STANFOED’S  COMPENDIUM 
 
 OF 
 
 GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL 
 
 FOR  GENERAL  READING 
 
 BASED  ON  HELLWALD’S  ‘DIE  ERDE  UND  IHRE  VOLKER  ’ 
 Translated  by  A.  H.  KEANE,  B.A. 
 
Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
 in  2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/centralamericaweOObate 
 
fitnircc. 
 
STANFOED’S 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEAYEL 
 
 BASED  ON  HELLWALD’S  ‘DIE  ERDE  UND  IHRE  VOLKER 
 
 CENTRAL  AMERICA 
 
 THE  WEST  INDIES 
 
 AND 
 
 SOUTH  AMERICA 
 
 EDITED  AND  EXTENDED 
 
 By  H.  w/bATES, 
 
 ASSI8TAKT-SECKETABT  OF  THE  ROTAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY  ; 
 AOTHOR  OF  ‘the  KATCRALIST  ON  THE  RIVER  AMAZONS’ 
 
 WITH 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL  APPENDIX  BY  A.  H.  KEANE,  M.A.L 
 
 MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 SECOND  AND  REVISED  EDITION 
 
 LONDON 
 
 EDWARD  STANFORD,  55,  CHARING  CROSS,  SAV. 
 1882 
 
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 Ix  tlie  present  volume  it  has  been  the  chief  object  of  the 
 Editor  to  adapt  Von  Hellwald’s  admirably- written  survey 
 of  the  countries  treated  of,  to  the  presumed  requirements 
 of  English  readers.  To  this  end  the  information  contained 
 in  the  works  of  many  recent  British  travellers,  overlooked 
 by  the  German  author,  or  published  since  his  volume 
 appeared,  has  been  utilised,  and  statistical  details  corrected 
 throughout  in  accordance  with  the  most  recent  accessible 
 data.  In  other  respects  the  chief  alterations  introduced 
 have  been  in  reference  to  Natural  History  and  the  Geo- 
 graphical Eolations  of  Faunas  and  Floras.  Wherever 
 these  important  subjects  were  treated  of  by  Yon  Hellwald, 
 it  appeared  to  the  Editor  that  the  facts  and  their  applica- 
 tions were  not  given  with  the  accuracy  which  is  noticeable 
 in  other  portions  of  his  work,  and  it  was  found  necessary, 
 therefore,  wholly  to  recast  these  sections.  In  doing  this, 
 however,  nothing  has  been  introduced  but  what  is  likely 
 to  be  perfectly  intelligible  and  interesting  to  the  general 
 reader. 
 
 With  the  exception  of  some  alterations  in  the  descrip- 
 tion of  those  parts  of  South  America  with  which  the  Editor 
 
VI 
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 is  personally  familiar,  no  other  considerable  change  has 
 been  made  in  the  original  work,  of  which  even  the  opinions 
 on  political  and  social  questions  in  the  different  countries 
 have  been  retained.  It  should  be  mentioned,  however, 
 that  Mr.  Keane,  in  his  translation,  which  has  so  well  pre- 
 served the  elegance  of  style  for  which  Von  Hellwald  is 
 distinguished  in  his  own  country,  has  largely  condensed 
 many  parts  of  the  book,  and  that  other  matter,  embodying 
 new  information,  has  been  in  many  places  inserted,  thus 
 restoring  the  volume  to  more  than  its  original  bulk. 
 
 H.  W.  B. 
 
 LomjoXj  May  1878. 
 
X 
 
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CONTENTS 
 
 CENTEAL  AMEEICA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 Configuration  of  the  Land. 
 
 FACE 
 
 General  outlines — Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards — Configuration  of 
 the  interior — Mountains,  Table-lands,  and  Plains — The  Plateaus 
 of  Oaxaca  and  Anahuac — Mexican  volcanic  system — The  Sierra 
 Madre — Water  system — General  character  of  the  Central  Ameri- 
 can rivers 
 
 CHAPTER  IL 
 
 The  Inhabitants  of  Central  America. 
 
 Common  points  of  resemblance  between  the  Central  and  South 
 American  races  — The  Four  leading  Types — The  Aborigines — 
 
 The  Indies  Mansos  and  Barbaros — Temperament  of  the  Red  Man 
 — The  Mixed  Races — The  Mestizoes — The  Zambos  and  Creoles  . 12 
 
 CHAPTER  IIL 
 
 Government  and  Population  of  Mexico. 
 
 General  outlines  and  extent — Political  constitution — Population — The 
 Mexican  Indian  Tribes — General  aspect  of  the  Mexican  towns — 
 
 The  Capital  and  its  Inhabitants — The  Leperos — Physique — Dress 
 — Social  habits — Mexican  Children — Food — The  Tortillas  — 
 Education — Religion — Superstitions — State  of  the  country — Bri- 
 gandage— Politics — Public  lotteries  . . . .24 
 
vru 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 Lower  California. 
 
 PAGL 
 
 General  outlines — Climate — Geological  formation — Mountain  system 
 — Eivers — Harbours  — V egetation — Inhabitants — Population — 
 Indians — Towns — San  Diego  — Lorete — Island  of  Carmen — 
 Archipelago  of  Loreto — Sea-fowl — The  capital,  La  Paz— Mineral 
 wealth — San  Jose  del  Cabo — Agriculture — Birds  and  Fishes  . 37 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 The  Mexican  Mainland. 
 
 Cliaracter  of  the  coast — Mazatlan — Mazanillo — Eoad  to  Colima — 
 Colima  and  neighbourhood  — Guadalaxara — Condition  of  the 
 province  of  Xalisco — Eoad  from  Guadalaxara  to  Guanaxuato — 
 Guanaxuato  and  its  Mines — The  Capital — Eomautic  scenery- 
 interior  of  the  city  — The  neighbourhood  of  the  Capital — Vera 
 Cruz — From  Vera  Cruz  to  Orizaba — The  Barrancas — The  Cofre 
 de  Perote — The  Peak  of  Orizaba  — The  Valley  of  Puebla' — The 
 Anahuac  Table-land — Popocatepetl  ......  46 
 
 CHAPTER  VI. 
 
 Physical  Fe.atdres  of  Mexico. 
 
 Climatic  conditions — Vertical  Zones  of  Climate — The  Seasons — Dis- 
 tribution of  the  rainfall — Hot  Springs — The  Bramidos  of  Guan- 
 axuato— Earthquakes — Minerals — Gold — Silver — Copper  . 72 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 Politics  in  Mexico. 
 
 Government — Cause  of  the  faEure  of  Liberal  Institutions — Political 
 disorders — The  Emperor  Maximilian— Consequences  of  his  fall 
 — Eecent  Eeforms — Obstacles  in  the  way  of  real  progress — The 
 Legislative  bodies — Political  dishonesty — Social  corruption — 
 Gloomy  prospects  . . . . . .82 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 The  Peninsula  op  Yucatan  and  British  Honduras. 
 
 Physical  aspect  of  A'ucatan — Population — Products — Indian  serfdom 
 — Government — Commerce — The  Capital — Social  habits — An- 
 cient Indian  ruins — Uxmal — The  ilaya  Indians  and  the  Half- 
 caste  element — Belize,  or  British  Honduras  : Extent — Eivers — 
 Exports— The  Mahogany  trade  . . . . .87 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 Guatemala. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Extent — Population — Configuration  of  the  land — Lake  Peten — Flores 
 — The  Golfo  Dolce — The  Carib  Half-castes — Piiver  and  Lake 
 Izabal — Romantic  forest  scenery — The  road  to  Gualan  and  the 
 Capital — Climate — Soil — Products — The  Coffee  Region  of  the 
 Pacific  coast— Vegetation — Ornithology — Noxious  insects — The 
 Jigger — The  old  and  new  Capitals —Escuintla — The  Quiche  and 
 other  Indian  Tribes — Old  Cacique  Families — Society  in  Guate- 
 mala— Class  distinctions — Foreigners — Government — Politics — 
 Liberal  ideas — Material  progress  . . , . .97 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 II0NDURA.S. 
 
 Outlines — General  Physical  features — The  Plain  of  Comayagua — 
 Jlountain  Ranges — Flora  and  Fauna — The  Seaports  of  Truxillo 
 and  Amapala — Fonseca  Bay — Inhabitants — Social  habits — De- 
 graded condition  of  the  Women — The  dead  City  of  Copan  . 112 
 
 CHAPTER  XI. 
 
 Sax  Salvador. 
 
 Geological  formation — Volcanoes — The  River  Lempa — Products  : In- 
 digo, Caoutchouc,  Balsam — Population — Refonns — Education  . 118 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 Nicaragua. 
 
 Climate  and  Geological  features — Products — Cattle-breeding — Exports 
 — Gold  Mines  of  Chontales — Climate — The  Mosquito  Coast — 
 Blewfields — Indian  Tribes — Gre)'town — The  River  San  Juan — 
 Fauna  and  Flora — Upper  course  of  the  San  Juan,  and  its  tri- 
 butaries— Castillo — The  Indiarubber  trade — San  Carlos — Lake 
 Nicaragua — City  of  Granada  and  its  neighbourhood — Masaya, 
 its  Lake  and  Volcano — The  Marabios — The  Devil’.®  Dance — 
 Politics — Social  obstacles  to  progress  ....  121 
 
 CHAPTER  XIII. 
 
 Costa  Rica. 
 
 Volcanic  system — Rivers — Soil — Products — Mineral  Wealth — Gold 
 Mines — Population  ; Native  and  White  elements — Prosperous 
 state  of  the  country — The  Immigration  question — The  dark  side 
 of  the  picture  .......  136 
 
X 
 
 COXTE^'TS. 
 
 THE  WEST  IXDIA  ISLANDS. 
 
 CHAPTER  L 
 
 General  Description  of  the  West  Indies. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The  Great  and  Lesser  Antilles — Windward  and  Leeward  groups — 
 Geological  features  of  the  West  Indies — Climate — Distribution  of 
 Temperature — The  West  Indian  Hurricanes — Products  of  the 
 Vegetable,  Animal,  and  Mineral  Kingdoms — Population  : Indian, 
 Negro,  and  White  elements — Trade  ....  141 
 
 CHAPTER  H. 
 
 The  Great  Antilles. 
 
 ■CcBA — Extent — Mountain  ranges — Coast  line — Climate — Highways — 
 Piailroads — Political  divisions  of  Cuba — The  staples  of  trade — 
 Sugar  Plantations — Cigar  Manufactories — Coffee — Population  of 
 Cuba;  Spaniards,  Creoles,  Negroes,  and  Coolies — The  City  of 
 Havana.  Jamaica — General  features — Rivers  — Minerals  — 
 
 Population ; Negroes  and  Jews.  Hayti — General  configuration — 
 Mountain  systems — Rivers — The  two  Republics  of  Hayti  and 
 San  Domingo.  P0P.T0  Rico — Karl  Mauch’s  account  of  the  Island 
 and  its  Inhabitants  ......  152 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 The  Lesser  Antilles 
 
 St.  Thomas — Santa  Cruz — St.  Bartholomew — Guadelupe — Pointe-k- 
 Pitre — Basse  Terre — Martinique — Barbadoes — Trinidad  and  its 
 Asphalt  Lake  .......  176 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 SOUTH  AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 Outlines  op  the  Coast. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Points  of  resemblance  between  the  three  Southern  Continents — Con- 
 tinuity of  northern  and  eastern  coast-lines — The  Southern  Sea- 
 board— The  Pacific  Seaboard  .....  189 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 General  Features  op  the  Mainland. 
 
 Distribution  of  the  Mountain  Ranges  —The  Andes — The  Eastern  Slopes 
 and  the  three  great  river  systems — Other  river  systems — Ab- 
 sence of  Lakes — The  Ataeama  Desert  and  the  Quebradas  . 194 
 
 CHAPTER  HI. 
 
 The  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes. 
 
 Extent  and  main  divisions — The  Patagonian  and  Tierra  del  Fuego 
 mountain  systems — The  Chilian  Range — The  Bolivian  Andes — 
 
 The  Peruvian  Ranges — The  Interior  of  Peru — The  Montana — 
 
 The  Cuzco  Range — The  Cordilleras  of  Ecuador — Iliniza — Chim- 
 borazo— Tunguragua  and  Cotopaxi — The  Guamani  and  Colombian 
 Ranges — The  Tequendama  Falls — Geology  of  the  Bogota  Distriet 
 Regions  of  the  Magdalena  and  Atrato  Rivers  . . . 202 
 
 CHAPTER  IV. 
 
 The  Isolated  Mountain  Systems  in  the  North  op 
 
 South  America. 
 
 The  Sierra  of  Santa  Marta — The  Region  explored  by  Tetens  in  1874 
 — The  three  Venezuelan  mountain  systems — The  Sierra  de  Parime 
 and  mountains  of  Guiana  ......  220 
 
 CHAPTER  V. 
 
 The  Venezuelan  Llanos  and  the  Region  of  the  Orinoco. 
 
 Extent  of  the  Llanos — Their  main  features,  as  deseribed  by  Don  R.  Paez 
 — The  Region  of  the  Orinoco — Source  and  Course  of  the  Orinoeo 
 — The  Middle  Orinoco  ; its  Falls  and  Affluents — Orinoco  scenery  225 
 
XU 
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER  Yl. 
 
 The  Regiox  of  the  Amazons. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 JIain  divisions  of  the  Amazons — The  Amazons  Delta — The  Lower 
 Amazons — The  Upper  Amazons — The  tributaries  of  the  Amazons  : 
 the  Tocantins  ; the  Tapajoz  ; Madeira  ; Purus  and  Jurua  ; the 
 Eio  Negro,  Morona,  and  Ucaj^ali — The  Tras-Andina  region — 
 Vast  extent  of  the  Amazons  water  system — -Its  peculiar  Fauna  and 
 Flora — Creeping  Plants — Climbing  Animals — Eej)tiles  . . 236 
 
 CHAPTER  VII. 
 
 The  Interior  of  Brazil. 
 
 Still  but  little  known — General  configuration — The  Serra  IMantiqueira 
 The  Itatiaia — The  "Watershed  of  the  Amazons  and  Plate  Paver 
 systems — ^Detached  mountain  systems — The  primeval  forest  lands 
 — The  River  San  Francisco — Alfiuents,  Falls,  and  Navigation  of 
 the  River  San  Francisco — Climate  and  Temperature  of  Brazil  . 251 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 The  Region  of  the  River  Plate  and  the  Pampas. 
 
 Extent  and  configuration — Steppes  and  Woodlands — Jlain  subdivi- 
 sions— The  Bolivian  Plateau — The  South  American  Mesopotamia 
 — The  La  Plata  water  system — The  Parana- Paraguay  river  S3'stem 
 — The  Upper  Parana — The  Paraguaj'  and  its  Tributaries — The 
 Indian  hunting  grounds  of  the  Gran  Chaco — Vegetation  of  the 
 Gran  Chaco  : its  Ornithology — Gran  Chaco  night  scenery — The 
 Argentine  Pampas  : their  fascinating  hold  on  the  imagination  ; 
 strange  atmospheric  effects  .....  261 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 Patagonia. 
 
 Extent — General  configuration — Lieutenant  Musters’  adventurous 
 journey — The  Tehuelche  Indians — The  Chenna  Indians — Phy- 
 sical and  moral  features  of  the  Patagonians  : Dress,  Habits. 
 Amusements,  Marriage  customs.  Religion,  etc.  . . , 275 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 Strait  of  Magellan  and  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
 
 General  description  of  the  Archipelago  : its  Geology,  Soil,  Flora — The 
 Strait  of  Magellan — Punta  Arenas — The  Tierra  del  Fuegian 
 Indians — The  Falkland  Islands  .....  290 
 
CO^'TEXTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 CHAPTER  XL 
 
 The  Latin  Races  in  South  America 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Relative  proportion  of  Natives  and  Europeans — Causes  of  the  partial 
 failure  of  Latiu  civilisation  in  America — The  Spanish  and  Portu- 
 guese elements  in  South  America  ....  299 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Unequal  distribution  of  the  temperature — The  Hot,  Temperate,  and 
 Cold  Zones — Vegetation  : Coffee,  Cacao,  Sugar,  Cotton,  etc. — 
 Population — A Waming  to  intending  Emigrants — Pursuits: 
 Agriculture  ; Mining  Industries — Trade — Exports  — Imports — 
 Highways — Projected  Railways — The  Postal  Service — Culture — 
 Universities — General  state  of  Education — Relations  of  Church 
 and  State — Government — Constitution — Revenue — Public  Debt, 
 etc. — Political  troubles — Caraccas,  the  seat  of  Government  . 303 
 
 CHAPTER  XIII. 
 
 United  States  of  Colombia. 
 
 States  of  the  Confederation — Extent — General  configuration — Trade 
 — Future  prospects — Panama  Railway — Aspinwall  and  Panama — 
 
 The  projected  scheme  of  inter-oceanic  Canalisation — Sa vanilla — 
 
 The  Magdalena  water  highway — Population  — Cultivation  — 
 Primitive  means  of  transit — Railway  and  Telegraphic  systems — 
 Public  Instruction — Credit — Revenue — Foreign  Trade — Civil 
 dissensions — Constitution — Religion,  etc.  . . .317 
 
 CHAPTER  XIV. 
 
 Ecuador. 
 
 E.xtent  and  Population — The  Galapagos  Islands — Seaports — Gua3’aquil 
 — Scenery  and  Vegetation  of  the  Interior — Peravian  bark — Cuenca 
 and  its  Inhabitants — Quito — Manners  of  the  People — Industries 
 — The  Animal  Kingdom  : Caymans  and  the  Peccary — Flora  : 
 Cacao — Region  of  the  Napo  River — The  Quijos,  Zaparos,  and 
 •livaros  Indians — Theocratic  Government — Exceptional  relations 
 of  Church  and  State — Material  progress — The  Jesuit  College — 
 Spread  of  Education — PubUc  highways — Mining  and  Agricultural 
 operations  .......  328 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER  XV. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Extent  and  Population — Climate — Sublime  coast  scenery — Lima  : its 
 Inhabitants  ; Buildings  ; General  aspect — Foreign  element  in 
 Lima  : the  Blacks,  Cholos,  and  Chinese  Coolies — Cuzco,  the 
 ancient  Capital  of  the  Incas — Climate  of  Cuzco — Manners  and 
 habits  of  the  people — The  Quichua  and  Aymara  Indians — The 
 Native  Clergy — Fauna  : the  Guanaco,  Llama,  and  Vicuna  — 
 Mineral  ■wealth — The  Guano  trade — Cotton — Government — Re- 
 volutions— Peculation — Present  improved  state  of  affairs — Public 
 works — Railways  . . . , . . .346 
 
 CHAPTER  XVI. 
 
 Bolivia. 
 
 Population — Extent — Mountain  systems — Lake  Titicaca — A Salt 
 Pampa — The  Great  Central  Plateau — The  city  of  La  Paz — Sucre, 
 and  other  towns — The  Yungas  district — Agriculture — Industries 
 — Mining — Backward  state  of  trade — Inhabitants — Various  classes 
 of  Indians — The  Quichua  language— Manners  and  social  vices — 
 Revolutionary  spirit  , . . . . .364 
 
 CHAPTER  XVIL 
 
 Chile. 
 
 Geological  features — Mineral  wealth — Valparaiso  and  neighbourhood  i 
 — Juan  Fernandez — Santiago  de  Chile — Inhabitants — Indians  and 
 Half-castes — The  'Whites — Social  manners — The  Land  Question 
 — Population  — Emigration  — Railway  enterprise  — Finance  — 
 Public  instruction — Politics — Public  spirit  of  the  Aristocracy  . 373 
 
 CHAPTER  XYHI. 
 
 The  Argextixe  Confederation.  <r 
 
 Vast  extent — Physical  aspect  — Minerals — Soil — F ossils — Climate — 
 
 The  Pampas — Rainfall — Vegetation — Inhabitants  : 'W'hites,  In- 
 dians— Recent  immigration  from  Europe— Landed  proprietors 
 and  Labouring  classes — Provincial  towns — Buenos  Ayres — The 
 Gauchos — ^Material  progress : Trade,  Education,  Agiiculture,  Cattle- 
 breeding  ........  385 
 
CO^’TE^’TS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER  XIX. 
 
 Paragtjat. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 limits — Physical  aspect — Natural  advantages  — Population — Cheq- 
 uered history — Disastrous  wars — The  Guarani  Indians — Asuncion 
 — Paraguari — Railway  travelling  . . . . . 39T 
 
 CHAPTER  XX. 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Physical  aspect— Produce — Meat  extract — Inhabitants — Occupations — 
 Sheep  farming — Montevideo  and  vicinity — Constitution — Stormy 
 Politics — Deficit — Population  . • . , . 404 
 
 CHAPTER  XXL 
 
 The  Empire  op  Brazil. 
 
 Points  of  contrast  and  resemblance  to  the  United  States — Extent 
 Political  divisions — Natural  resources — Fauna — Cattle — Horses 
 — Sheep-farming — Ornithology — Vegetation  : valuable  medicinal 
 and  other  Plants — Vast  nuneral  wealth — The  Diamond  fields — 
 Population — Foreign  and  native  elements — The  civilised  Indians 
 — The  wild  Indians — Numerous  Tribes — General  classification — 
 
 The  Tupi,  Parexis,  Arawaks,  and  other  independent  tribes — The 
 Portuguese  — The  Brazilians,  properly  so  called — The  Negroes 
 — Slavery — Social  Habits — The  Capoeiragem — Murderous  and 
 suicidal  manias  — Half-castes  : Mulattoes,  Cruilos,  Mestizoes, 
 Cafusos,  etc.  — Recent  Eurojwan  immigrants  — German  Settle- 
 ments— Seaports  : Pernambuco,  Bahia,  etc. — Bay  and  City  of  Rio 
 Janeiro  — Romantic  scenery  — Sao  Desterro  — Diamantina — 
 Government — Constitution — Religion — Provincial  governments 
 — Public  instruction  ......  40S 
 
 CHAPTER  XXII. 
 
 British,  French,  and  Dutch  Guiana. 
 
 Extent  — Relative  size  of  the  three  Colonies  — Physical  features — 
 British  Guiana — The  Kaieteur  Falls  — Roraima  — Surinam  and 
 Cayenne  ........  436 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 APPENDIX  BY  A.  H.  KEANE. 
 
 Ethnography  and  Philology  of  America. 
 
 P.»GE 
 
 Introductory — Statistics — Problems — Origin  of  the  Native  Paces  and 
 Civilisations — Physical  characteristics  of  the  Red  man  : mental 
 attributes — Are  the  Aborigines  one  or  many  ? — Languages — Poly- 
 synthesis— Consequences  of  Polysynthesis — Syncope — Letter- 
 change — Evanescence — Vast  number  of  the  American  Languages 
 accounted  for  : their  Classification — General  Scheme  of  American 
 Races  and  Languages  : 1.  Sub-Arctic  Races  ; II.  Athabascan  or 
 Tinney  Family  ; III.  Algonquin  Famil}’' ; IV.  Wyandot- Iroquois 
 Familj- ; V.  Dacotah  Family  ; VI.  Appalachian  Races;  VII.  Co- 
 lumbian Races  ; VIII.  Californian  Races  ; IX.  Shoshone  and 
 Pawnee  Families ; X.  New  Mexican  and  Arizona  Races ; XL 
 Mexican  Races;  XII.  Central  American  Races;  XIII.  Orinoco 
 Races  ; XIV.  Amazon  Races ; XV.  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Races  ; 
 XVI.  Brazilian  Races  south  of  the  Amazon  ; XVII.  Southern 
 Races  ........  il.3 
 
 Alphabetic.al  List  of  aU  known  American  Tribes  and  Languages  . 498 
 Tabulated  Surveys. 
 
 Central  American  States  ......  546 
 
 Principal  West  Indian  Islands  .....  548 
 
 South  American  States  ......  555 
 
LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 The  Cathedral  of  ilexico 
 Barrancas  in  Mexico 
 Indian  Woman  . 
 
 A Mestizo 
 A Negro 
 A Creole 
 
 Promenade  in  Mexico 
 Preparation  of  Tortillas 
 Volcan  de  Colima 
 Cathedral  of  Guadalaxara 
 Mercantile  Bazaars 
 Vera  Cruz 
 Peak  of  Orizaba 
 Flores 
 
 Guatemala  . 
 
 Old  Guatemala 
 Gold  Mine  in  hiU  country  of  Choni 
 The  River  San  Juan 
 Indian  Hut,  Masaya 
 West  Indian  Products 
 Promenade  in  Cuba 
 Gardens  of  Cuba 
 Chinese  Coolies  of  Cuba 
 Havana 
 
 Natives  of  Hayti 
 St.  Thomas  . 
 
 Sugar  Plantation  in  the  Antilles 
 Trinidad 
 
 Mouths  of  the  Amazons 
 Mount  Sarmiento 
 Pashiuba  Palm  Trees 
 Cotopaxi 
 
 Pass  in  the  Cordillera 
 On  the  Amazons 
 
 Camping  Ground  on  the  Amazons 
 On  the  Rio  Negro 
 
 . Frontispiece. 
 
 To  face  page  5 
 . Fa,gc  14 
 
 ,,  19 
 „ 20 
 „ 21 
 „ 29 
 To  face  page  32 
 . Page  4S 
 „ 54 
 „ 60 
 » 62 
 „ 66 
 „ 98 
 ,,  106 
 „ 107 
 To  face  page  123 
 . Page  125 
 „ 133 
 
 IH 
 
 To  face  page  152 
 Page  155 
 „ 15S 
 
 To  face  page  159 
 . Page  169 
 „ H6 
 2’o  face  page  183 
 Pwje  184 
 „ 189 
 
 „ 203 
 
 To  face  gmge  211 
 Page  214 
 To  face  page  218 
 Page  236 
 To  face  page  238 
 Page  245 
 
 I 
 
XVUl 
 
 LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Primeval  Forest 
 Tiger  Island 
 Vegetation  in  the  Region  of  the  Par 
 Patagonians  travelling 
 Guanaco  and  Ostrich  Hunting 
 Patagonian  Indians  . 
 
 A Patagonian  Camp 
 Punta  Arenas 
 The  Coffee  Plant 
 Cacao  Plantation 
 Colombian  Dwelling 
 Quito 
 
 Market  Scene  in  Quito 
 Napos  Indian 
 Lima  Cathedral 
 Cuzco 
 
 Native  Priests 
 Guano  Beds  . 
 
 A Moxos  Indian 
 Mines  of  Caracoles  . 
 
 Valparaiso  . 
 
 Buenos  Ayres 
 Street  in  Buenos  Ayres 
 Gaucho  breaking  in  a Horse 
 A Gaucho 
 Guarani  "Women 
 Railway  travelling  . 
 Slaughter-House  in  Fray  Bentos 
 A Caioa  Chief 
 
 Interior  of  Hut  of  Caioa  Indians 
 A Brazilian  Negro  . 
 
 A Brazilian  Negress . 
 
 A Slulatto  . 
 
 Street  in  Bahia 
 Bay  of  Rio  Janeiro  . 
 
 Fruit-seller  in  Rio  Janeiro  . 
 Cayenne 
 
 To  face  page  254 
 . Page  265 
 To  face  page  266 
 Page  274 
 To  face  pa^e  Til 
 „ „ 282 
 Page  283 
 „ 294 
 
 „ 304 
 „ 305 
 ,,  322 
 
 ,,  335 
 ,,  337 
 ,,  340 
 
 „ 349 
 
 354 
 356 
 ,,  358 
 
 , 370 
 
 ,,  374 
 
 ,,  376 
 
 To  face  page  390 
 
 Page  391 
 To  face  page  392 
 Page  393 
 „ 400 
 
 „ 402 
 
 „ 405 
 
 To  face  page  417 
 
 „ » 419 
 
 . Page  420 
 
 ,,  421 
 
 „ 425 
 
 „ 428 
 
 To  face  page  430 
 
 „ „ 431 
 
 . Page  440 
 
LIST  OF  MAPS. 
 
 CENTRAL  AMERICA. 
 
 Index  Map  to  Chapter-s  and  Sections  . To  face  Contents. 
 
 Map  of  Mexico To  face  page  \ 
 
 Map  of  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America  . ,,  ,,  14] 
 
 SOUTH  AMERICA. 
 
 Index  Map  to  Chapters  and  Sections  . . 189 
 
 Physical  Slap  of  South  America  . . . , 195 
 
 General  Political  Slap  of  South  America  . . ,,  303 
 
 Slap  of  the  Railways  of  Peru  . . . 332 
 
 ,,  Chile  and  Patagonia  ...  373 
 
 • , The  Rio  de  la  Plata,  etc.  . . .,  385 
 
 ,,  The  Seaports  of  Brazil  . . . 427 
 
 The  Guianas  • . . . , 437 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Ethnological  and  Philological  Slap  of  North  America  . 1 
 
 ” * * > 443 
 
 )i  ,,  >»  South  America  ) 
 
X .1 
 
 \ >.i 
 
 ulyi-siom 
 
 ur.J.1  « 
 
 iilrr/. 
 
 msTUlr 
 
 ^yii/--i,.ytujji. 
 
 3W 
 
 f'V/.n, 
 
 Tumpi'-'o 
 
 ^ Sui^llU>^(tn 
 
 “r^sju- 
 
 faba»»  1 
 
 f f'^PW- 
 
 /s7ay,,/.^ 
 
 5,,nl<iirj 
 
 MEXK’  0 
 
 Sl-alr  «»f  tli};{li*di  Stjitiii^-  Mill. 
 
 I.olulcm  ; E(iM-iu’d  StiuiTord  . 55  (’Ltu-iu^  Cross. 
 
CENTEAL  AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER  I. 
 
 COXTIGUEATION  OF  THE  LAXD. 
 
 1.  General  Outlines — Atlantic  and  Pacific  Seaboards. 
 
 Under  the  title  of  Central  America  we  include  not  only 
 the  smaller  states  of  the  Isthmus — Guatemala,  Honduras, 
 San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  British  Hon- 
 duras— but  also  Mexico  proper ; the  whole  forming  a 
 region  upheaved  by  volcanic  agencies,  and  tapering  gradu- 
 ally from  north  to  south.  Thus  defined  it  constitutes  a 
 natural  division  of  the  American  land-mass,  distinct  both 
 in  a geographical  and  geological  point  of  view  from  the 
 broad  continental  expanses  to  the  north  and  south  of  it. 
 In  area  it  is  more  than  five  times  the  size  of  Spain, — 
 comprising  923,000  square  miles. 
 
 Mexico,  forming  the  first  important  link  between  the 
 broad  plains  of  the  northern  and  the  vast  regions  of  the 
 southern  continent,  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
 Ocean,  or  more  accurately  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  washing 
 the  island  world  of  the  West  Indies,  wliich  revealed  to 
 the  earliest  discoverers  the  glories  of  the  tropic  lands  of 
 the  New  World.  Rolling  its  billows  stdl  farther  to  the 
 west  this  great  inland  sea  forms  the  Gulf  of  IMexico, 
 round  which  sweeps  the  mighty  current  of  warm  water 
 coming  from  the  equatorial  zone  of  the  Atlantic,  and  from 
 this  circumstance  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream.  On  the  west 
 
 B 
 
9 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 the  land  is  bathed  by  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
 here  as  well  as  along  the  whole  western  seaboard  of  the 
 American  continent  far  less  varied  by  bights  or  inlets  than 
 the  Atlantic.  In  fact,  besides  the  shallow  bay  of  Tehuan- 
 tepec, there  is  little  to  break  the  straight  continuity  of  the 
 coast-hne  but  the  Gulf  of  California,  shaping  out  the 
 peninsida  of  Lower  California,  which  appears  as  a long 
 colossal  rocky  wall  running  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast 
 of  the  mainland,  and  diversified  by  a few  small  bights, 
 bluffs,  and  headlands. 
 
 All  these  Central  American  republics,  IMexico  included, 
 resemble  each  other  in  their  main  features — in  the  physical 
 aspect,  conformation  of  the  land,  products  of  the  animal 
 and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  in  the  mental,  moral,  social, 
 and  material  condition  of  the  inhabitants.  The  whole 
 region  finds  its  natural  geographical  termination  in  the 
 Isthmus  of  Panama,  though  this  strip  of  land  itself  belongs 
 politically  to  South  America. 
 
 The  general  outlines  of  either  coast  are  but  little 
 varied.  The  uniformity  of  the  Pacific  seaboard  has 
 already  been  referred  to.  Besides  the  larger  indenta- 
 tions already  noticed,  there  is  nothing  calling  for  special 
 mention  except  Fonseca  Bay  in  Honduras,  and  the  gulfs 
 of  Nicoya  and  Dulce  in  Costa  Eica,  producing  a few 
 peninsular  formations  mainly  running  from  the  north-west 
 to  the  south-east.  More  diversified,  however,  is  the 
 Atlantic  coast,  where  we  at  all  events  find  a fuEy- 
 developed  peninsula,  that  of  Yucatan,  the  only  one  in 
 Central  America  stretching  northwards.  Nor  are  any 
 similar  northerly  projections  of  the  land  to  be  met  vuth 
 in  the  whole  North  American  continent,  until  we  reach 
 the  liigher  latitudes.  Yucatan,  obliquely  facing  the  pen- 
 insula of  Florida,  helps  with  it  and  Cuba  to  enclose  the 
 Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  cut  it  off'  from  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
 which  forms  an  almost  completely  land-locked  basin  be- 
 
CONFIGUKATION  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 
 
 3 
 
 tween  South  America  on  the  south,  the  Great  Antilles  on 
 the  north,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles  on  the  east.  But  while 
 the  shores  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  varied  by  a 
 number  of  not  inconsiderable  inner  waters  or  lagoons — 
 formations  found  also  on  the  Pacific  side — the  bulging  out 
 of  the  land  at  Honduras  develops  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  two 
 deep  gulfs,  the  most  northerly  of  which  is  called  the  Bay  of 
 Honduras.  Of  the  few  insignificant  islands  here  and 
 there  met  with  on  the  Central  American  coasts  mention 
 wdl  be  made  in  their  proper  place. 
 
 2.  Configuration  of  the  Interior — Mountains,  Table- 
 lands, and  Plains. 
 
 The  high  authority  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt  con- 
 tributed greatly  to  establish  the  erroneous  idea  that  the 
 mountain  ranges  of  Central  America  were  a continuation 
 of  the  South  American  Cordilleras.  Now,  however,  it  is 
 generally  admitted  that  the  two  systems  are  essentially 
 distinct,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  at  present  bridges 
 over  the  former  gap  between  both  continents,  being  in 
 fact  of  comparatively  recent  formation.  The  liigli  land  of 
 Central  America,  instead  of  a continuous  mountain  range, 
 forms  a series  of  lofty  table-lands,  intersected  by  de- 
 tached hilly  districts  and  flanked  by  commanding  volcanic 
 peaks.  These  table-lands  in  some  places  rise  in  a succes- 
 sion of  terraces  one  above  the  other,  while  they  are  else- 
 where interrupted  by  deep  intervening  valleys.  Thus  the 
 small  plateau  of  Veragua,  rising  on  the  west  of  Panama  to  an 
 elevation  of  2000  to  3250  feet  above  the  sea,  is  succeeded 
 still  farther  west  by  that  of  Costa  Eica,  which  slopes  north- 
 wards down  to  the  valley  of  Nicaragua.  Here  lies  the 
 great  lake  of  the  same  name  together  with  that  of  Managua, 
 after  which  the  land  in  Nicaragua  again  rises,  forming  a 
 plateau  spreading  out  in  a north-easterly  direction,  and 
 
4 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 sinking  abruptly  dovni  to  the  Mosquito  Coast  along  the 
 Caribbean  Sea.  Xortbwards  this  plateau  is  continued  by 
 the  table-land  of  Honduras,  consisting  of  a succession  of 
 elevated  uplands  and  mountain  ridges,  and  separated  by 
 the  valley  of  the  Eiver  Lempa  from  the  plateau  of  San 
 Salvador,  Arhich  is  itself  intersected  by  the  Llanuxa  de 
 Comayagua.  The  Honduras  table-land  is  again  connected, 
 by  means  of  a low  ridge  scarcely  2000  feet  high,  with  the 
 plateau  of  Guatemala,  which  rises  to  a height  of  6500,  and 
 is  nowhere  less  than  4250  feet  above  the  sea. 
 
