Germany and ren- dered into the language ot that country/* The oldest French version was executed by M. du Kyer, who had acquired a knowledge of Arabic at Constan- tinople and Alexandria f and this version became the parent of several other translations into English, Dutch and German/^ M. Savary gave a new version to the world in the year 1783 ; ^^ and stiU more re- cently we received a fresh translation from M. Kasi- mirsld. ^^ Of the English Translations of the Koran from the original we first name that of George Sale, so weU and deservedly known to the British public ; it was pub- hshed in 1734 and is frequently quoted in this work 53 '' Alcorani texius universus ex correct. Arabum exempl. de- scriptus . . ex Arab, idiom, in. Lat. translat. appositis unicuique cap. notis atque refat. his omnibus praemiss. prodrom. Auct. Ludo- vico Maraccio. Patavii 1698. Fol." 54 The German version by David Nerreter Nurnberg 1703. The Latin one was edited by Chr. Keineccius Lips. 1721. 55 "L' Alcoran de Mahomet. Translate d'Arabe en Fran^ais. Paris 1647," 56 Alexander Eoss turned it into Enghsh, Lond. 1649 and 1688. Glazemaker mto Dutch 1698. Eotterd. and G. Lange published a a German version from the Dutch at Hamburg. 57 Le Goran traduit de I'Arabe accomp. de not. et preced. d'un abrege de la vie de Mahomet tire des ecriv. orient, le plus estimes par M. Savary. Paris 1783. 58 Pantheon litteraire, collect, univers. de chefs d'oeuvres de r esprit humain, les hvres sacres de I'orient. pag. 463 — 752 : Civili- sation musulmane, le Koran, traduction nouvelle faite sur le texte Arabe, par M, Kasimirski. Paris 1840. 2nie edition 1841. 102 THE HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [PART I. in spite of the great inconvenience whicli arises from his neglecting to divide the Suras into verses, which are invariably in the original and several of the fo- reign versions/^ Sale's version was rendered into German by Theod. Arnold, who in translating it con- sulted other versions, especially that of Maraccio.^^ The first German version from the original was accomplished by Professor Megerlin ; it has the ad- vantage of being divided into verses.^^ In 1773 Boysen's new ti^anslation appeared in Germany, furnished with notes.^^ His version v/as revised and corrected from the original by AY ahl in the present century, and is accompanied by a valuable intro- duction. ^^ Two new versions from the Arabic have lately been added to the above by UUmann in Germany, and Eodwell in this country. ^^ There are not wanting other auxiliary means to render the Koran more intelligible to the European student, such as concordances and indices specially compiled for this purpose.^^ The commentaries of 59 The Koran commonly called the Alcoran of Mohammed by Gr. Sale. London 1734. 60 Arnold's translation was published A.D. 1746. at Lemgo. 61 Die Turkische Bibel, oder des Koran's allererste deutsche Uebersezmig aus der Arabischen Urschrift von M. D. Fr. Megerlin, Frankfurt 1772, 62 Der Koran oder das Gesetz fiir die Musselmrinner durch Muham^ med, uumittelbar aus dem Arabischen iibersetzt mit Anmerkungen. Halle 1773 und 1775. ''S Der Koran nach Boysen von Neuem Iibersetzt aus dem Arabi- schen mit einer historischen Einleitung c. c. von Gr. Wahl, 1828. 64 Der Koran von Dr. L. Ullmann. Crefeld 1940. Rodwell's Koran, translated from the Arabic, with introduction, notes, and index 1865. CHAP. IV.] EUROPEAN EDITIONS AND VERSIONS. 103 Moslem doctors are so numerous, that their names alone would fill entne volumes. There are not less than 20,000 of them m the library at Tripolis in Syria; but the best and most known are the works of Zamakshari, Bedawi, Mahalli and Sujuti. 1. The Koran, as we now have it, is confessedly not the work of Mohammed, but of his followers. ^^ On his death, his alleged revelations were found scattered in fragments here and there, some in the hands of Hafsa, one of his numerous widows , others remained only in the memory of believers. Moham- med not only omitted to compile these written frag- ments, but with the exception of a few, he never en- couraged their general circulation; this would have precluded the possibility of his adding, altering, mo- difying and recalling previous revelations, as occasion might require. That it was a common practice of the prophet to revoke and alter his phrenetic pro- ductions is proved by the Koran itself, ^^ as well as by tradition. ^^ On one occasion a verse having been cutta 1811. and Concordantiae Corani arabicae ad literarum ordi- nem et verb, radices dilig. disp. Gust. Fliigel. Lips. 1842. ^^ That M. employed secretaries to write down his visions is not called into question; less known is the fact, that he must have had the knowledge of writing during the latter part of his life. He required writing materials in his last moments. Again he said to Muawia, one of his secretaries: "Draw the <»_? straight, divide the ^JtJ properly etc. etc." Note et extrait, des Manu. de la Biblio. Imper. tom. VIII. p. 357. ^^ "We recal none of our verses, or bring them to oblivion without supplying better ones or at least some equally good." Sur. II. 100. also Sur. XVI. 103. 104. ^^ When it was revealed that those who stay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdallah and Ebn Um V 104 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [parti. recited by Mohammed to a friend, who immediately wi'ote it down, it was the next morning discovered to have been effaced; the prophet on being told of the disappearance of the verse re^^lied, that it had been taken back to heaven ; in other words , tliat he himself had obliterated the wTiting. ^^ As Mohammed was not always able to destroy a condemned or recalled Snra, or any part of such, the many contradictions and abrogations which are to be met with in the Koran are easily accounted for. Commentators indeed seek to explain away many of these discrepancies, yet in spite of their ingenuity they are compelled to admit no less than 225 pas- sages, containing laws and dogmas, which have been abrogated by subsequent Suras. Mohammed fre- quently made experiments with his heaven-sent com- mands, not scrupling to alter his inspired directions according to circumstances: thus we have seen that when his faith was greater in the Jews and Chris- tians than in his Pagan countrymen, he fixed the Kebla at Jerusalem, and made other similar con- cessions; but when the former disappointed his ex- pectations, he altered it for Mecca hoping to con- ciliate the latter. The law which Mohammed had made ^° on behalf of the Moslem fraternity of emigrants Maktum exclaimed: "and what if we were blind''! The proi^het asked for the shoulder-blade upon w^hich it was written — then had a spasmodic convulsion and when recovered — made Zaid add : "not having a bodily infirmity." Sur. IV. 94. The secretary re- lated long after; "I fancy, I see the words now on the shoulder- blade near a crack." Mem. de I'Accad. des inscrip. I. 308. ^^ mdl, (Sinleitimg in ben ^oran, pag. 45. '" 3Seit pag. 355. CHAP. IV,] REVOKED PASSAGES. 105 at Medina, excluding their kindred from inheritance, was repealed when they had acquired property and had taken root among the original inhabitants. Originally Mohammed required two believers as wit- nesses in special cases , but afterwards when his power increased, he declared one to be sufficient. Again, at an early period toleration was recommended towards non-Moslem communities, but it was abol- ished in Suras of a later date;'^ so long as his cause remains weak, the false prophet preaches gen- tleness and patience under persecution but no sooner does he obtain a firm footing, than he proclaims death and destruction to all non-conformists. Such being Mohammed's mode of enacting and revoking laws and precepts throughout his prophetical career, we can easily understand, that it would have been con- trary to his uniform policy, to collect all the Manu- scripts of his alleged revelations and to give them to the world. The following circumstance will serve as a proof that the posthumous collection of the scattered ^^ Sur. V. 78. II. 61. where Jews, Christians and Sabians are assured of heaven, are in toto abolished by Sur. XLVIII. 13. LXIV. II. III. 84. See Maracci Refut. ad Sur. II. pag. 33. The most re- markable contradiction concerning M's private life occurs Sur. XXXIII. 47 — 47. where he first receives an unlimited licence to marry, and in the latter part he is restricted to the wives he al- ready possessed. As M. died betrothed to a fresh wife, commen- tators assume , he first received the restriction , and afterwards the broad licence; for it is added: "the verses do not follow in the Koran in the order they were revealed." It is however enough for our present purpose to prove that M. enacted and abolished laws in the name of God as it suited his personal con- venience. 106 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part u Suras, depended much upon the memory of Moham- med's followers. — In the engagement between the Moslem troops and the army of the rival prophet Moseilama, the most celebrated mnemonical reciters of the still uncollected Suras were slain, and Abube- ker, fearing lest they should all be cut off, requested Zaid Ebn Thabat to compile the book, whose history we are now to consider. ' ^ Zaid therefore collected all the pseudo-revelations that could be found, writ- ten upon parchment, leather, palm-leaves, shoulder- blades of mutton, stones and other materials, and collated these with the Suras, which the survivors knew by heart. '^ It was not to be expected that this compilation would be acceptable to all parties, many of whom professed to be in possession of verses which were either altogether omitted or differ- ently worded in the collection;'* the consequent dis- cord increased to such a degree under Kaliph Othman, that he determined to remedy it by a coup d'etat: Zaid was now charged to revise his former collection, to omit the "variae lectiones," which had been retained in the first, and to make several copies of this new edition; these were sent to the chief '^ "I fear said Abubeker, the learned might all die out, and therefore advise the collection of the Koran." Weil pag. 348. ^^ Mem. de I'accad. des inscriptions. Tom. I. pag. 330. Alcoran ed. Maracci. pag. 38. etc. etc. ^* Different editions of the same Suras were in existence during M's life-time. Once two men quarrelled as to the correctness of the twenty fifth Sura. Each being requested to read his own version before the prophet, he declared both to be correct, adding the Ko- ran was revealed in seven different readings. Mem. de I'Accad. Tom. L. pag. 330. CHAP. IV.] ORIGINAL COLLECTION. 107 cities of the Empire with a command to hum all others then existing. *^^ It will be seen that the object of Othman was to establish for future ages, the unity rather than the purity of the text, and in removing those discre- pancies which Mohammed had suffered to exist, he not only compiled but reformed the Koran. As however the vowels and interpunctuations were not introduced before the second century of the Hedgra, when fresh differences had already crept into the Manuscripts, the unity enforced by Othman was of very short duration: we soon meet with seven different editions, possibly to accommodate Mohammed's asser- tion that the Koran was revealed in seven different readings. ^^ The perplexity arising from these various '"'' It is however not quite certain whether Abubeker did more than collect the materials, whilst Othman caused copies to be made from them. M. Quatremere appealing to Mudjmil Attawarich says : Le Kaliphe Othman, troisieme successeur de Mahomed, s'etait oc- cupe avec un soin infatigable a faire reunir en un seul corps les parties dispersees et incoherentes de I'Alcoran etc. Journal Asia- tique de Paris, Juillet 1838. pag. 41. ''^ Othman's own copy of the Koran, which he read when he was assassinated , is said to have been brought to Antartus , and four leaves marked with his blood were preserved in the Mosque of Cordova, In Egj'pt too they professed to have a copy of his; the same in Marocco and Tiberias. Journal Asiatique de Paris tom. VII. pag. 41. ^^ Two editions originated in Medina, a third in Mecca, a fourth at Kufa , a fifth at Bussura , a sixth in Syria , the last was the "editio vulgaris." The first of the two in Medina counts 6000 verses; others as many as 6236. This will explain the difference which frequently occurs in the quotation of verses. All are said to contain an equal number of words, some say 99,464, others 77,639; and 323,915 letters. It has been also computed how many times each letter of the alphabet occurs in the Koran. Keland. p. 25. 108 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. editions is naturally heightened by the confusion prevailing in the Koran itself, and serves not only as an apple of discord among Moslem divines , but also baffles the most acute criticism of European savans. The division of the entire book into 11 4 Suras "^^ or chapters, was made upon most arbitrary principles and their succession wantonly defies all chronological sequence. Nor is this all; even verses which were re- vealed in one Sura are transposed and inserted into an- other which appeared at a different time and on a dif- ferent occasion. A learnedMoslem doctor declares: — '^ "Whosoever will give his opinion respecting the book of God, must know how the Suras appeared in suc- cession, in Mecca as well as in Medina, and be acquaint- ed with those, concerning the period of which the learned disao;ree; he must know what has been re- vealed twice; what ap23eared in Medina concerning the people at Mecca, and what appeared in Mecca belonging to the Suras of Medina, and what was made known inDjofa, Jerusalem, Taif and in Hudeibia. He must be able to discover which Mecca verses are mixed ^^ The word Sura occurs 9 times in the Koran. Sur. 11. 23. IX. 66. 88.126. 129. X.38. XL 14. XXIV. 1. XL VII. 21. Here it may signify verses ; literally it implies a row, order or series ; a rank of soldiers. Sowar being the plural of Sura, is now the term in India for horse- men. In Rabbinical Hebrew r.'n^lD signifies also a row or line ; and we conclude Sura to be of Hebrew origin as 3 names of the Koran correspond to Hebrew names:- — ^^jJiJI, t^^)?^; 1l?^?j ^jLswaJI, Foorkan; ^BD, or ^,^aJC5^ Kitab. Each Sura is subdivided into verses, called Ayat Jo|, from the Hebrew niN, a sign or wonder. ^^ Imam Abul Kasim Hasan Ebn Mohammed, in the introduction to the MS. "Chamis", quoted by Weil pag. 363. CHAP. IV.] PREVAILING CONFUSION. 109 up with Medina Suras, and which Medina verses were confounded with Mecca Suras; he must be hkewise acquainted with those which were carried from Mecca to Medina, and from Medina to Mecca and Abyssinia; finally he must know which are the revoking and re- voked verses." In defining the chronological succession of those Suras, produced in Mecca before the Hedgra, there are three things which may serve as guides to our intricate path; first, the frequent allitsions to histor- ical events of that period; secondly, the peculiar character of the Suras, which became entirely, al- tered at Medina, where Mohammed assumed the character of a lawgiver and prince in addition to that of a prophet; lastly, the style of the Suras, which originally was rhythmical greatly resembling that of the Arabian soothsayers, but which Moham- med afterwards exchanged for prosaic diction, that he might not be considered possessed, ^^ and also be- cause he was spent and exhausted by his first efi'u- sions : for it is remarkable that the very subjects which kindled all his enthusiasm at the commencement of his so-called Mission, were subsequently treated in a most prosaic style. It is generally agreed that Mohammed's first re- velations were the sixtyninth and seventyfourth Suras, in which he refers to his alleged Mission and writing. ^^ The CXI. chapter with its imprecations ° Soothsayers were generally considered to be possessed by an evil spirit. ^ In assigning the Suras to their respective periods it must £^' 110 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. against his uncle Abu Laliib, — who had cursed his nephew and Hfted up a stone against him, when dehvering his first sermon, — belongs to this pe- riod. ^^ Then follow a series of chapters in which Mohammed is encouraged to persevere in his course, in spite of the opposition of his townsmen; the divine character of the Koran is proclaimed; ^^ his own office as a prophet is defined, as distinguished from that of poets, soothsayers and possessed per- sons, and the doctrine of the Resurrection and Judg- ment to come is defended against the reviling attacks of his antagonists.^^ These chapters, produced dur- ing the first five years of his Mission bear the stamp of deep conviction, earnestness and sincerity, in which Mohammed appears rather as a misguided fanatic than as an impostor. The man evidently believes what he preaches and is carried away by his en- thusiasm. The second period of Mohammed's prophetical career at Mecca, still produces some very poetical Suras, but in these we discover more of the projDhet and less of the dreamy visionary and enthusiast; more not be forgotten , that sometimes yerses or portions of them belong to a different period. ®^ The same may be said of the last 6 verses of Sur. XV. where M. is commanded to proclaim his Mission beyond the circle of his friends and connections. ^^ Although not yet completed; "Koran" here and in other places signifies any writing which is to be read. See Sur. XXXIH. 25. ^* Sur. Lxxxi. Lxvnr Lxxx. Lxxxix. xcnr. xciv. cin. c. -cvm. cii. cvH. cv. cxnr. cxiv. cxii. xcvn. xci. LXXXV. XC. XCV. CI. LXXY. CIV. LXXVII. LXXXVI. LXX. LXXVni. LXXIX. LXXXH. LXXXIV. LVI. LXXXVHI. LII. LXIX. Lxxxni. XCIX. CHAP. IV.] REAL ORDER OF THE SURAS. Ill effort is apparent in his teaching and less freshness in the outponrings of his supposed inspirations. His censures of the superstitious Meccans become more detailed; his doctrines assume a calmer tone; hell and Paradise are more minutely described; ^^ and the attributes of God more clearly defined; legends touch- ing the ancient prophets increase in number and variety, so as to excite the suspicion of his being materially assisted in his strange 23roductions/^ This suspicion among his sharp-sighted townsmen is al- luded to in the Koran, and in no way satisfactorily repelled by the assertion that the persons suspec- ted as his coadjutors, being foreigners, were not suf- ficiently acquainted with the Arabic tongue to be of use to him ; ^ ^ for, — admitting they were foreigners, — they might nevertheless supply him with materials, which he could easily workup into pseudo-revelations. The Suras produced during the last few years of Mohammed's life at Mecca, seldom rise above the the level of ordinary prose, the first glow of prophetic vision having entirely subsided. It would seem that at the outset of his career the false prophet was impelled by an unseen power, which gave his mind for a time an extraordinary zeal and impetus, but ®^ Promises of paradise and threatening-s of hell together with their detailed descriptions occupy at least the 6*^' part of the Koran. ^^ The chapters for which we are indebted to this period are : Sur. I. LI. The first 23 verses may be older. XXXVI. L. LIV. XIX. XX. XXI. XXIII. XXV. LXVn. XXX. XXXVIII. XLIII. LXXI. XLIV. " Sur. XXV. 4. 5. XLIV. 14. XVI. 105. ^j^JI ^l^J vi^^^^ ^/^ u^^ ''^^ iS^^^^ ^M u^^-^-^^. 112 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. that he was subsequently left to carry out that system of delusion which, ere long, degraded him to an art- ful impostor/^ A new and strongly marked period in the history of the gradual production of the Suras commences after the Hedgra, when Mohammed's line of policy became entirely changed. It is generally received that the Sura of "the Cow" was the first revealed after his arrival at Medina; Mohammed's jDi'incipal y object now was to win the numerous and influential body of Jews, who lived in and around that city; that he entertained great hoj^es regarding them, may be gathered from previous Suras, in which he frequently appeals to their testimony ; ^ ^ he shows the Jews from their own history, that they had always been wanting in faith , even in the days of Moses , and enlarges generally on the history of their ancestors. Religious, social and civil laws are now enacted for the community of believers. ^^ From this period ^^ The portions produced before the approaching flight are the following: Sur. VII. LXXII. XXXV. XXVII. XXVIII. XVII. X. XI. XII. VI. XXXI. XXXIV. XXXIX. XL. XXXII. XLII. XLV. XLVI. XVIII. XVI. XIV. XLI. XXX. XXIX. XIII. Sur. XVII. verse 33. must have been given at Medina; also 77. ^^ "If thou art in a doubt concerning any part of that which we have sent dow^n unto thee, viLA»o i^^^xJI mjy^ iiH^-'' CN*^ a.sk them who have read the book of the law before thee." Sur. X. 94. "Was it not a sign unto them, that the wise men among the children of Israel knew it?" Sur. XXVI. 196. See also Sur. XXVIII. 53. 54. XXIX. 47. XLVI. 10. LXXXVII. 18—19. ^° The Kebla is fixed and again altered; precepts for worship, fasting, pilgrimage, divorce and legal purifications are intermixed with directions for warfare , keeping Friday as a day of worship, making wills, dealing with thiefs, murderers, userers, and dividing the spoil. CHAP. IV.] DIVINITY OF THE KORAN. 113 Mohammed's character grows decidedly darker; he recals revelations previously commmiicated, shifts his course and alters his policy at every turn; enemies are murdered; oaths are broken; wickedness and treachery receive divine sanction; war and plunder become the means of spreading that creed, which he originated amidst discouragements and difficulties. ^ In the twenty three chapters which Mohammed pro- duced at Medina, ^^ a marked deterioration of charac- ter is observable; — "the path of the just is as a shining light, that shineth more and more unto the ^ perfect day: the way of the wicked is as darkness: they know not at what they stumble.'' 2. In tracing the divinity of the Koran, ^^ we shall at present as far as possible, confine ourselves to the distinctive doctrines of Islamism, intending here- after more particularly to notice what has been de- rived from Judaism and Christianity. We are indeed aware that there is perhaps scarcely a page in the Koran in which a most determined plagiarism is not perceptible; yet as the real character of Mohammed's teaching can only be gathered from the manner in which he amalgamates those foreign elements with his pe- culiar system of religion, a concise view of the leading 9^ Sur. II. 116.146. XXII. 53— 55. 11.61. III. 8. XLVIII. 13. VLYII. 70. VIII. 4. LVII. 84. LXXIII. XXIV. XXXIII. V. 98. LXVI. 2. ^2 These are Sur. II. XCVIH. LXII. LXV. XXII. IV. VIII. XLVII. LVII. III. LIX. XXIV. LXIII. XXXIII. XLVIII. CX. LXI. LX. LXVIIL XLIX. IX. LXVI. LXXVI. ^^ Seethe excellent treatises: "Beitrage zu einer Theologie des Korans" von Dettinger in der Tiibinger Zeitschrift fiir Theologie. H 114 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part I. dogmas cannot be dispensed with at this point of our argument. The Koran clings with the utmost tenacity to the primary article of faith , the Unity of the God- head;— the words "there is but one God" repeatedly recur in it and indeed constitute the key-note of Is- lamism. The arguments brought forth for the Unity of the Godhead are not always conclusive; sometimes it is inferred from the works of creation and providence, ^* at other times it is maintained, that a plurality of y Gods is against reason, ^^ that two deities would of necessity counteract and destroy each other, ^^ and that each would strive to overcome his rival. ^' The chief evidence however rests, upon the united testi- mony of the prophets, who all preached the same doctrine. ^^ With this dogma the Koran protests not only against the Paganism of the Arabs, ^^ whose idols are represented as nought and vanity;* but also against the Jews, who are accused of regarding Ezra as the Son of God, and of considering their Rabbis to be Lords besides God. ^ But especially violent is the opposition of the Koran to the Christian dogma of the Holy Trinity, which it represents as consisting ^* Sur. II. 165.166. VI. 96—100. XVI. 3—22. XXI. 31— 36. XXVII. 60—65. XL. 64—70. XLI. 9. XXXI. 10. 11. ^=^ Sur. XXIIl. 119. ^6 XXI. 22. ^^ Sur. XXHI. 93. «« Sur. XXX. 35. XXI. 25. XXXIX. 65. LI. 50—52. ^^ Sur. LIIL 19. LXXL 23. 24. XVL 57. XVH. 4. XLIIl. 16. LII. 39. ^ Sur. X. 19. XVL 20. 21. XL. 75. XXI. 74. XXXIV. 22. XL. 42—44. 2 Sur. IX. 30, CHAP. IV.] THE DIVINE UNITY. 115 of God, Jesus the son of Mary, and His mother!^ Yet in sj)ite of the indignationjustly expressed against this misconceived and blasphemous idea, the Virgin Mary is highly exalted and honoured;* and our Lord, notwithstanding that His inere human nature is as- serted,^ and His crucifixion denied,^ is styled, the Word and the Spirit of God, and acknowledged as an Apostle and Prophet come from God. ^ The doc- trine of the Trinitv and the Divinitv of Christ is com- batted by considering the gross impropriety of the supposition "that God should have a wife and beget a son;"^ by arguing that to have a son, would mili- tate against the supreme independence and all- suffi- ciency of God, ^ and by showing that it might become dangerous to the sovereign power of God to have an offspring/^ To believe therefore in the doctrine of the Trinity and in the Godhead of Jesus is a mark of infidelity and excludes from Paradise/^ The Majesty of God is described in the Koran in words of considerable power and beauty; Moham- medans fi-equently recite these words and carry them about their persons, engraved on agate or other pre- cious stone : "God! there is no God but he, the living, the self-subsisting: neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him; to him belongeth whatsoever is in heaven and =» Sur. IX. 25. V. 82. * Sur. XXI. 91. III. 42. XXIII. 52. 5 Sur. XVI. 43. XXI. 8. XVm. 110. ^ Sur. IV. 156. 157. ' Sur. XIX. 32. IV. 169. III. 39. V. 119. VI. 58. « Sur. XIX. 34. LXXII. 3. XIX. 87. ^ Sur. IV. 169. XXV. 2. XXXIX. 5. ^« Sur. XXIII. 93. '^ Sur.V. 58. IX. 31. III. 78. U* 116 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part I. on earth. Who is he that can intercede with him, but through his good pleasure? He knoweth that which is past, and that w^hich is to come unto men and they shall not comprehend anything of his knowledge but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended over heaven and earth and the preservation of both is no burden unto him; he is the high the mighty." ^ ^ Ac- cording to the Koran God is incom]3arably excellent and no similitude can possibly reach His perfection.*^ His indescribability is thus strangely expressed: "God is the self-sufficient, the praise-worthy. If wdiatever trees are in the earth were pens, and if he should after that swell the sea into seven seas of ink, the words of God w^ould not be exhausted." Amongst the hundred names wdiich Moslem divines ascribe to God, that oi Allah is the nomen maximum.^* The appellation of ''Lord" never occurs in the Koran; Mohammed no doubt excluded it from its being in- variably applied to the Lord Jesus Christ in the sa- cred books of the Christians. *^ That these "beautiful names," must be considered to indicate the incom- parable Majesty of God, we may gather from the fol- lowing passage: "Serve the Lord of heaven and earth and persevere in his service, for knowest thou one ^2 Sur.n.256. XXIV. 36. ^' Sur.XLII. 10. XVI. 74. XXX. 27. ** The 99 names are recorded: Fundgruben IV. p. 16 the last being not so much rrrr as iJUl, the standing name of God. ^^ (.^wjt, dorainus, is only used with personal pronouns: my Lord, ^s ; thy Lord , \tLis , their Lord , f*^) » or with the following Genitivus: ^^oL^JUtJI l->>j Lord of the worlds. CHAP. IV.] ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 117 who has a name like his?''^^ This leads us to the worship which the Koran maintains is due to God. "All things in heaven and earth adore God volun- tarily or involuntarily; their shadows also morning and evening" are said to "bow themselves right and left."^"^ Not only is God to be glorified on rising up and lying down, — but his Majesty is considered so great and august, that little is said to be wanting to cause the heavens to rend asunder from a sense of his glory. ^^ Allah is eternal, the living one, who never dieth , the first and the last, * ^ and the omni- present.^^ The attribute of Holiness is utterly ignored in the Koran; all that is said of God might be asserted of any honest man. ^ ^ this total negation of the HoHness of God may be considered the fundamental lie of Islamism, which marks its teaching as directly op- posed to reason and revelation, and as false from beginning to end. The favourite attribute of the Koran seems to be the Omnipotence of God; who is there described, as Lord of the worlds; Lord of heaven and ^^ tjy».*w *JjfcJ* J^5 knowest thou one named like him : or who comes up to him? *7 Sur.XIir. 15. XXII. 18. XXIV. 42. XVI. 48. iJIlltX^Uv, TTQOOKVVOVVttq TW ^6«. 18 Sur.Ln.48. XLII. 4. ^^ Sur.XXV. 58. LVH. 3. XV. 23. 20 Sur. II. 187. 116. LVIL 3. LXXIII. 8. LXX. 40. H. 116. 21 ^A.w.^xjt V^^VJ iJ.il, God loves them that do well. Sur. n. 196. or "he loves the pure", ^^^..^iaJuo Sur. II. 223. "them that deal justly" V. 49. II. 191. III. 140. V. 73. XV. 23. VU. 29. 34. 118 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part l earth and of all tliat is between them;^^ it also adds: to Him belongs their government; ^ ^ His word of com- mand must be obeyed;^* His are the treasures of * heaven and earth, as well as the powers which are therein, and His energy is indefatigable.^^ x\ll human events and deeds are to be ascribed to His irresis- tible Omnipotence. Hence the reason, why so much weight is given to the formula: ''so Godivilir which is constantly upon the lips of the Moslem. ^^ As the most convincing demonstrations of God's omnipotent power, the creation of the world, and the future Re- surrection of the dead, are instanced. ^ ' The Omniscience of God is also mentioned in almost every Sura, and in the second chapter alone, we have at least twenty six expressions to the effect, that "God knows and sees all ye do;" He has the keys of knowledge and in the dark furrows of the earth, happens nothing which is not entered into the book of God; the secrets of the heart are known to Him.^« 22 Sur. XLIV. 7. n. 20. 106. 109. VI. 101. 102. 2^ Sur. II. 107. 256. 285. IV. 130. IX. 118. 2* Sur. II. 118. III. 47. VI. 73. XIX. 30. XXXVI. 82. XL. 70. XXIII. 82. XL. 16. 2^ Sur LXIII. 7. XLVni. 7. XXXL 28. 2^ aJj] el^w.^ ^] Deo volente. cfr. iav 6 wQiog 'deXrjay xal tr^GOiitv. James IV 13. 15. Act. XVIII. 21. 1 Cor. IV. 19. Hebr. VI 4. See also analogies in Classics: Schneckenburger Com. in Epi. Jac. ad locum. Sur. XVIII. 25. 2^ Creation: Sur. XIV. 11. IIL 191. 192. XLV. 3 — 5. LI. 20-22. X. 6 7. XXX. 20—25. XIII. 4. 5. XXIV. 44. 45. Re- surrection: XVII 50. 51. 98. 99. XXIII. 12—14. 15. 16. XXXIL 7. XXI. 104. XXXVL 78-81. IL 260. 2« Sur. VI. 58. XXXIV. 2. XI. 6. 7. XXXIV. 2— 4. IL 235.236. CHAP. IV.] ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 119 Next to the Omnipotence of God His Mercy, is most prominently set forth and to these two attributes all the rest are deemed subordinate.^^ As the Koran ignores God's holy will and purpose of love to save the world in righteousness, its conception of the di- vine Mercy could not fail to prove a most revolting carricature. The formula : ''In the name of the most m^erciful God,'' has indeed become the Shibboleth of Islamism, ^° being the superscription to every chap- ter, with the exception only of the ninth Sura; and is to Mohammedans what the Lord's Prayer is to Christians. The apjDlication of the Bismillah is ac- companied with the most magical effects; not only are all letters and public documents inscribed with it, but it is worn T^s a talisman against evil spirits; nor is meat considered eatable to this day except the animal has been killed ''in the name of the most merciful God."^^ To the Mercy of God are ascribed the comforts of life; such as rest at night, the services of brute beasts and the production of the earth. ^^ Among k^x^v-'l X*Mski jc*^ V— Ai^j scripsit super animam suam 29 clementiara. Siir. VI. 12. 30 *iA.^jJl j^L#*ak*J! aJj] (V*wO in the name of God the most merciful, is briefly called Bismillah. ^^ "When these words were first revealed ," quotes Abu Zaid from a Moslem author "the clouds fled to the east, the winds were hushed, the sea roared, the animals pricked up their ears to listen, the demons were chased w^ith fiery darts from heaven, God swore he would bless all upon whom his name was called, and whosoever should utter these words would enter Paradise." See alsoSur. V. 5. 11. 175. XVI. 115. VI. 21. 32 Sur. XL. 63. XVI. 5—8. XXXIV. 6. XLH. 19. XXXV. 1—3. XL. 80—82. LVn. 25. 120 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part I. spiritual mercies are enumerated the Revelation of the true Religion; specially the sending down of the Koran. ^^ The revelation of Islamism is called the perfection of divine Love and Mercy, and the Mission of Mohammed is said to have been granted out of compassion to all creatures. ^* The sin- forgiving Mercy of God is characterized as an act, altogether capri- cious and arbitrary, being overruled by His irresistible power. "He forgiveth whom he pleaseth;" is one of the standing phrases of the Koran. The Holiness of God being disowned the divine Mercy is consequently made dependent on the imperfect services of man. God is represented as willing to pardon sin upon man's repentance: "But as for those who repent and amend, and make known what tfty have concealed, I will be turned unto them, for I am easy to be re- conciled and merciful." ^^ But faith, that is the acknow- ledgement of Mohammed as the greatest of all Apos- tles,— is the most meritorious of all virtues; whoso- ever believes in the prophet and repents, receives pardon and a free admission into Paradise. ^^ Thus no one need fear lest the standard of repentance and good works might be beyond his reach; and with such views of God's Holiness and Mercy the Koran is quite consistent in repeatedly declaring, that none need despair of obtaining Mercy. ^' As the Mercy of Allah is manifested by the arbitrary acts of a capri- 33 Sur. Xn. 39. II. 90. 105. 235. 3* Sur. V. 4. XXI. 100. ^^ g^^. jj ^55 jgg. 36 Sur. XXIX. 7. XXm. 1.59. XVIII. 31. 9. XIX. 95. XX. 71. XXI. 94. XXII. 14. 111. 135. 136. CHAP. IV.] ATTRIBUTES OF GOD. 121 cious potentate, so is his Righteomness by the work- ing of an uncontrollable power. The Righteousness of God recompences and punishes in this life and in the life to come; and is termed the reward from Heaven, the wrath of God, the revenge of the Lord, who is powerful and swift in bringing man to account. He is Lord of the day of Judgment , and not indif- ferent to what we do. ^^ But God is said to lay snares, deceive and mock in administering Righteousness.^^ The Justice of God is frequently alluded to under the figure of a balance. Good and evil of the size of the smallest atom shall meet with its just recom- pence; only with this difference, that good works will be rewarded two or tenfold whilst evil deeds will meet with simple punishment.*^ 3. That Mohammed should have received the biblical doctrine of the world having been created by God in the beginning of time, is neither astonishing nor meritorious. In some places the Koran assigns six days for the creation, in others only four.*^ Con- cerning man's formation, it states, — God made man from clay or earth, and endowed him with a beautiful form. That the woman was formed out of a rib is no where stated in the Koran, but the Sonna sup- ^^ A woman condemned to hell was pardoned, because on passing- a well, she tied up her ass and gave water to a dog on the point of perishing from thirst. Fundgruben I. pag 278. quoted from the Sonna. Sur. XXXIX. 53. XII. 87. XV. 53. 54. 38 Sur.II.58.61. III. 5. 11. XL. 3. H. 168.221. 1.4. U. 74. 85. 3« Sur, VIII. 29. III. 53. XXVH. 51. LXXXVI. 15. 16. IV. 14. 15. IX. 51. *o Sur. XCIX. 7. 8. XLII. 39. VI. 170. ^Yl. 88. *^ Sur. X. 3. XI. 9. L. 37. LVH. 4. XLI. 8—11. 122 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. plies the omission: *^ "Treat women with consideration, for the wife was formed out of a crooked rib, and the best of them bears traces of the crooked rib; if thou seek to make it straight it will break, if thou leave it alone, it will continue to be crooked. Treat women with consideration." The Koran teaches, that the soul of man is en- dowed with power for good and evil, and is known only to God; that God has implanted in man an inclination for good and evil; and in harmony with the doctrine of predestination, it affirms that man's moral liberty consists only in choosing the one or the other. "^^ The external condition of Adam is described to have been one of great felicity; the place of his original abode to have been heaven — no distinction being made between an earthly and a heavenly Pa- radise,— and his knowledge to have surpassed that of the angels.** Adam and Eve were neither to hunger nor thirst, nor feel their nakedness, which the learned doctors explain by assuming that they were covered with hair ! * ^ Of their mimortality, nothing *2 Sur. Vn. 12. XV. 26. 27. XVE. 62. XXXVIII. 72. cfr.VI. 2. XX. 51. XXXVn. 11. XL. 65. LXV 3. LXXXH. 7. 8. and Fundgruben I. No. 389. pag. 276. *3 Sur. LV. 4. XVII. 86. and XCI. 8. it is said of God: 1 g >^ oV-r L^^«^^ V ^ t (7 M clandestino instincta docuit (s. inspi- ravit in) animam malitiam suam et pietatem suam ; and it will be found difficult to explain it otherwise. ** Sur n. 30—36. 35. VH. 20. 13. 25. *'*' So Jahja expounds in Sur. XX. 116. 117. the "non eris nu- dus;" and he deserves the ironical note of Maraccius Prod. IV. 107. col. 1. and: Refut. in loco IV. p. 448; "Duos, scilicet ursos , non homines, creayerat Deus!" CHAP. IV.] ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE KORAN. 123 is mentioned in the Koran; on the contrary it is the uniform opinion of this book, that mortality es- sentially belongs to human nature.*^ Much is said of the superior knowledge of man in his primal state but nothing of his moral perfection. The history of man's fall is closely interwoven with that of Satan. "We created you and afterwards formed you, and then said unto the angels, w^orship Adam, and they all w^orshipped him, except Eblis who was not of those who worshipped;"*' upon which Eblis was ejected from Paradise and "caused them to fall through deceit.'! *"" The fall of man therefore was brought about by the devil in order to revenge himself, by the destruction of the happiness of our first parents. The Koran making no difference be- tween the tree of knowledge and the tree of life teaches, that the devil tempted man, to eat of the tree of im- mortality and the pimishment which ensued was Adam's banishment from Paradise, and the enmity which should sj)ring up between man and man, which to Mohammed's mind was the extreme point of human misery. The nature of sin appears to be such, as to cause the earth only, to be corrujDted;*^ for a correct notion of it: as a Tnoral offence against the Divine Majesty, we vainly seek in the Koran; nor is the *<5 Sur. LVI. 62. XXI. 36. IH. 186. IV. 77. To obtain exemp- tion from death the tempter entices them to eat of the forbidden tree. Sur. XX. 218. *^ Sur. YII. 10—26. *® Eblis, u^^Jbl froni dia^SoXog; Satan, ^jLla-ui from ^tJ^^ *^ Sur. Vn. 25. cfr. II. 36. ,jC»^!^l ^ cU^I corrumpere in terra. II. 27. XIII. 27. XLYH. 22. XII. 73. 124 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. fearful truth of original sin ever acknowledged. Hence it was sufficient, that Adam should be instructed, ^° and left with a promise of future direction from God. ^ * This direction is to be looked for in the Koran; on receiving which, man is certain of eternal bliss; but its rejection is the sin which of all others is unpar- donable. We here perceive the utter hollo wness and falsity of the creed of the Koran, in which the denial of the Holiness of God and the moral depravity of man revenges itself: had both these fundamental doctrines been acknowledged, the need of Redemption would necessarily have been felt; as it now stands, a meaningless petition for mercy, is substituted for the teaching "0/ salvation in righteousness ,'' and the Koran presents merely the unauthenticated message of a pseudo-prophet, as a "direction." 4. The next point we shall notice among the doc- trines of the Koran is the Pneumatology of Islamism, as forming an essential branch of its system. Among intelligent beings, angels occupy the highest rank; they were created before man and take a considerable part in the dispensation of God's providential govern- ment. ^^ They are represented as having been created '° Adam was taught tc^l^-O : words, which he was to repeat; Sur, II. 37.38. Maraccio: "verba, quibus peteret veniam peccati sui." ^^ — cXJ^: directlo , which according to Jelladdin is none other but the Jajwws* i^_>La^ the Koran and the apostle, liber etlegatus. ^^ <^!^^ messenger like the Hebrew "r^t^^^ to be desired from iS^-, <^f ^^' niisit related with '^^^. That the angels are superior to man may be gathered from Sur. XXXVU. 8, 11. CHAP. IV.] PNEUMATOLOGY OF THE KORAN. 125 from fire,*^^ and as possessing a subtle, penetrating, etberial nature.^* As ministering servants they are near God, but that they are holy is nowhere stated in the Koran, the notion of sinless purity being fo- reign to the author of that book. The only allusion to the purity of angels is to be found in the Sonna, where we are told, that they never enter a house, in which a dog is to be found! ^^ Angels generally appear in human form; thus Gabriel showed himself both to Mohammed, and to Mary. Should infidels demand the appearance of an angel to convince them, it is stated, that God would have to clothe him as a man for their sake. Animals are capable of seeing angels or devils : "If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for it has seen an angel; but when ye hear an ass bray, take refuge with God, for the ass has seen a devil," ''^ The Koran speaks Ao of an invisible jDresence at the battle of Honein, where the Moslem army trusting to their numerical strength were at first repelled, but at last gained the victory through the heavenly host, which they saw not. ^3 .b ^x), Sur. VII. 12. XXX. VIII. 77. LV. 15. XV. 27. Hebrew Theology speaks of an angel 3&i"''^j"N, fire of God. Ode de angelis pag. 312. Origen describes the body of angels as ai^fQia and dvyoEidtQ (fOJQ, Tatian ascribes to them a 7iPSvi.iatiKi] avfxnijtiQ oog TTvijOg, cog uaQog. See also Sur. XV. 27. '''* "Nous sorames tenus de croire, que ce sont des corps subtils, purs, formes de lumiere, qui ne mangent, qui ne boivent, qui ne dorment et qui n'ont ni sexe, ni appetit charnel, ni pere ni mere." Moslem Confession of faith Reland. pag\ 11, ^^ {.^.^fJS' L^-j^ lx>o S.Xj!^L*JI J^c^j■^l non entrant angeli domum in quo canis est. Ode de angelis p. 452. Fundgrub. I. p, 187. No. 354. ^« Fundgrub. I. No. 383. pag. 278, 126 fflSTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. A belief in the existence of angels is an essential article of the creed of the Koran: "he is an infidel, who is an enemy of God, of his prophets and angels, especially of Gabriel and Michael."^' The same teaching is maintained in the creed of Islamism as translated by Reland.^'^ Gabriel is considered the most celebrated angel, to be prevailing in his inter- cessions, of great power and might , and chief medi- ator of divine revelations; he is called the Spirit, or the Spirit of holiness; ^^ in order to magnify him the Koran invents a variety of fables/^ Gabriel is par excellence the angel of Islamism; and the mention of Michael in the above quotation, is doubtless out of compliment to the Jews, as Mohammed considered him to be their guardian. In several Suras Mohammed swears by the angels ; in these they are described as orddRng and settling affairs, as reading the counsels of God; abstracting the soul from the body in the agony of death; guiding the righteous into Paradise; running swiftly and ful- filling God's demands with diligence; spreading their wings; conveying admonition and bearing the burdens of prophecy/^ Among their heavenly offices, are the contemplation and adoration of the divine Majesty, " Sur. II. 98. 286. IV. 135. ^® "C'est une des conditions ab.solues de la foi , de les anges, aimer tons; c'est une iniidelite, de les hair, ou d'en hair un seul ; et quiconque ne se soucie point de croire en eux, ni de les aimer — qu'il soil tenu pour infidele. 0 Dieu, preserve nous d'infidelite." Reland Le^. IV. No. 4. pag. 12. 5^ Sur. LXXXI. 20. 19. LIII. 5. 6. •^o Sur. XX. 94. 61 Sur. XXXVII. 1. 3. LXXIX. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. LXXVII. 1. 2. 3. 5. LI. 1. 2. 3. 4. CHAP. IV.] PNEUMATOLOGY OF THE KORAN. 127 and making processions around the throne of God; °^ the consideration and the writing down of the mys- teries of God; the act of intercession for the faith- ful is not however restricted to Gabriel. ^^ Among their earthly offices are enumerated that of trans- mitting fresh revelations to those whom God has chosen; counting the days of men, and specially pro- tecting, blessing, and comforting believers; at death they examine and pass a preliminary judgment upon the departed soul:^* "How will it be with the un- believers, when the angels shall make them die and beat their faces and backs." ^"^ If the departed soul, on being examined, disavow Mohammed, the two angels present on the occasion, will inflict such a blow on the head of the poor victim, as would be sufficient to crush and dislodge mountains. ^^ Lastly, the angels are active in the day of Judgment, and have their appointed functions in hell and Para- dise; eight of them will bear the throne of the Judge of the world, the rest will be filed in lines on each side; Judgment being passed, they will convey the just to Paradise and drive the wicked into hell. ^^ ^2 Sur. Xm. 15. XLI. 37. XXI. 19.20. XVI. 49. XXXIX. 75. XL. 8. XLII. 4. 63 SurLII. 37. XXXVn. 10. LXXX. 12— 15. XXXIII. 41. n. 161. XL. 8 — 10. ^* Sur. XLIL 50. XCVIL XXII. 76, XXL 26—30. L. 16. XXIII. 114. VIIL 9. XLI. 30. XXXIIL 53. LXXXVL 4. VI. 60. LXXII. 27. 28. XIII. 13. LXXXII 8—14. XXXIL 12. VIL 38. VI. 94. XLVII. 27. Vin. 53. <^5 Sur. XLIX. 27. 66 Fundgr. I. No 468. p. 290. No. 173. p. 167. also Commenta. Maracc. Schol. Sur. II. 161. pag. 67. 6^ Sur. LXXXLX. 23. LXXVUI. 18. LXX. 4. 5. XXV. 23. XXXVII. 23. LXIX. 30. XLIV. 45. 128 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. Other angels open the gates of Paradise and welcome the faithful. The wicked are received into hell by nineteen tormentino- ansfels, who are also called '^ Lords of fire,'' and preside over the place of punish- ment;^^ these are described as being very terrible and ferocious; the number nineteen is said by com- mentators to have been chosen, because that number was specified in the Scriptures of the Jews and Chris- tians !«^ Ebhs, as we have seen, fell from pride, having refused to worship the newly created man;^^ when questioned as to the cause of his disobedience, he urged his superiority to man, who was created from dust, whilst he was formed from^r^; in spite of this difference God had honoured man more than him; hence Satan has received his cognomen of "envier." In consequence of pride and disobedience he is expelled fi'om Paradise: God said "Get thee down therefore, for it is not fit, that thou shalt behave thy- self proudly; get thee hence, and be thou one of the contemptible. He answered: give me respite until the day of Resurrection. God said: verily thou shalt be one of those who are respited." ' ^ Where the devil abides, until the execution of the sentence at the last day, is not stated in the Koran, but that his power 6s Sur. XXXIX. 73. 71. XL. 50. LXVH. 8. ^^ Maraccio , who always^ sides with the commentators when they ascribe a folly to the Koran, exclaims here as usual : "impu- denter mentitur." ^0 Sur. II. 34. XV. 31. XXXVUI. 75. '^ Sur. VII. 12. 13. 14. XV. 34. XXXIII. 78. and 35 it is said; super te erit maledictio usque ad diem judicii. CHAP. IV.] CONCERNING THE DEVIL. 129 in this world is in nowise circumscribed, and that he takes possession of certain individuals, is distinctly affirmed, as we have already seen. Eblis is declared to be the author of all bodily evils, ^ ^ to be invisible but able to see men on all occasions; to betray, de- ceive and carry on his work with the fiercest malig- nity; to be false in his promises, whilst God remains true.'^ On the day of battle he is said to assure the unbelievers, that no one shall conquer them, but when the fight commences, he turns away and leaves them in disgrace. ^* Satan is also stated to be the author of all anti-Moslem feelings, sentiments and move- ments, but of sin, only in so far as it is not con- sistent with Islamism. Sin itself, as such, is not con- sidered to be the peculiar work of the devil, and may be committed upon divine authority , as we have seen in the life of Mohammed. The cardinal sin is iinhelief; not to believe in the Koran is deemed equivalent to siding with Satan; ^^ for as the Koran comes from God, so all error pro- ceeds from the Evil One. ''^ Idolatry is condemned as the special work of the devil; drinking wine, playing dice, divining with arrows, sowing discord and abstain- ^^ Sur. XXXVni. 43. where Job is introduced. '3 Sur. Vir. 28. II. 170. 208. VI. 142. XVII. 53. XVIII. 15. XXXV. 6. XXXVI. 59. XLin. 60. XLVII. 53. '* Sur. XV. 30. XXXI. 33. XXVm. 15. IV. 116. XXH. 3. XXXI. 33. VII. 24. IV. 117. III. 156. IV. 117. XXXVI. 61. IV. 58. XXIX. 38. XIV. 22. LIX. 16. Vin. 50. " Sur. II. 257. IV. 74. XIX. 42. II. 108. IV. 82. XXII. 3. II. 258. VII. 28. 31. IV. 118. XLIII. 33. IV. 37. XLVII. 25. ^^ Sur. XUI. 36. XIX. 3. XXXVI . 209. I 130 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. ing from certain meats are also his works. '^ Pro- digals are called the brethren of Satan; but he is said to be chiefly skilled in placing the sin of opposing Islamism in an albring light; '^ and to these decep- tions the prophets are particularly exposed. Divine revelations are alleged to be abstracted by the devil and his own falsehoods substituted; this is educed from Mohammed's own experience:"'^ a poor comfort for his followers! who have the sad and perjDlexing task of separating in the Koran what is from God, and what from the Wicked One. To relieve the minds of the faithful from too much disquietude , it is added, that the power of Satan extends only so far as God permits. ^° The Koran however contains no- thing which bears any comparison with the extravagant teaching of the Sonna upon this point of Moslem divinity. ^ ^ . -^ Genii, ^^ a class of beings otherwise called demons, ^^ Sur. ir. 160. IV. 118. VI. 141.142. 11.171. IV.117 — 119. V. 99. 100. V. 4. XVII. 53. XII. 100. 'S Sur. XVn. 27. Vni. 50. XV. 38. XVI. 63. XXIX. 38. XXXV. 36. 8. XLI. 25. '' Sur. VI. 12 XXn. 53. 54. LUI. 18—23. VI. 67. Sur. XII. 42. forgetfulness is also the work of Satan. «o Sur. LVIII. 10. XXXIV. 35. IV. 47. XVI. 99. 100. XV. 38. XVII. 10. VII. 200. 201. CXIV. 4. ®^ Fundgruben No. 374. pag. 277. ®2 Three forms: J^L^I, J^.^t and xI^Jl; the first signi- fies Genii more in the abstract, the second in concreto ; third, in collectivo. The Greek TVf.L(fiai, vof.iade.g xai daijiioitg can only par- tially be compared with the Moslem Genii ; the Rabbinical iD"'^1IJ or D"''^.^ are also different from their having come into existence after the human race, whilst the Genii of Islamism were thought to hare CHAP. IV.] CONCERNING GENE. 131 — the term being promiscuously applied to both angels and devils — are sometimes treated as a non- descript link between good and fallen angels : they, like the angels, are created of fire and partake of their general character; Mohammed took them under his pastoral charge, and read the Koran to them.