'fu / <('£' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library https://archive.org/details/pronouncingediti00will_0 • • PHIIXIPPB de Champagne, Pinxt., 1652. MOSES WITH THE NEW TABLES OF THE LA , ggEARTH PEAJ lititsv? Sible. . The Pronouncing Edition OF THE HOLY BIBLE. CONTAINING THE AUTHORIZED AND REVISED VERSIONS 01’ THE I OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS, ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS, GIVING the correct pronunciation of every proper name CONTAINED IN THE BIBLE BY PROF. s. w. williams. COMPLETE CONCORDANCE: MARGINAL REFERENCES; CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES; A HISTORY OF ANCIENT BIBLICAL MANU¬ SCRIPTS, WITH FAC-SIMILES OF THE SAME; THE EARLIEST PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE BIBLE; A HISTORY OF THE REVISION OF THE BIBLE, ETC. United States Centennial Commission. JUDGES’ REPORT. '< This exhibit is especially noteworthy for the beauty and variety of Family Bibles displayed. The printing of the Bibles is admirably) done ♦ ‘i The bindings of the Bibles are varied with good taste , to meet the wants of customers ; the prices of all being extremely reasonable _ _ COPYRIGHTS SECURED. Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, Entered, according according according according according according according according according according according according to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of to Act of Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year in the year 1872, in 1S73, in 1873, in 1875, in 1875, in 1875, in 1877, in 1881, in 1882, in 1885, in 1888, in 1890, in the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the Office of the l.ibrarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of the Librarian of Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Congress, Washington, D. C. Washington, L>. C. Washington, L>. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, 1). C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. THE FOLLOWING AWARDS WERE MADE FOR OUR ILLUSTRATED EDITIONS OF THE HOLY BIBLE. UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, September 27, 1876.— First Premium awarded for elegantly bound and illustrated Family Bibles. SOUTHERN STATES EXPOSITION, New Orleans, La., March 6, 1876—Two Diplomas awarded for beauti¬ fully-illustrated and elegantly-bound Family Bibles. FRANKLIN INSTITUTE EXHIBITION, Philadelphia, November 24, 1874 .—Diploma awarded, and Honor¬ able Mention for elegantly-illustrated Family Bibles. CINCINNATI INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, October, 1874.— First Premium, Silver Medal, for finely-illustrated Family Bibles. AMERICAN INSTITUTE EXHIBITION, New York, November, 1873.— Diploma awarded, and Honorable Mention for finely-illustrated Family Bibles. wnBT rye TwnTTSTRTAI AND COTTON CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, New Orleans, La., April 28, 1885. for beautifully-illustrated and elegantly-bound Famtly B.bles and Photograph Albums. NATIONAL EXPORT EXPOSITION, Philadelphia, Pa., November 29 1899.— Highest Award— a Silver Medal and Diploma— for fine Family Bibles, Teachers’ Bibles, etc., and Photograph Albums. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, Philadelphia, Pa., June i9, ,900—The Edward Longstreth (Stiver) Medal- for originality of design and technical excellence. (m1 fF|9l [m] 1* a iftsl 's» -•$ fiFs1 jC fs’ |Mi !fca;ifcH»li«.i»ll«M»iliF*jifc j; *.>.h>» .t» ji.«» Ji t REVISERS’ PREFACE The Revision of the Authorised Version was under¬ taken in consequence of a Resolution passed by both houses of the Convocation of the Province of Canterbury, as has been fully explained in the Preface to the Revised Version of the New Testament, which was first published in May, 1881. When the two Companies were appointed for carrying out this work, the following General Prin¬ ciples, among others, were laid down by the Revision Committee of Convocation for their guidance : — 4 1. To introduce as few alterations as possible into the Text of the Authorised Version consistently with faithfulness.’ 4 2. To limit, as far as possible, the expression of such alterations to the language of the Authorised and earlier English Versions.’ 4 4. That the Text to be adopted be that for which the evidence is decidedly preponderating; and that when the Text so adopted differs from that from which the Author¬ ised Version was made, the alteration be indicated in the margin.’ 4 7. To revise the headings of chapters and pages, paragraphs, italics, and punctuation.’ In order to shew the manner in which the Old Testa¬ ment Company have endeavoured to carry out their in¬ structions, it will be convenient to treat the subjects men¬ tioned in the foregoing rules in a somewhat different order. It will be observed that in Rule 4 the word * Text’ is used in a different sense from that in Rule 1, and in the case of the Old Testament denotes the Hebrew or Ara¬ maic original of the several books. In this respect the task of the Revisers has been much simpler than that which the New Testament Company had before them. The Received, or, as it is commonly called, the Massoretic Text of the Old Testament Scriptures has come down to us in manuscripts which are of no very great antiquity, and which all belong to the same family or recension1. That other recensions were at one time in existence is probable from the variations in the Ancient Versions, the oldest of which, namely the Greek or Septuagint, was lThe earliest MS. of which the age is certainly known bears date A.D. 916. -L ■ - . - - made, at least in part, some two centuries before the Christian era. But as the state of knowledge on the subject is not at present such as to justify any attempt at an entire reconstruction of the text on the authority of the Versions, the Revisers have thought it most prudent to adopt the Massoretic Text as the basis of their work, and to depart from it, as the Authorised Translators had done1, only in exceptional cases. With regard to the variations in the Massoretic Text itself, the Revisers have endeavoured to translate what appeared to them to be the best reading in the text, and where the alternative reading seemed sufficiently probable or important they have placed it in the margin. In some few instances of extreme difficulty a reading has been adopted on the authority of the Ancient Versions, and the departure from the Massoretic Text recorded in the margin. In other cases, where the versions appeared to supply a very probable though not so necessary a correction of the text, the text has been left and the variation indicated in the margin only. In endeavouring to carry out as fully as possible the spirit of Rules 1 and 2, the Revisers have borne in mind that it was their duty not to make a new translation, but to revise one already existing, which for more than two centuries aud a half had held the position of an English classic. They have therefore departed from it only in cases where they disagreed with the Translators of 1611 as to the meaning or construction of a word or sentence ; or where it was necessary for the sake of uniformity to render such parallel passages as were identical in He¬ brew by the same English words, so that an English reader might know at once by comparison that a differ¬ ence in the translation corresponded to a difference in the original ; or where the language of the Authorised Ver¬ sion was liable to be misunderstood by reason of its be¬ ing archaic or obscure ; or finally, where the rendering of an earlier English version seemed preferable, or where by an apparently slight change it was possible to bring out more fully the meaning of a passage of which the translation was already substantially accurate. 'See, for instance, 2 Sam. xvi. 12; 2 Chr. iii. 1, xxii. 6; Job xxxvii. 7; Ezek. xlvi. 10 ; Am. v. 26 ; Hag. i. 2. 4 REVISERS’ PREFACE. It has been thought advisable in regard to the word ‘Jehovah’ to follow the usage of the Authorised Version, and not to insert it uniformly in place of ‘ Lord’ or ‘ God’, which when printed in small capitals represent the words substituted by Jewish custom for the ineffable Name ac¬ cording to the vowel points by which it is distinguished. It will be found therefore that in this respect the Authorised Version has been departed from only in a few passages, in which the introduction of a proper name seemed to be required. Terms of natural history have been changed only where it was certain that the Authorised Version was incorrect, and where there was sufficient evidence for the substituted rendering. In cases of doubt the alternative rendering has been given in the margin ; and even where no doubt existed, but where there was no familiar En¬ glish equivalent for the original word, the Old Version has been allowed to remain1, and the more accurate term has been placed in the margin. In some words of very frequent occurrence, the Au¬ thorised Version being either inadequate or inconsistent, and sometimes misleading, changes have been introduced with as much uniformity as appeared practicable or de¬ sirable. For instance, ‘ the tabernacle of the congregation’ has been everywhere changed to ‘the tent of meeting’, on account of Exodus xxv. 22, xxix, 42, 43, and also be¬ cause ‘the tabernacle of the congregation’ conveys an en¬ tirely wrong sense. The words ‘tabernacle’ and ‘tent,’ as the renderings of two different Hebrew words, are in the Authorized Version frequently interchanged in such a manner as to lead to confusion ; and the Revisers have endeavoured throughout the Pentateuch to preserve a con¬ sistent distinction between them. Their practice in re¬ gard to the words ‘assembly’ and ‘congregation’ has been the same in principle, although they have contented themselves with introducing greater consistency of ren¬ dering without aiming at absolute uniformity. In con¬ sequence of the changes which have taken place in the English language, the term ‘meatoffering’ has become in¬ appropriate to describe an offering of which flesh was no part; and by the alteration to ‘meal offering’ a suf¬ ficiently accurate representation of the original has been obtained with the least possible change of form. As regards the use of words, there are only a few cases in which it has been found needful to deviate from the language employed in the Authorised Version. One of these deviations occurs so frequently that it may be well to state briefly why it was adopted. The word ‘peo¬ ples ’ was nowhere used by King James’s Translators in the Old Testament, and in the New Testament it occurs *As for instance, ‘ coney ’ (Lev. xi. 5), ‘ fitches ’ (Is. xxviii. 25, 27), ‘gourd’ (Jon. iv. 6.) only twice (Rev. x. 11, xvii. 15.) The effect of this was to leave the rendering of numerous passages inadequate or obscure, or even positively misleading. Thus in one of the best known Psalms (Ps. lxvii.), where the Sepluagint has Xaoi and the Vulgate populi, the English had ‘ Let the people praise thee, 0 God; let all the people praise thee’; leaving it at least doubtful whether the ‘nations’ of verse 4, or God’s people, Israel, be referred to. And in Isaiah lv. 4, ‘Behold, I have given him for a witness to the peo¬ ple, a leader and commander to the people’, the word ‘people’ is naturally understood by the English reader to refer to Israel. Again, the Hebrew word goyim ‘nations’, which is applied to the nations of Canaan dispossessed by the Hebrews, and then also to the surrounding nations among whom the people of Israel were afterwards dispersed, acquired in later times a moral significance, which is rep¬ resented in the Authorised Version by the rendering ‘heathen’ or ‘Gentiles’. While recogrtizing this moral sense of the word, the Revisers have employed it much more sparingly than their predecessors had done. Similarly, the Hebrew Sheol, which signifies the abode of departed spirits, and corresponds to the Greek Hades, or the under world, is variously rendered in the Author¬ ised Version by ‘grave’, ‘pit’ and ‘hell’. Of these ren¬ derings ‘ hell ’, if it could be taken in its original sense as used in the Creeds, would be a fairly adequate equiva¬ lent for the Hebrew word; but it is so commonly under¬ stood of the place of torment that to employ it frequently would lead to inevitable misunderstanding. The Revis¬ ers therefore in the historical narratives have left the ren¬ dering ‘ the grave ’ or ‘ the pit ’ in the text, with a mar¬ ginal note ‘Heb. Sheol’ to indicate that it does not sig¬ nify ‘the place of burial’; while in the poetical writings they have put most commonly ‘ Sheol’ in the text and ‘ the grave ’ in the margin. In Isaiah xiv. however, where ‘hell’ is used in more of its original sense and is less liable to be misunderstood, and where any change in so familiar a passage which was not distinctly an improve¬ ment would be a decided loss, the Revisers have contented themselves with leaving ‘ hell ’ in the text, and have connected it with other passages by putting ‘Sheol’ in the margin. In connexion with this it may be mentioned that ‘Abaddon’, which has hitherto been known to the En¬ glish reader of the Bible only from the New Testament (Rev. ix. 11), has been introduced in three passages (Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11, xxvii. 20), where a proper name appears to be required for giving vividness and point. The Hebrew word Asherah , which is uniformly and wrongly rendered ‘grove’ in the Authorised Version, most probably denotes the wooden symbol of a goddess; REVISERS' PREFACE. 5 and the Revisers therefore have not hesitated to intro¬ duce it as a proper name in the singular (Judg. vi. 25, &c.), with the plurals Asherim (Ex. xxxiv. 13, &c.) and Ashe- f roth (Judg. iii. 7, &c.), following the analogy of the Baalim (Judg. iii. 7) and the Ashtaroth (Judg. ii. 13), which are already familiar. In regard to the language of the Authorised Version, the Revisers have thought it no part of their duty to re¬ duce it to conformity with modern usage, and have therefore left untouched all archaisms, whether of lan¬ guage or construction, which though not in familiar use cause a reader no embarrassment and lead to no misunderstanding. They are aware that in so doing they will disappoint the large English-speaking race on the other side of the Atlantic, and it is a question upon which they are prepared to agree to a friendly difference of opinion. The principle by which they have been guided has been clear and consistent. Where an archaic word or expression was liable to be misunder¬ stood or at least was not perfectly intelligible, they have substituted for it another, in equally good use at the time the Authorised Version was made, and expressing all that the archaism was intended to convey, but more familiar to the modern reader. In such cases the gain was greater than the loss. But in other instances where the word or expression, although obsolete, was not unintelligible, it was thought that the change would involve greater loss than gain, and the old rendering was therefore allowed to stand. More especially was this the case when the archaism was a perfectly correct rendering of the original and there was no exact modern equivalent for it. The principle adopted by the Com¬ pany will be best illustrated by two typical examples. The verb ‘to ear’ in the sense of ‘to plough’ and the substantive ‘earing’ for ‘ploughing’ were very reluc¬ tantly abandoned, and only because it was ascertained that their meaning was unknown to many persons of good in¬ telligence and education. But it was easy to put in their place equivalents which had a pedigree of almost equal an¬ tiquity, and it would have been an excess of conservatism to refuse to substitute for an unintelligible archaism an expression to which no ambiguity could be attached. On the other hand the word ‘ boiled’ (Ex. ix. 31), which sig¬ nifies ‘ podded for seed ’ and is known in provincial dia¬ lects, has no synonym in literary English. To have dis¬ carded it in favour of a less accurate or more paraphras¬ tic expression would have been to impoverish the language; and it was therefore left, because it exactly expresses one view which is taken of the meaning of the original. One of the few instances in which the language of the Authorised Version has been modified in accordance with latei usage is the change of the neuter possessive pro¬ noun from ‘his’ to ‘its’. It is well known that ‘ its’ does not occur in the Bible of 1611, and it does not appear to have been introduced into any edition before 1660. But it is found ten times in Shakespeare, and there is other evidence to shew that at the time of the Authorised Ver¬ sion it was coming into use. It was found necessary in some cases to substitute ‘its’ for ‘his’ in order to avoid obscurity, and there seemed no good reason, when it was once introduced, for refusing to admit it generally when it referred to purely inanimate objects. In making minor changes, whether in translation or language, the Revisers have followed the example of the translators of the Authorised Version, who allowed them¬ selves in this respect a reasonable freedom, without per¬ mitting their liberty to degenerate into license. It will be at once seen that the old division of the books into chapters and verses has been abandoned in favour of the arrangement in paragraphs, the numbering of the chapters and verses being however retained for con¬ venience of reference. Where the change of subject seemed to require a greater break than was marked by the beginning of a new paragraph, it has been indicated by a space before the paragraph. Occasionally the divisions of the chapters in the Authorised Version differ from those in the common Hebrew Bibles. In such cases the varia¬ tions are given in the margin. In the Psalms, the titles are printed in smaller type, as in some modern English Bibles, which differ in this respect from the edition of 1611. One consequence of the arrangement in paragraphs has been the omission of the headings of chapters, which for other and more important reasons it was thought ad¬ visable to abandon, as involving questions which belong rather to the province of the commentator than to that of the translator. With the headings of chapters the head-lines of pages naturally disappeared also, and for the same reason. In the poetical portions, besides the division into para¬ graphs, the Revisers have adopted an arrangement in lines, so as to exhibit the parallelism which is character¬ istic of Hebrew Poetry. But they have not extended this arrangement to the prophetical books, the language of which although frequently marked by parallelism is, except in purely lyrical passages, rather of the nature of lofty and impassioned prose. In the use of italics the Revisers departed from the custom of the Authorised Version and adopted as their rule the following resolution of their Company : ‘That all such words now printed in italics, as are plainly implied in the Hebrew and necessary in English, be printed in common type.’ But where any doubt existed as to the exact render¬ ing of the Hebrew, all words which have been added in 6 REVISERS’ order to give completeness to the English expression are printed in italic type, so that the reader by omitting them may be able to see how far their insertion is justified by the words of the original. This of course is especially true of those renderings for which an alternative is given in the margin, where the roman and italic type play ex¬ actly opposite parts. To complete the account of the Revised Version it remains only to describe the marginal notes. These will be found to contain (1) The renderings of such variations in the Massor- etic Text as appeared to be of sufficient importance. These variations are known by the technical names of K’ri (read) and C’thib (written), which denote that the K’ri, or reading in the margin of the Hebrew Bible, is to be substituted for the C’thib which appears in the written text. The Revisers have generally, though not uniformly, rendered the C’thib in the text, and left the K’ri in the margin, with the introductory note ‘ Or, ac¬ cording to another reading’, or ‘Another reading is’. When the K’ri has been followed in the text, the C’thib has been placed in the margin, if it represented a variation of sufficient importance. (2) Alternative renderings, introduced by ‘ Or’. These are either different meanings of the word or pas¬ sage, or they serve to connect it with other renderings elsewhere. (3) Literal renderings of the Hebrew or Aramaic, in¬ dicated by the prefix ‘ Heb.’ or ‘Aram.’ (4) Changes of text made on the authority of the ancient Versions. (5) Readings from ancient Versions which appeared to be of sufficient importance to be noticed. (6) Renderings of the Hebrew consonants as read with different vowel points, or as differently divided. These are introduced by the words ‘ Or, as otherwise read.’ (7) Marginal references to other passages, which are either strictly parallel, or serve the purpose of illustrating or justifying a particular rendering. (8) Explanations of certain proper names, the mean¬ ing of which is referred to in the text. In the Proper Names the Revisers have endeavoured to ascertain the system of transliteration adopted by the Translators of the Authorised Version and to carry it out with somewhat greater consistency. They have not how¬ ever attempted anything like rigid uniformity, and have left unchanged all those names which by usage have be¬ come English ; as, for instance, Moses, Aaron, Isaiah, Jer¬ emiah, Ezekiel, and the like. Among the Rules laid down by the Revision Com¬ mittee of Convocation for the guidance of the Revisers was one that no change should be finally made in the text of the Authorised Version except by the vote of two-thirds of the Company present and voting ; and this Rule has been invariably acted upon. The result has been that in many cases a rendering which was preferred by the majority of the Company voting has been recorded in the margin, the majority not being sufficient to give it a place in the text. But all questions of marginal read¬ ings, as well as of punctuation and division into para¬ graphs, except where these affected the sense of a pas¬ sage, were decided by a simple majority. It may be of some interest to describe the method observed by the Company in their work, if only to shew that every question raised was carefully and deliberately considered. In the first Revision it was the practice for the Secretary to read over each verse, first in the original and then in the Authorised Version : the proposals for change were then taken; first those communicated in writing by absent members, and next those made by the members present. Each proposal was moved, and if seconded was discussed and voted upon ; the decision in the first Revision being by a majority only. If a pro¬ posal met with no seconder, it was not discussed but allowed to drop. In the second Revision, the Secretary read out in order the changes which had been made at the first Revision ; if these were unchallenged they were allowed to remain, otherwise they were put to the vote and affirmed or rejected according as they wrere or were not supported by the requisite majority of two-thirds. In the second Revision new propositions could only be made by special permission of the Company, and discus¬ sion was limited, as. far as possible, to exceptional cases In the final review, which was in reality the completion of the second Revision, the Company employed them¬ selves in making a general survey of what they had done, deciding finally upon reserved points, harmonizing incon¬ sistencies, smoothing down roughnesses, removing unnec¬ essary changes, and generally giving finish and complete¬ ness to their work. Everything in this final survey was decided by the vote of a majority of two-thirds. The Revisers had already made some progress, and had in fact gone twice through the Pentateuch, before they secured the co-operation of the American Old Testa¬ ment Revision Company. The first Revision of the several books was submitted to the consideration of the American Revisers, and, except in the case of the Penta¬ teuch, the English Company had the benefit of their criticisms and suggestions before they proceeded to the second Revision. The second Revision was in like man¬ ner forwarded to America, and the latest thoughts of the American Revisers were in the hands of the English Company at their final review. In every instance the REVISERS’ PREFACE. suggestions from America were treated with the same consideration as those proceeding from members of the English Company, and were adopted or rejected on their merits. It was a part of the terms of agreement with the American Company that all points of ultimate differ- | ence between them and the English Revisers should be placed on record, and they will accordingly be found fully stated at the end of the Old Testament, or at the end of the several portions, according as the Revised Version appears in one or more volumes. Many of them will be found to be changes of language which are involved in the essentially different circumstances of American and English readers ; others express a preference for the mar¬ ginal rendering over that given in the text; others again involve a real difference of opinion ; but all shew that they have been dictated by the same leading principle, the sincere desire to give to modern readers a faithful representation of the meaning of the original documents. Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey jo July, 1884. It could not but be expected that in the course of fourteen years many changes would take place in the members of the Company. Of the original number who first put their hands to the work on the 30th of June 1870, only fifteen now remain. Ten of the Company have been removed by death, and two resigned : the places of these were filled from time to time by others ; but since October 1875 no new members have been added. The Revision was completed in eighty-five ses¬ sions, ending on 20th June, 1884 ; and it occupied 792 days. The greater part of the sessions were for ten days each, and each day the Company generally sat for six hours. The labour therefore has been great, but it has been given ungrudgingly ; and now with a feeling of deep thankfulness to Almighty God, and the earnest hope that their endeavours may with His blessing tend to a clearer knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures, the Revisers bring their long task to a close. i GENEftAL' OFFICERS OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE: PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D., President. - GEORGE E, DAY, D.D., Secretary. (1) OLD TESTAMENT COMPANY. Professor Wm. Henry Green, D. D., LL.D., (Chairman,) Theo¬ logical Seminary, Princeton, N. J. Professor George E. Day, D. D., (Secretary,) Divinity School of Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Professor Charles A. Aiken, D. D., Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J. The Rev. Talbot W. Chambers, D. D., Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, New York. Professor Thomas J. Conant, D. D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Professor John DeWitt, B.D, Theological Seminary, New Brunswick, N. J. Professor George Emlen Hare, D. D., LL.D.,Divinity School, Philadelphia. Professor Charles P. Krauth, D. D., LL.D., Vice- Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Professor Tayler Lewis, LL.D., Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. Professor Charles M. Mead, Ph. D., Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. Professor Howard Osgood, D. D., Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. Professor Joseph Packard, D. D., Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Va. Professor Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., Hartford, Conn. Professor James Strong, S. T. D., Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. Professor C. A. Van Dyck, D. D., M.D., Beirut, Syria (Ad¬ visory Member on questions of Arabic).* Note. — The American Old Testament Company lost by death Prof. Tayler Lewis, d. 1877; Dr. Krauth, Philadelphia, d. jan. 2, 1883; and Dr. Stowe, by resignation. (2) NEW TESTAMENT COMPANY. Ex-President Theodore D. Woolsey, D. D., LL.B., (Chair¬ man,) New Haven, Conn. Professor J. Henry Thayer, D. B., (Secretary,) Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass. Professor Ezra Abbot, D. D., LL.D., Divinity School, Har¬ vard University, Cambridge, Mass. The Rev. Jonathan K. Burr, D.D., Trenton, N. J. President Thomas Chase, LL.D., Haverford College, Pa. Chancellor Howard Crosby, D.D., LL.D., New York. Professor Timothy Dwight, D. D., Divinity School of Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Professor James Hadley, LLD., Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Professor Horatio B. Hackett, D.D., LL.D., Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. Professor Charles Hodge, D.D., LL.D., Theological Sem- | inary, Princeton, N. J. Professor A. C. Kendrick, D. D., LL.D., University of Ro¬ chester, N. Y. The Right Rev. Alfred Lee, D. B., Bishop of the Diocese of Delaware. Professor Matthew B. Riddle, D. D., Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. Professor Philip Schaff, D. D., LL.D., Union Theological Seminary, New York. Professor Charles Short, LL.D., (Secretary,) Columbia Col¬ lege, New York. Professor Henry Boynton Smith, D. D., LL.D., Union Theo¬ logical Seminary, New York. The Rev. Edward A. Washburn, D.D., LL.D., Rector of Calvary Church, New York. Note. — The American New Testament Company lost by death Prof. James Hadley (who attended the first session), d. 1872; Dr. Henry Boynton Smith (who attended one session, and resigned from ill health), d. 1877; Dr. Horatio B. Hackett, d. 1876; Dr. Charles Hodge (who never attended the meetings, but corresponded with the Committee), d. 1878; P.ev. Dr. Washburn, d. Feb. 2, 1881 (after the completion of the N. T. Revision) ; Rev. Dr. Burr, d. April 24, 1882 ; and Prof. Ezra Abbot, d. March 20, 1SS4. Dr. G. R. Crooks and Dr. W. F. Warren, who accepted the original appointment, found it impossible to attend any meetings, and resigned. * Dr. Van Dyck has rendered important aid to the Old Testament Company, both in his correspondence with them, and by the preparation of a full list of the variations, in the renderings of the recent Arabic translation of the Book of Job, from the renderings of the Authorized English Version. HISTORY OF THE English Translations of the Bible The earliest attempt to render the Scriptures into the lan¬ guage spoken by the common people in England, was during the Anglo-Saxon times, whem Aldhelm, in the seventh century, translated the Psalter. Caedmon had already embodied the history of the Bible in alliterative meter, but his work can scarcely be denominated a translation. The venerable Bede spent his last moments in dictating a translation of John’s Gospel into his mother tongue, and died with the Doxology upon his lips when the last lines had been written. King Alfred himself reduced to the same language portions of the divine law given to the Hebrews, as the basis of his own leg¬ islation ; and other scholars of the realm in the years following translated additional portions both of the Old and New Testa¬ ments, so that the whole of the four Gospels was current in the Anglo-Saxon. After the Norman Conquest, a prose translation of the Bible into Norman French, made about A. D. 1260, in¬ dicates a demand for devotional reading within the circle of the court, or of the wealthier merchants, or of convents for women of high rank. Further signs of the same desire are found in three English versions of the Psalms — one toward the close of the thirteenth century, another by Schorham about A. D. 1320, and another, with other canticles from the Old and New Tes¬ taments, by Richard Rolle, of Hampole, in Yorkshire, about 1349. There was also a version of the Gospels of Mark and Luke, and of all Paul’s Epistles. The first translation into what may properly be called English — the real beginning of the language as we now speak it — was made by John de Wycliffe. He was born A. D. 1324, at Wycliffe, in Yorkshire, and was educated at Oxford. He became successively master of Baliol College, warden of Can¬ terbury College, and professor of divinity in Oxford Univer¬ sity. His piety and wisdom, as well as his great parts and extensive learning, gained for him general reputation ; while his opposition to the corruptions of the Church of Rome drew down on him the vengeance of the prelates and clergy, and involved him in a series of troubles, which, in all probability, would have resulted in his death, had he not been protected by John of Gaunt, the duke of Lancaster, uncle of Richard II. The dates of commencing and of concluding the work which has made his name so famous in history, can not be determined with certainty. He accomplished his task by degrees. He began with a translation of the Apocalypse; next appeared the Gospels in English, with a commentary; then followed the other books of the New Testament, which it is believed were finished about 1380. A version of the Old Testament, as well as of the New, appeared not long afterward, upon which he appears to have employed himself, and which is supposed to have been completed before 1384. It was on December 28th of this year that Wycliffe peacefully died at the Lutterworth Rectory. Forty-one years after his death, his bones were dug up and reduced to ashes by order of Richard Fleming, bishop of London, according to a decree of the infamous Council of Constance, and scattered in the River Avon. These efforts to circulate the Word of God in the vernac¬ ular language of the people were jealously discountenanced by the papal Church. At the Council of Toulouse in 1229, for the first time since the name of Christ was known, the laity were openly forbidden to read the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, even in Latin — except that, for the pur¬ poses of devotion, they were permitted to have in that language the Psalter or Breviary or “ Hours of the Blessed Virgin but they "were strictly forbidden to have any of these books translated into their own tongue. Nevertheless, these prohibi¬ tions did not entirely prevent the circulation of the Scriptures, and translations of the whole or of parts were made in several countries of Europe. The fruit of Wvcliffe’s labors did not immediately appear, but his influence was not confined alone to England. It extended to the Continent, particularly to Bohemia, and pre¬ pared the way for the great reformation in Europe a century and a half later. Copies of his Bible were multiplied as rapidly as the pens of transcribers could do the work, and were eagerly sought by all classes of people. A revised translation was completed about the year 1388, by John Purvey, assisted by others; but both Wycliffe’s and Purvey’s were made from the Latin Vulgate. Wycliffe’s Bible was not printed until 1850. Purvey’s was printed for the first time in 1731, and for a long time was supposed to be Wycliffe’s. As such it was printed in Bagster’s Hexapla, in 1841. The next English version was that of William Tyndale, a native of Wales, about the year 1530. Two circumstances in his age were favorable to its enlarged circulation — the invention of paper and of the art of printing. Erasmus’s edition of the Greek Testament was then just published, and the Hebrew Scriptures were about the same time printed in Italy — and both were easy to be obtained. Tyndale was a thorough scholar, and/ instead of making his version at second-hand from \ the Latin, he took it directly from *he original tongues. His English style is idiomatic and racy. Many of his renderings, through long passages, are repeated almost word for word in our present authorized version. He is really the father of our English Bible. His successors effected many improvements in detail, but the plan and spirit of the work have been left un¬ changed. “ The peculiar genius,” says Froude, “ if such a word may be permitted, which breathes through it ; the min¬ gled tenderness and majesty; the Saxon simplicity; the pre¬ ternatural grandeur, unequaled, unapproached in the attempts of modern scholars — all are here, and bear the impress of one man, William Tyndale.” To that one man, more than to any other, the English language owes its present form and the per- ffl ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS. manenoe of Its vocabulary. He fixed the speech of the common people for all time to come; and its rhythmic cadence, its poetic and picturesque beauty, its strong and nervous expressions, its homely and simple phrases, all appear in his work. Tyndale’s printed version contained the New Testament, the Pentateuch, and the prophecy of Jonah, with a few lessons from the Proph¬ ecies; but there is good reason to believe that he left behind him in manuscript a translation of the books of the Old Testa¬ ment from Joshua to 2 Chronicles, inclusive. Tyndale’s Tes¬ tament was printed in 1525, at Cologne, in quarto, and at Worms in octavo. Of each of these editions three thousand copies were printed. In 1534 a revised edition was issued at Antwerp, with an addition of lessons from the Old Testament. Tyndale was in the midst of his labors when he was arrested for heretical pravity at Antwerp, by emissaries of the papal Church, and committed to the castle of ~\ ilvorde, near Brussels. Notwithstanding all the efforts of his friends in England and in the Low Countries to procure for him protection, he was condemned to death. Rome could not forgive his vigorous assaults upon her priestly prerogative and hierarchical author¬ ity. On Friday, October 6, 1536, he was strangled at the stake and his body burnt to ashes. In 1535 the first translation of the whole Bible ever printed in English was completed abroad under the direction of Myles Coverdale, and is, therefore, generally called Coverdale’s Bible. The place of its printing was for many years unknown ; but it is believed that the work was executed at Zurich, or at Ant¬ werp, by Jacob Van Meteren, who seems afterward to have sold the sheets, type, etc., to James Nicolson, of Southwark, England, by whom a second and a third edition were published. Coverdale, born in 1488, was an Augustine monk; but embrac¬ ing the doctrines of the Reformation, he entered into orders, and in 1551 was consecrated bishop of Exeter. During the persecutions of Queen Mary’s time, he was ejected from his see, and retired to the Continent, but returned to England in 1568, and died in 1569. Coverdale availed himself of the labors of others, and made his translations, not from the original Hebrew and Greek, but from the Latin Vulgate, the German of Luther, Pagninus’s Latin version, Leo Juda’s Helvetic version (in Swiss-German), and from one or two others. Tyndale’s text is closely followed in the New Testament, but is corrected and revised with the help of the other interpreters. In 1537 the translations of Tyndale, with those of John Rogers, who completed and edited the whole, were published in a collected form under the name of Thomas Matthew. This edition is known as Matthew’s Bible. Much credit is due to Rogers, who probably resided at the place of printing (sup¬ posed to be Liibeck), as the careful editor of this Bible; he was evidently a fine scholar, and he seems to have acted both as desiring to give his countrymen a translation as correct as possible, and likewise to perpetuate the labors of Tyndale, his friend and instructor in the truth of the Gospel. In the exe¬ cution of the work, Rogers had the whole of Tyndale’s trans¬ lations, whether in print or manuscript, before him. The Old Testament is a reprint of Tyndale’s Pentateuch ; the remainder, as far as the second book of Chronicles, was copied from Tyn¬ dale’s manuscripts, which were undoubtedly in Rogers’s safe¬ keeping. Coverdale’s translation was also followed in the other portions of Scripture. Tins edition, printed in black letter, or Old English, is frequently and not inaptly called Tyndale’s Bible. It appeared with the then much coveted words, “ Set forth with the king’s most gracious license;” hence, it is the first properly authorized edition of the English Bible. This became the foundation of the text of the version now in com¬ mon use. Rogers was a native of Lancashire, and was born about the year 1500. He was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and was graduated in 1525. Entering into holy orders, he became rector, in 1532, of a Church in London. In 1534 he left England, and went to Antwerp as chaplain of the ‘•'Merchant Adventurers,” where he became acquainted with Tyndale. Here he embraced the reformed doctrine, and soon afterward broke off completely from Rome, and married. Dur¬ ing the persecutions under Mary, he was tried and condemned for heresy, and was the first martyr who suffered death at the stake. He was burned alive at Smithfield, February 4, 1555. It is supposed that Thomas Matthew was only a name which Rogers assumed from prudential motives, lest his known con¬ nection with Tyndale should prove injurious to the under¬ taking. In favor of this view, wffiich has been generally ac¬ cepted, is the fact that in the official record of the apprehension of Rogers, he is described as “John Rogers, alias Matthew.” It is possible, however, that the name is a real one, and be¬ longs to some patron through whose aid the work was under¬ taken. So great was the desire of the people to read or hear the Word of God, and so few copies could be procured, that in 1539 another revision of the English Bible was made by Richard Taverner, a counselor-at-law and a member of the In¬ ner Temple. He was one of the young men imprisoned in the cellar of one of the college buildings in Oxford for reading Tyndale’s New Testament. Taverner was a scholar, able and energetic, but somewhat capricious and uncertain. In 1552, though a layman, he received from Edward VI. a general license to preach. We are told that he preached before the king at court, and in some other places in the kingdom, wear¬ ing a velvet bonnet or round cap, a damask gown, and a chain of gold about his neck ; in which habit he was seen and heard preaching several times in St. Mary’s Church, Oxford, in the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth. During Mary’s reign Taverner prudently remained in retirement. Elizabeth showed him marks of special favor, and made him high sheriff of the county of Oxford. He died in the year 1575. His Bible, known as Taverner’s Bible, was allowed to be publicly read in the churches, and is only a revision of Matthew’s Old Testa¬ ment and Tyndale’s New Testament. His changes are more numerous in the latter than in the former. Thus, in Matthew, chapters xxi, xxii, containing ninety-two verses, there are about forty variations, of which one-third are retained in the version now in use. In some of these changes his object was to remove i superfluous words; in others, to give a more terse or expressive phrase, or a more literal rendering from the Greek. Taver¬ ner’s Bible was published both in folio and quarto ; his New Testament in quarto and in octavo in the same year. The Great Bible, so called from its size, being larger than any of the editions in folio previously published, was prepared by direction of Thomas Cromwell, chief minister of state ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS. under Henry VIII. It was a revision of Matthew’s Bible, and was executed under the supervision of Coverdale, as corrector of the press. It was first issued in April, 1539, by Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch, printers. Cromwell, though not noted for piety, was a friend of the Reformation, and had a deep veneration for the Scriptures. Worldly, ambitious, and unscrupulous, he opposed the aggressions of the papal Church, and broke up the monasteries, which had become nests of cor¬ ruption. He was rapidly advanced by the king, who created him Earl of Essex ; but, being convicted of treason, he was put to death soon after attaining that honor. A second edition of this Bible was published in 1540, with a preface written by Archbishop Cranmer, and has been named Cranmer’s Bible. This edition, of which only five hundred copies were printed, differed but slightly from the first, and the two are sometimes confounded. It continued to be the authorized English ver¬ sion (except, of course, during the reign of Mary) until 1568, when it was superseded by the Bishops’ Bible. The Geneva Bible, issued in 1560, is so called from the fact that it was translated and printed in Geneva by certain learned Englishmen who fled thither about the year 1556 to escape the persecutions of Queen Mary’s reign. The exiles in Geneva, to whom this work is attributed, were William Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, Myles Coverdale, Thomas Sampson, Christo¬ pher Goodman, Thomas Cole, John Knox, John Bodleigh, and John Pullain. The principal part of the work was executed by Whittingham, Gilby, and Sampson. This version became very popular, and probably one hundred and thirty editions wTere issued. It was the first English Bible divided into verses. The example for doing this was set in the New Testament printed at the same city three years previously. This transla¬ tion differed from all that had preceded it, not only in its plan, but also in its execution. The other versions had been gen¬ erally the work or revision of an individual, or, at most, a re¬ vision in which certain individuals executed certain particular parts. In this translation many acted unitedly in the forma¬ tion of a version, and in the plan of operation there -was a principle of completeness which had not heretofore been acted on. Still, the basis of the translation was Tyndale’s ; but, with the scholarly labor bestowed upon it, the Geneva Bible was more accurate than any of its predecessors, and long held its popularity in England, even after the present authorized ver¬ sion was in use. It discarded the old black-letter type, and was printed from Roman type, which was soon adopted in all the printing-offices which published English books. The next version was superintended by Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, and is sometimes called by his name. It was first published in 1568, and was executed with great care by more than fifteen men, whose names occur at the end of the portions prepared by them. From the fact that the majority of those engaged in its preparation M'ere bishops, it has been named the Bishops ’ Bible. It continued to be the version authorized to be read in the churches for forty-three years; but in private use it never displaced the Geneva version. Its preparation seems to have extended over a period of three or four years. The basis of the translation was the Great Bible, but many of the corrections and improvements were taken from the Geneva version. _ in We have already noticed the opposition on the part of the papal Church to the general diffusion of the Word of God. But Rome had thundered in vain. What did she do? In 1582 she printed, or allowed to be printed, at Rheims, an English New Testament, “translated out of Latin, with notes and necessary helps.” In 1609 the Old Testament also made its appearance, at Douay. The Rhemish A ew Testament, as the version printed at Rheims is called, was prepared at the English Roman Catholic College, then established at that place, and afterwards at Douay, by Gregory Martin, a distinguished Hebrew and Greek scholar. His translation was made from the Vulgate, and in his work he was assisted by Dr. V illiam Allen, the founder of the college, Dr. Reynolds, Dr. Bristow, and Dr. Worthington. The last two are supposed to be the authors of the “ Notes,” which are bitterly controversial. The translation is literal, and, as a rule, scrupulously faithful and exact, but disfigured by a profusion of unfamiliar and Latin¬ ized words, which convey no meaning whatever to the ordinary English reader. This last peculiarity strikes the eye at the first opening of the volume. But from this version, unfamiliar as many of its 'words are, our translators obtained some of their happiest expressions. Nothing is easier than to accu¬ mulate instances of the eccentricity of its renderings, or of their obscure and inflated style ; but a minute study of its pages will afford evidence of the care with which the translators have ex¬ ecuted their work. “Every other English translation,” says Dr. Moulton, in his History of the English Bible, “is to be preferred to this, if it is to be taken as a whole ; but no other English version will prove more instructive to the student who will take the pains to separate what is good and useful from what is ill-advised and wrong.” When King James I. came to the throne of England he took measures to secure a uniform translation of the Scrip¬ tures, and appointed fifty-four of the most learned men of his kingdom to proceed with the work. The result of their labors was published in 1611; and being commanded by authority to be used in the churches, it soon became the standard transla¬ tion for English-speaking people. This is the translation now called “ the Authorized Version .” But in process of time numerous errors wrere discovered in it, and new manuscripts of the original came to light. It was long thought by scholars that a new version should be made; and, accordingly, the subject of re¬ vision was brought by Professor Selwyn before the lower House of Convocation of the province of Canterbury in 1856, but his proposals then met with little favor. No action was taken until 1870, when the matter was in¬ trusted to a committee, consisting of eight members of the upper house and sixteen of the lower. They reported favor¬ ably ; and the convocation then nominated a committee of eight members of each house to undertake the work of revision. They associated with them a number of the best scholars in Great Britain and America, and divided themselves into two companies for the revision ol the Old Testament and New Testament respectively. The New Testament Company first concluded its labors, and published the revision in 1881. The Old Testament revision was not completed until 1884. The Authorized and Revised Versions appear together in parallel columns on the following pages. INTRODUCTORY HJBTUR* OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 1 Tbe oldest version in any language of which there is a record is the Septuagint, written in Greek, at Alex¬ andria, Egypt, b. c. 286-280. The oldest known copy of this version is written on thin vellum, contains the whole Bible, and is dated in the fifth century ; now in the British Museum, and is called 0±i_B \e C2± e o i c e t tt© m at TOIC TfR P Art NO|CTO~r "To K eTJGTTAH GYNQH CAM Ol ©A.I BON This specimen is from a copy in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, a palimpsest, and belongs _ to the sixth century. It is from the Gospel of Mat¬ thew, xix. 26. Tec mg TTOAXOfeTTAMGCTHCAN GTrGM B . GZH\eeN&e This specimen is from a copy of the Book of Genesis, written for Origen, in Greek, A. d. 186 to 255, and shows a very neat and clear text, as well as all the others. The Codex Alexandrinus. Ju iceocoyAonzeT'A J* VA'TAXAff N A\A\KA,tV The Codex Vaticanus is a manuscript in the Y atican Library, Rome ; contains the whole Bible, except a few lost leaves, and belongs to the fourth century. KAJOMOAOroyMe NCDCMerAGCT/N The Codex Sinailicus was found in the Convent on Mount Sinai, and belongs to the sixth century, but is a copy of one of an earlier date. Besides the Old and The oldest He¬ brew MS. known is dated A. D. 489 ; is a roll, and was found in the Karaite Syna¬ gogue in the Crimea. The specimen given mm here is from a Pentateuch, written originally on a roll of leather, preserved in Odessa, and was brought from Darbend, in Daghestan. It was corrected in A. D. 580, and was therefore written before that time. The text is from Malachi iv. 6. As a specimen of the ancient Hebrew letter used about the time that Paul was a pupil of Gama, liel, here is a copy from a gravestone in the Crimea, of the year A. D. 6. This style of letter is like that on the coins of the Maccabees, B. 139, and other coins down to a. d. 130. » I e i New Testaments, it has the Gospel and Epistles of Barnabas and the Epistle of Hermas. Fragments of the Gospel are contained in a palimpsest MS. in a library at Wolfen-buttel, Germany, where the ancient Greek letters have been scraped off, and a modern text written PTT'Yl i? >' V •*• \ \ 'V. B* rv cy 1*'. f J) Si v ft l-> /K\ / ( \ L TO A> Sft> <& n / a vj A\ 'pOfrsfJi u mw oov ft S') ^ (On a gravestone at Sim- » |/ •— X | I J j I pheropol, Crimea.) J 1 |'T) 1 hMNf ' Y'aj “This is the grare of * I r ’ J fJ Buki, son of Isaac, tho **) fcY ' ■ fl t ^ priest; may his rest be in D-t J iy IU, J/y Paradise! [Died] at the ifiy n Sid* time of the deliverance of J I J U U Israel, in the year 702 of tdrvov O'Jt? our captivity” ( i.e . a.d. 6). over them, but not entirely obliterating the ancient writing. The first speci¬ men is from Luke i. 6. The next is one which was found at the Convent on the Natron Lakes, Egypt, and is Luke xx. 9, 10, with a work of Severus of < JJ N \ P A C% iretup KAllrie MXPo NOYC % Antioch over it. It is dated A. D. 550. Both the specimens of writing are fine examples of the art. The great price of writing material, skins, parch¬ ment, vellum or cloth and papyrus, caused the loss of many old books, whose letters were erased to make room for some new work. The oldest printed Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was issued at Soncino, Italy, A. D. 1487, in folio. The Complutensian Polyglott was published at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes in 1514-1522, in 6 vols. folio, and sold at fifteen dollars. The last specimen on this page is Greek, from the text of John i. 1, 2, and is dated a. d. 995. The initial letter is in blue and red colors, and is very J T1 -K4 /V V H TArai^Mj^Tnp HAjp’mmiojvo rU+KMMVU K Al'f f ft fUAO r H ^ ^THHHTNAfXn HfKTPH'fH't-RAM finely “illuminated.” The first book printed was the Bible, in Latin; and the splendid pages of the Mazarin Vulgate, printed by Gutenberg and Faust in 1455, at Mainz, are not surpassed at this day as specimens of typography. And the style of the letter has not been improved upon since that time for elegance of shape or distinctness. THE NAMES AND ORDER OF ALL THE BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT / - - - v ff AQU. 9 GENESIS, CHAPTERS. o . . 50 PAGE. 742 ECCLESIASTES, CHAPTERS . 12 71 EXODUS, .... 40 751 SONG OF SOLOMON, 8 123 LEVITICUS, . . 27 757 ISAIAH, . . 66 162 NUMBERS, .... 36 816 JEREMIAH, . ■ 52 216 DEUTERONOMY, . . 34 882 LAMENTATIONS, . . 5 261 JOSHUA, .... 24 889 EZEKIEL . 48 291 JUDGES, .... . 21 950 DANIEL . . 12 322 RUTH, . 4 968 HOSEA, .... 14 326 I SAMUEL, . 31 977 JOEL, . . 3 366 II SAMUEL, 24 980 AMOS, . 9 399 I KINGS . . 22 987 OBADIAH, .... . 1 437 II KINGS . 25 988 JONAH, .... 4 474 I CHRONICLES, . 29 990 MIC AH . . 7 509 II CHRONICLES, 36 995 NAHUM, .... 3 552 EZRA, . .10 997 HABAKKUK, .... . 3 564 NEHEMIAH, 13 1000 ZEPHANIAH, 3 582 ESTHER, .... . 10 1003 HAGGAI, .... . 2 591 JOB, . . . 42 1005 ZECHARIAH, 14 625 PSALMS, .... . 150 1015 MALACHI, .... . 4 713 PROVERBS, .... 31 2 CONTENTS Books of the Old OF THE and New Testaments. CHAP. GENESIS. Creation . 1 Formation of Man . 2 The Fall . 3 Death of Abel . 4 Generations of Adam . 5 The Ark . 6 The Deluge . 7 Waters assuaged . 8 Death of Noah . 9 Noah’s generations . 10 Babel built . 11 Call of Abram . 12 Abram and Lot . 13 Battle of the kings . 14 Abram’s faith . 15 Departure of Ilagar . 16 Circumcision . 17 Abraham and the angels . 18 Destruction of Sodom . 19 Abraham denieth Sarah . 20 Isaac is born . 21 Isaac offered up . 22 Death of Sarah . 23 Isaac and Rebecca meet . 24 Abraham’s death . 25 Isaac blessed . 26 Jacob and Esau . 27 Jacob’s vision and vow . 28 Jacob marrieth Rachel . 29 Birth of Joseph . 30 Departure of Jacob . 31 Jacob and the angel . 32 Jacob and Esau meet . 33 Shechemites slain . 34 Jacob’s altar at Bethel . 35 Generations of Esau . 36 Joseph sold by his brethren ... 37 Judah’s incest . 38 Joseph and his mistress . 39 Pharaoh’s butler, etc . 40 Pharaoh’s dreams . 41 Joseph’s brethren in Egypt ... 42 Joseph entertains his brethren . . 43 Joseph’s policy to his brethren . . 44 Joseph known to his brethren . . 45 Jacob goeth into Egypt . 46 Joseph presents his brethren . . 47 Joseph goeth to his father . . . .48 Jacob blesseth his sons . 49 Death of Joseph . 50 EXODUS. The Israelites oppressed . 1 Moses bom . 2 The burning bush . 3 God’s message to Pharaoh .... 4 The bondage of the Israelites . . 5 CHAP. God’s promise renewed . 6 Moses goeth to Pharaoh . 7 Plague of frogs . 8 Plagues continued . 9 Plagues continued . 10 The Israelites borrow jewels ... 11 Passover instituted . 12 Departure of the Israelites . . . .13 Egyptians drowned . 14 The song of Moses . -15 Manna and quails sent . 16 Moses builds an altar . 17 Moses meets his wife and sons . . 18 God’s message from Sinai .... 19 The Ten Commandments .... 20 Laws against murder . 21 Laws against theft, etc . 22 Laws against false witness, etc. . . 23 Moses called into the mount ... 24 Form of the ark . 25 Curtains for the ark . 26 Altar of burnt offering . 27 Aaron and his sons made priests . 28 Priests consecrated . 29 Ransom of souls . 30 Moses receiveth the two tables . 31 Golden calf. Tables broken . . 32 God talketh with Moses . 33 Tables renewed . -.34 Free gifts for the tabernacle ... 35 People’s liberality restrained . . 36 Ark, mercy seat, etc . 37 Sum of the offerings . 38 Holy garments made . 39 Tabernacle anointed . 40 LEVITICUS. Burnt offerings . l Meat offerings . 2 Peace offerings . 3 Sin offerings . 4 Trespass offerings . 5 Trespass offerings . 6 Law of trespass offerings .... 7 Aaron and his sons consecrated . 8 Aaron’s sin offering . 9 Nadab and Abihu slain . 10 Unclean beasts . ll Purifications . 12 Law of leprosy . 13 Law for the leper . 14 Uncleanness of issues . 15 Sin offerings . 16 Blood forbidden . 17 Unlawful marriages . 18 Repetition of laws . 19 Denunciations for sins . 20 Priests’ qualifications . 21 chap. Nature of sacrifices . 22 Feasts of the Lord . 23 Shelomith’s son . 24 The Jubilee . 25 Obedience required . 26 Nature of vows . 27 NUMBERS. The tribes numbered . 1 Order of the tribes . 2 Levites appointed priests .... 3 The service of the Kohathites . . 4 Trial of jealousy . 5 Law of the Nazarite . 6 Offerings of the princes . 7 Levites consecrated . 8 Passover commanded . 9 The Israelites’ march . 10 The Israelites loathe manna ... 11 Miriam’s leprosy . 12 Delegates search the land .... 13 The people murmur at the report 14 Sundry laws given . 15 Korah, Dathan, etc., slain .... 16 Aaron’s rod flourisheth . 17 Portion of the priests and Levites 18 Law of purification . 19 Moses smiteth the rock . 20 Brazen serpent appointed .... 21 Balak sends for Balaam . 22 Balak’s sacrifices . 23 Balaam’s prophecy . 24 Zimri and Cozbi slain . 25 Israel numbered . 26 Death of Moses foretold . 27 Offerings to be observed . . . . .28 Offerings at feasts . 29 Vows not to be broken . 30 Midianites spoiled . -31 Reubenites and Gadites reproved 32 Journeys of the Israelites .... 33 Borders of the land appointed . . 34 Cities of Refuge appointed ... 35 Gilead’s inheritance retained . . 36 DEUTERONOMY. Moses rehearseth God’s promise . 1 Story of the Edomites . 2 Moses prayeth to see Canaan . . 3 An exhortation to obedience . . 4 Ten Commandments . 5 Obedience to the law enjoined . 6 Strange communion forbidden . . 7 God’s mercies claim obedience . . 8 Israel’s rebellion rehearsed ... 9 The tables restored . 10 An exhortation to obedience . .11 Blood forbidden . 12 CHAP. Idolaters to be stoned . 13 Of meats, clean and unclean . . . 14 Of the year of release . 15 The feast of the Passover .... 16 The choice and duty of a king . .17 The priests’ portion . 18 Cities of refuge appointed .* . . .19 The priest’s exhortation before battle . 20 Expiation of uncertain murder . 21 Of humanity toward brethren . . 22 Divers laws and ordinances ... 23 Of divorce . 24 Stripes must not exceed forty . . 25 Of the offering of firstfruits ... 26 The law to be written on stones . 27 Blessings and cures declared . . 28 God’s covenant with his people . 29 Mercy promised to the penitent . 30 Moses giveth Joshua a charge . . 31 The song of Moses . 32 The majesty of God . 33 Moses vieweth the land and dieth 34 JOSHUA. Joshua succeedeth Moses .... 1 Rahab concealeth the spies ... 2 The waters of Jordan divided - . 3 Twelve stones for a memorial . . 4 Manna ceaseth . 5 Jericho besieged and taken ... 6 Achan’s sin punished . 7 J oshua taketh Ai . 8 The craft of the Gibeonites ... 9 The sun and moon stand still . . 10 Divers kings conquered . . . . .11 Names of the conquered kings . . 12 Balaam slain . 13 The inheritance of the tribes . . 14 The borders of the lot of Judah . 15 Ephraim’s inheritance . . . '. . 16 The lot of Manasseh . 17 The lot of Benjamin . 18 The lot of Simeon . 19 Cities of refuge, etc . 20 God giveth Israel rest . 21 The two tribes and half sent home 22 Joshua’s exhortation before his death . 23 J oshua’s death and burial . . . . 24 ■ JUDGE8. The acts of Judah and Simeon . • 1 j The Israelites fall into idolatry . - 2 I The nations left to prove Israel 3 j Deborah and Barak deliver Israel 4 The song of Deborah and Barak . 5 The Israelites oppressed by Midian 6 CONTENTS. CHAP. Gideon’s army . 7 The Ephraimites pacified .... 8 Abimelech made king . 9 Tolah judge th Israel . 10 Jephthah’s rash vow . 11 The Ephraimites slain . 12 Samson bora . 13 Samson’s marriage and riddle • • 14 Samson is denied his wife .... 15 Delilah’s falsehood to Samson . . 16 Micah’s idolatry . 17 The Danites seek an inheritance 18, The Levite and his concubine . .19 : The complaint of the Levite . .20* Benjamin’s desolation bewailed . 21 RUTH. Elimelech driven into Moab ... 1 Euth gleaning in Boaz’s field . . 2 Boaz’s bounty to Euth . 3 Boaz marrieth Euth . 4 FIRST BOOK OF SAMUEL. Samuel born . 1 Hannah’s song . 2 The Lord calleth Samuel .... 3 Eli’s death . . . _ . 4 Dagon falleth before the ark ... 5 The ark sent back . 6 The Israelites repent . 7 The Israelites desire a king ... 8 Samuel entertaineth Saul .... 9 Saul anointed . 10 The Ammonites smitten .... 11 Samuel’s integrity . 12 Saul reproved . 13 Saul’s victories . 14 Saul spareth A gag . 15 Samuel anointeth David . 16 David slayeth Goliath . 17 Jonathan’s love to David . . . .18 Saul’s jealousy of David . 19 David and Jonathan consult ... 20 David feigns himself mad . ... 21 Nob destroyed . 22 David reseueth Keilah . 23 David spareth Saul . 24 The death of Samuel . 25 David findeth Saul asleep .... 26 David fleeth to Gath . 27 Saul consults a witch . 28 Achish dismisseth David .... 29 Amelekites spoil Ziklag . 30 Saul and his sons slain . 31 SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. David laments Saul . 1 David made king of Judah ... 2 Joab killeth Abner . 3 Ish-bosheth murdered . 4 David’s age and reign . 5 Uzzah smitten . 6 God’s promise to David . 7 David’s officers . 8 David sends for Mephibosheth . 9 Hanun’s villainy . 10 David’s adultery . 11 Nathan’s parable . 12 Amnon and Tamar . 13 CHAP. Absalom’s return . 14 Absalom’s policy . 15 Shimei curseth David . 16 Ahithophel hangeth himself . • -17 Absalom slain by Joab . 18 Shimei is pardoned . 19 Sheba’s revolt . 20 Saul’s sons hanged . 21 David’s thanksgiving . 22 David’s faith . 23 David numbereth the people . • 24 FIRST BOOK OF KINGS. Solomon anointed king . 1 David’s death . 2 Solomon chooseth wisdom .... 3 Solomon’s prosperity . 4 Hiram and Solomon agree .... 5 The building of the temple ... 6 Ornaments of the temple .... 7 The temple dedicated . 8 God’s covenant with Solomon . . 9 The queen of Sheba . 10 Ahijah’s prohecy . 11 The ten tribes revolt . 12 Jeroboam’s hand withereth ... 13 Abijah’s sickness and death ... 14 Jeroboam’s sin punished .... 15 Jericho rebuilt . 16 The widow’s son raised . 17 Elijah obtaineth rain . 18 Elisha followeth Elijah . 19 Samaria besieged . 20 Naboth stoned , . 21 Ahab seduced . 22 SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. Moab rebelleth . 1 Elijah’s translation . 2 Moabites defeated . 3 The widow’s oil multiplied ... 4 Naaman cleansed . 5 A famine in Samaria . 6 Plenty in Samaria . 7 Ben-hadad killed . 8 Jezebel eaten by dogs . 9 Prophets of Baal slain . 10 Jehoash anointed king . 11 The temple repaired . 12 Elisha’s death . 13 Amariah reigneth . 14 Azariah’s leprosy . 15 Ahaz’s wicked reign . 16 Ten tribes taken captive . . . .17 Eabshakeh’s blasphemy . 18 Hezekiah’s prayer . 19 Hezekiah’s death . 20 Manasseh’s iniquity . 21 Huldah prophesieth . 22 Josiah destroyeth the idolaters . 23 Judah taken captive . 24 The temple destroyed . 25 I. CHRONICLES. Adam’s line to Noah . 1 The posterity of Israel . 2 The sons of David . . . 3 The posterity of Judah . 4 The line of Eeuben . 5 CHAP. The sons of Levi . 6 The sons of Issachar . 7 The sons of Benjamin . 8 The genealogies of Israel and J udah 9 Saul’s overthrow and death ... 10 David made king of Israel ... 11 The armies that helped David . .12 David fetcheth the ark . 13 Hiram’s kindness to David ... 14 David bringeth the ark to Zion . 15 David’s psalm of thanksgiving . . 16 Nathan’s message to David ... 17 David’s victories . 18 David’s messengers ill treated . . 19 Babbah taken and spoiled .... 20 The plague stayed . 21 Preparation for the temple ... 22 Solomon made king . 23 The order of Aaron’s sons ... 24 The number of the singers ... 25 The division of the porters ... 26 The twelve captains . 27 David’s exhortation . 28 David’s reign and death . 29 II. CHRONICLES. Solomon’s offering . 1 Solomon sendeth to Huram ... 2 The building of the temple ... 3 The vessels of the temple .... 4 The temple finished . 5 Solomon blesseth the people ... 6 Solomon’s sacrifice . 7 Solomon’s buildeth cities .... 8 The queen of Sheba visiteth Solo¬ mon . 9 Behoboam made king . 10 Judah strengthened . 11 Eehoboam’s reign and death . . 12 Abijah overcometh Jeroboam . . 13 Asa destroyeth idolatry . 14 Asa’s covenant with God .... 15 Asa’s death and burial . 16 Jehoshaphat’s good reign . . . .17 Micaiah’s prophecy . 18 Jehoshaphat’s care for justice . . 19 Jehoshaphat’s fast and prayer . . 20 Jehoram’s wicked reign . 21 Ahaziah’s wicked reign . 22 Joash made king . .23 Zechariah stoned . 24 The Edomites overcome . 25 Uzziah’s leprosy . 26 Jotham’s good reign . 27 Ahaz’s wicked reign . 2S Hezekiah’s good reign . 29 The passover proclaimed .... 30 Provision for the priests . 31 Hezekiah’s death . 32 Manasseh’s wicked reign .... 33 Josiah’s good reign . 34 Josiah slain in battle . .35 Jerusalem destroyed . 36 EZRA. The proclamation of Cyrus ... 1 The people return from Babylon 2 The altar erected . 3 The decree of Artaxerxes .... 4 CHAP. . . 5 . . 6 . . 7 . . 8 . . 9 . . 10 N EH EM I AH. Nehemiah mourneth for Jerusalem 1 A rtaxerxes encourageth Nehemiah 2 The names of the builders ... 3 Nehemiah appointeth a watch . . 4 Beformation of usury . 5 Sanballat’s practices . 6 Hanani and Hananiah’s charge . 7 The reading of the law . 8 A solemn feast appointed .... 9 The points of the covenant ... 10 Who dwelt at Jerusalem .... 11 The high priest’s succession ... 12 Divers abuses reformed . 13 ESTHER. Ahasuerus’s royal feast . 1 Esther made queen . 2 Haman despised by Mordecai . . 3 The mourning of the Jews ... 4 Esther obtaineth the king’s favor 5 Mordecai’s good sendees .... 6 Haman is hanged . 7 The rejoicing of the Jews .... 8 Hainan’s ten sons hanged .... 9 Mordecai’s advancement .... 10 JOB. Job’s losses and temptations. . . 1 Job smitten with boils . 2 Job curseth the day of his birth . 3 Eliphaz reproveth Job . 4 Afflictions are from God .... 5 Job wisheth for death . 6 Job excuse th his desire of death . 7 Bildad sheweth God’s justice . - 8 The innocent often afflicted ... 9 Job expostulate th with God ... 10 Zophar reproveth Job . 11 God’s omnipotence maintained . 12 Job’s confidence in God . 13 The conditions of man’s life ... 14 Eliphaz reproveth Job . 15 Job reproveth his friends .... 16 Job’s appeal to God . 17 Bildad reproveth Job . 18 Job’s complaint of his friends . . 19 The portion of the wicked ... 20 The destruction of the wicked . . 21 Job accused of divers sins .... 22 God’s decree is immutable ... 23 Sin goeth often unpunished ... 24 Man can not be justified before God . 25 Job reproveth Bildad . 26 The hypocrite is without hope . . 27 Wisdom is the gift of God .... 28 Job bemoaneth himself . 29 Job’s honor turned to contempt . 30 Job professeth his integrity ... 31 Elihu reproveth Job . 32 Elihu reasoneth with Job .... 33 Tatnai’s letter to Darius The temple finished . Ezra goeth to Jerusalem Ezra keepeth a fast . . Ezra’s prayer . Ezra’s mourning . . . CONTENTS. VI CHAT. God can not be unjust . 34 Comparison not to be made with God ... . . 35 The justice of God’s ways .... 36 God’s great works . 37 God’s wisdom is unsearchable . . 38 God’s power in his creatures . . 39 Job humblcth himself to God . . 40 God’s power in the creation ... 41 Job’s age and death . 42 PSALMS. psalm. Happiness of the godly . 1 The kingdom of Christ . 2 The security of God’s protection . 3 David prayeth for audience ... 4 David’s profession of his faith . . 5 David’s complaint in sickness . . 6 The destruction of the wicked . . 7 God’s love to man . 8 God praised for his judgments . . 9 The outrage of the wicked ... 10 God’s providence and justice . . 11 David craveth for God’s help . . 12 David boasteth of divine mercy . 13 The natural man described ... 14 A citizen of Zion described ... 15 David’s hope of his calling ... 16 David’s hope and confidence . . 17 David praiseth God . 18 David prayeth for grace . 19 The church’s confidence in God . 20 A thanksgiving for victory ... 21 David’s complaint and prayer . . 22 David’s confidence in God’s grace 23 God’s worship in the world ... 24 David’s confidence in prayer . . 25 David resorteth unto God .... 26 David’s love to God’s service . . 27 David blesseth God . 28 Why God must be honored ... 29 David’s praise for deliverance . . 30 David rejoiceth in God’6 mercy . 31 Who are blessed . 32 God is to be praised . . 33 Those blessed who trust in God . 34 David prayeth for his safety ... 35 The excellency of God’s mercy . 36 David persuadeth to patience . . 37 David moveth God to compassion 38 The brevity of life . 39 Obedience the best sacrifice ... 40 God’s care of the poor . 41 David’s zeal to serve God .... 42 David prayeth to he restored . . 43 The church’s complaint to God . 44 The majesty of Christ’s kingdom 45 The church’s confidence in God . 46 The kingdom of Christ . 47 The privileges of the church . . 48 Worldly prosperity contemned . 49 God’s majesty in the church . . 50 David’s prayer and confession . . 51 David’s confidence in God .... 52 The natural man described ... 53 David’s prayer for salvation . •. .54 David’s complaint in prayer ... 55 David’s promise of praise .... 56 David in prayer fleeth to God . . 57 PSALM. David describeth the wicked . . 58 David prayeth for deliverance . 59 David’s comfort in God’s promises 60 David voweth perpetual service 61 No trust in worldly things ... 62 David’s thirst for God . 63 David’s complaint of his enemies 64 The blessedness of God’s chosen 65 David exhorteth to praise God . 66 A prayer for God’s kingdom . . 67 A prayer at the removing of the ark 68 David’s complaint in affliction . 69 David’s prayer for the godly . . 70 David’s prayer for perseverance 71 David’s prayer for Solomon . . 72 The righteous sustained .... 73 David prayeth for the sanctuary 74 David rebuketh the proud ... 75 God’s majesty in the church . . 76 David’s combat with diffidence . 77 God’s wrath against Israel ... 78 The Psalmist’s complaint .... 79 David’s prayer for the church . 80 An exhortation to praise God . 81 David reprove th the judges . . 82 The church’s enemies . 83 David longeth for the sanctuary 84 David prayeth for mercies ... 85 David’s complaint of the proud . 86 The nature and glory of the church 87 David’s grievous complaint ... 88 God praised for his power ... 89 God’s providence set forth ... 90 The state of the godly . 91 God praised for his great works • 92 The majesty of Christ’s kingdom 93 David’s complaint of impiety . . 94 The danger of tempting God . . 95 God praised for his greatness . . 96 The majesty of God . 97 All creatures exhorted to praise God . 98 God to be worshipped . 99 God to be praised cheerfully . . 100 David’s profession of godliness • 101 God’s mercies to be recorded . . 102 God blessed for his constancy . 103 God wonderful in providence . . 104 The plagues of Egypt . 105 Israel's rebellion . 106 God’s manifold providence . . . 107 David’s confidence in God . . • 108 David’s complaint of his enemies 109 The kingdom of Christ . 110 God praised for his works . . - Ill The happiness of the godly . . . 112 God praised for his mercy . . • 113 An exhortation to praise .... 114 The vanity of idols . 115 David studieth to be thankful . 116 God praised for his mercy and truth . 117 David’s trust in God . 118 Meditation, prayer, and prase .119 David prayeth against Doeg . . 120 The safety of the godly .... 121 David’s joy for the church . . .122 The godly’s confidence in God . 123 The church blesseth God . . . 124 PSALM. A prayer for the godly . 125 The church prayeth for mercies 126 The virtue of God’s blessing . . 127 Those blessed that fear God . . 128 The haters of the church cursed 129 God to be hoped in . 130 David professeth his humility .. 131 David’s care for the ark .... 132 The benefits of the saints’ com¬ munion . 133 An exhortation to bless God . . 134 God praised for his judgments . 135 God praised for manifold mercies 136 The constancy of the Jews . . . 137 David’s confidence in God . . . 138 David defieth the wicked . . . 139 David’s prayer for deliverance . 140 David prayeth for sincerity . . 141 David’s comfort in trouble . . . 142 David complaineth of his grief . 143 David’s prayer for his kingdom . 144 God’s help to the godly .... 145 David voweth perpetual praise to God . 146 God praised for his providence . 147 All creatures should praise God 148 God praised for his benefits . . 149 God praised upon instruments . 150 THE PROVERBS. CHAP. The use of the proverbs . 1 The benefit of wisdom . 2 Exhortation to sundry duties . . 3 Persuasions to obedience .... 4 The mischiefs of whoredom ... 5 Seven things hateful to God ... 6 Description of a harlot . 7 The call of wisdom . 8 The doctrine of wisdom . 9 Virtues and vices contrasted ... 10 Continued, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and . . . 24 Observations about kings .... 25 Sundry maxims . . 26 Sundry maxims . 27 Observations of impiety . 28 Of public government . 29 Agur’s prayer . 30 Lemuel’s lesson of chastity ... 31 ECCLESIASTES. The vanity of all human things . 1 Wisdom and folly have one end . 2 A time for all things . 3 The good of contentment .... 4 The vanity of riches . 5 The conclusion of vanities ... 6 Remedies against vanities .... 7 Kings are to be respected .... 8 Wisdom is better than strength . 9 Of wisdom and folly . 10 Directions for charity . 11 The preacher’s care to edify . . .12 THE SONG OF SOLOMON. The church’s love to Christ ... 1 Christ’s care of the church ... 2 The church glorieth in Christ . . 3 The graces of the church .... 4 CHAP, Christ’s love for his church ... 5 The church’s faith in Christ ... 6 The graces of the church .... 7 The calling of the Gentiles ... 8 ISAIAH. Isaiah’s complaint of Judah . . . 1 Christ’s kingdom prophesied . . 2 The oppression of the rulers . . 3 Christ’s kingdom a sanctuary . . 4 God’s judgments for sin . 5 Isaiah’s vision of God’s glory . . 6 Christ promised . 7 I Israel and Judah threatened ... 8 The church’s joy in Christ’s birth 9 God’s judgments upon Israel . . 10 The calling of the Gentiles ... 11 Thanksgiving for God’s mercies . 12 Babylon threatened . 13 Israel’s restoration . 14 The lamentable state of Moab . . 15 Moab exhorteth to obedience . . 16 Syria and Israel threatened ... 17 God’s care of his people . 18 The confusion of Egypt . 19 Egypt and Ethiopia’s captivity . . 20 The fall of Babylon . 21 The invasion of Jewry . 22 Tyre’s miserable overthrow . . . 23 ' Judgments of God for sin .... 24 The prophet praiseth God .... 25 A 6ong of praise to God . 26 God’s care of his vineyard ... 27 Ephraim threatened . 28 God’s judgment on Jerusalem . . 29 God’s mercies towards his church 30 An exhortation to turn to God . 31 Desolation foreshown . 32 The privileges of the godly ... 33 God revengeth his church . . . .34 The blessings of the gospel ... 35 Rabshakeh insulteth Hezekiah . 36 Hezekiah’s prayer . 37 Hezekiah’s thanksgiving .... 38 Babylonian captivity foretold . . 39 The promulgation of the gospel . 40 God’s mercies to his church ... 41 Christ’s mission to the Gentiles . 42 God comforteth his church ... 43 The vanity of idols . 44 God calleth Cyrus . 45 Idols not to be compared with God 46 God’s judgment upon Babylon . 47 The intent of prophecy . 48 Christ sent to the Gentiles ... 49 Christ’s sufferings and patience • 50 The certainty of God’s salvation 51 Christ’s free redemption . 52 The humiliation of Christ . 53 The church’s enlargement . . . .54 The happy state of believers ... 55 Exhortation to holiness . 56 God reprove th the Jewrs . 57 Hypocrisy reproved . 58 The covenant of the Redeemer • 59 The glory of the church . 60 The office of Christ . 61 God’s promises to his church . . 62 Christ sheweth his power to save 63 CONTENTS. VII The church’s prayer . The calling of the Gentiles . . The growth of the church . . . JEREMIAH. The calling of Jeremiah .... Israel is spoiled for his sins . . God’s mercy to Judah . Israel called to repentance . . . God’s judgments upon the Jews Enemies sent against Judah . . Jeremiah’s call for repentance . The calamities of the Jews . . Jeremiah’s lamentation .... The vanity of idols . God’s covenant proclaimed . . The prosperity of the wicked . An exhortation to repentance . The prophet’s prayer . Jeremiah’s complaint . The utter ruin of the Jews . . The captivity of Judah .... The type of the potter .... The desolation of the Jews . . Pashur smiteth Jeremiah . . . Nebuchadnezzar’s war . The judgment of Shallum . . . Restoration of God’s people . . The type of good and bad figs . Jeremiah reproveth the Jews . Jeremiah is arraigned . . Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests . . . Hananiah’s prophecy . Jeremiah’s letter . The return of the Jews . The restoration of Israel . Jeremiah imprisoned . Christ the Branch promised . . . Zedekiah’s fate foretold . God blesseth the Rechabites . . . Jeremiah’s prophecies . The Chaldeans’ siege raised . . . Jeremiah cast into a dungeon . . Jerusalem is taken . Jeremiah set at liberty . Ishmael killctk Gedaliah . . . . Johanan promise th obedience'. . Jeremiah carried to Egypt . . . Judah’s desolation . Baruch comforted. . Overthrow of Pharaoh’s army . . The Philistines’ destruction . . . The judgment of Moab . The restoration of Elam . The redemption of Israel . . . . God’s severe judgment . Zedekiah’s wicked reign .... LAMENTATIONS. Jerusalem’s misery . . . Israel’s misery lamented Sorrows of the righteous Zion’s pitiful estate . . . Zion’s complaint .... EZEKIEL. Ezekiel’s vision . Ezekiel’s commission . . Ezekiel eateth the roil . 64 65 66 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 23 . 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Israel threatened . Israel’s desolation The princes’ presumption The rejection of Jerusalem Prophecy against Jerusalem . Jerusalem’s sins . The fall of Tyrus . 26 Tyrus’s rich supply . 27 Zidon threatened . 28 The judgment of Pharaoh .... 29 Desolation of Egypt . 30 The glory and fall of Assyria . . 31 The fall of Egypt . 32 Ezekiel admonished . 33 God’s care of his flock . 34 Judgment of Seir . 35 Israel comforted . 36 Vision of dry bones . 37 The malice of Gog . 38 Israel’s victory over Gog .... 39 Description of the temple .... 40 Ornaments of the temple .... 41 The priests’ chambers ... ... 42 Return of God’s glory . 43 The priests reproved . 44 Division of the land . 45 Ordinances for the princes . ’Vision of the holy waters . . Portions of the twelve tribes 46 47 48 DANIEL. Jehoiakim’s captivity . 1 Daniel advanced . 2 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego 3 Nebuchadnezzar’s pride and fall . 4 Belshazzar’s impious feast .... 5 Daniel in the lions’ den . 6 Vision of the four beasts .... 7 V ision of the ram . 8 Daniel’s confession . 9 Daniel comiorted . 10 Overthrow of Persia . n Israel’s deliverance . 12 HOSEA. J udgments for whoredom . The idolatry of the people . The desolation of Israel . . Judgment threatened . . . Israel a treacherous people Exhortation to repentance Reproof for manifold sins . Israel threatened . 4 Captivity of Israel . CHAP. . . 9 i Israel’s impiety . . . 10 6 Israel’s ingratitude to God . . . 11 7 Ephraim reproved . . . 12 3 Ephraim’s glory vanished . . . . 13 1 Blessings promised . . . 14 J JOEL. 1 God’s sundry judgments . . . . 1 1 Exhortation to repentance . . . 2 1 God’s judgments against his peo- pie’s enemies . . . 3 AMOS. God’s judgments upon Syria . . 1 God’s wrath against Moab . . . . 2 Judgments against Israel . . . . 3 God reproveth Israel .... . . 4 A lamentation for Israel . . . . . 5 Israel’s wantonness plagued . . . 6 J udgments of the grasshoppers . . 7 Israel's end typified .... . . 8 Israel’s restoration promised . . . 9 OBADIAH, Edom’s destruction for their pride and violence . JONAH. Jonah sent to Nineveh . . . The prayer of Jonah .... The Ninevites’ repentance, . . . 3 Jonah repines at God’s mercy . . 4 MICAH. God’s wrath against Jacob . . . . 1 Against oppression . . . 2 The cruelty of the princes . . . . 3 The church’s glory . . 4 The birth of Christ . God's controversy . . . 6 The church’s complaint . . . 7 NAHUM. The majesty of God . . 1 God’s armies against Nineveh . 2 The ruin of Nineveh .... HABAKKUK. Habakkuk’s complaint . . . . 1 1 Judgment on the Chaldeans . . 2 ^ Habakkuk’s prayer . ZEPHAN1AH. God’s severe judgments . . . . . 1 ^ Exhortation to repentance . . . 2 1 Jerusalem sharply reproved . . 3 J HAGGAI. „ The people reproved . . 1 1 Glory of the second temple - . . 2 1 ZECHARIAH. Exhortation to repentance . . . 1 C Redemption of Zion ...... . 2 I The type of Joshua . The golden candlestick . . . . . 4 Curse of thieves . Vision of the chariots . . 6 1 C CHAP. Captives’ inquiry of fasting ... 7 Jerusalem’s restoration . 8 The coming of Christ . . 9 God to be sought unto . 10 Destruction of Jerusalem .... 11 Judah’s restoration . 12 Jerusalem’s repentance . 13 Jerusalem’s enemies plagued . . 14 MALACHI. Israel’s unkindness . 1 The priests reproved . 2 The majesty of Christ . 3 Judgments of the wicked .... 4 MATTHEW, The genealogy of Christ .... 1 Christ’s nativity . 2 The preaching of John Baptist . . 3 Christ tempted . . 4 Christ’s sermon on the mount . . 5 Of alms and prayer . 6 Rash judgment reproved .... 7 Christ’s miracles . 8 Matthew called . 9 The apostles sent forth . 10 14 iguration ol Christ .... 17 teacheth humility .... 18 healeth the sick . 19 bbrers in the vineyard ... 20 22 25 MARK, of the sower 10 12 he destruction of the temple foretold . 13 Crucifixion of Christ . 15 LUKE. VIII CONTENTS CHAP John’s testimony of Christ ... 3 Christ tempted by Satan .... 4 Miraculous draught of fishes ... 5 The twelve apostles chosen ... 6 Christ’s testimony of John ... 7 Jairus’s daughter raised . 8 How to attain eternal life .... 9 Se-enty disciples sent out .... 10 A dumb devil cast out . 11 Covetousness to be avoided ... 12 The crooked woman healed ... 13 The great supper . 14 The prodigal son . 15 The unjust steward . .16 The power of faith . 17 The importunate widow .... 18 Zaccheus called . 19 Parable of the vineyard ..... 20 The widow’s two mites . 21 Christ condemned . . . 22 Christ’s death and burial . . . .23 Christ’s resurrection . 24 JOHN. The divinity of Christ . 1 Water turned into wine . 2 Necessity of regeneration .... 3 The woman of Samaria . 4 The impotent man healed .... 5 Five thousand fed . 6 Christ teacheth in the temple . . 7 Christ’s doctrine justified .... 8 The blind healed . 9 Christ the good shepherd .... 10 Lazarus raised . 11 Christ foretelleth his death ... 12 Christ’s humility . 13 The Comforter promised . . . .14 Christ the true vine . 15 Christ warneth his disciples of their sufferings . 16 Christ’s prayer . 17 Jesus betrayed . . . 18 Christ’s death and burial .... 19 Christ’s ressurrection . 20 Christ appeareth to his disciples '. 21 CHAP. Exorcists beaten . 19 Eutychus raised to life . 20 Paul goeth to Jerusalem .... 21 Paul’s defence . 22 Paul smitten . 23 Paul accused before Felix .... 24 Paul appealeth to Caesar . 25 Paul’s plea before Agrippa ... 26 Paul shipwrecked . 27 Paul in the island of Melita ... 28 ROMANS. Paul greeteth the Romans ... 1 Who are justified . . . 2 Justification by faith . 3 Abraham’s faith acceptable ... 4 Sin and death came by Adam . . 5 Dying to sin . 6 The law not sin . 7 What frees from condemnation . 8 Calling of the Gentiles . 9 Paul’s prayer for Israel . 10 All Israel are not cast off . . . .11 Love required . 12 Love the fulfilling of the law . . 13 How to use Christian liberty . . 14 The intent of the Scriptures ... 15 Paul’s salutations . 16 I. CORINTHIANS. The wisdom of God . 1 Christ the foundation . 2 Christians are God’s temple ... 3 Distinctions are from God .... 4 The incestuous person ..... 5 Law forbid brethren . 6 Paul treateth of marriage .... 7 Of meats offered to idols .... 8 Paul’s zeal to gain converts ... 9 Old examples . 10 Rules for divine worship .... 11 Spiritual gifts are diverse .... 12 Charity commended . 13 Of strange tongues . 14 Of Christ’s resurrection . 15 Paul commendeth Timothy ... 16 ACTS. II. CORINTHIANS. Matthias chosen . 1 Peter’s sermon . 2 The lame healed . 3 Peter and John imprisoned ... 4 Ananias and Sapphira . 5 Seven deacons chosen . 6 Stephen stoned . 7 Philip planteth a church in Sa¬ maria . 8 Saul’s conversion . 9 Peter’s vision . 10 Peter’s defence . 11 Herod killeth James . 12 Paul preacheth at Antioch ... 13 Paul stoned . 14 Circumcision disputed ..... 15 Timothy circumcised . .16 Paul persecuted . 17 Paul preacheth at Corinth ... 18 Consolation in trouble . Paul’s success in preaching . . . The excellency of the gospel . . The Christian’s paradox . . . . Paul assured of immortality . . . Exhortations to purity . Godly soitow profitable . Liberality extolled . Bounty praised . Paul’s spiritual might . Paul’s godly boasting . Paul’s revelations . Paul’s charge . GALATIANS. Of their leaving the gospel . . . Peter reproved . J ustification by faith . Christ freeth us from the law . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 ■CHAP- The liberty of the gospel .... 6 Lenity recommended . 6 EPHESIANS. Of election and adoption .... 1 Christ our peace . 2 The hidden mystery . 3 Exhortation to unity . 4 Exhortation to love . 5 The Christian armor . 6 PHILIPPIANS. Paul’s prayer to God . 1 Exhortation to humility .... 2 All loss for Christ . 3 General exhortations . 4 COLOSSIANS. Christ described . 1 Exhortation to constancy .... 2 Household duties . 3 Prayer recommended . 4 I. THESSALONIANS. History of their conversion ... 1 How they received the gospel . . 2 Paul’s love in sending Timothy . 3 Exhortation to godliness .... 4 Description of Christ’s coming . . 5 II. THESSALONIANS. Comfort against persecution ... 1 Of steadfastness in the truth . . 2 To avoid idleness . 3 0. TIMOTHY. Paul’s charge to Timothy .... 1 Prayers made for all men .... 2 Of bishops and deacons . 3 Apostasy foretold . 4 Of widows and elders . 5 The gain of godliness . 6 II. TIMOTHY. Paul’s love to Timothy . 1 Exhortation to Timothy .... 2 All Scripture inspired . 3 Qualification of ministers .... 4 TITUS. Qualifications for ministers ... 1 Christians’ duty . 2 Paul directeth what to teach and what not . 3 PHILEMON. Philemon’s faith commended . . 1 HEBREWS. Christ far above angels . 1 Obedience due to Christ .... 2 Christ above Moses . 3 The Christian’s rest . 4 Of Christ’s priesthood . 5 The danger of apostasy . 6 Melchisedec and Christ . 7 A new covenant . 8 cha, The sacrifices of the law . . . . . Christ’s perfect sacrifice .- . . . . J The power of faith . . j Divers exhortations . . J Obedience to spiritual rulers . . JAMES. Wisdom to be sought of God . . Of faith and works . The truly wise . . Against covetousness . The trial of faith . I. PETER. Of God’s spiritual graces .... Christ the corner stone .... Duty of wives and husbands . Of ceasing from sin . . The duty of elders . II. PETER. Exhortation to duties .... False teachers foretold .... Certainty of judgment ..... 8. JOHN. Christ’s person described ... Christ our advocate, and propitia¬ tion . God’s great love . . Try the spirits . The three witnesses . . II. JOHN, An elect lady exhorted . III. JOHN. Gains’ piety commended .... JUDE. Of constancy in the faith ... REVELATION. Of the coming of Christ . Balaam’s doctrine . The key of David . The vision of a throne .... The book with seven seals . . The seven seals opened . . . . The number of the sealed ... Seven angels with trumpets . . A star falleth from heaven . . • The book eaten . . 1 The two witnesses . l| The red dragon . 1- The beast with seven heads . . • lj The harvest of the world . . . ■ l] The seven angels with the sewn last plagues . 1 Of the vials of wrath . lj The scarlet whore . lj The fall of Babylon . lj The Lamb’s marriage .... The first resurrection .... The heavenly Jerusalem de¬ scribed . . . . . The tree of life . •36 THE HOLY LAND as ailottecLLj" JOSHUA Scale of English. Miles Cities of Refiige a Lc%nJioal Cities □ 30' 30 ' K. J Bohncn 4. Co 1*2 2 ▲reh. St Langilxuie £ajrt 30' of Greoiwidi 4^4 £ *~i s k te; £ft« ^ a< !a a)iti"S«S^^4 ^4*3*1 >3 >5 s »l d <5»j>sd .4(kUa« J^OLBt .’ ANIMATED NATURE AS FOUND m BIBLE TIMES A LTD LANDS. By JAMES P. BOYD, A. M. At Rest on the Plain. KjO animal is more conspicuous in Bible history than the Camel, ithe Nou- 'r'111?''1 U,n e< a®_PIar*; °I the flocks of Abram. It figures in even Hebrew Hebrew economy ever finds a place for it, and camel a« b„ i;,P0etrT'i Tie pastoral existence of the East found the the homelv as the ox and sheep. Its milk contributed to beast of tbn ‘i- lts ,hai.r Sav° clothing. It was the commercial camel of paf "t'.ns’ :ln< without it desert trade was impossible. The smaller and ''' 1116 Was comtnou> or single-humped, camel. A the dromed'ir ^Venrr,PQore useful, species of the camel is known as countries fart?" 16 two-humped, or Bactrian, camel is native to It was at the lcr . st than Palestine, and is not a scriptural animal, as Isaac’s wife' * r"?® fJP Abram’s camels that Rebekah was selected Was that of Tot A, " 8 wealth was, in part, measured by camels, as and the keener / " were USC(i as presents between high officials, or a camel herd was often a man of distinction. The flesh of the camel was prohibited food to the Jew, because it did not divide the hoof, but it was eaten by the Arabs and kindred nations. The hoof ot the camel is adapted by Nature to the sandy plains* as are its length of legs and all its parts. The most wonderful feature of its organization is its ability to take in and retain enormous quan¬ tities of water, sufficient for sustenance during long journeys over aiid wastes. It requires but little food, and this of the plainest. 1 lie slight herbage it gathers by the desert way is sufficient to keep it alive. Its instinct for water is remarkable, and often, when all around is parched and travelers are ready to perish with thirst, the camels of a caravan, scenting water from afar, break the lines aim rush in the direction of the desert spring. J he camel was not only used to carry burdens, but as a beast of draught. It drew the plough and chariots of pleasure and war. But The Cattle of Palestine were of small size. The breeds were limited. They were valued less for their flesh than for other us°2. The milk and curds of the cow were esteemed higher than her meat The Ox was used in the plough, on the threshing-floor, and on the highway. All cattle were counted as a valuable part of pastoral wealth, and many were required annually for the sacrifices. Allu¬ sions to domestic cattle furnish some of the most striking metaphors in Bible prose and poetry. Threshing with Oxen. BIBLF ANIMALS, DOMESTIC AND WILD as a beast of draught it was by no means so useful as when it bore burdens. By protecting its humps with a saddle of straw, and slinging over the saddle attached hampers, receptacles were provided into which could be placed market products, manufactures, treasures, and even chib dren, till the weight reached several hun¬ dred pounds, which the animal bore swift¬ ly and patiently. Much attention was paid to the breed¬ ing of camels. The lower and heavier breeds were valued fo r their carrying powers. The higher breeds were valued for their swiftness. The latter, called Do- loul, or swift camels, were used for postal purposes, and in- stancesare mentioned where they have trav¬ eled for fifty consecu¬ tive hours at the rate of ten miles an hour. The Dromedary. These “ ships of the desert, as they are not inaptly called, are the most homely of all beasts, and the most domestic of all. They kneel patiently to re¬ ceive their loads, and refuse to rise when overloaded. Their motion is awkward, and riders maintain their seats with difficulty at first; but on getting used to it the motion becomes pleasant, and is not at all tiresome. The Deloul, or Post Camel. 3 BIBLE ANIMALS, AND WILD Thp Horse of Scripture is chiefly the horse of war. Jewish prose | “try give a high conception of the charger and the chariot- u°C . These conceptions were borrowed, for the Jews were not horse- h0rSei;irp their brothers of the plains, the Ishmaelites, nor like the PVvntians and Persians. The horse really played a small part in Sish economy, but the finest breeds in the world sprang from the deserts around Palestine, particularly Arabia, and amid the Bedouin trihe.S. Asses. The Ass is one of the most prominent of Bible animals. It was and is the saddle-animal of the East, and was ridden by Christ on his tri¬ umphal entry into Jerusalem. It is hardy, docile, sure-footed, active; in fact, an ideal beast amid hot suns, scanty vegetation, and narrow, rugged roads. For every purpose of the East, except that of war, the ass is superior to the horse. Wild asses are spoken of in the Bible ; also the mule, the latter being held in high esteem, but little used. Watering the Sheep. L ie pastoral life of the Hebrews gave to Sheep a prominent place in their economy. Sheep were a measure of wealth and prosperity. . ■1® choicest life was that of the shepherd. The Scriptures abound in incidents connected with sheep and shepherd-life. The finest prose passages, the parables, and the poetry of the Bible allude to sheep. e? were food and clothing to the Hebrews, and a favorite sacrificial » enng- Their innocence, prominence, the attachment for them, and ‘^Landf f^G*d^, ^lem’ ren be said nt' the size, strength, and habits of the hip¬ popotamus. Job’s cjc- scription must have been borrowed from Egyptian sources, for the hippopotamus is not an Asiatic animal at present, and, as the fossil remains indicate, has not been for several thousand years. There is hardly any beast so rugged, strong, and horrid as the hippo- fi'Ulc: The Hippopotamus. potamus. Its jaws are capable of crushing a]- most any animal, acd even boats. Though not amphibious, it is a water-beast, a powerful swimmer, an inveterate wader, and a liver on the grasses of swan™ •uid bottom-lands. So ibnd is it of the water that it will stand or float for hours in mid¬ stream, with no part of its body protruding except its nostrils. It is only a vicious beast when disturbed, and then it is bold to attack. When it leaves the water to forage on growing crops, its widespread feet make a double path, andare very destructive The Elephant. The Elephant is not mentioned in Scripture, except in the apocryphal books, where it is alluded to as an instru¬ ment of war. But ivory is frequently mentioned, and it was almost as highly appreciated as gold and silver and gems. The Hebrews, both in Egypt and in their Eastern captivity, had abundant opportunity to know of the ele¬ phant, both in its wild state and as a servitor of man. The Leopard is often mentioned directly and met¬ aphorically in the Script¬ ures, though not native to Palestine. It belongs to the more tropical parts of Asia and to Africa. But, where- ever known or described, it is a striking animal, and could not fail to touch the imaginations of prophets and poets. Its colors are rich and fascinating. “Spotted like the leopard” conveys the highest idea of animal beauty as to fur or skin. While it is the stealthiest jf all animals, it is at the same time the fiercest and most voracious. It readily overtakes the swift deer, which is its favorite prey, Joes not hesitate to engage in deadily encounter with The Wolf. Leopajeids. the lion, and has been known to spring in vicious attack on the back of an elephant. The Wolf was a pest in Palestine. It bred freely in the mountains, and was one jof the most formidable of midnight enemies to sheep. Yet it is never mentioned, except metaphorically, in the Scriptures. Perhaps this was because it is naturally cowardly. Even when moved by hunger it is not ferocious when alone, but when an hungered pack scents food no animal is free from at tack. Its nature is to prowl and steal, and no object af fords it an easier conquest than a helpless lamb or in¬ nocent sheep. Jesus made frequent mention of the wolf in his metaphors. SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.-ZOOLOGY. THE OSTRICH. Fi„. 1. Ostrich ( Struthio camelus). — The Hebrew name for the Ostrich occurs in Lev. xi. 19, ami is there translated “stork in Deut. xiv. 15 Job xxx. 29, Isa. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 13, xliii. 20, Jer. 1. 39, and Mic. i. 8, and is there translated “owl and in Job xxxix. 13 and Lain. iv. 3, and is there translated “ostrich." The Ostrich is the largest of all birds, stands about ten or eleven feet high, with such open feathers as to be useless for flying, but powerfully assistant to running ; is capable of going at a speed of about twenty-six miles an hour; inhabits the deserts of South-western Asia and Northern Africa; lays its eggs in a hole in the sand, to be hatched entirely by solar heat; and shows little or no care for its brood. THE RAVEN. Fig. 2. IL.ven ( Conus corcix).— The Raven is the largest and most predaceous of the crow family; occurs in many countries of both Asia and Europe; is notable for its black, glossy, iridescent plumage; has quickness of vision to descry carcasses, and sharpness of practice to pick out their eyes ; carries provisions in lofty sweep through the air, so as occasionally to drop them in its flight ; has power of continuing long on the wing ; and perches on rocky inland places, and on high cliffs in desert tracts, such as those in the land of Edom. (See Gen. viii. 7 ; Lev. xi. 15; Deut. xiv. 14; 1 Kings xvii. 4, 6 ; Job xxxviii. 41 ; Ps. cxlvii. 9 ; Prov. xxx. 17 ; Cant. v’. 11 • Isa xxxiv. 11 ; Luke xii. 24.) THE STORK. Fig. 3. Stork (Ciconia alba). — The Stork occurs in many parts both of Asia and of Europe; is a bird of passage, visiting northern regions in spring, and returning to southern ones for the winter; uses the same breed¬ ing-places for a long series of years ; and selects for these the tops of trees or the roofs of houses. (See Deut. xiv. 18; Ps. civ. 17; Jer. viii 7- Zecli v. 9.) ’ THE DOVE. I ig. 4. Doves or Pigeons ( Columbidce ) comprise many species, inhabit all regions of the temperate and the torrid zones, are universally regarded with complacency, and figure in Scripture as emblems of loveliness, purity and peace, and as the symbol of the Holy Spirit. The Syrian Dove is indi¬ cated in Gen. viii. 8-12, Lev. i. 14, and Isa. lx. 8; the Rock-Dove in Cant, li. 14 and Jer. xlviii. 28 ; and various species in about forty other passages. THE EAGLE. Fig. 5. Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos).— The word “eagle” occurs four times in the English New Testament and twenty-five times in the Old. The Hebrew word corresponding to it appears to denote, in some of the passages, either solely or pre-eminently, the Golden Eagle; in some others eagles generally, together with vultures; and in at least four passages all birds of prey. Eagles are found in most parts of Asia and Europe; they “dwell in the clefts of the rock, and hold the height of the hill,” Jer! xlix. 16; they “thence seek their prey, and behold afar off” Job xxxix. 29- they have peerless keenness of vision, power of wing, and swiftness of flight, Deut. xxviii. 49, Jer. iv. 13, Lam. iv. 19; they live to a great age and renew their strength of wing by moulting, Ps. ciii. 5, Isa. xl. 31 ; and they marvellously stimulate and aid the first flights of their young, Deut. xxxii. 11, 12. THE TURTLE-DOVE. Fig. 6. Turtle-Dove (Turtur auritus).- The Turtle-Dove is smaller than the other species of doves; nests in Palestine and the surrounding countries; migrates for part of the year to other lands; and announces its migrations by cooing in the woods. The alternative in the trespass-offer¬ ing, of two turtle-doves or two young pigeons, appears to have meant that the migratory Turtle-Doves should be used at the times of their visiting Palestine, and the stationary young Syrian Doves at other times. (See Gen. xv. 9; Lev. i. 14, v. 7, 11, xiv. 22; Ps. Ixxiv. 19; Cant. ii. 12- Jer viii. 7 ; Luke ii. 24.) THE CRANE. Fig. 7. Crane (Grus cmerea). -The Crane is an aquatic, wading, mi¬ gratory bird, weighing about ten pounds, and measuring nearly five feet ; and it is mentioned in the English version of Isa. xxxviii. 14 and Jer. viii. 7 ; but the bird designated by the Hebrew word there is thought by so ne critics to be either a small congener of the Crane or a specie of Heron. THE QUAIL. Fig. 8. Quail ( Coturnix dactylisonans):— The Quail belongs to the grouse family; is distinguished from the Partridge by having a smaller body, a finer bill, and a shorter tail; migrates from place to place in all the regions round the Mediterranean ; and often forms such prodigious flocks as appear like clouds. (See Exod. xvi. 13; Num. xi. 31 32- Ps cv. 40.) ’ ’ THE VULTURE. Fig. 9. Vulture (Vultur monachus). — The Vulture resembles the Eagle in size, structure, keenness of vision, and power of flight ; but it is the foulest of birds, feeds on carrion, and clears away carcasses. It is men¬ tioned directly in Lev. xi. 14, Deut. xiv. 13, Job xxviii. 7, and Isa. xxxiv. 15; is mentioned cumulatively with eagles in some other passages; and is referred to in the words “ Wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together,” Matt. xxiv. 28. There are numerous species of it; and the one figured is the Arabian Vulture. THE LOCUST. Fig. 10. Locust ( Locusta migratoria).— The Locust is a large insect of the grasshopper family ; measures mostly about two and a half inches in length ; abounds in the countries around the Mediterranean; occurs in prodigious swarms, appearing like clouds, and alighting in vast dense masses; emits a thunderous noise by the play of the wings of its great multitudes; sometimes shears off the entire vegetation of a great tract of country ; and, amid dearth of provisions, is often used as food. It is dis¬ tinguished, in the Old Testament, by ten separate Hebrew words, indi¬ cating different species, particular conditions, or characteristic habits ; and it is mentioned in the English Scriptures twenty-three times as locust, once as bald locust, once as beetle, twice as canker-worm, twice as caterpillar, twice as palmer-worm, and six times as grasshopper. THE HORNET. Fig. 11. Hornet (Vespa crabro). — The Hornet is one of the largest and most venomous of the wasps, still abounds in Palestine, and is men¬ tioned in Exod. xxiii. 28, Deut. vii. 20, and Josh. xxiv. 12. THE SCORPION. Fig. 12. Scorpion ( Scorpio ccrsar).— Scorpions belong to the spider order; frequent crevices, stony places, and nooks of houses; measure from four to upward of twelve inches in length ; inflict a sting which is always painful, and sometimes mortal; and occasionally lie coiled up in a shape similar to that of an egg. The species figured is the one most common in the Bible lands. (See Deut. viii. 15; 1 Kings xii. 11, 14; 2 Chron. x. 11 14; Ezek. ii. 6; Luke x. 19; Rev. ix. 3, 5, 10.) THE CROCODILE. big- 13. Crocodile ( Crocodilus niloticus). — The Crocodile of the river Nile represents the largest extant saurian reptiles ; is sometimes not less than thirty feet in length ; and has properties and habits similar to those ot Leviathan, as described in Job xii. 1-34. The word Leviathan occurs also in Ps. Ixxiv. 14, civ. 26, and Isa. xxvii. 1 ; occurs likewise in Job iii. 8, but is there translated “ mourning ;” seems, as to its etymology, to desig¬ nate something wreathed or twisted ; and has been regarded by most com¬ mentators as pointing to the Crocodile, but by some as pointing to the Whale. ° THE ASP. . Ylg’ 14' Y SF haje). — The Asp is a venomous colubrine snake . infests Palestine, Egypt, and the adjacent countries ; attains a length of two or three feet; inflicts a bite causing pain, stupor, convulsions, and death; and is mentioned as the asp in Deut. xxxii. 33, Job xx. 14, 16, Isa. xl. 8. and Rom. m. 13; as the adder in Ps. xci. 13 ; and as the deaf adder In Ps lviii. 4. SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY-ZOOLOGY. Haven Turtle Dovf Locust. Hornet The Bear is often mentioned in Scripture. It was native to Palestine, the The Scriptures picture the bear as ferocious, and frequently couple J wlt’' 1 lion. The hear is not an agile animal, hut it is strong and persistent. W hen in a fight it rears on its haunches and de¬ livers powerful blows with its fore legs, which, being formid¬ ably clawed, gener¬ ally disembowel the adversary. The at¬ tachment of bears for their offspring is fre¬ quently alluded to in the Bible, and is sus¬ tained by all writers of natural history. The bear’s tenacity of life is remarkable. Aside from the tough¬ ness of its skin, it seems almost to defy mortal wounds, and even amid death’s throes it is the most terrible nists. of antago- The Wtt.d Boar. A Fa mu, y of Bears. The Ape was not indigenous to Palestine, but is alluded to as among the curious and valuable things which the ships of Tarshish were accustomed to bring. Precisely what part it played in the Iconomy of King Solomon must be left to conjecture. It may have been an evidence of wealth, along with the gold, ivory, and pea¬ cocks ; it may have been only a means of exciting popular curiosity. The ape mentioned was, very likely, the Rhesus monkey, since it came with the peacocks, which are of Indian origin ; but it may have been the Wanderoo of India, which is the species shown in the cut below, and is noted for the masses of hair about its neck, shoulders and head. The Scripture allusions to the hog species are made under the name of Swine or Boar. The flesh of swine was a forbidden meat among the Hebrews, and they held no flesh in greater detestation. This hatred gives point to "the degradation into which the Prodigal Son fell when he became a swineherd, and was compelled to eat of the husks on which the swine fed. The Wild Boar is alluded to in the Scriptures as the breaker of hedges and destroyer of vineyards. The Hare of Scripture was forbidden meat. It is native to Pales- hne, but not so with the rabbit and true coney, though there was an animal called the hyrax, which resembled the rabbit or coney. What •s remarkable about the hare is that it was prohibited meat because it chewed the cud, but did not divide the hoof. It does not chew the cud at all, but only appears to do so. Its flesh is very sweet and nutritious. Hares are plentiful in Palestine, and two species are {ound. The hare of Northern Palestine is large, but with short ears. That of Southern Palestine is smaller, and with longer ears. The Ape. l -1.1 -| BIBLE ANIMALS, DOMESTIC AND WILD. 6 The Animals whose Flesh was Forbidden Food. The wisdom of the prohibition of flesh as food as it applied to the j an Egyptian climate, had been subjected to the terrible vicissitudes Hebrew race, and as found in Leviticus xi., has never been doubted, of an Arabian desert, and were beginning an era in a new land Many of the prohibitions seem arbitrary to-day and among other nations. But if the cha¬ racteristics of the Hebrews be studied, and the fact be remem¬ bered that they were fresh from where all the laws of health must be observed if they were to prosper, the wisdom of the “ forbidden meats,” coupled with other sanitary regulations, becomes apparent. The exclusion of certain beasts, birds, and fishes, and the general exclusion of reptiles, main¬ tains to the present day, even where the special prohibition of conies, hares, and swine does not prevail. The Goat. The Goat ranks next to the sheep in the pastoral economy of the Hebrews for food, for clothing, and for sacrifice. The soil, the climate, the topography of Palestine rendered the goat indispensable. It is by nature hardy, prolific, and independent. The flesh of the kid and of the female goat was reckoned as even more palatable than that of the sheep. Kid flesh is very often referred to in the Bible as some¬ thing very savory and welcome. Guests of distinc¬ tion were received with a meal of kid broth or roasted kid. The hair gave a useful coarse cloth¬ ing, and the skin was converted into leather and into many household utensils, such as bottles, churns, etc. The goat was nearly as favorite a sacrifice as the lamb, and on the great Day of Atonement it was the only animal that could be sacrificed. The scriptural allusions to the Fox may also embrace the jackal. This impression is strengthened by the fact that the jackal is numerous in Palestine to-day, while the true fox is rare. Their habits, however, are closely allied, except that the jackal, like the wolf, is of gregarious disposition, and is not so cunning as the fox, being more easily erticed and snared. Allusions to the fox are frequent in Scripture. The most remarkable is that in the story of Samson. The Scripture word which distinguishes the antelope from the deer is now under¬ stood to mean Gazelle, four species of The Fox. which are found in and around Palestine. Gazelles. They are shy, fleet, gregarious animals, difficult to kill or capture. Their haunt is on the moun¬ tain-slopes, though they are not so much a forest animal as the deer. The gentle nature and soft, liquid eye of the gazelle are frequently men¬ tioned in Oriental poetry, and its flesh was re¬ garded as very delicious food by the Hebrews, if —.■■I 7 Bible animals, domestic and wild. T>1P tw waa a detested brute among the Hebrews. It is often mentioned in the Scriptures, but never favorably.