 Up  to  this  point  we  have  no  regular  uninterrupted 
 Cordillera,  but  in  Guatemala  a double  range  is  developed, 
 terminating  in  the  district  of  Soconusco  in  Chiapas,  and 
 entering  IMexican  territory  about  the  15th  degree  of  X. 
 latitude.  Here  the  range  rises  to  a lofty  plateau  from  5600 
 to  6500  feet  liigh,  and  on  which  are  seen  the  so-called 
 Cerros,  or  cones  of  trachjde  and  dolomite,  encircling  the 
 cauldron-.shaped  valleys.  Eastwards,  this  plateau  sinks  in 
 the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  a series  of  upland 
 terraces,  and  sends  off  a moderately  high  detached  ridge 
 right  across  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  Occupying  nearly 
 the  whole  proxdnce  of  Chiapas,  the  table-land  has  here  its 
 culminating  point  in  the  volcano  of  Soconusco,  7386 
 feet  high,  beyond  it  again  descending  to  the  isthmus  of 
 Tehuantepec,  which  is  only  125  miles  across,  and  where 
 the  two  oceans  are  separated  by  a ridge  not  more  than 
 750  feet  high. 
 
 3.  The  Plateaus  of  Oao:aca  and  Anahuac. 
 
 But  under  the  17th  parallel  the  rugged  Oaxaca 
 range  towers  aloft,  as  the  advanced  outpost  of  the  lofty 
 IMexican  upland,  and  thence  taking  a north-westerly 
 course,  forms  a double  chain  enclosing  the  intervening 
 upland  of  Oaxaca,  4800  feet  liigh,  as  well  as  the 
 
OAXACA. 
 
 5 
 
 valleys  and  gorges  of  San  Dominguillo  and  San  Antonio 
 de  los  Cues  trending  northwards.  The  whole  range 
 from  west  to  east  is  69  miles  long,  and  from  north  to 
 south  not  more  than  7^  miles  broad.  North  of  the  city 
 of  Oaxaca  the  Cuesta  de  San  Juan,  a cross  ridge  6775 
 feet  high,  connects  both  parallel  ranges,  whose  tertace- 
 like  slopes  descend  on  the  one  hand  to  the  states  of  Vera 
 Cruz  and  Tabasco,  and  on  the  other  to  the  shores  of  the 
 Pacific  Ocean.  This  cross  ridge  at  the  same  time  forms 
 the  intersecting  line  between  the  plateau  of  Oaxaca  and 
 the  Mexican  table-land  proper.  The  culminating  point  of 
 this  range  is  the  Cerro  de  Cempoaltepec,  11,158  feet 
 high,  and  situated  about  midway  between  the  two  oceans. 
 
 On  the  borders  of  the  state  of  Oaxaca,  north  of  the 
 Cuesta  de  San  Juan,  the  table-land  expands  into  the  vast 
 j\Iexican  plateau,  the  highland  of  Anahuac,  meaning  in 
 the  old  Mexican  language  “ near  the  water,”  from  Ali  = 
 water,  and  nahuac  — near.  Consisting  principally  of  the 
 Puebla,  jMexico,  Queretaro,  and  Michoacan  uplands,  it 
 almost  everywhere  presents  the  appearance  of  a perfectly 
 level  surface,  though  often  rent  by  fissures,  of  variable 
 breadth  and  sometimes  1000  feet  deep.  These  are  the 
 so-called  Barrancas,  watered  by  small  streams  flowing 
 between  their  steep  rocky  walls. 
 
 Such  is  the  general  conformation  of  this  vast  table- 
 land, above  which  rise  the  largest  and  highest  mountains 
 in  the  country.  In  the  region  of  the  highest  peaks  the 
 plateau  its^  also  attains  its  greatest  elevation.  It  sinks 
 gTaduaUy  towards  its  eastern  and  northern  limits,  while 
 towards  the  Pacific  Ocean  it  descends  more  rapidly,  here 
 forming  a succession  of  terraces.  The  broad  ridge  between 
 the  two  oceans  lies  north  of  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
 in  the  middle  of  the  mainland,  trending  thence  northwards 
 and  drawiug  gradually  nearer  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  From 
 the  19th  parallel,  it  falls  slowly  towards  the  north,  while 
 
6 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 it  remains  almost  a dead  level  to  its  extreme  eastern  edge, 
 and  descends  westwards  in  a series  of  terraces.  Thus  we 
 have  at  the  western  foot  of  the  highest  summits  (8530 
 feet)  the  Tlaxala  upland,  measuring  93  miles  in  length 
 by  71-^  broad,  and  at  a mean  elevation  of  7180  feet 
 above  the  sea.  It  is  bordered  on  the  west  by  the  ex- 
 tensive plaiu  of  Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico,  at  whose  lowest 
 level  lies  the  city  of  Mexico,  7465  feet  above  the  sea. 
 This  is  again  succeeded  farther  westwards  by  the  uplands 
 of  Toluca  (8856  feet),  Michoacan  (5840  to  6400  feet), 
 and  Playa  de  XoruUo,  this  last  falling  to  2460  feet 
 above  the  ocean  level. 
 
 4.  Mexican  Volcanic  System. 
 
 At  a distance  of  about  14  miles  to  the  south  of  the 
 capital,  the  plain  is  intersected  by  a series  of  volcanoes, 
 running  in  a zigzag  line  from  west  to  east  for  454  miles 
 in  about  the  19  th  parallel,  and  crossing  the  main  axis  of 
 upheaval  nearly  at  right  angles.  It  thus,  as  it  were, 
 marks  the  direction  of  a line  of  volcanic  activity,  along 
 which  stretches  from  ocean  to  ocean  the  parallel  of  vol- 
 canoes and  of  the  highest  elevations,  where  also  are  situ- 
 ated the  only  mountains  in  the  country  covered  with 
 everlasting  snows. 
 
 South-east  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  near  the  coast  of  the 
 Gulf  of  Mexico,  lies  the  small  burning  mountain  of  Tuxtla, 
 forming  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  San  Martin.  To  the  west 
 of  the  same  city  rises  the  peak  of  Orizaba  or  Citlaltepetl, 
 17,367  feet  high,  beyond  which,  stiU.  to  the  west,  is  Popo- 
 catepetl, nearly  18,000  feet  liigh,  flanked  on  the  north 
 by Iztaccihuatl,  that  is,  “the  "White  Woman,”  15,700  feet 
 high.  Twenty-eight  miles  from  Orizaba  rises  Nauhcam- 
 patepetl,  or  Cofre  de  Perote,  to  a height  of  13,356  feet; 
 and  on  the  western  side  of  the  same  region  the  Nevado  de 
 
SIERRAS  MADRE  AND  MARTINEZ. 
 
 7 
 
 Toluca,  15,265  feet  liigh,  whose  fires  are  now  extinct.  - At 
 150  miles  from  Toluca  is  the  XoruUo  (4264  feet),  while 
 the  series  is  closed  by  the  Colima,  frequently  active,  and 
 rising  to  an  altitude  of  about  11,000  feet. 
 
 5.  Tlie  Sierra  Madre. 
 
 North  of  the  snow-capped  Nauhcampatepetl  begins  a 
 range  which,  at  the  famous  mines  of  Zimapan  and  El  Doctor, 
 takes  the  name  of  Sierra  Madre,  thence  stretching  nearly  in 
 a parallel  line  with  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  north- 
 wards to  the  Eio  Panuco.  It  slopes  somewhat  gently 
 eastwards  towards  the  sea,  hut  its  western  sides,  while  not 
 so  high,  lead  much  more  abruptly  down  to  the  ^Mexican 
 plateau. 
 
 Numerous  streams  flow  from  its  eastern  side,  amongst 
 them  the  Eio  Xalalpa,  discharging  into  the  sea  at  a point 
 south  of  the  Cerro  Gordo  on  the  coast.  Farther  north- 
 wards is  the  Cerro  San  Juan,  and  also  on  the  coast  the 
 less  elevated  Punta  de  Bernal  and  Punta  Delgada. 
 
 Being  thus  joined  about  the  20th  parallel  by  the 
 detached  hills  enclosing  the  table-land  on  the  east,  the 
 Sierra  ]\Iadre,  gradually  departing  from  the  coast-line,  takes 
 at  first  a ’VV.N.'VV.  course,  then  trending  to  the  north-west 
 over  the  elevated  plateau,  and  at  Guanaxuato  branching 
 off  into  three  main  ranges.  To  the  east  and  beyond  the 
 Eio  Panuco,  the  Sierra  Madre,  descending  abruptly  to  this 
 river  and  the  Eio  San  Juan,  continues  its  course  in  several 
 mostly  parallel  ridges,  the  most  easterly  of  which  is  the 
 Sierra  de  Tamaidipas. 
 
 Parallel  with  this  range,  and  between  it  and  the  Gulf 
 of  Mexico,  runs  the  Sierra  Martinez,  at  a moderate  eleva- 
 tion and  length  as  far  as  the  25°  N.  latitude,  beginning 
 with  the  Cerro  de  la  Pahna,  south  of  the  Eio  de  Iglesias, 
 and  throwing  off  eastwards  the  little  Sierra  del  Carrizo. 
 
8 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AHD  TEA’STR.. 
 
 The  most  distant  offshoots  of  this  main  range  are  the  hills 
 Ijdng  to  the  west,  and  running  parallel  with  it,  whose 
 highest  westerly  point  is  the  Pico  Blanco.  They  traverse 
 Xuevo  Leon,  and  continue  their  course,  interrupted  by 
 several  streams,  with  two  converging  chains  through 
 Coahuila  and  in  a line  nearly  parallel  with  the  Pdo  Sabinas, 
 imtil  at  last  the  south-westerly  unites  with  the  north- 
 easterly range  to  the  east  of  the  Lago  de  Agua  Yerde,  or 
 “ Lake  Greenwater,”  as  it  is  called. 
 
 The  second,  or  middle  main  range,  gathers  up  the 
 entangled  threads  of  the  scattered  trachyte  crests  or  cerros 
 of  the  Mexican  table-land,  uniting  them  in  a few  moderately 
 elevated  and  also  mostly  parallel  chains,  which  cross  the 
 states  of  Queretaro,  Guanaxuato,  and  San  Luis  Potosi, 
 culminating  in  the  Cerros  Buena\-ista  and  de  los  Angeles 
 (10,364  feet),  about  the  24°  X.  lat.,  and  at  last  sinking 
 to  a level  with  the  plain  towards  the  desert  of  Bolson  de 
 ]\Iaptmi. 
 
 Lastl}^,  the  third  and  most  important  chain  of  the 
 Sierra  j\Iadre  is  the  Cordillera  of  Anahuac,  trending  from 
 the  south-east  to  the  north-west.  Beginning  north  of  the 
 Bio  Grande  de  Santiago,  there  rises  in  Guanaxuato  a 
 mighty  range,  whose  western  sides  are  much  more  abrupt 
 than  its  easterly  slopes,  and  which  terminates  to  the  north 
 with  the  Cerro  San  Bernardo.  It,  however,  finds  a farther 
 extension  northwards  in  the  Sierra  Fria,  wliich  sinks  to  a 
 level  at  the  Eio  Grande,  flowing  into  the  Lago  Parras. 
 
 To  the  west  rises  the  rugged  Cuesta  de  INIalacata, 
 bathed  by  the  Pdo  Grande  de  Santiago  and  the  Eio  Guichi- 
 pila,  and  running  from  east  to  west  in  a parallel  line  with 
 the  more  northerly  Cuesta  de  Perieos.  The  Cordillera 
 traverses  the  whole  State  of  Durango,  there  taking  a north- 
 westerly du'ection,  and  assuming  much  broader  propor- 
 tions, until  about  the  112°  15'  AY.  longitude,  it  at  last 
 forms  the  western  edge  of  the  table-land,  as  the  Sierra  de 
 
MOUNTAIN  RANGES. 
 
 9 
 
 los  Tepetuanes,  separating  the  Cliilmaliua  uplands  from 
 the  less  elevated  plains  of  Sinaloa. 
 
 The  range  extends  for  a distance  of  more  than 
 280  miles  in  length  as  far  as  the  31st  parallel,  and  is 
 crossed  only  by  a few  difficult  mule-tracks.  It  rises  to  an 
 elevation  of  13,900  feet  about  the  31°  20'  N.  latitude, 
 where  is  the  Guadelupe  Pass.  Its  most  important  crests 
 are:  the  Cerro  del  Mercado,  in  Durango  (11,217  feet); 
 the  Tahacotes  (7773  feet)  and  the  Jesus  Maria  (8250 
 feet),  both  in  Chihuahua;  the  Monte  Bufa  (7660  feet) 
 and  the  Cerro  Bachinaba,  in  the  easterly  spurs.  The 
 range  is  broken  by  the  Bio  de  los  Mulatos,  and  farther 
 north  by  the  hanks  of  the  Bio  Bapispe,  while  beyond 
 the  river  the  Sierra  Espuelas  may  he  regarded  as  a con- 
 tinuation of  the  chaiu. 
 
 Along  the  whole  course  of  this  range,  from  the  Bio 
 Grande  de  Santiago  northwards,  there  rise  smaller  coast 
 ranges  running  parallel  with  the  main  system.  In  the  ex- 
 treme north-east  the  Sierra  de  los  Patos  stretches  between 
 Bufa  and  Bachinaba,  here  forming  its  easterly  section,  and 
 descending  gently  towards  the  plateau  of  Chihuahua. 
 
 The  maiu  chain  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  as  above  de- 
 scribed, is  partly  covered  with  a fine  growth  of  pines, 
 cedars,  oaks,  ash,  walnut,  and  such  like  trees ; and  it  is 
 perhaps  on  this  account  that  its  northern  section  is  called 
 the  Sierra  Verde.  In  the  valleys  and  along  the  water- 
 courses grow  the  never-failing  sycamores,  willows,  and 
 cotton-plants,  while  the  plains  are,  on  the  contrary,  for  the 
 most  part  treeless. 
 
 6.  Water  System — General  Character  of  the  Central 
 American  Rivers. 
 
 Most  of  the  Central  American  rivers  rising  on  the 
 elevated  uplands  and  plateaus,  make  their  way  either  to  the 
 
10 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Atlantic  or  the  Pacific.  In  the  north,  however,  and 
 occasionally  elsewhere,  several  not  inconsiderable  streams 
 discharge  into  inland  lagoons  or  lakes,  which  have  no 
 known  outlets.  A first  glance  at  the  map  might  lead  us 
 to  suppose  that  Mexico  at  all  events  possesses  an  abun- 
 dance of  water — countless  streams  rising  in  the  upland 
 terraces.  But  the  fact  is,  there  is  here,  as  elsewhere  in 
 Central  America,  a great  dearth  of  water,  for  the  river- 
 beds are  generally  dry,  or  very  nearly  so,  in  summer,  and 
 are  consequently,  with  few  exceptions,  ill  adapted  for 
 navigation. 
 
 At  the  same  time,  the  peculiar  configuration  of  the 
 upheaved  land  in  Mexico  fully  accounts  for  the  absence 
 of  large  rivers,  such  as  are  elsewhere  met  with  in 
 countries  of  equal  extent.  This  region  is  traversed  by 
 no  stream  in  its  entire  length  from  north  to  south,  or 
 more  correctly  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  in  this 
 direction  alone  could  a second  Missouri  find  room  to 
 develop.  A little  reflection  will  suffice  to  show  that 
 streams  rising  on  terrace  lands  invariably  take  the 
 shortest  way  to  the  slopes,  never  continuing  their  course 
 as  if  dammed  in  between  the  terraces  themselves.  But 
 Mexico  is  characterised  throughout  its  whole  length  by 
 terraces  rising  rapidly  one  above  the  other,  and  bordering 
 east  and  west  on  the  plateau  of  Anahuac.  And  when 
 we  reflect  that  this  table-land  inclines  gently  eastwards 
 in  the  north  and  westwards  in  the  south,  until  it  reaches 
 the  terraces  descending  on  either  side  abruptly  towards 
 the  coast,  we  shall  have  no  further  difficulty  in  under- 
 standing why  all  the  rivers,  with  a few  unimportant 
 exceptions,  flow  directly  either  to  the  Pacific  or  to  the 
 Gulf  of  ]\Iexico,  that  is  trend  either  to  the  east  or  to  the 
 west,  hut  never  to  the  north  or  the  south. 
 
 The  extreme  north-east  alone  is  bordered  by  a mighty 
 stream,  the  Eio  Grande  del  Norte,  which,  however,  in  its 
 
THE  EIO  GRANDE  DEL  NORTE. 
 
 11 
 
 source,  direction,  and  main  features,  belongs  rather  to  the 
 water  systems  of  the  northern  continent  than  to  those  of 
 Central  America.  It  discharges  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
 which  basin  in  fact  receives  aU  the  larger  Mexican  streams, 
 owing  to  the  watershed  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
 country  approaching  much  nearer  to  the  Pacific  than  the 
 Atlantic  seaboard.  As,  moreover,  the  Mexican  mainland 
 itself  tapers  from  north  to  south,  the  rivers  naturally 
 dimmish  in  length,  until  they  assume  the  character  of 
 wild  mountain  torrents  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
 south,  where  the  land  is  narrowest.  Deeply  furrowing 
 the  hilly  terraces,  and  mostly  destitute  of  tributaries,  they 
 here,  after  a relatively  short  course,  rush  headlong  into 
 the  sea. 
 
 The  fact  that  a considerable  number  of  the  streams 
 on  the  elevated  uplands  are  collected  into  lakes,  is  also 
 explained,  partly  by  the  contracted  nature  of  the  country 
 preventing  the  formation  of  large  rivers,  and  partly  by  the 
 highlands  expanding  towards  the  extremely  limited  coast 
 region,  thus  nearly  altogether  depriving  the  river  systems 
 themselves  of  the  lower  levels  necessary  for  their  full 
 development.  The  same  physical  features,  with  the  same 
 results,  prevail  also  in  the  Central  American  regions 
 south  of  Mexico. 
 
12 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHT  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  II. 
 
 THE  INHABITANTS  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA, 
 
 1.  Common  Points  of  Beserahlance  "between  tlve  Central 
 and  South  American  Paces. 
 
 Before  describing  in  detail  the  several  States  comprised 
 by  ns  imder  the  general  name  of  Central  America,  many 
 needless  repetitions  vidll  be  avoided  if  ■we  first  bring  to- 
 gether such  main  characteristics  as  are  coromon  to  them 
 alL  And  foremost  amongst  these  are  the  inhabitants  them- 
 selves, who  bear  such  a miiform  stamp  throughout  the 
 whole  of  Spanish  America,  that  what  we  shall  have  to  say 
 regarding  the  peoples  of  Central  America  is,  on  the  whole, 
 equaEy  applicable  to  those  of  the  Spanish  Kepubhcs  in 
 the  Southern  Continent.  The  subject  may  accordingly 
 be  all  the  more  fully  entered  into  in  this  place,  while 
 reserving  for  future  notice  such  occasional  departures 
 from  the  common  tj^e  as  may  here  and  there  present 
 themselves. 
 
 It  should  at  the  same  time  be  remembered  that  the 
 inhabitants  of  no  other  country  in  the  world  caU  for  such 
 careful  study  as  do  those  of  America  in  general,  but  more 
 especially  those  of  the  favoured  regions  formerly  belonging 
 to  Spain.  The  history  of  these  lands  is  so  intimately 
 bound  up  with  the  various  conditions  of  their  inhabitants, 
 that  it  becomes  utterly  impossible  to  understand  the 
 current  of  events  in  these  republics  without  carefully 
 considering  the  peculiarities  of  the  Indian  element,  the 
 
THE  ABORIGINES. 
 
 13 
 
 psychological  results  of  the  pernicious  mixture  of  antago- 
 nistic races,  and  the  relations  of  the  various  coloured 
 people  one  to  the  other. 
 
 2.  Four  Leading  Types — The  Aborigines. 
 
 In  aU  the  Spanish  American  Eepublics  there  are 
 clearly  to  be  distinguished  at  least  four  different  types : 
 the  Indians,  the  Mestizoes  (haK-castes),  the  Whites  or 
 Creoles,  and  the  Negroes,  the  last  in  very  limited 
 numbers.  Almost  everywhere  the  Aborigines — that  is  to 
 say,  the  so-called  Indians — are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
 element  of  the  population,  the  WTiites  or  more  civilised 
 section  constituting  a very  small  portion  of  the  com- 
 munity. 
 
 The  Central  American  Indians  are  divided  into  num- 
 erous tribes  with  various  names,  and  also  distinguished 
 one  from  the  other  by  their  physical  appearance,  language, 
 habits  and  customs,  though  still  presenting  a certain  un- 
 mistakable character  in  common.  They  are  in  general  of 
 a copper-brown  coloiu,  square  built,  robust,  muscular ; with 
 straight,  smooth,  and  glossy  but  coarse  black  hair ; little 
 beard ; high,  prominent,  though  not  pointed,  cheek-bones ; 
 large  ears,  thick  lips,  low  brow,  eyes  somewhat  oval, 
 mostly  black  and  very  keen-sighted,  with  the  outer  corner 
 tiuned  a little  upwards  to  the  temples ; lastly,  a peculiar 
 softness  about  the  mouth,  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
 earnest  and  even  sinister  glance  of  the  eye.  But  though 
 in  general  a vigorous,  healthy,  and  well-developed  type, 
 they  display,  in  common  with  all  the  American  native 
 races,  that  want  of  adaptability  to  outward  circumstances 
 which  renders  far  more  fatal  to  them  than  to  Europeans 
 all  sudden  transitions  from  hot  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  hot, 
 climates.  Of  a decidedly  earnest,  quiet,  even  sad  and 
 pensive  temperament,  the  Indian  is  ever  prone  to  shroud 
 
14 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 even  his  most  ordinary  dealings  in  a certain  air  of  mystery. 
 And  while  the  inward  passions  are  never  reflected  on  his 
 inexpressive  countenance,  he  can  yet  at  times  be  terrible 
 in  liis  wrath.  Usually  temperate,  clever,  docile,  easily  led 
 by  his  superiors  and  especially  by  the  clergy,  he  is  at 
 the  same  time  indolent,  unimaginative,  ignorant,  and 
 superstitious. 
 
 INDIAN  WOMAN. 
 
 3.  The  Indios  Mamos  and  Barharos. 
 
 The  views  generally  entertained  regarding  the  red  men 
 are  for  the  most  part  utterly  false.  Indian  and  savage 
 pass  for  convertible  terms,  whereas  even  under  the  most 
 unfavourable  circumstances  the  Central  American  Indians 
 must  be  considered  as,  at  all  events,  half  chdlised.  Through- 
 out the  whole  region  they  are  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
 carefully  to  be  distinguished  one  from  the  other  — the 
 Indios  Mansos,  that  is,  the  settled  and  agricidtural  tribes; 
 
INDIOS  MAJJSOS. 
 
 15 
 
 and  the  Indies  Barharos,  that  is,  the  unsettled  and  nomad 
 tribes.  Experience  shows  that  the  latter,  the  so-called 
 wild  or  prairie  Indians,  everjnyhere  withdraw  to  their 
 woods  before  advancing  European  culture,  all  contact  with 
 which  invariably  involves  them  in  total  and  often  rapid 
 destruction.  For  them  civilisation  is  an  insidious,  bixt  a 
 no  less  sure  and  deadly,  poison. 
 
 But  the  case  is  different  with  the  Indies  Mansos,  who 
 long  before  the  discovery  of  America  were  devoted  to 
 agricultural  pursuits,  thereby  acquiring  an  exceptional 
 superiority,  shown  even  now  in  their  gradual  progress  and 
 daily  increasing  numbers.  To  this  class  belongs  by  far 
 the  greatest  munber  of  the  Central  American  Indians,  such 
 erratic  and  predatory  hordes  as  the  dreaded  Apaches  and 
 Comanches,  of  Sonora  and  Chihuahua,  being  now  met  with 
 only  in  the  northern  provinces,  and  more  especially  in  the 
 still  unexplored  wilderness  of  the  Bolson  di  Mapimi,  and 
 along  the  banks  of  the  Eio  Grande  del  Norte.  But  even 
 these  are  gradually  withdrawing  into  the  interior  of  Texas 
 and  New  Mexico,  where  they  must  sooner  or  later  succumb 
 to  the  ever-advancing  strides  of  European  culture. 
 
 4.  Temperament  of  the  Bed  Man. 
 
 While  the  Bed  Man  presents  in  his  youth  certain 
 features  of  old  age,  he  on  the  other  hand  retains  a certain 
 youthful  appearance  in  his  dechning  years,  as  shown  by 
 his  scanty  beard,  unwrinkled  brow,  and  black  hair  seldom 
 tinged  with  the  silver  of  age.  In  the  countenance  of  the 
 child  there  already  lurks  an  expression  of  earnest  thought- 
 fulness, his  very  joys  being  tempered  with  a dash  of  sad- 
 ness, while  his  sorrows  are  deepened  by  a sinister  and 
 gloomy  silence.  With  a stooping  gait  and  downcast 
 eye,  he  lacks  that  free  and  proud  bearing  characteristic  of 
 races  who  have  still  a future  before  them.  Though  with- 
 
16 
 
 COMPENDrUM  OF  GEOGEAPHT  TRAVEL. 
 
 out  the  muscular  power  of  the  Negro,  he  is  stUl  robust,  dis- 
 j)laying,  when  needed,  a great  amount  of  endurance  under 
 labour,  which,  however,  is  rather  of  a passive  than  an  active 
 nature.  He  suffers  uncomplainingly,  and  fears  death  all 
 the  less  that  life  has  for  him  hut  little  charm.  To  every- 
 thing that  happens  adversely  he  opposes  a certain  inert- 
 ness. He  is  a deep  dissembler ; in  the  presence  of  the 
 white  man  assuming  a mild  and  yielding  appearance, 
 hut  swift  to  avenge  his  wrongs  when  opportunity  offers. 
 He  displays  an  exaggerated  ceremonious  courteousness 
 even  in  ordinary  intercourse  with  his  fellows,  hut,  on  the 
 other  hand,  he  seldom  if  ever  succeeds  in  inspiring  real 
 attachment  or  devotion  to  his  own  person. 
 
 If  his  inventive  faculty  is  slight,  all  the  more  remark- 
 able is  his  talent  for  imitation,  while  his  patience  is  inex- 
 haustible. Hence  the  excellence  of  his  workmanship  hi 
 every  handicraft  that  can  be  pursued  in  the  sedentary  life  of 
 liis  own  hut,  and  that  offers  scope  for  the  most  painstaking 
 care  in  all  its  minutest  details.  His  intelligence  is  early 
 developed  up  to  a certain  point,  after  which  no  farther  pro- 
 gress is  made.  Stih,  some  remarkable  Indians  are  known  to 
 history,  and,  aU  things  considered,  his  intellect  cannot  be 
 regarded  as  of  a decidedly  low  order,  though  betrapng  a 
 peculiar  bent  of  its  own.  The  Indian  is  ever  an  observ-er, 
 and  penetrates  with  a certain  readiness  into  the  thoughts 
 of  others.  And  yet  he  exhibits  a degree  of  self-compla- 
 cency in  his  own  degradation,  and  spurns  all  improvements 
 brought  or  imposed  upon  him  by  the  white  man,  to  whom 
 he  will  be  indebted  for  naught,  whom  he  rather  cherishes 
 the  right  to  curse  and  to  execrate  for  all  the  countless 
 unspeakable  horrors  and  indignities  he  has  been  fain  to 
 endure  at  their  hands.  His  determination  is  to  remain  a 
 thorough  Indian,  free  to  indulge  his  bitter  hatred  against 
 the  European  usurpers  of  his  domain. 
 
 The  Catholic  form  of  Christianity  imposed  upon  him 
 
THE  EED  IVLVN. 
 
 17 
 
 is  but  a cloak  beneath  ■which  is  but  thinly  veiled  his  old 
 heathenism.  He  is  fascinated,  not  by  the  unfathomable 
 mystery  of  the  Triune,  but  rather  by  the  numerous  male 
 and  female  saints  of  the  calendar,  reminding  him,  as  they 
 do,  of  his  Pagan  deities,  vanquished  but  not  dead.  The 
 human  sacrifices  on  the  altars  of  his  forefathers  are  merely 
 replaced  by  a Man-God  crucified,  blood  still  flowing  for 
 him  on  Golgotha,  as  it  once  did  on  the  Teocallis  of  the 
 priests  of  Huitzolopochtli  in  the  olden  times.  The  pomp 
 of  the  Catholic  religion  he  readily  acquiesces  in,  while  still 
 supplementing  it  'with  the  festmties  of  his  former  worship. 
 Hence  the  feasts  of  the  Church  are  now  much  the  same 
 to  him  as  were  the  “ Mitotes  ” to  his  Aztec  ancestors. 
 The  race  has  forgotten  nothing,  because  its  conquerors 
 have  forgotten  to  educate  it.  Mere  tools  and  hiunan 
 machines  in  the  hands  of  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  the 
 Indians  still  exclaim : No  somos  gente  de,  razon  ; “We  are 
 not  rational  beings.”  This  explains  why  in  their  many 
 intestine  wars,  the  prisoners  of  one  faction  readily  pass 
 over  to  the  ranks  of  the  other,  bearing  arms  with  equal 
 indifference  for  Liberal  or  Eeactionist.  For,  in  whatsoever 
 form  it  may  present  itself  to  him,  the  Indian  is  stdl  averse 
 to  civdisation,  which  has  been  hitherto  identified  in  his 
 mind  with  tyranny  and  oppression.  The  white  man  is 
 ever  his  foe ; hence  he  is  never  sympathetic,  but  rather 
 shrinks  from  contact  with  the  hated  race  by  whom  he  has 
 been  despoiled  of  his  land.  To  the  Creole  he  offers  neither 
 food  nor  drink,  holding  all  friendly  intercourse  and  con- 
 verse Avith  him  as  so  much  weakness.  And  so  he  bides, 
 ever  suspicious,  clinging  tenaciously  to  the  past.  The  cut 
 of  liis  garb  and  his  food  are  still  the  same  as  in  the  days 
 of  Montezuma,  and  the  simplicity  of  his  household  arrange- 
 ments has  undergone  no  change.  The  land  also  he  tills 
 after  the  old  fashion,  seldom  sowing  more  than  may  be 
 needed  for  the  requirements  of  the  next  ensuing  year. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 COJIPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AXD  TRAVEL. 
 
 And  with  his  decided  love  of  solitude  he  knows  hut  few 
 wants — on  this  account  alone,  if  for  no  other  reason,  offer- 
 ing a passive  obstacle  to  what  we  call  progress. 
 
 It  is  thus  e\ddent  that  the  Indian  is  by  nature  dif- 
 ferently constituted  and  of  a different  temperament  from 
 the  white  man ; his  mental  evolutions  are  not  the  same, 
 neither  does  he  think,  reason,  feign,  or  feel  as  we  do.  In 
 the  depth  of  his  soul,  in  has  heart  of  hearts,  there  still 
 lurks  a something  alien  to  our  nature.  He  is  swayed  by 
 many  passions,  moral  forces,  thoughts,  feelings,  and  senti- 
 ments to  which  we  are  strangers.  In  a word,  he  is  a 
 being  apart,  not  to  be  judged  or  measured  by  our  European 
 standard,  and  all  careful  observers  agree  that  it  is  in  truth 
 no  easy  matter  to  fathom  and  thoroughly  understand  hhn. 
 
 5.  The  Mixed  Races — The  Mestizoes. 
 
 Next  to  the  Indians  the  so-caUed  Ladinos,  or  half- 
 castes,  are  the  most  numerous  class  in  Central  America. 
 They  include  such  varieties  as  the  Zambos,  IMulattoes, 
 Mestizoes,  Quadroons,  Octoroons,  and  various  other  sub- 
 divisions, with  different  names  according  to  their  various 
 degrees  of  descent.  It  is  impossible  to  form  an  accurate 
 estimate  of  the  actual  number  of  each  variety,  though  it  is 
 certain  that  the  great  majority  of  this  mixed  population 
 are  Mestizoes,  that  is,  descendants  of  a white  father  and 
 an  Indian  mother,  and  that  all  the  other  shades  of  colour 
 are  disappearing  before  them. 
 
 The  Mestizoes  are  of  a light  yellow  hue,  but  often 
 fully  as  white  as  the  south  European,  and  may  in  general 
 be  regarded  as  a fine  race  of  men.  In  their  bodily  and 
 mental  features  they  resemble  the  Creoles,  but  are  more 
 inured  to  privations ; they  are  docile,  but  id-educated, 
 of  unbridled  passions,  ambitious,  sensuous,  and  void  of 
 all  honourable  feeling.  In  social  intercourse  the  pure 
 
THE  MESTIZOES. 
 
 19 
 
 features  of  their  character.  In  the  history  of  the  Spanish 
 American  KepubKcs,  both  IMestizo  and  Indian  play  an 
 important  part.  To  the  Ladino  class  generally  belong  the 
 male  and  female  servants,  the  muleteers,  the  smaller 
 tenantry  and  farmers,  the  scattered  peasantry  and  herds- 
 men, as  well  as  most  of  the  itinerant  mendicants  and  ban- 
 ditti; these  last,  under  the  name  of  guerillas,  claiming  a 
 certain  amount  of  political  independence.  At  times,  how- 
 ever, the  Ladinos  rise  to  the  position  of  artizans  and 
 traders,  and  even  of  clergymen  and  the  highest  officials  in 
 the  State. 
 
 A MESTIZO. 
 
 Indians  are  preferable  to  the  Mestizoes,  in  whom  are  con- 
 centrated the  vices  of  both  races — revenge  and  treachery, 
 combined  with  laziness  and  cowardice,  forming  the  main 
 
20 
 
 UO.MPEXDIU.M  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AED  TRAVEL. 
 
 6.  The  Zavibos  and  Creoles. 
 
 Tlie  Zanibos,  Sambos,  or  Cliiuos,  half-bred  Kegroes 
 and  Indians,  are  not  veiy  nmnerous,  residing,  like  the 
 pure  Xegroes  and  ]\Iulattoes  (the  offspring  of  whites  and 
 
 A NEGKO. 
 
 Africans)  only  in  the  coast  districts.  They  perform  most 
 of  the  heaviest  work  in  the  towns,  are  often  occupied  with 
 cattle-breeding  in  scattered  AuUages  and  hamlets,  or  else 
 are  engaged  on  the  plantations. 
 
 It  is  ever}*where  characteristic  of  the  mixed  races, 
 that  they  endeavour  as  far  as  possible  to  pass  for  whites, 
 and  this  is  more  especially  time  of  the  half-castes  in 
 America.  But  the  generally  ruling,  though  least  numerous 
 class  of  the  population  are  the  Creoles  (Criollos),  that  is, 
 the  pure  descendants  of  whites,  and  especially  of  the 
 
THE  CEEOLES. 
 