^^ Some of the Genii seem to be of the fallen , others rank more among the pure angels; but much con- fusion respecting them prevails in the Koran. Idola- ters are said to worship and believe in them.^* As devils , they are described to be friends of the un- believers, to whom they communicate what they occa- sionally pick up from the conversations of angels; but the Koran must not be considered to proceed fi'om them.^^ The Genii orDjins are said to rove over hill and dale, displaying their sprite-like nature, espe- cially at night ;^^ none among men had so great a power over them as Solomon, for he had in his army, not only men and birds , but also Genii , who made been created long before mankind. ^^ answers to the Genius of the Latins; aenere , gignere or yemar, from which this word is generally derived, has been traced to the Sanscrit, — Wahl pag. 632. 633.' — where dshan signifies to be produced, begotten, created, born. See Buxtorf lex. Talm. Rab. verb. ^mID 83 Sur.LV.14.15. XXXVII.158. LV.31. LXXII. 1. XYni. 51. ®* Sur. XXXIV. 40. compare with this a 'dvti m e&n] , Saifio- fioig ■&V81., K«t 6v 06CO 1 Cor. X. 20. «5 Sur. VII. 28. VI. 112. XIX. 82. XXXVII. 7—10. LXXII. 8. 9. XXVL 219. M. guards himself verse 209. «^ "sffienn bic 91a(f)t ciiibrid)t 'i)alkt cure RnaUn ju ^aufc , benn bie ^eiifet irreu I)eritm jit biefer ^ctcn iwirb i?on bent ^crrn (Er^orung etner S3ittc BelwiUtgt. 3^ Bat ben J^errn, ba§ \6) tn bicfer unb tn \t)xtx Sett 33ertreter meine^ aSolfeg fcin niod^te." Again: "3(^ 6m ber J^err ber ayicnfc^en am %(k(x,t beg ©erid^tg .... 3d) toerfe micf) «cr bem 3:t)rone (^niit^ nteber, unb e^ erfc^atlt bie ©ttmme: 2)lot|. l^ebe beitt ^aitpt em^^or ! l*ege ^^iirf^jrac^e etn, unb fie unrb ert)i3rt, 6e* ge^re, eg n>trb bit »erlief)en iverben." Wahl pag. 415. Note c. Here then is Antichrist! 134 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. eat tlie fruit and drink the water of Paradise; that other departed spirits remain near their sepulchres; some imagine them near the well of Zemzem, others place them in the lowest heaven with Adam; some hide them in the great trumpet which the archangel Avill sound at the Resurrection; and others again make them dwell in white birds beneath the throne of God! The souls of the wicked are confined in a dungeon under a green rock, or, according to a tra- dition from Mohammed, placed beneath the jaw^s of the devil to be tormented. One part of the body, the rump-bone, is preserved to serve as a base for the new body. The dead will appear fi'om the grave in three classes, some walking on foot, some riding, others will come forth with their faces on the ground; each according to his merit. Descriptions of hell and Paradise abound in the Koran; it has been computed that one sixth of it is filled with the details. He that is punished lightly will be shod with shoes of fire, the heat of which will make his skull boil like a cauldron. The happiness of the blessed is depicted in colours not less material and revolting: — gold and silver, precious stones, crowns of pearl, bracelets of gold, gardens of pleasure, pleasant fruits, sweet rivers, and arbours of delight, ravishing girls with large black eyes, beautiful youths and angels, enchanting songs and sweet sounding bells; all kinds of food and beverages; beasts for riding and litters, couches and pillows, silken carpets and other furniture embroidered with gold and gems, — in these and such like material enjoyments consist CHAP. IV.] RESURRECTION AND JUDGMENT. 135 the glories of the Moslem heaven !^^ According to Mohammed it will take 1000 years for the meanest dweller in Paradise to see his gardens, wives, ser- vants, furniture and other possessions; the portion of the distinguished Moslemin may be guessed from this estimate.^* 6. Among the ceremonial injunctions of the Ko- ran, we first notice the precepts respecting ablutions, which how^ever were in use among the Pagan Arabs, ^^ having, it is said, been prescribed to Abraham by the angel Gabriel.^'' With a view of endowing them with a religious character, Mohammed styled these lustrations to be the "key of prayer." Lest so ne- cessary a preparation for devotion should be omitted, either fi*om want of water or from consideration of health, sand is permitted to be used instead. In this *' These descriptions strongly remind us of the savage ideas which the West Indian or Scandinavian warriors , entertained of the future existence, and Virgil thus describes the occupations and pleasures of his heroes in the world to come; Pars in gramineis exercent membra palaestris Contendunt ludo, et fulva luctantur arena. Pars pedibus plaudunt choreas, et carmina dicunt. — — — — quae gratia currum Armorumque fuit vivis, quae cura nitentes Pascere equos ; eadem sequitur tellure repostos. Virg. Aeneid. VI. ^* Sur. Xni. 35. XLVII. 16. LV. 54—77. ^5 Herodot lib. III. C. 198. ^® Al Jannabi in Vita Abrah. Pocock. Spec. pag. 303. Compare with this the Spanish Gospel of St. Barnabas chap. XXIX. "Dixo Abraham: Que hare yo para servir al Dios de los sanctos y pro- phetas? Respondio el angel, Ve a aquella fuente y lavate, porque Dios quiere hablar contigo. Dixo Abraham, conio teugo de lavarme? Luego el angel se le apparecio como uno bello mancebo, y se lavo en la fuente, y le dixo, Abraham, haz como yo. Y Abraham se lavo etc. etc." 136 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. accommodation the Koran followed the Jews and Chris- tians there being an instance on record in ecclesia- stical history, of sand being used instead of water in the administration of holy Baptism, prior to Isla- mism. ^ ' Tertulhan notices the observance of ablutions among the early Christians. Prayer is to be offered up five times a day; at day-break, at noon, in the afternoon, at sun-set and one hour and a quarter after it. The prayer itself con- sists in the constant repetition of certain small Suras, the Moslem confession of faith, the salutation of Mo- hammed and of the angels. ^^ Personal observation will convince the spectator that these acts of devotion are not performed with the solemnity which certain descriptions have represented to the European world as usual; they are rather the cold and mechanical performance of a meritorious duty, than the outpour- ing of the heart, real devotion therefore cannot be expected. A man may be frequently seen in the act of jDrostration, giving orders to his servant about his horse, coffee or pipe, and then continuing his devo- tions. The Mohammedan has no conception of prayer beyond his prescribed forms of vague and unmeaning repetitions, to recite which, he requires a string of beads, resembling the rosary of the Church of Rome. In the 10,000 verses of the Koran there are not so many petitions as in the Lord's prayer;®^ this book incul- " Sur. m. 46. V. 8—9. Gemar. Berachoth cap. II. Pocock. not. ad Port. Mosis pag. 389. and as used in baptism, Cedren. p. 250. °® Sur. HI. 188. n 230. XXHI. 3. IV. 46. ^^ A thoughtful Hindoo lad about 19 years of age was over- heard repeating the Lord's Prayer adraidst his heathenish devotions ; CHAP. IV.] PRAYER AND FASTING. 137 cates a spirit too proud to ask any gifts even from heaven, hence the arrogant bearing of the Moslem; he wants nothing and asks nothing, self-sufficiency, self-righteousness and a blind confidence in his own merits constitute his entire character. These feelings are strengthened by the alms, fasting and pilgrimages which the Koran commands. Ahns are called "an acceptable loan unto God" they deliver from hell and ensure a free entrance into Paradise.* Specially meritorious are contributions for the propagation of Islamism by holy warfare, and collections are still made among the faithful for the support of religious institutions in Mohammedan countries. The Koran teaches that charities, to ensure an everlasting reward, are not to be distributed from ostentation, or with uncharitable feelings; — "for a fair speech and to forgive is better than alms followed by injustice." ^ There is however no precept enjoining deeds of charity towards any but the faithful ; this is the more remarkable as kindness is frequently en- forced towards brutes : nor ought it to be overlooked that notwithstanding Moslem charity claims heaven for its reward, Christian charity, admitting of no such motive, far exceeds it. Fasting was considered by Mohammed as "the gate of religion, and the breath of him that fasteth is more grateful to God than that when taunted by his friends with being a Christian , he replied , he was no Christian, nor had he any desire of becoming such, but that he had learnt that prayer at School , and he never had heard or conceived language that expressed his wants or feelings so well, therefore he should continue to use it! ^ Sur. LVn. 10—12. II. 255. 265—267. ^ Sur. II. 265. 266. 138 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. of musk/' The month of Ramadlian is one continued fast, no one being allowed to eat, drink or smoke from sunrise to sunset. Exceptions are made in fa- vour of the sick, women Avitli child, old persons and travellers. After a day of rigorous fasting and sleep- ing, follows a night of feasting, revelry and excess. The month of Ramadhan is chosen for fasting be- cause during that month the Koran began to be re- vealed. ^ The Hadj, or pilgrimage to Mecca though a pre- Islamite rite is enforced by the Koran and made an imperative duty to all true believers ; * it is to be per- formed during the anciently sacred months with the observance of various precepts, sacrifices, alms and processions. The pilgrim is allowed to trade, whilst performing this sacred rite. ^ We have seen that the second Sura, which first ordains the Hadj, was re- vealed on Mohammed's arrival at Medina, at a period when his jjlans were not sufficiently matured to pro- claim a universal religion ; for no other than a national religion can prescribe pilgrimages to any S23ecific lo- cality. The Israelite indeed was to perform a pil- grimage to the temple three times a year, and this was possible so long as divine revelation was confined to a single nation, but when the hour came, in which ^ Sur. II. 179—186. Ramadhan is also called ^a^I v^-CO, the month of patience. ^ * Sur. II. 191 — 195. V. 3. 104—106. CIX. 1—5. CVIII. 2. III. 90—92. XXII. 27—38. ^ When at Jedda, the author observed an inconceivable variety of goods from all parts of the world being hawked about by Moslem pilgrims who shouted forth the sum of the highest bidder. CHAP. IV.] ALMS AND PILGRIMAGE. 139 God was to be worshipped in Spirit and in truth, men were neither to worship in Jerusalem nor on a mountain in Samaria. Mohammed therefore in or- daining the Hadj proved to the world, that his creed was neither adapted to all nations, nor originally in- tended for any, but the native tribes of Arabia. If pilgrimage to Mecca be an essential article in the teaching of the Koran, and if its doctrines are ex- pected to be embraced by all nations, it follows that all nations must visit the Kaaba;^ if it be non- essential it was folly to ordain a vain and useless ceremony; if essential to salvation, it was unjust and inconsistent to institute a rite of such momentous import, when comparatively so few believers could possibly perform it. Such inconsistencies and mis- calculations are however not surprising in a book like the one whose dogmas we are now reviewing. Some European wTiters represent Islamism as destitute of sacrifices, but this is. a palpable mistake. "0 true believer violate not the holy rites of God nor the sacred month, nor the offering, nor the ornaments hung thereon/' ^ During the Ramadhan 184G, a Mos- lem sacrifice of three sheep took place in Jerusalem on the occasion of three companies being discharged from military service. Mohammed himself set the *° Mohammed is said to have declared that he who dies without performing the Hadj, may as well die a Jew or a Christian. '' Sur. V. 104 — 106. Peace-offerings exist among the Arabs to this day. Two servants of the author having once quarelled , on th« day they were reconciled , they sacrificed a sheep , declaring such was the usage of their countrymen. 140 HISTORY AND DOGMAS OF THE KORAN. [part i. example of sacrificing during his pilgrimages to Mecca. ^ To this may be added that every animal slaughtered for use, may be considered an immolation, being killed "in the name of the most merciful" God. ® Most of the religious rites connected with the Hadj, the pilgrim garment, the shaving of the head, the throwing of stones at Djumrah, the circumambulation of the Kaaba, the kissing of the black stone, the sacrifices, and almost every other item too tedious to enumerate, were borrowed from the pre-Islamite religion of the Arabs. Circimicision , though a part of the ritual of Is- lamism upon which no small stress is laid, is not so much as once mentioned in the Koran : if it be essential to Islamism, then the Koran is deficient, and if defi- cient cannot be a divine revelation; Baptism for in- stance is considered essential to Christianity, as the initiatory rite of admission , but if it were now^here mentioned in the Bible, the Mohammedan might fairly object, that Baptism was not wdiat we believed it to be; or that the Bible omitting to ordain a rite of such great importance was imperfect , and there- fore not a true Revelation. If the rite of Circumcision w^as intended only as a sign of distinction fi-om other religious communities, then it will appear singular that Mohammed should have chosen that already in ^ His successors , the Saracen Kaliphs annually immolated a camel in their capacity as High-priest of the faithful. The Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tuleda witnessed the ceremony at Bossura in the 12*^ century. ^ In Abyssinia therefore, Christians abstain from meat slaught- ered by the Mohammedans, and these refuse , what has been killed by Christians in the name of the Holy Trinity. CHAP. IV.] SACRIFICES AND CIRCUMCISION. 141 use among the Jews, and one, which existed also among the Pagan Arabs! In omitting to notice its existence, we infer that Mohammed possibly dis- approved of the rite , or did not consider it of a reli- gious import, or, that he passed it over as the self- understood and natural mode of initiating into the religion of Abraham: the latter assumption seems at variance with the fact that Mohammed admitted his first converts by the rite of baptism, correspon- ding to the baptism of Jewish proselytes. Among the forty kinds of ablutions, given by Reland, one is the baptism of KafFers on their becoming Moslemin: we here discover one of those sinpular vacillations which so frequently appear in Mohammed's mind and practice, and find the national custom eventaally re- stored to its primitive character as a religious ordi- nance, one moreover to which his countrymen were already reconciled. Circumcision is not administered by the Mohammedans in the thirteenth year as among the ancient Arabs, but generally as soon as the can- didate can say the confession of the Moslem creed: "There is no God, but God, and Mohammed is his prophet," or whenever a convenient time occurs between the ages of six and sixteen. These few remarks on the history and leading dogmas of the Koran may suffice for the present; other doctrines will be brought forward in later chapters of this work; in the two following, it will be our object to notice those portions of the Koran which were more particularly borrowed from Judaism and Christianity. 142 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. CHAPTEK Y. WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM. "I am a prophet also as thou art; and an angel spake unto me by the word of the Lord, but he lied unto him." I Kings XIH. 18. 1. The Koran frequently assumes a jDolemical bearing towards the Jews and the Jewish reHgion, and Arab writers frankly admit that Mohammed now and then made alterations in his plan to diminish, as far as possible, the analogy which his creed bore to that of the Jews.^° The Jews are styled the enemies of Moslemin because they killed the Prophets , are bi- gotted, proud and self-conceited, consider Ezra to be the Son of God, believe Paradise to be created only for themselves, trust to the intercession of their pious ancestors and corrupt their sacred Scriptures. ^ ^ Hence the Koran is not scrupulous in opposing Judaism in its law^s of divorce, ^^ in abolishing certain law^s con- cerning particular kinds of meat, ^ ^ and in the laws of retaliation.^* Yet in spite of this opposition, Mo- *° O^jJL 2UaAJ! ^aJI xJiil^ k5>!^ "from necessity to abolish the analogy with the Jews." Pocock. not. miscell. cap. IX. pag. 369. ^* Sur. V. 85. H. 58. V. 74. 21. II. 88. LXII. 6. IX. 30. II. 128. 135. II. 73. ^' Sur. 11. 229 230. with Deut. XXIV. 1. *^ Sur. IV. 158. III. 44. 86. IV. 158. V. 89. 90. V. 4. VI. 146. XVI. 116. VI. 47. cfr. Leo. XI. 3. VII. 27. III. 9. ^* Sur. V. 94. with Exod. XXI. 23—25. M. admits of expiation by money , only where the offended parties agree ; but the Rabbis, whom he calls "unjust" extend it to all cases: T^^, Sr^ TN i N^r. ':i^n3 nn^N v^^^ ^^^'^ J^n "nau; Sn^ rfi< nc^ ^^JUO L4J : in accordance with what they already possessed. Sur. II. 89. XLVI.ll.andSur.XXXIX.24.add:viotXit ^j^^wm^T J>3 idOl ^^ M. is said to be the seal of the prophets : ^^waxaj *J'L&>, Sur. XXXIII. 4. and his book, i^yJ^A v^^vJCj; so clear as not to be doubted or liable to be disjjuted. CHAP, v.] HEBREW TERMS. 145 lief. ^^ If these coadjutors were Jews, as doubtless were some of them, we can thus account for the Hebrew ideas and expressions we meet with in the Koran, which cannot be explained from analogy of language or idiom, but are considered to be directly imported from Judaism. The word ''Ark'' as used in the history of Moses and in connection with the "ai^k of the covenant'' is applied in the Koran exactly in the same way as in the old Testament. ^* Again Torah^'^ the law, is made to signify the entire Old Testament as it is in the New Testament, and the term clearly dates its origin from the Hebrew; again, the Hebrew name for Paradise was also adopted by Mohammed, as well as the Rabbinical description of the place itself. ^ ^ The same may be said of the Hebrew term for hell.*' Gehinnom was originally nothing but 23 Sur. VIII. 31. XVI. 26. XXIII. 85. XXV. 5. 6. XXVil. 70. XLVI. 10. 16. LXVni. 15. LXXXIU. 13. 2* Sur. XX. 39. Exod. II. 3. Sur. II. 249. The word, ^yAj is not Arabic in its termination, (ii>«_, and answers to r.^Tyi or the Rabbinical Nntin"^n. <^,\y^i ""^^^5 ^^^ l^w> is always used in a sense analogous to 0 vopLoq in the New Test. *® "JTag ^arabfe^ ij! cin Drt, n.^o man cl^ne aHe fi5rt^crltc^c9lnflren9«ttg ift imb trinft, unb iro bi'e ©Delfteine ju .^aufe fi'nb, feibenc ^etten, ©trome von 3Bein, luo^lrtec^enbe £)ilt, unb nnbereg ber 9lrt." Again: "(Sben ifi ein Ort ber SOonne, bag frurf)t6arfte ^anb, iro fef)r ttfetc S3dd^e unb ^rud)tbdume finb , n^elc^e ®i^ii fiinftig ben SOIenf^en jeigen njirb, nm bort crfreut ju irerben." Maimonides apud Sanhed. XI. 1. t^yLi.'^. ^tX-fc from T^y V!i is the usual name of Paradise, seldom cjLa^ yrf^«t>wAJI from Tzatadeioog. '^ Gehenna, ^1 ^^ fiir'""^; in the New Test yeavva. The terra occurs Sur.I1.201. III.10.198. IV.58.95.99. 115. 120. That *a.^ was adopted direct from the Jews is proved by the final letter *. K 146 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. the valley of Hinnom near Jerusalem, which being at one time so notorious and detested for its idolatries, its name was applied in the Talmud and the New Testament to hell. Asain, amons' the Pharisees or Separatists wdio formed themselves into a distinct community, holding the traditions of the elders and studying to excel by exterior sanctity, was a party distinguished for learning and intelligence whose members were called Chaberim or "fellows;". thus the term became identical with teachers; and this usus loquendi in Rabbinical language, was adopted by the Koran. ^^ The words ''Rabaan-' another term signifying teacher, "Sabbath" the seventh day of the week, "Shekinah" implying God's peculiar presence, "Foorkan" signifying redemption, and "Mathani" meaning repetition , are all terms of Hebrew origin introduced into the Koran. ^^ 2. It would be irrelevant to our purpose to wade through all the incongruous matter of the Koran in order to discover everv trace of Judaism, but we shall glance at some peculiarly Jewish ideas, which ^'"^ NLA,afc|, D'^n^n"; "ll^n, socius was the term of a member of a party among the D"''p^'nD, claiming peculiar knowledge. Thus fi'^'n^n acquired the sense of teachers. Sur. V. 48. 68. IX. 31. 34. 29 Compare Sur. IH. 73. V. 48. 68. 80. IX. 31. 34. ^Gj and la'l. Respecting e:^^^ , ns'4 Sur. II. 61. YIl. 163. XVI. 125} and about JUj^Lw, nr^;^ see Exod. XXV. 8. Deut. XXXIII, 12. 16. Sur. II. 249. IX. 26. 40. XLVIII. 4. 18. 26. ^^fy I^^IS, help, salvation: Sur. YIII. 29. 42. 181. ^Uyo or r::uJ73, repetition. Moh. put his book in the place of the entire Jewish teaching called it: ^\Ji, N"^?.^ as well as ^Ia>o, I^,5'4'3. CHAP, v.] HEBREW TERMS. 147 ought to be noticed. Passing over the creation, we remark that the seven heavens and the seven earths which are held in the Talmud, have found their way into the Koran. ^^ During the creation, God's glorious throne was placed in the air upon the water. ^^ ''The w^orld is the sixtieth part of the garden, the garden is the sixtieth part of Eden" according to the Talmud ; and Mohammed states that the breadth of the garden is that of heaven and earth. ^^ Both in the Koran and Talmud we find seven hells as the appointed abode for the damned, and each hell has seven gates, in both documents. ^^ The entrance of the Gehinnom is marked by two date-trees, bet^Yeen which, smoke issues, and the Koran speaks of a tree in hell, of which the damned are to eat and of which many terrible things are related.^* In the Talmud the prince of hell demands supply for his domain, and a similar request is made in the Koran. ^^ Between the seven heavens and the seven hells is an intermediate place, for those who are too good to be cast into hell , and too imperfect to be ^0 Chagiga IX. 2. ^""TV.^. "^^^/^ "there are seven heavens." Eniek Rammelech Eisenmenger I. pag. 459. and Sur. II. 27, XVII. 46. 88. XLI. II. LXV. 12. LXVII. 3. LXXI. 14. ^\^4^\ ca^. '' Sur. XL 9. XXVII. 26. XXIII. 117. LXXXV. 15. and Rashi to Gen. I. 2. D"'72n ^52 by tin^^^ ^^■riNa ^12^ ^^ TaanithX. Pesashim XCIV. nn^. '!^ )^^, G^'C^'Ji?; ^HN Cb'-^y tpya D^ui^^ and Sur. III. 127. ^^ Talmud Erubin XIX. 1. Midrash at the end of Psahn XI. Sohar II. pag. 150. Sur. XV. 44. ^* Sakkhah XXXVII. and Sur. XXXVII. 60 XLIV. 43. 3^ Othioth by Rabbi Akiba VIII. 1. and Sur. L. 29. 148 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. admitted into heaven.^® This intermediate abode is however so narrow that the conversations of the bless- ed and the damned on either side may be overheard. The haj^piness of Paradise is similarly depicted in both Talmud and Koran ;^.' and the difficulty of attaining it is equally set forth; the Talmud declaring that it is as easy for an elephant to enter through the eye of a needle, the Koran merely substituting a camel for an elephant. ^^ That the dead live in the sight of God is stated in both documents in the same terms, and that the admission to the actual presence of the Almighty is not to be expected before the day of Judg- ment and the Resurrection of the dead. ^^ The signs of the last day, as given in the Koran, are borrowed equally from the Scriptures and the Talmud. *° The lengthened descriptions in the Koran of the future Resurrection and Judgment are also decidedly tinged with a Talmudical colouring. That the several members of the human body shall bear witness against the damned, and that idols shall share in the punish- ment of the worshippers is stated both in the Talmud 36 Midrash to Eccles. VII. 14. Sur. VII. 44. 45. 46. 47. 37 Mishnah Aboth IV. 17. Sur. IX. 38. XUI. 26. '^ Compare the Talmudic : t?^n72*i ^^D;^n ^b^D l^r.^^*] N^3. with JsUi^JI "jUw ^i Jwi^ ^^, ^^^ in Sur. VII. 38. 3^ The pious "enjoy the glory of the Shechinah :" Vt'5 Ti\^^ n^^pU?- Sur. LXXV. 23. g. jblj L^. ^| "their Lord contempla- ting". Also Sur. LXXXIX. 27. *o Sur. XXI. 104. XXXIX. 67. XLIV. 9. XVII. 60. XXII. 2. XXVII. 89. Isa. XXXIV. 4. Ezek. XXXVIII. XXXIX. Sur. XXI. 96. CHAP, v.] DOCTRINES BORROWED. 149 and Koran. *^ The time of the last Judgment Mo- hammed dedined to fix, resting upon the Jewish or Scriptural sentence that "one day with God is like a thousand."*^ The Jews in speaking of the Resur- rection of the dead allude to the sending down of rain; the Koran also affirms that this means of quick- ening the dead will be employed;*^ and the Tal- mudical idea that the dead will rise in the garments in which they were buried has likewise been adoj^ted into Moslem tradition.** The Jewish opinion that "all the Prophets saw in a dark, but Moses in a clear mirror"*^ is modified in the Koran by the addition that God sends down his angelic messenger Gabriel, as "the Holy Ghost" with revelations; this extra- ordinary notion of Gabriel being considered the Spirit of God is also imported from the teaching of the Jews. *^ Again, the Demonology of the Koran is chiefly borrowed from the Talmud. "Three of the properties of demons are in common with angels, and three ** ChagigaXVI. ThaanithXl. and Sur.XXIV. 24. XXXVL 65. XLI. 19. Sukkah XXIX. and Sur. XXI. 98. *2 Psa. XCIV. Sanhedr. 96, 2. and Sur. XXII. 46. XXXII. 4. Ezek, XXXVII. 13. and Sur. C. 9. *'* fi'»^>" '^^'^'^'73 "who sends down the rain" is introduced: Thaanith at the beginning-. Sur. VI. 95. XXX. 49. XXXVI. 33. XLI. 39. XLIII. 10. ^* Sanhed. XC. 2. Khethubhoth CXI. 2. See also VI. 95. and Pocock. not. misc. cap. VII. p. 271. &jLy ^ v^^Jto o^^JI ^\ ^-^ ^^•*^- (5^^ ^'' Jebamoth XLIX. with Sur. XLII. 50. *^ 1 King XXII. 21, n^^r* N3>:i; and n^^p^pD Tp^ "the clearly speaking spirit" is also taken as Gabriel : Sanhedrin XLIV. and Sur. LXXVIII, 38, XCVII, 4.- XVII. 87. 150 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. with men; they have wings like angels, can fly from one end of the world to the other, and know things to come. But do they know future events? No, but they listen behind the veil. The three properties in common with men are : they eat and drink, indulge in jDhysical love and die."*' This was adopted in the Koran and spun out ad libitum; for instance, whilst listening once to the angelic conversations they w^ere hunted away with stones! Their presence in places of worship is admitted both in the Talmud and the Koran: "when the servant of God stood uj) to in- voke him, the Djins all but pressed on him in the d" 48 . Amongst the moral precepts which are borrowed from the Talmud, we may mention, that children are not to obey their parents, wdien the latter demand that which is evil;*^ prayer is to be performed stand- ing, walking, or even riding ;^^ devotions may be *^ ri'^^uj? n^'JJn ''DNb'J22 ri'ijbuj D^^'»z:-i D^^)3^^5 d^'nn^ n^ui q^S); rsusi q^d^s C.-^ ':3^ mujn ^Di^o)23 r.;iJbu3 anx ^3n3 I ^ ' • T : • - T : V T •• •• T - ••—.:-: t : t t •• : • t^bN riry-1 Npbo r3>^r n^nb rn:'u3 r.?3 r3>nri nsiD ^y) ^h'-^yr^ V'-iD rn^i rbD^N diN ^:a3 r/i^bu3:i ^i>-iDr; ■^'-i^nj^To ry??^ :Vn72^ Vn-j1 Chagiga XVI. *1. and Sur. Xv! 17. 34. XXXVIII. 78. LXXXL 24. LXVII. 5. XXXVK. 7. LXXII. Hence the ap- pellative |V^y^>j the stoned one. *^ Compare the Talmud; Ntin "rOi73 nbs "^n^ Ni^n"^ ^" and Sur. LXXII. 19. *^ "Saith the father to his son being a Priest, defile thyself, or return not that which is found, should he in this obey him?" Jeb- hamoth VI. cfr. Sur. XXIX. 7 . *o guj. II 230. III. 188. X. 13. The Jews, Berachoth X. T^yTO nrcn., pray standing; may be done riding on an ass, Mishnah Berachoth IV, 5. CHAP, v.] - DOCTRINES BORROWED. 151 51 shortened in urgent cases, without committing sin; drunken jDcrsons are not to engage in acts of wor- ship;''^ abhitions before prayer are in special cases enforced, but generally required both in the Talmud and the Koran; ^^ each permit the use of sand instead of water, when the latter is not to be procured. ^* The Talmud prohibits loud and noisy prayers, and Mo- hammed gives this short injunction: — "cry not in your prayers ;"^^ in addition to this secret prayer, public worship is equally commended. ^ ^ The Shema- prayer of the Jews is to be performed, "when one is able to distinguish a blue from a luhite threacir and this, is precisely the criterion of the commencement of the fast in the Koran. '' ' The following social pre- cepts are likewise copied from Judaism, — a divorced woman must wait three months before marrying again; ^'^ mothers are to nurse their children two full 3^ears; and the degrees of affinity within which manages are lawful. ^^ •^^ Sur. IV. 102. and Mishnah Berachoth IV. 4. " Sur. Vs\ 46. and Berachoth XXXI. 2. Erubin LXIV. ^^ Sur. IV. 46. V. 9. Mishnah Berachoth III. 4. '* Sur. V. 8. and Berachoth XL VI. rt?1 "l^^^^. Ti|)?^ he puri- fies himself \vith sand and has done enough. ^^ dlj^JLaj r4^^ Sur. XVII. 110. with Berachoth XXXI. 2. hbip y^^P'vT: in: V — T : T V — T ' T r : ' T • v: V T f T T V 'T • ' ; : • nN5 ^251 ib ^^N r]73u3 nr^j^r h'oh nn o^D -t n^^jn -t mts tlT^ni'^na bbb tin Tint^u; "^b^t^ nj^^'jr^-b Midrash Rabbah to Leviticus Parashah XIX. and Genesis Parashah VIII. and Sanhedrin XXX vm. ^2 Sur. VILIO— 26. XV. 28— 44. X\TI. 63— 68. XVIU. 48. XX. 115. XXXVIII. 71—86. 154 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. Talmudical \^Titings. Some Jewish fables record, that the angels contemplated worshipping man, but were prevented by God;^^ others precisely agree with the Koran, ^* that God commanded the angels to worship man, and that they obeyed with the exception of Satan. The Sonna informs us that Adam was sixty yards high, and Rabbinical fables make him extend from one end of the world to the other, but upon the angels esteeming him a second Deity, God put his hand upon him and reduced him to a thousand yards ! ^ ^ Jewish writings thus record the intention of the crea- tures to worship Adam: — "When the creatures saw Adam, they were afraid thinking him to be the Crea- tor and came to worship him, but he said to them: Ye come to worship me, but come with me, and we ^^ There are signs of great veneration for Adam, but when about to worship him, God prevented it: "|>3 15"'?. 1"'^2}^nn DTJ^ ■)■;: 'b v?K^'?'=^ "^H^ ^^ r^.^^ ^y^^ ^5^^'^^ 'T'l '"C^ n<- Sanhedrin XXIX. Again : nN SS^n TJ-^il ^1"l^" &«"'n2^. nr^l^ nu::^ r.73 ujinp i^isb "ii^ib "^i^i^n? n^t3n ^:dn5^3 in "^yt^ b'lN^ :d^&< N^r,"^ Vsn ^y^^i n?3Tin vby h^^r^ 'n'S'prj Midrash Rab- TT V — :t: T";— tt "'TT'T bah ad Genesis Parash. YIU *^* The Midrash of Rabbi Moses Haddarshan examined by Zunz "Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden" pag. 296. "Locutus est Deus angelis ministerii, ut supplicarent Adae. Venerunt angeli ministerii ad beneplacitum Dei. Satan vero erat major omnibus angelis in coelo. Locutus est igitur Deo sancto et benedicto , et ait: Domine mundi, nos creasti ex splendore Schechinae et tu dicis nobis, ut supplicemus ei , vel ut adoremus eum quem de limo terrae formasti. Dixit ei Deus sanctus et benedictus , inisto, qui est de limo terrae, est plus sapientiae et intelligentiae, quam in te. Factum est itaque, cum nollet supplicare ei, nee obedire voci Dei sancti et benedicti, expellit ilium de coelis et factus est Satan , et de eo dicit Jasaj. XIY. 12. quomodo cecidisti de coelo, splendor, fili aurorae!" cfr. Raymund Martini Pugio fidei edit. Carpzov. pag. 563. 564. from Bereshit Rabba to Gen. V. 5. ^^ Fundgrub. I. p. 278. and Eisenmenger's Judenthura I. p. 365. CHAP. V.J THE PATRIARCHS BEFORE THE FLOOD. 155 will take Hhn as our king who has created iis/'^^ The account given in the Koran of Cain's murder of his brother, is borrowed from the Bible; his conver- sation with Abel before he slew him, ^^ is the same as that in the Targum of Jerusalem. After the mur- der, Cain sees a raven burying another, and from this sight gains the idea of interring Abel. Jewish fable differs only in ascribing the interment to the pa- rents:— Adam and his wife sat weeping and lament- ing him, not knowing what to do with the body, as they were unacquainted with burjdng. Then came a raven whose fellow was dead, he took and buried it in the earth hiding it before their eyes; then said Adam, I shall do like this raven, and taking Abel's corpse, he dug in the earth and hid it."^^ The sen- tence following in the Koran: — "wherefore we com- manded the children of Israel that he who slayeth a soul not by way of retaliation , or because he doeth corruptly in the earth , shall he as if he had slain all mankind; but he luho saveth a soul alive, shall be as ^*' Eisenmenger's Judenthum I. pag*. 367. quoted from the Pirke Rabbi Elieser. To prove Adam's extraordinary knowledge, the Talmud and Koran relate that the angels brought down from the higher worlds a book fullof mighty things beyond their com- prehension, in order to learn from Adam the mysteries it contained. ^^ Sura V. 30 — 33. "I will certainly kill thee; Abel answered. God only accepteth the offerings of the pious ; if thou stretchest forth thy hand against me to slay me , I will not stretch forth my hand against thee to slay, for I fear God, the Lord of all creatures." Sb n^u3 nnN I'nis' ^n J^^^nps h-^y^r^"; ti^rj Nb\r 'bnnb niujs'b n^ D^N ^^jjj dvT?!^. ^^^'^? Yi^^ ^?01 ^^^^ '^i^^ *i^''7?.n'?.'"iO^- J^;>2"j^ V"nNS ^Bm bnn* h^ nnbns npb ^^)2 r^'y' •'^ii' n'nnyD T : I V T T ~ T : V V V T : • l— r • v • — ; • • T Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. XXI. Compare with this: Sur. V. 34. 35. 156 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. if he saved all souls alive,'' — would have no connection with what precedes or follows, were it not for the TargLim of Onkelos in the paraphrase of Gen. IV. 10. where it is said that the "bloods" of Cain's brother cried to God from the earth, thus implying that Abel's posterity were also cut off: and in the Mishnah San- hedrin, we find the very words which the Koran attaches to the narration of the murder without sense or connection. ^^ 4. Noah stands forth as the preacher of righte- ousness, builds the ark and is saved with his family whilst the whole of mankind perish: ^° his character is however drawn more from Rabbinical than Biblical sources. The conversations of Noah with the people and the words with which they mocked him whilst building the ark, ' * are the same in Talmudical wri- tings as in the Koran: the former declare that the waters of the flood were heated, and the latter that the generation of the flood was punished with boiling water. ^^ I.— • — I • r •• : • -•.•;•.• • T V — T V !• '— : . • T t:« i~*: t •;" ~: ti»t ••: tvT't ~ •• •* riy)2 bNn^:?3 nfiN ^53 D^p72n b^i Nb?3 oV^y ^5^ ^^^3 itinsn Nb7| nV^V D-;n ?bN3. n^nsr; vhy Misnah Sanhedrin IV. 5". ^0 Sur.VII.57— 63. X. 72—75. XI. 27— 50. XXn.43. XXIII. 23—32. XXV. 39. XXVI. 105—121. XXIX. 13. 14, XXXVII. 73-81. LIV. 9—18. LXXI. 1—29. '^ :n73b nT nn^n ipnb ^'ITSN Old one, wherefore this ark? Sanhedrin CVIII. cfr. Midrash Rabbah ad Gen. Parash. XXX. and XXXIII. ad Eccles. IX. 14. Midrash Tanchuma adds: V~n\D?3 ?^n d^'ni'l!! VV?^^1 '3'!?'3 they mocked and annoyed him with words. '^ )y^^ y*^^ the oven poured forth boiling water. Sur. XI. CHAP, v.] FROM NOAH TILL ABRAHAM. 157 The next Patriarch after the flood is Hud, who is none other than Eher; another sample of the ignor- ance of Mohammed.''^ In the days of Had'* the tower is constructed; the ''obstinate hero ,"'^'' — pro- bably Nimrod, takes the lead; the sin of idolatry abounding, an idol is contemplated as the crowning of the tower; but the building is overthrown, the tribes are dispersed and punished in this world and in the world to come:'^ these particulars are evidently bor- rowed from Scripture and Rabbinical writings; in the Koran however the dispersion is caused by a poi- sonous wind and not by the confusion of tongues. The significance which the Koran gives to Hud is again in perfect accordance with Rabbinical Judaism. ''Eber was a great prophet, for he prophetically cal- led his son Peleg (dispersion) , by the help of the Holy Ghost, because the earth was to be dispersed.'' ^^ 42. XXIIL 27. '?ritT5 "j^nn^^ia b?27?" 'n'l^ the race of the flood was punished with hot water. Eosh Hashanah XVL 2. Sanhedrin CVIIL ^^ J«.iO, Hud. ^ny hence ''^.n^, Hebrews. This original name was forgotten and ^"i"-":, Jews or O*..^. sometimes 4>yD became common among the Arabs. ^* Sur. VIL 63-71. XL 52-64. XXIL 43. XXIIL 33-44. XXV. 4. XXVI 123-141. XXIX. 37. XXXVIIL 11. XL. 32. XLL 12-16. XLVL 20-25. L. 13. LL 41 42. LIIL 50. LIV. 18—20. LXIX. 4—9. LXXXIX. 5—9. XVL 28. ^^ JuOL& >Ia^. see Nimrod's cognomen of '1"2> Gen. X. 7. 8. '^ Sur. XL 63. and Mishnah Sanhedr. X. 3. where we read : "The generation of the dispersion has no part in the world to come." " ^-p- nrn^ ^^D =123^ ^v. ^^. ^'72'4. ^?^ "C~ ^'"^^ ^'^? VTINri r.ybz^ VJt^ ^^'^.^ Seder Clam quoted Midrash Jalkut cap. LXIL 158 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. 5. Among all the Patriarchs, Abraham ^^ was the most esteemed by Mohammed, as being neither Jew nor Christian but a Moslem ! ^ ^ That he wrote books according to the Koran, is also the belief of the Jewish doctors. ^^ His attaining the knowledge of the true faith; his zeal to convert his generation, his destruc- tion of the idols; his placing the staff in the hand of the largest idol and ascribing to it the deed; his effort to persuade the people of the imjDotence ol their gods; the fury of the people; their insisting on his being burned, and his marvellous deliverance ; all these particulars in the life of Abraham, as given by the Koran, ^ ^ are minutely cojDied from Jewish fictions. We confine ourselves to one passage; ''Terah was an idolater , ^ ^ and idol-maker. — Once he went a journey and left Abraham to sell the idols; who, when a 23urchaser came, asked his age : if the person replied '® *jw;c|wil, Ibrahim; Cri-I^nii, called aJjj J^jJLi:^, friend of God. '^ Sur. XVI. 124. II. 129. III. 60. VI. 79. XVI. 121. 124. II. 134. IV. 124. ®° The Jews ascribe to him the cabbalistical Sepher Jezirah, which is certainly very old. 81 Sur. VI. 74—82. XIX. 42—51. XXI. 52—69. XXII. 43. XXVI. 69 — 105. XXIX. 15—23. XXXVII. 81 — 95 XLIII. 25— 28. LX.4— 6. IX. 115. XXVI. 86 — 104. Sonna 395. Sur. 11.260. XXI 69—74. XXIX. 23 — 27. XXXVII. 95 — 99. 8^ irnri called .v|, Asar by M. Sur. VI. 74. Eusebius in his Church History calls hira ^A^aq which may hare arisen from Qaqa and the Greek \idaQ was turned into .-J, Asar. The later Arabs however know the proper name • Aj^ See Elpherar to Sur VII. 78. According to Tarikh Montekheb Asar was the father of Terah. The words HT; fi"^7jbj:b "in? n"in according to the context must r T • T : • •• — V O imply also a seller of images. CHAP, v.] FROM NOAH TILL ABRAHAM. 159 fifty or sixty years, Abraham said to him: Woe to a man of sixty who will worship the work of one day; so that pmxhaser went away ashamed. *^ ^ Once a wo- man came with a dish of flom- and said: here, put this before them! but he took a stick, broke all the idols and placed the stick in the hand of the largest of them. When his father returned, he asked, who has done this? whereupon Abraham said, — ''why shall I deny it? a woman came with a dish of flour, telling me to place it before them; scarcely had I done this when each was determined to eat first, and the largest of them beat the others to pieces with the stick he has in his hand. But Terah said, why dost thou impose upon me, have they any knowledge? Abraham replied, do not thy ears hear what thy mouth speaketh? Then Terah seized his son and handed him over to Nimrod, who said to Abraham: we will worship the fire! Abraham: — Rather the water, which ex- tinguishes the fire! Nimrod: — then the water! Abra- ham:— Rather the cloud which carries the water. Nimrod: — then the cloud! Abraham: — Rather the wind, which disperses the cloud. Nimrod: — then the wind! Abraham: — rather man who resists the wind. Nimrod: — Thou art talking vain things; I worship the fire and cast thee into the midst of it, may the God whom thou worshippest come and save thee out of it. Abraham was then cast into a burning lime- ,^^Ju:c.j ^^ Jyb [VA5^^L>I ^LXi IxaaJ ^s^\^\ J^i*-^ .XAAaj ^m Sv-*dj Lo Abulfeda histor. ante Islam, img. 20. 160 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. pit and was saved." ^* The Koran states that the angels whom Abraham received, appeared as ordi- nary Arabs, and he was astonished when they de- dined to eat/^ According to the Talmud, they also "appeared to him no more t\i2i\-i Arabs T^^ but another passage adds: ''The angels descended and did eat. are they then said to have really eaten? No! but they appeared as if they did eat and drink." ^' As a proof of Mohammed's uncertainty respecting the history of Abraham we add, that the doubt regarding their having a son in their old age, is expressed in the Koran by Abraham, instead of Sarah, and she is made to laugh at the promise of a son, before it was given ;^^ again, the command to offer his son, is given to Abraham before Isaac is born or promised, so that the son who was to be offered up could be none other than Ishmael,^^ who was spoken of immediately be- fore as the "meek youth T Mohammedan divines are however not agreed whether Ishmael was to be offered up although it is reported by some, that the horns ®* Midrash Rabbah ad Genesis Parash. XVII. ^'^ Sur.XL 72— 79. XV. 51— 61. XXIX. 30— 32. LI. 24— 38. ®^ t]^^2^rb NiTN nb ti73-i3 isb Kiddushin LII. ®^ ^n:?-! t^pbD tibnwx cnb "^b^j^i rrciizh ^"i^^ n^i::n ^3Nbv: tintil tibDNUJ ^5:D HN^: i?>2^&« t^Vj^ Baba Mezia LXXXVI. 2. T ; ; T V " • '»* ; • T •• TV ®^ Sur. XV. 54. XI. 74. This caused the most absurd ex- planations. «^ Sur. XXXVII. 99—114. explains what II. 118. is only hinted at, viz. the son Ishmael was to be sacrificed but was "ran- somed with a noble victim"; and after that 112. ^,.^ ^Ijiy ^!^ ^\ :^y l^ ^^ ^'' -"i:o5 rr;"::Dpri ^'rrra r.^sr 'nmb tn^ri ":nv \t."i ^,?_3N r\y^ nniN^* a^?:-^,y' ^rry^ 'r,'^i2h ^brtj' '-i-2:?3 •'ity ~;ir;d ^?:isb nn-3:"4 "r^l -•T-."'v. ~»?^"1 '^~^^. "2?^ by ^=ip?r'4 M^"^ ^^"1^^^ t--rz72 !T7:'i Sotah XXXVI. 2. * °^ Elpherar to Sur. XII. 24. Geiger pag. 142. ^^ Sur. XII. 26. 31. 50. and the commentary of Elpherar to the passage. CHAP, v.] FROM ABRAHAM TILL MOSES. 163 borrowed to the very letter from the same source.* In this Sura it is also stated that ''the devil made him (Joseph) forget the remembrance of his Lord,"* in perfect harmony with the Jewish tradition: ''Vain speech tendeth to destruction; though Joseph twice urged the chief butler to remember him yet he had to remain two years longer in prison."^ The seeking protection from man is here represented as the in- stigation of Satan. The Koran causes Jacob to tell his sons to enter at different gates; and the same injunction is given by the Patriarch in the Jewish writings; "Jacob said to them enter not through one and the same gate."* The exclamation of the sons of Israel, when they found the cup in Benjamin's sack: '7ias he stolen, so has his brother also;" are clearly a perversion of the words which the Jewish traditions put into their mouths: ''Behold a thief, son of a fe- male thief," referring to the stealing of the Teraphim by Rachel.^ Mohammed again acquaints us that Jacob knew by divine revelation that his son Joseph * The ^la^r. "nsO Sepher Hajjashar, quoted in the Midrash Jal- kut by the name ^lllNr: u'?:Ti ^"^m and existing- in a Jewish — - German version with the title 'n'^^1 Cr. cfr also the intimation in the Midrash Abhkir quoted in Mid. Jalhut cap, CXLVL ' aUs ySO ^jLiaAwwUJI sLwwvjLi This is falsely applied to the chief butler; the translators were betrayed by the previous verse. Sur XIL 42. ' Midrash Rabbah to Gen. XL 14. Geiger pag. 146. Sur. XIL 42. "wherefore he remained in the prison some years." * Sur. XII. 67. and rnii nr!:r. cr^? "o:zn. bN hp:': Cnb '"iTCN Mid. Rabbah to Genesis Parash XCI. ^ Sur. XIl. 77. and iSr3;|i ^2 ∈?s Nr; Midrash Rabbah Parash. XCU. Gen. XXXL 19. * *' L* 164 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. was Still alive, ^ and Jewish tradition enables us to point out whence he obtained the information. "An unbeliever asked our master: do the dead continue to live? your parents did not believe it, and will ye receive it? Of Jacob it is said, he refused to be com- forted; had he believed that the dead still lived, would be not have been comforted? But he answered, fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he still really lived, and about a living person, people need no comfort." ' 6. Mohammed made but scanty allusions to the early patriarchs, Joseph only excepted; but concer- ning Moses it was his interest to be more liberal and definite in his communications, — possibly from the de- sire to be considered like him, as he is generally thought to have taken that prophet as his model — whose character as lawgiver and whose personally eventful life, furnished him with abundant materials which he wove together as follows. Among the oppressions which Pharaoh exercised towards the Jews are named, his ordering their children to be cast into the water. Moses the son of Amran'^ was put into an ark by his mother; Pharaoh's luife observing the child, rescues him from death, and gives him *" Sur. XII. 86. 97. and Midrash Tanchuma quoted in Midrash Yalkut cap. CXLIII. The Koran also makes Joseph tell Benjamin first, that he was his brother XII. 69. in harmony with the Sepher Bajjashar. ' Of the contradictions and inconsistencies with which the "Sura Joseph" abounds , we only mention that Joseph interprets the dream in Sur. XU. 47. and in 50. he is fetched from prison. ® Moses is introduced as: Wll^y "ja i".';^.?3j or .L ^ e^ y,j -juw»jO Gen. VI. 20. - ; .. •• u/^ U^- {S T CHAP, v.] MOSES AND HIS AGE. 165 back to his mother to nurse. When Moses was grown up he sought to assist his oppressed brethren, and kills an Egyptian; being the next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew, he flees to Midian, and mar- ries the daughter of an inhabitant of that country. ® When about to leave Midian he sees a burning bush, and approaching it, receives a call to go to Egypt, to exhort Pharaoh ^° and perform miracles; he accepts the mission but requests the aid of his brother Aaron. ^ * Pharaoh however remains an infidel and gathers his sorcerers together, who perform only mferior miracles, and in spite of Pharaoh's threats they become be- lievers. * ^ Judgment falls upon the Egyptians, they are drowned whilst the Israelites are saved. * ^ A rock yields water; Moses receives the law^* and desires to seethe glory of God. ^^ During Moses' absence, the Israelites make a golden calf, which he destroys, and reducing it « Sur. XX. 37 — 44. XXVIII. 2—29. "^ ^^-f£■'fS "5!"1D Pharaoh, title of Egyptian kings. 1^ (j;r^» Aaron. Sur. XX. 8—37. 44—52. XXVI. 9—17. XXXVIII. 29—36. LXXIX. 15—20. 12 Sur.VII. 101— 125. X.76— 90. XI. 99— 102. XX. 50— 79. XXIII. 47—51. XXVI. 15 — 52. XXVII. 13—15. XXXVIII. 36— 40. XL. 24-49. XLIII. 45—54. LXXIX. 20—27. 13 Sur. n. 46. 47. VII. 127—135. X. 90—93. XX. 79—82. XXVI. 52—69. XXVIII. 40—43. XLIII. 55. ** ^tJ5f|, nintib- Sur. VIL 143. 150. Elpherar says to the jirst passage: "Ben Abbas says, he means the Torah by Al- wach;" and more correctly to the last: 8l\»Jj| L^-^i /c^' where- in the Torah is. *^ Sur. VIL 135—147. 170. IL 52—55. 60. 87. IV. 152. 166 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part I. to powder, makes them drink it;^^ after this, Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.*^ The spies sent to Canaan are all wicked with the exception of two; the people being deceived by them must wander forty years in the desert.*^ Korah, on quarrelling with Moses, is swallowed up by the earth. *^ The marvellous journey of Moses with his servant is an addition which should not be omitted in this summary of events. ^° Among the details, deserve to be mentioned that Haman and Korah were counsellors of Pharaoh.^* It is not surprising that Mohammed should associate Haman with Pharaoh, as an enemy of the Jews; since he cared little, when individuals lived provided they could be introduced with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish tradition, was chief agent or treasurer to Pharaoh. ^^ The Ante-Exodus-perse- cution of the Jews is ascribed to a dream of Pha- raoh; ^^ this is in exact accordance with Jewish fable: "The sorcerers said to Pharaoh, a boy shall be born who will lead the Israelites out of Egypt; then thought he, — cast all male children into the river and he will be cast in among them."^* The words, Exod. 11. 7. " Sur. II. 48—52. 87. VII. 147—155 XX. 82—99. *' Sur. VII. 155. *® Sur. V. 23—30. ^^ Sur. XXVIII. 76 — 83. 2° Sur. XVIII. 59 — 82. 21 ^\^ a„j Ijj Sur.XXVIir.57.38. XXIX. 38. XL. 25. ^2 r.b-iD biD ^n^nb. D^p^bfrij: n;rj nyp Midrash to Numbers Parash. XIV. * ' 23 Sur. XXVIII. 5. 2* nM N'irr N-r:i ^\>'rh ^r2 "n^ry r^'^zb D^7-t:^nn '^^it^ bfi« D^"iDTr, D•'"I'■^b^-: b^ "3^b*d" "sbs ^73^?'i S'dm r:"^::?:70 b^^'i- •.••t:t • •- T • :— •: ~t: -t; •-... ".. f., fi"'P' l'^''^'2 mr^^ ^hfi<^- Pirke Rab. Elieser cap. XL VIII. CHAP, v.] MOSES AND HIS AGE. 167 "I will call one of the Hebrew women" produced the Rahbmical fiction: "why just a Hebrew-woman? This shows that he was handed to all the Egyptian women, but he would not drink; for God said: the mouth which shall once speak with Me^ should it drink what is unclean ?"^^ This was too valuable for Mohammed to omit in his Koran. ^^ Although it is nowhere said in the Bible, that the sign of the leprous hand was wrought in the presence of Pharaoh, ^ ' yet the Koran relates it as having there taken place, ^^ and in this also it was preceded by Jewish tradition : "He put his hand into his bosom and withdrew it leprous white as snow; they also put their hands into their bosom and withdrew them leprous white as snow."^^ Again among Moses' own people none but his own tribe believed him;^^ this Mohammed doubt- less inferred from the statement of the Rabbis: "the tribe of Levi was exempted from hard labour."^* Among the sorcerers of Egypt who first asked for their wages and then became believers when their fc??::: ^m r,T^ ^itz' "i::nb ^i^rs'u: r.D N~n "r^^^-i^ ^nnpn 'M2^ p5! ".. X TT'— • •• "— : "TV V ■' T 'T— — T' — T Sotah Xir. 2; 26 Sur. XXVIIL 11. '^'' It was wrought in the wilderness on the occasion of Moses being called; but as to its being repeated before Pharaoh, Scripture is silent. 28 Sur. VII. 105. XXVI. 32. ^b^.^ rC'V^^liz yrp^' tiN^sf^rn ai^^rib. Dn; Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. XLVIII. * ' ' ' * 3° Sur. X. 83 Parash. V. ^^ "^-D m^ny73 rrr. ^ib bu3 ^ancj Midrash Rab. to Exod. 168 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. serpents were swallowed by that of Moses, ^^ Pharaoh himself was chief,- ^^ here again Mohammed is indebt- ed to Judaism. ''Pharaoh who hved in the days of Moses was a great sorcerer."^* In other places of the Koran he ascribes divinity to Pharaoh; ^^ and Jewish tradition makes him declare: ''iMready from the beginning ye speak falsehood, for I am the Lord of the world, I have made myself as well as the Nile; as it is said of him Ezek. XXIX. 3. "mine is the river and I have made it.''^^ The prophet seems to have been much confused with regard to the plagues ; in some places he enumerates nine, ^^ in others only hve, the first of which, is said to be the Flood! ^'^ As the drowning in the Red Sea, happened after the plagues, he can only allude to the Deluge. The following somewhat dark and uncertain pas- sage ^^ concerning Pharaoh, has caused commentators great perplexity; it is stated that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites until actually drowning, when confessing himself a Moslem he was saved alive from the bottom of the sea, to be a 'witness for ages to come,"*^ but 32 Sur. Vir. no. XXVI. UO. ^s su^ XX. 74. XXVI. 48. 3* r;- bi-ij ^i2:-:\yj2^ r:'i?3 ^12^^^ r;;-':3 nb-D Midrash Yalkut cap. CLXXXII. '•■^ Sur. XXVI. 128. XXVIII. 38. XLIH. 50. T T ' ~; I • ; • V ~ 'v V T • • • V " ■^ X "pr^'J?:; ^:n.i ^-in-; -b ^12^,^, D=^.b^2 ngtl. "^Ji:? ■'rNna ^p^tl Midrash Rab. to Exod. Par. V. '" * " Sur. XVII. 103. XXVII. 