^ Tta^ugn.n* ment. No attention was paid to breeds. Indeed, there was scarcely more than one breed of dogs in Palestine in ancient times, and it was so inferior that the dog species of the day would hardly be rec¬ ognized at present and in this country, where so many fine breeds abound. The dog of the He ¬ brew cities was a street-scavenger, hungry, gaunt, treacherous and cow¬ ardly. It was toler¬ ated only because it gathered up refuse. Several Scripture al¬ lusions to dogs show them to account as pro- The Hebrew word for Mouse has been variously translated, it is not now thought to refer to the pommon mouse of the house, since it. Dogs. that shepherds knew their value, and turned tectors of sheep. The Porcupine is not men¬ tioned by name in the Script¬ ures, though it existed and still exists in Palestine. This was because the Hebrews classed it with the hedgehog, and their word implies no distinc¬ tion. The porcupine is cover¬ ed with long spines or quills, which it raises and lowers, and which are its means of defence and sometimes of gathering food. It is a night animal, like the rabbit, and retires to a rock-crevice or underground burrow during the day. It is fitted for dry climates, as it needs no other water than the moisture of the grass and roots it feeds upon. Its quills are solid, and strengthened by ribs which run lengthwise. These quills are shed and replaced frequently. The Snail mentioned in Scripture is un¬ doubtedly the animal we now know as such. But the species is not indicated, and the mention of it is made in such a way as to show that the Hebrews believed that the slime it left in its track was a part of its body, continual parting with which would, in course of time, cause the animal to melt away and perish. The Snail. Jerboa, or Jumping Mouse. % signifies “a destroyer of corn.” The Scripture allusions to mice are as pests in the fields rather than in the house. Therefore, translators think the jerboa, or jumping mouse, was meant. It is a field animal, and a rodent of very destructive turn, though not” as destructive as the dormouse, or regular field- mouse. The Bat is prominently mentioned in the Bible. Its flesh was forbidden to be eaten, and it is always mentioned as an abhorred creature. It, along with the mole, is used as an emblem of darkness. Its He¬ brew name signifies “ the animal that flies by night.” Though a winged animal, it v?alks on all four legs like a quadruped. The food of the bat consists of flies and other insects, which it catches w'hen on the wing at night. Its home is the cavern, rock-cleft, de¬ serted ruin, or dark house-loft. The Dormouse, or common field-mouse, is very plentiful in Palestine. It is a most destructive rodent, and very prolific. The Scripture allusions to mice are evidently to dormice. They never cease their ravages on corn, for they burrow after the seed, and attack it in the ear, the shock, and the barn. When corn is scarce they are equally de- The Bat. structive to plants with tender bark. The flesh of mice was forbidden food, though that of the jerboa is eaten in Arabia and Syria. The dormouse is a very shy animal, having many enemies to contend with, and being a special mark for the cat, fox, hawk, and owl. Various spe¬ cies of rodent animals abound in- Palestine, but dormice are the most numerous and destructive. Dormouse, or Field-Mouse. The Porcupine. BIRDS OF THE BIBLE. Osprey, or Fishing Eagle. Eagle. By most translators the Falcon and the Glede (Deut. xiv. 13) are regarded as the same. Several varieties of falcon inhabit Palestine. One of these is the peregrine falcon, whose habits and haunts are quite like those of the eagle. Another is the lanner falcon, which is much larger 'than the peregrine falcon and but little smaller than the great gerfalcon. The female of the falcon is larger, jstronger, and swifter than the male. The falcon gives a name to the genus of birds of prey which seize their food alive, as the eagle, hawk, etc. They are all known as the genus Falcon. The falcon is so swift of wing that it does not need to sight and pounce upon its prey, as the eagle and hawk do, but it frequently gives chase to smaller birds in the air and seizes them on the wing. Owing to this great velocity of wing and to a tamable dispo¬ sition, the falcon has been turned to the account of man by teaching it to chase the hawk and kite away from farmyards. The word translated as Osprey, or Os- pray, in the Bible, and whose flesh was forbidden food, is the fishing eagle. Its chief food is fish, which it takes in its claws and flies away with, just as other eagles do with their prey. The bird can¬ not dive, but seizes only the fish which s m near the surface of the water. Often, when sailing away with a fish in its talons, it is attacked by the eagle and robbed. The osprey is not numerous in Palestine, because it prefers the seashore and countries with large rivers. It is said to avoid the Sea of Gali¬ lee entirely. Several species of Hawk exist in Palestine. Its .flesh was forbidden as food. The entire species is noted for its power of flight. The hawk, like the eagle, falcon, and its entire genus, seeks live prey, for whose capture it is peculiarly fitted by its strength of claw, power of wing, and keen eyesight. Hawks, like falcons, were taught to pursue other birds as game, and during the Middle Ages this style of hunting, called falconry, was a leading sport of the nobility. Wherever the word hawk is mentioned in the Scriptures it embraces all of the species, and does not refer to any particular kind. It is said that the hawk does not build for itself, but steals the nests of other birds. This is not true of evey species of hawk. Hawk. Falcon, or Glede. Lammergier, or Ossifrage. The Lammergier, or Ossifrage, be¬ longs to the vulture species. The ossifrage was, with the eagle and osprey, forbidden food. The name signifies “ bone-breaker.” It is one of the largest of flying birds. One of its species, the lammergier, exists throughout Europe and Asia, and it differs from the ordinary vulture species in that it does not go in flocks, but lives in pairs, like the eagle, and usually for a long time in one place. It is a carrion bird, like other vultures, but, instead of eating only the flesh of the dead animal, it takes the bones in its claws, rises to a great height with them, and then lets them fall, so that they will strike the surface of some rock. By this means the bones are crushed, and the bird extracts the marrow. The nest of the ossifrage is always on some lonely, inaccessible cliff, and it is built with im¬ mense labor, consisting sometimes of as much as a cartload of sticks filled in with sods and moss. The ossifrage is provided with very expansive wings, which enable it to soar to great heights, even when its claws are heavily laden with booty. It is capa¬ ble, too, of very protracted flight, and may be seen floating for hours over its native crags in search of food. The Eagle is one of those birds of prOy which the Hebrews grouped under one word. That word has been translated osprey. At least five species of eagle exist in Palestine. The imperial eagle is the largest and strongest, and the golden eagle has the finest plumage. The short¬ toed eagle is by far the most numerous species. The eagle species seize and kill their own prey. They live on birds, fish, rep¬ tiles, mice, rabbits, and even carry off large fowls and lambs. They seek their prey while on the wing, and for this pur¬ pose they are endowed with the keenest vision. When their prey is sighted they dart upon it with the aim and swiftness of an arrow, and bear it away to their eyrie in their powerful claws. The flight of the eagle is loftier than that of any other bird, and on account of its great strength it is called “ the king of birds.” Its flesh was forbidden food. The eagle leads a solitary life, hardly ever asso¬ ciating wifh its kind, except its mate and young. It builds in rocky, out-of-the-way places, and gathers food over wide districts. scripture natural history-zoology. THE ROEBUCK. Fig. 1. Roebuck (Capreolus dorcas).— In the English version of the hible the Roebuck is named among the clean beasts in Deut. xii. 15-22, xiv-. 5, xv. 22, and 1 Kings iv. 23 ; and the Roe, the female of the Roebuck, with various allusions, in 2 Sam. ii. 18, 1 Chron. xii. 8, Prov. v. 19, vi. 5, Cant ii. 7, 9, 17, iii. 5, viii. 14, and Isa. xiii. 14. But the Hebrew word ren¬ dered “roebuck ” is elsewhere translated “ beauty,” “ beautiful,” “ goodly,” glory , and glorious,” indicating that the animal was singularly graceful. THE ANTELOPE. Fig. 2. Antelope ( Antilope cervicapra) and Gazelle ( Gazella dorcas). — There are many species of Antelope, though few are found in Palestine, all remarkable for elegance of form and for fleetness. The word “ antelope” does not occur in our version of the Scriptures, but some of the species seem to be referred to under the names roe, hind, and hart. The two species figured are those most likely to be meant. The gazelle, of which there are several species, is a small antelope of extreme gracefulness and beauty. THE SHEEP. Fig. 3. Sheep (Syrian), (Ota's aides). — There are many varieties of the domesticated sheep. That figured, the Syrian Sheep, is probably the same that formed the flocks of the patriarchs and the Jews. It differs very much from any of the breeds common in this country or in Europe. The sheep of Palestine and the neighboring countries are kept chiefly for their wool and milk, not fattened for the sake of their flesh, as with us. They know their shepherd, and are individually known by him. They come at his call, readily recognizing his voice, and a flock is never driven, but always led, by the shepherd. To these things the allusions of Scrip¬ ture are very plain. THE CAMEL. Fig. 4. Bactrian Camel {Camelus Bactrianus), Dromedary or Ara¬ bian Camel ( Camelus dromedarius). — The Camel is one of the Ruminantia, although differing much in its hoofs, the structure of its stomach, and other particulars from oxen, deer, antelopes, and other animals of that order. It has an ungainly form, with a long and rather slender neck. Its feet are curiously adapted for walking on the sands of the desert, the hoof being divided into toes padded with a soft pad and spreading out when they are planted on the ground. It is in every way fitted for life in the desert, browsing on the small shrubs which grow there, and enduring the want of water for a long time. It is valuable not only as a beast of burden, but for its milk and its hair. The Arabians are very much dependent on it for both food and raiment, and a man’s riches are supposed to be com¬ plete when “ his camels are without number.” There are two species of Camel, the Bactrian and the Arabian, the former having two large fleshy humps on the back, the latter one. The Dromedary differs from the Ara¬ bian Camel much as a race-horse differs from a dray-horse. It is remark¬ able for its fleetness, and also for its endurance of fatigue, holding on at a rapid trot for twenty-four hours without a sign of weariness, and then, after an almost momentary refreshment and very little food, for twenty- four hours more. THE JERBOA, OR MOUSE. Fig. 5. Jerboa (Dipus Egypt iacus). — The Old Testament Hebrew word translated “ mouse ” seems to be a general term for a group of small animals allied to the common Mouse, but appears particularly to include the Jerboa or Egyptian Mouse. This creature is remarkable for the length of its hind legs and its power of jumping, and is common in Palestine and the neigh¬ boring regions. (See Lev. xi. 29 ; 1 Sam. vi. 5 ; Isa. lxvi. 17.) THE OX. Fig. 6. Ox ( Bos taurus). — Different Hebrew words are used in the Old Testament Scriptures to denote respectively cattle, oxen or beeves, bulls, strong bulls, young bulls, heifers, and calves. The domesticated breeds are Very numerous. The figure represents the wild Ox as it is still preserved Hi one or two parts in Britain. THE ARGALI. Fig. 7. argali (Bearded) ( Oms iragelaphux). — The Argali is one of the species of wild sheep. It is very much larger than any breed of the domesticated sheep, a bold and powerful animal, dwelling amidst the rocks and crags of the Himalaya and mountains of Central Asia, very difficult of approach by the hunter. THE WILD BOAR. Fig. 8. Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa). — “ The boar out of the wood ” is men¬ tioned in Ps. lxxx. 13, and the word there rendered “boar” occurs in six other passages, is translated in each of them “swine,” and designates the common hog. The domesticated hog, however, differs very much from the wild form of the>-animal, and especially in the absence of the tusks so characteristic of the wild Boar, which no longer exists in Britain, though it does in many parts of Europe and Asia. THE CONEY, OR DAMAN. Fig. 9. Coney ( Hyrax Syriacus).— The Coney of Scripture was long erroneously regarded as the rabbit, but has been clearly ascertained to be the gaman or daman, and is found both in the western parts of Asia, Syria, and the neighboring countries and in the south of Africa. It is a small animal, but very remarkable because of its evidently near alliance to the Pachydermata, all the rest of which are large. It is an inhabitant of rocky places, and to this it will be seen that the Scripture references to it agree. (See Lev. xi. 5 ; Deut. xiv. 7 ; Ps. civ. 18 ; Prov. xxx. 26.) THE HORSE. Fig. 10. Horse ( Equus caballus). — The Scripture references to the Horse are numerous, and all of them, excepting one in Isa. xxviii. 28, allude to its uses in war. There are many breeds of the domesticated horse, differing very widely from each other. The figure represents the Arabian Horse. THE ASS. Fig. 11. Ass (Equus asinus). — The ancient Jews and other Grientals rode upon asses, and white asses were specially esteemed, the great men of the land preferring them, as we see from incidental expressions in Scrip¬ ture. The Ass of Palestine is, in many respects, a very superior animal to that domesticated breed now common in Europe. The wild Ass, still found in many parts of Asia, is remarkable for qualities very opposite to those which we observe in the common domesticated breed. It is fleet, bold, and inhabits wild wastes or mountainous and rocky regions. THE DZIGGETAI. Fig. 12. Dziggetai (Equus heminous).— The Dziggetai, a species of the Horse and Ass family, but very distinct in its characters, inhabits the central table-lands of Asia. It may, probably, be the “wild ass” of Job vi. 5, xi. 12, xxiv. 5; Isa. xxxii. 14; Jer. ii. 24, xiv. 6; Hos. viii. 9. THE BAT. Fig. 13. Bat. — There are many species of Bat, and probably when the name is used in Scripture it is not to designate any one in partieular. The species here figured is the Vampyre Bat ( Vampyrus spectrum). THE WHALE. Fig. 14. Whale (Balana mysticelus). — The Whales of Gen. i. 21, Job vii. 12, and Ezek. xxxii. 2 seem to be great sea-animals, named in a gen¬ eral way without reference to species ; and the Whale of Matt. xii. 40 is the “great fish” of Jon. i. 17, and has been the subject of very much con¬ troversy among critics. The whale figured is the Great Whale of the Northern Seas, the chief object of pursuit of the whale-fishers. Some have doubted, however, whether it be the Whale of Matt. xii. 40, as it is not now found in the Mediterranean. It was once abundant, however, in the Atlantic and neighboring seas, and may probably have occasionally en¬ tered the Mediterranean and visited the shores of Palestine. THE GOAT. Fig. 15. Goat (Capra hircus). — Domesticated Goats are mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures by a number of different names, with reference to their breed, their age, their sex, their condition, and their uses, and wild Goats are mentioned by two names which refer to their habits. The com¬ mon Goat, Capra hircus, includes numerous varieties — among others four distinctive ones, of Syria, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Asia Minor, re¬ spectively. It appears to have been domesticated from the earliest times, and is very often mentioned in the Bible in connection with both the social , and the sacred affairs of the Hebrew people. SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY-ZOOLOGY. •VjMtv. IX 4*^: ij&SS v i -Sa i B a i Caney'^* TT , ^ 7 #i>v *S w BIRDS OF THE BIBLE. Cuckoo. The Cuckoo was forbidden flesh to the Hebrews. The word is the same in nearly all languages, being taken from the note of the bird. Its egg is very small in proportion to the size of the bird, and it has the habit of laying its eggs in other birds’ nests. Two varieties of cuckoo are known in Palestine — one the great spotted cuckoo, with the crested head and spotted wing ; the other of smaller size and less brilliant plumage. The larger cuckoo has great length of tail, and sometimes measures as much as sixteen inches from tip to tip. In some countries the great spotted cuckoo has a much fuller and bolder crest than in Pales¬ tine. In this respect the species known as Xe Valliant resembles the cockatoo. Mention of the cuckoo is made only twice in the Bible. Lapwing, or Hoopoe. The Owl of Scripture is the same solemn- looking animal as with us. Its flesh was proh ibited food, both that of the little owl and the great owl. The little owl was well known in Palestine, and was looked upon with superstitious respect. The great owl was a fine specimen of the bird family. It often grew to the length of two feet, and pos¬ sessed a very full and fine plumage. Its ear-like tufts gave it the appearance of being horned. It was plentiful wherever lonely ruins existed, and amid these it dwelt in the day-time, its enormous eyes not being able to stand the light. The owl, like the eagle, takes its prey alive. Che smaller owls catch mice and rob bird-roosts, while the larger kind do not hesitate to attack animals as large as the rabbit. They build in secluded spots, and their nests are composed of sticks lined with herbage. They build in or near the same spot year after year, laying but two eggs before hatching. Fewer of the great owl family are found in Palestine than iu Egypt, where the extensive ruins seem to give them a natural abode and to conduce to their growth. In many countries the owl stands for a symbol of wisdom, and in nearly all it is the centre of superstitions and much dread on account of the solemnity of its hootings. In day¬ time it is stupid, and will even bear familiarity without showing fear, but at night it is a keen hunter, and one of the most ingenious of birds in its search for and capture of prey. The Great Owl. The Bible word translated Lapwing, whose flesh is prohibited food, is now preferably trans¬ lated hoopoe. It is a bird of beautiful plumage, and it finds its counterpart in the flicker, or red¬ headed woodpecker, of America. It builds in the hollow of a tree, and its nests give forth a pungent odor, owing to their being illy venti¬ lated. Its food consists of insects and worms, particularly those that bore in wood. It taps on the outer surface of the wood with its stout beak, and seizes the startled dwellers therein as soon as they respond to the alarm. The crest of the hoopoe is very conspicuous, while its cry and gestures always excite superstitious dread. A legend concerning the hoopoe connects it with King Solomon. Solomon was crossing a desert and came near perishing. The hoopoes came to his relief. Grateful for help, he would bestow on them a favor. They asked to be crowned with gold, like the king. The request was granted and a brilliant crown given. Soon they repented, for the crown was too heavy. Be¬ sides, their great wealth rendered them the prey of every fowler. At last the few survivors pre¬ sented themselves before Solomon and begged him to rescind his fatal gift. Then they were given a crest of feathers of equally brilliant hue, but less weight. The hoopoe thus had all its former grandeur in less irksome form, and whenever it wishes to remind itself of its golden estate, all it has to do is to view itself in the water. All the smaller birds of the Bible are grouped under one word, equivalent to twittering birds. This word is variously rendered swallow, sparrow1, etc. Swallows abound in Palestine, and the varieties are numerous. They vary in size from the humming¬ bird to the martin. The swallow is migratory. It is insectivorous, fond of the farmhouse, and a favorite with man. Its swiftness of flight has been noted by the poets of the Old Testament., as well as its nest¬ building peculiarities. It has been called the “ bird of freedom,” on account of its flights, though the term might be better bestowed on birds of larger flight. The swallow cannot endure captivity, but is forced by in¬ stinct to pass from one country to another in order to preserve itself in an equable temperature. Its migra¬ tions extend over immense distances, and so unerring is its instinct that, even though wide stretches of sea have intervened, it seldom fails to return to the very nest whence it started. In ancient and moderp, times and in all countries swallows have enjoyed the protection of man and been suffered to build in peace under his Swallow of Palestine. , roof. Many suppose their presence brings luck to a louse. In some places the superstition prevails that to kill a swallow or destroy its nest will shorten the supply of cow’s milk. Though swab ows prefer the habitations of men. they frequently build in rock-clefts and under embankments, especially where insects are plenty. The Little Owi BIRDS OP XflD BIBLR. No bird plays so prominent a part in the Scriptures as the Dove. It is the constant source of poetry and meta¬ phor. The dove and the pigeon, kin¬ dred birds, and scarcely distinguished in the Hebrew mind, were associated, in innocence, with sheep and lambs, and were used 's largely for sacrificial purposes. Wherever the lamb was too expensive the dove was substi¬ tuted. The collared dove, or ringdove, was the strongest in body, while the car¬ rier dove, or pigeon, was given su¬ periority on account of the instinct which enabled it to return home from remote places. It was used, as at present, to bear messages, and was regarded as highly useful in this re¬ spect, as no more rapid means of communication was then known. The old writers attributed this instinct to scent, but it is now attributed to the telescopic eye of the bird, which gives it an enormous range of vision i The rock pigeon, or blue rock dove, of the Holy Land, is the The Collared Dove. The Turtle-dove. from great heights. That the Jews reared doves as they did domestic fowls is clear from the mention of dove-cotes in the Bible ; and that they witnessed about the dove-cote precisely what we witness at the present day is also clear from Isaiah, who asks, “ Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows ?” Every mention of Quail in the Bible al¬ ludes to it as a food-bird. It furnished miracu¬ lous food to the Israelites in the wilderness more than once. The quail is gregarious. Be¬ sides the nest or family flock, it gathers in vaster flocks at certain seasons, and, being short of flight, it takes advantage of the wind both for direction and distance. The Hebrews welcomed the flesh of the quail as a change from manna. Its flesh is excellent food, and it must have proved par¬ ticularly tempting to those who had not tasted flesh for a long time. The bird is small, round¬ bodied, and with a head set close on its shoulders. The Arab name for it signifies fatness, plump¬ ness. The Hebrews captured these birds by The Quail. surrounding them and driving them into close quarters. They then used the net, throwing it over those on the ground or casting for those that attempted flight. They also used traps and springs. The color of the quail corresponds so nearly to that of autumn vegetation that it is a protection to it, especially against birds of prey. The word Partridge occurs seldom in the Bible, but when it does occur the allusion to its habits is perfect. The bird meant is the /core, or desert partridge, which is sometimes designated as “ the caller,” from the habit the males have of challenging one another from a distance. The partridge is of even shorter flight than the quail, and when the bird is ap¬ proached it as often depends on its legs for safety as on its wings. The partridge is every¬ where very prolific, laying as many as twenty eggs, and hatching with great certainty when undisturbed. Several species of the partridge exist in Palestine. The species of birds known as the Bee-eater, or King Bird, is widely dispersed. It is one of the smaller insectiferous birds which the Hebrews grouped under a single word or title. No bird ranks as braver or more pertinacious. It does not hesitate to attack birds much larger than itself, and seems to have a peculiar enmity against ra¬ vens and kites. Its propensity for eating bees is well known. Nature seems to have endowed it for the capture of this insect by inserting in its head a tuft of red feathers which it can expose at will, and which, when exposed, bears a close The Partridge. resemblance to a flower. original of our common breeds of pigeons. It clings to the Medi¬ terranean coasts and to the mountains of Palestine, where it multi¬ plies in great numbers. It is captured in nets, whose cruel bait is an imprisoned bird. Its cries attract others to the spot and render them easy victims. Several kinds of Turtle-doves inhabit the Holy Land. It is a migratory bird, and this fact is beautifully set forth in that celebrated passage in the Song of Solomon : “ Lo, the win¬ ter is past, the rain is over and gone ; the flowers appear on the earth ; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle (doVe) is heard in our land.” Theprophet Jeremiah also alludes to the migratory nature of the dove : “ Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times ; and the turtle (dove), and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their coming ; but my people know not the coming of the Lord.” An interesting species of the dove is the palm turtle, so called from its habit of nesting in palm trees whenever it is forced to build away from the habitations of man. It is un¬ like others of the species in that it is gregarious, and often several nests are found in one tree. It is smaller than the collared dove, and is not marked by rings on the neck. King Bird, or Bee-eateb. BIRDS OP iHE BIBLE 11 The Ostrich was reck¬ oned as an unclean bird It is mentioned several times in Scripture, but nowhere is it described so fully as in the splendid poem of Job. There the description is wellnigh perfect, even to the beauty of its feathers, its enor¬ mous strength, and its great velocity. 1 he leath¬ ers of the ostrich have in all ages and countries been used as evidences ot rank and fashion. They appear on the monu ments of Egypt cut in stone. The ostrich is careless of its eggs, leaving the sun to do the work of incuba¬ tion. The young are able to care for themselves as soon as hatched. V oracity is inseparable from the ostrich nature. It makes food of everything, even The Crane. The Ostrich. Scripture mention of the Crane alludes to its noisy cry and habit of migration. The crane is gregarious. When swarming at evening toward its roost its trumpet cry can be heard afar. It builds in secluded spots and watches with great caution. It is a tislier like the heron, but equally fond of worms and insects. Parts of the plumage of the crane are very beautiful, and it vies with that of the ostrich for fashionable wear. The bird lays but two eggs, and manifests the greatest solicitude for its young. The Stork of Scripture is almost a rever¬ enced, always a protected, animal in the East. This is not more on account of the notion that it is a pious bird than because it is the de¬ stroyer of snakes, insects, and garbage. In many cities of the East the stork walks freely in the streets and gathers offal without moles¬ tation. When storks settle on a tract of land, each bird seems to appropriate a section, and its first duty is to cleanse it of every reptile, worm, and insect its keen eyes and knowing beak can discover. Storks have a small, light body, but great expanse of wings. They resemble mankind in metals, and its power of digestion is without bounds. Its stupidity is proverbial, and it is con¬ stantly the subject of met¬ aphor, as seeking safety by hiding its head in the sand while its vital parts are exposed. Job says of the ostrich: “What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scom- eth the horse and rider.” Few horses can catch it in a fair chase. Its short wings come to the assist¬ ance of its long legs, and together an immense speed is secured. The Arabs call the ostrich the “ camel bird,” because it resembles the camel in shape, is pecu¬ liarly an animal of the des¬ ert. and can do a long time without water. Its cry re¬ sembles the roar of the lion. choosing .. The Hebon. The Stork. a single habitation, which they adhere to for years. The Heron was classed as an unclean bird. The heron species abounds in the East, and it is a frequent object in Egyptian monuments. Herons are natural fishers. They wade into the water, assume an attitude of perfect quiet, and sud¬ denly pounce on their prey, which consists of frogs and small fishes. Their beaks are very powerful, very long, and pointed. If their capture should be larger and stronger than they can handle, they leave the water and dash it against a stone till it is subdued. The Pelican was prohibited food. Says David : “ I am like a pelican of the wilder¬ ness.” The pelican is fond of resorts far re¬ moved from man. It is a silent, meditative bird, careful of its young, and a great gourmand. While the Hebrew word for pelican signifies “ to vomit,” it comports with the now better- known structure of the bird, which is armed with a capacious pouch into which it takes its catch of fish. On its return to its nest it dis¬ gorges its catch as food for its young by press¬ ing its breast with the red tip of its beak. This red in contrast with the white led to the legend that it fed its young with its own blood. The Phjcuji. 12 BIRDS OF THE BIBLE. The Bittern, like the heron, crane, and stork, is a bird of the reeds and marshy grounds. It is a large bird, and is noted for its peculiar plumage, which is so like the surrounding vege¬ tation as to make the bird diffi¬ cult to see by its enemies. It is, moreover, a bird of solitude, never venturing far from its haunts and shunning the dwell¬ ing-places of men. When man takes up his abode on new ground, the bittern is the first to depart. When places go to ruin the presence of the bittern shows that the desolation is com¬ plete. Hence the bittern was used to exemplify the final curse on a once-inhabited spot: “The bittern shall dwell there.” The strange, wild cry of the bittern but adds to the desola¬ tion its presence typifies. Silent by day, it awakens the night with a loud, deep sound that seems to mingle the neighing of a horse, the lowing of a bull, and a shriek of savage laugh¬ ter. These alarming sounds are only uttered by the male bird, and when on wing en¬ gaged in its short and swiftly- curved flights. The bittern, like all waders, has the faculty of changing its shape and size to a wonderful extent. When excited or < >n the alert it appears like a large, keen, and stately bird ; but when at rest, standing on one foot, as it often does for hours, it shrinks into a comparatively insignifi¬ cant clump of feathers. The bittern builds on the ground and near the water, but always beyond the reach of overflow. It uses leaves, rushes, and reeds for its nest. So fond is the bittern of solitude that even the male and female live separately except during the mating and hatching seasons. The Cormorant of Scripture was forbidden meat. Many com¬ mentators insist that the word translated “cormorant” should be rendered “ pelican,” as these birds belong to the same family of birds. The cormorant is an expert fisher, and fish constitutes its chief food. Its long beak enables it to seize even a very large fish, and the hook on n, end of its beak prevents ty slippery prey from escaping It is enabled to dart forth it, long, snake-like neck forward right or left, with such rapid! itv that it is almost inipoJ sible for a fish to escape it It flies with some rapidity, yej I like most waterfowl, has tin I power of gathering its feathers together so as not to interfere with its watery visits. Its tail acts as a rudder both in the air and water. The cormorant is a swimmer of such rapidity as to overtake the fishes it wishes to secure and such is the structure of its lungs it can stay under the water for a long time, It j; a most voracious bird — so much so that the name cormorant has come to signify greed, h powers of digestion are such that it is ready for a second meal of fish very soon after the first has been swallowed, no matter how large it may have been. Though a marine bird, hunger often drives it in land to lagoons, lakes, and rivers. It may be seen 01 Eastern water's amid ducks and teals, always the most active of the lot, and every now and then disappearing un¬ der the water to return with a fish, which it invariably swal¬ lows bead foremost. If the fish should happen to be an eel and unwilling to stay down, the bird swallows it again and again till the victim succumbs throughi sheer exhaustion. Cormorants can be domesti¬ cated and trained to fish for the benefit of man, just as fal¬ cons were taught to catch birds. Their skill is such in this respect that where two are fishing to¬ gether, and one catches a fish larger than it can manage, the other will come to its assistance. While in use as fish-hunters for man a ring is placed around their necks to prevent them from swallowing the fish. Cormorants build their nests upon rocky, inac¬ cessible ledges. They congregate in great numbers during the building and hatching season, and their nests are found in close proximity. Bittern. Cormorant. Sacred Ibis. The word Ibis is supposed by many to be a better rendering of the Hebrew original than the word “swan.” If so, the white or sacred ibis of Egypt is meant. It was held in great reverence, and its form appears in sculpture. It was thought worthy of being embalmed, and many mummies of it have been found. Its habits are those of the waders and fishers. The reason the ibis was so venerated by the Egyptians may be found in the fact that its migrations indicated the Nile inundations. Its flights northward heralded the overflows to the people. The Sea-swallow was hardly other than the gull or stormy petrel. It was a bird of the coasts of Pales¬ tine, there being little inducement for it to venture inland except that af¬ forded by Lake Gennesaret and the Red Sea, neither of which were in¬ viting in comparison with the wa¬ ters of the Mediterranean. Sea-swallow. SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY— BOTANY The Chromo-Lithographs of Scriptural Natural History — Botany and Zoology — give a large number of figures of the prin¬ cipal plants and animals mentioned in the Bible ; they are strictly correct both in outline and color, having been tested and approved by eminent Zoologists and Botanists ; the letter-press describes the several animals and plants ; and they serve, not merely to aid the reader in understanding the Bible in its direct notices of natural objects, but also, and eminently, to throw light on much of the gorgeous imagery in its prophetic, psalmodic, parabolic, and didactic passages. THE TEIL TREE, OR TEREBINTH TREE. Fig. 1. Teil Tree, or Terebinth Tree ( Pistacia Terebinthus). — A tree, called variously, in English versions, “ teil tree,” “ terebinth,” “ oak,” "elm,” and “plane” or “plain,” is designated, in the Hebrew Bible, El or Elah ; gave name to valleys mentioned in Gen. xiv. 6 and 1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19, xxi. 9; was the place of Abraham’s tent at Hebron, called in English “the plain of Mamre,” Gen. xiii. 18 ; is distinguished from the oak in Isa. vi. 13 and IIos. iv. 13; figures in the countries round the Mediterranean somewhat as the oak does in Great Britain ; and is umbrageous, long-lived, and notable for a fragrant balsamic gum. THE WILLOW TREE. Fig. 2. “Willow Tree (Salix Babylonica). — The weeping willow, fig¬ ured here, grows wild on the banks of the Euphrates, and other Oriental streams; commonly attains a height of about thirty feet; and seems to be the willow mentioned in Ps. cxxxvii. 2. Three other species of willows, the osier, the white, and the Egyptian, appear to be indicated in Lev. xxiii. 40, Job xl. 22, Isa. xv. 7, lxiv. 4, and Ezek. xvii. 5. THE ALOES TREE. Fig. 3. Aloes Tree, or Lign Aloes ( Aquilaria agallochum). — The aloes tree differs exceedingly from the plants yielding the gum aloes of medicine ; grows in the islands and peninsulas of the Indian Ocean ; at¬ tains a great height and girth ; secretes, in its decaying wood, a richly frag¬ rant oily resin ; and emits, in the combustion of its sound wood, a delight¬ ful odor. Its resin held anciently, and still holds, a high rank among fragrant spices. (See Num. xxiv. 6; Ps. xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17 ; Cant. iv. 14 ; John xix. 39.) THE ALMOND TREE. Fig. 4. Almond Tree ( Amygdalus communis). — This tree abounds in Western Asia and Southern Europe ; attains a height of about fifteen feet ; bears beautiful, well-shaped whitish blossoms, and pleasant oleaceous, well- known drupes, Exod. xxv. 33, 34, xxxvii. 19, 20, Num. xvii. 8, Gen. xliii. il; blooms so early as January, and has a Hebrew name formed from a word signifying “ to watch,” so that a rod of it serves as a symbol of speedy performance, Jer. i. 11, 12 ; and produces its flowers before the time of foliage, on bare, withered-looking branches, like a crown on its head, so as to be a fine emblem of old age, Eccles. xii. 5. HYSSOP. Fig. 5. Hyssop ( Capparis spinosa). — The hyssop of Scripture is cer¬ tainly not the herb now called hyssop, nor does it seem to be any one of more than twenty other plants which botanists have compared with it; but it very probably is the species of caper figured here. This grows on the fissured rocks of the Sinaitic peninsula ; is a climbing or creeping shrub, with hard woody stem, bright green leaves, and pendent fringes or tassels, and was believed by ancient writers, from the time of Hippocrates, to pos¬ sess detergent properties. (See Exod. xii. 22 ; Lev. xiv. 4-7, 49-52 ; Num. xix. 6 ; 1 Kings iv. 33 ; Ps. li. 7 ; John xix. 29 ; Ileb. ix. 19.) THE WALNUT TREE. Fig. 6. Walnut Tree ( Juglans regia). — The “nuts” of Cant. vi. 11 are believed to be walnuts or walnut trees; but the “nuts” of Gen. xliii. 11 appear to be pistacia-nuts. THE MYRTLE TREE. Fig. 7. My'RTLE Tree ( Myrtus communis). — This beautiful evergreen shrub grows wild in all the countries around the Mediterranean ; attains there the height of a small tree ; and has been famous in all ages for its form, its foliage, and its fragrance. (See Neh. viii. 15; Isa. xii. 19, Iv. 13; Zech. i. 8, 10, 11). THE OLIVE TREE. Fig. 8. Olive Tree ( Olea Europcea). — This tree, though called Euro¬ pean, is a native of Asia ; abounded so in Canaan as to occasion that land to be called a land of olives, of olive-yards, and of oil olive ; flourished eminently on the hill adjacent to Jerusalem, named from it the Mount of Olivas; is nalurallv a low creeping bush with crooked branches, but rises under good cultivation into a massive tree, yet rarely attains a height of more than thirty feet ; grows very slowly, very hardily, and to a very great age ; and is mentioned in Scripture about thirty-seven times in association either with most affecting incidents or with peculiarly rich doctrines. Our figure of it shows it as a very old tree. THE PALM TREE. Fig. 9. Date Palm (Pliaenix dactylifera). — The date palm inhabits the countries south and east of the Mediterranean; grows adjacent to water, even where there are mere springs in the midst of deserts ; has a cylindri¬ cal endogenous stem, rising to the height of more than sixty feet ; carries fronds six or eight feet long, in fan-like expansion, on the top of its stem ; and bears its fruit or dates pendulously from points below the fronds. The fronds are sometimes called branches, and were used as emblems of victory or triumph. Either palm trees or their branches are mentioned twenty-two times in Scripture. SYCAMORE TREE. Fig. 10. Sycamore Tree ( Ficus sycomorus). — This is a species of fig tree ; differs widely from the kind of maple tree called sycamore ; abounds in Palestine and Egypt ; and is much esteemed there for both its timber and its fruit. (See 1 Kings x. 27 ; 1 Chron. xxvii. 28 ; 2 Chron. i. 15, ix. 27 ; Ps. lxxviii. 47 ; Amos vii. 14 ; Luke xix. 4.) POMEGRANATE TREE. Fig. 11. Pomegranate Tree ( Punica granatum). — This tree is nearly allied to the myrtle; grows wild in Asia and Northern Africa; was an¬ ciently common in Palestine, but now exists there in only a degenerate condition ; bears a beautiful and delicious fruit, larger than a golden pip¬ pin ; is mentioned, either as to itself or as to its fruit, either literally or metaphorically, and always with high didactic import, in about twenty-one passages of Scripture; and gave its Hebrew name, Kirnmon, to several Scripture towns or villages. THE FIG TREE. Fig. 12. Fig Tree ( Ficus carica). — This tree is a native of Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe ; was one of the characteristic products of Palestine 1 in the Hebrew times ; rises to a height of from fifteen to twenty-five feet ; ■ has leaves about the size of a man’s hand ; bears a well-known fruit, more edible dried than fresh ; and is mentioned in the Bible, directly or indi¬ rectly, about forty-eight times. THE GRAPE VINE. Fig. 13. Grape Vine ( Vitis vinifera). — The “ true vine,” or that which bears wine-producing grapes, differs from numerous other vines ; has been diffused over a great extent of the world’s surface ; was one of the charac¬ teristic economical plants of Palestine in the Hebrew times ; is designated by one Hebrew word for itself, and by eleven other Hebrew words for dif¬ ferent conditions of its grapes and their juices ; has twisted, irregular stems, with very long flexible branches, supporting themselves by tendrils ; pro¬ duces grapes or wines in endless varieties of quality ; and is mentioned, directly or indirectly, in about three hundred passages of Scripture, and associated there, either literally or metaphorically, with multitudes of precious moral truths. THE CEDAR OF LEBANON. Fig. 14. Cedar Tree (Cedrus Libani). — This evergreen conifer once covered a large extent of Lebanon, and still lingers near the head of one of the Lebanon valleys ; was famous for its massiveness, its great strength, its great age, and its fragrant timber ; and is mentioned in the Bible about fifty-five times. SHITTAH TREE. Fig. 15. Shittah Tree ( Acacia Seyal). — This tree inhabits the coun¬ tries from Upper Egypt eastward to India; is akin to the beautiful acachis which adorn the greenhouses and warm walls of British gardens; grows to a height of from fifteen to twenty feet ; and 'has comparatively light and very durable timber, called in Scripture shittim-wood. The tree is men¬ tioned in Isa. xii. 19; and its wood is mentioned twenty-six times in the Pentateuch. 1 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY- BOTANY. Almond-Tree Aloes Willow-Tree Teil-Tree or Tereblnt Walnut Tree Hyssop SycamoreTre Pomegranate Tre< Fig-Tree Shittah-Tree ■ ■ • . . ■ . * ■ 1 o The Ant is a familiar Scripture animal. It abounds in Palestine, and several varieties exist. Its industry and wisdom for storage afford fine metaphors and allusions, and yet half the wonders of its instinct cannot. Locust. he known till one learns of the ani¬ mal in America, Africa, and the isles of the Pacific, where it grows to great size and practises an econ¬ omy which is almost .rational. Two species of Locust exist in Palestine — one migratory, the other Stationary. Both are vegetable- feeders and do great harm to veg¬ etation. When locusts come in swarms, borne by the winds, they leave a trail of desolation. Every¬ thing green goes down before them. This is as true of Palestine as it was of Egypt when it experienced the curse of locusts. The Scripture allusions to them, as in Joel, fully describe their devastating career. Locusts can sustain flight for a considerable time, blit its direction is controlled by the winds. In the mention of the plague of locusts (Ex. x. 12, 13) the wind brings mem and takes them away. The I modern descriptions of these locust innies correspond exactly with the mblical descriptions. I I •Ji'ocusts were not only not a pro- ' ibiled, but an acceptable, article 1 0 food among the Hebrews. Though Butterflies cannot be regarded as scripturar animals, the Hebrews were acquainted with silk, and therefore must have known of them. In later years silk-grow¬ ing became a branch of industry in Palestine, and consequently the butterfly grew familiar. The species shown in the illustration, are the Syrian grayling, orange- tip, and swallow-tail. The Bee of Palestine is a much-mentioned object in Script¬ ure. Its traits are well describ¬ ed both in poetry and prose. That there was abundance of honey, domestic and wild, is well estab- Po¬ lished. The wild bee laid up its stores in rock-clefts instead of trees. Canaan was pictured as a “ land flowing with milk and hon¬ ey,” both of which articles formed a part of the every-day meal. Hornets are mentioned several times in the Scriptures, but always in a metaphorical sense. Hornets are very common in Palestine, and in olden times they infested certain spots to such an extent as to give names to them. Some hornets build underground nests, but in general they erect homes of pulp, like that in the illustration, appended to the branch of a tree. They are very industrious yet very vindictive in¬ sects, and the manner iu which the) inflict their sting is like the arriva of an arrow from an unknowi source. Their attacks upon the Israelites on their journeys could not fail to impress them with the earnestness of the little animal, and afford a fit subject for metaphorical mention. For the same reason they must have found great encourage¬ ment in the divine promise to head their armies with a vanguard of hornets, for the purpose of driving out the natives of Canaan. Hornets aud Nest. 14 Tiie Lizard belongs to the great family of shinies. It was pro¬ nounced an unclean animal. Lizards abound in Palestine. One species was regarded as medicinal, and often became part of a mix¬ ture for the cure ot diseases. Another species was beautifully spotted with orange and scarlet, and was really a handsome animal, aside trom its association with reptiles. The lizard loves sandy localities, Though Frogs abound in Palestine, Scripture mention of them chiefly in connection with the plagues of Egypt. This is not to l! wondered at, for they literally swarm in the waters of the Nile Ji t e swamps adjacent. Really, the only miraculous thing about the . Fag.ue ol frogs was that they were directed to the houses of the inhabitants. lle Lizard, or Skink. especially where the sand is mixed with water. It is not a rapid traveller, and is harmless lough superstition has taught that it is venomous. It is a timid, wary creature, and glides quickly and easily into a place of safety on the approach of danger, its favorite hiding-place indV T* f f aT?Lendl7 roc,k-cleft‘ The kzard feeds upon insects, worms, and p es ®mall.er fban itself. It has been known to destroy the young birds found in ground nests I here is much doubt about the Hebrew rendering of the word “ lizard.” Many think that a snail was meant while as many think that the word translated “snail” should have been ren- dered hzard But, whatever the dispute, it is agreed that a creeping thing was meant. I he Crocodile is thought to be the “ leviathan ” of Scripture. The description in Job xli. of the leviathan is exact as to the crocodile, leaving out the imagery of the poet. Crocodiles are not found in Palestine. The waters there were not suffi¬ cient for them, even if the climate had been. They abound only in tropical waters and where large streams or swamps are found. AVherever found, the crocodile is known by its expanse of jaw, its ter¬ rible saw-like teeth, its webbed feet, its extensive tail, and its impenetrable skin. Owing to the forma¬ tion of its teeth it cannot masticate, but it seizes and tears, and mostly swallows its food whole. By an ar¬ rangement of throat- valves it can hold its prey under water till it drowns it. Like the hippopotamus, it ob- lhe Chameleon of Scripture is a small animal, notable for its terrible grasp with tail and claw therefore familiar to the Hebrews. _ It is a tree animal, and fares poorly on the ground. The strangest part ot the chameleon is its eye, which bulges from its head and is protected by a thick skin. The eyes are of independent sight, and one may look forward while the other is looking backward. It has the power to change its color to suit its sur¬ roundings, and thus secure protection. It feeds on insects, which it catches by means of a long, protruding tongue, like that of the toad. The Scorpion is found in all parts of Palestine. Though its sting did not necessarily kill, it was classed with the bite of serpents. The scorpion is the subject of frequent Scripture allusion and metaphor. Though it belongs to the spider class of animals, its venom is not in its bite, but in its sting. The phrase “ whip of scorpions ” does not allude to the animal. There was a scorpion whip specially made and used to punish slaves. Crocodile, or Leviathan. It Egyptian Frogs. scures and protects its bod) entirely by sinking in the water, leaving only its nos¬ trils exposed. It is of vast bulk, slimy skin, horrid shape, and with green, stal¬ ing eyes. Stupid at times, it, is ravenous at others and indiscriminate in its at tacks. Wherever it abounds it is held in dread, especi¬ ally in the Ganges, where the natives frequently fall a prey to its greed. Only in Egypt has it ever been looked upon with respect, and there it seems to have been reverenced chiefly because of the dread it in¬ spired. Though apparently stupid and slothful, it is cunning, and when it spies prey will disarm suspicion by swimming away and re¬ turning under water, either to seize directly with its teeth or strike a blow with its powerful tail which paralyzes its victim, abounds in Palestine, and wa The Chameleon. The Scorpion. 75 Emperor Boa. The Toxicoa. The Toxicoa is a viper, like the cerastes. It is not so large, and is much more active. Its bite is not so deadly. But its home is in the sand, and it is sometimes called the sand viper. It is a beautiful snake, of variable colors, with rows of whitish spots and angular streaks along its sides. Its head is dark, but variegated with arrow- shaped white marks. The toxicoa abounds in Arabia, Pales¬ tine, and other Eastern countries, and on account of its activity it is held in great dread by the natives. The Scripture allusions to the Adder are nearly all noted, so that the word may be read “ cockatrice.” Cockatrice itself is frequently mentioned, especially in Isaiah. The cockatrice, or adder, was a source of superstitious dread among all Oriental peo¬ ples. Legends innumerable became attach¬ ed to it. It was thought to kill with its very look. It's poison was thought so deadly that it would infect any one who killed it. It exuded poison from its mouth and sides till the air became deadly. Of course these legends are exploded now, but they prevailed in the olden time. Yet there is no doubt about the cockatrice, or adder, being a very venomous serpent. In Jeremiah we read, “ I will send serpents, cockatrices among you, which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you.” The Cobra di Capello finds a natural home in Asia. It has always been renowned for its venom and for the singular part it has been made to play in juggling. It is the one serpent, above others, which the snake-charmers of the East have used to show their art and awe their audiences. Though deadly, the cobra is an intelligent., tamable snake. It is of brownish hue, and is par¬ ticularly noted for its ability to expand its neck so as to resemble a puffed bladder. At the same time, it throws forward a hood or bonnet over its head. These phenomena are rendered possible by the fact that the first twenty ribs of the snake are straight and loosely hinged to the backbone. When excited, it brings these ribs forward, thus swelling out the skin. The back of its head is marked by two spots connected in suoh a way as to resemble a pair of spectacles. Cerastes, or Horned Vjper. The Cerastes, or Horned Viper, is found in all the desert regions of Arabia and Palestine. The allusion to the adder in Gen. xlix. 17, exactly describes the horn¬ ed viper, which lies half buried in the sand till some animal approaches which it can attack. Its usual food is the field-mouse or smaller animal, but it is apt to strike at whatever disturbs it, so that it is a veritable “ serpent by the way, an adder in the path.” Its color harmonizes with the sand, render¬ ing it difficult to discern, but horses dis¬ tinguish its presence by their sense of smell, and avoid it. Its bite is deadly. Its fangs lie in its upper jaw. They are folded back, and are so needle-like as to be scarcely discernible. Yet they are hollow, and it is through them the snake emits its poison into the wound they make. The Boa is not mentioned in Scripture, though some of the allusions to the “ ser¬ pent ” would seem to indicate, at times, that a larger serpent was contemplated than any that existed in Palestine. The boa is of the python species, is not poison¬ ous, and kills its prey by strangling it. It feeds chiefly on smaller quadrupeds, which it catches by plunging on them from an overhanging limb and crushing them in its deadily coils. It has been known to attack animals even as large as the deer, and to crush its bones as in a vice. Cobra di Capello. Cockatrice. xmjz&fr rr UAU1AOI/JX1 V?- Fishes are frequently men¬ tioned in the Bible, but not in such a way as to furnish a satis¬ factory identification of the spe¬ cies. This is rather remarkable, considering the fact that several of the apostles were fishermen. Fish were largely used for food by the Hebrews, both in Egypt and Palestine. In Numb. xi. 4, 5, eve read, “ We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt, freely.” And there are numbers of passages alluding to fishermen, which show that they had a regu¬ lar and no doubt a profitable business. While the lakes and streams of Palestine furnished the usual as¬ sortment of flood or river fishes, the Hebrews contented them¬ selves with dividing them into clean and unclean. Those which had the body naked were pro¬ hibited. This would include eels, catfish, and many others now rec¬ ognized as delicious food. Perhaps the most plentiful fish in the Sea of Galilee was the barbel. It is a scale fish, and therefore permitted food, and is allied to the carp. The Hebrews cultivated fish in ponds like the Romans, though they did not limit the cultivation to a single species. The fish food of Pales¬ tine was by no means limited to and dependent on its own waters. It was drawn largely from the Mediterranean Sea, which washed the shores of the country, and of course consisted of the varieties found therein. Spotted Ray. Though the Salmon inhabits both salt and fresh waters in all parts of the globe, the Hebrews could not have known other than the sea sal¬ mon, for there are no inland waters in Palestine capable of producing it. The fresh-water salmon, justly called the “ king of fishes ” for food purposes, and noted for its gameness, requires a swift, heavy-flowing river for its successful propagation, or else a clean, expansive lake. A Group op River Fish. The Turbot is found in the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. It is of the genus of flat fishes, and noted for its rhomboidal form. It has great width of body,, and is scaleless. The eyes are on the left side of the body, and the. lower one is slightly in advance of the upper. The mouth is armed with teeth. It is a voracious fish, and feeds on mol- lusks and other fish. It grows to a considerable size in certain waters, and specimens are on record which weigh as much as thirty pounds. The Ray genus is found in the Mediterranean. It embraces six distinct fam¬ ilies, and each family a great number of species. The spotted ray is known by its vertical fins and the strong spine attached to the upper side of its tail. No less than forty species of this family are known, and they inhabit the tem¬ perate seas of both hemi¬ spheres. The ray is an ex¬ cellent food-fish, and, as it swims in schools, is readily caught either in nets or The Turbot. with baited hooks. The Pearl is the subject of several beautiful metaphors in the Bibb . Though an inferior pearl may have been found in the shellfish of the coasts of Palestine, the pearl of Scripture was evidently rare and costly, and of a kind extracted from the pearl-oyster found in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. This oyster is caught by diving for it in deep water. Tios Peake Oyster. The Salmon. SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY— BOTANY. THE ALMUG OR ALGUM TREE. Fig. 1. Almug or Algum Tree (Santalum album).— Several trees have been alleged to be the almug or algum of Scripture ; but much the likeliest is the sandal-wood tree of India. The wood of this tree differs greatly from the red sandal-wood of commerce; is white, fine-grained, fragrant, and durable ; admits of exquisite polish ; and suits admirably for delicate ornamental wood-work. (See 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, 9, 10, 11 ) TARES. Fig. 2. Tares ( Loliwrn temulentum). — The tares of Matt. xiii. 25-30 have nothing in common with vetch-tares, but are the grass known as bearded darnel. This has much resemblance to wheat till both are in the ear; shows itself then to be allied to rye-grass; and bears seeds or grains possessing deleterious properties. WHEAT. Fig. 3. Egyptian Wheat ( Triticurn compositum). — Wheat is men¬ tioned as corn, by itself or with other grains, in many passages of Scrip¬ ture, and distinctively as wheat in about forty passages. Egyptian wheat, figured here, is the “corn” of Gen. xli. 5-7, 22-27 ; sometimes bears seven or more ears on one stalk ; presents an appearance as if the several ears were branches ; and is still cultivated in Egypt and South-western Asia. THE BAY TREE. Fig. 4. Bay Tree (Laurus nobUis). — This beautiful evergreen is men¬ tioned in the English version of Ps, xxxvii. 35; but critics differ as to whether the Hebrew word there means a bay tree, a laurel, a cedar, or generally an untransplanted evergreen tree. MYRRH. Fig. 5. Myrrh ( Balsamodendron katif and B. Myrrha). — The plants which produce myrrh were long unknown or doubtful to botanists, but are now ascertained to be two short, stunted-looking, shrubby balsamodendrons, near akin to each other, inhabiting Abyssinia and Arabia Felix. What is called myrrh in the English version of Gen. xxxvii. 25 and xliii. 11 is really Ledanum. Myrrh proper, called in Hebrew mor, is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament and three times in the New; is a frag¬ rant gum-resin, serving both as a perfume and as a medicine ; and seems to have been anciently obtained in much purer, more fragrant, and more costly forms than now. THE MUSTARD TREE. Fig. 6. Mustard Tree ( Salvadorci persica). — This tree grows in parts of Asia, from the confines of Egypt to India ; abounds on the shores of the Sea of Galilee ; has a small seed ; with similar properties to those of the common herbaceous mustard ; rises to a height of about 25 feet ; and has numerous leafy branches, forming nest-sites for birds. (See Matt. xiii. 31, xvii. 20; Mark iv, 31; Luke xiii. 19, xvii. 6). THE ROSE OF SHARON. Fig. 7. The Bose of Sharon is mentioned in Cant. ii. 1. The Hebrew word for it occurs elsewhere only in Isa. xxxv. 1, and is there translated “rose.” Commentators have variously regarded it as meaning a rose, a oistus or rock-rose, a narcissus, a crocus, an asphodel, and one or two other flowers; but the scope of both passages which contain it seems to agree best with its meaning a beautiful flower in a rich soil. MILLET. Fig. 8. Millet (Panicum miliaceum). — This is a com plant, with small seeds, and is much cultivated in Eastern countries. It is mentioned in Ezek. iv. 9.) LENTILES. Fig. 9. Lentlles ( Ervum lens). — This is an annual leguminous plant, nearly allied to the vetch ; and its seeds continue to be much used for food in Egypt and in Asiatic Turkey. (See Gen. xxv. 29-34 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. 11 ; Ezek. iv. 9.) FITCHES. Fig. 10. Fitches are mentioned in the English version of Isa. xxviii. 25-27 and Ezek. iv. 9. The Hebrew word in the former passage occurs nowhere else, and is understood by most critics to mean black poppy, Nigella sativa, but by others to mean common dill, Anelhum graveolens, or some similar plant. The Hebrew word in the latter occurs also in Exod. ix. 32, and is there translated “rye,” but probably means “spelt.” SAFFRON. Fig. 11. Saffron Crocus (Crocus sativus). — The stigmas of the flow¬ ers of this well-known bulbous-rooted spring-flowering plant form the saf¬ fron of commerce, used as a dye and as a medicine ; and, in the sweet- scented saffron variety of it, yield a costly perfume. The Hebrew word for saffron occurs in Cant. iv. 14 and Lam. iv. 5, but in the latter passage is translated “ scarlet.” RYE AND BARLEY. Fig. 12. Rye and Barley (Secale and Hordeum). — A Hebrew word is rendered “rye” in Exod. ix. 32, and Isa. xxviii. 25, and “fitches” in Ezek. iv. 9, and probably means the kind of wheat called “spelt.” Barley is mentioned in the English Bible twenty-three times, and may be understood as identical with the varieties of barley still cultivated in the East. THE CINNAMON TREE. Fig. 13. Cinnamon Tree (Cmnamomum zeylanicum). — This is an ever¬ green of the laurel family ; is a native of Ceylon ; occurs mostly as a large shrub, but sometimes as a tree fully thirty feet high ; and yields, by peel¬ ings of its thin bark, the cinnamon of commerce. (See Exod. xxx. 23; Prov. vii. 17 ; Cant. iv. 14; Rev. xviii. 13.) PISTACIA-NUT. Fig. 14. Pistacia-Nut Tree ( Pistacia vera). — The tree inhabits Asia from Syria to Central India, belongs to the Terebinth family, and yields esculent nuts; believed to be the same as those mentioned in Gen. xliii. 11. CASSIA. Fig. 15. Cassia Tree ( Cinnamomum Cassia). — This plant inhabits In¬ dia and China, and is so nearly akin to the cinnamon tree as to be distin¬ guished mainly by characteristics of the leaves. Its dried bark seems to be the cassia of Exod. xxx. 24 and Ezek. xxvii. 19; but the rasped wood of the fragrant Aucklandia, A. costus, appears to be the cassia of Ps. xlv. 8. 9 CORIANDER. Fig. 16. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum).- — This is an umbelliferous annual plant, growing about two feet high. Its seed is mentioned in Exod. xvi. 31 and Num. xi. 7. CUMMIN. Fig. 17. Cummin ( Cuminum cyminum). — This is an umbelliferous an¬ nual plant, growing about a foot high ; yields carminative seeds with sim¬ ilar properties to those of coriander and caraway ; and continues to be much cultivated in the countries round the Mediterranean. (See Isa. xxviik 24, 27 ; Matt, xxiii. 23.) FLAX. Fig. 18. Flax ( Linum usitatissimum). — This well-known annual plant is mentioned in Exod. ix. 31, Josh. ii. 6, Judg. xv. 14, P>ov. xxxi. 13, Isa. xix. 9, xiii. 3, Hos. ii. 5, and Matt. xii. 20. The Hebrew word for it is used also to denote linen fabrics, and occurs in that sense in Lev. xiii. 47, 48, 52, 59, Deut. xxii. 11, Jer. xiii. 1, and Ezek. xliv. 17, 18. ANISE. Fig. 19. Anise is mentioned in the English version of Matt, xxiii. 23, but the plant really indicated there is the common dill, Anelhum graveolens. SPIKENARD. Fig. 20. Spikenard is mentioned in Cant. i. 12, iv. 13, 14, Mark xiv. 3, and John xii. 3. It was long supposed to be a compound of rare fra¬ grant substances, or the produce of some unknown plant ; but is now ascer¬ tained to be a preparation from the leaves and . flowers of a plant of the valerian family, the Nardoslachys jatamansi, a native of the north of Tnflia SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.- BOTANY. Wheat. AlrarT oiAl^um-Tree. Millet. Mustard -Treei Eye & Barley: Saffron. Rtehes. L entiles. Coriander. PistachioNut. CwnamonTree. Spikenard. ununin. PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS; OK, ST DIKING CHARACTERS, SCENES, AND EVENTS OF 0 L D - T E S T A M E N T HISTORY. By JAMES P. BOYD, A. M. “ The City of the Great King.” See page 20. Creation, whose story is so tersely and beautifully told in Genesis ushered a world into existence and an order of things within it. Tha order embraced life of every kind, and especially man. His life wa ,1" lest> because reason was made to supplement instinct in his nature lie was put on trial and failed to stand the test. The penalty of fail ut< u as the curse of sin and death. A sovereign Judge postponed th last and tolerated the first for his own wise purposes. Man was allowe i° occuPy eai^h and multiply thereon through many and marvellousl < mg generations. At length the Maker and Judge of all grew tire ie manifestations of sin and repented that man was thus. H soive was to destroy man and begin a new order of things. Hem stipcV In’rac<: ^'e :vrb> and Noah and the twain of ever It is tT f i ■ 1 • P 18 the sublime story of virtue finding its rewari is 1V'Vp', favoritism of good which, amid tribulation and deaf whil i10n- ihe arK was 110t n,ore a boat than a proof that the got was in man and the essential principles of life should not peris The chosen one and his family came out of the deluge harmless. Eight in number, their mission became that of Adam and Eve. They were equally blessed and equally cursed. They had like dominion over1 the lower animals, and were admonished to multiply on and possess the earth. They drifted eastward, peopling as they went. At Shinar they stopped and clustered. Feeling that disper¬ sion must come with its separation of families, its breaking up of friendships, and its differences of speech, they resolved on a central monument and a capital toward which all would be attracted no matter how widely they might roam. While erecting this city and tower, to which they designed to give a national name, God confused their speech. This rendered the completion of their scheme imprac¬ ticable. The rebuke contained in it led to the entire abandonment of the Babel project and to that dispersion of families, that introduc¬ tion of new tongues, that foundation of new nations, that diversity of institutions, customs, and industries, which God had designed for PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, his new order of things. Hence the nations of earth, with their new languages, laws, and characteristics — Shem for the central countries and as a type of the Hebrew speech and characteristics ; Ham for the darker races and speech ; Japheth for the fairer, or Indo-European, races and languages. Bible history is henceforth limited to the line of Shem, father of the Hebrew stock. Shem represented a lengthy line whose longevities diminished as the generations descended, and which culminated, as to the original and, Chaldea, in Terah, the father of Abram. The drift of the lescendants of Noah had been eastward, presumably toward a .varmer climate and more fertile fields. But Terah reversed the tide of migration and struck for the west. He left Ur, a district of Chaldea, and with Abram, his son, and Sarai, Abram’s wife, and Lot, his grandson by his dead son Haran, went as far as the spot Haran near the Euphrates, still called Harran. Terah died on the banks of the Euphrates, but Abram, with his PROPHETS AND KINGS. Lot chose to go, and selected the plains of Jordan, where were sit¬ uated Sodom and Gomorrah, as his future home. He had rich pas¬ turage, but wicked surroundings, and his fate became a sad one. He was compelled to witness the destruction of the cities and to feel the pangs of expulsion from his chosen heritage. But Abram was signally blessed. He made terms with' the hostile Canaanites, and extended his pasturages through the valleys to the south, even to Beersheba in the extreme south. The extent of his flocks, his real riches, may be measured by the fact that he turned out three hundred and eighteen trained and armed herdsmen to recover Lot and his goods from their captors in the plain of Jordan He was evidently in a condition to impress himself on the land and secure respect from the divided native tribes. Besides, he had tin promise of God at his back, which was to the effect that he should become great in the land and that his seed should occupy it. Abram could not comprehend this promise, because he was child. Abeam Reasons with Lot. nephew Lot, at God’s command, pushed farther west to Canaan, then unknown and hostile, but where a heritage was promised. He selected a site near Bethel, but was driven thence by famine, and sojourned for a time in Egypt. After the famine Abram made his way back to Bethel. He had, in the mean time, been thrifty, as had also his nephew, Lot. In their pastoral pursuits they had accumulated large flocks and herds and numerous tents. The limited plains adjacent to Bethel proved inadequate for the pasturage of their joint flocks. The result was contention between the herdsmen of Abram and Lot. This contention meant death to both parties, for they w<*re surrounded by enemies, and peace was a necessary condition to their occupancy of the land. So Abram rea¬ soned with Lot on the basis of brotherhood, and advised amicable separation, offering to go or stay as Lot might elect. less. But God entered into a covenant with him, changed his name to Abraham, “ father of many nations,” and promised him a son. Then was established the Hebrew rite of circumcision. In the course of time God’s promise to Abraham came true in a son, whom he called Isaac. It was for Isaac to type and perpetuate the Hebrew race. Abraham’s other son, Ishmael, which he had by Hagar, his handmaid, became the progenitor and type of that Ara¬ bian race which is Arab and Bedouin to the present time. The birth of Isaac was a source of exultation to Abraham in his extreme old age. God proposed to make it also a test of his faith. He ordered the sacrifice of the sou. Abraham shrank not from the ordeal. Seeing that Abraham’s faith was absolute, God provided another offering, and spared the son to his father. Wherefore the blessings and promises were renewed to Abraham. 3 PATRIARCHS, priests, prophets, and kings, Thp con]ine; of Isaac was phenomenal in that he was born beyond thethne when either his father or mother hoped for a child. His the time the severance of relations between Abraham and blrt£ n!l woman Hagar, and the beginning, through her and her son, Tshmaef of that desert dynasty which holds to this day, and which, As£T ’ termed Ishmaelite, Bedouin, or Arab, has proven, in many whether termea^ remarkable that ever existed. 16 The Inrth of Isaac was notable in many other respects. It drew f q0( j a renewal of the comforting promises before made to Abram, JlvAoth he and Sarah recognized the son of their old age as one who should be providentially favored. It led to that remarkable treaty with Abimelech, representative of Philistine power by which Abraham rained great concessions and laid the groundwork of future Hebrew ascendency in the land of Canaan. Isaac s youth also gave oDDortunity for that test of Abraham’s faith which served as a seal to his covenants with God and an earnest of their fulfilment in due course of time. There is hardly any exemplification of faith in all Bible history more conspicuous than that of Isaac until the time when Christ crave himself as the Son of the living God. ° In the death of Sarah, Abraham gained another foothold in the midst of the stranger. He bought of the Hittites a burial-place for Isaac was forty years old when he married Rebekah. Like his father, Abraham, he was disappointed in offspring for years. This dis- appointment was rendered keen by the fact that he had inherited the promise of seed as innumerable as the sands on the_ seashore. Like In’s father, he was driven to petition, and in answer his wife conceived. The fatherhood of Isaac resembled that of Abraham in that it gave origin to two nationalities, or, rather, perpetuated one race and gave rise to an important branch. But the manner was wholly different. Ishmael was the offspring of Abraham’s handmaid, Hagar. 1 wn nations were twins in Rebekah’s womb, and they struggled for su¬ premacy even before they were born. Isaac was sixty years old when his twins were born. They were boys, and were named Esau and Jacob. They divided the favor of the parents, Isaac preferring Esau as the first-born of the twins and as a huuter who could provide the table with dainty venison. Re¬ bekah preferred Jacob as the more domestic of the two boys. In a strait of hunger Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a mess of red pottage. For this folly he earned the name of Edom, or red, and the nation he founded became known as Edomites. Jacob felt that his contract with Esau would hardly prove valid in the eyes of Isaac. So when Isaac came to confer his dying blessing Meeting of Isaac and Rebekah. ns wife, find the same became a permanent possession. It was tli (,J1 ,rot k-tomb, of Maehpelah, in Hebron, and Hebron not onb <>f W, ti X 01i6 i°* tbe strongholds of Judah, but is an important towi A 1 fem Palestine t0 this day. wpfrKtv- 'Tl Tved. b-y Periotic considerations or others equal!' tribal Kin a n0t 1V,1S.‘ to Perpetuate a line which partook of th' Mesonoton i ai°vi.<: i-im' • be ser*t a servant to his native country Isaac Tl,'!a: ‘ 1 d'rections to find an acceptable wife for his soi at a well i*1 V|Urd fortunately struck upon Rebekah, whom he me ham’s own brother t0 be the granddaughter of Nahor, Abra his visit. «be ‘ t he servant acquainted her with the object ol let their dnnrruf^ a , same to her parents. They consented t The lonw ri.ip „.*! bac^. to Canaan with the servant of Abrahan while Isaac wa , ^ ac‘cornphshed on camel-back. On a certain evening carried Rehek.,1, ! 16 ", 1 d meditating, the caravan of camels whicl view Was Tsanp ,u l ived. A hen Rebekah was told that the man i the East. ’S ,'e ( amounted and veiled herself, as was the habit i: acceptable r ... oaine °aded with presents, was comely, and prove ham, he receivST^"1?1 ber’ and on the death of his father, Abra agam an» J attacked. But' in order to avoid battle escape if the oth rich present 0f sheep, goats, camels asses, altogether, he s Esau This offering turned Esau s «»d TindS Though he refused to Scoopt of it till eninitv into kmdne^ . * , had plenty 0f his own, he per- strongiy urged by Jacob, bee ^ ^ t/enter CanaaD through it. minted Jaco > ^ . brotherly reunion of Jacob and Esau that . 'TO ? fcrdimr of the brook Jabbok, which was an Jacc known as Israelites. It will be remembered *at ■fL Afvpqm and the change of his name to Abranam tne worn h!£ cl me to designate his children, liu. .m»rn was never such a word of limitation or special import as Israelite. Ihe latte implied one more wholly within the covenant than the former, and it was further narrowed by geography law, and institution to the future Hebrew conquerors and occupantsof Canaan Jacob call^the spot of wrestling Peniel, because there be had seen God face to face On Jacob’s arrival at Shechem, the site of the Hivite tnbe of Canaan, lie bought ground, expecting to remain But the deceits and excesses of his sons forced him farther, to Bethel, where lu. built an altar, and where God re-affirmed his covenants with him. Jacob pushed still farther, and at length reached Hebron, where his father, Isaac, dwelt. He arrived in time to witness his fathers death, and, with Esau, to participate in his burial. Here, as Jacob Wrestling with the Angel. Edomite boundary, and while alone on one side of the brook, uiving .sent his family across, was accosted by a man who wrestled with him through the entire night and until daybreak. Jacob proved to be so formidable an opponent that the man was forced o resort to a miracle in order to win the victory. He touched acois thigh and caused the muscle to shrink, so that Jacob could 10 onger contend. But even then he held on to the man and re- bised to let him go till he identified him. wh l ' V lentification showed that Jacob had been wrestling all the comm'"'-1 ^ an§e^> and n°t a man, and that the angel had been j_e t'ls?lonecj *22 make to him one of the most important announce- h'id n -ln -ii . drew history. It was to the effect that since Re a„ai kCVai . 111 the struggle, so far as a mortal could prevail mpnn a'1," inuilortal, bis name should henceforth be Israel, which ine 1, A°v prevail” and not Jacob. This was equivalent to say- not i i 16 p6W .name of Jacob should be a national name, and family 'n! ! ' • am'k name. Thus, while Jacob was known to his m a pastoral sense as Jacob, his descendants became Israel, be waxed mighty, he and his twelve sons, each of which, after the trials of Egyptian bondage, was to become father of s tribe in the land of Canaan. What is remarkable about this part of the careers of the twin sons of Isaac is that Esau also waxed mighty in his way. He acquired great wealth of flocks, and seems to have been more favored in h sons than Jacob. His kingdom of Edom became well organized am strong under a system of dukes corresponding to the heads of tribes in Israel. Without the intervention of foreign bondage to which Israel was subjected, and without the delay of four hundred years, Edom had a long line of prosperous and formidable kings “ before there reigned any king over the children of Israel.” The history of Edom was, in general, that of the nations which found origin in the children of the patriarchs which were not of the promise. Ishmael flourished, as did all the children of Keturah. Thetrialsof Egypt were, therefore, not for political reasons. They had higher aim, that of prepar¬ ing Israel for both that political and religious sovereignty which after, ward constituted her glory and her shame. 6 PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. Jacob’s family of twelve sons did not prove comforting to the father. They kept him in a ferment with his hostile surroundings, and they contributed to family disturbances by their hatred of Joseph, who was his father’s favorite. Joseph innocently inflamed their hatred by a recital of his dreams to the effect that they should at some time become subservient to him. They determined to get rid of him, even if compelled to murder him. An opportunity came one day when Joseph was sent to his brethren to bring report of the flocks. Reuben d ssuaded them from murder, and prevailed on them to cast him into i pit to perish, so that if found the impression might go forth that he tad fallen a victim to wild beasts. But just then some Ishmaelite traders came along on their way to Egypt.' The cupidity of Joseph’s brethren overruled their murder- tioned Joseph to him. Joseph was sent for, and the Pharaoh told him what he had dreamt. Joseph, accrediting all his power to God, unfolded the dream. The interpretation was to the effect that there were to be seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine, and that it behooved the Pharaoh to provide for the latter by wisely garnering the products of the former through a competent overseer. This interpretation proved acceptable to the Pharaoh. When lie came to look around for a suitable overseer, he could find none more likely to meet the requisites than Joseph. So Joseph was honored with the position, and he filled it with such credit that he stood ne.\ to the Pharaoh in dignity. He filled the garners of Egypt during the seven years of plenty. He was given a wife and a title of honor. He had two children born unto him, who became renowned as Ma- Joseph Interpreting Pharaoh’s Dream. ous designs, ar.d they sold him to the traders for the slave-market of Egypt. Being equal to any crime, they stained Joseph’s coat with blood and presented it to Jacob, so as to make him believe Joseph had been slain bv wild beasts. Potiphar, an officer of the Pharaoh (or ruler of Egypt), bought Joseph. He proved to be a faithful servant, and was advanced to a high position of trust by Potiphar. But through the wiles of Poti- phar’s wife he fell into disgrace and was imprisoned. He, however, won the favor of the prison-keeper, and was again promoted. He also made for himself a reputation as the interpreter of dreams for his fellow-prisoners, which interpretations came true. At length the Pharaoh dreamed a dream which greatly troubled him, and for which he sought an interpreter, He tried all his magi¬ cians, but in vain. His butler, who had been in prison with Joseph, and who had reason to remember his power over occult things, men- nasseh and Ephraim. Altogether, it was an enviable situation for the young Hebrew, who had entered a strange land as a slave, and wm had served a term in its prisons. _ .... But the crowning honor yet awaited Joseph. His providential w sight was revealed to all when the seven years of famine set in as y had predicted. Then it was that Egypt became renowned as a Ian" of plenty. Joseph ranked as a seer-, and no man stood higher, is sad to dwell on Joseph’s exaltation in the respect that it mean! the servitude of his race for long years. Yet the children of Jaco ■ had proved wayward, and Joseph’s brethren most unfraternal. Per¬ haps nothing short of the humiliation of bondage could purge them of that frowardness which would certainly have caused them to be absorbed by the native tribes of Canaan, or could inspire that unity of moral and political spirit which enabled them to go back as con¬ querors and founders of a Jehovistic religion and dynasty. PATRIARCHS, priests, prophets, and kings. . , victory was ever more complete than that of No material °7, " mderously-disposed brethren when famine forced Joseph ove^,sF . and prostrate themselves as beggars at his feet, them to enter Egyi knowing them, so humiliated them as to They knew h,.» jot, Ml ke, know ^ ^ ^ he 1W compel remorse onerously granting their suit for food and re- W“1S0\t'int?ytyTad bight along to pay for it. Further, turning the money ho„oroble buyers, but as miserable spies, he dismissed the , Simeon, as a guarantee that they would holding one oft brother, Benjamin, in order to prove the ^th of the tele they had told about their father and his children. ' What wonder that Jacob found it hard, under the circumstances What wonae min? h ^ gone> Sinjeon was gone, and to part wit 1 demandetl 1 Was there a conspiracy to rob him now Benjan 1 one? But the food they had brought from Eglia. In consumed, and tbo famine pressed sorer. Necessity children on their return to Canaan. Whatever his doubts might have been about the story, or the propriety of accepting the Ration to change his residence at his age, they were set at rest by God s advice to him to go, and by bis promise that be should become a great nation in Egypt, and that it should return to Canaan as a conqueror So Jacob went to Egypt with all his large family and flocks, and was assigned a place at Raineses, which was the capital, and in the very& heart of the fertile land of Goshen. Joseph saw that his brethren were registered according to their occupations. I hat his family might share his favor in the land, he took Ins father, .Jacob, to the court of the Pharaoh and gave him a formal introduction. After they were all settled and engaged in their usual occupations Joseph extended many favors to them, so that they multiplied exceedingly and became prosperous in the new land. Jacob was one hundred and thirty-years old when he came to Egypt. He resided there seventeen years before he died. \Y hen he Joseph Setting Jacob before Pharaoh. ■nows no law, and Benjamin was sent. Their re-arrival in Egypt a orded Joseph another opportunity to humiliate them, and also to s low ns charity. Never were petitioners more abject than when they la*' R^jamin was to be detained for supposable theft of Joseph’s j 'e! cub- , 1®'r plaint moved Joseph to reveal himself. They stood „ _0lm ep. before him they had sold into slavery, and only Joseph’s Thov'l" ..' i 'a- !'e borc l'l’em 110 ill-will recalled them to their senses. vooJ f.Cai< ''i' i flight bow Providence bad, in their case, educed Ann, -l”"1, e,V - cabling him to save the entire family of bis father brills tl'J" accepted joyfully the invitation of Joseph to their ni',.1'" . atber to Egypt to reside. They went away elated with Most of nV\i ° C°rn -auc ()b wag°ns lor the return journey to Egypt, was IipIJ j ’( -v ',ve£® impressed with the high esteem in which Joseph extended I ? Te P1,araob b^self sanctioned all he had done, and as a futurellwcdliii an<} a welcome to the land of Goshen UrSe ’bacob was astounded at the wonderful tale told by his came to die he sent for Joseph, and made him promise that he would take his remains to Canaan and see that they were buried with his fathers in the tomb at Machpelah. Joseph promised this, and after Jacob’s death there went out of Egypt a funeral procession of horse¬ men and chariots which excelled in grandeur anything Canaan had ever seen. After the return of the mourners from Canaan the children of Jacob were very apprehensive lest Joseph, now that the father was gone, might turn upon them and wreak vengeance for the crime they had committed in -selling him as a slave. They sent a messenger to Joseph to pray for forgiveness, using in the prayer the exact words of Jacob. Joseph forgave them, bade them to fear not, and promised to help them in every way he could. He became, as it were, a father unto them, and they prospered with his prosperity. He lived to be a hundred and ten years old, and died a witness of the fourth genera¬ tion of his own children, and without losing favor at the court of the Pharaoh. |u|ll|oilllloiillolIIo^oTn [ d i ! 1 0 i 1 0 1 , n~ las MIL m 1# mil 11 ■ I 1 lill IH mmM 1 ill MOSES AND AA EON BEFORE PHARAOH. See page 9. PATRIARCHS, priests, prophets, and kings. ■ ■ Tnapnh’s death a new Pharaoh came to the throne of Egypt. After Josep ]; their prosperity, dreaded lest they might He e^Vie,it^lSnTaSeofwir, distributed them about as builders Jesert to hi j on public improvements, and, in fact, reduced ,,f cities and f sel4it,ude. i„ order to check their increase, Jhem {led the destruction of their male infants. This decree led to he ordered i born of a son of Levi, -and his finding 'he, In', 'lion by the daughter k the Pharaoh. It led also to the edu- rition of Moses and to his acquaintance with the institutions of Egypt. I The Pharaoh, however, would not recognize their divine power. He j treated them as mere adventurers, till one day he put their claims to a ■ test. Having given them audience, Aaron threw down his rod in the i royal presence. It immediately became a serpent, lo show that this i was mere jugglery, the Pharaoh caused his magicians to do the same. But when Aaron’s rod swallowed all the others the Pharaoh was con¬ vinced that they were endowed with power far higher than magic art. But the more they petitioned for leave to depart, the more obdurate the Pharaoh became. Even the terrible visitations of the plagues we ■ Destruction of the First-born. found v .f S or.cefI t° flee the land on account of an indiscretion. He in? husli u^. "} Midian, and while there he received out of the burn- plant tliol <-IV!~?e commission to deliver his brethren from. Egypt and his <>ld J."i ^ tPe same time he was given a spokesman and beo"in' tl >rot^®r’ Aaron. Moses and Aaron returned to Egypt, the Ph°‘ . ,:eW°rk •’ 'Pstructing their brethren. They approached pfly to harde.' t!P?Ctlclg proposed departure. This overture led 1 depreciation "r \Srfor t le ^srael’tes- It- unfortunately, also led to But they r)er ist° l i-i 68 arK Aaron in the eyes of their brethren. the al Wianoo t r n • meij conscious of a divine mission, and secured tdapee ol their brethren. not sufficient to cause him to relent finally, for he secured a stay e each by a false promise. However, the period of the plagues was ai. educative time for the Israelites. They grew to recognize Moses and Aaron as divinely-appointed leaders, and to feel that their own destiny was in the Promised Land. Nothing drew them closer together than the signs of then- departure, the thought that they could escape with their wealth, and the institution of the Passover, which not only solemnized God’s final judgment on the obdurate Egyptians by slay¬ ing their first-born, but established a permanent memorial of that favoritism which was to follow them across the Red Sea, through tin wilderness, and into their new country. 10 PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, No history, sacred or profane, records so momentous a migration as that of Israel from Egypt. It is almost inconceivable how two men, even if divinely endowed, could have within a lifetime brought so scattered and diverse a multitude beneath a single banner. The Israelite had no land, therefore there could be no appeal to patriotism. If he knew anything of geography or natural resource, every com¬ parison between Goshen and Canaan must have inclined him to the former. Even Egyptian servitude was not so abject as to impel to a trial like that of the wilderness, or to beget a preference for lands whose possession implied all the doubts and hardships ot conquest. Therefore that which moved to this stupendous, this national mi¬ gration must be sought for beyond the motives which ordinarily actuate men. From the call of Abraham to the preaching ot Moses and Aaron there ran through the elect generations an intensely strong current of family (or tribal) pride. This is made clear by the tact that marriage with the surrounding and inferior tribes ot Canaan was discountenanced and lamented. Rut the promise meant far more than social exclusiveness. It meant, in its highest seuse, the giowth and PROPPIETS, AND KINGS. set about to indoctrinate and convert their people. How faithfully they wrought, by what divine help they were assisted, has already been told. Their achievement must ever be reckoned as among the most marvellous of history. The exode was a triumph impossible under a commission which did not bear the seal of Heaven. The night of the Passover for Israel, the night of agony for Egypt, was the hour of emancipation for a nation. The Pharaoh actually compelled what he would have hindered, and all the people of Israel were on the move with flock and herd. They had come to Egypt in the shape of the children of one man. After a sojourn of four hun¬ dred and thirty years they went out in the shape of six hundred thou¬ sand men, with their women and children, and with a wealth of cattle and valuables that was incomputable. They moved resolutely and in obedience to a single will. They moved as a people with a destiny. God mapped a course for them through burning sands which he shaded with cloud by day and lit with a pillar of fire by night. Neither Moses nor Aaron was a military leader, nor were the Israe¬ lites armed and disciplined. They therefore did not move by com - Departure of the Israelites from Egypt. perpetuation of the Jehovistic (or one and only true God) idea. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as representatives of a line, were cus¬ todians of this idea, but it cannot be said that they nationalized it. Of the thirteen sods of Jacob or of all his numerous offspring, not a single one, excepting Joseph, could be counted as a worthy repre¬ sentative of the idea. . . . , , We have, then, two things that had to be touched m order to account for the uprising of a nation and its bodily transfer from one land to another, from a highly-favored to a less-favored land. I he first was the family (or tribal) pride ; the second was the religious spirit. As to the first, the appeal might well have been made through the house of Joseph, since he had attained royal favor and had been the means of saving his family from extinction by starvation. Rut tem¬ poral distinction was subordinated, and very wisely to an estate which was spiritual. There was nothing distinguishing about the house of Levi but the offspring of some one of the children had to be chosen, and those of the house of Levi fell heir to spi ritual leadership. The executor and administrator was found in Moses. He is called the Lrreat lawgiver.” He simply administered unto men the laws which God gave. Aaron became his mouthpiece. The two, divinely endowed, panies nor by marches, as an army moves. Rather, they moved by fa 111 1 lies, each with its tents and herds and effects, and each according to tE time it could make. It was the most remarkable procession earth ey witnessed. Such a number thrown together at any other time or p y and with a lesser inspiration would have been simply an unmanag able mob, victim of its own whims or whatever crossed its path. Their first march was from Rameses to Succoth. Rameses was y capital of Goshen. Therefore the capital must have been the gray rallying-point of the migrants, and they must have covered the ent way to Succoth, which was only fifteen miles distant and to the scut . Their journey lay thence toward the sea, where they assembled betm the watchtower of Migdol and the shore. Here they were confronted ■ the waves. Here they heard the dire tidings that the Pharaoh was pursuit of them with an army, intent on bringing them back or destm ing them entirely. The report threw them into consternation. ' impassable water ahead, with wilderness around with an hostile ai coming upon their rear, with no prospect but that of annihilatio a worse servitude than they had escaped, they upbraided Moses an threatened revolt. Their strait was again one which required cei - ual intervention. PATRIARCHS, priests, prophets, and kings. 11 fW cannot wonder at the wail winch went up from the despairing r . lifes when they discovered that they were entrapped by sea, wil- ^ ,md a pursuing army. Nor can one wonder at the anxiety dfEes and Aaron lest their work of years should he lost and their ° • w leaders be impaired. But that fete which seemed inevitable P°'VRVoided and that escape which seemed impossible was provided, ♦Troinrh the’ intervention of the Providence which had guided them fir and which was to sustain them through future trials Already the winds were at work bearing the waters of the Red Sea outward and preparing for them a miraculous passage. At length (.round appeared where all before was water, and the despairing thron"' saw a way of escape. They embraced it quickly and boldly, and reached the farther shore ere the army of the Pharaoh could form for attack. But as yet there was no sense of safety. Pursuit forth with timbrels, and they sang and danced together. It was a time of jubilee such as the new nation had never witnessed before, and such as it would not witness again till after long years of trial. Israel was free from Egypt, but in bondage to the desert and to itself. The spot of freedom was the wilderness of Shur. Amid its sands began that remarkable journey which was to last for forty years, and which was to purge Israel of all the impurities of Egypt. The oldei generations would go down amid the desert purgation, and new ones would arise without yearning for the estate which had been cast off. The hardships of desert-life would brighten the visions of Canaan and make the Land of Promise more acceptable. The necessity of standing together for defence against hostile tribes would convert a nation of slaves into a nation of warriors. Through trial they would learn discipline and the duty of obedience. They would receive law, Destruction of Pharaoh’s Army in the Red Sea. W6re PO^ible. for their enemies^ X The Path the? had trod was open How much better would they be off on the strange Arnhia • Tr> ... „ ,v . Escape did mm .... u“w much l no^/trme°anAliberty.than “ E^Ptian territory? backward. Ranged. The receding waters were hurled ites, and was into lara°h had entered the path trodden by the Israel- men and horses and T! .■ Parsldt- While his army, composed of dry channel of the - f la,no^s war, was making its march across the five force. All h '6 re!'urn'n& waters came upon it with destruc- ohject of the Phai- "l * own. before the energy of tlie waves, and the before the eves of t! "I88 defeated. The strength of Egypt perished fhe closeness of 1 1-, . !' 1 e mb ling Israelites, who felt as never before they were safe and' th P'j ’v'dential keeping. Though on an arid soil, ce. Ana .1. “ ,l('ke forth in songs of praises for their deliv- omen, led by Miriam, the sister of Aaron, went 6rance’ And' the and come to understand the nature of a community and of organized institutions. They would get new notions of faith and religion, would recognize a priesthood and the formula of worship, and would come into closer relationship with Jehovah. Morally speaking, the sands of Arabia were to be the drilling-ground of Israel, and the wander¬ ings were to be so many schools of preparation for a unique destiny. As earth never witnessed such an exode, so no school of discipline was ever so severe. There was to he no graduate till after forty years of study. Nor was the graduate to be a warrior only. He' could have learned the art of war in one-fourth the time from his Arab brethren. But he was to be a civilian, a member of a state, a repre¬ sentative of a religious institution. Both the civic and the religious institutions were formed in the wilderness. It was not so many hun¬ dred thousand soldiers that struck Canaan and conquered it, but it was the Hebrew institution as formulated at Sinai. 12 •PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS Moses Descending from Sinai with the Law. As the Israelites journeyed they were ever at revolt with their leaders, Moses and Aaron. Nothing but the constant intervention of miracles kept them in subjection. The waters of Marah, the manna, the quails, were necessary to turn their thoughts from the flesh-pots of Egypt and keep down the mob-spirit. At length the wilderness of Sinai was reached. Here the most profound revelation of the world, except that at Bethlehem, was to be witnessed. The rebellious migratory mob that had not known law except that of family or tribe, that had no bond of community except pride of ancestry, that had been untoudhed as to emotion except when awed by miracle, was to witness the majesty of God in a new form, and to receive its first lesson in national organization and subordination The people were brought face to face with God enthroned amid tie lightnings and thunders of Sinai, whither Moses was called, am where God gave him two tables of stone, on which were written tin Commandments and the Law. Moses descended with them, only h find the Israelites engaged in dancing and idolatry. In his anger In broke the tables of the Law, and but for Aaron might have given tin idolatrous and thoughtless crowd over to their own perversity. A- suming again the role of intercessor, he secured a second copy of tin Law on tables of stone, which became themost precious possession of tin Hebrews, and whose substance is the moral code of ( Ihristendom to-daj PATRIARCHS, priests, prophets, and kings. J3 „n f 1)P called tlie penal code framed for the Israelites by Col ami given to them by Moses along with the Commandments, oa armarently crude and harsh; yet very slight study of it shows ■! innt-ition' to a people naturally perverse, undergoing transition P-om the tribal to the national state, out in the wilderness where trials ™“d never to end, surrounded by roving tribes whose freedom and influence were a constant source of seduction when their warlike attacks were not dreaded. .... ... . ... Rut Sinai did not mean political more than it did religious institu¬ tion for a people in escape from bondage and marching toward free- 1 mi Along with the Commandments and the penal code came the ordinances of a Church. Not in human language is there anything more specific than the commands to build a tabernacle and to furnish it and to administer within it. If the length and minuteness of the ecclesiastical code be considered, much more was expected of it as a transforming influence and as a nationalizing force than of the penal code And things worked out on this line, for both civic and maitiul power ever fell below the theocratic power in the Hebrew institution. have been necessary in that primitive time, with a people unused to architecture, and amid a situation which afforded few facilities for the construction of any elaborate building. With all its details of construction and ornamentation and furnish¬ ing, the tabernacle of the wilderness could be but little more than a magnified tent, capable of easy movement from place to place, suit¬ able to a nomadic community, Ihe court about it, though built of brazen posts and magnificent hangings, was only a temporary screen, and as readily movable as the tabernacle itself. But, such as it was, it served as a place wherein God might approach His people and the people their God. It was as much “ a statute for ever on behalf of the children of Israel ” as though it had been builded of stone and cement. It answered the purpose God had in view. It typed that greater tem¬ ple of the Holy City, and that still greater one whose priest is the eternal God. Even more interesting than the orders for the construction of the tabernacle was the setting apart of its custodians and officials. Abra¬ ham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses had been called, promised, and endowed. The Tabernacle in the Wilderness. ie, judges gave way to the kings ; the kings led to dismemberment, slavery. Politically, the Hebrew institution is extinct. tiA ^ became a glory in the tabernacle, in the temple, in WJT formula of song and symbol and priesthood and sacrifice. til nn • r? °f -the ■iudSes came the dawn of the prophets. With Wirr . e kings came sublimer poetry and the loftier prophecy, of r Vi' i •P<,1u-ca & otT §onC with all civic power engulfed, the wail Hebrew m aR)ect ^captivity is the most eloquent and touching of all the nmrf Peech- lhe prophecies and the temple formula are to-day church" and mT1™ gl\lde t0 worshiP in Jewish synagogue, Christian T1 V u Mohammedan mosque. nection witVtl'l'V “posed on the Israelites in the wilderness in con- it. Some abernacle was offerings for the purpose of building code— shnnlri * ° .t '?!r substance— afterward a tenth under a riper barism mioVu g° ° 00111 m union with God without which bar- tor safei fm t?nsue- 1 he .second duty, was the construction of an ark construction nf ^ Preservatlon of the Law. The third duty was the fable of rites 'ti'^rcl3' jat' * Pe b,urtb duty was the building of a self. Orders f, !' ■! i- duty was the erection of the tabernacle it- “ t0r building it were ve.ry specifically given. This may Aaron had been made a mouthpiece. But now there was a call, a promise, and an endowment of a wholly different kind. It was an holy ordainment based on special selection and on personal consecration. It was the dedication of a line of Israel to the tabernacle service. It was the establishment of a priesthood which should become a custo¬ dian of the tabernacle and be responsible for all its belongings. We may wonder at the showy garments which were ordered for Aaron, and at the signs and symbols which distinguished thd priest¬ hood of that primitive time. But wonder must cease when it is re¬ membered that all of the people of that time and of those countries were exceedingly impressionable, and that the idolatrous nations with whom the Israelites were in almost daily contact worshipped largely by outward show. It was therefore proper for God to render His representatives impressive to the eye as well as eloquent of speech, in order to counteract the influences they had to contend against. His call of the line of Levi was not only a dedication to spiritual priest¬ hood, but to letters ; and the ability to write, which was limited quite nearly to the Levitical line, became an additional source of reveren¬ tial respect. The man who could write ranked as a superior, if not an inspired, being, and his influence was increased proportionally. PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. The setting apart of Aaron and his sons for the priesthood was followed by a detailed description of priestly vestments or holy gar¬ ments. Though these vestments changed in cut and appearance as time went by, their general and symbolical effect remained the same. The inner and main cover¬ ing of the priest was a robe of jblue with a richly-embroidered hem showing pomegranates in blue, scarlet, and purple, between which hung tiny golden bells, which tinkled when the priest tvalked. Over the gown came the “ hroid- ered coat.” Its material was fine linen. Around the neck and over the shoulders passed the ephod. In the vestment of the high priest the ephod connected with and sus¬ tained the breastplate, but in that of the lower priests it simply crossed upon the breast. With both it ran off into a lengthy girdle, which was tied round the waist. Both ephod and girdle were many-colored and richly ornamented. The breastplate was an embroidered square, vari¬ colored and set with precious stones, twelve stones in all, each stone representing a family of Israel. The ephod supported this breastplate by means of golden rings at the corners. The mitre (or head-dress) of the high priest was a linen turban wound many times around the head till it assumed a bonnet-like appear¬ ance. On its front and just above the forehead was a plate of gold on which was engraved “ Holi¬ ness unto the Lord.” The furniture of the tabernacle did not consist of many pieces, but they were all of solid gold or of wood covered with gold. All the heavier pieces had rings ia them through which staves ran hy means of which they could be carried from place to place. The most notable piece was the ark, built of wood covered with gold. The most striking piece was the mercy-seat, corresponding in size to the top of the ark, and designed to be placed upon it. It was mounted with two golden cheru¬ bim, whose wings met and form¬ ed a canopy. Upon this mercy- seat and beneath this sacred can¬ opy was the spot of communion between God and his chosen re¬ presentatives. The table was another import¬ ant piece of furniture. It was of wood covered with gold, and was mounted with an elaborate golden candlestick, from whose centre ran six branches shaped and ornamented so as to repre¬ sent flowers. At the end of each branch was a howl designed for use as a lamp. This table con¬ tained the shew-bread, twelve loaves in number, a loaf for each tribe, and changed every Sab¬ bath. The minor pieces of fur¬ niture, such as dishes, spoons, bowls, tongs, and covers, were all of pure gold, and some of them were highly ornamental. Furniture or the Tabernacle. The Spies in the Land of Promise. nil \°;ronpl.aCe me.n ’n ^ut each was a ruler in his tribe. That there evf l- Je Ui° jealous'es> every tribe was given a representative. What- : - "w?" edge came would be the equal possession of all the tribes. It son lllt ^ie tl'ibe of Ephraim was represented by Oshea, the hpmm au> whose name was changed to Jehoshua or Joshua. He of the T r f general of the forces of Israel and the military conqueror obsprv , ' Jjttn i . « intending to cross the river into Canaan, mad^t was here the Mo’abites concluded to make their final StT?vo things now happened which were to affect the fortunes of the Israelites for all time. Moses, the great lawgiver, was to pass away the Promised Land. He petitioned for a successor, and Falling of the Walls of Jericho. was authorized to transfer his mantle to the shoulders of Joshua. us the military leader became endowed with the honors and powers f 'l a a'j»*ver anfl judge. Again, Balak, the Moabite king, utterly ai ec o draw the Midianites into such a coalition as would enable rn m ,° d,sPute the crossing of the Jordan by the Israelites. Joshua earr"5 r agai"St. ^.le Midianites, practically exterminated them, and Thi'11' a'V'Vhe’r unmense flocks and herds to enrich his own people, crossin'' * V it j oa^^es’ w^° n°t only offered no opposition to the the trio " i 16 ’j°r^aa> but practically surrendered their country to and rrinsii r '.l'1/ sraMites, who took permanent possession of its largest and thp 1 Vr*1 m sectaons in the name of the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh. in them t)?,? duests were very encouraging to the Israelites. They saw made to th e^m™.inS the fulfilment of the promises that had been They learn 'l' in i ^ Sa'neci confidence in their military strength. They enterta- ®sson? °i unity, alacrity, endurance, and bravery, were proud ti"U '• i Mghest respect for Joshua as a general, and tary sense nll°t!"aU! * under his conquering banners. In a strict mili- They disn^j ?f,C^uests eas^ <;T the Jordan were highly strategic. 0 ie largest, most powerful, and most dangerous (be- Jordan divided in the presence of the ark and a dry pathway pro¬ vided for the crossing. They crossed, forty thousand strong, the flower of the armed men of Israel, and encamped without opposition in the plain of Jericho. The king of the city shut himself up within its walls, and the place was besieged by the Israelites. At length the period of the grand assault arrived. But it wTas not to be an armed assault. The hand of God was to direct it, and it was | to be a miracle which should inspire every enemy of Israel with dread. The ark, the trumpeters, the entire army, marched around the city once daily for six days. On the seventh day they marched around it seven times, and then joined in one stupendous blast and shout, before which the strong walls toppled and fell, leaving the city ; at the mercy of its conquerors. This miraculous destruction of the walls of Jericho was followed by the destruction of the city itself at the hands of the triumphant Israelites. They pillaged it and massacred the inhabitants. The booty they took was turned over to the sacred treasury. Joshua for¬ bade the rebuilding of the city. This first invasive step was so decisive as to carry consternation to the other native tribes of Canaan and render easy the work of further conquest. PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. dephthah appears to have been a discarded member of the half-tribe of Manasseh who became head of a roving band on the confines of Gilead. He won a reputation as a daring freebooter, and when Gilead was attacked by the Ammonites he was petitioned to come home and take charge of the defensive forces. He did so, but in order to assure victory in advance made a foolish vow to offer as a burnt-offering the vow, she touchingly submitted to her inevitable fate, knowing full well the sanctity of a solemnly-recorded vow, yet perhaps mistaken as to the morally binding effect of the one recorded by her father. All she asked for was a period of two months in which to lament the fact that she was to be cut off in her youth, unmarried, childless — a fate more grievous in the eyes of an Israelitish maiden than the prospect of death. The Daughter of Jephthah. first thing that came forth from his door to meet him on his return. He fought the battles of Gilead against Ammon with signal success, and on his return was horrified to find that the first object that came from his door to meet and to greet him was his only child, a lovely daughter, who came out to welcome him with the music of timbrels and dancing. When she saw her father shrinking from an embrace, beheld the look of anguish on his face, and learned the nature of his At the end of two months “ her father did with her according to his vow.” Some charitably infer that a means of escape was provided for her. This is not only a stretch of the text, but is contrary to the fact that the Syrian modes of worship, amid which Jephthah was reared, and whose influences he no doubt obeyed, admitted of. the sacrifice of human beings, no matter how near and dear they mig'1' have been to those compelled to part with them. 19 patriarchs, priests, prophets, AND KINGS. " , p T7-;„V| wag a physical giant. The end of the govern- Sad, the son o ^ an/slul was chosen king at Gilgal Ihis ment by judges had > . the nat;ve tribes had risen in rebellion, radical step was ne.c " n as a stronger government was the only and a mighty warrio * had ^ prophet aD(| intercessor in the pious means of safety. ‘ choice of Saul as king and leader proved and prudent Samuel [„ a short time he had over- to be a wise one n •““t^^Buoed them to subjection, come the «d,ell,(’ . he became proud, defiant, and ungodly. But as Sau grew m lte5 from him. God repented He quarrelled wit 1 he provided a successor in the “ 'r whom . . h w. ord.red to anoint. him with dismay. The youthful David boldly accepted the challenge against Saul’s advice, and slew the blustering Philistine with a stone from his shepherd’s sling. , - , , . . This triumph brought David fully before the people, and his praises were sounded in camps and homes. His heroism was of that quality which fitted him for the position of leader and entitled him to the honors of royalty. It caused Saul to inquire into his pedigree and belongings. For these he honored him further, but when he found that amid the national rejoicings the credit for victory was transferred from himself to David, he grew envious of his young officer, and “ eyed him from that day forward.” One day, when he was in one of those jealous or melancholy moods so peculiar to him, he hurled his javelin at David Saul Attempts to Take the Life of David. This cmcm seems to have been of a private nature, as Saul 1 strin£.P°Se vuDOr ev?n informed of it. Besides, David was a m a slipnlin’ ,n- i°-ln .<)t ier qualifications than a ruddy countenance ; a hem l, V f S V in music. He would have to earn the reputation wear 1 the royal puMe h°P6 t0 S6CUre th® asseut °f his countrymei a harnisi °f?lU) rtunity came in a request from Saul to find 1 was so nl .. . applied for the place and was accepted. £ hearer a, voi-V "jf .1 ll.e y°un.g man that he made him his arn opportunitv L°0n uentml and distinguished position. David’s sec army proho^l'T W Goliath, the giant leader of the Philis The challeiurp ° scttl f t le fate °f battle by a trial at single com of God hadron t e7ldenJtly aimed at giant Saul, but the Si S ore departed from Saul, and the challenge fi twice. The dextrous youth avoided the weapon and escaped Saul’s murderous design. From that time Saul was David’s worst enemy. He demoted David from general to captain, intrigued to get him in his power by a marriage with his eldest daughter, and made several attempt? on his life, from the last of which he narrowly escaped through the in¬ tervention of his wife Michal, a younger daughter of Saul. These repeated attempts upon David’s life drove him from Saul’s court into a fugitive existence. All the wiles of Saul failed to entrap him, chiefly because Jonathan, Saul’s son and David’s sworn friend, proved faithful to him. At length Saul’s anger turned against Jona¬ than, and he threw his javelin at him, intending to kill him. At the same time he denounced him for having chosen David “ to his owTn con¬ fusion.” This was an intimation that Saul felt that David would be pre¬ ferred to his own son as a successor, and hence his murderous jealous/ PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. The vengeance of Saul pursued David, and kept him a fugitive until the date of Saul’s death. Misfortunes fell thick and fast on Saul, and at length he was slain in a disastrous battle with the Philistines, who took the cities of the Israelites one after the other. It so hap¬ pened that, at this very time, David had just returned to Ziklag in Judah from a successful expedition against the Amalekites. Thither a messenger hastened from the battlefield on which Saul was slain, bear¬ ing his crown and bracelet. David lamented the slaughter of the king and his sons, and took charge of the emblems of royalty. At the com¬ mand of the Lord he went to Hebron, the stronghold and capital of Judah, twenty miles south of Jerusalem, where he was accepted by the tribe of Judah and crowned king. But the rest of Israel set up Ish- bosheth, a surviving son of Saul, as king. War soon broke out between accession by a successful exploit which would be popular with all Israel and especially with Saul’s tribe, Benjamin. At any rate, he hurled an expedition against the Jebusites, an unconquered native tribe which inhabited the mountainous district west of the Jordan and within the territory assigned to Benjamin, and captured Zion, which was their fortress and central stronghold. Of the strength of this site nothing need be said. The Jebusites had held it against Israel ever since the latter entered Canaan, and so con¬ fident were they of their ability to hold it against David that they said their blind and lame could keep him off. David immediately took up his royal residence in the fort of Zion, and began the work of buildinl and fortifying the new capital of his kingdom, which he called “ tte city of David.” The Crowning of David at Hebron. these rival claimants in Israel, and many battles were fought. Victory generally favored the side of David, so that “ David waxed stronger and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker.” At length Ishbosheth lost his best general, Abner, and was himself murderer! in his bed. Then the tribes which had adhered to the house of Saul came to David at Hebron and proposed allegiance. David heard their proposition with pleasure, and “ made a league with them.” As a result he was anointed ' king over all Israel, and the contending tribes were again united under one crown. David had reigned at Hebron in Judah for seven years and six months. But that capital, though one of the oldest in Canaan, was not regarded as sufficiently central. So David looked about him for a more eligible site. He may also have been moved by two other con¬ siderations : first, to take advantage of the presence of the warriors that had gathered about him at Hebron ; and, second, to signalize his Though the capital of Israel has come down to us under man}' names, as “ The Holy City,” “ City of Zion,” “ City of the Great King,” etc., it became generally recognized as Jerusalem upon its oc¬ cupancy by David. The Hebrew equivalent for Jerusalem is trai - lated as “ vision of peace,” but the best interpreters regard this mean¬ ing as full of difficulty. Some prefer to see in the word a reference to the old Salem of which Melchizedek was king; others, to see in it a corruption of the word Jebus; while still others blend the two and make it a perverted reading of Jebus-Salem. Whatever the origin of the name, it was to become a city of con¬ siderable beauty and strength under King David, was to reach the height of its splendor, wealth, and importance under Solomon, was to undergo vicissitudes hardly shared by any other city, and was to play a part in Christian and Mohammedan history unequalled for glory and for shame by any shrine of earth. 