 21 
 
 Spanish  conquerors.  Since  the  separation  of  their  pro- 
 vinces from  the  mother  country  they  also  usually  call 
 themselves  Americans.  In  the  toums  they  form  the  lead- 
 ing element  of  the  population — the  principal  ground 
 landlords,  merchants,  mine-owners,  manufacturers,  officials, 
 higher  clergy,  physicians,  lawyers,  and  artizans,  belonging 
 almost  exclusively  to  this  class. 
 
 Endowed  with  a bodily  frame  superior  to  that  of 
 many  other  types,  the  Creole  is  mostly  of  medium  height. 
 
 A CEEOrS. 
 
 well  built,  and  of  a pleasing  expression  of  countenance. 
 His  flashing  and  piercing  eyes  are  black,  like  his  hair  and 
 full  bushy  beard,  while  his  slender  figure  is  marked  by  a 
 somewhat  contracted  chest  and  curved  back.  Less  favour- 
 able is  the  picture  presented  by  the  inner  man.  Without 
 the  moral  character  of  the  first  Puritan  settlers  in  North 
 America,  lacking  both  the  steadfastness  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
 and  the  trustworthiness  of  the  German,  the  Creoles  allow 
 themselves  to  be  swayed  by  passions  and  capricious  im- 
 
22 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  ^YND  TRAVEL. 
 
 pulses,  M'hicli  can  be  held  in  check  only  by  the  strong 
 arm  of  despotism. 
 
 They  acquire  laio^vledge  readily,  but  superficially, 
 shrinking  from  all  earnest  effort,  and  ever  irresistibly 
 attracted  by  the  allurements  of  pleasm’e.  The  church 
 gives  them  easy  absolution  for  their  suis,  while  insphuig 
 them  with  a profound  horror  of  heretics,  and  edifying 
 them  with  the  pompous  pageantry  of  the  Latin  rite. 
 Strangers  they  hate,  in  spite,  or  rather  in  consequence,  of 
 their  indispensable  jn'esence  in  the  country,  for  notliing  is 
 farther  from  the  mind  of  the  Creole  than  a doubt  of  his 
 owm  excellence  or  a confession  of  the  superiority  of  others. 
 
 In  these  Creoles  is  now  centred  the  civilisation  of 
 Spanish  America.  But  the  Indian  race  being  utterly  ahen 
 to  all  European  culture,  the  Creoles  with  what  they  have 
 inherited  of  that  culture  hang  as  it  were  suspended  in 
 mid-air  over  an  abyss  of  barbarism.  The  instmct  of  self- 
 preservation  they  have  well  nigh  entu’ely  lost  throughout 
 the  former  Spanish  domain.  They  wage  relentless  civil 
 warfare  amongst  themselves,  and  butcher  each  other  un- 
 sparingly, thereby  at  once  diminishing  their  own  numbers 
 and  placing  arms  in  the  hands  of  the  coloured  races.. 
 Whence  comes  this,  it  may  be  asked,  since  after  all  the 
 Creoles  are  white  men  ? Simply  because  man,  who  is  no 
 cosmopolite,  may  not  be  arbitrarily  removed  from  his  native 
 chme  and  transplanted  to  other  lands  and  other  condi- 
 tions of  existence  with  impunity.  Not  only  in  America, 
 but  in  every  tropical  region  of  the  globe  the  same  great 
 lesson  of  experience  is  taught,  that  the  European  there 
 settled  degenerates  in  his  posterity.  In  many  places  he 
 fails  to  hand  down  his  native  qualities  intact  to  the  third 
 generation,  and,  even  when  he  remains  so  long  untainted  by 
 alien  blood,  he  is  still  so  enervated  as  to  remain  European 
 in  little  beyond  the  comjdexion.  Practically  it  is  a new 
 race,  but  a race  ever  diminisliing  in  numbers  until  it 
 
THE  CREOLES. 
 
 23 
 
 sooner  or  later  dies  out  altogether.  In  this  same  stage' of 
 degeneracy  and  of  gradual  disappearance,  we  now  find  the 
 Spanish  Creoles  in  Mexico  and  other  parts  of  tropical 
 America.  At  all  events  the  general  population  in  all 
 these  lands  has  for  the  last  thirty  years  or  so  been  rapidly 
 augmenting,  while  the  pure  white  element  is  actually  de- 
 chning,  or  becoming  merged  with  the  native  Indian  race. 
 AU  observers  are  in  accord  that  the  pure  Indians  are 
 steadily  increasing,  and  that  the  Ladinos  are  constantly 
 drawing  nearer  to  the  Indian  type.  Here,  therefore,  the 
 relations  of  the  two  races  are  the  reverse  of  those  pre- 
 vailing in  the  United  States,  where,  as  we  elsewhere  record, 
 the  white  man  is  visibly  “ crowdmg  out  ” or  absorbing  the 
 native  Indian. 
 
24 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTER  III. 
 
 GOVERNMENT  AND  POPULATION  OF  IMEXICO. 
 
 1.  General  Outlines  and  Extent. 
 
 The  Mexican  territory  borders  northwards  on  the  United 
 States ; eastwards  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean 
 Sea,  and  British  Honduras;  southwards  on  the  republic  of 
 Guatemala  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  also  waters  its 
 western  seaboard.  The  frontier  line  between  Honduras 
 and  Guatemala  is  not  yet  accurately  defined,  the  land 
 through  which  it  passes  being  still  but  partly  explored. 
 The  superficial  area  is  estimated  at  about  743,948  square 
 miles,  its  total  length  from  north-west  to  south-east 
 measuring  1950  miles,  with  a breadth  along  the  nor- 
 thern frontier  of  1250  miles  as  the  crow  flies,  but  re- 
 duced to  580  at  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  still  further 
 contracted  to  125  across  the  istlunus  of  Tehuantepec. 
 
 In  shape  presenting  the  appearance  of  a cornucopia 
 with  its  mouth  turned  northwards,  IMexico  forms  a vast 
 isthmus,  constantly  narrowing  from  north-west  to  south- 
 east, and  throwing  off  a considerable  peninsula  to  the 
 south-east.  The  Atlantic  coast-line  has  a total  length  of 
 1582,  and  the  Pacific  4150  miles. 
 
 2.  Political  Constitution — Population. 
 
 Mexico,  or  more  properly  the  United  States  of  Mexico 
 (Estado  Unidos  de  Mexico),  forms  a federal  republic,  framed 
 on  that  of  the  great  northern  commonwealth,  and  con- 
 
POPULATION  OF  MEXICO. 
 
 25 
 
 sisting  at  present  of  twenty-seven  states,  one  territory 
 (Lower  California),  and  the  federal  district  of  Mexico,  the 
 seat  of  the  central  Government.  The  political  organisation 
 of  the  country  is  mainly  and  with  hut  few  modifications 
 copied  from  that  of  the  United  States,  as  indeed  is  the 
 case  with  nearly  all  the  Central  American  republics.  The 
 financial  condition  of  the  State,  like  that  of  most  other 
 Spanish  republics,  and  indeed  the  mother  country,  is 
 deplorable.  The  Mexican  national  debt  at  the  present 
 time  amounts  to  £63,000,000,  interest  on  no  part  of 
 which  has  been  paid  for  many  years  ; notwithstanding 
 which  the  annual  expenditure  constantly  exceeds  the 
 revenue. 
 
 This  vast  region,  which  is  about  three  times  the  size 
 of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  is  said  to  have  a present 
 population  of  9,169,700  souls,  though  no  great  reliance 
 can  be  placed  on  these  figures,  no  regular  census  in  the 
 European  sense  having  yet  been  taken ; being,  in  fact, 
 impracticable  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Hence  much 
 depends  on  purely  arbitrary  assumptions.  A census 
 instituted  in  1873  gave  a population  of  9,400,000, 
 which  was  evidently  in  excess  of  the  reality,  and  as  the 
 returns  for  1869  gave  8,812,850,  nine  millions  in  round 
 numbers  may  be  taken  as  not  far  from  the  truth. 
 
 According  to  a calculation  of  Cortina  the  population 
 in  favourable  years  increases  on  an  average  at  the  rate  of 
 1'80  per  cent.  As  regards  the  relative  proportion  of 
 the  sexes,  the  excess  of  females  would  seem  to  diminish 
 as  we  go  northwards,  and  to  increase  as  we  approach  the 
 equator.  As  a rule  the  southern  are  much  more  popu- 
 lous than  the  northern  districts,  and  in  the  south  also  the 
 population  is  densest  in  the  interior  on  the  plateau  of 
 Anahuac.  This  uneven  distribution  still  corresponds  with 
 the  conditions  as  they  existed  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
 conquest.  The  Indian  element  also  continues  to  maintain 
 
26 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 its  immense  superiority,  numbering  at  least  six  millions 
 of  pure  blood,  about  one-half  of  whom  belong  to  the  wild 
 and  marauding  nomad  tribes,  roaming  over  the  moun- 
 tainous districts  of  the  north.  Hence,  with  the  exception 
 of  a few  inconsiderable  towns,  the  most  thicldy  peopled 
 parts  of  the  country  still  present  a decidedly  Indian 
 aspect. 
 
 3.  The  Mexican  Indian  Tribes. 
 
 The  Mexican  Indians  are  split  up  into  a large  number 
 of  tribes  speaking  different  idioms.  There  is  no  such 
 thing  as  a common  Mexican  language,  but  rather  a multi- 
 plicity of  tongues,  differing  far  more  from  each  other  than 
 do,  for  instance,  the  various  members  of  the  Teutonic 
 group.  A distingTiished  savant,  Don  Manuel  Orozco  y Berra, 
 has  made  a carefid  inquiry  into  the  number  of  Indian 
 tongues  spoken  in  ]\Iexico,  resulting  in  showing  the  amazing 
 number  of  5 1 distinct  languages  and  6 9 dialects,  to  which 
 he  adds  62  idioms  now  extinct.  Yet  of  this  vast  total 
 of  182  idioms  he  has  succeeded  in  grouping  together  not 
 more  than  35,  with  69  dialects,  which  he  classes  in  11 
 families,  still  lea^'ing  1 6 others  wholly  unclassified.  And 
 when  we  remember  that  each  language  corresponds  to  a 
 separate  tribe,  we  shall  be  able  to  form  some  idea  of  the 
 immense  variety  of  Indian  tribes  in  klexico.  It  will  be 
 enough  here  to  mention  the  most  important  of  them  : — 
 
 The  Aztecs,  prevailing  in  the  States  of  klexico,  Puebla, 
 and  Yera  Cruz,  with  branches  in  Queretaro,  Guanaxuato, 
 San  Luis  Potosi,  Durango,  and  Chihuahua,  and  a few 
 scattered  famihes  met  with  tliroughout  the  whole  of 
 Central  America,  as  well  as  in  New  l\Iexico  and  Texas, 
 as  far  as  the  37th  parallel.  They  are  the  descendants  of 
 the  famous  race  which  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of 
 America  had  developed  a most  remarkable  original  and 
 independent  civilisation  on  the  uplands  of  Anahuac. 
 
THE  INDIAN  TRIBES. 
 
 27 
 
 The  ChicMnecs,  individual  families  of  which  tribe  are 
 found  in  Queretaro  and  Guachichiles,  as  also  in  Xalisco, 
 together  with  the  branches  Carcanes  and  Tenoxquines ; a few 
 occur  in  San  Luis  Potosi,  Nuevo  Leon,  and  Tamaulipas. 
 
 The  Otomis  spread  over  Mexico,  Puebla,  Michoacan, 
 Guadalaxara,  and  Queretaro. 
 
 The  Tarrascos,  principally  in  Michoacan,  where  they 
 were  formerly  the  rubng  race. 
 
 The  Tarahumaras  in  the  gorges  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
 in  Durango,  and  in  Chihuahua  between  the  24°  and  30° 
 north  latitude. 
 
 The  Yaqids  or  Hiaquis,  a numerous  and  peaceful 
 tribe  in  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  along  the  banks  of  the  Eio 
 Hiaqui. 
 
 The  Apaches  roam  over  the  almost  unknown  Poison 
 de  Mapimi,  between  Durango,  Chihuahua,  and  Coahuila, 
 but  reaching  also  far  north  into  Texas  and  New  klexico. 
 With  the  exception  of  a few  tribes  who  group  their  wig- 
 wams into  small  villages  for  the  imrpose  of  cultivating 
 maize,  the  Apaches  are  all  nomads  and  marauders. 
 
 The  Totonacpaes  in  the  north-eastern  district  of  Puebla, 
 and  in  Vera  Cruz. 
 
 The  Mixtecos  are  numerous  in  Oaxaca,  and  are  found 
 also  in  Vera  Cruz. 
 
 The  Zapotecos  form  also  a numerous  tribe  in  Oaxaca. 
 Before  they  were  subdued  by  the  Mexicans  they  were 
 distinguished  by  a peculiar  civibsation  of  their  own,  and 
 to  them  Alexander  von  Humboldt  attributes  the  building 
 of  the  grand  palace  of  Mitla  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 Oaxaca. 
 
 The  TeocMapanecos  settled  in  Chiapas,  and  partly  also 
 in  the  adjoining  district  of  Tabasco. 
 
 The  Mayas  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  had,  like  the 
 Mexicans,  arrived  at  a high  state  of  civilisation  before  the 
 arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 
 
28 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  Pericues  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peuiii- 
 sula  of  Lower  California. 
 
 The  Monquis,  to  whom  belong  the  families  of  the 
 Guaycuras  and  Coras,  also  in  Lower  California. 
 
 The  Cochimas  or  Colimies, 
 
 The  distribution  of  population  in  INIexico  is  also 
 partly  determined  by  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  land, 
 which,  as  has  been  seen,  is  on  the  whole  a liilly  plateau, 
 fringed  by  low-lying  coast  districts,  broad  in  some  places, 
 in  others  contracted,  but  all  leading  by  a series  of  terraces 
 to  the  vast  table-land  occupjdng  the  greater  part  of  the 
 interior.  The  Mexican  towns  are  generally  situated  on 
 the  upland  plains,  and  with  then  broad  straight  streets 
 flanked  by  flat-roofed  one-storied  houses,  produce  a very 
 monotonous  effect,  relieved  only  by  such  invariable 
 features  as  the  cathedral,  the  Plaza  or  central  Square,  and 
 the  Alameda  or  public  pleasure-grounds. 
 
 These  gardens,  with  an  exuberant  growth  of  trees, 
 shrubs,  and  flowers,  such  as  is  met  with  only  in  sub-tropical 
 lands,  embellished  also  with  fountains  and  usually  laid 
 out  with  great  taste,  constitute  a glorious  feature  of  all 
 the  towns,  most  of  which  are  also  further  adorned  with 
 the  Paseo,  or  shady  promenade.  The  cathedral  generally 
 assumes  the  form  of  a dome,  richly  ornamented  with 
 mosaics  and  many-coloured  tdes.  Such  is  the  main 
 exterior  aspect  of  the  ^Mexican  towns.  The  interior  of 
 the  houses,  approached  by  a high  gateway,  consists  of 
 spacious  and  airy  apartments  leading  on  to  a verandah. 
 
 The  Zaimones, 
 
 The  UcJiitas  or  Vehitis, 
 The  leas, 
 
 J 
 
 [>  All  in  Lower  California. 
 
 4.  General  Aspect  of  the  Mexican  Towns. 
 
30 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAA-EL. 
 
 5.  The  Capital  and  its  Inhabitants — The  Leperos. 
 
 The  most  populous  city  in  the  country  is  the  capital, 
 Mexico,  ■vs'ith  240,000  inhabitants,  verily  the  most  motley 
 assemblage  of  mixed  races  hi  the  vliole  republic.  Indians 
 and  ]\Iestizoes  form  the  large  majority,  though  here  also  is 
 found  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  Creoles  in  ]\Iexico. 
 Of  foreigners  the  most  numerous  are  the  French,  and  next 
 to  them  the  Germans,  Italians,  Spaniards,  Americans, 
 English,  Swiss,  and  Austrians.  The  French  do  not  occupy 
 a very  high  position  in  the  social  scale,  being  mostly 
 industrious  and  prosperous  tradespeople.  In  muslins  and 
 calicoes  they  have  recently  driven  all  rivals  from  the  field. 
 The  Germans,  without  monopohsing  aU  the  conmierce  of 
 the  place,  are  represented  by  the  largest  number  of  its  lead- 
 ing commercial  houses;  wliile  the  watchmakers,  tailors,  and 
 hatters  are  also  mostly  Germans  or  Swiss.  It  is  painful 
 to  be  obliged  to  add  that  not  a few  of  the  Austrians,  Bel- 
 gians, and  Swiss  are  found  amongst  the  Pordiosei'os  and 
 Leperos.  Both  the  name  and  the  occupation  of  these  lazy 
 rascals  remind  one  forcibly  of  the  famed  lazzaroni  of 
 Xaples.  They  form  the  poorer  population  of  the  towns, 
 numbering  in  the  capital  alone  as  many  as  30,000.  The 
 lepero  is  employed  in  all  such  work  as  requires  neither 
 effort  nor  skill.  He  steals  and  gambles,  and  is  equally 
 adroit  in  the  use  of  the  mandohn  and  the  knife.  He  is 
 endowed  with  a rare  elasticity  of  conscience,  bemg  well 
 aware  that  justice  is  here  easily  eluded,  and  the  church 
 readily  reconciled.  In  the  matter  of  dress  and  residence, 
 he  is  as  acconnnodating  as  the  Indian  himself.  When  he 
 awakes  in  the  morning  he  knows  not  whether  it  may  be 
 his  lot  before  the  day  is  over  to  riot  in  abundance  or  to 
 pine  hi  want ; but  he  can  adapt  himself  wdth  equal  readi- 
 ness to  either  alternative,  profitmg  by,  or  bending  to,  the 
 caprices  of  fortune,  according  as  they  are  favourable  or 
 adverse. 
 
PHYSIQUE  AHD  DRESS. 
 
 31 
 
 The  artizans  also  occupy  a very  low  position  in  the 
 social  scale,  being  esteemed  no  better  than  day  labourers. 
 Their  skill  is  of  a low  order,  they  are  badly  paid  and  badly 
 fed,  and  their  tastes  in  the  matter  of  pleasures  and  mdul- 
 gence  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Indian  and  the 
 lepero. 
 
 6.  Physique — DressSocial  Habits. 
 
 As  regards  the  external  appearance  of  the  Mexicans, 
 and  especially  the  much-vaunted  beauty  of  the  women,  it 
 wiU  suffice  to  say  that  in  many  towns  not  a single  face  is 
 to  be  seen  that,  according  to  our  notions,  coidd  be  called 
 beautiful  or  even  jiretty.  Nine-tenths  of  the  popula- 
 tion are  Indians  and  half-castes  of  the  most  varied  types 
 and  hues,  from  the  pale  yellow  to  the  dark  copper-brown 
 complexion.  The  men  are  as  a rule  well  built,  tall, 
 and  muscular ; the  women,  on  the  contrary,  small  and 
 weakly.  They  have  nearly  always  large  black  eyes, 
 remarkably  white  and  regnlar  teeth,  and  an  abundance 
 of  raven  black  hair.  But  that  is  all,  and  such  attractions 
 are  more  than  balanced  by  iU-shaped  noses,  large  mouths, 
 and  prominent  cheek  bones.  However,  this  picture 
 does  not  of  course  apply  to  the  women  of  pure  Spanish 
 descent. 
 
 In  the  warmer  districts  the  climate  requires  but  a very 
 scanty  amount  of  dress.  Here  the  women  usually  wear  a 
 light,  bright-coloured  skirt,  a simple  camisa  of  white  cotton, 
 throwing  the  well-known  orhozo  over  head  and  shoulders 
 only  when  going  some  distance  from  home. 
 
 The  men  of  the  upper  classes  now  but  seldom  wear 
 the  charro,  the  old  national  costume,  except  as  a riding 
 dress,  and  the  toilets  of  the  provincial  ladies  leave  much 
 to  be  desired  in  respect  of  taste. 
 
 The  wealthier  sections  of  the  community  are  fond  of 
 making  a parade  of  luxury,  generally  sinking  to  mere 
 
32 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 childisli  ostentation.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  riding 
 dress  of  the  gentlemen,  who  mostly  appear  on  horseback 
 at  the  Paseo  in  the  national  costume,  while  elsewhere, 
 whether  at  home  or  on  foot,  they  are  dressed  in  the  usual 
 European  fashion. 
 
 The  whole  life  of  the  Mexican  bears  the  stamp  of  a 
 “ dolce  far  niente.”  They  are  never  to  be  seen  bustling 
 through  the  streets,  or  engaged  in  serious  pursuits  of  any 
 sort.  They  are  early  risers,  the  ladies  going  deeply  veiled 
 to  church,  while  the  men  take  their  morning  ride.  After 
 a turn  on  the  Alameda  and  a bath,  for  which  every  profu- 
 sion is  made  both  in  public  and  private,  the  Mexican 
 ladies  may  often  be  seen  walking  to  and  fro  on  the  ter- 
 races of  their  houses  in  order  to  dry  their  luxuriant  tresses, 
 which  fall  like  a mantle  over  the  shoulders  down  almost 
 to  their  feet. 
 
 7.  Mexican  Children — Food — The  Tortillas. 
 
 But  everything  is  done  in  a quiet,  listless  sort  of  way. 
 Even  the  children  are  models  of  propriety — no  shouting, 
 romping,  or  boisterous  merrymaking,  as  amongst  more 
 vigorous  races.  The  little  creatures  seem  very  precocious, 
 are  early  developed,  and  as  a rule  extremely  delicate. 
 The  mortality  prevaiLmg  even  amongst  those  of  the  upper 
 classes,  surrounded  as  they  are  with  every  attention,  is 
 positively  frightfM,  and  due  entirely  to  the  manner  in 
 which  they  are  brought  up.  They  are  entrusted  to  the 
 exclusive  care  of  young  Indian  nurses,  and  even  in  the 
 best  families  it  is  not  customary  to  give  them  in  charge 
 to  experienced  women.  They  make  rapid  progress  till 
 about  twelve  years  old,  after  which  a state  of  stagnation 
 seems  to  set  in,  and  the  women  especially  continue  to 
 lead  the  lives  of  hothouse  plants. 
 
 As  national  dishes  the  tortillas  and  frijoles  are  largely 
 
To  2Ki‘je  32. 
 
 PREPARATIOX  OF  TORTILLAS. 
 
 I 
 
FOOD. 
 
 33 
 
 consumed  both  by  rich  and  poor.  The  first  are  a prepara- 
 tion of  ground  maize  cooked  in  the  form  of  a thin  cake, 
 soft  and  tasteless.  With  the  lower  classes  this  takes  the 
 place  of  bread.  They  roll  it  up  like  a spoon  with  which 
 to  fish  out  the  frijoles,  and  then  eat  all  up  together.  The 
 frijoles  are  a sort  of  small  black  bean,  which  flourishes 
 especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vera  Cruz ; when 
 thoroughly  cooked  they  assume  a chocolate  colour,  and 
 form  a wholesome  and  savoury  article  of  diet. 
 
 A favourite  dish  also  is  a ragout  of  turkey,  seasoned 
 with  ctulhes,  Adam’s  apples,  and  tomatoes.  When  mixed 
 with  maize  flour,  rolled  in  maize  leaves,  and  steamed,  it 
 forms  the  so-called  tomales,  one  of  the  best  dishes  in  the 
 country.  But,  as  a rule,  the  Mexican  cuisine  finds  little 
 favour  with  the  European  palate.  Lard  is  largely  consumed 
 with  all  dishes,  even  with  sweetmeats,  and  such  a thing 
 as  a good  soup  is  scarcely  to  be  had.  Even  the  coffee,  of 
 which  excellent  qualities  are  produced,  is  so  badly  pre- 
 pared as  to  be  quite  insipid ; but  the  chocolate,  strongly 
 flavoured  with  cinnamon,  is  very  good,  and  forms  a very 
 general  beverage. 
 
 8.  Education — Edirfion — Superstitions. 
 
 Tlie  education  of  the  women  is  greatly  neglected,  so 
 that  they  display  the  most  astounding  ignorance  of  tlie 
 most  ordinary  subjects.  Of  geography  and  history  they 
 do  not  possess  the  most  elementary  knowledge,  and  for 
 them  Europe  is  limited  to  Spain,  whence  they  are  spnmg ; 
 Borne,  where  the  Holy  Father  resides ; and  Paris,  whence 
 come  the  fasliions. 
 
 Nor  is  the  condition  of  the  men,  at  least  amongst  the 
 lower  orders,  much  better,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
 three-fourths  of  the  people  can  either  read  or  write.  They 
 are  strict  Eoman  Catholics,  of  that  peculiar  form  so  char- 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 acteristic  of  the  Latin  races  in  America  generally.  The 
 educated  classes  conform  to  the  outward  ceremonies  and 
 ordinances  of  the  Church,  while  inwardly  believing  Kttle 
 or  nothing  of  its  dogmas.  The  lower  grades  of  society  are, 
 on  the  other  hand,  steeped  in  the  most  grovelling  super- 
 stition, intensified  by  many  traditional  Indian  reminiscences. 
 This  section  of  the  community  yields  a blind  obedience  to 
 the  clergy,  notwithstanding  the  severe  laws  with  which 
 the  Government  has  endeavoured  to  counteract  the  influence 
 ot  the  priests.  Even  so  recently  as  1874  a genuine  case 
 of  witch-burning  occurred  in  Mexico.  The  reports  wMch 
 are  occasionally  heard  of  the  progress  of  Protestantism  in 
 the  country  must  be  understood  to  refer  exclusively  to  the 
 Protestant  communities  settled  there,  consisting  altogether 
 of  strangers  recently  released  from  the  disabilities  hitherto 
 imposed  upon  them  by  the  law.  Xo  well-informed  per- 
 son is  at  all  likely  to  indulge  in  the  delusion  that  the 
 Eeformed  Church  is  making  any  real  progress  in  Mexico, 
 beyond  perhaps  now  and  then  securing  the  adhesion  of  an 
 occasional  proselyte. 
 
 9.  State  of  the  Country — Brigandage. 
 
 Strikingly  characteristic  is  the  universal  indolence 
 and  lethargy  of  the  people,  due  in  part  to  the  prevalent 
 feeling  of  insecurity  resulting  from  the  constant  pronuncia- 
 mentos.  The  want  of  roads  and  practicable  highways 
 contributes  also  to  this  state  of  affairs,  by  encouraging 
 guerilla  warfare  and  impeding  the  transit  of  the  produce 
 of  the  land.  Hence  commerce  is  centred  entnely  in  the 
 hands  of  foreigners,  the  natives  preferring  to  play  the 
 part  of  gueriheros  in  the  hope  of  thereby  acquiring  rank 
 and  distinction.  The  people  have  already  become  so 
 habituated  to  piUage  and  bloodshed,  that  a IMexican,  on 
 hearing  of  any  highway  robbeiy  accompanied  with  loss  of 
 
BRIGANDAGE. 
 
 35 
 
 life  of  the  victim,  will  exclaim  at  the  utmost : “ Pobfecito  1 
 que  disgracia  ! ” — Poor  fellow ! what  a misfortime ! And 
 there  the  matter  ends.  Bobbers  and  assassins  all  the 
 more  easily  escape  justice  that  they  are  often  on  excellent 
 terms  with  the  authorities  themselves,  to  whom  they  are 
 at  times  even  in  a position  to  render  good  service.  There 
 is  a large  class  in  Mexico  determined  to  live  one  way  or 
 the  other  on  wayfarers,  that  is,  either  as  their  plunderers 
 or  protectors,  according  as  they  may  or  may  not  be  hand- 
 somely fee’d  for  their  attentions.  Stid  it  must  be  con- 
 fessed that  the  attacks  of  marauders  are  generally  un- 
 attended with  bloodshed,  for  the  IMexican  scarcely  ever 
 dreams  of  offering  any  resistance  to  his  assailants.  Those 
 journeying  on  horseback  take  very  few  valuables  with 
 them,  gladly  allowing  themselves  to  be  relieved  of  the 
 coins  they  are  careful  to  provide  for  the  contingency,  in 
 order  to  escape  the  fate  that  inevitably  awaits  those  who 
 are  foolish  enough  to  travel  without  money  in  their  purse. 
 The  brigands  themselves,  however,  are  all  cowards,  holding 
 firmly  by  the  old  Spanish  proverb:  “La  pintura  y la 
 pelea  desde  lejos  las  ojea,” — Pictures  and  battles  should  be 
 seen  from  afar.  It  is  however  meantime  satisfactory  to 
 learn  that  such  highway  scenes  of  disorder  have  some- 
 what abated  of  late. 
 
 10.  Politics — Puhlie  Lotteries. 
 
 Stdl,  the  constantly  recurring  pronunciamentos  against 
 the  government  for  the  time  being  must  produce  the 
 most  disastrous  effects  even  on  the  family  life,  and  the 
 e\Tl  is  intensified  by  the  political  caucuses,  the  endless 
 jealousies,  and  petty  wrangling  arising  out  of  revolutionary 
 attempts,  inspired  by  unworthy  motives  and  conducted  in  a 
 mean  and  dastardly  spirit. 
 
 A peculiarly  baneful  influence  must  also  be  ascribed 
 
36 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 to  the  so-called  monte,  or  puhlic  lotteries,  at  once  the 
 national  pastime  and  the  national  curse  of  the  Mexicans. 
 
 These  lotteries  are  imiversally  ijopular  vdth  all  classes, 
 often  exciting  them  to  the  voidest  pitch  of  frenzy.  It 
 not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  earnings  of  a whole 
 year,  or  even  an  entire  fortune,  will  be  staked  on  a single 
 draw.  What  has  been  laboriously  acquired  is  recklessly 
 squandered,  while  losses  difficult  to  be  replaced  will  at 
 times  lead  to  the  most  atrocious  misdeeds.  Some  places 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  flourish  entirely  on 
 the  monte,  which  is  indispensable  to  the  proper  observance 
 of  all  public  festivities.  It  happens  often  enough  that  the 
 lucky  winner  finds  himself  obliged  to  defend  his  suddenly- 
 acquired  wealth  from  lurking  marauders,  and  even  to  pay 
 for  his  success  with  the  loss  of  his  life. 
 
THE  PENINSULA  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
 
 37 
 
 CHAPTEll  IV. 
 
 THE  PENINSULA  OF  LOWER  CALIFORNIA. 
 
 1.  General  Outlines — Climate. 
 
 The  great  Californian  peninsula,  or  Lower  California  as  it 
 is  called,  forming  a complete  whole  in  itself,  may  here  be 
 conveniently  described  before  passing  in  review  the  rest 
 of  the  Mexican  mainland.  In  area  it  is  a little  larger  than 
 England  and  Wales,  measuring  61,562  square  miles. 
 
 The  frontier  line  with  the  LTnited  States  begins  on  the 
 Pacific  seaboard,  in  a dreary  and  solitary  desert  at  a place 
 called  Initial  Point,  a little  south  of  the  33d  parallel, 
 running  eastwards  towards  the  Gulf  of  California  as  far 
 as  Fort  Yuma,  at  the  junction  of  the  Eio  Gila  with  the 
 Piio  Colorado.  The  peninsula  terminates  southwards  at 
 Cape  Palmas  (23°  25'  N.  lat.  and  109°  25'  W.  long),  and 
 Cape  S.  Lucas  (22°  52' N.  lat.),  whose  sandy  shoals,  strewn 
 with  fragments  of  rock,  serve  as  an  excellent  natural  bed 
 for  shellfish  of  a choice  quality.  Here  the  waves  roll 
 gently  over  the  shelving  beach,  affording  moisture  to  the 
 sea-cresses  growing  hi  the  clefts  of  the  rocks,  and  enliven- 
 in<f  the  stillness  of  the  broad  coast  districts. 
 
 O 
 
 Although  under  the  same  parallel  as  Sinaloa,  and 
 Sonora,  and  severed  from  them  only  by  the  relatively 
 narrow  Gulf  of  California,  tlie  climate  of  this  region  differs 
 altogether  from  that  of  those  two  States.  Watered  by 
 two  seas,  one  of  which  reaching  to  the  Pole  brings  with  it 
 
38 
 
 COMPE^^DIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 warm  and  cold  breezes  alternately,  according  as  they  blow 
 from  the  north  or  from  the  equator,  w*hile  the  other,  being 
 almost  completely  land-locked,  is  retained  at  a high  tem- 
 perature, Lower  California  apparently  combines  all  the 
 conditions  of  a damp  climate.  Hence  we  may  well  won- 
 der at  its  remarkable  drjmess  and  sterility.  This  is  the 
 sole  and  inevitable  cause  of  the  poverty  of  the  land,  whose 
 thinly  scattered  inhabitants  look  on  the  possession  of  a 
 spring  as  their  greatest  treasure,  and  to  whose  ears  the  pat- 
 tering of  the  faUing  rain  is  as  the  sweetest  music.  In  the 
 summer  months  they  gaze  wistfully  at  the  gathering  clouds 
 w^hich  form  on  the  bosom  of  the  ocean,  but  are  wafted 
 away  beyond  the  peninsula,  without  losing  a drop  of 
 moisture,  till  they  strike  the  Cordilleras,  where  they  dis- 
 charge their  contents  in  copious  streams.  The  bareness 
 and  consequent  heat  of  the  land  woidd  therefore  seem  to 
 be  mainly  due  to  the  absence  of  rain,  which  all  living 
 things  here  pine  for. 
 
 The  climate  is  otherwise  on  the  whole  tolerably 
 regular,  temperate,  and  healthy,  the  heat  attaining  in 
 summer  a maximum  of  90°  Fahrenheit  in  the  southern 
 districts  of  San  Antonio  and  San  Jos4  del  Cabo,  and  in 
 winter  never  falling  below  60°.  The  privilege  of  a 
 perpetual  spring  is  enjoyed  chiefly  by  the  hilly  regions, 
 where  the  narrow  valleys  are  clothed  with  a perennial 
 green  of  the  brightest  emerald. 
 
 2.  Geological  Formation. 
 
 "With  the  exception  of  the  granitic  northern  and  southern 
 extremities  the  land  slopes  gradually  upwards  from  the 
 Pacific  coast,  in  a series  of  terraces,  to  its  highest  altitude 
 near  the  eastern  coast,  where  it  forms  steep  precipices,  from 
 2000  to  3000  feet  in  height,  facing  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
 fornia. This  singular  conformation  suggests  the  idea  that 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 tlie  peninsula  forms  only  the  half  of  a mountain  range, 
 divided  longitudinally,  of  which  the  corresponding  or 
 eastern  haK  has  disappeared  along  the  depression  where 
 now  roll  the  waters  of  the  gulf.  The  narrow  tract  between 
 the  foot  of  the  high  escarpment  and  the  shores  of  the 
 gulf  is  broken  into  ridges  and  valleys,  forming  a kind  of 
 “ undercliff”  and  clothed  with  a luxuriant  semi-tropical 
 vegetation. 
 
 Topographically,  Lower  California  is  divided  into 
 three  clearly  distinct  sections,  of  which  the  northern  and 
 southern  have  much  in  common,  botli  of  them  differing 
 considerably  from  the  central  portion  of  the  peninsula. 
 The  geological  conformation  of  this  section  is  however 
 continued  northwards,  and,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the 
 surface-configuration  of  the  land  is  intimately  associated 
 with  its  geological  structure. 
 