112. 's g^j. yjj -^^q 3^ Sur. X. 90. *° Bedawi, see Henzii frag. Arab. pag-. 201. alone keeps to the literal sense of the text: atxi j»i>« [.^jo C)JJlo dLx^JuvJ **jJLi CHAP, v.] MOSES AND HIS AGE. 169 we find tliat it is merely a Mohammedan version of a Jewish fable : — ''Perceive the great power of repen- tance! Pharaoh king of Egypt uttered very wicked words: who is the God whose voice I shall obey? Exod. V. 2. yet as he repented saying, who is like unto thee among the gods, XV. ll. God saved him from death; for it saith, — almost had I stretched out my hands and destroyed, — but God let him live that he might declare his power and strength."*^ As Jewish commentators add to Exod. XV. 27. — where we read of twelve fountains being found nearElim, — that each of the tribes had a well,*^ so Mohammed transposes the statement and declares, that twelve fountains sprang from the rock which had been smitten by Moses at Rephidim. The Rabbinical fable that God covered the Israelites with mount Sinai on the occasion of the lawgiving*^ is thus amplified in the Koran : ''We shook the mountain over them as though it had been a covering, and they imagined that it was falling upon them ; and we said : receive the law which we have brought unto you, with reverence."** The Koran adds, that the Israelites now demanding to see God, die, and are raised again. *^ It will not be difficult to trace the origin of this figment: — ':]-"n^?2yri Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. XLIII. cfr. Mid. to Psalm CVI. Mid. Jaikut cap. CCXXXVm. *^ Dnb ':i372^T5 t]^:35U: ^\l53> d^3;ZJ ^>53 Rashi to Exod. XV. 27. cfr. also Targum Hierolym. *^ n^>\'»3 inr: n5< dlD^bs^ ^5N r.D3 Aboda Tarah II. 2. ** Sur. VII. 170. 171. *^ Sur. II. 52. 53. IV. 152. 170 WHAT MOHAmiED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [parti. "Two things demanded the Israelites from God; that they might see his glory, and hear his voice, and both were granted to them, as it is said: Behold the Lord our God has shown to us His glory and greatness and His voice we heard out of the midst of the fire. Deut. V. 21. These things however they had no power to resist; as they came to mount Sinai and He appeared unto them their souls escaped by His speaking, as it is said: 'my soul escaped as He spake'. The Torah however interceded for them, saying: 'does a king give his daughter to marriage and kill his household? The whole world rejoices (at my appearance) and thy children (the Israelites) shall they die?' — At once their soul returned, therefore it is said: 'the doctrine of God is perfect and brings back the soul."*^ The history of the golden c^i//" afforded a favourable subject for the Koran which follows as usual, the fabulous account of the Rabbinical traditions relating to it. Both represent Aaron as having been nearly killed when at first resisting the entreaty of the people to make it. The Sanhedrin relates : "Aaron saw Chur slaughtered before his eyes, (who opposed them) and he thought, if I do not yield to them they will deal with me as they dealt with Chm^."*^ According to another passage in the Koran, an Israelite by the *6 nn'-D tirh n^>5i ^Voh ?ita"4 l^^s ^^'ovb riz 0^:2 rrr. i*::r.i "^nn ti^<73 "^b?:?. ^:'-"'?l~ '■'.■-:^'? Q^rn"^ D-^b$ u:d3 nn'^'w^a r;?3^7;n Abodah Sarah II. 2. *^ Sur. VII. 150. and Nb \^? n73>i r:pb^ n^3r4 '^•^ "^"^ '"'"'"^ 'ntina. ^"15533 ^^ n^-; NP*^- ^.nb. ^\Vy^ Sanhedrin V. CHAP, v.] MOSES AND HIS AGE. 171 name of Samari enticed tliem and made the calf.*^ Like the wandering Jew in the Christian fable, Sa- mari is punished by Moses with endless wandering, and he is compelled to repeat the words "touch me not."*^ Jewish traditions makeMicah assist in manu- facturing the idol calf;^^ but Mohammed either derived Samari from Samael; or as the Samaritans are stated by the Arab writers to have said: "touch me not," he may have considered Samari as the author of the sect of the Samaritans/* That the calf thus produced by Samari from the ornaments of the people, loived on being finished, '^^ is evidently a Koran repetition of the following Jewish tradition: "The calf came forth Exod. XXII. 24. roaring, and the Israelites saw it. Rabbi Jehuda says: Samael entered the calf and roared to deceive the Israelites." The addition that the tribe of Levi remained faithful to God, is both Scriptural and Rab- *® Sur. XX. 87. 90. 96. The name ^^yoLJI , Samari, may have arisen from bN7t!D who is said to have assisted in making the calf. *^ Sur. XX. 97. the words he has to repeat, are: (j^l/.*^ bJ, no touch! *o Rashi to Sanhedrin CI. -2. The Mlcah the same as Judg. XVII. hence Arab writers consider Micah and Samari identical Achmed ben Idris in Hotting, hist, orient, pag. 84. ^^ It may also have arisen from a Pharisaical sect called by the Talmud: ^:p:i?:P b^ ;L^n?: "the separated one: touch me not!" The fable is clearly a composition from various elements. " Sur. VII. 147. XX. 90. and ^^n'-N ■?&<-;'! WJ ntr: bw;- i«*i:.l ._.... T T : . - .-i .. T — •• T . bN-i':3^ Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. CLIX. 172 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. binical.^^ In the following events we have abbrevia- tions, but no alterations or additions, except in the "matter of Korah" which is honoured with singular embellishments; for instance, Korah had such riches, that from ten to forty strong men were required to carry the keys of his treasures.^* Moslem traditions go much further; Abulfeda says forty mules were required to convey the keys. Nevertheless Jewish tradition, whence it is taken, is still more extravagant. — "Joseph buried three treasures in Egypt, one of which became known to Korah. Riches are turned to de- struction to him that possesses them, Eccles. V. 1 2. and this may well be applied to Korah. The keys to the treasures of Korah made a burden for 300 white mules," ^^ The accusation from which God cleared his servant Moses, of which the Koran makes mention, was according to the best commentators, occasioned by Korah. "Abu Aliah says: it refers to Korah hiring a harlot to reproach Moses before all the people, ujDon which God struck her dumb, and destroyed Korah, which cleared Moses from the charge." ^^ This is unquestionably an amplification of the following ^^ Sur. Vn. 159. Exod. XXXII. 26. Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. XLV. ^* Sur. XXVIII. 76. The words by Sale: "many strong men" signify a general number from 10 — 40. ^^ ^^rj n^snb. nnntis nnxTp. la^uj ■'^tii^ rn-p bu3 ^^^:^ nr. nt!p b^. V\^l n^S nnnriD"73 Pirke Rabbi Elieser cap. XLV. ^6 Sur. XXXIII. 69. LXI. 5. ^^;Li*^l ySH iULxJU yJ JU^ 1 ,(^» »a«i ^^^.J y^ls ^J<£, Lg-w.AAj ^-^^ o jJiJ* XA*j ^IXwwwl ^^^U> ^gjjjoj^ (^b ^jjo ^y^ ^r?^^ ^t Elpharer to Sur. XXXIII. 69. CHAP, v.] MOSES AND HIS AGE. 173 passage. "Moses heard and fell on liis face. Wliat was it he heard? That they accused hhn of having to do with another man's wife.^^ Other commen- tators of the Koran conceive the unjust charge from which Moses was cleared, to have been that of mur- dering Aaron on mount Hor, because he and Eleazar only were present when Aaron died!^^ That they have again had recourse to Jewish tradition will appear from the subjoined extract: — ''The whole congre- gation saw that Aaron was dead; and when Moses and Eleazer came dow^n from the mountain, the whole congregation gathered together asking : where is Aaron ? But they said, he is dead. — How can the Angel of death touch a man, by whom he was resisted and restrained, as it is said: he stood between the dead and the living and the plague was stayed; if ye bring him, it is well, if not we will stone you. Moses prayed: Lord of the world, remove from me this suspicion! Then God opened and showed them Aaron's body, and to this the passage apphes : the whole congre- gation saw etc. etc. Numb. XX. 29."^^ 7. The time of the Judges is passed over un- noticed, and from the manner in which the election UJ^N n^NtS Pirk. R. Elieser cap. XLV. M. speaks of the unjust charge against Moses in the very Sura in which he striyes to clear himself from just imputations ! ^^ According to Elpharer and Abulfeda, the angels showed the dead body of Aaron. ^^ Midrash Tanchuma to Numb. XX. 29. The fabulous ex- pedition of Moses, Sur. XVIII. 59 — 82. is likewise of Jewish origin. Zunz: 5)ie gotteebfenftlic6en IBortrdge ber Siiben, fiiftorffcf) enth.ndelt. The hero of the tale is however a certain Rabbi Jushua. 174 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part I. of a king is introduced Sur. II. 247. 253. it would ajDpear that Mohammed was ignorant of the long in- terval between Moses and Saul.^° Of David's history only his victory over Goliath and his fall through Bathsheba are recorded. The Sonna makes men- tion of the brevity of his slumbers, and commentators of the Koran affirm the same: ''The apostle of God said: David slept half the night, he then rose for a third part and slept again a sixth part."^* This the Koran derived from the Rabbis, who assert that the king slept only for the term of "sixty breathings." ^^ Of the wisdom of Solomon the Koran makes parti- cular mention; and to support the statement, adds, that he understood the language of birds ; this was also the opinion of the Jewish doctors. The winds, or more probable spirits obeyed him;^^ and demons birds and beasts formed part of his standing army.^* Jewish commentators record that ''demons of various kinds and evil spirits were subject to him."^' The story of the queen of Sheba and the adventures of ^° M ascribes to Saul what Scripture relates of Gideon. Judg. VII. 5—6. 6^ Sonna CXLVIII. Elpharer to Sur. XXXVIH. 16: J^^ Jj> (•Lo^ idJlj i^yb^ J^AJJI oi^j fl-L> ^^\0 ^ly (vA-Co eJJI C2 ■»?:':3: C^P'*:;. Berachoth. In his days the Sabbath-breaking Jews are nietamorphised into apes. Sur. II. 61. iV. 50. V. 65. VII. 166. ®' ^is like nW.^ the Spirits. Sur. XXVII. 15. 16. ^^ Sur. XXI. 81. 82. XXXIV. 11. 12. XXXVIII. 35—40. ^ 65 --3^2 TnD7?r.N y-drA rn^.^i r:m v?^?^ yi^ i"'7in'«^^ ^h The second Targum to Esther I. 2. CHAP, v.] KINGS AND PROPHETS. 175 the lapwing/^ are only abridgements from Jewish traditions. As the original is less accessible and more important to the student of the Koran we shall in- sert aversion of this ridiculous fable. — "The wild cock was once sought for among the birds, and not being found the king angrily commanded that he should be brought in, intending to kill him. Then said the wild cock to the king: My Lord king, give heed and hear my words! Already for three months I weighed in my mind, and flew about in the whole world in search for a town, which does not obey thee. I saw then a city in the East, of the name of Kitor, in which are many people, and a woman governs them all, she is called queen of Sheba. If it please thee, my Lord king, I shall go to that city, bind their kings in chains and their rulers with iron fetters, and bring them hither. As it pleased the king, writers were called, who wrote letters and bound them to the wings of the wild cock. He came to the queen who observing the letter tied to the wing, loosened it and read the following contents: — From me king Solo- mon, greeting to thee and to thy princes ! Thou knowest well that God has made me king over the beasts of the field, over the birds of heaven, over demons, spi- rits and goblins, the kings from all regions of the earth approach me with homage; wilt thou do this, thou shalt have great honour, if not, I will send upon thee kings, legions and horsemen. The kings are the beasts of the field, the horsemen the birds of heaven ^^ The sagacious bird d^d^ forms a conspicuous part in the fable of the queen of Sheba: Sur. XXVII. 20—46. 176 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. the hosts, demons and sph'its; the goblins are the legions who shall strangle you in your beds/' When the queen had read this, she rent her garments and called for the elders and lords, saying: know ye what king Solomon has sent to me? They answered, we neither know nor esteem him. The queen however trusting them not, called for sailors and sent presents to the king, and after three years she came herself, The king on hearing of her arrival sat in a crystal hall to receive her, which made her fancy that he was sitting in water, she therefore uncovered her feet to pass through. On seeing his glory she said: may the Lord thy God be praised who has found ^^leasure in thee and made thee sit on the throne to exercise mercy and justice. ^^ With regard to the fable before alluded to, that demons assisted Solomon in the building of the temple, and being deceived, continued it after his death, we may here add that Mohammed borrow^ed it directly from the Jews.^* When Solomon became haughty, one of his many demons ruled in his stead till he repented. ^^ The Sanhedrin also refers to this de- gradation: "In the beginning Solomon reigned also over the upper worlds;" as it is said: "Solomon sat on the throne of God," after that only over his staff, as it is said: "what profit hath a man of all his ^'^ Targum II. to the book of Esther. «8 Sur. XXXIV. 13. and Gittin LXVIII. ^^ Compare Talmud npJ'^ yy Psa. II. Tract. y^> et ::ipb^ in lib. Reg. pag. 182 with Sur. XXXVIII. 33—35. Sale, 374. Wahl pag. 451 not. b. CHAP, v.] ELIJAH, JONAH AND JOB. 177 labour," and still later: this is my portion of all my labom\"'^° On repenting lie maimed his horses con- sidering them a useless luxury. In the Talmud and the Scriptures we find allusion to his obtaining them as well as to their being prohibited."'* Among the few characters which Mohammed no- tices after Solomon, Elijah the prophet takes the precedence; nothing is mentioned of his rapture to heaven, yet he is considered a most remarkable pro- phet.''^^ Among the Jews, Elijah is deemed an inter- mediate person between heaven and earth; he appears in human form to the pious on earth, visits them in their places of worship and communicates revelations from God to eminent Rabbis. In this character Elijah also appears in Moslem divinity. Jonah "the man of the fish"^^ is not forgotten; Mohammed relates his story in his usual style, not omitting his journey to Nineveh or the gourd which afforded him shade."'* Job too, with his suffering and cure is noticed;'^ also T-| T : T T T » : • —•"••.• ': — — t '•• i- t i . • . ■'b735? bs^ ^pbn r^^r, nt n-riS^ Sanhedrin XX. also Mid. Rabh. to Numb. Parash. XI. 7^ Sur. XXXVIII. 29— 33. Sanhedrin XXI. and Deut. XYI. 16. 1 King X. 29. Wahl pag. 451. The fable of the ants Sur. XXVII. 18—20. arose probably from Prov.VI. 6. Compare Talmud, Chul- lin LVII. 7. " Sur.VL85. XXXVII. 123. 130. (j^UJI; among the Jews : ^■^53,^ ^r;;bN, Elijah the prophet. '^ (kwJjj, Jonah, also \i:^yS*- ;,^j^Lo, the man of the fish, Sur. VI. 85. X. 98. XXXVII. 139. XXI. 87. LXVIII. 48. '* The whole very briefly Sur. X. 72. XXI. 87. 88. XXXVII. 139—149. LXVIII. 48—51. '•^ Sur. XXI. 83. XXXVIII. 40—45. K 178 WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM JUDAISM, [part i. the three men who were cast mto a burnmg fiery furnace, ' ^ the turnmg back of the shadow of degrees on the occasion of Hezekiah's recovery,"^' and the excessive veneration of the Jews for the memory of Ezra,"^® may be added as instances of the most fla- grant plagiarism. On reviewing the contents of this chapter, we find the assertion that Mohammed borrowed largely from the Judaism of his age — encumbered as it was by fabulous traditions — has been fully established. It would seem that Mohammed drew his knowledsfe of Jewish history and religion only from these impure fountains which long before his day had been placed on a par with the Word of God. Many more fables and teachings of the Koran might doubtless be traced back to same source, but let those already adduced, suffice to prove to Moslemin, whence the alleged re- velations of their prophet date their real origin. We shall now see what the false prophet adopted from Christianity and examine the relation of the Koran to the New Testament. ^6 Sur. LXXXY. 4. etc. Dan. HI. 8. " Sur. XXV. 47. 47. 2 King XX. 9—12. V : ' . T T : • T — — I •• T • V T : V T T T Ezra would have been worthy to have given the law, if it had not already come by Moses. Sanhedrin XXI. 2. and Sur. IX. 30. CHAP. VI.] JOHN THE BAPTIST. l79 CHAPTER Yl. WHAT MOHAMMED BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY. "It was needful for me to write unto you, and exhort you that ye should earnestly contend for the faith which was once delivered unto the saints. For there are certain men crept in unawares, who were before of old ordained to this condemnation; ungodly men, turn- ing the grace of our God into lasciviousness , and denying the only Lord God and our Lord Jesus Christ," Jude 3. 4.^ It will appear in the course of this chapter that Mohammed was better acquainted with the traditioiis, than with the canonical Scriptures of the Christians, just as he was more versed in the Rabbinical writings than in the Old Testament; hence we may expect to find most of those parts of our Lord's life, on which the apocryphal wTitings chiefly treat. The Koran however going beyond the favourite subject of the childhood of Jesus, begins with the fore-runner of Christ; Zacharias his father dwells in the temple, and asking for a son and heir, is promised one by the angels, or according to another account, by God Himself. Although the New Testament relates nothing of the parents of the Virgin Mary, the apocryphal Gos- pels invariably call them Joachim and Anna; the Koran however designates her family, the family of Amran or Imran.^^ From her being called the sister ^^ This will only be fully understood, when we remember, that St. Jude was one of the founders of the Arabian Church , and pro- bably addressed these prophetic words to it in particular. ®^ Evang. de nativitate Mariae and Protevang. Jacobi cap. I. and II. Also Euseb. Hist. eccl. lib. I. cap. VI. and Sur. III. 33. 35. LXVI. 12, 180 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. of Aaron, and the daughter of Amran^^ it has been fahlj concluded that Mohammed considered the Vir- gin Mary, and Miriam the sister of Moses and Aaron, as identical; and no sophistry on the part of Mo- hammedan divines or European writers can remove this impression.®^ The birth and childhood of Mary are related in these words, "The wife of Imran prayed. Lord verily I have vowed unto thee that which is in my womb to be dedicated to thy service. Accept it therefore of me, for thou art he, who heareth and knoweth. And when she was delivered of it, she said Lord verily I have brought forth a female; — Allah knew what she had brought forth; — and a male is not as a female. I have called her Mary, and I com- mend her and her issue to thy protection against Satan driven away with stones. Therefore the Lord accepted her with a gracious acceptance and caused her to bear an excellent offspring. And Zacharias took care of the child, whenever he went into the chamber to her, he found she had provisions with her, and he said, 0 Mary whence hast thou these? She answered, this is from God, for God provideth for whom he pleaseth without measure." ^^ Again, ®^ a^l^?, the father of Moses and Aaron, also of 0;'^^?, MaQiaiui: ^jy^ ci/»^l M*jt (vJyOj Mary, daughter of Araran and sister of Aaron. ®^ It is assumed that Miriam was kept alive to become the mother of Jesus : in this they have partly the Rabbis on their side : r.^'b^m "72^ "Over Miriam the an^el of death had no power, but she died by the divine breath, and no w^orms molested her." Babha Bathra XVII. Geiger pag. 173. S3 Sur. m. 35—37. CHAP. VI.] BIETH AND CHILDHOOD OF MARY. 181 "The angels said, 0 Mary, verily God liatli chosen thee and hath purified thee and hath chosen thee above all women of the world, 0 Mary be devout to- wards thy Lord and bow thy knees with them that bow their knees. This is one of the secret histories ; we reveal it unto thee (Mohammed) because thou wert not with them, when they threw in their rods to cast lots which of them should have the education of Mary, neither wast thou with them when they strove among themselves."^* This is faithfully borrowed h'om Chris- tian apocryphas.^^ We here perceive the same pre- tensions of Mohammed to having received by reve- lation "a secret history," — though in reality, one which was in the mouth of most oriental Christians at that period, — as in the history of Joseph, which he pretended to divulge as one utterly unknown till «* Sur. III. 42—44. ®^ ^EiTTs de ^'Avvcc' ^v kvqioq 6 'deog fxov , lav ysvv^aco tite ccQQSV the '&vXv , nQO(Tas(o dvTo d'OQOv kvqlco t(o d^ecS fjiov , nai EGtai XeitovQyovv dvroj irdaaq tdg ^jusQag tfjg ^(o^s dvTOv. Prot- evang. Jacohi cap. IV. In the Gospel of the Nativity of Mary we read "voverunt tamen (Mariae parentes) si forte Deus donaret eis sobolem, earn re domini servitio mancipaturos." JEvang. de nativ. Mariae cap. I. Again cap. VII: "Quotidie ab angelis frequentabatur, quotidie divina visione fruebatur, quae earn a malis omnibus custodiebat et bonis omnibus redundare faciebat." Again Protevang. Jacobi cap. VIII: "//'/' 8s MaQidf.i ooatl neQiGtsQa vepiOfjiivri iv rw va(S kv- QLOV , mxl iXaf.i^avE tQoq)ijv in X^^QOQ dyysXov." Again in "Historia de nativitate Mariae et de infantia Salvatoris," cap. IV: "Abierunt simul Joachim et Anna, uxor ejus, ad templum domini, et offerentes hostias domino tradiderunt infantulam suam Mariam in contubernio virginum, quae die noctuque in Dei laudibus manebant." Cap. VI: "Quotidie esca, quam de manu angeli accipiebat, ipsa tantum re- ficiebatur; escam vero, quam a pontificibus templi consequebatur, pauperibus dividebat. Frequenter videbantur cum ea angeli loqui et quasi carissime obteraperabant ei." 182 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. then. The casting of lots as to who should have the care of the infant Mary, who was probably left an orphan at a very early age, is fully described in the apocryphal books, and Mohammed, although "none of the party who cast the lots," could have read it there in all its minutest and most circumstantial de- tails/^ It may be added that the Koran omits all mention of Joseph, Mary's relation to him being never once alluded to ; but the apocryphas assert that she vowed perpetual virginity w^hen the subject of marriage was on one occasion brought before her/' 3. The hirth of Jesus is thus recorded by Mo- hammed in Sur. XIX. 16 — 21: "Remember to notice in the book concerning Mary, when she retired from her family to a place towards the East, and took a veil to conceal herself from them; and we sent our Spirit ^^ unto her, and he appeared unto her in the shape of a perfect man; she said I fly for refuge unto the merciful God to defend me against thee , if thou fearest God; he answered, I am sent to give thee a holy son; she replied, how shall I have a son, seeing a man has not touched me , and I am no harlot ; he answered, so shall it be; thy Lord said, this is easy with me , and we shall ordain him for a sign unto men and a mercy from us, for it is a thing decreed." In another passage, the annunciation is made not by ^® Evang. de nativit. Mariae cap. VI — VIII. Protevang. Jacobi cap. VIII. IX. ^' Evang. de nativitate Mariae cap. VII. ®® XP^, ^^y nvtviia is here not the Holy Ghost in the Chris- tian acceptation of the word, but the angel Gabriel. CHAP. VI.] THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. 183 one, but by several angels; which is the more authentic of the two versions of the story we must leave to Mohammedans to decide. "The angels said, 0 Mary, verily God sendeth thee good tidings of the ivord from him, his name shall be Christ Jesus the son of Mary, honourable in this world and in the world to come, and one of those who approach God, and he shall speak to men in the cradle and be righteous in his old age; she answered. Lord how shall I have a son, since a man hath not touched me? he answered, so shall it be, God createth what he pleaseth, and when he decreeth a thing, he only says unto it, he, and it is.''^^ When Mary was overtaken by the. pains of child- birth "near the trunk of a palm-tree, she said, would to God I had died before this and were forgotten and lost in oblivion; ^^ and he who was beneath her^^ said, be not grieved, now hath God provided a ri- vulet under thee, and do thou shake the palm-tree and it shall let fall ripe dates unto thee, ready gather- ed; eat and drink and calm thy mind. Shouldest thou meet any one who should question thee (on account of the child) say, I have vowed a fast unto the most merciful God, wherefore I will by no means 8^ Sur. III. 45—48. ^^ "Historia de Nativitate Mariae et de infantia Salvatoris' probably gave rise to this statement, when it relates cap. XX. that on their flight to Egypt, Jesus commanded the branches of a palm- tree, under which they rested, to bend down to refresh the travellers by their fruit, after this the infant Saviour causes a fountain to bubble up from between the roots of the tree. ^^ .L^.SSj> ^j»/o, refers to the new born babe. 184 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. speak to any man this day."^^ We find in con- sequence, that Mary answers the inquu'ies of her relatives only by signs, as if to say : the birth of this child is a subject concerning which, I have only to answer to God and need not justify myself before men. ^^ The fear which Mary expresses in the Koran leaves no doubt as to the manner in which the con- ception was thought to have been accomplished; hence we may account for the accusation which the Jews are said by Mohammed, to have brought against her, and which seems to be intimated by the apocryphal writings, when they declare that Mary "hid herself from the sons of Israel."^* Throughout the Koran, Jesus is called the son of Mary; in accordance with the New Testament he is also styled the "word from God" and "the word of truth." ^^ It also adds, "To Jesus the son of Mary gave we proofs of his divine Mission, and strengthened him by the spirit of holiness."^'' In another place ^^ Sur. XIX. 22 — 25. As regards the dates and the fountain: Hist, de nat. Mariae et de inf. Salvat. cap. XX. ^^ Gerock's Versuch einer Darstellung der Christologie des Koran, pag. 36. We make free use of this work; but would caution others who may consult it after us , of its singular partiality to Mohammed. ^* Sur. IV. 155. In the Protevang. Jacobi cap. XU. we read: xal miJv^f-v iavrrjr anb tcov vicov ^iG^jariX. ^^ Jesus Sur. XIX. 32. is called J^j*, Vip, whilst otherwise &iJt iiU-LS; or (3=*l J^i* word of truth. The Arab translation of the Bible gives John I. 1. by Ik^JS, 96 y^iXiiJI yyi sbtX^t Sur. II. 87. 254. V. 119. CHAP. VI.] BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF JESUS. 185 He is called the Spirit from God,^^ Again, we are to "remember her who preserved her virginity, and into whom we breathed of our Spirit, ordaining her and her son for a sign unto all creatures." ^^ As the same is said of Adam, Mohammed finds a strong analogy between him and Jesus, as regards their respective entrance into the world. ^^ After the hirth of Jesus under the palm-tree, the Koran thus continues : "She brought the child back to her people, carrying him in her arms, and they said unto her, 0 Mary, now hast thou done a strange thing, 0 sister of Aaron, thy father was not a bad man, neither was thy mother a harlot. But she made signs unto the child to answer them; and they said, how shall we speak to him who is an infant in the cradle? Where- upon the child said, verily I am the servant of God, he hath given me the book of the gospel, and hath appointed me a prophet; and he hath made me bless- ed, wherever I shall be, and hath commanded me to observe prayer, and to give alms, so long as I shall live, and he hath made me dutiful towards my mother and hath not made me proud orunha23py; and peace be on me the day whereon I was born, and the day whereon I shall die, and the day whereon I shall be raised to life."^ ^^ iU/J ^^s , the Spirit from him. Sur. IV. 169. ^« Sur. XXI. 91. LXVI. 13. cfr. XXXVIH. 72. ^^ Sur. in. 58. Bedawi adds to Sur. V. 84. "God created Jesus without father , Adam without co-operation of father and mother, which is a greater miracle." ^ Sur. XIX. 26—32. Of this reproach of Mary by her friends, nothing is said in the Apocryphas ; but the friends of Mary say to 186 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. That tlie child spoke m the cradle, Mohammed borrowed from the Arabic Gospel of the infancy.^ During his childhood, Christ performed various mira- cles which are recorded in the apocryphal books of the early Christians. From them therefore the fol- lowing details of the Koran are copied: "Verily I come unto you with a sign from your Lord; for I will make before you, of clay, as it were the figure of a bird, then I will breathe thereon, and it shall become a bird by the permission of God; and I will heal him that hath been blind from his birth, and I will heal the leper and raise the dead by the permission of God."^ Again: "I taught thee the Scripture and wisdom and the law and the Gos- pel; and when thou didst create of clay, as it were the figure of a bird, by my permission, and didst breathe thereon and it became a bird by my permission, and thou didst heal one blind from his birth, and the her mourning husband: "Quotidie cum ea angelus domini loquitur, quotidie escam de manu angeli accipit. Quomodo fieri potest , ut si aliquod peccatum in ea? Nam si suspicionem nostram tibi vis ut pandamus , istam gravidam non fecit nisi angelus Dei." Joseph replies: "Utquid seducitis me, ut credam vobis, quia angelus domini impraegnasset eam? Potest enim fieri, ut quisquam finxerit se esse angelum domini, ut deciperet eam." Historia de nativitate Mariae et de infantia Salvat. cap. X. 2 Compare Sur. III. 46. XIX. 27. V. 119. with the following: "Invenimus in libro Josephi pontificis , qui vixit tempore Christi, Jesum locutum esse, et quideni cum in cunis jaceret dixisseque matri suae Mariae: Ego, quem peperisti, sum Jesus, filius Dei, verbum, quemadmodura annunciavit tibi angelus Gabriel , misitque me pater meus ad salutem mundi." Evangel, infantiae, cap. I. ^ Sur. III. 48. The last part of the passage may likewise refer to the infancy of Jesus, for the apocryphal books relate many such miracles performed by the infant Sayiour. CHAP. VI.] BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF JESUS. 187 leper by my jDermission, and didst bring forth the dead by my permission, and when I withheld the children of Israel from killing thee, when thou didst come to them with evident signs, and such of them as believed not said. This is nothing but manifest sor- cery."* Again, — Jesus being seven years old and at play with several children of his age , they made several figures of birds and beasts of clay, for their diversion ; and each preferring his own workmanship, Jesus told them that he would make his, w^alk and leap; which accordingly at his command they did. He also made several figures of sparrow^s and other bhds, which flew about or stood on his hands as he ordered them, and also ate and drank when he of- fered them meat and drink. The children telling this to their parents, were forbidden to play any more with Jesus, whom they held to be a sorcerer!^ 4. What the Koran relates of the miracles of Christ, has already been noticed. All he did, is said to have been done hy the permission of God to prove his being an apostle of God." "I come unto you with a sign ft-om your Lord, therefore serve him, this is the right way."^ But Jesus perceiving their unbelief, * Sur. V. 119. 120. Respecting these marvels see: Thomae Evang. Infantiae c2i^.H.\ and: Evang. Infantiae Arab. cap. XXXVI. XLVI. ^ Evang. Infantiae pag. HI. eto. etc. The apocryphal books as well as the New Test, have nothing to say of the life of Jesus be- tween his 12*^ and 30*^ year. Yea the "Aral). Evang. Infantiae" says expressly, cap. LIV. that Jesus performed no miracles after his 12^^ year till the commencement of his public ministry. Nor is the Koran more communicative respecting the 18 years of retirement. . « Sur. m. 49. 188 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. asked who would be liis helpers, when the Apostles offered their services , confessed their belief in God, and desired to be acknowledged true believers by Christ.^ He, like David, cursed his unbelieving ge- neration, which ascribed all he did and said to sor- cery.^ The believers in Jesus are generally called Nazarenes; the Apostles are nowhere mentioned by name, nor is their number specified, but three are said to have been shamefully treated by the inhabi- tants of a certain town. ® No intimation is given in the Koran as to how the disciples of Jesus were made, or when they were called, but it gives a strange mis- representation of the institution of the Lord's Supper, in the following conversation between Jesus and his Apostles. — ''When I commanded the apostles of Je- sus saying, Believe in me and in my messenger; they answered, we do believe and do thou bear witness that we are Moslemin. When the apostles said, 0 Jesus son of Mary is thy Lord able to cause a table to descend unto us from heaven? He answered, fear God, if ye be true believers. They said, we desire to eat thereof, that our hearts may rest at ease, that we may know that thou hast told us the truth and that we may witness thereof. Jesus the son of Mary said, 0 Lord our God, cause a table to descend unto us ^Sur.III.50.51. ® Sur.V,87. LXI.6.14. 119. ^ Sur. XXX^T[. 13 — 26. Apostles or as tliey are called ^^yJ^s}^J^'\, which signifies the white, pure, candidi; then friends, assistants , Ansarier. In the transitive sense the word signifies also: lotor , dealhator vestimn, whence some commentators thought the Apostles were engaged in the trade of bleaching ; others as- sume they wore white garments; candidati! CHAP. VI.] THE PUBLIC MINISTRY OF CHRIST. 189 from heaven, that it become a festival day unto us, unto the first of us and unto the last of us and a sign from thee, and do thou provide food for us, for thou art the best provider. God said, verily I will cause it to descend unto you. But whosoever shall disbelieve hereafter, I will surely punish him with a punishment wherewith I wdll not punish any other creature." ^^ The concluding denunciation reminds us of the words which St. Paul subjoins to his account of the institution of the Lord's supper. ^^ 5. The last events of our Lord's life are singularly perverted in the Koran. It has been already noticed, in the summary of its dogmas, that Mohammed emphatically denied the death of Jesus to have been caused by violent means; hence he was consistent in disguising the nature of the Lord's Supper. The son of Mary, he alleges, was miraculously saved from death on the cross. "The Jews devised a stratagem against him, but God devised a stratagem against them, and God is the best deviser of stratagems. Allah spake thus, 0 Jesus verily I will cause thee to die, and I will take thee unto me, and I will deliver thee from the unbelievers, and I will place those who will follow ^^ Sur. V. 121 — 124. Maraccio Refut. pag. 241. VH. assumes, that the feeding of the 5000, and the parable of the wedding feast had been here thrown together by M. , but we can easily recognise the rqant'Ca wqiov , or the 6tnifov Tiv^iaxov of the Christian Church. The Sura is itself called : ScXjUJI: the table. Nor was it likely M. should haye overlooked so essential an institution, which was retained by the Christians, even in the most corrupt ages of the Church. *^ 1 Cor. XI. 27. Commentators liberally supply the table with fish and fruit. See L. Warner, Compend. histor. pag. 25. etc. and Maracc. Prodrom. pars IV. p. 89. also Refut. to Sur. V. p. 238. 239. 190 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. thee, above the unbelievers, until the day of the Re- surrection, then unto me shall ye return, and I will judge between you of that, concerning which ye dis- agree." "The Jews have said, we have slain Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, the apostle of God; yet they slew him not neither crucified him, but he was re- presented by one in his likeness; and verily they who disagreed with him, were in doubt as to this matter, nor know they anything but opinions about him, but they have not really killed him, but God hath taken him up." Again, "I withheld the children of Israel fi'om killing thee when thou hadst come unto them with evident signs." *^ The Moslem divines severally agree in the denial of Christ's death upon the cross; ^^ but they differ as to the person crucified in his stead. Some record that a person similar to Jesus was crucified, whose body was taken down, after six hours, by the carpenter JosejDh, to bury it in his own grave, having obtained the permission from king Herod, whose name was also Pilate. In the mean-time, the son of Mary was sent do^Mi to his mother to assure her of his haj)piness and safety. Others inform us: that Jesus, when pre- *'^ iiyjJ^j^ ^i. S^JjCi'^l they slew him not, nor crucified him. Sur. IV. 156. 157. III. 53. 53. V. 119. *' The death of Christ is not in itself denied. Christ to M. was a mere man; and every man tastes death: ic.>*-«"! XAJiJ (j^^JiJ 5^ lO-? i^'^^^t:^ /^^-^V**^^' Mesich Isa beu Mariara. CHAP. VI.] DENIAL OF CHRIST'S DIYINITY. 199 whom they associate with him in his worship."** Christ's omnipotence and omniscience is denied as a matter of course; and to worship him is idolatry. Christ himself is made to declare that he is not more than any other man or prophet;*^ he is only a ser- vant and need not be ashamed of it.** Jesus and Mary had bodies which, requiring to be sustained by food, were thus proved mortal, consequently they are not Gods; nor could any one prevent God from de- stroying Christ, his mother and all the inhabitants of the earth. Again to suppose that Allah shoidd beget children is highly irreverent nor does his all- sufficiency admit of any increase to his happiness; for his are all things in heaven and earth.*' Nor has he need of an assistant in his government of the world; and to associate any one with Allah is an un- pardonable crime. *^ Whilst however Mohammed insisted upon the mere human personality of our blessed Redeemer, he suffered him to be endowed with all the power and authority of a divinely accredited messenger.*''^ It was however not without imminent danger to his *^ Sur. IX. 31. 32, to believe Christ to be God, is the mark of an infidel. V. 19. *3 Sur. V. 125. 85. XLIU. 80. III. 78. V. 81. 125. 126. ** Sur. XLin. 58. IV. 170. XVI. 43. XXI. 7. *5 Sur. XXI 8. V.19. 84. X. 67. XIX. 91. 11.117. LXXII. 3. XXV. 2. XXXIX. 5. IV. 169. *«^ Sur. IV. 169. V. 85. XVII. 110. XXV. 1—3. IV. 46. 169. V. 81. *^ He was a Nabi ^J, t<''?5, and J«^., who commenced his office in the cradle. Sur. XIX. 29. IV. 169. 200 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [parti. system, that Mohammed admitted certain names and titles to Christ, which he borrowed from the New Testament. He is called the Messiah,*^ but the Jews and Christians associated very different ideas with the name from what the Koran could possibly admit. Again, Jesus is called "the word of truth f'*^ the word of God; "the word, who is called the Messiah." ^° This is evidently an allusion to St. John's Gosj)el; and we might expect that it would bear the same meaning in the Koran which it does in the New Testament, whence it was borrowed. As this appel- lation of Christ points distinctly to an extraordinary and Divine nature, we need not be surprised to find that its application has caused no small perplexity to Moslem divines. Again the Koran speaks of our Lord as the Spirit of God; and of His having been strengthened with the Spirit of holiness. ^^ All these terms, if they have any meaning at all, imply that there was something in the person of Christ, which no other prophet could claim; we must however re- member that the false prophet adopted titles from *® /5*w^> ?^^l5 Jesus, Saviour: ^j^x^g^Jf, n^u3^, from nil3^3, ^>«wjO, to annoint, is "the Annointed One" 6 Xgiarog; and both the Old and New Test, plainly assert His Divine character. *^ "This is Jesus, the son of Mary," the word of truth , Jjj* ^^_J^t, concerning which they doubt." Sur. XIX. 33. £0 "And his word, iOi^JSl , which he planted into Mary. Sur. IV. 169. Again: aawJI iU^\ aULo JiU-LXj Cifv-cLo Sur. III. 45. •*** aJuo y., the Spirit from Him, viz., idUI. Sur. IV. 169. ^JJlII -,^o sbjof Sur. U. 87. 254. V. 119. CHAP. VI.] TITLES GIVEN TO JESUS. 201 the Christians and their Scriptures without retaining the original sense. The Koran admits one of the mysteries of Christianity, in stating, that God sent His word into the Virgin Mary, and yet paradoxically denies that the word was made flesh; whilst therefore the son of Mary is said to be conspicuous in this world and in the world to come, and to be one of those, who approach God to intercede, there is not one passage in the Koran, which alludes to the sin- lessness of His nature without which He could not effectually perform the office of intercessor. It will therefore be seen that the clear and unequivocal ab- negations of the Divinity and assertions of the mere humanity of the son of Mary, prevent our ascribing to the above titles of distinction, any other than a common and general meaning, very different from that which they bear in the New Testament. Mo- hammed's own dignity being then by no means af- fected by these admissions of the Koran concerning Christ, he could well admit Jesus to be the greatest prophet before him, and to be endowed with extra- ordinary power, without prejudice to himself; nay he might even flatter himself with the idea of crowning and of perfecting the work which Jesus had com- menced.^^ Mohammed, in spite of his usual incon- sistency, was cautious to give no honour to Christ which might endanger his own position, though pe- rilous indeed was the admission that Christ was ''the word of Godr hence the anxiety of the Moslem di- ®^ Compare the blasphemous assumption of M. that Christ pro- phesied him as the Comforter. 202 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [parti. vines to confer the like honour on their prophet ^^ and on his Koran. ^* The supernatural events, attend- ing the birth of Christ, which distinguished Him from the rest of mankind , are carefully supplied by a host of miracles which are said to have accompanied the birth of the Arab prophet. 9. Christ is throughout represented as the Author of the Gospel, including the enthe body of the books of the New Testament, which God revealed to Him from heaven. ^^ This Gospel or Ingeel was a con- firmation of the Torah. "We also caused Jesus the son of Mary to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law wdiich was sent down before him, and we gave him the Gospel, containing direction and light; confirming also the law which was given before it, and a direction and admonition unto those who fear God; that they w^ho have received the Gos- ^' God decreed 50,000 years before hand that M. was to be the greatest prophet. Adam had the surname of 4X:5.^!L^I \^, father of Mohammed; the latter was in existence before Adam and his name was read by him in the empyreum before the throne of God; surrounded by prophetic light. M, d'Ohsson pag. 64. In the Pend-Nameh a poem in praise of M. we have this passage: "le prince du monde present et du monde futur ; les prophetes , et les Saints out eu recours a son intercession; la creation de ce prophete a etc le salut de I'univers, I'extremite de son doight a separe en deux parties I'astre de la nuit ; que chaque instant de notre yie soit consacre a honorer et a benir mille fois sa memoire et celle de ses enfans et de sa race." Fundgrub. des Orients II. pag. 15. ^* Que le Courann est la parole de Dieu increee ; qu'il est ecrit dans nos libres , grave dans nos coeurs , articule par nos langues et entendu par nos oreilles, dans lesquelles est re^u le son de la parole, et non la parole elle-meme qui est eternelle et existante par soi." M. d'Oh&son pag. 29. 55 Sur. V. 119. III. 48. XIX. 29. J^a^^II being a corrup- tion from Evangelium, ivayyeXiov. CHAP. VI.] THE GOSPEL COME FROM GOD. 203 pel might judge according to what God hath revealed therein; and whoso judgeth not according to what God hath revealed, they are ti-ansgressors. We have also sent down to thee the book of the Koran with truth, confirming that scripture which was revealed before it, and preserving the same safe from cor- ruption. There are bat few allusions in the Koran to the doctrmal i^HYtii of the New Testament, these being unsuited to Mohammed's purpose in the compilation of his spurious creed. ^^ In the passage, "How many beasts are there, which provide not their food? It is God who provideth for them and for you, and he both heareth and knoweth," we recognise a mere imitiation of the sentiments expressed. Matt. VI. 26. Lu. Xir. 24. Again, "Say not of a thing, I will do it to morrow, except thou addest, if God will," re- produces the admonition of St. James in his general Epistle. ^^ An allusion to St. Paul's words as to a man reaping w^hat he sowed, is found in the following passage, "Whoso chooseth the tillage of the life to come, unto him wiU we give increase in his tillage, and whoso chooseth the tillage of this world, we will give him the fruit thereof, but he shall have no part in the life to come."^® 56 Sur. V. 54—56. 111. 3. ^^ Sur. n. 104. "Pray without ceasing," seems to refer to 1 Thess. V. 17. cldiaXeiTTT ojg nQoaeviEcr&e. Also Sur. III. 58. which contains a comparison of Adam and Christ, might allude to 1 Cor. XV. 45. 57. Sur. XVin. 25. and James IV. 13. 15. 5» Gal. VI. 6—8. with Sur. XLH. 41. 204 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. It is doubtful, as we have seen in the previous chapter whether the words, "Neither shall they enter Paradise until a camel pass through the eye of a needle," are borrowed from the Rabbinical writings or from the New Testament; the latter however is more probable, partly on account of the more striking resemblance,— the Gospels having also the image ol the camel, — partly because it is more frequent, occur- ring three times in the New Testament and but once in the Talmudical wi'itings where it is considerably altered/^ When Mohammed enjoins his followers not to give alms "to appear unto men" we at once detect a borrovdng of our Lord's words on the same subject.®* Again among the descriptions of hell, we find the following passage, "and the inhabitants of hell-fire shall call unto the inhabitants of Paradise, saying, pour upon us some water," which strongly reminds us of the rich man's request, when in tor- ment. ® ^ 10. According to the Koran, Christ was exclu- sively sent to the children of Israel: "I come," the »" Sur. YII. 41. with Matt. XIX. 24. Mark. X. 25. Lu. XVIII. 24. ^^^-^ t)^» ^'P^' caraelus, Ha^t?/Aos; if the reading were xdfidog, tlu^, funis rudens, bnn, cable, the sense is altered, but the fact of M. borrowing from the Gospel still remains. 6^ Sur. II. 272. with Matt. VI. 3. 4. onmg ff aov i) iXevixoavpr] iv t(0 >1{JV7TT(0. 6^ Sur. VII. 272. with Lu. XVI. 24. Compare also Sur. LVII. 13: "On that day the hypocritical men and women shall say unto those w^ho believe , stay for us that w^e may borrow some of your light. It shall be answered , Return back into the world and seek light;" — an evident allusion to Matt. XXV. 8. 9. CHAP. VI.] EXPRESSIONS BORROWED. 206 Messiah is made to say, — -after He was declared 'tlie apostle to the children of Israel,' to confirm the law which was revealed before me and to allow you as lawful, part of that which hath been forbidden you, and I come unto you with a sign from your Lord, therefore fear God and obey me." This then clearly shows the object of Christ's Mission to the Jews, who are said to have broken the covenant and put the Scriptures away from them. ^ ^ The Jews through- out the Koran are represented as frivolous trans- gressors of the law of their fathers, who had killed then- prophets, and were cursed by David and Jesus the son of Mary ;^* as might be expected, it declares, that Christ taught all the leading dogmas of Islam- ism, specially the Unity of the Godhead; also that the children of Israel were to serve his God and their God, and those who associate any other with him are excluded from Paradise and threatened with hell- fire. ^^ Mohammed speaks of Christ as a favoured servant and prophet of God;^^ yea he cedes to the son of Mary the honour of being the chief of all the prophets who appeared prior to Mohammed, but to the latter alo7ie belongs the prerogative of being the greatest of all divine messengers, since Abraham is said to have prayed for him, and he was prophesied in the Torah and the Gospel. ^^ ^^ Sur. m. 48. 49. Also V. 54. LXI. 6. XLIII. 61. V. 14. 17. 6* Sur. VI. 92. II. 91. IV. 154. 155. V. 97. 87. cfr. 1 Thess. II. 15. 65 Sur. XLIII. 62. III. 50. V. 121. 126. V. 81. ^6 Sur. XLIII. 30. XIX. 4. 30. III. 46. XVII. 55. IL 254. «' Sur. II. 129. 130. LXL 6. 206 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [parti. Convenient it is for the Moslem doctors to find a distinct prophecy of Mohammed in the Arabic Gospel of St. Barnabas, where Jesus predicts the coming of the Arab prophet, who would free the world from all error/® The interpolation of this spu- rious Gospel by a Moslem hand, is too palpable to deserve a word of comment or argument. Still more so, is it to conjecture how the false prophet came to claim the honour o!" being predicted in the Gospel of St. John as the Comforter ;^^ it is not improbable that he derived it froni his early proselytes, who, knowing of the promise of the Holy Ghost may pos- sibly have flattered their newly-acquired prophet by declaring it to be fulfilled in his person; hence the idea that Mohammed was taught by the Holy Ghost, sent down upon him. As however this pro- phecy does not stand in the New Testament as Mo- hammed has quoted and applied it, commentators on the Koran maintain, that the Christians had ma- liciously expunged it from their Gospel; the same charge is boldly made against the Christians respec- 68 «" 'Ego vero , quantumque innocentem vitam in mundo trans- egi, tamen, cum homines me Deum et filium Dei vocaverint , Deus, ne in die judicii olini daemonum essem ludibrium , voluit in mundo ignominia me affici ab hominibus per mortem Judae , persuasis omnibus, me in cruce mortem obiisse. Unde ista ignominia durabit usque ad adventum Mohamedis, qui, cum in mundum yenerit, omnes legi Dei credentes ab hoc errore liberavit." Fabricii Codex apocryph. N. Test. tom. 11. pag. 378. 384. ^^ Sur. LXI. 6. it is stated that Jesus prophesied of Achmed, cVt^lj Mohammed, Jc«.^V,X>, laudabilis, multa dignus; TzagaxXritog John XIV. 16. XV. 26. being turned into rtsQiylvrog, inclytus, the object was gained. I CHAP. VI.] CLAIMS TO HAVE BEEN PROPHESIED. 207 ting other prophecies, said to have been extant in their sacred Scriptures. The parable of the labourers, it seems, has been overlooked by Christians, though considered particularly applicable to Mohammed's followers !^^ Again the true worship23ers, who neither worship in Jerusalem nor on Samaria's mountain are none others than the Mohammedans! The boldest and shrewdest of all the mis-applications of Scripture by Moslem divines, is that of their finding a most flattering allusion to Mohammed in a passage which more than anv other marks him as one of the truest types of Antichrist: — Mohammed is said to be the Spirit from God who confesseth that Jesus Christ appeared in the flesh, that is, as a 7ne7'e man, and not as God ! ' ^ 11. Having seen what Mohammed taught con- cerning Christ and what he borrowed from the cano- nical and apocryphal writings of the New Testament, it remains yet to show, what sentiments he entertained towards Christians. It has been satisfactorily proved, ^^ that there are two distinct systems of teaching in the Koran; the one assuming a thoroughly peaceful, the other a perfectly inimical relation to Judaism and Christianity, as well as to all pre-existing creeds ; the former being an act of compromise on the part of Mo- hammed, the latter, a violation of the pacific principle ^^ Mishcat-uI-Masabih , or a collection of the most authentic traditions regarding Mohammed ; from the Arabic by Capt. A. N. Matthews, Calcutta 1809. Vol. II, pag. 814. '* 1 John IV. 1—3. • "^ In the article by Dr. J. A. Mohler: "Ueber das Yerhaltniss des Islam's zum Evangelium." 