21 patriarchs, priests, prophets, and kings. i , Tap jin excellent king of Israel. He united the tribes David proved to be forniidable_ As it grew in distinction it ac- and made h» ^ng modeg of worsbip were never so elaborate and quired wealth. This was because be was a musician, a poet, refined as under Davi • howeVer absurd and wicked some of his and a naturally u » it ran wfiat in modern times would be called actions may have^Dee c(y.eei/and made au administrative account in which the good ^J^er hehad^’ son by Bathsbeba, the widow of In the midst 1 s f Jedidiah at first, as indicative of a future glo- Uriah, who was iven him, and had them shipped by water and land to Jerusalem. Solomon entered into a similar contract with Hiram to furnish the been left to Solomon.' It would seem also that Hiram, both on account of the extent of his services and the great amount of gold he had fur nished, and the well-known liberality, if not extravagance, of Solomon naturally expected the cities offered in pay would embrace those con' tiguous to his own kingdom, and perhaps one or more of the Mediter¬ ranean ports. The latter would have been especially desirable.' After the dedication ceremonies were over and the. children of Israel had been dismissed to their homes, Solomon invited Hiram to come out and see. the cities which he offered in pay for his services and his gold Hiram made a tour of inspection, and was not at all pleased with the cities. They were small inland cities, remote from his own kingdom and from the coast. In his indignation he designated them as “ the land of Cabul,” which in the Phoenician language would mean that they were “ dirty and displeasing.” King Hiram’s Presents to King Solomon. woodwork for his house of state, which, from its description, was largely composed of cedar from the forests of Lebanon. A singular coincidence of names occurs in connection with the building of Solomon’s house of state. When he called on King Hi¬ ram for a “cunning worker in brass ” to ornament the interior of the house, King Hiram sent him a man by the name of Hiram, a Hebrew born, who did all the elaborate work of ornamentation in brass and silver and gold. The lavers, shovels, basins, pots, and metal utensils were made by King Hiram and sent to King Solomon. In fact, his house of state was a Tyrian rather than a Hebrew house as to its architecture and adornments, and the same may be said of the temple, except as to its stonework. It had taken Solomon twenty years to complete the two houses, “the house of the Lord and the king’s house.” The price he was to pay to King Hiram for his services was twenty cities in the land of Galilee. It would seem as though the selection of these cities had | > However, Solomon was an excellent customer of Hiram in a commer¬ cial sense, and a king not to be despised for his power. As long as the spirit of improvement existed in Jerusalem, Hiram was sure of employ-1 ment for his artificers and of a market for the products of his forests As long as Jerusalem existed at all, and the Hebrews remained an un¬ commercial people, the ports of Tyre would prove the gateway to the capital of Israel. So King Hiram got the better of his indignation, and agreed in his mind to pocket the loss on his contract with King Solo¬ mon. There is no evidence that he accepted any of the cities offered by Solomon. But, wishing to show Solomon that, though disappointed, he was not offended, he sent to him a magnificent present of gold — “ sixscore talents,” says the text, which would be equivalent to three or four million dollars. He followed this up by helping Solomon to furnish his navy when he came to have maritime ambitions, and he helped him to magnify and strengthen his kingdom in various other ways. 23 Queen of Sheba Received by King Solomon. wav U°USV furnished tables, and the magnificence of his private shp lmri 16 temP e’ ‘‘there was no more spirit in her that is to say, that ‘‘ ti ct'm® i^^hting wliat she had heard, but was now convinced T1 hh?f iad not been told” and in ^ed fiueen then broke out in praise of Solomon’s estate of cr0 ] (■] i'n?s llPon his head, and showed her generosity by presents abundance' >>Sh!£®8’ a,'d as to the spices “ there came no more such an bounties tint l^*1^ ^°^omon was so impressed with her visit and her coveted hut .i'6 n durn n°t onH’ gave her whatever her curiosity went her wav't^i 118 own gener°sity suggested. “ So she turned anil The when 1 ° 1CT own country, she and her servants.” cal interpret61 3°UtS ^lat country has ever been a mystery to bibli- in the ver^. ,ra~as™uch cd a mystery as Opliir, which is mentioned is mentioned ' 01 e , eba. There are two Shebas in the Bible. One has no p6no.r ''')0nl= ,e sons of Cush, who peopled Ethiopia. Ethiopia ‘ — _ & P y m the Bible, but by historic limitations has come to which the visiting queen represented. The Ethiopian Sheba was com¬ paratively an unknown place, so remote as scarcely to have heard of or been impressed with either Solomon’s grandeur or wisdom. Again, it is unsettled whether Cush, whose limits must establish the Sheba of Africa, was African or Persian. Evidences are as strong that Cush was on the Persian Gulf as in Africa. There is nothing to show that the queen of Sheba came from the neighborhood of the Persian Gulf. While all is conjecture respecting the location of Ophir, the ac¬ ceptance of it as an Arabic place — and the evidences are strong that it was — would render plausible the surmise that Sheba was also Arabic. Solomon’s commercial intercourse with Ophir would naturally spread his fame thither, and give rise to the impressions which induced the queen of Sheba to pay him a visit. Again, Joktan,'who undoubtedly I settled in Arabia, had sons by the name of Ophir and Sheba. What, therefore, so likely as that the commercial intercourse with one set of I children should excite the curiosity of the other set ? PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. “TI queen of Sheba to the court of King Solomon The visit biblical history that it is a pity there is any doubt affords wfaat ,VJ the land whence she came. Her about who the fact that the fame of Solomon had extended to coming est 1 1 had reached the ears of Sheba in the shape remote lands » « came to prove him with hard questions.” »W,fwrn„ unimportant per^age is evident from the man- 1 com in or Whether to show her own importance or to sig- ner°! w resnect for Solomon, she came with a great train of camels ?abz; Snices gold, and precious stones. It would seem that she SS to show her own importance, for after communing with feolo- nn and seeing the splendor of his palace, and witnessing the num¬ ber tfht servants, and the attendance of his ministers and the rich¬ ness of their apparel, and his gorgeously equipped cupbearers, and mean (or to embrace) Abyssinia in Africa. The' other Sheba is men¬ tioned 'among the sons of Joktan, whose location was Arabia. I he reference in Matthew to Sheba as the “ queen of the south applies alike to Arabia and Abyssinia. Both countries admitted of govern¬ ment by queens. Both countries have traditions which perpetuate the incident of Sheba’s visit to King Solomon. _ Thus far, the claims of Abyssinia and Arabia are even. Now, when the impossibility of a camel-journey from Abyssinia to Jerusa¬ lem is considered, probabilities favor a nearer country. It is not known that any country vaguely embraced in Ethiopia was ever distinguished as a spice country ; whereas the Sheba of Arabia was so recognized, if not in scriptural, at least in profane, history. Strabo speaks of it as a country of spices. The Arabian Sheba at the time of Solomon was an important kingdom, quite equal to the wealth and display 24 PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS The beautiful and effective psalmody of David and other sacred poets gave opportunity for vocal and instrumental worship which even modern churches, without regard to denomination, are glad to take advantage of. Many psalms are purely inspirational poetry, but many more bear evidence that they were composed with a view to choral rendition, and neither the occasion nor instrument for which they were fitted is left in doubt. Perhaps the most effective instrument in temple-worship was the harp. Its tones, so sweetly and solemnly resonant, reflected most ac¬ curately the inspiration of the psalms and the prophetic emotions. Even to the Hebrews the harp was an ancient instrument, for it was known to both the Egyptians and Assyrians, and in very nearly the introduced into Jerusalem by the Jews who returned from Easter I captivity. It assumed various shapes, all involving the same prj, ciples of sound. Though it, in general, resembled the banjo iJr I guitar, it was not so fully evolved as the modern instrument of that I name. However, very sweet strains were obtained from its feWet I strings, and it became a very effective instrument in the choristry 0f I later Hebrew times. One of the oldest of Hebrew musical instruments was the cymbal or, in the plural, cymbals. Cymbals were of two kinds : one kii consisted of the usual metallic plates, large of circumference, circuL slightly concave, and held one in each hand. The other kind con sisted of metal strips, like modern castanets, which were held bo Musical Instruments of the Ancients. shape in which it is found to-day. A kindred instrument was the psaltery, or psalter, an instrument resembling the modern guitar, and used to accompany the human voice. It found almost as conspicuous a place in temple-worship as the harp, and for some renditions it was even more effective. The trumpet was a favorite, if not a consecrated, musical instru¬ ment of the Hebrews. It was used in war, in every-day pastoral life, and in the early tabernacle and later temple service. It varied in structure from the common horn to the most elaborately ornamented and fantastically shaped metal. That it was a most effective instru¬ ment, however used, is clear from the frequent mention of it in the Bible. The horn is also a much-mentioned instrument of Scripture music, and, like the trumpet, it assumed a variety of shapes. The cithern was net an early Hebrew instrument of music. It was tween the fingers and struck together like the bones of modern, minstrelsy. The dulcimer was a Hebrew musical instrument, but there is much dispute as to exactly what form it took. The cornet was the signal- horn of the Jews. It was made of the horn of the ram or ox. Wher¬ ever the word “ trumpet ” is used in the Bible as an instrument for signalling in war, the preferable translation xvj. aid be “ cornet.” The flute is mentioned among Hebrew musical instruments. In Daniel there is mention of the sackbut. His classification would imply a stringed instrument, but the sackbut as we know it is a blowing in¬ strument. The drum was a recognized Hebrew musical instrument, but not in modern size. It was known by various names, as the tabret, the tabor, the tambour, and the timbrel, all of which signify “ little drum,” and therefore might well be translated “ tambourine.” 25 Wv month was a lunar month, reckoned from new moon The Hebi ^ jnstitution of the sacrifices and offerings at Mount to new moon. „ a setting apart of the trumpet as an imposing, Sinai was an gtrunient. There two silver trumpets were ordered if not a sacr , f ugeg were fully described. They were to be to be made, <( ^ goQg of Aaron ”_the priesthood— and they were biown °n W «an ordinance for ever;” that is, their sound t0 b! ! h emblematic of the voice of God. wa* t0 pi0Wino- of one trumpet summoned the princes to meet together, rn, Klnwin.r of two trumpets called the entire congregation of Israel 1 I. 1 nr°nf the tabernacle. There was a vast difference between blowin-an alarm and calling an assembly The call for the assembly nr correlation consisted of a number of short, sharp notes. The minding of an alarm consisted of a continuous peal or blare. The harm was sounded as a warning against the approach of enemies, and also as notice to make ready for the respective wilderness journeys. pears from the allusions to them in the after-books of the Bible, es- oecialfy in Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. We even find an allusion to the observance in New-Testament times, as in Col. ii. 16. But as all these observances, at least all that were perpetuated, found their highest elaboration, if not their greatest solemnity, in the forms enlarged and originated by King David, we naturally turn to his psalmody and choristry for 'a full view' of the new-moon cere¬ monial. And on turning to Ps. lxxxi. wre find something which shows that the observance was a lively part of the temple- worship. There are two views of this psalm : One is that it was written for vocal and choral rendition on the first of each month ; that is, at the appearance of every new moon. Its spirit is of such a kind, .and if so it becomes interesting to note the innovations of time on the simple observance of the wilderness. There are set words of welcome ; there are other instruments besides the trumpet : “ Take a psalm, and bring hither the timbrel, the pleasant harp with the psaltery.” At the same “Blow Up the Trumpet in the New Moon.” hen one alarm was sounded, the eastward camps made ready t reaD' W^en a secov|d alarm was sounded, the southward camps mad The injunction at Sinai, when generalized, read : “Also in the da w ’ °ar S adness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginning o and v ii’ 8 . ^ blow with the trumpets over your burnt-offerinc beo-imiin1 p6 sacr'fices °f your peace-offerings.” It is clear that tli new ' ° e . lv>onth — or, in other words, the appearance of eac It is “Jnr"was, lntroduced ()r welcomed by the blowing of trumpet anee of ti taat an-v otdl(‘r ceremony attended at first the appea: ant for inYe"; moon.\. Indeed, it is quite probable that there di like the inst'l'u XXV''*‘ H> 'here is a special command which reac ance of tl'S ,tut,on °f a burnt-offering in connection with the appea your momf neW rH'e language is, “And in the beginning o followed lJS 'a sba. ?d'er a burnt-offering unto the Lord.” This occasion ' Wi esc.riPfi°n ol the offerings that shall be made on tin they so nen-i 'at 18 remarkable about their number and kind is tin 'That the* 1 1 cscmble those prescribed for the Passover offerings, moon were k '^ l'‘anc®s 'n connection with the appearance of the ne _ eP UP’ allowance being made for a change of form, ai time, the ancient trumpet feature is preserved : “Blow up the trumpet in the new moon , in the time appointed on our solemn feast-dav.” Another view of this psalm is that it was written for the Sabbatic month ; that is, for the new moon of the seventh month. The new moon of this month was welcomed with more than ordinary demon¬ strations because it was the month in which the great festival of Tabernacles was observed, which feast was distinguished in its solemn¬ ization by the free use of trumpets. So prominent was made the observance of the first day of the Sabbatic month by means of trumpets that the Jews gave to it a name. At the very institution of the observance (Lev. xxiii. 24) we read : “ In the seventh month, in the first day of the month, shall ye have a sabbath, a memorial of the blowing of trumpets, an holy convo¬ cation.’ In Numb. xxix. 1-6, the observance seems to have quite given way to the title “ Feast of Trumpets “And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convoca- tion , ye ^shall do no servile work ; it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you.' This is followed by a description of the burnt-offerings commanded for the occasion, which differ but little from those pre¬ scribed for the feasts of Atonement and Tabernacles, PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. Two of the most remarkable characters in Bible history came to- <=f „ er *n re'gn Khig Ahab — the king himself and the prophet Elijah. King Ahab was the seventh king of Israel as distinguished from Judah. He was the son of the idolatrous king Omri, and he committed himself to the abominations of neighboring nations by marrying Jezebel, the daughter of the king of Sidon. This marriage, one ot policy in a worldly sense, led to Baal-worship and to a greater pei version of the worship of the true God than had hitherto occurred. By an appearance as sudden and almost as miraculous as his de¬ parture^ Elijah came upon the scene. He was a worker of many wonderful miracles, and his reputation reached King Ahab’s ear Jezebel had inspired an order for the destruction of all the true prophets. The announcement of Elijah, through Obediah, that he the murder of Naboth and the theft of his vineyard. Both inspiration of Jezebel, but Ahab was a wicked accessory. I went to take possession of the vineyard. God commanded Eliini I go down into Samaria to meet the king. Elijah went and confront !l the king in the very midst of the possessions he had acquire! i I murder and theft. ^ -u |J)’| Then occurred a very remarkable scene. It was a scene whirl I showed all the fiery ardor of the prophet and all the dread 1 wicked and self-convicted prince. Elijah’s denunciation was Wii and fearful. He does not seem to have gone through the courted I a salutation but at once broke forth with, “ In the place where l! I licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine' I I he response of Ahab was that of a conscience-stricken criminal vtl | Elijah Denouncing the Crime of Ahab. wished to meet Ahab filled Obediah with dread, for he had been in¬ strumental in saving many prophets from Jezebel’s cruel edict. Nevertheless, the meeting came about, and Ahab had nothing but reproaches for Elijah. Elijah’s true character for zeal and boldness at once cropped out. He pitted himself against all the prophets of Baal and proposed a signal test. They numbered four hundred and fifty ; he stood alone. They were to slay a bullock and lay it on wood without fire ; he was to do the same. They were to invoke Baal to set the wood aflame. Their god proved deaf. Elijah’s call on the true God was heard, and his burnt-offering was immediately consumed. This miracle was followed by the destruction of the prophets of Baal — an act which caused Jezebel to swear vengeance against Elijah, and forced him to leave the country for a time. While absent he anointed Jehu as a future king of Israel, and called the prophet Elisha as his own successor. It was during his absence that the Syrian king, Benhadad, attacked Ahab and was defeated in two campaigns. The occasion for Elijah’s return was it also showed how he reciprocated the feelings of Jezebel in regard¬ ing Elijah as a mortal foe of their house. “ Hast thou at last found me ?” he exclaimed, “ oh mine enemy !” Elijah drove home a triumphant reply, and then proceeded with his denunciation. Ahab’s life should witness nothing but evil and his posterity should be cut off. The dogs should eat his wife Jezebel, and all those of the house of Ahab that died in the city or in the field. The horror-stricken king rent his clothes, put on sackcloth, en¬ tered into fasting, and seemingly modified his entire life. His mood was apparently so penitential and the reforms in his conduct were bo decided, as far as promises went, that God determined not to visit the terrible denunciations of Elijah directly on his head, but upon his posterity.. They came about, and that right speedily, by the extinc¬ tion of his line as sovereigns and the elevation of Jehu to the throne as the tenth king of Israel. Elijah continued his career of fiery splendor throughout the reign of Ahaziah, and then disappear'd from earth in a chariot ablaze with the glory of God. vpno-eance of Jehu on the house of Ahab need not be The fearful g sufficient to know that the denunciations of the reCTf? ™£h were "SK the wicked family to the letter. Jeze- prophet Elya t a terrible death in the street, and seventy sons be! in pa t c , ^ jn gamaria. Jehu’ came upon the throne of of Ahab we e,u)ce and blood, and his advent was signalized by Israel amid ,>',]• j>t w;th all his impetuous zeal and the abolition of mo^ than half a worshipper after it never occurred to him to abolish calf- worship and S&SiS&’X. pore worship of Jehovah. Yet he was toler- ated for the good he had done, and was promised a sovereignty which should extend through five generations . . , After an eventful reign of twenty-eight years, in which shame and fflorv were about equally balanced, he gave way to Ins son Jehoahaz. This prince was no better than his father as to the worship of the true God and indeed not as good. The worship of Israel had become almost hopelessly contaminated by that of neighboring nations, with whom the kingdom of Israel had been forced to seek alliances in its kingdom over to Syrian supremacy. As between the two J cashes there was very little difference morally or patriotically. If he oi Israel was the wickedest, he was the most patriotic. The mantle of the fiery Elijah fell on the shoulders of Elisha. But until the reign of Joasli we bear little of Elisha, except that he re¬ anointed Jehu and prophesied that five generations of his house should sit on the throne of Israel. But in the reign of the headstrong and wicked Joasli he comes upon the scene with something of the sudden¬ ness of Elijah. Their advents differed in the respect that Elijah sought the king according to command, but now the king sought the prophet. Elisha, after a practical retirement for years, had fallen sick “of his sickness whereof he died.” King Joash came to him weeping and lamenting the fate of Israel. The aged and dying prophet was still full of the spirit. "W itliout ceremony he ordered King Joash to take bows and arrows, to open the window of the room, and to shoot eastward in the direction of Syria or in the direction of the recent successes by which the Syrians had overcome his father, Jehoahaz. Joash shot an arrow forth from Elisha commands King Joash. ffrs .p! 1 i’ le. kingdom of Judah. And Judah was hardly any bettei of r '• 1Cnf1 ,e S1*'uafi°n for hundreds of years shows the weaknesi t. 1VK ed household and the inevitable consequences of schism ii I, ?3 °i Church and State. The contending parties, Judah anc ’ "ei® so em_bittered, and so close together geographically, tha •in' ilb'13 lmPoss’ble> and nearly every war meant the calling in of k;n' • daughters of kings and princes, outside of then foreign . !,i 16 resu tj a,s 'n the case of the strong-minded Jezebel, tha divided usurPefl the place of Jehovah in the popular heart. Tin the reio-n It aiJing tribes became a prey to foreign nations, and ii subiuoifted Q ’ e aoahaz the kings of Syria, Hazael and Benhadad hoahagz showed I™ and,held Israel as a tributary till the wicked Je stored in pu t S1^ns rePentance, when his independence was re Jehoash cnm!f« ?** seXenteen years Jehoahaz gave place to his soi over Israel n ■" ' 'vntten Joash, who had a reign of sixteen year reigned over t,,!i !*ame must not be confounded with the Joash win - _ a 1 at the same time, and who practically gave hi the window in the direction indicated. Elisha pronounced it a symbol of victory and an omen of deliverance from Syria. Then he said, “ Take the arrows and smite upon the ground.” The king took them and smote thrice. Elisha reproved him for not striking oftener, since every blow meant a victory over the Syrians. Elisha died, but that which he prophesied for King Joash came to pass. Joash reconquered the cities of Samaria which the Syrians had taken. Three times he entered into pitched battles with them, and each time came forth the victor. “And Joash the son of Jehoahaz took again out of the hands of Benhadad the son of Hazael the cities which he had taken out of the hands of Jehoahaz by war. Three times did Joash beat him, and recovered the cities of Israel.” King Joash afterward accepted the challenge of Amaziah, king of Judah, captured Jerusalem, and carried away an immense amount of booty. His son, Jeroboam, who had a long reign of forty -one years, was a still more powerful warrior than his father, and gave to Israel its greatest martial strength. His son, Zachariah, was murdered after a reign of six months, and Shallum usurped the throne. Thus ended the royal line of Jehu, and thus was fulfilled the prophecy of Elisha. 28 PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, 'AN D KINGS, I Mention of Queen Es¬ ther brings to view a nota¬ ble epoch in Hebrew his¬ tory. No female charac¬ ter is more interesting and impressive. Israel had been carried captive to Persia. The Persian king, \ hasuerus — now thought to be Xerxes — became of¬ fended at his wife Vashti on account of her contu¬ macy, and put her away. As a substitute for her he demanded a choice of all the maidens of his king¬ dom. The choice proved to be Esther. Esther was a Jewess, one of the captives, and an orphan. She had been reared by an uncle, Mor- decai, as his own child, and she “ was fair and beautiful.” Mordecai was evidently a doorkeeper of the king’s palace at Shu- shan. Theking knew noth¬ ing of the nationality of Esther, and, being capti¬ vated by her beauty, did not care to inquire. He selected her at sight and made her queen instead of Vashti. King A hasuerus chose a prime minister by the name of Hainan. All the infe¬ rior officers, including doorkeepers, except Mor¬ decai, paid their respects to the new appointee. Ha- man found out that Mor¬ decai was a Jew, and he procured a royal edict for the destruction of all the Jews in the kingdom. Word of this cruel edict came to Queen Esther’s earsthrough Mordecai, and she immediately presented herself before the king, who received her with favor. Her suit was a modest re¬ quest for the king and Ha- man to attend a banquet she had prepared. Both dignitaries attend¬ ed, but Esther’s heart fail¬ ed her, and she invited them to a second banquet the next day. In passing from the first banquet Ha¬ inan was so elated with the honor of sitting with the king and queen, and so con¬ fident of the execution of the royal edict, that he ordered Mordecai, who re¬ fused him obeisance, to be hanged on the morrow. That night the king found that Mordecai had given information of two men who had conspired to assassinate him. He determined to honor Mordecai, and the next day asked Haman, “ What should be done unto a man whom the king delighted to honor?” Haman thought the question referred to himself, and he suggested a royal crown, kingly apparel, a horse to ride upon, and a street procession. The king fell to the sug. gestion, and ordered Ha-' man to thus honor. Mor¬ decai. Haman did as he was ordered, but was s0 mortified at the result of his advice that he “hasted to go to his houseof mourn, ing, and having his head covered.” Then Haman met the king at the queen’s ban¬ quet. The queen was braver of heart than on the day before, and she pe¬ titioned the king to save her and her people from destruction. She also pointed out Haman as the instigator of the cruel edict. The king began to open his eyes to the de¬ signs of Haman, and in his indignation at the im¬ position that had been practised upon him he ordered Haman to be hanged on the very gal¬ lows he had erected for Mordecai. Mordecai was promoted to all the honors of the house of Haman. Upon a second petition by Queen Esther, the king wrote a reversal of the cruel edict instigated by Haman. This reversal contained also an authority for the Jews to defend themselves if at¬ tacked. Mordecai was commissioned to spread the news of this reversal throughout Persia and Media. He employed the swiftest mule- and canul- posts, and spread the glad tidings to all the Jens which were in captivity, so that “the Jews had light, and gladness, and joy, and honor.” The captives were for the time being triumphant through Mordecai and their queen, and fear of them fell on the native population. They institut¬ ed a feast in honor of their signal deliverance from the murderous designs of Haman. Since Haman had ordered a pur, or lot, to he cast to destroy them, they called the feast Purim. Royal authority for the solemnization of this feast upon the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month Queen Esther. Adar (twelfth) yearly was issued, and sent out by let; ter to all the Jews of the one hundred and twenty -seven provinces of the kingdom of Ahasuerus. Thus was confirmed, as the text has it, “ these days of Purim in the times appointed, according as Mordecai the Jew and Esther the queen had enjoined them, and as they had decreed for themselves and for their seed, the matters of the fastings and their cry. And the decree of Esther confirmed these matters of Purim.’ Isaiah the “ prince of the prophets, came ,rhi£? the reign of Uzziah- at Jerusalem came into divine commission 1 'ncr Hie reign ot uzziau- ui> b. C. 810-758, and his d hl-iM extend over a period of sixty years. Considering the ex- tent and influence of his writings as well as his importance as a per- tent ana able that neither Ins race nor tribe is known. His residence was "deflv at Jerusalem, and his family embraced a wife parturefrom God’s laws are plainly and vigorously foretold for Judah, even to the captivity in foreign lands. But captivity was not to be the final fate of the" Hebrews. Here come in Isaiah’s prophecies of promise. To these prophecies, which are brilliantly hopeful, he gave a decidedly Messianic turn, and many look upon the coming of Christ and the deliverance from sin as their literal fulfilment. The Prophet Isaiah. decisive event - ° fons> whose names, like his own, were symbolic of court as a nnn 16 l,'!?us trut^s- That lie was recognized by the from the fact tvlofni?re ordinary standing and influence is plain being requested m l \e.du n,ot hesitate to approach royalty without no matter how nlainlv\S "°r<,S were always listened to with respect, His book the a! t a ?P«ke or what unpleasant truths he told. "f the prophetic , of _the Old Testament, ranks as the first book is that of l * ln^ a? P ace aQd character. The spirit of the 1 °f Enunciation and of promise. All the evils of de- The visions of Isaiah are the most exalted in the entire school of prophecy. His eloquence is unsurpassed for directness and splendor. His poetry is unmatched tor dramatic vigor, effective pathos, and beauty of expression. So lofty, vigorous, and elegant a style implies a long course of literary discipline, yet Isaiah seems to have been a model unto himself. The genius of true inspiration rendered him in- dependent of all prophetic teachers. Isaiah’s prophetic period relates to the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. According to tradition he suffered death by being sawn asunder at Jerusalem. 30 PATRIARCHS, PRIESTS, PROPHETS, AND KINGS. The Prophet Jeremiah. Jeremiali ranks as second of the greater prophets. His prophetic period embraces the reigns of Josiah, Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah. This was one of the stormiest periods in the decline of the Hebrew king¬ dom, and it ended in the captivity by Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah’s life was therefore full of vicissitudes, for he was one of the boldest of prophets at a time when advice occasioned anger and invited punishment. Unlike the book of Isaiah, that of Jeremiah is full of personal narrative, so that his character and career come out plainer than those of any other prophet. When Egypt and Chaldea were seeking an alliance with Judah and Israel, and when both kingdoms inclined to Egypt, Jeremiah boldly denounced the compact with Egypt and favored one with Chaldea. He prophesied the direst disasters as a consequence of the Egyptian alliance. They came about speedily in the defeat of the allied forces by Nebuchadnezzar, whereupon Jere¬ miah was regarded as a traitor, his prophecies were torn up, and lie I and his scribe, Baruch, were imprisoned. But the final defeat of the allies and the captivity brought his release from prison. Nebuchad¬ nezzar gave him the choice of going to Babylon or remaining in the country. He chose the latter, and remained for a time at Mizpah. On the murder of Gedaliah, governor of Mizpah, he was carried to Egypt) where he continued his prophecies till his death at Tahpanhes, which tradition attributes to stoning. His style of prophecy is bohlly magnificent and at times lyrically beautiful. His lamentations over the capture of Jerusalem are very touching in their pathos. Each is a poem of exquisite construction. So much were they prized l-- The cuneiform in- "w at three oT four rell T "iff °f P>ah>'lo"> place Belshaz- “e son of Nabonidus Nebuchadnezzar, and make him ?f the Modes and Pekil,, Yu *0,rCeS Were defeated by the armies 'n riotous livincr wjthin vvhde the young prince wasted his time 'Tect the purpose of the fo, <'1aiuta1.- But this anachronism does not 'jeroistn and faith amid , i 0<’ "?HC1 1S tbe enlargement of Jewish T-^ish knowledge and ^ CIr(;umstances and the exaltation of pastern conquerors. aiacter when compared with those of the most remarkable in Bible history. The balance of the book is purely apocalyptic. It is an enlargement of the style intimated in Jere¬ miah, a miniature of the magnificent outburst of St. John. What are clearly outcrops of the spirit which inspired the book of Darnel are found in the apocryphal books of The Song of the Three Holy Children History of Susannah, and The History of Bel and the Dragon. ISone of these are any less curious or impossible than Daniel itself _ Their position in the Apocrypha is due to a charge of late authorship. The same charge would make Daniel apocryphal by every rule 0f interpretation, waiving only the fact that the period ot Daniel was one of transition, that the evidences of faith must in a state ot captivity, be peculiar in order to be impressive, and that the substance ot discourse and story must be that found in the legends of a strange people with Oriental imaginations. There is no need to blot out Daniel as a real character or his book as a genuine production if we consider that something striking was required to maintain the true taith in a foreign land and amid despairing situations, and especially it we measure the influence of the character and the book in meeting the object it was manifestly intended to meet. b liik I ITY OF JEZREEL. Jezreel is first mentioned as one of the landmarks of the tribe of issachar at the time of the apportionment of Canaan. After the par- i tition of the Jewish empire the old city of Tirzali became the capital 01 -frfe;; • ,Kin° Or-1 fouil(led the city of Samaria and moved the I capital thither. AY hen Ahab came on the throne he chose Jezreel as ! the site for a royal palace, and the spot became the virtual capital of ! bamana. Ahab took advantage of its natural features and made it one of the strongest places in Palestine. It became so distinguished as to give name to the entire plain which ! stretches from Mount Carmel to the Jordan, and which was before | known as the plain of Esdraelon. Jezreel is now known as Zerin Jt is beautifully situated at the head of the main valley of Jezreel (or Esdraelon) where it branches off into three smaller valleys that run to the Jordan. Its position is such that it commands the mam valley and the three minor ones. King Ahab selected it as a stronghold against eastern invasion and as a safe retreat in case he was attacked from the south or west. As a strategic point it was invaluable to Israel. Its military worth was rec¬ ognized by all of Allah’s successors, and it eclipsed Samaria itself, in strength and grandeur. ! The Second Temple. King David proposed to establish a temple at Jerusalem in place of the movable tabernacle, but his plans were frustated by prophecy and by wars. King Solomon carried out his designs by erecting the magnificent temple which was destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar, b. c. 588. After Cyrus of Persia gained his great victory over the Medes he liberalized the treatment of the captive Jews, and not only gave them permission to rebuild their temple at Jerusalem, but offered to assist with men and money. He restored to the captives the vessels and utensils of worship which Nebuchadnezzar had taken, and allowed them to go from all quarters of Babylon to participate in the restoration of their capital and the erection of a new temple. Under these favorable auspices there was a mighty return of captive Jews to their native land, especially of artificers and priests. The work of repair and of new construction went on amid considerable vicissitude for years, but at length the new temple received its finish¬ ing strokes and was solemnly dedicated, as told in Ezra vi. This second temple was a grand structure. If it did not equal the extent and magnificence of the first, it was none the less a compliment to the handicraft, the perseverance, and the religious spirit of its builders. It answered all the purposes of the first temple as a house of worship, and under the commission borne by Ezra, which seems to have given him the power of high priest and viceroy, it served as a fresh rallying-point for the scattered tribes and as a shrine destined to keep alive their nationalism and their religion, captive as they were. A COMPREHENSIVE AND ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE Books of the Old and New Testaments, CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF ALL THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, GIVING THE ORIGIN AND MEANING OF THE NAME OF EACH BOOK, THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH, AND THE CIRCUMSTANCES UNDER WHICH, THEY WERE WRITTEN, THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS, THE EXTENT OF TIME COVERED, AND A SHORT SYNOPSIS OF THE PROMINENT EVENTS RECORDED IN EACH BOOK, AND CONTEMPORANEOUS AUTHORS; WITH OTHER INTERESTING NARRATIVES RELATING TO THE Chronology of the Books of the Bible AND THE L/VES AND HISTORIES OF THE WRITERS BY THE Rev ALFRED NEVIN, D. D. the whole beautifully illustrated with scripture subjects SELECTED FROM THE VARIOUS BOOKS. "AND I SAW ANOTHER ANGEL FLY IN THE MIDST OF HEAVEN, HAVING THE EVERLASTING GOSPEL TO PREACH UNTO THEM THAT DWELL ON THE EARTH, AND TO EVERY NATION, AND KINDRED, AND TONGUE, AND PEOPLE, SAYING WITH A LOUD VOICE, FEAR GOD, AND GIVE GLORY TO HIM j FOR THE HOUR OF HIS JUDGMENT IS COME: AND WORSHIP HIM THAT MADE HEAVEN. AND EARTH. AND THE SEA, ANE THE FOUNTAINS OF WATERS ’’-HEVEtiinOK tjv « 7. ■ 1 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL ANI) HISTORICAL. THE First Book of Moses is called “ Genesis,” because it gives an account of the “generation” or origin of all things. Nothing is more certain than that Moses wrote it, but at what time is uncertain. It is a record of a period of '2369 years. It has an interest and an importance to which no other book or document of antiq¬ uity can pretend. It is the oldest book in the world which lays any claim to being a trustworthy history. If the religious books of other nations make any pretensions to vie with it in antiquity, in all other respects they are immeasurably inferior. The earlier portions of the work, so far as the eleventh chapter, may be properly termed a history of the world : the latter is a history of the fathers of the Jewish race. But from first to last it is a religious history. It is very important to bear in mind this religious aspect of the history if we would put ourselves in a position rightly to (inderstand it. But if we would judge of the work as a whole, we must not forget the evident aim of the writer. It is only in this way we can understand, for instance, why the history of the Fall is given with so much minuteness of detail, whereas of whole generations of men we have nothing but a bare catalogue. That a distinct plan and method characterize the work is now generally ad¬ mitted. Genesis is, after all, but a part of a larger work. The five books of the Pentateuch form a consecutive whole ; they are not merely a collection of ancient fragments loosely strung together, but a well-digested and connected narrative. I he Book of Genesis (with the first chapters of Exodus) describes the several steps which led to the establishment of the Theocracy. It is a part of the writer’s plan to tell us what the divine preparation was, in order to show, first, the signif¬ icance of the call of Abraham; and, next, the true nature of the Jewish Theoc¬ racy. He begins with the Creation of the World, because the God who created the world and the God who revealed himself to the fathers is the same God. The Book of Genesis has thus a character at once special and universal. Five principal persons are the pillars, so to speak, on which the whole super¬ structure rests—Adam Noah, Abraham. Isaac and Jacob. THE BOOK OF EXODUS. THE title of this book is derived from the Septuagint version, and is significant, of the principal transaction which it records, namely, the exodus or depart ure of the Israelites from Egypt. The book comprises a history of the events which took place during a period of one hundred and forty-five years, from the year of the world 2369 to 2514 inclusive, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the tab¬ ernacle. Twenty-five passages are said to be quoted from Exodus by our Saviour and his apostles, in express words, and nineteen allusions to the sense are made in thr New Testament. That Moses was the author of this book there can be no doubt, although the period at which it was written cannot with certainty be determined. As, however, it is a history. of matters of fact, it was doubtless written after the giving of the law on Mount Sinai and the erecting of the tabernacle ; for events cannot he historically related until they have actually taken place, and the author of this book was evidently an eye and car witness of the events he has narrated. The Book of Exodus records the cruel persecution of the Israelites in Egypt under Pharaoh-Rameses II. ; the birth, exposure and preservation of Moses ; hi? subsequent flight into Midian ; his call and mission to Pharaoh- Amenoph is II. ; the miracles performed by him and his brother Aaron ; the ten plagues also miraculously inflicted on the Egyptians; the institution of the passover, and the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt ; their passage across the Red Sea, and the destruction of the Egyptian army ; the subsequent journeyings of the Israelites in the desert, their idolatry and frequent murmurings against God ; the promulgation of the law from Mount Sinai, and the erection of the tabernacle. This is, of course, on the supposition that the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt was for 215 years, the 430 being computed from the giving of the promise to Abraham. The scope of the Book of Exodus is to preserve the memorial of the departure of the Israelites from the land of Egypt, and to represent the Church of God afflicted and preserved, together with the providential care of God toward her, and the judg¬ ments inflicted on her enemies. It plainly points out the accomplishment of the Divine promises and prophecies delivered to Abraham, that his posterity would be ven numerous, and that they would be afflicted in a land not their own, whence they shou depart, in the fourth generation, with great substance. Further, in Israel passing from Egvpt through the Red Sea, the Wilderness and Jordan, to the promised land, this book shadows forth the state of the Church in the wilderness of this world until her arrival at the heavenly Canaan an eternn rest. St. Paul, in 1 Cor. x. 1, etc., as well as in various parts of his Epistle to the Hebrews, has shown that these things prefigured and were applicable to the Christian Church. THE HOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL ANT) HISTORICAL. i ) THE BOOK OF LEVITICUS. LEVITICUS, the third book of the Pentateuch, is not so entitled because it treats of the ministry of the Levites, strictly so called (of which we have lurdier account in the Book of Numbers), but because it principally contains the Saws concerning the religion of the Israelites, which chiefly consisted of various sacrifices the charge of which was committed to Aaron, the Levite (as he is termed in Exodus iv. 14), and to his sons, who alone held the priestly office in the tribe of Levi which St. Paul therefore calls a “ Levitical priesthood.” (Heb. vii. 11.) In the Babylonish Talmud it is called the “ Law of the Priests,” which appellation is retained in the Arabic and Syriac versions. It is universally admitted that Moses was the author of this book, and it is cited as his production in several books of Scripture. By comparing Exodus xl. 17 with Numbers i. 1, we learn that this book contains the history of one month, namely, from the erection of the tabernacle to the numbering of the people who were fit for war, that is, from the beginning of the second year after Israel’s de¬ parture from Egypt to the beginning of the second month of the same year, which was in the year of the world 2514, and before Christ 1490. THE BOOK OF NUMBERS. This book is so called because it contains an account of the numbering of .the children of Israel, related in chapters i.-iii. and xxvi. The scope of the Book of Numbers is to show how faithfully Jehovah fulfilled his promises to the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, in the rapid increase of their posterity, and also in his providential care of them during their journeyings in the wilderness, and finally conducting them to the land of Canaan, together with his impartial severity against their murmurings and corruptions, for which many of them perished in the wilder- ‘ness after their deliverance from Egypt, “so that they could not enter into his rest because of their unbelief.” The method pursued in this book is precisely that which would be adopted by the writer of an itinerary ; the respective stations are noted, and the principal occurrences that took place at each station are related, omitting such as are of comparatively less importance. This circumstance is an additional internal proof that Moses was the author of the Book of Numbers, which is cited as his work in many parts of Scripture. The book contains a history of the Israelites from the beginning of the second month of the second year after their departure from Egypt to the beginning of the eleventh month of the fortieth year of their journeyings ; that is, a period of thirty- e’ght years and nine or ten months. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY. DEUTERONOMY, which signifies the “ Second Law,” or “ The Law Repeated,” is so called because it contains a repetition of the law of God given by Moses to the Israelites. From a comparison of ch. i. 5 with xxiv. 1, it appears to have been written by Moses in the plains of Moab, a short time before his death. The period of time comprised in this book is five lunar weeks, or, according to some chronologers, about two months, viz. : from the first day of the eleventh month of the fortieth year after the exodus of Israel from Egypt, to the eleventh day of the twelfth month of the same year, A. M. 2553, b.c. 1451. I1 rum the account of Moses’ death, recorded in the thirty-fourth chapter of this book, and the insertion of some explanatory words in other parts of Deuteronomy, it has been insinuated that Moses could not have been the author; but the following remark will clearly prove this notion to be unfounded. The words of Moses evidently conclude with the thirty- third chapter: the thirty-fourth was added to complete the history; the first eight verses, probably, immediately after his death, by his successor, Joshua ; the last four by some later writer, probably Samuel or Ezra, or some prophet that succeeded him. The scope of the Book of Deuteronomy is to repeat to the Israelites, before Moses left them, the chief laws of God which had been given to. them; that those who were not born at the time when they were originally delivered, or were incapable of understanding them, might be instructed in these laws and excited to attend them, and consequently be better prepared for the promised land upon which they were entering. With this view, the sacred historian recapitulates the various mercies which God had bestowed upon them and their forefathers from their departure out of Egypt ; the victories which, by divine assistance, they had attained over their enemies ; their rebellion, ingratitude, and chastisements. The moral, ceremonial, and judicial laws are repeated, with additions and explanations; and the people are urged to obedience in the most affectionate manner. The Jews divide this book into ten parasches or chapters : in our Bibles it con¬ sists of thirty-four chapters, the contents of which may be arranged as follows : Part I. is simply a repetition of the history related in the preceding books, com¬ prising — 1. A relation of the events that took place in the wilderness, from their leaving Mount Horeb until their arrival at Kadesh (ch. i.). 2. Their journey from Ivadesh till they came to the land of the Amorites, and the defeat of Sihon their king, and of Og, king of Bashan. 3. An exhortation to obey the divine law and to avoid idolatry, founded on their past experience of the goodness of God .(iv.) Part II. is a repetition of the moral, ceremonial, and judicial law. Part III. contains the confirmation of the law; for which purpose the law was to be written on stones, and set up on Mount Ebal. Part IV. contains the personal history of Moses until his death, and his appointment of Joshua to be his successor. 'BOOKS OF "the BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. 'HE Book of Joshua, which in all copies of the Old Testament immediately follows the Pentateuch, is so called because it contains a narration of the achievements of Joshua the son of Nun, who had been the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the command of the children of Israel. From the absence of Chaldee words, and others of a later date, some are of opinion not only that the book is of great antiquity, but also that it was composed . by Joshua himself. This opinion was held by several of the Fathers and Talmudical writers, as well as by many modern eminent biblical scholars. The objections to this idea are founded chiefly on the clause, “ unto this day,” which occurs several times, (ch. iv. 9 ; viii. 28.) But this, at least in the case of Rahab, is no valid reason for rejecting the idea of his authorship ; for assuming, what is most probable, that this book was composed towards the close of Joshua’s long career, or compiled from written documents left by him, Rahab might have been still alive. A more simple and satisfactory way of accounting for the frequent insertion of the clause, “ unto this day,” is the opinion, that it was a comment introduced by Ezra when revising the sacred canon ; and this difficulty being removed, the direct proofs of the book having been produced by a witness of the transactions related in it ; the strong and vivid descriptions of the passing scenes, and the use of the words “ we ” and “ us,” (ch. v. 1-6,) viewed in connection with the fact, that, after his farewell address to the people, Joshua “ wrote these words in the book of the law of God ” — all afford strong presumptive proofs that the entire book was the work of that eminent individual. Its inspiration and canonical author¬ ity are fully established by the repeated testimonies of other Scripture writers. As a narrative of God’s faithfulness in giving the Israelites possession of the promised land, this history is the most valuable, and bears the same character as a sequel to the Pentateuch, that the Acts of the Apostles do to the Gospels. The Book of Joshua comprises the history of about seventeen years, or, accord¬ ing to some chronologers, of twenty-seven or thirty years. “ It is one of the most important documents in the old covenant, and it should never be separated from the Pentateuch, of which it is at once both the continuation and the completion.” The Pentateuch contains a history of the acts of the great Jewish legislator, and the laws upon which the Jewish church was to be established ; the Book of Joshua relates the history of Israel under the command and government of Joshua, the conquest of Canaan, and its subsequent division among the Israelites. The scope and design of the inspired writer of this book were evidently to demonstrate the faithfulness of God, in the perfect accomplishment of all his promises to the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and also to Moses, that the children of Israel should obtain possession of the land of Canaam. 6 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE BOOK OF JUDGES Is the title giveu to this book, from its containing the history of those non regal rulers who governed the Hebrews from the time of Joshua to that of Eli, and whose functions in time of peace consisted chiefly in the administration of justice, although they occasionally led the people in their wars against their public enemies. The date and authorship of this book are not precisely known It is certain, however, that it preceded the Second Book of Samuel, (cf. ch. ix. 35, with 2 Samuel xi. 21,) as well as the conquest of Jerusalem by David,' (cf. ch. i. 21, with 2 Samuel v. 6.) Its author was in all probability Samuel, the last of the judges (see ch. xix. 1 ; xxi. 25,) and the date of the first part of it is fixed in the reign of Saul, while the five chapters at the close might not be written till after David’s establishment as king in Israel, (see ch. xviii. 31.) It is a frag meutary history, being a collection of important facts and signal deliverances at different times and in various parts of the land, during the intermediate period of three hundred years between Joshua and the establishment of mon¬ archy. The inspired character of this book is confirmed by allusions to it in many passages of Scripture, (cf. ch. iv. 2; vi. 14; with 1 Samuel xii. 9-12; ch. ix. 53, with 2 Samuel xi. 21 ; ch. vii. 25, with Psalms lxxxiii. 11 ; cf. ch. v. 4, 5, with Psalms vii. 5; ch. xiii. 5; xvi. 17, with Matt. ii. 13-23; Acts xiii. 20; Heb. xi. 32.) Among the many internal proofs of the genuineness and fidelity of the history contained in this book, we would refer particularly to the account of Jephthah, who vows inconsiderately that if he should return conqueror of the Ammonites he would offer lip whatever should first come forth out of the door of his house to meet him; in consequence of which, his only daughter is immolated by a cruel father, acting contrary to the Mosaic law, which forbids human victims. The first part embraces the history of the Elders, who ruled the Israelites after the death of Joshua. The second part contains the history of the Judges from Othniel to Eli ; and the third, which narrates several memorable actions performed not long after the death of Joshua, is thrown to the end of the book, that it might not interrupt the thread of the narrative. In this, as in other books of the Bible, the reader should bear in mind the principle that the Scriptures do not sanction many acts therein recorded 7 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGI IA PHICAL AND ITISTOBTCAL. THE Book of Ruth is generally considered as an appendix to that of Judges, and as an introduction to that of Samuel ; it is therefore, with great propriety, placed between the books of Judges and Samuel. In the ancient Jewish canon of the Old Testament, Judges and Ruth formed one book, because the transactions which it con¬ tained happened in the time of the Judges, The book derives its name from Ruth the Moabitess, whose history it relates, and whom the Chaldee paraphrast supposes to have been the daughter of Eglon, king of Moab This conjecture, however, is wholly un supported by Scripture ", nor is it at all likely that a king’s daughter would abandon her native country to seek bread in another land, and marry a stranger. Like the Book of Judges, Ruth has been ascribed to Hezekiah and also to Ezra ; but the most probable and, indeed, generally received opinion is that of the Jews, who state it to have been written by the prophet Samuel. From the genealogy recorded in ch. iv. 17-22, it is evident that this history could not have been reduced into its present form before the time of Samuel. The scope of this book is partly to show the genealogy of King David through the line of Ruth, a heathen proselyte to the Jewish religion, and the wife of Boaz, whose adoption into the line of Christ has generally been considered as a pre-intimation of the admission of the Gentiles into the Christian Church. It had been foretold to the Jews that the Messiah should be of the tribe of Judah, and it was afterward further revealed that he should be of the family of David ; and therefore it was necessary, for the full understanding of these prophecies, that the history of the family in that tribe should' be written before these prophecies were revealed, in order to prevent the least suspicion of fraud or design. And thus this book, these prophecies and their accomplishment serve to illustrate each other. A further design of this book is to evidence the care of Divine Providence over those who sincerely fear God, in raising the pious Ruth irom a state of th.6 deepest adversity to one of the highest prosperity THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE FIRST BOOK OF SAMUEL. IN the Jewish canon of Scripture the two books of Samuel form but one, termed in Hebrew the Book of Samuel, prob¬ ably because the first book was written by that prophet, whose history and transactions it relates. The books of Samuel ap¬ pear to have derived their appellation from 1st Chron. xxix 29, where the transactions of David’s reign are said to be “ written in the book of Samuel the Seer.” In the Septuagint version they are called the First and Second Books of Kings or of the Kingdoms. In the Vulgate they are desig¬ nated as the First and Second Books of Kings, and by Je¬ rome they are termed the Books of the Kingdoms, as being two of the four books in which the history of the kings of Judah and Israel is related. Jahn is of opinion that the books of Samuel and the two books of Kings were written by one and the same person, and published about the forty-fourth year of the Babylonish captivity; and he has endeavored to support his conjecture with much ingenuity, though unsuccessf illy, by the uniformity of plan and style which he thinks hi discernible in these books. The more prevalent, as well as more probable, opinion is that of the Talmudists, which was adopted by the most learned fathers of the Christian Church (who unques¬ tionably had better means of ascertaining this point than we have), namely, that the first twenty-four chapters of the First Book of Samuel were written by the prophet whose name they bear, and that the remainder of that book, together with the whole of the Second Book, was committed to writing by the prophets Gad and Nathan, agreeably to the practice of the prophets who wrote memoirs of tire transactions of their respective times. The First Book of Samuel contains the history of the Jew¬ ish Church and polity, from the birth of Samuel, during the judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first king of Israel — a period of nearly eighty years -namely, from the year ol the world 2869 to 2949. THE I 9 THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. THE Second Book of Samuel contains the history of David, the second king of Israel, during a period of nearly forty years, namely, from the year of the world 2948 to 2988; and, by recording the translation of the kingdom from the tribe of Benjamin to that of Judah, it relates the partial accomplishment of the prediction, de¬ livered in Gen. xlix. 10. The victories of David, his wise adminis¬ tration of civil government, his efforts to promote true religion, his grievous sins and deep repentance, together with the troubles and judgments inflicted upon him and his people by God, are all fully described. This book consists of three principal divisions, relating the troubles and triumphs of David, and his transactions subsequent to his recovery of the throne, whence he was driven for a short time by the rebellion of his son Absalom. This second book bears an exact relation to the preceding, and is likewise connected with that which succeeds. W-' see throughout the effects of that enmity against other nations which had been im¬ planted in the minds of the Israelites by the Mosaic law, and which gradually tended to the extirpation of idolatry. “ This book,” says Bishop Gray, “ as well as the first, contains intrinsic proofs of its verity. By describing without disguise the misconduct of those characters who were highly reverenced among the people, the sacred writer demonstrates his impartial sincerity, and, by appealing to monuments that attested the veracity of his relations when he wrote, he furnished every possible evidence of his faithful adherence to truth. The books of Samuel connect the chain of sacred history by detailing the circumstances of an interesting period. They de¬ scribe the reformation and improvements of the Jewish Church es¬ tablished by David ; and as they delineate minutely the life of that monarch they point out his typical relation to Christ.” In the falls of David we behold the strength and prevalence of human corrup¬ tion, and in his repentance and recovery the extent and efficacy of Divine grace. The two books of Samuel are of very consider¬ able importance for illustrating the Book of Psalms, to which they may be considered as a key. No mention of the author’s name is made in the book of Kings, nor in any other of the sacred writings, nor in the Apocrypha. 10 BOOKS OF rilF BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. KINGS. “v- T6!/ I1'" HfVeW mbl6’ thC B°°kS °f Ki“S« constitute one A hook Various titles have been given them; in the Septuagint and the Vulgate they are called the Third and Fourth Books of Kings. Their inspired chaiacter was acknowledged by the Jewish Church, which ranked them in the thenffcTTr- a“ ’ b"S1fYVatteSted by °Ur L0rd> Wh0 ^quently quotes from m2: 2 42)mg8 xvu- : Ivings v- 14> with Luke iv- 24-27^ 1 - 1, The two books of Kings are closely connected with those of Samuel. The orimn aiK gradiud increase of the united kingdom of Israel under Saul and his successor David having been described in the latter, the books of Kings relate its height of gory under Solomon, its division into two kingdoms under his son and successor Rehoboam the causes o that division, and the consequent decline of the two king¬ doms of Israel and Judah until their final subversion, the ten tribes being carried y “,d ,ud*h a,Ki Benjiu"i“ ,o »*- v Concerning the author or authors of these books, the sentiments of learned men are extremely divided. Some have been of opinion that David, Solomon and zekiah wrote the history of their own reigns; others that Nathan, Gad, Isaiah Jeremiah, and other prophets who flourished in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah undertook the office of historiographers. We know that several of the fndPwritiZ of th S °Vh°Se klUgS Wh° r6igIied hl th6ir timeS> for the liames King: aLfeChionffii; ^ ^ pIaCeS books of The First Book of Kings embraces a period of one hundred and twenty-six years, from the anointing of Solomon and his admission as a partner to the throne with David A. m. 2989, to the death of Jehoshaphat, a. m. 3115. It relates tie latter part of David’s life, his death, and the accession of Solomon, whose hisfrvC0Ten fi , , m0St P;7er0US and Scions period of the Israelite history It prefigured the peaceful reign of the Messiah; Solomon’s erection and consecration of the temple at Jerusalem (the beauty and perfection of which was a type of the beauty and perfection of the Church of God); his awful defection from the true religion ; the sudden decay of the Jewish nation after his death, when it was divided into two kingdoms, under Rehoboam, who reigned over the kingdom of Judah, comprising the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and under Jeroboam,^ who was sovereign of the other ten tribes that revolted from the Israel ^ WhlCh *“ ^ SaCre U Ch he rcIatcs far more fully than the other Evan- narahlL ^ ^°r “lstance> the Sermon on the Mount, several against th 'pi 1S^°lUSeS °U ^le Baptist, the denunciations tion of T '■ iarisees> and the prophecies concerning the destruc- Ldeed tl ^ .an<^ ^ie secon(l advent. These discourses form, t G m°bt important portion of the Gospel ; to which th<- narrative is generally subordinate, presenting, more briefly, tho substance of fuller accounts in the other Gospels, especially that of St. Mark. This accounts for some striking deviations from the chronological sequence of events observed by the other Evangelists. This Gospel is also remarkable for its frequent and copious cita¬ tions from the Old Testament, more especially from the Messianic prophecies. The great object of the Evangelist was undoubtedly to prove to his countrymen, in the first place, that Christianity was the perfect development of Judaism, and that the announcements on which the national hopes of a deliverer rested were fulfilled in Jesus, the true King, Priest and Prophet foretold in their Scrip¬ tures. He is at the same time careful to show that this fulfillment included the conversion of the Gentiles and the communication of all religious blessings and privileges to the whole race of man. St. Jerome seems to say that this Gospel was written by the Evangelist in Hebrew. It is, however, certain that the early Chris¬ tians had little knowledge of any other copies than the Greek ; and it is most probable that it was at least rewritten in Greek by the apostle, or under his guidance, with some additions to the narra¬ tive, together with interpretations and explanations, by which it might be adapted to the use of converts from heathenism. The date of publication is not certain : the narrative has expressions \\ liich indicate an interval of some years after our Lord’s ascension, but there is no doubt that the entire Gospel was published long before the overthrow of the temple- and final dispersion of the Jewish nation. All internal indications are in accordance with the statement of Iremeus that St. Matthew published his Gospel while Peter and St. Paul were founding the church at Rome. THE “BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL, mKSm THE GOSPEL OF ST. MARK. ARK was not, like Matthew and John, an apostle of Jesus Christ, but he had the advantage of the friendship and knowledge of Peter, who (1 Pet. v. 13) calls him his son, probably from having been the means of his conversion. Mark was sister’s son to Barnabas (Col. iv. 10) and the son of Mary, a woman of Jerusalem, at whose house was held at least one notable prayer-meeting (Acts lxii. 12). His Hebrew name was John, and Michaelis supposes that he adopted the surname of Mark when he left Judea to preach the gospel in foreign countries, according to the custom of the Jews to adopt a name more familiar to the Gentiles whom they visited than their Hebrew appellations. After Peter’s deliverance (Acts xii. 11, 12), Mark went from Jerusalem with Paul and Barnabas, and soon after accompanied them to other countries as their minister (Acts xiii. 5) ; but, declining to attend them through their whole progress, he returned to Jerusalem, and kept up an intercourse with Peter and the other apostles. Afterward, however, when Paul and Bar¬ nabas settled at Antioch, on the termination of their journey, we find Mark with them, and disposed to accompany them in their future journeys. At this time he went with Barnabas to Cyprus (Acts xv. 37-39), and subsequently accompanied Timothy to Rome, at the desire of Paul (2 Tim. iv. 11), dui ing his confinement in that city, whence Mark sent his salutations to Philemon (24) and to the church at Colosse (Col. iv. 10). “ From Eusebius, Epipha- nius and Jerome,” continues Horne, “we learn that Mark, after he had written his Gospel, went to Egypt, and having planted a church at Alex¬ andria, Jerome states that he died and was buried there in the eighth year of the reign of Nero. Baronius, Cave, Wetstein and other writers affirm that St. Mark suffered martyrdom ; but this is not mentioned by Eusebius or any other ancient writer, and is contradicted by Jerome, whose expressions seem to imply that he died a natural death.” St. Peter having publicly preached the Christian rengion, many who were present entreated Mark, as he had for a long time been that apostle’s compan¬ ion, and had a clear understanding of what Peter had delivered, that he would commit the particulars to writing. Accordingly, when Mark had finished his Gospel, he delivered it to the persons who made this request. Regarding the date of this Gospel nothing certain is known. If the tra¬ dition reported by Irenseus can be relied upon, it was written at Rome, “ after the departure of Peter and Paul and if by that word “ departure ” we are to infer their death, we may date it somewhere between the years 64 and 68 ; but, in all likelihood, this is too late. THEi300KS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. LTJKE first appears historically at Troas with Paul, going with him into Macedonia (Acts xvi. 9, 10), and writing his his¬ tory after that as an eye¬ witness. It is supposed that Luke was descended from Gen¬ tile parents, and in his youth had embraced Juda¬ ism, from which he was converted to Christianity. The Hebraic-Greek style of writing, and the accu- fcsai rate knowledge of Jewish doctrines, ceremonies and . . _ usages, which character¬ ize him in his Gospel and in the Acts of the Apostles, evince the author to have been a Jew; whilst his Greek name and his ultimate knowledge of the Greek language are thought to e sii cient proof that he was of Grecian birth and education, nis trospel has been divided into five divisions : Birth ot Christ, with the circumstances that preceded, attended and followed it (ch. i. ; ii. 1-40). II. Christ’s infancy and youth (ch. ii. 41-52). r, ?’ ^reac^*ng °f John, and baptism and genealogy of Christ (ch. iii.). 6 J IV. Discourses, miracles and actions of Christ during his _ymistry (oh. iv ; ix. 50), I V. Christ’s last journey to Jerusalem; his passion, death, resurrection and ascension (ch. ix. 51-62 ; x.-xxiv.). Horne says : “ If St. Paul had not informed us (Col. iv. 14) that St. Luke was by profession a physician, and conse¬ quently a man of letters, his writings would have suflSciently evinced that he had had a liberal education; for, although his Gospel presents as many Hebraisms perhaps as any of the sacred writings, yet his language contains more numerous Griecisms than that of any other writer of the New Testa- ment. The style of tliis evangelist is pure, copious and flowing, and bears a considerable resemblance to that of his great master, St. Paul. Many of his words and expressions are exactly parallel to those which are to be found in the best classic authors ; and several eminent critics have long since pointed out the singular skill and propriety with which St. Luke has named and described the various diseases which he had occasion to notice. As an instance of his copious¬ ness, Dr. Campbell has remarked that each of the evangelists has a number of words which are used by none of the rest ■ but in St. Luke’s Gospel the number of such words as are used in none of the other Gospels is greater than that of the peculiar words found in all the three Gospels. There is also’ more composition in his sentences than is found in the other three Gospels, and consequently less simplicity.” - The time and place of the publication of his Gospel are alike uncertain. But we can approximate to it. It must at any rate have been issued before the Acts, for there the “ Gos-el ” is expressly referred to as the same author’s “former treatise” {Acts i. 1). Now, the book of the Acts was not published for wo whole years after Paul’s arrival a prisoner at Rome. 36 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. j BH IS ..... THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN. JOHN was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman of the town of Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee, and the younger brother of James the elder. His mother’s name was Salome. It is supposed from his account of the disci¬ ples of John the Baptist becoming followers of Christ, that he was one of the two (ch. i. 35-40), but of this there is no certainty. According to Lampe, there are three degrees in the call of John, viz.: 1. His call to discipleship (John i. 37-42) ; after which he continued for a short time to follow his business ; 2. His call to be one of the immediate compan¬ ions of Christ (Matt. iv. 21, 22) ; and, 3. His call to the apostleship, when the surname of Boanerges was given to him and his brother (Mark iii. 17). He is supposed to have been the youngest of the twelve, but this is mere conjecture. He was . certainly admitted to intimate intercourse with the Saviour, and is described as the disciple whom Jesus loved (John xiii. 23 ; xix. 26). He was an eye-witness, in company with Peter and James only, to the resurrection of Jairus’s daughter to life (Luke viii. 51), to Christ’s transfiguration (Luke ix. 28), and to his agony in the garden (Mark xiv. 33). He Was also present at the crucifixion — though we have no right to say, as some do, that he was the only one of the apostles present at that awful event — and received the mother of Jesus as a precious legacy from her dying son (John xix. 26, 27). He had several interviews with Christ after his resur¬ rection ; and our Saviour is supposed to have intimated John’s continuance upon earth until after the destruction of Jerusalem (John xxi. 22), but the text appealed to does not warrant this interpretation. After the ascension of Christ, and the effusion of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, John became one of the chief apostles of the circumcision, and exercised his ministry in Jerusalem and its vicinity, as narrated in the Acts of the Apostles (ii. 1-11; iii.; iv. 1-22, and viii. 5-26). Ecclesiastical history informs us that after the death of Mary, the mother of Jesus, John proceeded to Asia Minor, where he founded and presided over seven churches in as many cities, but resided chiefly at Ephesus. Thence he was, probably toward the close of Domitian’s reign, banished to the Isle of Patmos, where he wrote his Revelation (Rev. i. 9). On his liberation from exile by the accession of Nerva to the imperial throne, John returned to Ephesus, where he wrote his Gospel and Epistles, and died in the hundredth year of his age, about the year of Christ 100, in the third year of the reign of the emperor Trajan, and about thirty years after the destruction of Jerusalem. John’s Gospel is supposed to have been written about the year 97, or three years before the evangelist’s death. 37 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. - THE title of this book is very ancient, being found in all the oldest copies, though -with some variety of form. Dr. J. Addi¬ son Alexander, in his Introduction to the Acts of the Apostles, says : “ The title does not mean, nor is the book in fact, a history of the twelve apostles, most of whom are barely named in the first chapter. It is not the biography of Peter and Paul, as apostles by way of eminence ; for each of them is prominent in one part only, and the whole life of neither is recorded in detail. It is not a general his¬ tory of the apostolical period as distinguished from the ministry of Christ himself ; for many interesting facts belonging to that subject are omitted, some of which have been preserved in the Epistles. But the book before us is a special history of the planting and ex¬ tension of the Church, both among Jews and Gentiles, by the gradual establishment of radiating centres or sources of influence at certain salient points throughout a large part of the empire, beginning at Jerusalem and ending at Rome. That this is really e t eme and purpose of the history any reader may satisfy unse t by running through it with this general idea in his cal1 hile the Greek of this book is comparatively classi¬ cs ^ ,^Ule’ ^ ^as certain peculiarities of language, not the tin8 "v ^e.cause slig}lt and unimportant in themselves, dis- guis mg its style from every other except that of the third sPe , w ich, besides bearing a general resemblance not to be mis- ^ - - taken, coincides with it in some of its most striking singularities of thought and diction. This remarkable coincidence creates, of course, a strong presumption thatr the two books which exhibit it are works of the same author. This presumption is still further strengthened by the fact that the two together make up an un¬ broken history, the one beginning where the other ends, to wit, at the Ascension. It is further strengthened by the latter book’s purporting on its face to be the sequel or continuation of another, the contents of which as there described (Acts i. 1) exactly corre¬ spond to those of the third Gospel. It is still further strengthened by the circumstance that both books are ascribed to Theophilus, and seem to have been primarily meant for his instruction. All these considerations go to confirm, and are themselves confirmed by, the unanimous tradition of the ancient church, that the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles are works of the same author. The remarkable dearth of information as to Luke, beyond his name, profession, and the general fact that he was one of Paul’s most inti¬ mate associates and perhaps for many years his medical attendant, gives the more importance to the uniform tradition of the early church, not only that he wrote these books, but that he wrote them under Paul’s direction and control, thereby imparting to them, in addition to the common seal of inspiration, the specific stamp of apostolical authority.” THE BOOKS OF BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. ' ' / EPISTLE TO THE BOMANS. THE epistle to the Romans, though fifth in the order of time, is placed first of all the apostolical letters, either from the pre-eminence of Rome, as being the mistress of the world, or because it is the longest and most comprehensive of all St. Paul’s epistles. A great variety of opin¬ ions have been held as to the precise date when this Epistle was written. The most probable date is that which assigns it to the end of 57 or the beginning of 58, at which time St. Paul was at Corinth, whence he was preparing to go to Jerusalem with the collections which had been made by the Christians of Macedonia and Achaia for their poor brethren in Judea (ch. xv. 25—27). lhat this Epistle has always been acknowledged to be a genuine and authentic production of St. Paul is attested not only by the ancient Syriac and Latin versions, and by the express declarations and quotations of Irenseus, Theophilus of Antioch, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, and by all subsequent ecclesiastical writers, but it was also cited or alluded to by several of the apostolic fathers, and by the churches of Vienna and Lyons. In perusing this Epistle, it is desirable to read uninterruptedly at least the first eleven chapters, as every sentence, at least in the argumentative part, bears an intimate relation to and is dependent upon the whole discourse, and cannot be understood unless we comprehend the scope of the whole. And in order to enter fully into its spirit, we must enter into the spirit of a Jew in those times, and endeavor to realize in our minds his utter aver¬ sion for the Gentiles, his valuing and exalting himself upon his relation to God and to Abraham, and also upon his law, pompous worship, circumcis¬ ion, etc., as if the Jews were the only people in the world who had a right to the favor of God. Attention to this circumstance will show the beauties of the apostle’s style and argument, and that this Epistle is indeed “ a writing which, for sublimity and truth of sentiment, for brevity and strength of ex¬ pression, and, above all, for the unspeakable importance of the discoveries human composition-” THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BiOGEAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. CHRISTIANITY was planted at Corinth by St. Paul himself. He resided there for a year and six months, between the yearn 51 and' 53. The church consisted partly of Jews and partly of Gentiles, but chiefly of the latter. Hence the apostle had to combat sometimes Jewish superstition and sometimes heathen licentiousness. Ou St. Paul’s departure from Corinth, he was succeeded by Apollos, “ an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures,” who preached the gospel with great success. We learn that St. Paul maintained a constant intercourse with the churches which he had planted, and was thoroughly acquainted with all their circumstances. They applied to him for advice in diflicult cases which their own understanding could not solve, and he was ready on all occasions to correct their mistakes and give them counsel. SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. THE preceding Epistle, we are aware, was written from Ephesus, about A. d. 57, previous to St. Paul’s departure from that city. On quitting Ephesus he went to Troas, which place was situated on the shore of the Aegean Sea, in expectation of meeting Titus, and receiving an account of the success with which he hoped his former Epistle had been attended, and of the- state of the Corinthian church. Not meeting Titus at Troas, Paul proceeded to Macedonia, where he obtained the desired interview, and received satisfactory information concerning the promising state of affairs at Corinth. From this coun¬ try, and probably from Philippi, the apostle wrote his second letter fell. viii. 1-14, ix. l-o), which he sent by Titus and his associates, who were commissioned to hasten and finish the contribution among the Christiana at Corinth for the use of their poor brethren in Judea. 40 THE BOORS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. CHRISTIANITY was very early planted in Galatia by St. Paul, and it appears from the Acts of the Apostles that he visited the churches in that country more than once. Two distinct visits are clearly marked, namely : the first about the year 50 (Acts xvi. 6), and the second about the year 54 or 55 (xviii. 23). There is great diversity of opinion among learned men concerning the date of the Epistle to the Galatians. The- odoret who is followed by Dr. Lightfoot and others, imagines that it was one of those epistles which St. Paul wrote from Rome during his first imprisonment ; but this opinion is contradicted by the apostle’s silence concerning his bonds, which he has often mentioned in the letters that are known to have been written at that time. The genuineness of this Epistle has never been doubted. It is cited by the apostolic fathers, and is declared to be authentic by many subsequent writers. It is worthy of remark that this Epistle was acknowledged to be genuine by the heretic Marcion, who reckoned it the earliest written of all St. Paul’s letters, and ac¬ cordingly placed it first in this Apostolicon, or collection of apostolical writings. His purpose, then, in writing this epistle was (1.) to defend his apostolic authority, (ch. i. 11-19 ; ii. 1-14 ;) (ii.) to counteract the evil influence of the Judaisers in Galatia, (ch. iii. and iv.) and to shew that their doctrine destroyed the very essence of Christianity, by lowering its spirituality to an outward ceremonial system ; (iii.) to give exhortation for the strength¬ ening of Galatian believers in faith towards Christ, and in the fruits of the Spirit, (ch. v. and vi.) He had already, face to face, testified against the Judaising teachers, (ch. i. 9 ; iv. 16 ; Acts xviii. 23 ;) and now that he has heard of the continued and increasing prevalence of the evil, he writes with his own hand (ch. vi. 11 — a labour which he usually delegated to an aman¬ uensis) this epistle to oppose it. The sketch he gives in it of his apostolic career confirms and expands the account in Acts ; and shews his indepen¬ dence of human authority, however exalted. His protest against Peter in ch. ii. 14-21, disproves the figment, not merely of papal, but even of that apostle’s supremacy ; and shews that Peter, save when specially inspired, was fallible like other men. There is much in common between this epistle and that to the Romans on the subject of justification by faith only, and not by the law. But the epistle to the Romans handles the subject in a didactic and logical mode, without any special reference : this epistle, in a controversial manner, and with special reference to the Judaisers in Galatia. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. 41 l?!!M H? ’JJI THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. < Hr ''HE apostle Paul is universally admitted to be the author of the Epistle 1 to the Ephesians. It is expressly cited as his production by Ignatius, who has no fewer than six distinct allusions to it, and, as he was contemporary with Paul, his testimony alone is sufficient to determine its genuineness. The subscription to this Epistle states that it was the first in order of those written from Rome, and sent to the Ephesians by Tychicus, who was also the bearer of the Epistle to the Colossians, the similarity of which in style and subject shows that it was written at the same time. St. Paul’s first visit to Ephesus is re¬ corded in Acts xviii. 19-21. That this Epistle was written during St. Paul’s first imprisonment at Rome is evident from its allusions to his confinement (ch. iii. 1 ; iv. 1 ; vi. 20) ; and as he does not express in it any hopes of a speedy release (which he does in his other epistles sent from that city), we conclude, with Dr. Lardner, Bishop Tomline, and others, that it was written during the early part of St. Paul’s imprisonment, probably in the year 61, soon after his arrival in Rome. The style of this Epistle is exceedingly animated, and corresponds with the state of the apostle’s mind at the time of writing. Overjoyed with the account which messengers had brought to him of their faith and holiness (ch. i. 15), and transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God displayed in the work of man’s redemption, and of his astonishing love toward the Gen¬ tiles in making them partakers, through faith, of all the benefits of Christ’s death, he soars high in his sentiments on these grand subjects, and gives his thoughts utterance in sublime and copious expressions. “ No true Christian,” says Dr. Macknight, “ can read the doctrinal part of the Epistle to the Ephe¬ sians without being impressed and roused by it, as by the sound of a trumpet.” 42 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, .tnOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. CHRISTIANITY was first planted at Philippi, in Macedonia, by St. Paul, A. d. 50, the particulars of which are related in Acts xvi. 9-40 ; and it appears from Acts xx. 6 that he again visited both places in 57, though no particulars are recorded concerning that visit. Of all the churches planted by St. Paul, that at Philippi seems to have cherished the most tender con¬ cern for him ; and though it appears to have been but a small community, its members were particularly generous toward him. AVhen the gospel was first preached in Macedonia, no other church contributed anything toward his support except the Philippians, who, while he was preaching at Thessa- lonica, the metropolis of that country, sent him money twice, that the suc¬ cess of the gospel might not be hindered by its preacher becoming burden¬ some to the Thessalonians. It appears, from St. Paul s own words, that this Epistle was written while he was a prisoner at Rome ; and from the expectation of soon being re¬ leased and restored to them, as well as from the intimations contained in this letter that he had then been a considerable time at Rome, it is probable that he wrote the Epistle to the Philippians toward the close of his first imprisonment, at the end of a. d. 62, or perhaps at the commencement of 63. The genuineness of this book has never been questioned. The scope of this Epistle was to confirm the Philippians in the faith, to encourage them to walk in a manner becoming the gospel of Christ, to caution them against the intrusion of Judaizing teachers, and to testify his gratitude for their Christian bounty. It is remarkable that the Epistle to the church of Philippi is the only one of all St. Paul’s letters to the churches in which not one censure is expressed or implied against any of its members; on the contrary, sentiments of unqualified commendation and confidence pervade every part of this Epistle. We have here an account of the life and death of blessed St. Paul; his life was Christ, and his death was gain. Observe 1. It is the undoubted character of every good Christian, that to him to live is Christ. The glory of Christ ought to be the end of our life, the grace of Christ the principle of our life, and the word of Christ the rule of it. The Christian life is de¬ rived from Christ, and directed to him. He is the principal Rule and End of it. 2. All those to whom to live is Christ, to them to die will be gain : it is great gain, a present gain, everlasting gain. Death is a great loss to a carnal, worldly man ; for he loses all his comforts and all his hopes ; but to a good Christian it is gain, for it is the end of all his weakness and misery, and the perfection of his comforts, and accomplishment of his hopes. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. 43 THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. BY whom or at what time Christianity was planted at Colossse we have no certain information. Dr. Lardner, Bishop Tomline, Bcehmer and others are of the opinion that the church at Colossse was founded by St. Paul, and this they arrive at from a variety of considerations. That Paul, how¬ ever, did not plant the church at Colossse is evident from his own declaration in ch. ii. 1, where he says that neither the Colossians nor the Laodiceans had then “ seen his face in the flesh.” But though it is impossible now to ascer¬ tain who was the founder of the church at Colossse, the Epistle itself furnishes us with a guide to its date. In Col. iv. 3 the apostle alludes to his imprison¬ ment, from which circumstance, as well as from its close affinity to the Epis¬ tle addressed to the Ephesians, it is evident that it was written nearly at the same time. Accordingly most commentators and critics refer it to the year 62. Its genuineness was never disputed. The style is peculiar ; many Greek phrases occur here found nowhere else, cf. ch. ii. 8, “ spoil you “making a show of them openly ”"(ch. ii. 15); “be¬ guile of your reward,” and “ intruding ” (v. 18) ; “ rule ” (ch. iii. 15) ; “ com¬ fort (ch. iv. 11). The loftiness and artificial elaboration of style correspond to the majestic nature of his theme ; the majesty of Christ’s person and office, in contrast to the beggarly system of the Judaizers ; the discussion of which was forced on him by the controversy. Hence arises his use of unusual phraseology. On the other hand, in the epistle to the Ephesians, subsequently written, in which he was not so hampered by the exigencies of controversy, he dilates on the same glorious truths, so congenial to him, more at large, freely and uncontroversially, in the fuller outpouring of his spirit, with less of the elaborate and antithetical language of system such as was needed in cautioning the Colossians against the particular errors threatening them. Hence arises the striking similarity of many of the phrases in the two epis¬ tles written about the same time, and generally in the same vein of spiritual thought; whilst the peculiar 'phrases of the epistle to the Colossians are such as are natural, considering the controversial purpose of that epistle. The spirit of the great apostle of the Gentiles breathes in every sentence of this pithy and earnest composition. Ardor undamped by imprisonment, interest unchilled by distance, zeal for the purity and simplicity of the gospel, un¬ compromising to all who introduce rash speculation or vile and unscriptural vagaries, whether under the shape of higher wisdom or superior sanctity, are indubitable traits of Paul’s character, and unmistakable features in the Epis¬ tle to the Colossians. 44 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSA- LONIANS. CHRISTIANITY was first planted at Thessalonica by St. Raul, a. d. 50, who formed a church composed of both 3ews and Gentiles, though the latter were most numerous. (Acts ksvii. 2-4.) The unbelieving Jews, however, having stirred up a persecution against him and his company, they were forced to flee to Beraea, and thence to Athens, from which city he pro¬ ceeded to Corinth. The First Epistle to the Thessalonians is generally admitted to have been one of the earliest written, if, indeed, it be not the very first of all St. Paul’s letters, and we find that he was anxious that it should be read to all the Christian Churches in Macedonia. The genuineness of this First Epistle has never been disputed. The immediate occasion of Paul’s writing this Epistle was the favorable report which Timothy had brought him of the steadfastness of the Thessa¬ lonians in the faith of the gospel. He therefore wrote to con¬ firm them in that faith, lest they should be turned aside from it by the persecutions of the unbelieving Jews, and also to excite them to a holy conversation becoming the dignity of their high and holy calling. The Epistle concludes with various practical advices and instructions. Timothy made such proficiency in the knowledge of the gospe and was so remarkable for the sanctity of his manners, as well as for his zeal in the cause of Christ, that be attracted the esteem of all his brethren in those parts. The date of this Epistle has been much disputed, and consider¬ able discussion has taken place on the subject. From a careful examination of the evidence, we think it is safe to conclude tba it was written about the end of the year 64. But whatever un certainty may have prevailed concerning the date of this Epistle^ it has always been acknowledged to be the undisputed production of St. Paul. Both the First and Second Episiles to Timothy are cited or alluded to by the apostolical fathers, Clement of Rome and Polycarp, and the First Epistle by Ignatius, and by all subse¬ quent ecclesiastical writers. Timothy having been left at Ephesus' to regulate the affairs of the church in that city, St. Paul wrote this Epistle chiefly to instruct him in the choice of proper officers in the churches, as well as in the exercise of a regular ministry. Whoever carefully and impartially examines the style of this Epistle will find that the language and genius of the apostle, of the Gentiles pervades it throughout, and that the animating urgent and affecting motives which it presents are such as pro¬ ceeded from the heart. SECOND EPISTLE TO THESSALONIANS. HE Second Epistle to the Thessalonians was evidently written soon after the first (a. d. 52), and from the same place, for Sylvanus or Silas and Timothy are joined together with the apostle in the inscription of this Epistle, ns well as of the former. The Epistle was occasioned by the information communicated to Paul by the person who had conveyed his first letter to the Thessalonians respecting the state of the church. Among other things he was informed, from some expressions in it, that many of them expected that the day of judgment would happen in that age, and that such of them as thought the advent of Christ and the end of the world was at hand were neglecting their secular affairs, as being inconsistent with a due preparation for that important and awful event. As soon, therefore, as the state of the Thessalonians was made known to Paul, he wrote this Second Epistle to correct their misapprehension, to rescue them from an error which (appearing to rest on apostolical authority) must ultimately be injurious to the spread of the gos¬ pel, and to recommend various Christian duties. Although this Epistle is the shortest of all St. Paul’s letters to the churches, it is not inferior to any of them in sublimity of sentiment and in that excellent spirit by which all the writings of this apostle are so eminently distinguished. Besides those marks of genuineness and authority which it possesses in common with the rest of the apostolical epistles, it has one peculiar to itself in the exact representation it contains of the papal power, under the characters of the “man of sin” and the “mystery of I iniquity.” _ _ TIIE FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY TIMOTHY, to whom this Epistle was addressed, was a native of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor. His father was a Greek, but his mother was a Jewess, and a person of ex¬ cellent character. The pious care taken in his education soon appeared to have the desired success, for we are assured by St. Paul that from his childhood Timothy was well acquainted with the Holy Scriptures. It is generally supposed that he was con¬ verted to the Christian faith during the first visit made by Paul and Barnabas to Lystra. From the time of Ms conversion. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. 'HAT Paul was a prisoner when he wrote the second Epistle to Timothy is evident from ch. i. 8, 12, 16, and ch. ii. 9, and that his imprisonment was in Rome appears from ch. i. IT, and is universally admitted. But whether he wrote it during his first imprisonment, recorded in Acts xxviii., or during a second imprisonment there (which was the uniform tradition of the primitive church), is a point that has been much disputed. The former opinion is advocated by Drs. Hammond, Lightfoot, Lard* ner and Hug, and the latter by Drs. Benson, Macknight, Paley and others. From various considerations, we are inclined to believe that the last-mentioned opinion is correct, and that this Epistle was written by Paul at Rome, during an imprisonment different from that recorded in Acts xxviii. Paul was released from his confinement a. d. 63, and, after visiting various churches, returned to Rome early in 65, where, after being confined rather more than a year, it is generally agreed that he suffered martyr dom a. D. 66. It is generally supposed that Timothy was at Ephesus when Paul wrote Ms Second Epistle to him. This opinion is advocated by Drs. Lardner, Benson and Macknight, bat is opposed by Michaelis, who has shown that Timothy was most probably some¬ where in Asia Minor when Paul sent this letter to him, because the apostle, toward the close of the first chapter, mentions several persons who dwelt in that region, and also because (2 Tim. iv. 13) he requests Timothy to bring with him the cloak, books and parchments which he had left behind him at Troas, and because Troas does not lie in the route from Ephesus to Rome, t© which city Timothy was desired to “ make haste to come to him before winter” (ch. iv. 21). Michaelis concludes, therefore, that PauL' not knowing exactly where Timothy was at that time, wrote t< him this Epistle, which he entrusted to a safe person (whom Df Benson supposes to have been Tychicus) that was traveling intd Asia Minor, with an order to deliver it to him wherever he could find him. As this Epistle was written to St. Paul’s most intimate friend under the miseries of a jail and the near prospect of death, and was not designed for the use of others, it may serve to exhibil the temper and character of the apostle, and to convince us that he was no deceiver, but believed the doctrines h© prosefeech THE BOORS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. 45 THE EPISTLE TO TITUS. TITUS was a Greek (Dr. Benson thinks he was a native of Antioch, in Syria), and one of Paul’s early converts, who attended him and Barnabas to the first council at Jerusalem, a. d. 49, and afterwards on his ensuing circuit (Tit. i. 4, Gal. ii. 1-3, Acts xv. 2). Some years after this we find that Paul sent him to Corinth, to investigate and report to him the state of the church in that city, and particularly to report what effect had been produced by his First Epistle to the Corinthians. The intelligence brought to the apostle by Titus afforded him the highest satisfaction, as it far exceeded his expectations. And as Titus had expressed a particular regard for the Corinthians, the apostle thought proper to send him back again, with some others, to hasten the collection for the poor brethren in Judea (ch. viii. 6). After this we learn nothing further of Titus, except that he is mentioned in this Epistle as having been with Paul in Crete. THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON. PHILEMON was an inhabitant of Coloss ae, as appears from Paul’s mentioning Onesimus in his Epistle to the Colossians (ch. iv. 9) as one of them, and also from his salu¬ ting Archippus in this Epistle (ver. 2), who appears, from Col. iv. 17, to have been a pastor of that church. Philemon was most probably a converted Gentile, and a person of great , worth as a man and of some note as a citizen in his own country. It appears, from verses 1, 10, 13 and 23 of this Epistle, that Paul was under confinement when he wrote it; and as he expresses (v. 22) his expectation of shortly being released, it is probable that it was written during his first imprisonment at Rome, towards the end of a. n. 62 or early m 63 and was sent, together with the Epistle to the Ephesians &R olossians, by Tychicus and Onesimus. Stronger exter- na testimony to the authenticity of any part of the Bible p, . 1 tx^ ^han that which we have for the Epistle to I emon. The whole of this Epistle is a most beautiful rr10" SllCl1 deference ancl respect for Philemon, such « ion and concern for Onesimus, such distant but just thn+1U*u-10n’ SUC^ .aU a,^m'rable address pervade the whole, is a one might be sufficient to convince us that Paul anrl UnaC the church. After laboring zealously for many years in the 'uause of Christ, he was finally crucified at Rome, a. d. 63, during 'the reign of the Emperor Nero. The design of this Epistle was to support the Christians under afflictions and trials, to which they were subjected, and to instruct them how to behsve in t ie midst of the opposition and cruelty with which they were treated, submissive to civil authority, attentive to their duties in then- several stations, and leading blameless and exemplary lives, This Epistle is sparing in words, but full of sense, majestic, and one of tne finest books of the New Testament. The genuineness canonical authority of this Epistle have never been dispute* THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PETER. SOME doubts were entertained by the primitive churches re¬ specting the authenticity of this Epistle, which has been received as the genuine production of Peter ever since the fourth centurv, except by the Syrian Church, in which it is read as an excellent book, though not of canonical authority. We have, however, most satisfactory evidence of its genuineness and au= thenticity. Clement of Rome has three allusions to the second and one to the third chapter of this Epistle, and it is twice referred to by Hermas, once by Justin Martyr, and also by Athenagoras, Various reasons have been assigned why this Epistle was not earlier acknowledged as the writing of Peter. Jerome informs us that the difference in style between this and the former Epis- tie was in his day the principal cause of its authority being disputed, and the same objection has been adopted by other modern writers. No objection, however, can be drawn from this circumstance, as it is well known that different subjects suggest different styles. Both external and internal evidence show that the Second Epistle of Peter is unquestionably the production of that apostle, and claims to be received and studied with the same devout care and attention as the other inspired writings of the New Testament. That Peter was old and near his death when he wrote this Epistle is evident from chap. i. 14; and that it was written soon after the First Epistle appears from the apology he makes (ch. i. 13, 15) for writing this Second Epis¬ tle to the Hebrew Christians. The scope of the Epistle is to confirm the doctrines and instructions delivered in the former, to establish the Hebrew Christians in the faith of the gospel, to caution them against false teachers, and to warn them against those profane scoffers who should make a mock of Christ’s comi g to judgment. He warns them to prepare for that great even by a holy and unblamable conversation. THE FIRST EPISTLE OF JOHN. ALTHOUGH no name is orefixed to this book, its authen¬ ticity as a genuine p. iduction of the apbstle John is unquestionable. It was almost universally received as his com position in the Eastern and Western Churches, and is declared to be genuine by many of the mo3t eminent ancient and modern ecclesiastical writers. The Epistle is characterized by artless simplicity and benevolence, blended with singular modesty and candor, together with a wonderful sublimity of sentiment. It is not properly speaking an epistle, but rather a didactic discourse upon the principles of Christianity in doctrine and practice, opening sublimely with the fundamental topics of God’s perfec¬ tion, and man’s depravity, and Christ’s propitiation, perspicuous- ly propounding the deepest mysteries of our holy faith maintain¬ ing the sanctity of its precepts with energy of argument, and ex¬ hibiting in all its parts the most dignified simplicity of language With regard to the date of this Epistle, there is a considerable di¬ versity of opinion, but the most probable of these various opinions is that which assigns to it an early date, namely, before the de* struction of Jerusalem and the subversion of the Jewish polity. From all the evideuce before us, we conclude that St. John wrote his First Epistle in a. d. 68, or at the latest in 69 ; though it is impossible to ascertain from what place he sent it— whether from Patmos, as Grotius supposes, or from some city in Judea, as lb, Macknight supposes, or from Ephesus, as Irenaeus and Eusebius relate from ancient tradition, which has been generally received The style of the Epistle is pure, clear and flowing, and an tionate spirit r SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES OF JOHN. "N the fourth century, when Eusebius wrote his ecclesiastical history, these two epistles were classed among the books which were received by the majority of Christians, though some doubts were entertained by others respecting their authenticity. Testimonies are not wanting, however, to prove that they were both known and received as genuine productions of the apostle John. The Second Epistle is cited by Irenseus, and received by Clement of Alexandria. Origen mentions all three epistles, though he says that the second and third were not allowed to be genuine by all persons. Dionysius of Alexandria mentions them as being ascribed to St. John. The Second Epistle is an epitome of the first, and touches, in few words, on the same points. The “ Lady Electa ” is commended for her virtuous and religious education of her children, and is exhorted to abide in the doctrine of Christ, to persevere in the truth, and carefully to avoid the delusions of false teachers. But chiefly does the apostle beseech this Christian matron to practice the great and indispensable commandment of Christian love and charity. The Third Epistle of John is addressed to a converted Gentile, a respectable member of some Christian church, called Caius, but who he was is a matter of uncertainty, as there are three persons of this name mentioned in the New Testament. Michaelis and most modern critics suppose the person to whom this Epistle was addressed to be the Caius of Corinth, as hospitality was a leading feature of his char¬ acter. His hospitable temper, particularly toward the min¬ isters of the gospel, is strongly marked in the fifth, sixth, sev¬ enth and eighth verses of this Epistle. The scope of this Epistle is to commend his steadfastness in the faith and his general hospitality, especially to the ministers of Christ; to caution him against the ambitious and turbulent practices °f Diotrephes, and to recommend Demetrius to his friend¬ ship, referring what he further had to say to a personal interview. Commentators are by no means agreed as to who t is Diotrephes was. Bede, Erasmus, Michaelis and others suppose him to have been the author of a new sect, and that, as he delivered false doctrines, he objected to those who prop¬ agated the true faith. The character of Demetrius, on the contrary, was in every respect conformable to the precepts o t e gospel, and St. John recommends him as an example *° Lams- aud the other members of the church. THE EPISTLE OF JUDE. JUDE or Judas, who was surnamed Thaddeus and Lebbeus, and who was also called the brother of our Lord (Matt, xiii. 25), was the son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less, and one of the twelve apostles. As he continued with the rest of the apostles after our Lord’s resurrection and ascension (Acts i. 13), and was also with them on the day of Pentecost, it is not unreasonable to suppose that, after having received the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit, he preached the gospel for some time in Judea, and performed miracles in the name of Christ. He is said to have prop¬ agated Christianity in Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia, and suffered martyrdom in the last named country. The Syrians still claim him as their apostle. When and where this epistle was written, and to whom it was addressed, are uncertain and immaterial. The design of the Epistle is to guard believers against the false teachers who had begun to insinuate themselves into the Christian Church, and to contend with the utmost earnestness aud zeal for the true faith. 48 THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL. THIS wonderful book stands alone among the sacred writings of the new dispensation, and occupies a place among them in many respects analogous to that of the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament. It has been very generally ascribed in all ages of the Church to the apostle and evangelist St. John. We learn from the book itself that the visions which it records were seen by the writer while he was in Patmos, a small island in the vEgean Sea, as a prisoner “ for the testimony of Jesus Christ ” (chap. i. 9) ; and Irenseus fixes the date of the visions, and therefore (as may be assumed) that of the composition of the book, about the end of the reign of Domitian, in or shortly before A. d. 96. No book has been more commented upon or has given rise to a greater variety of interpretations than the Apocalypse, which has ever been accounted the most difficult portion of the New Testament. Although many parts of the Apocalypse are necessarily obscure to us, because they contain predictions of events still in the future, yet enough is sufficiently clear to convey to us the most important religious instruction. The book is to us precisely, what the prophecies of the Old Testament were to the Jews, nor is it in any degree more inexplicable. “ No prophecies in the Revelation can be more clouded with obscurity than that a child should be born of a poor virgin — that a mortal should not see corruption — that a person despised and numbered among malefactors should be estab¬ lished forever on the throne of David. Yet still the pious Jew pre¬ served his faith entire amidst all these wonderful and apparently contradictory intimations. He looked into the holy books in which they _ were, contained with reverence, and with an eye of patient expectation * waited for the consolation of Israel’” BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE , Translators and Reformers AND OTHER EMINENT BIBLICAL SCHOLARS describing the fate of these learned men WHO RENDERED THE BIBLE INTO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By Rev. WILLIAM F. B. JACKSON. Entered, accordiu6 to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. cited to appear for trial before the Sovereign Pontiff Edward appealed to Parliament, who resolved to resist the charge by force, if necessary, JOHN WYCLIFPE. — In the year 1324, or about that time, accord¬ ing to the conjectures of all his biographers, Wycliffe was born, in the parish bearing the same name, in Yorkshire, England. Ilis name and Wycliffe maintained and defended the rights of the King against has been spelled in nearly twenty different ways ; but we have followed the Pope. In 1374 W yeliffe was sent to the Continent upon an embassy the custom of the Editors of his Bible, published first by the University Press at Oxford, 1850. Nothing is known of his childhood or early youth. In the year 1340, at the age of sixteen years, he was admitted as a student at Queen’s College, Oxford, which was then first founded. He was soon transferred from this to Merton College of the same Uni¬ versity, which from having been longer established, possessed superior advantages, and at that time could boast of having connected with it some of the most learned men of the age. The college students at that period devoted most of their time to the study ox" scholastic theology and civil law. Wycliffe took high rank as a scholar. Even the Roman atholic historians confess that he was a subtle disputant, and second o none in philosophy. He did not, however, confine himself to the prescribed studies. He carefully read the writings of the fathers, and although the Sacred Scriptures were then almost entirely neglected by the ecclesiastic, Wycliffe devoted much time to their study. About the year 1360 he appears as a bold and successful assertor of the rights of the University against Mendicant Friars, who had become so numer¬ ous and powerful at Oxford as almost to threaten the entire ruin of the University. Their endeavor was to lead young men who had entered Oxford to be educated, to leave the University for the Monastery, and so powerful was their influence that, it is said, the number of students was reduced from thirty thousand to six thousand. In testimony of their gratitude for his services, and in compliment to his talents, the University made him, in 1361, Master of Baliol College, and presented trim to the living of Fillingham, which he afterwards exchanged for that of Ludgershall. Four years after, in 1365, he was appointed harden of Canterbury Hall in Oxford, by Archbishop Islip, its founder. Ike diploma conferring this honor declares Wycliffe to be “ a person in whom his Grace very much confided, and on whom he had fixed his Byes tor that place on account of the honesty ot his life, his laudable sonversation and knowledge of letters.” Islip died the next year, and Bishop Langham was raised to the See of Canterbury. He was a monk and was strongly attached to the religious orders which Wycliffe bad so boldly censured. His dislike to the Reformer was so great, that to the Pope, to treat concerning the liberties of the Church in England. He remained abroad two years, carefully studying (he policy of the JOHN WVCtSFVS. ... <=■ -i - Pontiff, and returned to England more thoroughly convinced of the grot-n ,6 ePnve Mm of the office which the founder of the college had con -'corruption of the Romish Church; while his zeal in exposing her errors .rre on him. An appeal was made at the Court of Rome ; but after and vices was considerably increased, and his opportunities for spread* ing his views were very great. Wycliffe’s doctrines gave so much offence to the clergy of the Romish Church, that in 1377 he was sum* moned to appear before a convocation which met in St. Paul’s Cathedra in London, to answer for his heresies ; but the assembly broke up in confusion without taking measures against him. But later in the same year the Pope commanded that he should be arrested, and kept in security till further orders. The University was enraged, and debated o - -.whether to receive the Pope’s messenger or dismiss him disgracefully. R* x>.,_ _ ^as uudcr the authority of the successor of But Wycliffe concluded to meet his accusers face to face, at a Synod • appointed for the purpose at Lambeth, in January, 1378. Whether delay of four years, the Pope confirmed the action of the Archbishop. 