 The  southern  extremity,  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  La 
 Paz,  in  24°  30'  N.  lat.,  consists  nearly  altogether  of  one 
 compact  mass  of  granite.  Thence  northwards  to  the  dis- 
 trict of  San  Borja,  an  abandoned  missionary  station  under 
 the  2 9 th  parallel,  we  find  vast  layers  of  Tertiary  sandstone, 
 here  and  there  covered  with  thin  deposits  of  a post-I’lio- 
 cene  epoch,  and  both  occasionally  concealed  by  rocks  of 
 volcanic  origin.  The  granite  crops  out  in  two  or  three 
 places  only,  and  the  uniformity  of  the  lofty  ridges  is  now 
 and  then  broken  by  a few  volcanic  peaks.  North  of  San 
 Borja  the  granite  again  appears,  accompanied  by  large 
 quantities  of  igneous  rocks,  the  older  Tertiary  sandstones 
 giving  place  to  post-Phocene  beds  often  spread  over  ex- 
 tensive tracts  of  land.  This  geological  character  remains 
 unchanged  as  far  as  Los  Angeles  in  Upper  California. 
 
40 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 3.  Mountain  System. 
 
 Xear  the  edges  of  the  eastern  escarpment  rises  the 
 Pic  de  Giganta,  whose  summit  consists  of  volcanic  rocks, 
 although  there  is  no  crater  or  any  other  trace  of  former 
 eruptions.  The  slopes  are  calciferous,  intersected  by  rich 
 copper  lodes,  which  are  being  worked  in  some  places, 
 especially  in  the  Loreto  district.  The  highest  known  peak 
 of  the  peninsula  is  Moimt  Calamahue,  on  the  31st  parallel 
 of  latitude,  which  rises  to  an  altitude  of  9130  feet.  Be- 
 tween the  bays  of  J\Iulege  and  Los  Angeles  lies  another 
 considerable  cluster  of  hills  known  as  Las  Tres  Virgines. 
 Here  also  the  rocks  are  volcanic,  the  summits  presenting 
 the  appearance  of  former  craters  that  have  fallen  in,  and 
 some  of  them  containing  sulphates.  The  slopes  consist  of 
 sand,  lava,  and  basalt.  At  the  southern  extremity  rises 
 the  Sierra  de  St.  Lazaro,  which  culminates  on  its  western 
 side  in  a peak  6300  feet  high. 
 
 4.  Piters — Harhours — Vegetation. 
 
 Lower  California  has  very  few  rivers,  and  none  that 
 Avould  be  considered  as  worthy  of  the  name  on  the  main- 
 land. Although  there  are  several  upwards  of  twenty  feet 
 broad,  none  of  them  are  available  for  na\dgation ; their 
 general  character  is  to  how  deep  below  the  surface  of  the 
 land,  in  their  course  towards  the  Pacific.  A not  uncom- 
 mon phenomenon  is  the  total  disappearance  of  a stream 
 in  its  bed,  which  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  porous  nature 
 of  the  sand  over  which  it  flows. 
 
 One  or  two  of  the  numerous  ports  along  the  coast  are 
 destined  one  day  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  com- 
 merce of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Magdalena  Bay,  the  best  of 
 them,  is  scarcely  inferior  to  San  Francisco  itself  in  extent 
 
INHABITANTS. 
 
 41 
 
 and  depth  of  water.  This  bay,  like  that  of  San  Ignacio 
 and  the  Scammon  lagoon,  is  an  excellent  tishing-grcnmd 
 for  whales,  and,  like  them,  has  during  the  last  few  years 
 attracted  the  attention  of  numerous  whalers. 
 
 Useful  timber  of  any  kind  is  somewhat  rare,  though 
 oaks  and  pines  grow  on  the  granite  bills  of  the  south. 
 Acacias  are  found  in  all  the  valleys,  and  nearly  every- 
 where the  palms  yield  an  abimdance  of  poles  and  thatch 
 available  for  building  purposes.  In  the  charming  and 
 romantic  valleys  the  banks  of  the  streams  are  overgrown 
 with  wild  roses,  and  tillage  here  yields  favourable  results. 
 The  orange,  mammee,  and  sapotilla  {Achras  zapota)  trees, 
 and  nearer  to  the  coast  the  coco  and  other  palms  flourish 
 vigorously.  The  rocky  and  arid  lands  are  also  covered 
 with  the  American  aloe  and  cactuses  of  various  sorts, 
 amongst  wliich  are  some  producing  excellent  fruit. 
 
 5.  Inhabitants — Population — Indians. 
 
 Tlie  inhabitants  of  Lower  California  are  an  honest,  slug- 
 gish race,  vegetating  in  their  seclusion,  and  ignorant  of  every- 
 thing taking  place  in  the  outer  world.  The  peninsula  is 
 one  of  the  most  thinly-peopled  regions  of  the  temperate 
 zone,  its  entire  population,  about  one-half  of  which  is  con- 
 centrated in  the  picturesque  valleys  of  the  granitic  range  to 
 the  south,  not  exceeding  20,000,  and  consisting  of  Spanish 
 and  Indian  half-castes,  the  latter  element  gi-eatly  in  the 
 ascendant.  The  men  are  tall,  slim,  and  active,  wliile  the 
 women  are  distinguished  for  their  beauty  and  simple  morals. 
 There  are  some  600  foreigners— Germans,  French,  and 
 especially  North  Americans,  nearly  all  engaged  in  the 
 mining  operations  that  have  been  for  some  years  back 
 profitably  conducted  by  several  American  companies, 
 which  have  obtained  large  concessions  of  land  from  the 
 Mexican  Government. 
 
42 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 In  the  whole  peninsula  there  are  no  fixed  settlements 
 •of  Indians.  In  the  months  of  April  and  August  a few 
 hrmdreds  of  the  Yaquis  and  Maga  tribes  cross  over  from 
 the  opposite  side  of  the  gulf,  encamp  in  little  villages 
 along  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Pechdinque,  and  devote 
 themselves  to  the  pearl  fisheries.  Such  temporary  settle- 
 ments have  been  formed  along  the  whole  coast,  from  this 
 bay  to  the  island  of  San  Marcos,  famous  for  its  beautiful 
 alabaster. 
 
 Before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  Indian  tribes  lived 
 in  the  peninsula ; the  Maricopas  in  the  northern  parts,  and 
 farther  south  the  Chichimecas,  from  the  Bay  of  Mulegd 
 and  La  Paz  as  far  as  Capes  S.  Lucas  and  Palmas.  But 
 after  the  appearance  of  the  white  man,  they  withdrew 
 across  the  gulf  to  the  highlands  of  Sonora  and  Chihuahua, 
 where  their  descendants  still  retain  many  of  their  primitive 
 •customs. 
 
 G.  Towns — San  Diego — Loreto — Island  of  Carmen. 
 
 On  the  Pacific  seaboard  there  are  no  townships  of  any 
 ■consequence,  and  notliing  but  a few  farmsteads  on  the 
 bays  of  IMagdalena,  San  Quintin,  and  All  Saints.  The 
 desert  hilly  regions  are  frequented  by  the  wild  sheep  and 
 the  prong-horned  antelope,  the  Californian  deer,  and  other 
 ruminants,  that  browse  on  the  bitter  cytisus,  and  have 
 their  home  amidst  the  brambles  and  precipices  of  the 
 mountain  side. 
 
 Near  the  northern  frontier  lies  the  port  of  San  Diego 
 on  the  west,  with  500  inhabitants,  the  mission  of  St. 
 Thomas  vuth  250,  and  the  vmeyards  of  Comandu  with 
 about  300  Nearer  to  the  gulf,  between  the  bays  of  Los 
 Angeles  and  Mulege,  on  the  slopes  of  l\Iount  Giganta,  is 
 the  mining  town  of  Loreto  with  a population  of  400. 
 Opposite  this  place  is  the  considerable  island  of  Carmen, 
 
SEA  FOWL. 
 
 43 
 
 not  far  from  the  mainland.  The  flat,  sandy  shores  of  this 
 island  are  flooded  at  every  tide  as  far  as  the  black  basalt 
 crest  in  the  centre,  the  evaporation  of  the  water  leaving  a 
 dazzling  white  deposit  of  salt  resembling  a snow -field. 
 The  Californian  Government  derives  a large  income  from 
 these  natural  salt-beds,  which  it  leases  out  every  year. 
 
 7.  Archipelago  of  Loreto — Sea-fowl. 
 
 Towards  the  Bay  of  Cortes  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
 Bay  of  San  Luis  and  the  Isla  Easa  on  the  other,  stretches 
 the  archipelago  of  Loreto,  or  the  rocky  islands  of  St. 
 George,  against  whose  granite  and  porphyry  cliffs  the  surf 
 is  dashed  to  foam,  but  which  are  destitute  of  fresh  water, 
 no  rain  falling  here  for  years  at  a time.  These  islands 
 are  the  home  of  countless  flocks  of  sea-birds,  that  have 
 here  deposited  vast  beds  of  guano,  but,  in  spite  of  their 
 mild  climate  and  clear  sides,  they  are  otherwise  barren 
 and  unproductive. 
 
 In  the  Bay  of  l\Iuleg6  is  the  little  town  of  the  same 
 name  with  some  1000  mhabitants,  and  facing  the  island 
 of  Santa  Ines,  whose  undulating  sandhills  offer  a con- 
 venient breeding -ground  for  vast  numbers  of  sea-fowl. 
 A rare  sight  is  presented  towards  the  dusk  of  evening  by 
 the  innumerable  clouds  of  these  birds  fluttering  to  and 
 fro,  and  gradually  settling  down  between  the  hills  for  the 
 night.  At  break  of  day  they  rise  again,  filling  the  air 
 with  their  varied  notes,  and  sailing  away  beyond  the 
 horizon  in  quest  of  food.  The  noisiest  of  these  tribes  are 
 the  mews,  both  white  and  grey  {Larus  ridihundus).  But 
 here  also  are  the  ungainly  pelican,  lively  little  sandpipers 
 and  strand-runners  of  many  sorts,  the  heron,  ibis,  and 
 tantalus,  gravely  following  the  ebbing  tide  in  order  to 
 prey  upon  the  molluscs  exposed  by  its  retiring  waters. 
 
44 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 8.  The  Capital,  La  Paz — Mineral  Wealth. 
 
 La  Paz,  capital  of  the  peninsula,  lies  at  the  head  of 
 a fine  deep  bay,  where  hundreds  of  ships  might  ride 
 securely  at  anchor,  and  is  the  only  port  at  present  open  to 
 foreign  trade.  It  is  a place  of  call  for  the  steamers  ply- 
 ing between  San  Francisco,  Mazatlan,  and  Guaymas,  and 
 for  many  saihng  vessels  freighted  with  goods  for  the 
 various  ports  of  the  Pacific.  La  Paz  has  a population  of 
 2000,  with  the  exception  of  a few  foreigners  all  of  Span- 
 ish race.  The  streets  are  straight  and  broad,  and  shaded 
 by  a double  row  of  leafy  ash  trees,  and  the  houses,  mostly 
 one-storied,  whitewashed  and  with  green  Venetian  blinds, 
 are  built  of  solid  stone  with  tiled  roofs.  The  beauty, 
 gentle  grace,  and  musical  talent  of  the  women  are  deser- 
 vedly praised ; and  in  the  mild  summer  night  there  flow 
 from  many  houses  the  sweet  strains  of  instruments  touched 
 with  no  unskilled  hand. 
 
 Some  eighty  miles  south  of  La  Paz  lies  the  little 
 township  of  San  Antonio  thirty-two  miles  inland,  on  the 
 eastern  slope  of  the  hills,  and  with  a population  of  about 
 400,  all  engaged  in  the  rich  silver-mines  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood. Through  the  discovery  of  these  underground 
 treasures  Lower  California  has  of  late  years  risen  greatly 
 in  importance.  In  several  spurs,  branching  off  from  the 
 main  range  towards  the  gulf,  vast  silver-lodes  have  been 
 disclosed,  some  of  them  at  hut  a short  distance  from  the 
 sea,  which  here  affords  such  good  anchorage  that  the  ships 
 are  enabled  to  lie  close  to  the  shore. 
 
 Besides  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  rich  gold-fields  have 
 recently  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  upland  valleys. 
 
 9.  San  Jos6  del  Cabo — Agriculture — Birds  and  Fishes. 
 
 Following  the  line  of  coast  southwards,  we  come  to 
 tlie  charming  vale  of  San  Jose  del  Cabo,  in  the  centre  of 
 
BIRDS  AND  FISHES. 
 
 45 
 
 which  is  the  little  town  of  San  Jose,  with  1800  inhabit- 
 ants, and  encircled  by  orange  groves,  above  which  the 
 lofty  coco-nut  palms  wave  their  graceful  fan-shaped  crowns. 
 This  thoroughly  tropical  vegetation  stretches  up  the 
 valley  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  where  the  village  of  San 
 Juan  del  Cabo  completes  the  panorama  of  a lovely 
 region,  everywhere  enlivened  with  the  song  of  the  mocking 
 bird  (Turdus  polyglotta),  and  the  chatteriug  of  Californian 
 magpies,  with  their  bright,  many-coloured  plumage. 
 
 Along  the  strip  of  coast  between  San  Antonio  and 
 San  Jose  del  Cabo  the  chief  occupations  are  agriculture 
 and  cattle-breeding.  Mdierever  the  springs  and  little 
 bums  afford  water  for  irrigation,  the  sugar-cane,  rice,  and 
 frijoles,  or  black  beans  already  spoken  of,  are  cultivated ; 
 while  amidst  the  clumps  of  trees  the  white  houses, 
 surroimded  by  tastefully  laid  out  flower-gardens,  give 
 tokens  of  a comfortable  and  prosperous  population.  From 
 San  Jose  del  Cabo  to  Cape  St.  Lucas  the  coast  is  barren 
 and  rocky,  animated  principally  by  large  numbers  of  wad- 
 ing-birds,  who  here  find  abundance  of  food.  This  is  the 
 home  of  the  boat-bill,  the  purple  ibis,  the  tantalus,  and 
 many  other  varieties  of  the  family  of  the  Grallce.  In  the 
 mountains  the  black  eagle  has  his  e}u:ie,  and  on  the  shore 
 the  fishing  eagle.  The  sea  everywhere  teems  with  fish. 
 At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  the  sandy 
 shore  between  Capes  Palma  and  St.  Lucas  is  frequented 
 by  the  gigantic  turtle  and  other  smaller  species  yielding 
 the  tortoise-shell  of  trade.  This  coast  is  also  infested  by 
 large  cuttle-fish,  sharks  of  unusual  size,  and  the  sword-fish. 
 On  the  utterly  desolate  western  coast  bask  numerous  schools 
 of  sea-lions  and  other  species  of  seal;  while,  on  account 
 of  his  valuable  fur,  the  sea-otter  is  here  hunted  by  specu- 
 lating North  American  sportsmen.  There  is  lastly  an 
 extraordinary  abundance  of  rare  and  excellent  shellfish, 
 including  the  pearl  oyster,  and  many  other  species  for  the 
 most  part  stni  unclassified. 
 
46 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEK  V. 
 
 THE  .MEXICAN  MAINLAND. 
 
 1.  Character  of  the  Coast — Mazatlan — Maza.nillo — 
 Road  to  Colima. 
 
 A'ery  diversified  is  tlie  picture  disclosed  to  the  traveller 
 landing  on  any  of  the  many  points  along  the  Atlantic 
 coast  of  ]\Iexico.  Here  stretches  a long  beach  of  glowing 
 sand,  there  a hay  enclosed  hy  coral  reefs,  or,  again,  the 
 mouth  of  some  sluggish  stream  choked  with  shoals  and 
 sandbanks.  Kor  is  it  very  different  on  the  Pacific  sea- 
 board, should  it  be  the  traveller’s  intention  here  to  dis- 
 embark, and  ascend  the  series  of  terraces  leading  to  the 
 elevated  table-land  on  which  is  situated  the  capital  of  the 
 country.  The  two  most  important  ports  on  the  west  coast 
 are  the  sultry  Acapulco,  and  Mazatlan  farther  north. 
 
 IMazatlan  lies  exactly  on  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and, 
 coming  from  the  north,  we  are  here  reminded,  especially 
 by  the  increasing  temperature,  that  we  are  entering  the 
 torrid  zone.  Seen  from  the  sea,  jMazatlan,  shaded  by  lofty 
 palms  and  gigantic  bananas,  presents  a very  picturesque 
 appearance,  but  the  agreeable  impression  is  utterly  dispelled 
 by  a nearer  view  of  tlie  place.  The  population  numbers 
 about  20,000,  of  whom  the  majority  are  Mestizoes.  In 
 the  better  quarters  reside  the  descendants  of  pure  Spanish 
 blood,  but  the  suburbs  are  chiefly  occupied  by  Indians. 
 
 Travelling  in  company  with  one  of  the  most  reliable  of 
 recent  travellers,  Mr.  J.  L.  Geiger,  we  find  ourselves  about 
 300  miles  soutli  of  Mazatlan,  at  the  port  of  Mazanillo, 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 47 
 
 situated  on  the  shores  of  a fine  circular  bay,  surroundecT  on 
 aU  sides,  excepting  the  narrow  entrance  from  the  sea,  by  a 
 range  of  hills  clothed  from  head  to  foot  with  the  richest 
 and  most  varied  vegetation.  On  the  other  side  of  these 
 hills,  and  not  200  yards  from  the  ocean,  hes  the  exten- - 
 sive  brackish-water  lake,  called  the  Laguna  de  Cuyutlan. 
 The  bay  forms  a superior  natural  harbour.  It  is  about  six 
 miles  in  diameter,  and  its  depth  allows  vessels  of  what- 
 ever tonnage  to  anchor  within  a short  distance  of  the 
 shore,  while  its  entrance,  about  two  miles  in  width,  is  free 
 from  bars  and  shallows.  The  climate  is  sultry  and  im- 
 healthy,  especially  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season  (March 
 and  April),  when  Lake  Cujuitlan  is  almost  devoid  of 
 moisture  and  its  bed  cloaked  with  putrefying  matter. 
 Lever  of  an  intermittent  type,  termed  calentura,  is  then 
 very  prevalent,  and  sj>ares  few  of  the  inhabitants. 
 Although  rarely  fatal,  it  is  debilitating  to  the  constitution. 
 Against  the  evil  effects  of  the  unwholesome  drinking- 
 water  of  the  place  the  inhabitants  use  cooling  beverages, 
 termed  collectively  aqua  fresca,  composed,  besides  water 
 and  sugar,  of  the  juice  and  seeds  of  different  fruits.  The 
 houses  are  built  on  the  same  general  plan  as  in  all  Mexican 
 towns,  and  are  either  of  adobe  (sun-dried  bricks)  or  wood, 
 one-storied,  and  protected  by  tiled  sloping  roofs.  They 
 form  a quadrangle,  enclosing  a courtyard,  towards  which 
 all  the  chambers  are  open,  a convenient  arrangement  in  a 
 country  where  shade  in  the  fresh  air  is  an  indispensable 
 necessity. 
 
 The  journey  inland  to  Colima  commences  with  a 
 voyage  in  a steamer  of  35  miles  along  the  Laguna  de 
 Cuyutlan,  practicable  only  during  about  four  months 
 in  the  year,  the  water  not  having  sufficient  depth  to  float 
 a vessel  for  the  remainuig  months.  The  entire  length 
 of  the  lake  is  about  40  miles,  and  its  width  varies 
 between  4 and  1 0 miles.  It  is  ahnost  completely  enclosed 
 
48 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 by  mangi’ove  jungle,  which  creates  numerous  inlets  by  its 
 growth  where  the  water  is  the  shallowest,  and  overspreads 
 the  banks  for  miles,  an  unbroken  wall  of  sombre  foliage. 
 The  stagnant  waters  are  covered  with  a brownish-gi’een 
 slime,  and  the  little  steamer  cleaves  through  the  thick 
 viscous  surface,  disclosing  the  dark,  turbid  liquid  below. 
 
 VOLCAX  DE  COLlilA. 
 
 At  intervals,  a black  uneven  line,  glimmering  above  the 
 ooze,  betrays  the  presence  of  the  ugly  alligator;  and  in 
 some  places  the  water  is  crowded  with  flocks  of  ducks 
 and  teal;  whilst  on  the  floating  islands  storks  and  herons 
 sedately  stand  or  stalk  about  in  search  of  their  food. 
 Pelicans,  flamingoes,  kingfishei’s,  and  sandpipers,  add  to 
 the  animation  of  the  scene,  and  a variety  of  hawks  soar 
 in  gi’aceful  circles  overhead.  As  the  south-east  end  of 
 the  lagoon  is  approached,  the  mangrove  jungle  ceases,  and 
 the  entire  expanse  of  the  lake  is  seen,  disclosing  the  hills 
 that  border  the  waters  to  the  northward,  with  their  robe 
 
TRAMMELLING. 
 
 49 
 
 of  clustering  oil-palins ; Mvliile  to  the  rear,  range  after 
 range  of  mountains  are  seen,  crowned  by  the  snow-capped 
 peak  of  the  majestic  Volcan  de  Cohma  in  the  far 
 distance. 
 
 From  Cuyutlancillo,  at  the  end  of  the  lake,  the  jour- 
 ney is  contuiued  on  mule-back  to  the  Eio  de  la  Armeria, 
 a distance  of  eight  miles.  The  road  forms  a wide  path  of 
 soft  sandy  soil  through  forests  of  impenetrable  undergrowth. 
 The  trees  are  not  large,  but  are  so  woven  together  as  to 
 form  impassable  barriers.  Hundreds  of  creepers  cling  to 
 every  trunk  and  twine  round  every  branch,  connecting  by 
 a thousand  wiry  threads  thickets,  shrubs,  and  cacti,  a 
 massive  bulwark  of  profuse  vegetation,  through  which  the 
 axe  alone  can  hew  a way.  The  huge  “organ  cactus,”  with 
 its  tree-Hke  stem,  often  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  10  to  15 
 feet  high,  sends  up  its  stiff,  straight  branches  to  a height 
 of  30  or  40  feet  from  the  groimd,  wliilst  smaller  species 
 of  the  same  tribe  mingle  in  thousands  with  the  shrubs 
 and  bushes  nearer  the  earth.  The  flowers  haM'e  little 
 scent,  but  their  profusion,  and  the  various  tints  of  white, 
 yellow,  and  red,  blended  with  the  countless  shades  of 
 green,  charm  the  eye.  These  forests  teem  with  birds  of 
 brilliant  plumage — amongst  them  parrots  red  and  green, 
 tiny  humming-birds  with  metallic  hues,  and  numerous 
 other  birds  graceful  in  form  and  attractive  in  plumage. 
 Farther  on,  in  the  more  open  country,  vdld  turkeys, 
 American  partridges,  and  buzzards  are  seen.  From  the 
 Plio  de  la  Armeria  the  journey  to  Colima  is  performed  in 
 a rickety  waggon  drawn  by  mules,  which  bumps  and  jolts 
 over  the  uneven  road,  giving  a foretaste  of  the  miseries 
 of  diligence-travelling  which  aivait  the  traveller  through- 
 out the  greater  part  of  the  Mexican  interior.  The  road 
 gently  and  gradually  ascends,  in  some  parts  winding  up 
 hnis  overgrown  with  rich  verdure,  often  descending  some 
 steep  declmty  to  cross  a small  river  or  gidch,  and  re- 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 ascend  a new  incline  loftier  than  the  jDreceding;  thus  it 
 continues  for  hours,  until  the  spacious  Via  de  Colhna  is 
 reached,  a higliroad  which  leads  for  five  miles  through 
 the  splendid  valley  of  Colima  up  to  the  town  itself. 
 
 2.  Colima  and  Neighbourhood. 
 
 Colima,  on  the  site  of  an  old  Indian  town,  in  about  the 
 19  th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  104°  east  longitude,  is 
 encircled  by  hiQs,  above  which  towers  the  lofty  volcano 
 of  Colima,  which,  after  a silence  of  forty-one  years,  again 
 burst  out  into  violent  actmty  on  June  13,  1869.  The 
 25,000  inhabitants  of  Colima  are  mostly  Indians  and 
 ^Mestizoes  with  a very  slight  dash  of  Spanish  blood. 
 Situated  some  1470  feet  above  the  sea-level,  the  climate 
 is  healthier  and  the  temperature  somewhat  lower  than  on 
 the  sea-coast.  The  heat  is,  however,  stiU.  considerable 
 enough  to  render  a walk  at  noon  through  the  long,  regular 
 streets  of  the  town  a somewhat  laborious  undertaking. 
 The  houses,  mostly  one-storied  and  with  flat  roofs,  have  no 
 windows  towards  the  street,  a style  of  street  architecture 
 jirevalent  throughout  nearly  the  Avhole  of  western  Mexico. 
 An  oppressive  stillness  pervades  every  quarter  of  the  town 
 except  the  Plaza  de  Armas,  or  smiply  the  Plaza,  where, 
 as  in  all  other  Mexican  cities,  aU  the  stir  and  life  of  the 
 place  is  concentrated.  On  the  north  side  of  this  Plaza 
 are  situated  all  the  finest  public  buildings.  The  Alameda 
 on  the  Plaza  Xueva  is  a small,  but  shady,  public  garden 
 planted  with  pahus,  oleanders,  orange  and  citron  trees. 
 The  town  is  intersected  by  the  Eio  Colima,  a little  river, 
 on  whose  banks  are  seen  many  strange  and  unexpected 
 sights.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  magnificent  fruit  gar- 
 dens, the  exuberant  splendour  of  their  vegetation  passing 
 all  description. 
 
 The  journey  hence  to  the  city  of  Guadalaxara,  accord- 
 
TO  GUADALAXAP.A. 
 
 51 
 
 ing  to  Geiger,  can  only  be  undertaken  witb  the  protection 
 of  an  armed  escort,  as  the  road  as  far  as  Zapotlan  is 
 especially  unsafe.  The  highway,  originally  well  con- 
 structed, is  now  in  a wretched  condition,  for,  like  every 
 other  public  work  in  Mexico,  it  has  not  been  repaired  for 
 many  years.  The  country  gradually  rises,  and  the  coco- ' 
 palms  of  the  maritime  plains  disappear,  to  be  seen  no 
 more  until  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  reached. 
 But  the  hardier  banana  still  flourishes  at  this  increased 
 elevation,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  villages.  Through  the 
 low,  loose  stone  walls  of  enclosed  fields  glimpses  are 
 obtained  of  rich  rice  crops  and  acres  of  maize,  sugar- 
 cane, cotton,  and  tobacco;  but  only  a small  proportion 
 of  the  enclosed  land  is  now  cultivated.  Twelve  miles 
 fi’om  Colima  the  first  Barranca  encountered  on  this  route 
 from  the  Pacific  is  met  with.  Barranca  is  the  name 
 given  in  Mexico  to  all  deep  valleys,  ra%dnes,  or  gulches 
 with  steep  sides.  This  word  is  intended  to  denominate 
 chasms  formed  by  the  slow  action  of  a flow  of  water  on 
 soft  and  gravelly  soil.  Where  the  ground  is  fertile  and 
 the  water  abundant,  the  multifarious  foliage  spread  over 
 the  steep  sides  of  the  barrancas  and  along  the  margin  of 
 the  stream  is  most  abundant ; whilst  in  higher  altitudes, 
 where  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  unfavourable,  barrancas 
 with  bare  sandy  sides  are  not  imcommon.  Between 
 Colima  and  Tonila  the  barranca  region  belongs  to  the 
 fertile  class.  Babbling  brooks,  flowing  at  the  bottom  of 
 the  smaller  gulches,  thread  through  beautiful  and  bushy 
 thickets  and  gush  in  miniature  cascades.  The  road  lies 
 almost  due  north,  bearing  a little  to  the  eastward  to  avoid 
 the  grand  Yolcan  de  Colima,  at  whose  foot  Tonila  is  situ- 
 ated. About  five  miles  north  of  the  Yolcan  another  grand 
 peak  rears  its  head,  the  extinct  volcano  named  Pico 
 Helado,  or  Frozen  Peak.  The  height  of  these  mountains 
 is  about  11,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  about  8000 
 
52 
 
 COilPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TEA'\T:L. 
 
 feet  above  the  country  from  which  they  rise  From 
 Tonila  the  route  lies  in  a northerly  direction  along  the 
 eastern  side  of  these  giants.  The  numerous  ravines  on 
 their  slopes  are  densely  wooded.  The  high  road  passes 
 over  masses  of  broken  laA'a  forming  the  much  abominated 
 pedregales,  as  such  paths  are  termed  by  the  diligence- 
 drivers.  Thus  the  State  of  Xalisco  is  entered,  the  most 
 dangerous  for  travellers  in  the  whole  republic,  on  accoimt 
 of  the  numerous  bands  of  robbers  which  infest  it.  M. 
 Geiger  here  crossed  the  Barranca  de  Beltran,  considered  to 
 be  the  largest  in  this  part  of  ^Mexico.  He  carefidly 
 measured  the  depth  of  the  chasm,  from  the  plateau  to  the 
 bed  of  the  stream  at  the  bottom,  and  found  it  to  be  525 
 feet ; the  walls  of  the  raAdne  being  almost  perpendicular, 
 down  which  the  road,  constructed  at  enormous  labour,  takes 
 its  zig-zag  course.  All  the  larger  baiTancas  of  IMexico 
 possess  these  roads,  built  in  the  last  century  by  the 
 Spaniards.  They  oppose  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
 communication  between  Colima  and  Zapotlan,  and  render 
 transport  on  wheels  impossible.  All  goods  must  be  car- 
 ried by  mules.  The  mounted  escort  which  accompanied  ]\I. 
 Geiger  and  his  companions  consisted  of  twelve  men  armed 
 with  carbines  and  revolvers,  and  eight  cavalry  soldiers  car- 
 rffing  breechloading  carbines.  These  guards  are  tolerably 
 honest,  when  hired  for  the  purpose  and  well  paid ; but 
 should  you  ventime  to  travel  unprotected,  they  will  resume 
 the  brigand  part  of  the  business,  attack  and  rob  you. 
 They  are,  in  short,  determined  to  live  on  the  traveller  one 
 way  or  the  other,  and  alike  constitute  the  evil  and 
 supply  the  remedy.  On  approaching  Zapotlan,  crdtivated 
 enclosures  are  met  with,  carefully  fenced  off  from  the  wide 
 rugged  road  by  rows  of  the  nopal  or  prickly -pear  cactus 
 {Opv.ntia  vulgaris  and  0.  tuna).  The  fields  are  extensively 
 planted  with  the  maguey  or  metl  {Agave  Mexicanoi),  so 
 universally  cultivated  throughout  the  Tierra  templada 
 
II^HABITANTS  OF  ZAPOTLAN. 
 
 53 
 
 The  plant  is  put  to  manifold  uses  in  Mexico,  From^the 
 sap  which  oozes  from  the  flower-stem,  when  cut,  a land  of 
 beer  is  made,  the  well-known  pulque.  It  has  the  colour 
 and  consistency  of  milk  and  water,  and  smells  and  tastes 
 like  yeast.  Mezcal  and  tequile,  two  kinds  of  strong  spirits, 
 are  likewise  manufactured  from  it.  Besides  these,  the 
 fibre  of  the  thick  leaves  is  utilised  for  strong  rope,  matting, 
 and  horse-girths.  The  inhabitants  of  Zapotlan  do  not 
 enjoy  the  best  of  reputations.  They  are  more  or  less  con- 
 nected with  brigandage  ; whenever  a revolution  gives  them 
 the  opportunity,  the  male  population  turn  out  on  the  roads 
 in  gTeat  numbers,  to  lighten  travellers  of  money,  luggage, 
 and  clothing.  Even  priests,  who  have  a j)owerful  hold  on 
 these  people,  are  heard  of  as  chiefs  of  robber  bands,  and 
 they  are  ever  ready  to  ignore  the  misdeeds  of  their  flocks, 
 so  long  as  they  attend  confessions,  and  pay  the  money  for 
 absolution,  and  the  like.  The  town  is  one  of  the  oldest 
 in  Mexico,  and  contains  a population  of  about  20,000. 
 Its  climate,  at  an  elevation  of  4300  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
 almost  perfect. 
 
 3.  Guadalaxara — Condition  of  the  Province  of  Xalisco. 
 
 The  State  of  Xalisco,  of  which  Guadalaxara  is  the 
 chief  town,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous  in  the 
 republic,  embracing  the  greater  part  of  the  former  Spanish 
 kingdom  of  New  Galicia,  and  containing  a present  popula- 
 tion of  about  960,000.  Next  to  Mexico  and  Puebla, 
 Giiadalaxara  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  state, 
 although  surpassed  in  population  by  Leon.  It  has 
 75,000  inhabitants,  and  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of 
 5200  feet  above  the  sea-level,  beneath  a changeless 
 summer  sky,  blue  as  the  sapphire.  It  possesses  a veiy 
 fine  cathedral,  externally  painted  in  blue  and  gold  in  a 
 very  peculiar  manner.  There  are  further  a large  amphi- 
 
54 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 theatre  for  bull-fights,  elsev^here  forbidden  in  IVIexico ; an 
 opera-house  ; an  excellently-organised  hospital  and  found- 
 hng  institution,  where  even  mothers  of  the  better  classes  are 
 accustomed  to  place  their  children  m order  to  relieve 
 themselves  from  the  further  care  of  their  bringing  up ; a 
 
 CATHEDRAL  OF  GL'ADALAXARA. 
 
 similar  asylum  for  the  aged  poor,  a college  for  youug 
 ladies,  and  about  a dozen  journals.  The  Cimeterio  de 
 Belen  would  seem,  from  the  descriptions  given  of  it,  to 
 hear  a striking  resemblance  to  the  famous  cemetery  of  the 
 Certosa  at  Bologna. 
 
 But  notwithstanding  all  these  indications  of  civilisa- 
 tion in  the  capital,  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  are 
 notorious  even  in  Mexico  for  their  lawlessness  and  in- 
 dolence. All  commercial  dealings  of  a wholesale  character 
 are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  English,  French,  and  German 
 
TO  GUANAXUATO. 
 
 55 
 
 merchants.  Brigandage  and  bad  liighways  are  here^  as 
 elsewhere  in  Mexico,  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  develop- 
 ment and  well-being  of  the  country.  Amongst  other 
 scandalous  instances  of  disorder  there  lately  occurred  the 
 case  of  the  Head  Inspector  of  Police,  who  was  found  to 
 be  in  league  with  the  banditti  and  plagiarios,  or  kid- 
 nappers, by  whom  the  province  is  infested.  The  industries 
 are  limited  to  the  production  of  the  dolces,  or  sweetmeats, 
 for  which  the  capital  is  famous,  a few  cotton-factories, 
 and  a large  paper-mill.  The  surrounding  Indians  are  noted 
 for  their  rare  artistic  skill,  in  working  admirable  little 
 clay  figures  of  every  imaginable  national  type  in  Mexico. 
 