1839. 208 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. just laid down, inculcating instead, the rankest bigotry and exclusiveness, and enforcing a sanguinary system of propagandism. Mohammed, on several occasions put forth the following statements: that it evidences a spirit of pride to assume that only one religion is of a saving character to the exclusion of all others, such an assertion implying that all nations were not equally the object of Divine favour; that the cause of the existence of various beliefs must be sought for in the decrees of Allah, and that it will only be dis- covered in the world to come, where truth alone is to be found; and he adds, that it was sufficient for Jews, Christians and Moslemin to live in accordance with the laws of God, respectively revealed to them, and to be ]3repared to give an account on the day of Judgment. Mohammed accuses the Christians and Jews ^ ^ of considering themselves exclusively the people of God, whilst they might easily gather from the judgments which had fallen upon them, that they were no better than other jDcople. It would have been easy for God to unite all men in one religion, but as he did other- wise, it naturallv followed that each nation would be judged according to its particular religious law; and that it would be better for all nations to strive to excel each other in doing good than for unconditional superiority. All would return to God, who would explain the real cause of their differences.'* From '^ "The Jews and Christians say, we are the children of God and his beloved. Answer, why therefore doth he punish you for your sins." Sur. V. 21. ^* "Unto every one of you have we given a law and an open CHAP.vi.l OPINION OF CHRISTIANITY. 209 these premises it iicatiirally follows, tliat Jews and Christians will be judged according to the law, they severally possess; the Sabians also are included in the same class of rehgionists, who need fear no evil, provided only they believe in God, the last day, and act justly.'^ According to the Koran then, the plu- rality of creeds has its origin in a divine decree, and each party has a right to prefer his own: a certain delusion on the subject being now suffered to prevail, which will be removed in the world to come. These views however being not only modified, but actually abrogated by other passages, we cannot possibly determine the relation between Christianity and Islamism through any conclusions which might be drawn from them. There are numerous passages in which Christianity is totally set aside , and which assert that all unbelievers of whatever persuasion are to be destroyed:^'' no league is to be made with the path; and if God had pleased, he had surely made you one people, but he hath given you different laws , that he might try you in that which he hath severally given you. Therefore strive to excel each other in good works. Unto God ye shall return and then will he declare unto you concerning which ye have disagreed." Sur. V. 56. ^^ "Verily they who believe, and the Jews, Sabians and Chris- tians, whosoever of them believeth in God and the last day, and doth that which is right, there shall come no fear on them, neither shall they be grieved." Sur. V. 73. And Sur. XXIX. 46: "Dispute not with those who have received the Scriptures (<^IaXjI J^I) ■*" • unless in the mildest manner, except against such as behave in- juriously, say: w^e believe in the revelation, sent down unto us and unto you; our God and your God is one, and unto him we are resigned." ^^ "Kill the associating ones (Pagans and Christians) w^here- ever you find them." Sur. IX. 5. 0 210 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY. [part i. Scriptiiralists and unbelievers. The question there- fore is, which of these two antagonistic views expresses MohammecFs real meaning; incompatible as they are, they yet claim some attention from us, for even in contradictions an internal connection may often be discovered, by which they maybe rendered intelligible. Certain Arabian Theologians maintain, that the majo- rity of passages is to determine the real views of Mohammed; and as those occur more frequently, which equalize all religions, they declare that Judaism, Christianity and Islamism differ only in external laws and ceremonies! As this opinion however assumes that Mohammed's real views may be obtained by a mere casting up of numbers, others prefer to ascer- tain which were the prophet's views in the latter part of his life, judging those to be the most orthodox; and this is certainly the more rational method of solving the difficulty.'^ As the dates of the respective Suras cannot be positively determined, some of the Christian apologists aver , that so long as Mohammed was in straitened circumstances, he feigned the greatest reverence for the Jewish and Christian religion, but as soon as his power became established, and his cause fi'ee from .danger, he enun- ciated those mandates which condemn all other creeds and supplant his own. Had Mohammed y^'om the heginniiig been a con- summate and ambitious impostor, this reasoning would '''' "5(6ul .^afam ^abai Qlffa temcrft in biefem (Sinnc ganj fiirj , burd) (guva IX. 5. feien 124 anbere 53erfe be^ (Scran entfvdftet icorben." SDZiJHev'^ ©efammelte ^d)x\\h\\ pag. 3G5. CHAP. VI.] OPINION OF CHRISTIANITY. 211 be completely convincing, but as we have shown that he set out with honest intentions, we must attribute the contradictions in the Koran to his va- cillating state of mind at different periods of his life. The Arab prophet, at first, directed his attention solely to national objects, seeking to establish for his countrymen a nationalD eism; he therefore only tole- rated Christianity, as a religion not unsuitable to other nations; but, carried away by enthusiasm on meeting with unexpected success , his views enlarged beyond his own city, tribe and nation, and he began at length to entertain the idea that Monotheism must of ne- cessity, be the religion of the whole world. "^ ^ Embrac- ing the doctrine of the divine Unity as distinctly as Mohammed ultimately did, he was led to change his position from a national, to that of a universal prophet, and having comprehended this new and enlarged scheme, he felt that Christianity could no longer be co-ordinate with his own creed, but must necessarily take a siibordvnate relation to Islamism.'^ In accordance with all national creeds, Moham- med mixed political elements to such an extent with his system of belief, that national and religious in- stitutions became scarcely distinguishable; and as in most national creeds there is but one head for both ^® In describing the process by which Mohammed's future system was developed, we merely illustrate a well known psycho- logical law, that the speculations regarding a future project begin with broad generalities and gradually take a more concise view. 7^ M. was an idolater up to the 40^^ year of his age. The religion of his nation was a mixture of Monotheism and idolatry and it was not without many a hard struggle , that he confessed the unity of the Godhead as clearly as he does in the Koran. 0* 212 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part i. religion and state, so lie made himself at once, the executive of sp wit ual Sind civil -power. ^^ Again, the fact that Islamism was sj)read by the sivord, can only be explained by its being of a national character, mixing religion with politics; as these were not kept distinct, internal conviction by argument was super- seded by external force. Hence to submit to Moham- med's political power, was equivalent to acknowled- ging him as a prophet; and when his religion be- came universal, his monarchy assumed the like pre- tensions, war being proclaimed against all states as well as against every other system of belief. Thus the Mohammedans in passing over the frontier of the Peninsula to propagate their religion, with it, in- variably imposed their national manners and customs upon the conquered and converted nations, destroying their national peculiarities.^* Christianity on the contrary, when it passed the boundaries of Palestine, appeared at once as a universal religion, throwing off its national character and leaving its Jewish rites behind. ^ ^ ^° In this double capacity he appealed for a precedent to Moses. ®^ The rite of circumcision, fasting in the manner required, being in many places, e. g. the polar regions, impracticable, and the Hadj to Mecca are all proofs that Islamism was calculated to be only a national religion. ®^ It started as the religion of Spirit and fimth , and claimed to be universal. Depending on its own spiritual power, it permitted the kingdoms of the earth to stand , leaving the national peculiar characteristics undestroyed, only refining and purifying them. Christ being Himself the Truth, had not to work out His way by experi- ments like fallible men, but saw the whole scope and object of His divine mission from the beginning; M. on the contrary, began not knowing where he was to end; Mohler pag. 375. he fell into mis- CHAP. VI.] OPINION OF CHRISTIANITY. 213 Another proof of the exchisively national charac- ter of Islamism, is founded in its pecdiar system of ethics and morality; universal philanthropy is not in- culcated in the Koran; love or charity in its widest sense, is among Moslemin, strictly circumscribed to their own community, their prophet having utterly ignored the law of universal kindness/^ Again, the national custom of the "lextaUonis," and the institution of polygamy with power to divorce at pleasure , in- volve principles, totally adverse to the spirit of a uni- versal religion. In Mohammed's personal hfe , those moral requisitions only were fulfilled, which would answer to a prophet of Arabia; for although he must be condemned as a false prophet, if brought before the tribunal of pure ethics, yet according to the ethics of Arabia, his very faults would be deemed virtues,^* thus it becomes intelligible why his claims to the dignity of a prophet were not rejected, notwithstand- ing those flagrant immoralities, which the Koran records to his shame. Lastly, it does not appear from Mohammed's per- sonal history, that he originally desired to estabhsh a cathoHc rehgion; for it will be remembered that takes and was driven from one extreme to the other, without after all finding the truth. ^^ The fact that Moslemin are the chief promoters of slavery and that from among them, no voice was ever raised against it, proves that they do not recognise the common brotherhood of the human race, ^* Mankind first became acquainted w^ith pure ethics through the only perfect character of Christ, in whom, the ideal of a spot- less morality is represented to the world at large ; since as the Son of man He belonged to the whole of mankind, and not to any one nation in particular. 214 WHAT MOH. BORROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY, [part l a few years after he bad asserted his pretensions as a prophet, a number of bis followers were obbged to flee to Abyssinia, when it would naturally be expec- ted that, — -like the primitive Christians, who under similar circumstances were driven from Jerusalem — the persecuted Moslemin would be zealous in pro- pagating their faith; but as no effort of the kind was then made , we may infer that Mohammed had not yet given injunctions to his followers to proselytize amono- foreigners. ^^ It was not till the twentieth year of his Mission that we discover any trace of Moham- med's enlarged plans, wdien he sent those embassies to foreign potentates, to which we have previously adverted. Thus we see that Mohammed did not originally intend framing a religion for all nations , and there- fore looked so favourably upon Christianity that he even received his first converts by the rite baptism, wdiich mode of admission , he subsequently discon- tinued. Most of the distinctive features of the Mos- lem ceremonial, date as we have seen, from the lat- ter years of the Arab prophet; the same may be said of the most prominent doctrines of his new creed. ^^ ^^ Very different was the conduct of Katris, an officer of rank, when obliged to leave Arabia after the death of M. Scarcely had the ruler of Mazenderara assured the refugee of his protection, than the latter boldly desired his protector, either to confess Islaraism, or to pay tribute. Mohler pag. 380. ^^ When Assad of Yathrab asked M. before his flight, in what his religion consisted, M. replied, that he taught men to worship one God , to requite kindness to parents , not to kill children nor any other person , to shun every crime , not to touch the goods of orphans and to keep promises. M. added no more and Assad at once acknowledged him as a prophet. MOhler pag. 382. €HAP. IV.] HINT TO CHRISTIANS. 215 During the early stages, Moliammed saw no reason to exalt Islam above Christianity, but when he ultimately adopted the Clnistian doctri|^e of the atonement and asserted, that only those, for whom he should intercede with God, could obtain remission of sins, and that none who believed in Mohammed could absolutely be condemned, then it became ne- cessary to subordinate Cln:istianity to Islam. ^^ As soon as he claimed to be the only mediator between God and man, he was compelled to make his creed universal and to deny all further authority to Chris- tianity : those passages therefore which declare it to be of equal authority with Islam, refer to that period of Mohammed's life, when he was as yet un- decided as to liis own influence or the full extent of his alleged Mission ; those which annul Cluistianity and eveiy other creed, belong to the more matured form of his system. ^^ 12. Christians in then* efforts to win the Moham- medans will do well to insist upon the more original and more favourable views expressed in the Koran of their religion and then- persons. One of the first objects in dealing \vith Moslems ought ever be to sever the traditional elements which Mohammed de- I'iyed from the early Christians fi*om what he em- 87 It became then a principle: *'La foi et I'lslamism sont une seule et meme chose." M. d'Ohsson I, 54. 83 "When M. felt persuaded that his external position was more exalted than that of the Founder of the Church of God, he foolishly, though quite logically asserted, that the internal worth of his tidings was likewise of far greater value, and therefore that Chris- tianity ought to make way for Islam, 216 WHAT BOKROWED FROM CHRISTIANITY. [PART i. bodied from the historical Scriptures of the New Testament. There can scarcely he any doubt that Mohammed would never have felt the strong inward call to avow himself to be a prophet to his people, had it not been for the very gross corruptions of the Clnistians around him both in doctrine and practice. The undisgTiised deification of the virgin Mary was in itself enough to fire the fierce indignation of the Arabian reformer. The virulence against the divine Sonship of Christ was equally intelligible from the most gross and revolting notions which prevailed in Arabia on the subject. Yet we must hold Mohammed responsible for following the early heresies and apocryphal Gospels, rather than the New Testament Scriptures, which were accessible to him, and a coipj of which^we know was on Mount Sinai. Equally vain is the effort to explain away the fierce injunctions in Sura viii. 3, 1, 47, ii. 216, iii. 82, xlviii. 29, by which Moslems are commanded to fight against unbelievers, *' until there be no more opposition and the religion be wholly God's." In Sura xlvii. 4, we read : " When ye encounter the unbelievers, strike off their heads until ye have made a great slaughter amongst them and bind them in bonds." See also ix. 4, 6. Whdli philo-mohammedan ^vriters endeavour to modify these fierce denunciations of the Koran, al- leging that they were intended to be humane and temporary, we can only reply that such an explana- CHAP. VI. ANIMOSITY TO CHRISTIANITY. 217 tion is opposed to the entire spirit of Islam, and has at least never yet been carried ont.^° The same spirit of hatred to Christians and their rehgion, which inspired the author of Islam and those propa- gators who immediately succeeded him, has been transmitted with all its pristine zeal and fanaticism to the present generation. Scarcely a month passes in which some outrages, against the followers of Christ, are not recorded in the public journals of Christian Europe ; and the greater part of the cruelties and barbarities which are committed against our brethren, never reach the ear of their feUow-christians who live under Euro- pean protection. Those concessions and mitigations which Christians of the Turkish Empire have in later times acquired, have only been wiping from the Porte by the influence of Christian power. If any doubt had remained as to the sentiments of Mohammedans towards Christians, the recent oc- currences in India, Arabia, Syria and Morocco must have removed it for ever. Yet we should greatly mistake, were we to regard these occasional out- bursts as symptoms of a hopeless antagonism to Christianity. The furious outbreaks and rancorous animo- sities ao-ainst Christians, which now and then vent themselves, to our dismay, are prompted more by an utter misconception of our dogmas, than by an honest disavowal on our part of the claims of Mo- 90 Tychsen : Com. soc. reg, Gott. torn. XV. pag. 156. may here be consulted. 218 MUTILATION OF CHKISTIANS ENJOINED. [PART I. hammed. There is something noble in an honest opposition, however mistaken in itself. Saul of Tarsus, even when most virulent against Christ, engages our sympathy. The Mohammedans, like him, do it " ignorantly," being '' zealous towards God," and *' thinking of douig Him service." When most violent in ''breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of the Lord," Saul was nearest his marvellous conversion. CHAPTER VII. SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAM. «• Loose the four angels which are bound in the great river Eu- phrates ; and the four angels were loosed, which were prepared for an hour, and a day, and a month and a year for to elay the third part of men. And the number of the army of the horsemen were two myriads of myriads : and I heard the number of them." Kev. IX. 14—21. The rapidity of the spread of Mohammed's creed is without parallel in the annals of propagandism. In the twenty-first year of the Hegira, the crescent floated over an extent of territory as wide as that of the Eoman eagle ; and the Saracen empire may be said to have extended its dominion over more king- doms and countries in eighty years than the Eoman, CHAP. VII.] IN ARABIA, 219 in 800.^^ In Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor, North-Africa and other countries, the Koran was in- trochiced at the point of the sword. Thence its con- tents were promulgated eastward to the frontiers of India and China; westward to the shores of the Atlan- tic ocean ; and northward to the banks of the Oxus and Jaxartes, reaching to the frozen borders of the Caspian Sea, in an incredibly short space of time. 1. In twelve years the whole of Arabia had em- braced Islamism; there was indeed some opposition yet to overcome, but the chief work was accomplished. The Koreishites , who at one time contemplated re- turning to the religion of their ancestors, were dis- suaded by Sohael; ^ ' and the rest of the discontented Arabs, who had been tempted to rebellion by the rival prophet Moseilama, and roused by the recollec- tion of that much-loved independance which now seemed lost for ever, were speedily subjected by the sword of the ferocious Khaled. With a view to di- vert the minds of the people, Abubeker, the first Kaliph, declared war against all nations, especially against the Emperor of Constantinople and the "great 96 >/g55|p g{„g i^erje^renbe ^tamme 6ra^ ^^Bfelirf) bie neuc ©lauBenSform mit umctbeifef)lirf)er, ^Uleg i^ermcf)tenber ©eu^att Tjeriu^r au^ ben ffiiijlen Slrabien^, unb in jefjenfac^ gertngercr ^nt, aU bie diimn i^crbem jur 2(uf:: tirfitnng ifjre^ SSeltreic^e^ kbnrft flatten, ivaren bie g^otfer lunt ber d^ineft- fc^en ailauer H^ jn ben €dn(en beg ^erfnte^, i^om ©afpifdien Tlem hi^ jnm 91iget bcr ^mfd)aft beg ^^lam obcr bod) ber ©en^alt [einer ^efenner nnter- tworfen," ^rcf. 3)otlinger'g "2)Zul)ammeb'g Sietigton", pag. 5. Ockley, Hist, of the Sarac. Vol. I. pag. 315. ^^ Sohael addressed them in these words: "Ye men of Mecca, will ye he the last to embrace Islamism, and the first to aban- don it?" 220 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [part i. king of Persia," at that time the two most powerful monarchs of the East. Abiibeker published a proclamation to the Arab tribes, encouraging them to join the army which he proposed sending to S)Tia, to free that country from infidel dominion. ^^ Accompanying the assembled host on foot for a considerable distance from Medina, the Kaliph gave them a few parting injunctions^^ and dismissed them with his blessing. The assault was impetuous, but Sergius the Byzantine commander resolutely maintained his ground in Syria, till the country was opened to the Arabs by the conquest of Bostra. Another division of Greek troops was con- quered near Gaza, and amidst the treachery and in- ability of the Greek generals , the cowardice of the soldiers and the discontent of the inhabitants, the Moslem army made rapid progress in the conquest of the country. During this expedition Abubeker died, and Omar who was with the army, was no- minated his successor. One of his first acts was the conquest of Damascus, in after ages, one of the three ^^ "In the name of the most merciful God, to the rest of the true believers : peace and happiness , grace and blessing from God upon you. I laud the Most High God , and pray for his prophet Mohammed. It is known to you that I intend sending the true be- lievers to Syria to take that land from the hands of the unbelievers, and I make known to you that it is, an act of obedience to God to fight for religion." ^^ "Keep yourselves from injustice and oppression, said he to his generals , in conducting the battles of the Lord ; fight like men without wavering, but defile not the victory by the blood of women and children. Destroy no palm-tree, burn no corn-fields ; what ye have promised keep faithfully; spare all except the shorn crowns, (the monks) for they belong to the kingdom of Satan." CHAP, vn.] IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 221 holy cities of tlie Mohammedans. But the battle which decided the fate of Spia, was fought near the lake of Genezareth, whilst Khaled shouted to his soldiers, "Paradise is before, and death and hell are behind you!" Three times the Arabs gave way before the enemy, and three times they w^ere driven back into the fight amidst the reproaches and castigations of their wives, who, being armed with bows and arrows, fought in the rear with desperate courage; and the result was the utter defeat of the Byzantine army. ^ Jerusalem capitulated upon easy terms , yielding her neck to the yoke of Mohammedan tyi-anny which she has born to the present hour; and Omar, whose name has been handed down by a Mosque, called after him, and built upon the very site of the ancient temple of Jehovah, entered the holy city, riding on a camel in mean attire, a wooden drinking-vessel being fastened to his side, a bag of dates before and one of barley behind him: such was the stern simpli- city of the first Kaliphs; such also the just retribu- tion upon the sacred city of the Jews, whose corrupt teaching had furnished the false prophet with so large an amount of error in the compilation of the Koran ! 2. From Jerusalem, Omar wrote to ^mri^ one of his generals, who was on his way to Egypt, that if still in Syria, he should return at once on the receipt of the letter, but if he had crossed the boundary he * The proclamation of the Moslem army was to this eifect: "150,000 enemies are killed, 40,000 are made prisoners, and of the faithful 4030 have perished , to whom God had decreed the honour of martyrdom. Allah has made us the lords of their country, their riches and their children." 222 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [Parti. should j^roceed depending- on the help of Allah and his brethren. Amru received this epistle whilst en- camping near Gaza, but in spite of its contents, pro- ceeded towards Egypt until the tents were fairly pitched beyond the boundary of Palestine, when, col- lecting his officers, he inquired the name of the sta- tion and reading his instructions aloud to them, added that he was ready to comply wdth the commands of Omar. After a siege of thirty days, the army carried Pehisiwm , the key of Egypt. Amru then marched against the ancient Memphis, and after a seven months siege, the Moslem army stormed Babylon which was situated in the suburbs of Memphis. Bishop Ben- jmnin submitted to the invaders with the whole com- munity of the Coptic Church, and paying poll-tax, secured to themselves their property and liberty of conscience. Alexandria was most bravelv defended during fourteen months by the Melchites, but the noble city surrendered A.D. 640 after 23,000 Arabs had fallen before her walls. Amru was made prisoner, but owing to an artifice of his slave was not recognised and so escaped. Upon the fall of Alexandria, Amru wrote to Omar his master: "I have conquered the great city of the West; it is impossible to specify its manifold riches, and I must be satisfied to mention, that it contains 4000 23alaces, 4000 baths, 400 places of pleasure and amusement 12,000 shops, selling victuals, and 40,000 Jews paying tribute." When the general asked Omar, at the request of the philosopher, John Philoponus, whether he would consent to his sparing CHAP. VII.] IN EGYPT AND NORTH- AFRICA. 223 the Library, the Kaliph is said to have replied, "If the books of the Greeks agree with the Koran, then they are superfluous and need not be preserved, if not, they are dangerous and must be destroyed."^ The conquest of northern Africa was fairly com- menced by Anuai. In Cyrenaica or Cyrene, and in- deed on the wdiole of the southern shores of the Mediterranean sea, the Arabs met with but little re- sistance, for recognising in the inhabitants, people of the same stock, the introduction of the relioion and power of the Saracens, was greatly facilitated. Amru sent an embassv of the natives to Omar who received them kindly and acknowledged them as brethren. Nor was the scheme of subjugating Persia aban- doned by the successors of Mohammed; whilst Amru was engaged in the West of Arabia, Khaled turned to the East and made fearful progress ; Omar however did not live to see the result of the enterprise as re- gards Persia itself, being assassinated by a Persian in a mosque at Medina, A. D. 644.^ At this period ^ This cruel loss of some of the best treasures of the world by Moslem fanaticism cannot be sufficiently deplored; especially as regards Manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the early Church, It is not however likely that much was left of the celebrated Library of the Ptolemys. The 400,000 volumes in the Museum in that part of the city , called Bruchion , were burned when Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, but this loss was partially restored by Antoninus , who presented Cleopatra with a library of parchment. The 300,000 vols in the temple of Serapion, were de- stroyed in the 4*^ century under the Emperor Theodosius , when a fanatical mob of Christians stormed the temple. ^ During- his Kaliphate the foundation of the Saracen empire was laid upon a broad basis: 36,000 cities were taken and 4000 churches and temples destroyed! 224 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. innumerable Christians apostatised, many from fear, others from ignorance and some embraced Islamism vohmtarily;* those who remained faithful were ex- posed to shame and persecution. When Khaled en- tered Persia he said to his warriors, "If we wished not to fight for the cause of God, and were only bent upon seeking our own interest, we should still be anxious to conquer these provinces , leaving distress and hunger henceforth to others."^ Irak or Assyria was subdued and plundered, Bussora occupied, the Euphrates together with the Gulph of Persia fell into the hands of the Arabs; Ktesiphon or Madani with Faristan, whither the king of Persia had fled, were placed under Saracen domination/ 3. The successor of Omar was the weak and aged Othoman, but his career was cut short being assassinated soon after his accession to the Kaliphate. The Ommavades , who were the chief promoters of the rebellion and the murder of the Kaliph , being headed hy Mo avyia or Mo via, now accused J.Zz of the crime. In spite of this accusation Ali was appointed to the Kaliphate,' but is said to have accepted it with reluctance, doubtless fearing so powerful a rival * The Christian writer Elmacin states: that there was also a Toluntary influx of Pagans, Magians, Jews and Christians. ^ Taberistanensis Annales regum atque legatorum Dei. (Ed. Kosegarten, Gryphisvald. 1833.) II. p. 25. ^ In Ktesiphon a booty was raised which has been estimated by Arab historians to have amounted to some 3000 millions of pure metal. This naturally kindled the zeal of Moslem propagandisra. ^ Three times he had been passed over, and even now Ayesha sought to prevent his election. CHAP. VII.] IN PERSIA, SICILY AND AFRICA. 225 as Movia. The latter, who happened to have Ayesha's mfliience on his side, took possession of most of the Persian provinces, but notwithstanding he was com- pletely defeated in a fearful battle with Ali, — in which Ayesha was made prisoner, and magnanimously given up, — Movia gained the ascendency, and was made Kaliph though destitute of all claim to the dignity. Ali was assassinated at Kufa, and his eldest son, Hassan died of poison at Medina, given to him by his own wife at the instigation of Movia; ^ not long after, his brother Hossein also fell before his enemy, being pierced with three and thirty w^ounds. But neither the fame, nor yet the house of Ali was extinguished by the death of his two sons ; for although the Ome- yades were victorious for the time and numbered four- teen rulers, manv of the faithful were attached to the original line of succession. Amongst those who ac- knowledge Ali, as the legitimate successor of the prophet, the Persians stand foremost, and we notice it as one of the chief points' of difference between the Shiites and Sonnites. To avoid needlessly wearying the reader with de- tails of horror and bloodshed, connected with the further propagation of Islamism, we hasten to its in- troduction into Europe. It w^as during the tw^enty years reign of Movia, the usurper, that Sicily was completely subdued, and Constantinople endured one of its long and heavy sieges ; but the hostile fleet of ® Hossein his brother swore to revenge his death, but the dying raan replied, "0 brother, life in this world consists only of transitory nights, let him go till he and I meet before AJlah." P 226 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. the Saracens being destroyed by the celebrated Greek fire, the siege was raised for some time. More for- tunate was Movia's army in Africa than before the walls of the Byzantine capital ; one of his generals * marching through the desert of Barke and passing victoriously through the country of the Moors, hoisted the standard of Islamism and there established Mos- lem supremacy. From the year A. D. 697. under Movia's successors, we may consider North- Africa the home of Islamism; — Christianity, which once flou- rished in that country, having, alas been completely uprooted. 4. The Saracen empire obtained its greatest ex- tension under the Kaliph Walid, who succeeded his fa- ther Abdelmalek A.D. 705. In his efforts to propagate the Koran in the West, Walid derived the greatest assistance from Miisa, the Governor of North-Africa. Tarik, one ofMusa's subordinate officers, being invited by count Julian to assist him against Roderich, king of the western Goths, readily complied, and landed on the rock of Gibraltar, or Gebel el Tarik. Roderich met Tarik near Cadiz with a host of about 100,000 strong, but after a battle of a week's duration, this immense army was dispersed and Roderich himself drowned in the Guadalquivir. ^^ One province of Spain after another ^ Akbo Ben Nafi beholding the Atlantic Ocean in the harbour of Asfi and elated by a succession of victories, urged his horse into the surging waves, exclaiming, "Great God if my power was not limited by this sea, I should proceed to unknown emj)ires of the West to preach the unity of thy holy name and to exterminate with the sword those rebel nations , that worship other Gods be- side thee !" *° The Saracen host consisted of 12,000 men. "How should one CHAP. VII.] IN SPAIN AND GAUL. 227 now became speedily subdued, and for 800 years the country remained under the dominion of the Saracens. Meanwhile, Musa, Avho had previously obtained per- mission from the Kaliph to conquer Andalusia, fol- lowed Tarik, and instead of rewarding him for his glorious achievements, actuated by jealousy, called him to account, caused him to be scourged and cast into ]3rison. Musa now conceived the idea of de- stroying the new kingdoms of the Franks and Lonqo- hardians, of passing through Germany , taking Con- stantinojile by land and then retiring to Mecca for the rest of his days : but whilst one day mustering his army, a message arrived from Damascus to request his return to Syria. On his arrival, he was publicly scourged like a criminal by command of Kalipli So- Ionian, Walid's newly appointed successor, and sent to Mecca, where he died of a broken heart. Brave Tarik ended his days among the slaves, which crowded the effeminate court of the Kaliphs at Damascus. How different their luxury from the austere simplicity of the first Kaliph Omar, whose daily fare was barley bread, a few dates and water, whose royal robe con- sisted of an old cloak, and who was not seldom dis- covered by his generals sleeping upon the steps of a Mosque among beggars ! Solomon least of all seems to have followed the abstemious habits of Omar; whilst preparing for a fresh attack on Constantinople he died suddenly of a fit of indigestion. ^ * chase a thousand to flight, except their Rock had sold them, and the Lord had shut them up !" Deut. XXXIL 30. ^* According to Abulfeda he ate two baskets of eggs and figs, P* 228 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. Although deprived of Musa's counsel and energy, the Saracen army did not abandon the plan of subduing the whole of Europe; crossing the Pyrenees, it entered Gaul under Abderrachman with a force of 400,000 men, spreading consternation throughout the woods of Allemania. Here everything gave way before it ; having crossed theRhone it wasted the country, burned houses and Churches, and carried the women into slavery. In this emergency, Charles Martel, son of Pepin, gathered together the scattered forces of the empire, and be- tween Tours and Poitiers the great question was to be decided , whether the Koran or the Bihle was to be the future rule and portion of Europe. After the two armies had faced each other for seven days, one Saturday evening the Saracen host rushed upon the army of Christian warriors, as if sure of victory; but steady like a wall stood the iron-harnessed forces of the Franks. After much fearful bloodshed, which led to no decision, the giant-like Austrasian warriors rushed forward; their large battle-swords doing terri- ble execution, and Abderrachman himself, falling before them, the fate of the invading army was de- cided. Some 375,000 Arabs remained slain on the field, and from that time, A. D. 732 the wave of Saracen conquest appeared to be broken and steadily to retire from Europe. 5. Whilst these mighty efforts were being made by the Saracens to establish and maintain their re- concluding his repast with marrow and sugar. On one of his pilgrim- ages to Mecca he consumed at one meal, 70 pomegranates, a kid, 6 fowls and a large quantity of grapes from Tayef ! CHAP. VII.] REVERSES IN GAUL. 229 ligion and political supremacy in the West, another army penetrated eastward into Asia, pushing forward as far as China; but here their progress was stayed by means of bribes from the Emperor. Returning to India they founded vast empires on the shores of the Indus and Ganges, which for a long period were strongholds of Islamism. As a fresh success, deserves to be mentioned the restoration of the Kaliphate to the house of Ali;*^ and with the accession of the legitimate line, a period commenced in which litera- ture was cultivated among the Saracens to a con- siderable degree. The empire was however unable long to support its colossal weight, and gradually became like a "house divided against itself:" the governors of the provinces in Africa, Spain and the East assuming the rank of independent princes, their respective feuds and jealousies so weakened the Mos- lem dominion, that had not the Christian powers been utterly destitute of vigour, they might then have given it a fatal blow/^ Fresh energy however was infused into the Mos- lem community by the accession of the Turks.** After this very ancient tribe had descended from ^^ The AbLassides re-assumed the Kaliphate A. D. 750, and the Omayades lost, on one occasion, during the struggle 600,000 men. ^•^ The Kaliphate being now split in two, one of the contending Kaliphs resided at Bagdad, the other at Cairo. ^* The Turcomans or Turks derive their name from a certain founder called Turlx, which reminds us of the Targitus or Targitaos of Herodotus r\^. 5. and rt'?|i'n>r, Togarmah Gen. X. 3. In Ezek. XXVII. 14. XXXVIII. 6. the name of this northerly tribe is written nwn^.'in. The Armenians also call themselves: "the house Torgum". 230 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. Altai, they inhabited the fruitful steppes of the high- lands of Asia, between Thibet, Siberia and the Aral Sea, which are still known by the name of Turkistan. ^^ 'Oghus-Khan, the founder of the nation, originated three great dynasties, the Oghuses, the Seltschuks and the Osmans. The Turks are however historically celebrious only since the sixth century, when they appear as the enemies of the Parthians, Saracens and Romans, by whom they were alternately opposed and flattered. Mohammed Ebn Inbriel having sought their aid against the Indians and Babylonians , they accordingly seized upon Persia, made themselves masters of the Grecian empire, and established the seat of their government at Iconium or Nice.^^ The Turks, in their turn, were overrun by 3Iougol and Tartar tribes, also of Scythian origin, who coming from the shores of the Caspian Sea, passed over Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor, laying the founda- tion of the empire of the Ottomans or Turks , pro- perly so called. * ^ It is remarkable that both the *^ "Wtali tfi ta§ 93cl! bcr ^Tiirfcn , beren norf) fterrfd^cnbcr Sivetg bet D^manen. 3Bom 5Utai, il^rem Urfi|, l^erabgeliiecjcn, beit)cf)nten fie ba^ frud^tbare ^teV^enlanb ^od^aften jlvifc^cn Xiit^et, (Sibtrien unb bem ^Ixah fee, bag nadf) tl^nen ben ^flamcn !tut!tjlan fii'firt." ». ^ammct^ ®efd^td)te beg Dgmantfc{)eu 0ieicf)eg. *^ Mosheim Vol. 11. pag. 51. 52. also: Venemae Institut. Hist. Eccl. torn. V. pag. 156. 157. ^^ Othman , Osman or Ottoman is the founder of it. The first of those barbarous deeds , which for 500 years were perpetrated against the Christians , was that of Osman , when he commanded the brother of Kelanus to be eviscerated, v. Hammer adds : "9^oc^ je^t f)etpt bie cuti3fteu (^cfrf)lrd(^t ijl, iDirb eg fogar fiir ein SSerbrec^en cje^alteu, eincn (S^riften StraHfd^ ju lefjren, nnb \v>oiiit etn ^rember cine ^o\^tt Betreten, unt fidfi burc^ btc bcrt flattftnbenben ®zbdi unb veltc^tofen 9Scrtrage ju Belc^rcn, fo luiirbe er bag !feben i^enuirfen." ^Dottinger pag. 17. 23 Ebn Batuta by Lee pag. 233—241. 234 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. character were hung.^* In Sudan and Hiissa the great kmgclom of the Felatahs, and m the kingdoms oi Ghana, Tokriir Bussa, Berissa, Wawa 3Lnd Kia7na we have likewise Mohammedan rehgion and customs prevaihng.^^ It is also the established religion in Timhuctu.'^^ A remarkable instance is found in the history of the ikTc^ncZmgo-land , north east of Sierra- Leone. A century ago, a few Mohammedans settled in that country, they established schools in which Arabic and the Koran were taught, a community was formed which increased, and after some time the. whole country fell into their power. ^ ' Nor is this a singular instance: none but those who have witnessed the missionary zeal of the modern Arab merchant, would believe what efforts are still being made to proselytize the Pagans in the interior of Africa; every year fresh tribes are added to the Moslem com- munity.^^ The Galla tribes are converted one by one ; and in Malabar, the Mohammedans purchase or procure children of the lower classes to bring them up in the "true faith". War and bloodshed then are the means by which the Koran is generally propa- gated , but when power is wanting or policy dictates ^* Narrative of travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa, by Denham, Clapperton and Oudney, pag. 103. ^^ Journal of an expedition to explore the course of the Niger, by Richard and John Lander. ^^ Park's Travels into the Interior of Africa. 1817. Chap. 11. ^^ See Report of the directors of the Sierra Leone Corap. in Winterbottom's account of the native Africans near Sierra-Leone. 1810. Vol. 1. ^® This the author may confidently assert from his own ob- servation on the African coast. CHAP. VII.] FEARFUL EXTENT AT THIS TIME. 235 another method, it is peaceably effected in opposition to its avowed principles and character. 7. The success then of Islamism, was great and beyond all measure surprising. With the exception of Spain, it has never yet been suppressed in any country where it had taken root; on the contrary, as it is almost the only creed besides Christianity, which proselytizes, it makes perhaps more converts than all the others put together. There are at this day, at least three Mohammedan empires, Turkey, Persia and Morocco. In India, the Pagans are in proportion to the Mohammedans, as eight to one. If not in numbers, yet certainly in territory it preponderates over Christianity. To give anything like a correct estimate of the numbers of its professors seems to be impos- sible. One thing only appears certain from more recent calculations, viz. that the statistical tables which have been carefully constructed from the ma- terials, which were formerly accessible, are far below the truth. Considering the great progress which Is- lamism has made in the interior of Africa , and the mystery which still hangs upon that unhappy con- tinent we cannot assume a smaller number than from 140 to 180 millions of Moslemin. In India alone we have 15,000,000 of Mohammedans, so that it may well be said, that the Queen of Great Britain has more Moslem subjects than the Sultan of Constan- tinople. Here then is an immense body of fellow-men and fellow-subjects , little thought of, and only re- membered, when they become a thorn in our side! 8. We shall now briefly examine the causes of 236 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. this rapid success, as well as of the perynanence of the Mohammedan creed. It may first be noticed that the disciples of Mohammed appeal to the startling success of this imposture, as the grand evidence of its truth, and the enemies of Christianity have taken advantage of this circumstance to depreciate the evi- dence arising in its favour from the marvellous suc- cess of the Gospel. With this view no pains have been spared to render the analogy, which partially exists between them complete, by a laboured com- parison of all the points touching their origin and promulgation.^* The folly of the attempt and the weakness of such a comparison could only be over- looked by dishonest and disingenuous minds. Some have represented the success of Islamism as the ful- filment of the blessing, promised to Abraham for Ishmaels seed.^^ This line of argument is pursued by the Mohammedans themselves, who thus seek to establish their creed upon the foundation of a divine promise, and this alone ought to have prevented Christian men from adopting it. Where no spiritual promise was given, there can be no fulfilment of a spiritual character. The promise to Ishmael implied a numerous posterity, including twelve princes, which was a mere temporal blessing ; ^ ^ whilst the prophecy ^^ The obscure rise, the irresistible progress, the rajjid and wide diifusion of both creeds hare been adduced and dwelt upon, in order to level the claims of the Gospel and the gratuitous as- sumptions of the Koran to the same standard. ^^ This is the perverted scope of Mr. Forster's large work: "Mohammedanism unveiled." Vol, II. b-n> ^■>b rnn:^ "i^Vt t^^^b: "im lb^:u3 I's^iz nii^n'inN Gen. XVII. 20. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 237 concerning liim defined his character and that of his descendants.^^ To acknowledge the fiilfihiient of a promised blessing in Islamism, is to admit it to be a true religion; it may be the fulfilment oi prophecy, but that is essentially different from the fulfilment of a promise. Is the creed of Mohammed the actual fulfilment of a promise to Abraham, then it is of ne- cessity a divinely revealed religion. But to recognise more than the temporal fulfilment of a temporal pro- mise is to confound the Jlesh with the Spirit, and prosperity in this world with the blessings of the life to come. Whilst we repudiate the notion of the success of Islamism being the fulfilment of a divine pro- mise, we do not deny that it was permitted to grow and flourish, in order to accomphsh the myste- rious desisfns oi Divine Providence; since God often permits the success of those actions and the spread of those opinions, which it is contrary to His holy nature to approve. S'uccess therefore in the propaga- tion of a creed is not necessarily demonstrative of its beino- of divine orioin. In God's providential ad- ministration one evil is frequently the antidote of another. Islamism belongs to the class of means, which Divine Providence employs to counteract the greater of two evils , until the final triumph of good is achieved, and the ultimate separation of good and ^^ It was implied in Abraham's prayer, that Ishmael should partike of God's mercy and blessing, but this could only be granted through Isaac and his seed, in whom all the families of the earth were to be blessed; for if all nations were to be blessed in the seed of Isaac, why should Ishmael be excluded? 238 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [PART i. evil can be safely effected; it being a fixed principle of God's dealings to let the tares and the wheat grow together till the harvest. ^^ In this case, a smaller evil is tolerated for a time , to prevent a greater. In a period and in places where pure and undefiled religion could not through unbelief and darkness yet be re- ceived, a mixture of good and evil was suffered to prevail. There is clearly much inconsistency in the anxiety of Christian writers to escape fi-om the recognition of a providential interference in the rise and progress of Islamism. All commentators seem to agree, that its rise had been predicted in Holy Scripture ; to deny therefore the overruling providence of God in bring- ing about an event which has been the subject of prophecy, and to ascribe it solely to the independent operation of human causes, is to take the government of the world out of the hands of God.^* When Da- niel e. g. foretells the fate of the four great empires of the world, or when Isaiah speaks of Cyrus, as the servant of God, we do not hesitate to admit the actual guidance of Divine Providence in shaping the career of those empires, or the special act of raising up instruments to execute His judgments. To account for the efforts made to explain Islamism from mere 3 3 "Jcpats (jv'pav^died'&iy.i ixi^icpoTega n^XQi tov 'degiCFf-iov' xal ip t(jj xai^Qo tov 'dtQiGi-iov i(jc3 loTg ■&eQiGraig k. t. X. Matt. XIII. 30. Turn erit perfecta separatio. 3* This view could not have been entertained, had it been con- sidered that if carried to the extreme it would impugn prophecy itself, making the word of God a predictor of events , over which the Author of that word had no special control. CHAP.Vii.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 239 natural causes, we must take it for granted that those who make them, deem it essential to the in- terests of Christianity to ignore the notion of Divine interposition in the production of any results inde- pendent of revealed religion. 9. After the Nicene Council, the Eastern Church was engaged in perpetual controversies, which gave rise to the most bitter feelings between those who were commanded to love each other as brethren. Constantius ^^ made himself notorious by confound- ing pure and undefiled religion with anile super- stition, and in exciting disputes upon intricate and abstruse subjects. Arabia and Africa were polluted by schism and heresy of the worst description,^^ and were ripe for judgment. The European Church was corrupt in practice, but still retained an amount of sound catholic doctrine, especially on the Divinity of our Lord, which served as an antidote to the false teaching of the Koran, and prevented this 87 "Eratque super his adimere facilis, quae donabat, Christia- nam religionem abaolutam et simplicem anili supersitione confun- dens : in quo scutunda perplexius, quam componenda gravius, ex- citavit dissidia plurima : quae pro^essa fusius aluit concertatione verborum, ut catervis antistitum, jumentis publicis ultro citroquo discurrentibus per Sjnodos, quas appellant, dum ritum omnem ad suum trahere conatur arbitrium, rei vehiculariae succideret nervos." Ammian. Mercellin. lib. XXI. de Oonstantio. 38 The Archbishop of Toledo describes the state of religion thus in the 7tii sec. ^* Cum Arabian et Africa inter fidem Catholicam et herein Arianam, et perfidiam Judaicam et idolatrum, diversis studiis traheretur." Hist. Arab. pag. 2. ad calc. Elmac. Hist. Sa. 240 SPEEAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [PARTI. judgment from falling so severely upon tlie Western, as upon the Eastern Church. ^^ Europe did not in- deed altogether escape the plague of Islam, because it had partly adopted the false teaching of the Eastern Church. ^^ Spain in which the Arian leaven still lino-ered was overwhelmed in a man- ner, which clearly showed the finger of G-od.^^ The Spanish army melted away before a handful of 39 " Non dissimulavit I>euB haec populi sui vitia : quin ex ultimo Scythiae ac Grermaniae recessu immensa agmina, quasi diluvio, ef- fudit in orb em Christianum ; et cum datae ab his strages maximae non satis profecissent ad coiTigendos superstites, justo Dei per- missu, in Arabia Mahumetis novam sevit religionem, pugnantem earn directa fronte cum Christiana relinione, sed quae verbis quo- damodo exprimeret vitam magnae partis Cbristianorum." Grotius de verit. Eelig. Christ, pag. 277. ^0 The author dare not follow the ** Guardian" when in reference to this notice of Arianism in Spain the reviewer either ignores or forgets the undoubted fact that in the year 581 the Swevi in Spain partially relapsed into the Arian heresy which they had previously abjured in 559. As a further proof of reckless criticism in the same periodical I should here point to pag, 107, note 76, where it is stated on the authority of Weil, Einleitung in den Koran pag. 51, that the copy of the Koran which Othman was reading when assassinated, was "said to have been brought to Antartus." This town on the coast of Syria was transformed by the same reviewer into a person, it being added by the " Guardian," that this said place was a ''person of whom im never before hea/rd," It is well known to every scholar, and certainly ought to have been laiown to any person assuming the dignity of reviewer that Antarfus is the Arabic and Eastern name for the Syrian Ortoso, which so frequently occurs in the history of the Crusades, The Eastern and European name are both placed together in Weil's large and learned work : Geschichte der Chalifen Band IV. p. 70. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 241 Saracen soldiers; the Godhead of the Redeemer being akeady denied, there was nothing to resist or to prevent an occupation of the country for the space of 800 years! But the Mohammedan invasion v^^as effectually repelled by the glorious victory of Charles Martel.^* In the seventeenth century, when Europe was once more assailed on her eastern frontier, God raised up Sobieski, to set bounds for ever to the Turkish empire, and the creed of Mohammed. "Hitherto shalt thou come and no further; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed!" In all these things we trace a remarkable Providence controlling the spread of Islamism. Nor can we fail to adore the wise and gracious choice of the instruments, by which God chastised the fallen Churches! The Western Church was first punished by the influx of Pagan hordes fi:om the North, and had God chosen idolaters for the correction of the Eastern Church, there might have been cause to apprehend dangler for the very existence of Christianity, more especially as Western Europe was already overrun by Pagan nations; but the enemy whom God chose to administer judgment in His name w^as one , who was as greatly op- posed to idolatry as the fallen Church could be in her better days. Islamism made common cause with the Church in protesting against Paganism, and precluded the possibility of Pagan powers uniting against Christianity. We may therefore consider Mohammed, the servant of God in the same sense ** Calcutta Review No. VIII. December, 1845. to which the author is indebted for some of these remarks. Q 242 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. in which Pagan Cyrus was called the servant of Jehovah. Islamism was thus made subservient to great and important ends in the dispensation of the justice and holiness of God. It does not however follow, that this admission must necessarily place the Koran and the Bible upon the same footing: Mohammedanism, in its jyrovidential aspect, w^as the result of the natural course of events; Christianity, on the contrary, was introduced by a miraculous deviation from that course.*^ If we refer to Holy Scripture for guidance m this matter, we notice God's interposition in cases as unlikely in our estimation as that of Islamism. The lying spirit for instance, which was put into the mouth of false prophets, purporting to prophesy the truth, may serve as an illustration.*^ The special interference here, is unquestionable, and one peculiarly to the point; God, for purposes only known to Him- self, might as easily have put a lying spirit into the mouth of Mohammed. ** The action of the instrumen- tality being employed upon a greater or lesser scale, makes no difference as to the establishing of the principle of providential interference. The just dis- tinction between Islamism and Christianity seems to *^ The principle of an overruling Providence , working without a miracle, has been ably set forth by Mr. Davidson : Discourses on Prophecy, pag. 76. 77. 247. 248. *3 1 King. XXII. 19—23. "Now therefore behold, the Lord hath put a lying Spirit in the mouth of all these thy prophets :" ^^fij-'nr-bs ^dh. ^"i^yj n^rn nnn-; in; ~tr. nn^"! ** Kal dia Tovto n^ixpH. dvtoTg Qtog ivegyeiav nXavtjq , iig TO nidtsvaai dvTovg rco xpevSei' 2 Thess. II. 9 — 11. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 243 be this: the phenomena of the spread of Christianity prove that it came from God, but those of Islamism show only that it sprang from an overruled agency of natural events, and that as to its permanence, it is still upheld by their providential concurrence. At the very period when the Lombards were de- stroying the last vestiges of the Roman empire, God raised up an obscure people to a sudden greatness in order to correct His erring Churches , and to re- move the candlestick from such as were past correction. The salt having lost its savour was cast out and trod- den under foot of men.*'' This explains without com- ment, the cause of the success of Islamism. Our Lord indicated the characteristics of those devouring eagles, which were sent forth into the world by the false prophet who arose "in the desert", to prey upon the dead members of His Church. As the eagle does good service by consuming carcases, which otherwise would be left to poison the atmosphere, so Islamism benefited the Church, by consuming those dead members, which had become offensive in the sight of God , and if allowed to remain , would have endangered the very life of the body. It is remarkable that our Lord's words literally occur, in Alwakidi's description of the primitive Moslemin , "The Saracens he says, fell wpoii them like eagles u23on a carcase."'*^ *^ "Uekr btefeg d)riftltc^e SD'iorgenlanb , in ireldiem bag (Sfirifient^um fett taiiger ^cit in bcv ©ticfhift be^ 5)efvtctignuig , unb unter bem tcbten ^crmeliuefen, burd^ bag feine 3becn ijerfiimmerten nnb aerfamcn, tobtfranf luav, fain ber ^evr ^lo^Iic^ nnb fcin ©evidfit." 3innnermann5 Sebenggefd)id)te ber ^ivrf}e Sefn (Sl^rifii, Vol. II. 518. *^ Ockley's History of the Saracens, Vol. I. pag 220. 244 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [part i. The black eagle was moreover the ensign of the first Saracen conquerors, and that affords an additional reason for applying the prediction to them, as well as to the Romans, by whom the Jewish Church was devoured. * ' Nor is it against the principle of ger- minant interpretation of prophecy, to make it include both visitations upon the Old and the New Church, which had alike sunk into decay. 10. An auxiliary cause of the success of Islam- ism, was the thne in which it appeared; for we may safely say, that in no former or subsequent period of the world could Mohammed have met with equal suc- cess. All the circumstances of that jDcriod, ^^lainly and undeniably concurred to favour the rise and pro- gress of the new religion. The heresies which divided and the corruptions which then degraded the Church, presented an open field for Mohammed. The poli- tical state of the world was likewise pro23itious. Is- lamism being a religion of conquest, the union of nations under compact and vigorous governments, would have opposed insu23erable obstacles. Its suc- cess obviously depended, not on the strength and stability, but on the decay of the kingdoms of the earth; and its establishment could only be promoted by the divisions and distractions of mankind.*^ At a later or an earlier date, that of Trajan, of Constan- tine or Charlemagne, the assault of the half-naked *7 Ockley Hist, of the Sarac. Vol. 1. 172. Wahl pag. 73. E. *® "It has been observed by a great politician Machiavelli, that it is impossible a person should make himself a prince and found a state, ivithoiit opportunities" Sale, Prelem. Disc. pag. 25. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 245 Saracens would soon have been repelled, and their religious fanaticism extinguished. This most favour- able concurrence of a diversity of circumstances, both ecclesiastical and political, at once so contrary and so harmonious, cannot fail to strike every candid ob- server of the age in which Islamism made its ap- pearance. 11. Another cause of the rapid spread and per- manent establishment of Islamism, is to be looked for in the means which were used in its propagation. The appeal to the sword is natural to a politico- religious system, and in prescribing both moral and civil laws to the state, it decides every question of life or property.*^ In almost every Mohammedan country, so intimate is the connection and so absolute the dependence of the religious, upon the civil govern- ment, that in propagating the tenets of religion, an appeal to the civil force would be unavoidable. With few exceptions, this maxim of the Koran: — "Fight against them, until there be no opposition in favour of idolatry and the religion be wholly God's," has ever been strictly carried out. No alternative was allowed to the Pagan, he had to choose between an immediate recantation of his opinions and a cruel death. The Christian was permitted the privilege of compounding for the preservation of his life and property, by the payment of a heavy tribute. To men who had lost *® The recent appointment of a Minister of justice by the Sul- tan of Constantinople, is an innovation; inasmuch as this duty was till that time , incumbent upon their spiritual head of religion , the Mufti , who was the locum tenens of the Sultan himself, in his cha- racter of Kaliph. 246 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. almost every thing but the name of then* religion, this mode of conversion was irresistible. Nor can we won- der that in many such cases, the voice of conscience was unheard amidst the cries of interest. Temporal ease and security under the banners of the pseudo- prophet, were to them, preferable to the distress of the despised and persecuted Christians. We should however be much mistaken, were we to look upon the enthusiasm of the first propagators of Islamism, as springing merely from religious zeal. ^^^ The ho2^e of gain and the prospect of plunder gathered hosts to Mohammed's standard, even in his life-time; and the national pride of the Arabs felt flattered by following a prophet who had risen from amongst themselves:^* then Mohammed's rank, his personal influence , his consummate art and prudence , his fervent enthusiasm, which in the first instance, re- sulted from a sincere conviction that he was a chosen messenger of God, — all gave strength and solidity to each step in the early projDagation of Is- lamism. 12. Mohammed's appeal to the Patriarchal faith and the Ishmaelitish descent of the Arabs, was like- ®° Khaled who was termed "the sword of the swords of Allah," well described the mixture of power and persuasion by which he and the Koreishites were converted , when he said , that Allah seized thera by their hearts and by the locks of their hair to lead them to the prophet. Taberistanensis Annales regura atque lega- toruni Dei. Edit. Kosegarten. II. pag. 103, ^^ The Arab general said to the Christian Arabs of Hira, who declined to receive Islamism: "Ye fools, will you wander to and fro in the wilderness of error ; when two guides offer themselves to you, a foreigner and an Arab, will ye follow the first and forsake the latter?" Taberistanensis Annal. II. pag. 39. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 247 wise highly favourable to a sudden spread of his creed. There was an artful accommodation to the divers classes of his countrymen, by which he drcAV the Jew, the Christian and the idolater into his net. A certain writer brings forward fifty pages of coincidences between Judaism and Islamism: — Each professes to derive a politico-religious economy from a prophet who united in his person the political and spiritual administration of the affairs of the na- tion. Each came to be possessed of a sacred book, composed by their respective lawgivers. In both cases we have a people in arms , professing to go forth by divine command to conquer, and so far as their re- spective conquests should extend, to extirpate the religion of the subdued countries and to substitute their own. The Jcavs, as far as their commission went, were to cut off the idolatrous inhabitants from the land of promise ; the Mohammedans, according to the terms of their extended commission, demanded either conversion or death. Each nation left the same desert. Again Moses and Mohammed descended from Abraham, both commenced their office at the age of forty; the former received the law in Arabia, the lat- ter the Koran. Both prophets are exiled, commune with God, and die in the desert before their followers leave the country; and no one will fail to perceive that in several points, Mohammed artfully accommo- dated himself to the history of Moses to give weight and effect to his pretensions. We have noticed on a former occasion, with what skill Mohammed accommodated himself to the Chris- 248 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. tian religion, at the commencement of his career. The immaculate and wonderful conception of Christ was acknowledged, His miracles were admitted. His prophetical character was asserted, and certain titles were ascribed to Christ, which the Christians affirmed belonged to Him. It did its work and favoured Moham- med's cause among the Christians for a time. Then how well the national superstitions of the Arabs were blended with Islamism, to conciliate their love for ancient institutions! Mecca, the centre of the national worship, was chosen to become the sanctuary of the new creed; pilgrimage with all its Pagan rites was continued; circumcision and other national usages were adopted and incorporated into the system of Mohammed's religion. There was a compilation of heterogeneous religious elements, which proved ac- ceptable to all parties, each finding in it, dogmas which were held by their respective ancestors. 13. The yoke which Islamism imposed upon the first believers, was by no means oppressive. It was presented as the religion of Abraham, a name revered by all parties ; the Unity of God was a dogma which was held in common by Jews, Christians and Arabs. The rest of the teaching of the Koran was simple, — consisting mainly of precepts and male- dictions. There was an absence of those holy and blessed mysteries of our faith, which are at all times humiliatino- to human reason. That which is most needful, but at the same time most opposed to the depraved taste of the natural man, is carefully ex- cluded. Islamism, as a false creed, offers no Redemp- CHAP, vii] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 249 tion, no means of grace; insists on no repentance, no self-denial and no mortification of the flesh, and where there exists no love of the truth, it can reckon upon a more ready reception than Christianity can expect. The mixture of truth and falsehood, the simplicity of its formula, the mechanism of its devo- tions , washings and fastings , combined with an un- bridled licentiousness, renders it more acceptable than the Gospel of Christ, with its free mercy to lost sin- ners, with its rigid morality and elevating hope of glory; for the world will love its own in religion, not less than in other things.''^ The per m,a7iency of Islamism, which is another of its striking features, may in some measure be attributed to its close connection with the existing Governments. Any attempt to alter or reform the religion, neces- sarily involved the ruin and overthrow of the Govern- ment of the land. Every case of religious apostacy is therefore punished by the state as a capital crime. It was solely owing to the external pressure of the European powders of late years that an alteration has been made in the Turkish empire. Again, the per- manence of Islamism is in no way surprising, when ^^ "(Sntfagitng, 9(ufgebimg ber lie6ften OZeigimgen ivurbe nic()t gefcrbert; btc Seibeiifdiaften fonteii nfc^t folvolil gehinbtgt unb tn f^renge 3«c^t genome men irerben, a(^ nur aitf einen ©egenftanb, ben ^am^f fiir bfe Sdtebreitung tt§ neuen ©lauBeii^ ccncentrirt it^erben . . . $Da^ ©erftot be^ ©eiitee- fomtte ntcf)t tdfitg fetn in einem Sanbe, u>o bfe '^xud}t ber 9tebe ni^t gebetf)t, bag ^enDbifcf)e i^aften nicf)t ba, tro llnfru(f)tbarfeit be^ Sobetig oft and) ben ©p'^t- T)abenben ©nt6et)ningen anferlegt , unb ^d}im ba^ ^lima jur grof ten Tla^u gung im ©ennffe ber 9ta^rung efnlabet. 2)ag 5)rnc!enbc nmr am Stnfang bte Steli'gicnefieuer, bie aber Balb burrfi bie reid^e 33eute I)nnbertfdlttg t>erj giitet irurbe ; fitr fo gerfnge £)pfer erfauften bte ©laubtgen bte Sluefic^t auf enbbfeg (gd^toelgen im ^arabife jinnlic^ev Siifte." JDoKinger pag. 4. 5. 250 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti, we remember that each child swells the ranks of the community ; for according to Moslem teaching, every child is born a Moslem, and it is only the parents who make him a Jew or a Christian! Not so with Christianity; for according to its teaching, every child is born in sin; and as by nature, all are children of wrath, the Gospel has to struggle against the whole course of nature, and when it has prevailed with one generation of professed Christians, it has to renew the struggle in the next/^ These then are some of the principal causes, the joint agency of which, sufficiently accounts for the success and permanent character of Islamism, We protest against the dangerous and fallacious assump- tion, that there is in it any fulfilment of a divine promise, but willingly admit a providential control of this heaven-sent scourge.^* How often did God raise up instruments of His wrath to chastise the Jewish Church, and these after having served as the rod of correction, w^ere invariably cast into the fire! Let only the cause of the scourge be remedied, let the Eastern Churches be cleansed from their dross; let the Church of Christ in the West fulfil her duty towards both the Christian and the Mohammedan community, and the scourge itself will be removed; ^■^ The Church in extending her Missionary operations has to contend with these natural obstacles which imjiede her progress, whilst Islamism in propagating its tenets and in maintaining its ground , only flatters the natural pride and indulges the passions of man. ^* Success alone, can aftord no absolute proof of divine favour ; for we observe , how God permits error to prevail upon earth and that, not seldom, to a far greater extent then truth itself. CHAP. VII.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 251 let Paganism also be abolished, and Islamism, which in God's purpose has served as a barrier to the abomination of idolatry, will be destroyed. 14. Thus we have seen how the sword has been the chief instrumentality in propagating Islamism; but God, who brings good out of evil, life out of death, peace and order out of strife and confusion, evidently assigned certain functions to this apostacy, which in the end should work together for good. At a period when the nations of the East had reduced Christianity to a miserable caricature, Islamism, being armed against all teaching except its own, seemed to be the less fatal of two evils. ^^ Whilst it spread the Koran, and assumed an attitude of inveterate hos- tility, it acted at the same time, as an antidote to the poison of heretical teaching in the Church. As regards the Western Church, Islamism roused her from her slumber, served as a correction of her abuses and corruptions , and called forth new life and energy among the stagnant masses of her professors. When this object was attained, God withdrew the rod, and showed mercy to His Church , which could not be ■'^ "^^\cLm bicnte aU bte c^cij^igc iTluavaiitaine , in iveldicr bie ®6lfet gcgen bag (Sontai^ium enter foM)en @crru^^tien abgefverrt, I^efferer Batten unb beg ®el^eng reitierer Siifte ftarreii. 2)a^ jeite ©efaBt iiMvfltc^ lu^rBanben unb brtngenb geivefen, bag begeugt nid^t nnr ber ^ang jnm (laretifdien (geften; irefen, ber unter ben orientalifdBen (Sf)vtj!cn jenerSeit fc^on iiberunegenb tvar; eg fcejeugt eg au(f) ber gro^e ©vfolg , \Md)^ bte gtfti'gc, aiU @t'ttltrf)feit ger? freffeitbe Sel)ve ber ^aiilicianer unb ^ogointlcn unter ben (^'^rtfien, fc irtfe ber mit btefen nafje i^ertt^anbten 33ateni'g unb Sglameli'g unter ben S)?Dgleinen 'ijaiU. 9Bar borf) felBft bie abcnbldnbtfcf)e birdie ber lunt biefer brofjenbcn ®efat)r in fo l^pfiem ©rabe BlcggefteUt, 'ta% \m ^Seginne beg 13. (Seculuing Bereitg gauge ^rovinjen yen ber ^^efiartig um ftd) greifenben ^t^xt ongeftccft ivaren." J^oHinger pag. 140. 252 SPREAD AND SUCCESS OF ISLAMISM. [parti. destroyed in this terrible earthquake. ^^ Moslem his- torians maintain, that the locust armies carried on their wings the Arabic inscription: "We are the host of Allah, every one of us carries ninety-nine eggs, and if we had a hundred, we would destroy the world with all that is therein." The Moslemin themselves are these locust armies, and more than once, the want of the hundreth egg alone has prevented their utterly destroying the noblest powers of Christendom. Such an epoch was the Kaliphate oiOthman; when in the course of the seventh centurv, the whole of the weak Byzantine empire would probably have fallen, and by its fall would have opened the door to central Europe, had not the best powers of the Moslem empire been consumed by those intestine feuds which succeeded the assassination of the Kaliph. Another crisis oc- curred, after the occupation of the south of France by Moslem troops , when the fate of Europe was suspended on that memorable battle won by Charles Martel. The third critical period, at which the hun- dreth Qgg was wanting, occurred in the third century of the Hedgra, when the Aglabites, having already subjugated Sicily, threatened to establish themselves in lower Italy: for had not the Moslem power at that period, succumbed to the Fatamites in Africa, Italy, as well as Spain, would have been overrun by the Moors, especially as it was in a defenceless condition, and France in a state of disturbance. Again , in the fourth century of the Mohammedan era, after the restoration of the Kaliphate to its legitimate line, the ^6 Ousley's Travels II. 149. CHAP.vii.] CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND PERMANENCE. 253 Saracen power, having recovered its pristine vigour and threatening to penetrate to the very heart of Christian Europe, was signally checked: — the Selchuk Turks under Soleiman A. D. 1084 had united the whole tract of country between the Euphrates and the Hellespont into one kingdom, and stood before Constantinople, prepared to march into Europe; when, the Emperor of Constantinople sending letters to the Christian princes imploring their assistance, Peter the Hermit with the assembly at Clermont, brought the whole of Europe to arms ; and for the first time the religious enthusiasm of the Christians proved itself stronger than the fanatical zeal of the Moslem conquerors. CHAPTER YIII. CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. "Ye shall know them by their fruits. Do men gather grapes from thorns or figs from thistles? Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruits Matt. VII. 16. 1. Mohammed, assuming to be a prophet rather of the type and character ofMoses than that of Jesus, took upon himself to legislate on moral, civil and religious matters. The divine authority ascribed to his precepts on religion, was necessarily extended to those regarding the civil and social relations of life, and being thus endowed with a character of stability, an insurmountable barrier was placed to the free 254 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. development oflslamism in future ages/ ^ Hence the rude, simple and in some instances, barbarous, cus- toms of the Arabs of that age, — which Mohammed had tolerated by way of accommodation to their na- tional prejudices, — became the fixed laiv for all future generations. Among these we may mention the ''lex taUonis\ which in subsequent ages, was introduced and adopted by all Mohammedan states. ^^ The entire administration of the Moslem code of law may be fairly reduced to the precepts of the Koran , which also in this particular, adopted the traditional prac- tice of the Arabs. That the adoption of this system could not fail to cause many crying abuses when ap- plied to a semi-civilised people, may be easily imag- ined. That brief and" simple mode of conducting trials previously used by the armed and roving Beduins of the Peninsula, is still maintained among all Moslem nations; this total absence of the legal forms and courtesies of European courts of justice, together with the non-acceptance of written documents to serve as evidence , produce a host of false ivitnesses , who in large towns, make a systematic trade of their infamous perjuries at the courts of law. On the other hand, the prophet blessing those "who cast the mantle ^^ "STie ©etiHiitbev, ireld^e bem .^naben ciej.mf5t fatten, foKte attd) bcr 9}?aiin, ber ilineii Ianc\ft entiimriifen irar, iiicf)t aHegen biirfeii." From the valuable treatise by Prof. Dollhiger: 9)Zul)ammcb'g Otelti^ion nad^ \\)Xix inneven (Sntu>i(!htni5 uiib i(}rem ©infhtffe auf bag!2ebcu bcv Golfer. 1838. pag. 7. ^® "5JIdc^ ]i%i u^evben ba()cr SO^orbcv ben ciefe^Iirfjen @rten ober 93er; tDaiibteit -beg (5'rniorbeten uberliefert, inn luit i^iien nod; ©idfur ju wers faBren, ja felbji unnuinbiije .^inbet Jrerbcii mit SOZeffcni beu^offnet, urn i^ve .^cinbe in ba^ ^(nt beg 2)iovbcvg i(;reg 93aterg $u tancf)en." S)oIltngerpag. 8. CHAP, viii.] EXTENT OF ITS LEGISLATURE. 255 over the crimes of their brethren," created an abuse in the opposite direction; evidence to convict the guihy party in criminal cases being scarcely procur- able among Moslemin.^^ The nefarious practice of wantonly making and breaking an oath, was enforced by the example of the prophet himself. Mohammed swore on the most fi'ivolous occasions. At the beginning of Sura XXXVIIL he swears ''by the Koran full of admonition", but no commentator has yet discovered for what reason. He swears in Sura XLIV. "by the perspicuous book" that it came down on the blessed night. In Sura LI. he makes oath by the winds , clouds , ships and angels, that the day of Judgment will surely come ; also by the ways of heaven , that the Meccans quarrel about him; in SuraLXVIlI. by "the pen and writer" that he is not possessed by a demon; in Sura LXIX. 34 by things "visible and invisible" that the Koran is not a poetical figment or a magical production. In Sura LXXV. he swears "by the day of the Resurrection and the soul that accuseth itself", but for what purpose, it is difficult to guess. God is made to swear by the planets, by night and day-break, that the Koran was revealed by Gabriel, and that Mohammed was not possessed.**^ In Sura XC. Allah is said to swear that he created man in toil, sorrow, and affliction; but in ^^ As the courts of justice take cognizance only of crimes com- mitted against religion and the head of the state, otfences which would be severely punished in Christian lands , are generally al- lowed to pass unnoticed. Correspondence d'Orient j)ar Michaud et Poujoulat. Paris 1833. Ill pag. 288. ^^ Sur. LXXXI. 15. cfr, with this Hebr. VL 14—16. 256 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. Sura XCV. lie makes oath by the fig-tree, the oUve, mount Smai and Mecca, that he "created man of a most excellent fabric, and afterwards we rendered him the vilest of the vile." In Sura XCII. we are assured by a double oath that men have different opinions ! From these examples of swearing on the part of Allah, it is not surprising that the Koran solemnly teaches, that oaths made j)recipitately, may be bro- ken/^ Mohammed himself broke his oath on several occasions; and taught his followers (Sura II. 225.) that after, or within four months, they may fairly break their vows, ''for God is gracious and merciful/' The expiation of an inconsiderate oath (Sur. V. 90 — 95), is "to feed ten men with moderate food, or clothe them ; or else to deliver a captive, or if unable to fulfil these things, to fast for three days." How greatly this contempt for the sanctity of an oath must tend to demoralise a people, can scarcely be conceived; w^e would challenge any traveller to find such, even amongst Pagans. Triple oaths, on the most trivial occurrences, are constantly on the lips of the Arabs. No Pagan nation deals so wantonly with the names of their gods, as the Moslem does with the sacred name of Allah. Oaths are affixed to the most outrageous falsehoods, and this being done ft'om mere habit, such thoughtless and vain oaths are ac- cording to the Koran, unpunishable, "for God is gracious and merciful." The 23erjury committed at ®* "God will not punish you for an inconsiderate word in your oaths." Sur. H. 224. CHAP. VIII.] VAIN OATHS AND PERJURY. 257 courts of justice , is therefore only one link in that chain of lying and falsehood, which Islamism has thrown around the entire community of its pro- fessors. 2. In spite however of the conscientious ad- herence of Moslemin to a system of legislation, which was considered unchangeable, the strictly literal sense of this heaven-sent theory was in some cases modi- fied, where its application to the stern realities of practical life was found to be absolutely impossible. It was with this view partially, that the So7i7ia was added to the Koran. ^^ The Sonna, or traditions, embody the expressions, occasional remarks and acts of Mohammed, which are traced back to his com- panions, his wives and the first Kaliphs;^^ and the doctrines as w^ell as religious rites and ceremonies of the Mohammedans, are fixed and regulated according to these received traditions. On them, the true sense of the Koran depends, for the Koran can only be explained and its meaning understood, as it is given or hinted at by the Sonna. Regarding them, there is great uncertainty among Moslemin; as these tra- ditions are neither all collected into one book nor are all approved by the whole body of their renowned divines. Collections indeed, have been made with great labour by learned men, but as they do not agree in all cases, latitude enough has been left to any ^^ X,xw, Sonna raos receptus, traditio, regula; from ^jm for- mavit ; secutus fuit regulara. ^' Wiistenfeld's Dahabi : liber classium virorum, qui Corani et traditionorum coguitione excelluerunt. Gotting. 1834. R 258 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. writer of reputation to add or to reject at his own choice/* To tell a lie for a good purj^ose, especially to add by it something to the glory of their prophet, is considered by Moslemin and particularly by the Shiites, quite right and proper. But whatever be the merits or demerits of these traditions , they widened the narrow^ limits of the legislature of the Koran and afforded some elasticity to the cramped and narrow- minded precepts of Mohammed. The real character of Islamism may be better ascertained from these traditions, in which we see how the contemporaries of Mohammed and his im- mediate followers understood his teaching, than from the monotonous repetitions of the Koran. ^^ What ^* "Bukhari, one of the first of the collectors of the traditions, and esteemed the highest in point of authority, had, as is said, col- lected 200,000, or according to another statement, 630,000 tradi- tions, of which he regarded but 100,000 as somewhat to be relied upon, and only 7275 as actually authentic and true. He died A. H. 256. Another collector has received only 5266, and the author of the Musabih only 4484 as authentic. The writers of the Shias differ still more than those of the Sunnis about the number of the traditions to be regarded as actually to be relied upon ; for since the Shias regard as canonical also the sayings of their Imams, they have a much greater number of traditions than the Sunnis, and consequently it is still more difficult for them to fix their num- ber, or to distinguish between an authentic and an unauthentic tradition." Dr. C. G. Pfander's Remarks on the nature of Moham- medan tradition, pag, 30. ^^ "One of the most acknowledged collections of the Hadiths or traditions approved of "by the Sonnis is, Mishcat ul Masabih,'' which has been translated into English and published by H. N. Mathews, Calcutta 1810; and most of the traditions received by the Shias are contained in the books of '^ Hayat id Kulub , Haq ul Yaqidn," and 'Ain ul Hayat" written by Mullah Muhammed Bakir Majlisi, a famous Persian divine, who lived about 200 years ago, and which were printed in Teheran in 4 folio Volumes." Pfander's CHAP. VIII.] INFLUENCE OF THE TRADITIONS. 259 the prophet taught concerning divine truths, apart from a few practical injunctions, seems to be con- sidered of little importance compared with the more attractive legends of the Koran which are over-laden with mythical embellishments. Let any one read what has been rendered accessible to Europeans, and they will find wearisome commentaries upon legal washings, ceremonial attitudes and histrionic posi- tions at prayer, the physical relations of women, matrimony and divorce, buying and selling, saluta- tions and the most ordinarv transactions of life, inter- mixed with the most outrageous and wildly extra- vagant fables concerning the visible and invisible world. Ignorant of the real discipline of the soul, Islamism, in its traditions, beats out a path of vain and useless ceremonial, the fulfilment of which, pro- duces a delusive sense of security; and the very irk- someness of the ceremonial enhances the feeling of its meritorious character. As regards the absurd and marvellous stories contained in them, it has been justly remarked that they exercise even a greater in- fluence on the minds of the Mohammedans than the doctrines contained in the Koran, and this ex- plains why they are so indift'erent to the plain and unvarnished truths of the Gospel. These extravagant fables have so destroyed and vitiated their taste, that they have little relish for sober truth and look down Remarks on the nature of Muh. pag. 8. See also Harrington's "Remarks upon the authorities of Moselman law" Asiatic Re- searches Vol. X. pag. 478. where he mentions 4 collections of tra- ditions, which the Shiites consider authentic. R* 260 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. with contempt on the simple but subHme doctrines of Christianity. ^ ^ 3. In considering the warlike fanaticism which the Mohammedans manifested in jjropagating their faith, we recognise the fruits of the much enforced doctrine, that the blood of ivfdels is the best sacrifice which can be made to God. The means of conversion by sword and conquest soon assumed a cruel and sanguinary character. Thousands of prisoners were usually massacred after a victory; not in the heat of contest , but in cold blood and as a matter of prin- ciple,^^ and the law which assigned the wives and children of the slain to the conquerors greatly tended to inflame their zeal and increase the number of vic- tims. Lest it might be thought, to be only the fresh- kindled enthusiasm of the first Moslem warriors which led to such excesses, we must add, that the same thirst for blood distinguished all subsequent conquests on the part of Mohammedans. This was evinced for a number of centuries, during which religious wars devastated the countries oi India; and we may con- sider it but "one instance out of many, when Mohammed ^^ The demoralising influence of these traditions may be seen from the fact, that some of the tortures which they ascribe to the Moslem hell , were applied to Christians during the recent mutiny in India. "With hooks they tear their bodies and with iron maces they are beaten ; angels stout and fierce torture them , showing no mercy." Again: "There are such in hell of whose sides the angels cut off the flesh with scissors , and throw it into their mouths." Hayat ul Kulub Vol. II. leaf 1 74. ^^ Khaled, who was once M.'s right hand, vowed in a heavy engagement against Christian Arabs and Pagan Persians , that if God would grant him the victory , he would dye the w^aters of the stream with the blood of the slain. Taberist. Annal. reg. II. p. 29. CHAP. VIII.] WARLIKE AND CRUEL FANATICISM. 261 Shah Bahniim, king of the Deccan, fulfilled his vow 1368, that he would not sheathe his sword, till he had slain 100,000 infidel Hindoos, in order to revenge the defeat of a detachment of Moslem troops/^ When Reinald from Chatillon attempted an expedition against Medina and Mecca, Saladin the celebrated hero of Islamism, declared it to be his sacred duty to cleanse the earth from these men, and to kill every Christian who should fall into his hands. Thereupon part of the captive Christians were dragged to the valley of Mina, where the pilgrims slaughtered them, instead of the accustomed sheep or lambs; the rest were brought to Egypt, where the Moslem ascetics considered it a meritorious work, to kill these "Chris- tian dogs" with their own hand.^^ That demoniacal blood-thirsty hatred entertained by Moslemin towards all who disbelieve the Koran, imbibed from their very infancy, has ever operated so powerfully among them, that even their noblest characters have been tarnished by it:^*' thus the abomination of human sacrifices came to be revived by those, who prided themselves in having destroyed Paganism, as far as their arm of power could reach! 4. This flame of hatred towards all other reli- ^^ Ferishta, history of the Mohammedan power in India, trans, by Briggs. 1829. Vol. II. pag. 311. ^^ After the battle near Hittin, Saladin caused the captured knights and hospitallers to be killed by the pious fanatics , who followed his army. Reinaud Journal Asiatique V. pag. 237. 290. ''^ It is well known that Saladin has frequently been compared and preferred to his Christian contemporary, the Emperor of Con- stantinople. 262 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. gionists which is indeed the very element of Islam- ism, ' ^ is continually nourished by the reading of the Koran, replete as it is with threatenings and curses against unbelievers; it is also the necessary conse- quence of a doctrine , which teaches that the sword is the sanctified means of conversion, — and which inculcates warfare against all unsubdued Kaffers of every shade of opinion ; warfare , interrupted only by a longer or shorter armistice, as necessity may demand. In this sense Mohammed's assertion, — that "the in- fidels are all one people," — must doubtless be under- stood; and hence believers are destined to convert them by force of arms; if this be impossible, to ex- terminate, or make them tributary. Mohammed and the first Kaliphs, as we have seen, occasionally pre- tended to recommend milder measures towards the Scripturalists , but in proportion as their followers became conscious of the gulph, which separates the Moslem from all others, and the more the two parties became entangled in mutual hostilities, the more de- cided became their animosity towards Christians, and consequently the more oppressive the yoke which they laid upon them. Christians were not unfrequently dealt with on the same principle as Pagans; their holding the doctrine of the Holy Trinity was alone sufficient to place them on a level with Polytheists, '^ "^a^ gec^en tie 58eff inter anberer 0li'lfgion ift ju alUn ^cikn baS ?e6engetement bc^3c(amtennig ge\refcn, itnb barf man »on bem93ergangcncn auf bag Sufiiiifticic fcMie^eu, fo niocftte man InluinVten, ba^, irenn einmal biefer ^a^ abgrftumpft [em Jinrb , and) bcr 33erfafl bee c\a\\;,t\\ (Sterns nn^ anf()altfam Iiereinbre^en, ober ba§ bnfbfame ©efinmtng gegen 9(nbergglanbtge unb religfofe ^nbifferenj Wi ben 2rto:^ammebanern ^anb in ^anb ge^eu iverben." 2)i3Uinger pag. 14. CHAP. VIII.] ANIMOSITY AND LUST OF PERSECUTION. 263 for, SO early as the beginning of the Moslem era, were they branded by Abu Sofian ^vith that oppro- prious terms. ^^ Kaliph Motawakkel A. D. 850. added bitter mockery and indescribable tortures to their al- ready heavy afflictions, and in the bloody persecutions of the Fatamite Hakem, many lost their lives. Even common intercourse was interdicted between Mos- lemin and Christians,'^ and a Moslem to this day, is not permitted either to eat with a Christian or to partake of the same meal. ' * If we come to more recent times, we find the notorious Sultan of Mysore, Tippo Sahib, perpetra- ting acts of persecution for the sake of religion which appear the more hateful, for being accompanied by the most brutal lust. The majority of his subjects being Hindoos, his object was to convert the whole population of the Malabar provinces to the faith of the Koran; in this he was assisted by the Moplays, descendants of an Arab colony, who, falling like wild beasts upon the defenceless Hindoos forcibly circum- cised many ; others , robbed of their wives , children '^ Julal-Addin Al Siuti, history of the temple of Jerusalem; translated by Reynolds. 1836. pag*. 197. 240. Encouraging the Arabs before a battle against the Greeks, Abu Sofian says: "Vos quidem propugnatores Arabum estis , atque Islamisrai adjuvatores ; illi vero propugnatores Graecorum atque adjutores polytheismi sunt." Taberist. II. pag. 101. ^' Mohammed Ebn Ishmael, the king of Granada, was assassi- nated A. D. 1333 by the Moors because he had eaten with Chris- tians and wore a garment which he received from the king of Castilia. Conde , Geschichte der Herrschaft der Mauren in Spanien. III. pag. 134. '* The author speaks from his own experience. See also : Fraser, Narrative of a journey into Khorasan. 1825. pag. 182. 264 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. and property, were driven back to the jungles. Tippoo Sahib took away the daughters of the Brahmins and having dishonoured them sent them back to their parents, who refused to receive them since they had lost their cast. Tippoo then compelled the Brahmins themselves to marry these outcasts, by which they also losing their cast, were expelled fi"om their com- munity.'^ Can we be surprised that such fearful outrages, which acknowledged no other than the un- conditional right of the stronger party, should, as op- portunity occurred, produce the most bloody reactions? Hence it is, that the KafFers north of Badshur, the neighbours of the Moslem Afghans, deem no action more meritorious than that of killing a Moslem. But few comparatively of the deeds of darkness, com- mitted in India by the Moslem conquerors, have ever come to light, since the only account we have of their rule in that country, was written by themselves. "^^ The only exception to this bloodthirsty and oppressive rule, was made by the Mongol emperor ^Mar, who '^ It will be remembered that the loss of cast is ten times worse to a Brahmin than the cruelest death. The cruelties of Tippoo Sahib are recorded by Buchanan, "Journey from Madras through Mysore and Malabar." 1807. I. pag 56. II. 550. '^ Ferishta, History of the Mohammedan power in India, trans, by Briggs. 1829. As late as Sept. 1849 we had an instance of this fanaticism; 64 Moslemin entered a temple in a town near Calicut, murdered every devotee then present , and then shut the doors, expecting to be slain and sent to Paradise. A small detachment of Sepoys, sent against them, was repulsed and the commanding European oflBcer killed; a European detachment next forced an entrance, and as the fanatics declined to submit, they were cut down, and in the belief of themselves and their brethren, they went straight to Paradise ! CHAP.viii] ANIMOSITY AND LUST OF PERSECUTION. 265 adopted a more peaceable policy. As "the shadow of God upon earth," he said, it became him to suffer other religions, after the example of Allah, else it would be his duty to destroy five sixths of his sub- jects. Lest we should however ascribe such clemency to Islamism, we are informed by his son, that his father had become an apostate, having been persuaded by his Vizier Abulfadhel, that Mohammed was no more than an Arab gifted with extraordinary elo- quence, and that the Koran was an invention ! ' ^ 5. In examining the influence of Islamism upon the social and domestic relations of life we touch upon one of the darkest sides of that pernicious creed. It is perhaps not too much to say, that everywhere beyond the precincts of Christianity a special curse rests upon one half of mankind, — the female por- tion,— but that this is nowhere so conspicuous as under the domination of the Koran. "^^ Its detailed legislation respecting women in general, is founded upon the erroneous idea, that they are an inferior grade of rational beings, whose sole destiny is to bring forth children and to serve their husbands. Hence the Koran places the entire body of the fair sex in a condition of perpetual imprisonment, and encourages the jealousy and suspicion of the men, at the expence of the freedom and dignity of the women. '^ Memoirs of the emperor Jahangueir written by himself, translated by Price. 1829. pag. 54. '® ".ipicr kgecsnet m\^ etne ber bunfelfien (Sef ten biefer SfJeltgfon , itnb cin f)3rerf)eriber ^eti^ef^, iveld^ etnen terberHirfien (5influ§ bic ^erfLniltd^en £eibenfrf)aften unb bie nattonale S3efangenf)eit cine^ felbfierfornen Oteligicn^- jiiftet^ fort unb fort uben miif ." ^oHincjer pag. 20. 266 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. To the husband is extended by the heaven-sent Ko- ran, the right of inflicting corporeal punishment upon his wife, and unfaithfulness on her part is punished with death or the most degrading and painful chas- tisements. Islamism, in short, lowers matrimony be- neath the standard of Roman Paganism. The wife, not being the companion of the life and partaker of the joys and sorrow^s of the husband, entertains for him feelings of fear, rather than of affection, and re- cognises in him only the lord who decides her fate just as his capricious mood may dictate. '^ However low the standard may be which Moslemin take of the matrimonial alHance , they nevertheless consider it the duty of every w oman to live in the marriaoe estate ; to lead a single or widowed life, before she has reached old age, is regarded as wilfully transgressing a divine law. But this also arises from the idea that women are incapable of self-control, and incompetent to maintain a moral position without due supervision and guardianship; it also implies the deplorable im- potence of Islamism, which despairs of effectually disciplining the heart of a Avoman, and resigns the task of controlling her passions as one hopelessly beyond its power. ^^ '^ Perfectly consistent with this view the prophet never ele- vated the solemnization of matrimony to a religious rite, the Imam, Molla or Sheich being only present in his civil capacity, at the ex- ecution of the marriage contract. Chardin voyages en Perse, ed. de Langle's II. pag. 230. D'Ohsson I'Empire Othoman II. 362. ^^ Though women are not directly excluded from future hap- piness, yet it is a disputed point in the schools of Moslem divinity, whether they are to have a separate Paradise, with pleasures cor- responding to that of the men. Dollinger pag. 21. CHAP. VIII.] PERNICIOUS INFLUENCE UPON SOCIAL LIFE. 267 The religious education of the Moslem women is limited to their being drilled into a mechanical repe- tition of certain forms of prayer, in which the spirit of true devotion never breathes. The innate suspicion and utter want of confidence with which Moslemin regard their religious teachers, forbids their women obtaining the shadow of religious instruction from the Sheichs, — the legitimate fountains of authoritative teaching; ^^ Moslemin indeed discourage their wives from strict adherence to their religious duties, lest they should fancy themselves on an equality with their husbands and kick against their authority/^ Under such circumstances it is not to be wondered, that a total destitution of religious feeling should exist among the females of the Moslem community. An Arab writer alludes to an exception in the case of Rabia,^^ but this isolated case, such as it, only renders the general darkness of female ignorance and degradation the more perceptible. 6. Polygmny has been defended with consider- able ingenuity by Moslem writers but as might natur- ally be expected, with little success. The Koran itself admits the difficulty, in expressing Mohammed's own experience in the matter : "Ye cannot carry yourselves ^^ Admission to the Mosques is only granted to the more aged females, and that only at times. ®2 Burkhardt's Travels in Arabia. 1829. XL pag. 196. ^^ She lived in the 2*^ century of the Hedgra, but the account given by Ebn Chalikan implies that the Koran rather damped than nourished her flame of devotion ; she considered herself divinely punished by sickness for having contemplated the pleasures of Paradise , as she had learned them from the Koran ! Tholuck's Bluthensammlung aus der Morgenlandischen Mystik, pag. 31. 268 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. equally between women in all respects." Sur. IV. 3. It has proved a curse in the education of the children; the sons are separated from each other from their childhood, and initiated into the revengeful plots of their intriguing mothers. ^* Hence it happens, especially in royal harems, that brothers only recognise in each other dangerous rivals and threatening usurpers. In one Moslem dynasty only, viz. that of the Ottoman empire, have we an midisputed line of succession; but how dearly was it purchased! The crime oi fratri- cide was duly legalised and raised to an imjDerial statute by Mohammed IP^ after he and his great grandfather Bajesid had given the precedent for the perpetration of this atrocious crime; ^^ not only were brothers of the Sultan thus cleared out of the Avay but also uncles and nephews. The Fetiva or sanction of the Moslem divines, is given upon the authority of the Koran: "Disquietude is w^orse than murder." Thus the successor of that prophet, who condemned the exposure of new-born children as a Pagan abom- ination legally becomes the murderer of his brother, nephews and uncles! The Persian custom of the ®* See the excellent remarks on Polygamy Mohler : Wtbtx ba^ SSerfidltnif bee 3elam0 jum (Simiigclium. ©efamnieltc (gd)riften p. 399 — 402. The article was translated into English by Mr. Menge. ^^ The Historian Raima records the murder of 19 brothers of Mohammed III. with a calmness, which is truely characteristic : "In a tumult which arose on the occasion of the funeral of the Sultan, 19 brothers of the emperor, all innocent and guiltless, were strangled and added to the company of Martyrs." Annals of the Turkish Empire, translated by Eraser 1829. I. pag. 41. ^® Mouradgea D'Ohsson III. pag. 315. Hammer's Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches. CHAP. VIII.] PRE JUDICAL EFFECTS OF POLYGAMY. 269 Sofi-dynasty, of blinding those princes not destined to succession, appears merciful, in comparison with this barbarity/^ In addition to these pernicious and terrible consequences of Polygamy which, besides four lawful wives, permits an unlimited number of con- cubines, we need scarcely mention the glowing revenge and the hot-burning jealousies of the incarcerated inmates of the harems, which are transformed into nurseries of unnatural vices, assassinations and secret poisonings. These crimes are committed with the greater impunity, as these hidingplaces are closed to the surveillance of the organs of justice. Not in vain have Moslem historians remarked , that certain princes have understood the difficult task of keeping- order and peace in the several departments of their respective harems. Thus it is stated in praise of the Spanish king Aben Alahmar, that his consummate skill succeeded in restoring and maintaining peaceful relations among his wives. ^^ It is one of the laws of divine providence that every offence against the natural order of things is sure to be revenged; that polygamy is recompensed in its prejudicial effects, no one will deny; but it re- mains yet to be shown, that the institution has no foundation in the natural or psychological organisation ^^ Chardln V. pag. 242. Malcolm's History of Persia. IL pag-. 431. Fraser in his Journey into Khorasan pag. 204. records, that he found a young prince in his room with his eyes closed , groping about with his hands. Upon inquiring what he was doing, the prince replied, "I practise myself in being blind, for thou knowest, when my father, dies, they will either kill us , or put out our eyes." ®® Conde III. pag. 29. The late Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt is said to have met with equal success. Michaud VII. pag. 92. 