1372 Wycliffe was appointed, by the Chancellor and Regents 01 V v,DiVer8it-V ■^>ro^essor °f Divinity. This was the greatest honor ^ ic they could offer him, and it shows conclusively the high estima- lon m which he was then held. He was soon called upon to take part and ® coatrcyer8y which was being waged between the Court of Rome e nglish Sovereign, The Pope had demanded annual payment ,000 marks, as tribute money, and as an acknowledgement that the •overeignty of England was under the authority of the successor of . ever Edward the Third had for several years declined to make esc payments, and it was now threatened that his Majesty would be they would have silenced the Reformer or not. is uncertain, fox during BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF THE ' TRANSLATOR AND REFORMERS. their deliberations a mandate from the queen mother forbade their were the abuses of the Cv 'irc’i more flagrant, or the ignorance of its proceeding against him, and he was dismissed with the simple com- ministers more extreme Tyndale’s bold rebukings of these things mand to abstain from preaching his doctrines in future. About this made him extremely unpopular, and being secretly charged will time he was engaged in translating the Bible. His writings abound holding heretical opinions, he was summoned before his bishop, win with sound Protestant views on the supreme authority of the Scriptures reproved him severely; whereupon he left the county for London as a guide to faith and practice ; but his enemies took advantage of hoping to be able to execute a desire, wh ich had long been in his heart some disturbance which they unjustly charged to his teaching, and lie of translating the New Testament. Wyclifle’s, the early Englisl was banished from the University in 1382, retiring to his living at translation in existance, had become obsolete. The Bible was a seal Lutterworth where he died in 1384. The translation of the Bible was book the chief and crowning glory of his life, and the lever by which the Papal power in Great Britain was overthrown. We are confident that an impartial examination of his claims will confirm his right to be called the most important agent in producing the Protestant Reforma¬ tion. More than a century before Luther was born, Wycliffe had planted the seeds of the Reformation, and with great boldness and per¬ severance had promulgated those principles which were to shake the Romish Church to its centre lie was the “Morning Star of the Reformation,” the pioneer and patriarch of Protestantism, and his iame should have the highest place on the roll of its honored heroes. to the people ; and the clergy, consulting their own mtor for fame bapt mewt $eftoe si cut of tf) 4 boUffe/anb fatt tytb® feefVH/anb mo= cbe peoplo t oforltb xmto jjretly t^at 1)4 u>et anb fatmafty>pp4Amba.|l tljc people. ftobeontl;£ fbcore.2fabbfc fpafemany tfomijf to tt>«m ii» pmiHtuVf /fa* * fecljotWtljafower'OWil forth lofowc/arto as Ijafo* xoth/ fom fe.|( by tV)e wayc* fybe/i ttjc fowib ca/anb be vow tebUuppe. 0'oTrtcfellapou ftony grouubei»bere.Ubabrtott TnacbeeTtVai,k a-uonit fprongcuppe/befanfc it Vo no be* p^t ofertt):aub wbent^e fomwosvppe /JjU cavil) tyet /anb for late of rotyngeroybbt^b au)aye. gwn vnto you to fnoroe tb« fecrettf of Ifye tyugboi hieofticven/buttotbem it is volt given. fot wt)ofommr hatb/tobun f^all bit begmtoanbbe (ball bane aljounbau- ucet But tubofoooer batb noth from biro fbalbe tafyna mayo cue that fame tbatbebalb.Sberforefpeafe^totbom Fac simile St. Matt. XIII.— 1-15. Tyndale’s Testament, (8vo. Ed.) strove to keep it so. They perverted its teachings to their own support they wrested its meaning to their own purposes, and they darkened it# truth with the mist of their own sophistry. But Tyndale found, to use his own words — “ not only was there no room in my Lord of London’ palace to translate the New Testament, but also that there was no place to do it in all England.” So, in January, 1524, a voluntary exit alone and unsupported, he left London for Hamburg, where for more than a year, he labored on his translation. In May, 1525, he went to Cologne, in order to print his translation there. ButrCochlaeus, tin noted controversialist, who happened to he in Cologne at this time die that the printing was going on, and determined to stop it. II upon the city authorities to interdict the printer from pro ceeding, while he wrote to Henry, to Wolsey, and to Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, to warn them against the translation, that they might keep WTT t T 1 m Tyvn * t this most pernicious article of merchandise ” from entering the Dort ? Tyrt 'rs y/“ . U T b0r° f 5h the r Wh,C" ,IeV°f VII. came to the throne ] there is some doubt with regard to the exact nf kor nnn:QO _./» v* , - . ^ ® Hrrto tkd t v . 0 „ 1 ot 152eS copies of these editions must have be^n in England when time. I he Romish Church was never to appearance more firmlv esta-:™vU>;v.n;^T, .1 , . , , 0 l, v KUoLo.1 • ti ■» 1 ,1 . . . _ * prohibition was violently made against them bv the ecclftsisistir'i! hushed in England than at this period The Kins made close allicmet. n. J a “ ecciesiasi-t n P “ \g “ 6 aIllance authorities, and all persons were warned, inder pain of excommunica »nr. in fliihmibfinnrln Vna outKor j.? _ ^ _ i v /,,, . . A with the Pope, and all classes seemed content in submitting to his author¬ ity. But the foundations of the Church were, nevertheless, insecure; the period of its worst oppressions and abuses was running out, and the man tion to deliver up “ all such hooks as contained the translation of the New Testament.” Bui the attempts to suppress them were not entirely successful, and the number of readers increased, both in England an! woe ,1 . - . - V - - auucessiui, aim me numoer 01 readers increased, both in England an < who was to do more than all others to overthrow its influence in England abroad, though the authorities burned all the books they could obtain was already born. The materials for the narration of Tyndale’s early| Meanwhile Tyndale still remained at Worms, writing tracts and are scan 3- e&rf.t notice we have is of his being sent to Oxford,' treatises against religious abuses in the Catholic Church and in favoi where, says Foxe, he increased as well in the knowledge of tongues; of the Reformation, and these also were circulated in England In 1529 and other liberal arts, as especially in the knowledge of the Scriptures, the Bishop of London summoned a convocation of the clergy and its oSdfo C 8 Ta ^ *mgUt 7 ad“-” lD ^17 °r 1518’ he left *«ion ended with the issuing of a proclamation against the “ fmportin. Oxford for Cambndge, where he remained as a student for a year or printing, reading, or teaching of specified books,” in the Enlist hvo, leaving in lo20 for Gloucestershire his nat.ve county, than which tongue, as well as in Latin and other languages, replete with the mosi there was no part of England more under Papal dominion ; nowhere venomous heresies, blasphemies and slander!, intolerable to toe ear* BIOGRAPHICAL sketches of the translators and reformers , - and reviewing the penalties of previous /TILES COVERDALE. - This man is chiefly fcmoua because any good Chris* an m ■ < ^ ^ pre resigned his bishopric, and -u. accid e"f-lng h6re t0 pass the remainder of his days ance, he was Rei001!*1^ ,Ulg bbn to come to London for surgical assist¬ ing Henry’s reiVn o '“prisoned 111 the Tower during the rest of liberty, and hein,f the accession of Edward VI. he was set at he was appointed to°T r'."' tbe m°St elocluent preachers of the age, first three vearc „<• the Lent sermons before the king, in the ue most "serviccfl ' p'' Preached, wherever he was serviceable, till.Ponery was re-established in found reign ICHOLAS RIDLEY. — This eminent English prelate was scended from an ancient family in Northumberland, and was born early in the sixteenth century. He was educated chiefly at Cam¬ bridge University, where he took his Master’s Degree in 1525. He was soon after ordained priest, and went to the Sorbonnj, in Paris, for further education, remaining on the continent till 152 He had been brought up a zealous adherent of the Pope, but on his return to Eng¬ land, and while he was senior proctor of Cambridge University, the question of the Pope’s Supremacy in England was debated. Ridley had ibeen an earnest student of the Scriptures, and was well qualified to give an opinion upon the subject; and through his arguments the UniVer- came to the following, r.scluti n: — “That the Bishop of Rome had more authority and jurisdiction derived to him from God, in this of England, than any he was very learned, his memory liberty of conscience as against the usurped authority of the Bishop was great, and he had such a fund of general knowledge withal, that he deserved to be compared to the best men of his age, as his works, sermons, and sundry disputations in both the Universities well testified. JOHN ROGERS.— This eminent divine and martyr was born in Lancashire, in the year 1500, and was edu¬ cated at Cambridge, where he took a very high stand in scholar¬ ship. Being sent as Chaplain to the factory at Antwerp, he ren¬ dered important assist¬ ance to Tyndale and Coverdale in their work of translating the Bible into English. In the year 1537, a famous edition of the Bible was issued in folio, and from the name affixed to it as that of the supposed editor, it is usually called Matthew’sBible. It was printed abroad, at the expense of the Rome, and all other abuses ; and being threatened by the council, he exhorted them to beware of shedding innocent blood, thougn he would accept the will of God, whether it were for life or death. They were unable to prevail upon him to recant his doctrines, and so excommuni. cated and degraded him, and sentenced him to be executed. On the 8th of February, 1555, he was led forth to execution, going barefooted and in an old gown. Even at the stake they could not conquer his deter¬ mination to preach the blessed Gospel of Christ. Going to the stake he embraced it, and said, “Welcome the cross of Christ, welcome everlast¬ ing life 1” Soon the fire raged around him, and he fell asleep in Jesus. REV. JOHN ROGERS. IN a brief summary of the history of the Reformation, as a distinct, well-defined, aggressive force, we have to consider only the period of about one hundred and thirty years, between the dates 1517 and 1648 Between these limits the Reformation invaded every nation in Europe. In England, the temper of an untamed people backed the imperious will of Henry to revolt against the hated supremacy of Rome. Here ii was no new quarrel. 1 he power of the Pope had been strictly bounded, long before, by king and baron ; while Wicklifle spoke to the better heart and conscience of the nation, and his truth continued long after his ashes had floated out to their “vast and wandering grave.” In France we have the story of long and bitter conflict, and a doubtful victory of despotism at the end. First, the gradual joyous spread of a tenderer, deeper, freer taith, through hymns and popular chants; then a long, silent, peaceable endurance, for forty years, of the tyranny that strove to exterminate it ; then the sudden blazing out and long rancor of religious wars, and the wholesale series of assassinations which we ca the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. But it is in Lower Germany an along the Lower Rhine, among the numerous populations of the in* _ . , - o - - - uuluvxvuo Vi tuti 1UF English printers, Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch, and wasiflustrious poor, that- the new faith finds its warmest disciples. It was £*/jf T/lrtW/i unitl- X 7-. „ "71^’-* . ... . -X . _ * 7.* . Tj • it I * set forth with the King's most gracious license .” It is now generally conceded that Rogers was the real editor of this work, for to him Tyndale had bequeathed parts of his Old Testament in manuscript. Its New Testament is Tyndale’s over again, its Pentateuch is slightly varied, and the rest of the Old Testament differs but little from Coverdale. John Rogers sealed his testimony to the truth with his blood. In the reign of Edward YI. he returned to England and was made a prebend in St. Paul’s Cathedral. On Mary’s accession to the throne, such a bold, outspoken adherent to the faith of the Gospel could not fail to give offence ; and at last he had the glorious privilege of ascending to heaven in a chariot of fire, leaving a blessed memory which will be honored wherever the English Bible is read. He was burned at Smlthfield, on February 4th, 1555, the first martyr of the reign of bloody Mary. He had been previously taken to Bishop Bonner to be degraded ; he craved one petition from the Bishop — that he might speak a few words to his wife and children before he was burned ; this was denied to him. “Then” said he, “you declare what your charity is.” LAURENCE SAUNDERS — Although the most earnest efforts were made during Queen Mary’s reign to hinder the preaching of the Gospel, and the truth seemed almost to be crushed to earth, still there were some devoted preachers who feared not to risk their lives in Christ’s caus One of these was the Rev. Laurence Saunders, who was a man born of good parentage, and educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge. After his graduation he engaged in trade, but when the Reformation in the reign of Edward VI. began, he resigned his mercantile pursuits, obtained a license and began to preach. Being a man of much ability he was very popular, and was appointed by the authorities as lecturer in the College at Fotheringham, and afterwards R craving pleofthe old national tongue. By reason of it, if for nothing else Luther . . to a horn Die a gtm ,eadg hig nation. Even now his name is in Germany what Wash¬ ington’s is in America, and is in like manner revered by liberal and conservative alike. His translation of the Bible united the two jarring dialects, the Swabian and the Frankish, into one great speech, and thus, says Bunsen, “preserved the only unity which in our days remains to the German nation, that of language, literature, and thought.”' S’s verJy matow that he might be safe ” the recluse student, „ „nnn his cjpy of the Holy Scriptures as a new and infinitely coming P _ the p,-0U8 monk, already looked on as the likely Erfl reform to Christian morals, on that journey to Kome which Konld not have mi»ed for a , • e 11., ™ 1,; a fcnpes among the retinue of pilgrims, and struck . ... Scala painfully on h a Paul ThjC iust shall live by faith ;|Thougb, since these words of Bunsen’s were written, German unity has as with a nasn oy inese wuiud « • • ■ ’ * 1 — * : - A1 — — — the key ever after to his religious life ; the “ young doctor, fresh from the forge glowing and cheerful im the Holy Ghost,” withstanding to his face the impudent monk Tetzel, and raising a storm of revolutionary passion with his ninety-five Theses on Indulgences; the brave reformer, resolute in his defiance of the en¬ throned Lie that tyrannized over the soul of Christendom ; the condem¬ ned and sentenced heretic, standing unbaffled before the powers of the Em¬ pire and the Church at W orms, and uttering his defence in those electric words, the assertion for all time of the liberty of the Christian consci¬ ence ; the prisoner in the “ Patmos ” of Wartburg, fighting face to face With Satan, scattering with unseen nd from those friendly towers the rdfi brave and timely that make Ins name a power among the people, and carrying on the great work that identifies his strong homely idiom With the language of the people’s Bible;— these pictures have been stamped indelibly on the history of the time, and they bring fresh to our thought nearly all that is worth re- memberingin the first fewyears of the great revolutionary era. In the year 1522 Luther began his colossal work. been brought about in another way. The twenty-five years that elapsed between Luther’s release from the sheltering towers of Wartburg and his death, were years of an incessant struggle, in which he stands always in the front rank, to receive the scars and bruises of the fight. His words are “half-battles.” “They say,” he writes, “that these books of mine are too keen and cutting. They are right. I never meant them to be soft and gentle. My only regret is that they cut no deeper.” Erasmus shrinks from the stern warfare his satire has done its share in kindling, and Luther says of him, “ He has attacked the Pope, and is now draw-1 ing his head out of the noose.” He says again, “ I care not about being accused of violence. It shall be my glory and honor henceforth to have ^ j it said how I rage and storm against \ the Papists. I will leave them no | rest from my curses till I sink into my grave. . . the world MARTIN l.UTHER. hripfTT 10a 0 tbe Scriptures. His own account of his purposes is Npw t t Car j. - * trans^ate 87,015,000 296,635,000 14,500,000 5,000,000 1,850,000 405,000,000 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. — The gospel was introduced into Abyssinia about the middle of the fourth century. One Frumentius, traveling from Egypt into Abyssinia, was favorably received by the king, whom he baptized, together with certain of the nobility. Subsequently returning to Egypt, he was conse¬ crated bishop by Athanasius, and returned soon after to the scene of his former labors. For about one thousand years the Abyssinian Church disappears from tke eight of the European world. It was near the close of the fifteenth century that it appeared before the Christian world once more. Rome, ever ready for new conquests, was seized with the desire of subjecting this ancient Church to her aut ority. The Jesuits, after making several fruitless attempts to reconcile the yssinian Church to the See of Rome, were recalled. But subsequently other Bne“IlU " <,1 e ma(L an(l the Abyssinian Church submitted to the pope of Rome. is su mission was not of long continuance. A love for the ancient faith thro reViT,e *n t'ie bearts of the people, the usurped power of Rome was over- Jgt8n’ am 1 ® Abyssinian became once more an independent Church, governed cruel Jar batai!’rcb- For many years Abyssinia was a scene of much intrigue, mon witlf Tv, S au^'lter. in which the Christians suffered intensely. In com- Proceeds (V° a. East®rn Marches, this Church believes that the Holy Spirit an annual °n J ather only. It believes in infant baptism and what is called cision. It d U'IOn>i, VS l'.16 011 ^ Christian Church which practices circum- presence of ('i!"' ! ^ G, OC*1'lne transubstantiation, yet believes in the real the religion nf W 16 8acrsmenL Though cold and formal in many respects r 8 °f the Abyssinian Church is not without its life-giving power. They first apDe.° 1 T'ie Adamites were a small and obscure sect of the Gnostics state of innocenc ^ J secor>d century. Their aim was to imitate Adam’s thqnarne of TWu ' a ° ^teenth century they appeared in Germany, undei •utgua.as. Une tenet, of Hiic _ j" evince a mind not wholly purified, and that those only are perfect and in union with God who can associate with persons of a different sex, like Adam before the fall. They were supposed to’ be chaste in their morals, but were regarded with suspicion. This sect became extinct about the close of the fifteenth cen¬ tury. AERIANS. — The Aerians were the followers of Aerius, a native of Pontus. He was a presbyter of the Church and a monk, who flourished in the fourth century. His peculiar opinions gathered around him a band of followers, whom he formed into a sect. He maintained that “ by divine appointment there was no difference between bishops and presbyters.” This opinion was readily em¬ braced by those who were opposed to what they termed the arrogance of the bishops of that age. Aerius disapproved of prayers for the dead, stated fasts and the celebration of Easter. The aim of Aerius seems to have been a desire to bring religion back to its primitive simplicity. ALBIG-ENSES. — The Albigenses were a sect wIid separated from the Church of Rome in the twelfth century. The term, says one, is used in a broader and in a more limited sense. In “the former sense it applies to all heretics who resided at that time in Languedoo. In the more limited sense it applies to those who in Italy were called Cathari and Bulgari.” The writers of the Romish Church condemned them as heretics ; of their orthodoxy, how¬ ever, there can be no doubt. In the year 1200 they had become quite numerous in Toulouse and in many towns of Languedoc. They were the subjects of Ray¬ mond, sixth count of Toulouse, who, having embraced their opinions, received them under his protection. Innocent III. was then the pope of Rome. Hearing of the rapid progress of this sect, and fearing its future influence, he resolved to exterminate them. He first excommunicated them, calling on the clergy to 1 HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS OF THE WORLD’ refuse them the sacraments of the Church while living and the rites of burial 1 v. hen dead. All persons were forbidden intercourse with them. A legate was sent from Rome to demand of Raymond their destruction. This was stoutly refused Moreover, the legate was slain. Innocent III. then called on the faithful every¬ where to aid in the destruction of these enemies of the Church. About the year 1209 a large army was collected and equipped under the command of Simon, earl of Montfort. Terrified by the appearance of t! is formidable host, Raymond yielded to the demands of the pope. A nephew of Raymond prosecute the war, but was at last forced so submit. On the death of Innocent, his successor, Hono- vus III., determined to complete the unfinished work of his. predecessor. He j revailed on Louis VIII., king of France, to march at the head of a great army, out dying soon after, Louis IX. (called St. Louis) prosecuted the work of his father. In this terrible and bloody war, which continued for several years, and which scarcely has a parallel in history, thousands of innocent ones were cruelly slain. Says one: The Church of the Albigenses had been drowned in blood. This earnest people denied the intercession of the saints, the doctrine of purga¬ tory and other errors r.f Rome. The 'charge raised against them by their ene¬ mies was that they denied the sacraments. Thus afflicted by bloody wars and persecution, the Church of the Albigenses gradually wasted away. ANABAPTISTS.— In the year 1537 a convention of Protestants was held at Smalcald, when Luther drew up what are called the Articles of Smalcald. About this time one or two events occurred which impeded the cause of the Reformation. Certain persons called “Anabaptists came to Munster, a city of V estphalia, and declared that they were divinely commissioned to set up a holy empire on the ruins of all human institutions.” Great excitement followed this declaration. These fanatical persons constituted one John Bockholdt their leader. The city was captured in 1535, and Bockholdt and his associates were executed, and severe laws were enacted against the sect. The history of this peculiar people is somewhat obscure. The most famous of them were those who caused what is called “the rustic war” in Germany. The more respectable of them, terrified by the fate of their associates, joined themselves with those who were called Mennonites. They believed in baptism by immersion. They denied the equity of all civil law, and maintained that all distinctions of birth and rank should be abolished, and that there should be an equality in property and wealth. ARIANS.— This sect of Christians consisted of the followers of Arius, a pres¬ byter of Alexandria. On a certain occasion, Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, at a meeting of his clergy, expressed freely his opinions on the doctrine of the three Persons of the Godhead, maintaining that the Son of God is the same in dignity and essence with the Father. Arius dissented from this view, and declared that the Son is totally and really distinct from the Father; or, in other words, he denied the divinity of the Saviour, affirming that he was inferior to the Father both in nature and dignity. The opinions of Arius spread very rapidlv, and created no little disturbance in the Church. Alexander called a council at Alexandria, and cast him out of the Church. Shortly after, Constantine the emperor called that famous council of the whole Church which assembled at Nice in the year 325. Before this council Arius was condemned and exiled, and his followers compelled to assent to a creed set forth by the council. Con¬ stantine was subsequently induced to recall Arius from his exile, and he more¬ over commanded the bishop of Alexandria to receive him again into the bosom of the Church. On the evening before the day appointed for his restoration Arius suddenly expired. The doctrines of Arius met with some favor after¬ ward, but between the years 383 and 395 Theodosius deprived the Arians of all their churches, established severe laws against them, and defended the decisions of the Nicene Council against Arius and his followers. Afterward Arianism became a sect outside the Church. ARMENIAN S. The gospel was introduced into Armenia at a very early period. It is supposed, however, that the Armenian Church was not firmly established until some time after the commencement of the fourth century. In this century, Gregory, called the Illuminator, first succeeded in persuading some individuals, and afterward the king and his nobles, to embrace the Chris¬ tian religion. He was afterward consecrated the first bishop of Armenia, and labored with considerable puccess among the people. The Armenian Church, falling away from its original purity, was excluded from the communion of the Church about the year 457. This Church holds that in the person of Christ the human nature and the divine are one. They maintain that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only. In general, the doctrine of this Church is similar to that of the Greek Church. BAPTISTS, THE. — In the year 1636, Roger Williams was driven from Salem by the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay and settled at Providence, Rhode Island. The people of this new settlement in 1638 adopted a compact which distinctly denied to the civil power the control of the conscience in religious matters. Bancroft says of Roger Williams, “ He was the first person in modern Christendom to assert in its plenitude the doctrine of the liberty of conscience. the equality of opinions before the law.” It should not be forgotten hoT*' that this doctrine had been asserted during long centuries in every counp'^1 Europe where the Baptists had arisen; and had brought down on them' longed and hitter persecution. That doctrine, however, was now incorpo T' in an organized government, and thus a new era was opened in the histor "^ religious progress. The date of this event may properly be taken as the J° ing-point in a brief sketch of the Baptists in the United States. ' Until 1639 there was no Baptist Church in this country, but in that year a first Baptist Church in Providence was constituted, with Roger William's a of the first members. At the close of 1886, after the lapse of two hundred "! forty-seven years, there were 30,522 Baptist churches in this country, and ,i" total number of members was 2,732,570; that is, if the population of the con * try was .then sixty million, one of every twenty-two was a member of a B itit Church. Every one .of these members, also, had become such, not by birthriel t but bv voluntary choice, on a confession of his faith in Jesus Christ in the ~ prehensive sense of the word “faith” as used in the New Testament in conn! tion with the Lord. Their missionary work had been established in Burma” Assam, Hindustan, China, Japan, Africa, South America, in various countries ir; Europe, and in every State and Territory in our own country. Their eduea tional work was carried on in 27 universities and colleges, 73 seminaries and academies, 7 theological seminaries, and 19 institutions for the colored race Ind Indians. The total value of their school lands and buildings was $7,149 728' their libraries and apparatus, $1,167,695; their endowments, $8,552,077. The doctrinal views of the Baptists correspond in general with the views held and taught by what are called the evangelical denominations. There are some peculiarities, however, in their belief and practice by which they are separated from other denominations, and to these special reference may be necessary. 1. The Constitution of a Church of Christ,—' They hold that only those who humbly confessing their sins, have put their trust in Christ, the Saviour ot sinners, should be brought into a Church of which he is the Head. They see no scriptural authority and no personal fitness to warrant the admittance of those who have no real faith in Christ or love to him. 2. The Baptism of Believers. — They believe it to be incumbent on each believer on the Lord Jesus Christ to be baptized as his own personal, intelligent act. 3. The Act of Baptism. T hey hold that immersion is the act expressed by the word baptize, and that it is the only act which carries out the Lord’s purple and fulfils his command ; and that hence it is necessary to the obedience that I* asks and expects from his disciples. 4. Ihe Prerequisites to the Lordhs Supper — They hold, therefore, that only tns believers, baptized in strict conformity to his command, should be brought into a Church of Christ and invited to the Lord’s Table. On the above points there are differences of opinion among Christians, and these differences are thought by the Baptists to be so important as to demand and fully to justify their separate organization. While, however, they deem themselves bound by loyalty to their Lord to follow strictly the rule that lie has laid down, they fully believe in the freedom of conscience and claim no authority over the consciences of others, and would earnestly protest against any infringement of that freedom of conscience which belongs alike to all. The organization of the Baptist churches is strictly congregational, and therefore they think it a misnomer when the Baptists or the Baptist churches of this coun¬ try are spoken of .as “The Baptist Church of the United States,” or other religious bodies are designated as “branches of the Baptist Church.” BEREANS. — This is a small body of Christians founded by the Rev. Win. Barclay about the year 1773. They are dissenters from the Scotch Presbyterian Church. They hold that all knowledge of God, of his character and his attri¬ butes, is to be derived only from the Bible. The sin against the Holy Ghost, or what is called the unpardonable sin, consists in unbelief, or the constant rejec¬ tion of the truth as it is in Jesus. They believe in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and accept the doctrine of election. In common with most evangelical churches, they believe in infant baptism. CHRISTIANS. A body of believers, professedly rejecting human creeds, and united on the Holy Scriptures as their standard of faith and duty. They claim no man as their founder, and desire that the Church shall be named, from its divine head — Christian. Seeking for the union of all Christians, they tolerate great latitude of opinion, and have for their only test of fellowship, vital Christian piety. They appeared at the beginning of this century, spring ing simultaneously from the Baptists in New England, the Methodists in Vir< ginia, and the Presbyterians in Kentucky. CHURCH OF ENGLAND. — It is quite probable that the gospel wat preached in Britain by the apostle St. Paul. Eusebius, when speaking of the labors of the apostles in di 'tant countries, adds that some passed over the oceat into those islands called the British Islands. Tertullian, in A. D. 190, says there are places in Britain inaccessible to Roman arms, which were subdued to Cbsist From these and other authorities it is evident that the gospel was preached in history of religious denominations of the world. - and that the Church was fully organized there at Britain at a very ear y < hy, ^ ^ ^ tQ be digputed that the British bish- an early period It » q{ ^ m, a[ Nice in 325; and at Sardica, ops we;ePreSfe" 3 Drove the early establishment of the British Church, now the 347. These fee P ve centuries phe maintained her independence of the 2""* ° Z down to the Saxon invasion. In the year 596, Rome sent over Church of Ron 1 m.I8sionar;eg to Britain, and there he found the old Augustine wi ° organized and established. Hence, it is evident that £ Church of England does not derive her origin from the Church of Rome, but Ib-ls established five centuries before Rome sent her missionaries there^ During r* lion of the barbarians she suffered severely, and even in the Dark Ages, fil le power of the pope was generally recognized in Christendom, there were lv Inirits in the Church of England who did not hesitate to speak out boldly the usurpations of Rome, regardless of consequences. But at last in com- with the whole Church of God, she was forced to submit to the authority of Rome and thus she continued down to the Reformation of the sixteenth century. Tt was then that she threw off the yoke Rome had imposed upon her, and asserted her independence once more. The work achieved by the Reformers of the Church of England was one of reformation. They did not create a new Church, but re¬ formed and purified a Church which had become corrupt. Thus does the Church of England stand to-day before the world, an ancient branch of the Church of Christeatablished in the early days of Christianity. The ministry of the Church of England is of a threefold character, consisting of bishops, priests and deacons, together with two archbishops, who are the head of the English hierarchy, called the archbishop of Canterbury and the archbishop of York. Her form of worship is liturgical, and is found in what is called the Book of Common Prayer, and the administration of the sacraments and other rites and ceremonies of the Church. The doctrines of the Church of England are to be found in the Book of Homi¬ lies her Creeds and the Thirty-nine Articles. A primitive custom still preserved in this Church is that of confirmation, or the laying on of hands. On the con¬ troversies of Calvin and Arminius this Church is divided. Both parties always have been, and are still to be, found in the Church. CONGREGATIONALISTS (ORTHODOX). — In a village in the north of England there was established about the year 1600 an independent church. This organized body of believers ultimately proved to be the origin of Congregationalism in this country. Having fled from the land of persecu- fion, we find this infant church, with its pastor, John Robinson, subsequently settled in Holland. In 1620 these same persons, forming themselves into a col¬ ony, emigrated to New England, landing at Plymouth in December of the same year. This little colony consisted of about one hundred souls. Other colonies followed soon after, settling in different parts of Massachusetts. The church founded at Plymouth became the mother church of the Congregationalists, and from time to time sent forth its bands of believers, who formed other churches in different parts. Congregationalism continued to enlarge its borders as the population of the country increased. In 1638 Harvard University was founded at Cambridge. In general, the Congregationalists of New England are Calvin- istic in sentiment, as we learn from their Platform or Church Discipline, drawn up in 1648 by the elders assembled at Cambridge. As to the theology of the Congregationalists, it is orthodox and evangelical. Each congregation is a separate and distinct church of itself. The Orthodox Congregationalists to-day comprise much of the wealth, intelligence and influence of New England. Many of the principal colleges and theological seminaries of New England are under its influence. GREEK CHURCH.— For eight centuries the Greek and Latin or Roman urches '-'ere united in one great body. It was in the ninth century that a distort/ ar°Se Wh‘C,h resulled in a final separation of the two churches. The first nn"? W “Ch cu,minated at last in a separation were many. The influence nex^tp v °f the bishoP of Constantinople in dignity and which transferred tb b'S1°P f Eo“e- ThlS gr6W 0Ut of that act of Constantine Je 0f.enTe vt0 ,ByZantiUm- When Constantinople be- and claimed equal rank "-rtTv blS 10ps of that Clt-V naturally aspired after the idea Hence at the V ' * -f ,lsb°ps °f Rome’ and the emperors favored bishop of chat citv w, l °f Constantinople, held in the year 381, the "Bk neXU° 'he bishop of Bom* This’ was dissension was that conop .miK 1 tension in the Church. Another Bubject of the C." « e~-*» of ,he Holy Ghost. This, tie, her tinople, contributed in •, CCI ence by the two bishops of Rome and Constan¬ ce Greek Church differs ktn.w6 t0 ?mde tbe two churches- In doctrine Scriptures, it receives tm.iv ^ f™m th® Church of Rome. Besides the Holy cepted as the faith of thP r™ w!,'® "de of Among the doctrines ac- aeven sacraments of Rome- V'rcb are tlle following— viz.: It admits the ‘bree times; the Lord’s Si' aP '*m T Performed by the immersion of the infant even to infants ; the first’s, “ administered to the laity in both kinds, and *cceri,i as such. R roiects tv councils of the Church the Greek Church JeCt8 the doctrine of purgatory. Transubstantiate is cepted by this Church. It maintains that the Holy Spirit proceedeth from the Father only. The doctrines of the Greek Church are more or less to be found in her creeds and in her liturgies and confessions. The patriarch of Constantinople is head of the Greek Church proper. LUTHERANS, THE.— Martin Luther’s ninety-five theses of October 31, 1517, opened the conflict with the papal Church. The Augsburg Confession (June 25, 1530), Luther’s two catechisms and other official Confessions elucidate the doctrines peculiar to the Lutheran Church, which accepts, in harmony with all catholic Christianity, the three great ecumenical symbols (Apostolic, Niraean, Athanasian), and, in accord with the main Protestant denominations, the formal and material principles, of the evangelical Church — viz., the absolute authority of the Old and New Testaments in matters of faith and justification by free grace through faith in Christ. She holds to the two sacraments, not as mere ceremonies, em¬ blems or acts of profession, but as means of grace through which God offers and conveys to man in his lost condition his forgiving and vivifying love (bap¬ tism), and nourishes in the believer, through the reception in a supernatural way of Christ’s flesh and blood, spiritual life (Lord’s Supper ; consubstantiation, impa- nation, etc., are rejected). She opposes the predestinarianism of Calvin. To the Lutheran Church, in the sixteenth century established in Germany, in all Scandavia, in parts of Austria, Hungary, Holland and the Baltic provinces, a new field was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries opened in North America. The Lutherans enjoyed since 1674 free worship in the province of New York. Since 1709 thousands of Lutherans settled on the Hudson and its tributaries. Many Swedish Lutherans had settled since 1637 on the shores of the Delaware. The German Lutheran congregations in Pennsylvania were first organized into a synod in 1748 by the labors of H. M. Muhlenberg, D. D. Lutheran congregations were about the middle of the last century and soon after established in the seaboard provinces. In the West their numbers greatly increased, especially in our times, through the immigration of Germans and Scandinavians. The Lutheran Church in these United States and in Brit¬ ish America now (1884) counts 57 synods, 3700 ministers, 6630 congregations, 892,000 communicants. The synods are united in various larger representative bodies, as the General Synod (of a laxer relation to the standards of the Church) the Missouri Synod, General Council, Synodical Conference (of a stricter adhe¬ rence to the old Church Confessions). Eleven synods are independent. It is apparent that the Lutheran Church on this continent, where even Icelanders Bohemians and Hungarians have a membership in her, is of an exceptional!' polyglot character. She has under her control 21 colleges, 33 classical schools, 12 young ladies’ seminaries, 43 orphan-houses and asylums. There are pub¬ lished in her interest 119 periodicals — 40 in English, 49 in German, 15 in Nor¬ wegian, 4 in Danish, 1 in Finnish, 1 in Icelandic. MENNONITES. — The descendents of the ancient Waldensas, so called from Menno Simon, one of the reformers of the sixteenth century. He was bom in Holland in 1496, and died 1561. They believe in the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, the depravity of the human race, the atonement, and that faith, repent¬ ance and a pious, godfearing life are necessary conditions of salvation. They baptize believers (adults) only. Baptism by all orthodox Mennonites is per¬ formed by pouring or sprinkling, and not by immersion. They are utterly averse to oaths, war and capital punishment, which they regard as inconsistent witli the spirit of Christianity. They observe the ordinance of feet-washing, teach nonconformity to the world, plainness in speech and apparel, charity, and that Christians should “marry only in the Lord.” Their first settlement in America was made in Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1683. During 1873, 74, 75, on account of religious intoleration, about 8000 emigated from Russia to Amer¬ ica. The entire membership of the Church is estimated at about eighty thousand (80,000), with from 500 to 600 ministers and as many churches. They have large settlements in Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, In¬ diana, Nebraska, Kansas, and most of the Western States and Canada. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH.— The father of Methodism was John Wesley. He was born in England in the year 1703, and was educated at the University of Oxford. He was a presbyter of the Church of England, and always considered himself a member of that Church. The first preacher of Methodism in this country was one Philip Embury, who emigrated to this country with a band of emigrants from Ireland in the year 1760. After holding meetings for some time in private houses, they concluded to erect a church. The first Methodist church was erected in the city of New York and dedicated to Almighty God in the year 1768. Other preachers of like sentiments with Wesley embarked for this country at different times, and engaged earnestly in the work of preaching the gospel. The first Methodist Conference held in America was at Philadelphia on the 14th of July, 1773. From this date the Methodist Church, with the blessing of God and the earnest preaching of the Word, made rapid strides, adding daily to its numbers until at the present time it may justly be reckoned as the most numerous oi all denominations of Christians in this country. Dr. Chalmers has somewhere said, “ Methodism is religion in earnest ” Wesley had always impressed on the minds of his follow* 4 - HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS OF THE WORLD. - ers both in England and America loyalty to the Church of England. But real- *ing ‘he great fact that Methodism must eventually become an independent Church, W esley ordained the Rev. Thomas Coke, a presbyter of the Church of England, as general superintendent of the Methodist congregations in this country. Dr. Coke came to this country in the year 1784. It was at an assem¬ bly of the Methodist clergy convened at Baltimore that an independent Church was formed. Under the name and title of the Methodist Episcopal Church, articles of religion were adopted and a church government was framed. The Method- ist Episcopal Church has two conferences, the Annual and the General Confer- •nce which latter bcdy meets once in four years. This church has what are called class-meetings and love-feasts. Its ministry consists of bishops, presby¬ ters, deacons and local preachers. This Church has of late years displayed in e cause of educatien much interest. It has numerous universities, colleges academies and theological institutes. In its twenty-five articles of religion “are to be found the index of the Methodist faith. The Methodist Bock Concern in the city of New York is an influential auxil¬ iary in tie Church, and from which emanate their religious publications of many thousands of volumes. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH (SOUTH.) The Methodist Church made rapid progress in the Southern States from its first introduction On all quest ons of reform the Methodist Episcopal Church as a whole has always taken, and does still, a great interest. When the question of American slavery came ip, and its moral aspects engaged the minds of men, the hearts of the people Korth and South waxed warm on the subject, and the result was a separation of the ..orthern and southern divisions of the Church. This event in reality took place in the year 1844. It was, however, in May, 1845, that a formal dissolution of the union of the Church was effected. Thus was formed and established what is now known as the Methodist Episcopal Church South. The doctrine and government of this branch of the Church are identical with those of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Its universities and colleges are now in a prosperous condition. The publishing house of the Methodist Episcopal Church South is located at Nashville, Tenn. It has a large and well-organized book establishment, from which their publications are distributed throughout the Southern States. . METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH (AFRICAN).— This Church is composed of colored people. It separated from the main body of Methodists in the year 1787. In doctrine it is evangelical, having its bishops, elders and deacons. There are two other branches of the Methodist Church, called respect¬ ively the Wesleyan Methodist Church and the Zion African M. E. Church. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION.-This Church originated in Penn sylvama, A. P. 1800, through the labors of Jacob Albright. Its confession of faith and polity resemble closely those of the M. E. Church. Its episcopacy and presiding eldership are quadrennially elective officers. Largely of a missionary character it has pushed *rs operations into Canada, Germany, Switzerland and Japan. METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH.-This is a branch of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The great question which caused its separation from the main body of the Church was a desire on the part of some to restrain the power and authority of the bishops of the Church, and the introduction of laymen as delegates in the councils of the Church. Accordingly in the year 1830 several societies separated from the Church, and, adopting a constitution and book of discipline, they assumed the name of the Methodist Protestant Church. It is in doctrine identical with the other branches of the Church. It has its annual and general conference, the latter holding its session once in four years. This Church has neither bishops nor presiding eiders. declared himself to be a civil ruler as well as prophet. It was at this time he assumed the sword, and determined by it to build up his kingdom and f, men to embrace his doctrines. Thus by force, as well as by perfuasTon Jet' few years reduced Arabia to subjection, so rapidly did his cause progress At * hammed died at Medina in the year 632. The followers of Moharmned alU* lieve in the absolute necessity of a pilgrimage to the tomb of the prophet- it* viewed as a religious duty. They regard the Koran in the same light that u Christians do the Bible They believe in one God, who is the Creator aS Kuler of the universe, whom all must worship and serve. They believe tl a Mohammed was a prophet of God, sent by him, and that the Koran contv he divme laws of God. They believe in a day of judgment, when sent J shall be passed on all men according to the life led in this world. Thev K ieve m the final destruction of all things and in a general resurrection* iey believe in a paradise of the blessed, where all the true followers of CVH and his prophet shall dwell hereafter in the presence of God, and a hell wherp the wicked must dwell, an abode for the impious. The duty of fasting is rnn sidered as indispensable. MORAVIANS.— It was near the middle of the ninth century, says a cele¬ brated writer on ecclesiastical history, that two Greek monks, Methodius and Cyril, were sent from Constantinople by the empress Theodora to teach the Moesians, Bulgarians, and subsequently the Bohemians and Moravians and induce them, if possible, to embrace Christianity. A knowledge of Christianitv had previously been imparted to these nations through the influence of Charle magne, but the light of truth was soon extinguished among them. These mis sionaries, being Greeks, taught these nations the opinions, worship and rites of the Greeks. In the sixteenth century the Bohemian Brethren, as they were called, or the Moravians, hearing of Luther and his work, sought friendly inter course with the Reformer. In the year 1547 a large number of this people were driven from their country. A number of years afterward the Bohemians and Swiss became consolidated into one community, assuming the name of the Church of the United Brethren and adopting the doctrines of the Reformed, hut adhering to the rules and regulations of the Bohemians. When the war broke out in Bohemia in 1612 they fled in different directions. A colony went to Upper Lusatia, where they received the protection of Nicolas Lewis, Count Zinzendorf. This man, we are told, became their bishop sub- sequently. The ministry of this Church consists of three orders, bishop presbyters and deacons. In doctrine it is identical with the great evangeli st churches of this country. It keeps the great festivals of Easter and Christmas, This small but earnest body of believers has always been celebrated for its mis¬ sionary spirit. It has several celebrated institutions of learning— at Bethlehem and Nazareth, Pennsylvania, and at Salem, North Carolina. The Moravians first emigrated to this country about the year 1750. MOHAMMEDANISM. — In the seventh century the Christians suffered less than in the preceding centuries, though at times they were persecuted. A new and powerful enemy, however, different from any they had previously en¬ countered, appeared about the year 612 in Arabia in the person of Mohammed. This distinguished individual was born, about the year 569 at Mecca, a city of Arabia. His family were poor, but respectable. Mohammed was an illiterate man, but eloquent. At the c ommencement of his remarkable career he declared to the world that he was commissioned by God to destroy the polytheism of his day and country, and to purify the religion of the Jews and that of the Chris¬ tians. The Koran, which is ascribed to him, professes to be a divine composi¬ tion handed down by God and imparted to his prophet. It was at Mecca that Mohammed conceived and embraced the idea of converting his countrymen and bringing them to a knowledge of divine truth. Hence, retiring from the world, he secluded himself in a cave, and there occupied his time in meditation and prayer. It was there that he convinced himself that he was God’s prophet, and sent by God to reform the world. At first he made a few converts, chiefly from among his friends and relatives, and then followed a series of reverses; but he still persevered, and his converts multiplied. It was about the year 622 that he asserted his claim to temporal as well as spiritual power among men, and PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.-This Church is the daugh¬ ter of the Church of England. The members of the Church of England who came over with the early colonists to this country were by no means nume¬ rous. The greater part of those who came were among those colonists who set¬ tled in the Southern States. The establishment of the Church of England in this country was through the instrumentality of that society called the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. The churches thus established and supported were placed under the care of the bishop of London. When in process of time the American colonies severed their connection with the mother- country, the Episcopal churches found therein also severed their connection with the mother Church of England. At the conclusion of the war of the Revolution, when America asserted her independence, the Episcopal churches were in a weak and feeble condition. The first effort made for the organization of the several congregations into one united Church was at an assemblage of clergymen con¬ vened at Brunswick, Kew Jersey, May 8, 1784. This meeting adjourned to Octo¬ ber in the same year. The first general convention of this Church met at Phila¬ delphia on the 27th day of September, 1785. At this convention alterations were made in the Prayer Book, and a constitution Was proposed, but it was not until the convention which met in Philadelphia in 1789 that the Episcopal Church was finally established. At this convention the Prayer Book was again altered in some respects, and adapted for the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church, together with a constitution. When the Episcopal Church in this country was fully organized and established it had but 3 bishops and about 180 clergymen. It has now 54 bishops and nearly 3000 ministers. Its communicants at the pres¬ ent time number more than 200,000. The growth of this Church has been very rapid, especially during the last twenty years. Like the Church of England, it has three orders of the ministry, bishops, priests or presbyters, and deacons. It9 form of worship is liturgical, and is found in the Book of Common Prayer. Its doctrines are to be found in the Book of Homilies, the Creeds, and the Thirty- nine Articles. On the peculiar tenets of Calvin and Arminius this Church is divided, the advocates of both parties being found within her borders. The Episcopal Church is truly a missionary Church, having her missionary fields, with their bishops, in China, Africa, and Japan. In doctrine this Churn** if HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS OF THE WORLD. 5 d consequently in harmony with the great evangelical churches evangelical, an • much of the intelligence, wealth, enterprise and of this country. It comp™ influence of the lane . trmarTVYRT ANS -This sect of Christians derives its name from Nestorius, I NESTO who liyed in ti,e fifth century. The councils of the Chtrch°heUnprevious to the fifth century had by their decrees declared that truly God as well as man, but as to the mode and effects of this CLrf ■!,“ union of God with man in Christ there had been no discussion. The Ed men of that age had expressed themselves differently, it is true. The r re of the Nestorian controversy arose from a sermon preached by Anastasius. Tins man took exception to the use of the term Theotokos, or Mother of God, which the Alexandrians applied to the Virgin Mary, and in his sermon he preached against it. A controversy ensued. Nestorius upheld Anastasius. Cyril bishop of Alexandria, called a council and denounced him. As a recon¬ ciliation between the two bishops seemed now impossible, the emperor Theodo¬ sius II. assembled a council at Ephesus in the year 431, and before that council Nestorius was condemned and sent into exile. On the banishment of Nestorius his followers dispersed, diffusing his doctrines through the East, and to this dis¬ tant day they exist a numerous body in Persia and adjacent countries. They live principally in Koordistan, a mountainous region which separates Persia from the Turkish empire ; many dwell also in the plains of Ooroomiah. The Nestorian Church is episcopal in its organization, having its bishops, priests and deacons. It has also a patriarch, who resides in the mountains of Koordis¬ tan. They abhor image-worship, and deny auricular confession and the doctrine of purgatory. Mr. Perkins has for many years labored very successfully among this ancient sect of Christians as a missionary sent out by the American Board of Foreign Missions. They hold that no doctrine is essential to salvation which is not found in the Bible. For the Scriptures they have the greatest reverence. They have been styled the Protestants of the East. Religion, it is true, is in a very low condition ; the piety of this sect has decayed. But nevertheless, here in its mountain home is to be found, under the name of Nestorians, an ancient branch of the early Church, claiming for its founder the apostle St. Thomas. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.— This Church is the offspring of the Church of Scotland. It was in the city of Philadelphia, about the year 1703, that the first Presbyterian church was organized. In the following year the Philadelphia Presbytery was formed. A synod was established in the year 1716. From this period down to the year 1741 prosperity attended the Church. In the year 1741 the synod was unhap¬ pily rent asunder by the dissenting elements then existing in the Church. A few years subsequent to this time union and harmony was restored to the Church once more. In the year 1789 the first general assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States met. It was convened in the city of Philadelphia. It was at this meeting of the general assembly that we detect a decided growth and prosperity in the history of the Church. From this epoch down to the year 1834 the Church grew very rapidly.- In the year 1834 it numbered 22 rrV6r 100 presb-vteries- near]y 2000 ordained ministers, and more than 200,000 commumcants. It was in the midst of this rapid growth and prosperity f a dl7S10n occurred in the Church in the year 1837, which culminated in he complete separation of the Church into the two divisions known afterward Cllli;:t;rer. ,th,e °jd Sch°o1 and New School respectively. But, though the marked the ^ld®d and eaoh 8cll°o1 acted on an independent basis, still prosperity “union I? K°rf 6aCh> and m°re0yer from time ‘° time a desire for were pronose/ Vm ,ev which * ‘he pastor presiding a, tl ° f ’ ^ C°n8lSt8 °f th® pastor and ruUnS elders, ministers and one * ? " “Mm< Tlle presbytery is composed of all the trict. The synod rn -8* ° fr°m each cllurc!l embraced within a given dis- % ie the highest court fil'd ^ P-byteries united. The general assem- “^berof paLrs and eb r Church, and consists of an equa1 byterian Series. The doctrines of the Pre. Jbe Westminster Confession ofF ?f. V1“18tl.c’ and are embraced in what is called The Presbyterian Church is to d ' ^ r" LargCr and Shorter Catechisms, ‘be religious denominations of Udsco^ntry. pr°Sper0US 0 - # PRESBYTERT a "ntcj -S a little remarkable. At tlmY^BERLfJ^'~The or!S!n of t,lis Chun 16 j !ate of Kentucky were visbln|mn-8i.0f tile present century certain parts i . “b'ng in the conversion of C< W‘th an 0UtP°uring of the Holy Spir meet?rd in the e8ti®ation ^ exiSencies of the season seem, p. , the Wan‘s of the people A ^ ln"6ase in the ranks of the ministry “bytery ordained to the minist^0^1*"? the year 1803 the Cumberlat ministry certain persons who had not gone throiq with the regular prescribed course of study demanded of those who aspired to the ministerial office. The synod, subsequently learning this fact, demanded of the presbytery that those persons who had been hrdained as above mentioned should prepare themselves for an examination In those studies prescribed ac¬ cording to the rules of the Church. This demand was refused, and in 1810 the Cumberland Presbytery was formed, which resulted in the establishment of the present Cumberland Presbyterian Church. The subsequent prosperity of this Church was very rapid. In 1813 a synod was established. In 1828 it was de¬ termined that a general assembly should be formed. The first meeting of the general assembly of this Church was convened at Princeton, Ky., in the year 1829. The doctrines of this Church vary somewhat from the Westminster Con¬ fession, rejecting the doctrine of election. In government this Church is identical with the Presbyterian Church in general. In the year 1847, agreeably to the statements of the general assembly, the Church had been favored with an unusual degree of prosperity. In the year 1871, according to report, there were con¬ nected with this Church 100 presbyteries, about 1100 ministers, besides many licentiates. The number of communicants, according to estimate, was 80,000. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH (UNITED).— This Church is at present composed of the two churches known formerly by the name of the Associate and the Associate Reformed Church respectively. It had been the earnest desire of the members of these two churches for many years that a union should be effected, not only for the happiness and convenience of the members in their individual capacity, but also for the well-being of the churches themselves as a whole. There was in reality but little difference between them, and that differ¬ ence pertained not to doctrine, but to minor matters. Several attempts at union were made from time to time, but all proved unavailing. A general basis, how¬ ever, was at last agreed upon and presented to the synods and presbyteries, and the result was a union of the two churches. This event took place at the city of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 26tli of May, 1858. The union of these churches was the source of much rejoicing among the people. This Church in doctrine and church government is identical with the other branches of that great body of believers comprehended under the term Presbyterianism. The progress of this Church lias, since the union, been a happy one. The members of this Church are celebrated for their earnest piety and zeal in the Master’s cause. PROGRESSIVE FRIENDS. — These are seoeders from the Society of Friends, or Quakers, as they are called. They profess to identify themselves with all the great progressive movements of the age, aiming at the amelioration of the ills of life in general. In doctrine they are identical with the Hicksites in many points, rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity and the vicarious atone¬ ment. Ostensibly, the Progressive Friends have no creed to which the members are bound to subscribe. They hold what is called their yearly meeting in Mav at which time all matters pertaining to the well-being of the society are consid¬ ered. QUAKERS, or FRIENDS. — It was in England, about the year 1648, that the sect bearing this name first appeared. The founder, George Fox, a person of melancholic temperament, was born in Leicestershire. He was retiring in his habits of life, and given much to reflection and meditation. It is said that while taking a pensive walk on a certain occasion, and reflect¬ ing on the worldliness of the age and the absence of spiritual religion among men, he felt himself called to assume the duties and office of a preacher. Corn sequently, abandoning his former pursuits, he gave himself to the work of ele¬ vating as well as promoting the happiness of his fellow-men. In his work and labor of love he met with considerable opposition at first, being arrested on sev¬ eral occasions and once cast into prison. Subsequently, his cause gained a few supporters, who went out in all directions preaching and adding to the number of the sect. Among those who embraced the principles of this sect was one distinguished by wealth and social position— William Penn, who afterward founded a colony in Pennsylvania. This man gave character and influence to the Society of Friends. By the earnest labors of Fox and his co-workers the sect increased in numbers, spreading all over England and the Continent. The colony founded by William Penn in this country in its early days consisted mostly of Friends. The Society of Friends believes in one God, the Creator of all things. It accepts the Bible as God’s inspired word. It believes in the divinity of Christ and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and accepts the Holy Spirit as the Comforter. Baptism by water is rejected, the only true baptism being that of the Spirit. The sacrament of the Lord’s Supper is rejected as un¬ necessary Christ is received as the Saviour and Redeemer of the world and salvation is through faith in him. The Friends have what are called quarterly and yearly meetings, before which business is transacted. In dress the Friends are plain, and in manners modest and unassuming. They never resist an in¬ jury, hence war to them is an unnecessary evil. It was in the year 1827 that a division occurred among the Society of Friends. The ground of difference was doctrinal. There are now two societies, -ach retaining the name of Friends, HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS OF THE WORLD. The seeeders from the main body are commonly called Hicksites, from tire name of Elias Hicks, their leader. They deny the doctrine of the Trinity, and con¬ sequently the divinity of Christ. They also deny the doctrine of 'a vicarious atonement and imputed righteousness. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. — This Church professes to derive her origin from St. Peter. She regards the apostle St. Peter as her founder. She maintains that our Lord delegated to this apostle an authority which con¬ stituted him the head of the college of the apostles, and that this primacy thus delegated is inherited by all the bishops of Rome. The first settlement of Ro¬ man Catholics in the United States appears to have taken place in Maryland about the year 1632 or 1633. The large and rapid growth of this Church since its organization in this country is chiefly owing to the vast tide of immigration which has constantly flowed from the Old World to our shores. At the head of this Church stands the pope of Rome. All power centres in him as the successor of St. Peter. Rome maintains that the Church of Christ consists of those believers, and those only, who recognize the pope as the head of the Church, and who sub¬ nit to his authority. All other Christians, in her opinion, by whatever name hey may be called, do not belong to the one universal Church of Christ. Epis¬ copacy, according to the opinion of Rome, is essential to the very being and exist¬ ence of the Church of Christ. Its order of ministry consists of bishops, priests and deacons. Besides the Bible, it holds to tradition. The government of this Church centres at Rome, and is vested in the pope and the college of cardi¬ nals. Its societies and religious orders are numerous. Numerically, this Church exceeds all other churches in Christendom. SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. — This sect of Christians appeared in England for the first time about the year 16o0. In the year 1665 they appeared in this country. They hold to the doctrine of baptism by immersion. In doc¬ trine they are regarded as evangelical, and in church government they are con¬ gregational, each society being an independent church. The one peculiarity of this sect of Christians is the observance of the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath. The seventh day being of divine appointment, they hold that it is still in force. Hence they observe it as the day set apart by Almighty God for holy worship, and to be observed as such by his believing people. As a sect they are not very numerous. SECOND ADVENTISTS (called MILLERITES).— The founder of this sect of Christians was William Miller, who asserted that the end of the world would take place in the year 1843. His convictions were based upon the prophecies of the Old Testament. The sentiments of Mr. Miller produced great excitement throughout this country, and multitudes of people espoused his opin¬ ions. Those who are still regarded as his followers believe that the end of the world is near at hand, though they do not pretend to locate the time. SHAKERS. — This remarkable people appeared first in England. A few members of the society came to this country about the year 1780, and settled near Lebanon Springs, New York. A prominent person who joined them in the j 3ar 1757 was Ann Lee, who was styled “the elect lady,” or the mother of all the saints. The members of this society live a life of celibacy, the men and women dwe.'ing in separate houses. They are said to be very hospitable to strangers, temperate in their habits, peaceable in their lives, as well as honest and industrious. In their mode of dress they are plain, and in their manners humble and unostentatious. Their worship consists in dancing, mingled with the clapping of the hands and singing. Occasionally, when the Spirit moves them, they speak. Their meals are taken at one common table. The candidate who applies for admission among them must first honorably discharge all his obligations to the outward world and yield up all his former relations and friends; he then becomes a member of the Shaker community. When the soul at death leaves the body it continues to dwell invisibly among the members of he community on earth. The Shakers number several thousand members, scat- ;ered through the several States. They have what is called a chief elder and an elderess. SOCINIANS. — This sect derives its name from Loelius Socinus, who lived in the sixteenth century. He was a lawyer, a man of learning and talent, and celebrated for his moral and upright life. He traveled over many countries that he might obtain a knowledge of the truth. He is said to have been a mem¬ ber of the Swiss Church, accepting the Helvetic Confession. Many who em¬ braced the doctrines of Socinus went to Poland, that they might enjoy a greater freedom in their religious opinions. There the Socinian sect was first estab¬ lished. From Poland the doctrines of Socinus were carried over to Transylva¬ nia, and being sustained by persons of influence there, the followers of this sect subsequently began to diffuse their principles through Europe. The Socinians hold that the truths of the Bible must be explained according to the dictates of reason. The Socinians reject the divinity of Christ, and believe the Holy Spirit to be only an energy or power of God, denying the personality of the Spirit. SWEDENBORGIANS. — This denomination of Christians derives it name from Emanuel Swedenborg. Emanuel Swedenborg was born in Stock holm in 1688, and was the son of Jesper Swedberg, bishop of Skaroa, in Swede a man distinguished for piety and learning. Emanuel changed his name (ton, Swedberg to Swedenborg. The first society of Swedenborgians was organized in London in the year 1787. The works of Swedenborg were introduced into this country in the year 1784. A church was first organized in Baltimore in 1798 The doctrines of this Church are the following: First, Swedenborg believed in the unity of God that the Lord Jesus Christ was God manifested in the flesh that the work of the redemption might be effected. His views of the Trinity are peculiar. While he denied that there are three Persons in one Divine Being |i(. at the same time admitted that there are three essential principles in one Divine Being, all meeting in the person of the Lord Jesus Christ. His Trinity seem? to be a trinity of principles rather than of persons. He believed that salvation is the result of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, followed by a life of obedience As to the resurrection, Swedenborg taught that the body in which men shall rise will not be a material but a spiritual body. TPIE RUSSIAN GREEK CHURCH.-This is a branch of the Greek Church. It is a settled fact that Christianity was introduced into Russia near the end of the tenth century. Says a celebrated writer in 961 : “ Wlodimir, duke of Russia and Muscovy, married Anna, the sister of the Greek emperor Basil junior, and she did not cease to importune and exhort her husband till he in the year 987 submitted to baptism, assuming the name Basil. The Russians, influenced by the example of their duke, embraced the faith.” From this time Christianity obtained a permanent establishment in Russia. It was through Russia’s connection with Greece that Christianity was introduced into the former country. Hence the patriarch of Constantinople enjoyed for some time a spir¬ itual supremacy over the Russian Church. It was at the fall of Constantinople in the middle of the fifteenth century that the Church of Russia began to assert her independence, and it was in the year 1509 that the czar of Russia prevailed on Jeremiah, patriarch of Constantinople, to consecrate Job, archbishop of Bes¬ tow, the first patriarch of Moscow and metropolitan of all Russia. From this event we may date the independence of the Church of Russia. This Church is now really governed by the czar. The doctrines of the Russian Church are identical with the Greek Church. The Russians have a regard for relics, im¬ ages and pictures, the invocation of the saints and the crucifix. The Russians Pay great respect and attention to Lent. The ceremonies and customs of the Russian branch of the Greek Church are very numerous. Baptism in tiiia Church is performed by the immersion of the infant three times. THE COPTIC CHURCH. — This is a branch of the Greek Church. The head of this Church is styled the patriarch of Alexandria, and resides at Cairo. The patriarch has under him and subordinate to his authority several bishops The number of Christians connected with this Church has been variously esti¬ mated, some reckoning 50,000, and others more than twice that number. The ecclesiastics of this Church are said to be from the lowest classes of society. This Church recognizes seven sacraments, and, following the example of the Greek Church, they keep four Lents and have several liturgies. The Coptic Church has suffered much from Mohammedan oppression. The clergy and people are in a very wretched condition, and consequently Christianity is in a decayed state. Of all the known branches of the Christian Church the Coptic Church is the poorest, the most degraded and ignorant. Should an infant die without receiving the rite of baptism, they believe it would be blind in the future world. It is said that they circumcise their children, although it is not certain that they do. They maintain that the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper are changed into the body and blood of Christ. Prayer for the dead is a common practice among them. In prayer they call on the Virgin Mary. THE CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS.— This is a Dranch of tin Greek Church. It is maintained by some that the apostle St. Thomas preached the gospel to the inhabitants of India, and it is affirmed that these Christian are the offspring of the inhabitants of that country, or of those who were con verted through the preaching of that apostle to the Christian faith. Their doc¬ trines, says one, are embraced in a very few articles. They are said to acknow¬ ledge the patriarch of Antioch. They keep the festival of Easter. At the church-doors a vessel containing holy water is placed, and the Christians as they- pass into the church make the sign of the cross with this water. THE GEORGIAN AND MIN GRELI AN CHURCHES are both branches of the Greek Church. Georgia and Mingrelia are countries located in Asia. The situation of the inhabitants of these two countries is very lamentable, their extreme poverty and ignorance rendering them wretched and miserable- They profess a common faith, and are in reality a branch of the Greek Church Each of these nations has its own pontiff who acknowledges tribute to the patri¬ arch of Constantinople. The condition of their bishops and priests, so far as cul ture, refinement and temperance are concerned, is no better than that of the people in general, many of them reciting mass from memory. The doctrine of celibacy HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS OF THE WORLD. 7 among the priesthood is practically ignored. An infant, so soon as it is born into the world, is brought to the priest, who makes on his brow the sign of the cuss and a few days afterward anoints it with the holy oil; two years subse¬ quent to that time the child is baptized. THE REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA. — This Church is the offspring of the Church of Holland. It was first established in New York, that State being originally settled by the members of this Church about the year 1612. The first church building was erected in New York City ; the first minis¬ ter was the Rev. Jonas Michaelius, 1628. The condition of this Church in the year 1893 was as follows: Churches, 603; ministers, 600; communicants, 97,520; families, 54,000; Sunday-school scholars, 119,758. This Church accepts the Bible as the only rule of faith. Its doctrinal standards are : 1. The Belgic Con¬ fession; 2. The Heidelberg Catechism; 3. The Canons of the Synod of Dort. Man’s helplessness, his conversion by grace alone, and the perseverance of the saints, are tenets held strictly by this Church. It is Presbyterian in government. The governing bodies are: 1. The Consistory, consisting of minister, elders and deacons of the local church; 2. The Classis ; 3. The Particular Synod; 4. The General Synod. This Church has a college and theological seminary at New Brunswick, New Jersey ; also a college and theological seminary at Holland in Michigan, and a theological seminary in India. THE REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.— This denomination of Christians first appeared in this country about the year 1720. Quite a large body of emigrants from Germany, coming over in the year 1727, accompanied by the Rev. George Michael Weiss, settled in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania. Here they built a church and formed a consistory. Several other settlements were made from time to time in different States. It severed its connection with the Church of Holland in 1793. From 1825, when the theological seminary, now located at Lancaster, was founded at Carlisle, Pa., on to the present time the progress of this Church has been steady and constant. There are now con¬ nected with this Church one General Synod and eight Particular Synods. These are composed of 55 Classes. Connected with this Church are 880 ministers, 1588 congregations and 212,740 communicants. In government this Church is strictly Presbyterian. Its faith is embraced in tbe Pleidelberg Catechism. Much earnest¬ ness and zeal for the conversion of souls is manifested by this people. THE MORMONS (LATTER-DAY SAINTS).— The founder of this Very remarkable sect was Joseph Smith, Jr., who was born in Sharon, Windsor county, Vermont, in the year 1805. His parents were among those who walked in the humblest paths of life. The Smith family possessed a name and reputa¬ tion by no means enviable. Joseph Smith when a boy became apparently in¬ terested in religion, and professed to have met with a change of heart, but he soon fell away. Previous to the establishment of this sect, Smith professed to be favored from time to time with miraculous visions. On one of these occasions ae declared that an angel appeared to him and directed him to dig in a certain place and at a particular time, assuring him that he should find a metallic book containing mystical .characters. Singular and incredible as it would appear to one unacquainted with the history of this strange people, Smith succeeded in es a is ing a creed and forming a sect. The first congregation of Mormons was es ablished at Kirtland, Ohio. From this place they were expelled, and we next find them in Missouri. A similar experience awaited them in that State, and in the year 1840 we find them settled in Nauvoo, Illinois. There belfevers wT'l ^ a"d gathered together a "Serous company of raid m,;ii-)i « u8 /“ N^°° the Mormons were by the en- them td been6' Z °4herS ^ killed while in Jail> for several of tbutedl a I f and impriS°ned- The sect mav be at- It Sand Shio Th t° rrtMv 14 WaS WhHe “le Morm°" sect waa settled very prominent ’ ?ngha,u Y°Ung united with them- He soon became becLe Zr tlTnu n eXP!'lsion Nauvoo, Young at once the plains of the ft West" Tf** guidance and direction they traversed Territory of Utah f ’1 ,fo™ed a settlement in what is now called the under the nam andS Z Z ‘ ^ ^ the? COnti""e d-» subject to chate at d Latter-Day Saints. The creed of this sect is officers of the Church' rfln.g 88 new revelations are made to the Church. The ties, the elders and hi of f f® presldencT of three, the apostles, the seven- preacher and deacon.° ' Pn6S ’ 4 16 Aaronlc Prlesthood, including bishop, priest, with the call of Abraham a 11 * . WS». fa78 one> properly commences tory of mankind ” A i ;lnterlor to dl‘s 'n the Mosaic records is the his- of the earth. Thev tiTu “f7 are the most remarkable of all the nations We read that “the T nr,] e de8c.endants of Abraham, who was the son of Terah. from thy kindred and frn fi Z iUn4° Abranl> Get tllee out of thy country, and and I will make of thee » f 8 h°USe’ "nto a land that 1 wil> show thee ; great, and thou shalt be a g^6a ,natl0"’ and 1 wdl hless thee and make thy name unto him, and he came int ' ° Abram departed as the Lord had spoken came into ihe land of Canaan ” Again, we read that the Lord appeared unto Abram and made a covenant with him, saying, “ I am the Almighty God; walk before me and be thou perfect; and God talked with him, saying, As for me, behold my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram ; but thy name shall be Abraham, for a father of many nations have I made thee.” Abra¬ ham died at a good old age, leaving behind him several sons, one of whom, Isaac by name, was the child of promise. Isaac had two sons, Jacob and Esau. From Jacob, whose name was subsequently changed to Israel, the Israelites de¬ scended. Jacob had twelve sons, and from these the twelve tribes of the nation received their names. Joseph, one of the younger sons of Jacob, was by a mys¬ terious providence sold into Egypt, and by the same providence rose to great distinction afterward. The meeting of Joseph with his brethren after years ol separation was remarkable. A famine had visited the land of Egypt and ex¬ tended to Canaan. Pressed by the famine, the sons of Jacob on several occa¬ sions went down into Egypt to buy com. Joseph knew his brethren, though they knew not Joseph. It was on one of these occasions that Joseph made him¬ self known to his brethren. This event resulted in the removal of the patriarch Jacob and his family into Egypt, and in the assignment to them of the land of Goshen. After the death of Joseph and Pharaoh the history of Israel becomes a strangely checkered one. As a people they grew rapidly, and were cruelly op¬ pressed by their masters. It was in the midst of this oppression that they cried unto God, and God remembered his promise made unto Abraham, and heard their cry. He appointed Moses to be their leader, and at the end of 430 years, under Moses, their divinely-constituted guide, the hosts of Israel went out of the land of Egypt into the wilderness, and commenced their memorable journey to the Promised Land. The journey of Israel through the wilderness is a strange history and distinguished by a variety of providences. It is a scene of revolt of dissatisfaction and of murmurings against the Most High, followed by many and severe visitations from God. At last, when forty long years had’ passed away, this wonderful people reached the Promised Land, the land promised by God to Abraham, the father of the faithful. There they settle and dwell under a form of government and laws diverse from all other governments known on the earth. Their history is still a checkered one. Their conflicts with the na¬ tions of the earth are severe and uncertain at times. But they rise to the rank of a great and powerful nation. They are subsequently overwhelmed and scattered, but afterward they rise again to a period of splendor, and are again overwhelmed and scattered over the whole face of the earth. The first king of Israel was Saul, who was succeeded by David, the sweet psalmist of Israel as he is called, under whose reign the nation rose to great splendor and power. David was succeeded by his son Solomon, the wise man. The reign of this king was peaceable, and distinguished for the building of the temple and its dedication to the worship of Almighty God. But in the reign of Relioboam the nation was divided, ten tribes following Jeroboam, while the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained under Relioboam. The kingdom of Israel was for many years governed by un¬ godly rulers, till at last under the reign of Hoshea it was overturned, and thu3 passed away the kingdom of Israel or the ten tribes. What has become of the ten tribes is still a mystery locked up in the bosom of Jehovah. The kingdom of Judah continued till under the reign of Zedekiah, its last king, Jerusalem was destroyed, the temple overthrown, and the people were carried captive to Babylon, where they remained for seventy years. They were afterward permit¬ ted by Cyrus to return to their native land and rebuild the temple; the walls were again rebuilt by Nehemiah. In the reign of Herod the Great, the sceptre being departed from Judah, Jesus Christ was bom. Under Titus the temple was overthrown and the Holy City destroyed. From this period the Jews as a nation cease to exist. In the year 1694 the Jews first appeared in the United States. They settled at Newport, Rhode Island. In the year 1729 they made a second settlement in New York. Several other settlements were made at different times in the Southern States. They are now scattered all over the country to the number of several hundred thousand. Though a dispersed people, they still retain many of their ancient customs. Intermarrying with no other people, they preserve their race intact. The seventh day is still observed as a day of rest, sacred and holy, and devoted to the worship of Jehovah. The rite of circumcision, instituted in the days of the patriarch Abraham, is still observed, and takes place on the eighth day after birth. Theii celebrated feasts are the feast of Tabernacles, the feast of Purim, the feast of the Passover and the feast of Pentecost. Thus this remarkable people still exist a living monument of the truth of God’s word-scattered, it is true over the whole earth, but preserving, nevertheless, their distinctive characteristics as a race. In their blindness they are still looking for the coming Messiah They are celebrated for their benevolence and kindness toward their needy and destitute brethren. Among the criminals of our day very few Jews are to be detected Wherever the Jews are to be found, there may be seen their insti- Unions of chanty and benevolence. THE GNOSTICS.— When our Saviour appeared on the earth there were existing two systems of philosophy, called resnectively the Grecian and the Ori- 8 HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS Djmx URINATIONS OF THE WORLD. ental. The latter system pretended to teach “ the way to the knowledge of the true God.” It was a fruitful source of much harm and evil to the Christian Church, for among the followers of this philosophy are to be found the origin¬ ators of those sects which for three hundred years disturbed the unity of the Church of Christ. Their great aim was to make the simple truths of the gospel accord with the principles of Oriental philosophy. It is true, these various sects agreed in many points. There were many facts on which all were united, such as the eternity of God, his goodness and his infinite wisdom, and the like. Prominent among these numerous sects were the Gnostics. They appeared in I he first century, according to the opinion of some, while others maintain that “they arose in the reign of Adrian. They were in expectation, moreover, of an ambassador from God, who, when he came, would impart to mortals the know¬ ledge of the true God. The miracles of our Lord and his apostles attracted the attention of these men, and they at once concluded that our Lord was that long- expected Ambassador from God. Yet they denied his divinity, and as to his humanity, they rejected it, because they believed that everything material was from its very nature only evil. As Christ had no material body, according to their theory he could not suffer ; hence they denied the doctrine that Christ suffered for man’s sake. With regard to the Old Testament, they would not receive it as the inspired word of God. As these philosophers endeavored to accommodate the simple doctrines of the Christian religion to the tenets of their philosophy, it is easy to conceive that much harm must, necessarily result from such a measure. THE ERVINGITES. — These are the followers of the Rev. Edward Ir¬ ving. Mr. Irving was born in the year 1792, and was educated at the Uni¬ versity of Edinburgh. The Irvingites style themselves the Catholic Apostolic Church. The scene of Mr. Irving’s ministerial labors was Glasgow. There he labored for a few years as assistant minister to the Rev. Dr. Chalmers. From Glasgow he was called to take charge of a church in the city of London. It was in the year 1822 that he commenced his labors in that great city. As a preacher he suddenly rose to great distinction in London, and by his burning eloquence he soon gathered around him a large and flourishing congregation of attentive hearers. He was somewhat enthusiastic in his temperament. Shortly after his residence in London his views of Christ were considerably modified from what they had been, for he declared that Christ “took upon him fallen and sinful flesh, with like appetites and desires as are found in us.” This, in connec¬ tion with other opinions promulgated by him from time to time, led to his ar¬ raignment and trial before the presbytery of Annan. This occurred in the year 1833. His trial resulted in his condemnation and deposition from the ministry of the Scottish Church. Notwithstanding the course pursued by the presbytery, a portion of his congregation still clung to him. His deposition from the min¬ istry of the Scottish Church was followed by the establishment of the Irvingite Church. Not long after this Mr. Irving died, but his Church survived him and Vew quite rapidlv, for in the year 1835 we find that there were already in the vity of London several congregations which professed to be followers of the Rev. Edward Irving. The sect continued to spread, and congregations were formed In different places. Numerous churches are now to be found in England, Ire¬ land, Scotland, Germany and France. The doctrines of this Church are em¬ braced in what are called the Apostles’ Creed, the Nicene Creed and the Atlia- nasian Creed. The ministry of the Irvingite Church, or the Catholic Apos¬ tolic Church as it is called, consists of apostles, prophets, evangelists and pastors. In England it embraces many who are found among the most cultivated, refined and wealthy of English society. It is a principle of this Church that each member should dedicate to religious purposes one-tenth of his or her income. UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST.— These Christians have often been associated with, or taken for, the Moravians ; but they are not, for their origin is of modern date. They first appeared about the year 1/60 or a little later. They are scattered all over this country, and are quite numerous as a body. In church government they resemble the Methodists. UNITARIANS.— It was in the year 1815 that this sect of Christians as¬ sumed an independent organization. Its existence grew out of a controversy which took place in Boston about that time. The germ of Unitarian theology may be traced to the Pilgrim Fathers. The seeds of Unitarianism that were sown in New England soon germinated. The soil being congenial, the tree grew rapidly, spreading its branches everywhere throughout the New England States. As a sect it allows great latitude of opinion, so that at the present time the name by no means indicates the status of one’s religious belief. At present there are at least three schools of theology, varying very much in their peculiar tenets of belief. The right of private judgment in all things, originally adopted by this sect, has been carried to the extreme, and has consequently led to un¬ wholesome results. The principal doctrines of this sect are the following, viz. : It believes in the unity of God, wl.o is infinite in his attributes, and is the only object worthy of man’s worship and adoration. Accepting the words of the Saviour according to their literal interpretation, “ My Father is greater than I,’ they regard Christ as a creature of God. Their views of the Saviour as to t nature and dignity are varied, some believing him to be a mere man win * example we are to follow, while others regard him as something more il ' man, declaring him to be the highest of created existences. The Unitarian*, deny the personality of the Holy Ghost, and consequently his office as a com" forter. He is regarded simply as an influence going forth from God T|ie great doctrine of the vicarious atonement of Christ is rejected. This sect ‘ confined principally to the New England States. As a denomination, it eil, braces much of the culture, enterprise, wealth and influence of New England It numbers upward of three hundred societies, scattered over the country chiefly to be found in the Northern States. UNIVERSALISTS. — This sect dates the commencement of its history from a sermon preached by John Murray on September 30, 1770, in New Jersey The first society was organized at Gloucester, Mass., January 1, 1779. The faith of this body is embraced in what is called the Winchester Confession, set forth by the general convention in 1803. Originally it was maintained that all punishments inflicted on sinful men were confined to this life, but it is now ad¬ mitted that the consequences of sin unrepented will follow man into the future world, and that man will only be saved from those consequences by a future compliance with the terms of salvation. They have some learned and able speakers, and are a large and influential body in the Eastern States, having a college and seminaries in Massachusetts. WALDENSES. — This sect of Christians first appeared, according to the most reliable writers, near the middle of the twelfth century. The founder of this sect was Peter Waldus. Says a celebrated writer of ecclesiastical history; “ Of all sects that arose in this century none was more famous or obtained a higher reputation for probity and innocence, even with its enemies, and none could count more disciples, than that which was called from its fouuder the Waldensians. Peter Waldus was a man of unblemished character, and cele¬ brated for his humble, earnest piety. Obtaining a translation of the four Gos¬ pels, he immediately devoted himself to the study of this portion of God’s word, It was by a diligent study of the word of God that his eyes were opened to a realization of the departure of the Church from the true faith as taught by the Saviour and his apostles, and the decay of piety in the hearts of the people He resolved, therefore, to assume the office and duties of a preacher, and gath¬ ering around him a few devout souls of like sentiment with himself, this little band of God-fearing people went forth to preach the gospel. The people ol that age, struck with the earnest piety and devotion of these men, readily em¬ braced their cause, and societies soon sprang up in different places. They were opposed by the bishops of the Church, but their opposition availed nothing. In a short time, comparatively speaking, the sect spread all over Europe. Converts were added daily to the Waldensian Church. No force which Rome could bring against this earnest and devout people could intimidate their zeal or ex¬ tinguish the flame of piety which burned so ardently in their souls. For three centuries was this noble people cruelly persecuted by the merciless arm of Rome, but they clung tenaciously to the faith once delivered to the saints, and fearlessly bore the standard of the cross. The great aim of Peter and his asso¬ ciates was not the propagation of a new faith, but the reformation of the Chun and the inculcation of true piety among the people. They denied the suprem¬ acy of the Roman pontiff, and asserted that the power of forgiving sins be longed to God only. They ignored the right of granting indulgences, and de¬ nied that prayers for the dead were of any avail. The Waldensian Church has its three orders of the ministry, bishops, presbyters and deacons. The spreai of this Church was marvellous. Though proscribed by the Roman pontiff; from age to age, though hunted down by the bloodthirsty inquisitors, yel midst all their persecutions they preserved their existence.” We find the Vi a densian Church in the year 1375 in the valleys of Piedmont. From the ye« 1655 to 1696 they were cruelly persecuted and nearly exterminated by tie Roman pontiff. At this distant day, even, they have several congregations it Italy and other parts. WINEBRENNERIANS. — The founder of this sect was the Rev. J°1'r Winebrenner, who was originally a minister of the German Reformed Churc i and settled in the city of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. This Church was in- established in 1830. They style themselves the Church of God. They beW“ in the doctrine of the Trinity— three Persons in one Godhead— and the great trine of the atonement. They administer baptism by immersion. 1“ se ^ ment they are Arminian. One peculiar custom among them is the washing the saints’ feet. This sect is not numerous, being found chiefly in Pennsy vai Ohio and Indiana. WYOKLIFFITES.— The followers of John Wycliffe, who was bonij' 1324 and died in 1384, in England. This was a numerous sect in this stage of the Christian Church. Wyckliffe translated almost the entire into the English language. His zeal and learning were instrumental m paring the minds of the people for the great reformation. THE HOLY OF holies and officiating high priest | 0 HOLY VESTMENTS AND UTENSILS. SCIENCE AND REVELATION ob, THE TRIUMPH OF THE BIBLE OVER CRITICISM. Every book should be judged by what it purports to be. St id be unfair to expect from it what it does not propose to give. According to this rule, a man has no right to look for instruction in natural things in the Bible, which claims to be a spiritual revela¬ tion. Bat, at the same time, as it professes to be an inspired docu¬ ment, and’ therefore to contain nothing but truth, it is just, we admit, to expect that any reference which it makes to natural things will be one which may be tested by all scientific discoveries, and which will prove to be thoroughly consistent with them. Now, what have been the results of the scientific tests which have been applied to the Bible ? Simply this, that in all cases philosophy has proved herself the handmaid of the revelation which divulges secrets far beyond her gaze. It is so in geology ; for, to say nothing of the fact that this science is yet in its infancy, the alleged difficulty in reconciling its discov¬ eries with the Mosaic Cosmogony is met (if it need be) by the fact that the first two verses of Genesis need not be regarded as con¬ nected with those that follow, and that whilst these two verses describe the first creation of matter, so far as anything to the con¬ trary is stated, a million of ages may have elapsed between the first creation and God’s formation of our globe. Nor is this a new theory of interpretation framed for an unexpected emergency, but one that was maintained by the immortal Chalmers and others long before any difficulty on. the subject was supposed to exist. It fe so in astromony ; for though in darker days it was felt neces¬ sary by ecclesiastics to set themselves against the investigations of the heavenly bodies, yet neither then nor since has anything been developed in' this direction that conflicts with the testimony of Him who sits enthroned “ far above all heavens,” who “ calleth the stars by their names,” vui by the word of whose power “ the worlds were made.” It is so in geography ; for travelers who have visited the East, instead of finding anything in those countries at variance with the usages and customs and localities which the Bible describes, have declared that they found it, especially the New Testament, the best guide to Palestine, and that by its statements they were furnished with better directions than they derived from any other source. “ As our knowledge of nature and her laws has increased,” says Lieuten¬ ant Maury, in his late work on the “ Physical Geography of the Sea, “ so has our knowledge of many passages of the Bible been improved. The Bible called the earth ‘ the round world,’ yet for ages it was the most damnable heresy for Christian men to say the World is round ; and, finally, sailors circumnavigated the globe, and proved the Bible to be right, and saved Christian men of science om the stake. And as for the general system of atmospherical circulation which I have been so long endeavoring to describe, the r"* ^ ,'e- ’s It all in a single sentence : * The wind goeth toward the uth and tumeth about into the North, it whirleth about contin¬ ually. and the wind returneth again to his circuits.’ ” Ecclea. i. 6. I W Equally marked is the triumph of the Bible in relation to various readings. English infidels of the last century raised a premature paean over the discovery and publication of so many various read¬ ings. They imagined that the popular mind would be rudely and thoroughly shaken, that Christianity would be placed in imminent peril of extinction, and that the Church would be dispersed and ashamed at the sight of the tattered shreds of its Magna Charta. But the result has blasted all their hopes, and the oracles of God are found to be preserved in immaculate integrity. The storm which shakes the oak only loosens the earth around its roots, and its violence enables the tree to strike its fibres deeper into the soil. The same thing is true in relation to antiquarian research. All its labors are but cumulative proofs of the divinity of the Bible, as ancient cities are disinterred and ancient coins discovered. The great blow that the infidel philosophers of Europe predicted would be given to revealed religion by disclosures from Chinese literature, proved to be nothing when a Christian missionary mastered that language, and produced a lexicon containing all its words. Equally fruitless was the hope that the mysterious zodiac in Egypt would throw the world’s age far beyond the date of the Mosaic chro¬ nology. Reference might also be made to the statement of Sir H. Rawliuson in a lecture delivered by him under the auspices of the Directors of the Scriptural Museum, London, that “ the cuneiform inscriptions, the key to deciphering which has only been discov¬ ered within the last twenty years, have brought to light a great variety of Assyrian and Babylonian historic records, running con¬ temporaneously wfith Scripture narrative, and affording innumera¬ ble points of contact ; and wherever such contact occurs, there is always found- to be a coincidence between the two, showing incon¬ testably the genuineness and authenticity of Scripture.” Thus is it true that the Bible has surmounted every trial. There gathers around it a dense “ cloud of witnesses,” from the ruins of Nineveh and the valley of the Nile ; from the slabs and bas-reliefa of Sennacherib and the tombs and monuments of Pharaoh ; from the rolls of Chaldee paraphrasts and Syrian versionists ; from the cells and libraries of monastic scribes and the dry and dust}' labors of scholars and antiquarians. The skepticism of history has been silenced by the vivid reproductions of the ancient and world. And so will it continue to be. The friends of revelation have nothing to fear from any discoveries that can be made in the hea¬ vens above, or the earth beneath, or the waters under the earth. Geology may dive and delve into our globe’s deepest recesses, and as¬ tronomy may move along her star-paved way until we are dizzied at the story of her ascents ; but they can bring back no report which will shake the pillars of the “ sure word of prophecy.” “ Let science , perfect yet more her telescopes, and make taller her observatories, I and deeper hei mines, and more searching her crucibles ; let even a new Cuvier and another Newton arise, to carry far higher, and to 9 10 SCIENCE AND REVELATION. ahik far deeper than it has ever yet been, the line of human research : and yet will not all this, even though the new masters of physical lore should blaspheme where the older teachers may have adored, bring God into contradiction with himself, or subvert the truth which he has given, or eclipse the light which shineth in this dark place.” Still will it be true, however boldly it may be alleged that Jehovah’s works conflict with his word, that the higher de¬ ductions of reason harmonize with moral truth ; and soon in the blended radiance of science and the wonderful testimonies of the Lord, shall nothing be left for their mutual friends to deplore but the long want of that wise, confiding patience, and that candid for¬ bearance, which would have hastened their union and added to their lustre. The following interesting letter on the subject of Science and Reve¬ lation is from the pen of Lieutenant M. F. Maury, of the United States Navy, acknowledged on all sides as one of the most eminent scientific men living : “Observatory, Washington, January 22, 1855. “My Dear Sir: Your letter revived very pleasant remem¬ brances . Your questions are themes.. It would require volumes to contain the answers to them. You ask about the ‘ Har¬ mony of Science and Revelation,’ and wish to know if I find * dis¬ tinct traces in the Old Testament of scientific knowledge,’ and ‘ in the Bible any knowledge of the winds and ocean currents.’ Yes ; know¬ ledge the most correct and valuable. “ ‘ Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades ?’ “ It is a curious fact that the revelations of science have led astronomers of our own day to the discovery that the sun is not the dead centre of motion around which comets sweep and planets whirl ; but that it, with its splendid retinue of worlds and satellites, Is revolving through the realms of space, at the rate of millions of mile3 in a year, and in obedience to some influence situated precisely in the direction of the star Alcyon, one of the Pleiades. W e do not know how far off in the immensities of space that centre of revolv¬ ing cycles and epicycles may be ; nor have our oldest observers or nicest instruments been able to tell us how far off in the skies that beautiful cluster of stars is hung, whose influences man can never bind. In this question alone, and the answer to it, are involved both the recognition and exposition of the whole theory of gravitation. “ Science taught that the world was round ; but potentates pro¬ nounced the belief heretical, notwithstanding the Psalmist, while apostrophizing the works of creation in one of his sublime moods of inspiration, when prophets spake as they were moved, had called the world the ‘ round world,’ and bade it to rejoice. “ You recollect when Galileo was in prison, a pump-maker came to him with his difficulties because his pump would not lift water higher than thirty-two feet. The old philosopher thought it was because the atmosphere would not press the water up any higher ; but the hand of persecution was upon him, and he was afraid to say the air had weight. Now, had he looked to the science of the Bible, he would have discovered that the ‘ perfect ’ man of Uz, aoved by revelation, had proclaimed the fact thousands of years before. ‘He maketh the weight for the wind.’ Job is very learned, and his speeches abound in scientific lore. The persecutors of the old astronomer would have been wiser, and far more just, had they paid more attention to this wonderful book, ior there they would have learned that ‘ He stretcheth out the North over the place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing/ “ Here is another pro ness. “ I pass by the history of creation as it is written on the tablet of the rock and in the Book of Revelation, because the question has been discussed so much and so often that you are no doubt famil¬ iar with the whole subject. In both, the order of creation is the same : first the plants to afford sustenance, and then the animals, the chief point of apparent difference being as to the duration of the period between the ‘ evening and morning.’ ‘ A thousand years are as one day ;’ and the Mosaic account affords evidences itself that the term day, as there used, is not that which comprehends our twenty- four hours. It was a day that had its evening and morning before the sun was made. “ I will, however, before proceeding further, ask pardon for men tioning a rule of conduct which I have adopted, in order to make progress with these physical researches which have occupied so much of my time and many of my thoughts, and that rule is nevei to forget who is the Author of the great volume which nature spreads out before us, and always to remember that the same Being is also the author of the book which Revelation holds up to us ; and though the two works are entirely different, their records are equal 1) true ; and when they bear upon the same point, as now and thee they do, it is as impossible that they should contradict each other as it is that either should contradict itself. If the two cannot be reconciled, the fault i3 ours, and is because, in our blindness and weakness, we have not been able to interpret aright either the one or the other, or both. “ Solomon, in a single verse, describes the circulation of the atmo¬ sphere as actual observation is now showing it to be. That it has its laws, and is as obedient to order as the heavenly host in their move¬ ments, we infer from the fact announced by him, and which contains the essence of volumes by other men, ‘ All the rivers run into the sea ; yet the sea is not full : unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again.’ “ To investigate the laws which govern the winds and rule the sea is one of the most profitable and beautiful occupations that a man, an improving, progressive man, can have. Decked with stars as the sky is, the field of astronomy affords no subjects of contem¬ plation more ennobling, more sublime or more profitable than those which we may find in the air and the sea. “ When wre regard them from certain points of view, they pre¬ sent the appearance of wayward things, obedient to no law, but fickle in their movements, and subject only to chance. “ Yet when we go as truth-loving, knowledge-seeking explorers, and knock at their secret chambers, and devoutly ask what are the laws which govern them, we are taught, in terms the most impres¬ sive, that when the morning stars sang together, the waves also lifted up their voice, and the winds, too, joined in the almighty anthem. And as discovery advances, we find the marks of order in the sea and in the air, that is in tune with the music of the spheres, and the conviction is forced upon us that the laws of all are nothing sis' but perfect harmony.” TdJi BIBLE. TESTIMONY FOB , KxaT, „f gentlemen in England, mot of whom had enjoyed }" : and were persons of polished manners, but who a liberal t u v ’ jrlfldel principles, used to assemble at each had unhappily ^ purpose of riddling the Scriptures and other s houses & . * unbelief. At last they unanimously hardening °“!