 4.  FiOacl  from  Guadalaxara  to  Giumaocuato. 
 
 After  leaving  Guadalaxara  the  highroad  across  this 
 part  of  Mexico  traverses  a flat  country,  here  and  there 
 varied  by  slight  undulations,  and  bordered  on  all  sides  by 
 distant  hills  and  mountains.  Cacti,  dwarf  trees,  and 
 stubbly  grass,  appear  to  form  the  only  vegetation.  The 
 villages  on  the  road  are  composed  mostly  of  rough  adohe 
 houses  with  thatched  roofs,  and  have  a miserable  appear- 
 ance. Little  cultivation  is  apparent,  but  herds  of  cattle 
 are  frequent.  The  traveller  is  led  to  wonder  on  what  the 
 people  rely  for  their  subsistence,  so  poor  does  the  country 
 seem.  The  towns  and  villages  swarm  with  importunate 
 beggars,  including  cripples  of  various  kinds  and  most  dis- 
 gusting appearance.  An  improvement  shows  itself  in  the 
 land  bordering  the  Bio  Grande,  the  largest  klexican  river, 
 which,  rising  in  the  Lago  de  Lerma,  about  twenty-five 
 miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  flows  for  600 
 miles  in  a north-westerly  direction,  and  empties  itself  in 
 the  Pacific  about  twenty  miles  north  of  San  Bias.  The 
 valley  of  this  stream,  to  a width,  on  an  average,  of  fifteen 
 miles,  is  generally  composed  of  bottom-lands  of  the 
 
56 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 greatest  fertility,  and  produces  wheat  and  barley  of  a 
 very  superior  quality;  the  land,  however,  is  comparatively 
 little  cultivated.  Continuing  eastward,  the  country  rises 
 again  beyond  Zapotlanejo,  and  the  arid  undulations  of  the 
 central  plateau  once  more  appear  to  the  eastward-journey- 
 ing  traveller.  The  soil  for  many  miles  is  composed  of 
 a yellowish -brown  sand,  at  times  thickly  strewn  with 
 boulders  and  stones,  and  seemingly  fit  for  no  other  pro- 
 duce but  a few  crippled  cacti.  At  the  small  town  of 
 Xalostotitlan,  a tributary  of  the  Eio  Verde  is  crossed,  and 
 a teiTibly  stony  ascent  then  commences  to  a plateau  7500 
 feet  above  the  sea-level.  After  traversing  the  summit  for 
 about  eight  miles  the  road  suddenly  descends  and  enters  a 
 countiy  of  glens  and  small  barrancas,  aU  parallel  to  one 
 another,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  road,  which  winds  in 
 and  out  through  a labyrinth  of  obstacles,  down  steep  in- 
 clines, up  hills,  and  across  streamlets,  until  a tolerably  well- 
 paved  highway  is  reached,  which  leads  in  a zigzag  direction 
 down  the  steepest  of  the  hdls  to  the  cheerful  little  town 
 of  San  Juan  de  los  Lagos.  This  place  numbers  about 
 8000  inhabitants,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  fair  held  there 
 annually  at  the  commencement  of  December,  in  connection 
 ■with  the  festival  of  the  patron  saint  of  the  town,  Xuestra 
 Senora  de  San  Juan  de  los  Lagos,  whose  shrine  in  former 
 times  attracted  annually  so  large  a congregation  of  devotees 
 that  to  legalise  their  assemblage  a concession  was  granted, 
 in  1797,  by  King  Charles  the  Fourth  of  Spain,  for  a yearly 
 fair  to  be  held  at  the  time  of  the  festival.  The  cathedral 
 is  a magnificent  structure,  with  twin  towers  of  exquisite 
 taste  and  considerable  height,  and  a majestic  and  imposing 
 interior.  Eastward  from  San  Juan  the  road  again  rises  to 
 the  plateau  7000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  more  fertile  than 
 that  farther  to  the  west,  and  producing  maize,  wheat,  barley, 
 and  beans.  The  fences,  instead  of  being  constructed  of 
 stones,  are  formed  by  the  long  straight  arms  of  the  organ 
 
MINES  OF  GUANAXUATO.  O V 
 
 cactus,  lopped  off  their  parent  and  driven  into  the  ground 
 so  close  to  one  another  as  to  leave  no  perceptible  space 
 between  them.  These  pieces  quickly  take  root  and  grow 
 to  a height  of  more  than  20  feet,  and  as  they  are  from 
 2 to  6 inches  in  diameter,  they  form  a strong  and  suitable 
 protection.  Farther  eastward  on  the  route,  Lagos,  a plea-' 
 sant  town  of  15,000  inhabitants,  is  passed,  6300  feet 
 above  the  sea-level;  and  a journey  of  20  miles  farther 
 brings  the  traveller  to  the  border  of  the  State  of  Guan- 
 axuato,  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  best  governed  in  the 
 repubhc. 
 
 5.  Guanaxuato  and  its  Mines. 
 
 The  city  of  Guanaxuato,  founded  in  1554,  in  its 
 architectural  features  recalls  some  old  Spanish  towns. 
 This  is  partly  to  be  ascribed  to  its  situation  in  naiTow 
 defiles  and  on  steep  declivities,  resulting  in  the  same 
 crowding  together  of  blocks  of  houses  as  we  see  in  old 
 European  towns  surrounded  by  fortifications,  and  which 
 were  also  frequently  enough  founded  at  the  continence  of 
 mountain  streams.  In  Guanaxuato,  where  space  is  so 
 valuable,  the  houses  are  often  run  up  four  or  five  stories 
 high.  It  has  a population  of  63,000,  who  enjoy  a com- 
 paratively high  degree  of  peace  and  security.  Even  at 
 the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  this  place  was  already 
 famous  for  its  great  mineral  wealth,  and  at  present  its 
 yearly  output  of  gold  and  silver  is  estimated  at  about 
 £1,750,000.  LaV alenciena,  however,  which  was  formerly 
 the  most  productive  of  all  the  mines,  has  long  been  flooded 
 throughout  its  galleries  to  a depth  of  2000  feet.  With- 
 in the  last  two  or  three  years  a company  has  been  formed 
 for  the  purpose  of  pumping  out  the  w^ater,  reopening  the 
 works,  and  subjecting  the  metalliferous  quartz  blocks  to  a 
 crushing  and  smelting  process.  An  amalgam  of  sulphur 
 and  mercury  is  employed  in  extracting  the  silver  from 
 
58 
 
 CO^rPE^’■DIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TRATEL, 
 
 the  ore ; and  the  pumping  gear,  with  the  exception 
 of  a small  steam-engine  from  Manchester,  is  worked  ex- 
 clusively by  mules.  But  the  most  promising  blocks  alone 
 are  submitted  to  this  treatment,  the  others  being  applied 
 to  building  purposes,  and  it  often  happens  that  the 
 wretched  dwellings  of  the  poor  workmen  are  streaked 
 with  veins  of  silver.  Should  the  Mexican  Government 
 ever  abolish  the  export  duty  on  the  precious  metals, 
 or  the  value  of  silver  increase,  these  dwellings  will  in  all 
 probability  be  pulled  down,  and  a small  percentage  of 
 them  sent  to  circulate  throughout  the  world  either  as  coin 
 or  products  of  the  silversmith’s  craft. 
 
 Geiger  reports  that  the  mines  of  Guanaxuato  are  more 
 than  one  hundred  in  number,  of  which  fifty-two  are  at 
 present  worked.  The  total  value  of  the  precious  metals 
 yearly  exported  from  the  State  is  stated  to  amount  to 
 about  six  millions  of  dollars.  Owing  to  the  insecurity  of 
 the  roads  the  transport  of  tliis  valuable  commodity  is 
 undertaken  by  the  Federal  Government,  in  consideration 
 of  a charge  or  tax,  and  three  times  a year  they  organise 
 so-called  condiictas,  or  convoys,  protected  by  from  tliree  to 
 five  hundred  soldiers,  according  to  the  state  of  the  country. 
 In  the  dry  season  the  coin  is  conveyed  in  waggons,  and 
 during  the  rains  on  mules,  on  account  of  the  soft  state  of 
 the  ground.  Only  once  in  the  history  of  this  institution 
 has  it  happened  that  a conducta  was  robbed.  In  this 
 instance  it  is  said  that  the  Government  themselves  were 
 in  such  urgent  need  of  funds  that  they  went  through  the 
 farce  of  an  attack  on  the  convoy,  so  as  to  secure  the 
 treasure.  They,  however,  only  considered  it  as  a forced 
 loan,  for  some  time  afterwards  all  the  owners  were  fully 
 reimbursed. 
 
 The  towns  on  the  highroad  between  Guanaxuato  and 
 Mexico  offer  little  special  interest.  The  land  becomes 
 more  fertile,  and  the  haciendas  or  farms  more  numerous. 
 
SCENEEY. 
 
 59 
 
 as  Salamanca  is  approached — the  influence  of  the  not  -far 
 distant  river  Lerma  reaching  thus  far.  It  must  not  be 
 forgotten  that  the  average  elevation  of  the  land  is  here 
 about  6000  feet.  The  chief  towns  passed  on  the  road 
 are  Salamanca,  with  a population  of  8000,  mostly  engaged 
 in  the  old-fashioned  style  of  manufacturing  mantas,  sarapes, 
 and  rehozos ; Celaya,  a gay  and  cheery  town  with  25,000 
 inhabitants,  rejoicing  in  a large  cathedral  and  nearly  a 
 dozen  other  churches,  and  noted  for  its  manufacture  of 
 harness  and  saddles,  and  other  articles  of  leather ; and 
 Queretaro,  most  picturesquely  situated  on  the  summit  of 
 a hill,  and  indelibly  associated  with  the  melancholy  fate 
 of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  met  with  his  death  on 
 the  neighbouring  Cerro  de  las  Campanas.  The  popula- 
 tion of  the  city  is  given  as  55,000  inhabitants,  and  it 
 ranks  in  importance  as  fourth  in  the  republic. 
 
 6.  The  Capital — Romantic  Scenery — Interior  of  the  City. 
 
 Mexico  is  universally  recognised  as  the  finest  and 
 most  brilliant  city  in  Spanish  America.  And  yet  it  is 
 not  so  much  its  public  buildings  and  monuments,  the 
 regularity  of  its  broad  and  interminalfle  streets,  or  any  of 
 the  perishable  works  of  man,  but  rather  the  solemn  majesty 
 of  the  incomparable  natiu’al  scenery  by  which  it  is  si;r- 
 rounded,  that  produces  such  an  overpowering  and  indelible 
 impression  on  the  observer.  This  is  sometliing  entirely 
 different  from  anything  suggested  by  our  European  ex- 
 periences. It  is  no  single  or  individual  object,  wliich  may 
 often  be  dreary  and  repulsive  enough,  that  here  rivets  the 
 attention.  It  is  rather  the  indescribable  sublimity  and 
 strangeness  of  the  whole  picture  that  overwhelms  the 
 spectator  with  irresistible  force,  filling  him  with  unspeak- 
 able rapture  and  amazement.  From  the  borders  of  the 
 valley  of  Mexico  the  most  fascinating  view  is  unfolded 
 
GO  COMPE^vDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 of  the  giant  mountains  Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl 
 throned  in  the  background.  Here  are  broad,  shimmering 
 lakes,  sombre  cypress  and  pine  groves,  wa\ung  fields  of 
 golden  corn,  and,  as  the  centre  of  the  whole,  the  grand 
 old  city  itself,  spreading  out  far  below  with  the  regularity 
 of  a mathematical  figure. 
 
 ARCADES  IN  THE  PLAZA  OF  MEXICO. 
 
 jMexico  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  Anahuac  table-land, 
 nearly  midway  between  the  two  oceans,  at  an  elevation 
 of  7465  feet  above  the  sea-level,  flanked  on  one  side 
 by  the  salt  lake  Tezcoco ; on  the  other  by  the  fresh-water 
 lake  Xochiniilco,  and  in  a zone  of  perennial  spring.  It 
 is  a handsome  city,  and  tolerably  clean,  if  we  do  not  pry 
 too  curiously  into  certain  slums  and  waste  spaces  in  the 
 outskirts.  It  forms  a perfect  square,  the  generally  weU- 
 paved  streets,  with  their  liroad  footpaths,  crossing  each 
 other  at  right  angles,  lying  pretty  nearly  in  the  direction  of 
 tlie  four  points  of  the  compass.  The  streets  themselves  are 
 
THE  CAPITAL. 
 
 61 
 
 mostly  spacious,  perfectly  straight,  and  so  level  that  the 
 eye  takes  them  in  at  a glance  from  end  to  end.  Those 
 who  have  visited  Turin,  in  North  Italy,  will  be  best  able 
 to  form  a correct  idea  of  the  general  features  and  peculiar 
 situation  of  the  city  of  IMexico.  Amongst  the  leading 
 thoroughfares  are  the  CaUe  de  los  Plateros,  with  its 
 brilliant  jewellers’  shops,  the  fine  Calle  de  Agiiila,  and 
 the  interminable  CaUe  de  Tacuba,  the  old  Tlacopan  high- 
 way. A splendid  sight  is  presented  ^by  the  Plaza,  on 
 wliich  stands  the  wonderful  cathedral,  overladen  with  gold, 
 silver,  and  precious  stones,  the  most  sumptuous  house  of 
 worship  in  the  New  World.  It  was  here  that  the  ill- 
 starred  Emperor  Maximilian  caused  a magnificent  fountain 
 to  be  erected,  in  the  midst  of  splendid  sub-tropical  trees 
 and  shrubs. 
 
 7.  The  Neiglibourhood  of  the  Capital. 
 
 The  surroundings  of  the  city  are  delightful,  notably 
 the  village  of  Tacubaya,  with  the  handsome  villas  and 
 country  seats  of  the  wealthy  IMexicans.  These  residences, 
 however,  notwithstanding  the  tramway  connecting  the 
 place  with  the  capital,  remain,  for  the  most  part,  un- 
 occupied through  fear  of  the  brigands,  who  do  not  hesitate 
 to  break  into  the  houses,  and  carry  off  their  rich  owners, 
 exacting  a heavy  ransom  for  their  surrender.  Such  things 
 take  place,  so  to  say,  under  the  very  eyes  of  the  central 
 administration.  Over  the  castle  of  Chaprdtepec,  situated 
 on  a porphyritic  hill  213  feet  high,  and  some  four  or  five 
 miles  to  the  south-west  of  Mexico,  there  still  seems  to 
 linger  the  splendour  imparted  to  it  by  the  presence  Of  the 
 unhappy  Emperor.  Maximhian  greatly  unproved  this 
 place,  adornhig  it  with  frescoes  and  statues  after  the 
 antique.  The  famous  Ahuehuetes  {Taxodium  distichum) 
 of  the  park  at  Chapultepec  are  said  to  bear  the  pahn  of 
 
62 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEA^^:L. 
 
 beauty  even  from  the  noble  Wellingtonia  or  Sequoia  of 
 California.  A curious  effect  is  also  produced  by  the  moss 
 hanging  from  the  trees,  the  Tillandsia  usncoides,  known 
 as  the  harha  cspaTiola,  or  more  briefly,  heno,  hay. 
 
 The  road  towards  Popotla  and  Tacuba  leads  to  the 
 “ Ai’bol  de  la  Koche  Triste”  and  to  the  ruins  of  an  Aztec 
 Teocalli,  whose  i3}Tamid  however  in  no  way  resembles 
 the  gigantic  Eg\"ptian  structures  with  which  it  has  been 
 compared.  From  the  shrine  of  Santa  Maria  de  Guada- 
 lupe, the  most  renowned  place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  state, 
 the  road  leads  to  the  Chinampas,  or  floating  gardens  of 
 IMexico  in  Lake  Tezcoco,  which,  although  by  no  means 
 built  on  terra  firma,  have  long  ceased  to  be  in  any  sense 
 “ floating.” 
 
 VERA  CRUZ. 
 
 8.  Vera  Cruz. 
 
 The  capital  is  connected  by  rail  with  Vera  Cruz,  the 
 most  important  port  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  "With  its 
 branches  to  Jalapa,  Puebla,  and  other  centres  of  popula- 
 tion in  the  interior,  this  is  the  only  line  of  railway  at 
 present  completed,  but  lately  other  Imes  have  been  com- 
 menced, or  projected,  one  of  which  will  connect  Mexico 
 with  the  Xorth  American  systems,  and  aid  powerfully  in 
 developing  the  resources  of  the  country. 
 
VEEA  CRUZ. 
 
 63 
 
 Vera  Craz,  or,  more  fuUy,  “ la  Villa  eroica  de  la  Vera 
 Cruz,”  is  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  places  on  the  globe. 
 This  formerly  flourishing,  but  now  decayed  and  filthy 
 town,  lies  on  a beach  formed  of  glowing  quicksands ; 
 solitary  swarthy  figures  glide  stealthily  through  the  broad 
 and  straight  streets,  avoiding  the  countless  carrion-kites  to 
 be  seen  hopping  about  in  all  directions  in  search  of  offal, 
 or  else  perched  in  long  rows  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses. 
 Seemingly  Lifeless,  these  birds  remain  for  hours  motion- 
 less on  the  crumbling  walls  of  forsaken  palaces,  now  in 
 ruins.  Here  not  a tree,  a shrub,  a spring,  or  a stream 
 occurs  to  relieve  the  sight  from  the  burning  sands  ever}"- 
 where  in  view ; in  the  city  itself  nothing  but  cisterns  of 
 turbid,  tepid  water,  or  else  the  alternative  of  the  so-called 
 tienda,  or  tavern,  usually  filled  with  brawling,  half-drunken, 
 or  utterly  besotten  wretches,  consuming  incredible  quanti- 
 ties of  the  most  fiery  of  raw  spirits,  and  too  often  at  the 
 same  time  stifling  the  last  spark  of  human  feeling  in 
 their  breasts. 
 
 For  eight  months  of  the  year  yellow  fever  here  rages 
 furiously,  decimatmg  the  ranks  of  Europeans  attracted 
 to  the  place  by  its  commercial  advantages,  nor  sparing  the 
 ^Mexicans  themselves,  who  come  from  the  more  elevated 
 and  healthy  parts  of  the  interior,  and  are  compelled  to 
 reside  for  any  length  of  time  in  this  dreaded  seaport. 
 But  the  fatal  malaria  of  the  place  is  harmless  to  the 
 natives  themselves. 
 
 "Within  about  500  yards  of  the  Quay  lies  the  fortified 
 island  of  San  Juan  de  Ulna  or  UUoa,  and  a little  farther 
 off  the  Isla  de  Sacrificios. 
 
 9.  From  Vera  Cruz  to  Orizaba — The  Barrancas. 
 
 Beyond  the  narrow  and  sterile  strip  of  coast  in  whose 
 hot  sands  Vera  Cruz  lies  embedded,  savannahs  stretch 
 
64 
 
 COilPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 inland,  a hard  marl  protruding  in  many  places,  but  espe- 
 cially in  the  swampy  districts,  and  often  enclosing  large 
 blocks  of  porphjTy.  Farther  in  the  interior,  as  this  cha- 
 racter of  the  land  becomes  more  developed,  numerous 
 hushes  of  mimosae  are  met  with.  We  are  then  at  the 
 foot  of  the  Cordilleras,  at  first  gTaduaUy  ascending  and 
 formmg  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  the  Mexican  table-lands. 
 The  vegetation  now  becomes  at  every  step  more  luxuriant, 
 until  we  reach  Cliiqiiihuite,  a lofty  mountain  adorned  with 
 all  the  splendours  of  the  tropics. 
 
 These  regions  are  almost  uninhabited,  nothing  being 
 visible  except  a few  solitary  bamboo  hovels  roofed  in  with 
 maguey  or  palm  leaves.  Here  are  no  signs  of  cultiva- 
 tion, notliing  but  the  virgin  forest,  and  nature  uncon- 
 trolled by  the  hand  of  man.  A considerable  number 
 of  mountain  streams  are  crossed,  rushing  between  the 
 rocks  down  to  the  plains,  and  at  a distance  of  37 
 miles  from  Vera  Cruz  we  meet  again  with  numerous  deep 
 barrancas  traveling  the  land  from  west  to  east.  These 
 barrancas  are  often  1000  feet  deep,  their  walls  con- 
 sisting mostly  of  steep  masses  of  unfossHiferous  lime- 
 stone, covered  above  by  a thick  layer  of  humus,  and 
 here  and  there  containing  a few  sporadic  blocks  of 
 porphyry. 
 
 The  most  important  to’wns  in  this  district  are  Jalapa 
 at  the  foot  of  the  Cofre  de  Perote,  and  Orizaba  at  the 
 foot  of  the  peak  of  the  same  name,  the  latter  place 
 beautifully  situated  in  a narrow  valley  encircled  by  lofty 
 hills. 
 
 10.  The  Cofre  de  Perote. 
 
 The  Cofre  de  Perote,  in  about  19°  30'  H.  lat.  and 
 97°  8'  W.  long.,  rises  in  almost  solitary  majesty  near  the 
 eastern  edge  of  the  great  Anahuac  table-land.  In  the 
 language  of  the  country  it  bears  the  name  of  Hauheampa- 
 
THE  COFEE  DE  PEROTE. 
 
 65 
 
 tepetl,  expressive  of  its  peciiliar  form,  and  which  also 
 induced  the  Spaniards  to  call  it  by  the  name  of  cofre,  or 
 chest.  The  Mexican  term  means  a square  mountain, 
 while  in  the  old  Aztec  idiom  it  was  called  Pinahuizapan, 
 that  is,  near  the  water. 
 
 Prom  a geological  point  of  %dew  the  neighbourhood  of 
 this  gloomy  and  rugged  mountain  is  peculiarly  interesting. 
 The  mountain  itself  consists  of  a blackish-grey  stone, 
 which  may  be  regarded  as  a species  of  dioritic  trach^de, 
 without  any  traces  of  scoriae,  obsidian,  or  volcanic  ash. 
 Xor  have  any  signs  of  an  extinct  crater  or  other  aperture 
 on  its  slopes  been  detected. 
 
 Snow  falls  in  isolated  spots  on  the  mountain,  as  low 
 as  12,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Of  the  trees  growing 
 on  the  flanks  of  the  volcano  the  most  noteworthy  are  the 
 Finns  oceidentalis,  CupressvM  sahinoides,  and  Arhvtus 
 'madrono.  The  oak  (Quercus  xaJapensis)  reaches  no 
 higher  than  10,350  feet  above  the  sea. 
 
 Although  considerably  lower  than  Popocatepetl  and 
 Orizaba,  the  Cofre  de  Perote  is  stiU.  one  of  the  highest 
 mountains  in  the  country.  It  belongs  mainly  to  an  im- 
 portant lofty  ridge,  forming  the  edge  of  the  eastern  slopes, 
 and  running  parallel  with  the  range  that  separates  the 
 caldron-shaped  valley  of  the  Mexican  lakes  from  the 
 plain  of  Puebla.  This  lofty  chain  forms  a long  craggy 
 ridge,  at  whose  southern  extremity  is  the  little  cube- 
 shaped rock  of  la  Pena. 
 
 11.  The  Peak  of  Orizaba. 
 
 The  most  stately  of  the  whole  series  of  hlexican  vol- 
 canoes is  unquestionably  the  imposing  Peak  of  Orizaba, 
 admirably  described  by  its  Aztec  name  of  Citlatepetl,  or 
 Star  Mountain.”  Though  situated  at  a distance  of  about 
 70  miles  inland,  its  snowj’  summit  is  \'isible  to  ships 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TltAVEL. 
 
 for  a distance  of  nearly  200  miles  in  clear  weather.  It 
 has  been  inactive  since  1856,  but  its  crater  is  easily 
 
 PEAK  OF  ORIZABA. 
 
 detected  from  a long  way  off,  its  point  being  truncated  in 
 a south-easterly  direction.  Northwards  it  inclines  at  an 
 angle  of  45°,  resting  on  a rocky  base,  wliicli  rises  in 
 
THE  PEAK  OF  OR12ABA. 
 
 67 
 
 terraces  towards  the  snow-line,  and  consists  mainly' of 
 diorite  and  phonolite,  or  “ clinkstone,”  as  it  was  formerly 
 called. 
 
 On  the  northern  slope  a narrow  valley  winds  through 
 rocks  of  porphyry  and  diorite  upwards  to  the  ice  and  snow 
 line,  while  west  of  the  head  of  the  Xamapa  barranca  there 
 rises  a sheer  w'all  of  basalt,  where  the  traces  of  volcanic 
 eruptions  begin  to  be  more  abundant.  Here  we  every- 
 where meet  with  lava,  together  with  igneous  sand  and 
 stone  rubble,  besides  quantities  of  obsidian,  pumice-stone, 
 and  weathered  trachyte.  Its  irregular  elliptic  crater  is  said 
 to  be  about  8300  feet  across  its  gxeater  axis,  lying  from 
 W.X.W.  to  E.S.E.,  with  a slight  depression  on  the  south, 
 and  its  whole  circuit  measuring  from  19,680  to  21,150 
 feet.  The  inner  walls  of  the  crater,  consisting  of  black- 
 ened rocky  ledges,  sink  perpendicularly  down,  at  present 
 showing  no  symptoms  of  volcanic  action,  although  vapour 
 rises  at  several  places  along  the  edge  of  the  crater,  and  a 
 deposit  of  pure  crystalline  formation  is  also  visible. 
 Unmistakable  lava-streams,  consisting  mainly  of  basaltic 
 masses,  have  undoubtedly  been  vomited  forth  from  time 
 to  time,  though  little  trace  of  them  is  now  to  be  seen  on 
 the  oak  and  pine  covered  sides  of  the  mountain. 
 
 12.  The  Valley  of  Puehla, 
 
 After  ascending  the  Cumhres,  or  highest  elevations 
 along  the  edge  of  the  Mexican  plateau,  over  which 
 tower  the  above-described  peaks,  we  again  descend  to  the 
 lower-lying  extensive  plain  of  Puebla.  As  far  as  Palmar 
 the  land  is  dreary  and  uninviting.  Beneath  a tliin 
 layer  of  sand  a hardened  crust  of  lava  stretches  far 
 and  wide,  a silent  witness  of  the  havoc  and  ruin  here 
 fonnerly  wrought  by  the  burning  mountains  of  these 
 regions.  Frequent  earthquakes  alone  still  keep  alive  in 
 
68 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 the  memory  the  restless  and  wayward  forces  ever  heaving 
 sidlenly  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  and  which  have  many 
 a time  brought  sudden  destruction  on  the  cities  and  their 
 inhabitants. 
 
 On  the  undulating  plain  is  gTOwn  maguey  alone,  the 
 large  fields  of  which  are  enclosed  by  thick  cactus  hedges. 
 These  lead  at  last  to  the  table-land  of  Puebla,  which 
 lies  7200  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
 fertile  and  best  cultivated  districts  in  Mexico.  The  valley 
 of  Puebla,  as  it  is  called,  although  differing  in  its  main 
 features  from  the  eastern  regions,  is  almost  equally  attrac- 
 tive, with  its  waving  fields  of  maize,  in  every  stage  of 
 growth,  from  the  green  seedling  to  the  matured  stalk  with 
 its  large  bght  and  dark  yellow  ears  of  corn.  The  valley 
 is  intersected  in  every  direction  by  streams  of  water, 
 giving  Ufe  and  plenty  to  the  pretty  little  hamlets  nestling 
 in  their  fruit-gardens,  Avhilst  extinct  A'olcanoes  stiU.  rise  in 
 the  backgToimd.  This  smiluig  landscape  is  lit  up  by  the 
 brightest  of  suns,  and  over  it  waA^e  the  purest  breezes, 
 lieaA-y  Avith  the  fragrance  of  aromatic  trees  and  shrubs, 
 flourishing  in  this  tempered  clime,  and  converting  the 
 A'ale  of  Puebla  into  a garden  of  Eden. 
 
 A surprising  effect  is  produced  by  the  aspect  of  the 
 city  of  Puebla  de  los  Angeles,  Avith  its  countless  domes 
 and  church  towers  rising  far  aboA'e  the  surrounding 
 houses.  After  penetrating  the  euAdrons,  the  interior  of 
 the  city  produces  an  extremely  faA'ourable  impression. 
 Broad  and  regular  streets  lead  across  spacious  squares 
 from  one  magnificent  church  to  another.  In  the  centre  of 
 these  streets  is  a channel,  co\"ered  AA’ith  large  flagstones, 
 Avhich  carries  off  the  torrents  of  rain  that  fall  during  the 
 Avet  season.  The  architecture  of  Puebla  is  much  finer 
 and  more  original  than  that  of  Mexico.  The  town  is  also 
 kept  much  cleaner,  and  shoAvs  far  feAver  traces  of  decayed 
 grandeur.  The  houses  are  finer,  and  lack  that  monotonous 
 
POPOCATEPETL. 
 
 69 
 
 yellow  colour  characteristic  of  those  of  the  capital,  llie 
 partiality  of  the  old  Aztec  people  for  bright  and  warm 
 tints  here  still  finds  an  echo,  often  asserting  itself  with 
 miich  taste  and  delicacy.  On  the  whole,  Puebla,  though 
 with  a population  not  exceeding  75,000,  takes  the  lead 
 of  Mexico  in  many  respects.  Its  inhabitants  are  more 
 industrious,  moral,  and  enlightened,  and  altogether  far  less 
 degenerate  than  those  of  the  capital. 
 
 13.  The  Anahuac  Table-land — Popocatepetl. 
 
 On  the  west  the  plain  of  Puebla  is  confined  by  a 
 mighty  mountain  range,  dominated  by  the  snowy  crests  of 
 Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl,  and  sej>arating  the  Puebla 
 table-land  from  the  still  more  elevated  plateau  of  Ana- 
 huac, properly  so  called.  As  far  as  the  eastern  limits  of 
 this  range,  the  road  leads  through  a most  delightful  dis- 
 trict, spreading  out  on  either  side  like  a park  covered  with 
 the  richest  meads,  and  adorned  with  splendid  timber. 
 Here  the  haciendas  are  well  built,  and  a marvellous  growth 
 of  vegetation  lends  an  irresistible  charm  to  the  scene. 
 But  after  ascending  the  dividing  range,  we  gTadually 
 exchange  a region  of  leafy  trees  for  one  where  flourish 
 those  of  coniferous  gTOwth.  We  at  last  enter  a magnifi- 
 cent forest  of  cedars,  white  pine  (Lord  Weymouth’s  pine), 
 and  splendid  firs  of  many  species,  with  their  long,  light 
 green  needle-like  leaves  hanging  down  in  thick  tufts. 
 
 Emerging  from  this,  we  at  length  gaze  down  on  the 
 VaUey  of  Mexico,  where  the  chief  feature  of  the  land- 
 scape, besides  the  less  interesting  Iztaccihuatl,  is  the 
 “ smoking  moimtain,”  as  is  interpreted  its  Aztec  name  of 
 Popocatepetl.  But  its  primitive  name  is  rapidly  falling 
 into  abeyance,  the  noble  peak  being  now  generally  called 
 the  volcano  of  Puebla,  or  simply  El  Volcan.  It  is  the 
 highest  mountain  in  the  whole  of  North  America,  resemb- 
 
70 
 
 COMPEXDIUil  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 ling  in  its  geological  structure  Chimborazo  in  the  Andes  of 
 Ecuador.  The  pumice-stone  does  not  crop  out  through 
 the  crystalline  formations  until  vre  pass  the  line  of  vege- 
 tation. The  upper  limit  of  trees  is  marked,  as  is  usual 
 on  the  IMexican  mountains,  by  a zone  of  conifers,  beyond 
 which  the  ground  is  stiU  covered  with  various  grasses, 
 simdry  species  of  compositae  and  caprifolium,  a dwarf 
 plant  producing  a sort  of  cotton,  until  these  also  vanish 
 at  the  snow-line,  15,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
 
 The  crater,  mostly  of  black  basalt,  and  inclined  towards 
 the  south-east,  has  a diameter  of  5320  feet,  and  a depth 
 of  from  1000  to  1600  feet.  Its  walls  sink  almost  per- 
 pendicularly down,  and  have  a circuit  of  four  to  five 
 miles.  The  crater  constantly  emits  bubbles  of  fetid  gases 
 with  a strong  smell  of  rotten  eggs,  and  consisting  of  sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen.  A dull  rumbling  noise  is  also  heard, 
 increasing  as  we  draw  nearer  to  the  crater’s  mouth,  out  of 
 which,  as  well  as  from  the  exterior  sides  of  the  crest,  there 
 rise  columns  of  smoke,  often  coming  from  a great  depth 
 and  assuming  very  graceful  forms. 
 
 At  the  foot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  Popocatepetl,  at  an 
 elevation  of  7445  feet  above  the  sea,  stretches  the  broad 
 and  marvellous  lava-field  of  Malpais  de  Atlachayacatl,  a 
 low  trachjfie  cone  on  whose  slopes  the  Kio  Atlaco  has  its 
 source. 
 
 Recent  investigations  have  led  to  the  discovery  of 
 enormous  beds  of  pure  sulphur  on  Popocatepetl,  far  supe- 
 rior in  quality  to  that  of  Xaples  and  Sicily.  Apart  from 
 the  doubtful  ascent  by  Diego  de  Ordaz,  supposed  to  have 
 been  undertaken  at  the  command  of  Cortez,  this  volcano 
 was  for  the  first  time  scaled  by  the  brothers  Glennie  and 
 Don  Juan  Tayleur,  on  April  20,  1827  ; it  has  since  then 
 been  repeatedly  climbed,  the  most  recent  ascent  being  that 
 of  Prince  Starhemberg  and  Baron  Thiehnann,  on  February 
 21,  1876.  The  travellers  on  this  occasion  were  agreeably 
 
SULPHUR  BEDS. 
 
 71 
 
 surprised  to  find  themselves  in  no  way  affected  by  the 
 usual  consequences  of  breathing  the  extremely  rarefied 
 atmosphere  of  such  elevated  regions.  On  their  return 
 they  were  let  down  from  a perpendicular  height  of  2600 
 feet  in  a little  over  fifteen  minutes,  by  means  of  the 
 apparatus  used  in  convejdng  to  the  plains  below  the 
 sulphur  extracted  from  the  interior  of  the  crater. 
 
72 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  VL 
 
 PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  MEXICO, 
 
 1.  Climatic  Conditions. 
 
 In  a country  of  such  vast  extent  as  Mexico,  spreading 
 over  no  less  than  seventeen  degrees  of  latitude,  it  may 
 well  he  imagined  that  the  climatic  conditions  must  he 
 very  different  in  its  various  parts,  even  if  we  take  into 
 account  only  the  effect  of  latitude  on  temperature.  But 
 if  to  tliis  consideration  he  added  the  peculiar  configuration 
 of  the  land,  the  varied  elevation  of  which  necessarily 
 affects,  and  partly  conditions,  the  amount  of  rahifaU, 
 degree  of  heat,  and  other  atmospheric  relations,  it  becomes 
 still  more  difficult  to  present  a general  picture  of  the 
 chmatology  of  such  a vast  and  varied  region. 
 
 Lying  between  the  isothernials  82°  and  59°  Fahr., 
 south  and  north  respectively,  Mexico  enjoys  a mild 
 chmate  in  the  north,  which  grows  warmer  in  the  centre, 
 and  becomes  tropical  in  the  south.  But  this  general 
 distribution  of  the  temperature  is  often  greatly  modified 
 by  local  conditions,  necessitatmg  a more  detailed  con- 
 sideration of  the  several  main  divisions  of  the  country. 
 
 2.  Vertical  Zones  of  Climate. 
 
 It  has  been  abeady  pointed  out  how  the  surface  of 
 the  land  gradually  rises  in  terraces  from  the  coast  to  a 
 great  height,  not  only  on  the  table-land  of  Anahuac,  but 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 73 
 
 in  the  central  regions  generally.  This  difference  of  eleva- 
 tion occasions  a greater  degree  of  heat  in  the  low-lying 
 districts  along  the  coast,  which  constantly  diminishes  as 
 the  ground  rises  towards  the  great  table-lands  of  the 
 interior.  Hence  it  happens  that  these  central  plateaus, 
 notwithstanding  their  southern  latitude,  enjoy  a much 
 milder  climate  than  many  low-lying  regions  farther  north. 
 
 These  differences  of  temperature  the  Mexicans  denote  by 
 the  expressions — Tierra  caliente,  Tierra  templada,?Ln^Tierra 
 fria  (warm,  temperate,  and  cold  districts) ; but  it  would 
 be  a mistake  to  suppose  that  this  distinction  rests  on  a 
 scientific  basis.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  merely  a popidar 
 conception,  varying  according  to  the  different  localities. 
 Humboldt,  with  his  love  of  generalisation,  has  endeavoured 
 to  bring  these  expressions  into  harmony  with  the  actual 
 hypsometrical  conditions,  which,  though  not  always  pos- 
 sible, is  still,  on  the  whole,  the  most  convenient  method 
 for  a general  consideration  of  the  varieties  of  temperature. 
 