270 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. of either sex. It is in the first place, morally imposs- ible for a man to treat each of his wives with the like affection and confidence; and before it can be assumed to be desirable for men to have more than one wife, it must be proved, that the female heart is of such an organisation, as will enable it cheerfully to divide the affection of one husband. This we know is impossible; nor dare we suppose that here alo7ie was an oversight in the wise providence of God, which caused Him to create wants in the nature of man, which He did not alike create in the constitution of woman. ^^ Matrimonial love surrenders itself entirely and requires a similar return; but this cannot exist under the baneful influence of Islamism; that the wife is here but a slave and a commodity is proved by the fact, that the poor man has only one wife, just as he may happen to possess but one camel or one tent, whilst the rich man may have many; if it can be proved that man's constitution demands a plurality of wives, it is then unjust to withhold it from the less wealthy of the community. ^^ 7, Being considered as a piece of property, which the thief hides in a dark corner of the house and re- moves from society, the woman can be disposed of at any moment by her lord and husband. Divorce^ ^ ^^ Polygamy obviously destroys all spiritual affection in matri- mony; the spiritual clement which should predominate, — since a mere physical union is not one of a matrimonial character in the Scripture term and signification,— is utterly unknown to the Moslem believer. ^0 Journal Asiatique 1836. II. pag. 420. Mohler pag. 401. ^* The prescribed words need only be pronounced to make it effectual. Hedaya I. pag. 201. CHAP. VIII.] UNNATURAL CHARACTER OF POLYGAMY. 271 makes it easy for Mohammedans to change their wives at any time; they have moreover the powerful example of the prophet: who, to enable him to marry Zaids wife, with whom he had fallen in love, persuaded him to divorce her!^^ That divorce is not so common among the better classes of society, is not to be ascribed to a deeper sense of the responsibility of such a step, but to the law which requires the husband to restore to the divorced \\oma.nlier doiury ; also to the husband's jealousy which makes the thought intolerable that his wife should be ever seen by an- other man. ^^ Among the poorer classes, separation is of daily occurrence. As Seneca could say of the Roman ladies of his day that they counted the years no more after the Consuls, but after their husbands, so Mohammedans mark the events of their age by the number of their wives. A French traveller havino" asked an aged Egyptian, whether he remembered the campaign of Napoleon, he answered, that he had his seventeenth wife at that time!^* Even among the simple Beduins , the cooling down of the husband's affection is sufficient reason for a divorce. ^^ ^2 Sur. XXXm. 4—6. 37. 38. 39. ^^ The difficulty of restoring the dowry is avoided, by com- pelling the poor woman through harsh treatment to sue for divorce, as in this case, she can claim nothing. Qanoon-e-Islam: or the customs of the Moosulmans of India by JafFure Shureef, translated by Herklots. 1832. pag. 146. Malcolm's Hist, of Persia IL p. 592. ^* Michaud VII. pag. 84. He also relates that a man once re- jected his wife, casting* her out into the street, because the day before she gave birth to a daughter , instead of a son , as h^ had wished. '^^ An Arab 45 years of age was found to have had 50 wives in succession. Burkhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys. 1839. pag. 64. 272 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. In the face of so deep and prevalent a corruption, which gnaws at the very roots of social life, dissolves all family ties, and poisons the most sacred relations, it cannot be deemed exaggerated to aver, that Islam- ism hypocritically presents only the external ap- pearance, instead of the reality of truth. Thus, it glories in maintaining the fundamental doctrine of the Divine Unity, but in its denial of the Divine Tri- nity, possesses only the abstract form without the substance of the truth; it surrounds itself with the external show of conscientious devotion, but as its ritual is destitute of the living breath of true and fervent prayer, it can only represent the semblance of communion with God. It enjoins fasting and re- quires abstinence from certain meats and drinks, but in letting loose those appetites , which 7nost require spiritual restraint, it affords only another instance of the Pharisaical straining at a gnat and sw^allowing a camel. What, it may be asked, is the careful veiling and the complete separation from men, which the Koran imposes upon women, but a revolting caricature of purity; since the practical contempt for women and the sanctity of matrimony, together with the extra- ordinary facility of divorce, stand directly opposed to the preservation of female morality. Not satisfied with this looseness of the matrimonial tie, Moham- med, after the conquest of Mecca, introduced a kind of temporary marriage, ^^ which consisted in hiring *^ Ihe Mota orMatu was repeatedly sanctioned by Mohammed; on some occasions, o, g. during the campaign to Cheibar it was interdicted. Weil's "Mohammed der Prophet", pag. 228. CHAP. VIII.] DIVORCE AND GENERAL HYPOCRISY. 273 a wife for any definite term, at the expiration of which, she might be dismissed without any formahty. Omar is said to have abohshed it, but Kahp Mamun was only prevented from again legahsing it by the per- suasion of Moslem divines. ^^ It is condemned by the Sonnites, but is practised among the Persian Shiites to the present day.^^ The condition of morals among the men, who so degrade the position of wo- man, may easily be imagined. It would be an offence to European, not to say. Christian refinement, to drag to light those heathenish and unnatural vices which are perpetrated under the sanction of the religion of the Koran.^^ This doubtless has hitherto been one of the mam causes of the general failure of Missionary enterprise among Mohammedans : for the Moslem is naturally averse to abandon a creed which makes such extraordinary concessions to his most depraved and viscious a|)petites.^ It is true that Christianity met with equal opposition among Pagans 97 Abulfeda Annales Muslemici II. p. 197. 9S Malcolm's History of Persia, II. p. 591. A parallel case in Arabia. Burkhartd's Travels in Arabia II. p, 378. S9 Whoever may desire information upon these dark subjects, will find it in the *' Memoirs of Basber" p. 29. Mouradgea d'Ohs- son III. p. 270. Michaud VII. 86. Eraser's Journey into Khora- san p. 549, 1 " La secte est trop libertine et trop attrayante pour la quitter, c'est une peste de loi, qui s'est introduite par les ai-mes et par la force, et qui va toujours avancant de meme (1680) je ne vols guere d' autres moyans que ceux-la memos qui soient capables de com- mencer a I'ebranler et a la deraciner, si ce n'est done qu'il survienne de ces grands et extraordinaires coups du ciel, et que Dieu, par cette toute-puissante et toute particuliere providence n'y mette la main." Dernier, Voyages Amsterd, 1699. II. p. 86, S 274 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. PART i. at the commencement of our era ; but Paganism was not supported in its vices by a religious system like that of Islamism, the shaldng and uprooting of which, will finally constitute one of the noblest triumphs of the Gospel of Christ. 8. To a somewhat more favourable result leads the examination of the domestic and national institu- tian of slavery, as it exists among the Moslem com- mmiity. The legislation of the Koran is on the whole, less cruel and degrading respecting slaves than it is concernmg women. Although the female slaves who enrich the harem, share, as a matter of necessity, the degradation of the enthe sex, yet Mohammed in- culcates the mild treatment of slaves in general,^ and to give them then liberty is deemed by him a meri- torious work ; Sura xxiv. 33. A female slave is not to be separated from her child, and if it be the child of the master, she is to be free at his death.^ As the power of the Saracens became extended, and the num- ber of slaves were multipHed, their lot consequently became more embittered, and the Moslem divines de- clared the murder of a slave to be a legal act.* As acts of opposition are generally revenged by rebellion and bloodshed, so it was in tliis case ; the Zengi slaves at Bussora rose A.D. 868 against their masters, and acknowledgmg Ali, the Fatamite, as their ruler, a revo- lution followed which is stated to have cost 100,000 human lives, and could only be suppressed after nine 2 Mathews' Translation of the Mishcat-ul-Masabih II. p. 139— 141, 601. 3 Hedaya I. 479. * Hedaya II. 414. CHAP. VIII.] SLAVERY AND DULOCRACY. 275 years of bloodshed. '"' A notorious enemy of the Syrian Christians, Imad-ed-Deen, was likewise murdered in 114 5 by a rebellious host of slaves, and not seldom it happened that fugitive slaves fought bloody battles at the head of an army of insurgents. But when rulers surrounded their persons with hosts of slaves, upon whose protection they mainly depended for per- sonal safety, and began to entrust them with some of the most important offices of state, these slaves ultimately became lords of their masters, and the re- sult was, that in Egypt, the unheard-of institution of a Dulocratical Government came to be established. The Circassian slaves were first introduced into Egypt by Sultan Almansor Kelaim, and they were soon powerful enough to possess themselves for 128 years of the government of the land, and to place thirty- two princes of the Circassian dynasty of Mamelukes on the throne/ 9. It is part of the character of Islamism, as a politico-religious system of faith, to put forth the ^ Price's Mohammedan History II. pag. 162. ^ Edebali, the Vizier of Urchan, proposed the horrible plan of forming the Jeni Tjerri/ , Janissaries or the ''New Armif\ of Chrin- tian children; and for nearly 500 years, boys, all born Christians, were enlisted into a body of at first 12,000, at last 40,000 strong, torn away, year by year from their parents, circumcised, trained, corrupted to the faith and morals of their masters ; thus producing a threefold apostacy from parents, religion and native country in at least half a million of instances. On the place where both the Micomedian and Caesarian Eusebius were once forced to abjure their errors and to subscribe to the Nicene creed, there, these Christian youths were compelled to abjure their faith , and the walls of the Church of the holy Synod were written over with the Moslem creed! Hammer's Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches. S* 276 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. most extravagant and illimitable claims. As successors of the Imams, the government of the universe belonged to the kings of Persia, and the like pretensions lie dormant in the Sultan of Turkey, as the alleged suc- cessor of the ancient Kaliphate. Ever since Selim I. was acknowledged by the Meccan sherifs, titular Ka- liph of Cairo , as the successor of the last Abasside, the Sultan of Constantinople has been acknowledged as the spiritual head of the Sonnite section of the Mohammedans; and all Moslem princes with then- dependencies consider themselves only members of the Osmanic Autocrat; even the Emperor of Morocco acknowledges the spiritual supremacy of the Sultan. ^ According to the claims of the Kaliphate as a political and spiritual supremacy, no other than a Moslem ruler can demand obedience from Moham- medans; a point which statesmen at the present day would do well to bear in mind, in dealing with the refractory Mohammedans of India. The precept that the subject is bound to pay homage to ''the powers that be," is not to be found in the Koran; Mohammed, never imagining that the true believers could ever fall under the dominion of any foreign power, made no jDrovision for such an event; and so long as breath remains in the body of the Moslem community, they ' "S)oraug eiitf^rangen bie ^djirtierii^feiteit , iveld)e bie ^^orberun^ dliip UnH feci ben ^ricbeneit^erluinblii.ii^eii bee3*J^i^eg 1772, ba^ bie llnabhdugiij; Teit ber ^'arfaren wn <2eiten ber ^forte anerfannt irerben foUe, erregtc; bte IJiirfifdBen ^BevoKmarfitiflteu erfKirten, bafi ber (Sultan ciU Mal\Xcn bcm 95erfaf)rcn i&rer ^DHegcn im S^ur^ !ifrf)cn 9?ei(^e e»entueH auf bag t{)nge fdiliegen barf, bei ber erften gi'm; ^igen 9lii0[irf)t bie 3lnf)?riici)e eineg 3)log(emifrf)en ^ratenbenten mit ^^reuben burrf) tfire i^etivag uiiterftii^en." 2)oUinger pag. 36. note 64, ** The Moors were expelled from Spain and driven back to Africa in the 15*^ century. ^^ Hence the Moslem rulers treated Christian princes simply as usurpers , who , as infidels , could not receive their power from God , or act as his vice-regents upon earth. Hence also the Arab word, Targhi, rebel-chief, usurpator , which the Moslemin already applied to the Byzantine Emperors ; and after them to other Chris- tian sovereigns. Louis XVI. caused a complaint to be lodged at the court of Morocco , requiring the Emperor to apply the title of Sultan to the kings of France; the reply was: "None knew who CHAP. VIII.] A HINT TO STATESMEN. 279 Moslemin and Christians can never be fused into one political body; the former must ever remain a clog in the machinery of a commonwealth, owing to their singular pretensions and their peculiarly obstinate views and customs, which, from their heterogeneous character, resist every process of assimilation: on the other hand. Christians must ever remain strangers or passive members in a religious polity, which is administered upon the principles of the Koran. This has long since been exemplified in the Turkish Empire. 10. The absolutely despotic form, of Moslem government has been sometimes considered as the general type of Asiatic rule, but erroneously so, as is evident from the fact of the sovereign power being limited in the non-Moslemite states of Asia. No Hindoo monarch e. g. could interfere with the im- munities of the Brahmins or with the institution of caste. The Emperor of China, although the son of heaven, and approached by his subjects with profound reverence, yet can only fill up the offices of the state from a list of candidates which is prepared for him by a learned body of his subjects. Different is it with "the princes of the faithful;" here, the union of the civil and spiritual power, and a military rule, founded should deserve this title in the life to come; those whom God would crown in paradise, were the true Sultans, and not those who were to be cast into hell-fire ; the court could therefore never give that title to the monarchs of France; yea it would rather give it up, and though Turkey had given that title, it was done only by the Vizier, for the Sultan could never have sanctioned it." Sacy Chres- tomathie Arabe III, pag. 318. Agrell's Reise nach Marokko. 1790. pag. 282. 280 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. upon the prestige of conquest, produce the most un- quahfied form of a despotic government. In Persia, the military, and in Turkey, the theocratical element of the Kaliphate predominate; hence we have less brutal tyranny, less convulsions of dynastic changes in the latter, than in the former. ^^ To show that the despotic rule of the Sultan originates in the religion of which he is the head, we may add, that his acts of tyranny are all looked upon as proceeding from a kind of divine inspiration, which none ventures to question. The Moslem divines assert that the Sultan may kill fourteen people every day without owing an explanation to any one. The official holiness of his person is in nowise destroyed by any vicious deeds, he may commit as a private individual.** The Sultan who is generally styled by his mother, "my Lion," or "my Tiger," is chiefly dreaded by those who are in his immediate presence. The higher the dignity and the greater the confidence, the greater has always been the danger; this is proved by the history of the ministers of the Porte. From 1370 to 1789, 168 of these dignitaries have occupied the highest post in the realm; few^ of them have retained it so long as two years , and many have died by the hand of the executioner. Soleiman caused most of *^ The Persian proverb, "the presence of the Shah is a con- suming fire"; and the Turkish titles of the Sultan, "the shedder of blood", "the murderer" Chunkar or K an- J dish! , mark the character of both Governments. Chardin V. 220. Thornton's present state of Turkey 1809. I. 112. ** The same may be said of the Sultan of Morocco: "2t((eg fiangt tton fcincr mUlixx at, er marf)t bte ©efe^c, dnbert, jerftort ftc, ftellt fte iwicber ]^er, unb hjec^felt bamit gemaf feiner Saune, (Sonvenien} obcr [etnem ^nterefTc CHAP. VIII.] DESPOTIC FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 281 his prime ministers to be executed one after the other; but an instinctive obedience and inclination to submit to what is deemed the heaven-ordained power, so strongly influence the Moslem, that he considers any barbarity tolerable, and the most perverted deeds wise and natural; even to die by the hand of the Sultan or at his command , has been looked upon as a sure pledge of eternal salvation, and a martyrdom worthy to be desired.*^ 11. The question arises, whether amidst such tyrannical oppression, these despotic princes ever at- tempted to alter the religion of the country. The history of Islamism rephes in the negative. There are but few instances in which INIohammedan princes have ventured to make any alterations in their creed ; for they well knew, that were they to attempt such a thing, they would cease to be the organ of the God- head in the eyes of the people , and the foundation of their own power and security would be fatally under- mined. ^^ The creed in question, had rooted too deeply in the hearts and lives of the people for any prince ever to succeed in accompHshing the task. The Mos- ©g c^iU tDcbcr cin (^cx\>^ bet Ulcma'g , nod) cinen init lu^m ^crrfc^cr unab- ^ancjic^er ®c\vaU BeHeibeten Wiufti , lt)ebcr 2)ii^an nccf) goaei^ien unb minii ftexidk ^cwuimtnte-, SdU^ gefd)ief)t nad) bem aKeim's^eu ®ihot beg ^err- fd^erg." ©roberg »on ^emfo'e ^aifertf)uni, 2)Jorof!e 1833, pag. 138. *^ Dollinger pag. 39. **5 The king of Delhi, Allah-Uddin-Chilshi 1830 conceived the idea, but was dissuaded from carrying it out. Ferishta 1. pag. 339. The Emperor Akbar under the title of xUl XAA-lis- , Vice-regent of God, attempted to originate a new form of Deism , but with his death it fell to the ground. Vans Kennedy's account in the Trans- actions of the Liter. Society of Bombay Vol. II. 1820. 282 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. lem seldom cares to fight for his native country, his home or Hberty, but should his relic/ionhe endangered, he zealously takes his stand beneath the banner of the crescent. For the last 300 years, the defence and spread of the Shiite principles was the pretext for every battle which was fought by the Persians. ^^ More fortunate were Moslem monarchs as re- formers of abuses, suppressors of heresies, defenders of orthodox doctrines and revivers of religious zeal; and so long as the head of the nation was satisfied, the subjects considered all to be right. ''The power of religion is too weak without the authority," said Akhun Dervezeh, and he explained his failure in bringing back the sect of the Rosheniah to the ortho- dox faith, by the fact of there having been no monarch at hand to strike off the heads of the heretics.^® This, indeed, was the usual method of settling disputes and suppressing abuses. Mir Zaid Sherif gave it as his opinion, and he was considered the prince of doctors, that Timur had been called by Allah to de- stroy infidels and heretics; which he did by saturating the earth with the blood of nations, and by causing the inhabitants of Damascus to be cut to pieces , in order to revenge the death of Ali, 800 years after the murder was committed.^® 12. That the cause of Islamism should have been *' Malcolm's History of Persia II. pag. 339. *^ Leyden's Memoir on the Rosheniah sect, Asiat. Researches Vol. XI. pag. 386. *^ Instituts politiques et militaires de Tamerlan, proprement appelle Timour, ecrits par lui-meme et traduits par Langles 1887. pag. 17. 120. CHAP. VIII.] REFORMED BY DESPOTIC RULERS. 283 supported by siicli fearful destruction and bloodshed, is to be traced, not so much to the personal character of its protectors and reformers, as to the nature of Islamism itself, which teaches that religion is a system of compulsion, and maintains that it is the duty of God's vice-gerents upon earth, to punish transgression as a civil offence by physical power. ^^ Offences against the precepts of the Koran, such as the ordinance of fasting or the prohibition of wine , are therefore , in- variably punished with pecuniary fines or corporeal chastisements. Ebn Butata relates, with peculiar satisfaction, that in each Mosque in China, a whip was hanging, for the spiritual benefit of those who were not at their places during prayers, the castiga- tion being performed by the presiding Imam. ^ ^ Burnes found the same practice prevailing in Bokhara, where he saw persons publicly scourged because they had slept during prayer, or smoked on a Friday. ^ ^ In times of extreme severity , an order of spies was regularly formed, who penetrated private families in order to betray the secrets of domestic life.^^ As the legis- lation of the Koran and the Sonna extend over private and public life, it is considered the duty of the organs ^" Bollinger pag. 47 says: "^icfc 9?eli(^tpn ifl namlid) tf)rer ^Im lac^c nacJ) einc ^H'»(ijeilid)e S^vanc^ganjlalt , ein ftrenge^, mit einem ^a\m mm ^PonalfancHonen umgebenc^ @efe^, iinb bic ^^fl{rf)t ber ©tetlvertreter ®ciiit^ auf ©rfcen iji t§, bic Uebertretungen ju fJrafen." 2^ Travels of Ebn Butata (1325) translated by Lee 1829. ^^ Burne's Travels in Bokhara 1834. I. pag. 313. ^^ Kaliph Omar sanctioned this odious practice by his example, but Dhaher Billah , after it had risen to a scandelous pitch under his father, suppressed it. Price's Mohammedan History 11. 211. 284 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. of its administration to inspect both departments and to punish offences in each. It cannot therefore surprise us to learn, that the Fatamite, Moeshdin- Allah, who was by no means one of the most blood-thirsty and cruel, caused every person who was seen in the streets of his capital after the last evening prayer, to be beheaded. ^* This compulsory system of religious police attained its greatest height mider Hakem Biamar-Allah from 996 to 1021; he prohibited the cultivation of certain plants , because they were favourites with the opponents of Ali, and the brewing and selling of beer, because Ali disliked it; dogs and swine were destroyed as impure animals, and the fishing and selling of eels was visited with capital ]3unishment; people with whom were found resins, honey, or dates were executed, because these products were used for the preparation of spirituous liquors; chess was interdicted; women were no more allowed to look out of their windows nor to go into the streets, and shoemakers were forbidden to supply them with shoes. ^^ This man, who committed in- numerable cruelties against the Sonnites, Jews and Christians, and treated his subjects with such con- summate t^Tanny, is still worshipped by a numerous sect, as an incarnation of the Deity! Religious zeal has rarely been carried to such an extreme, but the pseudo-theocratical principle, which points out the ^* Quatremere, Vie du Khalife Moezz JourEal Asiatique 1837. pag. 44. He resided at Kairowan A. D. 959. ^^ The consequence of these prohibitions was , that many died from starvation in their houses, Sylv. de Sacy, vie du Khalife Ha- kem Biamar-Allah. Expose de la religion des Druzes 1838. Tom. I. CHAP.viiL] COMPULSION AND BLOODSHED. 285 despotic ruler as the person "to whom vengeance belongeth," could not fail to lead to tyrannical op- pression. 13. This leads to the low estimation of human life, and that lust of abusing and mutilating the human body, of which the history of Islamism furnishes such numerous and unparalleled instances. ^^ The Koran is not responsible for all the atrocious crimes com- mitted in its name, but it is powerless to check or control the terrible satisfaction which its followers feel, not only in executions en masse, but especially in inflicting the most ingenious and unheard-of tor- tures. It cannot be said that the Koran directly ad- vocates a cruel legislation; yet w^e must look for the cause of the inhuman atrocities committed by its followers, partly in the licentious excesses wdiich it sanctions and which are generally accompanied with cruelty, and partly in its teaching that war and de- struction are the legitimate means of propagating the faith. The Koran thus directly excites and sanctifies the worst passions of human nature. Weapons at first used against infidels, were soon turned against each other, and never perhaps were cruelities more fully revenged on the perpetrators, than when the Moslem ]3arties executed vengeance upon each other. ^ ' ^^ Christianity in holding that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit, protests, not indeed against capital punishment when lawful, but against any profanation of it by wanton and cruel mu- tilations: whenever these have been perpetrated, it was against the spirit of the Gospel. ^' The reader will remember that more of the friends and com- panions of the prophet fell by the hand of co-religionists than by that of the enemy. In the battle between Ali and Moviah 70,000 286 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. In addition to the terrible struggle which ensued when the Omayades usurped the Kaliphate, we may refer to the equally cruel strife when they were de- feated, and the Abassides, as the legitimate line of succession, resumed the power. ^^ Not less ferocious was the subsequent struggle between the Shiites and the ruling Kaliphs: in order to revenge the death of Hossein, Mochtar executes 48,000 Moslemin, and the great SonniteHadshadsha sacrifices in return 120,000 Shiites, leaving 30,000 men and 20,000 women in prison when he died. Another tyrant, who seeks for the Kaliphate, massa- cres 17,000 innocent inhabitants in Chorasan, only as a measure of precaution lest they might go over to Abu Moslem. What a revenge upon the doctrine of the Koran, that all true believers are brothers ! If it be objected that this seed of Cain has been also at work among Christians, we may add, that wherever this was the case, they had rejected the precepts and denied the character of their Master. Moslem monarchs have not hesitated, in their dying moments, to give orders for unjust executions and even for put- ting their nearest relatives to death. ^'^ The Christian custom of granting condemned persons time and op- portunity for re]3entance and preparation for death, Moslemin fell. Quatremere , Memoires sur la dynastie des Khalifes Abassides, Journal Asiatique XVI. pag. 301. ^® Price's Mohammedan Hist. I. pag. 571. 11. 12. ^^ As soon as Mohammed VII, king of Granada, was sure of his death he wrote, "Aloayde of Xalubonia, thou my servant, on re- ceiving this letter, kill my brother Zeid Jusef and send his head by the bearer." Conde III. 187. CHAP. VIII.] EFFECTS OF PREDESTINATION. 287 is of course unknown among Mohammedans. Had such a humane law existed , many a life might have been spared, as time would have thus been given for the cooling down of the wrath of the despot, who had ordered the execution. ^^ 14. The dogma o{ fredestinaticn, or rather fatal- ism, as taught in the Koran, produces a feeling of apathy and indifference on the part of the people which tends greatly to strengthen Moslem despotism. Mohammedan divines have indeed sought to modify the dogma by limiting it to religious matters, but the people indifferent to these metaphysical distinc- tions, have ever believed, that the minutest incidents of human life are pre-ordained and unalterably fixed by a Divine decree, and that no effort on the part of man can possibly alter or avert that which is written in the book of decrees ;^^ nor can it be overlooked, that this behef, alHed as it was with rehgious enthusi- asm and warlike fanaticism, rendered most essential service to Islamism in its rise. As a moral opiate it served a variety of purposes, by calming the mind in disappointment, stimulating it to exertion in difficul- ties or presenting an excuse for incompetence and apathy. When Kaliph Hasham contemplated taking ^^ "The English Governors, said the ex-king of Ceylon, have an advantage over the kings of Candy ; they are surrounded by counsellers who do not permit them to do anything in the heat of passion ; and this is the cause why ye have so few capital punish- ments; unfortunately however for us the offending person is already dead before our anger is cooled down." Events , in the Inland of Ceylon, written by a gentleman on the spot. 1815. pag. 31. -^ So it is written ^yX3jO 13]^, the Moslem says on every oc- casion. Chardin III. p. 406, 288 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMISM. [parti. measures against the Abassides, who sought for the Kahphate, he was dissuaded by being told, that if it was decreed that the Abassides should recover the Kaliphate, all his efforts would avail nothing, and if it was not decreed, he need not resist their efforts to obtain it.^^ When a general sustains a defeat, he consoles himself by the reflection that such was his unavoidable fate written in Allah's book of de- crees. ^^ As evil, as well as good is pre-ordained, the dogma produces a most listless apathy in resisting temptation; nor need we enlarge on its prejudicial effects in times of calamity; when active measures might arrest an evil, all efforts are paralysed, and every vicissitude of life is borne with a morbid re- signation. This doctrine has undoubtedly proved one of the most effective causes of the deep moral and political decay of the Moslem community. Closely connected with the Moslem view of pre- destination is the eagerness with which Mohammedans pursue the baneful art of reading the fate of man in the stars. Astrology has become to them one of the most necessary and practical sciences of life. As the heavenly bodies are said to indicate the otherwise hidden decrees of Allah, the influence of this spurious science upon the acts of individuals has been immea- surably great. The mightiest monarchs made their greatest enterprizes dependent upon the predictions of astrologers: generals, governors and even re- latives were suddenly murdered because it was read "* Quatreniere, Journal Asiatique XVI. 331. ^^ Quatreniere, Journal Asiatique 1837. p. 72. CHAP. viiL] EFFECTS OF PREDESTINATION. 289 in the heavens, that they meditated rebellion; and rebels again succeeded in dethroning a despot and in raising a creature of their own to the throne , be- cause it was ascertained that the stars were favour- able.^* Each day and hour being placed under the favourable or unfavourable influences of the constella- tions, every undertaking, from the waging of a battle to the putting on of a new suit of clothes , requires the happy moment to be astrologically determined. ^^ 15. Although heterodox teaching was in most cases summarily suppressed, by sending heretics to the rack and thence to the place of execution, ^^ yet there was perhaps no religion more distracted by sects and heresies than Islamism; and as they afford a deeper insight into the character and influence of this creed, they may fitly be noticed in this chapter. The prediction of Mohammed that the world would ^* Kaliph Moess shut himself up in a subterraneous vault, which was constructed for that purpose , for a whole year , because the astrologers predicted, that only by so doing-, he could escape a fearful calamity. Quatremere, Journal Asiatique 1837. p. 207. ^^ Bernier I. pag. 113. says respecting their decisions: "ce qui est une gene incroyable , et une coutume qui traine avec soi des consequences si importantes , que je ne sais comment elle pent sub- sister si long terns. Car enfin il faut que I'Astrologue ait connai- sance de tout ce qui s'entreprend depuis les plus grandes affaires jusqu'aux plus petites." See also Malcolm U. 576. ^^ Such measures were already sanctioned by the example of Kaliph Omar; when a man was brought before him, who doubted the divinity of the Koran, he cut him completely in two , and thus earned the honourable cognomen of "decider'. See other instances Abulfeda Annales II. 51. 641. Hammer, Geschichte des Osmaii. Reiches I. 499. 663. Herbelot p. 397. d'Ohsson. I. 156—159. Price's Moham. Hist. 11. 464. Chronique d'Abou Djafar Tabari, traduite par L. Dubeux 1836. I. 255. T 290 CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE OF ISLAMSM. [parti. not come to an end, until one of his family and name should appear upon earth to assert his divine mission, and perfect the conversion of mankind to Islamism, was so direct an invitation to imjDosture, that even in his life-time, no less than three j^retenders arose in Arabia. In a few years after his death, eight others sprang up, giving rise to endless schisms, sects and heresies. We will not recur to Mohammed's pre- diction, that his followers should be divided into seventy- three sects , ^ ' for its falsity is proved by the Moslem doctors themselves who so long ago filled up that number that they ceased to count them. Remarkable however as it might seem, that a creed without mysteries which may fairly be inscrihed on the nail of a finger , should produce any dissent, yet in the fourth century of the Hedgra, there were no large towns or provinces, where hosts of sectaries were not found. ^^ At this rapid increase of heresy we may perhaps be the less surprised, if we consider that Islamism itself is but an arch-heresy ; and it may be added that some of the sectarian offshoots of the creed in ques- tion, approximated nearer to Christianity. Christian heresies generally differ fi'om the orthodox creed touch- ing the mysteries of Redemption, the Incarnation of the Son of God, the dogma of the Holy Trinity, and the means of grace ; but Islamism, being ignorant ^' Sharcstani speaks of 71 Jewish, 72 Christian, and 73 Mos- lem sects. One alone of the latter is said to attain salvation. Po- cocke Spec. hist. Arabum, pag. 213. ^® Sacj, Expose de la religion des Druses, Introd. pag. 25. CHAP.vni.] SECTS AND HERESIES. 291 of anything higher than their prophet and his suc- cessors, could yield no other pretext for dissent than the question, who was the legitimate head of religion and the state. The rejection of the God-man Jesus Christ, has been justly pointed out, as the reason, why most of the Moslem sects thrust themselves, we might almost say mstmctively , on some precarious substitute, veneration for whom, absorbs their religious feeling, and from whom they expect their salvation. ^^ We can only explain this fact from the instinctive longing of the human heart after an approachable mediator between God and man, which, Islamism, in denying the incarnation of the Son of God, leaves un- satisfied. The principal cause for faction in the Mos- lem camp was connected with the Kaliphate, which was intended to unite the body of the believers. From the very earliest period questions arose as to whether Abubeker, Omar and Othman were legally chosen, or whether they were to be considered intruders and usurpers ; whether Ali, as the relation and son-in-law of Mohammed, was the legitimate heir and successor; whether the Ommayades, or the Abassides — who successively assumed the power of the Kaliphate after the murder of Ali — were to be acknowledged; and '^ "5)ag tiefc, bnrc^ ben S^km miBcfriebigt gdaffeiie Seburfmp beg menfd)H(^en ©etfteS, fid^ ber ©ott^eit biirc^ einen g6ttHc^''men[c^li(i)en TlMn gu naf)en, imi^tc jeite Seljreu imb of)nung ber ©ottfieit in efnjelneu Se^rern iinb ^aui)tern ber Oieligion fiatt? jtnbet . . . Uekrljau^jt aha erfennt man in bcm SD^ancjel beg ©laubeng an ben ®ottmenfrf)en ben ®runb, waxiun bte 5IRceIemifrf)en erf)dlt fid) ju jenem trie bie 93cl(enbitng lux 33orBereitung, ivie bie (Sntfd;vdnhmg ^iir ^efd^rdnfung , iuie bag Un* ntittelKue jum ^Ditttelbaren. 9li|fd^. ^ "Abrogatae sunt leges ceremoniales , exhibitio Messia, et for- enses, sublata politia judaica; moralis non item. Lex moralis Mosaica 318 INTRODUCTION. [part ii. saic constitution with its personal and impersonal types, and with its figurative ceremonial, we find every- where ''a shadow of things to co7ne;'' the body of which was Christ. Every single hierogly^Dhic figure had its meaning; every historic character, event, and circumstance, down to the very items of the drapery and the ornaments of the temple, so minutely recorded, were divinely chosen symbols for conveying truths of lasting interest to the Avhole human race.^ Whilst we recognise unity of purpose and harmony of design in both dispensations of the Bible, ^ in Islamism, we find a creed, which is radically different from the Old and directly opposed to the New Testament. If the Koran had merely abrogated a few ceremonial obser- vances of the Christian religion, and if this abrogation had been predicted in the Gospel, as an event which would take place in a succeeding dispensation, then, there might have been less cause to dispute the claims of Islamism. But unhappily for the creed of Moham- med, we have nothing typical in the Gospel. . There is no shadow in Christianity for the substance and body of which, we might have to look in a subsequent dispensation. On the contrary, our expectation is seu Decalogi eadem est cum lege Christi; illam enim a Pharisaicis corruptelis purgavit et rectius declaravit, nonprecepta moralia plane nova dedit fidelibus." Baier. Compare also Article VII, "Of the Old Testament." ^ "Theologia tyjiica, quae futurorura praedictionera , ex inten- tione Dei sub rebus, personis factisque latentum in Y. T. scrutatur et explicat. Ty]3us, arua, vnodniy^ia, est adumbratio, praefiguratio, praesignatio." Carpovius. ^ Novum Testamentum in yetere latet (velatum est) vetus in novo patet (revelatum est). Augustine. PART 11.] HARMONY OF THE LAW AND THE GOSPEL. 319 from heaven, "from luhence also we looJc for the Sa- viour T being taught ''to waif for Him- from heaven. Instead therefore of having the falfihnent of type or promise in Islamism, the most essential truths of the Old and New Testament are denied and rejected. To assume that God is the author of Islamism, is to assume that He decreed yesterday, what to-day He abolishes; that He established the old and new dis- pensation, but, that after more mature consideration, He determined to give the world a better religion; that His legislation for mankind was imperfect, since He found it necessary to revoke what He before had solemnly ordained. That after the Gospel was preached and attested by signs and wonders, in various parts of the world, according to God's will and command,^ this very Gospel was recalled and God promulgates through a certain Mohammed of Mecca, doctrines and laws directly opposed to it; and this changeable- ness of mind and purpose is to be proclaimed, if we may believe the Koran, not only to mankind but even to demons ! ^ If this principle of succession or rather abrogation be defended, as it is, on the ground of Christianity becoming unsound; we reply, that a distemper in the body or a disorder in any of its members does not of necessity prove fatal to existence. ® IJogev^hreg eig tov xoaiiiov anavra , no exception being made: y.iiQv^ate to tvayyeXiov naari tt] xnaei. Mark. XVI. 15. That the KriQvyua penetrated Arabia, is proved by the existence of an Arabian Church prior to Mohammed. \ U:s\£ bl^- Ujl^ Sur. XXXll. 1. See also'XLVL 30. 31, 320 INTRODUCTION. [part u. Neither the moral corruption of the Christians at the period of the rise of Islamism, nor the heresies which then infected the Church, could make the abrogation of the Christian religion requisite. It was foretold by Christ Himself, that there would be a mixture of good and evil within the Church, to the end of time ; and that heresies would spring up , was predicted by the Apostles.*^ The chief charge, brought by Mohammed against Jews and Christians, as the representatives of their respective dispensations, and for the sake of which, both were to be superseded , was that of corrupting the Old and the Neiu Testament. ^ ^ That Christians had altered the New Testament, Mohammedans pro- fess to prove from their holding the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and the Divinity of the Lord Jesus Christ, but most of all from their rejection of Mohammed, though required by the supposed original Gospels, to receive him. In order to justify their alleged errors and their rejection of Mohammed, the Christians are accused of having expunged from their Scriptures all that related to the prophet , and of having made such additions, as they deemed necessary. This ob- jection, is constantly urged in religious disputations, and naturally falls first in our way when about to 10 Matt. XIII. 24—30. 47—50. XXIV. 5. 11.24. Act. XX. 29. 30. 2 Pet. I. 1. 11 The suppression of Scripture passages, which were favour- able to the cause of Mohammed , and the crime of corrupting them, are frequently censured in the Koran. Sur. II. 73. also 176 — 178. lU. 188. V. 17. where it is fully stated that they "knowingly hide or conceal certain passages;" "pervert or dislocate the words out of their places," and corrupt the "signs of God for vile gain." CHAP. I.] CHARGE AGAINST JEWS AND CHRISTIANS. 321 compare Islamism with Christianity. It must there- fore be our first care to examine, whether there be any ground for so grave a charge as that made by Mohammed, and whether we can satisfactorily prove the integrity of the Holy Scriptures; for so long as the Bible lies under any such suspicion, we are de- prived of our best and most valuable weapon. The Jews being first accused of having corrupted the Old Testament Scriptures, we shall in the next chapter endeavour to substantiate the integrity of that portion of the Bible, which for so long a period was entrusted to their guardianship. CHAPTEK I. INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAIVIENT. "Verily I say unto you, Till lieayen and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law till all be fulfilled. And it is easier for heaven and earth to pass , than one tittle of the law to fail." Matt. V. 18. Lu. XYI. 17. 1. That we may prove to better advantage the integrity of the Old Testament, it will be necessary to introduce some items respecting the history of that part of the Bible. ^'^ It is generally known as "the Scripture," "the Old Testament," "the book of the covenant," or simply "the Law,"^^ — the latter ^^ The entire Bible , so termed since Chrysostom : tvc ^iI^Xlcc sc. 'deia:, libri xar' l^oilv. Chrysost. in Suic. thes, eccles. pag. 696. Also It^ja yQaqi]; ayia ygaqij; -deia yQaqir], and Bibliotheca sancta. Isidor. Orig. cap. IV. pag. 3. ^3 nn3, Chald. n^nsn, Nnnri, iy yQa^pri 2 Pet. I. 20; ai yqacfal V 322 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii, being the standing name in the Koran. After the Church had been without Scriptures for more than two thousand years, and when the word of God could no longer be orally transmitted with safety, Moses wrote the Pentateuch, and thus laid the foundation of that series of holy books which Malachi concluded in the year B. C. 397. — This collection of holy Scriptures is divided into the Law, the Prophets and the Psalms.^* The Law comprised the five books of Moses, and admitted of no other division. The Prophets w^ere divided into "the former" and "the latter Prophets ;'* among the "former Prophets" were reckoned the book of Joshua and of Judges, the books of Samuel, and of the Kings. "The latter Prophets" are the Prophets properly so called, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Eze- kiel and the twelve minor Prophets. ^^ Amongst the Psalms or "other holy writings" are understood all the rest of the holy Scriptures, including also Daniel, whom the Christians, according to the Septuagint, count with the Prophets, there being a considerable difference as to the order in which these books are made to follow each other, with the Jews, the Sep- Matt. XXn. 29 ; ^.~i?r; ""^r^, ygacpal ayuxi. Rom. I. 2 ; If-Qa yQafx- fia'KX 2 Tim. III. 15. nn^r, Sanhed. fol. 91. col. 2. 6 lOfxog, John XII. 34; n-'-::?:! ^cd, ^[^-iXiov dia&/]y.7]i Exod.XXIV. 7; "vetus Tes- tamentum" since the third century; i) nakaia dia'&tJKri 2 Cor. III. 14. ^* Our Lord's division : 6 rofjog Mcaatcog , 6i n()oq)}]r(xi xal 6i xpaXjjol Luke XXIV. 44. Or 1. rn'-'r, 2. l]'^^25, 3. D^n^nD, yQa- qitia, ayioygaqia, \pa\uol, also: xal ta akXa (Si^Xia. ^^ t2^31^nN tZi^iS^nD so called in contradistinction to tZI^N'^ni . . • • y^l5"!ll3N'n priores and posteriores. CHAP. I] NAMES, DIVISION AND NUMBER OF BOOKS. 323 tuagint, and the Fathers of the Church. ^^ Again, from the fact of our Lord spealdng of the 'Tsahns," as the "thnd division of the Old Testament, it would appear that the book of Psalms stood first on the list of that division, and thus gave its name to all the re- maining books" or Hagiographa, as this section of the "sacred writings" has been called; just as we speak of the whole of the New Testament, as "the Gospel," because the portion so called stands first. ^^ Others think that our Lord made use of the title of "the Psalms" to signify the entire division of the Hagiographa, not so much on account of its standing first on the list, as because of the poetical character, which distinguishes the greater part of this class of writings. ^^ Both Josephus and Philo speak of the Hagiographa as containing chiefly hymns and praises to Gocl.*^ 1^ The Talmud thus: "Ordo Prophctarura : Josua et Judices, Samuel et Reges, Jeremia et Ezechiel, Jesaia et duodecim Pro- phetae." Baba Bathra f. 14. cap. 2. The cause is thus stated: "Cum libri Regum iiniantur in desolatione , et Jeremias totus versetur in desolatione, Ezechiel vero incipiat in desolatione et finiat in consola- tione, et Jesaias totus versetur in consolatione, copulaverunt desola- tionem cum desolatione , et consolationem cum consolatione." J. G. Carpzov. Introductio ad libros can. III. 88. *^ The Talmud, with the exception of Ruth , places them thus: "Ordo Hagiographorum : Ruth, Psalmi et Hiob et Proverbia, et Co- heleth, Canticum et Threni , Daniel et Esther et Chronica." Baba Bathra f. 14. cap. 2. ^^ Josephus speaks of them as containing vpLiovQ iig top &eov. Joseph, cont. Ap. §. 23. ^^ Mridh iiaxoimiSoneg , /t^/ ttotov , jjli] on lor, jur^dtn rear aX- XwT oaa TtQng tag tov amiiarog iQtia. ihayxala, dXXa vo^^ovg xai Xoyia de(T7na&8na dia 7TQOcfi]to5i> mu viivovg yxu taaXka olg i7ii(Jtr]i.n] xal ivai^Ha (jviuv^oftai y.al itXuovitm. Philo de vita contemplat. §. 13. p. 893 ed. Frcf. 324 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTA]\IENT. [part ii. As the Psalms stood Jirst on the list of the tlnrd division of the Old Testament, so the book of Chro- nicles appears to have stood last among the Hagio- grapha ; that this book closed this division, and hence the entire Old Testament, is evident from onr Saviour's words, in which He sums up the bloodshedding of martyr-prophets from the foundation of the world, to the last martyrdom recorded in the canonical books of the Jews, viz. "from the blood of Abel unto the blood of Zacharias, which perished between the altar and the temple." ^^ 2. The enumeration of the books of the Old Tes- tament has been variously made out; we mention this, lest the Mohammedans should rush to the con- clusion, that there is either confusion or uncertainty respecting the real number of the canonical books. Josephus, to whom we are indebted for the first cata- logue of these writings, with a view evidently, of ma- kino- their number correspond with that of the letters m the Hebrew alphabet ^ ^ reduces them to twenty- two combining the books of Ruth and the Judges into one, as also Jeremiah and the Lamentations, after the manner of the Septuagint. ^^ If hov;ever the five books of Moses be counted separately, as they are by Jo- 20 Luke XL 50. 5L Matt. XXIIL 35. 2 Chron. XXIV. 20. 2^ 'OfK ayiorjbov 6' ilvai tag ivdia&rjy.ovg ^[[^Xovg, coq'E^qccToi TTaQadfdoaai.v, dvo xal tLKoai , oaog 6 d(JiSi.wg tcop tiuq' dvtol^g otoiidojv idTiT. Origen. Euseb. H. E. VI. 25. 2^ 'On yaQ ^v(jtddeg ^ifiXixov eial ttuij' rnxTv , div/jqcopGov xai liaiofiirojV bvo 6t /nuia nfjog rotg tiKoai j-iijSh'vc, rov navtog tjovta 1{)6pov %i;V dp((yQaqi]v , xa SmaLOjg ■dtla nmiattvixha. Joseph, contra Apion. lib. I. cap. 8. CHAP. I.] ENUMERATION AND COLLECTION 325 sephus, the rest may justly be counted singly; this being clone in the Bibles of the present day, the number amounts to thirty-nine books. The question now arises, when do we hear of their being collected together in the form in which we now possess them? We find the entire Old Tes- tament deposited in the temple immediately after the Jewish caj)tivity. ^ ^ Again, at the time when the prologue was written to the apocryphal book of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus , which was about 130 years B. C. the collection of the canonical books had been ac- complished. ^* Josephus, born 37. B. C. quotes not only nearly all the books , but gives a detailed account of their names and number. He informs us that the above- mentioned twenty-two books of the Old Testament were completed in the days of Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia , who in his twentieth year had com- missioned Nehemiah to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. Five of the books were wTitten by Moses ; thirteen viz. Joshua, Judges and Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chro- nicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, Esther, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the twelve minor Prophets and Job, were added to the Pentateuch during the interval between Moses and Artaxerxes. ^^ Joseph. Autiquit. V. I. 17. de bello Jud. VII. 5. 5; traces of the holy Scriptures being" preserved in the sanctuary before the Captivity 1 Sara. X. 23. Deut. XXXI. 26. ^* The books were collected by Ezra and the other members of the synagoga magna, nD"!":;" r.D:3^ Gwaywyrj jQafxi-iaTliOV in 1 Mace. VIL 12; but the conclusion of the canon is said to hare been effected under Simon the Just. B. C. 292. 326 INTEGRITr OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [PART 11. Josephiis particularly mentions that the other four books were Hymns, being the Psalms proper, Pro- verbs, Ecclesiastes and Canticles. From Artaxerxes to his own day, he adds, that some others had been written , but that they were not worthy of the same faith as the preceding, not containing the same teach- ing as the prophetical books. ''^ 3. The above twenty- two canonical books of the Jewish Church, of which Josephus wrote, were the same in the days of Christ, as they w^ere at the time of Josephus. Our Lord and his Apostles fully ac- knowledged the integrity and completeness of the ca- nonical books in the beginning of our era ; and from that period, the Christians had an equal interest in watching over the Old Testament, having received it as the foundation of their faith. They read these books in their Churches from the very earliest times and their guardianship thus became divided between two rival parties. ^^ The Law, the Prophets and ^^ After saying the Jews had only 22 divine books, he proceeds '''Kal TovTcop 71 if 7 a fiiv eari rvc Mcovaeaig a rovg re fof-iovg nsfJi- ex^i, xal TTjV T^g dv&QcoTToyovias naQadoaif, jneXQi TfJQ dvtov' teXei- rfjg' ovTog i] iQovog djToXeiiTEi tqigxiXicov oh'yov irdof. Ano 6e ti]g McoUaaoog ttXenf^g ^liiQi tfjg ''AgTa^Q^ov roZ in era 'EiQ^r^v FltQawv ^aailecog aQX^JQ (reign not beginning) 6i fxtra Mcovof^f ngoii^nxi ta xat' dvtovg ir^jaxphxa avpsyQaij-'ar iv xqigI nal den a ^I'^Xioig di da XoiTTcu teoGaQeg viuvovg eig rov d^aop, xal roTg ai'^Qmiroig vTiodi]y.ag rov ^lov ne^Jiaxovmv. Ano dl AQxa^ifj^ov ^iaxQi rov Kad^' jjfxag xQOfOV yayQixTzrai (xh t-Kaara' niorawg 6s ovx oixoiag ri^ixDTai roig ttqo dvr(dv , did to fit] yavm&txi rj]V rcov n^joqi^rcop dxQ'l^f] 6iadoxT]v. AfjXop <5' idtlv sQyoj, nmg rjidtlg roTg Idioig y^jdfi- ^aai ntniarkvy.afxav" Joseph, contra Apion. Lib. I. cap. 8. ^^ Tojp^ qitQon&iOJv ygacfidSf xal iv ndacxig ixxXijaiaig 'deov naTKarevf-iii'cov iivai -^tLODV ovx di> dfidgTOi tig Xiyojp TTQcotoyiv- rrjiuia fxlv tov Mojvaicog vo^iov, dnagxk^' ^^ '^^ ^Ev-ayyiXiov. Mtrd yaQ tovg ndnag tcov 7iQO\pi]roji' nuQTTOvg, r(av ^ixQ' ^^v CHAP, i.j PRESERVATION BY CHRISTIANS. 