* h lemnly t0 burn the Bible, so that they might formed a reso1 J ;th a book which was so hostile to their j rin- \ their consciences.. The day fixed for the dpies and d q S A j fire wa9 prepared, a Bible was ECthe table, and a flowing bowl ready to drink its dirge For Ihe execution of their plans they fixed upon a young gentleman r?lfok to “rifiTlwaivSCegta-.aSt the ence of mind, what sublimity, what truth in hi, replies! applause of his jovial compeers, he approached the table, took up the Bible, and was walking leisurely forward to push it into the fire when, happening to give it a look, all at once he was seized -ith a trembling, paleness overspread his countenance and he seemed convulsed. He returned to the table, and laying down the Bible said, with a strong asseveration, “ We will not burn that book till we get a better.” Soon after this, the same gay, lively young gentleman died, and on his death-bed was led to true repentance, deriving unshaken hopes of forgiveness and of future blessedness from that book he was once going to burn. He found it, indeed, the best book, not only for a living but a dying hour. Colonel Allen, a celebrated infidel of this country, was one day lummoned from his library to the chamber of a sick daughter. ardent desire to obey its precepts. Never did virtue ape*! so sweet a language ; never was the most profound wisdom expressed with so much energy and simplicity. No one can arise from it* perusal without feeling himself better than he was before.” He also said, speaking of the Bible and of the character of Christ « is it possible that a book at once so simple and sublime should be merely the work of man ? Is it possible that the sacred per¬ sonage whose history it contains should himself be a mere man 1 Do we find that he assumed the tone of an enthusiast or ambitiou? sectary ? What sweetness, what purity in his manners ! What ac 'affecting gracefulness in his delivery I W hat sublimity in h'J maxims ! What profound wisdom in his discourses 1 What pres- - . How great the command over his passions ! Where is the man, where is the philosopher, who could so live and so die, without weakness and without ostentation? When Plato described his imaginary good man, loaded with all the shame of guilt, yet meriting the highest, rewards of virtue, he described exactly the character of Jesus Christ; the resemblance was so striking that all the Fathers perceived it.” Yet this was the strange and unhappy man who, through the wickedness and pride of his heart, declared, “ I cannot believe the Gospel.” “ I believe that the Word of God, whereby his will is revealed, con¬ tinued in revelation and tradition with Moses, and that the Scrip¬ tures were from Moses’ time to the time of the apostles and e\ angel- ists, in whose ages, after the coming of the Holy Ghost, the book “h7 pious mother had instructed in the principles of Chri^ of Scripture was shut and closed, so as not to receive any new addh Sanity, an/who, by an unexpected turn in her disease, was about to tion, and that the church hath no power after the Scnpture. to teach breathe her last. As soon as he appeared at her bed-side, she said to him, “ Father, I am about to die. Shall I believe in the princi- and command anything contrary to the written AN ord. Bacon. _ “ God having to this end ordained his Gospel to be the revelation tales ’which Ton" hav^reTommend'e'd, or shall I believe in what my j of his power and wisdom in Christ Jesus. And this is one dept! mother has taught me?” He became extremely agitated, his lip of his wisdom, that he could so plainly re%ea so gieat a measuie o quivered, his whole frame shook, and, after waiting a fewr moments, he replied, “ Believe what your mother has taught you Lord Byron, in a letter to Mrs. Sheppard, said, “ Indisputably, the firm believers in the Gospel have a great advantage over all others, for this simple reason : if it be true, they will have their i it to the gross, distorted apprehension of decayed mankind. Let others, therefore, dread and shun the Scriptures for their darkness ; I shall wish I may deserve to be reckoned among those who admire and dwell upon them for their clearness.” — John Milton. “ I do declare to the whole world that we believe the Scriptures reward hereafter, and if there be no hereafter, they can be but with the infidel in his eternal sleep, having had the assistance of an exalted hope through life, without subsequent disappointment, since (at the worst, for them) * out of nothing, nothing can arise,’ not even sorrow.” The following lines, also, are sajd to have been, tend in his Bible : u Within this awful volume lies The mystery of mysteries ; Oh, happiest they of human race To whom our God has given gra.cc. To hear, to read, to fear, to pray, To lift the latch and force the way i But better had they ne’er been born Who read to doubt, or read to scorn. In Las Casas’ journal this record is made concerning Bona¬ parte . T he emperor had ended the conversation on the subject of religion by desiring my son to bring him the New Testament, and taking it from the beginning he read as far as the conclusion o the speech of Jesus on the mountain. He expressed the high- °at admiration for the purity, the sublimity, the beauty of the norality it contains, and we all expressed the same feeling.” Lord Bolingbroke declared that “ the Gospel is, in all cases, one ontmued lesson of the strictest morality, of justice, of benevo- ■Mice, and of universal charity.” The testimony of Rousseau was as follows: “This Divine Book, 6 on i j one which is indispensable to the Christian, need only to to contain a declaration of the mind and will of God in and to those ages in which they were written, being given forth by the Holy Ghost, moving in the hearts of holy men of God ; that they ought also to be read, believed and fulfilled in our day, being useful for reproof and instruction, that the man of God may be perfect. “ They are a declaration and testimony of heavenly things, but not the heavenly things themselves ; and as such, we carry an high ! respect unto them. AVe accept them as the words of God himself : i and by the assistance of his Spirit, they are read with great i- struction and comfort.” — William Penn. It is related of a deist who had publicly labored to disprove Christianity, and to bring the Scriptures into contempt as a for¬ gery, that he was afterward found instructing his child from the New Testament. When taxed with the flagrant inconsistency, hi? only reply was, that it was necessary to teach the child morality, and that nowhere was there to be found such morality as in thi Bible. In referring to this case, a distinguished divine has uttered the following just and truthful sentiments: “ AAre thank the deist for the confession. However we may scorn a man who could be guilty of so foul a dishonesty, seeking to sweep from the earth a volume to which, all the while, himself recurred for the principles of education, we thank him for his testimony that the morality of Scripture is a morality nowhere else to be found, so that, if there were no Bible, there would be comparatively no source oi instruction in duties and virtues whose neglect and decline would e read with reflection to inspire love for its author, and the moat hslocate the happiness of human society.” a TESTIMONY It R THE BIBLE. u Tstj deist was right Deny or try to disprove the Divine rigin of Scripture, nevertheless you must keep the volume as a kind of text-book of morality, if, indeed, you would not wish the banishment from our homes of all that is lovely and rscred, and the breaking up, through the lawlessness of un- govemed passions, of the quiet and the beauty which are yet round our families.” Sir William Jones’s opinion of the Bible was written on the last leaf of one belonging to him, in these strong terms : “ I have regu¬ larly and attentively read these Holy Scriptures, and am of opin¬ ion that this volume, independently of its Divine origin, contains more sublimity and beauty, more pure morality, more important history and finer strains of poetry and eloquence than can be col¬ lected from all other books, in whatever age or language they may have been composed.” The Hon. Robert Boyle is another instance. His whole life and fortune were spent in illustrating the beauties of the two grand vol¬ umes of Creation and Revelation. He has said everything in favor of the Bible that language admits of. He called it “ that matchless book,” and has written a whole volume to illustrate its beauties. The celebrated John Locke has said: “The morality of the Gospel doth so far excel that of all other books that, to give a man full knowledge of true morality, I would send him to no other book than the New Testament.” Being asked, a little before his dissolution, “ What was the shortest and surest way for a young man to attain true knowledge of the Christian religion in the full and just extent of it?” he made this memorable reply: “Let him study the Holy Scriptures, especially the New Testament. Therein are contained the words of eternal life. It has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter.” During the last years of his life, Mr. Locke applied himself especially to the study of the Holy Scriptures. Addison says, “After perusing the book of Psalms, let a judge of the beauties of poetry read a literal translation of Horace or Pindar, and he will find in these two last such an absurdity and con¬ fusion of style, with such a comparative poverty of imagination, as will make him sensible of the vast superiority of Scripture style.” The learned Salmasius, when on his death-bed, uttered this lan¬ guage : “ Oh, I have lost a world of time ! If one year more were to be added to my life, it should be spent in reading David’s Psalms and Paul’s Epistles.” A comparison of the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah with the account given in the four Evangelists of the sufferings of Christ became the instrument of converting the witty but wicked Lord Rochester. He told Bishop Burnet that as he heard this prophecy read, and compared it with the record of our Saviour’s passion, he felt an inward force upon him which did so enlighten his mind and convince him that he could resist it no longer, for the words had an authority which did shoot like rays or beams in his mind, so that he was not only convinced by the reasoning ha had about it, whieh satisfied his understanding, but by a power which did so effectually constrain him that he ever afterward believed as firmly in his Saviour as if he had seen him in the clouds. Amidst the great variety of books which Sir Isaac Newton had constantly before him, that which he studied with the jrvatest application was the Bible. t The famous Selden, one of the most eminent philosophy, and learned men of his time, toward the end of his days declared to Archbishop Usher, “ that notwithstanding he had 'been so labor¬ ious in inquiries and curious in his collections, and had possessed himself of a treasure of books and manuscripts upon all suMects, yet he could rest his soul on none save the Scriptures. The pas¬ sage which gave him the most satisfaction was that contained in Titus iL 11-14: “The grace of God that bringeth salvation hath appeared to all men, teaching us that, denying ungodliness worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously and godly, in thb present world, looking for that blessed hope, and the glorious appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works.” “ Come, sit near me, let me lean ou you,” said Wilberforce to $ friend a few minutes before his death. Afterward, putting his arms around that friend, he said, “ God bless you, my dear friend 1' He became agitated somewhat, and then ceased speaking. Pres ently, however, he said, “ I must leave you, my friend. We shall walk no further through this world together, but I hope we shall meet in heaven. Let us talk of heaven. Do not weep for me dear F - , do not weep, for I am very happy ; but think of me and let the thought make you press forward. I never knew hap piness till I found Christ as a Saviour. Read the Bible ! Let no religious book take its place. Through all my perplexities and distresses I never read any other book, and I never knew the want of any other. It has been my hourly study, and all my knowledge of the doctrines, and all my acquaintance with the experience and realities of religion, have been derived from the Bible only, I think religious people do not read the Bible enough. Books about religion may be useful enough, but they will not do instead of the simple truth of the Bible.” Sir Walter Scott, in his final sickness, said to Lockhart, his son- in-law, “Bring me a book.” “What book?” said Lockhart, “ Can you ask ?” said the expiring genius. “ There is but one— the Bible.” “I chose the fourteenth chapter of St. John’s gospel,” says Mr. Lockhart. “ He listened with mild devotion, and said, when I had done, * Well, this is a great comfort. I have followed you distinctly, and I feel as if I were to be myself again,’ But this hope was not realized. During his days of decline he was sometimes heard murmuring over snatches from Isaiah and the book of Job, and occasionally a Psalm in the old Scottish version In a letter of the celebrated Dr. Chalmers to an American friend, acknowledging the receipt of a highly-valued relic of Edwards, ne alludes to the declaration of a countryman of ours on his death¬ bed. Being inquired of respecting his frame and feelings, he replied, “There is mercy with God in Christ Jesus our Lord. That person was Fisher Ames. Mr. Ames lamented the disuse of the Bible in the schools, and thus wrote on the subject : “ Should not the Bible regain the place it once held as a school book ? Its morals are pure, its examples captivating and noble. The rever¬ ence for the Sacred Book that is thus early impressed lasts long If not impressed in infancy, it probably never takes firm hold o: the mind. One consideration more is important. In no book is there so good English, so pure and so elegant, and by teaching ah the same book they will speak alike, and the Bible will justly remain the standard of language as well as of faith.” To a writer in the “ Christian Palladium,” who in 1847 made a visit to the Hon. John Quincy Adams, that distinguished and venerable statesman said, “ My practice, since I was thirty years of age, has been to read in the Bible the first thing I do every morning. This practice I have foll*>'*"»d, with but few interrup tions, for fifty years.” Similar testimony in the same direction was borne by him i» * letter to his son, in 1811, in which he says: “ I have for many years made it a practice to read through the Bible once every year- My custom is to read four or five chapters every morning, imme diately after rising from my bed. It employs about an hour of lU: time, and seems to me the most suitable manner of beginning the day. In what light soever we regard the Bible, whether with reference to revelation, to history or to morality, it is an in’**113' able and inexhaustible mine of knowledge virtue.” SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES EXPLAINED LiKe all other ancient writing!, the Holy Scriptures present many difficulties. Some of these are not easy of solution ^“le others may be satisfactorily explained. The existence of di ties in such a book was to be expected, and therefore cannot be wondered at. It is a matter of astonishment, indeed, that there are not more found in it. This must be evident to any one on reflecting that “the books of Scripture were written by different persons, in almost every variety of circumstance; that they refer to people whose customs and habits were totally dissimilar to our own- that they narrate histories of which we possess no other authentic documents which might reflect light on some obscurity of expression or vagueness of description ; that they were written in other languages than those in which we now possess them ; and that, in addition to the mutability of language, there are the diffi¬ culties of translation out of one tongue into another.” The proper spirit in which to deal with these difficulties is, to remove them as far as practicable, and to cleave and submit to the truth, even when every cloud cannot be cleared away from it, V\ e should imitate the example of the apostles, who, when some of the disciples were offended by wliat they called a hard saj ing, so as to forsake Christ, silenced every objection with this : “ Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life, and we are sure that Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. Whenever and wherever we see an error assaulting or overlying !b truth, let us destroy the error and emancipate the truth ; but when we see a truth seemingly in conflict with another truth, let us try to reconcile them, and show them thus reconciled to all. DIFFICULT TEXTS EXPLAINED. Genesis i. 1. “In the beginning,” etc. It is not said whether this “ beginning ” svd>s the commencement of time, or far baok of the creation of man, and long before the present geological period. Genesis i. 5. “And God called the light day,” etc. Though the sun was not made flntil the fourth day, it is not true that there could be no day without the sun, as some have affirmed. By recent discoveries (or rather the recent revival of old ones) we are taught to believe that light does not consist in certain particles coming to us in a direct ray from the sun, or any other luminous bod}r, but is a subtle fluid diffused through all space, and capable of being acted on in a thousand various ways. It is not said that the sun, as a body, was created on the fourth day, but only that it was then appointed for a special purpose. Genesis i. 26. “ Let us make man in our oion image,” etc. — that is, naturally, in spirituality and immortality •, morally, in " righteousness and true holiness, ” and politically, as having dominion over all the earth. Genesis ii. 3. “He had rested from all his works,” etc. This refers to God’s ces- lation from creating and making ; and John v. 7 refers to the ceaseless workings of Providence. Genesis ii. 5. “And there teas not a man to till the ground.” This verse is not contradictory to chap. i. 27, where the creation of Adam had been already affirmed. The inspired historian first gives a general account of the whole creation, in six ays, and then, carrying on his history, describes particularly the formation of Adam and Eve. Genesis iv. 6. Cain went out from the presence oj the Lord ” — that is, went out iota the place of worship and of Divine ma-xiestation. Genesis iv. 7. If thou doeat well, shall hou not be accepted ?” etc. Sacrifices Df tl ° €ucharistical and expiatory the former consisting of the fruits Inst l T \ *atter a ^v^ng animal, t*ie life of which God would accept fedei h‘ t at °®en^er* Abel brought h sacrifice of atonement, acknow- acppU i 1D18®^ a dinner. Cain brought a sacrifice of thanksgiving, expecting to be riffht v,!t °nt repentance. God thus expostulates with Cain: “If thou wert so sia will a“' 0 °ee<* no Zoning sacrifice, thou shouldst be accepted; as thou art not, offering ** "ay ^ ' 1,011 *lasf '-emoved it by an atoniDg sacrifice of sin- Genesis iv. 17. “And Cain knew hit wife ,” eta. It is asserted that Adam “ begat sons and daughters” (Gea. v. 4), meaning, doubtless, sons and daughters not name* in any catalogue of his children. Nor did Cain Bin by marrying his sister, as there was a necessity for such marriages at the time, and the law forbidding them had not been given. Genesis iv. 26. “Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord.” Men had begun to do so before. Dr. Boothroyd and others translate the passage, “ Then began men to be called by the name of Jehovah.” Genesis vi. 3. “My spirit shall not always strive with man. Not always plead with man on account of his errors, for he is flesh, yet his day shall be one hundred and twenty years. — Dr. Boothrotd. Genesis vi. 6. “And it repented the Lord that he had made man, etc. God accommodates his language to our conceptions, that we may more easily apprehend his character and perfections. Here, the cause is put for the effect, by a well-known figure of speech, and the change of His mind signifies merely a change of dispen¬ sation. The repentance was only apparent. Genesis ix. 25. “And Noah said, Cursed be Canaan , a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.” Infidels cavil at this curse, because it falls on the descendants of the offender. Ham, the son of Noah. It may be replied, that the curse fell upon the offender in his own proper person. The vices of the Canaanites could not but be their plague, whatever had been the character of Ham. The wretched slavery of that people was not inflicted in consequence of their father’s crime, but their slavery was foretold as a punishment on their ancestor. Had he been a good and righteous man, he might have been spared the foresight of so much misery. Genesis xxii. 2. “ Take now thy son , thine only eon,” etc. God had no design to accept such a sacrifice; nothing more was intended than to make trial of the faith of the patriarch, and furnish a no We example of obedience to succeeding genera- tions. But if Isaac had been slain, would any injustice have been done? No3 surely to Isaac, whose life was forfeited by sin, like that of all other men, and might be taken from him in this way as well as by disease. It would have been painful to his father to be the agent, but the right of the Supreme Governor to pre¬ scribe any service to his subjects is indisputable, and in obeying him they can do no wrong. Genesis xii. 13. “Say, I pray thee, thou art my sister,” etc. Abram, in this instance, evidently did wrong, but neither God nor the historian is responsible for the prevarication. It is merely recorded as a historical fact, without any approval or attempt at palliation. The same thing is true of the faults and sins which are recorded of Moses, David, Jonah, Elijah, Peter, etc. The registering of these things is proof of the stern fidelity of the sacred writers. Genesis xxxvi. 2-3, as compared with chap. xxvi. 34. In the East different names were often applied to one person. Esau had three wives, and each of them is spoken of under two names, making six names for them all. Genesis xlvi. 8-27. For the genealogical list of Jacob’s family, here given, as consistent with itself, and reconcilable with Stephen’s statement in Acts vii. 14, see a subsequent chapter. Exodus iv. 21. “I will harden Pharaoh’s heart.” Properly, I will permit Pha¬ raoh’s heart to be hardened. God did not actually interfere to strengthen and con¬ firm the obstinacy of Pharaoh, but, moved by that obstinacy. He withdrew from him gradually all the restraints of His grace, and as these restraints were rem ved, the heart of the king was more and more hardened. Exodds vii. 11. “Then Pharaoh also called the wise men and the sorcerer., ’ ete It is not true, as has been alleged, that the magicians performed miracles as well at Moses. In every instance in which they attempted to compete with him they fell infinitely below him, and at last gave up the attempt, confessing that “ the finger of God” was with him. Exodus xi. 2. “Speak now in the ears of the people, and let every man borrow of his neighbor,” eto. There is no evidence that the Israelites designed to deceive the Egyptians ; everything in the narrative goes to show that the people expected to return, and were perfeotly honest in thus dealing with their neighbors. The word borrowed is rendered ask in Psalm ii. 8. Exodus xx. 5. “ Visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the children,” etc. Apart from the teaching of the Bible, it is a fact which observation attests, that, in dis eased constitutions, dishonored names, and broken fortunes, the physical conse¬ quences of the sins of parents are entailed upon their posterity. Ktodus xxv. 8. “ Let them make me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them. 1 ©CRimiKiS i>iFFICULTIEa Ac?* vii. 43. u The Most High tsmelietn not in templet made with hands." The fop- | nier text describes the majesty of God, the latter his grace. The one is his absolute Swelling, “light inaccessible, and fuL. ef glory;” the other is his special and gra¬ cious presenoe : “ wheresoever two or three are met together in my name, there am I in the midst.” Numbers xxii. 22. ‘‘And God's anger teat kindled because he went .” It is true that God told Balaam to go (v. 20), but as he was first positively forbidden to go, and, instead of obeying, yielded to temptation (v. 17), and persuaded Balak’s mes¬ senger to remain all night (v. 19), and thus sinned, God gave him up to his own wicked heart, and that his punishment might be wrought upon him said, in answer Vo his solicitations, “ Go.” Numbers xxv. 9. “And those that died in the plague were twenty and four thou¬ sand.” Paul, in 1 Cor. x. S, speaks of twenty-three thousand; but he refers only to those who “ fell in one day,” while the text includes all that died on that ocoasion, even those who were destroyed by the judges. Deuteronomy x. 6. “There" (at Mosera) “Aaron died, and there he was buried.” It is said, in Numbers, that Aaron died at Mount Hor. Mosera was the name of the district in which Hor is situated. Besides, the word there ( scham ) may be here Used to designate the time of Aaron's death, and be translated then, or at that time, as it is in several ether passages. kind which God had appointed. If Jephthah was stained with the blood at his -3. child, it is not conceivable that his name would have been enrolled in the Now Trr tament among the illustrious examples of faith and piety. Jephthah in his legoti ations with the king of the Ammonites showed himself a man of justioe and human ity, soundness of mind, strength of understanding and of argumentation, and accurate acquaintance with the laws and records of his nation. The last words of his vow in the Hebrew will fairly admit of this rendering — “Shall surely be consecrated to the Lord, or I will offer it a burnt-offering.” In making his vow, may he not be supposed to have imagined that, on his return, he might meet his flock of sheep or herd of goats, and that in this case his purpose was to offer a hecatomb of these ani- mals as a grateful oblation to God, but that meeting his own daughter, and in stantly remembering that the performance of his vow in causing her to spend her days in God’s service, and exempt from the duties of a wife and mother, would dash his hope of posterity, this thought occasioned the mental disturbance expressed by rending his clothes? Can it be imagined that the daughter, if she knew she was to be laid upon a flaming altar, would have coolly asked for two months merely to bewail her virginity ? If Jephthah could allow her two months, why not twenty years? If, when she returned to her father at the set time, and he sacrificed her would the historian have gravely added, “And she knew no man ” ? Does not this clause show that the vow had its fulfillment in her continuing to the end of her days in celibacy ? Would the virgins of Israel have gone to Jephthah’s daughter to “00m- fort her four days in a year,” if she had been numbered with the dead? Deuteronomy xxxiv. “Death of Moses." There is reason to believe that this passage originally formed an introduction to the Book of Joshua, and became sepa¬ rated from it by the division of the books into chapters and verses, or at some ear¬ lier period. Joshua x. 13. “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies.” The miracle here recorded was known to those of old who had no means of access to the Divine writings. We find the event mythologically related, and there is not one system of belief of which astronomical observations have formed a part in which this “long day” has not been noticed. In the original, the phrase, “ Sun, stand thou still,” is, “ Sun, be thou dumb ( with¬ hold thy influence') while over Gibeon, and thou, moon, over the valley of Ajalon.” There are two reasons why Joshua called upon the “sun” to stand still, instead of giving the scientific command according to our ideas — “Earth, stand thou still.” 1. The command was not addressed to the sun only, but to the sun and moon jointly. ” Sun, stand thou still,” or “ withhold thine influence,” would have the effect of re- itraining the operation both of earth and moon, and keeping them in their relative positions. 2. The command, as given, would be more intelligible to those to whom the words were addressed. As the Amorites were pre-eminently adorers of the heavenly bodies, it would tend to show them how great was the power of the true Sod against those very beings whom they worshiped, if Joshua uttered his com¬ mand, as he did, to the objects of their idolatry. So, likewise, the suspension of a general planetary law would plainly affect the moon as well as the sun, and thus would it appear as though Joshua had been well acquainted with this fact. The phrase, “ Sun, stand thou still,” does not necessarily mean that its influence was suddenly withdrawn. All we are told is, that the sun “hasted not to go down for a whole day.” The sun slackened its apparent motion, or we may say the earth slackened, at the Divine command, its actual motion, and thus, though there would be an apparent cessation of the motion of the sun, it would be but gradually stayed, and stayed only for such a period as, in the exercise of His wisdom, God thought fit to permit. But we must observe that the term “Be thou dumb,” or “withhold thine influence,” is one which is peculiarly applicable. It is a form of expression to be found not only in the Hebrew language but in other idioms; and we have an instance of this in one of the most sublime poets (Dante), who, whether he copied from the Divine writings, or whether it struck his own mind, speaks of the sun as being silent, when referring to those places where the light of the sun is not seen, 'f, then, we understand that the earth did stay its motion in obedience to the com¬ mand, “Sun, stand thou still,” or “withdraw thine influence,” that that motion was gradually slackened for the period during which the miracle lasted, and that then it continued at the rate at which it had gone on before, we shall see an easy mode of understanding how the miracle was performed, and we shall see the entire applica- b’lity, both spiritually and philosophically, of the words which were spoken. Judges xi. 30, 31. Jephthah’s vow. Infidels have made this narrative a ground of railing against the Bible, and Scripture expositors have been greatly embarrassed with it. Some of the latter maintain that the fair victim of what they regard as a rash vow was actually put to death; others contend that she was only devoted to a life of pious celibacy. Both parties, however, have shown that there is here no room for infidel scoffs, since, if such an execution was perpetrated, it was done in flagrant violation of the Divine precepts (Lev. xviii. 21; ch. xx. 2-5; Deut. xii. 29, 30, 31), and only proved that this judge of Israel was extremely ignorant of the Mosaic law; and if he only devoted her to the service of the tabernacle, ho still dis¬ played a want of knowledge of the Levitical code, in supposing that he “could not go back” from his vow, there being an express provision that such vows mig^t be commuted. (Lev. xxvii. 1-8.) That there was no real sacrifice in the case, the following esc9. SCRIPT uiik jJ.Lt FICULTIES I rf. "/ mil toy «J>»« «• AoMer the \*y of me house of David.” fi forge key, oa.ried on tho shoulder, was an ensign of authority. Isaiah xliv. 20. “Is there not a lie in my right hand ?" Have I not an idol (o lie) aear me at all times ? H xlv 7 “I form the light and create darkness, I make peace and create W the Lord do all these things." The Lord sends wars, pestilence, calamities Td' other evils, as punishments for national sins; it is in this, and not the sense J an originator of evil, that he is said to create evil. Isaiah lxiii 17. “0 Lord, why hast thou made us to err from thy ways, and hord¬ ed our hearts from thy fear f" “ Why dost thou suffer us to err from thy ways, to garden our hearts from fear of thee 7” Jeremiah xx. 7. “0 Lord, thou hast deceived me, and I was deceived.” The pas¬ sage alludes to the encouragement God gave the prophet to take office, and critics have rondered it, “Thou didst persuade me, and I was persuaded.” Ezekiel xiv. 9. “I, the Lord, have deceived that prophet." I, Jehovah, have permitted that prophet to be deceived. Hosea i. 2. “Take unto thee a wife of whoredoms." Eminent critics consider this as spoken in parabolio terms, to show the Jews the abomination of their idolatries. Matthew iii. 4. “Locusts and wild honey." A species of the grasshopper or iocust, very common in the East, is still used there as an article of food, being dried, ground and made up into bread. Matthew iv. 8. “All the kingdoms of the world." All the surrounding kingdoms, many of which could be seen from certain elevated spots in and about Judea. Matthew x. 34. “Think not that I am come to send peace on earth : I come not to send peace, hut a sword." This is not a contradiction of those passages that announce the Saviour as the Prince of Peace. The gospel may be the occasion of war, but in itself it is the cause of peace. Its holiness coming into collision with man’s sins, its denunciations of iniquity falling on those that love it, its rebuke of the most plausible hypocrisy, and its recognition of the least heartfelt desire “ to do justly and love meroy,” its enshrining the least seed of truth, and its indifference to the largest husk of ceremony, are calculated as soon as introduced into a fallen world to rouse the resistance of wicked men. But such resistance is not the fruit of Christianity, but of corrupt human nature, hating and seeking to repel the ■ipproach of truth. Matthew xii. 31. “The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not he forgiven unto men." From the connection, it is generally inferred that the sin against the Holy Ghost was the ascribing the miracles of Christ to Satanic agenoy, which could only have been occasioned by a wilful and malignant opposition to Christ. When the same is manifested in opposing the revelation of the Holy Spirit against the clearest and strongest conviotions of conscience, the result is the same. But as un¬ pardonable sin hardens the heart, where there is a spirit of deep contrition for sin against God, this sin cannot have been committed, though there may have been near approaches to it. “ It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world nor that whioh is to come,” is not to be understood of sin ever being forgiven in the next world, but is a strong expression for, it shall never be forgiven. There has been a greater variety of opinions in regard to the sin against the Holy Ghost than any other question within the range of theologioal discussion. Epiphanius believed it to be “ vilifying the Holy Ghost;” Hillary, “the denial of God in Christ;” Cyril “an unmeet expression of the Spirit;” Augustin, “final impenitence ;” Ambrose, “ the blasphemy of infidelity;” Lyra, “ sinning maliciously against the truth;” Beza, ‘universal apostasy from God, by which the majesty of God is maliciously opposed ;” usculus, Bucer, Calvin, Piscator, “ opposition to the Word of God, while convinced ot its Divine authority;" Chrysostom, “blasphemy in the face of miracles.” Matthew xvi. 18. “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church.' Certainly not upon the feeble Peter who denied his Master. Peter’s name signifie, mvil ,h W°r Tm t0 mea°’ Tfay Dame is ^t upon another rock, upo, myself, the sure foundation-stone, I will build my Church. andtm, X7i IW'11 3 1111 he has a great abundance, wherea- h »»d advantages in whi sha” at ,a3t be deprived of all his other attainment He who hltl , h6 truSted and gloried. urn e-»07Ivv7Wterfgi07knOWledge,ftBd tal!ea that care to improve i do with their wealth, win fi„d it inor*»s«; whi!-* h who has but little, and "Manages it as in*. poor nr* often observed to do, will find it come to nothing. The little he had learned will slip out of his memory, he will ht deprived of it, and in that sense it will be taken from him. God never intendec that men should attain heavenly knowledge, any more than earthly, without labor, pains and attention. Mark vi. 5. “He could there do no mighty work.” Not that ho had not power for ho did cure a few sick; but the unbelief of the people prevented them from ap¬ plying to him. See Matt. xiii. 68. Luke xiv. 26. “If any man come to me, and hate not his father and mother,” eta The word “ hate” is used in Scripture comparatively with love. Thus, it is stated in Gen. xxix. 31, “ When tho Lord saw that Leah was hated ;” but this is explained in the preceding verse (v. 30), “ho loved Rachel more than Leah ;”“ hated,” in verse 31, is the “less loved” in verse 30. So, “if any man hate not his father,” etc., must mean, “ If any man love his father above me, serve, or sacrifice, or suffer for an earthly relationship more than for me.” Luke xvi. 9. “Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness," eto. Mammon was the heathen god of plenty. Mammon here means money: make friend¬ ship by a benevolent use of this, especially among the household of faith. Luke xviii. 25. “For it ie easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye,” etc. This proverbial expression will appear less strange if we consider that doors in the East, at least those of the enclosures about their houses, were very low, so made as some defence against the sudden incursions of the mounted Arabs of the desert. Through these their camels were made to enter, kneeling, with considerable diffi¬ culty. So that, to force a camel through a doorway as small as the eye of a needle came to be thought of. John i. 21. “Art thou Elias? And he saith, I am not. Art thou that prophet? And he answered, No." John the Baptist was not literally the person of Elias, and it was proper for him to say he was not, in order to correct the false notions of the Jews on that subject. Had he answered in the affirmative, he would have confirmed them in a gross falsehood. Yet John the Baptist was that Elias of whom the prophet Malachi spoke (chap. iv. 5) ; that is, as Luke expresses it, “ He came in the spirit and power of Elias” (chap. i. 17) ; and so was, as it were, another Elias. John v. 40. “Ye will not come to me that ye may have life;" also, Ezek. xviii. 31, “Why will ye die?” If it be asked. Why does not the Almighty do what he thus seems so much to desire? the answer is, God will not treat men as dead machines, or as irrational and irresponsible creatures. He will not drive men to heaven by force. He draws with cords of love, and with the bands of a man. He stands at the door of the human heart and knocks for admission. He will conciliate where he might coerce and command. John xix. 14. “ And it was the preparation of the passover, and about the sixth hour ; and he saith unto the Jews, Behold your king l" Mark says Christ was cruci¬ fied about the third hour. The word sixth, in the text, is thought by many eminent critics to be a mistake of some copyist, as a few old MSS. read third instead. Cal¬ vin, Grotius, and some others, think the two Evangelists adopted different modes of reckoning time, in one of which the day was divided into twelve hours, beginning at sunrise, and in the other of which it was divided into four parts, of three hours each, which would make the sixth and third coincide. Some think John followed a Romish custom of reckoning the hours from midnight. John xix. 34. “But one of the soldiers with a spear pierced his side, and forthwith came there out blood and water." It appears that the spear went throngh the peri¬ cardium and pierced the heart, and that the water proceeded from the former, and the blood from the latter. John xx. 29. “Blessed are they that have not seen, and yet have believed ;" also Lukb x. 23, “Blessed are the eyes which see the things which ye see." The former of these passages pronounces a blessing upon those who saw the fulfilment of what others have believed ; the latter upon those who should believe the gospel on the ground of their testimony, without having witnessed the facts with their own eyes. There is no contradiction in these blessings, for there is a wide difference between requiring sight as the ground of faith, which Thomas did, and obtaining it as a completion of faith, which those who saw the coming and kingdom, of tho Messiah did. The one was a speoies of unbelief, the other was faith terminating in vision. Acts vii. 14. “Then sent Joseph and called his father Jacob to him, and all hit kindred, threescore and fifteen souls." For explanation of this verse see subsequent ohapter. Acts xxii. 9.’ “And they that were with me saw indeed the light, and were afraid, but they heard not the voice of him that spake to me." Acts ix. 7. “And the m,.r, which journeyed with him stood speechless, hearing a voice, but seeing no man.” Th6 statement in these two passages contains a variety, but no contrariety; the formei observing that the men “heard a voice,” the latter, that “ they heard not the voice of him that spoke” to Saul. They heard a sound which terrified them, but did not understand the meaning, which Saul did. The one says tnat they “saw the light,” the other that they “ saw no man.” In all this there is no inconsistency. Romans v. 9. “ Justified by Christ v. 1. “ Justified by faith." James ii. 24 “ By works a man is jutltGed.” Tbs contradiction her* is only apparent, rwy ■ SGREETUEE' OrFFICDLTHEa W* are 'BgiJ&ed by CHmat, meriloritmly,' by faith, instrument ally; by works dbcla- ratively. Christ’s righteousness is the ground of our justification ; faith is the me¬ dium or means by whioh that righteousness becomes ours, and a holy life is the risible evidence of our acceptance with God and title to happiness. Bom Ans vi. 17. “But God be thanked, ye were servant « of sin.” The original is sften elliptical, and in such coses the defioienoy should be supplied: “Though ye were the servants of sin,” etc. Bohans viii. 19. “For the earnest expectation of the creature waiteth for the mani¬ festation of the sons of God:” generally understood to mean that the whole visible creation waits anxiously for the time when the sons of God shall be manifested, and earth and its creatures be restored to the primitive state of their creation. Bohans ix. 3. “For 1 could wish that myself were accursed from Christ for my brethren, my kinsmen according to the Jlesh.” It would be absurd to suppose that the apostle wished himself eternally cursed ; but the language seems to intimate his willingness to die what was deemed an accursed death, such as Paul’s Lord endured, io that he could be the means of saving his countrymen. Compare Gal. iii. 13. Bohans ix. 18. “ TFlom he will he hardeneth.” He suffereth to be hardened. Bohans ix. 22. “ TTXat if God, willing to show his wrath,” etc. He may show his wrath in punishing the guilty without any impeachment of his justice. “Vessels of wrath fitted for destruction.” Not fitted by God, but by themselves, by their own sins. “Vessels of mercy:” made meet for heaven by Divine grace. 1 Corinthians x. 33. “I please all men in all things.” Galatians i. 10. “If 1 yet please men, I should not be the servant of Christ.” The former is that sweet inof¬ fensiveness of spirit whioh teaches us to lay aside all self-will and self-importance ; that charity which “ seeketh not her own,” and “ is not easily provoked.” The lat¬ ter spirit referred to is that sordid compliance with the corruptions of human nature of which datterers and deceivers have always availed themselves, not for the glory of God or the good of men, but for the promotion of their own selfish designs. 1 Corinthians xi. 27. “Guilty of the body and blood of the Lord." Liable to the punishment due to those who “ dishonor the symbols of the Lord’s body and blood.” 1 Corinthians xv. 29. “Baptized for the dead” moans here, in the room of, filling np the places of the dead who have fallen by martyrdom, or otherwise died in the faith of the same Lord. 2 Corinthians xii. 16. “Nevertheless, being crafty, I caught you with guile.” The apostle clearly uses the language or charge of an accuser. He does not confess the truth of the charge of craftiness, but concedes it so far only as to turn the point against, bis accuser. Hebrews vi. 46. “For it is impossible for those who were once enlightened," etc. Nothing is impossible with God; but God works by means, and the persons here alluded to are confirmed apoeWAB, ws j, having sbsndoaed for ersj aH grace, have ont themselves off from all the hopes of glory. Hebrews viL 8. “ Without father, without mother, without descent, having . . , beginning of days nor end of life.” Melobisedeo is here taken as a type of CV t from certain peculiarities respecting him. He was “ without recorded father viiA out recorded mother, without priestly pedigree,” either by father or mother’s side have we any account of the beginning of his days, or of the end of his life and mini - Hebrews xi. 33 ; xi. 39. “ Who, through faith, obtained promises.” “And these all received not the promise.” The “promises” referred to are those which were fulfills during the Old Testament dispensation. The “ promise” mentioned was that of t)> coming of the Messiah, in the faith of which the fathers lived and died, but saw a its accomplishment. Hebrews xii. 17. “For he found noplace of repentance, though he sought it c-,... fully with tears.” No place for repentance in his father’s mind. Such as wilful! renounce Christianity will find no place for repentance in God, who has conns'** apostasy with ruin, though no true penitent ever sought mercy in vain. JAHE3 ii. 10. “He that off endeth in one point is guilty of all.” The Divine a. in no respect and in no instance tolerates sin. The man who violates it in one jp ticular shows that there is in him the spirit of disobedience. The angels sinned only once. It was by one offence that Adam incurred the penalty of death. 1 Peter iii. 19, 20. “He went and preached unto the spirits in prison." Not it prison in Noah’s days, but shut up for their unbelief in the prison of darkness, when the apostle wrote about them. 1 John v. 16. “There is a sin unto death: I do not say that he shall pray for it? The sin.of malicious unbelief, showing itself by speaking evil of the miraculous works of the Spirit, as the Jews did, apostatizing from the truth, and final itnpeni tence. Jpi'E 9. “Yet Michael the archangel, when contending with the devil, he disputed about the body of Moses.” There are several conjectures respecting this passage, but that which seems most likely is, that Satan would fain have prevented the inter¬ ment of the body of Moses, that its exposure might lead the Israelites to pay divine honors to it, from their strong propensity to idolatry. Revelation ii. 17. “To him that overcometh will I give a white stone,” etc. Tt was a custom among the ancients to give their votes by white or black Btones: will these they condemned the guilty, with these they acquitted the innocent. In al lusion to this ancient custom, our Lord promises to give the spiritual conqueror t!u white stone of absolution or approbation ; and inseparably connected with it a aw name of dignity and honor, even that of a child of God and heir of glory, which ii known only to himself, or the inhabitants of that world to which be Bhall be adait ted and who have already received it. SPECIAL PRAYERS. RECORDED* SCRIPTURE NAMES. SUBJECTS. RECORDED. SCRIPTURE NAMES. Gen. 24. Abraham’s servant. Success in his mission. Neh. 1. Nehemiah. — 32. Jacob. Protection against Esau. — 4. Nehemiah. Exod. 32. Moses. Forgiveness for idolatrous Israel. — 33. Moses. For the Divine presence. — 9. Levites. Num. 12. Moses. For Miriam, when smitten with leprosy. Deut. 3. Moses. To enter Canaan. Prov. 29. Agur. Judges 16. Samson. To be avenged on his enemies. Isa. 37. Hezekiah. 1 Sam. 1. Hannah. For a man-child. — 38. Hezekiah. 2 Sam. 7. David. Prayer and thanksgiving after Nathan’s Jer. 14. Jeremiah. message concerning his intention to build Dan. 9. Daniel. the temple. Hab? 3. ilabakkuk. 1 Kings 8. Solomon. Dedication of temple. Matt. 6. Lord’s Prayer. 2 Kings 19. Hezekiah. Protection against Sennacherib. — Jesus. — 20. Hezekiah. When dangerously ill. — 27. Jesus. 1 Chron. 4. Jabez. For the Divine blessing. Luke 11. Lord’s Prayer. 3 Chron. 6. Solomon. (See above, l Kings viii.) — 18. Publican's prayer. — 14. Asa. When going to battle with Zerahthe Ethio- — 22. Jesus. pian. — 23. Jesus. _ 20. Jehoshaphat. For protection against the armies of the — 23. Dying thief. Moabites and Ammonites. John 12. Jesus. — 30. Hezekiah. For the unprepared for keeping the pass- — 17. Jesus. over. Acts 1. Apostles. ISlTR Sc Ezra. Confession of sin in the people’s alliances — 4. Primitive eburoh. with the heathen. For the remnant in captivity. For protection against Sanballat and biah. Confession of God’s goodness, and their nsr tion’s sins. For moderation in his desires. (See above, 2 Kings xix.) (See above, 2 KiDgs xx.) In a great famine. For the restoration of Jerusalem. For revival of God’s work. Under suffering in Gethsemane. Suspension of Divine oonsolathHE For Divine mercy. (See above, Matt, xxvi.) For his murderers. To be remembered by Jesus. Imploring his Father’s aid. For himself, his apostles, and ali believers. On choosing an apostle. For support under persecution. SELAH. The translators of the Bible have left the Hebrew word Selah, which occurs so riten in the Psalms, as they found it; and, of course, the English reader often asks his minister or some learned friend what it means. And they have often been obliged to confess ignorance, because it is a matter in regard to which the most learned have by no means been of one mind. The Targums and most of the Jewish commentators give to the word the meaning of eternally, for ever. Rabbi Kimcbi regards It as a sign to elevate the voice. The authors of the Septuagint translation appear to have regarded it as a musical or rhythmical note. Herder regards it as Indicating a change of tone. Matheson thinks it, as a musical note, equivalent, per- to the word *~>rat. According to Luther and others, it means silence. Ge-e- nius explains it to mean — -“ Let the instruments play and the singers Btop. ‘ regards it as equivalent to sursum. corda — up, my soul ! Sommer, after exannni-i all the seventy-four passages in which the word occurs, recognizes in every ca. e actual appeal or summons to Jehovah. They are calls for aid and prayers to be a r , expressed either with entire directness, or if not in the imperative, ‘ Hear, Je > or, ‘Awake, Jehovah !’ and the like, still earnest addresses to God that he woub member and hear,” etc. The word itself he regards as indicating a blast of In1’ 7 by the priests. Selah, itself, he thinks an abridged expression used for Higg® gelah — Higgaion indicating the sound of *he stringed instruments, «nd £’>***’ orons blast of trumpets. THE TABERNACLE IN THE MIDST OF THE ENCAMPMENT wmmmm HOUN ES, \loTHE LO; v , IN GARMENTS OF GLORY AND BEAUTY IN LINEN ROBE AND GIRDLE. JureyA v, I 11 IPI E^Tfc>-~ — ~-T-aiiP ^ THE HIGH PRIEST VIEWS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS OF RECENT SURVEYS 1 1ST THE HOLY LA.3STDS. Made under the auspices of the “ Palestine Exploration Fund Society,” the “ Ordnance Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai,” etc. CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY AtVeTHLEHEM. COVERING THE SITE OF THE^ ANCIENT MANGER. as^Se.'ST W°rId haS S° many tender associations clustering around it B The;imeof.its foundation stretches back into the twi- aram Saul the v Was already m existence when Jacob returned from Padan- gende Ruth l, ** king’ Iived here‘ In the ^Ids hard by the watched his w' ^ HerC Davld was born> and under its starlit skies he b i f th " " r ‘n1 ‘he ShephCrdS hwd the ^el-chorus cele- SIM birth of the new-born Redeemer. °f a -P-emation of the noble Basilica of Helena, mother A. D. 300 Here it * ^ f f°rt’” the °ldeSt church in Christendom, erected 'tperation. in j8g, ’’ Exploration Fund Society,” which commenced ued in 1S68, for the int ° Z “ ■* nanCe Survey of the Peninsula of Sinai,” rrgan. pages. Amonn th res ing ptetures °f the chief historic places on the following pretation means “beauty' -ft .T^**** a"^ Joppa, which by inter' derful a s(ree, . " ’t e v>"ns °f Sebustiyeh, ancient Samaria, with its won- foretold : “ 1 wi]i 3000 feet lonS. whose destruction the prophet Micah yard; and j wdl "V" “ ““ heaP °f the field> and « Parings of a vine- wdl pour down the stones thereof into the valley, and I will discover the foundations thereof”; Baalbek, the Magnificent, “ City of the Sun,” whose waUs were built of giant stones, some of which are 64 feet long and 12 feet thick ; Hebron, famous for the Cave of Machpelah, the burial-place of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; weird and wild Nebo, the place of the entombment of Moses, the great Jewish law¬ giver; “but no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day.” Palestine and the adjacent countries have ruins of cities, temples, and other works thickly scattered over every mile of country,— all tending to the verification of the Holy Scriptures. We are able to present upward., of thirty photographic views of the most noteworthy places. Here one sees the remains of one empire heaped on those of a preceding one. Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew, Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Christian, Sar¬ acen, and Turk, the nations covering the period of the world’s history, have built works that have crumbled away or have been pulled down to be rebuilt or covered forever. 1 he decay of empires, the storm of conquest, and the sharp, selfish, intol- erant hate of religious sects, tell the story of change and decay, ruin and desolation, which broods over Palestine above all other countries. It is a nation of ruins. What the Grecian army destroyed, the Grecian artists restored and improved; so also did the Roman; but when the Saracens came, they, like the locusts, destroyed but did not restore. ' ’ JAFFA.. ( !• RDM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE FX-PT OR ATTOV PITOT). ) SEBUSTIYEH (SAMARIA). THE STREET OF COLUMNS. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.) WADY FEIRAN (REPHIDIM) AND JABEL ET TAHUNEH. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SINAI.) TIMNATH, THE TOMB OF JOSHUA. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.) BlfiW®® 5 ‘ ■ 1 §11*®®* mmsm BALBEK. THE THREE STONES IN THE PLATFORM OF THE GREAT TEMPLE. (From a Photograph for the Palestine Exploration Fund. CAESAREA. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.) _ WAI.LS OF JERUSALEM, JEWS* WAILING PLACE. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE ORDNANCE SURVEY.) TEBEL SERBAL, FROM WADY FEIRAN, (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY.) Mwiiint liiiiiiinluiliiilllilU ftiSSm : ENTRANCE OF STREET CALLED STRAIGHT. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.) (.FROM A OXOttRAFH FOR EPHESUS FROM AYASALOUK. TOWER OF ANTONIO, JERUSALEM. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF JERUSALEM M/-.trvT OTT OLIVES (GETHSEMANE) THE RAS SUFSAFEH AND PLAIN OF ER RAHAH. [FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SINAI SUWELDEH, BUSAN. EL KARAYEH. -ALKHAD. I — THE MESOPOTAMIAN PLAIN, WITH DISTANT VIEW OF BIRS NIMROUD, THE DESERT FROM MOSES’ WELLS. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF SINAI.) TIBERIAS. (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH FOR THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND.) rHll nnn TAkI.kTS [INSCRIBED STONE) FROM NINKVEH, GIVING AN ACCOUNT OF THE DELUGE. HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF Bible Text, DERIVED FROM! ancient coins and gems OF THCE PERIOD OF TIME FROM Alexander the Great to the Destruction of Jerusalem, 336 B.C. XO 138 A.D., INCLUDING GREEK, ROMAN, AND HEBREW MONEY, DRAWN FROM THE ORIGINAL ANCIENT COINS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON, IN COLLECTIONS IN PARIS, AMSTERDAM, BRUSSELS, BERLIN, ROME, AND IN THE UNITED STATES. _ 1-YA. L. RA.WSOX, LL.D. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Coins of Alexander and his Successors. Before the time of Alexander the Great of Macedonia there were no portraits on coins, ex¬ cept of Gelon and Hiero at Syracuse in Sicily (108). Philip, the father of Alexander, left no portrait, his coins bearing a head of Zeus (Jupi¬ ter) or Hercules. The local deity of the country was honored on the coins of each — as Minerva at Athens (84), Arethusa at Syracuse (107), the Minotaur in Crete (142), Apollo and Diana in No. 1.— ALEXANDER (336-323 B. C.). many cities, and nearly every other divinity hero or heroine, or deified ruler, including also untmal forms and mythical figures, mentioned in the ancient classics. The Greeks were the earliest people to make No. 2— seleucus i. (312-280 b. c.). and alsoTo ma\ftbn stamPed «n them, and figures of nersonf d®t>os'lories of portraits become of great value fn tl °b^cts .wh,lch have adding much t fir i h? blstoncal student, 8 t0 our knowledge of antiquity: No- I- ANTIOCH OS I. SOTER (28(1-261 B. cX toKetherBl "ias very talented, the wife of three s (See cToinll!) yria’ m°ther of two oth< Mithridates VI. was the last of a line of kings of 1 ontu^ said to have had a Persian origin, NO. 10.— MITHRIDATES VI. (135-83 B. C.). about 337 b. c. He was the most powerful enemy the Romans had to contend with next to Hanni¬ bal, as estimated by Cicero. He was father-in- law to Tigranes. (See Dictionary, p. 92.) Demetrius II., son of Demetrius I. (No. 8), (vas taken prisoner by Mithridates VI., and held nearly nine years, who gave him his daughter for a wife, during which time his brother, Antiochus VII., held the throne of Syria, and espoused Cleopatra, wife of Demetrius, but was deposed on his return. He is mentioned in Maccabees (1 Macc. x., xi., xii., xiv.) and in Josephus (Ant. xiii. 9, 3) as a friend to the Jews, reducing their tribute. He wore a beard after the Parthian fashion, while nearly every other Syrian king NO. 11.— DEMETRIUS II. NIKATOB (146-125 B. C.). in that age shaved, as appears on their coins. Nearly all of these kings were occupied in wars and intrigues to the exclusion of any measures for the improvement of the condition of their people. Tryphon was a usurper named Diodotus, from near Apamea, and was an officer of the court of Alexander Baias, who pretended a friendship for No. 12. — TRYPHON (142-139 B C.). the young king Antiochus VI., son of Alexan¬ der, and who usurped the throne after killing him. He put his name on the coins of the young king, as seen in the Dictionary, p. 8. (See 1 Macc. xi., xiii., etc.) Antiochus VII. expelled Tryphon and took his brother’s wife. He made concessions to Simon, “high priest and prince of the Jews” (I Macc. xv.; Jos. Ant. xiii. 7, 3). He after- was killed. This coin was struck at Tarsus. The shrine on the reverse of this coin contained a figure of the Greek goddess Hera (Juno in Rome) standing on a lion, holding in the left hand two palm-branches; the right hand extended, hold¬ ing a staff or sceptre. She was called “ Queen of heaven ” in Jeremiah (vii. 18; xliv. 17; etc.). On each side of the lion is a vase or cup for the drink-offerings mentioned by Diodorus; a star over her head refers to the planet which was sa¬ cred to her. She was called the “ Goddess of S\ ria, and had a great statue in her honor at Hierapolis (Dan. xi. 38). Called also Astarte, Ashtaroth, Mylitta, and Alitta. Alexander II. was a purchased slave (zebina) and a pretender to the throne ; favored by Ptol- NO. 14.— ALEXANDER II. ZEBINA (128-123 B. C.). emy Physcon of Egypt for his own purposes, but was deposed by him after six years for refusing to pay tribute. He imitated the coins of Baias, putting a head of Zeus, or of Dionysus, instead of his own, and on the reverse Pallas, or an ele¬ phant, horn of plenty, tripod, eagle, anchor, etc. The coin of Cleopatra and Antiochus VIII. presents the heads of mother and son. She is entitled “ goddess ” on the reverse (theas). See No. 15.— CLEOPATRA AND ANTIOCHUS VIII. (125-121 B. C.). (Tigranes, Diet., p. 92.) coin 9 for an earlier portrait of Cleopatra. This king does not appear in Scripture, but was an active man — sometimes called Illustrious (epiph- anes), and also Grypus (hook-nose). He was a man of energetic character. Antiochus IX. was named Cyzicenus from the city where he was educated (by Craterus), and his coins add the title Patriot (philopatoros). He was a son of Antiochus VII. (13), and born while Demetrius was a prisoner among the Parthians; No. 13.— ANTIOCHUS VII. SIDETES (138-129 B. C.). ward besieged Jerusalem, but made honorable terms with John Hyrcanus (133 b. c.), who ac¬ companied him against the Parthians, where he No. 16. — ANTIOCHUS IX. (116-95 B. C.). his mother was a Cleopatra. He shared the king¬ dom with his brother, Grypus (15), having Coele- Syria and Palestine, with his residence at Damas¬ cus. His wife had been repudiated by Ptolemy Lathyrus of Egypt, and brought him an army as a dowry. She was killed by order of her sister, Tryphena, at the altar of a sanctuary in Antioch. Besides his own head, he put on the coins those of Hercules, Zeus, Eros, Pallas and Apollo, Tyche, Dionysus, and Artemis, besides the an¬ chor and various emblematic figures. This coin was struck at Sidon. Demetrius III. Philopator (patriot) was a son of .Antiochus Grypus (15). He was also flattered on his coins with the titles and “thunderer. _ _ Demeter, called Ceres by the Romans ?Ure of n ‘savior," ,%od„ On the reverse is a figUr ’ iroc Ktt +U „ T) _ No. 17.— DEMETRIUS m. (95-88 B. C.i. 1 (Tigranes, Diet., p. 92.) Tigranes (Dictionary, p. 92), was son-in-1». to Mithridates VI. (10), and after some extensile conquests assumed the title “ King of kings’’ j Armenia. In 83 B. c. he conquered Syria a„H founded Tigranocerta. After submitting to the Romans, he was kept by them on the throne of Armenia until he died, 55 B. c. He made can- tive and tributary kings his house-servants Mark Antony, one of the famous Triumvirs (three men, Octavius Cmsar and Lepidus the other NO. 18.— ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA (30. B. C.). two), was born 83 b. c. He was a successful eav> airy officer in Egypt b. c. 53, was Caesar’s lien, tenant in Gaul, chief of the army in Italv ij Caesar’s absence, and consul in 44. 'After Caiarll death, Asia and Egypt were allotted to Antony, and with the famous Cleopatra he indulged in luxury and repose, neglecting state affairs. He was defeated at Actium, when Octavius became sole emperor and augustus. Cleopatra, the last of the Greek dynasty in Egypt, was celebrated for her personal charms and various accomplish' No. 19.— ARSACES XII. (70-60 B. c.). ments, which fill a large space in the history ot that age. Born 69, died 30 B. c. She was in Rome with Julius Caesar until his death, 44 B.c., and with Antony in Egypt 41 b. c. A portrait of her son by Caesar is sculptured on the wall of a temple at Koom Ombos on the Nile. Arsaces also assumed the title of “King of kings,” and warred with the Romans after nis father, Mithridates, died. His grandson, called NO. 20.— PHRAATES IV. (36 B. C.-4 A. D.). Phraates IV., made a treaty with Augustus, under which he restored some Roman standards taken by the Parthians in former wars. (See No. h't J HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS' OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. Hebrew Money. Demetrius II. (No. 11), before his captivity in Purthia granted the Jews the privilege of strik¬ ing coins with their own devices and superscrip- NO. 21.— SILVER SHEKEL, SIMON (139 B. C.). tions and during his absence his brother, Anti- ochus VII., confirmed the decree. The first coin was made by them 139 B. c. It is called the shekel and was valued at sixty cents. The in¬ scription is read “ Shekel of Israel ” around, and A for year 1 over a cup on one side, and on the other, “Jerusalem the Holy” around a triple lily. The half-shekel is on page 66 of the Dic¬ tionary, and the copper shekel on page 67. The next coins were by John Hyrcanus, son of Simon. and no Hebrew, and for devices many symbols of temple-worship, etc., but no human figure or No. 26.— HEROD THE GREAT (37-4 B. C.). (Mite, Diet., p. 67.) portrait. We read on No. 26, “ Of King Herod.” The Macedonian helmet and shield on No. 27 ence of the temple, and regulation of the sacred treasury. No. 32 is the only coin bearing a head of No. 32. — HEROD AGRIPPA II. (48-100 A. D.% Agrippa II. or of any other of that family, and is dated 58 a. d. (See Dictionary, p. 46, foi coins of Agrippa, with portrait of Titus.) No. 22— JOHN HYRCANCS (135-106 B. C.). He was with Antiochus in Parthia, conquered the Idumeeans, destroyed Samaria, and built Arak el-Emir, east of Jordan. His coins were not called shekels, and the inscriptions and devices differed from the shekel. On this we read “ Jo- hanan the high priest and the Jews’ Union ” in an olive-wreath, and see two horns of plenty on the other side. Judas Aristobulus struck coins only in bronze frith a similar inscription to that on his brother NO. 27. — HEROD THE GREAT. are said to indicate his descent from the Greek kings of that country. Herod Archelaus, son of Herod, was made ethnarch and governor of Judaea, Samaria, and No. 23.— JUDAS ARISTOBULUS (106 B. C.). John’s calling himself “high priest.” He also assumed the title of “ king, ” putting an end to the Ant xiif nUr,eftabllShing the monarchy (Jos. Anr xiu. I], 1 j for one year. as t No. 28.— HEROD ARCHELAUS (4 B. C.-6 A. D.). Idumaea, but after ten years’ misrule Augustus banished him to Gaul. (See No. 59.) Herod Philip II. was son of Herod and Cle¬ opatra, and was made tetrarch (governor of a fourth part) of the Hauran, etc. (Luke iii. 1). He married Salome, daughter of Herod Philip I. and Herodias. He built Caesarea Philippi (Paneas), and named Bethsaida Julias (Luke x. 10), where he was buried under a monument No. 33.— CHALKOUS OF AGRIPPA. The chalkous is supposed to have been the only money that the poor Jews were able to bring to the Synagogue weekly in the year 73 A. d., as it is dated when the temple was in ruins. Coponius was the first procurator of Judaea, No. 34. — COPONIUS (15 A. D.). and was assigned to duty after Archelaus was banished, 6 A. d. He came with the prefect Quirinus (Cyrenius, No. 58). The procurator was the governor in Judaea, collector of revenue and general regulator of financial affairs, and in later times was supreme in both civil and mili¬ tary duties (Matt, xxvii. ; Luke iii. 1 ; Acts xxii. ; etc.). The second was Ambivius; the third, Marcus Rufus, in whose term the augustus died. ■ No. .4. ALEXANDER JANN*US (105-78 B. C.). Tlfe fejS ancbor. and horn of plenty, ters, and he first cJfl !? ,I?ebrew and Greek let- JewsJon the coinSalled hlmself “king” (of the ■gponus was king until Herod was placed No. 25. anttgonus (40-37 b. c.). ^ \1V-IM D. KJ.J. Romans’ and he struck Sugh under tV® p°narch-v became t,ronze coins of HcrrliL the Romans. All the 1 d have Greek inscriptions, No. 29.— PHILIP. built by himself. This coin is dated 33 a. d. (L A Z, year 37 of his reign). Herod Agrippa I. was grandson of Herod I., NO. 30. — HEROD AGRIPPA I. and was educated at Rome with Drusus and Claudius, wno was afterward emperor. He was made king and successor to Philip, and after¬ ward ruler of Judaea and Samaria. In earnest a Jew, he lived at Jerusalem, kept the laws, and improved the country by building or repairing public works and instituting games. NO. 35.— VALERIUS GRATUS (16 A. D.). Then Tiberius sent Valerius Gratus, who was eleven years in office, from 15 to 26 A. d., during whose term Joseph, called Caiaphas, was made high priest, who was also son-in-law of Annas. (John xviii. 13.) Pontius Pilate succeeded Gratus, and the cru¬ cifixion of Jesus Christ is dated in the seventh No. 31.— HEROD OF CHALCIS (41-48 A. D.). Hei od of C halcis was son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and brother of Agrjppa. He was made mg by Claudius (who at the same time gave Agrippa II .Judasa and Samaria), and resided at Cnalcis in Coele-Syria, and he was also given the appointment ot the high Driest, the superintend- No. 36. — PONTIUS PILATE (29 A. D.). year of his term. He suspected a Samaritan impostor ot plotting treason, and killed many people on Mount Gerizim, seized the sacred temple-treasure, built an aqueduct with it, and dedicated some Roman shields in the temple in honor of Tiberius. Felix was a slave of Antonia, mother of Clau¬ dius, was advanced in the army and appointed to J udaea in 52 a. d. Tacitus says, “ He wielded the sceptre of a monarch with the soul of a slave.” NO. 37— FELIX, UNDER NERO (54-68 A. D.). He mamed Drusilla, sister of Agrippa. Fis first wife was Drusilla, daughter of Tuba; lik third also a ^incess. historical illustrations of ancient coins and gems. First Revolt of the Jews. The Jews were so oppressed by the Roma is that they broke out into revolt several times, but were put down easily, except when, under Gessius Florus, they suffered unbearable tyranny. NO. 38. — ELEAZAR (65 A. D.). The first revolt began under the emperor Nero, A. d. 60, and one of the first war-measures was to issue money to pay soldiers and for the use of the people, who detested the coins of the Ro¬ mans as blasphemous and badges of servitude. The most capable leader was Eleazar, son of the high priest Ananias before whom Paul was tried. (Acts xxiii. 3.) His coins have the words “ Elea¬ zar the high priest” and “ First year of the Re- No. 39. — EI.EAHAR, BRONZE. (Simon, Diet., p. 6.) demption of Israel.” The types he used were various, being vase, harp, treasury (for sacred books), fruit, palm tree, and others. The only true shekels were those made by Bimon the Maecabee (No. 21), all coins after his death having some other name, although writers usually call any piece of Hebrew money a shekel. The sizes of the various pieces were made to con¬ form to those of the Greek and Roman standards. The stater (Nos. 9, 135, 140) was equal to sixty cents and Simon’s shekel (No. 21); the double stater (Nos. 14, 10, 139, etc.) was equal to two shekels; the mite (Nos. 31, 33) of copper was about a quarter of a cent. No. 40— SIMON, SON OF GAMALIEL. Simon, son of Gamaliel, chief of the Sanhe¬ drin, called “Nasi” (prince), struck coins after Eleazar’s death, and also Ananus, son of Ananus. The Sanhedrin authorized bronze coins to be issued, with the legend “Year 2” around the vase, and “Deliverance of Zion” around the vine-leaf. No. 41— SANHEDRIN. On some coins the name Zion stands for Jeru¬ salem. During the siege by Titus Caesar (who was afterward the emperor Titus) the Jews used Greek or Roman coins to strike their own devices on, as appears on many coins of that time, as also on those of the second revolt. (Nos. 46, 47, 48.) The Romans did not permit their provinces to strike coins of gold or silver ; therefore, the only coins of Herod and his successors are in bronze. The tribute-money was of necessity a Roman coin, bearing the head of “Caesar” or the em¬ peror, and was valued at sixty cents, the sum required for two persons. Jerusalem Captured. The revolt was suppressed, and Jerusalem cap¬ tured by the Romans under Titus, his father, Vespasian, being emperor. A great number was struck by the Romans to commemorate the event — by Vespasian, in gold, silver, and bronze, and also by Titus. One of Vespasian is shown on page 98 in the Dictionary. This bronze (42) coin of Titus is read, “ The emperor Titus Csesar No. 42.— VESPASIAN (71 A. D.). • (See Diet., p. 98.) Vespasian, Priest, Tribunal Power, Consul second time.” ' On the reverse is a palm bearing dates, with a Roman soldier (Titus) armed, and a woman for Judaea weeping, seated on arms ; S. C. for Decree of the Senate. No. 43.— TITUS (73 A. D.). No. 43 is described, “Titus standing, his right foot on the prow of a vessel, holding a ‘ Victory ’ and a spear; at his feet are two Jews in suppli¬ cation, and near a palm.” Dated 73 A. D. No. 44 is a coin in honor of a naval victory, and is supposed to refer to the one described by Jose¬ phus (Wars, iii. 9). When the war began, Nero sent Vespasian with the army to Palestine, and he took his son, Titus, with him as his lieutenant ; and -when Nero died, A. D. 68, Vespasian became emperor, return¬ ed to Rome, and left Titus in command at Jeru¬ salem. Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, Egypt, July 1, 69, and at Jerusalem, in the camp of Titus, July 3. Jerusalem was taken September 8, A. d. 70. Titus was honored with the title of “emperor” (which was equal to commander-in-chief) on the fall of Jerusalem. He had served under his father in the siege and capture of the cities Tariclisea and Gamala, described by Josephus. In the triumphal procession of Vespasian at Rome, Titus was associated with his father and with his brother, Domitian ; he was also nomi¬ nated a csesar — that is, an heir to the throne of Rome. A triumphal arch, the “Arch of Titus,” NO. 44.— TITUS. was erected at Rome, and is still standing, bear¬ ing sculptures in memory of the trophies and victory over the Jews. It is th» oldest arch of the kind in that city, and one of the most inter¬ esting monuments in the world. Besides the coins of Vespasian and Titus, those of Domitian bore devices recording the capture of Jerusalem. The Romans evidently regarded it as an import¬ ant event, for they stamped it on their coins dur¬ ing twenty-six years. The Second Revolt of the JEW(, From the time of the first Caesar, Juiiu<, Jews, when at peace, had a certain amount ^ No. 45.— NERVA (115 A. D.). liberty and many privileges. Some Jews had the Roman franchise at Ephesus and elsewhere and Seneca said of them, “Though conquered' they gave laws to their conquerors.” After the revolt which was put down by Titus, they paid tributes fixed by Vespasian, but under Nerva these were abolished, and coin No. 45 was struck to commemorate the event. But Jewish hatred NO. 46.— SIMON BARKOKAB. to Rome could not so easily be quieted, and aftei a few years a second revolt broke out, in 115 A. D., in Cyrene, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Cyprus. In 117 A. D., Hadrian sent a colony of veteran sol¬ diers to Jerusalem, and the revolt broke out there, aided by the cry, “The Messiah lias come I” referring to the new leader, Simon Bar-, kokab, called “ Son of the Star” (Nura. xxiv. 17-i 24), but the war did not begin until 131 a. i>. ! NO. 47.— SIMON BARKOKAB. It was an ancient custom of the Syrian and Egyptian Ptolemies to honor a successful general or a patriotic king and general of the army with the title “ savior ” — in Greek, soter — as seen on coin No. 3 ; the first Ptolemy was a Soter, also the first Demetrius. The Romans honored their emperor or general with the title “Father of the Country” for similar services. The Hebrews were very jealous of permitting any human image on a coin, and therefore we read only the name of the high priest or other person in chief authority, and the pious sent nee, “The Deliverance of Jerusalem,” as on No. -m and “The Deliverance of Zion” on others. These coins were issued at the mint under the authority of the Sanhedrin or senate, with a new device on the accession of each high priest, king, or ethnarch. The coin No. 48 is probably last coined by the Jews as a people. . The leader Barkokab struck Hebrew devices over silver coins of Titus, as in this case, -m over those of Trajan (No. 47) and of Donut 'R No. 48— SIMON BARKOKAB, BRONZE. and of copper over various types, as in 48, 1 ^ the letters on the margin show that the one coin was of Trajan. historical illustrations of ancient coins and gems. jmnpriul coins struck at Jerusalem are Tte trreat variety, and are of great value gfSSert. Hadrian rebuilt the city of Jeru- NO. 49.— HADRIAN salem and gave it the name of -/Elia Capito- iiNv'in honor of Jupiter of the Capitol at Rome and of his own family, .Elms. This coin /491 i8 read “Hadrian Augustus, Consul the third term, Father of the Country,” around Ha- No. 50.— HADRIAN, COLONIAL COIN. drian’s bust; and on the reverse, “The ad rent of Augustus into Judaea:” a woman, as Judaea, standing with two children bearing palms, her¬ self pouring incense on an altar: “By decree of the Senate.” (See coin of Hadrian in Dic¬ tionary, p. 41.) In No. 50 is shown a temple, within which is a statue, probably of Jupiter, attended by two other divinities, perhaps Juno and Minerva. Coins were also struck by Anto¬ ninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Aurelius and Lu- NO. 51.— AURELIUS AND VERUS. ilUS !,e™ ^ Julia Domna (which bears the title Commodiana, at the request of the em- No. 52.— JULIA DOMNA (173-217 A. D.). peror Commodus), by Caracalla and Diadume- | w (on which a temple with a statue still ap- I 0. 53. COIN OP DIADUMENIANUS (217 A. D.). .ancient il''e ,°°in„ of Elagabalus records the tw'n-foundf« d the she_woH' suckling the The se,MerS i° j Rome, Romulus and Remus. Hojtilian )vith Trajan, JEtruscus, and date strnp'v t ot le,r Roman coins of a later next coinC J,e™salem have been found. The made manvt c^y ’s Rie Arabs, who Hed is the^A ari®ties’ No. 57 reading “ Moham- _ “ he AP°stle of God ” in Cufic letters, and on the other side Palestine, on each side of the letter M, under a crescent. The coins and medals JPJL No. 54. — ELAGABALUS (218-222 A. D.). on page 54, Dictionary, are of the crusaders after 1 1 50 A. d. Elagabalus was a Syrian, named Bassianus, but known by his title as priest of the sun-deity, which was worshiped at Emesa under that name. He was an Oriental in habits, tastes, and train¬ ing, and had no sympathy for Roman laws, dis¬ cipline, or its religion. His reign was cut short by the mob, his successor being Alexander Sev- erus, his Cousin. No. 55. — TRAJAN (249-251 A. D.). Caius Messius Quintus Trajan Decius was urged to accept the throne of Rome much against his inclination. Under his rule the Goths first made their appearance in the empire as enemies. Decius entered the field against them, leaving Valerian in Rome to rule with the title of Censor. He was the first of all the Roman emperors to fall in battle with the enemy. The coins struck in Jerusalem with his head and titles were honorary, as it is not recorded that he ever visited the city. His wife, Herennia -Etrus- cilla, is honored on the coin with the title Au- No. 56.— 2ETRUSCUS (249-251 A. D.). gusta (the venerable), and with a fine bust-portrait, set in a crescent moon in reference to her purity of character. The figure on the other side of the coin is of the goddess Modesty, and is also in honor of the queen. These religious honors were decreed by the Senate, and have been the means of perpetuating the memory' of the noble woman in the absence of other records. NO. 57. — ARABIAN. The caliph Omar captured Jerusalem 637 A. d., and struck coins in honor of the event, one of a long series, _ during oyer 400 years, being given here. Their inscriptions are always in mono¬ gram, often artistically constructed. The soil in and around the Holy City contains many buried treasures of coins, vast numbers of which are brought to light every year. The people in the villages of Palestine, in digging up old founda¬ tions or cellars for new houses, find deposits of ancient coins, mostly of bronze, a few silver, and only now and then gold. At Sidon three differ¬ ent deposits have been found of gold coins of Philip and Alexander the Great— in all over 20,000 pieces, of from $10 to $50 each in value. NO. 58. — CY.lENIUS, PREFECT OF SYRIA. The coin of Oyrenius (Quirinus) recalls the mention of the census made for Caesar Augustus in Luke (ii. 2), when “ all the world ” was taxed, about the time of the birth of Jesus. The por¬ trait shows a character in accord with the ac¬ counts given by historians of the cruel and in¬ human exactions of the tax-gatherers of that time. He was so detested that the Senate of Rome refused him the honors of a public fune¬ ral, although requested by the emperor Tiberius. Herod Archelaus (59 and 28) was ruler in Pal¬ estine when, it is supposed, Paul was “ at the foot of Gamaliel,” Antipas governed Galilee and Persea, and Philip (29) Trachonitis, Auranitis. No. 59. — ARCHELAUS. and Batansea. When Archelaus was banished, Judsea, etc. became a Roman province; Copo- nius was procurator when Cyrenius was prefect; he was succeeded by Ambivius, 10 A. D., and An- nius Rufus, 13 A. D. ; then Valerius Gratus, 14, and Pontius Pilate, 25 ; Marcellus, 35 ; Marullus, 37 ; and in 38 Agrippa I. was made governor of Ju¬ dsea until 44 ; then Cuspius Fadus, Tiberius Alexander, 47, Felix, 52, and Festus, 60, Annas, 62, Albinus, 62 ; and the last one was Gessius Florus, in A. d. 65, who was the great cause of the first revolt. No. 60. — AMBIVIUS. The general policy of Augustus as to the gov¬ ernment of Judsea was, as advised byr Maecenas, to continue the prefect in office three or five years. Augustus died 14 a. d., after a reign of fifty-seven years, at the age of seventy-seven, and was suc¬ ceeded by his adopted son, Tiberius, son of his wife Livia, who was a less active and more luxu¬ rious ruler, and who adopted a new line of policy, which was to change the rulers of provinces as seldom as possible, so as to avoid plundering the people by new and hungry officials. In a reign of twenty-two years he changed the procurator of Judaea only once. The first procurator under Tiberius was Valerius Gratus, in whose time Joseph, also called Caiaphas, was made high NO. 61. — ATNIUS RUFUS. priest. After ruling eleven years he made way for Pontius Pilate, in the seventh year of whose rule (33 A. d., April 2d) the Gospel narrative makes Jesus of Nazareth appear before him for trial before crucifixion. Recent discoveries have enabled the student to follow the entire history of that age from one ruler to another, with nearly every detail supplied from antiquities. 8 HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. Paul was a native of Tarsus, which was a metropolis, and had a famous idol-shrine (as shown here, and more distinctly on No. 13). These idol-shrines are scattered throughout Pkce- No. 62.— TARSUS. nicia, and are now tumbling into ruins. Hera is standing on a lion, holding emblems in each hand, a conical object each side of the lion, and an eagle on the apex; garlands decorate the front and sides. The inscription is “ (Money) of King Antiochus the Benefactor.” Some of the coins of Tarsus have a figure of a woman as an emblem of the city, and of another for the river Cydnus, on which the famous Cleopatra made a magnificent display in entering the city. (See <*.oin of Tarsus in Dictionary, p. 103.) The coin of Antioch has an emblem of the river Orontes beneath the feet of a woman per¬ sonifying the city, the inscription reading, “ Of Antioch the Metropolis.” This city was found¬ ed by Seleucus I., 300 b. c. (See Dictionary, ?. 7.) The coinage includes many of the Greek tings and Roman governors of Syria. We have ;oins of the Roman governors— P. Q. Y arus, dated B. c. 7-6, and Volusius Saturninus, prefect from 4-5 A. D. ; and he wras followed by Quirinus (Cy- renius ; No. 58). The coin of Damascus is supposed to refer to the fountains or rivers that water its gardens in the Greek word pegai. The device is an emblem of the city, a woman holding fruit and a horn of plenty, seated in a court surrounded by a market, a temple with a statue of a deity above, the sun and moon on either side. The head is of Julia Aquila Severa, wife of the emperor Elagabalus. NO. 65.— ARETAS. Avetas was the title of the rulers of the Naba¬ taeans of Arabia, who built Petra and many other cities little known. There were several kings with this title, one of whom is here called “ Bacchius the Jew,” and on the other side of the coin is the name of a Roman general, Plautus. The head is an emblem of the city of Petra. (See No. 143.) ^ On coin 66 we read, “ Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus ” around a grain-measure ; and on the other side, “Elected Consul the second time, High Priest, Tribunal Power, Emperor,” around S. C., for decreed by the Senate (of Rome) ; dated 41-42 A. D. This was once supposed to have been struck to commemorate the great famine in Syria, relieved by Claudius. Josephus says the great famine occurred under the procurators Fadus and Tiberius Alexander, 44 to 48 A. d. It was the custom of the Jews in all countries to send money to Jerusalem to re¬ lieve the distress of their brethren there. The custom is in full force now. This Nicocles, king of Salamis, Cyprus, also on the coin “ Of the Paphians,” was son of Evagoras No. 67.— NICOCLES, KING OP SALAMIS. I., and ruled about 375 B. c. Isocrates, the orator of Athens, made a flattering eulogy on his life and deeds. The proconsul of Cyprus mention¬ ed in Acts xiii. 7 was succeeded by the one named on the coin in the Dictionary, p. 24, whose inscription is “ (Money) of the Cyprians, (Cyprus, Diet., p. 24.) under Cominius Proclus, Proconsul.” The head is of the emperor Claudius. The coin of Paphos refers to a temple of Venus, now in ruins. The temple-ruins at Paphos have not yet been exam¬ ined; but another temple to Venus — also called Aphrodite and Astarte — was exhumed at Golgos, near the centre of the island, when 1000 marble statues came to light, some colossal, others life- size, and many smaller. These are now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York'. Pausanias says in his ancient history that Agapenor, a gen¬ eral of the Greeks under Agamemnon, return¬ ing after the close of the siege of Troy, was wrecked on the coast of Cyprus, landed, and built the town of Paphos and its temple to Venus, which was much later in time than the one at Golgos. The people of the island at that time are said to have numbered seven millions. Mark, the cousin of Barnabas, Paul’s com¬ panion, left them at Perga, whose coin, shown here, bears the image of the goddess Diana, a stag, and other religious emblems, with the in¬ scription, “Of Diana of Perga.” (See Perga in the Dictionary.) Diana is named on this <■ • Artemis. C01c The coin of Iconium, shown here, is insr-ril ' “Nero Caesar Augustus” around a head of tP young Nero ; and on the reverse, “Poppffia gusta of the Claud-Iconians,” around a seated figure of Popprea, wife of Nero. Iconium No. 70.— ICONIUM. made a Roman colony by Claudius, and named Claudia. (See Iconium in the Dictionary.) Xenophon says it was a city in Phrygia, as it his history of the Expedition of Cyrus he says “he came to Iconium, the last city of Phrygia” but Cicero, Strabo, and other ancients say it was in Pamphylia. It is a very ancient place, for Xenophon wrote about 360 b. c. NO. 71.— ATTALIA. The coin of Attalia is of the emperor Commo- dus (180-192 A. D.), who required his subjects to salute him as Hercules the god. The place was Originally called Corcyrus, and Attalus II. Phil- adelphus (see Nos. 127, 128), king of Perga mus, added a new town and built a wall around the whole, giving it bis name. The coin of Troas is of Alexander Severus, emperor of Rome, 222-235 A. D. The city was founded by Antigonus (No. 137), and named by him Antigonia, but enlarged by Lysimackim, who, named it Antigonia Troas. It became a Roman No. 72.— ALEXANDRIA TROAS. colony under Augustus, and had many unmuni i and privileges. The port was artificial, wi 1 " basins, outer and inner, and it was an jtopor a commercial centre for many centuries. 1 1 , tiquities found by Dr. Scliliemann in his m a1 for the Troy of Homer indicate great wealia ■> culture among the people in some early ag coin of Troas in Dictionary, p. 94.) NO. 73.— SAMOTHRACIA. The island of Samothrace lies, about h.' between Troas and Macedonia; it iB eight long, six wide, and has lofty mountain-' 1 B J the highest being 5250 feet. From the ’ ■ J even high up on the sides, of the mountain. ,, this island one can see the plains of Troy - • said in Homer’s Iliad. This is a very 1C ing confirmation of the accuracy of Home geography and minute observation. HISTORICAL illustrations of ancient coins and OEMS. under the Roman rule was divided Macedonia ^inst a general into four districts t Yf ^ fet division 1B bellion, to/ a. l>. NO. 74.— MACEDONIA, SECOND DIVISION. (Mac. I., Diet., p. 62.) on page 62 in the Dictionary; one of the sec- ¥ iya) is here- none is known of the thud, but of the fourth there are several besides this one No 75, which bears the mark of the em¬ peror’s legate (leg). flie chief cities were- NO. 75— MACEDONIA UNDER ROMAN RULE. Amphipolis, capital of the 1st district; Ihessa- lonica, of the 2d; Pella, of the 3d; and Heraclea, of the 4th. The peoples of the several districts were kept wholly distinct, not even being allow¬ ed to marry those of another or have any deal¬ ings in houses or lands. The proconsul over the whole country resided at Thessalonica ; the Ro¬ man roads were excellent throughout the coun¬ try, uniting the capitals. The chief seaport eastward was Neapolis, the coin of which bears an archaic head of Diana with a peculiar style of hair-dressing, and the letters in Greek Neop, for Neapolis; on the reverse a head of the fabu¬ lous monster called Gorgon. The road from Neapolis to Philippi leads over the river Zy- gactes (break-pole), about which the Greeks tell this legend : Proserpine was gathering flowers by the river, when Pluto fell in love with her and NO. 76.— NEAPOLIS, MACEDONIA. took her into his chariot, the pole of which broke as he tried to cross the river. The whole coun¬ try is poetically dotted with similar legends and names. 0 The com of Philippi shows that it was a Ro¬ man colony, the inscription being “ ti™;... Claudius Csesar Augustus, Hi; ’ " ' estal inscribed “ The Deified Augustus.” The city was first called Crenides, or Fountains, after¬ ward Datum; but when Philip, father of Alex¬ ander the Great, fortified it, he named it after himself. The gold-mines of the vicinity were very productive, yielding a million a year. 1 ie famous battle between Octavius (afterward Au¬ gustus) and Antony (No. 18) on one side, and Brutus and Cassius on the other, was fought here 36 b. C. The remains of the earthworks used on that day can be traced now for long distances, and there are remains of a triumphal arch near the modern city. (For Thyatira in Asia, where Lydia, found by Paul at Philippi, resided, see coin No. 123.) - p, Tiberius High Priest, Tribunal No 77.— PHILIPPI. pit'1 bust’ and “Colony of Julius CtKMT^inff 4PhlhPP' ” around statues of nus Uesar and Augustus, standing on a ped- No. 78. — BRUTUS AT PHILIPPI. The coin of Brutus commemorates his victory at Philippi, showing trophies. The scourging of Paul and Silas at Philippi is illustrated by this scene (No. 79) from an ancient gem, which leaves no doubt of the Roman man- NO. 79.— FLOGGING IN SCHOOL. ner. Livy (viii. 32) and Aulus Gellius (x. 3) describe the Roman manner of flogging in the public square or forum on the naked body. Philippi was then the capital of the province, instead of Amphipolis (see under 75), and had the “ Italian right,” which included exemption from martial law and its hasty punishments, and from certain taxes, and also being favored with peculiar privileges. The Roman citizen, or any other person having the “ Italian right,” could not be condemned and punished without a trial, and he also had the right of appeal. The scourg¬ ing was done in the public square of the city, be¬ fore the assembled people. Some were tied to a post ; others were stripped and had their hands tied behind the back. and when he rebukes the Cretans, he quotes from their own writer, Epimenides : “The Cretans Are always liars, evil beasts, slow bellies" (Tit. l. 12); and for the Corinthians he selects a line from the comedy of “ Thais,” a word of the excellent writer Menander : “ Evil communications corrupt good manners.” The poet Aratus was a Cilician, born at Soli, and a fellow-countryman with Paul. He was at the court of Antigonus Gonatas many years, NO. 80.— THESSALONICA. On the coin of Thessalonica, we find “Caius (Caligula), son of Augustus,” around the por¬ trait of Caius, and “Of the Thessalonians ” (money) around a head of Augustus. Caius was an adopted son. He was one of the as¬ sessors when Archelaus and Herod Antipas and Philip were heard before Augustus prior to the death of Herod the Great. (Jos. Ant. xvii. 9, 5; see Thessalonica in the Dictionary.) The poetical allusions of Paul are cited as evi¬ dence of his acquaintance with, and keen relish for, their beauties. For instance, in his address to the Athenians there is an allusion to the poems of the Cilician poet Aratus in this line : “For we are also his offspring” (Acts xvii. 28); No. 81. — THE POET ARATUS (300-250 B. C.). where he wrote the astronomical Greek poem, called “Phenomena,” from which Paul quoted in Acts xvii. 28, on which Hipparchus wrote a commentary, and of which Cicero made a Latin version. Ovid said, “Aratus will always be as¬ sociated with the sun and moon in the minds of men, for his excellent qualities. ” NO. 82. — MENANDER (b. 341 B. C.). Menander, the Greek tragic poet, was the originator of the New Comedy, and had the high¬ est reputation, being eulogized by Julius Caesar, Plutarch, and other ancients. Paul quoted from his comedy of Thais in 1 Cor. xiii. 33. The por¬ traits of Socrates and Plato are from an ancient gem now in the possession of Mr. John Taylor Johnston of New York City. They are intro¬ duced here because Socrates was accused of vio- No. 83. — SOCRATES AND PLATO. lating the laws by corrupting youth, and by acknowledging strange gods not sanctioned by the laws — accusations made against Paul. (On the subject of the accusations against Paul see Acts xxiii. and xvii. 22.) 8 HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. The coin of Athens (84) is of the age of Peri¬ cles, 470 b. C. The purity of the silver and gold of the coinage of Athens after Solon’s reform No. 84. — ATHENS. made the type useful as late as the time of Alex¬ ander, who changed the standard in weight, and then new and better designs were adopted. The head is of Minerva, and the owl was sacred to that goddess ; athe for Athens. The coin of Cenchrea, the port of Corinth, is of the date of 138 a. d. or later, and shows a head of the emperor Antoninus Pius, the suc¬ cessor of Hadrian in that year. The reverse No. 85.— CENCHREA, PORT OF CORINTH. aas a plan of the port, where a circular row of warehouses end in an office, or perhaps a temple, on either side, and in the centre stands a statue of Neptune, while ships in full sail are in the harbor, with the initials of “ Colonia Laus Julia Corinthos.” (See in the Dictionary.) There are perhaps more coins of different types of Ephesus than of any other ancient city. The political and religious characteristics of the city and of the age are illustrated on them, which have many allusions to the Diana- worship, and bear the names and official titles NO. 86.— EPHESUS. various public officers referred to in the New Testament. The one below (87), with the head of Nero, is dated about the time assigned to Paul’s visit. We learn from the coins that there were many temples to Diana and other deities (117) — one of Apollo at the head of the port; one opposite the great theatre ; another of Diana near the theatre. One of the Diana temples has four columns ; another has columns all around NO. 87— EPHESUS. it, a third (the great temple), eight columns in front (114). The theatre was the largest struc¬ ture ever built by the Greeks, and would hold 60,000 spectators. In this were displayed the public games by the Asiarch — running, wrest¬ ling, feats of strength, boxing, horse-racing, gladiatorial contests, and fights with wild beasts il Cor. xv. 33) ; one of the latter is presented on the coin No. 88. (See 1 Cor. ix. 24, 25.) The emperor Claudius died during the time Paul was at Ephesus, 54 A. D. The inscription on coin No. 87 is “ Nero Caesar,” around a portrait of the emperor on one side, and on the other, “Of the Ephesians Neocori, Aichmocles Aviola, Proconsul,” around a temple of Diana, on each side of which are eph in Greek letters. The neokoros was a conductor of the public-worship; we have no such officer NO. 88. — REGCLUS. now. The city also had the privilege of build¬ ing a temple in honor of the reigning emperor; and on coin No. 117 the four temples suggest that one or more may have been of that class. The inscriptions on the coins of Colossae show that the name of the city was written differently in most ancient times. The place is now entirely deserted, while Xenophon says (Anab. ii. 2) it was a great, populous, and flourishing city ; and Pliny says (v. 41) it was one of the most cele¬ brated towns in Phrygia. Laodicea and Hier- apolis were near, and were included in the circuit of labors of the apostle and his assistants (Col. iv. 13). These three towns were all in the valley of the river Mreander, within a circuit of fifteen miles. Hierapolis is included among the illus¬ trious cities of Asia by Tacitus. It has been shaken by earthquakes in successive ages, but is still a fine city, called by the Turks Pambook Kalessi. The hot springs near are the resort of invalids and curiosity-hunters, who examine the deposits of lime from the waters, which have formed vast masses in fantastic shapes. Among the ruins of the ancient city the theatre and the gymnasium are the most noted. The Stoic phil¬ osopher Epictetus was a native of Hierapolis, where he was sold in his youth as a slave to a freedman of the emperor Nero; which became the means of his good fortune, for he was taken to Rome, where he found means of gaining an .education and his freedom. On coin No. 91 there is a front of a provision- market, called in Latin macelltjm (mac on the coin), which is interesting in connection with the text of 1 Cor. x. 25. The legend is, “ Nero Claudius, Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Tribunal Power, Emperor, Father of the Country,” around a bust-portrait of Nero on one side, and on the other, “Provision-Market of Augustus, (struck by) Decree of the Senate.” The emperors supplied the poor people of Rome under Augustus, to the number of 200,000, with grain for bread. This free gift continued in prac¬ tice until the time of Alexander Severus, 222 A. D., when it was abolished. The island of Chios is named in Acts (xx. 15) as on Paul’s route to Judaea, and coins v„0 93 are from it. On the larger one - ' ; we read No. 92. — Chios. “Under the Archonship of Quintus Valeria Primus, of the Chians,” around an amphora (wine-bottle), and three asses around and below a sphinx. Three asses were equal to six cents On the smaller we read, “ Chios iEschines ” on No. 93.— Chios. either side of a water-bottle. This was the far- thing-piece or half a cent; two mites were equal to one of these. Earthquakes have recently caused a great loss of life and a destruction of many houses in the cities and villages of Chios (now called Scio)‘. The island is 32 miles long by 8 to 18 miles wide. Its fertility and the excellent quality of its wine, mastic, figs, and other products have been the theme of writers in all ages. This was one of the seven places that claimed the honoi of Homer’s nativity, the other six being Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Athens, and Argos. They show a sepulchre in Chios which is called Homer’s, near the ruins of an ancient temple to Apollo. Samos was the capital of an island of the same name. We read on the coin No. 94, “ Hegesianax, of the Samians,” above a head and shoulders of an ox ; the head of a lion is without inscription. This is a very ancient place, and mentioned in the earliest history. No. 95.— MILETUS. The coin of Miletus has a head of Apollo bound with a wreath of laurel, and on the re¬ verse a lion looking back at a star, with the monogram of Miletus and the name of I heo- dorus, who was a chief magistrate. (See l,If TIONARY, pp. 65, 66.) No. 96.— COS. The island of Cos was called the garden of the JEgean Sea. It was mentioned in the boo of Maccabees (1 Macc. xv. 23) and in Joseph' (Ant. xiv. 7, 2) in connection with the war " 1 ^ Mithridates. Herod the Great conferred man favors on the Jews in Cos. historical illustrations of ancient coins and gems. • 11M“” SuwotlJer, around an opemog '««■ No. 97.— PATARA. (Rhodes, Diet., p. 85.) Pfltara was the port of Xanthus, the capital of Lycia, and stood eight miles east °f the Yellow ( van thus) Eiver. It is now a ruin, and its port L filled up with sand. On the com a head of Apollo in a laurel-wreath is on one side, and head of Diana on the other, with the woids the Patareans.” Ruins of a theatre, baths, and a triple arch which was once a city-gate mark the Sl Lycia was south of Asia, and had its Lysiarchs as Asia had its Asiarchs. It was a part ot.the No. 98.— LYCIA. Persian dominions before Alexander (Herodotus vii. 91, 92), then under the Greek kings to the time the Romans took it from Antioelius. It is mentioned in 1 Macc. xv. 23, and was made a Roman province under Claudius. On the coin is a head of Apollo and a lyre, with “Of the Lycians, Year 8.” NO. 99.— ACRE PTOLEMAIS. Acre was a city of Phoenicia, and was invested by the Romans with the privileges of a colony, as appears on this coin of Claudius, with the legend, “(Claudius) Caesar, High Priest, Consul Ath time, Emperor 13th year” (47 A. D.), around a portrait, and “ The Deified Claudius, Ptolemais, Claudian Colony, Citizens Saved,” around two oxen and driver, with four standards of the le¬ gions— 6, 9, 10, 11. No. 100. — ADRAMYTTIUM. On the coin of Sidon we find a head of a king or emperor without name, and a group of the No. 101.— SIDON. fabled Europa and the bull, with the words “ Of the Sidonians.” This myth of Europa was re¬ corded on many coins of different nations, ((see Sidon in the Dictionary.) The name Europe means “the west” when applied to the country, but it means on this coin a deified daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, of whom it is fabled that Jupiter was enamored, and she became the mother of the heroes Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhad- amanthus, and after that married Asterius, the king of Crete ; the Cretans deified her and built shrines for her worship. No. 102. — CNIDUS. Cnidus was known to the Jew's in the second century B. C. (1 Macc. xv. 23), and w'as passed by Paul (Acts xxvii. 7). It must have been of great importance and magnificence. It was formerly on an island of the same name, but is now con¬ nected with the mainland by a causeway. The coin presents a head of Venus with many orna¬ ments, and a lion’s head, with Ethbolo, the name of a magistrate. This place has been named Triopia, Pegusia, and Stadia, because founded by Triopas. The chief deity worshiped there was Venus, whose temple w7as filmed for its mar¬ ble statue of that goddess, the work of Praxiteles. The mathematician Eudoxus, the philosopher Agatharcides, the historian Theopompus, and the physician Ctesias were natives of Cnidus. It is now a mass of ruins. The historian Theo¬ pompus is quoted by several ancient authors, and is favorably compared with Thucydides and Herodotus, but wTas more satirical and illiberal. His works are lost, only the passages quoted by others being extant. Ctesias wrote a history of Persia in twenty-three books. the governor of the island, with a caduccus in token of his good conduct in office ; on the re- NO. 104. — BAULOS. verse a wreath of laurel around a vase, and the letters all, for alal, in Phoenician letters. The coin of Malta was struck by the Greeks, and presents a head of the Egyptian goddess Isis with mystic head-dress and crown, a head of barley, and the words “ Of the Maltese on the reverse a figure of the god Osiris, winged, NO. 105. — MELITA (MALTA). crowned with the serpent, and holding the em¬ blems of power in either hand. The knowledge and use of the Egyptian gods extended to Rome also in later times. The coin of Syracuse (No. 106) is of Gelon, 485-478 b. c., and presents the head of a girl, hair waved in front, one lock hanging over the ear, the rest braided and folded or gathered in a net, bound with a wreath of olive; earring, Ba5‘0!,“0f Adramyttium reads, “ Antinous the deified in t?rou,1.d portrait of Antinous (who was by Eges as o/tlpA0 Hadrian>’ and “ Dedicated ure of Ceres ^Adwmyttiana,” around a fig- of Croesus w tii p, ace was 8ettled in the time V'riesus by the Lydians, 590 b. c. No. 103.— CNOSSUS. Crete is rich in the early mythology of the Greeks ; Cnossus was its chief city, and Gortyna second. (See Dictionary.) The famous Labyrinth is presented on this coin and on No. 142. The head of Diana has an orna¬ mented cap, and she has earrings and neck- / lace of pearls or hollow gold beads ; the word is “Of the Ivnossians.” The Cretans are named among those who witnessed the gift of tongues (Actsii. 11). The strange fables of the Gnostics were received on the island. A natural cave is shown to travelers near Gortyna as the original Labyrinth ; it has many rooms and passages, with stalactites, and may have suggested the poetic idea which the ancient poet crystallized in. the tale of Theseus and the Minotaur. Gaulos is a small island near Malta. The coin is Phoenician, and is described: Head of No. 106.— SYRACUSE. with pendants and necklace; four dolphins swim around the head in the same direction, differing from, the one below ; on the other side was the chariot and four horses similar to that cn the next coin. Coin No. 107 is of Hiero of Syracuse, 470 B. c., and bears a head of the goddess Arethusa, with earring, necklace, band, and hair in a net ; four dolphins swim around, two meeting before the face, indicating, as is supposed, that the island on which the fountain of Arethusa is located was there united to the mainland by a causeway, built after the former coin was struck. The chariot and four horses commemorate victories won by King Hiero in the Olympic Games, which were celebrated by the poet Pindar in his Odes. Besides Pindar, his court was frequented by JEschylus, Simonides, and Epicharmus — all well- No. 107. — SYRACUSE. known authors of Greek literature. Hiero was a generous patron of the arts and sciences. 10 HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. Thi« portrait of King Hiero on No. 108 is the oldest-known portrait on any coin, and is dated 48P t.c. NO. 108.— SYRACUSE. Nero was made emperor through the manage¬ ment of his mother, Agrippina, wife of Claudius, in 54 A. d., when he was seventeen years old. The portrait of the voung man appears beard¬ less on many coins (see 70), and his advancing years can be traced to the last (in 68 A. D.) on various specimens, No. 91 or 111 marking the greatest age. He was not old when he died (by his own hand), aged thirty-one. It is said his chief passion was to sing with a thin, shrill voice to the sound of a guitar, although he had talents in painting, sculpture, and poetry. It is said that The Seven Churches of Asia (Rev. i. 4). Of Patmos there are no coins. Of the cities of the seven churches in Asia, some are a heap of ruins, and others, like Ephesus, have been lost, and only recent¬ ly restored by the explorer’s shovel. The city was originally named Smyrna (Strabo xiv.1,4). The Diana-worship was peculiar¬ ly Oriental, and included magic, charms, amulets, soothsaying, and pretended mir¬ acles. The image of Diana in the great temple was of immense height, carved in ebony, ivory, and gold, and probably form¬ ed like those on the coins. The moon was symbolized behind the head and shoulders; the signs of the Zodiac were carved on the drapery of the breast, and animals or mon¬ strous forms were distributed over the drapery of the lower limbs; in each hand w'as a tri- “Aristion Menophantus, Recorder of the Ei 1 sians,” around a stag, the emblem of Diana ^ NO. 116.— EPHESUS. No. 109.— NERO (MUSICIAN). he became a monster of crime and cruelty. Sen¬ eca, one of his advisers in state affairs, was the most elegant scholar of the age. He instituted games, called Juvenilia, in honor of his first beard. Coin No. 110 is inscribed, “Nero Clau- NO. 112.— EPHESUS. NO. 113. — EPHESUS. dent. It was asserted that the image fell from heaven (or Jupiter) complete, as is also said of the Kaaba Stone in Mecca. Diana was worshiped in three characters — as the moon (Luna) in the heavens, Diana on earth, and Hecate in Hades. One month was named Arte¬ misia from the annual festival in honor of the goddess (called Artemis), the record of which in a decree, engraved on a marble slab, was found near the temple, corroborating the text of Acts xix. 35. During the month of revels various scenes were enacted in which the gods wore rep¬ resented: a man as Jupiter the May King, who Ephesus. No. 116 presents the image of Diana the huntress, with bow, quiver, and a stag, from a fine Greek model. No. 117 is a coin bearing the fronts of four temples, in one of which stands No. 110.— NERO (GRAIN-SHIP). dims, Caesar Augustus Germanicus,” around a portrait with a radiated crown ; on the reverse, “Freighted with (or by) Augustus,” around a grain-ship, in reference to the supplies obtained from Africa for the people of Rome. Coin No. 109 has this legend : “ Nero Claudius, Caesar Augustus Germanicus, High Priest, Tri¬ bunal Power, Emperor, Father of the Country, around a youthful head of the emperor ; and on the other side a figure of Nero playing on a lyre or cithara. No. 114.— EPHESUS. was appointed by the emperor or his legate ; one as Apollo, and another as Mercury. The Jupiter wore a robe glittering with gold, white as snow, and a crown of carbuncles, pearls, and other precious stones (Malala, lib. xii.). Ephesus was the great market of the region, buyers and sellers flocking there in great numbers ; thus religion, business, and pleasure combined to make the fes¬ tival-month a success. It was in that month that Paul’s visit was timed. The expenses of the games were paid, all or a part, by the Asiarcli (see Asiarch in the Dictionary), who super¬ intended the exhibition. The great image was copied in small sizes for use in private families, shops, etc., and for travelers. No. ill— NERO. Coin No. Ill is inscribed, “Nero Claudius, Csesar Augustus Germanicus, Tribunal Power, Father of the Country, Emperor and on the reverse, “ Peace in the earth and on the sea the temple of Janus closed,” around a front of the temple of Janus hung with a garland over the door, the letters S C on either side for Decree of the Senate.’ NO. 115.— EPHESUS. NO. 117.— EPHESUS. an image of Diana, the others having effigies <* the emperors. The Apollo (118) was the male god, the sun, as the Diana was the female, the No. 118.— APOLLO. moon, and both are represented with bow an arrow. This Apollo is from the original mar in the Vatican, Rome ; the Diana below, a, clian and two horses driven by the goddess, msiae On coin No. 115 are heads of Augustus and Livia joined, and on the reverse the legend. NO. 119. — DIANA. circle formed by a serpent with its tai i mouth, the ancient symbol of eternity* HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. Smyrna the second of the “seven,” is men- tiwTd only once in the Scriptures (Rev. n. 8-11), NO. 120.— SMYRNA. out honorably, and it enjoyed the proud title, “The Ornament of Asia.” The most popular deity- of the ancient city was the god Bacchus ; other gods were Apollo, Diana, the Nemesis, the father of the gods (Zeus), the mother of the gods Hera), the city of Rome as Roma, and peculiar¬ ly Dionysus, who was fabled to die by violence and be resuscitated every year. It had a large public library and a museum, dedicated to Ho¬ mer who was claimed as a countryman, an Odeum, and other public buildings, including a hall of justice, where appeals from other cities NO. 121— SMYRNA. were heard under the Roman laws. It is now a city filled with ruins built into modern walls, which include many fragments of sculptures and other works of art. ” Herodotus described a statue v hich was near the city, cut on the face of a rock, e >ven feet high, Egyptian in style, with this in- fription across the breast: “I conquered this country by the might of my arms.” (See Dan. xi.) This city was founded by Alexander the Great after the battle of Granicus. Pergamus, the third church in the list, was in a city which was the capital of a district of the same name. The city was founded before the Tro¬ jan war, when Pergamos, son of Pyrrhus, deposed but ruinous, such as fragments of sculptures and inscribed stones giving an account of the various labor-guilds of that age. (Acts xvi. 14.) NO. 124.— THYATIRA. The city of Thyatira was founded by Seleucus I . 2), as one of the many Macedonian col¬ onies which were among the results of the par¬ tition of Persia by the successors of Alexander the Great. It had been a city from remote times, called Pelopia, Semiramis, and Euhippia, after various rulers in different ages, and under the Persian rule from the time of Cyrus the Great, 546 B. c. A very curious superstition is said to have been introduced there by the Jews in the worship of the sibyl Sambatha. (See Rev. n. 20-24. Attalus II., called Philadelphus, 140 b. c., as i mart for the famous wine-district celebrated bj No. 122. — PHILETA1RUS OP PERGAMUS. King Arius there. Philetairus founded the race of Attalian kings of Pergamus, 280 B. c. ; Eu- menes, his nephew, succeeded him, 262 b. c. Eumenes II. was rewarded for services to the Romans by the addition to his kingdom ot Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia ; he founded a library that became the rival of that at Alex¬ andria. Attalus III. (133 b.C.) gave his king¬ dom to the Roman people and ended the mon¬ archy of Pergamus. No. 125.— SARDIS. Sardis was the fifth in the list, and the capital of ancient Lydia, which Homer called Moeonia, the “ Queen of Asia,” whose earliest king was Candaules, 716 b. c., and the last Croesus, 560- 546 B. C. The golden sands of the Pactolus fur¬ nished metal (electrum) for the money of that age, which assisted in developing the manufac¬ tures and trade of the city. (See in the Diction¬ ary.) Two massive columns (6 feet 6 inches thick and 40 feet high) of the once magnificent temple of Cybele remain among a heap of ruins. It was of the same age as the temple of Zeus in NO. 128.— ATTALUS II. PHILADELPHUS (159-138 B. €.)• Virgil ; and the coins of that period have a head of Bacchus or the figure of a Bacchante. Xerxes passed near the site of the city, and Herodotus speaks of the sorghum as in successful cultiva¬ tion then (485-465 B. C.). The valley of the Her- mus is one of the most extensive and fruitful in Asia. The coins of the later rulers are not very numerous. Attalus II. on coin No. 128 is repre- No. 129— LAODICEA IN ASIA. sented more or less ideally after the likeness ot the progenitor of the dynasty of Pergamus (No, 122), whose descendant he was. No. 126.— SARDIS. JEgina and of Hera in Samos. An earthquake in the time of Tiberius very much damaged the city, when its tribute to Rome was remitted for five years. Its theatre was nearly 400 feet in diameter, and the stadium adjoining it was 1000 feet long. The ancient name of the city was Hyde, under the rule of Omp’nale, a wife of Her¬ cules. The modern name is Sart Kalessi, but the place is deserted ; only heaps of ruins remain of the once famous city, which was full of temples, theatres, factories, and commodious dwellings, all of stone. No. 130.— LAODICEA. The ruins of Laodicea are on seven hills, and comprise a stadium, three theatres (one 450 feet in diameter), a gymnasium, bridges, aqueducts, etc. The earliest name was Diospolis (city of Jupiter) ; after that, Rhoas, which was then the largest city in Phrygia; and finally Antiochus named it aftei No. 123.— NERO AT THYATIRA. Thyatira was mentioned fourth in the Apoc¬ alypse. (See in the Dictionary.) The coins bear the heads of Apollo (Tyrimnas), Hercules, Athene, Roma, Oybele, and the reigning empe- tors. The remains of antiquity are numerous, No. 127.— ATTALUS II. PHILADELPHUS. Philadelphia was a city on the border of Lydia and Phrygia, on the slopes of Mount Tmolus and on the banks of the Cogamus River. Philadelphia was the sixth in the list ot the churches in Asia. The city was founded by NO. 131.— LAODICEA. his sister, Laodice. The aqueducts are construct¬ ed with a knowledge of hydraulics equal to ours, the theatres have seats numbered and lettered, and the place abounds in evidences of a high state of civilization. This city under the Roman rule was a place of importance for its trade and manufactures. In the Christian age it was a populous and wealthy city where the great coun¬ cils of the Church met. The ruined site is called Denislu. 