 The  Tierra  caliente  comprises  the  low-lying  districts 
 chiefly  bordering  the  sea-coasts,  where,  under  the  stimu- 
 lating mfluences  of  a warm  and  humid  atmosphere,  all  the 
 characteristic  productions  of  an  American  tropical  climate 
 find  their  natural  home.  In  this  zone  of  low  elevation  the 
 sugar-cane  is  the  most  typical  vegetable  growth,  and  it  is 
 only  in  the  Tierra  caliente  that  its  cultivation  and  the 
 manufacture  of  sugar  are  carried  on  with  success.  The 
 cacao  or  chocolate-tree  also  prospers  in  this  warm  region. 
 The  banana,  indigo-plant,  coffee,  and  cotton-trees,  although 
 not  so  strictly  confined  to  the  lowest  levels,  flourish  with 
 their  greatest  luxuriance  in  this  region.  The  range  of  alti- 
 tude approximately  fixed  as  the  zone  of  the  Tierra  caliente 
 is  from  the  sea-level  to  3000  feet,  and  the  mean  annual 
 temperature  ranges  from  77°  to  82°  of  Fahrenheit;  the 
 extremes  being  59°  to  104°.  In  Mexico,  as  in  most  other 
 parts  of  Central  America,  this  region  is  unhealthy  to  Euro- 
 
74 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 peans,  and  the  seat  of  such  fatal  diseases  as  the  yellow 
 fever  and  black  vomit.  Both  maladies  attack  chiefly 
 foreigners,  and  inhabitants  of  the  interior  who  \dsit  the 
 coast.  Black  vomit  commences,  as  an  epidemic,  towards 
 the  end  of  April,  when  the  hot  weather  sets  in,  and  con- 
 tinues until  October,  in  which  month  and  in  September  it 
 reaches  its  height.  It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  this  disease 
 ceases  at  that  altitude  at  winch  the  ]\Iexican  oak  com- 
 mences to  appear  {Quercus  xalapensis),  that  is,  at  2750  feet. 
 These  characteristics  of  the  Tierra  caliente  render  it  ill 
 adapted  for  the  settlement  of  Europeans.  On  the  coast 
 of  the  Caribbean  Sea  the  temperature  is  much  cooled  at 
 times,  in  the  months  from  December  to  March,  by  the 
 prevalence  of  northerly  vunds — the  so-called  “ northers,” 
 — wliich,  at  Vera  Cruz,  depress  the  thermometer  often  to 
 60°  Fahr.  The  Tierra  caliente  is  distinguished  by  a vast 
 number  of  species  of  animals  and  plants  which  are  not 
 found  in  the  higher  zones,  and  which  are  more  allied  to 
 the  tropical  forms  farther  south.  It  embraces  the  strip 
 of  naked  sandy  coast-country  bordering  the  shores  of  the 
 Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  which  stands  Vera  Cruz,  the  chief  sea- 
 port of  the  republic,  and  all  the  lower  slopes  of  the  eastern 
 face  of  the  mountains,  on  wliich  the  rain-clouds,  brought 
 by  the  warm  easterly  winds,  discharge  their  plentiful 
 moisture,  and  nourish  the  growth  of  the  rich  tropical 
 forest  which  clothes  the  land.  Farther  south  and  east,  in 
 the  states  of  Tabasco  and  Yucatan,  its  horizontal  extent 
 enlarges,  and  it  extends  in  a narrow  belt  across  the  isthmus 
 of  Tehuantepec,  to  the  Pacific,  along  the  shores  of  which, 
 northward  and  westward,  it  again  forms  a narrow  edging, 
 gradually  Mudening  as  it  approaches  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
 fornia. Acapulco,  the  chief  seaport  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
 and  the  valleys  of  Papagayo  and  Peregrino,  are  amongst 
 the  hottest  and  most  unhealthy  places  in  the  whole  of 
 America.  Amongst  the  vegetable  growths  which  flourish 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 7 5 
 
 in  the  hot  zone  thus  defined,  are  multitudinous  species-  of 
 such  families  as  palms,  arboreal  araceae,  mimoseae,  cassiae, 
 bauhinias,  and  all  the  tribes  of  woody  creepers  and  lianas, 
 tdlandsias,  epiphytal  orchids,  and  bamboos;  in  short,  wher- 
 ever the  virgin  forest  has  remained  undisturbed,  the  vegeta- 
 tion presents  the  same  features,  both  as  regards  general  phy- 
 siognomy and  details,  as  everywhere  characterises  the  forests 
 of  tropical  America.  But  the  species  are,  for  the  most 
 part,  different  from  those  of  the  forests  nearer  the  equator. 
 The  same  may  be  said  of  the  animals — mammals,  birds, 
 reptiles,  and  insects — which  people  the  luxuriant  shades. 
 Tropical  American  genera  are  here  represented  by  tropical 
 Mexican  species,  almost  always  different  from  the  allied 
 species  found  farther  south,  even  at  no  greater  distance 
 than  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Eica. 
 
 The  Tierra  templada,  or  temperate  zone,  embraces  all 
 the  middle  levels  of  the  Mexican  uplands,  having  an  alti- 
 tude of  from  3000  feet  to  8000  feet  above  the  level  of 
 the  sea.  The  annual  mean  temperature  prevailing  in  this 
 zone  is  from  62°  to  70°  Fahr.,  the  extremes  being  50° 
 and  86°.  In  this  favoured  region  there  reigns  perpetual 
 spring,  and  the  towns  of  Jalapa,  Tasco,  and  Chilpantzingo 
 which  lie  witliin  it,  are  celebrated  for  the  beauty  and 
 salubrity  of  their  climate.  The  transition  from  the  Tierra 
 caliente  is  made  in  many  parts  very  gradually,  and  a dis- 
 tinct line  of  demarcation  is  rendered  all  the  more  difficult, 
 as,  in  certain  conditions  of  soil,  and  exposure  to  warm 
 winds,  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  lower  hot  zone 
 advance  to  a greater  altitude  than  they  do  elsewhere.  The 
 most  characteristic  feature  in  the  flora  of  the  Tierra  tem- 
 plada  is  the  evergreen  oak,  which  forms  magnificent  woods 
 in  all  favourable  situations ; in  the  sunny  openings  of 
 which  fly  many  of  the  same  species  of  butteiilies  as  are 
 found  in  temperate  latitudes  of  North  America.  Great 
 heat  and  great  cold  are  alike  unknown  in  this  favoured 
 
7 6 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGR.UPHY  AND  TRAA'EL. 
 
 region.  The  air  is  soft,  fragrant,  and  pleasantly  moist, 
 the  vegetation  is  always  green,  and  hi  suitable  situations 
 the  fruits,  vegetables,  and  cereals  of  Europe  yield  abundant 
 harvests.  In  situations  near  the  edges  of  the  table-lands 
 facing  the  sea,  the  condensation  of  the  moist  air-currents 
 produces  almost  constant  cloud  and  mist ; but  the  more 
 central  parts,  including  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  of 
 ^Mexico,  have  their  regular  dry  and  rainy  seasons.  The 
 winter  “ northers”  which  blow  in  the  Tierra  caliente  along 
 the  shores  of  the  Mexican  Gulf  as  a dry  wind,  are  trans- 
 formed into  moist  gales  on  the  slopes  of  the  interior ; and, 
 whilst  at  Vera  Cruz,  during  their  continuance,  a clear  cool 
 sky  prevails,  the  districts  of  Jalapa  and  Orizaba  are  en- 
 veloped in  cloud.  It  is  found  that  five  or  six  times  as 
 much  rain  falls  in  the  Tierra  ternplada  as  in  the  higher 
 plateaus,  and  in  Cordoba  the  precipitation  is  two  and  a half 
 times  greater  than  in  Tepic,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 
 
 From  8000  feet  upwards  all  the  interior  districts  are 
 classed  under  the  denomination  of  Tierra  fria.  The  air  at 
 this  elevation  is  more  rarefied,  keener,  and  drier,  and 
 nature  assumes  a new  and  peculiar  aspect.  The  sky  is 
 clear  and  cloudless,  the  vegetation  has  lost  all  traces  of  its 
 tropical  character,  and  is  no  longer  abundant  or  luxuriant, 
 but  often  scanty  and  dwarfed.  The  oaks  of  the  temperate 
 region  occur  but  sparingly,  and  their  place  is  taken  by 
 coniferous  trees,  the  principal  of  which  is  Finns  occiden- 
 tal is.  Wlieat  and  barley  are,  however,  successfully  culti- 
 vated at  these  elevations,  and  with  them  occur  many  species 
 of  wild  plants  characteristic  of  the  plains  of  the  northern 
 temperate  zone.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
 60°  Fahr. ; the  extremes  var^dng  between  freezing-point 
 and  7 5°  Fahr.  The  Tierra  fria  embraces  all  the  higher 
 parts  of  the  interior  plateau.  In  the  city  of  Mexico,  wlrich 
 lies  on  the  borders  of  the  zone,  the  thermometer  some- 
 times, but  rarely,  descends  in  the  winter  to  the  freezing- 
 
CLIMATE. 
 
 77 
 
 point ; but  the  winter  is  not  to  be  called  severe,  for  tdie 
 mean  temperature  of  a winter’s  day  ranges  no  lower  than 
 between  55°  and  57°,  corresponding  in  this  respect  with 
 the  climate  of  Xaples.  The  heat  of  the  summer,  on  the 
 other  hand,  is  moderate,  the  temperature  in  the  shade 
 being  not  higher  than  75°.  At  higher  elevations  than 
 the  metropolis,  viz.  about  8500  feet,  the  climate,  even  to 
 a foreigner  from  northern  Eiu'ope,  strikes  raw  and  cold ; 
 the  vale  of  Toluca,  at  a height  of  8800  feet,  and  the  sum- 
 mits of  Guchilaqui,  have  a mean  temperature  of  only 
 42°-46° ; the  imported  olive-tree  there  cannot  ripen  its 
 fruit,  although  in  the  vallev  of  Mexico,  a few  hundred 
 feet  lower,  it  is  cultivated  with  most  successful  results. 
 
 The  Tierra  fria  includes  the  long  stretches  of  moun- 
 tain summit  which  extend  from  Tehuacan  to  Chihuahua ; 
 they  possess  but  a scanty  vegetation,  and  have  a sandy 
 and  barren  soil.  The  high  plateau  of  Anahuac  has  gener- 
 ally the  same  character ; a few  stalks  of  gxass,  here  and 
 there  a cactus  clump,  a stunted  juniper,  or  a half-dried 
 }-ucca,  constitute  nearly  the  whole  vegetable  growth  of  this 
 poorly  watered  and  misheltered  soil,  which  only  during 
 the  rainy  season  acquires  a somewhat  richer  clothing  of 
 grasses  and  shrubs,  to  wither  again  as  soon  as  the  dry 
 period  of  the  year  returns.  This  description  of  the  higher 
 plateau  holds  good,  however,  only  for  those  parts  of  it 
 which  are  distant  from  the  rivers  which  flow  across  it ; 
 wherever  there  is  water,  accompanied  by  a margin  of  allu- 
 ■sial  sod,  the  land  is  exceedingly  fertile.  Such  districts 
 may  be  classed  amongut  the  most  productive  and  enjoyable 
 that  the  world  contains. 
 
 3.  The  Seasons — Distribution  of  the  Rainfall. 
 
 While,  on  the  one  hand,  the  temperature  is  materially 
 affected  by  the  elevation  of  the  land  above  the  sea-level. 
 
78  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 this  very  circumstance  determines,  on  the  other,  the 
 gTeater  or  less  amount  of  rainfall,  and  consequently  also 
 to  some  extent  the  variation  of  the  seasons  themselves. 
 In  Mexico  there  are  four  distinct  seasons  north  of  28° 
 X.  latitude  only ; everywhere  else,  that  is,  in  by  far  the 
 greater  part  of  the  country,  there  are  generally  not  more 
 than  two — the  estacim  dc  las  aguas,  and  the  estacion  seca 
 — the  rainy  and  the  dry  seasons.  In  the  tropical  lati- 
 tudes the  dry  season  lasts  usually  from  October  to  the 
 middle  of  May,  and  the  rainy  thenceforth  to  the  end 
 of  September.  But  the  precise  beginning  and  end, 
 and  the  greater  or  less  regularity  of  the  rainy  season 
 depend  exclusively  on  the  position  and  mean  elevation 
 of  each  locality.  Still  this  period  occupies  roughly  the 
 whole  of  summer,  during  which  the  parched  and  drooping 
 vegetation  is  again  clothed  in  luxuriant  green,  new  germs 
 spring  from  the  sod,  and  all  nature  bursts  rapidly  into 
 bloom  and  maturity.  With  each  succeeding  day  the  rain 
 begins  a little  earlier,  untd  at  last,  about  eleven  o’clock 
 before  noon,  the  whole  sky  is  overcast,  discharging,  between 
 one  and  two  in  the  afternoon,  a regidar  tropical  downpour. 
 The  showers  last  generally  till  midnight,  lea^ing  the  early 
 morning  clear  and  bright.  On  the  elevated  uplands  it 
 seldom  rains  for  several  days  continuously,  and  after  two 
 or  three  weeks  a few  sunny  days  begin  to  appear,  constantly 
 increasing  in  number,  tdl  at  last  the  rain  ceases  altogether. 
 
 Besides  tliis  constant  summer  rainfall,  there  occur  also 
 occasional  storms  and  showers,  most  frequently  in  Decem- 
 ber, January,  and  especially  February,  when  they  are 
 called  aguas  nieves.  This  time  is  succeeded  by  the 
 pleasant  dry  period  of  the  year,  which  lasts  till  May. 
 The  rainy  season  on  the  coasts  is  not  synchronous  with 
 that  of  the  uplands,  and,  as  a rule,  it  may  be  said  to  begin 
 first  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  gradually  spreading  west- 
 wards in  the  line  of  the  trade  winds. 
 
HOT  SPRINGS. 
 
 79 
 
 4.  Hot  Springs — The  Bramidos  of  Guanaxuato — 
 Earthcpiahes. 
 
 Associated  with  the  volcanic  nature  of  Mexico  are  the 
 hot  and  tepid  springs  bursting  out  of  the  gi'ound  in  many 
 places,  and  the  most  noteworthy  of  which  are  the  Aguas 
 de  Comangillas. 
 
 These  waters  are  at  Chicliimequillo,  6400  feet  above 
 the  sea,  on  the  21st  parallel,  not  far  from  the  rich  silver 
 mines  of  Guanaxuato.  The  strongest  of  them  show  a 
 mean  temperature  of  205°  Fahr.,  when  the  thermometer 
 in  the  atmosphere  marks  68°  Fahr.  They  bubble  up 
 more  or  less  vigorously  from  many  parts  of  the  spongy 
 soil,  and  wherever  a hole  is  dug  within  a circuit  of  50 
 paces  diameter,  the  water  immediately  rushes  out  with  a 
 loud  noise. 
 
 At  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Cubilete,  near  the 
 farmstead  of  Aguas  Buenas,  6546  feet  above  the  sea, 
 warm  springs  flow  from  some  porphyry  breccia  resting  on 
 micaceous  dolerite.  The  water  has  a mean  temperature 
 of  106°  Fahr.,  is  tasteless,  perfectly  clear,  and  when 
 cooled  precipitates  a light-yellow  sediment.  Close  to 
 Istapan  there  are  also  several  mineral  springs,  bursting 
 out  with  such  violence  that  in  one  place  a volume  of 
 water,  thick  as  a man’s  body,  rises  to  a height  of  2 
 feet.  It  has  a temperature  of  80°,  and  contains  sul- 
 
 phate of  soda,  together  with  carbonate  of  lime,  deposited 
 along  the  numerous  little  channels  of  the  spring  in  such 
 a way  as  to  form  small  hardened  beds,  along  which  the 
 water  flows  in  a clear  stream.  The  smell  indicates  the 
 presence  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  small  quantities. 
 The  rocky  ground  round  about  Istapan  consists  of  moun- 
 tain limestone  resting  on  metamorphic  schist  or  slate. 
 
 Kemarkable  also  are  the  hot  sulphur  springs  of 
 Atliaca,  about  seven  miles  below  Mirador,  in  the  direc- 
 
80 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEA'^'EL. 
 
 tioii  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  most  considerable  of  them  has  a 
 temperature  of  80°  Fahr.  The  mineral  spring  at  Guada- 
 lupe contains  common  salt,  some  ii’on  and  carbonic  acid. 
 Pehon  de  los  Banos  also  contains  common  salt,  besides 
 sulphate  of  soda,  chloride  of  calcium  (fixed  sal  ammonia), 
 gypsum,  and  carbonic  acid. 
 
 A singular  phenomenon,  also  the  result  of  volcanic 
 action,  are  the  Bramidos  of  Guanaxuato,  a place  situated 
 on  the  ]\Iexican  table-land,  at  some  distance  from  the  still 
 active  volcanoes.  Here  was  heard  a low  rumbling  noise 
 like  thunder,  first  on  January  9,  1784,  which  continued 
 for  the  space  of  a month,  varied  with  a few  short  peals, 
 but  imaccompanied  by  the  least  trace  of  earthquakes. 
 This  underground  thunder,  restricted  to  a small  part  of 
 the  mountain  range,  and  from  which  the  terrified  people 
 fled  in  consternation,  gradually  died  away  as  it  had  begun, 
 nor  has  it  ever  since  been  repeated. 
 
 Earthquakes,  according  to  Professor  HeUer,  are  not 
 rare  in  Mexico,  but  they  are  more  frequently  comparatively 
 harmless  temblores  than  genuine  terremotos,  and  are  seldom 
 ^'ery  destructive.  They  are  often  attended  by  under- 
 ground sounds,  and  the  ruin  of  a few  houses,  and  even  of 
 larger  buildings,  but  are  not  accompanied  by  other  vol- 
 canic phenomena,  although  unmistakably  associated  with 
 the  presence  of  the  numerous  volcanoes  in  the  country. 
 
 5.  Minerals — Gold,  Silver,  Copp&i'. 
 
 • Of  the  minerals  found  in  ]\Iexico  the  most  valuable 
 are  the  “ steppe  salt  ” of  the  sandy  or  clay  districts  ; the 
 “ bitter  salt  ” of  Tepeyac  ; gypsum  also  at  Tej>eyac  ; native 
 gold  in  the  Vetamadre,  with  horn-silver  in  seams,  consist- 
 ing of  quartz,  brown  haematite  in  a clayey  matrix,  mingled 
 with  ocln’eous  iron-ore.  At  lower  depths  occur  red  and 
 white  silver  ores,  sulphuret  of  lead  (lead  glance),  common 
 
MINERALS. 
 
 81 
 
 iron  pyrites,  besides  brown  and  black  blende  (mock  ores) 
 in  quartz  and  calcite  seams.  Virgin  gold  is  seldom  found 
 at  Tepeyac,  and  not  in  compact  masses.  It  occurs  in 
 seams,  consisting  alternately  of  quartz,  sparry  spbero- 
 siderite,  and  limestone,  amethyst,  chalcedony,  and  horn- 
 stone.  But  in  a porpbyritic  moimtain  at  La  Candellaria, 
 near  Guarisamey,  pure  compact  gold  is  found  both  in 
 laminee  and  disseminated  in  quartz  and  calcite  seams. 
 Pure  gold  has  become  rare  in  Pachuca,  while  it  is  found 
 mostly  efflorescent  or  disseminated  in  the  mines  of  La  Luz 
 and  S.  Bernabd. 
 
 Silver  is  by  far  the  most  important  metal  in  klexico, 
 where  is  annually  produced  more  than  half  of  the  silver- 
 yield  of  the  world.  Here  it  is  often  found  in  combination 
 with  chlorine  and  horn-sUver,  and  the  colorados,  as  these 
 ores  are  there  called,  are  widely  diffused  throughout  the 
 country,  though  most  abundantly  in  the  Sierra  Madre.  Of 
 the  many  silver  mines,  the  most  famous  are  those  of 
 Guanaxuato  and  Zacatecas  for  the  extraordinary  richness 
 of  their  lodes. 
 
 Copper  is  produced  in  far  less  quantities  than  silver. 
 In  the  neighbourhood  of  Guanaxuato  it  exists  in  a pure 
 state,  and  arborescent  in  El  Eosario,  at  some  distance  from 
 S.  Sebastian,  in  Sinaloa.  But  copper-green,  with  red 
 oxide  of  copper  (red  copper-ore),  malachite,  and  blue 
 carbonate  of  copper,  are  foimd  mostly  as  nodules,  and  in 
 small  quantities  only,  at  Chipinque,  near  Cuencam^. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTER  VIL 
 
 POLITICS  IN  MEXICO. 
 
 1.  Goxcrnment — Cause  of  the  Failure  of  Liberal 
 Institutions. 
 
 The  foregoing  chapters  have  been  devoted  to  a descrip- 
 tion of  the  country  and  people  of  Mexico.  A few  remarks 
 remain  to  be  made  on  its  political  condition,  before  pass- 
 ing on  to  the  more  southern  republics  of  Central  America. 
 
 The  form  of  government  is  that  of  a federal  and  demo- 
 cratic republic,  framed  on  that  of  the  United  States ; but 
 from  the  first  day  of  its  creation  to  the  present  time,  it  has 
 never  been  able  to  adapt  itself  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
 country.  The  North  American  constitution,  as  we  shall 
 see  farther  on,  is  a thoroughly  natm'al  and  logical  deve- 
 lopment of  political  conditions  which  existed  at  the  time 
 it  was  founded.  In  l\Iexico,  on  the  contrary,  the  intro- 
 duction of  a constitution  modelled  on  such  a prototype, 
 involved  a complete  rupture  with  the  past.  The  men 
 who  had  been  kept  in  the  apron-strings  of  political  pupil- 
 age to  Spain,  who  had  been  driUed  after  a strict  and 
 uniform  fashion,  and  governed  with  irresponsible  despotic 
 power  by  the  mother  country,  were  suddenly  called  upon 
 to  play  the  part  of  free  citizens,  to  conform  to  the  prin- 
 ciples of  self-government,  voluntarily  to  submit  to  the 
 necessary  restraints  thereby  entaded,  and  further,  to  recog- 
 nise the  equality  of  the  Indians,  hitherto  treated  by  the 
 State  as  irrational  beings. 
 
GOVERNMENT  AND  MISGOVERNMENT. 
 
 83 
 
 It  needs  no  great  knowledge  of  human  nature  to  sfee 
 that  such  an  experiment  must  inevitably  lead  to  the  most 
 disastrous  results.  In  truth,  no  teaching  has  ever  been 
 more  amply  vindicated,  not  in  Mexico  only,  but  through- 
 out the  Spanish  domain  in  America,  than  the  often  de- 
 spised doctrine  that  freedom  of  itself  alone  is  utterly  power- 
 less to  lead  nations  onward  to  a higher  culture  and  progress, 
 being  itself  rather  the  result  of  a long  national  training  in 
 the  arts  of  government.  In  other  words,  nations  must 
 be  educated  to  freedom  before  it  can  be  safely  conceded 
 to  them. 
 
 2.  Political  Disorders. 
 
 The  neglect  of  this  fundamental  truth  has  been  pro- 
 ductive in  Mexico,  and  elsewhere  in  Spanish  America,  of 
 those  pohtical  disorders  and  crimes  which  cannot  be  con- 
 templated without  disgust.  With  but  few  exceptions, 
 the  history  of  these  lands,  from  the  time  of  their  sever- 
 ance from  the  mother  country,  has  been  an  unbroken 
 succession  of  intestine  wars  and  lawlessness,  attended  by 
 every  conceivable  horror  and  atrocity.  Nothing  is  sadder 
 than  the  ever-recurring  reports  of  these  eternal  revolu- 
 tions, pronunciamientos,  in  which  the  passions  run  riot,  and 
 all  the  more  savage  instincts  of  hximanity  are  fostered,  all 
 better  impulses  extinguished — in  which,  in  a word,  false- 
 hood and  treachery,  selfishness  and  villany,  are  worshipped 
 under  the  mask  of  fair  and  specious  phrases. 
 
 It  is  as  useless  as  it  would  be  hopeless  to  burden  the 
 memory  with  the  individual  phases  of  these  party  struggles, 
 each  closely  resembling  the  other  in  their  minutest  par- 
 ticulars. Neither  the  events  themselves,  nor  the  leaders 
 in  them,  whether  painted  in  the  brightest  hues  of  all  the 
 virtues,  by  their  partizans,  or  else  in  the  darkest  shades  of 
 aU  the  vices  by  the  opposing  faction,  could  ever  succeed 
 in  inspiring  us  with  the  least  interest  in  their  details. 
 
84 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 3.  The  Emperor  Maximilian — Consequences  of  his  Fall. 
 
 Mexico,  however,  has  at  least  succeeded  in  gi^ing 
 variety  to  the  monotony  of  its  political  disorders,  by  the 
 sad  episode  of  the  empire.  It  was,  perhaps,  worth  while 
 to  make  the  attempt  to  reduce  to  order  the  entangled 
 affairs  of  the  country  hy  for  once  placing  their  direction 
 in  honourable  and  unselfish  hands,  such  as  the  republic 
 had  never  witnessed. 
 
 A war  with  England,  Spain,  and  France,  and  at  last 
 with  France  alone,  paved  the  way  by  which  the  Austrian 
 Archduke  Ferdinand  Maximilian  ascended  the  Imperial 
 throne  of  Mexico  in  1864.  The  brief  intenml  of  his  rule 
 forms  the  only  bright  spot  in  the  gloomy  history  of  Llexi- 
 can  revolutions,  and  the  loss  the  country  has  endured  by 
 his  overthrow  can  he  estimated  only  by  comparison  with 
 what  had  been  previously  accomplished. 
 
 The  Emperor  Maximilian  fell  at  Queretaro  on  June 
 19,  1867,  pierced  hy  the  bullets  of  that  faction  which 
 opposed  the  foreigner  professedly  through  the  most  disin- 
 terested motives,  for  the  good  of  the  fatherland  alone,  and 
 for  the  sake  of  the  free  institutions  of  the  commonwealth. 
 After  the  victory,  it  therefore  became  incumbent  on  them 
 to  give  their  contemporaries  some  proofs  of  the  virtue  with 
 which  they  accredited  their  own  principles.  Unhappily, 
 the  attempt  to  do  so  has  ended  in  total  failure.  Since  the 
 Indian  Benito  Juarez  became  President,  and  many  others  of 
 the  same  race  have  fiUed  the  position  of  governors  and  other 
 high  offices  of  State,  the  Indian  element  has  begun  to 
 assume  a decided  preponderance  in  ^Mexico,  a result  that 
 can  only  be  looked  upon  as  a decidedly  retrogressive  step. 
 But,  unfortunately,  the  Conservatives  themselves  (mostly 
 whites)  have  not  kept  abreast  of  the  tunes.  They  have, 
 doubtless,  more  outward  show  of  culture,  but  they  still 
 hold  tenaciously  hy  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  other 
 
OBSTACLES  TO  EEFORM. 
 
 85 
 
 antiquated  privileges,  and  are  accordingly  compelled  to 
 play  false  to  the  ideas  of  political  and  reKgious  equality 
 which  the  Constitution  of  1857  endeavoured  to  engraft 
 on  the  nation. 
 
 4.  Recent  Reforms — Obstacles  in  the  vmy  of  real  Progress. 
 
 But,  in  order  to  inspire  the  masses  with  more  en- 
 lightened views  and  aspirations,  the  Liberal  Government 
 has  done  much  towards  the  establishment  of  public  and 
 training  schools,  the  development  of  commerce  and  indus- 
 try, by  means  of  railways,  telegraphic  lines,  canals,  etc. ; 
 latterly  even  transplanting  the  most  ultra-hheral  European 
 ideas  to  Mexican  sod,  by  declaring  war  against  the  Church 
 and  all  its  belongings.  Unfortunately,  apart  from  the 
 material  improvements  flowing  from  it,  European  enlight- 
 enment is  out  of  place  in  Mexico,  where  it  is  incapable  of 
 being  appreciated,  and  must  continue  to  be  excluded  all 
 the  more  in  proportion  as  the  Indian  element  gains  the 
 ascendant.  In  the  south,  the  Indians  of  Yucatan  and 
 Chiapas,  instead  of  adopting  the  civilisation  of  the  whites, 
 prefer  to  make  systematic  attacks  on  their  settlements ; 
 while  in  the  north  we  find  the  dreaded  Apaches  and 
 Comanches  successfully  maintaining  their  stubborn  resist- 
 ance to  civihsing  agencies. 
 
 Thus  it  is  that,  in  spite  of  the  false  glitter  with  which 
 an  apparent  adoption  of  European  notions  has  dazzled  the 
 eyes  of  too  partial  observers,  Mexico  has  even  in  recent 
 times  degenerated  into  the  anarchy  and  misrule  character- 
 istic of  the  earlier  history  of  the  republic.  Since  the  days 
 of  Maximilian,  another  sanguinary  revolution  has  raged, 
 devastating  one  town  after  another,  and  the  troops,  as 
 iisual,  have  showed  themselves  as  regardless  of  their  own 
 honour  as  they  are  indifferent  to  the  pubhc  tranquillity. 
 
 To  these  evils  is  superadded  the  general  misery  arising 
 
86 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  .VND  TRA'YEL. 
 
 out  of  the  uncultivated  state  of  the  country,  agri- 
 culture and  commerce  being  arrested,  while  the  taxes 
 are  continually  on  the  increase.  ]\Ianufacturers  are 
 consequently  driven  out  of  aU  the  larger  towns,  the 
 internal  trade  diminishes,  and  foreign  commerce,  entirely 
 in  the  hands  of  strangers,  dwindles  to  insignificant  pro- 
 portions. 
 
 5.  The  Legislative  Bodies — Political  Dishonesty — Social 
 Corruption — Gloomy  Prospects. 
 
 The  Mexican  Congress,  which  shows  a total  lack  of 
 real  statesmanship,  usually  raises  its  sittings  without 
 having  done  anything  for  the  welfare  of  the  State,  and  an 
 attentive  study  of  the  proceedings  in  the  various  pro\in- 
 cial  legislative  assemblies  inspires  the  conviction  that  the 
 people’s  representatives  have  but  little  regard  for  their  own 
 honour,  sharing  as  far  as  possible  in  the  general  system  of 
 plunder  which  is  the  order  of  the  day  from  the  highest  to 
 the  lowest  in  authority.  Hence  one  might  almost  say 
 that  by  all  sections  of  the  community  a universal  war  is 
 waged  against  property,  by  the  brigands  on  the  one  hand 
 and  the  public  functionaries  on  the  other.  “With  us 
 nothing  is  organised  except  robbery,”  said  an  excellent 
 Mexican  to  Countess  Kollonitz  in  the  year  1864,  and  the 
 statement  remains  true  to  this  day. 
 
 As  with  the  Congress,  so  with  the  Government,  which, 
 with  the  best  intentions,  stid  lacks  statesmen  competent 
 to  grapple  with  the  situation.  Through  this  deplorable 
 state  of  tilings  one  of  the  richest  lands  in  the  world  has 
 been  reduced  to  a nation  of  mendicants,  and  not  only  the 
 Central  Government  but  those  also  of  the  several  States 
 have  but  succeeded  in  exposing  themselves  to  universal 
 obloquy. 
 
YUCATAN. 
 
 87 
 
 CHAPTEE  YllL 
 
 THE  PENINSULA  OF  YUCATAN  AND  BRITISH  HONDURAS. 
 
 1.  Physical  Aspect  of  Yucatan. 
 
 Yucatan  is  a some'what  outlying  province  of  Mexico, 
 having  but  little  commerce  or  intercourse  with  the  rest  of 
 the  world.  Sandbanks  along  the  coast  keep  ships  at  a safe 
 distance  from  the  land  ; the  soU  is  calcareous,  and  the  land 
 rises  but  little  above  the  sea-level.  The  whole  province 
 consists  of  a vast  plain,  varied  with  a few  uplands  and  a 
 solitary  moimtain  range.  The  soil,  though  not  deep,  is 
 fruitful,  the  great  drawback  being  a deficient  supply  of 
 water.  The  whole  central  part  of  the  country  is  desti- 
 tute of  rivers,  the  rainfall  seeming  to  filtrate  through  the 
 porous  upper  strata,  and  it  is  sufficient,  in  places  to  all 
 appearance  perfectly  arid,  to  dig  to  a smaU  depth  in  order 
 to  obtain  a good  supply  of  the  needful  fluid.  The  climate, 
 though  tropical,  is  healthy,  and  the  vegetation  similar  to 
 that  of  the  American  tropic  regions  generally ; without, 
 however,  forming  those  dense  forests  which  cover  nearly 
 all  the  other  lowlands  of  tropical  America. 
 
 2.  Population — Products — Indian  Serfdom. 
 
 Of  the  422,000  inhabitants  four-fifths  are  Indians 
 and  Mestizoes ; their  principal  occupation  being  agri- 
 culture, and  the  chief  products  of  the  country  horned 
 cattle,  hemp  (the  fibre  of  a species  of  agave),  and 
 
88 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Indian  corn.  But  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  sugar, 
 are  also  cultivated,  though  not  extensively,  and  a 
 httle  trade  is  carried  on  in  logwood  and  guano.  The 
 country  is  destitute  of  mineral  wealth.  The  farms  are 
 generally  very  large,  and  worked  by  gangs  of  Indians, 
 housed  in  hovels  made  of  stakes  kept  together  with  hides, 
 and  covered  with  clay.  The  relation  of  these  Indians  to 
 the  white  owners  of  the  land  is  one  of  vassalage  little 
 removed  from  actual  slavery.  Each  family  receives  a hut, 
 a piece  of  ground,  and  the  right  of  drawing  water  from 
 the  common  well.  In  return  for  this  every  male  member 
 of  the  family  is  bound  to  give  up  to  the  planter  one  day  in 
 the  week.  Everything  they  require  is  supplied  and  set 
 down  to  their  account  by  the  master,  and  paid  by  them 
 in  labour.  They  are  thus  always  in  debt,  and  conse- 
 quently tied  to  the  land.  They  may,  no  doubt,  leave  the 
 plantation  as  soon  as  they  have  paid  their  debts,  but  this 
 is  very  rarely  the  case.  The  lash  also  is  permitted  by  the 
 law,  and  often  freely  applied. 
 
 3.  Government — Commerce — Tlie  Capital — Social  Habits. 
 
 The  various  towns  have  little  intercourse  with  each 
 other.  The  government  is  republican  in  name,  but  in 
 reality  not  unfrequently  a military  dictatorship.  In  the 
 south-western  parts  there  is  a district  occupied  by  nomad 
 Indians,  who  live  by  their  forays  amongst  the  settlements 
 along  the  border,  plundering  everybody  that  falls  in  their 
 way.  But,  with  this  exception,  security  of  life  and 
 property  prevails  everywhere. 
 
 A regular  monthly  service  of  steamboats  is  main- 
 tained between  New  York  and  Sisal,  viA  Havannah,  and 
 occasional  smaller  vessels  are  freighted  with  cargoes  of 
 logwood,  hides,  and  the  like,  for  Havana,  Vera  Cruz,  and 
 the  United  States. 
 
EUINS  OF  T7XMAL. 
 
 89 
 
 The  towns  in  their  outward  aspect  have  much  'in 
 common  with  Havannah.  The  capital,  Merida,  with  a 
 population  of  35,000,  boasts  of  many  fine  public  build- 
 ings. The  streets  are  broad,  and  at  right  angles,  the 
 houses  large  and  solidly  built  in  the  Spanish  style — a 
 central  court  surrounded  by  a corridor,  leading  from  which 
 are  the  various  apartments.  Their  occupants  are  hospit- 
 able and  very  sociable,  one  might  almost  term  them 
 pleasure-seekers,  so  often  is  the  serious  business  of  life 
 lost  sight  of.  The  Eoman  Catholic  is  the  exclusive  reli- 
 gion, and  seems  to  have  some  hold  on  the  people. 
 