327 the Psalms or Hagiograplia, were considered one and the same Holy Scripture, having the same authority and demanding the same faith. *^ As however the Septuagint was used in the Churches, and as that translation of the Old Testament contained the apo- cryphal books, these were read together with the ca- nonical Scriptures, "for example of life and instruction of manners , without applying them to establish any doctrine." ^^ We here have the key to the reading of the apocryphal books in Churches; but to prevent them gaining authority, as this seemed to be the case in the Latin Church, and amongst the ignorant in the East, fresh catalogues of the canonical books were from time to time issued. The first of these Christian catalogues of Jewish books was compiled by Melito of Sardes, who died A. D. 171. In his epistle to a certain Onesimus , who had made inquiries of him respecting the books of the Old Testament, Melito offers to give the names, the exact number, and the order in which the books follow each other. We have in his enumeration^^ all the books of the Jewish Ca- iiiVQLOV ^h](70Vy 6 rlXkioq ilSXacFTi-as Xoyog. Origen. Comm. in Joh. torn. I. §. 4.^ 0pp. IV. 4. Cont. Cels. lU. 45. 0pp. 476. on (^ovXe- tat Tjiuas thai aocpovg o Xoyog , dtiy.ttov y.cd ano t^v naXamv yjxl lov dai'xdj p yoafxjjiaTfjdv, rj dig nai ^,iuTs x(^^l^^^^^^ ^^X 7]rtov de xal ano t(5v f.iexa top ^IrjGovv yQa(f>6VZ(x)i' nal ip talg exKAiiGLatg d^tixov thai ntmateviiisroDP. •^ Clemens Strom. III.. p. 455 : A^Ofxog rs ojiwv nal TTQorffjtat CFvv xccl Tcp evayytXtxo iv ovo/Liati Xqigtov iig fiiav aviayoftm yioS- Gif. Irenaeusr adds: "Cum itaque universae Scripturae, etProphetiae et Evangelia, in aperto sint, etc." Iren. U. 27. 2. ^* "Libros legit quidam Ecclesia, sed inter canonicas Scripturas non recepit." Hierony. praef. in libros Salomonis. AvtAuojp ovv eig rrjv avaioXriV, y.at tenn fid) jwei (2d|e gleicf) enbfi^ten." Dr. be ^^tiU, ^ift. ixit (Sinl pag. 124. ^9 Frequently T for \ Ps. CX. 3. XIX. 4. cfr. I.XX. ^ for n, Josh. XV. 47. n for D, Ps. 78, 69. 1 for \ Gen. 36, 23. See also the numerical letter 2 Sam. 24, 13. ^ for T; hence seven y^ars fa- mine in Sam.; whilst LXX. in loco has tQia tti] XijLiog, the same as I Chron. XXI. 12. Again D for 3 I King XH. 21. has 180,000 men whilst the LXX has 120,000 kaiov xal iiKoai xiXiddaq. '^^ ""^lyd, for ^"Jabb Ezra 11. 4. and Neh. VII. 48. Algimi tree in- stead of Almug /kings X. 11. 2 Chron. IX. 10. Ps. XVIII. 46. ^S^n- and 2 Sam. XXII. 46. ^-nsn:. : :- . • ** Asaiah in 1 Chron. IX. 5. Maaseiah Neh. XI. 5. See also Ps. XVm. 42. 2 Sam. XXH. 42. TS^-'C?:; 2 Sam. 23, 25. with I Chron. XL 27; Gen. 36, II. 12. with I Chron. 1, 36; Josh. XXL 23. with 1 Chron, V. 53. 54; 1 Chron. XL 13. with 2 Sara. XXHI. 9—11. 332 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part u. and exchanged alike-sounding letters of the alphabet.*^ Again, mistakes were made where the copyist trusted too much to his memory, and exchanged synonymous expressions;*^ or altered the word after more frequent forms in parallel passages.** Again we recognise errors arising from w^ant of sufficient knowledge of what they copied; these more likely occurred at a period, when the words were not yet divided, and the practice of writing the original text without the vowels was in vogue. Abbreviations for instance, were mis- understood and treated as ordinary letters.*^ It is obvious to all, that in copying a manuscript, mistakes may be easily and most unintentionally made ; those above specified will sufficiently explain the existence of various readings; which being purely accidental, they are such, as Mohammed could neither have de- tected nor referred to, when he accused the Jews of wilfully suppressing prophecies, relating to himself, and of designedly corrupting the Old Testament. 5. The idea that the Jews falsified any portion of their sacred books, is in the first place, altogether at variance with, and opposed to their notorious and almost superstitious regard for the dead letter of the *2 1 Sam. XXII. 18. ^^n Keri >N':i ; Ps. LIX. 9. ri;^^?^!^. and r.^72TN: LXX. 1 Sam. XVII. 34. HT in several Cod. instead of "to. T : — : *3 Lev. XXV. 36, b^ instead of bs. 2 King. I. 10. n^^ll for '-i'?05<^1; and often mr."' for ^51^&<. ** Isa. LXm. 16. some have l^^ib instead of D'^^^^q; just be- cause the former is the more common. *^ Jer. YI. 11. n;r.":, '■'-n^jn was read ^n.^q, my wrath, like LXX. Hal TO ^vjiiov fxov. cap. XXX. 37. """fl^, ^S^, ^v^iov fiovi instead of rTirt'^.""l:]N. CHAP. I.] NO WILFUL CORRUPTIONS ON RECORD. 333 law. The Talmud, which was concluded in the fifth century of our era, abounds with injunctions which tend to preserve the integrity of their holy Scriptures. * ^ It speaks of most careful comparisons of divers Ma- nuscripts,*^ and the most tedious and painful enu- meration of verses, words and letters;*^ as the Mo- hammedans borrowed this practice from the Jews, **^ "Ita aiitem scribendum vobis est; ut sit scriptura perfecta (n^n r;n"^n:D), ne scribatur Alepli pro Aiii, et vice versa, Beth pro Caph, et V. v. ; Gimel pro Zadeh, et v. v. ; Daleth pro Resh, et v. v. ; He pro Chetli, et v. v.; Vav pro Jod, et v. v. ; Zain pro Nun, et v. v. ; Teth pro Peh, et v, v. ; incurvae litterae pro directis , et v. v. ; Mem pro Samecli, et v. v.; clausae litterae (D finale) pro apertis (73), et V. v.; sectio aperta ne fiat sectio clausa, et v, v." Tr. Sliab. f. 103. c. 2. A Manuscript having only 3 mistakes on one leaf might be corrected , but if they amounted to 4 , it was hid or put aside as in- admissible. Gemar. Babylon. Tract. Monachot. cap. III. sect. VIT. Again : "Viginti de hoc praecepta enumerat R. Moyses in tractatu de lib. Leg. cap. 10. Inter quae X°^^^ est, ut ab honiine Haeretico, vel profano exscribi non possint , XI°^""^, ut scriptor ita attentus sit, dum aliquod ex Dei nominibus eocarat, %it si eo tempore a Rege Israe- lis salutetur, salutem illi reddere non debeat. XII"^^"^ et XIII'^"°\ et XIV™^"^ ac XYI"^^"^, ut si scribendo literula ulla per incuriam vel addatur vel detrahatur : si unus character ab alio nimis distet , vel eidem plus justo adhaereat, totus liber xn-ofanus habeatur." Maraccio, Prodrom. Part. I. pag. 9. *^ "Tres libros invenerunt in atrio in mio invenerunt scri- ptum (Deut. XXXIII. 27.) ^^S'72, in duobus -;i:>73., et approbantes duos, rejecerunt ununi. In uno invenerunt (Exod. XXIV. 5) scriptum "•lO'Ii^'T, in duobus "'"l^;?, et approbantes duos , rejecerunt uuum. In uno invenerunt scriptum, (Gen. XXXII. 23) N^n y'w'n, (cd. Fr. Ntir. ^::^y "inN), in duobus n%- rn^y nnN (ed. Fr. N-'n ^u:s' ^riws) et approbantes duos, rejecerunt unum." Hieros. Tr. Taanith f 68. c. 1. *® "Idcirco vocati sunt prisci, D'''^£"0, Numeratores, quia nume- rarunt omnes litteras legis, dicentes : littera Vav vocis Tin> Lev. XL 42. est media littera libri legis :^^i^ ^'l^ Lev. X. 16. media vox legis: Lev. XIII. 33 medius versus in lege: Ps. LXXX. 14. V vocis ^y^ est media littera in Psalmis: Ps. LXXVIII. 38. est medius versus in Psalmis." Kiddushin f. 30. c. 1. 334 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. and applied it to the Koran, they ought fully to ap- preciate this scrupulous anxiety of the Jews to pre- serve the integrity of the very letter of their law. In the Talmud, it is declared to be a sin altogether un- pardonable to alter any thing in the Scriptures, and it is added, that to alter a single Hebrew word would endanger the existence of the world, as God had created this world on account of the Scriptures ! If the sacred books accidentally fell to the ground, so great was their horror at this apparent desecration, that they appointed a fast to avert the judgment of heaven. The Talmudists added a notice at the end of Leviticus and some other books , that it was not permitted, even to the prophets, to make the very least alteration or innovation in the Law. The assumption that the Jews intentionally cor- rupted Scripture, is further opposed to the solemnity with which some few^ mistakes wdiich had crept into the text, w^ere removed and corrected.*^ Nor can we omit to draw attention to the fact, that there are fifteen words in the Old Testament which are encum- bered with a number of extraordinary dots, '^^ concer- ning the meaning of which, both Jewish and Christian philologists and divines are to this hour at a loss. *^ AVe refer to the ''ablatio scribarum'' &"''^E*1D "l^tilS^ which re- • • • moved the 1 in Gen. XVIH. 5. XXIV. 55. Numb. XH. 14. Ps. LXVni. 26. XXXVI. 7. And the "correctio scribarum'\oT C^D'O ""pT;, which amended 18 passages; e. g. Gen. XVIII. 22. 1 Sam. III. 13. Kumb. I. 1. '''" These puncta extraordinaria are more ancient than the vowels. We find them Ps. XXVIl. 13. 5^'bi'b. Numb. XXI. 30. Gen. XIX, 33. T'\)2'Ai'2 etc, etc. CHAP. I.] WILFUL CORRUPTION IMPOSSIBLE. 335 Conjectures as to their origin and signification have not been wanting, yet no one has been able to unravel the mystery, and we -are now, no wiser upon the sub- ject than they were in the days of St. Jerome.^* Yet as these points or dots stood for more than 2000 years, so they stand unmeaning but unaltered to this day. ""^ Wherever the Hebrew text has been copied or printed, those extraordinary and practically useless points have been conscientiously transferred; but if they serve no other purpose, they at least act the part of most faithful and impartial witnesses to the integ- rity of the Old Testament, and to the reverence of the Jews for every "jot or tittle" of their law. The Jews were indeed accused of having corrupted their Scriptures before Mohammed's time. ■' ^ St. Je- rome noticed that the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint read the passage Deut. xxvn. 26. ''Cursed be every man that confirmeth not all the words of this law to do them;" whilst the Hebrew text merely says, "Cursed be he who confirmeth not the words ^^ "Appimgunt desuper, quasi mcredibile et quod rerura natura non capiat, coire quempiam nescientem." Hieron. quaest. in Gen. XVIII. •^^ Although the Jews crucified the Lord of Glory, yet they spare these useless dots : this is indeed straining a gnat and swal- lowing a camel ! Matt. XXIII. 24. ^^ "Quando itaque, Patres nonnulli, ut JustinKs Martyr in Dia- logo cum Tr\T^)hone, Eusebius lib. IV. Hist, eccles. cap. 18. Origenes Homil. XII. in Jerem. Chrysostomus Homil. V. in Matth. et Hierony- mus in Epist. 89 ad Augustinum in cap. V. Micheae asserunt ; a Judaeis textum biblicum esse corruptum, non de textu Hebraeo, sed de versionibus praedictis loquantur. Vel de aliquibus saltem, non de omnibus Codicibus Hebraicis id intelligi debet." Quenstedt Theologia didactico-polemica Vol, I. pars I. pag. 195. 336 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part 11. of this law to do them."^* Upon this discrepancy he founds a grave charge against the Jews, maintain- ing that they f)i'ohably exj3unged those two w^ords which constitute the difference; a charge which it will be very difficult to establish. Some have suspected foul play on the part of the Jews, in the passage Ps. XXII. 16. wdiere certain Manuscripts read, "The as- sembly of the wicked have inclosed me, like a lion, e my hands and my feet;" insteadof "they have pierced my hands and my feet;"^^ but whether this proceeds from a mistake of the transcriber, or from a wilful alteration must be left undecided. We cannot how- ever reconcile luilful corruption with the fact, that owing to the scarcely perceptible difference of the respective w^ords in the Hebrew characters, one read- ing may have passed into the other without in reality altering a single letter. ^^ The Jews, during their contests with the Samari- ^* "Incertum liabemus, utrum LXX interpretes addiderint 5 Mos. XXYn. 26. omnis homo et in omnibus, an in yeteri Hebraeo ita fuerit et postea a Judaeis deletum sit ... . Qiiam ob causam Sama- ritanonim Hebraea yolumina relegens inveni t>3 scriptum esse , et cum LXX interpretibus concordare. Frustra igitur illud tulerunt Ju- daei , ne viderentur esse sub maledicto , si non possint omnia com- plere, quae scripta sunt: cum antiquiores alterius quoque gentis litterae id positum fuisse testentur." Hieron. Comm. in Gal. III. 10. The LXX has, Cursed be nag aid-iJOJTtOQ og ova ifji[xef8i iv ndai xolg Xoyoig xov loj^ov. ^^ ^'nN3 sicut leo, as in Isa. XXXVIII. 13. Our version reads T-i^fS perfoderimt. So also the LXX. Odfjv^txv xe.T(Jag fxov , kol no- Sag. The Chaldee yersion unites both and translates "perfoderunt sic velut leo manus meas et pedes meas." ^^ Before the yowels Avere placed, the difference was simply in the 1 ; T*iND and •'"iND. Besides T and "^ are litterae hixtta^oXol sive inyicem permutabilis. CHAP.L] WILFUL CORRUPTION IMPOSSIBLE. 337 tans, might have been tempted to corrupt certam passages , touchmg the pomts of difference between them, but they nobly resisted the temptation ; whilst the Samaritans on the contrary, failed to preserve their Pentateuch in its original integrity. The Sa- maritans desiring to ''worship on mount Gerizim" in opposition to the Jews who said that "Jerusalem was the place where men ought to worship" — in order to have some divine sanction for their choice, sub- stituted "Gerizim" for ''Ebal."^^ Here, indeed we discover wilful corruption of the sacred text; but the most profound examinations of the various editions of the OldTestament have proved, that those handed down by the Jews are the purest to be found ; fewer inaccuracies having crept into their Manuscripts than in aiiy others. Origen in his Hexapla and St. Jerome in his versions made use of Jewish editions, and they are still preferred by the most intelligent Divines. Again, if the Jews had been desirous to corrupt the Scriptures , they would have found it impossible, from this circumstance; that after the first, and more especially after the second destruction of Jerusalem, they were dispersed all over the East. How, it may be asked, could they have met in conclave to agree upon what parts were to be altered, and in what the alterations should consist? After theadvent of Christ, the Hebrew Scriptures were in the hands of the ^^ "Ye shall set up these stones which I command you this day in mount Ebal (Samaritan reading: in mount fi^r'^-O ^^^ there shalt thou build an altar unto the Lord thy God ; . . . and thou shalt offer burnt-offerings thereon unto the Lord. thy God." Deut. zxvn. 4. w 338 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. Christians as well as the Jews, and independently of the Jewish converts to Christianity , there have always been some in the Church, well versed in the Hebrew tonoue, who would easilv have detected any corruptions that might have been perpetrated. Again, Manuscripts became very early multiplied, a statute existing among the Jews to the effect, that no father of a family should be without a copy of the Law; ^ ^if therefore, corruptions could have been effected in some, or even in most of the Manuscripts , a con- siderable number must still have remained inaccess- ible to those who conspired to corrupt them.'^^ 6. We have moreover internal proof, that the Jews abstained from making any alteration in their Scriptures, and that Mohammed's accusation falls to the ground. The books in question record their his- tory with the utmost impartiality, neither favouring their prejudices, nor concealing their faults. Their holy Scriptures expose their pride, their rebellion, and their obstinate unbelief, and announce at the same time all the evils which should come upon them. Had the Jews been disposed to alter the sacred Scrip- tures, they would naturally have expunged those parts ^^ "Apud Judaeos legibus statutum, ne quis paterfamilias codice biblico destituatur." Gerhard. Loci Theolog. VoL II. p. 260. ^^ "Si quaeram, quid sit credibilius Judaeorum gentem tam longe lateque diffusam, in hoc niendaciura conscribendum uno consilio con- spirare potuisse? Sed absit, ut prudens ahquis Judaeos cujus- libet perversitatis ac malitiae tantum potuisse credat in codicibus tarn multis et tam longe lateque dispersis hoc de invidenda gentibus veritate unum communicasse consilium." August, lib. XV. de civit. Dei cap. 13. That there was a copy in Ethiopia, vide Act. VIII. 30. CHAP. I.] INTERNAL EVIDENCE. 339 which reflected dishonour on their character as a nation; and after the coming of Christ, they would most likely have made alterations concerning those prophecies which prove , that Jems of Nazareth luas the Messiah whose advent they had been led to expect. But all the prophecies concerning Christ, which were found in "Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms" be- fore His coming, still exist in the Jewish Scriptures in all their integrity. ^^ If the Jews corrupted the Scrip- tures, says Origen, it must have been done, either be- fore or after Christ. If it was done before Christ, how is it, that our Lord and his Apostles fail to ac- cuse them of this crime, whilst they charge them with all their other sins ; if they altered them after Christ, how is it that we have the wonderful agree- ment between the original and the quotations in the New Testament?^* The quotations in this case, must have been made prophetically, exactly as the Jews in* tended to falsify them, and notas they actually stood, when Christ and His Apostles made them! ^^ "Si voluisset Judaei divinas scripturas in odium christianorum corrumpere , praecipua yaticinia de Christo vel sustulissent , vel ira- mutassent, quod tantum abest ipsos fecisse, ut ex textu hebraeo for- tiora contra ipsos argumenta proferri possint." Gerhard. Loci Theol. VoL n. pag. 259. ^^ "Quod si aliquis dixerit hebraeos libros postea a Judaeis esse falsatos , audiat Origenem quid in octavo A'oluraine , explanationem Esaiae huic respondeat quaestiunculae : quod nunquam Dominus et Apostoli, qui caetera crimina arguunt, in Scribis et Pharisaeis , de hoc crimine, quod erat maximum, reticuissent. Sin autem dixerint post adventum Domini Salvatoris , et praedicationem Apostolorum libros Hebraeos fuisse falsatos , cachinnum tenere non potero , ut Salvator et Evangelistae , et Apostoli ita testimonia protulerint ut Judaei postea falsaturi erant." Hieron, Comm. in Esaiam cap. VL 340 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. We shall now attempt to prove historically , that the accusation in the Koran of the corruption of the Law, is utterly without foundation. It cannot be said that the Jews failed to preserve the integrity of their Scriptures before Christ, for whilst our Lord rebukes their false interpretation; their "laying aside the commandment of God that they might keep their own traditions;" their "making the word of God of none effect" through their tradition; their "erring not knowing the Scriptures ;"^^ neither He nor His Apostles ever accused them of either interpolating or subtracting any passage of their holy books. Christ urges His audience to "search the Scriptures," and argues that what the Scribes and Pharisees teach sitting in Moses' seat, is to be heard, observed and obeyed ;^^ the five brethren also of the rich man are required to ".hear Moses and the Prophets." And is it to be supposed possible, that Christ, whom the Mohammedans themselves consider a great prophet should direct men to fountains that had been cor- rupted?— As if anticijDating the rise of a false jDrojDhet, who would endeavour t.o destroy the antecedent dis- pensations, under the j)r.etext of the Scriptures having been corrupted, our blessed Lord makes the emphatic declaration, "Think not that Lam come to destroy the law and the prophets, I am not come to destroy hut to fulfill For verily I say unto you till heaven and eai'th ■^^ KaX^q cc&tTETTe tifv hroXip rov -Oaov .... ay.vQovvreg rbv Xoyov rov &tov etc. etc. Mark VII. 9. 13. See also Matt. XXII. 29. nkavvca&e, fxi] iidoreg tag yQacfxxg.. The .Mosaical teaching to be obseryed and done ndvra ovr 63 ooa ar iin(x)(jLV. Matt. XXIII. 2. 3. CHAP. I.] HISTORICAL EVIDENCE. 341 shall pass , one jot or one tittle shall in nowise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled; whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven."^* These remarkable words of Jesus put the seal to the integrity of the Old Tes- tament in His day ; and imply that it would be pre- served in the same purity to the end of days ; for how could the smallest jot w^hich is here placed in juxta- position with the universe, be fulfilled, were it not to retain its integrity? The Apostles likewise acknowledged the Scrip- tures of the Old Testament to have come down to them unadulterated. Had the passage for instance, which the Ethiopian Eunuch was reading, been cor- rupted, Philip the Evangelist would have corrected, rather than expounded it. Again, how could the Be- reans be praised Act. XVIII. l. for testing the sound- ness of the doctrine which Paul preached, by search- ing the Scriptures daily, if those writings were themselves unsound? St. Paul supported his own testimony by declaring, that he preached "none other things, than those, which the prophets and Moses ^* Matt. V. 18. liSra in Alphabeto hebraeico littera minima, maxime elementaris, et in qua Keri et Cethib persaepe differunt, ut promiscae videatur abesse rel redundare. In Codice Hebraeo 66420 jota numerantur. Graeci jota subscribunt aut praetermittunt. y.EQaia , apex , literae appendix , aut portio , linea , qua litera a li- tera, ut n a D vel ^ a "H distinguitur , vel sonus a sono , ut punctum vocale aut accentus : denique quicquid ullo modo in lege pertinet ad divinam voluntatem significandam rel ejus significationem adjuvan- dara." Bengeli Gnomon ad locum. Rom. X. 4. re'Aog yaQ po^ov XPIETOU. 342 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [partii. did say should come" Act. XXII. 22. The same Apostle testifies Rom. III. 2. that to the safe keeping of the Jews "were committed the oracles of God," and the fact of his numbering this, among the high privileges and honours of that nation, implies, that we are in- debted to them for their having been preserved in- violate. Josephus, who although belonging to the Jewish communion, was in no way inclined to favour it, ^"^ makes the following remark, "During so many ages as have already passed, no one has been so bold as either to add anything to them, (viz. the 22 books) to take anything from them , or to make any change in them; but it is become natural to all Jews, im- mediately from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain divine doctrines, and to persist in them, and if occasion be, willingly to die for them." ^^ Testimony from such an impartial authority, carries no small weight. The early Fathers of the Church not only watched over the Old Testament in their day, but also gave credit to the unbelieving Jews for preserving their holy Scriptures in their original purity. Eusebms ^^ Josephus did not hesitate to confess of the mass of the people: "I cannot refuse to declare what the nature of the case demands ; I believe if the Romans had hesitated to fall upon this frivolous nation, an earthquake would have swallowed, or a flood would have drowned them, or the lightening of Sodom would have burned them up. For this generation was more wicked, than all those could have been who suff'ered these things." ^^ ''Toaovrov y<\(j aicovog ijf^i] 7taQco')(^rjy.6Tog , ovre, TtQOGd-Hval tiQ 6v8lv, 0VT8 ilqjsXelr dvT(di>, ovre fitrad^tTva' tetoXuriKtv Tldai de ovfxcfiviov ear IP ivdvs ek rfjg nQCorr^g yei'saecog ^Joidmotgto pojul- ^Sip dvTa Qbov doyi^iara, xal tovtoig Ifx^epEiP , ■kol vneQ avidjp, u 6eoi, ^PTJuKtiP Tjd&ojg. Joseph, contra Apion. lib. I. cap. 8. CHAP. I.] HISTORICAL EVIDENCE. 343 agrees with Josephiis Eiud Philo, that up to their time "for the space of more than two thousand years, not one single word in the law of the Hebrews had been altered, and that any Jew would rather die a hundred times, as was shown, than alter the law in the least degree."^' 7. We have seen from a comparison of ancient catalogues of the Old Testament Scriptures, that the same books, bearing the same names which existed in the days of Josephus, were received by the Chris- tians, and by them handed down to the present day; no books beino- lost, and none added to them. We have also shown, that although verbal differences arose from the neglect or ignorance of copyists, which gave rise to different readings in many passages , yet that none of these could be referred to by Mohammed who spoke of wilful corruptions; nor was any one dogma of the Jewish faith thereby affected. ^^ Lastly, the foregoing testimonies of competent and impartial authorities are sufficient to convince us, that with no degree of justice can we accuse the Jews, at any period, of having altered their sacred books. There is however another way of satisfying the ^"^ Usque ad mea tempora per spatium amplius quam duorum millium annorum , ne yerbum quidem fuisse unquam in lege hebraeo- rum mutatum et qiiemlibet Judaeura centies potius moriturum, quam ut pateretur, legem in aliquo mutari." Euseb. lib. III. Eccles. hist, c. 10. and lib. VIU. de praep. Ev. c. 2. ^® God permitted these "variae lectiones" to adhere to His blessed book, to constitute a kind of likeness to the eternal Word, }i6yos, when He had taken the form of a servant, fiogq)tii>^ovlov Xa^<)v, ev OfJLOKDfjiatL (xI'&qojttoov yevojuevos. It made the Bible "in fashion", airifxaTi avQ&^elq , as an ordinary production. Phil. 11. 6—10. 344 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. most sceptical mind, that at no period could there have been the opportunity, even if there had been the desire on the part of the Jews , to corrupt their Scriptures. We possess versions of the Old Testa- ment which agree with the original and with one another;, versions too, which exist in Manuscripts, of dates prior to the rise of Islamism. We commence with those oriental translations, made by the Jews during their exile in Babylon, to supply a national want. Moses and the Prophets ^vl'ote in the Hebrew^ tongue, that the mass of the people might hear and understand the w^ords of the law.^^ During the Cap- tivity, the pure Hebrew dialect being lost for ever, — for it was never restored after their return to Palestine, — the Scriptures read in the synagogue had to be orally translated and explained in the Chaldee lan- guage, and ere long, we find written versions of the original in that tongue. These translations, owing to the analogy of the Hebrew and Chaldee languages, generally required no change of words, but merely an alteration in the grammatical construction. '^ All ob- jections to the high antiquity of these Chaldee ver- sions have been ably refuted."^* The first Tar gum or version of Jonathan, ^ ^ was ^^ Beut. XXXL 11. 2 Chron. XXXIV. 30. Targumim D'^'O^^'nsn; a trace of Targumic rersion is recognis- ed in 'nil "nil , Xafxa (j(x(^ax'&an; Matt. XXVH. 46. HTob -b5< ^bfi< rjn:;!^'. cfr. Psalm XXII. 1. ^^ Aug. Pfeifferi Critica sacra cap. VIII. sect. II. pag. 756. 896. ^^ Jonathan, the son of Uziel, was a disciple of Hillel, and lived about 42 years B. C. "Dicunt de Jonathane fil. Uzelis cum sederet et operaretur legi , quamlibet avem super ipsum voliantem sta- CHAP. I.] CHALDEE VERSIONS OR TARGUMIM. 345 made before Christ and comprised the entire Old Tes- tament ; but onlv the historical books, or the "former prophets," and the prophets properly so called, are now extant. The Jews considered this translation of great weight and authority , as appears from the many fables which they concocted about it ; the work however, seems more a paraphrase than a literal version. The second Targum was made hj Onkelos.^^ This version is four times mentioned in the Talmud, and is considered very faithful and literal. Among the other Chaldee versions, we only mention that, ge- nerally known as the Targum of Jerusalem', though not written in so pure Chaldee as the rest, yet it was no doubt made before the rise of Mohammedanism. The Greek translation of the Old Testament, commonly called the Septuagint, *^* was executed under tim combustam. Baba Bathra f. 134. c. 1. And in Megilla f. 3. c. 1. we read that he wrote his version fi'om the mouths of Haggai, Ze- chariah and Malachi; adding: "turn comniota est terra Israelis ad CCCC parasangas, egressa est filia vocis et dixit: Quis ille, qui re- velavit secreta mea filiis hominum? Constitit Jonathan f. U. super pedes sues, et dixit: ego sum ille, qui revelavi secreta tua filiis ho- minum , verum non ad gloriam meam , neque ad gloriam patris mei, sed ad gloriam tuam." ^^ D"b'P5l5^ surnamed ni»~ the proselyte; said to be (JtyXQOiog with Gamaliel senex. That he was a Babylonian is inferred from his pure Chaldee. The Masora n^no^D, nn'O?;, nn^5^2, from "1D7; tradidlt, or the traditions respecting certain letters, words and verses — first handed down by oral communication and then collected by the Jewish Rabbis, chiefly of Tiberias , between i\\e 3'*^ and the 6*'^ century — was also of service in preserving the sacred text. The rrn^S^O ■'byzi or Masorethae embodied their theological , critical, orthographical or grammatical notices in the so called ITiDl '^'^p, always signifying that which they consider the more correct reading with p, h. e. ■''Ip legito. ^* So called, not so much from "septuaginta interpretes " who 346 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. Ptolemaeus Philadelplins , the generous protector of the Jews, 284 years B. C, and has done more to confirm the mtegrity of the Law than any other event. As the Chaldee versions were made for the benefit of the Jews m Babylon and Palestine, when Hebrew ceased to be a living tongue ; so the Septuagint was made in Alexandria , on behalf of the Jews living in countries where Greeh was spoken. If Kaliph Omar had been anxious to ascertain whether the Jews had corrupted their Scriptures , he might have convinced himself of the contrary, by the examination of the original Manuscripts of this version, which were pro- bably deposited in that celebrated Library which his fanaticism caused to be burned. Happily for our ar- gument and the interests of truth, the Septuagint version, at that period, was spread far and wide."^ Josephus referred to this translation more than to the Hebrew, and Philo used it exclusively. It has been quoted on many occasions in the New Testament, are said to have made this version, as from the fact of its having been approved of, and sanctioned by the Jewish Synedrium existing at Alexandria. There were at Alexandria LXXI seats for the great Synedrium. D^yn\u ->:d nr.T b*:: ni^^mnp nnNi D^yn'sD nn rrn nbl-l> in-in:D bu: ^HNI Gem. Succa fol. LI. c. 2. Quae Raschi in suis scholiis eodem modo exponit: Dnb lUJ^'ll^ D'^-pT 'NT '^ "I>D1 : ■[■'"i^riro namely the Synedrium Alexandrinum. That this version was approved by the Jewish heads at Alexandria, appears from the following, '' TzaQtxaXamtp (Judaei) re dovvixi nal roTg i]yovf.ihoiQ ix.v- 7^v a'payv(5vai rov v6(xov: 7]^i(Daai> re naiTeg, ore legevg xai tcSv sQiiirivacop 6i TTQeofivrtQoi ■nal rov noXitevfxarog oi 7TQOt(jri]Y.orf:q inel xaXojg ra ifig tuf^irfveiag anriQiarai , Kal dumalfixi rav^' ojg 'iyj^L v.al firj (lEiaKLVHV avrd. Joseph. Lib. XII. c. II. p. 397. ""^ At the time of Christ it was quoted: "quia eo tempore ilia erat in gentibus divulgata." Hieron. in cap. XLVII. CHAP. I.] SEPTUAGINT AND PESHITO. 347 but without the defects havmg been adopted which crept into the translation. ^ ^ The Syriac version of the Old Testament com- prises all the canonical Scriptures, and was in all probability a work of the Jews, from whom it received its name."^' It was executed in the first, or certainly not later than the second century. Unlike the Chal- dee versions, the Peshito had not only to adjust the grammatical construction, but to convey the sense of the original in a new form; hence perhaps the name of ''literar translation. If Mohammed had a suspi- cion of the Jews having corrupted their Scriptures, and if he could not satisfy his mind from an inspection of the Hebrew Manuscripts, he had opportunity dur- ing his commercial pursuits in Syria to institute a comparison between the Peshito and the original. The false prophet however, appears not at any time, to have ''inquired diligently" for the truth. The translation of Aquila , which was made for the use of the Jews, in the second century of the Christian era, is an exact and faithful rendering of '*^ They quoted according to this rule: "Ubicunque de veteri in- strumento prophetae et apostoli testimonia protulerunt , diligentius observandum est, non eos verba secutos esse, sed sensum , et ubicun- que septuaginta ab hebraeo discrepant , hebraeum sensum suis ex- pressisse sermonibus." Hieron. Epist. 151. ^^ Peshito means "the Uterair t::l^"5n, Targum, with the Jews, signifies every version into another language. Holy Scriptures are said by them to have a double meaning, viz. l:'U3d the literal sense, and r3^-l73 the learned or allegorical sense. The Hebrew t^^UJD is turned \:-li3D in Chaldee; and in the Syrian N'J^'»:3d. Hottinger, Thesaurus philologic. seu clavis sac. scripturae Lib. I. cap. H. sect. 7. pag. 233—237. 348 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. the original. *^^ The translator was a native of Synope in Pontus, and his version was preferred by the Asiatic Jews to the Septuagint. ^^ That Aquila himself was a Jew, is clear from the inimicial bearing which he frequently evinces towards Christianity. Moham- medans willingly admit that we have the genuine production of a Jew in this version; but though he strains a word here and there to favour the Jew- ish view of the text, Aquila cannot be charged by Christians with having corrupted the word of God. ^° Theodotion a proselyte of Ephesus , revised the Septuagint, and he was followed by Symmachus, who strove to give his version of the Old Testament a clearer and more classical finish, than it had pre- viously received. ^^ At the beginning of the third century, we find a mighty work in the celebrated Hexapla of Origen. 82 ^^ Dli^py in the Hieros. and Dlbp^N in the Babylon. Talmud 'AnvXaQ 6 iJoftiKog; he also is called TTfJOorjlvrog. Iren. III. 24. ^^ ft>tlotiinotEQOi' 7T87Tiarevfjiei>og naqa Jovdaiovg, rifxrfvt.vy.svai TTjp y^c(.^)rfV , w laahata iiddaoiv bi dyrovpreg Tiif^Ei^Qiuoov 8ia- XkXTor lo^a^ai. Origen. Epist. ad African, pag. 13. ^° "Jam pridem cum volumlnibus Hebraeorum editionem Aquilae confero , ne quid forsitan propter odium Christi synagoga mutaverit : et ut amicae menti fatear , quae ad nostram fidem pertineant robo- randam plura reperio." Hieron. Epist. 74. ad Marcel. Op. IV. 2. 61. ^^' "SjTnmachus more suo manifestius." Hieron. Comm. in Jes. I. ^^ "Unde nobis curae fuit omnes veteris Legis libros , quos nos Adamantius in Hexapla digesserat , de Caesariensi Bibliotheca de- scriptos , ex ipsis authenticis emendare , in quibus ipsa Hebraea pro- priis sunt characteribus verba descripta, et Graecis litteris tramite expressa vicino. Aquila etiam et Symmachus, Septuaginta et Theo- dotio suum ordincm tenent. Nonnulli vero libri, et maxime hi, qui apud Hebraeos versu compositi sunt , tres alias editiones additas habent, quam Quintam et Sextam et Septimam translationem vocant, CHAP. I.] DIVERS VERSIONS. 349 In drawing attention to this undertaking, we furnish fresh evidence for estabhshing the integrity of the Old Testament Scriptures, upon a still broader foun- dation. All the translations we have hitherto men- tioned, originated with the Jews; but the Hexapla was the work of a Christian, converted from Heathen- ism, and the weight of this testimony can scarcely, be overrated. In placing the Hebrew, both in its own, and in Greek characters, parallel with the versions of Aquila, Symmachus, his own, that of Theodotion and the Septuagint, (and in some books of the Scriptures, with three other anonymous translations), Origen con- structed an luiparalleled bulwark against any attempts to undermine the integrity of the sacred text. There are only fragments of this valuable work remaining; the Hexapla itself no doubt perished with the Library at Alexandria. At the time of Augustine, several Latin versions were in existence, among which, he gave the preference to the Itala, a work of the second centurv- ^^ St. Jerome first revised this translation in the vear A.D. 382, and Avhilst engaged in this work, he was re- quested by his friends to make a new Latin trans- lation from the original, wdiich was finished A. D. 405, and is known as the Vidgata.^^ Another trans- auctoritatem , sine nominibus interpretum consequeiitas." Hieron. Comm. in Tit. III. ®^ "In ipsis autem interpretationibus Itala caeteris praeferatur: nam est verborum tenacior cum perspicuitate sententiae." August, de Christ, doctr. II. c. 15. ^* "Desiderii mei desideratas accepi epistolas . . . obsecrantis , ut translatum in Latinam linguam de Hebraeo sermone . . . nostrorum auribus traderem." Hieron. praef. ad Pentateuch. 350 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. lation into Etliiojyic — the language of the people who subdued the Jewish kingdom in the south of Arabia — was made in the fourth century. It is said to have been the work of Abba Salama. An entire copy of this version is now being printed in Germany/' Egyptian translations of the Old Testament are found as early as the third and the beginning of the fourth century; both the Coptic version and the translation into the language of Upper Egypt could therefore have been consulted by every one suspecting a cor- ruption of the text of the Old Testament. ^^ The Armenian Church received a version from Miesroh in the fifth century; the Septuagint from which this translation was made, was brought from the Council at Ephesus. Miesrob was assisted by two of his dis- ciples whom he had sent to Alexandria to acquire a knowledge of the Greek/ ^ There is only one more version of the Jewish Scriptures, made before the days of Mohammed, of which we have a detailed ac- count, and that is the Georgian; it was finished in the sixth century/^ 8. All these translations agree with each other, though made in different ages, by people of different views, and with different objects; they exist in Man u- ®^ The learned Orientalist, Dr. Dillmann, Prof, at Kiel, is engaged in carrying this version through the press , after a careful collation of the MSS. extant in Europe. ®^ Vide, Quinque II. Mosis Prophet, in lingua Aegypt. descripti et Lat. versi a David Wilkins , London 1731 , as containing printed samples of the Coptic version. ®' Mosis Chorenensis hist. Armeniae cap. 54. ]3ag. 299. ®® Allg. Biblioth. der biblischen Litterat. I. 153. von Eichhorn. CHAP. I.] ABSENCE OF ARABIC VERSIONS. 351 scripts considerably older than the Koran , and are accessible to any sceptic who may doubt the integrity of the Old Testament. As no dissentient voice then is heard, among all the witnesses that can be sum- moned by either party, the charge which Mohammed brought against the Jews, of corrupting their Scrip- tures, inevitably falls to the ground. But where, we mav ask, is the Arabic version of the Old Testament? — Chaldee Targumim, Syriac, Ethiopic, Egyptian, Greek, Latin, Armenian and Georgian translations were made at an early period, and circulated before even the name of Mohammed was heard of; and yet we seek in vain for an Arabic copy of the Hebrew Scriptures , in the East, before the tenth century of our era, when the Hebrew prophets were translated into Arabic by a Christian priest at Alexandria. ^^ The books of Solo- mon, the book of Ezra, and the Psalms — which as well as the Prophets just now mentioned, are found in the Paris and London Polyglotts — were rendered into Arabic by Abdallah ben Alfadi, in the eleventh cen- tury.'^ Eabbi Saadias-Gaon^^ who died A. D. 942 ^^ Gabr. Sion. praef. ad Psalter. Sjt. Par. 1625. In Spain in- deed, we meet with an Arabic version in the middle of the eighth century, which had been made by John Bishop of Sevilia. "Joannes Hispalensis praesul divines libros lingua arabica donabat utriusque nationis saluti consulens : quoniara Arabicae linguae multus usus erat Christianis aeque atque Mauris; latina passim ignorabatur. Ejus interpretationis exempla ad nostram aetatem conservata sunt; extantque non uno in loco in Hispanis." Mariana de rebus Hispan. lib. Nil. cap. 3. ^° The psalms were printed at Haleb 1706. ^* Paulus Spec. vers. Pent. Arab. pag. 33. ^^ He was a native of Fayum in Egypt, and president of a school at Sora in Babylon. Some ascribe to him a translation of Job and Hosea. 352 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [part ii. left an Arabic Pentateuch, and tlie book of Isaiah with Targumic and Rabbinical exj^lanations. An- other Pentateuch was translated by an African Jew, in the thirteenth century.^" In the year A. D. 1468 Hareth hen Senan translated the Psalms, Job, Pro- verbs, Canticles, Sirach, the minor Prophets, with Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel and Isaiah.^* Lastly, Ara- bic versions were made in behalf of the Roman Ca- tholic Christians in the East, from the Vulgata; but the first of these bears no earlier date than A. D. 1671.^^ This version was reprinted by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1822. The fact of there being no Arabic version of the Old Testa- ment prior to the tenth century, seems incredible. We know that the Jews were sufficiently powerful to found a • Jewish kingdom in the south of Arabia ; how is it that they here, neglected to do, what they invariably did during their sojourn in other lands? For in Babylon, they made a Chaldee, in Egypt, a Greek, in Syria, a Syriac version of their holy books. We also know that there existed several Bishoprics in Arabia, prior to the rise of Islamism;^^ and it is certain that some Churches were there planted by the Apostles themselves. The question therefore arises ^^ Edited as "Pentateuchus Mosis Arabice "by Erpenius 1622. . ^* Copies are preserved in Manuscripts; 2 in Oxford, and 2 in Paris. ^''' Biblia Sacra Arab. s. Congregationis de propaganda fide jussu edita ad usum Eccles. orientalium , additis e reg. Bibliis Lat. Rom. typis sanct. Congreg. 1671. Vol. III. ^^ There was a Bishop of Dhafar, another of Hajran; the Jaco- bites had two Bishops , one at Akula , the other in Hira ; and the Nestorians had one in the Peninsula. Sale's Prelim. Disc. pag. 17. CHAP. I.] EARLY ARABIC VERSIONS DESTROYED. 353 whether the Christians would not have translated the Old Testament into Arabic, within the space of 600 years, as they rendered them into the Syriac, Ethio- pic, Egyptian, Armenian, Greek and Latin tongues. We can scarcely deem it possible, that a Church built upon the joint foundation of the Prophets and Apos- tles, could possibly exist for 600 years without a ver- sion of the Old Testament in the vernacular tongue! We have moreover the testimony of the learned Theodoretus, who lived A.D. 450. that the Old Tes- tament in his day, was translated into every language then spoken. We may then take it for granted, that the Jews and Christians , both of whom so strongly mustered in Arabia, would have made versions of the Old Testament, and that the Arabic though not spe- cified by Theodoretus, A.D. 450 was included. That he did not mention all the translations by name is clear, from his omitting the Chaldee, Ethiopic and Syriac. ^ ^ Inference may in some cases amount to a moral certainty, and in this particular, it seems to justify our assumption of the existence of an Arabic version of Scripture. We have however direct and historical evidence, that the Old Testament had been translated into Arabic at the time when the Ethiopic version was being made. A poem and also a martyrology ^^ "Hebraic! libri non modo in Graecum idioma conversi sunt, sed in Romanani quoque linguam, Aegypticam, Persicam, Indicam, Armenicam, et Scythicani, atque adeo Sauromaticam, seraelque ut di- cam in linguas omnes, quibus ad banc diem nationes utiintur," tig naaag rag yXojxTag vcTg anmta ta e^vrj xsiQT]iiefa diattXtl Theo- doretus lib. V. de Curan. Graecor. torn. II. pag. 521. 354 INTEGRITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. [partii. in Ethiopic , both bear testimony that Aba Sa- lama^^ translated the Scriptures into Geez, and that he made his version from an Arabic text. ^^ Thecon- chision then to which we are driven by our argument is this, that there was an Arabic version of the Scrip- tures in existence before the rise of Islamism ; and but little doubt can exist that Mohammed or his fol- lowers -destroyed it, to remove the possibility of his charge against the "Scripturalists" being refuted. 9. If the Old Testament Scri]3tures be corrupted, as the Mohammedans will have it, then it must follow : that God either would not or could not preserve His own word in its original purity, which is opposed to either His goodness or power ; again, the .only source of our faith is for ever contaminated, since neither the original nor versions can be depended on ; Christ and His Apostles stand convicted of blaming the Jews for minor offences,- whilst they allowed so great a crime to pass unnoticed; the toil and study of Hebrew scholars in investigating and scrutinising the editions of the original have proved utterly unavailing ; all that Philo, Josephus, Eusebius, Origen, Augustine, and others have stated of the scrupulous care of the Jews touching their Scriptures, is false, or the testimonies of these men have likewise been corrupted; the ho- ®® Jobi Ludolphi historia Aethiop. Lib. III. cap. 2. *^ "JTtc ^abeffinier nenncn unter t^ren erftcit ®(au6en^i.^rcbiijent mii \jcrjuc|ncf)cm 9?u^me emen geunffen SlbaSoIama, imb biefcm fd)rei6t eg auA) cm inldnbifcder Jl^id^ter unb ein dtf)ic^ifd)eg 2)^aii^vofogium ju, ba§ er bic SSiid^r be^ @efe|,e0 imb (Si*aiic|eliinne aitg ber 9(rQtnfd)en in ifire ^^>rad;c uievfe|t fjabe." Dr. ^ug'g (Sinleitmig in bie^d)riften be^ nenen !Ieftamente6. Vol. I. pag. 375. See also Ludolphi commentar. in histor, Aethiop. lib. in. cap. 4. pag. 295. CHAP. II.] 'early EXISTENCE PROVED. 355 nour of keeping the oracles of God, as ascribed by St. Paul to the Jews, is nothing less than a cruel and unseemly satire; and Mohammed himself, in seek- ing to build upon Moses and the prophets has cho- sen but a rotten foundation. As these necessary se- quences are utterly opposed to all sense and reason, still more absurd must be the assumption* from which they are deduced. ^ CHAPTER IL THE INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. "Heaven and earth shall pass away hut MY words shall not pass away." Mark XIH. 31. 1. Having repelled the charge of Mohammed against the Jews, we shall now proceed to remove the aspersions which he endeavoured to cast upon the Christians , who are likewise accused of having suppressed some of their Scriptures and corrupted others. In the time of Nero, the Christian Religion had spread not only over Palestine , but throughout the vast Empire of the Romans, aspiring to become, in the full acceptation of the word, the dominant creed of the world. ^ That the New Testament Scriptures were written in the respective countries and ages ascribed to them by the Church, has been satisfactorily tested and in- ^ Gerhardi Loci Theologici torn. II. pag. 261. ^ Vide Taciturn lib. XV. Annal, cap. 44. Also : Suetoniura in Nerone cap. 16. Plinii lib. X. Ep. 97. 356 INTEGRITr OF THE NEW TESTAIMENT. [part ii. controvertibly proved by internal and incidental evi- dence, ^ and also by external historical testimony. * It is not our intention to go over this ground again, but in order to obtain a solid foundation for our present argument, it will be requisite to premise some particulars relating to the early history of the sacred books, included in the New Testament. 2. We have many relics of ancient literature, concerning the genuineness and integrity of which, we are convinced without having any other, than in- ternal evidence. Not so with the New Testament; there is no one book, among all the ancient works of the Greeks and Romans, which has an equal amount of historical evidence as regards its date and origin. Supposing the Scriptures of the Christians to have been written, the first under Nero, the last under Domitian, the witnesses, stretching as far down as Diocletian, would only be two centuries removed from the conclusion of the period in which they were composed. These early writers of the Church have been consulted, with a view to ascertain how soon the books in question had been circulated, and that with eminent success,^ It may be added, that their ^ This was happily done in many instances by Paley , in his "Horae Paulinae," and hy Hug, "Einleitung in das neue Testament." Band I. pag. 9—32. * Lardner's "Credibility of the Gospel History, or the facts occasionally mentioned in the New Testament, confirmed by passages of ancient authors." 1727. ^ Lardner was followed by Ch.. Fr. Schmid in the "Historia et vindicatio canonis." 1775. G. Less in his work: "Ueber Religion, ihre Geschichte und Bestatigung;" 1786. and Paley, "A view of the evidences of Christianity." 1797. CHAP. II.] KNOWN TO THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS. 357 quotations are more exact in citing from the didactic, than from the te^onca/ portions of the New Testament; again , the Old Testament is more carefully quoted, than the New, simply because their readers were better acquainted with the latter than with the former. Clemens Homcmiis, whose "name was in the book of life," Phil. IV. 3. speaks of the Epistle of "the blessed Apostle Paul;"^ and faithfully quotes passages from the Epistles to the Romans and to the Hebrews.^ Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch A. D. 69. who suffered martyrdom under Trajan at Rome, alludes to the di- dactic parts of the New Testament, ^ and also quotes St. Pauls words, "that ye all speak the same thing and be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment."^ In his Epistle to the Church of Philadelphia, he mentions the Gospel and the Apostolic writings conjointly, which impHes, that he was acquainted with both. ^° Polycarp , the disciple of St. John and Bishop of ^ ''Avaka^ete tr]v iniGtolTjv tov juaxaQiov TlavXov rov Ano- aroXov' tl n(j(5TOV v(aIv h (XQxfi tov 'EvayyeUov tyQa\\)tv; eV aXr}- 'd-eurg Tivtvimatixojg insGrtiXtp viilv tteqI dvrov ts nal Kijcpd xal "JnokXoj, dia to xal to e noaxXiatig vj^idg TitTioiiJcF&ca. Clem. Rom. I Epist. ad Corinth, cap. 47. ' Compare Clem. Rom. Epist. ad Cor. c. 35. with Rom. I. 29— 32. and cap. 36. with Hebr. I, 3—7. ® TJavXov avfifivatm tov ayiaa^ievov o Iv ndari imatoXfl ^'vriiiOitvEL vpiQjv if Xqkjtoj 'hidov. Ignat. Epist. ad Ephes. c. 12. ^ Ignat. Ep. ad Ephes. cap. 2. with 1 Cor. I, 10. ^" ngocFCpvycov rco'EvayyeXico ojg aaQKi 'Irjoov, Koi totg dnoGtoloig cog TiQm^vttiJiijd ix)iXj](jiag' Ignat. Epist. ad Philadelph. cap. 5. cfr. also Ignat. ad Trail, cap. XL and ad Philadelph. cap. lU. also ad Smyrn. cap. I. with Matt. XY. 13. IH. 15. where two other quotations occur. 