12 HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF ANCIENT COINS AND GEMS. Places mentioned in the Account of the Day of Pentecost, Acts ii. 9-11. The Parthian kingdom was founded about 250 B. c. by Arsaces, a Scythian, and it extended over a large part of Asia. The Parthians were never wholly subdued by the Romans, their last king, Artabanus IV., being killed by the Persians 226 x. D. The Parthians captured many Roman 250 B.c. No. 132.— ARSACES, PARTHIA. standards in battle, which were returned after a solemn treaty amid great rejoicing in Rome under Augustus, who struck several medals in commemoration of the event. The coin No. 132 is of Arsaces IX., Mithridates II., who was the first to make his nation known to the Romans under Sulla, 92 b. c. Mesopotamia appears first in history as a coun¬ try inhabited by many independent tribes, as Arabia is now, then as a part of the Assyrian empire, and after that divided between the NO. 133. — MESOPOTAMIA. (For Judsea, see No. 42.) Modes and Babylonians. Cyrus added it to Persia, and Alexander made it a satrapy under his rule; it fell, after his death, to one of his generals, Seleucus I., and to the Parthians, B. c. 160. Trajan made it a Roman province A. D. 115. Cappadocia was founded by Pharnaces 744 B. c. ; conquered by Perdiccas of Macedonia 322. The Romans first encouraged the formation of cities. The king Ariarathes mentioned in i Macc. xv. 22 No. 134.— ARIARATHES VII., CAPPADOCIA. was the sixth of that name. The last king of Cappadocia was Archelaus, who was favored by Augustus, but died at Rome A. d. 17, when the country was made a Roman province, under Ti¬ berius. Pontus was originally a part of Cappadocia, near the Pontus Euxinus, and made an inde¬ pendent nation by Artabazus, under Darius of Persia, 487 b. c. Mithridates VI. (No. 10) con¬ quered Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, and Cappa¬ docia. The kingdom ended in the death of Mithridates, 63 b. c., and it became a Roman province under the emperors. P^lemo was made No. 135.— PONTUS. king of Pontus by Antony, whom he attended in his expedition against Parthia. His son, whose head appears on this coin, was confirmed on the throne by Claudius. Asia as a province dates from B. c. 133 (see Coin No. 121) ; before that it had been from the time of Alexander under the Seleucid kings, until it be¬ came a Roman province. The Greeks and Persians contend¬ ed for centuries for suprem¬ acy in Asia until Alexander’s time, since when it was under the Seleucid kings (except Pergamus, which was given to the Romans by will 133 No. 136,-seleucus i. b. c.), until it became a Roman province 15 A. d., under Tiberius. Phrygia was made a part of the kingdom of Antigonus Cyclops after the death of Alexan¬ der, 323 b. c. It was made a Roman province 47 B. c. Phrygia was a vague term, including a No. 137.— ANTIGONUS, PHRYGIA (333-301 B. C.). large territory, from which portions were added to several Roman provinces at different times. Iconium and Colosse were in Phrygia. Jose¬ phus says Antiochus the Great (No. 5) first in¬ troduced Jews to Phrygia about 200 B. c. (Ant. xii. 3, 4). Acts xiii. 14; xiv. 1, 19. Pamphylia is mentioned by Herodotus (vii. 91, 92) as one of the lesser states. In Paul’s time it was a Roman province, enlarged under NO. 138— MYRA, IN PAMPHYLIA. Claudius by Lycia and a part of Pisidia. Myra was the port where Paul changed ships on the way to Rome. It contains many relics of dif¬ ferent ages : tombs with Lycian inscriptions, a theatre of the Greek age, a Byzantine church, and later remains. The Orthodox Greeks have a legend that St. Nicolas was born at Patara, buried at Myra, and his bones now rest, having been moved to St. Petersburg recently. (See No. 69.) The Egypt of the Bible, so far as the coins present it, dates from Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. (No. 1). The Ptolemies continued from 323 (see Dictionary) to Cleopatra, 30 b. c., when it became a Roman province. Hadrian No. 139.— HADRIAN IN EGYPT (117-138 A. D.). spent the greater part of his reign in journeys throughout the provinces of his empire, display¬ ing liberality, political wisdom, and love of the fine arts. On this coin appears the. inscription, “Hadrian Augustus, Consul 3d time, Father of the Country,” around head of the emperor; and an emblem of the Nile — a strong man sur¬ rounded by boys, representing the districts of Egypt, Sphinx and Crocodile, with S C fhr r, cree of the Senate. r Cyrenaica comprised five cities and ti • outlying districts (see Dictionary) w-ix , onized by the Greeks as early as 600 b c Co j was named by Arista; us after his mother ’’a ft Alexander, it became a dependency of E " NO. 140. — CYRENE, IN LIBYA. The coin presents a head of Jupiter Ammon on one side, and on the other the sacred silphion plant, now extinct. The Romans received it as a legacy from Apion, son of Ptolemy Physcon 97 b. c. It is now a desert. This coin (141) is of the Roman people, and represents a young man with a stalf and a horn No. 141— ROME. of plenty. The people owned large districts i{ the provinces in the time of the emperors, and the taxes were derived for ages entirely from the countries subject to Rome outside of Italy. At one time, as Pliny says, six Roman proprietors owned half the land in Africa outside of Egypt, and Augustus owned all Egypt. The Minotaur was fabled to have been shut in the Cretan labyrinth and fed on young men and NO. 142.— GNOSSUS, IN CRETE. maids, supplied by Athens yearly, until Theseus (a king of Athens) killed the monster by the help of Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king Crete. Theseus was next to Hercules in sM- cess, killing the Minotaur, vanquishing the Centaurs, but was finally chained to .a huge rock in Hades by Pluto for attempting the rescue of Proserpine. (See No. 103.) The Aretas of Petra, king of the bah11' theans, was in alliance with the Greek kings of Syria, and inscribed his friendship on hi> NO. 143.— ARETAS, ARABIA. coins, as on this : “ Aretas, lover of the Grech)^ did UUAA1K/J ^ »* ~ ~ — — J DO. He must have employed Greek architects in ‘ tra, for the remains of the city, cut in the s'1 rock, are of their style. (See No. 65, anu TIONARY. p. 78.1 Coins. Money and Weights of the Bible. By F. W. Madden, M. R. A. S. _ , -Remarks.— Ancient money was of General Keirmr d uncoined may two WndB uneom^ isslied under an authority, be understood pieces orne gQme Ktamp or impress though they maJ h ? “d be understood ingots, of their value. By cornea m y certifie(i the ■“*- thT™e fet(nienOo.iTthe S, after the Flood, of Egyi't e<^verynrichSin *wttl^binh^re)^aand^ 'in °gold” Ln ”Syet we soon find a notice of the use ot money iHeb Silver) as the price paid for a slave (Gen. xvn. 13). The first actual transaction of commerce is the purchase by Abraham of the ;ave of Mach pel ah foi 400 shekels of silver, current [money] with the mer- • ,hant (Gen. xxiii. 16); and surer as a medium of commerce appears to have been in general use among the nations of the Philistines (Gen. xx. 16 , Judg. rvi 5 18- xvii. 2, seq.), the Midianites (Gen. xxxvu. W and the Syrians (2 Kings v. 5, 23). By the laws tf Moses, men and cattle (Lev. xxvn. 3, seq .; Num. iii. 45, seq.), the possessing houses, and fields (Lev. xxvii 14, seq.), provisions (Deut. 11. 6, 28; xiv. ~0), all fines for offences (Exod. xxi., xxii.), the contribu¬ tions to the Temple (Exod. xxx. 13; xxxviii. 26), the sacrifice of animals (Lev. v. 15), the redemption of the first-born (Num. iii. 47-50; xviii. 15), weie estimated and regulated by money value. It is prob¬ able that a fixed weight was assigned to single pieces, so as to make them suitable for the various articles presented in trade. The system of weighing (though frequent mention is made of the balance and the weighing of money, Exod. xxii. 17 ; Lev. xix. 36; Deut. xxv. 13, 15 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 12 ; 1 Kings xx. 39 ; Her. xxxii. 9, 10; Prov. xi. 1, etc.) is not likely to have been applied to every individual piece. In the large total of 603,550 half-shekels accumulated by the contributions of each Israelite (Exod. xxxviii. 26), each individual half-shekel could hardly have been weighed. Money was sometimes put into a chest, which when full was emptied by the high priest, and the money was bound up in bags, and then told , per¬ haps being weighed in the bags (2 Kings xii. 9, 10; comp. 2 Citron, xxiv. 8-11). That there were pieces of different denominations is evident from the pas¬ sage in Exod. xxx. 13, where the half-shekel is to be paid as the atonement-money, and “ the rich shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less” (Exod. xxx. 15). The third part of the shekel is mentioned in Persian times (Neb. x. 32), and the fourth part must have been an actual piece, for it was all the sil¬ ver that the servant of Saul had to pay the seer (1 Sam. ix. 3, 9). Iron and lead bars of constant form and weight circulated in Egypt ; in Greece, bars of iron ; in Italy, bars of copper ; in Britain, in the time of Julius Caesar, bars of copper and iron ; and from the earliest times gold and silver in the same shape were employed in general traffic in the East. This explains the mention of a wedge (Heb. tongue) of gold found by Aehnn at Jericho (Josh. vii. 21) [see lalenl under Weights], as well as the different pay¬ ments which are mentioned in the O. T., and which presuppose with certainty the currency of single pieces of metal according to weight. It is also probable that a system' of “ jewel cur- rency or ‘ ring-money ” was in vogue. The case of .Kebekah, to whom the servant of Abraham gave “a golden ear-ring of half a shekel weight, and two sxAK Wt°r 'er lan,ds of ten shekels weight” (Gen. hZ' \ PT6S that, the ancient Hebrews made IZJT l 0f a S1,ecific weiSht> *> as to know the v T^e,|mrnt- in employing them for i-efiis ■ having at thei trated by the fact of the Israelites us fn " and [vessels] oF siievXe°d"SJrT..!f/pt Arrowed “jewels IgT. ’J o silver and jewels [vessels! of cold” . . t4 > C 91 o v . • oo, 3t>; comp. Exod iii “>o . v: fie children1 of jl'1 hPP?r th,at the money 'used by ‘en 0f Jacob- wl>en they went to purchase corn in Egypt, was an annular currency (Gen. xlii. 35) Their money is described as bundles ot money ” and when returned to them was found to be “of [full] weight” (Gen. xliii. 21). It was there¬ fore of a form capable of being tied up, which receives corroboration from the passage in Deute- ronomy (xiv. 24-26), where directions are given as to the payment of the tithes to the sanctuary : “ Then shalt thou turn it into money, and bind up the money in thy hand, and shalt go unto the place which the Lord thy God shall choose.” The account of the sale of 'Joseph to the Midianites affords another instance of the employment of jewel ornaments as a medium of exchange (Gen. xxxvii. 28), as we gather from the account in Numbers (xxxi. 50, 51 1 of the spoiling of the Midianites, that they carried their whole wealth in the forms of chains, bracelets, ear-rings, and tablets. The friends of Job gave him, in addition to “a piece of money” [Kesitah], “an ear-ring of gold” (piezem zahah, LAN. letradrachmon chrusou kai asemou — tetradrachm of uncoined gold, Job xlii. 11). Now had these ear-rings of gold not been intended as representing money, all the friends of the patriarch would not have given him the same article, and that in conjunction with a piece of silver. . From these statements, it is evident, firstly, that if the Hebrews became learned in “ all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts vii. 22; comp. 1 Kings iv. 30), they did not learn from them the use of money; and secondly, that nowhere in the Pentateuch is there any mention of money that was coined. Nor do the pas¬ sages in Joshua,’ Judges, and Job imply an actual coinage, any more than the “ piece of silver ” [Ago- rah] mentioned at the time of Samuel (1 Sam. ii. 36) . The reigns of David and Solomon were an era of prosperity for Judaea — “Silver was in Jerusalem as stones ; it was nothing accounted of in the days of Solomon” (1 Kings x. 21, 27 ; 2 Chron. ix. 20, 27) ; still, it is certain that there were no real coins— namely, pieces struck under an authority — before the Exile. On the other hand, the Hebrews, as I have shown, must have employed pieces of a definite weight ; but the excavations in Palestine have never brought to light an example, any more than the excavations in Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia. It may, however, be observed that when the pieces of silver were col¬ lected for the treasury they were melted down before reissue. It is recorded (2 Kings xxii. 9; comp. 2 Chron. xxxiv. 17) that Shaphan the scribe came to King Josiah, and said, “Thy servants have gathered together (Heb. melted) the money that was found in the house;” and the same plan was also followed by the Persian king Darius (b. c. 521-485), who melted the gold and silver into earthen vessels, which when full were broken off’, leaving the metal in a mass, from which pieces were broken off' as necessity required. The oldest coins extant are certain electrum staters of Lydia, probably about b. c. 720, which, issued on different standards, continued in circulation till the time of Crcesus, who, on his accession in B. c. 568, reorganized the Lydian coinage, abolished electrum, and issued instead pieces of gold and silver. Before the introduction of coined money into Greece, there was a currency of obeliskoi, “spits” or “skewers,” probably of iron or copper, six of which made a handful ( drachme ), and which were of a considerable size. The first Greek silver coins were struck at JOgina in b. c. 670-660. The earliest coins mentioned in the Bible are the coins called drams, b. o. 538 [Dram], It is sup¬ posed by some that the Jewish silver shekels and half-shekels were introduced under Ezra, about B. c. 458 [Shekel] ; but it is more probable that they were issued under Simon Maccaba?us, b. c. 139 (1 Macc. xv. 6), and copper coins were struck by the Asmonaean and Herodian family. The N. T. history falls within the reigns of Augus¬ tus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, but only Augustus (Luke ii. 1), Tiberius (Luke iii. 1), and Claudius (Acts xi. 28; xviii. 2), are mentioned; but Nero is alluded to in th§ Acts from chapter xxv. to the end, and in Phil. iv. 22. Coins of all these emperors would therefore be in circulation. The following list embraces all the denominations of money mentioned in the Old and New lesta. ments: A (/o r ah. See Piece of Silver. Bekah (Exod. xxxviii. 26). Literally a half, “half a shekel,” about Is. 4 d. Extant half-shekels weigh about 110 grains. [Hale a Shekel and Shekel.] „ Brass [Money]. (1) In the O. T. a passage in Ezekiel (xvi. 36, Heb. nechosheth, LXX. Chalkos, Vulgate ces, A. V. filthiness) has been supposed to refer to brass money , but with no probability, as this was the latest metal introduced into Greece for money. The Hebrew word probably means some¬ thing’ worthless, like “base metal” (comp. Jer. vi. 28; Ezek. xxii. 18). (2) Chalkos, pecunia (Matt. x. 9). The brass coins current in Palestine in the N. T. period consisted of Roman copper and Greek impe¬ rial coins, of the coins of Alexander Jannams, of the Herodian family, and of the procurators of Judaea See Farthing and Mite. Baric. See Dram. Denarius. See Penny. ' Bidrachm. See Shekel and Tribute-money. Brachni, Drachme, drachma (2 Macc. iv. 19; x. 20 ; xii. 43 ; Tobit v. 14). It is of various weights, according to the use of the different talents. The drachms here mentioned are of the Attic talent, which became almost universal on Alexander’s succession (b. c. 338), and weighed about 67.2 grains. In later times (about b. C. 27), the drachm weighed only 61.3 grains, and thus became very nearly equal to the Roman denarius [Penny], the average weight of which was 60 grains. The earliest Attic drachm contained about ^ of the weight of alloy, and there remain 66.1 grains of silver to be valued. Our shillings weigh 87.2 grains, and contain 80.7 grains of pure silver. The earliest Attic drachm is there- ’fore worth of a shilling, or 9.82 pence, which is 9fd.+ xV of a farthing. The later Attic drachm, deducting also ^ of the weight of alloy, is worth of a shilling, or 8.93 pence, which is 8Jd.-j- r73 of a farthing; and hence the value of the latest drachm or denarius may be taken at about 8 d. [Piece of Silver and Penny.] Dram. The translation in the A. V. of the He¬ brew words Adarkon and Darkcmon (Ezra ii. 69 ; viii. 27; Neh. vii. 70-72; 1 Chron. xxix. 7). Though there are several opinions concerning the origin of these words, it is agreed that by them a gold coin or staler — the Persian daric — is intended. The origin of the term has been sought in the name of Darius the Mede, but on no sure grounds, or of that of Darius, son of Hystaspes. In consequence of the type of the coins being “an archer” (by which name - — toxotai — they were sometimes called), some have thought that the Hebrew words were derived from darak, “to bend the bow;” whilst others suggest a connection with the Persian words dashtan, “to have, to hold, to possess,” or dara, “ a king,” which latte) would be a likely derivation, as the figure represented is not any particular king, but the king of Persia in a general sense. Though the passages in Ezra end Nehemiah would seem to show that coins of simi’al name were current during the reigns of Cyrus, Cam- byses, and Darius Hystaspes, it is a question if the coin called “ daric ” is intended by those mentioned during the reign of Cyrus, b. c. 530 (Ezra ii. 69) The daric proper was not in circulation till the reign of Darius, son of Hystaspes (b. c. 521-485), who issued a new coinage of pure gold, though the actual name of daric stater was not in vogue till the time of his successor, Xerxes (b. c. 485-465) ; and the drams mentioned under the reign of his son, Artaxerxe? Longimanus (Ezra viii. 27; Neh. vii. 72), are cer¬ tainly the coins called dories, which at this period extensively circulated in Persia. It is probable that | the staters of Crcesus, king of Lydia, continued in circulation from after the capture of Sardis in b. c. 554 to the time when Darius reformed the coinage ; and if so, the Lydian staters would be those alluded to during the. reign of Cyrus. The ordinary Persian 1 daric is a thick gold piece, bearing the figure of t. I king kneeling, holding in left hand a bow and ii n 14 COINS, MONEY AND WEIGHTS OF THE BIBLE. right a spear or a dagger (comp. Ezek. xxxix. 3 ; Isa. lxvi. 19), and has an average weight of 130 grains. The English sovereign weighs 123.4 grains, which, after deducting -j*j, leaves 113.12 grains of fine gold; but the daric is finer than our gold, and reckoning it at 130 grains in weight, contains 124.6 grains of pure gold ; therefore in value it equals * of a sovereign, or about £1 2s. Double darics, weigh¬ ing about 260 grains — but rare— and perhaps half- darics, weighing 60 grains, are also in existence. With reference to the mention of drams at the time of David (1 Chron. xxix. 7), it must be remembered that the writer, who in all probability was Ezra, wished to express in language intelligible to his readers the value of the gold subscribed, and there¬ fore translated the terms employed in his documents, whatever they were, into terms that were in use in his own day ( Speaker's Cum., vol. iii., p. 271). Farthing. This word occurs four times in the A. V. of the N. T. Two names of coins are rendered by it. (1) Assarion (Matt. x. 29; Luke xii. 6), the (ireek name of the Roman as or assarius. From the /act that the Vulgate substitutes the word dipondius (=i two asses) for the two assaria of the Greek text, it is more than probable that a single coin is intended by this latter expression — an idea fully borne out by the copper coins of Chios, on which are inscribed the words assarion, assaria dud or duo, and assaria tria. The assarion of the N. T. must be sought for among the Greek imperial coins, and the second brass coins of Antioch in Syria seem to furnish us with probable specimens. One of these coins, with the counter- mark GAD (in Greek letters), proves that it was lawfully current in Gadara of Decapolis. These coins, from the time of Augustus, consist of two series — (a) with Greek legends, and having the name of the town and the date of the era of Antioch ; and (6) with the name of the emperor in Latin, and on the reverse the letters S. C. ( Senalus consulto). After the reign of Vespasian (a. d. 79) the two sets become amalgamated, and form one series. The second brass coins of these series average in weight 143 grains, and are specimens of the as, which, at 10 to the lenarius [Penny], would be equivalent to \d. of our money. (2) Kodrantes (Matt. v. 26; Mark xii. 42), or quadrans, the fourth part of the Roman as, orig¬ inally equal to the chalkous, weighing 67.2 grains. The copper currency of Palestine in the time of Augustus and Tiberius consisted partly of Roman and Jewish coins and partly of Graeco-Roman or Greek imperial. In consequence of the reduction of the weight of the as, the quadrans became reduced to just half the weight, or 33.6 grains, and the Ro¬ man coins and small copper coins of the Herodian family of this weight represent the farthing of the N. T. The as being equivalent, as we have shown above, to f d., the quadrans would be equal to about fTd. or f of an English farthing. According to St. Mark, “ two mites make a farthing ;” but on this question see Mite. Fourth Part of a Shekel. Rebah (1 Sam. ix. 8), about 8d. [Shekel.] Gerah (Exod. xxx. 13; Lev. xxvii. 25; Num. iii. 47 ; xviii. 16; Ezek. xlv. 12). The twentieth part of a shekel, about l]d. [Shekel.] Gold [Money], (1) There is no positive mention of the use of gold money among the Hebrews (see Isa. xlvi. 6; Job xxviii. 15) [Piece of Gold; Shekel], though gold constituted part of the wealth of Abra¬ ham (Gen. xiii. 2), if we exclude the “600 shekels of gold ” paid by David for the threshing-floor and oxen (1 Chron. xxi. 25; comp. 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, “shekels of silver”), and it was generally employed for personal ornaments and for objects in connection with the Temple (2 Chron. iii. 9, etc.). (2) Chrusos, aurum (Matt. x. 9 ; James v. 3) ; Chrusion, aurum (Acts iii. 6 ; xx. 33 ; 1 Pet. i. 18). The gold coinage current in Palestine in the N. T. period was the Ro¬ man imperial aureus, which passed for 25 denarii, and was worth about £1 Is. Half a Shekel (Exod. xxx. 13, 15), about Is. id. [Bekah ; Shekel.] Keseph. See Money, Silver, and Silverling. Kesitah. See Piece of Money and Piece of Silver. Mite (Mark xii. 42 ; Luke xii. 59 ; xxi. 2). The rendering of the Greek word lepton, which was a small Greek copper coin T\ of the obol, weighing 33.6 grains, and hence half of the original chalkous or quadrans. St. Mark states “two mites, which is t farthing.-” bnt he probably meant “two small pieces of money,” the smallest pieces then extant, and the words “which is a quadrans” have been added to show that the quadrans, weighing about 33.6 grains, was then the smallest piece struck. The mite alluded to was a Jewish coin, for the Jews were not permitted to bring any but Jewish money into the Holy Place, and for this cause money - changers [Money-Changers] stood at the entrance to the Temple in order to give Jewish money in exchange for foreign ; and it is probable that the small coins of Alexander Janmeus, ranging in weight from 30 grains to 15 grains, are the pieces in question. Their value would be about j\d., or 4 of an English farth¬ ing. If, however, the pieces of 15 grains are the half of those of 30, and not examples of the same coin of light weight, then two would equal a quadrans, and their value would be f of an English farthing. But this conjecture is by no means sure. Money. (1) In the O. T. the general expression is Keseph. (2) In the N. T. money is rendered as fol¬ lows: — (a) Argurion, pecunia, “silver” (Matt. xxv. 18, 27 ; xxviii. 12, 15; Mark xiv. 11 ; Luke ix. 3; xix. 15, 23; xxii. 5; Acts vii. 16 [argentum] ; viii. 20 [pecunia]. In Matt, xxvi. 9, the phrase is “much [money]”). ( b ) Ghalkos, res, “ brass ” (Mark vi. 8; xii. 41). (c) Chrema, “ a thing that one uses or needs,” pretium (Acts iv. 37 ; pecunia, viii. 18, 20; xxiv. 26). (d) Kerma, “ anything cut small,” ces (John ii. 15). [Silver and Money-Changers.] Penny. Denarion, denarius (Matt, xviii. 28 ; xx. 2, 9, 10, 13; xxii. 19; Mark vi. 37 ; xii. 15; xiv. 5; Luke vii. 41; x. 35; xx. 24; John vi. 7; xii. 5; Rev. vi. 6). Its standard weight in the reign of Augustus, and to the time of Nero, was 60 grains. Deducting ^ of the weight for alloy, there remain 58 grs. of pure silver, and the shilling containing 80.7 grs. of pure silver, we have^of a shilling, or 8.6245 pence = about 8|d. In the time of Nero the weight was reduced to 52.5 ; and applying to this the same method of reckoning, the penny of Nero’s time would equal about l\d. There is no doubt that most of the silver currency in Palestine during the N. T. period consisted of denarii, and “ a penny ” was the tribute-money payable by the Jews to "the Roman emperor [Tribute (money), 2], “A penny” was the day’s pay for a laborer in Palestine at the time of our Lord (Matt. xx. 2, 9, 10, 13; comp. Tobit v. 13), as it was the pay of a field-laborer in the Middle Ages; and the term denarius is still preserved in our £ s. d. [Drachm and Piece of Silver, 2.] Piece of Gold. This phrase occurs only once in the O. T., in the passage respecting Naaman the Syrian (2 Kings v. 5). In several other passages of a similar kind in connection with gold, the A. V. supplies the word “shekels” [Shekel]; and as a similar expression is found in connection with silver, and as there is not much doubt that a weight is in¬ tended, the word understood in this passage would also probably be “shekels.” Piece of Money. (1) Kesitah (Gen. xxxiii. 19; “piece of silver,” Josh. xxiv. 32; Job xlii. 11). From the translation by the LXX. of “ lambs,” it has been assumed that the kesitah was a coin bearing the impression of a lamb or a sheep, but the coins so frequently quoted as examples belong probably to Cyprus, and were not struck till after b. c. 450. The real meaning of kesitah is “a portion,” and it was in all probability a piece of rough silver of fixed weight. (2) Stater (Matt. xvii. 27). The word stater means a coin of a certain weight, and hence a standard (comp. shekel and pondo), and was a term applied by the Greeks to coins of gold, of electrum, and of silver. The name was applied first to the didrachm (two drachms), and then to the tetradrachm (four drachms). During the first and second centuries, the silver cur¬ rency of Palestine consisted of tetradrachms of An¬ tioch on Orontes, of Tyre, etc., and of Roman denarii of a quarter their weight. The Attic tetradrachm was called stater, as the standard coin of the system, and no other stater was current in Palestine at this time. The great cities of Syria and Phoenicia either ceased to strike tetradrachms, or debased their coin¬ age before the close of the first century A. d. Antioch continued to strike tetradrachms to the third century, but gradually depreciated them, the commencement of which cannot be determined. It was carried so far as to destroy the correspondence of the stater to four denarii by the time of Hadrian (a. d. 117). Other cities, if they issued staters towards the close vi the first century, struck them »of such base metal as to render their separation from copper money im¬ possible. On this evidence, the Gospel is 0f the r century. The tetradrachm of Antioch (stater) specimen of the “piece of money” that wasfonJV St. Peter in the fish’s mouth (Matt, xvii, 27) f represents the tax for two persons— for our T ! for St. Peter [Tribute (Money), 1], It is equivaW in weight to the shekel, averaging 220 grains j to about 2s. 8 d. of our money. [Piece of* SilvTh Piece of Silver. This phrase occurs in th» 1 V. of both the O. T. and N. T. (1) The word “ pieces has been supplied in the A. V. for a word understood in the Hebrew. The rendering is always “ a tlmJ sand,” or the like “of silver” (Gen. xx. 16- xxivi!' 28; xlv., 22; Judg. ix. 4; xvi. 5; 2 Kings vi. 25- Song of Solomon viii. 11 ; Hosea iii. 2; Zeeh. xi 12' 13). In similar passages, the word “ shekels ’"’ occurs in the Hebrew [Shekel], and there is no doubt that this is the word understood in all these cases. There are, however, some exceptional passages where a word equivalent to “ piece ” or “ pieces ” is found in the Hebrew. The first occurs in 1 Sam. ii. 36, Agora\ keseph, “ piece of silver,” and the agorah may he the same as the gerah (q. v.). Both are translated in the LXX. by obolos. The second is in Ps. lx viii. 30 1 ![,!, 32), Ratsee keseph, “pieces of silver” (LXX. [lxvii. 30] argurion), and the word ratz from ratsats, “to break in pieces,” must mean a fragment or piece broken off. The third, the kesitah, to which I have already alluded [Piece of Money, 1]. (2) Two words are rendered in the N. T. by “ piece of silver.” (a) Drachme, drachma (Luke xv. 8), and here correct¬ ly rendered, as the Attic drachm was at the time of St. Luke equivalent to the Koman denarius [Drachm; Penny]. This accounts for the remark of Josephus ( Antiq . iii. 8, 2), who says that “ the shekel . equalled four Attic drachms,” for in his time the drachm and denarius were almost equal to the quarter of a shekel [Shekel]. Value about 8d. or 7 Id. (6) Argurion, argenteus, denarius. This word occurs in two passages — (A) the account of the betrayal of out Lord for “thirty pieces of silver” (Matt. xxvi. 15; xxvii. 3, 5, 6, 9). These have usually been consid¬ ered to be denarii, but on no sufficient ground. Th* parallel passage in Zechariah (xi. 12, 13) is trails* lated “thirty [pieces] of silver;” but which should doubtless be read, “ thirty shekels of silver,” whilst it is observable that “thirty shekels of silver” was the price of blood to be paid in the case of a servant ac¬ cidentally killed (Exod. xxi. 32). The passage may therefore be explained as “thirty shekels of silver”— not current shekels, but tetradrachms of the Attic standard of the Greek cities of Syria and Phoenicia. These tetradrachms were common at the time of our Lord, and of them the slater was a specimen [Piece of Money, 2], In the A. V. of St. Matthew the prophecy is ascribed to Jeremiah instead of to Zech¬ ariah. Many suggestions have been made on this question, but it may be observed that the Syriac ver¬ sion omits the proper name, and merely says the prophet;” hence a copyist might have inserted the wrong name. (B) The price of the conjuring books that were burnt (Acts xix. 19). The Vulgate has accurately rendered the phrase denarii, as there is no doubt that these coins are intended. [Money and Silver.] Pound. Mna, (Luke xix. 13-25) — money of of count. At this time the Attic talent obtained in Pal estine. Sixty mince went to the talent ( q ■ v.). I l|f “pound” contained 100 drachms. The drachm ul the Gospel period being equivalent to about Sd., ih( value of the pound would be £3 6s. 8 d. The Gree» name mna, was probably derived from the He- -rev maneh ( q . v. under Weights). Ratz. See Piece of Silver. Rebah. See Fourth Part of a Shekel. Shekel. A word signifying “ weight,” and alsc the name of a coin, either silver or copper. It only occurs in the O. T., where it signifies the weight1)! certain objects, or where it is employed for a p>- 1 1 of silver of fixed value. The word “shekel ” occurs in the Hebrew and the A. V. in the following pas') sages; Gen. xxiii. 15, 16; Exod. xxi. 22; xxx \ 15; xxxviii. 24-26 ; Lev. v. 15; xxvii. ,3-7; b"®- iii. 47, 50; vii. 13, 19, 25, 31, 37, 43, 49, 55, 61, [6 73, 79, 85, 86 ; xviii. 16 ; Josh. vii. 21 ; 1 Sam. is- 8 ; xvii. 5, 7 ; 2 Sam. xiv. 26 ; xxi. 16 ; xxiv. 24 ; » Kings vii. 1; xv. 20; 1 Chron. xxi. 25 (goid sin ’’ els); 2 Chron. iii. 9 (gold shekels); Neh. v. 1 .J,",, j(1 » ;n Gen. xxiv. 22, 1 Kings aori in ,9°"f oo026"'32 3^44* 50756762, 68, 74, 80, Num.vii. 14,20, 26,^.^ < 10>. 2 chron. ix. 15, Jllllg. vi 11; 26 Three kinds of 76’[see°Maneh nn’der Weights]. - (2) shekels appear to b d the shekel of the the shekel of the saneui .v.^ ^ (he sanctuary,»> or king’s weight. The *ally a lied to the silver “ holy shekel. 8 *e‘“ | ,j (E'xod xxxviii. 24), was shekel, but once to the g w t ^ wag kept by thg probab'y the normM rfoJe king„ connected priests. . nohvlonian maneh of the king, as with the A-Ssyno-Babylonia om yTalmtw. marked on the mo translate the denomina- tSSSX 2U- - -t S£S* the C1, !e8 . Alexandrian Jews adopted the term Star'Xtal ”, £ut 2.. Si The gold shekel, «■ • \ frnni n n‘issa°e in Josephus, must have weighed 777 Lit 253 grains [see Pound under Weights], a very little1 lower Than the 60th of the Assyrian mina in Eold which weighed 260 grams ; and when lie says fn another passage ( Antiq . ill. 8. 10; comp. Num vii. 14) that ten gold shekels equalled ten dancs, .he must mean the double dancs, weighing about 260 grains. The gold shekel was worth about £2. None have ever been discovered. (See General Remarks.) Fifteen shekels of silver, each weighing about 2-4 grains, were equal in value to one shekel of gold [Talent under Weights]. The divisions of the shekel mentioned in the O. T. are the half (bekali), the third part, the fourth part (rebah) and the twentieth part (gerah), q. v. In the reign of Ar- taxerxes Longimanus (b. c. 458) a special commis¬ sion was granted to Ezra “ to do what seems good with the rest of the silver and the gold” (Ezra vii. 18) : and it has been suggested that this was virtually permission to the Jews to coin money; and the silver shekels extant, dated of the years 1 to 5, and the half- hekels of the years 1 to 4, weighing about 220 and 10 grains respectively, are considered to be of this period. As regards the “shekels of silver” mention¬ ed in Nehemiah (v. 15; comp. x. 32), these may per¬ haps refer to thp silver coin circulating in the Per¬ sian kingdom called siglos, of which 20 went to one gold daric, and weighing 84 grains, but having no connection with the siklos (weighing about 220 grains), excepting in name. These coins are, like the darics, impressed with the figure of an archer [Dram], In the year b. c. 139, Antiochus VII. (Sidetes) granted special permission to Simon Maccabaeus to coin money mth his own. stamp (1 Macc. xv. 6), and the silver shekels and half-shekels most probably belong to Simon, and perhaps the copper pieces (J shekel, J- shekel, and Jof shekel), dated in the fourth year; but there is great uncertainty as to the latter. The Asmomean dynasty continued to issue a copper coinage, gradually showing Greek tendencies, to the time of Antigonus, the last prince of the Asmonaean dynasty, (b. c. 40-37), and the numerous coinage ot Alexander Jannseus (b. c. 105-78) doubtless cir- culate.1 even to N. T. times [Mite], The Idumaean princes, commencing with Herod I. (surnamed the threat), continued a copper coinage with only Greek legends, which circulated in Judaea (as well as a pro- curatorla coinage, a. d. 6-59) till the death of Agrip- &aJL insisting of silver shekels and trim !"’ aS Wel1 a.s of, °°PPer. with old Hebrew in¬ scriptions, was revived during the first revolt (May, V°>: *&***&, - J™ crsi"” **“• i •*** 18)“ The’liKrir i*® period cons Id J in8 4C"rre“t in Palestine in X. T. the Attic standard le letradrachms and drachms of [Money 1 and ' ’ ,?nT(> t le Pj0m*n denarius. 'mverlinn ' r ^IECE 0F SlLV1*. 2.] 4erKjlf/oceureinTvneSAl(>l8a‘ v.i5’ 23)' The word and in Coverdale"* of T ^ S-Versl0n of Acts xix- 19> !«an sttberling is found 'b,' 'r ' i! *VE 5‘ . The Ger- Word-Book) ' The Luthers version ( Bible mer and Tyndale for f, Word 18 a,so U8ecl >n Cran- l e for tbe money stolen by Micah (Judg. xvii. 2, 3)—“ the leuen hundredth tylturlyngs’’ (Bible Educator, v ol. iv., p. 210). stater. See Piece of Money, 2, and Tribute-money 1. Sum [of Money]. (1) Kephulaion (Acts xxn. 28), i e. in classical authors capital as opposed to interest or income (cp. “principal,” Lev. vi. 5; Nnm. v.7). In Mk. xii. 15 epikephalaion, poll-tax, 18 used in the place of the ordinary word kensos. [Tribute (Money), 2.] Sum of Money. (2) Timearguriou, pretium argenti (Acts vii. 16), i. e. price in silver. [Money.] Talent* Tcdanton. lcdentumt a Bum, not a coin. (1) In O. T. the rendering of the Hebrew kiccar [see Talent under Weights]; (2) in N. T. this word occurs— (a) in the parable of tbe unmerciful servant (Matt, xviii. 23-25); and (b) in the parable of the talents (Matt. xxv. 14-30). At this time the Attic talent obtained in Palestine; 60 mince and 6000 drachmce went to tbe talent. It was consequently worth about £200. [Pound.] Third Part of the Shekel (Neb. x. 32), about 10 id See Shekel and Tribute [ Money ]. Tribute [Money]. (1) The sacred tribute, dir drachma (Matt, xvii.' 24). The sacred tribute or pay¬ ment of the “atonement- money” was half a shekel (Exod. xxx. 13, J6), and was originally levied on every male of twenty years old and above when the Israelites were first numbered. In the reign of Jo- ash the same sum was demanded for the repair of tbe Temple (2 Cliron. xxiv. 4-14). After the return from tbe Captivity, tbe annual payment, “for the service of. the house of God” was one-third of the shekel (q. v.), and was voluntarily contributed (Neh. x. 32). The amount of tribute was again restored to the half-shekel (q. v.), which the Jews when dis¬ persed throughout the world continued to pay to¬ ward the Temple. It is to this tribute that. St. (Matthew refers, and the stater found in the fish’s month was an Attic tetradraclim, and at this time equal to a shekel [Piece of Money; Shekel]. Many commentators, both ancient and modern, have entirely missed the meaning of this miracle by in¬ terpreting the payment as a civil one. That it was the sacred tribute "is plain from our Lord’s reason for exemption: “Of whom do the kings of the earth take custom or tribute ? of their own children or of strangers?” (Matt. xvii. 25, 26 „ and further, from His reason for payment, “lest we should offend them,” which shows that the Jews willingly paid the tribute; indeed, it was not enforced by law even in the earliest times, being in this respect unlike the civil tribute. (2) The civil tribute, nomisma tou kensou, kensos, phoros (Matt. xxii. 17, 19; Mark xii. 14; Luke xx. 22; xxiii. 2). This was a tax paid to the Roman emperor, and was doubtless established when Judeea became a Roman province. The sum paid annually is not known ; but after the capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple, Vespasian ordered the Jews, in whatever country they might be, to pay the sum of two drachmce to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, as they had previously paid to the Temple at Jerusalem. Under Domitian the tax was enforced with great severity, hut upon the ac¬ cession of Nerva it was abolished. Numismatic records establish this fact; coins are extant with the legend, Fisci Judaici. calumnia sublata (comp, syco- phantia — false accusation — Luke xix. 8). After the revolt of Bar-cochab, Hadrian renewed the tax, and the reign of Alexander Severus (a. d. 226) the Jews continued to pay the didrachm. This civil tribute was paid in denarii. “ Show me the tribute- money; and they brought unto Him a penny’’ (Matt, xxii. 19; comp. Mark xii. 15; Luke xx. 24). “And He saith unto them, Whose is this image and super¬ scription? They say unto Him, Caesar’s.” The title of Caesar is common to all the Roman emperors, and the name of Tiberius, who was the Caesar alluded to, is abbreviated on the coins, TI., while the title C2E- SAR is at length. The answer may further be illus¬ trated by the small brass coins issued under the pro¬ curators Coponius, Anibivius, and Rufus, circulating in Judaea at this time, on which is simply the legend Kaisaros — of Caesar. [Penny.] Twentieth Part, of the Shekel ; about 1 W. See Gerah and Shekel. The two following terms bear direct relation to money, and are worthy of illustration: Money-Changers. Three distinct terms are employed in the N. T. to express this class — (1) Tra- pezitec, Mmularius, A. V. “ exchanger” (Matt. xxv. 27), from trapeza, “a table,” a word employed for the “tables” (men**) of the money:chajigera in Matt xx i. 12; Mark xi. 15; John n. 15 and for tht “ hank ” (tnensa) in Luke xix. 23. Trapezites war the ordinary name for the banker at Athens, liif principal occupation was that of changing money at an agio. He was a private banker, like the argenlaru at Rome, who must be distinguished from the men sarii or mensidarii and the numularii, who were pul) lie bankers appointed by the state on various eraer gencies the latter of whom seem to have been perma¬ nently employed. Hence the Vulgate has rendereo their name in all cases correctly. As the Greek wore trapezltes is from trapeza, “a table,” so our English word “banker” (French, banquier) is derived iron! the French banc, “a bench,” on which the person sat to do his business. (2) Kollubistes, numulanus, A V. “ money-changer ” (Matt. xxi. 12; Mark xi. 15) , A. V. “changer” (John ii. 15), from kollubos or hot- lubon, sometimes designated as “the changing of money,” or “rate of exchange,” sometimes as a small coin ” or “ a kind of money.” A passage in Theophrastus shows us that the kollubos have been a silver piece ranging between the lepton [Mite] and the [ obol, and therefore J of an obol, weighing about 1.4 grains. It would thus be the silver equiva¬ lent of the chalkous, which was the copper J of an obol. (3 ) Kermatistes, numularius ; A. V. “changer of money” (John ii. 14), from a Greek word signify¬ ing “ to cut small,” which is from kerma, “ money,” John ii. 15 [Money]. Money-changing was called kermatismos. No coin was called by this name. _ The money-changers, of which perhaps the “goldsmiths” who repaired the vessels ot the Temple (Neh. iii. 8) are prototypes, sat in the courts of the Temple on the 25th of Nizan for the purpose of exchanging foreign money for Jewish, as the Temple tax could only be paid in this latter coin. They also seem to have acted as bankers, money being placed in their hands for the purpose of increasing it, and on wWch in¬ terest was paid (Matt. xxv. 27 ; Luke xix. 23). Though the svsteni of “lending” was not altogether objected to in the O. T. (Exod. xxii. 25; Lev. xxv. 36, 37 ; Dent, xxiii. 19, 20 ; Prov. vi. 1 ; Ps. xv. 5 ; Jer. xv. 10; Ezek. xxii. 12; xviii. 13, etc.), yet after the Captivity the Jews were compelled to leave off usury [Neh. v. 11, 12), whilst in the N. T. period it was sanctioned, provided it was done “ hoping for nothing again” (Luke vi. 35; comp. Matt. v. 42). The system, however, pursued by the money-changers in the Temple must have been a vicious one, as is apparent from our Lord’s denunciation of their do¬ ings (Matt. xxi. 13; Mark xi. 17 ; Luke xix. 46; comp. Isa. lvi. 7 ; Jer. vii. 11). Treasury or Treasure. This term is used in the A. V. of the N. T. as the translation of three different words — (1) Gazophulakion (Mark xii. 4’, 43; Luke xxi. 1 ; John viii. 20), from gaza, “a treaj- ure,” and phidasso, “to keep.” The word gaza illelt. ganza), which occurs in this sense in Acts viii. 27, is employed frequently in the O. T. for “treasures” or “treasure-house” (Ezra v. 17; vi. 1; vii. 20; Estli. iii. 9; iv. 7 ; Ezek. xxviL 24 ; 1 Chron. xxviii. 11). It is not a Hebrew word, hut probably a Persian. The term gazophulakion or gazophylacium occurs in various passages of the Maccabees, and the Vulgate uses it as the term for the “chest” (Heb. arun, LXX. kibotos) in which Jehoiada collected the money for the repairs of the Temple [see General Remarks ]. The treasury-chamber appears to have been a plaea where people came to offer their charity-money fo? the repairs and other uses of the Temple, and con¬ sisted of 13 brazen chests (Heb. trumpets, because the mouths were wide at the top and narrow below), which stood in the outer court of the women. (2' Korbancis, corbbna (Matt, xxvii. 6), the sacred treas¬ ure of the Jews, and explained in Mark vii. 11 as s gift ( doron ), and by Josephus as “a gift to God.” Korban in the O. T. is principally employed for un bloody sacrifices” (comp. Lev. ii. 1, 4, 5, 6). Domn in the N. T. principally means “gifts in general” (Matt. ii. 11), “sacrificial gifts” (Matt. v. 23, 24; Heb v. 1; xi. 4), “gifts of God to man” (Ephes. ii. 8). “of man to man” (Rev. xi. 10) ; but it is also used of gifts to the “treasury” (Luke xxi. 1), and in one case appears to mean the “treasury itself” (Luke xxi. 4). (3) Thesauros, thesaurus. ( a ) As the “treas¬ ure-house” (Matt. ii. 11 ; xiii. 52) ; (6) as the “ treas ure” (Matt. vi. 19, 20; xii. 35; xiii. 44; xix. 21 Mark x. 21; Luke vi. 45; xii. 33: xviii. 22; 2 Cor iv. 7 ; Col. ii. 3; Heb. xi. 26). The word is used it the LXX. as the translation of the Hebrew ctsar meaning either “ treasures of God,” “ store-houee fc; 16 CtfINS, MONEY AND WEIGHTS OF THE BIBLE. corn,” “ treasury for gold and silver,” etc. (Dent, xxviii. 12; xxxii. 34; 1 Chron. xxvii. 27 ; Josh. vi. 19 ; 1 Kings vii. 51, etc.). WEIGHTS. The following weights are mentioned in the Bible: Bekah (Gen. xxiv. 22), “ half,” “ half a shekel.” This word occurs only in the Pentateuch. See Bekah under Money. Gertlll. Properly a “grain” or “bean,” the smallest silver weight, J5th part of the shekel. See Gerah under Money and Shekel. lAtra. See Pound. Maneh (LXX. mna; Vulgate, mina). “A por¬ tion or part;” A. V. “ pound,” sometimes called sta¬ ler — standard ; a word owing its origin to Babylon, and which, as the weight was employed by the Egyp¬ tians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and Greeks, has the same meaning in the language of all these nations. The weight of the golden targets made by Solomon for the Temple is stated to have been 300 [shekels] of gold each (2 Chron. ix. 16), whilst in the parallel passage the amount of gold employed for each shield is given as three pounds ( manehs , 1 Kings x. 17). It would thus appear that the maneh of gold was equal to 100 shekels, but it must be observed that in the Chronicles the Hebrew is “ 300 of gold,” the word shekels being supplied in the A. V. ; and it has con¬ sequently been suggested by some that the Chronicles was written in the Macedonian period, and that con¬ sequently one should reckon what is here meant as “100 drachms to the maneh," as in use among the Greeks. The passage, however, is obscure, and in any case the calculation of 100 shekels to the maneh is not likely. That in Ezekiel (xlv. 12) relative to the maneh is also difficult of explanation [Shekel ; Talent]. The word maneh further occurs in Ezra ii. 69; Neh. vii. 71, 72; comp. 1 Esdras v. 45. Bound. (1) Mna, mina (1 Macc. xiv. 24; xv. '8). Here large sums are weighed by this standard, and it refers to the Attic talent. (2) Litra, a word used by the Greeks of Sicily in their system of weights and money, sometimes called stater — standard — and equivalent to the Latin word libra or as, the unit of weight among the Koreans. Josephus says that the Hebrew maneh of gold equalled 21 lilrce. The libra or Roman pound = 5059 grains, consequently 21- Roman pounds = 12,647 grains ; and as the Hebrew gold shekel was the fiftieth part of the maneh, it must have weighed about 253 grains [ Shekel under Money]. The word litra occurs in the N. T. in John xii. 3 and xix. 39. Shekel. A word signifying “ weight,” according lo which numerous objects were weighed, especially the metals. The passage in Ezek. xlv. 12 is confus¬ ing, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but it must be remembered that it is prophetical. 50 or 60 shekels equalled a maneh [Maneh; Pound], 3600 or 3000 shekels equalled a talent [Talent]. See Shekel under Money. Taleil t. Kikkar, properly “ a circle ” or “ globe ;” hence kuklos, circus. The largest Hebrew weight for metals. First occurs in Exod. xxv. 39, “ a talent of pure gold.” It is also specially spoken of as “talent of silver” (2 Kings v. 22), “talent of lead” (Zech. v. 7), “talent of brass” (Exod. xxxviii. 29), and “talent of iron” (1, Chron. xxix. 7). A talent of silver bound up in a bag, and one change of garment, were about as much as one man could carry (2 Kings v. 23), and weighing was probably avoided by thesealed bags containing a certain weight of silver. The He¬ brew talent was derived from Assyria and Babylonia. Of the talents current in these countries, the heavy or Assyrian talent passed through Mesopotamia and Syria to the Phoenician coast-towns, and to Palestine, where we find it in use among the Israelites.. In Nineveh, as well as in Palestine, besides the weights talent of the king of 3600 sixtieths of the maneh for valuing precious metals, a special reckoning was made by talents of 3000 gold and silver units; but when it was found convenient to reckon 3000 shekels instead of 3600 to the talent is not known, nor when a devia¬ tion was made from the sexagesimal division of the maneh, and it was limited to 50 instead of to 60 units. The sum-total of the taxes to the sanctuary paid by the people is stated to be (Exod. xxxviii. 25) 100 talents, 1775 shekels, to which 603,550 men each con¬ tributed a half shekel, so that, according to this, oo 00 shekels are reckoned to tiie taient ; and as the talent is always divided into 60 manehs, 20 shekels went to the maneh; which is corroborated from the fact that the taxes for persons of various age and sex commence at a maximum point of 50 shekels (Lev. xxvii. 3, 16), and that Achan found a wedge of gold of just 50 shekels’ weight, aud not 60 (Josh. vii. 21). [See General Remarks .] The shekels of the weight talent “ of the king ” and the gold talent are identical, the latter talent having been formed from the former, which appears to have been used for weighing other materials than the met¬ als (“king’s weight,” 2 Sam. xiv. 26). [Shekel.]. The weight of 9 “ holy ” silver shekels (224.7975X9) thus equals 8 sixteenths of the “weight” maneh, (252.9165X8), and the value of 15 “holy” silver shekels equals that of 1 gold shekel— i. e. £2. Some, however, have taken the silver talent as weighing 660,000 grains [114r7j lbs. troy], and, on the basis of the shekel being equivalent to 3s., equalling £450, and the gold talent (with a shekel of about 132 grains) as weighing double the silver, 1,320,000 grains [229J lbs. troy], and equalling, at £4 per oz. troy, £11,000 (Smith, Student’s O. T. Hist.). As to the copper talent, which is supposed by some to have had a shekel of four times the weight of the gold shekel, though only 1500 to the talent, and therefore equalling 792,000 grains, it is impossible to speak with certainty ; but in all probability the copper talent did not contain a fewer number of shekels than that of the silver. The amounts of talents mentioned in the Bible during the reigns of David and Solomon are almost incredible (1 Chron. xxii. 14; xxix. 4, 7). The annual income of Solomon is said to have been 666 talents of gold (1 Kings x. 14; 2 Chron. ix. 13), which, taking the estimate of some that the gold talent was double the silver, would be equivalent to £7,780,000, a sum more than the revenues of the whole Persian empire under Darius, which has been calculated at about three millions and a half. But if we take 15 shekels of silver as equalling one shekel of gold, and 15 talents of silver as equalling one talent of gold, then 666J talents of gold were exactly 10,000 talents of silver, or £4,000,000. It is, how- ever, difficult to hazard any safe conjecture, and most likely the figures in all these passages have been corrupted. Roman Money , mentioned in the New Testament , reduced to the English and American Standard. £ s. d. cts. cts. A penny, or denarius . 0 0 8 — 8}^ — 14.67 — 15.59 A pound, or mina iGk. mnd)3 6 8 $16 12 MINING AND METALLURGY OF THE BIBLE. The graphic account in Job xxviii. is a striking description of mining operations in olden times: “Surely there is a source for the silver, and a place for the gold which they fine. Iron is taken out of the earth, and he [i. e. the miner or workman] pour- eth forth stone as copper. He hath made an end of darkness, and he searcheth to every extremity [i. e. to great depths and with diligent care] for the stone of darkness and of the shadow of death. He break- eth through a shaft away from those who tarry above ; there, forgotten of every foot, they hang and swing far from men. The earth, from it cometh forth bread, and beneath it is upturned like fire: its stones are the place of the sapphire, which also hath dust of gold. A way that no bird of prey knoweth, and the eye of the hawk hath not seen it; which the proud beasts of prey have not trodden, nor the lion passed along. He layeth his hand upon the stone, he turneth up mountains from the root. He cutteth channels in the rocks, and his eye seeth all rare things. He bindeth fast the rivers that they leak not, and that which is hidden he bringeth to light ” (Job xxviii. 1-11). There are, as we have already seen, traces, of ancient mining in Egypt, in the desert of Sinai, in Palestine, and in the adjoining lands, and this poetic description must be held as applying to some of these operations. The writer sketches the vast labor and dangerous enterprises which men will undertake in order to win from the earth its treasures, and then passes on to the question . “ Where shall wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding ?” These shall baffle the skill of the miner, and are more difficult of attainment than the Drecimu, ures of the earth. For “ the fear of the Lord th*" ‘o depart from evil is understanding It may be well here briefly to summarize wW • known concerning the mines of biblical antim W Clearly, gold, silver, and tin were brought tn lands of the Bible mainly by commerce th i there are traces or records of gold-world,,!” " Egypt, and of both gold and silver in Arabi”S Jn| Edom. Copper and iron were both native prodiiT of Palestine, and were worked also in the island f Meroe, at the mouth of the Nile and in the peninsrl of Sinai. The island of Cyprus is also mentioned i! a source of copper, and there is every probability that both iron and copper were worked' in other dis tricts likewise, though there is no distinct and ej plicit proof. There were lead-mines in Egypt, neM the coast of the Red Sea, and also near Sinai, and it is not improbable that these lead-mines may have yielded small quantities of silver also. Diodorus Siculus gives a minute description of the method of mining and refining gold. Shafts were sunk into what Diodorus calls veins of marble of excessive whiteness (evidently quartz-rock), from which day-and-night relays of convicts extracted die auriferous quartz. This was then broken up with picks and chisels, and further reduced by iron pestle* in stone mortars to small fragments. Then it was ground to powder, spread upon a broad inclined table, and washed with water and fine sponges until the gold became pure from earthy matter. Finally it was put, with a little lead, tin, salt and bran, into earthen crucibles closed with clay, and subjected for five days and nights to the fire of a furnace. From this description it may be seen that gold-mining in these ancient times did not radically differ from that of one hundred years ago. Concerning the arts of metallurgy in ancient times we are left in much ignorance. These arts must have existed in considerable excellence amongst the Egyp¬ tians and Assyrians; and the accounts given in the Bible of the buildings of David and Solomon show that the Israelites, and especially the Phoenicians, were accomplished metal-workers. Situated between the great ancient empires of the East and West, Palestine was alternately the prey of each, and the carrying away of metal-workers into captivity shows the esteem in which they were then held. See 1 Sam. xiii. 19; 2 Kings xxiv. 14, 15 ; Jer. xxiv. 1 ; xxix.2. The book of Ecclesiasticus (chap, xxxviii. 27. 28), in the Apocrypha, gives an account of a smith s work¬ shop which those who are used to factories anil foun¬ dries will fully appreciate: “So every carpenter and workmaster, that laboreth night and day ; and they that cut and grave seals, and are diligent to make great variety, and give themselves to counterfeit imagery, and watch to finish a work : the smith also sitting by the anvil, and considering the iron-work, the vapor of the fire wasteth his flesh, and he fighteth with the heat of the furnace; the noise of the ham¬ mer and the anvil is ever in his ears, and Ins eyes look still upon the pattern of the thing that he ruak- eth ; he setteth his mind to finish his work, and watcheth to polish it perfectly.” In the Bible are references to casting (Ex. xxv 12; xxvi. 37 ; 2 Chron. iv. 17 ; Isa. xl. 19) ; soldering and welding (Isa. xli. 7); hammering into sheets xvi. 38; Isa. xliv. 12; Jer. x. 4, 9); gilding and overlaying with metal (Ex. xxv. 11-24; xxvi. 37, 1 Kings vi. 20; 2 Chron. iii. 5; Isa. xl. 19; o, llj xiii. 9). But perhaps the most interesting of all -u™ allusions are those to the melting and separation am refining of metals (Ps. xii. 6; Prov. xvii. 3, etc ; f1* i. 25; Jer. vi. 29; Ezek. xxii. 18-20). Malachi (m- - 3) makes use of a striking metaphor derived Iron the metallurgy of silver. Before the discovery quicksilver, lead was used for the purification ot 1 precious metals. How far the ancients were aequo"' ed with what is now known as “Pattison’s metin'1 of obtaining silver from argentiferous lead-ore is 1111 certain, but Pliny apparently hints at something o the kind in these words: “ When submitted to 1 action of fire, part of the ore precipitates itself m 1 form of lead, while the silver is left floating 011 1 1 surface.” . , Clearly, however, the passage from Malacm a®® named refers to the process of “cupellation: ^ [the Messiah] shall sit as a refiner and punnet ^ silver; and he shall purify the sons of Levi, ■' purge them as. gold and silver, that they may unto the Lord an offering in righteousness- VA LUABLE Rronological and Miscellaneous Tables. From the Creation to the Christian Era, and the Principal Events of the Nineteenth Century, arranged to increase the interest in and simplify the study of the Holy Scbiptubes. ^contemporaneous ohr on o log y. ANTEDILUVIAN PATRIARCHS. Period I. 1656 Years. Period. X. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. ^^7^4004, TO THE DELUGE, B. C. 2348. THP TIPI UGE TO THE CALL OF ABRAHAM, B. C. 1921 - ABRAHAM 'tO THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES, A C. Mil EXODE TO THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN, B. C. 1451 . ENTRANCE, TO THE KINGDOM OF SAUL, B. C. 1095 . “o COMPLETION OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, B. C. 1004.... TEMPLE TO BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, B. C. 588 . ...... CAPTIVITY TO CLOSING OF OLD TESTAMENT CANON, j ( B C. 420 . CLOSING OF OLD TESTAMENT CANON TO CHRISTIAN J I ERA A . . * . . . CHRISTIAN ERA TO END OF COMPLETED CANON, A. D. 100.. CLOSING NEW TESTAMENT CANON TO A. D. 1877 . 420 100 1777 Periods II. and III. POSTDILUVIAN PATRIARCHS. Period to call op Abraham, 427 Years. Exode, 430 Years. Thence to Birth. Birth b. c. 2948 2446 2346 2311 2281 2247 2217 2185 2155 2126 1996 1896 1836 1743 1571 A. M. 1056 1558 1658 1693 1723 1757 1787 1819 1849 1878 2008 2108 2168 2261 2433 Noah . Shorn . Arphaxad . Salah . Eber . Peleg . Reu . Serug . Nahor . Abram’ (called TQ . 1 B. C. . . Isaac . Jacob . .. Joseph . Mosee (Exode 1491 B. C.) . Conquest of Canaan, begun under Joshua. Death. Death. Age. B. C. 1998 A. M. 2006 950 1846 2158 600 1908 2096 438 1878 2126 433 1817 2187 464 2008 1996 239 1978 2026 239 1955 2049 230 2007 1997 148 1921 2083 205 1821 2183 175 1716 2288 180 1689 2315 147 1633 2371 110 1451 2553 120 THE WANDERING IN THE WILDERNESS. Period IV. 40 Years. GOVERNORS AND JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. Period V. 356 Years. Date op Reign. B. O. 1451 1405 1323 1305 1285 1245 1236 1232 1210 1188 1182 1175 1165 1157 1137 1116 1095 Joshua.. . . . Othniel . Ehud . 1 Shamgar .. J . Deborah and Barak . Gideon . Abimeleoh.. Toia . Jair . Jephthah . . Ibzan . Elon . Abdon ... Eli . . Samson . Samuel . Saul (anointed King)." Remarks. Years. Birth. Birth. Death. Death. 1656 B. C. A. M. (Adam) 3074 2962 A. M. 930 427 4004 1042 430 3874 10U 2864 1140 3769 LO'O 2769 1235 3679 3609 oZj 395 2714 1290 356 2582 1422 91 3382 622 687 (Transl.) 3017 987 2348 1656 416 2353 1651 3130 1998 2006 168 1846 2158 2348 1656 The Deluge. Age. 930 912 905 910 895 962 365 969 777 950 600 KINGS OF ISRAEL TO COMPLETION OF TEMPLE. Period VI. 91 Years. _ Date op Reign. b. c. 1095 1055 Remarks. Saul .. David 1048 David 1015 1004 Reigned 40 years. Reigns over Judah in Hebroa, 7 years and 6 months. Reigns over all Israel, 32 years and 6 months. Completion of Temple. Begun in 4th year of Solomon’s reign, B. C. 1011, completed in about seven years and a half. _ _ _ _ PROM THE CAPTIVITY TO THE COMPLETION OE THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON. Period VIII. 168 Years. B. C. Prophets. Governors. Remarks. 536 457 445 Haggai. Zechariah. Malachi. Zerubbabel. Ezra. Nehemiah. 1 The return of the Jews from Babylon was headed by Zerubbabel. The prophet Malachi concludes the Old Testament Canon about the year 420 B. C. TABLE SHOWING HOW THE EARTH WAS REPEOPLED BY THE DESCENDANTS OF NOAH. Died at age of 110. First Judge. Judged 40 years. Rest of 80 years in the land. Judged 40 years. “ 40 years. “ 3 years. “ 23 years. “ 22 years. “ 6 years. “ 7 years. “ 10 years. “ 8 years. High Priest 40 years. Samson, twelfth Judge. Judged 20 years Last Judge. He filled his office long after Saul became King, B. C. 1095. The periods unaccounted for between the Judges were passed in servitude to neigh¬ boring nations. The Sons of Noah were Shetn, Ham, Japheth. Shem's Sons were Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud, Aram. Ham’s Sons were Cush, Mizraim, Phut, Canaan. Th e Sons of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, Tiras. They settled Assyria, Syria, Persia, Northern Arabia, Mesopotamia. They settled The Continent of Africa and Arabia. They settled Asia Minor, Armenia, Caucasus, Europe. The principal nations which sprang from them were Persians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Lydians, Armenians, Syrians. The principal nations which sprang from, them were Ethiopians, Egyptians, Libyans, Canaanites. The principal nations which sprang from them were Russians, Germans, Gauls, Britons, Scythians, Medes, Tonians and Athenians, Iberians, Muscovites, Thracians. 41 >• ◄ P3 O Pi fcH W H 55 O o w Pi w £ CD M o P3 ◄ t-i Pi H < Pi & a a wig Ms* 02 S PS W w H O W o < w a H «95(ow’aoo Eo> o» if cow K Tf .$ rl : : :3 § : - ■ ; «> b • • -a -a : : s S •g $ I®*® §!-«' S e *e <3 ilOOtOllffill fc 05 o toco soo **l® CD CO CM .-I Jacob aged when,. Isaac., w a <§* O c > 55 s * :-S :-S s e S ^5 cS 6,0 5 5 3^3^33 aCDCOOiCOiO L»© r*< co o 05 ^ CM to CD CD <5 2* <2 b-5 Q c * ◄ 8 ~ j *e ^ R tS R> -R fejs Abram. , .do. ..do. Ter ah.. .do. Nahor... Serug . do. .do. Reu. .do. Peleg. .do, Eber. Selah . Arphaxad. .do. ..do. ..do. Shorn aged when. Noah. .do. Jared. . ... do . Mahalaleel . ... do . Chinan . ...do. Enos. . ...do. Jcth . ...do. Adam . . . .do. Re/ore Christ . Anno Mundi . 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Claudius Ptolemy, Egypt “ Ptol- banished from Palestine, lit , ■ Anology. 167, Polycarp martyred. 169, andria. 217, Colixtus bishop ot K persia 229, Dion Cassius historian. (Artaxerxes) founds the Sassani. ^ ^ ^ Ephesus Zenobia queen mud and Targum begun. .^^“‘fXurch history,” b. 266, d. 340. monks 296. Eusebius, Christianity tolerated. Council of Nmma Constantine emperor (b 272 , d. Apostate (361) at Jerusalem. 325. Constantinople _the . capital 330 ^ 32S, d. 489. Valens 354 First monasteries in Egypt 35b. S [nyade Britain. Roman empire divided into EaTand^Wesf/oT Theodosius 379. Chrysostom, Ambrose, Jerome, Mar- tin and Augustine '‘ Chnshan SWhm. ^ of Alcxandria. 416, Visigoths Innocent I. bishop of open3 ‘public schools. 429, Nestorius and Vandals appear. 425, Council at Enhesus. 432, St. Patrick in Ireland, bishop of Constantinople. ’ . , 1 R e 447 Huns under Attila invade 435, Theodosian code. Leo I. bishop at Kome. condemned. 468, First trial by Scythia, Enddeefmthe Roman empire. 498, 600. jury of peers. 476, Kome taxon nv w^. End of the Roman empire, Talmud of Babylon published ■ p ersia. 626, Extreme unction in- fhdiBcedn y529 Skine monks S ho“s closed at Aliens. 5.32, Christian Ktft wSta^ Justinian emperor, b. 483, crowned 5 7; era mvenicu uy ip.ndnetsl 634 d 565. The Armenians separate from the Greek* Church ’ 538, St. Sophia built at Constantinople. 540, The Monothelites. M8 Turkish rule founded in Asia. 558, Procopius the Roman. 559, The Saxon Heptarchy in England begun. 568, The Turks send an embassy to Justin II. emperor. Kingdom of Murcia, England. 580, Latin language dead in Italy. 586 cXlics in Spain. 588, Gregory of Tours, “the father of French 1 history 590, Gregory the Great bishop of Rome. Purgatory and the mass first taught. 596, Christianity taught by St. Augustine in England. Bretwalda king. #04. St. Paul’s, London, founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent. 606, Phocas, emperor of Rome, at Constantinople declared Boniface III. pope and supreme over all others in the Church. 612, Mohammed published the Koran, 613, The Arabs in Syria. Persians take Jerusalem. 617, St. Peter’s, now Westminster Abbey, founded by Sabert, king of Kent. 622, Mohammed’s flight from Mecca to Medina. Era of Mohammed. 632, Omar the Caliph unites civil and religious powers, and conquers Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor. 6.36, Christianity in China. 644, University of Cambridge. Celibacy of the clergy enforced. Separation of Greek and Roman churches. 647, Rhodes and Cyprus taken by the Arabs, also Persia. 657, Latin adopted as the church language by Pope Vitalian. 672, Sara- oens in Spain. 680, Bulgaria. 682, Leo II. instituted “holy water. 69S, First king in Poland. Cracow founded- Adhelm first English writer in prose and •JG0. Anglo-Saxon Ootarchy. 708, Pope Constantine’s toe kissed (the first). 713, Arabs conquer all Spain. 716, Paper-making introduced by Arabs. 725, Image-wor¬ ship forbidden. 735, Venerable Bede died. 752, Pope Stephen II. founded the temporal power of the Church by aid of Pepin of France. 762, Almanzor, caliph, builds Bagdad. 768, Charlemagne king of France. He conquers Italy and ends the Lombard kingdom. Schools in Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, Fez and Cordova under the Arabs. 779, Charlemagne imposes tithes for the support of the clergy, schools and the poor. 787, Seventh Church council at Nice. Haroon ar-Rasliid caliph — golden age of Arabic learning. Masses said for money. 900. Charlemagne emperor of Rome, Italy, Germany and France. 802, Haroon ar- Rashid presents Charlemagne with a striking clock. 808, First bank for exchange in Italy. Denmark a kingdom, Gotricus king. 817, College of cardinals. 820, First division of the Arabian government. 824, Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 828, St. Mark’s, Venice, built. 829, The seven kings unite and form the kingdom of England under Egbert. 838, Normans plunder Paris and Ham¬ burg. 846, Saracens besiege Rome, and, defeated, ravage Sardinia. 858, First coronation of a pope, Nicholas I. 860, Gorm king of Denmark, Normans dis¬ cover Iceland. Ruric, first grand prince of Russia, builds Lagoda. Alfred the Great defeats the Danes. Harold first king of Norway. 875, Eutychius (d. 940) learned historian. 889, Hungary, Arpad first king. 890, Oxford University founded, also militia and navy and trial by jury, by Alfred in England. ^1. Venice and Genoa republics. Edward the first “ king of the English.” Fatimites in Egypt. 904, First Russian attack on Constantinople. 912, Abder-Rahman Arab prince in Spain (heroic age). 915, University of Cambridge founded. 939, Cordova, Spain, a seat of learning. Arabic numerals introduced in Europe. 940, Mint founded in Kent. 955, Russia Christianized. 959, St. Dunstan of Canterbury enforces clerical celibacy. 965, Poland Christianized under Miecislus. 973, Stephen, king, makes a constitution and written laws. 982, Greenland dis¬ covered. 988, Hugh Capet king in France. 995, Christianity in Norway. Olaf I. founds Drontheim. 9 . Paper made from cotton rags in England. 1013, Danes conquer England. 1016, inSr 5 • England. 1024, Avicenna Arabian physician (b. 980, d. 1037). Brian Boru in Ireland. Scotland and Norway conquered by Canute. Fir- ausi the greatest Persian poet (b. 940, d. 1022). 1042, First invasion by the ©juk lurks in Asia Minor. They take Bagdad in 1055. The selling of chil- ren prohibited by law in England. 1066, William the Conqueror in England. RnrU8a em ^a^en ky Turks, 1068, Knights-errant in Spain. First booksellers, •p* es U8je^* Norman-French the legal language in England. 1095, in ru.8a . UIjder Peter the Hermit and Godfrey de Bouillon, who was king 100. Wimlm nf D 10!9’ Knights of St. John instituted. I1(U a . ®'t°u first troubadour. 1101, Robert duke of Normandy in England. TemnlaCre lirnf ^7 .Crusaders ; 1111, Beirut and Sidon ; and 1118, Tyre. Knights covered t25, Aristotle’s logic again in repute. 1137, Justinian's Pandects dis- Civil law improved. 1138, Portugal a kingdom. 1140, Wil- Tudeln. tear (na®hUI7 English historian 1147, Second Crusade. Benjamin of o s from S pain to India. 1150, Magnetio needle first known in Italy. Bb.. Ezra quers Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia and A abm l .172, - Earned Jew. Wll’ TM?d Crusade.* fi8nn££ of Cyprus 1193, Richard defeats Saladi. 1 196) Richard Lion Heart in captivity. Pope c“®;de 1223, Cru- persecuted everywhere. 1261, Private war and tna 370 Ei and la-«“ ha; France 1274, General Council at Lyons and first reunion of the Eastern a n Western churches. 1279, University of Lisbon. Roger Bacon of Oxford the mourned ‘of the age. Kubla Khan in China. 1282 Sicilian ^ The title “nrince of Wales” originated by King Edward. l.Jl, Kna 01 ine kingdom ofPJerusalem. 1297, William Wallace, William Douglas in Scotland. 1299, Ottoman empire founded, in Bithyma by Othman 1. Fi gt University at Lyons. 1302, Mariners compass invented at Naples. Im vocation of the States General of France. 1303, University of Amgnon. Danto the rmet (b 1265 d 1321). 1306, Robert Bruce king in Scotland. Edward 11. In England. 1310, Knight, of St! John of Rhodes. 1311, William Tell in Sw.to Borland. 1307, Swiss republic. Poland under one king, ' IV. 1323, Musical notation by John de Muris. 1326, Tamerlane (d. 1405). Orkhan mHton, Brusa his capital. 1338, German Diet of Frankfort declares agains the t *“Pora' nower of the pope. 1340, Gunpowder first used at the battle of Cressy by Edward the Black Prince. 1.347, Sir John Maundevile travels. 13^, Petoroh Boccmcio. 1365, The University of Vienna, College of Medicine at Pans. 1370, Chaucer. 1377, The first Speaker of the House of Commons. 1380, Wickliffe. The Tar¬ tars sack Moscow. Persia invaded by Tamerlane. 1386, Froissart s Chronicles John van Eyck (b. 1.390, d. 1440) inventor of oil painting in Bruges. 1390, r irsi linen paper-mill in Germany. 1397, Union of Denmark, Swollen and Norway under one king. Revival of Greek literature. Tamerlane in Russia and (1399) in India, and in 1401 in Asia Minor. . , .... University of Leipsic. Thomas 5 Kempis. 1410, John Hass (burnt 1416). 1420, Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 1425, Cosmo de Medici promotes art in Italy. 1429, Joan of Ar.e eaves Orleans, France, from the English (burnt as a witch 1431). Printing by blocks by Roster of Haarlem 1438; by types by 1300. 1409. Gutenberg 1444; first cast metal types by Schceffer 1457. 1444, Leonardo da Vinci, Perugino. 1447, Vatican Library begun. 1448, Azores discovered. 143.1, Constantinople taken by Turks. End of the Eastern Roman empire. 1469. her- 1462, Ivan I. the first ezar. and. 1490, ( 1497, Cabot. dinand and Isabella. - , - in Spain. House of Tudor in England^ 1490, Conquest of Granada. 1480, Ximenes. Inquisition 1492, 1498, Vasco da Gama sail* Discovery of America by Columbus, to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 1502. St. Peter’s, Rome, church begun. 1507, Cardinal Ximenes. lol3. Pope Leo X. patron of literature and art. 1517, Cairo taken by Turks. Luther (b. 1483, il. 1546), Erasmus, Woolsey chancellor and cardinal to Henry VIII., England. Be¬ ginning of the Reformation. 1519, Conquest of Mexico. 1522, Magellan sails round the world. 1523, Christianity in India, Ariosto poet. Gustavus I asa. 1526, Albert Dilrer. Invasion of Germany by Turks. 1529, Lutherans first called Protestants. 1532, John Calvin. 1533, Conquest of Peru, Cortez. 1534, Loyola founded the Jesuits. 153S, Diving-bell invented. 1539, University of Geneva. 1545, Council of Trent. Diet of Worms. 1547, Catherine de Medici queen. Turks in Persia. 1549, English liturgy established. Montaigne. 1554, Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 1556, Jelaleddin the Mogul emperor in India. Eliza¬ beth queen in England 1558. 1560, Catholicism abolished in England. Cecil, secretary; Protestantism established. Puritans. Duke of Guise in France. 1562, Religious liberty granted to the Huguenots. 1564, Duke of Alva, lasso, Italian poet. 1568, Camoens, Portuguese poet. 1569, Prince Conde killed at Jarnac, France. 1570, Greek victory over Turks at Lepanto. 1571, Cyprus taken by Turks. Cervantes. 1575, Stephen king of Poland. Murad III. sultan. Sixtus pope. 1577, Sir Francis Drake sails round the world. 1588, The first newspaper. 1590, Telescopes invented. Spanish Armada destroyed. 1592, Spenser, Shake¬ speare, Ben Jonson, Lord Bacon. Edict of Nantes 1598. 1602. East India Company founded. 1604, Acadia, Nova Scotia, colonized. Union of English and Scotch crowns, James I. New translation of Bible begun. 1606, Dr. Gilbert discovers the power of electricity. 1686, Hudson’s Bay discovered. Tobacco first in Turkey. 1607, Jamestown. Virginia, settled. 1608, Quebeo founded. Telescope invented by Galileo. 1609, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. Russia overrun by Tartars. Moors expelled from Spain. 1017, Sir Francis Bacon lord chancellor. 1618, Synod of Dort, Arminius (b. 1560, d. 1609) con¬ demned. Thirty years’ religious war in Germany. Circulation of the blood discovered by Harvey. 1620, Puritans landed on Plymouth Rock. 1624, New Amsterdam (New York) settled by the Dutch. Cardinal Richelieu. Kepler astronomer. Torricelli invents barometers. 1627, Parian marbles in England. Boston founded. 1630, Gazette published in Venice. 16.31, The Dutch masters in Brazil. 1632, Pole3 advance to Moscow. 1633, Laud archbishop of Can- terbury. 1637, Harvard College founded. Bagdad taken by the Turks. 1639, First printing in America at Cambridge by Green. 1640, Madras, India, founded by the English. 1642, War of the Roundheads and Cavaliers tn England. 1645, Louis XIV., “The Great,” of Franco (b. 1638, d. 1715). His ministers were Cardinal Mazarin and Colbert, and his wife Madame de Mainte- non ; his generals Conde and Turenne. The colonies of New England unite. Des Cartes philosopher. Stuyvesant governor of New Amsterdam. Massaniello in Naples. 1647, First Tartar king in China. 1649, Charles I. beheaded, Eng¬ land. Cromwell (h. 1599, d. 1658) protector 1654, John Milton his secretary. 1650, Railroads with wooden rails near Newcastle, England. Jeremy Taylor, Alger, Sidney, authors. 1652, John Cotton, Inigo Jones, died. 1654, Air-pumps in¬ vented. 1662, Turks in Hungary. Logwood first cut in Honduras. 1663, Can¬ ada a colony. Salvator Rosa. 1664, French East India Company. 1666, Great fire in London. Canal of Languedoc from Mediterranean to Atlantic. Gobelin tapestry invented, Paris. 1667, New York ceded to England. 1670, Bayonets invented at Bayonne, France. 1672, Turks in Poland. 1675, Wren begins St. Paul’s, London. King Philip’s war. Butler, Dryden, Leighton. Baxter and Buuyan authors. 1681, Museum of Natural History, London ; Garden of Planv MODERN CHRONOLOGY FROM A. D. 102 TO 1877.— Continued. Paris. ^ 1681, Penny post and Royal Sooiety, London. Turks besiege Vienna. 1685, Edict of Nantes revoked in France. 16S6, SirE. Andros governor of New England. 1687, Newton’s “ Principia.” 1693, Bank of England. Newton’s re¬ flecting telescopes. Witchcraft in New England. 1699, Phosphorus discovered. French colony in Louisiana. Peter the Great in England. 1701. Yale College founded. 1703, First Russian newspaper. 1704, Marlborough. Boston Netcs-Letter, first paper in Amerioa. 1707, First United Parliament, Great Britain. 1709, First paper money New Jersey. 1710, First post-offioe New York. 1716, Charles XII., Sweden, killed. Cot-ton Mather, Inorease Mather. First newspaper in Philadelphia. 1721, First newspaper in New York. 1727, Great earthquake in New England. 1728, Diamond mines discovered in Brazil. 1729, Balloons invented by Gusmac. The Carolinas separated. 1732, George Washington born (d. 1799). 1740, Maria Theresa, Austria. 1744, Frederick the Great (b. 1712, king 1740, d. 1786). 1745, Louisburg taken by Americans. 1748, Mosheim, historian. 1750, Kaunitz, statesman, Austria (b. 1711, d. 1794). Dr. Franklin’s (b. 1706, d. 1790) discoveries in electricity. 1752, New Style — -year begins Jan. 1. (Old Style from Augustus b. c. 8, and Gregory at Rome, 1582, twelve days taken out.) The Jews’ year began in March, the Greeks’ in June, the Macedonian in Sept., the Egyptian in Aug., the Persian Aug. 11, the English March 25. 1753, British Museum. 1755, Washington with Braddock. William Pitt, the elder, England. 1759, Wolf died at Quebec. 1760, George III. king of England. French lose all Canada to the English. Catherine II. of Russia (b. 1729. empress 1762, d. 1796). 1761, Niebuhr travels in Arabia. Wesley, Whitefield, preachers. 1764, Philadelphia Medical School, first in America. 1765, the Stamp Act resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. First Colonial Congress in New York. 1766, Stamp Act repealed. Earl Chatham. 1767. Jesuits expelled from Spain Grom France 1764). 1768, Cook’s first voyage. Boston occupied by British troops. Russia and Turkey at war. Genoa cedes Corsica to France. Bruce at the Nile head-waters. Royal Academy of Arts founded. 1769, Daniel Boone in Kentucky. 1772, Partition of Poland. Pope Clement abolishes the order of Jesuits. 1773, Tea destroyed at Boston. 1774, Cook discovers New California Congress at Philadelphia. Spinning-jenny invented by Arkwright. Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, France. Steam- engine by Watt and Bolton. Hastings governor in India. 1775, The American Revolution began April 19. Washington commander-in-chief. Declaration July 4, 1776. Dr. Franklin in laris. Necker prime minister. British army in New York. 1777, Lafayette arrived in the United States. Burgoyne surrendered. 1778, Alliance with Franca Rochambeau and D’Estaing with French fleet arrive, 1781, First Bible printed in America in the English language. Corn¬ wallis surrenders at Yorktown. 1782, Treaty with Holland. Tippoo Sultan in India (b. 1749, d. 1799). 1783, Peace of Versailles, and the United States inde¬ pendent of Great Britain. 1784, Chamber of Commerce, New York. Asiatio Sooiety, Calcutta, founded by Sir William Jones. Sunday-schools in England by Raikes. Herschel's telescopes. 1785, John Adams first minister to England. Stenography invented. 1786, Spinning-machine first in France. 1787, First Convention at Philadelphia, and the Constitution adopted. 1788, Cotton planted in Georgia. King George III. insane. 1789, George Washington first Presi¬ dent. French Revolution. Bastile razed. 1791, First United States bank. United States Mint. 1792, France a Republic. 1793, Washington re-elected. All Europe, except Sweden and Denmark, form a coalition against France. 1795, Napoleon Bonaparte general of the army (b. 1769, emperor 1804, d. 1821). 1800. Capital moved to Washington, D. C. 1801, Iron railways in England. 1892, First book-fair in New York. 1803, Louisiana purchased from France. First looomotive used in Wales. 1806, Lewis and Clarke oross the _ 1807, Fulton made a steamboat. Frenoh University established k k°®\ Lithography. Duke of Wellington (b. 1769, lieutenant-general, 1852). 1812, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missin 18°8’i with England. Gas-lights in the streets of London. Peace with F , Ghent 1814. Wellington defeated Bonaparte at Waterloo June 18 io?? anii 11 American Bible Society. Bull by the pope against Bible sn’ei«ti ' 181t> Earliest in England, 1698, in Sootland, 1709, France, 1792, British 1!!)- 1801, Irish, 1806, Baptist in United States, 1838. Algiers bombarded First public sohools in Russia. 1819, First steamboat orossed the AtW ,, York to Liverpool. Rise of cholera. 1822, The Greek Revolution r’r glyphics deciphered by Champollion. 1825, Mail posts in Prussia ri ,4'ero’ the Rhine. 1826, Aniline colors discovered. 1829, Catholio emanoi„„r England. Algiers taken by the French. 1830, The Niger traced from°T !' Tchad to the ocean by the brothers Lander. 1831, Lord John Russell'? n 7 8 Bill. 1832, Kingdom of Greece founded. Sir Robert Peel. Captain Rn«» a discovery. 1833, Girard College in Philadelphia and University of Nr,» v ? founded. 1835, Boston and Lowell R. R. completed, first in the United St , 1836, James Smithson of London founds the Smithsonian Institution Wan¬ ton, D. C., on $500,000. 1836, Chinese expel English and other “ barbam"18! 1837, Morse’s patent for the electric telegraph. Talleyrand (b 1754 ,1 jSJ, 1840, Penny post in England. Lord Palmerston (b. 1784, d. 18651. lfi« n?' nell’s (b. 1775, d. 1847) “ Repeal ” agitation in Ireland. 1845, Sir John f ™' in the Arotic Seas. 1846. Thames tunnel opened. War with Mexico Citr f Mexico captured, and California ceded to United States. Pius IX. pone M Suspension bridge over Niagara River. French Revolution. Louis NnnnlJ. III. (b. 1808) president. 1849, Rome a republic. Franois Joseph emperor nf Austria (b. 1830, cr. 1848). 1850, The sultan permits the Jews to build a, temnli on Zion. 1851, The first Great Exhibition, London. 1852, Napoleon III. emperor of France (d. 1871). 1854, Crimean War, Russia; Alexander II. emperor (b ISIS or. 1855). England, France, Italy, Turkey (peace 1856). Actor Library founded 1855, First street letter-boxes (in London). 1857, Ocean cable U. 8. to England attempted (designed 1863; laid 185S; second, 1865; third, 1865; several since) 1861. Rebellion of the Southern States (Abraham Lincoln President). Garibaldi (b. 180)' promoted the union of all Italy, and Victor Emanuel II. (b. 1820, king of Sardinia 1849) king, and end of the temporal power of the pope. 1863, Emancipate proclamation. 1864, Nitro-glycerine discovered. 1865, Peace with the Southern States. 1866, Centennial of Methodism in the United States. General assemblyof Catholios at Rome declared the pope infallible. 1867, Dominion of Canada organ ized. 1868, Suez Canal opened (begun in 1854). 1869, Paoifio Railroad com pleted. 1870, German-French war. Paris captured. Mont Cenis tunnel, betweei France and Italy. 1871, Commune hold Paris. Old and New School Presbyte rians reunited (separated 1838). 1872, Old Catholic movement in Europe. 1873 Evangelical Alliance, New York (originated in England 1845). Reformed Epis copal Church organized. 1874, First Christian Union convention, Cincinnati Hoosac tunnel completed. 1876, Victoria (b. 1819, cr. 1838), queen of Great Britain, declared empress of India. Centennial of the Independence of He United States, July 4; great International Exhibition at Philadelphia. 18?), April 24, Russia deolares war against Turkey to ameliorate the condition d Christians in Turkish provinces. WHERE UTTERED. Jerusalem — Temple.... Jerusalem . Sychar, in Samaria.... Jerusalem — Temple.... Cana . Nain . Sea of Galilee . Capernaum . Capernaum . Capernaum . Reg. of Caes. Philippi, Reg. of Cres. Philippi, Reg. of Caes. Philippi. Jerusalem . Jerusalem . Capernaum . Galilee . Galilee . Near Scythopolis . Jerusalem . Jerusalem . Jerusalem . Jerusalem — Temple.... Mt. of Olives . Mt. of Olives . . He Mt. of Olives. Mt. of Olives . . . Jerusalem . Jer. — Upper Chamber... Jer.— Upper Chamber... Jer. — Upper Chamber... Jer. — Upper Chamber... Jerusalem . On the way to Calvary- Calvary . Garden of Joseph . Sea of Galilee . Jerusalem . — ... Bethany . . Prophetic Warnings and Promises of our Lord and Saviour. THE WARNING OR PROMISE. WHERE RECORDED. foretells His Resurrection within Three Days after burial . . His Crucifixion, and its Glorious Object and Result — referring to the Mosaic Type . the Substitution of the New for the Old Dispensation . the General Resurrection of the Dead . the Rejection of the Jews and Acceptance of Gentiles . the Destruction of Capernaum, Chorazin and Bethsaida . the Great Judgment . the Persecutions that should Harass them, with Promise of Deliverance and of final Glory . His Flesh to be the Food of His People, with Promise of Resurrection and Eternal Life . one of the Twelve a Devil . His Sufferings, Rejection, Death and Resurrection . His Coming in Glory to Reward every Man according to his Works . the Establishment of His Church . . . His Ascension . the Gift of the Holy Ghost . the Judgment of Capernaum, Chorazin and Bethsaida . the Salvation of Gentiles and Rejection of many Jews . the Destruction of Jerusalem . . . His Second Coming to be Sudden, and His Disciples’ Sufferings before it . the Apostles to be Peculiarly Blessed at the Second Coming . the Utter and Total Destruction of Jerusalem . the Manner of His Death, and its Great Object and Result . the Kingdom to be taken from the Jews and given to “a nation bringing forth fruits thereof”.. the Destruction of the Temple . the Coming of False Christs ; Commotions and Wars among the Nations, and Active Persecu¬ tion of the Church . . » . . the Second Coming and its Signs . the Judgment . the Betrayer Pointed Out . Peter’s Denial (two warnings) . the Holy Ghost (several prophecies) . His Ascension . their Forsaking Him . - . His Sitting on the Right Hand of Power and Coming in the Clouds of Heaven . the Desolation of Jerusalem . “ To-day shalt thou be with Me in Paradise ” . His Ascension . Peter’s Crucifixion . . the Sending of the Holy Spirit . . the Signs that should Follow the Gift of the Holy Spirit . John 2 : 19-21. John 3 : 14-16. John 4 : 21-24. John 5 : 25-29. Matt. 8:11,12; see Luke 13 : 23-39 Matt. 11 : 20-24 ; see Luke 10 : 13-lft Matt. 13 : 30, 40-43, 49, 50. Matt. 10 : 16-39. John 6 : 39, 40, 54-58. John 6:70, 71. Matt. 16 : 21 ; Mark 8 : 31 ; Luke 9 : 2 % Matt. 16 : 27 ; Mark 8 : 38 ; Luke 9 : 26. Mark 9:1; Luke 9 : 27. John 7 : 34. John 7 : 37-39. Luke 10 : 13-15 ; see Matt. 1 1 : 20- 24 Luke 13 : 23-30 ; see Matt. 8 : 11, 12 Luke 13 : 35. Luke 17 : 22-36; see Matt. 24 : 27-44 Matt. 19 : 28. Luke 19 : 41-44 ; see Matt. 23 : 34-39 John 12 : 32, 33, Matt. 21 : 43. Matt. 24 : 1, 2; Mark 13 : 1, 2 ; Luke 21 5, « Matt. 24 : 4-25 ; Mark 13 : 5-23. Matt. 24 : 27-44 ; Mark 13 : 24-37 ; Luke 21 : see Luke 17 : 22-36. Matt. 25 : 31-46. ,, John IS : 18-29 ; Matt. 26 : 21-25 ; Mark 14 : Is John 13 : 38 and Luke 22 : 34. John 14 : 16, 17, 26 ; 15 : 26, 27 ; 16 : 7-U John 16 : 28. John 16 : 32. Matt. 26:64; Mark 14 : 65. Luke 23 : 27-31. Luke 23 : 43. John 20 : 17. John 21 : 18, 19. Luke 24:49; Acts 1 : 4-8, Mark 16:17, 18. 8 ANALYTICAL TABLE AND HARMONY OF THE MOSAIC • _ _ _ _ F.ioduB. 1 Law. 1st Class*' The Fi.d Table, whieKinclvdc* . 2 The first commandment . The second commandment. - - The third commandment . — The fourth commandment . The Second Table, which includes The fifth commandment.. . The sixth commandment.... The seventh commandment The eighth commandment. The ninth commandment The tenth commandment. The sum of both tables.-* Exodus, chap. Leviticus, chap. 20, 13 20, 23, 24 20, 23 20, 23, 31, 34, 35 20, 22 20 20 20, 22 20, 23 20 19, 26, 18 ... 19, 26, 26 19 2d Class. — The Ceremonial Law, Of the st^cFureVf the tabernacie." Of the instruments of the same, Of the laver of brass... .....-■ The altar of burnt-offerings.. The altar of incense . The candlestick of pure gold.. The table of shew-bread . Of' thekpr'ierts'and their vestments . Of the choosing of the Levites. . Of the priests' office in general.. Of their office in teaching . _ _ . _ in blessing . Of their office in offering, viz. ^ What the sacrifices ought to be . Of the continual fire... . Of the manner of tho burnt-offering... _ peace-offerings .. Manner and kinds of sacrifices, viz. : For sin in ignorance of the law . _ _ Tact . For witting sin, yet not impious. . The special law of sacrifice for sin . Things belonging to the sacrifices . Of the shew-bread . Of the lamps . Of the sweet incense . 20 25,26,27,35 30 27 30 25 25, 26 25,26 28 1? Of the use of ordinary oblations, viz. : Of the consecration of priests. . . . and office of Levites... Of the dwellings of the Levites.. Of the anointing of the altar, etc . Of the continual daily sacrifice . Sabbath-day’s sacrifice . . 'Solemn sacrifices for feast-days , viz. : Of trumpets . Of beginning of months . The three most common feasts in general. . Of the feast of passover . — . - - pentecost . . — - tabernacles . - - blowing the trumpets . expiation . Of first-fruits... Of tithes . Of fruits growing and not eaten of... Of the first-born . Of the sabbatical year . Of the year of jubilee . . Of vows in general . What persons not to make vows..., What things cannot be vowed . Of redemption of vows . Of the vows of the Nazarites . Laics proper for the priests, viz. : Of pollutions . . Of the high-priest’s mourning . Of his marriage . Mourning of the ordinary priests.. Of their marriage . . Forbidden the use of wine, etc . Of sanctified meats . Of the office of the Levites. In teaching . . In offering . 19, 10; 22 6 6,7 8,7 4 6,7 6 6,7 2, 6,7 24 24 30 29,30 6,8 39, 30 29 23, 34 23 2,13,23,34 23 23, 24 23 23, 24 23 23 30 16, 13 22, 23, 34 2 21 19 13, 22, 24 23 25 25 18,3,8 3, 18 15 27 10 28 Other promiscuous ceremonial laws. Of uncleanness in general . . Qf uncleauness in meats, viz. : Of blood . . of fat . . ..Gen. 9 23 27 27 22 21 21 21 21 10 6, 17, 19, 22 15, 19 Deuteron., chap. 5,6 4, 5, 6, 7. 8, 11, 12, 13, 5, 6,10 5 n 9, 28 28 29 29 29 15 18 30 30 5, 18 18, 12, 15, 31 15,17 3, 4, 18 , 17, 10 3,7 Of uncleanness of meats , viz. : Of dead carcasses... . . . Other meats and divers creatures . Of personal unclean ness . In the dead bodies of men . In the leprosy . Ge Of circumcision . ••••• . Of the water of expiation . . . Of the mourning of the Israelites . Of mixtures . . . •••••••-” . Garments, and writing the law... ••••••••••;•• Of not taking young birds with the dam.. Of their paddle-staves . 17 Exodus, chap. Leviticus, chap. 22 17 11, 20 15, 12 13, 14 . 12 19 . 19 Numbers, chap. 19 Deuteron., chap. 24 3d Class.— The Political Law, Laws referred to the First Table, namely, L To the. First and Second Commandments, viz. : _ I Exodus, chap. Leviticus, chap. Numbers, chap. 22 23, 24 22 23,24 20 33 19, 20 Of idolaters and apostates....— Of abolishing idolatry. . ........ Of diviners and false prophets. Of covenants with other gods- . II. To the Third Commandment, mz. : Of blasphemies... . — . - . . 1 - ' 24 ' IIL To the FOurth Commandment, viz. : Of breaking the Sabbath . . —I 81> 35 I . * Political Laws referred to the Seoosd Table, namely. I. 2b the Fifth Commandment, viz. Of magistrates and their authority . I l*,30 1 Of the power of fathers.- . —I Deuteron., chap. 15 15 U 20 II. 2b the Sixth Commandment, viz. : 34 24 Of capital punishments in general - - Of willful murder . . . - . Of manslaughter and refuge- . Of heinous injury. . . . Of punishments, not capital . — Of the law of war . - . - III. 2b the Seventh Commandment, viz. : 18, 20 Of unlawful marriages . Of fornication . . Of whoredom . Of adultery and jealousy . Of copulation against nature.. Of divorcements. . Other matrimonial laws.. 22 "22" 21 19 21 19, 20 18, 20 ’i'i’20" 1, 16, 17, 28 I 21 21, 24 19 19, 21, 22 25 25 20, 23 24 21, 22, 24, 25 IV. 2b the Eighth Commandment, viz. . 26 12, 14,26 15 13 12, 15, 16 17,27,31 10 12 Of the punishment of thefts . *•••**•■•• Of sacrilege . . . Josh. 7 Of not injuring strangers . f. . Of not defrauding hirelings . Of just weights . - . Of removing the landmark . Of lost goods . Of stray cattle. Of corrupted judgments . Of fire breaking out by chance.. Of men-stealing . Of the fugitive servant. Of gathering fruits. Of contracts, viz. Of borrowing.. Of the pledge.. Of usury... Of selling.. Of a thing lent - Of a thing committed to be kepi- Of heirs.. 22 22, 23 19 19 19 22 22, 23 23 19 22 — 19,23 22 22 25 21 25 22 22 V. 2b the Ninth Commandment, viz.: Of witnesses - . Establishing of the political law.. The establishing of the divine law in general.. From the dignity of the lawgiver.. From the excellency of the laws.. From the promises.. From the threatenings - 19, 20, 22 16,19,23,24 18, 26 23 28 26, 27, 33, 36 15 22 16, 21 21 1 17, 19 4 6, 11, 29, 30, 31 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 26, 27 4,26 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 28 4, 7, 11, 27, 28, 29, 30 JEWISH OBSERVANCES. THE SABBATH. — Signifies rest. Observed every seventh day. FEAST OF THE NEW MOON.— Marked the completion of the Lunar month. SABBATICAL MONTI!.— The seventh of the Sacred Year, but the first of the Civil. ^ TRUMPETS. — New Year’s Day. Ushered in by blowing of trumpets. ABB ATI CAL YEAR. — Each seventh day and month and year were holy. The land rested and creditors and slaves were released YEAR of JUBILEE. — Every fiftieth year. '' FA8SOVER.— Lasted for seven days, from the 14th to 21st of Nisan. A memorial of PPM Nft°on’s birth and typical of Christ. FE ISTiipt FEAST OF WEEKS.— A supplement to the Passover, lasting one day. - _ TABERNACLES. — A harvest Home, or Thanksgiving time, lasting seven days. OF ATONEMENT. — A day of humiliation and fasting. Observed five days before the Feast of Tabernacles. .... , „ . FEAST OF PURIM.— An annual feast to commemorate the preservation of the Jews in Persia. FEAST OF DEDICATION— A rededication of the Temple after the expulsion of the Syrians by Judas Maecabteus. SACRIFICIAL OFFERINGS. THE BURNT OFFERING. THE MEAT OFFERING. THE SIN OFFERING. THE TRESPASS OFFERING. THE DRINK OFFERING. THE PEACE OFFERING. PROMISCUOUS OBLATIONS. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF OUR SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST. B. C. 6 (about Feb. 22). Birth of John the Bap¬ tist ; the time of Elisabeth’s conception being inferred from the calculation that the course of Abia went out of office on May 22, b. c. 7. B. C. 6 (about Aug. 1). The Nativity of Jesus Christ; nearly two years before the death of Herod (Matt. 2 : 16). The Census under Seutius Saturninus, who . displaced Varus before Sept. 2, b. c. 6. B. C. 4n April 1. Death of Herod at Jericho. i Return of the Holy Family from Egypt. A. D. 6. Banishment of Archelaus. Cyrenius , prefect of Syria. A. D. 7. Completion of the Census of Cyrenius. Christ at the Passover. (April 9th.) A. D. 28 (about August or September). Preach¬ ing of John the Baptist , in the first year of the Sabbatic cycle , in the sixth year of which our Lord’s Ministry closed. A. D. 29 (February). Baptism of Jesus. Age 33.* (February to March.) The Temptation. * Mr. Lewin gives this latitude to the about thirty (f thy power. - 5, 6. — Ixv. 41 O thou that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh come. CONFESSION. 2 Cor. ix. 15. Dan. ii. 5, We have sinned, and have committed iniquity, and have done Wick-' cdly, and have rebelled, even by departing from thy precepts and - 7. from thy judgments. 1 Pet. i 4. il John i. 8. If we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. Isa. lxiv. 6. We are all as an unclean thing. SUPPLICATION. Eph. L 3. Psa. Ixvii. 1. God be merciful unto us, and bless us ; and cause his face to shine — Ixxxv. 7. upon us. Wilt thou not revive us again, that thy people may rejoice iu thee ? Show us thy mercy, O Lord, and grant us thy salvation. Isa. xxvt, 13. - - 8. INTERCESSION. — lxiiL 19. — Ixvii. 3. Let the people praise thee, 0 God ; let all the people praise thee. > — vii. 9. Oh let the wickedness of the wicked come to an end; establish Phil. iv. 20. the just. THANKSGIVING. Rev. vii. 10. — evii. 15. Oh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, for his wonder¬ ful works to the cnildrcn of men ! — vi. 12. For thy meroy is great above the heavens, and thy truth reacheti unto the olouds. Blessed be the name of the Lord from this time forth, and for ever, more. From the rising of the sun unto the going down of the same, tin Lord’s name is to bo praised. Who is like unto the Lord our God, who dwelleth on high, who hum bleth himself to behold the things that are in heaven and in tfe earth ? Thanks be unto God for his unspeakable gift. In whom we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness t sins aoeording to the richness of his graoe. Blessed bo the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, which no> cording to his abundant mercy hath begotten us again unto 9 lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled, and that fadeth nol away. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hati blessed us with all spiritual blessings in Christ. DEDICATION. 0 Lord our God, other lords besides thee have had dominion over us; but by thee only will wo make mention of thy name. We are thine. DOXOLOGY. Now unto God and our Father be glory for ever and ever. Amen. Salvation to our God which sitteth on the throne, and unto the Lamb. Blessing, and glory, and wisdom, and thanksgiving, and honor, and j power, and might, be unto our God for ever and ever. Amen, EXPRESSIONS FOR PRIVATE PRAYER. Psa, x^iii. 1. - 2. — lxii. 1. - 2. — li. 3. Rom. vii. 18. 24. fob xi. 4. Luke xviii. 13. Psa. U. 10. —li. L — xxv. 11. — xxv. 7. - 11. - 12. . - 15. — xvii. 7. — cxix. 149. — oxix- 18. i Chron. i" 10 Pea, li. 9. ADORATION. I will love thee, 0 Lord, my strength. The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer; my God, my strength, in whom I will trust ; my buckler and the horn of my salvation, and my high tower. Truly my soul waiteth upon God; from him cometh my salvation. He only is my rock and my salvation ; he is my defence ; I shall not be greatly moved. CONFESSION. I acknowledge my transgression, and my sin is ever before me. For I know that in me, that is in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing ; for to will is present with me ; but how to perform that which is good I find not. 0 wretched mau that I am, who shall deliver me from the body of this death ? Behold, I am vile ; what shall I answer thee ? I will lay my band , upon my mouth. SUPPLICATION. God be merciful to me a sinner. Create in me a clean heart, 0 God, and renew a right spirit within me. . Have mercy upon me, 0 God, according to thy loving-kindness; ac- cording unto the multitude of thy tender mercies, blot out my transgressions. . . For thy name’s sake, 0 Lord, pardon mine iniquity, for it is great ! Remember not the sins of my youth, nor my transgressions; accord- v ing to thy mercy remember thou me for thy goodness’ sake, 0 jeast me not away from thy presence, and take not thy holy spirit from me. , ..... Restore nnto me the joy of thy salvation, and uphold me with thy 0 Lordf open thou my lips, and my mouth shall show forth thy praise. Hold up ray goings in thy paths, that my footsteps slip not. Hear my voice according unto thy loving-kindness; 0 Lord, quicken me according to thy judgment. , Let my soul live, and it shall praise thee; and let thy judgments I have gone astray like a lost sheep; seek thy servant, for I do not forget thy commandments. Search me, 0 God, and know my heart; try me, and know my thoughts; . . , , . ,, _ And see if there be any wicked way in me, and lead me in the way everlasting. , Shew me thy ways, 0 Lord ; teach me thy paths. Lead me in thy truth, and teach me, for thou art the God of my sal¬ vation ; on thee do I wait all the day. e Open thou mine eyes, that I may behold wondrous things out of thy Oh 'that thou wouldst bless me indeed, and enlarge my coast, and that thine hand might be with me, and that thou wouldst keep me from evil, that it may not grieve me 1 . Hide thy face from my sins, and blot out all mine iniquities. Gen. xxxii. 26. Prov. xxx. 8. - 9. Job xvi. 22. Psa. xxxix. 4. Eph. vi. 24. Psa. oxxv. 4. Isa. lxiv. 1. Psa. xliii. 3. — lvii. 11. — lxxii. 18. - 19. — xl. 1. ■ 5. — cxxxix. 17. — cxxxix. 18. — eiii. 1. - 2. — oiii. 3. — 4. — exvi. 12. - 13. — cxlv. 10. — cxlix. 4. — oxvi. 10. - - 9. 1 Tim. i. 17. Rom. xvi. 27. I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. Remove far from mo vanity and lies; give me neither poverty doi riches; feed me with food convenient for me. Lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord ? or lest I be poor, and steal, and tako the name of my God in vain. When a few years are come, then I shall go the way whenee * shall not return. Lord, make me to know mine end, and the measure of my days, what it is, that I may know how frail I am. INTERCESSION. Grace be with all them that love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity Do good, 0 Lord, unto those that be good, and to them that are n; right in their hearts. Oh that thou wouldst rend the heavens, that thou wouldst come down, that the mountains might flow down at thy presence. Oh send out thy light and thy truth. Be thou exalted, 0 God, above the heavens ; let thy glory be abo-9 all the earth. Blessed be the Lord God, the God of Israel, who only doeth wot, drous things. And blessed be his glorious name for ever; and let the whole eartS be filled with his glory. Amen and Amen. THANKSGIVING. I waited patiently for the Lord, and he inclined unto me and heard my cry. Many, .0 Lord my God, are thy wonderful works which thou Has', done, and thy thoughts which are to us-ward : they cannot be reekonod up in order unto thee: if I would declare and speak o. them, they are more than can be numbered. How preoious also are thy thoughts unto me, 0 God ! how great n the sum of them ! If I should count them, they are more in number than the sand : when I awake, I am still with thee. Bless the Lord, 0 my soul, and all that is within me, bless his holy name. Bless the Lord, 0 my soul, and forget not all his benefits. Who forgiveth all thine iniquities, who healeth all thy diseases. Who redeemeth thy life from destruction : who crowneth thee with loving-kindness and tender meroies. What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward mo t I will take the cup of salvation and call upon the name of the Lord All thy works shall praise thee, 0 Lord, and thy saints shall bless thee. _ . For the Lord taketh pleasure in his people, he will beautity meek with salvation. DEDICATION. 0 Lord, truly I am thy servant; I am thy servant, and the son 1,1 thine handmaid : thou hast loosed my bonds. I will walk before the Lord in the land of the living. DOXOLOGY. Now unto the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise flod* be honor and glory for ever and ever. Amen. To God, only wise, be glory, through Jesus Christ, for ever. Amen. PARABLES RECORDED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. PARABLES. SPOKEN AT RECORDED IN. PARABLES. SPOKEN AT RECORDED IH Balaam. — Concerning the Moabites and Israelites. i'otham. — Trees making a king. Samson. — Strong bringing forth sweetness. ^ ATI! AN.— Poor man’s ewe lamb. Voman of Tbkoah.— Two brothers striv- Mount Pisgah, Mount Gemini. Timnath. Jerusalem. Jerusalem. Num. xxiii. 24. Judg. ix. 7-15. Jndg. xiv. 14. 2 Sam. xii. 1—4. S Susa. xiv. 1 J The Smitten Prophet. — The esoaped pris¬ oner. Jehoasb, King of Israel.— The thistle and cedar. Isaiah.— Vineyard yielding wild grapes. Ezekiel. — Lion’s whelps. The boiling pot. ‘ ' T3» great eagles end tie win*. Near Samaria. Jerusalem. Jerusalem, Babylon. Babylon. Babylon 1 Kings xx. 35 & 2 Kings xiv. 9. Isa. v. 1-6- Ezek. sir. 2 Ezek. xxiv. 3-*- Keek. JU'di 2-1®’ Harmony of the Four Gospels. SUBJECTS. i. Lake’s preface . God the Word” . Birth of John Baptist foretold Jesus . • . Mary visits Elizabeth. ........ Birth of John the Baptist.., The two genealogies . Birth of Jesus Christ . . The watching shepherds . The circumcision . Presentation in the temple., The wise men from the East... Flight into Egypt, and return to Nazareth . Christ in the temple with the dootors . . Ministry of John tho Baptist.. Baptism of Jesus Christ . The temptation . Andrew and another disciple and Simon Petor . Philip and Nathanael . The marriage in Cana of Gali¬ lee . Passover (first) and cleansing the temple . Nicodemus comes to Jesus by night . Christ and John baptizing . Christ at the well of Syohar... John the Baptist in prison . Christ returns to Galilee . The synagogue at Nazareth ... The nobleman’s son at Caper¬ naum healed.. syna- Andrew and Simon, James and John called . The demoniac in the gogue healed . Simon’s wife’s mother healed.. Circuit round Galilee . Healing a leper . Christ stills the storm . Demoniaos in the land of the Gadarenes . Jairus’ daughter. Woman healed . Blind men and demoniac . Healing the paralytio . Matthew the publican . “Thy disciples fast not” . The “ feast” at Jerusalem (passover, second ?). The pool of Bethesda . Plucking ears of corn on the Sabbath . . The withered hand. Miracles. The twelve apostles . The sermon on the mount . The centurion’s servant healed The widow’s son at Nain . . Messengers from John . Woe denounced to the cities of Galilee . . . Call to the meek and suffering. Anointing the feet of Jesus.... Second circuit round Galilee... Parable of the sower . . Parable of the candle under a bushel . Parable of the seed secretly . Parable of the wheatanci tares". Parable of tho grain of mns- tard seed . Parable of the ieaven . Jn teaching by parables'. . lhe wheat and taros explained Ihe hid treasure, the pearl, flis mother and his'bVethren" Keception at Nazareth . l>"rd oirouit round Galilee. growing Uwdmg forth of the twelve.. “y»d s opinion of Jesus... rho n John tho BaP^t....." Wrt80Ver (third?) nighat St. Matt. St. Mark. St. Luke . . i. 1^ i. 6-25 i. 26-38 i. 39-56 i. 57-80 i. 1-17 iii. 23-38 i. 18-26 ii. 1-7 ii. 8-20 ii. 21 ii. 1-12 ..•.0. ii. 22-38 ii. 13-23 ii. 39 ii. 40-52 iii. 1-12 i. 1-8 iii. 1-18 iii. 13-17 i. 9-11 iii. 21, 22 i. 12, 13 iv. 1-13 ...... ...... ...... a...... iv. 12; xiv. 3 i. 14; vi. 17 iii. 19, 20 iv. 12 i. 14, 15 iv. 14, 15 iv. 16-30 iv. 13-22 ■ i. 16-20 v. 1-11. i. 21-28 iv. 31-37 viii. 14-17 i. 29-34 iv. 38—41 iv. 23-25 i. 35-39 iv. 42-44 viii. 1-4 i. 40-45 v. 12-16 viii. 18-27 iv. 35-41 viii. 22-25 viii. 28-34 v. 1-20 viii. 26-39 ix. 18-26 ix. 27-34 v. 21-43 viii. 40-56 ix. 1-8 ii. 1-12 v. 17-26 ix. 9-13 ii. 13-17 v. 27-32 ix. 14-17 ii. 18-22 v. 33-39 ii. 23-28 vi. 1-5 xii. 9-21 iii. 1-12 vi. 6-11 x. 2-4 iii. 13-19 vi. 12-16 v. 1 — vii. 29 vi. 17-49 viii. 5-13 vii. 1-10 . vii. 11-17 xi. 2-19 xi. 20-24 xi. 25-30 vii. 18-35 vii. 36-50 . viii. 1-3 xiii. 1-23 iv. 1-20 viii. 4-15 ••••ee iv. 21-25 viii. 16-18 xiii. 24^30 iv. 26-29 xiii. 31, 32 iv. 30-52 xiii. 18, 19 xiii. 33 xiii. 20, 21 xiii. 34, 35 xiii. 36-43 iv. 33^34 xiii. 44-52 xii. 46-50 Ki. viii. 19-21 xiii. 53-58 vi. 1-6 IX. 35-38; xi. J vi. 6 x. 5-42 vi. 7-15 ix. 1-6 xiv. 1, 1 vi. 14-16 ix. 7-9 Xiv. Vl| vi. 17-29 miH St. John. i. 1-14 i. 15-31 i. 32-34 i. 35-42 i. 43-51 ii. 1-11 ii. 12-25 iii. 1-21 iii. 22 ; iv. 2 iv. 3-42 iii. 24 iv. 43-45 iv. 45-54 v. 1-47 wt o w w 25 % p B P g g. 3 % ? ? s n a Elisha. Elijah. Homer. Jonah. Amos. - — JORAM I.nluh. -An, r, ah — Athaliah - Jo ASH. « - -Auaziah. — UZZIAH. C£ 804 33d Century. Ahitub II. Zadok II. ~u — Abuam. _ - Asa. £ - — Jkhoshaphat. j£ Zadok. Ahiuiclech Abiathar. Ah -Solomon. f-i - Rkhoboam. Saul. iah. Bukkl. 110 •§ Isaac. Jacob- 1004 27th Century. 1404 20 th Century. Ablshnl. Pblnehas. Kleazar. — Boaz. ■< m £ ^ * • eh 5 Deborah. Othniel. and 25th Century. 1604 A HAM -Nahsuoh. — A MIN A DAB. his posterity 430 years. Moses. —Judge*. 34th Century. 604 ,35th Century. Shallum. Hilkiah. D £■ p J® S P* B or Habakkuk. Solon. JOTHAM - Ahaz — Hkzkkiah- ^e^)U chadnezzar. Belshazzar. Amon — J 081 AH _ _ Jkhoiakim- Zbdkki Sala Zeohaniah. _ 86th Centory. 404 87th Century. 804 38th Centnry. 204 39th Centnry. 104 4Qth Century. CAPTIVITY. Haggat. Obadiah. Ezekiel. Daniel. Zecharlah. ,. Joiaklra. Eliashib.Joiada. Nehemiah. Malachl. Ezra. _ Ahasuerus or Artaxerxes. Herodotus. Jonathan. Jaddeus. Onias. Alexander. Epicu r Simon the g Just. Kleazar. 3 Zeno. Darius the Mede. Darius Cyrus the Persian. Socrates. Bye. - Plato. Diogenes. Aristotle. yPJ. Heraclitus. Archimedes. Hannibal. Demosthenes. Anti oehus the Great . Princes of Jerusalem. Cicero. Augs. Caesar. Cornelius Nepoa. YirgIHug. _ Titus Llviua. Antony aud Cleopatra. ~ Strabo. Jnlius Caesar. Co nfuclus. Matt. Zoro babhl. Abiud. Bliaktm. Azor. Susanna. Chron. \ „ t Zrrub Rkphaiah. Obadiah. Shbchaniah. BABEL. Clf AH. Sadoc. Achtm. Rhesa. Judah. 0 baiikl. Joanna. Shemaiah. Joseph. Mattathias. Sbmki. Maa NeABIAH. AzBrKAM. JOHANAN. _ Naggb. Naum. Esli. Dionysius. Eleazar. Mattijan. Jacob. Joseph. Mattathias. Amos. Joseph. Ja Melchi. Levi. Matthai. Hsu. Mary. PRTESTS AND princes op JERUSALEM •hulas Maccabeus. Jmathan Maccabeus , mon Maccabeus. John Hyrcanus. hmg A ristobulus. Alexander Jarmeue. Hyrcanus II Antiononus. Herod, trchelau*. A CHRONOLOGICAL MAP FROM THE CREATION TO THE FOURTH CENTURY A. D., DISPLAYING THE LINE OP JESUS CHRIST FROM ADAM, KINOq AND JUDAH TO DAVID THE ™D°lvZsJ™Z 1° JHE oaptivpy,YndDs*aITtHTi^ a (in the line recorded by Luke) TO MARY. also, and mSTOTRIANSNwfth0re JUDQES- PROPHETS laterally placed. ’ renAarkable persons and events col- *»« Urm" Pedicular right to left and left to Jinh? n?.at the toP. and is continued from nected course to the end U],y'formin9 a regularly con- et(hcr the duration of life tkfhZSSi? °/ ^ horizontal line* denotes on 0/ it/ s, (As length of reign or time they flourished Basil. | J| Gregory. ® § S 1 III 1 8 g g g g v> W V> w «j *o «o os «e b b b b b a, ft. ft, ft, ft, 5 5 5 € € 0* oo *- <0 tes ntine. w ^ £ Chrysostom. e Au gustine. J Consta Jerome. Origen. Eusebius. Eplphanius. Arius. Athanasius. _ Tert Ambrose. Hilary. 2d Century. 1st Century. Plutar Suetoni ch. o us. 3 JESUS, Nero. Tiberiqg. a. c. Claudllus Caesar. 1 - b Qalntius Onrtlus. i o Boadicea. Justin Martyr.^ -s -tt » » h Titus son of Vespasian. Younger Pliny. ^ ~ Pliny. ^ Tacitus. / Irensus. Polycarp. Galen. Josephus. Peter and Paul, John the beloved Disciple. Clement. Missionary Travels and Events in the Life of Saint Paul ».D. 5 Bosn in Tarsus, in Cilicia V Roman citizen by birthright. A Pharisee . By trade a tent-maker. (Goat’s hair — Cilicia) . 20 At the school of Gamaliel, Jeru¬ salem .... 30 Assists in stoning Stephen . Makes havoc of the Church . 6 Goes to Damascus to persecute the disciples .... Baptized. Begins to preach Jesus the Crucified Journey into Arabia; return to Damascus . Acts Phfl. Acts ket (2 Cor. xi. 33) Acts ix. 25 Goes up to Jerusalem. Disciples afraid of him .... U “ 26 Introduced by Barnabas: preached the Lord Jesus .... ii “ 27 39 Driven out of Jerusalem ; goes to Tarsus . ii “ 30 40 At Antioch. Preaches to the Gen¬ tiles . u xi. 25 Disciples first called Christians in Antioch . ii “ 26 Two Roman, three Jewish scourg- ings (2 Cor. xi. 24-26). S2 Agabus prophesies a famine . ii “ 28 T4 Barnabas and Saul sent to Jeru¬ salem with money ii “ 30 46 Joined by Mark, Barnabas’ sis¬ ter’s son . it xii. 25 46 Barnabas and Saul “ separated ” fer the work .... ii xiii. 2 First Missionary Journey. Antioch to Seleucia . (( “ 4 In Cyprus at Salamis. Paphos . Saul’s name changed to Paul. Elymas blinded it “ 8 it “ 9 Sailed from Paphos to Perga, in Pamphylia . Antioeh in Pisidia. Discourse to the Jews . ii “ 13 it “ 14 The Gospel preached to the Gen¬ tiles . ii “ 46 Paul and Barnabas expelled from Pisidia . it “ 50 They came to Iconium . ii “ 51 To Lystra. A cripple healed ii xiv. 6 The people propose to sacrifice to them . it “ 13 Paul stoned, and supposed to he dead . ii “ 19 He recovers, and they go to Derbe . Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch ii “ 20 it “ 21 Passed through Pisidia to Pam¬ phylia . ii « 24 Preached in Perga, Attalia, and Antioch . ii xiv. 25, 26 48 End of the first missionary- journey ii “ 27 50 Visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas and Titus (Gal. ii.). 51 The Council at Jerusalem it XV. Barnabas and Silas sent with Paul to Antioch . ii “ 22 Paul and Barnabas preach in An¬ tioch . a “ 35 Second Missionary Journey . a “ 36 Paul and Silas go through Syria and Oilicia . . . . ' . a " 41 Gal. xxii. 3 iii. 5 xviii. 3 xxii. 3 vii. 58 viii. 4 ix. 2 ix. 18, 20 i. 17, 18 Derbe. Lystra. Timothy called to help . . . ... Phrygia, Galatia, Mysia (Gal. i. 2) >2 Forbidden by the Spirit to go into Bithynia . Troas. Paul’s vision, “ Come over and help us ” . . . . Samothracia and Neapolis. Phi¬ lippi zm. “ 6 “ 7 “ 9 “ 12 2 Kings r. 12. John iii. 22, 23. Ezra viii. 15, 21. Judges xi. 18. Ezek. i. 1. Ezek. xlvii. 18, ■rOsfi XV. 4 Sen. 1L 14. Matt. iv. 18 John vi. 1, or ETum. xxiiv, 11. Abana. A5non. Abava. Arn on. Chebar. East Sea (see Salt Sea, Sea of the Plain). gypt, River of. Euphrates. Galilee, Sea of, Ti¬ berias, Cinneroth or Chinnereth. xvii. u 9 10 15 22 34 A.D. 52 Lydia of Thyatira baptized . . AcH xvi. 15 Slave-girl cured of sorcery . . “ “ 18 Paul and Cyrus whipped and im¬ prisoned .... Delivered from prison . Amphipolis. Apollonia. Thes- salomca .... Jason persecuted on account of Paul and Silas . They go to Berea . Paul goes to Athens. Silas and Timothy remain . Discourse to the Greeks on Mars Hill . Dionysius and Damaris believe 53 Corinth. Tent-making with Aqui- la and Priscilla . . . . “ xviii. 1 Silas and Timothy join him at Corinth .... “ “ k The two epistles to the Thessalo- nians written. Crispus and many Corinthians believe . “ 8 Paul before Gallio, the proconsul. Sosthenes beaten . . . “ “13 54 On the way to Jerusalem. At Ephesus . “ xviii. 18 Csesarea. Jerusalem. Antioch. Dispute with Peter (Gal. ii.). . “ “ 22 Third Missionary Journey. Galatia and Phrygia . . . “ “23 Epistle to the Galatians written at Ephesus. Apollos instructed hy Aquila and Priscilla . “ "24 56 Paul baptizes and gives the Holy Ghost . “ xix. 1 Two years in the hall of Tyran- nus . . “ “9 Special miracles wrought by Paul “ “ 11 Books of divination burned . . “ “ 19 Supposed visit to Corinth (2 Cor. xii. 14, xiii. 1). 57 First Epistle to the Corinthians written at Ephesus. Plans another journey, and sends Timothy and Erastus ..." “21 Great tumult raised by Demetrius in the theatre . . . . “ “23 Departs for Macedonia . . . “ xx. 1 Timothy joins Paul at Philippi (2 Cor. i. 1, xiii. 14). Second Epistle to the Corinthians sent by Titus. Travels through Macedonia as far as Illyria (Rom. xv. 19). 