 4.  Ancient  Indian  Rains — Uxmal. 
 
 Euins,  that  have  attracted  universal  attention  to 
 this  corner  of  the  earth,  are  foimd  scattered  in  groups 
 nearly  all  over  the  peninsula.  Merida  itself  lies  on  the 
 site  of  Tihoo,  an  old  Indian  city,  the  materials  of  which 
 have  been  used  up  in  the  building  of  its  successor.  The 
 sculptures  and  carvings  of  a bygone  age  are  stiU  to  be 
 seen  amongst  the  walls  of  the  present  houses,  and  nearly 
 aU  the  stone  buildings  in  the  province  have  been  con- 
 structed out  of  the  materials  supplied  by  primeval  Indian 
 structures. 
 
 The  best  preserved  and  grandest  ruins  in  Yucatan  are 
 those  of  Uxmal,  40  miles  to  the  south  of  IMerida.  They 
 have  been  admirably  described  by  J.  L.  Stephens,  who 
 carefully  investigated  their  details  on  the  spot,  and  who 
 is  accepted  as  the  best  authority  on  the  subject  by 
 Mexican  antiquarians.  Other  places  in  Yucatan  where 
 these  remarkable  architectural  remains  have  been  found, 
 such  as  Izamal  and  Chitchen-Itza,  to  the  east  and  south- 
 east of  Merida,  and  the  island  of  Cozumel  off  the  eastern 
 coast,  are  considered  by  archaeologists  to  have  been  im- 
 portant religious  centres  of  the  old  Maya  nation ; but 
 
90 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Uxmal  -was  a city,  the  capital  and  royal  residence  of  the 
 Cocomes  kings,  after  the  destruction  of  the  old  metropolis, 
 Mayapan.  After  the  overtlirow  of  the  monarchy  and  the 
 ancient  civilisation  by  the  Spanish  invaders,  Uxmal  and 
 its  neighbourhood,  lying  remote  from  the  new  European 
 settlements,  were  neglected  and  forgotten.  Its  magnificent 
 palaces  and  sacred  edifices  were  not  therefore  dismantled 
 to  supply  building  material  for  new  towns  springing  up  by 
 their  side,  and  they  remained  for  many  generations  in  toler- 
 able preservation ; indeed  there  is  documentary  proof  to 
 the  effect  that  the  Indians,  as  late  as  about  the  year  1650, 
 continued  to  worship  in  the  slowly-decaying  temples. 
 
 The  principal  structures  of  Uxmal  occupy  a space  of 
 about  a square  mile  in  area,  choked  up  with  trees,  woody 
 brushwood,  and  all  the  strange  forms  of  tropical  vegeta- 
 tion, which  have  also  overrun  the  buildings,  and  assisted 
 by  the  lusty  growth  of  their  roots  in  interstices  of  the 
 stonework  to  hasten  their  decay.  The  grandest  palace, 
 called  the  Casa  del  Gdbernador,  forms  a narrow  parallelo- 
 gram, 322  feet  long,  built  entirely  of  worked  stone,  and 
 having  on  aU  four  of  its  sides  a deep  cornice  of  richly 
 sculptured  stonework,  the  lower  part  of  the  facade  being 
 of  smooth  stone.  In  front  are  eleven  doorways  leading 
 into  a double  series  of  chambers ; but  the  wooden  doors 
 (which  existed  in  1688)  have  disappeared,  and  the  lintels 
 fallen  in.  The  sculptured  cornice  is  varied,  and  not 
 symmetrical  in  design  ; but  the  richness  and  elegance  of 
 the  details  produce  an  agreeable  general  effect.  Figures 
 over  the  doorways,  representing  each  a cacique,  warrior, 
 prophet,  or  priest,  seated  on  a kind  of  throne,  and  ha%dng 
 a lofty  head-dress  of  enormous  plumes  of  feathers,  are  the 
 most  notable  objects.  Above  these  the  sculpture  for 
 about  five  feet  aU  round  the  building  exhibits,  in  its 
 varied  detail,  the  continued  repetition  of  a grotesque 
 design,  somewhat  resembling  a hideous  human  face,  the 
 
RUINS  OF  UXMAL. 
 
 91 
 
 nose  of  -which  is  a long  curved  stone  projecting  far  from 
 the  surface  of  the  facade.  Each  stone  has  been  sculp- 
 tured by  the  unknown  workmen  to  make  part  of  a whole 
 — a kind  of  sculptured  mosaic,  having  a symbolical 
 meaning,  to  which  there  is  no  clue. 
 
 The  other  chief  buddings  of  Uxmal  differ  much  from 
 the  above  in  general  plan,  forming  quadrangles  which  en- 
 close courtyards  of  imposing  dimensions ; their  facades 
 differ  also  greatly.  One  edifice,  240  feet  long,  caUed  the 
 Casa  de  Palomas,  presents,  along  the  centre  of  the  roof,  a 
 range  of  stone  structures,  nine  in  number,  of  pyramidal 
 form,  pierced  with  small  oblong  openings,  which  give  the 
 appearance  of  a gigantic  row  of  pigeon-houses.  But  a 
 special  interest  attaches  to  certain  artificial  mounds,  rising 
 to  heights  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet,  on  the  summit  of 
 each  of  which  stands  a long  narrow  budding,  reached  by 
 a broad  and  steep  flight  of  steps.  The  general  form  of 
 these  mounds  is  that  of  a truncated  pyramid,  and  antiqua- 
 rians are  agreed  that  they  were  the  places  where  the 
 priests  of  the  ancient  race  offered  sacrifice  to  their  deities. 
 Simdar  moimds  are  found  at  most  of  the  sites  of  these 
 ancient  Indian  towns,  and  the  Franciscan  convent  at 
 IMerida  is  hudt  on  one  of  them.  The  great  pyramid  at 
 Izamal  offers  the  further  peculiarity  of  forming  two  pyra- 
 midal pdes  of  masonry,  one  on  the  top  of  the  other ; the 
 base  of  the  whole  structure  measuring  no  less  than  820 
 feet  on  each  side,  and  the  first  platform  650  feet.  The 
 construction  of  state  buildings  on  the  summit  of  the 
 highest  of  a series  of  terraces,  appears  to  have  been  a 
 leading  principle  of  ancient  Indian  architecture.  It  is 
 wed  shown  in  the  Casa  del  Gobernador  at  Uxmal,  the 
 base,  which  forms  three  successive  terraces,  holding  aloft 
 the  wonderful  building,  and  imparting  to  it  its  grandeur 
 of  position.  The  lowest  of  these  terraces,  built  up  from 
 the  level  of  the  ground,  is  575  feet  long,  15  feet  broad. 
 
92 
 
 COMPEJfDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL, 
 
 and  3 feet  high;  the  second  is  545  feet  in  length,  and 
 2 0 feet  high ; and  the  third  360  feet  long  in  front,  and 
 19  feet  high.  From  the  centre  of  the  second  platform  a 
 gTand  flight  of  steps,  130  feet  wide,  leads  to  the  summit 
 on  which  the  building  stands ; with  this  exception  there 
 is  no  means  of  ascent  from  one  terrace  to  another,  except 
 an  inclined  plane  at  one  end  of  the  building,  leading  from 
 the  first  to  the  second  platform. 
 
 At  Uxmal  the  vigorous  tropical  vegetation  is  slowly 
 but  surely  accomplishing  the  destruction  of  these  wonder- 
 ful relics  of  an  extinct  civilisation.  Mr.  Stephens  found, 
 on  revisiting  the  place  after  the  absence  of  a year,  that 
 great  changes  had  taken  place  during  even  that  brief  lapse 
 of  time.  The  sides  of  one  of  the  lofty  structm’es,  on  his 
 former  visit  bare  and  naked,  were  now  covered  with  high 
 grass,  hushes,  and  weeds,  and  on  the  top  were  young  trees 
 twenty  feet  high.  The  foundations,  terraces,  and  tops  of 
 other  buildings  were  overgrown;  weeds  and  woody  creepers 
 were  rioting  and  creeping  on  the  fagades  and  mounds ; ter- 
 races and  ruins  were  a mass  of  destroying  verdure.  A 
 strong  and  vigorous  nature  was  struggling  for  mastery 
 over  art,  wrapping  the  city  in  its  suffocating  embraces, 
 and  burying  it  from  sight.  It  is  fortunate  that  ample 
 records  of  these  fast  perishing  remains  have  been  secured 
 by  the  aid  of  photography  since  the  visit  of  Stephens; 
 but  antiquarians  and  ethnologists  find  in  the  sculptures 
 but  little  to  guide  them  in  reconstructing  a picture  of  the 
 social,  political,  and  religious  life  of  the  ancient  people 
 who  built  these  palatial  structures.  Owing  to  the  absence 
 of  a written  language,  or,  at  any  rate,  of  a literature,  and 
 the  unmeaning  character  of  the  sculptures,  little  of  a 
 satisfactory  nature  can  be  inferred  respecting  the  people. 
 The  civilisation  and  social  structure  were  destroyed,  to- 
 gether with  the  power  of  the  chiefs,  by  the  Spanish  in- 
 vaders, whose  bigotry  and  ignorance  prevented  them  from 
 
BRITISH  HONDURAS. 
 
 93 
 
 leaving  any  intelligible  record  of  the  unique  phenomeTna 
 of  which  they  were  the  witnesses.  And  so  complete  was 
 the  destruction,  that  the  present  Indian  inhabitants, 
 although  lineal  descendants  of  the  civilised  Mayas,  have 
 lost  even  the  tradition  of  their  ancient  greatness. 
 
 5.  The  Maya  Indians  and  the  Half -caste  element. 
 
 Of  the  Indian  tribes  in  Yucatan,  by  far  the  most 
 important  and  interesting  are  the  Mayas.  They  are  of 
 smaller  stature  and  more  thickset  than  the  North 
 American  Indians.  They  are  distinguished  by  their 
 small  hands  and  feet,  and  comely  appearance,  and  display 
 great  powers  of  endurance.  They  are  reserved  and  sub- 
 missive, but  avoid  and  mistrust  the  white  man.  They 
 are  also  strangers  to  the  cheerful  temperament  of  the 
 XegTO,  being  rather  indifferent  and  passive,  without  curi- 
 osity or  ambition. 
 
 The  mixed  races,  on  the  other  hand,  reside  by  choice 
 with  the  whites,  performing  all  the  menial  work,  and 
 being  often  employed  as  overseers,  whereas  the  pure 
 Indians  are  never  placed  in  positions  of  trust.  The 
 natives  are  bigoted  Catholics,  and  are  under  the  absolute 
 control  of  the  clergy.  They  are  indolent,  fond  of  sight- 
 seeing, and  readily  attracted  by  the  splendour  of  the 
 numerous  feasts  of  the  Church. 
 
 6.  Belize,  or  British  Honduras:  Extent — Rivers. 
 
 On  the  east  coast  of  Yucatan,  Great  Britain  has  re- 
 tained possession  of  a territory,  generally  named  from 
 Belize  or  Balize,  its  chief,  or  rather  only  town,  but  the 
 official  title  of  which  is  British  Honduras.  The  strip  of 
 coast  comprised  in  this  settlement  extends  from  Amatique 
 Gulf  northwards  to  Chetumal  or  Espiritu  Santo  Bay,  the 
 
94 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 deepest  inlet  along  the  east  coast  of  Yucatan.  The  area 
 of  the  colony  is  13,500  square  miles,  and  the  population 
 in  1870  amounted  to  24,710  souls.  The  river  Hondo 
 de  Chetumal  forms  the  frontier  line  towards  Mexico  ; next 
 to  which  the  most  important  stream  is  the  Belize,  a long 
 tortuous  river,  winding  through  a wooded  valley  between 
 long  pine-clad  ridges,  at  whose  mouth  is  situated  the  above- 
 mentioned  town  of  Belize,  over  against  the  island  of  Tur- 
 nereffe.  Of  its  population,  variously  estimated  at  from 
 5000  to  12,000,  the  majority  are  Negroes  and  Indians, 
 the  latter  including  both  natives  of  the  country  and  Caribs 
 transplanted  hither  from  the  West  Indian  islands,  who 
 have  long,  however,  been  tainted  by  constant  alliances 
 with  the  African.  Off  the  coast  is  an  almost  continuous 
 line  of  coral  reefs  and  cays,  within  which  is  a protected 
 line  of  shore  navigation. 
 
 7.  Exports — The  Mahogany  Trade. 
 
 The  principal  products  of  the  colony,  forming  the 
 staples  of  the  trade  of  Belize,  are  cochineal  and  mahogany. 
 The  mahogany  tree  {Swietenia  mahogani)  attains  its 
 greatest  development  and  grows  most  abundantly  between 
 10°  N.  lat.  and  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  It  flourishes  best 
 on  the  higher  crests  of  the  hills,  and  prefers  the  lighter 
 sods.  North  of  Belize,  along  the  banks  of  the  New  Eiver, 
 there  are  also  found  forests  of  logwood.  The  mahogany 
 tree  is  found  in  abundance  along  the  banks  of  the 
 Usumacinta  and  other  large  rivers  flowing  into  the  Gulf 
 of  Mexico,  as  weU  as  in  the  larger  islands  of  the  West 
 Indies.  It  is  described  as  one  of  the  most  majestic  and 
 beautiful  of  trees,  rearing  its  huge  crown  of  shining  green 
 leaves  far  above  aU  the  other  growths  of  the  forest.  Its 
 trunk  is  often  50  feet  in  height  and  12  feet  in  diameter, 
 and  ramifies  higher  up  into  so  many  arms  that  the  shadow 
 
THE  MAHOGAXY  TEADE. 
 
 95 
 
 of  its  crown  covers  a vast  extent  of  surface.  British  settle- 
 ments for  cutting  and  shipping  the  valuable  and  useful 
 timber  of  this  tree  were  established  as  long  ago  as  1638 
 and  1640,  and  the  right  to  the  territory  has  been  main- 
 tained by  Great  Britain  against  the  pretensions  of  Spain 
 and  the  Spanish  Eepublics  to  the  present  day,  chiefly  on 
 account  of  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  industry. 
 
 The  season  for  cutting  the  mahogany  usually  com- 
 mences about  the  month  of  August.  Gangs  of  labourers 
 are  employed,  consisting  of  twenty  to  fifty  each,  under 
 the  direction  of  a “ captain ; ” each  gang  has  also  a 
 “ himtsman,”  whose  duty  it  is  to  search  the  trackless 
 forests  for  suitable  trees  to  be  feUed  and  to  guide  the  wood- 
 cutters to  the  places.  The  felled  trees  of  the  season  are 
 scattered  over  so  wide  a space,  that  miles  of  road  have  to 
 be  made  to  reach  them,  and  numerous  rude  bridges  con- 
 structed over  the  rivers  that  he  in  the  way.  All  the  larger 
 logs  have  to  be  “ squared  ” before  they  are  brought  away, 
 on  wheeled  tn;cks  along  the  forest-roads  made  for  the 
 purpose.  By  the  month  of  March  or  April  the  business 
 of  felling  the  trees  and  trimming  the  logs  is  completed ; 
 it  is  then  the  dry  season,  when  the  roads  are  hard,  and 
 the  laborious  task  of  wheeling  the  trucks  to  the  banks  of 
 the  rivers  commences.  A gang  of  forty  men  is  capable 
 of  working  six  trucks,  each  of  which  requires  seven  pair 
 of  oxen  and  two  drivers.  Arrived  at  the  river,  the  logs, 
 previously  marked  with  the  owner’s  initials,  are  throwui 
 into  the  stream.  The  rainy  season  has  now  commenced 
 (^lay  or  June),  the  waters  rise  and  a powerful  current 
 carries  the  floating  timber  towards  the  sea ; the  logs  being 
 guided  by  the  men  who  follow  in  canoes.  A boom  placed 
 across  the  river  near  the  port  of  embarkation  stops  them, 
 when  each  gang  of  men  separates  its  own  property  from 
 the  rest,  forms  the  logs  into  rafts,  and  brings  them  to  the 
 
96 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 wharves  of  the  proprietors,  where  they  undergo  a final 
 process  of  smoothing  with  the  axe  before  exportation. 
 
 The  operations  of  the  mahogany-cutters  often  extend 
 far  into  the  interior  and  over  the  borders  into  Guatemala 
 and  Yucatan,  and  besides  the  ordinary  dangers  and  acci- 
 dents to  which  they  are  exposed  whilst  engaged  in  such 
 labour  in  the  tropical  forests,  the  outlying  parties  are 
 subject  to  be  attacked  and  carried  into  captivity  by  the 
 wild  frontier  Indians,  who  retreat  with  their  prisoners 
 into  inaccessible  recesses  of  the  forest,  whence  the  men  can 
 be  rescued  only  on  pa}unent  of  a ransom. 
 
GUATEMALA. 
 
 97 
 
 CHAPTER  IX. 
 
 GUATEMALA. 
 
 1.  Extent — Population — Configuration  of  the  Land. 
 
 Of  the  Central  American  republics,  strictly  so  called, 
 the  most  populous  is  Guatemala,  the  south-eastern  neigh- 
 bour of  Mexico.  Its  superficial  extent  is  estimated  at 
 41,830  square  miles,  and  the  number  of  its  inhabitants 
 at  1,200,000.  With  the  exception  of  the  marshy  low- 
 lands near  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  domain  of  the  State 
 is  mainly  comprised  in  a large  tract  of  table-land,  forming 
 a continuation  of  the  Central  American  Highlands,  which 
 here  rise  and  expand,  and  are  much  varied  by  narrow 
 valleys  and  moderately -elevated  mountain  ranges.  In 
 the  south-west,  fianking  the  interior  plateau,  there  runs  a 
 succession  of  volcanoes  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast, 
 northwards  connected  with  Soconusco  in  Mexico,  hut 
 southwards  extending  along  the  whole  Pacific  seaboard  of 
 Central  America,  and  attaining  an  elevation  of  11,800 
 feet  and  upwards. 
 
 2.  Lake  Peten — Flores — The  Golfo  Dolce — The 
 Carih  Half-Castes. 
 
 The  northern  districts  of  Guatemala  beyond  the  Eio 
 de  la  Pasion,  and  stretching  away  to  Yucatan  and  British 
 Honduras,  are  still  but  little  known.  Here  lies  the  lovely 
 Lake  Peten,  with  the  little  town  of  Flores  on  one  of  its 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 islets.  In  the  neighbouring  hills  in  all  probability  rises 
 the  Usumacinta  river,  whose  source  has  never  yet  been 
 visited  by  the  white  man.  This  great  stream  forms  at 
 
 FLOKES. 
 
 first  the  frontier  line  between  Guatemala  and  the  Mexican 
 State  of  Chiapas,  lower  dovm  separating  this  state  and 
 Tabasco  from  Campeche.  Together  with  its  tributaries  it 
 flows  through  a region  of  magnificent  tropical  forest, 
 which  spreads  over  the  whole  country  south  as  far  as 
 Coban,  and  under  the  stimulating  influence  of  a copious 
 rainfall  attains  the  acme  of  luxm-iance.  On  emerging 
 from  this  forest  northward  towards  Lake  Peten,  vast  open 
 savannahs,  curiously  varied  with  countless  small  conical 
 wooded  hiUs,  form  a welcome  change  in  the  scenery. 
 
 In  the  east  a small  strip  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
 roimd  about  Amatique  Gulf,  and  between  Bebze  and  the 
 State  of  Honduras,  belongs  to  Guatemala.  The  Gulf  of 
 Amatique  itself,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras, 
 is  further  connected  with  the  Golfo  Dolce  running  far 
 
IZABAI,. 
 
 99 
 
 inland,  the  connecting  link  being  formed  by  the  lakelet 
 known  as  el  Golfete. 
 
 Here  lies  the  pretty  little  romantic  village  of  Living- 
 ston, with  not  more  than  fifty  huts,  occupied  by  a mixed 
 Carib  tribe,  speaking  a Negro-Spanish  dialect.  Altogether, 
 the  Caribs  along  this  coast  have  little  right  to  claim  de- 
 scent from  the  true  Caribs  of  the  Eastern  Antilles,  the 
 finest  race  in  the  New  World,  now,  however,  almost  extinct. 
 These  Caribs  of  the  mainland  are  rather  Zamboes  ; that  is, 
 descendants  of  Negroes  and  Indians,  though,  Hke  the  insular 
 Caribs,  they  were  formerly  noted  and  dreaded  as  pirates. 
 They  are  stiU  good  seamen.  Their  pirogues  cover  the 
 Golfo  Dolce  in  quest  of  the  turtles  which  they  dispose 
 of  in  Belize,  receiving  for  a single  fine  specimen  enough 
 to  keep  them  “like  gentlemen”  for  a whole  week. 
 
 3.  River  and  Lake  Izahal — Romantic  Forest  Scenery. 
 
 Into  the  GoKo  Dolce  falls  the  lovely  little  river  Izabal, 
 whose  upper  course,  covered  wdth  tropical  virgin  wood- 
 lands, leads  to  the  sequestered  Lake  Izabal,  often  confused 
 on  the  maps  with  the  Golfo  Dolce.  The  village  of  Izabal 
 has  200  huts  inhabited  by  Indians  or  Ladinoes,  amongst 
 whom  reside  a few  English  and  Spanish  traders,  this  place 
 being  the  only  outlet  towards  the  Atlantic  for  the  produce 
 of  Guatemala,  brought  down  from  the  capital  through 
 Zacapa  and  Gualan  to  Izabal. 
 
 The  primeval  forest  along  the  banks  of  the  Eio  Izabal 
 is  nightly  enlivened  by  the  tmmpet-notes  of  frightened 
 birds,  the  deep  growl  of  the  jaguar  or  American  tiger,  the 
 chattering  of  the  apes  on  the  slender  branches  of  the  liana, 
 or  the  hissing  of  the  snake  falling  on  some  nest  of  un- 
 fiedged  parrots.  By  day  the  eye  feasts  on  the  sparkling 
 emerald  of  the  mountain  stream  flowing  between  some 
 rocky  cleft,  overgTOwn  above  by  a tropic  vegetation,  and 
 
100 
 
 COMPEJfDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 riclily  adorned  with  all  manner  of  trailing  and  twining 
 plants.  Lovely  birds  of  the  most  gorgeous  plumage  light 
 uj)  wood  and  mead,  while  beautiful  butterflies  hover  from 
 blossom  to  blossom.  The  tropical  character  which  we 
 have  before  alluded  to  as  characterising  the  animal  deni- 
 zens of  the  Tierra  caliente  of  IMexico,  is  here  intensified, 
 and  a larger  proportion  of  South  American  types  is  noticed 
 amongst  the  species.  A great  diversity  of  mag'nificent 
 orcliids  are  found  on  the  forest  trees ; and  the  ocellated 
 turkey,  with  the  wonderfid  bronze  sheen  on  its  plumage, 
 and  eye-like  spots  on  its  tad.,  is  one  of  the  most  peculiar 
 of  the  feathered  denizens  of  the  eastern  river  valleys.  But 
 the  waj-farer  must  guard  agaiust  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
 sun  as  he  wanders  by  Fort  San  Felipe,  an  old  structure 
 dating  back  to  the  period  of  the  conquest,  and  whose  walls 
 have  never  yet  been  scaled  by  any  enemy  save  the  count- 
 less climbing  plants  profusely  covering  them.  At  night  he 
 will  have  to  seek  repose  in  some  Indian  rancho,  for  the 
 dusky  children  of  the  land  are  stiU.  hospitable,  although 
 themselves  doomed  to  a weary  life  of  hardships.  The  hus- 
 band, a hewer  of  the  hard-grained  mahogany,  returns  late 
 from  the  forest,  wliile  the  wife  must  attend  during  the  day 
 to  her  household  duties,  and  make  provision  for  their  frugal 
 evening  meal.  This  will  often  consist  of  the  eggs  of  the 
 iguana,  a large  species  of  lizard,  whose  flesh  is  itseK 
 esteemed  a gxeat  dehcacy.  These  seqiiestered  Indians 
 find  their  greatest  happiness  in  their  children,  beautiful  in 
 then'  simple  nakedness,  and  especially  remarkable  for  then- 
 lovely  gazelle-like  eyes. 
 
 4.  Tlie  Road  to  Ctualan  and  the  Capital. 
 
 Tlie  road  leading  through  a rocky  and  wooded  country 
 to  Gualan  is  an  almost  invisible  track,  bearing  the  gran- 
 diose title  of  the  King’s  Highway  (el  Camino  real),  not  in 
 
NATURAL  PRODUCTS. 
 
 101 
 
 irony,  or  through  republican  hatred  of  royalty,  but  through 
 a thorough  conviction  of  its  excellence.  Its  best  feature 
 is  the  sweet  perfume  of  the  citron,  vanilla,  and  other  still 
 more  fragrant  aromatic  plants  by  which  it  is  pervaded  all 
 the  way  to  Gualan,  a small  provincial  town  of  about  900 
 families,  on  the  little  river  Motagua.  From  the  neigh- 
 bouring and  stUl  larger  town  of  Zacapa  an  extremely 
 rough  highway  leads  to  the  capital,  Guatemala. 
 
 5.  Climate — Soil — Products — Tlie  Coffee  region  of  the 
 Pacific  Coast. 
 
 In  Guatemala  the  same  distinction  is  observed  as  in 
 Mexico  between  the  three  zones  of  elevation  forming  the 
 hot,  temperate,  and  cold  regions.  On  the  plains  along  the 
 coast,  and  in  the  low-lying  hilly  districts,  there  prevails 
 a imiform  tropical  heat,  with  an  annual  mean  temperature 
 of  92°  Fahr.  In  the  rest  of  the  country  there  is  a dry 
 period  from  February  to  April,  and  a rainy  season  from 
 July  tUl  September,  with  an  intervening  transitional  stage 
 lasting  two  months.  The  elevated  plateau  in  the  interior, 
 like  that  of  Mexico,  is  deeply  fuiTowed  with  steep  wooded 
 ravines,  or  barrancas,  but  it  is  of  less  extent,  and  much 
 interrupted  by  valleys  and  mountains  ; the  cold  higher  dis- 
 tricts are  called  “ Los  Altos.”  The  soil  would  seem  to  be 
 everywhere  very  fertile,  but  its  products  vary  according  to 
 the  elevation  of  the  land  above  the  sea.  In  the  higher 
 uplands  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals  are  grown,  in 
 the  vicinity  of  dusky  pine-woods ; while  a luxuriant 
 vegetation,  having  aU  the  character  of  the  tropical  Ameri- 
 can forest,  flourishes  in  the  low-lying  plains. 
 
 The  principal  products  of  Guatemala  are  maize,  sugar- 
 cane. indigo,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cochineal.  As  in  Mexico, 
 the  maize  is  everywhere  cultivated  ; in  the  Tierra  templada 
 and  Tierra  fria  yielding  one,  in  the  hot  coast  districts 
 
102 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAAT:L. 
 
 two,  and  in  some  places  three  annual  crops.  The  sugar- 
 cane can  be  grown  everywhere  to  an  elevation  of  about 
 5000  feet,  which  is  also  very  nearly  the  extreme  limit 
 of  coffee.  IMieat  flourishes  only  in  the  Tierra  fria  above 
 the  hue  of  5800  feet ; while  cacao,  the  proper  growth  of  the 
 Tierra  cahente,  reaches  not  much  higher  than  1600  feet. 
 In  the  same  zone,  and  a little  higher,  rice,  cotton,  and 
 indigo  are  produced,  but  in  inconsiderable  quantities.  The 
 cacao,  sugar,  wheat,  and  cotton  are  mostly,  if  not  alto- 
 gether, consumed  in  the  country,  cochineal  and  coffee  alone 
 being  regidarly  exported.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is 
 yearly  on  the  increase,  while  that  of  cochineal  remains 
 stationary. 
 
 Of  other  products,  we  may  mention  tobacco,  dyewood, 
 and  the  choicer  thnbers ; silver  mines  are  worked  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Alotepeque. 
 
 The  coffee  plantations  of  Guatemala  are  situated 
 chiefly  on  the  loAver  slopes  of  the  mountain  range  facing 
 the  Pacific.  This  long  tract  of  country,  so  richly  endowed 
 by  nature, — remarkable  alike  for  the  splendour  of  its 
 scenery,  the  fertility  of  its  sod,  and  the  amenity  of  its 
 climate, — has  been  recently  traversed  by  an  English 
 traveller,  l\Ir.  Boddam  Wetham,  in  the  course  of  an  ex- 
 tensive joiuney  through  the  Eepublic.  In  spite  of  the 
 disadvantages  presented  by  the  want  of  good  roads,  and 
 the  liability  to  which  the  planter  is  exposed  of  losing 
 most  of  his  labourers  at  a moment’s  notice,  in  the  event 
 of  being  required  for  military  service,  many  foreigners 
 have  settled  in  this  region,  and  devoted  themselves  to 
 coffee  cultivation.  The  plantations  are  situated  between 
 2000  and  4500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, — heights 
 at  which  coffee  grows  best ; and  hitherto  there  has  been 
 no  disease,  showing  that  all  the  conditions  for  good  crops 
 are  extremely  favourable.  The  original  seed — the  Arabic 
 variety — was  introduced  into  the  country  about  eighty 
 
COFFEE  PLANTATIONS. 
 
 103 
 
 years  ago  by  French  colonists.  It  was  first  tested  in  the 
 island  of  San  Domingo.  The  starting  of  a new  plantation 
 is  a work  requiring  considerable  practical  knowledge,  as 
 nursery-beds  have  to  be  prepared  and  tended  for  the 
 growth  of  the  young  plants  before  transplanting,  and  the 
 planter  has  to  wait  five  years  before  he  begins  to  receive 
 a return  for  his  outlay.  According  to  an  estimate  obtained 
 by  Mr.  Wetham,  a plantation  of  1000  trees,  costing  at 
 the  end  of  five  years  27,700  dollars,  wdl  yield  a net 
 profit  of  41,300  dollars. 
 
 The  descent  from  the  highlands  of  Guatemala  to  the 
 coffee-growmg  zone  is  very  rapid.  In  a few  hours  the 
 traveller  has  left  the  Tierra  fria,  passed  through  the  Tierra 
 templada,  and  is  approaching  the  hot  region.  The  vege- 
 tation rapidly  changes  ; alpine  flowers  give  place  to  plants 
 of  a more  luxurious  foliage.  The  mountain  sides  now 
 appear  covered  with  ferns  and  creeping  vines,  gxowing  in 
 profusion  under  the  lofty  trees,  and  the  deep  ra\’ines  are 
 ahnost  hidden  in  a thicket  of  greenery.  Occasionally 
 magnificent  mews  are  obtained  over  the  coast  plains  sea- 
 ward ; the  tree-clad  hills  of  the  foregTound  slope  gently 
 away,  and  beyond  stretches  a velvet  carpet  of  waving 
 tree  tops,  as  far  as  the  wliite  shore  of  the  sea.  The 
 intense  gxeen  of  the  expanse  is  varied  by  the  paler  tints 
 of  sugar  plantations,  and  the  dark  shade  of  coffee  groves ; 
 a silver  line  streaming  through  the  woven  woods,  marking 
 the  course  of  a river,  with  a few  small  huts  dotting  its 
 banks,  the  only  sign  of  life  in  the  ocean  of  forest. 
 
 The  roads  of  the  country  are  broad  green  glades  run- 
 iiiug  through  the  virgin  forest,  frequently  crossed  by 
 mountain  streams.  On  both  sides  of  the  path  there  is  a 
 bewildermg  diversity  of  rare  shrubs  and  plants,  whose 
 leaves  and  branches  are  united  in  tangled  confusion  by 
 innumerable  lianes  to  the  gnarled  trunks  and  spreading 
 limbs  of  the  lofty  trees.  The  grand  old  ceiba  trees,  in 
 
104 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 particular,  are  of  enormous  proportions,  their  trunks  and 
 boughs  forming  a nursery  for  a prodigious  variety  of  para- 
 sitic plants — ferns,  quaint  orchids,  arrow-leaved  Caladiums, 
 and  rows  of  pale  grey  Tillandsias,  and  stiff  sword-leaved 
 Bromelias.  The  lofty  coral  trees  form  also  conspicuous 
 objects,  theh  leafless  branches  being  adorned  with  red 
 blossoms  of  peculiar  shape  and  rare  intensity  of  colour, 
 contrasting  with  the  bright  orange-tinted  masses  of  flowers 
 which  cover  the  massive  dome  of  the  Sapote  tree.  N"or 
 are  the  harmonies  of  the  sim-lit  vaults  confined  to  vege- 
 tation alone : there  is  a chime  in  the  morning  air,  as  birds 
 fly  from  tree  to  tree ; one  beautiful  little  fellow,  with 
 blue  head  and  crimson  breast,  piping  forth  a tiny  strain, 
 which  is  soon  ecHpsed  by  the  brilliant  notes  of  the  amber- 
 and-black  plumaged  oriole.  Silver-blue  butterflies,  with 
 wings  nine  inches  in  expanse,  flit  about  heavily  and  lazily, 
 and  restless  humming-birds  skim  swiftly  from  flower  to 
 flower.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  scattered  villages 
 groups  of  Indians  are  met  with  pursuing  their  avocations, 
 the  most  frequent  being  women  carrying  fruits,  or  oval 
 pitchers  of  water,  gracefully  balanced  on  their  heads ; 
 their  crimson  kerchiefs  and  light  blue  mantles,  coquettishly 
 adjusted,  gmng  colour  to  the  scene. 
 
 At  Chitalon,  2800  feet  above  the  sea-level,  a fine 
 \dew  of  the  volcanic  chain,  running  east  and  west  parallel 
 to  the  Pacific,  is  seen.  Prom  the  top  of  a house  in  the 
 town  ]\Ir.  Wetham  counted  eleven  volcanic  peaks.  The 
 gracefid  forms  of  Mounts  Santa  Maria,  Zunil,  and  San 
 Tomas,  stand  out  clearly,  in  apparently  close  proximity ; 
 away  to  the  right  rise  the  bare  summits  of  Santa  Clara, 
 San  Pedro,  and  Atitlan ; and  still  farther  on  are  ^dsible 
 the  rugged  heads  of  Fuego  (the  “ Volcano  of  Fire,”  near 
 the  capital),  and  Acatenango.  The  outhnes  of  the  moun- 
 tains are  defined  with  wonderful  clearness  against  the 
 dark  blue  sky. 
 
NATUEAL  HISTORY. 
 
 105 
 
 6.  Vegetation — Ornithology — Noxious  Insects — The  Jigger. 
 
 Of  the  trees  on  the  uplands,  strangers  are  especially 
 struck  with  the  oak,  which  is  smaller  and  much  softer 
 than  the  European  species,  but  bears  acorns  as  large  as 
 the  largest  Tiukey  eggs.  Amongst  the  more  costly  woods, 
 prominent  are  the  cedar,  a species  of  palisander,  the  so- 
 caUed  rosewood,  and  the  palmolatla,  a yellow  wood 
 streaked  with  grey  and  brown  veins. 
 