358 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAIVIENT. [partii. Smyrna, who became a martyr A. D. 169, likewise refers to the Epistles generally , * ^ and to that of the Corinthians in particular/^ In his Epistle to the Philippians, he writes, ''Remember M^hat our Lord said, when He taught,- — Judge not that ye be not judged, forgive and it shall be forgiven you; be mer- cifid and ye shall obtain mercy; with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." *^ Bar- nabas , the companion of St. Paul , and according to some. Bishop of Milan , refers to the following words of our Lord, "many are called but few are chosen;"^* and "whosoever will come after me, let him deny him- self and take up his cross and follow me." ^^ Clemens Romanus bids the Corinthians remember the words of the Lord Jesus, and then rehearses several detached sentences from the sermon on the mount, especially as recorded by St. Luke. ^^ Li his second Epistle he adds, "And another Scripture saith. — I came not to call the righteous to repentance but the sinners." ^^ *^ rJavXov, OS ytv6f.ifvoq Iv viuTv xata ttqogcottov rojv rote av- •dQConoov, iiH'dahv (xkqi^co: xal (if-^ivcicos top ne(jl akTj&tiaq Xoyov' 6g xal dnc^'P v(xlv eyfjaiptp liriaroXa^. Polycarp. ep. ad Philip, c. 3. *^ Compare Polycarp. ad Philip, c. 5. with 1 Cor. VI. 9. *^ MvrjaorevGavrtq de (bv knep 6 kvqioq dif^aaKcor' Mr] ygipsre, ha fxrj HQidfjre' ktX. Polycarp. Epist. ad Philip, c. 2. Also Clem. Rom. ad Corinth, c. 13. ** "Attendamus ergo, ne forte, sicut scriptum est, multi vocati, pauci electi inyeniamur." Epist. Barnab. cap. 4. ^^ Oi'Toa, qirjalp Clr^aovg) oi. ^dXopteg fxe idtip xal aypaa&ai fxov trjg ^a'TiXsiag , ocfiEiXovdi 'dXi^eneg xal rta^OPteg Xix^nv (ae. Epist. Barn. cap. 7. Vide Matt. XVI. 24. Mark. VIH. 34. Lu. IX. 23. *^ Clem. Rom. Epist. ad Corinth, cap. 13. with Lu. VI. 36—38. *^ Kai ireoa ygcccprj Xsyei, oti ovx tjX^op naXeaai dixmovg, dXXa djJiaQtcoXovg. Clem. Rom. Epist. II. ad Corinth. CHAP.II.3 KNOWN TO THE EARLY FATHERS. 359 He also refers to the words of our Lord , touching faithfulness in little things, with the special addition that they were found in the Gospel. ^^ More detailed evidence of the existence of the New Testament , than the above , may be deduced from the works of the early Fathers of the Church. Justin Martyr, born in Palestine A. D. 89. was well acquainted with the Gospels ;^^ and whilst merely alluding to the existence of the Epistles, he ascribes the Apocalypse to St. John. ^^ Athenagoras, who died A. D. 180. quotes the first Epistle to the Corinthians, ^ * and shows a general acquaintance with the Epistles of St. Paul. Theophilus, who flourished A. D. 180. speaks of the Gospels, mentions that of St. John by name, refers to the Epistles of St. Paul to the Ro- mans and to Timothy, ^ ^ and is said to have made use of the Apocalypse. In the year A. D. 170. Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, speaks of the New Testament ScrijDtures as the books of the Lord Jesus Christ. ^^ 3. The above quotations prove two things, first, ^8 Clem. Rom. Epist. H. cap. 10. cfr. Lu. XVI. 11. 12. *^ 'Oi yccQ anoaxoXoi h toTc yevojuhoig vti' dvrojv anojiivijfJLO- yevfxaGi, a xaXaTtLxi^EvayysXia, ovroog naQedojxav. Just. Martyr. Apolog. I. cap. 66. pag. 83. "^^ Just. Mar. Dialog, cum Tryph. cap. 81. pag. 179. ^^ Evdr]Xov navrl to keinofxtvov^ on del xara to f dnoazoXov to (fi'&afJtov TOVTO xal diaay.EdccatoP ipdvaaa&ai dcfS^afjatav. Athenag. de resurrect, cap. 18. p. 531. and 1 Cor. XV. 54. ^^ . . . T« tcov nQO(prjT(x)v Hal tcov ivayyeXimv exeiv. Theoph. ad Autolyc. III. pag. 338. and pag. 389. he quotes as 6 'daiog Xoyoq what is written 1 Tim. 11. 2. Rom. XHI. 7. 8. ^^ y{ja(f)al KVQiami. Euseb. H. E. IV. 23. where Dionysius is quoted. 360 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [PART U. that the books of the New Testament existed in the first two centuries and were known among the Chris- tians, and secondly, that they had the same books then, as we have now. That these wTitings should have been corrupted during the above period, is clearly impossible. They could not have been corrupted dur- ing the lifetime of the Apostles, because these Scrip- tures were speedily multiplied and circulated among the Churches, and the greater the number of manu- script copies, the greater the difficulty to alter any portion of them. Nor did the Apostles, or their im- mediate disciples, the Apostolic Fathers, complain of any such corruptions, although they had occasion to censure many a disorder which had crept into the Churches. After the decease of the Apostles, the original Manuscripts of the various detached books of the New Testament, were reverentially preserved in the archives of the principal Churches, and served as a check against any alteration, which might be attempted. Still more weighty, and in the eyes of the Mohammedans, more impartial, must be the evidence which is to be obtained from the enemieswho assaulted, and the heretics wdio separated from the Church, dur- ing the first two centuries. Celsus, an Epicurean phi- losopher, wrote a work^* against Christianity, wdiich has been partially preserved in a refutation by Origen. He refers to the various miracles, wrought by our Lord, and gives many details of His passion ; and all these things, he states, had been written by His dis- ^* He gaye it the arrogant title of "L^At^^jJ^ 'koyog'^ CHAP. 11] QUOTED BY ENEMIES AND HERETICS. 361 ciples.^^ AltlioLigli lie speaks of these writings as the Gospel,"^ ^ yet he plainly indicates two of the Evan- gelists, (St. Matthew and St. Luke), when he states, that those writers assume too much, who trace the lineal descent of Jesus, the one genealogically to the first man, the other, to the Jewish kings. ^^ As Celsus refers, in one part of his work, to Christ being asked in the temple, ^^ by the Jews for a sign to prove His divine Sonship; and in another part, to the fact of His showing His wounds in His side and hands after His Resurrection;^^ and also alludes to the ivord, being declared in the Gospel to be the Son of God;^^ we have a threefold proof that he was acquainted with the Gospel of St. John. That Celsus was also in possession of the remain- ing Gospel of St. Mark , is placed beyond all doubt, by his urging it as a point of disagreement between the writers of the Gospel, that, "some say there were ^^ Tovg dh (jia&ritaq, rovg xard thv ''Jt] ; not being put with the sacred books in the holy chests , but separately in secret places ; a manuscript having 4 mistakes in one leaf, was hid. Justin, Dialog, c. Tryph. translates with acpaveg TToieiv; in op- 364 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [PARTir. Apostolic Fathers were sometimes read in the Churches, it became necessary to set forth catalogues of those Scriptures which were to be considered canonical. The first of these is found in the Homilies of Origen upon the book of Joshua, where he gives an allego- rical exposition of the seven trumpets of rams' horns." The first, he saith, who blew the trumpet, was Mat- thew, then Mark, Luke and John among the Evan- gelists; Peter in two Epistles, then James and Jude. John resumed the trumpet-call in his Epistles and the Apocalypse, and Luke in the Acts of the Apos- tles. But Paul, the last, threw every thing down before him with the twice seven-fold sound of his Epistles." Eusebius in his Church History, classifies the entire body of the sacred literature of the Christians into three divisions ;^^ the first of which, consisted of books which were universally acknowledged as divine, comprising the four Gospels , the Acts , the Epistles of St. Paul , the first Epistle of St. John , the first Epistle of St. Peter, and the book of Revelation. The second division, ^^ embracing the Epistle of St. James, that of St. Jude, the second of St. Peter, and the position to this , Origen uses the expression (ftav^ga ^i^h'a ; Epist. ad Afric. cap. 9. The first who uses diT6xQV(fOS is Clemens Alex. lib. III. cap. 4. 3® Euseb. Eccles. Hist. lib. HI. cap. 25. also explanatory lib. III. cap. 3. and cap. 24, The 3 divisions were ofioXoyoviiiewi , dpti- Xtyovjxtvoi and vo'&a. ^^ Not to be confounded with the navttlfSg vo^a; and held nagd TiktuTToig roor iy.HXtaia(7Tix(dv; yv(aoi(xa n olXolq. lAh. III. cap. 25. jUfcta t(Si' Xoinm iv nXeiarcag iKy.Xemats naija noXXolg dedrji-ioaitvixtva. III. 31. CHAP. II.] ORIGIN OF VARIOUS READINGS. 365 second and third of St. John, was received by many, but had been doubted by some. This uncertainty was removed by the Council of Nice, when they were received into the Canon. The third and last division of the Christian books by Eusebius, comprised wri- tings of an apocryphal character, such as "the Acts of Paul," the "Shepherd of Hermes," the "Epistle of Barnabas," the "Apocalypse of Peter" and the "teach- ings of the Apostles.'*^ With this third class of books we must not confound the many spurious Gospels, of Peter, Thomas and Matthias, or the Acts of Andrew, John and other Apostles; together with many other fabulous and heretical productions, which Eusebius pronounced to be godless and pre- sumptuous, and unworthy to be classed among his third and last division. '^^ 5. Thus we see, that no small care was bestowed upon the collection and preservation of the books of the New Testament. They were religiously set apart, and no other book could gain admission among their number, under whatever name it might claim to be admitted.*^ In proportion to the fear of the Catholic *^ ^Ev ToTg DO'doiQ YMJatBTaidfi) y.a\ rdjv TIavXov TiQa^ecov 7] yQccqrj , o, re Xeyofxtvog Ttoifxrii', nal i) (xTTOKaXvxpig TltTQOv. Kal nyos Tovioig rj (paQO/jiapt] BaQia^a iTTiatoXi] , mxI icov AnoGtoXo^v^ ai Xtyoixevai Sida^ai. Euseb. Hist. Eccl, lib. III. cap. 25. *^ ^'O'&sv ov d' €V r6doi2 aita Y.ataraKriov , vcXk' (og arona nd'Prri xal dvcrat^tj naQaitrjisof. Euseb. Hist. Ecc. lib. IH. 25. *' "Sicut olim in populo Judaeorum multi prophetiam pollice- bantur, et quidem erant pseudoprophetae . . . : ita et in N. Testaraento multi conati sunt scribere Evangelia, sed non omnes recepti. Et ut sciatis non solum quatuor EA^angelia, sed plurima esse conscripta, ex quibus haec, quae habemus, electa sunt et tradita ecclesiis y ex ipso 366 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. Church, lest a book should be received upon insuffi- cient authority, was the zeal to preserve those which were admitted in their original integrity. Yet in spite of the greatest watchfulness, some discrepancies crept into the sacred text; partly through the inattention of the copyists, jDartly from other causes, which cannot be left unnoticed. Unintentional " Variae lectiones" not unfrequently arose here, as in the Old Testament, from the copy- ists sometimes "seeing amiss," and so exchanging letters, transposing words and sentences, and making repetitions ; * ^ from hearing amiss they were also liable to" commit numerous mistakes.** To these may be added, faults arising from want of memory, such as, misplacing words; and exchanging synonymous ex- pressions;*^ faults arising from want of knowledge, prooemio Lucae . . . cognoscamus . . . Hoc , quod ait, conati sunt, la- tentem habet accusationem eorum, qui absque gratia Spiritus S. ad- scribenda Evangelia prosilierunt. Matthaeus quippe et Marcus et Johannes et Lucas non sunt conati scribere, sedSpirituS. pleni scrip- serunt Evangelia. . . Ecclesia {y.ara top i^y.XtmcxoTiy.ov xarofcx Euseb. VI. 25) quatuor habet Evangelia, haereses plurima; e quibus quoddam scribitur secundum Aegyptios, aliud juxta duodecim Apo- stolos . . . Sed in his oranibus nihil aliud probanms, nisi quod Eccle- sia, i. e. quatuor tantum Evangelia recipienda." Origen. Homil. I. in Luc. m. 933. *^ Exchanging letters: Mark. V. 14. dv/.yyeihxv for anryyuXav. Act. XXVII. 6. (XT^^ilSaa^v for Ive^l^adtv. Rom. XII. 13. (xitiag for ^(jeiag. Transposing: Rom. I. 13. xagnop nva for t//« klxquov. Repetition: 1 Thess. II. 7. iytfi]ift^i.itp p/j/tiol for i-'yaf'T]. i]7noi. ** Thus Rom. II. 17: X8f^. for ti 8L 1 John IV. 2: yiixocjKtxai for yi'VQO'iv.t'TB. Matt. XXVII. 60: K6io} for Kcuiw. *"'' John XVI. 22. vvp fxh Xvnrfp for Lvnr^v }.uv pvv. Rev. XVII. 17. xa ^^fAuta for 6i /.oyoi. CHAP. II.] ORIGIN OF VARIOUS READINGS. 367 where abbreviations were mistaken for single letters, or words were wrongly divided.*^ More or less intentional , tliougli certainly not malicious, were other mistakes committed in the act of transcribing the books of the New Testament. It was the natural wish of the early Christian tran- scriber and reader to render the text of the sacred books as plain as possible, and with a view to accom- plish this object, they sometimes wrote a more in- telligible word over , or on the margin of an unusual expression. A Greek reader for instance, considering that the term used for tribute-money was not ge- nerally intelligible, placed a more purely Greek word by its side, and a subsequent copyist introduced the word from the margin into the text, and thus caused a different reading.*^ Another took the events re- corded Luke Xll. 38. as happening during the day- time;**^ to prevent misunderstanding, he followed the computation of the Romans , who divided the day as w^ell as the night into four watches, and instead of "the third watch" added by way of explanation, "the evening watch;" a mistake, afterwards copied into the text of several Manuscripts. Again, another reader conceiving that the thirty pieces of silver. Matt. XXVI. *^ We refer only to 1 Tim. III. 16. where ©^ was taken 02^ or the reverse. Mistakes such as avveTTKJKOTTOig for avi> eTTiciKOJioig Phil. I. 1. will easily be accounted for, when we remember that the original MSS. were not divided into words or sentences. *^ KfjV(Jog was superseded by iniKSCfixhuov. Mark. XII. 14. In Pet. II. 20. instead of y.oXacfi^oiJieioi, some Codd. read xo/^a^ojiievoi. *® The third Hebrew watch T(jirrj (fi Xaxrj answers to the Greek (Aeaopvy.tiov ; the day being divided in qiiatiior excubias; the third of these day-watches was therefore the eunefjui] (pvXaK^. 368 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT [part ir. 15. seemed to require explanation — being intelligible only to the Jews — ventured to subjoin the equivalent Greek sum of ''thirty staters," in the margin, which was eventuallv substituted in the text of some Mann- scripts for ^'thirty pieces of silver." Another critical reader of Mark X. 12. not finding it consonant to the taste and manners of the Greeks, that a woman should "put cavay her husband ^ their laws endowing the man only with power, to put away his wife, the Cam- bridge Manuscript turns the sentence thus, "if a woman go forth from her husband, and be married to another etc."*^ The following expression, "to catch something out of His mouth," was considered too Hebraically idiomatic for the Greeks, and was there- fore rendered in this form, "seeking occasion to find something to accuse him."''^ The many other Hebra- isms, which constitute so striking a peculiarity of the New Testament, did not meet with greater indulgence from the fastidious Greek orammarians. The harsh inflexions and foreign combinations of the various parts of speech could not fail to create a desire for correction, in a people who thought so much of purity of style and diction; hence, the purely Hebraic ex- pression, "and he added to send another servant"^* *^ rvvrj iccp i^sX-dri dno rov ardijog xal yafjirjari, thus accom- modating it to Grecian law, which only gives man the power of anoXvtiv and aTionif-tntiv. ^° Zrjrovr^s^ 'driQf-vmxL Ti ix tov OTO/jnros dviov Lia, KtX. be- comes: ^ijovvKQ dqofjuiiv tiva Xn^tlv dvTOv ha 8V(j(Dai r.atayo- QriGai. Lu. XI. 54. ''^ Ka\ TTQoat&fTO TTtuxpai h'"wb t]DV is rendered Lu. XX. 11. at once aTTf-uxpi-f. Mark. II. 15. ei- toJ xaTaKtladm dvrov is made, aazaxtijuefOiP avrcof. See also John XL 33. where we read in CHAP.iL] ORIGIN OF VARIOUS READINGS. 369 was more concisely rendered by, "and he sent another servant." The rough Hebrew construction Lu. Vll. i. "now when He had ended all his sayings in the audience of the people," was rendered by the more smooth and classical Greek, "when He had finished speaking all these words. He came to Capernaum." ^^ Other dis- crepancies arose, from the desire of making the text more clear and perspicuous ; by adjoining parallel passages from the other Evangelists, merely for the purpose of illustration, and these notes gradually in- truded into the text itself. To give only one striking instance, — Mark, XIII. 2. Our Lord speaking of the destruction of Jerusalem says, "there shall not be left one stone upon another," to which the Cambridge addition adds, "I will build it again in three days without hands;" absurdly interpolating these words from St. John n. 1 9. The JDiatessarons of the Gospels also contributed their share to the variety of readings; one of these was made by the disciple of Justin Mar- tyr, the heretical Tatian. The Cambridge Manuscript e. g. must have borrowed from one of them, the words in Matt. XXVn. 28: "And they put on Him a purple garment and clothed Him with a scarlet robe ;" clearly a combination from the other Evangelists.^^ Cod. D , Itagai^rj tw 7tiev.f.iatL cos ln^QifAWf-iivoq , instead of the textus ruceptus. ^^ ''End da inXrjgixXTe nana xa Qrif^iata dvtov iig rag dy.oag tov Xaov liGfj'kd-tv iig Kty.neQ. is turned into the easy Greek sentence : ore iteXf-(T8v nana t« ^rjjuara hxXdov, fik&ev kg Ka^fe^j, k. t. A. Mark. XIV. 25. they put: ovKtn 6v fii] nico instead of 6v (xij nQO- adco nitiv. ^^ 'Exdvaaneg dvrop, lijumov noQCfVQovv Kat ^(Xaiuda xomCpTjv Y 370 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ir. Lastly, we find omissions wliere synonymous expres- sions occur; these being defects of composition wliicli no polished Greek could permit, he would naturally eject, what in his opinion would be tautological: thus the synonymes in Mark. Vin. 15 — ''Tahe heed, heware of the leaven of the Pharisees etc. etc." being looked upon in this light, the former one was omitted. In the passage Mark. XI. 28. "by what authority doest thou these things, and who gave thee this au- thority to do these things?" the second clause of the interrogation was considered redundant, and therefore struck out. For the same reason in Lu. XXL 15. — "your adversaries shall not be able to gainsay or re- sist," the last verb was omitted.^* 6. Among these "variae lectiones" justly com- plained of by Clemens Alexandriniis , Orige^i and others, ■'^^ there is not o/i^ instance of wilful corruption, properly so called. Nor is it possible for Mohammed or any other enemy of Christianity to point out the malicious suppression , addition or perversion of any 7isQi8&/JKav dvrw. Now Mark XV. 17. had a TtOQqvQixr; Luke XXni. 11. has the ia^iita; John XIX. 2. has the ijuKxtiov noQ- (pvQovv ; the irdvovmv Mark had to give ; and Mathew furnished the yXaixvda xoKHiirfP. ^* Mark Xll. 23. instead of ii> rf^ dvaatdaei , otav dfaatojcnf several Codd. simply: ii' tfj dvaataaei. ®^ MaxuQioi, (fVimv, oi dsdicoyiJitvoL tpexev diy.moovnjq , oti dv- toi viol d^tov Khfdrjaonai' ;;, (ogrireg loov fjiEtati&ii'toj'V xd ivayyeXia, May.dgioi, q)i]mv, 6i dediioyiuLifOi vno tf^Q 6iyMio(Tvvr]g, on dvTol mortal taXtioi ' Clem. Alex. Strom. I. IV. cap. 6. p. 490. Again: Nvn da (irjXovori TToXkr] yeyov^v tj raif dvTiygdqiWP 6iaq)0()d, iirs dno (ja^vfiiag nroop ygacpeoDf , iitt dno roX/irjg iivm> (AOid}]- Qdg TTJg 6io(jd^(oGt(x>g rcov yQaqiOjLUitfCor , iita y.ai dno t(Sv td eav- toig doy.ovrta h- rfi dioij&dmei TTQoari'&htcoi' 7] dcpaiQovvrojv. Origen. Comm. in Matt. XV. Vol. III. pag. 671. ed. Ruaei. CHAP. II.] AN INSTANCE OF WILFUL CORRUPTION. 3 7 1 book or passage in the New Testament. It may not however be ahogether majDpropriate, to bring forward an example of such corruption, as might well justify the accusation of Mohammed, had it been perpetrated by the Church , instead of by a heretic , cast off from her communion. — Marcion, a heretic of the second century, made it his object to destroy what he con- sidered the Judaism of Christianity ; portions of his work, which he called the Antitheses , from its giving his view of the antithetical character ofthe New Tes- tament, are handed down to us by Theodoretus.^® He even went so far as to severally reject the Apos- tles, whom he considered imbued with Jewish preju- dices , St. Paul , only excepted , whose Epistles he partially admitted. Of the Gospels, he considered St. Luke's the least to be suspected of Jewish ten- dencies, he being the friend and companion of St. Paul; nevertheless he altered passages and even ex- punged entire portions from St. Paul's Epistles, and still more from the Gospel of St. Luke, which to his mind were objectionable.^^ The Epistles to the He- brews, Titus and Timothy he utterly rejected; and ^^ Theodoret. haeret. fab. lib. I. cap. 24. ^'^ Marcion's followers maintained that the words of Christ Matt. V. 17. must be reversed: 6vi ovt(DQ da SLTrav 6 XQiatog, X&yei yuQ, ovK i]Xdov nXi]Q(SGai tov vofiov, akXic xataXvaai. Dialog. (Pseudo-Origenis) contra Marcionitas Sec. II. pag. 63. How Marcion dealt with St. Luke's Gospel may be gathered from Epiphan. adv. haeres. XLII. §. 11. 12. A collation ofthe above, vide, Sef)rhi{^ ber :^iftcrifd);fritifcf)en (Sinlettitng in bie fanonifd^en ^ii(f)er be^ Dfleueii S'efia; meiite^ von Dr. 2)u S. be ^tiU. 4. Stitfi. pag. 106—112. His alterations ofthe Epistles were exposed e. g. Iren. adv. haer. I. 27. 1. Tertull. adv. Marc. I. V. Epiph. adv. haer. XLH. §. 9. Hieron. comm. in Epist. ad Galat. T* 372 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. this wholesale alteration or rejection was justified by theMarcionites, who considered this sacrilegious abuse in the light of extending to the New Testament ''the benefit of medical treatment." ^^ The grounds upon which Marcion endeavoured to introduce his new Gospel, were in some respects similiar to those, upon which Mohammed ushered his Koran into the world: both pretended that the originals had been corrupted, but with this difference, • that Marcion fixes his accusation u]3on the Apostles in particular, instead of the Christians in general/^ In thus throwing the act of corruption upon the au- thors of the books, ^^ he cuts off" all possibility of showing to the world, by v;hat means he himself ob- tained the original in its integrity. Hence Tertullian in his argument with him, asks, whether he does not see, that by his charge he reproached Christ Himself, for choosing such untrustworthy and faithless Apos- tles, ^ * and requests to be informed, from what source he obtained the true Gospel; adding, that from the time of Tiberius to that of Antoninus , Marcion was the first who dared to take upon himself the ofifice ^® Tertull. lib. I. adv. Marcion cap. XX. ''^ In his "Antitheses" he starts from the charge of St. Paul against St. Peter Galat. II. 9 — 13. and suspects the Apostles in general of Judaising principles , which impelled them to corrupt the Gospels. "Praevaricationis et simulationis suspectos queritur usque ad depravationem Evangelii." Tertull. lib. IV. cap. 3. '^^ "Semetipsum esse veraciorem, quam sunt hi qui Evangelium tradiderunt Apostoli, suasit (Marcion) discipulis suis, non Evangelium, sed particulam Evangelium tradens eis." Iren. adv. haeres. lib. I. cap. 27. «^ Tertull. lib. IV. cap. 3. CHAP. II.] HOW DEALT WITH BY THE CHURCH. 373 of emending the Gospels, nor indeed did they require emendation. ^ ^ Here then, we have an instance of the New Tes- tament Scriptures having suffered corruption; not however from the parties, accused by Mohammed, but from an adversary of the Church , who at that perilous hour, when the truth was so fiercely attacked, wanted not champions, earnestly to "contend for the faith." In writings which are preserved to this hour, they pointed out what Scriptures had been altered, which portions omitted, and what passages were cor- rupted. This is what we might justly have looked for, from Mohammed : with his charge, we had a right to expect that kind of proof, which the Fathers brought forth conjointly with their charge against Marcion. But Mohammed failed to prove even the existence of those passages concerning himself, which he ac- cuses the Christians of having suppressed; neither has he pointed out in what the alterations consist, nor where they are to be found. 7. We have now noticed the early existence of the books in question ; and have repelled the charge of Mohammed from evidence , gathered out of the Avritings oi enemies 2iS well as oi friends, during the ^^ "Emendator sane Evangelii a Tiberianis usque Antonina tem- pora eversi Marcion solus et primus obvenit , expectatus tamdiu a Christo poenitente jam, quod Apostolos praeraisisse properasset sine praesidio Marcionis; nisi quod humanae temeritatis, non dirinae auctoritatis negotium est haeresis , quae sic semper emendat Evan- gelia dum vitiat itaque dum emendat , utrumque confirmat , et nostrum alterius, id emendans quod im^enit : et id posterius , quod de nostri emendatione constituens suum fecit." Tertull. lib. JS^. adr. Marcion cap. 3 — 4. 374 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. first two centuries. We have examined the most an- cient catalogues of the New Testament Scriptm-es, and have found in them the very saline books , which existed in the days of Mohammed , and which are in our possession at this day. Again, we have seen that the different readings, which had here and there crept into Manuscripts, could not possibly be, what Moham- med referred to in his charge against the Christians : for the ivilfid corruptions which were perpetrated by certain heretics, were detected and exposed by the Fathers of the Church , in a manner worthy of Mo- hammed's imitation, and lono^ before he uttered his charge/^ For the further establishment of the integrity of the New Testament Scriptures, we now appeal to those venerable Mamiscrijyts , written prior to the rise of Islamism. Their respective ages are indicated, by the changes which were effected from time to time in the shape of the letters, the style of the handwriting, the materials on which they were executed, as well as other particulars connected with their internal ar- rangement/* Auxiliary helps for the discovery of the ^^ "Etsi miilta depravere conati sint haeretici ," scribit Bellar- minus lib. U. de Verbo Dei cap. 7, "tamen nunquam defuerunt ca- tbolici, qui eorum corrujatelas detexerint, et non permiserint libros sacros corrumpi." Plurima ex toto nov. Test, abstulit, mutavitqiie Marcion, sed ilia omnia fere notarit Epiphanius haeres. 42. et in nostris codicibus recte habentur." Gerhard. Loci Theolog. Vol. II. pag. 278. ^* "!I)te dlteften ^anbfd)riften fmb mit l'lncial[d:)vift gefc^rte&en, ireld^c jcbcd^ nic^t immer ein fic^ere^ Beictjen be^ 9nter^ ift, bie jiingeren (wm 10. 3al)rf). an) mit (5urfu^f(f)rift Seid;t fanii man ben ciltcren anfrec^ten, iner; ecttgen, ritnben (Sd;riftrf)ara!fter lu^m f^nitern gebrucften imterf(f)etben : bet geubtc bi^'^lLtmatifrf^e ^M ivetp nrd) feinere Untevfd^iebe ju ftnben. 2)er CHAP. II.] PROVED BY ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 375 ages of Manuscripts are afforded by Cliurcli Alma- nacks, ecclesiastical registers, notices of the festivals, marginal explanatory notes, psotscripts, and otber ad- ditions, wliicli were frequently appended to these an- cient documents by the calhgraphers. Some historical hints may also be gathered, by which to judge of the age of the Alexandrian Manuscripts. Strabo for in- stance , mentions two cities , Alexandria and Rome, in which the making and selHng of Manuscripts was a regular branch of trade/ ^ Some celebrated names are met with among the Alexandrian calhgraphers; one Philodemus, who became blind in the pursuit of his art,®^ and another, Hierokas, who prosecuted the tedious work of copying till his ninetieth year with unfailing sight. ^' But as we approach that period of decay which commenced with the conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, we find the Greeks withdrawing themselves from this laborious means of earning their bread; and leaving calligraphy to the native Copts, ^^ they became soldiers and taxgatherers, by which they SDZan^el bet 3Borta6tf)c{tung i^ cm fid^ercrc^ 3ei^en beg Stlter^ aU bcr ber Stccente itnb ber 3ntenmn!tion , tnbcm jene auc^ in jiingeren Jgianbfd^riften fe&Ien, btefe in dlteren vorfcmmt. ttnfic^er ifl bag SDlerfmal ber @ticf)o; mctrie unb ber ^a)3iteleint:^eihmg ober bag ^c:^Ien berfelben. 5)ie tftt^U fcf)reiberei UU fluf bag 33atertanb fd^Iief en. be SBette'g 2tl)xHd) pag. 63. «^ Strabo lib. XIH. p. 419. Whilst Greek >ISS. were chiefly made and sold in Alexandria , Latin ones were made itg TiQaavv in Rome. ^^ Athol. Graec. H. Grotii lib. VI. epigr. Juliani Aegyptii 6. et 7. Brunck, analecta Tom. II. pag. 495. 496. «^ Epiphanius Haeres. LXVU. §. 3. pag. 712. edit. Colon. ^^ Renaudot. Histor. Patriarchar. Alexandrinor. Benjamin Patr. XXXVni. pag. 164. The author procured an Arabic MS. of this work from Egypt. 376 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. made themselves so hated that A.D. 641. they were all ultimately driven out of the country. The sale of Manuscripts was at length impeded through the Sa- racens having interrupted the connection with the Empire of Constantinople; in addition to which the Copyists were deprived of the beautiful originals, which were destroyed with the Alexandrian Library. But few Manuscripts embrace the entire New Testament; most of them contain only parts, more frequently the Gospels and St. Paul's Epistles, many only the lessons and Gospels required to be read in Churches. Some give the text with a parallel ver- sion and explanatory notes. The Codices themselves, as regards their form, consist not of rolls as the He- brew Manuscripts, but of, from four to eight sheets oi parchment, silk, cotton or linen paper stitched to- gether. The oldest Manuscript in our posession is that preserved in the Vatican Library at Rome, ^^ consisting of the Old and the New Testament; though of the latter, the Epistles to Timothy, Titus, Philemon, the end of the Epistles to the Hebrews and the Apo- calypse have 23erished. This Manuscript is written on the finest parchment, in the most simple, uniform and beautiful characters. All the letters are placed at equal distances, there being no division of words. To denote the beginning of a new section, the space of the breadth of a letter, or half a one, is left vacant. It has three columns on each leaf, and is broader 6^ Known as Codex B. or Vatic. 1209. The naming of MSS. with letters , probably commenced in some incidental way without any scientific definition. CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 377 than long. The ink, having grown pale by age, has been revived by a later hand, and in some places words and sentences have been re- written at the side of the original. '° Whenever punctuation occurs, which is seldom the case, it has been added at a subsequent period. These are all marks of great antiquity ; but there are tivo points, which will enable us to fix its age more definitely. St. Basil born at Cesarea A.D. 329. states, that according to the learned doc- tors of the Church who lived before him , the words "m Ephesus' Ephes. I. 1. had been wanting in the ancient Manuscripts, and he himself had seen them omitted in Old Manuscripts. The" Vatican Codex therefore must have been old in his dan, for it is with- out the words in question , which are only placed in the margin. ^ ^ The second point by which the date of the Va- ^^ The Manuscript has internal marks of its having been written by an Egyptian Calligrapher. Instead of cruAAT^ipr/, Xt'ipsads, Xrjqi^T]- asrai , dvaArjq'd^ri we have ov}.h]fji\pri, XrjitapsaOk , Xj^in(f)&j]atTai and uieXriJLKpd^r]. This peculiar orthography is only found in Graeco- Coptic monuments. In Coptic manuscripts we have anoy.aXvfxxpig instead of dnoKaXvxpig. In Graeco-Thebaic fragments of St. John's Gospel Vn. 52. we have ixTtty.Qi&riGav y.al Imav. So Codex B. al- ways writes iidar , entaav , rjX'&av Lu. IX. 36. e,(x)Qay,ap and Rom. XVI. 7. ytyovav. ""^ ^Ev ^Eq)6(Tco. He says: the Apostle called his readers oVra^, and that he did so: IdiaCoitrog , exclusively or peculiarly, adding: ot'Tco yag xal ol TtQo tj/ucop naQadtdcoxam , y.ai rifitlg iv xoTq na- "kaioiz tojp dvriyQa(f(x)V evQi]yafAEV. Basilius Editio princeps Vened. 1535. pag. 127. St. Jerome also assumes that the words were not in the text in the original MSS. He says, some think St. Paul would denominate the readers " essentiae vocabulo , utabeo, qui est , qui sunt appellentur'" but others hold, that the Epistle was not ad- dressed "ad COS qui sunt" but " ad eos qui sunt Ephesi." Hieron. ad locum. Hug de antiquitate cod. Valic. pag. 26. 378 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. tican Maniismpt can be determined, is the order in which the Epistles are placed.'^ The Epistles of St. Paul being taken as a whole, are divided into so many sections or chapters. Those to the Koreans, Corin- thians, Galatians, stand in the order in which we now have them. The last EjDistle concludes at the fifty- ninth division; the next, that to \\\e Ephesians, begins with the seventieth instead of the sixtieth section, the figures afterwards continuing regularly through the Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians and Thes- salonians, the last ending with the ninety-third divi- sion. We naturally inquire, where are the missing sections, between the numbers fifty-nine and seventy, i. e. between Galatians and Ephesians ? We find them in the Epistle to the Hebrews, which stands in this Manuscript, after those to the Thessalonians, but commences with the sixtieth instead of the ninety- fourth section, as we should expect. From this ir- regular enumeration we infer, that the Epistle to the Hebrews, in the original collection, stood immediately after that to the Galatians, but was subsequently pla- ced, where we now find it in this Manuscript. '^ Now at the time when the Manuscript in question was written , it is evident , that this transfer must have been of so recent a date, that the former mode of reckoning the sections was retained, although the " Dr. Hug, Einleitung in das Neue Test. Vol. I. 237. ''^ Epiphanius at a later period records, that there were two kinds of manuscripts, some of them placing Hebrews after the Epis- tles to Timothy , Titus and Philemon ; others placing it after the second Epistle to the Thessalonians. Epiphan. Haeres. XLH. p. 373. juxta Petav. coloniens. CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 379 position of the Epistle itself had heen altered. In the catalogue of Athanasius, we find the Epistle to the Hebreivs placed after those addressed to the Thes- salonians. Had this alteration taken place before the time of Athanasius borii A.D. 296, tjie Vatican Co- dex must necessarily be of an earlier date than this ; on the other hand , if Athanasius was the first who placed the Epistle to the Hebrews after Thessalonians, then the ManuscrijDt may have been written during his lifetime , when the 7iew arrangement had not yet become universal.^* At all events, the arrangement of Athanasius was universally adopted in the fourth century; ^^ and as it is clear that this Manuscript must have been written at a period prior to the uni- versal adoption of the new arrangement , or at a time when it was first introduced, we must assign to it a date not later than the beginning of the fourth century. ^ ^ The so-called Alexandrian Codex, in the British Museum, ^' likewise comprises the Old and NewTes- ^* Vide, Hug-, de antiquitate Codicis Vaticani commentatio. '^ Ta da rfjs xaiv^s diad^rjnrjg tavxa ^Evayyeha tiaaaga, Kara Mar&., K. Magx., n. Aovk,, xara ^lojdv. Ilgd^tig AcpoGroXmv' ^Eni- otoXal Kad^ohxal eTTta, ovjcog' ^laxcol^ov fxia, fltTQOV dvo, ^Imdifov TQiig, ^Jovda jtiia' ^ETTiatoXal dexareaaixgag, ovrcog' Tigog I^coili. fAia, ngog Kog. 6vo, ngog FaX. uia, ngog^'E^pm. fxia, rrgog ^iX. fxia, Ttgog KoX. juia, ngog Qsaa. dvo, ngog 'E^g. uia, ngog QipLO^. dvo, ngog Tit. jJia, ngog ^hXr^fx. juia. Coiicil. Laodic. between 360 — 364 apud Mansi. Concil. noy. et ampliss. collect. 11. pag". 574. ^^ Montfancon places Cod. B in the 5^^ or 6*^ century; Blanchini in the 5*^; Hug- in the 4*^ century. '^ Codex Alexandrin. Mus. Britannic, is known under the figure A. The N. T. begins Matt. XXY. 6. up to which it has been de- stroyed ; otherwise it is complete with the exception of John VI. 380 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. tament. The order of the books is the same as in the Vatican Manuscript; Hebreius taking its place after Thessalonians. The letters are similar, only a little larger ; the whole is written in two columns. We find no accents, aspirates or division of words; and the inscriptions are most simple. It was printed A. D. 1786.'® The absence of the divisions oiEuthalius, and of other marks of a later date, are sufficient evi- dences that it was written before the second half of the fifth century. The orthography indicates its Alex- andrian origin.'^ The Parisiaii Coclex^^ embraces parts of the Old, and the whole of the New Testa- ment; and resembles, in all important points, the Va- tican and Alexandrian Manuscripts. Considering that it has less of punctuation and fewer additions of a later time than the Alexandrian Codex, it is rightly considered the older of the two. That it was also of Egyptian origin is proved by its orthography.®* The Dublin Manuscript of the Gospel according 50 — Vm. 52. and 2 Cor. IV. 13 — XH. 2. It was given to Charles I. by Cyi'illus Lucaris , first Patriarch of Alexandria , afterwards of Constantinople. '® Nov. Test. Graec. e cod. Alexandrino, qui Londoni in Biblio- theca Musei Britannici asservatur, descriptura a Godofr. Carolo Woide. ^^ Here also we have in Mark. XII. 40. hjin\poitai; XVI. 24. X7]iA\p8a'&e. Lu. Xin. 11. apaxvfjiipvcL Act. X. 39. availav. ^° Codex C. n. 9. Regio-Parisinus, also called rescriptus or palim- psestus , Cod. or Ephraem Syri , because the original having been partially effaced with a spunge , ascetical essays of Ephrem were written upon the parchment ; but the original still shows through. It was wi'itten according to Wetstein before 542. Hug makes it older than Cod. A. ®' Lu. I. 31. (xi'a)ir]ij\pe(og. Act. I. 2. itnav. Matt. X. 13. iX- CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 381 to St. Mattheiv is of importance, inasmucli as it sup- plies the lost portion of the Codex Alexandrinus.^^ Judging from the absence of accents , the paucity of punctuation, and from other marksof antiquity which have been noticed in connection with the above-men- tioned Manuscripts, we cannot ascribe a more recent date to this noble fragment of the New Testament than we assigned to the Parisian Codex. ^ ^ The C«m- hridge Codex^^ contains the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles , and was written after Sticho- metry had come into practice. It presents the Greek text on one side, and on the other, one of those Latin versions which were in existence before St. Jerome executed the Vulgata. The calligrapher here, did his work mechanically; the internal and external arrange- ment clearly shows that the Manuscript was made after Eiithalius, and before the rise of Islamism, about the end of the fifth, or at the latest during the sixth cen- tury, when the Greeks had given up the writing of Manuscripts to the Copts who understood but little of Greek and Latin. Of the same age is the Manu- script of the Acts of the Apostles, preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford j*^"^ both the Greek text ®^ It is called Codex S. Matthaei JDublinensis rescriptus. It was discovered and edited by Mr. Barret 1801. Like Codex C. it was partly obliterated and other essays written upon it; yet the original writing could easily be read; it is described: "nee habet spiritus aut accentus omnino." ®^ Alexandrian forms are chap. X. 41. kijiiipatm; VII. 25. ttqo- atnsaav; XI. 7. 8. 9. i^i]Xd^are. ®* Codex Cantabrigiensis or Cod. D. , also called the Bezan MS., or Codex Theodori Bezae Cantabrigiensis , was edited 1793. in two \ beautiful folio-Volumes. ^^ Cod. E. or Codex Laudianus f because given by Archbishop A 382 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. and the old Latin version were sticliometrically written and executed in Alexandria. ^ ^ As we can scarcely date it later than the sixth, or the beginning of the seventh century, it was in existence when Mohammed brought forward his charge against the Christians of corrupting their sacred books* As the Dublin Manu- script sup23lied the deficiency of the Alexandrian, so the Codex Claromontanus , preserved in the Library of Paris, supj^lies those Epistles of St. Paul, which are wanting in the Cambridge Manuscript. ^ ^ Although not written in the same hand, they were executed in the same period, and upon the same principle, giving stichometrically both the Greek text and a Latin version. Fragments of another copy of the Epistles of St. Paul, in the Greek text only, written with accents on the stichometrical princijDle, were at one time preserved in the celebrated library of Bishop Coislin at 3Ietz.^^ As it was written in Alexandria ^^ Laud; also Cod. Bedlei. It was printed at Oxford 1765. by Thomas Hearne. Written according to Hug andWoide in Alexandria; Marsh and Eichhorn suppose it to be the work of Western Europe, perhaps Sardinia or Gallia. ®^ See, sjiecimens of MSS. Montfaucon palaeogr. gr. , Blanchini Evang. quadrup. Matthaei ed. N. T. ^^ The Codex Claromontanus n. 107. is complete with the ex- ception of the first and last leaf, which have been lost. It is marked with the figure D. Montfaucon places it within the 7^^ cent. ^® This MS. is known as Codex H. Griesbach Symbol, crit. part II. pag. 85. It came originally from Mount Athos, A. D. 1218. where it was used as old parchment, with which to bind other books, as is proved by a note on a book , which it served as a cover. It was printed and published by Montfaucon, Biblioth. Coislin. Part U. pag. 253—256. ^^ The formation ipKatakiifXTOV, in the subscription, is purely Alexandrian. CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 383 in a genuinely antique style, it must have been copied during the sixth century, before the invasion of the Saracen army. We have now noticed those Manuscripts of the New Testament, written prior to the rise of Islamism; and reckoning the last mentioned Codex from Mount Athos as supplementary to that of the Vatican , we obtain — the Apocalypse only excepted, — an entire copy of the New Testament. The Alexandrian and the Dublin Manuscripts form a second complete edi- tion, whilst the Parisian Codex is entire in itself. Lastly, the Cainhridge and Clarmontane documents of the sacred Scriptures constitute a fourth edition, which is however deficient in the general Epistles and the AjDOcalypse. ^^ We can therefore produce four distinct copies of those New Testament Scrip- tures, the integrity of wdiich, Mohammed so wan- tonly impeaches: amongst them are several bi-lingual Manuscripts, containing Latin versions, which were made at least in the beginning of the fourth century. These Manuscripts are found in regions the most re- mote from one another, cherished by Churches, which hold different shades of opinions upon some of the doctrines they contain; yet wonderful to say, there exists between them the most perfect harmony. On comparing these documents together, we find, — not- withstanding the different styles of calligraphy, the different methods of placing the books , and the dif- ferent readings, which have accidentally found their ^° The Codex Cantabrigiensis and the Codex Claromontanus, are both marked D , and have been considered by some , to belong together. 384 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. way into the text, — no trace of alteration or inter- polation. Any attempt to corrupt these venerable Manuscripts, could easily be detected. Although the Parisian and Dublin Codices have been literally wash- ed through, and other matter wTitten upon the parch- ment, yet, the original writing is still almost as legible, as if no attempt had been made to efface it. If these efforts to obliterate the sacred writings — springing as they did , from mere ignorance of their value — have failed, surely malevolent attempts to corrupt the text, would be attended with no better success. Should doubts of the integrity of these documents, still hnger in the mind of any intelligent Moslem, w^e invite him to examine them for himself, as they are still accessible to every sincere inquirer for the truth. ^^ Older witnesses however, than the most ancient Manuscripts which testify to the integ- rity of the New Testament, are to be found, among the versions of its sacred books; and to these, we shall next turn our attention. ^^ The following learned works relative to the collation of MSS. will show that this branch of Divinity has not been neglected : Hist, du Card. Ximenes par Flechier. 1502. Rob. Stephan. Novum Test, ad vetustissima exemplaria M. S. C. excusum. 1551. Novum Test. Parisiis, inipensis viduae Arnoldi Birkmanni. 1549. Bp. Fell published his work ''Trjq xam]s dia^rjKriS anavtar 1675. Mill, encouraged by him, worked in the same line. Bengel took the lead among the Germans. 1734. Wetstein and (^jvV^^ac/i followed it up in a masterly manner. F. Mattliaei of Moskau pursued the same path. 1782—1788. in the same age appears Alter of Vienna. Nor are Treschoiv , Adler, Engelbreth, Scholz and Lochmann to be for- gotten. Birch compared the Vatican Cod. for the Royal Danish edition of the N. T. with the exception of Luke and John ; of these he received a comparison which had been made for Mr. Bentley, and Woide published the whole of Bentley's comparison in appendice Cod. Alexand. CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT VERSIONS. 385 8. We are now to demonstrate the integrity of the New Testament from those versions made prior to the rise of Islamism. If the Christians corrupted their sacred Scriptm^es, as Mohammed alleges, those translations must support the accusation; for any al- terations made in the original must appear in the versions made from it. The Peshito, comprising the New as well as the Old Testament, has been noticed in the previous Chapter. ^^ This version was first cited in the works of Ephrem ; a proof that it was used in the fo^st half of the fourth century. Yet there is reason to assume its existence in the second cen- tury of our era, as Eusebius declares, that Hegesippus had quoted from a Gospel in Syriac.^^ From these and other data, too tedious to enter u]3on, we may reasonably infer, that this version was executed to- wards the end of the second century; a Syriac tradi- tion mentions Achaeus, a disciple of St. Thaddaeus, as the author.®* ^2 The Peshito omits the 2^ Epistle of St. Peter, the 2^ and S^ Epistles of St. John , and the Epistle of St. Jude. There are strong reasons for supposing that the Apocalypse formed part in the ori- ginal version; Hug Vol. I. 306. „3id) faun mid) widjt bereben, ba^ bie *^efd}tto uv^riiuglid) bie 5t^?ofaIi}^ife nidjt mit bcgviffen fjabe, ba tm Cricntc fc gro^e Beitgen fiir fie f^^rad)en irie Suftin, bev SiJlart^rer in ^ktefttna, unb !ll)ec^I)iliig in 5tnttod)i.en, bag Oberr)auV>t ber aUijefer^enften^irc^e in@t)rtcn; eg ntii^te nur fein , bap bte ^sefdnto erft nad^ ben antiaKegorifd^en (Streittg- feitcn beg 9Upo^ entftanben, irag ic:^ mici^ nod) inet iveniget Bereben !ann." ^^ 'Ek t8 rov y.ad^' i^Qcaovg ivayyehov nai rov avQiaxov' y.ai Idiojg en rviQ i[i(jaidog diaXtxiov nva ii^iiGir. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. IV. cap. 22. ^* "5tlt ift fie t^eilg barum, tteil bie genannten 5tnti(egomcnen feine 9lufna:^me in fte gefnnben, t^eilg tveil fie ^on alien fi^vifd^en ^irc^enparteien aner!annt, t^eilg u>etl ber i^r jn ©runb liegenbe Xtxi fetjr alt ift; and) tdpt Z 386 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. Another Syriac version was made on behalf of the Monophysite section of the Syrian Church, by Poly carp, at the request of the Patriarch Philoxenus A. D. 508.^^* This translation which was made from the Manuscripts of Origen, was improved by Bishop Thomas A. D. 616;^^ who compared it with two or three old Manuscripts in the Antonine cloister at Alexandria. It is not without interest for our argu- ment to observe, that this rival translation of the Peshito, which was made by a sectarian branch of the Syrian Church, not only alters nothing in the sacred text to supjDort its particular views, but in its scrupulous adherence to the original, does violence to the rules of the Syriac grammar. ^ '^ The more stu- diously a version retains the grammatical and philo- logical peculiarities of the original text , the more faithful must consequently be the translation. A third, or the Palestino-Syriac version, was made either before the fall of the Roman Empire, or whilst bic fruf)c, na^ ber 2)littc beg 2. SaT^rljuiibevt^ fceghmcnbe ^itcratur crivarten, ba^ biefe friil^ aucf) bag ^ebiirfni^ einer fj^rifci^ett Xleberfe^ung U^erben gefiil^lt l^oben." Sef)rt)ud; t?cn be ^ziit pag. 13. ^'^ Vide, Yersio Syi'iaca Philoxeniana ed. Jos. White, pag*. 641. ®° He was then only "the poor Thomas," also Thomas of Char- kel. His version contains the avzi^eyofxtvoi , which were omitted in the Peshito, excepting only the Apocalypse. The most perfect edi- tion of this version is that of Glocester Ridley's, now. preserved in the New College at Oxford. ^^ o, t), to also ian and iiai are scrupulously translated , al- though contrary to the pure Syriac idiom. The affixes avtog and avtTj are likewise given, contrary to Syriac usage. Compositions with 71 QO, (Tvv, ini, kixtcx, foreign to all Semitic tongues are rendered in a manner , too artificial to be consonant with good taste. Vide Markn. 26. XH. 16. CHAP. II.] PROVED FROM ANCIENT VERSIONS. 387 that part of Syria, in which it was made, was still a Roman province. This is shown by several terms which are retained in the translation.^^ What the Peshito was to the region of Edessa, and what the Philoxenian version was^ to Antioch, the Palestine- Syrian translation was to Damascns , to the north of Palestine, and to the mountains of Assyria. Th^Ar- menicm version was made by Mesrob, and the state- ment of some, that Chrysostom gave a translation to the same people, is probably explained by his having lent his assistance and encouragement to this version, during his exile in Armenia, which coincides with the period, in which the version was made. ^^ In Upper and Lower Egypt we meet with versions of the New Testament, at a very early period of the Christian era. We have seen, that the Old Testament was translated into the Coptic dialects in the third or the heginning of the fourth century; and the ver- sion of the New Testament was certainly not of a later date. That of Lower Egypt, following the text of Hesychius, could not have been made prior to the middle of the third century, but as we find a version in the fourth century, ^ it must have been made during ^^ Specimens from Matt. XXVI. 3—32. which were printed by Dr. Adler. The soldiers v. 27. are simply called Romans; untiQa rendered castrnm; as the garrison is called castrmn, we may easily guess under what rule the country was at the time. ^^ That Chrysostom took a part in this work, whilst an exile in Kukiis , appears from the passage — duxy.tXevtG&ai rore xpaXn^gioy Hal rj-f anaGav 6ia^i]y.7iV trjv eKaivcop yXcottav fxeranoiriGacj&ai. Anonym. Vita Chrysostom. cap. 113. * Palladius visits John of Lycopolis , who is unacquainted with Greek, and yet he was well versed in the New Testament. Palladii historia Lausiaca cap. XLIU. de Abbate Joanne urbisLyco pag. 963. 388 INTEGRITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. [part ii. that interval. Again, Antonius, the founder of a monastic order in Egypt, who died A.D. 356. though ignorant of the Greek language, yet hearing the Gos- pel read in a Church, the words Matt. XIX. 21. pro- duced in him the resolution to part with his fortune and retire from the world; which resolution was fur- ther confirmed, by his entering the Church a second time, and hearing the Gospel, especially Matt. V. 34. A clear proof that it must have been read in the ver- nacular tongue. ^ In the desert of Central Egypt, to which he retired, he addressed his disciples in a long speech in the Egyptian tongue, quoting largely from the Old and the New Testament. Antonius was so well acquainted with the Bible, that he is said to have known the entire Volume by heart. ^ We have there- fore a version of the New Testament, in Lower, and Central Egypt. That there was a translation in the Thebaic dialect of Upper Egypt, is clear from the rules, which, according to Palladius, Father Pa- chomms framed for his 7000 monastic brethren; one of w^hich required, that all should learn to read the Psalter and the New Testament:* this requisition ^ ^ELGi]Xde'V iig rrjV ixyiXrimpcp , y.al avvl^rj toT6 to ivayyeXiov avayiv