58 Corinth. Epistle to the Romans. Luke joins Paul at Corinth . . “ 81 5 Troas. Eutychus killed by a fall, and restored . . . . “ "12 By land to Assos ; by ship to Mi- tylene . “ “14 Chios. Samos. Trogyllium. Mi¬ letus . “ “17 Coos. Rhodes. Patara, past Cy¬ prus to Tyre . . . . “ xxi. 3 Paul urged to go to Jerusalem . . “ “ 4 59 Ptolemais (Acre). Csesarea, at Philip’s house . “ “8 Agabus prophesies Paul’s danger at Jerusalem . . . . “ “11 Fifth and last visit to Jerusalem . “ “ 17 Performs the Nazarite’s vow in the Temple . “ “26 The Jews arrest him in the Tem¬ ple . “ “30 Beaten by the Jews, rescued by the Romans . . . . “ “32 Bound with chains . . . “ “33 Paul’s defense, spoken in the He¬ brew tongue . o . . “ xxii. 1 A. D. 59 Persecuted for his mission to the Gentiles . Saved bv his Roman citizenship . Before the council. Ananias the high-priest . The dispute between Pharisees and Sadducees . Vision of the Lord Jesus. Paul cheered . Conspiracy of the Jews to kill him . The plot exposed by his sister’s Acts xxii. 22 “ 27 kxiii, i son to Claudius Lysias Paul sent under guard to Anti- it 16 patris . ii “ 31 “ 35 Xxiv. 1 “ 10 Delivered to Felix at Csesarea ii Accused by Tertullus . a Paul defends himself before Felix Plot of the high-priest to kill him a (Festus) . a xxv. 3 Paul before Festus a “6,7 “ 10 Paul appeals to Ctesar . He is brought before Agrippa and a Bernice . Defends himself before the king a “ 23 and queen . 60 Paul sent to Rome with other a xxvi. prisoners . “ xxvii, Sidon. Cyprus. Sea of Cilicia and Pamphylia . . . . “ « 5 Myra in Lyeia, Cnidus, Crete, Sa¬ lome . “ “7 Fair Havens, near Lasea . . “ “ g Aug. — Storm in Adria. Clauda . “ “ 14 The ship lightened by casting over¬ board the tackle . . . “ “ 15 Vision of the angel by Paul . . “ Prophesies the events of the voy¬ age . “ “26 All escaped safe to land. Ship wrecked . “ “44 A viper fastens on Paul’s hand. Malta . . . . . . “ xxxviii. 3 The father of Publius healed by Paul . “ “8 After three months they sail for Syracuse . “ 11,12 Rhegium. Puteoli. Appii Forum “ “ 13 Three Taverns . . . . “ 13-15 61 Rome. In his own house . . “ “ 16 He persuades the Jews . . . “ “ 23 62 Writes to Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, aim Philippians at Rome. 63 Goes to Macedonia (Phil. ii. 23). Asia Minor (Phil. xx. ii.). 64 Spain. Supposed visit (Rom. xv. zl). 66 Asia Minor (1 Tim. i. 3). 67 Writes First Epistle to Timothy from Macedonia. Epistle to Titus from Ephesus. Nicopolis. 68 In prison at Rome. Writes Second Epistle to Tim othy. Beheaded in May or June. The date of the beheading of Paul is placed in the 14th of Nero’s reign. Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, A. D. 170, says that Peter and Paul went to Italy, preached together there, and suffered martyrdom about the same time. Caius of Rome, in the 2d century, names the grave of Peter on the Vatican, and of Paul on the Ostian Way; and others, as Eusebius, Tertullian, and Jerome, agree in this account. The locality around Paul’s grave is now used as a cemetery for strangers who die in Rome. The principle which harmonizes all the acts, and preaching, and letters of Paul, was a belief in Jesus as the Divine Spirit — a living Master, intimately related to every living soul, of whose Gospel he was the special Messenger. This purified his love of his own people, and opened his heart toward all mankind. REMAKKABLE RIVERS AND LAKES. Damascus. Palestine. Media. Syria. Ancient Chal¬ dea. Syria. Egypt. Babylonia. WHY REMARKABLE. Commended by Naaman. Here John baptized. Here Ezra proclaimed a fast prior to returning from captivity. The boundary of Moab. Near this river Ezekiel saw hi» first vision. Salt (or Daad) Sea, A principal river of Eden. Luke v. 1. Gen. ii. 13. Matt. iii. 6, 6, 13. 2 Kings v. 12. Gen. ii. 11. Deut. iv. 45? Exod. xiii. 18 ; xiv. 27. Hum xxxiv, 3. Gpnncsaret. Gihon. Jordan. Pharpar (now Bar- rada). Pison. Plain, Sea of (see East and Salt Seas). Red Sea. Salt Sea (see East Sea). Palestine. Persia. Persia. Damascus. Persia. Palestine. Arabia. WHY REMARKABLE. draught o* Miraculous fishes. Second river in Eden. Christ baptized in tb river — the prinoipal oat. in Palestine. Commended by Naamfln The first river of Paradis* Here Pharaoh’s bolt drowned — A JNEW SELF-PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE CONTAINING EVERY IMPORTANT SCRIPTURAL WORD. DESIGNED TO AID STUDENTS AND BIBLE-READERS IN BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE SACRED SCRIPTURES: ILLUSTRATED WITH NEARLY SEVEN HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS. COMPILED FROM THE LATEST EDITIONS OF WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY A. J. HOLMAN d. CO. MODERN JERDSALEM, gggsigil - A. See Alpha. and** {SSnZ°ruIi9hlener^ ^on Am ram Miriam (S xifiZ bnther of Moges «nd WV14)wh°th rent8: Married ElkhebTdauJ'!6 “BP®J««nan" of Moses! and had four sons N- Id' h° t.t.h® prlnceof^ Judah, Ithamar (Ex. vi %3) d ^.blhI’ E>eazar, and wl»en introduced 'in the Bible^" m"®® , ^?ars old encourager of Moses before . p r Mouthpiece ;,nd of Israel and in +r« n I ® Lord and the people 30; vii. 2) Mirael Urt,0f thR Phara°ll ( ExX yii. 19) Help led idolatry among his "» ei I. O. fl ir 1 _ 3 77 " 1 - - - people, and incurred the wrath of Moses (Ex xjrxn). . Consecrated to the priesthood by Moses. (Ex. xxtx ). Anointed and sanctified, with his sons, to minister in the priest’s office (Ex. xl). Murmured against Moses at the instance of Miriam but repented and joined Moses in prayer for Miriam s recovery (Num. xii). His authority in Israel vindicated by the miracle of the rod (Num. xvh). Died on Mt. Hor, at age of one hundred and twenty-three years, and was succeeded in the priesthood by his son Eleazar (Num. xx. 22-29). Office continued in his line till time of Eli Re¬ stored to house of Eleazar by Solomon ( 1 K. ii. 27 ) oL?n;lte^' Priests of the line of Aaron ( 1 Chr. xii. 27), of whom Jehoiada was “chief,” or “leader” m the time of King Saul ( 1 Chr. xxvii. 5). Ab ( father). 1. A syllable of frequent occurrence ln the composition of Hebrew proper names, and signifies possession or endowment. Appears i Chaldaic form of Abba in N. T ( Mark xiv 3( Rom viii. 15 ; Gal. iv. 6). 2. Eleventh month , the Jewish civil, and fifth of the sacred, year- co responding to parts of J uly and August. [Month Ab'a-cuo. 2 Esdr. i. 40. [Habakkuk.] A-bad'don (destroyer). King of the locusts, an angel of the bottomless pit. The Greek equivalei is Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11). Ab"i-di'as. 1 Esdr. viii. 35. [Obadiah ] A-bag'thi {God-given). One of the seven chambe tains in the court of King Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10 (stony). A river of Damascus, preferr? by Naaman to the Jordan for healing purpose (2 K. v. 12). Believed to be identical with tl present Barada, which rises in the Anti-Libam e, firm 5 done, for, do, wolf, food, foot; 2 ABARIM fsC™\?Irn V*? tHe “ Meadow Lakes.” where it I is comparatively lo6t. Ab'artm, a mountain or range of the Jordan, facing Jericho. Its most elevated spot was “ the Mount tfebo ‘.head’ of ‘the- lYgah,” from whieh Moses viewed the Promised Laud. Mentioned in xxx“'. ”V“‘ ’ XXXiiL 47> 48> and Dent. Ab'ba. [Ab.J AMdWa (i. e. servant of Nego, or perhaps Nebo), the Chaldaean name given Azariah, one of the three friends of Daniel, miraculously saved from _the hery furnace (Dan. iii.). A'bel, name of several places in Palestine, prob¬ ably signifies a meadow. 1. A'bel-beth- MA AC®A?’ a ,town of some importance (2 Sam- XX. 19), in the extreme north of Palestine. 2. A BEL MiZRA ia, i. e. the mourning of Egypt, the name given by the Canaanites to the floor of Atad, at which Joseph, his brothers, and the Egyptians made their mourning for Jacob (Gen. i. 11) It was beyond (on the east side of) Jordan. 3 A bel-shit'tim, on the low level of the Jordan valley. Here— their last resting-place before crossing the Jordan— Israel “pitched from Beth- lesimoth unto A. Shittim” (Num. xxxiii. 49). 4. A bel- me HOLAH (“ meadow of the dance”), in the north part of the Jordan valley (1 K. iv. 12) Here Elisha was found at his plough by Eliiah returning up the vaBey from Horeb (1 K. xix. lb-19). 5. A bel-ce'ramim, a place eastward of Jordan, beyond Aroer (Judg. xi. 33). 6 “The °REAT ‘ Abel,’ in the field of Joshua the Bethshe- mite (1 Sam. vi. 18). abiram of Kish, consequently ANCIENT PLOUGH. One of David’s mighty men f f DEATH OE ABEL. 4'bel (i. e. breath , vapor, transitoriness ), second son of Adam, murdered by Cain (Gen. iv. 1-16) Jehovah showed respect for Abel’s offering, but not that of Cain, because (Heb. xi. 4), Abel “by taith offered a more excellent sacrifice than Cala ,?rur Lord spoke of Abel as the first martyr Matt. xxm. 35); so the early church. I he traditional site of his murder and his grave are pointed out near Damascus. A'bl, mother of king. Hezekiah (2 K. xviii 2) written Abijah in 2 Chr. xxix. 1. Abl a, Abl'ah, or Abl'jah. 1. Second son of Samuel, whom together with his eldest son Joel he made Judge in Beersheba (1 Sam. viii. 2; 1 Chr. vii. 28). 2. Abijah, or Abijam, the son of Rehoboam (1 Chr. iii. 10; Matt. i. 7). 3. Mother of king Hezekiah. [Abi], ^'^s-Ph (Ex. vi. 24), otherwise written Ebi'asaph 0- Glr' V1- 23, 37, ix. 19), the head of one of the families of the Korhites. Among the remark¬ able descendants of Abiasaph (1 Chr. vi. 33-37) were Samuel the prophet and Elkanah his father (1 Sam. i. 1), and Heman the singer, vbl athar, high-priest and fourth in descent from Eli, of the line of Ithamar, the younger son of - Aaron. Abiathar % Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35 86 xxx'}})' When, however, Adoniiah set himselt up, Abiathar sided with him, while Zadok was on Solomon’s side. For this Abi fih27 ^3ie?n71n,rf th6t ^‘Priesthood (IK. • ol’ 35J’ bh?S fulfilling the prophecy of 1 Sam. n. 30 Zadok was descended from Eleazar, the Ch7rJi0L2°3 He iS firSt mentionedin l A'bib. [Mi nths.1 Abl'el. 1. Father grandfather of Saul ( t Sam. ix. 1), as well as of Abner, Saul’s com¬ mander- in- chief (1 Sam. xiv. 51) _(1 Chr. xi. 32) AM»nf f‘i L ^ldest Son of Gilead> descendant of Gideon,1 and anC6St0r °f the 8reat judge Ab'igai1. 1. Beautiful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Carmel. When Davui s messengers were slighted by Nabal, Abi¬ gail supplied David and his followers with nro- visions, and succeeded in appeasing his anger, len days after Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail and made her his wife (1 Sam. xxv. 14, .b r i. Slstef of David, married to Jether, Chr i inf and m0tker’ h'm, of Amasa (1 V °/ R®boboam! and a descend f9EV Aelder £r0tber of David (2 Chr. xi. to P t: of Esther and uncle of Mordecai (2 Esth. n. 15, ix. 29). Abrhu, the second son (Num. iii. 2) of Aaron by Ehsheba (Ex. vi. 23). With his elder brother Eadab he was consumed by fire from heaven (Lev. x. 1, 2). Y* or ^hi'jam. 1. Son and successor of Rehoboam on the throne of Judah (1 K. xiv. 31 ; 2 Chr. xu 16). He begarti to reign b. c. 959, and reigned three years. 2. The second son of Samuel, called Abiah. 3. A descendant of Ele¬ azar. lo the course of Abijah or Abia belonged Zachanas, the father of John the Baptist (Luke Ab'ilehio (Luke iii. 1). A tetrarchy of which the city, Abi la was the capital. Traditions associat¬ ing it with the death of Abel are in existence. Abim'elech. The name of several Philistine kings.’ 1. A Philistine, 6 - - ^ ABRAHAM An'Ish^’La bot*utitul Shunammite David s harem to comfort him in his (m« W ( 1 jvW After David’s d7ath ATe.c,d induced Bathsheba to ask Solomon totl0n?ul1 A bishag in marriage ; but this cost Arl glTe hfe (1 K. ii. 13, &*.).’ (Alo-Lah ] d°mjatti* ORIENTAL CART. Abisha'i’ the eldest of the three sons of Zennuh David s sister, and brother to Joab and A ?! (lC.hr.i, 16). He was the devoted follow ?! David. He commanded a third part of the a™, " t!? y. long; a, e, *, 6,u,y,short; care, far, last, fall, whatj there, veil, term 5 pique, firm , done, for, r*de’ ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARK. of very papid^ consuming bodies buried in it. A*TkIn th)e T- a R°man Province. This, with Macedonia, comprehended the whole of Greece; hence Achaia and Macedonia are fre- quent y mentioned together in the N. T. to iudi- x *U Yv^®eC<; /.ActS Xv,1!1- 12< *«. 21 ; Rom. x^i 5; 1 Cor. xvi. 15, etc.). jAcha icus, a name of a Christian (1 Cor. xvi. 17, as Luke. The identity of the writer of both t’°oksis shown by their great similarity in style and idiom, and the usage of particular words and compound forms. The boot seems to cover a space of about thirty years. It seems most prob¬ able that the place of writing was Rome, ana the time about two years from the date of St. Paul’s arrival there, as related in ch. xxviii. 80. This would give us for the publication the year 63 a. d. A'dah (ornament, beauty). 1. The first of the two wives ot Lamech, by whom were born to him Jabal and Jubal (Gen. iv. 10). 2. One of the three wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 10, 12, 16). in Gen. xxvi. 34, she is called Bashemath. Xd'am, the came given in Scripture to the first mar. it apparently has reference to the ground from which he was formed, which is called in Hebrew Adamah The creation of man was the work of the sixth day. By the t ibtlety of the serpent, the woman given to be with Adam was beguile.! ,nt0 a, Vlolation of the one command imposed upon them She took of the fruit of the forbid- V° her tusband. Adam i» ‘ES’-A. Tfs °LX?;rvr , g as j, g as in get ; § as z ; lasgi; » as in linger, liDk, th as in 4 ADAR ADRAMMELECH AENON THE HUSBAUDMAN. Ad'der. This word is used for any poisonous snake. It ocours five times in the text of the A. V., and three times in the margin as synonymous with cockatrice, viz. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 6. It repre¬ sents four Hebrew words: 1. ' Aeshub, found only in Ps. exl. 3. ’Acshub may be represented by the Toxicoa of Egypt and North Africa. 2. Pethen. [Asp.] 3. Tsepha, or Tsiphoni. In Prov. xxiii. 32 translated adder, and in Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 6, Jer. viii. 17 rendered cockatrice. 4. Shephiphon occurs only in Gen. xlix. 17, and we identify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra (Cerastes), which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The Cerastes is extremely venomous. PLOUGHING WITH OX AND ASS. Adon'i-Be’zek ( lord of Bezek ), king of Bezek, a city of the Canaanites. This chieftain was van¬ quished by the tribe of Judah (Judg. i- 3-7), who cut off his thumbs and great toes, and brought him prisoner to Jerusalem, where he died. He confessed that he inflicted the same cruelty upon 70 petty kings. Adom'jah ( My Lord is Jehovah). 1. The fourth son of David by Haggith, born at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death of Amnon, Chileab, and Absalom, he became eldest son; and when his father’s strength was declining, put forward his pretentions to the crown. Adonijah’s cause was espoused by Abiathar and Joab. David gave orders that Solomon should be anointed and pro¬ claimed king. Adonijah was pardoned on con¬ dition that he should “show himself a worthy man.” The death of David quickly followed, and Adonijah begged Bathsheba to procure his marriage with Ab- ishag, the wife of David in his old age (1 K. i. 3). This was regarded as a fresh attempt on the throne, and Solomon ordered him put to death by Benaiah. BRAZEN ALTAR. Eastern Plow and Hoe. Adop'tion, an expression metaphorically used by St. Paul (Rom. viii. 15, 23; Gal. iv. 5; Eph. i. 5). He probably alludes to the Roman custom of adoption. Ihe Jews themselves were un¬ acquainted with the process of adoption ; in¬ deed it would have been inconsistent with the regulations of the Mosaic law affecting the in¬ heritance of property. Ad'ora'tion. The acts and postures by which the Hebrews expressed adoration bear a great similarity to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple method ; but, gener¬ ally the prostration was more formal, the per¬ son falling upon the knee and then gradually inclining the body until the forehead touched AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. the ground. Such prostration was usual in the worship of Jehovah (Gen. xvii. 3 ; Ps. xcv. 6). Adram'meleoh. 1. The name of an idol intro¬ duced into Samaria from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, children being burnt in his honor. 2. Son of the Asyrian king Sennacherib, idonl'ram (1 K. iv. 6), also Adoram and Hador- am, chief receiver of the tribute during the reigns who, together with his brother Sharezer, mur¬ dered their father in the temple of Nisroch at Nineveh. ...nv.mr.u mm THE NAME OP (British Museum.) DA,UDS' A'dria, more properly Adrias (Acts xxvii. 27) A sea on the coast of Italy, now known as the Gulf _of Venice. Paul suffered a great tempest here A'drieL son of Barzillai, to whom Saul gave liis daughter Merab, previously promised to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19)- His five sons were amongst the seven descendants of Saul whom David sun rendered to the Gibeonites (2 Sam. xxi. 8). ANCIENT MODE OF REAPING. Adul'lam. Apocr. Odoij.am, a city of Judah. It: limestone cliffs are pierced with extensive exca vatious, some one of which is doubtless the “cave of Adullam,” the refuge of David (1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13 ; 1 Chr. xi. 15). Adultery. TheMosaic penalty was that both the guilty EGYPTIAN CART. parties should be stoned (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman so offending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offering (Lev. xix. 20-22). At a later time the penalty of death was seldom or never inflicted. The famous d by the waters of jealousy (Num. v. 11-29) was probab¬ ly aD ancient custom, paral¬ leled by the “ red water ” in Western Africa. Adum'mim, a rising ground or pass “ over against Gilgal,” and “on the south side of the ‘torrent’ ” (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 17), the position of the road leading upfrom Jericho and the Jordan valley to Jerusalem. The pass is still infested by robbers, as in tl^e days of our Lord, of whose ant-hills. parable of the Good Samaritan this is the scene. Aene'as, a paralytic at Lydda healed by St. Peter (Acts ix. 33, 34). Ae'non, a place “near to Salim,” at which John baptized (John ii. 23), It was evidently west IS, e, I, o, a, y, long; S, e, I, o, u, y, short; care, far, last, fall, what j there, veil, term ; pique, firm; done, for, dp, wolf, food, foot ; xvii. 1 it is translated “diamond.” As the He- brews were apparently unacquainted with the true diamond, \t is probably the Emery, a variety of Corundum, that is intended. It is inferior only to the diamond in hardness. Adar. A Jewish month. [Months.] of David (2 Sam. xx. 24), Solomon (1 K. iv. 6), and Rehoboam (1 K. xii. 18). This last monarch sent him to the rebellious Israelites, by whom he was stoned to death. Adon'i-ze'dek ( lord of justice), Amorite king of Jerusalem who organized a league with four other princes against Joshua. The confederate kings having laid siege to Gibeon and Joshua put them to flight. The five kings took refuge in a cave at Mekkedah, whence they were taken and slain (Josh. x. 1-27). Ad'ramyt'tifim, a seaport in the province of A • ““ AGABUS AHAZ AHITHOPHEL the. Jordan (comp.. Hi. f. with 26, and with i. -8) and abounded in water. Aa {'bus, a Christian prophet in the apostolic age, mentioned in Acts Xi. 28andxxi. H. A'gag, possibly the title of the kings ot Amalek, life Maraoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7, and another in 1 Sam. xv. 8, 9, 20, 82. Ag&td) the second stone in the third row of the high priest’s breast¬ plate. It is a sil- lcious stone of the quartz family. &ge. Old. T h e Jew was taught to consider old age a reward for piety, and a signal token of God’s favor. In private life the aged were looked up to (Job xv. 10) : the young were ordered to rise up in their presence (Lev. xix. 32) : they allowed them to give their opinion first (Job. xxxii. 4) : they were taught to regard gray hairs as a “ crown of glory.” -In public aflai rs age carried weight with it. ig'ricult'ure. This was little cared for by the and bound in sheaves. The sheaves or heaps were carted (Am. ii. 13) to the floor — a circular spot of hard ground. On these the oxen, &c., forbidden to be muzzled, (Deut. xxv. 4), trampled out the grain. At a later time the Jews used a threshing sledge called morag (Is. xli. 15 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 23), probably resembling the noreg, still employed in Egypt. Lighter SOWING AND PLOUGHING. Assyrian Warriors. patiiarchs. The pastoral life was the means of keep- mg the sacred race distinct from mixture, especi- n ly whilst in Egypt. When, grown into a nation they conquered their future seats, agriculture sup- rl.edasimdar check on the foreign intercourse ff, sleeAy de“orallzataon, especially as regards TW /’ ■ nch commerce would have caused. coin m on weal tin 6 the basis °f the Mosaic Rain.— The abundance of water m Palestine, from natural sources, made it a contrast to x?n8eio) Egypt (DeUt‘ viii- 7’ Crops. — The cereal constant mention and barley, and i rye and millet (?). Ploughing and Sowinq. _ Tlie Hough was probably very ;gbV?e yoke of oxen usual Kins1"/ t0 draw it- Moim- hoed S yf ep25faces8 Jo took JaeJti :pl0*g, the seec^as {n :the parable of the sower, grains were beaten out with a stick (Is. xxviii. 27). Winnowing. — The “ shovel ” and “ fan ” (Ts. xxx. 24) indicate the process of winnowing. The “ fan ” (Matt. iii. 12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against the wind. The last process was the shaking in a sieve to rate dirt and refuse (Am. ix. 9). Fields and floors were not commonly enclosed. Agrip'pa. [Herod.] A'gur, the son of Jakek, an unknown Hebrew sage, who uttered or collected the say¬ ings of wisdom recorded in Prov. xxx. A'hab. 1. Son of Omri, sev¬ enth king of Israel, reigned b. c. 919-896. He married Jezebel, daughter of Eth- baal king of Tyre ; and in obedience to her wishes, caused a temple to be built to Baal in Samaria itself, and an oracular grove to be con¬ secrated to Astarte. (See 1 K. xviii. 19.) Howthe wor¬ ship of God was restored ; how the priests of Baal were slain ; how a famine reigned ; how Naboth and his sons were put to death, and how Aliub was finally killed, are matters fully recorded in 1 Kings. 2. A lying prophet, who was burnt by Nebuchad¬ nezzar (Jer. xxix. 21). Ahasue'rus. There were several kings of this name: 1. Astyages, the Mede (Dan. ix. 1); 2. Canibyses, king of Persia (Ezra iv. 6, 7) ; 3. Drius Hystaspes, the husband of Esther (Esth. i. 1), who died a. m- 3519. Aha'va, a place (Ezr. viii. 15), or river (viii. 21), where Ezra collected his second expedition from Babylon to Jerusalem. Perhaps the modern Hit on the Euphrates. crops of are wheat more rarely SfheT-tere£broad^ani S-?*- brushed over highly ir8r!;it Jr0W; ?^n of «>°rn bushes. In cattle^ (Is xxvii^O 3 ^ Se£d WaS triimPled in by Pooping antr^esht hy Soats- b rH<1*, push; e, i, o, silent; ; aa s; chaanh^ch Threshing with tile Sled. A'haz, eleventh king of Judah, son of Jotham, reigned 741-726. At the time of his accession, Bezin king of Damascus, and Pekah king or Israel, formed a league and proceeded to lay siege to Jerusalem. Upon this Isaiah hastened to give advice to Ahaz, and the allies failed in their attack (Is. vii. viii. ix.). Ahaz became tributary to Tiglath-pileser. He ventured to seek safety in heathen cere¬ monies. “ The altars on the top (or roof ) of the upper chamber of Ahaz” (2 K. xxiii. 12) were connected with the adoration of the 3tars. Ahazi'ah. 1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, eighth king of Israel, reigned b. c. 890-895. He was seriously in¬ jured by a fall through a lattice in his palace. 2. Fifth king ofJudah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah (daughter of Ahab), and therefore nephew of the preced¬ ing Ahaziah, reigned one year B. C. 884. Ahi'alx, or Ahl'jah. 1. a slingeb. Son of Ahitub, grandson of Phinehas, and great grandson of Eli, succeeded his father as high* priest in the reign of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18). Ahim'aaz, son of Zadok, the high-priest in David’s reign, and celebrated for his swiftness of foot. During Absalom’s rebellion he carried to David important intelligence. He was the first to bring to the king the news of Absalom’s defeat. ANNANIAS AND SAPPHIRA. Ahim'elech, son of Ahitub (1 Sam. xxii. 11, 12), and high-priest at Nob. He gave David the shew- bread and the sword of Goliath; and for so do¬ ing was put to death with his house by Saul’s order. Abiathar alone escaped. Ahln'oam. 1. The daughter of Ahimaaz and wife of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 60). 2. A native of Jezree married to David dur¬ ing his wandering (1 Sam. xxv. 43). She lived with him and his other wife Abigail at the court of Achisli (xxvii. 3). She is again named in 2 Sam. ii. 2, and was the mother of his eldest son Amnon (iii. 2). Ahith'ophel ( brother of foolishness), a native of Giloh , was a privy councillor of David, whose wisdom was highly esteemed. He was the grandfather ot Bathsheba. David’s ancient archer. grief at his treachery found expression in the Messianic prophesies (Ps. xli. 9, lv. 12-14). Ahithophel persuaded Absalom to take possession ask; gasj, g as in gel ) s as *} iasgz; n as in linger, link; tk as in thine 6 AHOLAH AMALEKITES AMEN 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; care, far, last, fall, what; there, veil, term ; pique, firm; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; of the royal harem (2 Sam. xvi. 21). David sent Hushai to Absalom. Ahithophel had recom¬ mended an immediate pursuit of David; but Hushai advised delay. When Ahithophel saw that Hushai s advice prevailed, returning to his own home he “ put his household in order and hanged himself’r (xvii. 1-23). Ahfl l&h, and Ahol'ibah, two symbolic names, rep¬ resenting Samaria and Jurfah (Ez. xxiii.). Ihd liab, a Danite of great skill as a weaver and Bethel _ , ..... 9). Alabaster oceurs in the N. T. in Matt. xxvi. 7; Mark xiv. 3 : Luke vii. _37. The ancients consid¬ ered it the best material in which to preserve ointments. Mark xiv. 3 probably means breaking the seal. Sl'exan'der. 1. Son of Simon the Cyrenian (I xv. 21); 2. One of Anna’s kindred; 3. A put forward at Ephesus by his countrymen to plead (Acts xix. 33) ; 4. An Ephesian Christian reproved by Paul (1 Tim. i. 20), and perhaps the same with 5. Alexander the coppersmith (2 Tim. *v. 14). v Mark Jew NOAH’S ARK. Alexan'dar III., king of Macedon, surnamed the cheat, the son of Philip and Olympias, was born at Pella, B. c. 356, and succeeded his father b. c. 336. In the year r. c. 323 he died in the midst of his gigantic plans. In the prophetic visions of Algnm or Almug Trees: 1 K. x. 11, 12; 2 Chr. ix. 10, ] 1. It is probable that this tree is the red sandal wood, which is a native of India and Cey- tbem (1 Sam. xv. ). Subsequently a SE"(fcK,).“eonto' in £ Ion. The wood is very heavy, hard, and grained, and of a beautiful garnet color. Allelu'ia, so written in Rev. xix. 7, foil., or more properly Hallelujah, “praise ye Jehovah,” as it is found in the margin of Ps. civ. 35, cv. 45, cvi., cxi. 1, exii. 1, cxiii. 1 (comp. Ps. cxiii. 9, cxv. 18, cxvi. 19, cxvii. 2). Almond-Tree (Gen. xliii. 11; Ex. xxv. 33, 34, xxxvii. 19, 20; Num. xvii. 8; Eccles. xii. 5; Jer. i. 11). It is a native of Asia and North Africa. The height is about 12 or 14 feet ; the flowers pink; the leaves long, ovate, with a serrated margin, and an acute point. The cover¬ ing of.the fruit is downy and succulent, enclosing the hard shell which contains the kernel. Aloes, Lign Aloes, a costly and sweet smelling wood mentioned in Num. xxiv. 6; Ps. xiv. 8; Prox. vii. 17; Cant. iv. 14; John xix. 39. It is quite possible that some kind of odoriferous cedar may _be the tree denoted. Al'pha, the first letter of the Greek alph¬ abet, as Omega is the last. Both Greeks and Hebrews employed the letters of the alphabet as numerals. Alphabet. [Writing.] Alphae'us, the father of James the Less (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13), and husband of that Mary who, with the ASHDOD. fine Daniel the emblem by which Alexander is typified (a he goat) suggests the notions of strength and speed ; and the universal extent (Dan. viii. 5). tlexan'dria (3 Macc. iii. 1 ; Act3 xviii. 24, vi. 9), the Hellenic, Roman, and Christian capital of Egypt, was founded by Alexander the Great, B. c. 332, who himself traced the ground- plan of the city. Its popu- iation was mixed from the first. Philo estimates the number of the Alexandrine lip / i/ll V ya Jews in his time at littleless than 1,000,000. The Sep- tuagint translation was made yBsfly for their benefit. According si to the common legend, St. Mark first “preached the Gospel in Egypt, and found- ANCIENT WARFAEE- ed the first Church in Alexandria.” At the be¬ ginning of the second century the number of Christians at Alexandria must have been very large. ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT. mother of Jesus and others, was standing by the cross during the crucifixion (John xix. 25). In this latter place he is called Clopas (in the A. V. Cleophas). Altar. The first altar referred to is in Gen. viii. 20. The law of Moses al¬ lowed altars to be mfde either of earth or unhewn stone (Ex. xx. 24, 25). After the construction of the taber¬ nacle, two altars were made, one for sacrifices, the other for incense, and no others were lawful. The altar of burnt-offering, made by Solomon, was thirty feet square and fifteen feet "high, and stood in the court. The altar of incense was a table about two feet square and four feet high, plated with gold, and stood in the Holy Place. Am'alek, son of Eliphaz, grandson of Esau, and chieftain of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 12, 16 ; 1 Chr. i. 36.) im'alekltes. A nomadic tribe or na¬ tion, between the Red and Dead Seas. Saul I overran their whole district and utterly ruined | £m'asa. Son of Ithra or Jether, by Abigail David’s sister ( 2 Sam. xvii. 25). He joined Ah-’ salom and was appointed in the place of Joab by whom he was totally defeated in the forest ot Ephraim (2 Sam. xviii. 6). David forgave the treason of Amasa, and appointed him Joab’i SACRIFICE OF ABEL. successor (xix. 13). Joab afterwards stabbed him with his sword (xx. 10). Amazi'ah. Son of Joash, and eighth king ot JuJnh, reigned b. c. 837-809. In the 29th year of his -eign he was murdered by conspirators at Lachish (2 Chr. xxv. 27). Ambassador. The earliest examples of ambassa¬ dors occur in the cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx. 14, xxi. 21 ; Judg. xi. 17-19). They were usually men of high rank. Amber (Heb. ehashmal), Ez. i. 4, 27, viii- 2. It is usually supposed that the Hebrew word ehashmal denotes a metal, and not the fossil resin called amber. Amen, literally, “true;” “truth” (Is. lxv. 16). In the synagogues and private houses it was cus¬ tomary for those present to say “Amen ” to the prayers offered, and the custom remained in the early Christian Church (Matt. vi. 13 ; 1 Cor. xiv. THRESHING. 16). And doxologies concluded with “ Amen ’ were appropriately 1 (Romans ix. amethyst ANDREW ANT 7 _ ASSYRIAN KINO. nasse'h, deigned two^’ son.,and successor of Ma- Amorite, One of frora B- O. 642 to 640. the land of Canaan hefif na.tlons wll° possessed Israelites. ' before its conquest by the “iles S^o^Bethlehein ^lf Judall> about sis SPWt to be a prophe :,!^0 T Called h? God’s BEDOUIN ARAB. sxii. 12). Tradition makes him to have been afterwards bishop of Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom. Anathema, literally a thing suspended, the equivalent of the Hebrew signifying a thing or person devoted. The word anathema fre¬ quently occurs in St. Paul’s writings, and is generally translated accursed. An'drew, one among the first called of the Apostles of our Lord (Johni. 40; Matt, iv. 18); brother (whether elder or younger is uncer¬ tain) of Simon Peter (ibid). He was of Bethsaida, and a disciple of John. He left his former master, and attached himself to our Lord. The apparent discrepancy in Matt. iv. 18 ff., Mark i. 16 ff., is ARMOR USED IN TIME OP SAUL. An'na. A “ prophetess” in Jerusalem at tie tim of our Lord’s presentation in the Temple (Luk ii. 36). She was of the tribe of Asher. An'nas, the son of one Seth, was appointed high priest in the year A. D. 7. In Luke lii. 2, Annas and Caiaphas are both called high-priests. Out Lord’s first hearing (John xviii. 13) was before Annas, who then sent him bound to Caiaphas. He lived to old age, having had five sons high- priests. Amt, mentioned twice in the 0. T.: in Prov. vi. xxx. 25. In the former the diligence of this in rtrl.rude, mum-V „ T, - - — ^ ' ““ marK u 10 g ’ 13 8tored UP *°od in summer for win _ _ ’ ’ ’ ’°>s ent; S*»assh}-ct.ehMk, Basj,gasinget,fiasz5 jaagi; n as in liBger, ll0kj tU as in thine MODERN PLOUGHING IN THE EAST. sect is instanced ; in the latter the wisdom. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the ant stored up food in summer for winter’s consume KOMAN BANNERS. im'non. Eldest son of David by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess. He dishonored his half-sister Ta¬ mar, and was in consequence murdered by her brother (2 Sam. xiii. 1-29). i'mon, an Egyptian divinity, whose name occurs in that of No Amon (Nah. iii. 8), in A. V. “pop¬ ulous No,” or Thebes, also called No. [No.] The Greeks called this divinity Ammon. The ancient Egyptian name is Amen. He was wor¬ shipped at that city as Amen-Ra, or “Amen the sun.” cannot be later than the 15th year of Uzziah’s reign (b. c. 808). The Book of-, is divided into denunciations of the sins of bordering nations, descriptions of the impending punishment of Israel, and the hope of the Messiah’s kingdom. no real one ; St. John relating the first introduc¬ tion to Jesus, the other Evangelists the formal call to his ministry. He is said to have been crucified in Aehaia. Some ancient writers speak of an apocryphal Acts of Andrew. CAPERNAUM, The peculiarity of style is in the many allusions _to natural objects and agricultural occupations. A'moz, father of the prophet Isaiah, and, accord¬ ing to tradition, brother of Amaziah king of Judah (2 K. xix. 2, 20, xx. l,etc. ). Amphip'olis, a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed from Philippi to Thessa- lonica (Acts xvii. 1). It was 33 Roman miles from Philippi. Am'ram. A Levite of the family of the Kohath- ites, and father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Ex. vi. 18, 20; Num. iii. 19, etc.). An'akim. Giants, descendants of Arba (Josh. xv. 13, xxi. 11), dwelling in the southern part of Canaan, Anam'melech, one of the idols introduced into Samaria from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). Chil¬ dren were burnt in his honor, and he is the com¬ panion-god to Adrammelech. Anani'as. 1. A high-priest in Acts xxiii. 2-5, xxiv. 1. 2. A disciple at Jerusalem, husband ot Sapphira (Acts v. 1-11). 3. A Jewish disciple at Damascus (Acts ix. 10—17), of high repute (Acts R TELL HUM. Anise. Matt, xxiii. 23. It is no matter of cer tainty whether the anise or the dill is intended probably the latter. Anklet. Anklets are referred to in Is. iii. 16, 15, 20. They were fastened to the ankle-band of each leg, were as common as bracelets and armlets, and made a pleasant tinkling as they knocked against each other. _i 36 xx. 33, xvi. 27 j 2 Cor. xiii. 13, 4c. ime thvst. The third precious stone in the third nw of the high priest’s breastplate (Ex. xxvm. 19 xxix. 12). It occurs also in the N. 1. (Kev. 20). A gem of a purple or violet color. _ Xm'monltes, a people descended from Ben-Amtm, the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix 38; comp. Ps. lxxxm. 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder. Unlike Moab, the precise position of the territory of the Ammonites is not ascer¬ tainable. The Ammonites were held in hatred by Israel. Their last appearances in the biblical narrative are in the books of Judith (v., vi., vii. ) and of the Maccabees (1 Macc. v. 6, 30-43). 1 he dl inity of the tribe was Molech. ANTICHRIST tion ; but this Is an error. The European species food are d0rmant in tlle winter» and require no Antichrist. In 1 John ii. 18, the apostle makes di- ANCIENT WEAPONS. rect reference to the false Christs, whose coming nt had been foretold, should mark the last days. 1 he allusion to Matt. xxiv. 24 was clearly in the °.f . *he Syriac translator, who rendered Antichrist by “ the false Christ.” Antioch. 1. In Syria. The capital of the Greek ASYRIAN ARMLET. Syria, and afterwards the residence of the Roman Governors of the province of Syria. Ro city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connect¬ ed with the apostolic church. Here the first Gen¬ tile church was founded (Acts xi. 20, 21); here the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (xi. 26). From Antioch St. Paul started on his mis¬ sionary journeys. The city was found¬ ed in the year 300 b. c., by Seleucus Ni- cator. Jews were settled there from the first, and allowed political privileges. Antioch Became a city of great extent and remarkable beauty. 2. In Pis- ii'TA (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 19, 21; 2 Tim. iii- 11), on the bor¬ ders of Phrygia. This city became a col- onia, and was also called Caesarea. &.n'tipas, martyr at Pergamos (Rev. ii. 13), and by tradition, bishop of that place. Antipa'tris, a town to which the soldiers conveyed St. Paul Egyptian and Assyrian anklets by night (Acts xxiii. 31). Its ancient name was Capharsaba ; and Herod changed it to Antipatris. Apel'les, a Christian saluted by St. Paul in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes him bishop of Smyrna or Heraclea. Apoc'alypse. [Revelation.] ANOINTING A KING. Apoc'rypha. This includes the following: I. 1 Esdras ; II. 2 Esdras; III. Tobit ; IY. Judith; V. The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew AQUILA nor in the Chaldee ; VI. The Wisdom of Solo¬ mon • VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus ; VIII. Baruch; IX The Song of the Three Holy Children; X. The History of Susanna; XI. The History of the destruction of Bel and the Dragon; XII. The Prayer of Manasses, King of Judah ; XIII. 1 Maccabees ; XIV. 2 Maccabees. Associated with the signification “ spurious,” and ultimately to have settled down. The sepa¬ rate books are treated of in. dis¬ tinct Articles. Ap'olla'nia, a city of Macedonia through which Paul and Silas passed from Philippi and Am- phipolis to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). Apol'los, a Jew from Alexandria, eloquent and mighty in the Scriptures; who (Acts xviii. 25) on his coming to Ephesus, a. D. 54, was more perfectly taught by Aquila and Priscilla. Ho preached the Gospel in Achaia and Corinth (Acts xviii. 27, xix. 1). , He is mentioned in Tit. iii. 13. After this nothing is known of him. ARCHELAUS ANCIENT WEAPONS. Apol'lyon, or, as in the margin of Rev. ix. 11, “a destroyer,” is the rendering of the Hebrew word Abaddon, “ the angel of the bottomless pit.” Apas'tle (one sent forth, in the N. T., originally the official name of those Twelve of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send forth first to preach the Gospel ; also used in a wider sense. (See 2 Cor. viii. 23; Phil. ii. 25.) ANCIENT TERMINI OR LANDMARKS. Ap'phia, a Christian, woman addressed in Philem. 2, apparently of Philemon’s household; probably his wife. Ap'pil Fa'rum, a station on the Appian Way, the road from Rome to the S^~l neighborhood of the Bay of Naples (Acts xxviii. 13). Apple-Tree, Apple. Mention of the apple-tree occurs in Cant. ii. 3, viii. 5, and Joel i. 12. The fruit is alluded .. to in Prov. xxv. 11, andd, foot ; ARCHIPPUS ASA ASIARCHAE 9 . « • a Christian teacher in Colossae (Col. f pLilera. 2), probably a member of Phile- i1" ' rn m T^h e Hebrew words rendered “Arctu- W Jobix. 9, xxxviii. 32, are believed to represent the constellation Ursa Major, known commonly as the Great Bear. ^ ^contemporary of Antiochus Epiph- anes (b. c. 170) and Jason (2 Mace, v, 8). 2. The Are- tas alluded to by St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32) was father-in- law of Herod Anti- pas. Ariel. A designa¬ tion given by Isaiah to the city of Jerus¬ alem (Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7). Its meaning is obscure. We must understand by it either “ Lion of God, or “Hearth of God.” Arimathae'a (Matt, xxvii. 57 ; Luke xxiii. 51; Johnxix. 38). Identified by many with the modern Ramlah . Aristar'chus, a Thessalonian (Acts xx. 4, xxvii. 2), who accompanied St. Paul on his third mis¬ sionary journey (Acts xix. 29). He was with the apostle on his return to Asia (Acts xx. 4); and again (xxvii. 2) on his voyage to Rome. We trace him as St. Paul’s fellow-prisoner in Col. iv. 10, and Philem. 24. Tradition makes him bishop of Apamea. Aristobu'lus. 1. A Jewish priest (2 Macc. i. 10). 2. A resident at Rome, some of whose household are greeted in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes him one of the 70 disciples. Ark, Noah’s. [Noah.] Ark of the Covenant. It appears to have been an oblong chest, 2J cubits long by 1J br6ad and deep. Within and without gold was overlaid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edged round about with gold, the mercy seat was placed. II. Its purpose or object was to contain inviolate the Divine autograph of the two tables. It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. AmagM'don, “the hill, or city of Megiddo ” (Rev. xvi. 16). The scene of the struggle of good and evil is suggested by that battle-field, (he plain of Esdraelon, famous for the victories of Barak and of Gideon, and for the death of Saul and of Josiah. Arme'nia occurs (2 K. xix. 37) for Ararat. That lotty plateau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes, and Acampsis, pour down their waters in ditierent directions. Armlet. An ornament universal in the East es¬ pecially among women : used by princes and dis¬ tinguished persons. Sometimes only one was worn, on the right arm (Ecclus. xxi. 21). Arms, Armor. I. Offensive weapons. 1. Appar- Arrows were carried in a quiver. They seem to have been sometimes poisoned. 4. The Sung is first mentioned in Judg. xx. 16. Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part of the regular army (2 K. iii. 25). II. Armor. 1. The Breast¬ plate, literally a “ breastplate of scales” (1 Sam. xvii. 5). 2. The habergeon is mentioned but twice (Ex. xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23). 3. The Hel¬ met is referred to. 4. Greaves, or defences for As'ahel. Nephew of David. He was celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When fighting under his brother Joab, he pursued Abner, who was obliged to kill him in self-defence (2 Sam. ii. 18 f?.). ancient iconium (Asia Minor). the feet made of brass, are named in 1 Sam. xvii. 6. 6. Two kinds of Shield are distinguishable, the large shield and the buckler. 6. The Shelet. Army. I. Jewish Army. Every man above 20 years was a soldier (Num. 1. 3): each tribe formed a regiment with its own leader (Num. ii. 2, x. 14): their positions were accurately fixed (Num. ii. ): the whole army started and stopped at a sig¬ nal (Num. x. 5, 6). II. The Roman Army was EGYPTIAN BOTTLES. Xsahi'ah, a servant of king Josiah. A'saph. A Levite, son of Berechiah, one of the leaders of David’s choir (1 Chr. vi. 39). Psalma 1. and lxxiii.-lxxxiii. are attributed to him ; and he was a seer as w-ell as a musical composer (2 Chr. xxix. 30; Neh. xii. 46). As'enath, daughter of Potipherah, priest, or prince, of On, wife of Joseph (Gen. xli. 45), and mother of Manasseh and Ephraim (xli. 50, xlvi. 20). Ash. Is. xliv. 14. The LXX. and Vulg. under¬ stand some species of pine-tree. Ash'dod, or Azo'tus (Acts viii. 40), one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, nearly mid¬ way between Gaza and Joppa. Ash'er, Apocr. and N. T. A'ser, the 8th son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah’s handmaid (Gen. xxx. 13). Ash’erah, the name of a Phoenician goddess, or rather of the idol itself (A. V. “grove ”). Ash- entlv fl,„ 7“““* 0K tubeshing machine. ^’the a^,eSork“°SwnoRn -■ “T ^ used sword was the Spear 3 Of „ • \ Next to the ‘.nwfc.pu.U; *, o, diet ; . J ,1. iL. . I, ; ;Lf, u , k . . mRLUA - nt divided into legions, the number of which varied, each under six tribuni (“ chief captains,” Acts xxi. 31), who _ commanded by turns. ? Region was subdivided into ten cohorts ( band, Acts x. 1), the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, but subse¬ quently from 50 to 100. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the com¬ mand of a centurion (Acts x. 1, 22; Matt, nil. 6, xxvii. 64). Artaxerx'es. The name of a race of Persian kings. Ar'temas, a companion of St. Paul (Tit. iii. 12) j by tradition bishop of Lystra. A sa. Son of Abijah, and third king of Judah c- 956-916). In his zeal against heathen- ,, 1®n, , n°f spare his grandmother JVlnachah, but deposed her from her dignity. He renewed the great altar which the idolatrous priests apparentlyhad desecrated (2 Chr. xv. 8). Inhisold age Asa suffered from the gout. He died greatly loved and honored in the 41st year ot his reign MELITA — MODTCRN MALTA. erah is closely connected with Asiitoreth and her worship Judg. iii. 7; 1 K. xviii. 19). Ash'kelon, As'kelon, Apocr. As'- calon, one of the five cities of the lords of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 17). Samson went down from Tim- Rath to Ashkelton (Judg. xiv. 19). Ash’taroth, Asiitoreth, orAstarte. A famed goddess of the Zidon- ians (1 K. xi. 5). Asia. The passages in the N. T. , where this word occurs, are used for a Roman province which embraced the western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor, and ot which Ephesus was the capital. Asiar'chae (chief of Asia, A. V ARMOR-CLAD. Acts xix. 31), officers chosen’ annually by the cities of the province of Asia, of which Ephesus as j, g as in get ; 2 as z ; s as gz ; n as in linger, uak , 10 ASMODEUS ATHENS AXE wa3, under Roman government, the metropolis. They had charge of the public games and relig¬ ious theatrical spectacles, the expenses of which they bore. MOURNERS. ismode'us (Tob. iii. 8, 17), the same as Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11; comp. Wisd. xviii. 25). \sp ( pethen). The Hebrew word occurs : Deut. xxxii. 33; Job xx. 14, 16; Ps. lviii. 5, xci, 13; Is. xi. 8). That some kind of poisonous serpent is denoted is clear. EGYPTIAN RING MONEY. ».3S. The species known to the ancient Jews are Asinus hemippus, which inhabits the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia, and the northern parts of Arabia; the Asinus vulgaris of the N. E. of Africa ; and probably the Asinus onager, which is found in Western Asia. Mr. Layard remarks that in fleetness the wild ass ( Asinus hemippus) SUPPOSED FORM OF ARK OF COVENANT. equals the gazelle, and to overtake them is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares have been known to accomplish. MAP OF ATHENS. g.s'sos, or As’sns, a seaport of the Roman prov¬ ince of Asia, in the district anciently called Mysia (Acts xx. 13, 14). Assyria, Assh'ur, was a great and powerful coun¬ try lying on the Tigris (Gen. ii. 14), the capital of which was Nineveh (Gen. x. 11, &c.). The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly at different periods. Scripture informs us that Assyria was peopled from Babylon (Gen. x. 11). As a coun¬ try, it was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14, xxv. 18 ; Num. xxiv. 22, 24). The fall of As¬ syria, prophesied by Isaiah (x. 5-19), was effected by the growing strength and boldness of the Medes. The government of the Assyrians was rude and inartificial ; their religion coarse and sensual ; and their conduct of war cruel. rection with temples, altars, and other , buildings. 8acre % (Cant*" 4) hLrciS1‘t’ Tirzth 1-6) h‘S capital i1 K- «i. 6 ; 2 Chr. xvi. Bcountryaw^!eh’is\^VPHe-ly^6 of the the later books Chaldnen ln ®t,ne.sis Shinar, and in daeanst WdbSf ^ land °f the ChaP built on both sides^f thMLml0^’ therr,clty was area was about 200 » 6 FuP(lrates- The entire frequently thtee S fcK ?6 houses- oUimjtraight streets ThtT8 hlgh’. were laid - - h >-reeis. I he two portions of the Jfr - ATHENS. the “slime” for mortar was probably bitumen. In one or other of the Babylonish temjiles the former Jews thought to recognize the tower itself. The predominant opinion was in favor of the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa,ihe modern Birs- Nimrud. Bab'ylon, in the Apoca¬ lypse, is the symbolical name by which Rome is denoted (Rev. xiv. 8, xvii., xviii.). Babylonish Garment, liter¬ ally “robe of Shinar” (Josh. vii. 21). Perhaps a variegated garment for which the Babylonians were celebrated. Ba'ea, The Valley of, a val¬ ley in Palestine, through which the exiled Psalmist sees in vision the pilgrims in their march towards Zion (Ps. lxxxiv. 6). Badger-Skins. There is much obscurity as to the wcsc. - v word rendered “badger” (Ex. xxv. 5, xxxv. 7, &c.); the ancient versions seem nearly all agreed that it denotes not an animal, but a color, either black or sky-blue, the Hebrew may denote a seal. Balaam, the son of Beor, a man en¬ dowed with the gift of prophecy (Num. xxii. 5). He belonged to the Midianites. He seems to have lived at Pethor, a city of Meso¬ potamia. When the Israelites were encamped in Moab, Balak, the king, sent for Balaam to curse them. Ba¬ laam was prohibited by God from going. The king of Moab sent again. The prophet again refused, but was at length allowed to go. Balaam therefore proceeded on his journey. But God’s anger was kindled at this self will, and the angel of the Lord stood in the way against him (2 Pet. ii. 16). Balaam predicted a magnificent career for the people whom he was called to curse. A battle was afterwards fought against the Midianites, in which Balaam was slain (Num. xxxi. 8). Ba'lak, king ‘ of the Moabites. Balak hired Balaam to Perhaps Jer. xlvii. 5, &c.). Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Nazarite’s vow (Acts xviii. 18 ; Num. vi. 9), and was a sign of mourning. Balm occurs in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11 ; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11, ]i. 8 ; and Ez. xxvii. 17. It is im¬ possible to identify it with any certainty. Ban'quets, among the Hebrews, were common. The usual time of the banquet was the evening. The most essential materials next to the viands and wine, the last often drugged with spices (Prov. ix. 2; Cant. viii. 2), were perfumed unguents, garlands or loose flowers, white or bril liant robes ; after these, exhibitions of music, singers, and dancers, riddles, jesting and merri¬ ment. The separation of the women’s banquet was not a Jewish custom (Esth. i. 9). Bap'tism. An ordinance of the Christian Church, representing the washing away of our sins and the purification of our life, through a crucified and risen Redeemer (Rom. vi. 3, 4, 11). Barab'bas, a robber (John xviii. 40), who had com¬ mitted murder in an insurrection (Mark xv. 7 ; Luke xxiii. 19) in Jerusalem, and was in prison at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate. Ba'rak, son of Abinoam of Ivedesh, was incited by Deborah, a prophetess of Ephraim, to deliver Israel (Judg. iv.). He utterly routed the Canaan ites in the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon). Barfca'rian “Every one not a Greek,” is the strict sense of the word in Rom. i. 14. Bar-Je'sus. [Elt.mas.] Bar-Jo'na. [Peter.] curse the Israel- TEMPLE OF FUN AT BA ALB EC. Barley was grown by the Hebrews (Lev. xxvii. 16: ; sass, cliassUi-e.-clxask} £ as j, g as in get, Mas z, jasgzj B as in Huger, liuk, tU as in thine. 12 BARNABAS BATHSHEBA BEARD Dent, vm SjRuthii. 17, &c), who used it for baking into bread, chiefly amongst the poor (Judg. to. 13: 2 K. iv. 42; John vi. 9, 13) ; for making into bread by mixing it with wheat, beans, lentils, millet, &c. (Ez. iv. 9); and as fod¬ der lor horses (1 K. iv. 28). .11 ANCIENT FUNERAL CAR. Bar'nabas, a name signifying “son of prophecy,” or ‘exhortation,” given by the Apostles (Acts iv. 30) to Joseph (or Joses), a Levite of the island of Cyprus, who was early a disciple of Christ. In Acts ix. 27, we find him introducing the newly-converted Saul to the Apostles at Jerusalem. A variance took place between Barnabas and Paul on the question of taking with them John Mark, sisters son to Barnabas (Acts xv. 36 If. ). They part¬ ed, and Barnabas took Mark, and sailed to Cyprus, his native island. Here the Scripture notices acquirements. His financing Jere¬ miah in favor of the Chaldaeans (Jer. xliii. 3; cf. xxxvii. 13); and he was thrown into prison with that prophet till the capture of Jerusalem, b. c. 586. Nothing is known certainly of the close of his life. 2. The Book of, may be divided into two main parts, i.-iii. 8, and iii. 9-end. It was held in little es¬ teem among the Jews, and was fre¬ enemies accused him of in- FEMALE CARRIERS OF WATER. of him cease. The Epistle attributed to Barna¬ bas is believed to have been written early in the second century. Bar’sabas. [Joseph Barsabas ; Judas Barsa- bas.] 3arthol'omew, one of the Twelve Apostles (Matt. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FUNERAL PROCESSION. Sam. xi. 3), or Ammiel (1 Chr. iii. 5) th„ Ahithophel (2 Sam. xxiii. 34), and wife of t?n°f the Hittite. The child which was the fru;t adulterous intercourse with David died • hi t r marriage she became the mother of aler nSt (Matt- L 6)’ Shimea’ sh°^;z Bay-tree (ezraeh). Most of the Jewish doctor, SACKCLOTH. quently quoted both in the East and in the West a3 the work of Jeremiah. At the Council of Trent, Baruch was admitted into the Romish Canon. Barzil'lai. 1. A wealthy Gileadite who showed hospitality to David (2 Sam. xvii. 27). He declined the offer of end¬ ing his days at court (2 Sam. xix. 32- 39). 2. A Meholathite, whose son Adriel married Michal, Saul’s daughter (2 Sam. xxi. 8). Ea'shan, a district on the east of Jordan, spoken of as the “land of Bashan” (1 understand by ezraeh “a tree which grows in Its own soil.” Bdel'lium (Gen. ii. 12 ; Num. xi. 7). An odor iferou3 exudation from a tree. Beans (2 Sam. xvii. 28; Ezra iv. 9). Beans are cultivated in Palestine, which produce many of the leguminous order of plants, such as lentils kidney-beans, vetches, &c. Bear (1 Sam. xvii. 34; 2 Sam. xvii. 8). The Syrian bear (Ursus Syriacus), without doubt the animal mentioned in the Bible, is still found on the higher mountains of Palestine. 11), and ’ (Deut. sometimes as “ all iii. 10, 13; Josh. CANDELABRA. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). It has been not improbably conjectured that he is identical with Nathaniel (John i. 45 ff. ). Bartimae'us, a blind beggar of Jericho (Mark x. -46 ff.). Pa'ruoh. 1. Son of Neriah, the friend (Jer. xxxii. f Mr. 1 BIRD-SNARING. 12), amanuensis (Jer xxxvi. 4-32), and faithful attendant of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 10 ff.; B. c. 603). He was of a noble family and distinguished Chr. v. Bashan xii. 5). Bash’emath, daughter of Ishmael, the last married of the three wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13). In Gen. xxviii. 9 she is called Mahalath, another of Esau’s wivtj, the daughter of Elon the Hittite. This is probably due to a transcriber’s error. Basin. The “basin” from which our Lord washed the disciples’ feet was probably deeper and larger than the hand-basin for sprinkling. Bas'ket. The Hebrew terms are (1) Sal, used for holding bread. (2) Salsilloth, applied to the basket used in gathering grapes. (3) Tene, in which the first-fruits were presented. (4) Celub, used for carrying fruit. (6) Dud, for carrying fruit, as on a larger scale for carrying clay to the brickyard, or for holding bulky articles. Bas'math, a daughter of Solomon, married to Ahimaaz (IK. iv. 15). Bastard. The term is not applied to illegitimate offspring, but is restricted by the Rabbins to the issue of any connection within the degrees pro¬ hibited by the Law. Bat. (Lev. xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18.) Many travel¬ ers have noticed the immense numbers of bats in caverns in the East, and Mr. Layard says that on a visit to a cavern these noisome beasts compelled him to retreat. Bath, Bathing. A prescribed part of the Jewish ritual of purification in cases of accident, lep¬ rous or ordinary uncleanness. (Lev. xv., xvi. 28, xxii. 6 ; Num. xix. 7, 19); as also after mourning, which always implied defilement (Ruth iii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xii. 20). Bath. [Measures]. Bath'shAba (2 Sam. xi. 3, &c.; also called Bath- sfaua in 1 Chr. iii. 5), the daughter of Eliam (2 WINNOWING WITH THE FAN. Beard. Western Asiatics have always cherished the beard. The Egyptians, on the contrary, for the most part, shaved the hair of the face and head. It is impossible to decide with certainty ATHENS, WITH MARS’ HILL, OR ACROPOLIS. the meaning of the precept (Lev. xix. 27, s*1, 5) regarding the “ corners of the beard.” ‘ lie custom was to shave or pluck it and the hair 1, c, I, o, u, y, long; a, *, 1, 6, u, y , short ; care, far, last, fall, what ; there, veil, term ; pique, firm) done, for, dp, wolf, food, foot ; BED BENHADAD BERYL 13 fo mourning ; xix. 24), and rage (2 Sam. x. 4). tion (2 Sam. xx. 9). to neglect it in affliction (2 Sam. 24) and' to regard insult to it as the last out- ' ~ It was the object of saluta- Bed and Bed-ohamber. We distinguish in the Jewish bed five prin¬ cipal parts: 1. The mattress, which was limited to a mere mat, or one or more quilts. 2. The covering. 3. Some fabric woven or plaited of goat’s hair ; something hastily adopted to serve as a pillow. 4. The bed¬ stead was not always necessary, the divan, or platform along the 5. TOURING FROM BOTTLE SKIN. side or end of an Oriental room, sufficing. The ornamental portions were pillars and a can¬ opy (Jud. xiii. 9), ivory carvings, gold and silver, and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen (Esth. i. 6 ; Cant. iii. 9, 10). The ordinary furniture of a bed - chamber is given in 2 K. iv. 10. Bee (Deborah), Deut. i. 44 ; Judg. xiv. 8 ; Ps. cxviii. 12 ; Is.vii. 18. That Palestine abounded in bees is evident. The honey¬ bee of Palestine is distinct. Swarms in the East are larger than with us, and, on account of the heat of the climate, their stings give rise to dangerous symp¬ toms. BeSl’zebiil, title of a heathen deity, to whom the Jews as¬ cribed the sovereign¬ ty of the evil spirits (Matt. x. 25, xii. 24 ; Mark iii. 22 ; Luke xi. 15 ff. ). The cor¬ rect reading is Beel¬ zebub, and not Beelze¬ bub, as in the Syriac, Vulg., &c. Bee'roth, one of the four cities of the Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty of peace (Josh. ix. 17). Beer'sheba. One of the old places in Palestine ?ccoSunts rAb1 mit -0 • th® c°untry- There are two accounts of the origin of the name. 1. Accord¬ ing to the first, the well was dug by Abraham, and his chief captain are concerned, with Ikhac instead of Abraham (Gen. xxvi. 31-33). There are at present on the spot two principal wells, and five smaller ones.- The two principal wells lie just a hundred yards apart. The larger of the two is 121 feet diam., and about 44] feet to the surface of the water ; the masonry reaches down¬ wards 28] feet. The other well is 6 feet diam., and about 42 feet to the water. The curb-stones round the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centuries. Be'hemoth. There can be little doubt that by this word (Job xl. 15-24) the hippopotamus is intend¬ ed, since the leviathan, by almost universal con¬ sent, denotes the crocodile, the behemoth seems clearly to point to the hippopotamus, his associ¬ ate in the Nile. Be'kah. [Weights and Measures.] Be'la. One of the five cities of the plain spared at the intercession of Lot (Gen. xiv. 2, xix. 22). Be'lial. Its meaning is worthlessness, and hence recklessness, lawlessness. The expression son or ALTAR OF BU RNT-U TILLING. “VS SEPULCHRAL. ™elech '' ‘ s uai r e'” 6 b’o t h° ‘of* t b the^. he and Abi' * other ascribes the oth-mi(Gen- xxi- 31)- - ra°St similar, in wliid, Wh Thimelech furl> rude, push . PATRIARCHAL CARAVAN. man of Belial must be understood as meaning a worthless, lawless fellow. The term in 2 Cor. vi. 15 is generally understood as an appellative of Satan. consisted of a leather, secured and fitted into a frame, from which a long pipe ex¬ tended. They were worked by the operator, with one under each foot, and pressing them alternate¬ ly while he pulled up each exhausted skin with a string. The pipes appear to have been of reed, with a metal point to resist the action of the fire. BeUs. In Ex. xxviii. 33, the bells alluded to were the golden ones, according to the Rabbis 72 in Ru.mb.er> round the hem of the high-priest’s heard ^ °bj'eCt was that his s°und might be Beishaz'zar, the last king of Babylon. According to 1 an. v., he was slain during a splendid feast in his palace. Bena'iah, son of Jehoiada the chief priest (1 Chr. xxvii. 5). The exploits which gave him this rank are narrated in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22. Benaiah remained faithful to Solomon and was raised into the place of Joab as com¬ mander-in-chief of the whole army (ii. 35, iv. 4). Ben-am'mi, son ot the younger daughter of Lot, and progenitor of the Ammonites (Gen. xix. 38). Benha dad, the name of three kings of Damascus — Benhadad I. was either son or grandson of Rezon. iiis date is b. c. 950.— Benhadad II., son of the preceding. Long wars with Israel characterized his reign. Benhadad fell sick, and sent Hazaet to consult Elisha (2 K. viii. 7—15). Benhadad’s death was about b. c. 890.— Benha¬ dad III., son of H a z a e 1, and his suc¬ cessor on the throne of Sy¬ ria. When he succeeded to the throne, Jehoash beat him in Aphek (2 K. xiii. 17, 25). The date of Benhadad III. is b. c. 840. Ben'iannn. The youngest of the children of Jacob, and the only one born in Palestine. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Bethlehem, and his mother Rachel died in giving him birth, naming him Ben-oni, “ son of my sorrow.’’ This was by Jacob changed into Benja¬ min (Gen. xxxv. 16- 18). Until the jour¬ neys of Jacob’s sons and of Jacob himself into Egypt we hear nolhing of Benjamin. Henceforward the his¬ tory of Benjamin is the history of the tribe. Be’ra, king of Sodom\ at the invasion of t Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2 ; also 17 and 21). Bera'chah, Valley of, ia which Jehoshaphat and his people assem¬ bled to “bless” Je¬ hovah (2 Chr. xx. 20). Bere'a. A city of Mace¬ donia, mentioned in Acts xvii. 10, 15. It is now called Verria. - Berni'ce and Bereni'ot, the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. Q1 . , (Acts xii. 1, &c.). £ue was married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death (a. d. 48) lived under circumstances of great suspicion with her own brother Agrippa II., with whom she is mentioned Acts xxv. 13, 23, xxvi. 30. .4,0, silent; C as s; 5I1 as sh;-c,-ch as k; g as jTlas in gei ; g as z5 Beryl (Ex. xxviii. Ez. i. 1G, x. 9. xxviii. PLANNING A BATTLE. 20, xxxix. 13; Cant. v. 14* • , , ' 13 ; Dan. x. 0. The a-?,. cientchrysolite or modern yellow topaz has a bet X as gz i » as in linger, link ; th as in thine. BETH ter claim to th etarshish of the Heorew than the beryl of the A. V. Beth, the most general word for a house or habita¬ tion. It is more frequently employed in com- pound names ot places than any other word. Beth ab ara, a place beyond Jordan, in which John was baptizing (John i. 28). Bethabara maybe identical with Beth-bara, the ancient ford of Jor¬ dan, or with Beth-nimrah, nearly opposite Jeri¬ cho. Beth’any, a village which, scanty as are the notices BOAT of papynes (Ancient Nile), of it, is intimately associated with the most famil- lar acts and scenes of the last days of the life of Christ. It was situated “at” the Mountof Olives (Mark xi. 1; Luke xix. 29), about fifteen stadia from Jerusalem (John xi. 18), on or near the road from Jericho to the city (Luke xix. 29; comp. 1 ; Mark xi. 1, comp. x. 46), and close by Bethpage. Bethany is now known by a name derived from Lazarus, — el-’Azariyeh or Lazarieh. el- ’Azariyeh is a wild mountain hamlet of some twenty families. EGYPTIAN CARRIERS OR PORTERS. Beth'el. So named by Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 19), who afterward made it his residence (Gen. xxxv.' 6). Abraham pitched his tent there. The “sons of the prophets’’ resided there. It was about ten miles north of Jerusalem. Its ruins still lie on the right hand side of the road from Jerusalem to Nablous under the scarcely altered name of Beitin. BETHUEL in existence at Jacob’s return to the country. Its earliest name was Ephrath or Ephratah (see Gen. xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7). And long after the occupation by the Israelites we meet with its new name. After the conquest Bethlehem aimears under its own “ name Bethlehem- ^ judah (Judg. xvii. 7 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 12 ; Ruth i. 1, 2). The Book of Ruth BEARING A CORPSE. is a page from the domestic his¬ tory of Bethlehem. It is notable as the birthplace of David and Jesus Christ. The modern town of Beit-lahm lies to the E. of the mar': road from Jerusalem to Hebron, 6 miles from the former. On the top of a ridge lies the village in a kind of irregular triangle. The population is about 3000 souls, entirely Christians. v^. ANCIENT MODE OF WEARING THE BEARD. Beth-pe'or, a place, no doubt dedicated to the god Baal-peor, on the east of Jordan, oppo¬ site Jericho. STICK BOOKS. Bethes'da. A reservoir or tank, with five “porch¬ es,” close upon the sheep gate or “market” in Jerusalem (John v. 2). The porches — i. e. clois¬ ters or colonnades — were extensive. The large reservoir Birket Israil, close by the St. Stephen’s Gate, is considered to be its modern representa¬ tive. Bethlehem. One of the oldest towns in Palestine, BRICK-MAKING IN EGYPT. Beth'-phage, the name of a place on the Mount of Olives, on the road between Jericho and Jerusa¬ lem. It was ap¬ parently close to Bethany (Matt, xxi. 1 ; Mark xi. 1 ; Luke xi x. 29), and to the eastward of it. lieth-sa'ida. 1. (John xii. 21.) The native place of Andrew, Peter and Philip (John i. 44, xii. 21) in the land of Gen- nesareth (Mark comp. 53), and on the west side of the lake. 2. From Mark vi. 31-53, and Luke ix. 10-17, the Bethsaida at which the 6000 were fed must have been on the east of the lake (see illustration, p. 100). Bethu'el, the son of Nahor by Milcah ; nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah (Gen. xxii. 22, BIRSHA 23, &c.) In xxv. 20, and xxviii. 5 bo „ “Betbuel the Syrian.” ’ 18 called Bethuli'a, the city which was the scene of i. , events of the J. tha chief Book of Jud¬ ith. Its po¬ sition is there described. Beu'lah, “mar¬ ried,” the name the land of Israel is to bear, when “the land shall be married” (Is. lxii. 4). Be'zer in the Wilderness, a city set apart by Moses as one of the three cities of refuge. Bible. The ear- candlestick. liest instance of such title occurs in Daniel win refers to “the books” (Dan. ix. 2). The same word was applied by the Jews in Alexandriato the collected books of the Old Testament, whence the word Bible, or The Book, has been given to the collected books of the Old and New Testa¬ ments. The writers of the New Testament call the books of the Old Testament either The Serin- ture (Acta viii. 32 ; Gal. iii. 22 ; 2 Tim. iii. 16) or The Scriptures (Matt. xxi. 42; Luke xxiv. 21) or The Holy Scriptures (2 Tim. iii. 15). Of the Latin equivalents, adopted by different writers ( Instrumentum , Testamentum), the latter perpetu¬ ated itself in the languages of modern Europe, KING OF BABYLON. MALE CARRIER OF WATER. whence the terms Old Testament and New Testa¬ ment, though the Greek word properly signifies “Covenant” rather than “Testament.” But the application of the word Bible to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments is not to be traced farther back than the fifth century of our era. Big'than and Big'thana. Eunuch (chamberlain, A. V.) in the court of Ahasuerus, one of those who conspired with Teresh against the king’s life (Esth. ii. 21). Bil'hah, handmaid of Rachel (Gen. xxix. 29 1, and vi. 45 ; TIBERIAS CAESAR. EASTERN FUNERAL. concubine of Jacob, to whom she bore Da11 an Naphtali (Gen. xxx. 3-8, xxxv. 25, etc.). Bir'sha, king of Gomorrha at the time of the >B vasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2). S, e, I, o,u,y,long; a, e, !, 3, u, y, short; care, far, last, fall, what 5 there, veil, term ; p7que,flrm; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; birthdays BOOTY BRIMSTONE 15 Birthdays. The custom of observing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. xl. 80; Jer . 15) l( and in Tnh i 4 &c. wo road that Job s sons feasted every one his day.” It is probable that in Matt. xiv. 6, the feast to commemorate Herod 3 acces¬ sion is intended. ., . Birthright. The advantages to the eldest son were not defi¬ nitely fixed in patriarchal times. Great re¬ spect was paid to him in the household. A “double por¬ tion of the pa¬ ternal property was allotted by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxi. 15- 17). Bishop. This word, applied in the N. T. to the officers of the Church who were' charged with certain functions of su¬ perintendence, had been in use before as a title of office. That the titles of bishop and elder were originally eq uivale n t is clear. Bithyn'ia A province of Asia Minor, mentioned ODly in Acts xvi. 7, and in 1 Pet. i. 1. Bithynia, as a Roman province, was on the west contingu- ous to Asia. Bittern. The Hebrew word has been the subject of various interpretations. We believe the A. V. is correct. The bittern belongs to the Ardeidae, the heron family of birds. Slains, violent ulcerous inflammations, the sixth figure repeatedly (Matt. xii. 22), and “opening the eyes of the blind” is mentioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Messiah (Is. xxix. 18, &c. ). The Jews were charged to treat the blind with care (Lev. xix. xiv ; Deut. xxvii. 18). Blindness wilfully inflicted is alluded to (1 Sam. xi. 2; Jer. xxxix. 7). 161 ; beyond, in warlike resistance, all women and children were captives, and men put to death. The law is in Num. xxxi. 26-47. Bo'oz, Matt. i. 6 ; Luke iii. 82. [Boaz.] Bottle. 1. The Arabs keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in leathern bottles made of goat¬ skins. 2. Vessels of metal, earthen or glassware for liquids, were in use among the Greeks, Egyp¬ tians, Etruscans, and Assyrians, and no douot among the Jews in later times. Thus Jer. xix. 1, “a potter’s earthen bottle.” Boz'rah, in Edom — the city of Jobab, one of the early kings of that nation (Gen. xxxvi. 33; 1 Chr. i. 44). Its modern representative is el- Busaireh, S. E. of the Dead Sea. Bracelet. Men as well as women wore bracelet* (Cant. v. 14). Layard says of the Assyrian kings: “The arms were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets Brass. In most places of the 0. T. the correct translation would be copper, although it may sometimes mean bronze, a compound of copper and tin. Copper was known at a very early period (Gen iv. 22). Bread. This as an article of food dates from » RUINS AT CAPERNAUM. Blood. To blood is ascribed in Scripture the mys¬ terious sacredness which belongs to life. Blood, Issue of. The menstruous discharge, or the fluxus uteri (Lev. xv. 19-30; Matt. ix. 20; Mark v. 25, and Luke viii. 43). The latter caused a permanent legal uncleanness, the former a tem¬ porary one, mostly for seven days, after which the woman was to be purified by the offering. Blood, Revenger of. It was, and is, a practice °of7ESpti$X- ix- 9- 10^- called in Deut. wm. 27, 35, the botch of Egypt. Probably Bllsnfiemv fearful kind of elephantiasis. (Left; Blasphemy was punished with stoning and St Sto" k ’ Ihis charge both our Lord Jews were condemned to death by the -Jews, it only remains to speak of “the blas- tera*?6 Holy Ghost” (Matt, xii 32; * in. 28). It consisted in attributing to the EGYPTIAN FUNERAL PROCESSION r*»wer of Egyptian cups. w h i c h Jesus *nerfnrm°S6 "nT?e, Enable miracles (Acts xii. 20)?hjmber am of Her0(* Agrippa I. Bggfaezs -js-couunonjn the East, Biiud Wror. fUr1’ ™de> e, i, O, silent; S as s. among nations of patriarchal habits, that the nearest of kin should avenge the death of a mur dered relative. The law of Moses was precise* 1. The wilful murderer was to be put to death without compensation. The nearest relative be¬ came the authorized avenger (Num. xxxv. 19). 2. The law of retaliation was not to extend beyond the of¬ fender (Deut. xxiv. 16 ; 2 K. xiv. 6; 2 Chr. xxv. 4; Jer. xxxi. 29, 30 ; Ezek. xviii. 20). 3. The involuntary shedder of blood was permitted to take flight to one of the cities of ref¬ uge (Num. xxxv. 22, 23 ; Deut. xix. 4-6). Boaner'ges, signifying “sons of thunder,” given by our Lord to the two sons of Zebedee (Mark iii. 17). Bo'az. 1. A wealthy Bethle- hernite, kinsman to Elimelech, the husband of Naomi. He married Ruth. Boaz is men¬ tioned m the genealogy of Christ, (Matt. i. 5). 2. Boaz, the name of one of Solomon’s brazen pillars in the temple R°rch.-.. 18 cubits high (1 K. vii. 15, 21 ; 2 Chr. in. 15; Jer. In. 21). Booty, captives of both sexes, cattle and whatever a captured city mignt contaiu. Within Canaan no captives were to be made (Deut. xx. 11 and chasshi-CjOhaski S as j, g as in get 5 gasz; xasgz; DANIEL. very early period : its use is found in Gen. xviiL 6. The best bread was made of wheat. “Barley” was used only by the very poor. The bread taken by persons on a journey (Gen. xiv. 23; _«fosh. ix. 12) was probably a kind of biscuit, isriclr. In the walls of Babylon, the clay dug out of the ditch was made into bricks as soon as car¬ ried. up, and burnt in kilns. The bricks were cemented with hot bitumen. The bricks at Nin evah were chiefly sun-dried like the Egyptian, and usually from 12 to 13 inches square, and 3J inches thick. The J ews learned the art of brick* making in Egypt, and we find the use of th» brick-kiln in David’s time (2 Sam. xii. 31). EGYPTIAN COBRA. iarjaryjac-1— nmstone. — The Hebrew i_s connected with m B as in Hager, Hair ; tt, as in thin.. BULL (Gen. vi. 14), and probably signified tbe gum or resm trom that tree ; hence transferred to inflam¬ mable substances, and especially to sulphur (Gen xix. 24). ' Bull, Bullock, terms used synonymously with ox, ASSYRIAN KING AND GUARD. oxen, in the A. Y. In Is. li. 20, the “wild bull” (“wild ox” in Deut. xiv. 5) was possibly one of the larger species of antelope. Burial, Sepulchres. [Tombs.] 1. A natural cave enlarged and adapted by excavation, or an arti¬ ficial imitation of one, was the standard type of sepulchre. Sepulchres were commonly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens, by road¬ sides, or even adjoining houses. Sepulchres were CALVARY Cab. [Measures.] Cae'sar, always in the N. T. the Roman Emperor, the sovereign of Judaea (John xix. 12, 15 ; Acts xvii. 7). Caesare'a (Acts viii. 40, ix. 30, x. 1, &c.) was on the coast of Palestine, on the great road from Tyre to Egypt, and half way between Joppa and Dora. The dis¬ tance from Jerusalem was about 70 miles. It was the official residence of the Herod- lan kings, and of Festus, Felix, and the other Roman procurators of Judaea. Caesare'a Philip'pi is mentioned only in the two first Gospels (Matt. xvi. 13; Mark viii. 27). The city was built on a lime- CANDLESTICK lators’ having literally adopted the word . i. e. a bare skull. The popular exn,,*®1 “Mount Calvary” is not warranted. ^ 6851011 Camel. It is clear from Gen. xii. 16 that, c, were early known to the Egyptians. The Eth BREAD UNLEAVENED. marked sometimes by pillars, or by pyramids. Such as were not otherwise noticeable were scrupulously “whited” (Matt, xxiii. 27). 2. “The manner of the Jews” included the use of spices, where they could command the means. It was the office of the next of kin to preside over the whole funeral office ; but a company of public buriers had become, it seems, customary in the times of the N. T. (Acts v. 6, 10. The EGYrTIAN BRICK-MAKING KILNS. stone terrace in a valley at the base of Mount Hermon. It has no O. T. history. Cage. The term in J er. v. 27 is properly a ; tfap. In Rev. xviii. 2, the Greek term means a prison. Caia'phas, in full Joseph Caiaphas, high priest Ig of the Jews under Tiberius (Matt. xxvi. 3, 67 ; 3§g John xi. 49, xviii. 13, 14, 24, 28; Acts iv. 6). He was son-in-law of Annas. Cain. The historical facts in the life of Cain, in Gen. iv., are briefly: — He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve ; he fol¬ lowed, agriculture ; in a fit of jealousy he committed the crime of murder; he set¬ tled in the land of Nod, and built a city EGYPTIAN COFFIN. opians had camels (2 Clir. xiy. 15); the queen of eiiebacame to Jerusalem with camels (IK x m, David took camels (1 Sam. xxvii. 2, &c.). 'fu species of camel which was in common use amonj the Jews of Palestine was the Arabian or one-humped. The dromedary isa finer breed, the Arabs call it the Heine. Camphire (Heb. copher). There can bo no doubt that “camphire” is an incor¬ rect rendering (Cant. i. 14, iv. 131 The margin has “cypress.” The sub¬ stance really denoted is the Lawmia, alba of botanists. Ca'na of Galilee, once Cana in Galilee, not far from Capernaum, memorable as the scene of Christ's first miracle (John ii. 1, 11, iv. 46) as of a subse¬ quent one (iv. 46, 54), and as the native place of Nathaniel (xxi. 2). The traditional site is about miles north-west of Nazareth. The rival site is farther north. EGYPTIAN BOAT. bier was borne by the nearest relatives. The grave-clothes were probably of the fashion worn in life. 3. Tombs were, in popular belief, in¬ vested with traditions. Burnt-offering. Applied to the offering which was wholly consumed on the altar. .Throughout Gen¬ esis (see xv. 9, 17, xxii. 2, 7, 8, 13) the burnt- offering appears to be the only sacrifice referred to. The ceremonies are given in Leviticus. Butter, curdled milk (Gen. xviii. 8; Deut. xxxii. 14; Judg. v. 25; Job xx. 17). Milk is generally offered to travelers in Palestine in a curdled or ORIENTAL CART. named after bis son Enoch: his descendants are enumerated. Calamus. [Reed.] Caleb. 1. (1 Chr. ii. 9, 18, 19, 42, 50). Grandfather of Caleb the spy. 2. Son of Jepbunnch, as the illustrious spy is usually designated. He and Oshea or Joshua the son of Nun were the only two who encour- SWAYETTE MUMMY. sour state, “lebben," thick, almost like buttei. The Arab women make butter in a leather bag, hung on three poles, in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women.” Bu'zi, father of Ezekiel the prophet (Ez. i. 3). EGYPTIAN PROCESSION. aged the people to enter in boldly to the land. His subse¬ quent claim of land ; his con¬ quest of Hebron ; and his re¬ ward of his younger brother, are all related in Josh. xv. Calf. In Ex. xxxii. 4, we are , told that Aaron, constrained by the people, made a molten calf of the golden earrings of the people, to represent the Elohim which brought Israel out of Egypt. Moses burnt tbe calf, and grinding it to powder scattered it over the water, wh.eh he made tbe peo¬ ple drink. Cal'vary, a word occurring in the A. V. oniy in Luke xxiii. 23, and there arising from the trans- BRICKS INSCRIBED WITH NAMES. Ca'naan. The fourth son of Ham (Gen. x. 6; 1 Chr. i. 8); The progenitor of the Phoenicians and of various other nations. Ca'naan, The Land of, lit. “Lowland,” a name de¬ noting the country west of the Jordan and Dead Sea. In later notices, we find it applied to the low maritime plains of Philistia and Phoenicia. Ca'naanite, The, the designation of the Apostle Simon, known as “Simon Zelotes.” It occurs in Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18. Ca'naanites, The- 1. a tribe which inhabited a locality of the land ,TTrtTqTm CiISAn, west of the Jordan before the conquest; and 2. the people who inhabit'd gen¬ erally the whole of that country. ... Canda'ce, a queen of Ethiopia (Acts viii. 2> name was that of a dynasty of Ethiopian « ueeni Candlestiok, which Moses was comman" ' make, is described Ex. xxv. 31-37, xxxvn- 1' THE KING 3 CATTLE. 24. It is called (Lev. xxiv. 4) “the pure„ (Ecclus. xxvi. 17) “the holy candlestick, required a talent of “pure gold,” andjf^. S, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; care, far, last, fall, what; there, veil, term ; pique, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; CANON. CART CENCHREA CHRIST WITH THE DOCTORS. tice of the Cfiristian Church. The word Canon, in classical Greek, is properly a straight rod. In patristic writings, the word is used as “a rule” in the widest sense. Canopy (Jud. x. 21, xiii. 9, xvi. 19). The canopy of Holofernes probably retained mosquito nets or curtains, although its description (Jud. x. 21) be¬ trays luxury and display. Can tides, Song of Songs', i. e. the most beautiful of Bangs, entitled in the A. V. The Song op Solo¬ mon. It is intended to display the victory of hum- hle and constant lone over the temptations of wealth and royalty ^ \V e iiave the same evidence for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the canonicity of any book of the O. T. Caper'naum was on the western shore of the Sea oi vial dee (Matt. iv. 13; comp. John vi. 24), in the land of Gennesaret.” It was called a ‘‘city ” and had its own synagogue (John vi. 59; Mark i. 21; Luke iv. 33, 38, vii. 1, comp. 8; Matt. viii. 8). Besides a garrison it had a customs’ station, where dues were gathered by officers. The only interest attacking to Capernaum is as the residence of our Lord and his Apostles, the scene of so many gracious words.” At Nazareth He Dal rL ‘Wncity^ aPernaUmWaS emPhati' Ca'chor - -uiuratKCE. ^denote a village nUmerous Wo>'ds in the Bible o,3hej Pril?it!ve seat of the - - fi^er. xlvn. 4; Am. ix. 7). occupied nearly the site of Hier- ... xlvii. ffirl.rude, push- DOCUMENT ON PAPYRUS, FROM EGYPT. {British Museum.) In the form of a roll bound round with strips of papyrus and sealed with two clay seals ; of the Graeco-Roman period Car'chemish apolis. f°/p ? tolerab,y continuous ridge, at 1600Vfe t dL°f Pa fstlne about 600, and E. about 1600 feet above the sea. It is familiar through Plieh T? -°n w,th the history of Elijah and IShetgUdrs0.1117 caIled MarElyas-’ Car'pus, a Christian at Troas (2 Tim. iv. 13). ta"r;a,ffe;, J l”s word Occurs only six times in the ‘ffiawo oA',VV,and 81&“lfies wbat we now call baggage.» In the margin of 1 Sam. xvii. 20, wagon or ctt “ empl°yed 5n the sense of a Cart (Gen. xlv 19, 27; Num. vii. 3, 7, 8), a vehicle from "th7 C1hte-(? jam' Vi‘. G),tobe distinguished „m the chanot drawn by horses. CaHs and wagons were open or covered (Num. vii 3) and were usedfor conveyance. h are confused. The cassia-bark of commerce Is yielded by various kinds of Cinnamomum, which grow in different parts of India. Cas'tor and Pollux (Acts xxviii. 11). The twin sons of Jupiter and Leda; the constellation Gemini. In art represented simply as stars hover¬ ing over a ship, or as young men on horseback, with conical caps and stars above them. Cats occur only in Baruch vi. 22. The context of the passage appears to point to the domesticated animal. Caterpillar. The Hebrew words seem to be applied to a locust, perhaps in its larva state- RED CORAL. Cave. The chalky limestone of which the rocks of Palestine consist,- presents a vast number of natural fissures, many of which have been arti¬ ficially enlarged. Cedar. The Hebrew erez, rendered “cedar ” stands for that tree in most of the passages. The cedar of Lebanon is confined in Syria to one val- ley or the Lebanon range. Ce'dron, the name of the brook Kidron, below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John xviii. 1, only) Beyond was Gethsemane. ” Ceding The ceilings of the Temple and the pal¬ aces of the Jewish kings were formed of cedar pianks applied to the beams. , silent, sms; cU as sli ; -c,-ch as k ; g as j, g as in get ; g as *; j as gx; THE CROW. Slot gft “““ - 1 1» M in Huger, li0k ; tlr as in thin,. beaten work.” Josephus, however, says of cast eold, and hollow. Canon of Scripture, The, may be described as the collection of books which form the original and authoritative written rule of the faith and prac- The country must be in Egypt, or near to it in Africa. Cappado'oia, Cappado'oians (Acts ii. 9; 1 Pet. i. 1). In early times the name reached as far north¬ wards as the Euxine Sea. Cappadocia is an ele¬ vated table-land. It was a good grain country, and famous for grazing. Its Roman metropolis was Caesarea. Captain. As a purely military title, Captain ans¬ wers to sar in the Hebrew army, and “tribune” in the Roman. Captivities of the Jews. The two principle de¬ portations were, (1) that which took place b. c. 698, when Jehoiachin with all the nobles, sol¬ diers, and artificers, was carried away ; and (2) that which followed the destruction of the Temple and the capture of Zedekiah b. c. 688. Carbuncle, a bright sparkling gem,. Probably the 8maragdus or emerald. Carving. The arts of carving and engraving were in much request (Ex. xxxi. 5, xxxv. 33; 1 K. vi. 18, 36; Ps. lxxiv. 6). Cassia. The accounts of cassia by ancient authors Censer. A small portable vessel of metal fitted to receive burning coals from the altar, and on which the incense for burning was sprinkled (2 Chr. xxvi. 18 Luke i. 9). The precepts regard¬ ing its use are in Num. iv. 14, and in Lev. xvi. 12. Centurion. [Army.] Cephas. [Peter.] Chain. Chains were used (1) as badges of office; (2) for ornament; (3) for confining prisoners. Charger, a shallow vessel for receiving water or blood, also for offerings (Nnm. vii. 79). The daughter of Herodias brought the head of St. John the Baptist in a charger (Matt. xiv. 8); probably a trencher or platter. Chariot. The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Gen. xli. 43. They were regard¬ ed as among the most important arms of war, though the supplies appear drawn from Egypt. They were attached to one, two, and three horses. Che'bar, a river in the “land of the Chaldeans” (Ez. i. 3), on the banks of which some of the Jews were located at the captivity, and where Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ez. i. 1, iii. 15, 23, &c.). Che'dorla'omer, a king of Elam, who with three other chiefs made war upon the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, and re¬ duced them to servitude (Gen. xiv. 17). Cheese, mentioned three times in the Bible, and under different Hebrew names (Job x. 10), ex¬ pressing various degrees of coagulation. Chg'mosh, the national deity of the Mosabites priest, would know (Ez. x. 14), but which ^ kept secret from all others. as Chest. This word is used for the Ark of the C enant. with two exceptions (Gen. 1. 26- and o°J xii. 9, 10; 2 Chr. xxiv. 8-11). ’ i K Chestnut-tree (Gen. xxx. 37 ; Ezek. xxxi 8i EASTERN BAKER SELLING THIN CAKES. Chalcedony, only in Rev. xxi. 19. The name is applied to one of the varieties of agate. Chalde'a. Located on both sides of the Euphrates, and having Babylon for its capital. It extended southward to the Persian Gulf, and northward as far as Ur of the Chaldees. Chamberlain. Erastus, “the chamberlain'’ of Cor¬ inth, was one of those whose salutations to the Roman Christians are given (Rom. xvi. 23). The office was apparently that of public treasurer. The office held by Blastus, “the king’s chamber- HOUSE AND WATER POTS AT CANA OF GALILEE. lain,” was different from this (Acts xii. 20). It was a post which involved great intimacy and in fluence with the king. Chameleon, the translation of the_ Hebrew coach, some kind of unclean animal, in Lev. xi. 30. Others suppose it to be the lizard, known as the “Monitor of the Nile,” a large strong reptile. _ Cham'ois. The translation in Deut. xiv. 6, is in- RUINS OF AMMON. correct. It is probable some mountain sheep is intended. Chapiter, the capital of a pillar ; also possibly a roll moulding at the top of a building or work of art. ANCIENT BRICK-MAKING. (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13, 46). In Judg. xi. 24, also of the Ammonites. Solomon intro¬ duced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Chemosh at Jerusalem (1 K. xi. 7; 2 Iv. xxiii. 13). Cher'ethites and Pel'ethites, the life-guards of King David (2 Sam. viii. 18; 1 K. i. 38, 44, &c.). Also “executioners and couriers.” Che'rith, The Brook, the wady in which Elijah hid himself during the part of the three years drought (1 K. xvii. 3, 5). The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. Apparently on the east of Jordan. ANISE. Cher'ub, Cher'ubim. The symbolical figure so called, which finds a parallel in the religious in¬ signia of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, e- 9- fbo sphinx, the winged bulls and lions of Nineveh, &c. The Hebrew idea seems to limit the num¬ ber. A pair (Ex. xxv. 18, &c.) were on the mercy-seat of the ark; a pair overshadowed it in Solomon’s Temple. It seems likely that the word “cherub” meant not only the composite creature-form, of which the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the elements, but, further, some pecu¬ liar and mystical form, which Ezekiel, being a EGYPTIAN JAVELINS, DART AND SPEAR HEADS. spoken of as one of the glories of Assyria, for which the “plane-tree” ought probably to have been substituted. The context indicates some tree which thrives best in moist situations. Chidon. (Nachon’s Threshing Floor.] Children. The blessing of offspring, especially o! male, is highly valued among Eastern nations, As soon as the child was born, it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes. On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, in the case of a boy, was performed, and a name given. The period of nursing was sometimes prolonged to three years (Is. xlix. 16; 2 Mace, vii, 27). Nurses were employed in some cases (Es. ii. 9; Gen. xxiv. 69). The time of weaning waj an occasion of rejoicing (Gen. xxi. 8). Daugb baal (From Tyrian Coin). ters usually remained in the womeff s apartments till marriage, or were employed in household work (Macc. iii. 19). The firstborn male cm dren were regarded as devoted to God i Ex. xin. 13; Num. xviii. 15; Luke ii. 22). The authority of parents was very great, as also the reverence paid them. - j Chil'ion, the son of Elimelech and Naomi, on husband of Orpha (Ruth i. 2-5, iv. 9); a'1 P rathite of Bethlehem-judah.” , ... Chinnereth, Sea of (Num. xxxiv. 11; J°sh'*V 27), the inland sea, which is most faun J known as the “lake of Gennesareth. ’ >' se , likely that Chinnereth was an ancient Lanaa Chi'os. The position of this island is described m Acts xx. xxi. Its length is about 32 m> 1 si its breadth from 8 to 18. , IRRIGATING EASTERN SQIL. i Chit tim, Kit'tim, a family or race descendc 9 ftf Javan (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chr. i. 7). Chi ^ quently noticed in Scripture. Josephs ' a, e, I, o, «, y, long; a, e, «, o, «, f, short: efire, ttr, list, fall, whAt| (here, veil, term ; pique, firm ; «16ne, fdr, do, wolf, food, foots CHLOE CLAUDA CLEOPHAS 19 ed Cyprus as the original seat of the Chittim. The name Chittim, which at the first applied to Phoenicians only, passed over to the islands they had occupied. . . „ , Chlo'e, a woman mentioned in 1 Cor. 1. 11. THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS. Chora'zin, one of the cities named in Matt. xi. 21; Luke x. 13. Its site is uncertain. Christ. [Jesus.] Christian. The disciples (Acts xi. 26), were first called Christians at Antioch on the Orontes, some¬ where about a. d. 43. It is clear that the appel¬ lation was not assumed by the Christians them¬ selves. They were known to eaoh other as breth¬ ren, disciples, believers, etc. Chronicles, First and Second Books of. The con¬ stant tradition of the Jews is that these books were for the most part compiled by Ezra. The genealogies are obviously from some register, in which were preserved the genealogies of the tribes and families ; while the history is from the same documents as the Books of Kings. Ihrfinol'ogy. Three principal systems of Biblical Chronology have been founded, which may be termed the Long System, the Short, and the Rab- bimcal. The Rabbinical Chronology accepts the biblical numbers, but makes the most arbitrary corrections. J Bhrys'olite (Rev. xxi. 20), identical with the mod- Biblelenta t0PaZ’ the tarshish of the Hebrew Ckrys'oprase (Rev. xxi. 20), sometimes found in of lapis lazuh 1311 JeWelry Set alternately with bits fi*16 ler'vatl0n °/ the word is uncertain. la’ the Hreek word for Church, originally meant an assembly called out by authority." This Chu'za, Chuzas, house-steward of Herod Antipas (Luke viii. 3). Cilio'ia, a province in the S. E. of Asia Minor. It was the native country of St. Paul ; hence it was visited by him, Gal. i. 21 ; Acts ix. 30; and Acts xv. 41. Cinnamon, a well- known aromatic sub¬ stance. It is men¬ tioned in Ex. xxx. 23, Prov. vii. 17; Cant. iv. 14, Rev. xviii. 13. It is now found in Sumatra, Borneo, China, &c., but chiefly Ceylon. Cin'neroth, All, the small enclosed dis¬ trict north of Tiberi¬ as, afterwards known as “the plain of Gen- nesareth.” Circumcision was pe¬ culiarly, though not exclusively, a Jewish rite. It was enjoined upon Abraham as the token of the Cov- nearly due west of Cape Matala on the south coast of Crete. Clau'dia, a Christian woman mentioned in 2 Tim. ANTIOCH. the word hasTostTts Ca- Sense- But in tlle N- T- salification. oppressed Israel eicht °f Mesopotamia, who the generation ffirl, rude, push ; e, silent enant (Gen. xvii.). , It was thus made a con¬ dition of Jewish natioi ality. Every male chi was to be circumcise when eight days ol (Lev. xii. 3) on pain < death. Slaves were ci cumcised (Gen. xvi 12, 13); and foreignei must have their male circumcised before a lowed to partake of th passover (Ex. xii. 48 or become Jewish cit zens. Cis, the father of Sai (Acts xiii. 21), usuall called Kish. Cistern, a receptacle fc water, either conducte from an external sprin or proceedingfrom rair fall. The largest soi of public reservoirs i usually called in A. V “pool;” the smalle “cistern.” Both poo] and cisterns are frequer throughout Palestine. J erusalem depends mainly for water upon its cisterns, of which almost every private house possesses one or more. The water is conducted into them from the roofs of the bouses during the rainy season. Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and places of confinement. Cithern (1 Macc. iv. 54), a musical instrument, resembling a guitar, probably of Greek origin. Cities of Refuge, six Levitical cities chosen for refuge to the involun¬ tary homicide until released by the death of the high-priest (Num. xxxv. 6, 13, 15; Josh. xx. 9). There were three on side of Jordan. Citizenship, This term has refer¬ ence to the usages of the Roman empire. _ The privilege of Roman citizenship was acquired by pur- chase (Acts xxii. 28), by military services, by favor, or by manu¬ mission. The right ouce obtained ooi « descended to children (Acts xxii. 23). Among the privileges a man could not be bound or imprisoned without trial (Acts xxii still less be scourged (Acts xvi. 37). Another privilege was the appeal. (Acts xxv. 11). Clau’da (Acts xxvii. i6), a ’small island ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING. iv. 21 ; a British maiden, daughter of king Cogi* dubnus, an ally of Rome. She appears to have become the wife of Pudens. Clau'dius, fourth Roman emperor, reigned from 4 1 to 54 a. n. He was the son of Nero Drusus, was born in Lyons, Aug. 1, u. c. 9 or 10, and lived private and unknown till the day of his being called to the throne, January 24, a. d. 41. POOL OF HESHBON. Clay. or iu streets, used in 0. T. (Is. lvii. 20; Jer. xxxviii. 6 ; Ps. xviii. 42), and in N. T. (John ix. 6), a mixture of sand or dust with spittle. It is also found in the sense of potter’s clay (Is. xii. 25). Another use of clay was for sealing (Job xxxviii. 14). Our Lord’s tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt, xxvii. 66). Clem'ent (Phil. iv. 2), a fellow-laborer of St. Paul, when at Philippi. It was believed that this Clement was identical with the Bishop of Rome. Cleo'pas, one of the two going to Emmaus on the day of the resurrection (Luke xxiv. 18). It is a SYRIAN BEAR. question whether identical with Cleophas Alphaeus in John xix. 25. _ _ _ CleO'phas. [Cleopas ; Alphaeus.! cas8; ch as sh ; as U ; g as* g as in get ; g as *; x as gx; „ as in linger, link; «, as tothta,. CNIDUS Cni'dua (1 Macc. xv. 23 ; Acts xxvii. 7), a harbor passed by St. Paul. It was situated at the S. W. pf peninsula of Asia Minor, between the islands of Cos and Rhodes (see Acts xxi. 1). Cook. In the N . T. the “cock” is mentioned in Matt. xxvi. 34, Mark.xiv. 30, xiii. 35, &c. We know that the domestic cock and hen were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. The Romans prized these birds both as articles of food and for cock-fighting. Cookie (Job xxxi. 40} may signify bad or smutted barley. Coele-Syr'ia, “the hollow Syria/’ was the name given by the Greeks to the remarkable valley be¬ tween Libanus and Anti-Libanus, stretching a distance of nearly a hundred miles. The term was also used in a wider sense. Coffer, a movable box hanging from the side of a cart (1 Sam. vi. 8, 11, 15). College "he (2 K. xxii. 14). It is probable that this was he “lower city,” built on the hill Akra. Colony, a resignation of Philippi, in Acts xvi. 12. Colors. _ The natural colors noticed in the Bible are white, black, red, yellow, and green. The Hebrews appear to have had no scientific knowl¬ edge of colors. CORBAN CO'ney, a gregarious animal in Palestine, living in caves and clefts of rocks, and erroneously identi¬ fied with the Rabbit or Coney. The Hyrax satis- HOUSE OP UNTEMPERED BRICK. fies the references to it. Its color is gray or brown ; it is scarcely the size of the domestic cat, having long hair, short tail, and round ears. BABYLONIAN COFFIN AND LID. Colos'se (more properly Colos'sae), a city on the Lycus. Hierapolis and Laodicea were in its neighborhood. Colossae fell as these two cities rose in importance. It was close to the great road from Ephesus to the Euphrates. Here Paul founded or confirmed a church. Colossians, The Epistle to the, written by St. Paul during his first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16). It was addressed to the Christians of the city of Colossae, and was delivered by Tychicus, whom the Apostle had sent both to them (ch. iv. 7, 8) and to the church of Ephesus (ch. vi. 21). The epistle seems called forth by the information St. Paul had received from Epaphras (ch. iv. 12 ; Philem. 23) and Onesimus. Concubine The concubine’s condition was a defi¬ nite one. With regard to the children of wife and concubine, there was no such difference as our illegitimacy implies; the latter were a supple¬ mentary family to the former. A concubine would generally be either (1) a Hebrew girl bought ; (2) a Gentile captive ; (3) a foreign slave bought; or (4) a Canaanitish woman. The rights of (1) and (2) were protected by law (Ex. xxi. Congregation. This describes the Hebrew peo¬ ple in its collective capacity as a holy communi¬ ty, held by religious bonds. Sometimes it is used in a broad sense (Ex. xii. 19). Convocation, applied to meetings of a religious character, in contradistinction to congregation. Co'os, Acts xxi. 1. [Cos.] Cop'per, always rendered “brass,” except in Ezr. RIVER OF BABYLON. viii. 27, and Jer. xv. 12. It was used by the an¬ cients for common purposes. We read of cop¬ per, possessed in countless abundance (2 Chr. iv. 18), and used for every kind of instrument. Cor'al, the rendering of the Hebrew ramoth , in BURNING THE DEAD V, Deut- xxi. 10-14), but (3) was unrecognized, and (4) prohibited. Free Hebrew women also might become concubines. EMBALMING THE DEAD. Job xxviii. 18, and in Ez- xxvii. 16). Pliny says that the Indians valued coral as the Romans valued pearls. Corban, an offering to God, particularly in fulfill¬ ment of a vow. The law laid down rules for vows, 1. affirmative; 2. negative (Lev. xxvii.; CORN Num. xxx.). Upon these rules the tradif • enlarged. A person might exempt himse any inconvenient obligation under plea of / i It was practices of this sort that our T nJ 0rba" hended (Matt. xv. 5; Mark vii. 11). 1 rePre Cord. The materials varied. The strong was probably made of strips of camel T finer sorts of flax Is. xix. 9). In the N , term is applied to the whip our Savin, , (John ii. 15), and the ropes of a ship (Acts Corian'der. The plant has a round tall stall; • -, bears flowers, from which arise spicy seed-corn' VIEW NEAR ASKELON. marked with fine striae. It is mentioned twice in the Bible (Ex. xvi. 31; Num. xi. 7). Corinth. This city is alike remarkable for its emi¬ nence in Greek and Roman history, and its inti¬ mate connection with early Christianity. It ms a place of great mental and commercial activity; its wealth was proverbial ; and the vice and profli- facy of its inhabitants universally acknowledged. 'he worship of Venus was attended with shame¬ ful licentiousness. St. Paul planted Christianity here between a. n. 51 and 53. Corinthians, First Epistle to the, was written by Si Paul toward the close of his stay at Ephesi ALOES. (Acts xix. 10, xx. 31). This was addresse the whole body of the (Acts xviii. 8, 10). J" f Gentile (Acts xviii. 4) church of Corinth. ' rinthians, Second Epistle to the, was "’V a few months subsequently, and thus “”01! n0S. autumn of A. d. 57 or 68, previous to the AF tie’s stay in Achaia (Acts xx. 3). The pwc whence written was Macedonia. _ - y of Cormorant. The representative in the A • \ 8 the Hebrew words kaath and shalac. ! / de former, see Pelican. Shalac occurs only name of an unclean bird in Lev. xi- L; xiv. 17). , ]ey, Corn. The most common kinds were wheat, )1, - spelt (A. V. Ex. ix. 32, andls. xxviii. 25, rie' iv. 9, “fitches”), and millet. Corn-crop ' H, e, i, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, *, S, ix, y, short; care, ffir, last, fall, what; there, veil, term ; pique, firm; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; CUCKOO CUTTINGS 21 From was a° corn-exporting country, and her gram was largely taken by her commercial neighbor Tyre (Ez. xxvii. 17; comp. Am. vm. 6). PERSIAN CHAIRS. F1 lc Cornelius, a Roman centurion in Caesarea (Acts x. 1, Ac.). With his household he was baptized by St. Peter, and thus, became the first-fruits of the Gentile world to Christ. Corner. The “corner” of the field was not allowed (Lev. xix. 9) to be wholly reaped. It formed a right of the poor to carry off what was so left. Cor'ner-stone. Some of the cor¬ ner-stones in the ancient Teru- ile foundations are 17 or 19 feet ong, and 7| feet thick. Cornet, a loud-sounding instru¬ ment, of the horn of a ram, of a chamois, or of an ox, and used by the Hebrews for signals, for announcing the “Jubilee” (Lev. xxv. 9), for proclaiming the new year, for the purposes of war (Jer. iv. 5,19; comp. Job xxxix. 25), as well as for senti¬ nels at the watch-towers (Ez. xxxiii. 4, 6). Cos or Co’os, a small island of the Grecian Archipelago. St. Paul, on the return from his third journey, passed the night here. The chief town (of same name) was on the N. E., to which, per¬ haps, reference is made in the Acts (xxi. 1). Council. 1. The great council of the Sanhedrim, at Jerusalem. 2. The lesser courts (Matt. x. 17; Jlark xm. 9); two at Jerusalem, and one in each own of Palestine. 3. A kind of jury or privy council (Acts xxv. 12). ^ } “crane.” According to the testimony of most of the ancient versions, sus denotes a “swallow. Cres'cens (2 Tim. iv. 10), an assistant of St. Paul, said to have been one of the seventy disciples. Crete, the modem Candid. This large island, which closes in the Greek Archipelago on the S., extends 140 miles between its ex¬ treme points of Cape Salmone (Acts xxvii. 7) on the E. and Cape I Criumetopon on the W. In early times it was celebrated for its hun¬ dred cities. The circumstances of St. Paul’s recorded visit are in Acts xxvii. 7). Cris'pus, ruler of the Jewish syna¬ gogue at Corinth (Acts xviii. 8); bap¬ tized with his family by St. Paul (1 Cor. i. 14). Tradition makes him Bishop of Aegina. Cross. The Latin cross, on which our Lord suffered, was in the form of the letter T, and had an upright above the crossbar, on which the “title” was placed. There was a projection from the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer rested, to prevent the weight from tearing away the hands. Whether there was also a support to the feet is doubtful. An inscription was generally placed above the criminal’s head. It is a question whether tying or binding to the cross was the more com¬ mon method. That our Lord was nailed , accord¬ ing to prophecy, is certain. The cross on which our Saviour suffered is said to have been discov¬ ered a. D. 320. nrt a chkbar. HheenclosPureseFf1FpUT’u!lplied in tlle A' V- Pie (Ex. xxvii 9 xl 3l 1 K™ H6 an(d 1 - 5ane The A V’ £ ; 33i 1 K\V1- 36, &c.). — v ii? .incorrect in rendering sus by furl. nnL _ _ ' — — - - — --- - a uy ’ ™dc> 1*9*“ ; e, i, O, silent ; 5 as s, SIEGE or CORINTH. Crown. This was of ancient and universal use. Both the ordinary priests and the high-priest wore mitres or crowns. The laurel, pine, or parsley crowns given to victors in the great games of Greece are finely alluded to by St. Paul (1 Cor. ix. 25; 2 Tim. ii. 5, &c.). Crown of Thorns, Matt, xxvii. 29. Our Lord was crowned with thorns in mock¬ ery. The object seems to have been insult, and not the infliction of pain. Crucifixion was in use among the Egyp¬ tians (Gen. xl. 19), the Carthaginians, the Persians (Esth. vii. 10), the Assy¬ rians, Scythians, Indians, Germans, and from the earliest times among the Greeks and Romans. It was unanimously con¬ sidered the most horrible form of death. Cruse, a vessel lor holding water) such as carried by Saul when after David (1 Sam. xxvi. 11, 12, 16), and by Elijah (1 K. xix. 6). Crystal. The Greek word occurs in Rev. iv. 6, xxii. 1. It may mean either “ice” or “crystal.” Cubit. rHEAStmsa "* Cuckoo. The Hebrew word occurs twice oniy (Lav. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15), as some unclean bird, and may indicate some of the larger petrels east of the Mediterranean. Cuoumbers. This occurs in Num. xi. 6. Egypt produces excellent cucumbers, melons, «c. Cum'min (Is. xxviii. 25, 27; Matt. xxm. 2'), an umbelliferous plant something like fennel. 1 he seeds have a bitterish warm taste with an aromatic Cup! '"The cups of the Jews, of metal or earthen- BIRD-CATCHING. possibly borrowed, in shape and d@ Egypt and from the Phoenicians. ware, were sign, from _ Egyptian cups were with handles or without. Ia Solomon’s time all his drinking vessels were of gold (IK. x. 21). king of Egypt was the means o raising Joseph to his high po¬ sition (Gen. xl. 1, 21, xli. 9). Nehemiah was cupbearer to the king of Persia (Neh. 1. 11, ii. 1). Curtains. Three Hebrew terms are translated by this wr rd, used frequently in Ex. and once in Num. and Isa. In Isaiah (xl 22) the meaning of the Hebrew word is doubtful. Cush, a son of Ham, apparently the eldest, and a territory occu¬ pied by his descendants. 1. In the genealogy of Noah’s chil¬ dren Cush seems an individual, for it is said “Cush begat Nim¬ rod” (Gen. x. 8; 1 Chr. i. 10). 2. Cush as a country appears African in all passages except Gen. ii. 13. We may thus dis¬ tinguish a primeval and a post¬ diluvian Cush. The former was encompassed by Gihon. The latter probably was Ethiopia above Egypt. The Cushites appear to have spread along tracts extending from the higher Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris. Cutting off from the People. [Excommunication.] Cuttings [in the FleshJ, Lev. xix. 28. The -£KD INTO ( A. -Tl VI'l'Y. ground of the prohibition will be found in th superstitious or inhuman practices prevailin among heathen nations. cli as sk ; -c,-cli as k-, g as j, gas in get; s as z; x as gz ; Basin linger, link; tk as in till lie. 22 CYMBAL DAN DANIEL Cymbal, Cymbals, a percussive musical instrument. Two kinds are mentioned in Ps. cl. 5, “loud cym¬ bals” or castagnettes, and “high-sounding cym¬ bals.” The former consisted of four small plates of brass or some metal ; two plates were attached to each hand, and were struck together. The latter consisted of two larger plates, one held in each hand. Cypress. The Hebrew word is only in Is. xliv. 14. The true cypress is a native of the Taurus. The Hebrew points to some tree with a hard grain. Cy'prus. This island was in the Mediterranean. The first notice of it in the N. T. is in Acts iv. 36, as the native place of Barnabas. In Acts xi. 19, 20, it appears with the earliest spread¬ ing of Christianity, and again with the journeys of St. Paul (Acts xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 3), and with his voyage to Rome (xxvii. 4). The roman arms. island became a Roman province (b. c. 58). Cyre'ne, the principal city of that part of northern Africa anciently called Cyrenaica. Many Jews lived in Cyrene. Simon, who bore our Saviour’s cross (Matt, xxvii. 32; Mark xv. 21; Luke xxiii. 26) was a native of Cyrene. Jewish dwellers in Cyrenaica were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts ii. 10). Christian converts from Cyrene contrib¬ uted to the first Gentile church at Antioch (xi. 20). Cyre'nius, The English rendering in the A. V. of ANCIENT BRICK-MAKING. the Roman name of Quirinus. The full name is Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. He was consul B. c. 12, and made governor of Syria after the banish¬ ment of Archelaus in a. d. 6. He made, both in Syria and in Judaea, a census. There is good reason for believing that Quirinus was twice gov¬ ernor of Syria. Cy 'rus, founder of the Persian empire (see Dan. ARABIAN CAMEL. vi. 28, x. 1, 13; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23). In b. c. 646 (?) he defeated Croesus. Babylon fell before his army, and the ancient dominions of Assyria were added to his empire (b. c. 538). His tomb e. -■ ‘judge.” The records of Dan are mea’J' Only one son is attributed to him (Gen. xlvi ' but when the people were numbered in Sinai l •' tribe contained 62,700 men able to serve. 2 TlT well-known city, the most northern landmark of CAVE SEPULCHRAL. Palestine, in the common expression “from Dan even to Beerslieba. ” Dance. The dance is spoken of in Holy Scripture as symbolical of rejoicing, and is often coupled for the sake of contrast with mourning, as in Eccl. iii. 4 (comp. Ps. xxx. 11; Matt. xi. 17). Dance. By this word is rendered the Hebrew machol, a musical instrument of percussion. It is believed to have been made of metal, open like a ring ; had many small bells attached. Daniel. The fourth of “the greater prophets." Nothing is known of his parentage or family. He appears, however, to have been of royal or noble descent (Dan. i. 3), and to have possessed personal endowments (Dan. i. 4). He was takes to Babylon a captive, where he rose to great honor on account of his wisdom. His eminence is recorded in l^lzek. xiv. 13, 14, 28 ; ii. 3 COLLECTING DUNG FOR FUEL. The Book of. This is one of the most wonder¬ ful books of the O. T. Its comprehensive pre¬ dictions embrace the history of the world, asiuso that of the Church under the Jewish and Cm*8' tian dispensations, from the times in which he lived unto the end of all things. He alone h,ie' told the precise time when the Messiah should be born. The first six chapters on historical, the remainder strictly prophetical. Daniel, Apocryphal Additions to. The Greek trans lations of Daniel, like of Esther, contain sevpia pieces not found in the original. The most im portant of these are in the Apocrypha of ■ 1 English Bible under the titles of The Song Q_l : Throe Holy Children, The History of Susannah, aD The History of .. . Bel and the Dragon. j indicate the hand of an Alexandrine writer a:' , it is not unlikely that the translator of > wrought up traditions already current, and ap pended them. _ FLAX. tomb of CYRUS. of the name is in the exclamation of Rachel — “God hath judged me (dananni) . . ■ and given is still shown at Pasargadae. An inspired prophet (Is. xliv. 28) recognized in him “a shepherd” of the Lord, an “anointed” king (Is. xlv. 1). The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the Temple (2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23; Ezr. i. 1-4. iii. 7, iv. 3, v. 13, 17, vi. 3) was in fact the beginning of Judaism. Da'gon (1 Sam. v. 3, 4), the national god of the Philistines. Temples of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. v. 5, 6; 1 Chr. x. 10). Dagon was represented with the face and hands of a man and the tail of a fish (1 Sam. v. 6). Dalmanu'tha, a town on the west side of the Sea of Galilee near Magdala (Matt. xv. 39, and Mark viii. 10). [Magdala.] Dalma'tia, a mountainous district on the Adriatic Sea. St. Paul sent Titus there (2 Tim. iv. 10), and himself preached in its neighborhood (Rom. xv. 19). Dam'aris, an Athenian woman converted by St. Paul (Acts xvii. 34). Perhaps the wife of Dionysius the Areopagite. Damas'cus, one of the most ancient and im¬ portant of the cities of Syria. It is in a plain east of the great chain of Anti- Libanus. According to Josephus, Damas¬ cus was founded by Uz, the son of Aram, and grandson of Shem. It is first mentioned in con¬ nection with Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15, xv. 2). Certain localities in Damascus are shown as the site of Scriptural events. A “long wide thor¬ oughfare,” leading to the palace of the Pasha, is “called by the guides ‘Straight’” (Acts ix. 11). The house of Judas is shown. That of Ananias is also pointed out. The point of the walls at which St. Paul was let down by a basket (Acts ix. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 33) is also shown. Dan. 1. Fifth son of Jacob, and the first of Bil- hah, Rachel’s maid (Gen. xxx. 6). The origin 5, ©• la ©a 11 , y, long; a, e, », 6, u, y, short; care, far, last, fall, what ; there, Veil, term -, pique, firm; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; DELUS DEPUTY 23 DARK! , >i p7r ii 6>); Neh. vii. 70, Dario (A. V. dram, ^eut iu Palestiue in the Media and PERSIAN DRESSES OP STATE. Persia. Three are mentioned in the O. T. 1. Darius the Mede (Dan. xi. 1, vi. lj, tue son ot Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes (ix. 1 who succeeded to Belshazzar (Dan. v. 31; ix. 1 Daniel was advanced by him to the highest dig¬ nity (Dan. vi. 1, ft'.). He is probably “Asty- ages,” the last king of the Medes. 2. Darius the son of Hystaspes the founder of the Perso- Arian dynasty. He restored to the Jews the privileges they had lost (Ezr. v. 1, &c.; vi. 1. &c.). 3. Dar- Persian (Neh. xii. 82), as also specifications of the parts of the natural day. In the N. T. we have four watches, a division borrowed from die Greeks and Homans. These were, 1. front twilight till 9 o clock (Mark xi. 11; John xx. 19); 2. midnight, from 9 • till 12 o’clock (Mark xiii. 35); 3. till 3 in the morning (Mark xiii. 35; 3 Macc. v. 23); 4. till daybreak (John xviii. 28). The word held to mean “hour” is first found in Dan. iii. 6, 15, v. 5. Daysman, an old English term, meaning um¬ pire or arbitrator (Job ix. 33). Dea'ocsn. The office appears in the N. T. as the co-relative of Bishop. [Bishop.] The two are mentioned in Phil. i. 1; 1 Tim iii. 2, 8. It appears first as implying subordinate activity (1 Cor. iii. 5; 2 Cor. vi. 4). Ihe narrative of Acts vi. is commonly referred to as giving, an account of the institution of this office. Dea'ooness, The word diakonos in Rom. xvi. 1 (A. V. “servant”) has led to the conclu¬ sion that there existed in the Apostolic age an order of women exercising in relation to their own sex functions analogous to those of the deacons. Dead Sea. This name appears not to have existed until the 2d century after Christ. In the 0. T. the lake is called “the Salt Sea.” Deb'Srah. 1. The nurse of Rebekah (Gen. xxxv. 1). 2. A prophetess who judged Israel (Judg. iv. v.). She lived in Mount Ephraim (Judg. iv. birthplace of Apollo and his sister Artemis Dfe'maa, probably a contraction from Demetrius, or I)emarchus, a companion of St. Paul (Ph.lem. ICS TUE 22). Darkness, ness in crib e d agency, The plague of Dark- Egypt has been as- to non-miraculous The darkness “over all the land” (Matt, xxvii. 45) attending the crucifixion has been similarly attributed to an eclipse. dates, 2 Chr. xxxi. 5, rnarg. [Palm Tree.] Oaugh'ter. The word is used in Scripture also for granddaugh¬ ter or other female descendant. David, youngest son of Jesse. His mother’s name is unknown. His father was of great age in David’s youth (1 Sam. xvii. 12). He became Israel’s greatest king. He also wrote most of the Psalms. His his¬ tory, with that of his family, embraces a large and interest¬ ing space in the sacred writings. He died at about the age of seventy, and “was buried in the city of David.” Christ being a lineal descend¬ ant, is called “the Son of David.” Day- t> Th? c.ivil day vavies “1 different nations: . 6 fabylomans reckoned it from sunrise to sun¬ rise ; the Romans from midnight to midnight ; the Athenians ft. eesidence near sea op gami.ee. *>rews adopted theVttp8^ t0l S"-nSet’ The IT'” ' - - TJrT tbejatter^reckoning (Lev, xxiii. > piuh , e, i, o, silent ; jassj $li as sh ; -c,-cK as k ; g JACOB’S BRIDGE ON THE UPPER JORDAN. 5). Lapidotb was probably her husband, and not Barak. She was gifted with prophetic com¬ mand (Judg. iv. 6, 14, v. 7). Under her direc¬ tion Barak encamped on Tabor. Deborah’s prophecy was fulfilled (Judg. iv. 9). Decap'olis (Matt. iv. 25, Mark v. 20, and vii. 31), a general appellation for a large district extend¬ ing along both sides of the Jordan. Dedication, Feast of the, the festival to commemorate the purging of the Temple and rebuilding of the altar after Judas Maccabaeus bad driven out the Syrians, b. c. 164. Degrees, Songs of, a title given to fifteen Psalms, from cxx. to cxxxiv. inclusive. . Pilgrim songs, sung by the peo¬ ple as they went up to J erusalem. Dell'lah, a woman of the valley of Sorek, be¬ loved by Samson (Judg. xvi. 4-18). There seems little doubt that she was a Philistine courtesan. [Samson.] Deluge. [Noaii.] xv. 23), a small island Sea, celebrated as tlie ARABS ERECTING A TENT. 24; Col. iv. 14). Later (2 Tim. iv. 10) we find ha deserted the apostle through love of this world. Deme'trius, a maker of silver shrines at Ephesus Acts xix. 24). These were small me dels of the great temple Ephesian Artemis, with her statue, carried on journeys, and placed on houses, as charms. Demetrius I., surnamed Soter, son of Selencus Philopator, and grand¬ son of Anteoehus the Great. Demetrius II., “The Victorius” (Nicator), elder son of Demet¬ rius Soter. He was, with his brother, sent by his father with treasure to Cnidus when Alex. Balas laid claim to the throne of Syra. Demon. Its usage is various. In the Gospels demons are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man. They “believe and tremble” (James ii. 19); they recognize the Son of God (Matt, viii. 29; Luke vi. 41), and the power of His name (Acts xix. 15); and look in terror to the judgment to come (Matt. viii. 29). Demo'niacs, frequently in the N. _ _J1 T. applied to persons under the possession of a demon. It is “ ' =1 concluded that, since the symp¬ toms of the affliction were fre¬ quently those of bodily disease, the demoniacs were merely persons suffering under unusual dis¬ eases of body and mind. But we are led to the literal interpretation of these passages, that there are subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of the Lord and His Apostles especially, were per¬ mitted to exercise a direct influence over the souls and bodies of certain men. Dena'rius, A. V. “penny,” Matt, xviii. 28 a Ro¬ man silver coin in the time of Our Saviour and the Apostles. From the parable it would seem that a denarius was then the ordinary pay for a ENGEDI. day’s labor (Matt. xx. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 13). Deputy, the rendering of the Greek as j, gas In get 5 a as z5 j as gz; Basin linger, liBks til as in thine. ANCIENT CHARIOT. Devil, The name describes Satan as slandering God to man, and man to God- Oew. This in summer is so copious in Palestine that it supplies to some extent the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii. 22). Di'adem. What the “diadem” of the Jews was, we know not. That of other nations of antiquity was a fillet of silk, two inches broad, bound round the head and tied behind. Its color wa.s generally white, sometimes blue, and enriched with gems (Zech. ix. 16) and gold (Rev. ix. 7). Di'al. The word ma’aloth is the same as that ren¬ DELUS, A GREEK ISLAND. dered “steps” in A. V. (Ex. xx. 26; 1 K. x. 19), and “degrees” in A. V. (2 K. xx. 9, 10, 11; Is. xxxviii. 8), where we should read the “degrees” rather than the “dial” of Ahaz. Thebestcourse the Shechenutes. They assented ; and on the third day, when the pain and fever resulting from the ODeration were at the highest, Simeon and Levi, own brothers to Dinah, at¬ tacked them unexpectedly, slew all the. males, and plundered their city. Dionys'ia, “the feast of Bacchus,” which was celebrated with wild extravagance and licentious en¬ thusiasm. Dionys'ius the Areopagite (Acts xvii. 34), an eminent Athenian, converted to Christianity bv the preaching of St. Paul. He is said to have been first bishop of Athens. Diony'sus (2 Macc. xiv. 33; 3 Macc. ii. 29), also called Bac¬ chus, the god of wine. Diot'rephes, a Christian men¬ tioned in 3 John 9, of whom nothing is known. Dish. [Basin; Chakger.] In ancient Egypt, and also in Judaea, guests at the table handled their food with the fingers. Dispersion, The Jews of the, or simply The Dis¬ persion, was the general title applied to those Jews who remained settled in foreign ancient chariot of war. Divorce. The law regulating this subject is found Deut. xxiv. 1-4, and the cases in which the right of a husband to divorce his wife was lost, are stated ib. xxii. 19, 29. The ground of divorce the Jewish doctors differed in. Do'eg, an Tdumaean, chief of Saul’s herdmen. When Ahimelech gave David the sword of Go¬ liath, he gave information to Saul, and himself executed the king’s order to destroy the priests of Nob, with their families (1 Sam. xxi. 7, xxii. 18, 22; Ps. lii.). Dog, an animal frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was used by the Hebrews as a watch for house! MODERN ORIENTAL COUCH BED. (Is. lvi. 10), and for guarding flocks (Job xxx> 1). Then, as now, troops of hungry and -, ni' wild dogs used to wander about the fields an cities, devouring dead bodies and other otoG. DERBE which signifies “proconsul” (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12 XlX> ob I, Der'be (Acts xiv. 20, 21, xvi. 1, xx. 4). It was in the eastern part of the great upland plain of Ly- CAONIA. Desert. A “desert,” in the historical books, de- VIEW NEAR ASKELON. noted a definite locality, and not answering to the common conception of a “desert.” Deuterbn'omy — ‘ ‘the repetition of the law”— con¬ sists chiefly of three discourses delivered by Moses shortly before his death. Subjoined are the Song and Blessing of Moses, and the story of his death. Modern critics say that Deuteronomy is of later origin than the other four books of the Pentateuch ; but the book bears witness to its authorship (xxxi. 19), and was of course added by a later hand, and perhaps formed orig¬ inally the beginning of the book of Joshua. DISPERSION is to consider that the ma’aloth were really stairs, and tLat the shadow of some column or obelisk fell on a greater or smaller number, according as the sun was low or high. Diamond. A precious stone, the third in the second row on the breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11). Some suppose the “em¬ erald.” Dian'a. The Ephesian Diana is to be identified with Astarte and other female divinities of the East. The head wore a mural crown, each hand held a bar of metal, and the lower part ended in a rude block. This idol was believed to have fallen down from heaven (Acts xix. 35). Didrachmon. [Money; Shekel.] Did'ymus, that is, the Twin, a sur¬ name of the Apostle Thomas (John xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2). Di'nah, the daughter of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxx. 21). She accom¬ panied her father from Mesopo¬ tamia to Canaan, and was vio¬ lated by Shechem the son of Hamor, the chieftain of the territory (Gen. xxxiv. ) Shechem proposed the usual reparation by paying a sum and marrying her (Gen. xxxiv. 12). The sons of - Jacob demanded, as a condition, the circumcision DOG countries after the return from the Babylo^ DIv'ina'tion. Numerous forms of diviw mentioned, such as by rods (Hos. iv. 12). ? AT CAESAR’S JUDGMENT BAR. arrows (Ez. xxi. 21); by cups (Gen. xliv.5)-Ter- aphim (Zech. x. 2; Ez. xxi. 21; 1 Sam. xv. 2.3) [ Ierapaim] ; by the liver (Ez. xxi. 21); by dreams (Deut. xiii. 2, 3; Judg. vii. 13; Jer. xxiii. 321- oracles (Is. xli. 21-24, xliv. 7). Moses forbade every species. At our Lord’s coming, imposture was rampant. Hence the lucrative trades of such men as .Simon Magus (Acts viii. 9), Bar-jesus (Acts viii. 6, 8), and others, as well as the dealers in magical books (Acts xix. 19). a, e, *> 6, y, long ; a, e, I, 6, fi, y, short ; care, far, last, fall, what; there, veil, term ; pique, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; DORCAS EARTH EBENEZER 25 10, 80: Jer. xv. 3; Fs. ux. o, j Oor'oas. PfmTH''/w' r] fGen. x iut OVi wv*. - . >or'«w- c ,if "iiufiiti one d (Gen. xxxvii. 17) with )o than, fi ■ t ) it ncxt appears as the S&f (2 K. Vi. 13). Later we MINERVA. DIANA. - " - encounter it under the name of Dothaim (Jud. iv. 6, vii. 3, 18, viii. 8). It was 12 miles to the N. of Sebaste (Samaria). Dove. The dove’s rapidity of flight is alluded to in Ps. lv. 6; its plumage in Ps. lxviii. 13; its voice in Is. xxxviii. 14, Nah. ii. 7; its harmlessness in Matt. x. 16; its simplicity in Hos. vii. 11, and its amativeness in Cant. i. 15, ii. 14. Doves are domesticated in many parts cf the East. Dove’s Dung. Various ex¬ planations have been given of 2 K. vi. 25. Bochart has labored to show that it denotes a species of eieer ;, “chick-pea,” which he says the Arabs call sometimes improperly “dove’s or spar¬ row’s dung.” Drachm (2 Macc. iv. 19, x. 20, xii. 43; Luke xv. 8, 9), a Greek silvercoin, varying in weight. In Luke ( A. V. “piece of silver”) denarii seem to be intended. Drag'on. The translators of the A. V. have rendered “dragon” the two Hebrew words Tan and Tannin, which appear distinct in _ meaning. I. The former Babylonish column. refers rather to some wild beast than to a serpent, it. 1 he word tannin seems to refer to any great monster, whether of land or sea, being more usually applied to some kind of serpent or reptile. V APPROACH TO JERUSALEM. S“^g^^^whRe furl, rude, push; c, j, 0) aUent 7^ 8 are never referred to as vehicles of divine revela- Dress. The art of weaving hair was known to the Hebrews at an early period (Ex. xxvi. 7, xxxv. 6). Wool, we may presume, was introduced at. a very early period (Gen. xxxviii. 12; Lev. xiii. 47; Deut. xxii. 11; &c.). It is probable that the acquaintance of the Hebrews with linen, and perhaps cotton, dates from the captivity in Egypt (1 Chr. iv. 21). Silk was not introduced until a very late period (Rev. xviii. 12). The use of mixed material, such as wool and flax, was forbidden 'Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 11). Drink, Strong. The following bev¬ erages were known to the Jews : 1. Beer, introduced from Egypt. It was made of barley ; certain herbs were used for hops. 2. Cider, noticed as apple-wine. 3. Honey-wine, of two sorts. 4. Date-wine. 5. Various others are enumerated by Pliny. Dromedary. [Camel.] Drusll'la, daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, 19, ff.) and Cypros. She was married to Azizus, king of Emesa. Soon after, Felix, procurator of Judaea, brought about her seduction, and took her as his wife. Felix had by Drusilla a son, who, with his mother, perished in the eruption of Vesuvius under Titus. Dulcimer, a musical instrument (Dan. iii. 5, 15), probably the bagpipe. Dung. The uses of dung were twofold, as manure and as fuel. The mode of applying, manure to trees was by digging holes about their roots and inserting it (Luke xiii. 8). Particular directions were laid down in the law to enforce cleanliness with regard to human ordure (Deut. xxiii. 12, ff.). The difficulty of pro¬ curing fuel in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, has made dung in all ages valuable as a substi¬ tute. Dungeon. [Prison.] Du'ra, the plain where Nebu¬ chadnezzar set up the golden image (Dan. iii. 1), sometimes identified with a tract on the left bank of the Tigris, where the name Dur is still found. Dust. [Mourning.] Eagle. The Hebrew word may denote a particular species of the Falconidae, as in Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12, but the term is used also to express the griffon vulture. Four distinct kinds of eagles have been ob¬ served in Palestine, viz. the golden eagle, the spotted s. _= eagle, the imperial eagle, and the very com¬ mon Cireaetos gallieus. The figure of an eagle has been long a favorite military en¬ sign. The Persians so employed it ; as also the Assyrians and the Romans. Earnest {2 Cor. i. 22. v. 5 ; Eph. i. 14). The Hebrew word was used generally for pledge (Gen. xxxviii. 17), and in its cognate forms for surety (Prov. xvii. 18) and hostage (2 K. xiv. 14). Ear'rings. The material was generally gold (Ex. xxxii. 2), and their form circular. They were worn by women and youth. The earring appears to have been regarded with superstitious reverence. Earth. The earth was regarded as the universe Earth'enware. [Pottery.] . Earth'quake. Earthquakes, more or less violent, are of frequent occurrence in Palestine, ihe most remarkable occurred in the reign of L zziah (Am. i. 1; Zech. xiv. 5). From Zech. xiv. 4, we infer a great convulsion. An earthquake occurred THE CONQUEROR. at the time of our Saviour’s crucifixion (Matt, xxvii. 51-54), which may be deemed miraculous from the conjunction of circumstances. East. The Hebrew terms, descriptive of the east, differ ; (1 kedem properly means that which is be¬ fore or in front of; (2) mizraeh means the place of the sun’s rising. And hence the application of the term (Gen. xxv. 6) to the lands lymgimmedi- ately eastward of Palestine, viz. Arabia, Meso¬ potamia, and Babylonia ; on the other hand miz¬ raeh is used of the far east (Is. xii. 2, 25, xliii. itself, every other body — the heavens, sun, moon, and stars — being subsidiary to it. There seem tracesof theideathat the worl d was a disk(Is. xl. 22) bordered by theocean, with Jerusalem asitscentre. EASTEKN WATER SACKS OF SKINS. 5, xlvi. 11). Easter. This word in Acts xii. 4, is noticeable as an example of want of consistency in the trans¬ late rs._ At the last revision Passover was substi¬ tuted in all passages but this. E'bal, Mount, a mount in the promised land, on which, according to the command of Moses, the Israelites were to “put” the curse which should fall upon them if they disobeyed Jehovah. The blessing consequent on obedience was on Mount Gerizim (Deut. xi. 26-29). Ebal and Gerizim are the mounts which form the sides of the fertile valley in which lies Nablus. E'bed-Me'leoh, an Aethiopian eunuch in the service of king Zedekiah, through whose interference Jeremiah was released (Jer. xxxviii. 7, ff., xxxix- 15, ff.). Eb’en-e'zer (“the stone of help”), a stone set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of the Philis¬ tines, as a memorial of the “help” from Jehovah i;li 1LS sh;-c,-th us k ; gas j, gas in get; 8 as z; X as gi; u as in Hager, ligk; th as in thine. 26 EBONY EL-BETHEL ELI (1 Sam. vii. 12). Its position is between Mizpeh ana Shex. Ebony ( Ez. xxvii. 15). The best kind of ebony is yielded by the Diospyros ebenum, a tree which giows in Ceylon and Southern India. Echat'ana. Many commentators in Ezr. vi. 2, COAT, OR “ABA.’* COAT, OR TUNIC. translate it “in a coffer.” In the apocryphal books Ecbatana is frequently mentioned (Tob. iii. 7, xiv. 12, 14; Jud. i. 1, 2; 2 Macc. ix. 3,&c.). Two cities of the name seem to have existed iu ancient times, one the capital of Northern Media, the other the metropolis of Media Magna. Ecclesias'tes. The title is in Hebrew Koheleth, a feminine noun, signifying one who speaks publicly in an assembly, and hence rendered Ecclesiastes. Ecclesias’ticus, one of the books of the Apocry¬ pha, called in the Septuagint The Wisdom of Jesus the Sox of Sirach. We know nothing of the author. CHAINED TO THE DEAD. Eclipse of the Sun. Passages in the prophets al¬ lude to this phenomenon (Am. viii. 9; Mic. iii. 6; Zech. xiv. 6; Joel ii. 10, 81, iii. 15). The dark¬ ness at the crucifixion cannot be attributed to an eclipse, as the moon was at the full at the time of the Passover. E’dar, Tower of, named only in Gen. xxxv. 21. According to Jerome it was 1000 paces from Beth¬ lehem. Gden. 1. The first residence of man, called Para- ANCIENT CHARIOT. dise. The latter is a word of Persian origin, and describes an extensive pleasure land. 2. One of the marts which supplied Tyre with embroidered stuffs. 3. Beth-Eden, “horn, of pleasure;” Egyptian High-Priest's Dress. probably a country residence of the kings of Da¬ mascus. E dom, Idume'a, or Idumae'a. The name Edom was given to Esau when he sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of lentil pottage. The name Edom signifies “red” (Gen. xxv. 29- 34). The country which the Lord gave to Esau was called the “field of Edom” (Gen. xxxii. 3), and his descendants were called the Edom¬ ites. Education. Nothing is more carefully incul¬ cated in the Law than the duty of parents to teach its precepts and principles (Ex. xii. 26, xiii. 8, 14; Deut. iv. 5, 9, 10; vi. 2, 7, 20, &c. ), yet there is little trace among the Hebrews of education in any other subjects. Eg'lah, one of David’s wives during his reign in Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chr. iii. 3). Ac¬ cording to tradition, she was Michal. Eg'lon. 1. A king of the Moabites (Jndg. iii. 12, fl. ), who crossed the Jordan aud took “the city ot palm-trees. ” He was slain by Elmd. 2. A town of Judah in the low country (Josh. xv. 39). Egypt, the northeastern angle of Africa. Its limits appear always nearly the same. In Ezekiel (xxix. 10, xxx. 6) spoken of as ex¬ tending from Migdol to Syene, the same limits as at present. The name of Egypt in the Bible is “Mizraim.” The Arabic name of Egypt, Mizr, signifies “red mud.” Egypt is also called in the Bible “the laud of Ham” Ps. cv. 23, 27; comp, lxxviii. 51). The common ancient Egyptian name of the country is written in hieroglyphics KEM. Under the Pharaohs Egypt was divided into Upper and Lower, “the two regions.” The general appearance of the country cannot have greatly changed since the days of Moses. The whole country is remarkable for its extreme fertility. The inundation of the Nile fertilizes and sustains the country, and makes the river its chief blessing. The Nile was on this accouutanciently worshipped. As early as the age of the Great Pyramid it must have been densely populated. E'hud. Son of Gera of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. iii. 15), the second Judge of the Israel¬ ites. He was chosen to destroy Eglon. He was very strong, and left-handed. Ek'ron. A Philistine town. Akir, the mod¬ ern representative, lies 5 miles S. W. of Ram- leh. In the Apocry¬ pha it appears as Ac- carox (1 Macc. x. 89, only). E'lah. 1. Son and suc¬ cessor of Baasha,king of Israel (1 K. xvi. 10); his reign lasted little more than a year. He was killed, while Zimri. 2. Father of Hoshea, the last of Israel (2 K. xv. 30, xvii. 1). Elah, The Valley of. A valley in which the Israelites were encamped against the Philis¬ tines when David killed Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19). E'lam seems to have been the name of a man, the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22; 1 Chr. i. 17). Com¬ monly, however, the appellation of a country (Gen. xiv. 1, 9; Is. xi. 11; Jer. xxv. 25, &c.). E'lath, E'loth, the name of a town in the land of Edom, and situate at the head of the Arabian Gulf, which was thence called the Elantie Gulf. El-Beth'el, the name Jacob bestowed on the place at which God appeared to him when flvinv Esau (Gen. xxv. 7). ^ 8 “oo El'dad and Me'dad, two of the 70 elders to wh was communicated the prophetic power of It nin (Nuui. xi. 16, 26). I er ot M08es Elder. The term elder or old man was one ot tensive use, as an official title, among the B brews and the surrounding nations. It hadref CYMBALS. ence to various offices (Gen. xxiv. 2, 1. 7; 2 Sam xii. 17; Ez. xxvii. 9). Wherever a patriarchal system is in force, the office of the elder will be found. The earliest notice of the elders as a po¬ litical body is at the time of the Exodus. Lastly at the commencement of the Christian era, when they are noticed as a distinct body from the San¬ hedrim. (Luke xxii. 66; Acts xxii. 6). E.ea'zar, third son of Aaron, by Elisheba, daugh¬ ter of Amminadab. With his brother Ithamar he ministered as a priest during their father’ s life¬ time, and immediately before his death as in¬ vested on Mount H or with the sacred garments, as the successor of Aaron in the office of high ARABS IN COUNCIL. priest (Num. xx. 28). The time of his death is not mentioned. El-elo'he-Is'rael, the name bestowed by Jacob on the altar he erected facing the city of Shechew (Gen. xxxiii. 19, 20). Elephant. The word is found as the marginal reading to Behemoth, in Job. xl. 15. “ Elephant's teeth ” is the marginal reading for “ivory” iu lu. x. 22; 2 Chr. ix. 41; are mentioned in the 1st and EGYPTIAN COCK. 8- MANNER OF TEARING THE ARK. 2d books of Maccabees, as used in warfare (1 Macc. vi.). , Elha'nan. A distinguished warrior in the time o King David, who performed a memorable exi1"1 against the Philistines. E'li was descended from Aaron through Ith" . the youngest of his two surviving sons (Lw- x- , 2, 12; comp. 1 K. ii. 27, with 2 Sam. viii- JaL— a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, l, o, u, y, short ; care, far, last, fall, what ; there, veil, term i pique, firm; done, for, ant,e’ or cape, of when Excited 'vrouhl asu£g fQrl, r”dc> Pfs»M e, i, o, Silent ;"c as s, ADAM AND EVE DRIVEN FROM EDEN. miracles and events, such as the prolonging of the widow’s meal ; the restoring the. child to life ; the burning up of the sacrifice, with the slaughter of the prophets; the consuming of the fifties; the selection of Elisha ; and, finally, his depart¬ ure from earth in the whirlwind. Elim'elech, a man of Judah, who dwelt in Bethle- hem-Ephratah in the days of the Judges. In consequence of a dearth he went with his wife Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, to dwell in Moab, where he and his sons died with¬ out posterity (Ruth i. 2, 3, &c.). Eliph'alet, the last of thirteen sons born to David in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 16; 1 Chr. xiv. 7). El'iphaz. 1. The son of Esau and Adah, the father of Tern an (Gen. xxxvi. 4r 1 Chr. i. 35, 36). 2. The chief of the “three friends” of Job. He is called - “the Temanite;” hence a descendant of Teman. Eliph'elet, the name of a son of David, born to him in Jerusalem (1 Chr. iii, 6). Elis'abeth, the wife of Zacliarias and mother of John the Baptist. She was of the priestly family, and a relation (Luke i. 36) of the mother of our Lord. Elise'us, the form in which the name Elisha ap¬ pears in the Apocrypha and N. T. (Ecclus. xlviii. 12; Luke iv. 27). Eli'sha, son of Shapbat of Abel-meholah ; the at¬ tendant and disciple of Elijah, and his successor as prophet of Israel. 1. The earliest mention of his name is in 1 Iv. xix. 16, 17). Our introduc¬ tion to him is in the fields of his native place. Elijah, on his way from Sinai to Damascus, lights on his successor engaged in the labors of the field. To cross to him, to throw over his shoulders the rough mantle, was to Elijah but the work of an instant. Elisha delayed merely to give the fare¬ well kiss to his father and mother, and preside at a parting feast, and then followed the great prophet. Seven or eight years pass, during which we hear nothing of him. But he reappears, to become the most prominent figure in history dur¬ ing the rest of his long life. Elisha presents the most complete contrast to Elijah. The collection of his sayings arid doings, preserved from the 3d to the 9th chapter of the 2d book of Kings, is full of testimonies to this contrast. We can gather that his dress was the ordinary garment oi SACRIFICE OP AARON. an Israelite, the heged (2 K. ii. 12), that his hair was worn trimmed behind, and that he used a walking-staff. For 55 years he held the office of “prophet in Israel” (2 K. v. 8). After the de- larture of his master, Elisha returned to dwell at - ericho (2 K. ii. 18). As in the case of his pre¬ decessor, his life is made up of remarkable mir¬ acles and events, among which are the destruc¬ tion of the scoffing children ; the multiplying of the widow’s oil ; the restoring of the Shunemite’s child to life ; the curing of the pottage ; the heal¬ ing of Naaman and the smiting of Gchazi; the causing of the lost axe to swim ; and the smiting SYRIAN CAVALRY. of the Syrian warriors with blindness- Eli'shah, the eldest son of Javan (Gen. x. 4). The residence of his descendants is described in Ez. xxvii. 7, as the “isles of Elishah. Elish'ama. 1. Son of Ammihud, the “prince” or ~ rao gicai ousuua, -. n. sun ui iving liavia, born to him in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 16; 1 Chr. iii. 8, xiv. 7). 3. Another son of David (1 Chr. iii. 6), called Elishua. Elish'eba, wife of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23); daughter of Amminadab, and sister of Naashon the captain of Judah (Num. ii. 3), Elishu'a, one of David’s sons, born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 15; 1 Chr. xiv. 5). El'kanah. 1. Son, or rather grandson (see 1 Chr. vi. 22, 23, [7, 8]), of Korah. 2. A Kohathite Bevite, father of Samuel the illustrious Judge and Prophet (1 Chr. vi. 27, 34). El'kosh, the birthplace of the prophet Nahum ; a village of Galilee. Elm, Hos. iv. 13. See Oak. E'lon, a Hittite, whose daughter was one of Esau’s wives (Gen, xxvi. 34, xxxvi. 2). chasshj-Cj-cliaskj g as j, g as in get 5 s as z; x as gz; Ii as in Unger, liDk; th as in thine. 28 ELPALET ENOCH EPHESUS Elpa'let, one of David’s sons born in Jerusalem (1 Chr. xiv. 6). E'lui, Neh. vi. 15 ; 1 Macc. xiv. 27. [Months.] ANCIENT CENSERS. El'ymas, the Arabic name of the Jewish magus or sorcerer Barjesus (Acts xiii. 6, ff.). Embalming. It was most general among the • Egyptians (Gen. 1. 2, 26). Of the Egyptian method there remain two accounts, which have a general agreement. The embalmers removed the brain and the intestines, and then filled the cavi¬ ties with spices. This done, the body was sewn up, steeped in natron for some days, and then delivered to the re¬ latives of the de¬ ceased, who provid¬ ed for it in a wooden case, in the shape ot a man, in which the dead was placed, and deposited in an erect position against the wall of the sepulchral cham¬ ber. Embroiderer. E m - broidery by the loom was extensively practiced among the ancients. In ad¬ dition to the Egyp¬ tians, the Babyloni¬ ans were celebrated for it ; but embroidery with the needle was a Phrygian invention of later date. Em’erald, a precious stone, first in the second row on the breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. CYMBALS. CHARIOT AND HORSEMEN. 18, xxxix. 11), imported from Syria (Ez. xxvii. 16), used as a seal or signet (Ecclus. xxxii. 6), as an ornament (Ez. xxviii. 13), and one of the foundations of Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19. Tob. xiii. 16). Em'erods (Deut. xxviii. 27; 1 Sam. v. 6, 9, 12, vi. 4, 5, 11). Probably hemorrhoidal tumors, or bleeding piles, are intended. G'mims, a tribe or family of gigantic stature which were going when our Lord appeared to them on the way (Luke xxiv. 13). Luke makes its dis¬ tance from Jerusalem sixty stadia (A. V. “ three¬ score furlongs”), or about 7 i miles. Em'maus, or Nioop'olis (1 Macc. iii. 40), a town ASSYRIAN CROWNS. originally inhabited the region along the eastern side of the Dead Sea. The Moabites termed them Emim — that is, “terrible men” (Deut. ii. 11). Emman'uel, Matt. l. 23. [Immanuel.] . Em'maus, the village to which the two disciples EGYPTIAN COOK. in the plain of Philistia, 22 Roman miles from Jerusalem. En, beginning many Hebrew words, signifies a spring or fountain. Enchant'ments. These methods of imposture were PERSIAN CUPBEARER. strictly forbidden in Scripture (Lev. xix. 26; Is. xlvii. 9, &c.), yet we find them still flourishing at the Christian Era (Acts xiii. 6, 8, viii. 9, 11; Gal. v. 20; Rev. ix. 21). En'-dor, a place long held in memory by the Jew¬ ish people as connected with the great victory over Sisera and Jabin. Here the witch dwelt whom Saul consulted (1 Sam. xxviii. 7). The distance from the slopes of Gilboa to Endor is 7 or 8 miles. En'gedi, a town on the western shore of the Dead Sea (Ez. xlvii. 10). Its site is about the middle of the western shore of the lake, at the fountain of Ain Jidy. Saul was told that David was in the “wilderness of Engedi and he took 3000 men and went to seek him (1 Sam. xxiv. 1-4). The vineyards of Engedi were celebrated by Solomon (Cant. i. 14). , . . , Engine, a term applied to military affairs in the Bible. The engines were to propel missiles from the walls of a besieged town : one, with which the Hebrews were acquainted, was the battering-ram described in Ez. xxvi. 9, and still more precisely in Ez. iv. 2, xxi. 22. Engra'ver. His chief business was cutting names or devices on rings and seals ; the only notices are Ex. xxviii. 11, 21 , 36. En-hak'kore, the spring which burst out in answer to the cry of Samson after his exploit with the jawbone (Judg. xv. 19). E'noch. 1. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17), who called the city which he built after his name (18). 2. The son of Jared and father of Methuselah (Gen. v. 21, ff.; Luke iii. 28; see Gen. v. 22-24). The phrase “walked with God” is elsewhere only used of Noah, and is to be explained of a life spent in immediate converse with the spiritual worlfl- WOMAN WITH EMBROIDERED ROBE. E'noch, The Book of. The first trace 0f j existence is generally found in the Fn;Ji of St. Jude (14, 15), but the words of theAmwH* leave it uncertain ^ 8116 whether he derived his quotation from tradition or from writing. It is uncertain whether the Greek text was the original, or a transla¬ tion from the Hebrew. The book consists of a series of revelations supposed to have been given to Enoch and Noah. E'non, a place “near to Salim,” at which John baptized (John iii. 23). It was west of the Jor¬ dan and abounded in water. This is indi¬ cated by the name, sig¬ nifying “springs.” En-ro'gel, a spring. Here Jonathan and Ahimaaz remained, after the flight of David (2 Sam. xvil 17); and here Adonijah held the feast (1 K. i.9), Ensign. The character of the Hebrew military standards is a matter of conjecture; they prob. ably resembled the Egyptian, which consisted of a sacred emblem, such as an animal, a boat, or the king’s name. Epaene'tus, a Christian at Rome, greeted by St Paul in Rom. xvi. 6, and designated as bis be¬ loved, and the first fruit of Asia unto Christ. Ep'aphras, a fellow-laborer with the Apostle Paul (Col. i. 7). He was with St. Paul at Rome (Col. iv. 12), and seems to have been a Colossian by birth. Epaph- ras may be the same as Epaphroditus. Epaphrodi'tus (Phil. ii. 25, iv. 18). See above under Epaphuas. E'phes-dam'mim, a place be¬ tween Socoh and Azekah, at which the Philistines were encamped before the affray in which Goliath was killed (1 Sam, xvii. 1). Ephesians, The Epistle to the, was written ny St. Paul dur: ing his first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16), apparently immediately after the Epistle to the Colossians, and (a. d. 62) when his imprisonment had not assumed the severer character. It was addressed to the Christian church at Ephesus. Its contents may be divided into doctrinal anil hortatory and practical. . Eph'esus, the capital of the Roman province o Asia, and an illustrious city in the district o Ionia. Conspicuous at the head of the harbor o Ephesus was the great temple of Dianaor Artemis, the tutelary divinity of the city. The oiaPu“' cence of this sanctuary was a proverb throughout ( MILL STONES. „ the civilized world. A large manufactory . up there of portable shrines, which r • ' purchased, and devotees earned with to j^ggol city was celebrated for its magical arts. cAre, Or, last, fill, wl»at ; thire, veil, term ; pique, firm ; dine, fir, do, wolf, food, toot ; EPHOD ,, „ “free city,” and had its own assern- ^f^d its own magistrates. The Jews were b t hlfshed there In considerable numbers (Acts ft vi 9) The first seeds of Christian truth we re’ possibly sown at Ephesus immediatelyiiltcr BEARING THE CROSS. the Great Pentecost (Acts ii). The whole place is now desolate. Ephod, a sacred vestment of tne high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 4), but afterwards worn by ordinary priests (1 Sam. xxii. 18), and deemed characteristic of the office (1 Sam. ii 28, xiv. 3; Hos iii. 4). E'phraim, the second son of Joseph by his wife Asenath. He was born before the beginning of the seven years of famine, 17 years before Jacob’s death (Gen. xlvii. 28). Before Joseph’s death E'phraim, Gate of, one of the gates of Jerusalem (2 K. xiv. 13; 2 Chr. xxv. 23), probably at or near the present ‘‘Damascus gate.’ E'phraim, The Wood of, a wood, or forest, E. of Jordan, in which the fatal battle was fought between the armies of David and of Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 6). 1 Ephra'in, a city of Israel, which with its dependent hamlet3 Abijah and the army of Judah captured from Jeroboam (2 Chr. xiii. 19). Eph'ratah, or Eph'rath. The ancient name of Bethlehem-Judah, as is manifest from Gen. xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7. Eph'ron. The son of Zochar, a Hit- % tite, from whom Abraham bought I the field and cave of Machpelah | (Gen. xxiii. 8-17: xxv. 9, xlix. 29, 1 39, 1. 13). Epicu'reans, The, derived their name from Epicurus (342-271 b. c). True pleasure and not absolute truth was the end, experience and not reason the test on which he relied. When St. Paul addressed “Epicureans and Stoics” (Acts xvii. 18) at Athens, the phil¬ osophy of life was reduced to the teaching of those two antagonistic schools. Epistle. The epistles of the N. T. in form harmonize with Greek and Roman customs. They begin (Heb. and 1 John excepted) with the names of the writer, and those to whom addressed. Then follows the salutation. Then the letter. After the letter the indi¬ vidual messages. When done the Apostle irrevocably the covenant blessing. Esau married his cousin Mahalath (xxviii. 8,_ 9), and soon afterwards established himself in Mount Seir. He was residing in Mount Seir when Jacob re- DAVID’S HOLD. ftOT?ren8lfa^y*Lad-reach.ed tbe third ffenera- I 1 (’hr vii "In ’ tlnT? °* tbe a®'ay mentioned 1 Chr. vn. 21. To this period, too. must, ho CHERUBIM OF NINEVITISH DOORWAY. rpfprrpJ •*"" d'° this period, too, must be referred the circumstance alluded to in Ps. lxxviii. x’vi. j_j0boundanes of the tribe are given in Josh, "w Absalom'^3?01 ''hac°r wMcb is by EPhraim” n* srt IS no clew to its situation. ’’ 616 Ephraim, a city to which our Lora retired with his ftim are identical. ' PerbaPs Ophrah and Eph- ^e, push. e> j) 0, gl¬ added (Gal. vi. 11) the authenticating autograpn. Er.^ First born of Judah. “The Lord slew him” (Gen. xxxviii. 3-7; Num xxvi. 19). Eras'tus. One of the attendants or deacons of St. Paul at Ephesus (Acts xix. 22). Probab¬ ly the same with Erastus who is again men¬ tioned in 2 Tim. iii. 20. Esa'ias, the form of the name of the propnet Isaiah in the N. T. E'sar-had'don, one of the greatest of the kings of Assyria, was the son of Sennach¬ erib (2 K. xix. 37). Nothing is really known of Esar-haddon until his accession (ab. B. c. 680; 2 K. xix. 37; Is. xxxvii. 38). He appears one of the most powerful of all the As¬ syrian monarchs. His Babylonian reign lasted thirteen years, from b. c. 680 to b. c. 667. E'sau, the eldest son of Isaac, and twin-brother of Jacob. The singular appearance of the child at his birth originated the name (Esau means hairy, Gen. xxv. 25). Even in the womb the twin-brothers struggled to¬ gether (xxv. 22). Jacob in his brother’s distress robbed him of that which was dear as life to an Eastern patriarch. Esau married at 40, and contrary to the wish of his parents. His wives were both Canaanites (Gen. xxvi. 34, 35). The next episode is doubly painful j Jacob, through the craft of his mother, secures I c as s ; ill as sh ; -c,-tli ask; g as j, g as in get ; g as z ; x as gx 5 turned from Padan-aram, and had become rich and powerful. It does not appear that the broth¬ ers again met until 20 years afterwards. They united in laying Isaac’s body in the cave of Mach¬ pelah. Of Esau’s subsequent history nothing is known. E'say, the form of the name of Isaiah in Ecclus ^xlviii. 20, 22; 2 Esd. ii. 18. Esdrae'lon, the Greek form of the Hebrew wore Jezreel, the battle-field on which Gideon tri umphed, and Saul and Jonathan were overthrown (Judg. vii. 1, sq.s 1 Sam. xxix and xxxi.). Two things are worthy of notice: 1. Its wonderful richness. 2. Its desolation. It is the home of the wild wandering Bedouin. Es'dras. The form of the name of Ezra the scribe in 1 and 2 Esdras. Esdras, First Book of, the first in order of the Apocryphal books in the Eng¬ lish Bible. It was never known to exist in He¬ brew, and formed no part of the Hebrew Canon. Esdras, The Second Book op. Though this book is included among those “read for examples of life” by the English Church, no use of it is there made in public worship. Esh'eol, one of Abraham’s companions in his pur- WOMEN OF SYRIA EMBROIDERING. suit of the four kings who had carried off Lot (Gen. xiv. 13, 24). n as in linger, link s tto as in thine. 30 ESHCOL EVILMERODACH EZRA TAPESTRY DRESSES IN NEEDLEWORK- nr chasm of which Samson retired after his slanghter of the Philistines ( J udg. xv. 8, 11). Eth'anim. [Months.] Ethba'al. king of Sidon and father of Jezebel (1 K. xvi. 31). The date of pthfcaal’s reign may be given as about b. c. 940-908. EASTERN DOG. woman. The account of Eve’s creation and sin is ft'und at Gen. ii. 21, 22. E'w^mero'dach (2 K. xxv. 27), the son and suc¬ cessor of Nebuchadnezzar. He reigned but a short time, being (b. o. 669) murdered oy Nerig- lissar. xii. 26. To him is ascribed the settling “ of Scripture, and restoring, correcting, • ing the whole sacred volume. < . ^ gl Ez'ra, Book of, is a continuation of tb0 e BU,p Chronicles. Like these boobs, itconsists^ (|a)e, porary historical journals beptfrom time — - V, f, I,o, long; a, e, », 6, u, y, short; cire, far, last, fall, what; there, veil, term , pique, firm ; done, l8r, d», w9lf, food, toot , Esh col, The Valley, or the Brook of, a wady near Hebron, explored by the snies sent by Moses Num. xxxiii. 9; Deut. i. 24). EsVtaol, a town of Judah. Here Samson spent CAESABEA. tns boyhood, and hither his body was brought (Judg. xiii. 25j xvi. SI, xviii. 2, 8, 11, 12). Esse'nes, a Jewish sect, distinguished by an aspi¬ ration after ideal purity rather than bv any special code of doctrines. All things were held in com¬ mon, without distinction of property. Es'ther, the Persian name of Hadassah, daughter of Abihail. Esther was a beautiful Jewish maiden, whose ancestor Kish had been among CYMBALS. the captives from Jerusalem. She was an orphan, brought up by her cousin Mordecai, who had an office in the household of Ahasuerus king of Persia. When Vasliti was dismissed the choice fell upon Esther. The plan of Hnman to kill all the Jews, and its frustration by Esther are fully recorded in the book of Esther. ?s'ther, Book of, one of the latest of the canonical books of Scripture. The author is not known, GIEB EAGLE. Ethio'pia. The country described by the Hebrews as “Cush” lay to the S. of Egypt. The inhabi¬ tants of Ethiopia were a Hamitic race (Gen. x. 6). Shortly before our Saviour’s birth a native dynasty of females, holding the official title ot Candace (Plin. vi. 35), held sway in Ethiopia. One of these is the queen noticed in Acts viii. 27. Ethiopian Woman. The wife of Moses is so. described in Num. xii. 1; elsewhere said to have been the daughter of a Mid- ianite. Eubu'lus, a Christian at Rome mentioned by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 21). Euni'ce, mother of Timotheus (2 Tim. i. 6). Eu'nuch. The law (Deut. xxiii. 1 ; comp. Lev. xxii. 24) is repugnant to thus treat¬ ing any Israelite. The origination of the practice is ascribed to Semiramis, and is no doubt as early as Eastern despotism itself. The court of Herod of course had its eunuchs, as had also that of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 27). Euo'dias, a Christian woman at Philippi (Phil iv. 2). The name is correctly Euouia. Euphrates is probably a word signifying “the good and abounding river.” The Euphrates is the largest, the longest, and by far the most impor¬ tant of the rivers of Western Asia. It rises in the Armenian mountains and flows into the Per¬ sian Gulf. . The entire course is 1780 miles. The Euphrates is first mentioned in Gen. ii. 14. We Ex'eoUtioner. Potiphar was “captain of tl,„ ecutioners- ’ (Gen xxxvii. 36). tL *> °> silent ; 5 as s; eastern gate. or pure fat of an animal, and the fat which | was intermixed with the lean (Neh. viii. 10). Father. The position and authority of the father as the head of the family are expressly assumed and sanctioned in Scripture. Fathom. [Measures.] Feasts. [Festivals.] Fe'lix, a Roman procu¬ rator of J udaea, appoint¬ ed by the Emperor Claudius. lie ruled in a mean, cruel, and profli¬ gate manner. St. Paul was brought before Felix i n Caesarea. He was re¬ manded to prison and kept two years, in hopes of extorting money from him (Acts xxiv. 26, 27). At the end of that time Porcius Festus was ap¬ pointed to supercede Felix. The wife of Felix was Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I., the former wife of Azizus king of Emesa. Fenoed Cities. The forti- every male Israelite was commanded “ to appear before the Lord” (Deut. xxvii. 7; Neh. viii. 9- 12). II. After the captivity, the Feast of Furim ETHIOPIAN KING. fications of the cities of Palestine, regu- ai y fenced, consisted of one or more wails crowned with battlemented par- apets, haying towers at regular inter¬ vals (2 Chr. xxxii. 5; Jer. xxxi. 38). Ferret. One of the unclean creeping things mentioned in Lev. - xi 30 probably a reptile. Rabbinical writers identify the hedgehog. Festivals. I. The religious times or¬ dained in the Law fall under three heads: (1.) those connected with the Sabbath; (2.) The historical or great festivals; (3.) The Day of Atonement. (1.) Immediately con¬ nected with the Sabbath are : (a) The weekly Sabbath itself. (6) The sev- enth new moon or Feast of Trumpets. (e) The Sabbatical Year, (d) The t Tm/ du )l ee- (2.) The great feasts . . (ffl2 Passover, (ft) The Feast of Pen- tecost, of M eeks, of Wheat-harvest, or of the First Fruits., (e) The Feast of Tabern^es, or _o^Ingathenng. On each of these occasions are : EGYPTIAN FROG. (Esth. ix. 20, sq.) and that of the Dedication (1 Macc. iv. 66) were instituted. Fes'tus Por'cius, successor of Felix as procurator of Judaea (Acts xxiv. 27), sent by Nero 60 a. p. b estus heard the cause of St. Paul in the pres¬ ence of Herod Agrippa II. and Bernice his sister (Acts xxv. 11, 12). He died probably 62 a. d. Fetters. Fetters were usually made of brass, and also in pairs. Iron was occasionally employed (Ps. cv. 18, cxlix. 8). Fever (Lev. xxvi. 16; Deut. xxviii. 22). Inter¬ mittent fever and dysentery, the latter often fatal, are ordinary Arabian diseases. •Fl?-tree- The fig-tree is very common in Palestine (Deut. viii. 8). Mount Olivet was famous for its fig-trees, and they are still found there. Fir (Is. xiv. 8; Ez. xxvii. 6, &c.). “Fir” in the A. V. represents probably one or other of the following trees : 1. Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch r; 2. Larch; 3. Cupressus sempervirens, or cypress. 1 Fire, represented as the symbol of Jehovah’s presence, and the instrument of his power (Ex. X1k+2’ XaV‘i19’ , Fire for 8acred purposes obtained elsewhere than from the altar was called st/a.IW® fire, and for the use of such Nadah and AbAu were punished with death (Lev. x 1 2; Num. in. 4, xxvi. 61). ’ Firepan. Two articles so called: one, like a chafing-dish, to carry live coals for the incense ; lamps'1'’ kke a suuder’d*sh> used in trimming the Firkin. [Weigiitsand Measures.] First-born. Under the Law, the eldest son was re¬ garded as devoted to God, and was to be redeemed by an oftering. 1 he eldest son received a, double portion of the father’s inheritance (Deut. xxi. 1 < ). Under the monarchy, the eldest son usually ANCIENT HOUSEHOLD GODS. succeeded in the kingdom (1 K. i. 30, ii. 22) to God1 lx1’Sx'"-0r9 °l oanimals was als° devoted 20) d E m‘ 2> 12» 13’ xxxiv. 19 assk,-c,-ck asks gasj, gas mget; gasi; *asgxj n as in linger, link ; tk as in thine. 32 FIRST-FRUITS FRONTLETS GABRIEL PAINTED EYES. much more wood formerly than at present. Fortima'tus (1 Cor. xvi. 17), one of three Cor¬ inthians, the others being Stephanas and Achai- cus, who were at Ephesus when St. Paul wrote his first Epistle. Foun'tain. The springs of Palestine, though short¬ lived, are remarkable for their abundance and beauty. In Oriental cities generally public foun¬ tains are frequent. FLOWERS AND GRASSES OF PALESTINE. Fowl. Several Hebrew and Greek words are thus rendered in the A. Y. Of these the most common is ’oph, a collective term for all kinds of birds. Fox (Heb. shual). Probably the “jackal” is the animal signified in almost all the pass¬ ages in the O. T. where the Hebrew term occurs. The shu'alim of Judg. xv. 4 are evidently “jackals.” _ Frankincense, a vegetable resin, brittle, glit¬ tering, and of a bitter taste, used for the purpose of sacrificial fumigation (Ex. xxx. 34-36). It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of a tree called the arbor thuris, the first of which THE BAT. yields the purest and wl itest kind. The Hebrews imported their frankincense from Arabia (Is. lx. 6; Jer. vi. 20), and from Saba. Frog, mentioned in Ex. viii. 2-7, &c. In the N. T. the word occurs once only, in Rev. xvi. 13. There is no question as to the animal meant. The only known species in Egypt is the edible frog of the continent. Frontlets, or Phylacteries (Ex. xiii. 16 ; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18, Matt, xxiii. 6), strips of parchment on which were written four passages of Scripture (Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11-17; Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-23) in ink. They were then rolled up in a case of black calf¬ skin, and placed at the bend of the left arm. Those on the forehead were on four strips of parchment. First-iruits. The Law ordered in general, that the first of first-fruits should be offered in God’s house tEx. xxii. 29, xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 27). Fish. The Hebre.vs recognized fish as one of the EASTERN DANCERS. great divisions of the animal kingdom. The Mosaic Law (Lev. xi. 9, 10) pronounced unclean such as were devoid of fins and scales. In Pal¬ estine, the Sea of Galilee was and still is remark¬ ably well stored with fish. Jerusalem derived its supply chiefly from the Mediterranean (comp. Ez. xlvii. 10). Pitches (j. e. Vetches), the representative of two Hebrew words sussemeth and ketsach. As to the former see Rye. Ketsach. denotes without doubt the Nigella sativa, an herbaceous annual plant. EGYPTIAN DANCERS. I lag. It seems probable that some specific plant is denoted in Job viii. 11. In Gen. xli. 2, 18, it is perhaps the Cyperus esculentus. Ex. ii. 3, 5; Is. xix. 6, denote “weeds of any kind.” Plagon. In 2 Sam. vi. 19; 1 Chr. xvi. 3; Cant. ii. 5; Hos. iii. 1, it really means a cake of pressed raisins. In Is. xxii. 24, is commonly used for a bottle or vessel. Iflax. It seems probable that the cultivation of flax for linen was by no means confined to Egypt. That it was grown in Palestine before the con- sects, which God sent to punish Pharaoh; see Ex. viii. 21—31; Ps. lxxviii. 45, cv. 81. It seems not improbable that common flies are intended. Feou. The diet of Eastern nations has been in all ages light and simple. As compared with our habits, the points of contrast are the small amount of animal food consumed, the variety of articles used as accompaniments to bread, the substitution of milk for our liquors, and the combination of heterogene¬ ous elements in the same dish, or meal. The chief point of agreement is the large consumption of bread. Forest. Although Palestine has never been a woodland country, yet no doubt there was REJOICING WOMEN DANCING. quest by the Israelites appears from Josh. ii. 6. That flax was one of the most important crops in Palestine appears from Hos. ii. 6, 9. fc’lea, mentioned in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14, xxvi. 20. Fleas are abundant in the East, and afford the subject of many proverbial ex¬ pressions. Flour. [Bread.] Flute, a musical instrument mentioned amongst others (Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15) as used at the worship of the golden image Nebuchadnezzar set up. Flux, Bloody (Acts xxviii. 8), same as our dysentery, which in the East is generally epidemic and infectious, and then as¬ sumes its worst form. Sly, Flies. 1. Zebub occurs in Eccl. x. 1 and Is. RUINS OF TOMBS BUILT IN TIME OF EZRA. vli. 18, and is probably a generic name for any insect. 2. Arob, the name of the insect, or in¬ FuUer. The trade of the fullers, so far as mf>„ tioned in Scripture, appears chiefly in cie garments and whitening them. The substano g used are natrum (Prov. xxv. 20; Jer. ii. 2m C 8 soap (Mai. iii. 2). Other sub¬ stances also are mentioned , which identify the Jewish with the Roman pro¬ cess, as urine and chalk. The trade of the ful¬ lers appears to have been car¬ ried on at Jer¬ usalem outside the city. Fullers’ Field, The,aspotnear Jerusalem (2 K. xviii. 17; Is. vii . 3 , xxxvi. 2), so close to the walls that a person speak¬ ing from there could be heard on them (2 K. xviii. 17,26). Fur'naoe. Vari¬ ous kinds of furnaces are no¬ ticed, such as a smelting or cal¬ cining furnace fish-god (from Nimroud). (Gen. xix. 28; Ex. ix. 8, 10), especially a lime¬ kiln (Is. xxxiii. 12), a refining furnace (Ez. xxii. 18, ff.)j a large furnace built like a brick-kiln (Dan. iii. 22, 23); the potter’s furnace (Ecclus. xxvii. . 5); the blacksmith’s furnace (Ecclas. xxxviii. 28). The Persians used the furnace as a means of inflicting punishment (Jer. xxix. 22; Hos. vii. 7). Ga'al, son of Ebed, aided the Shechemites iu their rebellion against Abimelech (Judg. ix.). FLESH-HOOKS. Gab'batha, the Hebrew or Chaldee appellation of a place, also called “Pavement,” where, the judg¬ ment-seat or bema was, from which Pilate deliv¬ ered our Lord to death (John xix. 13). De place was outside the praetorium. It seems as a Gabbatha designated the elevated Bema ; and tne r “pavement” was possibly some mosaic or tessel- PLAGUE OF FROGS. lated work, either forming the bema itself, 01 flooring of the court round it. . T i[0 Ga'briel, used in Dan. viii. 16, :x. 21, and a1 j. 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; care, far, last, fail, wliat; there, veil, term 5 piqu e, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; GAD GAMALIEL GATH 33 t 19 26. In the ordinary traditions, Jewish and Christian, Gabriel is spoken of as one of the archangels. In Scripture he is set forth only as the representative of the angelic nature. 6ad Jacob’s seventh son, the first-born of Zilpah, 0 Gal'eed, the name given by Jacob to the heap which ho and Laban made on Mount Gilead (Gen. vyyi. 47. 48r r*nmn. 98. 9M EGYPTIAN CROWNS. ilesli’s maid, and whole-brother to Asher (Gen. rxx. 11-13, xlvi. 16, 18). The word means either ’•fortune” or “troop” (Gen. xxx. 11; comp. xlix. 19). At the time of the descent into Egypt seven sons are ascribed to him. Sad, “the seer” (1 Chr. xxix. 29; 2 Chr. xxix. 25; 2 Sam. xxiv. 11; 1 Chr. xxi. 9), a “prophet” who joined David when in the hold (1 Sam. xxii. .5). He wrote a book of the Acts of David (1 Chr. xxix. 29). ■ ftd'ara, a strong city east of the Sea of Galilee. A large district was attached to it. Gadara is evidently identical with the “country of the Gad- arenes, or Gergesenes (Matt. viii. 28: Mark v. 1; Luke vm. 26 3/). Gadara derives its greatest interest from Mate. viii. 28-34; Mark v. 1-21- Luke vm. 26-40. The most interesting remains rouS theacftye ^ Wiich dot the cliffs Gabam son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by his concubine Reumah (Gen. xxii. 24). 7 us. [John, Second and Third Epistles of 1 Galana, literally the “Gallia” of the East The Roman province of Galatia may be described as teevSlinfr of^ penit/ulaof Asm Minor! Xosdes" ^iStle,t0the’ *as -bitten byeethe P cn-. aul, and appears called forth by the - - - — - - - - “ - — - * - - - lee (Acts ix. 31; Luke xvii. 11. Galilee was di vided into “Lower” and “Upper.” Lower Gali¬ lee was one of the richest and most beautiful sec¬ tions of Palestine. The chief towns were Ti¬ berias, Tarichaea, and Sepphoris. The town3 most celebrated in N. T. history are Nazareth, Cana, and Tiberias (Luke i. 26: John ti. 1, vi. 1). To Upper Galilee , the name “Galilee of the Gen¬ tiles” is given (Is. ix. 1; Matt. iv. 16). Caper¬ naum, our Lord’s home, was in Upper Galilee (Matt. iv. 13, ix; 1). The Apostles were all Galileans by birth or residence (Acts i. 11). Galilee, Sea of. [Gennesareth.] Gall denotes that which is bitter. Some hitter, and perhaps poisonous plant. Gallery, an architectural term, describing the por¬ ticos or verandas in Eastern houses. It is doubt¬ ful, however, whether the Hebrew words, so translated, have reference to such object. Galley. [Ship.] GaTiira (“heaps”), the native place of the man to galillean paxm -- Mi.Hal, David’s wife, was given (1 Sam. Gal'lio, Junius Annaeus Gallio, the Roman pro- consul of Achaia when St. Paul was at Corinth, a. d. o3 under the Emperor Claudius (Acts xviii. i*). Jerome says he committed suicide in 65 A. D. machinations of" ^te' »nden at Corinth Ss xxS 2*7° W U was Galbanunf one' 7 ?!' 58' ’ ^ the !fase (E*. xxx° 34)° Vn%mes in. sacred in- brownish yellow .. 11 ls a resinous gum of -i -» _ ^°w TOlor, and strong, disagreeable furl, rude, GODS OF THE GRECIANS. Xelaw'who Pharise®and celebrated doctor of W a’ h° gave J,rU(Jent wrldly advice in the Sanhedrim respecting the treatment of the fol- °f Jesus,of Nazareth (Acts v. 34, if.). He dent of uV- St Pau1' He was Presi- •tn ,,r Sanhe,dn"1 uudcr Tiberius, Caligula, ft™cHon.U of 1 Jerusalem!6^ bef°re tbu ^ Games. Among the Greeks every city of any size possessed its theatre and stadium. At Ephesus an annual contest was held in honor of Diana. It is probable that St. Paul was present when these games were proceeding. A direct reference GRAPES OF ESHCOL. is made in 1 Cor. xv. 32. St. Paul’s Epistles abound with allusions to the Greek contests at which he may well have been present during his first visit to Corinth. These contests (2 Tim. iv. 7; 1 Tim. vi. 12) were divided into boxing, wrest ling, leaping, running, quoiting, and hurling the spear. Gam'madims (Ez. xxvii. 11). The rendering “guards,” furnishes the simplest explanation. Gar'den. Gardens in the East are enclosures, on the outskirts of towns, planted with various trees and shrubs. They were surrounded by hedges of thorn (Is. v. 5), or walls of stone (Prov. xxiv. 31). For further protection lodges (Is. i. 8; Lam. 11. 6) or watchtowefs (Mark xii, 1) were built in thw11- The gardens of the Hebrews were planted with flowers and aromatic shrubs (Cant. vi. 2, iv. 10), besides olives, fig-trees, nuts, or walnuta (Cant. vi. 11), pomegranates, and others for do¬ mestic use (Ex. xxiii. 11; Jer. xxix. 5; Am. ix. 14). _ Gardens of herbs, or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in Deut. xi. 10, and 1 K. xxi. 2. Garlic (Num. xi. 5), the Allium Sativum of Lin naeus, which abounds in Egypt. Garrison. The Heb. words so rendered are de rivatives from the root natsab to “place, erect.” Gate. The gates of eastern cities are sometimes taken as representing the city itself. They were used as places of public resort (Gen. xix. 1. x?ld- 1°)> for public deliberation, administration of justice, or ot audience for kings and rulers, oi ambassadors (Deut. xvi. 18 ; Josh. xx. 4; Judg ix. 35, &c.). They were carefully guarded ano closed at nightfall ; contained chambers over the gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 24). The doors were two leaved, plated with metal, closed with locks ano fastened with metal bars (Deut. iii. 6; P8. evii , . — - - - — , » rnmstines (Josb ,cha38h5^UasUigasj,Sa3lnget5aMa5Sas^;BMinliBs^I^^1-A— IMPERIAL EAOLR of PALESTINE ly;onmmen'ted2)' <77 "ath '■ w * 8 tblgh ^dignity. 1 to bring a present Gil'gal, ites on the west of the Jorda“n7and whereThe twelve stones were set up (Josh. iv. 19, 20 comp CanlanTv.toV 7 firSt paSS0ver “ Gi loh, a, town in the mountainous part of Judah • the native place of Ahithophel (2 Sam xv 12) ’ s?l%i ,4brd,5'te4- h G^rSii1 : 7’ and a stl°k to act as a sprint. The comn oV!fdlW°ni both 7 men aad " omen, fi. M? girdle was made of leather (2 K. i li n en &( j"e r ' x i it ' 1 • F ^ g\rdIe madTof silk or wit) ’ 1 1 Ez\xv.1; dd)> embroidered with Rev 1’ £° andi Si-lver tbread (Han- 5; ,7 ' 1 ’ x^' and frequently studded with gold and precious stones or pearls Git trtes, the 600 men who followed David from “GiUite” ^ the ?ittUe (2 Sanl' xv- 13, 19). Ixittite may have been so named from the Glltalm 'n Benjamin (2 Sam- iv. 3; Neh xi. 33), or from Gath-nmmon. Gittith, a musical instrument, supposed to have in Egypt. The art was known to the ancient As¬ syrians. Gleaning. The gleaning of fruit trees, as of corn fields, was reserved for the poor. Glede, the old name for the common kite (Deut, xiv. 13). v Gnat, mentioned only by our Saviour in Matt, xxiii. 24. Goad (Judg. iii. 31; 1 Sam. xiii. 21). The Hebrew in the latter passage probably means the point of the ploughshare. The former refers to the goad, the long handle of which might be used as a weapon. Goat. There appear two or three varieties of the common goat bred in Palestine and Syria, but whether identical with those of the ancient Heb¬ rews it is not possible to say. Goat, Scape. [Atonement, D at of.] Gob (2 Sam. xxi. 18, 19), the scene of two encounters be¬ tween David’s warriors and the Philistines. Given also as Gezer. God. Throughout the Hebrew two chief names are used for the one true divine Being — Ei.ohim, translated God, and Jehovah, translated Lord. Elo- him is the plural of Eloah (in Arabic Allah). It is either what grammarians call the plural of majesty, or it denotes r a-*- J muJesW> or it denotes the fulness of divine strength, the sum of the powers displayed by God. J Gog. [Magog.] Goid, used as an emblem of purity (Job xxiii. 10) n nobility (Lam. iv. 1). Gold was known from s as s ; ch as sh^h as 7 hare of mount sinai ‘be GoutCS ' / » as in liBgvr, liBk ; th as in thine. 36 GOLGOTHA HABAKKUK HAGGAI tremely abundant in ancient times (1 Chr. xxii. 14; 2 Chr. i. 15, ix. 9; Nah. ii. 9; Dan. iii. 1). Golgd'tha, the Hebrew name of the spot at which - is applied to the four inspired histories of the life and teaching of Christ contained in the N T ot which separate accounts are given in their place. Gourd. 1. (Jon. iv. 6-10.) The plant in- i h con? HORSE IN PERSIAN STATE PROCESSION. our Lord was crucified (Matt, xxviii. 33; Mark XV'i “■?’ X1X- 17), interpreted the “place of a skull.' The name arises from (1) being the spot where executions ordinarily took place, and abounded in skulls; or (2) it may come from the look or form of the spot itself, bald, round, and skull-like. Joli’ath, a famous giant of Gath (1 Sam. xvii.). He was possibly descended from the old Rephaim, of whom a scattered remnant took refuge with the Philistines (Deut. ii. 20, 21; 2 Sam. xxi. £2). His height was “six cubits and a span;” taking the cubit at 21 inches, 10} feet high. But the LXX. and Jo¬ sephus read “/out* cubits and a span.” The scene of his com¬ bat with David was the Valley of the Tere¬ binth. Go'mer, 1. The eldest son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3), gener¬ ally recognized as the progenitor of the early Cim¬ merians, of the later Cimbri and the other branch¬ es of the Celtic family. Gomor'rah, in the N. T. written Gomor'rha, one of the five “cities of the plain” that joined battle with Chedor- laomer (Gen. xiv. 2-8). Four out of the five were afterwards destroyed by fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 23-29). Of these Gomorrah seems second to Sodom in importance. [Sodom.] Gopher Wood (Gen. vi. 14). Two conjectures have been proposed : 1. That the “trees of Gopher” are any trees of the resinous kind, such as pine, fir, &e. 2. That Gopher is cypress. Go'shen, the name of a part of Egypt where the Israelites dwelt for the whole period of their so¬ journ in that country. It was between Joseph’s EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD GODS. tended, and which afforded shade to Jonah before Nineveh, is the castor-oil plant. 2. With regard to the “wild gourds” of 2 K. iv. 39, there can be no doubt that it is a species of the gourd tribe, which contains plants of a very bitter and dangerous character. Gov'ernor. This English word is the representa¬ tive ot no less than ten Hebrew and four Greek words. Grasshopper. [Locust.] or 629). The prophet commences by anno,,^ his ofhce and important mission (i , ^ with the magnificent Psalm in chan v c™ position unrival- ‘ 1 led. Habergeon, a coat of mail covering tho neck and breast. Haoh'ilah, The Hill, a hill ap¬ parently in the wood i n the neighborhood of Zioh (1 Sam. xxiii. 19; comp. 14. 15, 18). Ha'dad, originally the indigenous appellation of the Sun among the Syrians, and thence trans- ferred to the Egyptian gateway. king, as the highest of earthly authorities. The title appears an official one, like Pharaoh. Ha'dad-rim'mon, according to Zecli. xn. 11 place in the valley of Megiddo, named after two Syrian ldols^ where a lamentation was held for , the death of Josiah. i Hadarg'zer, son of Rehob (2 Sam. viii. 3), was pur | sued by David, and defeated (1 Chr. xviii. 3, 4), Hadas'sah, early name of Esther (Esth. ii. 7) Ha'des. The habitation of the dead (Luke x 15 ™ I 23; Actsii.27, 31; Rev.i.18, vi.8, xx.13,14. n’I"! Hadd’ram. The form assumed in Chronicles bythe name of the intendant of taxes under David Solo mon and Rehoboam (2 Chr. x. 18). In Kin,, the name is Adoxiram; in 2 Sam. xx. 24Auoham, A WALL CHAMBER. EGYPTIAN DRESS. Greaves (1 Sam. xvii. 6), a piece of defensive armor which reached from the foot to the knee. But in this passage it would appear to have been a kind of shoe or boot. Greece, Greeks, Grecians. In Gen. x. 2-5 Moses mentions the descendants of Javan as peopling the isles of the Gentiles. Prophetical notice of Greece occurs in Dan. viii. 21, &e. The name of the country, Greece, occurs once in N. T. (Acts xx. 2) as opposed to Macedonia. [Gentiles.] hippopotamus. Ha'gar, an Egyptian woman, the handmaid, ci slave, of Sarah (Gen. xvi. 1), whom tbe latter gave as a concubine to Abraham. It is recorded that “when slie saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised” (4, and Sarah, with anger, reproached Abraham. Hagar fled. By th6 fountain in the way to Shur, the angel cf the Lord charged her to return and delivered the prophecy in ver 10-12. On her return, she gave birth to Ishmael. Mention is not again made of Hagar until the feast at the weaning o. Isaac, when Sarah saw Ishmael mocking I and we now read of her expulsion. iM name of Hagar occurs when she takes a wife to Ishmael (xxi. 21); and in the gene alogy (xxv. 12). war horses. • Grove. A word used, with two exceptions, to translate - Asherah which is probably an idol. In the religion of the ancient heathen world groves play a prominent part. Gur, The going up to, an ascent at which Ahaziah received his death-blow while flying from Jehu (2 K. ix. 27). BEDCHAMBER and divans. residence at the time and the frontier of Pales¬ tine (Gen. xlvi. 29). Gospels. The name Gospel (good, message or news) H Hab'akkuk, the eighth in order cf the minor prophets. He probably delivered his prophecy ___ _ _ „ about the 12th or 13th year of Josiah (b. cvi- 22). , Abasuerus (Esth?*- °f kin8 — — - Li! _ Alter his attempt to | l’ r^dc’ e, i, o, silent ; £ as s; Dent. vii. 23). 2. The work of the carpenter is often mentioned (Gen. vi. 14; Ex. xxxvii.; Is. xliv. 13). Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill (Is. xii. 7, xliv. 13). NEAR THE SOURCE OF THE JORDAN. MOUNT HOREB. Jeremiah the yoke he wore by Divine command (Jer. xxvii.) and breaking it. But Jeremiah was bid to tell Hananiah that for the wooden yokes broken he should make yokes of iron, so firm was the dominion of Babylon destined to be for seventy years. Jeremiah added this rebuke and prediction of Hananiab’s death. 2. The Hebrew name of Shadrach. He was of the house of David, according to tradition (Dan. i. 3, 6, 7, 11, 19; ii. 17). 3. Son of Zerubbahel (1 Chr. iii. 19), from whom Christ derived his descent. He is by St. Luke called Jo¬ anna. Hand'ioraft (Acts xviii. 3, xix. 25; Rev. xviii. 22), with iron, workingin brass, or copper alloyed with tin, . , bronze, Is mentioned as practised (Gen. iv. 22). The worker in gold and silver must have found employment in very early times (Gen, xxiv. 22, 63, xxxv. 4, xxxviii. 18; ckassh;-c,-chas k; g as j, g as in get ; g as z, x aagi; 3. Masons employed by David and Solomon were Phoenicians (1 K. ’v. 18; Ez. xxvii. 9). For ordinary building, mortar was used ; sometimes, perhaps, bitumen (Gen. xi. 3). The use of whitewash is remarked (Matt, xxiii. 27). Houses infected with leprosy were required to be re-plastered (Lev. xiv. 40-45). 4. Ship and boat building must have been ex ercised (Matt. viii. 23, ix. 1; John xxi. 3, 8). Solomon built, at Ezion-Geber, ships for his foreign trade. 6. The perfumes used imply practice in the art of the “apothecaries.” 6. The arts of spinning and weaving wool and linen were carried on. The loom with beam (1 Sam. xvii. 7), pin (Judg. xvi. 14), and shuttle (Job vii. 6), was as early as David’s time (1 Sam. xvii. 7). We read also of embroidery with gold and silver threads (Ex. xxvi. 1, xxviiL 4; xxxix. 6-13). 7. Besides these arts, dyeing, dressing cloth, and tanning and dressing leather were practiced (Josh. ii. 15-18; 2 K. i. 8; Matt. iii. 4; Acts ix. 43). Tent-makers are noticed in the Acts (xviii. 3), _ as also the potters. 8. Bakers are noticed (Jer. xxxvii. 21; Hos. vii. 4). Hanging, Hangings. (1.) The “hanging” was a curtain or “covering” to close an entrance (Ex. xxvi. 36, 37, xxxix. 38). (2.) The “hangings” were used for cover¬ ing the walls of the court of the Taber¬ nacle (Ex. xxvii. 9, xxxv. 17, xxxviii. 9; Num. iii. 26, iv. 26). Han'nah, one of the wives of Elkanah, and mother of Samuel (1 Sam. i. ii.). Ea'ran. 1. Third son of Terah, and youngest brother of Abram (Gen. xi. 26). Three children are ascribed to him— Lot (27, 31), and two daughters, viz., Milcah, who married her uncle WAILING PLACE OP THE JEWS. Nahor (291 and Iscah (29). Haran was born in Ur of the Chaldees, and he died there while his father was living (28). 2. Haran or Charrab (Acta vn. 2y 4)| name of the place whither Abni tt as in linger, link ; tii as in thine. 38 HARE HEAVEN HEIFER a, «, If o, u, y, long; a, e, I, o, u, y, short ham migrated. It is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen. xxiv. 10). Hare occurs (Lev. xi. 6, and Deut. xiv. 7) amongst the animals disallowed. It was erroneously thought by the Jews to have chewed the cud. JOSEPH’S COAT BROUGHT TO JACOB. They were misled by the habit these animals have of moving the jaw about. Harlot. That this class of persons existed is clear from Gen. xxxviii. 15. The “harlots” are classed with “publicans,” as under the ban of society in the N. T. (Matt- xxi. 32). Ha'rod, The Well of, a spring by which Gideon and his great army encamped dn the morning of the rout of the Midianites (Judg. vii. 1). Har'OshSth “of the Gentiles,” a city in the north of Canaan. It was the residence of Sisera (Judg. HEAD-DRESS OF EASTERN RIDING HORSE. I'voth-ja'ir, certain villages east ot Jordan taken y Jair the son of Manasseh, and called after his ame (Num. xxxii. 41; Deut. iii. 14). _ AN EASTERN KING. Hay, the rendering in Prov. xxvii. 25, and Is. xv. 6, of a word which denotes “grass” of any kind. It is certain that the ancients did mow their grass and use the dry material. See Ps. xxxvii. 2. Haz'ael, a king of Damascus, who reigned from about b. c. 886 to b. o. 840. He appears in a high position at the court of Benhadad, and was sent to Elisha to inquire if his master would re¬ cover from his malady. % Elisha’s answer led to the murder of Benhadad by his servant, who mounted the throne (2 K. viii. 7-15). Hazae appears to have died about the year b. c. 840, having reigned 46 years. Hazel (Gen. xxx. 37). Authorities are divided between the hazel and the almond tree. The latter is probably correct. Ha'zo, a son of Nahor, by Milcah his wife (Gen. xxii. 22). Head-dress. The earliest notice is in Ex. xxviu. 40. We infer that it was not ordinarily worn in the Mosaic age. The As¬ sy r i a n head¬ dress is describ¬ ed in Ez. xxiii. 15. The word rendered “hats” in Dan. iii. 21, properly applies to a cloak. Hearth. The cakes baked “on the hearth" (Gen. xviii. 6) were probably baked .on hot stones covered with ashes. Heath (Jer. xvii. ancient eqtptian door. 6), some species of juniper, probably the savin. Heathen. [Gentiles.] Heaven. Four Hebrew words are thus rendered. St. Paul’s expression “third heaven” (2 Cor. xn. 2) has led to much conjecture. The Jews divided the heaven into three parts, viz., 1 . the atmos¬ phere, where clouds gather ; 2. the firmament, in which sun, moon, and stars are fixed ; 3. the up¬ per heaven, the abode of God and his angels EASTERN HEAD-DRESS. ten before the destruction of Jerusalem in a. d. 70. The date which best agrees with tradition is A. D. 63, about the end of St. Paul’s imprison¬ ment at Rome. He'bron. A city of Judah (Josh. xv. 54); situated among the mountains (Josh. xx. 7), 20 Roman miles south of Jerusalem. Hebron is one of the most ancient cities still existing; and in this ii the rival of Damascus. It was a well-known town when Abraham entered Canaan 3780 years ago (Gen. xiii. 18). Its original name was Kir- jath-Arba (Judg. i. 10), so called from Arha the progenitor of the giant Anakim (Josh- xxi. 14, JEWISH CAPTIVES BEFORE KING OF BABYLON. xv. 13, 14). Sarah died at Hebron, and Abra¬ ham then bought the field and cave of Machpelaa (Gen. xxiii. 2-20). The cave is still there. He¬ bron now contains about 6000 inhabitants, or whom some 60 families are Jews. Hedge. The Heb. thus rendered denotes that which surrounds or encloses, whether a stone wall (Prov. xxiv. 31; Ez. xlii. 10) or a fence o other materials. KING OF ASSYRIA PUTTING OUT EYES OF CAPTIVI-3- that Heifer. The Hebrew is applied to c [0| have calved (1 Sam. vi. 7-12 ; Job ff9J Is. vii. 21). The heifer or young co* . care, far, list, fall, what; there) veil, term ; pique, firm, done, fdr, do, wolf, food, foot , Hawk (Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15; Job. xxxix. 26). The word is doubtless generic, and includes vari¬ ous species of the Falconidae. He'brew. This word first occurs a° mT.. Abram by the Canaanites (Gen. xiv. 13) \e ® ™ he had crossed the Euphrates. The name is'T® derived from ’ eber , “beyond, on the other sid! "° He'brews, Epistle to the. There is no reason ) doubt that at first, everywhere, except in N ,? Africa, St. Paul was regarded as the author T| Epistle was probably addressed to the JeWs •" Jerusalem and Palestine. It was evidently wri; HERA. iv. 2), and the point to which Barak pursued the discomfited host (Judg. iv. 16). Harp, the national instrument of the Hebrews. Moses assigns its invention to the antediluvian period (Gen. iv. 21). Harrow. The word so rendered (2 Sam. xii. 31; 1 Chr. xx. 3) is probably a threshing-machine. Hart. The hart is among the clean animals (Deut. xii. 15, xiv. 5) commonly killed for food. The Heb. masc. noun ayyal denotes either the fallow- deer or the Barbary deer. Hav'ilah. 1. A son of Cush (Gen. x. 7); and, 2. A son of Joktan (x. 29). It appears probable both stocks settled in the same country, and in¬ termarried. Hav'ilah (Gen. ii. 11). [Eden.] HEAD-DRESS. HEIR HEROD HESHBON 39 „ed only for treading out the corn (Hos. * H)- nnder the Patriarchal system the property Heir’ among the sons of the legitimate was divided ng ^ xxv. g), a larger wives (Geo- * ' . ’ d to the eldest, on whom de- portion being s ? females of the family, volved the were portioned off with musician (1 Chr. vi. 33), to whom was committed the vocal and instrumental music of the temple- service in the reign of David (1 Chr. xv. 10-22). In 1 Chr. xxv. he is called (ver. 5) “the king’s seer in the matters of God.” Hem'lock. The Hebrew rosh is rendered “hemlock” (Hos. x. 4); elsewhere “gall.” Hen. The hen is nowhere noticed in the Bible except in Matt, xxiii. 37; Luke xiii. 34. He received (a. d. 41) the government of Judaea and Samaria. He put to death James the son of Zebedee, and further imprisoned Peter (Acts xn. 1, If.). In the fourth year of his reign over the He'pher, ancient place in a n a a n APPROACH TO JERUSALEM. feted the succession (Deut. xxi. 17; Num. xxvii. 8, xxxvi. 6, ff.). He'li, the father of Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary (Luke iii. 23); maintained to have been the real brother of Jacob, the father oftthe Virgin herself. Hel'kath Hez'zurim, a smooth ground close to the pool of Gibeon, where the combat took place mentioned in 2 Sam. ii. 16). Hell. The word generally used to render the He¬ brew Sheol. It would have been better to retain the Hebrew. The word most frequently used in the N. T. for the place of future punishment is Gehenna or Gehenna of fire. Hellenist. In the first Christian Church at Jerusa¬ lem (Actsvi. 1), two distinct parties are recog¬ nized, “Hebrews” and “Hellenists” (Grecians). The Hellenists included not only proselytes of Greek parentage, but also Jews who had adopted Gr eek civilization and the Greek dialect. hoopoe. of Garment • especially the Pharlso ln)P?rtance.the later Jews, the hem of their d-68 ^att‘ xx“‘- 5), attached jRura. xv. 38, gg garments was founded upon SHe°ia Sedh“tfan:iS0n0MSamuel the ^^^caiied^jjie singer,” rather the > push ; c, i, o, silent ; 5 as s 5 (Josh. xii. 17), on the west of Jordan. HSr'ald (Dan. iii. 4). The term might be substituted for “preacher” in 1 Tim. ii. 7; 2 Tim. i. 11; 2 Pet. ii. 5. Herd.Herds'man. The herd was greatly re¬ garded both in the patriarchal and Mo¬ saic period. The ox was the most precious stock next to horse and mule. Cattle formed thus one of the traditions of the Israelitish na¬ tion in its greatest period. The occupation of herdsman was hon¬ orable in early times (Gen. xlvii. 6; 1 Sam. xi. 6; 1 Chr. xxvii. 29, xxviii. 1). Saul himself resumed it in the interval of his cares as king. David’s herd-masters were among his chief officers of state. Her'mas, the name of a Christian at Rome to whom St. Paul sends greeting (Romans xvi. 14). Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Origen agree in attrib¬ uting to him the work called the Shepherd ; while others affirm it to have been the work of a name¬ sake. Her'mes (Rom. xvi. 14). According to tradition he was one of the Seventy disciples, and after¬ wards Bishop of Dalmatia. Hermog'enes, a person mentioned by St. Paul (2 Tim. i. 15) when all in Asia had turned away from him, and among their number “Phygellus and Hermogenes.” Her'mon, the most conspicuous and beautiful mountain in Palestine. When the country is parched with the sun, lines of snow streak the head of Hermon. This moun¬ tain was the great landmark of the Israel¬ ites. The height has never been measured. It may safely be reckoned at 10,000 feet. Her'od. This family, though of Idumaean origin, and aliens by race, were Jews in faith. I. Herod the Great was the second son of Anti- pater, appointed Procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, B. c. 47. At fifteen years old, he received the govern¬ ment of Galilee. At Rome he was appointed by the sen¬ ate king of Judaea. In a few years, by the help of the Romans, he took Jerusalem (b. c. 37), and completely established his authority. His domestic life was embit¬ tered by cruel acts of venge¬ ance. The greatest of his works was the rebuilding of the Temple. The restoration was begun b. c. 20. II. Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great. His father ap- ointed him “tetrarch of Galilee and braea” (Matt. xiv. 1; Luke iii. 19; Acts xiii. 1). He first married a daughter of Aretas, but after made overtures of mar¬ riage to Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod Philip, which she received favorably Pilate sent our Lord for exam ination (Luke xxiii. 6, ff.) to Herod Antipas. Herod finally died in exile. III. Herod Agrippa I. was the son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the Great. JEWISH HIGH-PRIEST OFFERING INCENSE. whole of Judaea (a. d. 44) Agrippa attended some games at Caesarea. When he appeared (Acts xii. 21) his flatterers saluted him as a god; and suddenly he was seized with terrible pains, and being carried to the palace died after five days’ agony. IV. Herod Agrippa II. was the son of Herod Agrippa I. The relation in which he stood to his sister Berenice (Acts xxv. 13) was the cause of grave suspicion. In the last Roman war, after the fall of Jerusalem Agrippa retired with Berenice to Rome, where he died in the third year of Trajan (a. d. 100). Hero'dians. A party under the name of Herodians is represented a I acting in concert with the Phar¬ isees (Matt. xxii. 16; Mark xii. 13; comp, also iii. 6, viii. 15). There were probably many who saw in the Herodian family the pledge of their national existence in the face of Roman am¬ bition. Hera'dias, daughter of Aristobulus, one of the sons of Mariamne and Herod the Great, and consequently sister of Agrippa I. She first mar¬ ried Herod Philip I.; then she eloped from him to marry Herod Antipas. The head of John the P° Pc EASTERN INN, OR CARAVANSARAI. Baptist was granted to the request of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 8-11; Mark vi. 24-28). According to Josephus the execution took place in a fortress called Machaerus. She accompanied Antipas into exile to Lugdunum. Herd'dion, a relative of St. Paul, to whom he sends his salutation (Rom. xvi. 11). Heron. The Hebrew appears as an unclean bird in Ley. vi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. It was probably a generic name. The only point on which com¬ mentators agree is, that it is not the heron. Hesh'bon, the capital city of Sihon king of the Amorites (Num. xxi. 26). The ruins of Hesban , 20 miles east of the Jordan, mark the Jhassh; -c,«h ask; g as j, g ;as in get ; sasi; J as gi ; 40 HETH T^ere ar«. many cisterns among the ruins (•romp. Cant. vii. 4). Heih, the forefather of the nation of the Hittites b tlamite race, neither of the “country” nor Egyptian ladies. kindred of Abraham (Gen. xxiv. 3, 4, xxviii. I, 2).^ Hezeki'ah. Twelfth king of Judah, son of the apostate Ahaz and Abi (or Abijah), as¬ cended the throne at the age of 25, b. C. 726. Hezekiah was one of the three most perfect kings of Jndah (2 K. xviii. 5: Ecclus. xlix. 4). His first act was to purge, and repair, and reopen the Tem¬ ple, which had been despoiled during sue idolatrous reign of his father. A HIPPOPOTAMUS and Laodtcea The three towns were all in the Dasin ot the Maeander, within a few miles of one another. Higgai on occurs three times in the book of Psalms (ix. 17, xix. 16, xcii. 4). The word ms two meanings, which cannot be deter- mned. High-priest. 1. Legally. The first distinct separation of Aaron to the office of the priest¬ hood was that recorded Ex. xxviii. We find the following characteristic attributes: (1.) /i cron alone was anointed (Lev. viii. 12). The anointing of the sons of Aaron seems confined to sprinkling their garments with the anoint- mi?°iMEx‘ -Xxix‘ 21» xxviii. 41, &c.). (2.) he high-pnest had a peculiar dress, which passed to his successor at his death. Accord¬ ing to the LXX. and Josephus, it was the twelve stones of the breastplate which consti¬ tuted the Urim and Thummim. The history of the high-priests embraces a period of about 1 37 0 years, and a succession of about 80 high- priests, beginning with Aaron and ending with lhannias. Hilki ah, high-priest in the reign of Joshua (2 lv. xxii. 4, sqq.; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 9, sqq.). Ac¬ cording to Ezr. vii. 1, the ancestor of Ezra the scribe. His high-priesthood was illustrious by the discovery which he made of the book ot the law of Moses in the Temple. Him [Measures.] Hind, the female of the common stag or cervus m & hophni Hj'ram, or Hfl'ram, the king of Tvre workmen and materials to Jerusalem O ,!>nt 11; l Chr. xiv. 1) to build a palace v- K. v. 1), and again (1 K. v. 10 vii ° 3°^ * 14, 16) to build the Temple for Solomon (^ft' Hit'tites, The, the nation descended from Pt .1 (A. V, “Heth”), the second son of GODS OF TUB GRECIANS. more decisive act was the destruc¬ tion of a brazen serpent. Hezekiab’s dangerous illness (2 K. xx.;Is. xxxviii.; 2 Chr. xxxii. 24) nearly synchronized A ih Sargon’s futile invasion, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah’s reign, l i is kingdom was in a dangerous crisis, and he “turned his face to the wall and wept sore” at the thieatened approach of dissolution. God heard his prayer. Isaiah was ordered to promise the king recovery, ratifying the promise by curing the boil by a plaster of figs. Sennach¬ erib’s two invasions occupy the greater part of the records concerning Hezekiah. Hezekiah slept with his fathers after a reign of twenty- nine years, in the 66th year of his age (b. c. 697). He'zion, a king of Aram (Syria) frandfather o f ienhadad I., probably identi¬ cal with Rezon (1 K. xi. 23). Hid'dekel, one of the rivers of Eden (Gen. ii. 14) i d en ti fied with the Tigris. Hi'el, of Bethel, who rebuilt Jer OBT-1BK at HELIOFOUS. jcho (1 K. Xvi. 44); and in whom was fulfilled .he curse by Joshua (Josh. v. i. 26). ■tlerap'oUs, mentioned (Col. >v, 13) with Colossae JOSEPH BEFORE PHARAOH. Abraham bought from the “Children of Heth" the field and the cave of Maehpelah, belongm^to Ephron the Hittite. 8 o 0 Ht'vites, The. In the genealogical tables of Gen¬ esis, the Hivite” is named as one of the de¬ scendants— the sixth in order — of Canaan the sou of Ham (Gen. x. 17; 1 Chr. i. 15). Hd'bSb (Num. x. .29; Judg. iv. 11 It seems doubtful whether this name de¬ notes the father-in-law orbrother-iu-law of Moses. Eo'bah, the place to which Abrabam pursued the kings (Gen. xiv. 15). It was “to the north of Damascus.” Kul'ofer'nes, or, more correctly, Or* WELLAND BUCKET AT JAFFA. DRIVEN FROM JERUSALEM. dnphus. It is frequently noticed. Kinge. Ancient Egyptian doors were hung by means of pivots turning in sockets both on the upper and lower sides (1 K. vii. 60). fete* fernes, a general of Nebuohadnezzai (Jud. ii. 4), slain by the Jewish heroine Judith. Homer. [Measures.] Honey. The Hebrew delash, in the first place, applies to the product of the bee. In the second place, the term delash ap¬ plies to a decoction of the juice of the grape, which is still called dils. It was this, and not ordiuary bee-honey, which Jacob sent to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11). Hook, Hooks. Various kinds of hooks are noticed. 1. Fishing-hooks (Job xli. 2; Is. xix. 8) 2. Properly a ring (A. V. “thorn”). 3. Was I'd with rings (2 Chr. xxxii. 11; A. V. “in the thorns”). An illustration of this: The hooks of the pillars of the Tabernacle. 4. A vine-dress^r's nruning-hook (Is. ii. 4, xviii. 6). 6, A flesh- hook (Ex. xxvii. 3; 1 Sam. ii. 13, 14). BSph'nt and Phin'eas, the two sons of Eli, who tuiCJeJ t.heir sacerdotal duties at Shiloh. "eir o, u, y, long; a, e, t, o , fi, y, ANCIENT LAMPS. Hin'noin, Valley of, a deep and narrow ravine S. and W. of Jerusalem. The earliest mention is in Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16. Ahaz and Manasseh made their children “pass through the fire” in this val¬ ley (2 K. xvi. 3, 2 Chr. xxviii. 8, xxxiii. 6, and the fiendish custom of infant sacrifice to the fire- gods seems to have been kept up in Tophet, at its S. E. extremity (Jer. vii. 81; 2K. xxx. 10). To put an end to tnese abominations the place was pi lluted by Josiah. The later Jews applied the name of this valley; Ge Hinnorn, Gehenna, to de note the place of eternal torment Hlp'pop5tfamas. [Behemoth.] THE HIND. brutal rapacity and lust (1 Sam. ii. 22, 12- 1 Jt filled the people with disgust. They were I cut off in one day. short; care, far, last, fall, what; there, veil, term ; pique, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; HOB, for, Mount, (Nutn. XX, “°i ;• anr L archaic form of Har Th(5 mountain on which Aaron died ‘27). The word Hor is probably the Hebrew for “inoun- MOUNT HOREB. tain ” It was “on the boundary line” (Num. xv. 23) of the land of Edom. It is surmounted ly a circular dome of the tomb of Aaron. Ho'reb. [Sinai.] , Ho’rites and Ho'rims, the aboriginal inhabitants ot Mount Seir (Gen. xiv. 6). The name appears derived from their habits as “cave-dwellers. Their excavated dwellings are still found in hun¬ dreds. , Horn, often used to signify strength and honor. i Horns of iron were worn defiantly and symboli¬ cally on the head. Hornet, referred to as the means Jehovah em¬ ployed for the extirpation of the Canaanites (Ex. HARE OF MOUNT LEBANON. xxiii. 28; Deut. vii. 20; Josh. xxiv. 12; Wisd. xii. 8). Horse. The animated description of the horse in I iL0^' xxx*x- 19-25 applies solely to the war-horse. I 1 he Hebrews in the patriarchal age did not stand in need of the horse. David first established a mrce of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of I Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 4). But the great sup¬ ply ot horses was subsequently effected by Solo¬ mon (1 K. iv. 26). .Horse-leech (Prov. xxx. 15) denotes some species o leech, or rather is uhe generic term for any ^bloodsucking annelid. a'na (Save, we pray”), we pray”), the cry of the multi- *. i tomb OF EZRA. . . 8-a? thYnttir°rnged our Lord’s triumphal into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; I J ohn xu. 13). furl, rude, push; e, Q> gilent . HYSSOP Hosfi'a, son of Beeri, and first of the Minor Prophets. It seems almost certain that very few his prophecies were written until after the death of Jeroboam (783). The prophetic career of Hosea extended over a period ol fifty-nine years. , . Hoshe'a, the nineteenth, last, and best king of Israel. He succeeded Pekah, whom he slew in a successful conspiracy, thereby ful¬ filling a prophecy of Isaiah (Is. vii. 16). took place b. c. 737. _ , Hoshe'a, the son of Nun, l. e. Joshua (uput‘ xxxii. 44; and also in Num. xiii. 8, though there the A. V. has Oshea). Hospital'ity. Hospitality was regarded by most nations of the ancient world as one ot the chief virtues. The laws respecting strangers (Lev. xix. 33, 34), and the poor, Lev. xxv. 14, seqq.; Deut. xv. 7), and re¬ demption (Lev. xxv. 23, seqq.), &c., are in accordance with hospitality. Hour. The Greeks adopted the division of the day into twelve hours from the Baby¬ lonians. At what period the Jews became first acquainted with this way of reckoning time is unknown, but probably during the captivity. . House. The houses of the rural poor in Egypt, as in Syria, Arabia, and Persia, are for the most part huts of mud, or sunburnt bricks. In some parts of Palestine and Arabia stone is used. In Oriental domestic habits the roof is important. Its flat surface is made useful for drying corn, hanging up linen and preparing figs and raisins. The roofs are used as places of recreation in the evening, and of¬ ten as sleeping places at night (2 Sam. xi. 2, xvi. 22; Dan. iv. 29; 1 Sam. ix. 25, 26). They were also used as places for de¬ votion, and even idolatrous wor¬ ship (Jer. xxxii. 29; 2 K. xxiii. 12). Protection of the roof by parapets was en¬ joined by the law (Deut. xxii. 8). IIuTdah, a proph¬ etess in the time of king Josiah (2 K. xxii. 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 22). Hur, mentioned with Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 10). He is mentioned again in xxiv. 14, as being, with Aaron, in charge of the people. The Jewish tradition is that he was the husband of Miriam. Hu'shai, an Archite, i. e. possibly an inhabitant of a place called Erec (2 Sam. xv. 32, ff. ; xvi. 16, ff.). To him David confided the delicate and dangerous part of a pretended adherence to the cause of Absalom. Husks. The word rendered in the A. V. “husks” (Luke xv. 16) describes the fruit of a tree, viz.: the carob. This is commonly met. It produces pods, shaped like a horn, vary¬ ing in length from 6 to 10 inches, and about a finger’s breadth, or rather more. Huz,'the eldest son of Nahor and Milcah (Gen. xxii. 21). Hyaena. Authorities are at variance as to whether the term tzabu'a in Jer. xii. 9 means a “hyaena,” a “speckled bird.” The hyaena was common in ancient as in modern Egypt. Hymenae'us, the name of a person occur¬ ring first with Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20), and second with Philetus 2 Tim. ii. 17, 18). Hyssop, used to sprinkle the doorposts of the Israelites in Egypt with the blood of the pas¬ chal iamb (Ex. xii. 22) ; it was employed in the purification of lepers and leprous houses IDOLATRY (Lev. xiv. 4, 51), and in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. xix. 6). It is desenbed in 1 K. iv. 33 as growing on or near walls. JEUOAIIaZ LEU CAPTIVE BY PIIARAOB. 15), Ib'har, one of the sons of David (2 Sam. born in Jerusalem. Ih'zan, a native of Bethlehem, who judged Israel seven years after Jephthah (Judg. xii. 8, 10). Ich'abod, the son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli (l Sam. iv. 21). Ieg'nium, the modern Konieh, was the capital of CORINTH. Lycaonia. It was between Ephesus and Tarsus, Antioch and the Euphrates. Id'do. A seer whose “visions” against Jeroboam incidentally contained some of the acts of Solo¬ mon (2 Chr. ix. 29). He appears to have written a chronicle or story relating to Abijah (2 Chr. xiii. 22), and also a book “concerning genealo- HARPIST PLAYING BEFORE A KING. gies (xii. 15). These books are lost, but may have formed part of the foundation of the book's of Chronicles. Idolatry, strictly speaking, denotes the worship of deity in a visible form, whether the images to which homage is paid are symbolical represent<- 5 aa 8} ch as sir ; -c,-cli as k 5 g as j, g as in gets gasij 5 as gx ; Basin linger, link ; tl» as in Urine. 42 IDUMEA ISHMAEL ITTAI EGYPTIAN IDOL. Idume'a. [Edom.] Illyr'ioum, an extensive district along the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and contiguous to Moesia and Macedonia (Rom. xv. 19). Imman'uel (God with us), the symbolical name given by the prophet Isaiah to the child announced to Ahaz and Judah, as the sign God would give of their deliverance (Is. vii. 14). It is applied to the Messiah (Matt. i. 23). In cense. The incense employed in the tabernacle was compounded of stacte, onychu, galbanum, and pure frankincense. All incense not made of RUINS AT KARNAC. these ingredients was forbidden to be offered (Ex. India. The name does not occur in the Bible be¬ fore the book of Esther, where it is noticed as the limit of the territories of Ahasuerus in the east; as Ethiopia was in the west (i. 1; viii. 9). Ink, Inkhorn. [Writing.] _ . Inn. The Hebrew literally signifies a lodging- place for the night.” Inns, in our sense of the term, were unknown in the East, where hospitali¬ ty is religiously practice'1 1 he halting- place of a caravan was selected on ...count of its proxim- GATE AT JERUSALEM. ;o water or pasture. Such was undoubtedly ‘•inn” at which occurred the incident narrated lx. iv. 24 (comp. Hen. xlii- 27). ih, son of Shelemiah who met Jeremiah in the cooking utensils (Ez. iv. 3; cf. Lev. vii. 9). That it was plentiful in the time of David ap¬ pears from 1 Chr. xxii. 3. The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan (Ez. xxvii. 19). I'saac, the son whom Sarah bore to Abraham, in the hundredth year of his age, at Gerar. In his infancy he became the object of Ishmael’s jeal¬ ousy; and in his youth the victim, in intention, of Abraham’s great sacrificial act of faith. When forty years old he married Rebekah his cousin, by whom, when sixty, he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year, he and his brother Ishmael buried their father. From the well Lahai-roi, in the South Country, Isaac was driven by a famine to Gerar. Here Jehovah re¬ newed to him the promises to Abraham. Ho sjjn=||fc died at Hebron (xxxv. 27) - - at the age of 180 years, and : was buried by his two sons ’ in the cave of Machpelah. _ Isa'iah, the prophet, son of Amoz. He prophesied concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotliam, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Is. i. 1). Isaiah must have been an old man at the close of Hezekiah’ s reign. The ordinary chro¬ nology gives 698 a. d. for the date of Hezekiah’s death. This gives us a period of sixty years. The Book of. The great number and minute¬ ness of the predictions of Isaiah concerning the advent, character, preaching, labors, suffering, and death of our Lord, have secured to him the name of the evangelical prophet. _ The size, im¬ portance, and style of the book give it a leading position among the prophets. Is'cah, daughter of Haran tbe brother of Abram, and sister of Milcah and of Lot (Gen. xi. 29). In the Jewish traditions identified with Sarai. Iscar'iot. [Judas Iscariot.] Ish'bak, a son of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2; 1 Chr. i. 32), and progenitor of a tribe of northern Arabia. Ish'bi-be'nob, one of the race of Philistine giants, who was slain by Abishai (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17). , Ish-bo'sheth, the youngest of Saul’s four sons, and his legitimate success¬ or. Ishbosheth was “40 years old when he began to reign over Israel, and reigned two years” (2 Sam. iii. 10). During these two EASTERN MODE OF SITTING. years he reigned at Mahanaim, only in name. The wars and negotiations with David were 25). He does not again appear until the weaning of Isaac. He must have been between fifteen and sixteen years of age. “Sarah saw the son of Hagar mocking.” The patriarch, comforted by God’s promise, sent them both away. “His mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt" (Gen. xxi. 9-21). Of the later life of Ishmael we know little. He was present at the burial of Abraham. He died at the age of 137 years (xxv. 17, 18). The sons of Ishmael eventually formed the chief element of the Arab nation. Is'rael. 1. The name given (Gen. xxxii. 28) to Jacob after his wrestling with the Angel (Hos. JACKAL. xii. 4) at Peniel. Gesenius interprets Israel “soldier of God.” 2. It became the national name of the twelve tribes collectively. Is'sachar, the ninth son of Jacob and the him ot Leah; the first born to Leah. At the descent in¬ to Egypt four sons are ascribed to him. Ith'amar, the youngest son of Aaron (Ex- vi. - ■ After the deaths of Nadab and Abihu (Lev. x. Hi Eleazar and Ithamar were appointed to sum-e in the priestly office (Ex. xxviii. 1. 40, 4u; hum. iii. 3, 4; 1 Chr. xxiv. 2j. The high-prieslno" passed into the family of Ithamar in the Pers0 It'tai. “Ittai the Gittite,” e. of 1 carried on by Abner (2 Sam. ii 15 6,12). a, e, i, 6, a, y, long; a, e, I, 8, ii, y, short The death of Abner deprived the house of Saul of their last remaining support. _ He fell a victim, probably, to revenge for crime of his father (2 Sam. iv. 4). • . Ish'mael, son of Ahraham by Hagar the Egyptian, ^reTrarTustTfall, what ; there, veil, term ; pique, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food MOUNT EPHRAIM. Philistine in the Army of David. fluring the revolution of Absalom. ^ ‘fi paviil’B cession came GOO heroes who had for these,aP' band during his wanderings. Among3 foot ; tions of tbe true God or of the false divinities which have been made the objects of worship in His stead. The first undoubted allusion to idol¬ atry is in Gen. xxxi. 19. gate, accused him of being about to desert to the Chaldeans, and led him to the princes (Jer. xxxvii. 13, 14). Iron is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals (Gen. iv. 22). The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Sheet-iron was used for born when Abraham was fourscore and six ol.UGeu xvi. 15, 16). Ishmael was the first C, ot Ins father. On the institution of circumcisi, he was circumcised, being thirteen years old (xvii* ETHIOPIANS. 43 ituraea patently eommanding^ was him to caught the eye of the Kin?, (19, 20). But Ittai is SUPPOSED TOMB OF ESTHER AND MORDECAI. Iturae'a, a small province on the northwestern ' border of Palestine, along the base of Mount Hermon, only mentioned in Luke m. 1. I'vah, or A'va (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13; comp. Is. xxxvii. 13): probably identical with the modern Hit, on the Euphrates. ivory. The Heb. signifies the tooth of any animal, and hence the substance of the projecting^ tusks of elephants. The skilled workmen ol Hiram, king of Tyre, fashioned the great ivory FORMS OF CROSSES. throne of Solomon, and overlaid it with pure gold (I K. x. 18; 2 Chr. ix. 17). The “ivory ■ house" of Aliab (1 K. xxii. 39) was probably a palace, the walls panelled with ivory. Iz'liar, son of Kohath, grandson of Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses, and father of Korali (Ex. vi. 18, 21; Num. iii. 19; xvi. 1; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 18). J Jaa siel, son of the great Abner (1 Chr. xxvii. 21). Ji'bal, son of Lamech and Adah (Gen. iv. 20), whose Barak • in the ,3„!i JAMBRES Sea. On the south bank the interview took place between Jacob and hisau (Gen. xxxn. )• iK, i. Ki.gor H„r, * »«sr federacy against the Israehtes (Josh. xi. Joshua surprised the allied forces (v®r- 1 aSSS. 2- Akingof Ha*or, -H™. general, Sisera, was defeated by (Judg. iv. 3, 13). Ja'ohin. One of the two pillars set up the porch” (1 K. vii. 21) or before temple (2 Cbr. iii. 17) of Solomon. Jaointh, a precious stone, forming one ot the foundations of the walls of the ne Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). Ja'cob, second son of Isaac and Kebekah. He was born with Esau, when Isaac was 69 and Abraham 159 years old, probably at the well Lahai-roi. His history is relati d in the latter half of the book of Genesis. In sign of the grace won by a night of wrestling with God his name was changi d at Jabbok into Israel. Joseph was so d into Egypt eleven years before the deal h of Isaac ; and Jacob had probably exceed¬ ed his 130th year when he went thither. He was presented to Pharaoh, and dwelt seventeen years in Rameses and Goshen. He died in his 147tli year. His body was em¬ balmed, carried with great pomp into Canaan, and deposited in the cave of Machpelah. Ja'el, wife of Heber the Kenite. In the headlong rout which followed the defeat of the Canaauites FOX OF THE JORDAN. described as father of such nave cattle as dwell in tents and JAPHETH James the son or Zebedee, one of the We first hear of him in A. D. 2 .', when a fisherman (Mark i. 20), was out on the Sea of Galilee with his two sous, James and John, and some boatmen. Thenamdof Boaner- James. 1. T welve. Zebedee, ges was given to the sons of Zebedee. The Sons of Thunder” bad a burning and impetuous spirit (Lukeix. 54; Mark x. 37). Shortly before the Passover in 44, he was put to death by Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, 2). 2. James the son of Ai-phaeus, one of the Twelve Apostles (Matt, x. 3; Mark iii. 18, Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13). 3. James the brother of the Lord (Matt. xiii. 65; Mark vi. 3; Gal. i. 19). James the Less, son of Alph- aeus or Clopas, and brother of our Lord (see above) was called to the Apostolate, with his brother Jude, in the spring of the year 28. He was event¬ ually appointed to preside over the church at Jerusalem in a position equivalent to that of Bishop. According to tradition, James was thrown from the Temple by the Scribes and Pharisees stoned and his brains out by a fuller’s club. t James, The General Epistle of.' The author of this Epistle was in all probability James the son of Alphaeus, and our before the ktno. Lord’s brother. It was written from Jerusalem. Its main object is to improve morality. St. James is the moral teacher of the N. T. Jan'na, son of Joseph, and father of Melchi, in the genealogy of Christ (Luke iii. 24). Jan'nes and Jam'bres, the names of two Egyptian ANCIENT DAMPS. by Barak, Sisera fled to the tent of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted Jael’s invitation to enter. At last the weary general resigned him¬ self to deep sleep. Then Jael took in her left hand one of the great wooden pins which fastened down the cords of the tent, and in her right hand a mallet, and with one terrible blow dashed it through Sisera' s temples deep into the earth (Judg. v. 27). She then waited to meet the pur¬ suing Barak, and led him into her tent that she might claim the glory of the deed! Jah, the abbreviated form of “Jehovah,” used only in poetry. Ja'ir. 1. A man descended from Judah and Ma- nasseh. During the conquest he took Argob (T)eut. iii. 14), and villages in Gilead, which lie called Hawoth-Jair (Num. xxxii. 41; 1 Chr. ii. 23). 2. “Jair the Gileadite,” who judged Israel for two-and-twenty years (Judg. x. 3-5). He had thirty sons who rode thirty asses, and possessed thirty cities in Gilead, also called Hav- voth- Jair. Jai'rus, a ruler of a synagogue near the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. ix. 18; Mark v. 22; Luke viii. 41). Jam'bres. [Jannes and Jambrer.] magicians who opr mentions them, and oosed Moses. St. Paul alone says they “withstood Moses,” HORSES WITH ROYAL TRAPPINGS. and that their folly became manifest (2 Tim. iii 8, 9). J&'pheth, one of the three sons of Noah. The descendants of Japheth occupied the “isles of the ^ - - - - - • v iwn da dpi Air if u nwnn ftir. J uvuldduudw da vujnmiu « > Push , c, i, of silent ; 5 as s 5 ch as sli ; as Is ; g as j, g as in get ; s as z ; 2 as gz ; uasin linger, liQk ; th as in thine. 44 JARED JEHORAM JEHOVAH-SHALOM Gentiles” (Gen. x. 5), i. e. the coast-lands of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and Asia Minor. J&'red, one of the antediluvian patriarchs, the fifth from Adam; father of Enoch (Gen. v. 15, 16, 18-20; Luke iii. 37). ANTELOPES OF JUDAEA. Ja’sher, Book of, or, as the margin gives it, ‘‘the book of the upright,” a record alluded to in Josh. x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. 18, and the subject of much dispute. J&'son. 1. Jason the High-Priest, the second son of Simon II., and brother of Onias III. 2. Jason the Thessalonian, who entertained Paul Je’bus, one of the names of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 8; Judg. xix. 10, 11). Jeb'usites, The, were descended from the third son of Canaan (Gen. x. 16; 1 Chr. i. 14). First ap¬ pear in Num. xiii. 29). JDd'idah, queen of Amon, and mother of the good king Josiah (2 K. xxii. 1). JSdidi'ah, Jedid-Jah, “darling of Jeho¬ vah,” the name bestowed, through Na¬ than the prophet, on David’s son Solo¬ mon (2 Sam. xii. 25). Jed'uthiin, a Levite, probably the same as Ethan. His office was to preside over the music of the temple service. Jed- uthun’s name stands at the head of the 39th, 62d, and 77th Psalms. Je'gar-sahadu'tha (“heap of testi¬ mony”), the Aramaean name given by Laban to the heap of stones he erected as a memorial of the compact between Jacob and himself, while Jacob commemo¬ rated the same by setting up a pillar (Gen. xxxi. 47). Jeho'ahaz, the son and successor of Jehu, reigned 17 years B. c. 866- 840 over Israel in Samaria. His inglorious history is given in 2 K. xiii. 1-9. Jehoi'achin, son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, and for three months and ten days king of Judah, b. c. 597. Nebuchadnezzar carried him to Babylon (Jer. xxix. 2) Jehoi'ada, high-priest at the of Athaliah’s usurpation of the throne of Judah (b. c. 884-878.) He married Jehoshf.ba, or Jehoshabeath, daughter of king Jeboram, and sister of king Ahaziah (2 Chr. xxii. 11); and when Atha- liah slew the seed royal he and his wife stole Joash from among the king’s sons, and hid him in the Temple, and eventually placed him on the throne. The destruction of Baal-worship and father on the throne of Judah, and reiimoa • , years, from B. c. 893-2 to 885-4. As to*’*1* fixed on the throne, he put his six brother's f death, with many of the chief nobles. He tl proceeded to establish the worship of Baal ft died of a terrible disease (2 Chr. xxi. 19 201 Jehoshab'eath, the form in which Jehoshub. • given in 2 Chr. xxii. 11. HEBA 11 Jehosh'aphat, king of Judah, son of Asa, succeed ed to the throne B. c. 914, when he was 35 year' old, and reigned 25 years. His history is tn 1,1 found in 1 K. xv. 24; 2 K. viii. 16, or in 2 Chr xvii. 1-xxi. 3. He was contemporary with Ahab Ahaziah, and Jehoram. Jehosh'aphat, Valley of. That deep ravine which separates Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives WINNOWING WITH WOODEN SHOVELS. and Silas, and was in consequence attacked by the Jewish mob (Acts xvii. 5,6, 7, 9). Probably the same as the Jason in Rom. xvi. 21. Jasper, a precious stone frequently noticed in Scripture. It was the last of the twelve in the high-priest’s breastplate (Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13). TREADING OUT THE GRAIN. RAKING UP THE EARS. the restoration of the Temple were effected by Jehoiada. He died b. c. 834. Jehoi'akim, called Eliakim, son of Josiah and Zebudah, and king of Judah. After deposing Jehoahaz, Pharaoh Necho set Eliakim, his elder brother, upon the throne, and changed his name to Jehoiakim, b. c. 608-597. Jehoiakim came to a violent end in the 11th year of his reign. His body, after being exposed, was dragged away and buried “with the burial of an ass” (Jer. xxii. 18, 19, xxxvi. 30). All accounts as¬ cribe to him a vicious and irreligious char¬ acter. Jehfin'adab and Jon'adab, the son of Rechab, founder of the Rechabites. It appears from 1 Chr. ii. 55, that his ancestor be¬ longed to a branch of the Kenites. He is expressly mentioned in 2 K. x. JehS'ram. 1. Son of Ahab king of Israel, who succeeded his brother Ahaziah, b. c. 896, and died b. c. 884. He practiced idolatry during the greater part of his life. In 1st and 2d Kings are given many inci¬ dents of his reign in which the prophet Elisha figured. Jehoram fell pierced by an arrow from Jehu’s bow on the very plot of HOUSE AT JERUSALEM. Jl'van. There can be no doubt that Javan was regarded as the representative of the Greek race. 5, e, i, 6, u, g, long ; a, e, I, o, u, y, short ; ground Ahab had wrested from Naboth ; thus ful¬ filling the prophecy of Elijah (1 K. xxi. 21-29). 2. Eldest son of Jehoshaphat, succeeded his VICTORY OVER THE AMMONITES. Jehd'vah-sh&'lom, i. e. “Jehovah (is) peace “Jehovah, the God of peace,” the altar ere Gideon in Ophrah (Judg. vi. 24). GATEWAY OF JEZREEL. througn which at one time the Kedron forced its stream. JehSsh'eba, daughter of Joram king of Israel, and wife of Jehoiada the high-priest (2 K. xi. 2). Jehosh'ua, that is, “help of Jehovah” or "Sa¬ viour.” In this form is given the name of Joshua in Num. xiii. 16. JEHOVAH. The true pronunciation of this name, known to the Hebrews, has been lost, the Jews avoiding every mention of it. This custom was founded upon Lev. xxiv. 16. According to tra¬ dition, it was pronounced once a year by the high- priest when he entered the Holy of Holies ; but on this there is some doubt. Jehovah-jireh, i. e. “Jehovah will see,” or "pro¬ vide,” the name given by Abraham to the place on which he had been commanded to offer Isaac (Gen. xxii. 14). , , Jeho'vahnls'si, i. e. “Jehovah my banner, tie name given by Moses to the altar built in 'om‘ memoration of the discomfiture of the AmalekiteJ at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 15). or, ted bj care, ffir, last, fall, what j there, veil, term j pique, firm ; done, for, do, wolf, food, foot ; JETHER JOAB 45 JEHU ance at Jewed? h* *»" slaughter of the idol 8"d C?UtfaS are recordel in the books of gJL}" Hereigned 27 years and was succeeded child in the reign of Jo- WATER carrier of jericho. skill, b. c. 638-608 (1.6). In his youth he was called to the prophetic othce. In Egypt, in the city of Tahpanhes, we have the last clear glimpses of the Prophet s life. He I does not shrink from speaking of the Chaldean king as ‘’the servant of Jehovah” (xlm. 10). ■ After this all is uncertain. The Book of, is ■ made up principally of prophesies delivered at i various times. The last chapter was probably by ■Ezra. . JSreml'as, the Greek form of Jeremiah (Matt. xvi. 14). JSr'emy, the prophet Jeremiah (Matt. ii. 17. ■xxvii. 9). Jer'icho, a city of high antiquity", situated in a plain traversed by the Jordan, and exactly over against where that river was crossed by the Israel¬ ites nnrl T , DAVID and JONATHAN. to walls" w°etUac(oJn0-d “v,16);. Tt had a king, fetes w(.re shut I>V-‘re,<, o,ailent;Sass The spoil found in it betokened its affluence. Jer'imoth. Son of king David, whose daughter Mahalath was one of the wives of Rehoboam, her cousin Abihail being the other (2 Chr. xi. 18). JSrobO'am. 1. The first king of the divided kingdom of Israel (b. c. 975-954), the son of Nebatan Ephraimite. He was employed by Solomon (1 K. xi. 28). After Solomon’s death, upon the revolt of the ten tribes, he was elevated to the throne of the northern kingdom. He wickedly resorted to idol worship. After a reign of 22 years, he died (2 Chr. xiii. 20; 1 K. xiv. 20). 2. Jeroboam II., son of Joash (b. c. 825-784). The most prosperous of the kings of Israel (2 K. xiv. 28, xiii. 5; 1 Chr. v. 17-22). Jerubba'al, the surname of Gideon, acquired in destroying the altar of Baal (Judg. vi. 32). Jerusalem. The earliest notice is in Josh. xv. 8 and xviii. 16, 28. Here it is styled Ha-Jebusi, after its occupiers. Next, we find the formJEBUS (Judg.’ xix. 10,11); and lastly, Jerusalem (Josh. x. .1 &c., xii. 10; Judg. i. 7, &c.). It is 32 miles from the sea, 18 from the Jordan, 20 from Hebron, and 36 from Samaria. Its elevation is remarkable. The various spots of special interest about the city are described under their own names, and to them the reader is referred. In the fifteen centuries between the first mention of the city in the Old Testament and the latest mention in the New, it w-as besieged no fewer than seventeen times ; twice it was razed to the ground ; and on two of her occasions its walls were lev¬ elled. Tt was taken by the Crusaders in 1099. In 1187 it was retaken by Saladin. In 1277 Jerusalem was nomi¬ nally annexed to Sicily. In 1517 it passed under the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The Pasha of Egypt took possession of it in 1832; and in 1840 it was again restored to the Sultan. J£s'se, the father of David, was the son of Obed, the fruit of the union of Boaz and Ruth. His great grandmother was Rahab the Canaanite, of Jericho (Matt. i. 5). Jesse’s genealogy is twice given in the O. T., viz. Ruth iv. 18-22, and 1 Chr. ii. 5-12. He is designated “Jesse the Bethlehemite” (1 Sam. xvi. 1, 18). Jesse’s wealth con¬ sisted of sheep and goats, which were under the care of David (xxvi. 11, xvii. 34, 35). the Greek form of Joshua or Jeshua, a contraction of Jehoshua, that is, ‘‘help of Jehovah” or “Saviour” (Hum. xiii. 16). the Son of Sirach is described in Eccle- siasticus (i. 27) as the author of that book, which generally is called the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or simply the Wisdom of Sirach. Je'sus, called Justus, a Christian who was with St. Paul at Rome (Col. iv. 11). Je'sus Christ. The name Jesus signifies Saviour. The name of Christ signifies Anointed. In the N. T. the name Christ is used as equivalent to Messiah (John i. 41), the name given to the long-promised Prophet and King whom the Jews had been taught to expect (Acts xix. 4; Matt. xi. 3). The name of Jesus is the proper name of our Lord, and that of Christ is added to identify Him with the promised Messiah. Accord¬ ing to received chronology, the Birth of Christ occurred in the year of Rome 754 (a. d. 1). The life, embracing the childhood, youth, ministry, and crucifixion of our Saviour are given in the Gospels. Je'ther. Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses (Ex. iv. 18). was priest or prince of Midian. Mosei lis exile from Egypt with him, and married Je'thro spent h - — his daughter Zipporah. INTERPRETING TO KING OF BABYLON. Jew. This name was applied to a member of the kingdom of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes. The term first makes its appearance just before the captivity of the ten tribes (2 K. xvi. 6). Jew'ry, elsewhere rendered Judah and Judaea. Jewry comes to us through the Norman-French, and is of frequent occurrence in Old English. Jez'ebel, wife of Ahab king of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen of Judah, and Ahaziah and Joram, kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician princess. In her hands her husband became a mere puppet (1 K. xxi. 25). She was a firm sup¬ porter of the idolatries of the Phoenicians, and brought upon herself and her husband the curse and its fulfillment recorded in 1 K. xxi. 23. Jez're-el, a city in the plain, now called Esdraelon. Its historical importance dates from the reign of TABLES OF TIME OF JEREMIAH. Ahab, who chose it for his chief residence. The situation of the modern village of Zerin still re¬ mains to show the fitness of his choice. Jo ab, the most remarkable of the three nephew - of David, the children of Zeruiah, David’s sister ; chassli;-c,