 To  the  market  of  the  capital  are  brought  all  the  fruits 
 of  the  tropics,  while  in  the  woods  may  be  seen  the  love- 
 liest members  of  the  feathered  tribe  in  the  whole  world ; 
 foremost  amongst  them  the  quetzal  {Trogon  resplendens) , 
 with  whose  plumes  the  old  Mexicans  made  their  famous 
 Gobelins-like  feather  paintings.  The  wings  and  back  are 
 of  the  most  brilliant  emerald  and  gold,  the  belly  a fiery 
 red,  while  the  feathers  of  the  tail,  when  full  grown,  attain 
 a length  of  3^  feet.  Since  1871  the  Eepublic  has 
 adopted  this  magnificent  bird  as  its  emblem.  Humming- 
 birds, parrots,  tanagers,  and  toucans  are  met  with  every- 
 where. Lovely,  also,  is  the  plumage  especially  of  the 
 carpenter-bird — fiery  red,  with  silver  or  gold — and  of  a 
 species  of  ringtail,  as  large  as  a dove,  with  blue  bill, 
 green  throat,  red  wings,  and  one  large  white  and  black 
 feather  in  the  tail. 
 
 iSTor  is  there  any  lack  of  serpents,  the  venomous 
 species  of  which,  however,  are  now  found  only  in  the 
 dense  woodlands  and  wildernesses.  Guatemala  is  also 
 richly  endowed  with  obnoxious  insects,  amongst  them  ter- 
 rible niguas  (the  jigger  or  chigoe),  a species  of  flea  wliich 
 embeds  itseK  m the  skin  of  the  feet,  causing  the  flesh 
 to  fester  unless  promptly  extracted.  Formidable,  also,  on 
 account  of  their  numbers,  are  the  fleas,  nowhere  so  plenti- 
 ful as  in  the  churches. 
 
106  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TKAYEL, 
 
 7.  The.  Old  and  Nevj  Capitals — Escuintla. 
 
 There  are  but  few  large  towns  in  Guatemala,  fore- 
 most amongst  them  being  the  capital  of  the  repnbhc 
 bearing  the  same  name,  which  is  situated  on  a spacious 
 
 GUATEJIALA. 
 
 upland  plain,  presenting  a dreary  aspect.  Its  broad  and 
 straight  streets,  running  at  right  angles,  are  but  little 
 frequented  even  during  the  day,  and  their  chief  promen- 
 aders  are  the  Indians  and  their  mules,  together  with  the 
 
GUATEMALA. 
 
 107 
 
 indispensable  zopilotes,  or  scavenger  vultures.  The  housfes 
 are  painted  a glaring  white,  and  show  towards  the  street  one 
 window  only,  barred  with  heavy,  projecting  iron  gratings. 
 Owing  to  the  frequent  earthquakes,  they  consist,  as  a rule, 
 of  a single  ground-floor.  In  the  interior  they  enclose 
 a quadrangular  arcade  and  court,  embellished  by  people 
 of  taste  with  fountains  and  flowers,  but  beyond  this  there 
 is  no  such  thing  as  a real  garden  in  the  whole  city. 
 
 OLD  GU.4TEir.4LA. 
 
 Guatemala  is  a healthy  tropical  town,  but  owing  to  its 
 great  elevation  dangerous  to  those  suffering  from  affec- 
 tions of  the  chest.  A long  nine  hours’  walk  along  nan’ow 
 paths  through  wild  and  romantic  woodlands  leads  thence 
 to  Antigua,  or  old  Guatemala,  which  was  forsaken  by  its 
 inhabitants  after  the  terrible  earthquakes  of  1773,  most 
 of  its  public  buildings  lying  now  in  ruins.  As  we  approach 
 the  old  capital  the  view  becomes  at  every  step  more  open, 
 while  higher  and  higher  appear  to  tower  above  the  neigh- 
 bouring hflls  the  twin  volcanoes  “del  Fuego”  and  “ de  la 
 
108  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Agua,”  that  is  of  “ Fire  and  Water.”  From  tliis  point  the 
 way  leads  by  Cindad  Vieja,  or  Old  Town,  down  to  Istapan 
 on  the  Pacific  coast,  playfully  described  as  a seaport,  but 
 really  situated  at  the  month  of  a little  stream  blocked 
 by  sandbanks,  which  bar  the  approach  of  any  but  the 
 merest  cockle-shells. 
 
 About  midway  towards  the  coast,  on  the  western  slope 
 of  the  mountain-range,  lies  Escuintla,  a sovereign  watering- 
 place  for  those  whose  only  ailment  is  ennui,  hence  the 
 head-quarters  of  all  the  wealthy  idlers  in  Guatemala, 
 who  here  assemble  to  enjoy  their  “ summer  outing.”  The 
 neighbourhood  is  delightful ; innumerable  cold,  tepid,  and 
 hot  springs  being  met  with  at  every  step,  bubbling  up 
 beneath  the  shade  of  the  mango,  cocoa,  and  other  tropi- 
 cal fruit  trees. 
 
 8.  The  QuicM  and  other  Indian  Tribes — The  Old  Cacique 
 
 Families. 
 
 The  population  of  Guatemala  naturally  presents  the 
 same  varieties  as  are  elsewhere  met  with  in  Central 
 America.  The  Indians,  by  far  the  majority,  belong  to 
 several  tribes,  amongst  which  the  most  famous  is  that  of 
 the  Quiche,  who  have  a brilliant  past  to  boast  of.  Cities 
 now  in  ruins,  but  still  witnesses  of  the  old  Quiche  civili- 
 sation and  power,  are  found  in  the  hilly  districts  of  the 
 country.  The  Quiches  have  a sacred  volume,  known  as  the 
 Popol-vuh,  recording  the  historical  traditions  of  the  nation. 
 
 The  Indians  dwelling  on  the  hfils  are  of  a kindly 
 disposition,  tail,  well  formed,  and  of  lighter  complexion 
 than  the  lowlanders.  They  cultivate  a little  maize, 
 occupy  themselves  with  poultry  and  swine  breeding,  as 
 well  as  hewing  wood,  in  order  to  procure  the  means  of 
 pa}fing  their  tribute.  The  parents  sleep  in  hammocks, 
 but  the  children  on  mats  laid  on  the  hard  ground.  The 
 men  wear  a cotton  shirt  (manta)  and  pantaloons,  and 
 
PEIDE  OF  RACE. 
 
 109 
 
 instead  of  shoes,  a strip  of  cowhide  fastened  round  the 
 foot.  The  women  limit  their  costume  to  a blue  and  red 
 striped  cotton  skirt,  while  the  young  Indian  girls  come 
 every  morning  to  the  market  of  Escuintla  in  a stdl  more 
 restricted  garb,  consisting  of  a little  smock  reaching  to 
 the  hips,  and  a bright  fillet  binding  up  the  hair.  The 
 children  run  about  unhampered  by  a vestige  of  clothing. 
 
 All  strangers  accost  the  men  as  Jos4  (Joseph),  and 
 the  women  as  Maria,  whatever  be  their  name.  The 
 Indian  never  lays  aside  the  machete,  with  which  weapon  he 
 hews  himself  a way  through  the  bush,  fells  timber,  or 
 wards  off  his  assailants.  Firearms  he  is  seldom  provided 
 with,  and  never  discharges  them  without  first  shutting 
 his  eyes.  On  the  mountains  there  are  said  to  be  foirr  or 
 five  prosperous  little  communities  of  light-coloured  Indians, 
 with  rosy  cheeks,  fair  hair,  and  blue  eyes,  loiown  by  the 
 title  of  Hijos  de  Caciques,  or  “ sons  of  the  ancient  chiefs.” 
 There  are  even  now  to  be  found  a few  old  Indians  de- 
 scended from  the  Caciques,  or  former  kings  and  chiefs,  still 
 liighly  revered,  and  enjoying  the  greatest  influence  over 
 the  coloured  populations.  Alfred  de  Valois,  when  in 
 Ciudad  Vieja,  made  the  acquaintance  of  one  of  these 
 noble  Cacique  families,  consisting  of  a venerable  old  man, 
 who  still  retained  a sense  of  the  former  gveatness  of  his 
 forefathers,  and  two  daughters,  who,  though  only  about 
 twenty  years  old,  seemed  already  somewhat  aged.  To 
 the  question  why  they  were  not  married,  one  of  them 
 replied,  because  she  cmdd  not  find  a smtable  husband. 
 “ My  daughters,”  further  explained  the  old  man,  “ can 
 oidy  marry  men  of  their  own  rank.  We  are  poor,  su’,  but 
 we  belong  to  an  old  race.” 
 
 9.  Society  in  Guatemala — Class  Distinctions — Foreigners. 
 
 Society  in  Guatemala  is  divided  into  three  classes — 
 the  people  {el  fuMd),  the  gentry  {los  decentes),  and  the 
 
110 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AED  TEA  VET.. 
 
 aristocracy  {los  nobles).  By  “ el  pueblo  ” are  understood 
 tbe  Indians,  forming  two-thirds  of  the  capital,  the  hide- 
 ously ugly  Zambos,  whose  features  would  offer  the  most 
 unique  models  for  the  designers  of  masks,  and  the  Lad- 
 inos  of  the  lower  orders.  Utterly  repulsive  is  the  sight 
 presented  by  the  crowds  of  beggars,  clothed  in  foul  rags, 
 their  feet  eaten  away  by  the  jiggers,  and  tainting  the  very 
 atmosphere  as  they  pass  in  gangs  through  the  streets. 
 They  are  all  supported  by  public  charity,  and  however 
 often  he  may  knock  no  mendicant  is  ever  driven  from 
 the  door. 
 
 The  “ gentry  ” form  the  majority  of  the  Ladinos  or 
 j\lestizoes,  in  the  capital  constituting  one-third  of  the 
 population.  Here  they  belong  to  good  society,  for  they 
 claim  to  be  Creoles,  and  this  claim  is  readily  admitted, 
 where  so  few  have  any  right  to  pry  too  curiously  into  the 
 antecedents  of  their  neighboxirs.  The  Ladinos  are  en- 
 gaged in  trade  and  the  learned  professions,  devoting  their 
 spare  time  to  politics — that  is  to  the  deposing  and  setting- 
 up of  Presidents — and  they  are  politically  liberals,  though 
 of  a very  milk-and-water  t}q)e.  They  are  the  most  ener- 
 getic supporters  of  the  Lxtcios,  as  all  insurgents  are  called 
 in  Guatemala,  from  a former  arch-rebel  named  Lucio. 
 
 Lastly,  the  “ nobles  ” comprise  the  wealthy  merchants 
 and  the  clergy,  who  from  their  political  colours  are  kno-uui 
 as  the  seniles.  Xothing  better  characterises  this  shop- 
 ocracy,  and  the  social  condition  of  the  coimtr}^  generally, 
 than  the  notice  conspicuously  displayed  in  large  letters 
 over  their  warehouses  : Aqui  no  sc  fia,  “ Xo  credit  given,” 
 which  may  be  more  freely  rendered : Here  no  man  trusts 
 Ills  neighbour,  and  all  business  is  conducted  strictly  on 
 ready-money  principles. 
 
 The  Spaniards  still  resident  in  Guatemala  also  belong 
 cliiefly  to  the  mercantile  class.  The  other  Europeans 
 here  resident  trouble  themselves  with  nothing  beyond  the 
 
GOVERN]VIEIsT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 debtor  and  creditor  side  of  tbe  ledger.  Some  of  thetn 
 have  sugar  and  coffee  plantations  and  mills,  but  generally 
 they  are  only  temporarily  settled,  quitting  the  country  as 
 soon  as  they  consider  they  have  realised  enough  to  justify 
 them  in  retiring  from  business. 
 
 10.  Government — Politics — Liberal  Ideas — Material 
 Progress. 
 
 For  many  years  Guatemala  was  under  the  despotic 
 government  of  the  president  Eafael  Carrera,  sprung  from 
 the  lowest  ranks  of  the  Indian  element,  who,  though 
 ruhng  with  a rod  of  u'on  and  partly  bound  by  the  silken 
 cords  of  the  Jesuits,  at  all  events  succeeded  in  maintain- 
 ing order  and  tranquillity,  thereby  promoting  a certain 
 material  prosperity.  A subsequent  government  adopted 
 a hberal  policy.  It  banished  the  Jesuits,  and  confiscated 
 all  the  property  of  the  religious  communities,  devoting  it 
 to  the  support  of  schools,  colleges,  and  charitable  institu- 
 tions. Thus  there  has  recently  been  founded  at  the 
 expense  of  the  State  a higher  educational  establishment 
 for  girls,  the  first  of  the  kind  in  Central  America.  Efforts 
 have  also  been  made  to  construct  good  highways,  of  which 
 the  want  is  still  much  felt.  A decree  has  even  been 
 promulgated  compelling  every  male  adult  to  work  three 
 days  on  the  roads,  or  else  to  find  a substitute. 
 
112 
 
 COMPENDIUM  or  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTER  X 
 
 HOXDUEAS. 
 
 1.  Outlines — General  Physical  Features — The  Plain  of 
 Comayagua. 
 
 The  Republic  of  Honduras,  ba\’ing  a territory  calculated 
 at  39,600  EngRsh  square  miles,  but  with  a very  scanty 
 poj)ulation,  lies  to  the  east  of  Guatemala,  and  is  on  the 
 south-west  nearly  cut  off  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the 
 Little  State  of  San  Salvador,  leaving  it  on  this  side  nothing 
 but  a small  strip  of  coast  round  the  head  of  the  bay  of 
 Fonseca.  On  the  other  hand,  in  contrast  to  Guatemala, 
 Honduras  extends  for  a considerable  distance  along  the 
 Atlantic  seaboard.  Its  southern  and  south-eastern  fron- 
 tier line  towards  the  Republic  of  Xicaragua  is  but  vaguely 
 defined;  the  Cape  Gracias  a Dios  on  the  15th  parallel 
 must  be  taken  as  its  extreme  limit  on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
 
 Honduras  is,  speaking  generally,  a hffly  country, 
 being  intersected  in  various  directions  by  mountain  ranges 
 and  ridges  brandling  off  from  their  common  basis,  the 
 central  table-lands.  These  elevated  uplands  are  enthely 
 interrupted  in  Honduras  by  the  great  plain  of  Comayagua, 
 whence  extends  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Humuya  due  north 
 to  the  Atlantic,  and  that  of  the  Rio  Goascoram  due  south 
 to  the  Pacific.  The  courses  of  both  rivers  thus  form 
 jointly  an  extensive  valley,  spreading  from  ocean  to  ocean. 
 The  streams  themselves  rise  on  the  same  plain,  theff  sources 
 being  parted  only  by  an  inconsiderable  elevation  forming 
 the  southern  limits  of  the  plain  of  Comayagua  itself  In 
 
lilOUKTAIN  KAXGES. 
 
 113 
 
 its  greatest  extent  this  plain  has  a length  of  about  40 
 miles,  with  a mean  average  width  of  from  5 to  15,  its 
 longest  axis  running  due  north  and  south,  and  coincid- 
 ing with  the  course  of  the  above-mentioned  streams. 
 Xorthwards  it  is  separated  by  a low  line  of  hills  from  the 
 plain  of  Espino,  itself  of  no  inconsiderable  extent,  both 
 together  forming  a lovely  region,  comprising  about  one- 
 third  of  the  country  between  the  Bay  of  Hondui’as  and 
 the  Gulf  of  Fonseca. 
 
 2,  Mountain  Ro.nges. 
 
 East  of  the  plain  of  Comayagua  there  rises  a lofty 
 range,  the  northern  section  of  which  is  called  La  Sierra  de 
 Comayagua,  and  the  southern  La  Sierra  de  Lepaterique. 
 To  the  north-east  of  the  Comayagua  range  lies  the  cluster 
 of  the  Sulaco  hiUs,  rising  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  state, 
 and  supplying  the  sources  of  a number  of  streams  which 
 flow  in  the  most  opposite  directions.  At  the  foot  of  these 
 lulls  stretch  the  elevated  grassy  plains  of  Plancho  and 
 Yoro,  famous  even  in  Central  America  itself  for  their 
 magnificent  herds  of  cattle. 
 
 The  rivers  on  these  slopes  of  the  central  mountains 
 wash  down  gold,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  extensive  tracts 
 lying  between  the  Sulaco  range  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean — 
 that  is  to  say,  nearly  half  of  the  whole  coimtry — is  in- 
 habited exclusively  by  a number  of  isolated  Indian  tribes. 
 In  fact  this  region  is  at  present  but  very  little  known ; still 
 it  is  certain  that  the  character  of  the  land  varies  greatly, 
 and  that  it  is  fertile,  and  also  rich  in  minerals.  A portion 
 of  the  northern  coast  lies  very  low  and  is  densely  covered 
 with  forests,  mahogany  especially  growing  here  in  large 
 quantities.  But  towards  the  east  the  hills  extend  quite 
 to  the  coast  at  some  points,  at  others  approaching  very 
 near  to  it.  The  Omoa  range,  with  its  culminating  peak, 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 8000  feet  high,  towers  above  the  Gulf  of  Amatique,  while 
 those  of  Congrehoy  and  Poyas  are  almost  washed  by  the 
 Atlantic,  their  peaks,  from  5000  to  7000  feet  in  height 
 forming  conspicuous  landmarks  far  out  at  sea. 
 
 3.  Flora  and  Fauna — The  Seaports  of  Truxillo  and 
 Amapeda — Fonseca  Bay. 
 
 The  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  are  here  repre- 
 sented by  species  as  varied  in  form  and  as  gorgeous  in 
 colour  as  in  Guatemala  and  the  other  Central  American 
 states.  The  banks  of  the  river  Ulua  and  other  streams  in 
 the  western  part  of  the  country  are  the  favourite  haunts 
 of  a rare  species  of  Toucan,  with  beak  of  many  colours, 
 belonging  to  the  genus  Pteroglossus,  while  the  streams 
 themselves  form  convenient  water-highways  for  the 
 cutters  of  mahogany. 
 
 Truxillo  is  the  seaport  of  Honduras  on  the  north 
 or  Atlantic  coast,  but  the  place  presents  Kttle  to  attract 
 the  stranger,  its  inhabitants  being  exclusively  devoted  to 
 their  commercial  interests.  On  the  bay  of  Fonseca  lies 
 Amapala,  which  was  declared  a free  port  in  1868.  This 
 bay  forms  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world,  con- 
 sisting, strictly  speaking,  of  a series  of  deep  and  spacious 
 basins  penetrating  into  the  land,  and  capable  of  affording 
 shelter  to  innumerable  vessels.  The  project  formed  a few 
 years  ago  to  connect  this  bay  by  a railway  with  the 
 safe  harbour  of  I’ort  Cortes  or  Caballos,  on  the  Atlantic, 
 the  line  running  through  the  plain  of  Comayagua,  has 
 fallen  through  at  present,  after  entailing  on  the  poverty- 
 stricken  republic  the  enormous  foreign  debt  of  six  mdlions 
 sterling,  only  a short  section  of  the  line,  on  the  Atlantic 
 side,  5 3 miles  in  length,  being  constructed  with  a portion 
 of  the  borrowed  money. 
 
CONDITION  OF  THE  WOMEN. 
 
 115 
 
 4.  Inhabitants — Social  Habits — Degraded  Condition 
 of  the  Women. 
 
 The  population  of  Honduras  iscalculatedto  number  only 
 250,000  souls.  There  is  not  much  to  be  said  respecting 
 the  inhabitants,  which  is  not  almost  equally  applicable  to 
 those  of  the  neighbouring  states.  Of  society  and  family 
 life,  as  we  understand  them,  there  is  no  trace,  wliite 
 women  being  scarcely  ever  met,  and  legitimate  unions 
 j being  as  rare  as  a snowfall  in  those  latitudes.  Whites, 
 Caribs,  and  Indians,  contract  marriages  only  for  limited 
 periods,  the  woman  so  honoured  being  further  obliged  to 
 i play  the  part  of  “ maid  of  all  work  ” for  the  time  being. 
 She  never  sits  at  table,  dresses  more  or  less  elegantly 
 according  to  her  earnings,  and  when  her  lord  is  prosperous, 
 
 . has  other  menials  placed  under  her  control.  These  women 
 I smoke  strong  cigars,  wear  bright,  many-folded,  furbelowed 
 gowns,  and  a full  white  bodice — their  chief  ornament,  how- 
 ever, consisting  of  the  long  fringed  shawl  thrown  with  a 
 grand  air  over  their  shoulders.  Should  the  breadwinner 
 be  satisfied  with  his  helpmate,  the  contract  is  prolonged 
 ! by  tacit  consent,  and  so  they  jog  along  until  at  last  comes 
 [ the  inevitable  crash. 
 
 I Here,  as  elsewhere  in  tropical  America,  work  is  held 
 
 both  in  horror  and  contempt.  The  people  are  ashamed 
 ■I  of  labour,  and  will  continue  to  pine  in  misery  rather  than 
 work  for  an  honest  livelihood. 
 
 5.  The  Dead  City  of  Copan. 
 
 One  of  the  remarkable  sights  in  Honduras  are  the 
 ruins  of  Copan,  now  overgTOwn  with  a dense  and  luxuriant 
 tropical  vegetation.  Diego  Garcia  Polacio  seems  to  have 
 been  the  first  European  to  visit  them,  but  they  have  been 
 since  then  investigated  by  Stephens.  They  are  situated 
 
116 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 in  the  mountainous  interior  of  the  country,  a few  miles 
 distant  from  the  Guatemalan  frontier,  and  about  midway 
 between  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic. 
 
 In  a state  of  preservation  far  inferior  to  that  of  the 
 palatial  remains  of  Uxmal  and  other  places  in  Yucatan, 
 they  offer,  at  the  present  time  only  dilapidated  fragments 
 of  buildings  and  monuments,  many  of  them  covered  with 
 sculptured  figures  and  hieroglyphics,  of  similar  inscrutable 
 character  to  the  other  relics  of  the  mysterious  past. 
 Among  the  most  interesting  of  the  remains  are  numerous 
 monoliths  scattered  about,  some  erect,  others  fallen,  and 
 almost  buried  in  the  groimd,  and  half-concealed  by  weeds 
 and  underwood.  A recent  traveller  has  described  one  of 
 these  as  more  than  eleven  feet  in  length,  its  width  three  and 
 a half  feet,  and  its  thickness  three  feet.  On  the  front  side  is 
 represented  the  figure  of  a man  with  strange  and  compli- 
 cated head-dress  and  breastplate,  the  figure  deeply  cut  and 
 surrounded  by  florid  carvings ; the  reverse  side  consists  of 
 sixteen  tablets,  each  containing  emblematic  figures.  Each 
 monolith  contains  a representation  of  a similar  human 
 figure — probably  an  idol — but  the  emblems  and  hierogly- 
 phic carvings  vary  greatly.  Eemains  of  walls  are  seen, 
 forming  quadrangles,  in  which  the  monoliths  and  portions 
 of  scrdptured  idols  are  found ; the  separating  walls  having 
 sides  sloping  up  in  terrace-like  steps  to  a height  of  more 
 than  100  feet.  In  subterranean  chambers  a large  number 
 of  red  earthenware  jars  have  been  found,  which  held  human 
 bones  buried  in  lime.  Sacrificial  altars,  enormous  stone 
 skulls,  and  sculptured  death’s  heads,  also  occur’,  which  com- 
 bine with  the  other  remains  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
 this  place  was  a gveat  centre  of  priestly  power,  and  used 
 chiefly  for  sacrificial  and  other  religious  ceremonies.  It 
 seems  probable  that  the  ancient  city  of  Copan  was  not 
 situated  at  this  spot,  but  at  the  present  village  of  the  same 
 name  built  on  a small  plateau  overlooking  the  Copan  river, 
 about  a mile  distant  from  the  ruins. 
 
THE  BAY  ISLANDS. 
 
 117 
 
 To  Honduras  belong  also  the  Bay  Islands,  in  the  Carib- 
 bean Sea.  They  are  fertile,  provided  with  good  harbours, 
 and,  lying  a little  to  the  north  of  Truxillo,  are  well  suited 
 for  military  stations.  The  largest  and  most  populous  of 
 them  is  Euatan,  31  miles  long  by  9 or  10  broad,  with 
 the  excellent  harbour  of  Puerto  Eeal,  or  Port  Eoyal,  facing 
 the  mainland. 
 
118 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEK  XI 
 
 SAN  SALVADOR. 
 
 1.  Geological  Formation — Volcanoes — the  River  Lempa. 
 
 This  smallest  of  the  Central  American  Eepublics  be- 
 longs geographically  to  Honduras,  closely  resembling  it  in 
 its  orography,  climate,  and  other  physical  features.  Seen 
 from  the  Pacific,  the  plateau,  comprising  the  gveater  part 
 of  the  country,  presents  the  appearance  of  a mighty  wall 
 upheaved  by  nature,  with  a low  range  in  front,  but  sepa- 
 rated from  the  western  seaboard  by  a line  of  cone-shaped 
 volcanoes.  It  looks  almost  as  if  the  ocean  waves  had 
 once  penetrated  to  the  foot  of  this  mountain  harrier,  and 
 that  the  low  coast  range,  not  more  than  2000  feet  high, 
 had  been  subsequently  upheaved  by  volcanic  action.  At 
 all  events  this  ridge  is  separated  by  the  Eiver  Lempa  from 
 the  Honduras  table-land,  and  is  entirely  of  volcanic  origin. 
 On  it  rise  no  less  than  eleven  conical  burning  mountains, 
 continued  by  Tigr4  Island  into  the  Bay  of  Fonseca ; and 
 the  traveller  passes  from  one  end  of  the  State  to  the  other 
 over  a bed  of  scoriae  and  ashes,  containing  large  quantities 
 of  pumice,  here  and  there  interrupted  by  masses  of  lava 
 and  volcanic  rock. 
 
 From  the  plateau  flows  down  to  the  Pacific  the  already 
 mentioned  Eio  Lempa,  the  most  considerable  stream  in  the 
 state,  with  its  tributary  the  Eio  Sumpul,  formiug,  for  a part 
 of  its  course,  the  frontier  line  towards  Honduras.  The 
 valley  of  this  river  is  one  of  the  loveliest  and  most  fertile 
 regions  to  be  seen  anywhere  in  the  torrid  zone. 
 
EARTHQUAKES  AKD  VOLCANOES.  J19 
 
 San  Salvador  is  noted  for  its  earthquakes  and  the 
 \dolence  of  its  numerous  volcanoes.  The  capital  has  been 
 repeatedly  destroyed  by  earthquakes  and  volcanic  erup- 
 tions, the  last  time  on  April  16,  1854,  when  most  of  the 
 inhabitants  erected  new  dwellings  on  a neighbouring  site, 
 which  was  called  Nueva  San  Salvador.  One  of  the  most 
 fearful  eruptions  of  the  neighbouriug  j\Iount  Izalco  was 
 that  of  May  19,  1869.  In  March  1873  the  new  capital 
 was  partly  destroyed  by  a series  of  earthquakes  and  erup- 
 tions from  the  same  volcano,  lasting  fifteen  days. 
 
 2.  Products:  Indirjo — Caoutchouc — Balsam. 
 
 The  principal  articles  of  agricultural  produce  are  in- 
 digo, coffee,  and  balsam  or  balm  of  Peru,  the  latter  grown 
 along  a great  part  of  the  Pacific  coast,  distingixished  on 
 that  accoimt  by  the  name  of  Costa  de  Balsamo.  Of  the 
 tobacco  grown,  one  variety  especially  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
 ceptionally strong  narcotic  properties.  The  sugar  here 
 produced  is  of  various  qualities ; but  famous  above  all  is 
 the  indigo,  surpassing  in  delicacy  of  colour  that  of  Guate- 
 mala and  Bengal,  and  being,  in  fact,  the  very  finest  in  the 
 world.  It  is  the  chief  staple  of  the  export  trade  of  the 
 country. 
 
 As  in  all  the  coast  districts  of  Central  America,  there 
 are  in  San  Salvador  also  a great  number  of  indiarubber- 
 producing  trees.  A peculiar  product  is  the  mate,  a kind 
 of  tea,  yielded  by  a species  of  hulva  or  prickly  palm.  We 
 may  also  mention  the  silver  coins  of  San  Salvador,  not 
 because  they  are  distinguished  by  any  particular  form,  but 
 because  they  contain  less  alloy  than  any  other  silver  coins 
 in  circulation. 
 
 3.  Population — Reforms — Education. 
 
 Of  all  the  Central  American  Eepublics,  San  Salvador 
 
120 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 is  the  most  densely  populated.  Its  area  amounts  to  only 
 9594  square  miles,  and  the  ratio  of  population  is  as  45 
 persons  to  the  square  mile.  Of  the  435,000  inhabit- 
 ants, about  one  half  are  Indians,  and  not  more  than  10,000 
 whites,  a statement  which  will  render  superfluous  any 
 further  description  of  the  political  and  social  relations  of 
 this  State.  It  may,  however,  he  mentioned  that  San  Sal- 
 vador has  for  some  years  past  entered  on  a vigorous  coirrse 
 of  reform.  Attendance  at  school  has  been  made  compul- 
 sory ; hut  the  schools  themselves  are  too  few  and  too  far 
 apart  from  each  other.  Nevertheless,  both  parents  and 
 teachers  neglecting  the  education  of  their  children  and 
 pupils  are  liable  to  a fine  of  ten  shillings  “ for  each 
 offence,”  however  this  may  be  interpreted.  All  games 
 of  hazard  have  also  been  declared  illegal,  alv’ays  excepting 
 those  established  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy.  The  native 
 population  are  more  inclined  to  chllised  pursuits  than  in 
 the  neighbouring  States,  and  are  largely  engaged  in  agricul- 
 ture : in  recent  years  the  working  of  iron  mines  has  been 
 also  undertaken. 
 
 The  political  history  of  San  Salvador  for  many  yete 
 has  been  limited  to  the  usual  frequent  “ pronunciamentos,” 
 or  military  revolts,  superseding  the  popular  vote  in  the 
 election  of  Presidents,  and  to  its  internecine  war  with  the 
 neighbouring  republic  of  Honduras.  It  has  not,  however, 
 crippled  its  credit,  and  injured  its  future  chances,  by  con- 
 tracting, to  the  extent  carried  by  many  other  Spanish 
 American  Eepublics,  a large  public  debt  in  Europe,  and 
 repudiating  the  payment  of  interest  thereupon. 
 
 San  Salvador  was  constituted  a separate  State  in  1853, 
 when  it  dissolved  its  federative  union  with  Honduras  and 
 Nicaragua. 
 
KICAEAGUA. 
 
 J21 
 
 CHAPTEE  XII. 
 
 XICAEAGUA. 
 
 1,  Climatic  and  Geological  Features. 
 
 Both  as  regards  its  climate,  its  geological  formation,  and 
 the  geographical  distribution  of  its  plants  and  animals, 
 Xicaragua  may  conveniently  he  diAuded  into  three  parallel 
 longitudinal  zones.  Of  these  the  most  easterly,  drenched 
 by  the  warm  rains  borne  from  the  Caribbean  Sea,  com- 
 prises the  primeval  forests  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and 
 the  interior  of  the  Mosquito  Coast ; a region  still  mostly 
 unsettled,  where  civilisation  is  only  now  beginning  to 
 penetrate  from  the  west  with  the  extension  of  the  culti- 
 vated districts  in  the  province  of  Segovia,  down  the  course 
 of  the  Eiver  Manx,  and  through  the  opening  of  the  gold- 
 fields in  Santo  Domingo.  The  second  zone  may  be  said 
 to  include  the  uplands  of  the  central  water-parting,  on 
 which  open  savannahs  prevail,  and  embracing  the  interior 
 pro\finces  of  Chontales,  Matagalpa,  and  Segovia.  Lastly, 
 the  third  zone  lies  between  the  great  lakes  of  Nicaragua  on 
 the  east  and  the  Pacific  coast  on  the  west.  Both  in  respect 
 of  its  elevation  and  the  character  of  its  soil,  this  last  is 
 clearly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  other  two  regions. 
 While  these  consist  of  stratified  rocks  of  the  oldest  forma- 
 tions, crystallised  schists,  quartz,  dolerites,  and  tolerably  old 
 trachytes,  in  the  west  there  prevail  the  more  recent  vol- 
 canic tufas  and  lavas,  still  being  accumulated  through  the 
 eruptions  of  the  not  yet  extinct  volcanoes.  Hence  the 
 soil  in  this  western  district  is  unusually  fertile,  and  vuth 
 
122 
 
 COMPEXDIUJI  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TRAVEL. 
 
 a little  attention  devoted  to  its  improvement,  might  be 
 easily  converted  into  a luxuriant  tropical  garden. 
 
 2.  Products — Cattle-Breeding — Exports — Gold  Mines  of 
 Chontales — Climate. 
 
 To  the  peculiarities  of  the  land  and  its  vegetation  cor- 
 respond also  the  products  of  the  three  zones.  The  solitary 
 ■woodlands  of  the  first  jueld  nothing  hut  indiaruhher  and 
 mahogany ; the  second  relies  principally  on  cattle-breeding, 
 its  grassy  plains  supplying  nutriment  to  large  herds  of 
 oxen,  horses,  and  mides ; while  in  the  third  fiourish  the 
 fruits  and  berries  of  the  tropics — coffee,  sugar-cane,  cocoa, 
 tobacco,  and  indigo,  in  profusion.  Of  these,  all,  except 
 tobacco,  form  part  of  the  export  trade  of  the  country,  in 
 addition  to  indiaruhher  from  the  denser  forests,  and 
 hides  from  the  pasture-lands  of  the  interior. 
 
 The  woodland  district  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  although 
 deficient  iu  agricultural  produce,  is  the  seat  of  the  gold 
 mines  of  Chontales,  which  have  been  for  some  j'ears  in 
 active  working,  and  have  contributed  in  some  degree  to 
 augment  the  resources  of  the  Eepublic.  The  mines  are 
 situated  nearly  midway  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
 in  lat.  12°  16'  IST.,  and  long.  84°  59'  W.,  and  the  mining 
 ^^llage  of  Santo  Domingo  lies  about  2000  feet  above  the 
 sea-level  The  surface  of  the  land  here  forms  a succes- 
 sion of  ranges  and  steep  valleys,  covered  with  magnificent 
 timber,  the  valleys  being  watered  by  streams  which  find 
 their  way  into  the  Ble'wfields  Eiver,  and  thence  into  the 
 Atlantic.  The  gold  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  auri- 
 ferous quartz  lodes,  no  allmdal  deposits  ha^’ing  been  found 
 that  win  pay  for  the  working.  The  lodes  run  east  and 
 west — the  same  as  the  trend  of  the  main  hUly  ranges ; 
 and  they  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  in  such  numbers,  that 
 across  a band  more  than  a mile  in  -width  one  may  be 
 
GOLD  MINES  OF  CHONTALES. 
 
 123 
 
 found  every  fifty  yards.  Those  that  have  been  worked  varj" 
 greatly  in  thickness ; sometimes  within  a hundred  yards 
 a lode  will  thicken  out  from  one  to  seventeen  feet ; but 
 their  auriferous  contents  vary  still  more  than  their  width. 
 The  average  value  of  all  the  ore  treated  by  . the  Chontales 
 Mining  Company,  up  to  the  end  of  1871,  was  about 
 seven  pennyweights  per  ton ; but  patches  of  ore,  of  great 
 riclmess,  are  occasionally  discovered,  and  these  originally 
 led  to  very  exaggerated  ideas  being  formed  by  English 
 companies  as  to  the  value  of  the  mines.  Besides  Santo 
 Domingo,  there  are  in  the  same  district  the  mines  of  San 
 Benito,  San  Antonio,  and  Javali,  worked  by  separate  com- 
 panies. The  miners  are  chiefly  IMestizoes  from  the  border 
 lands  of  Honduras  and  Nicaragua,  where  they  have  been 
 accustomed  to  silver-mining. 
 
 The  climate  of  the  gold  district  of  Chontales,  like  that 
 of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Atlantic  slope  of  Central 
 America,  from  Belize  to  Darien,  is  exceedingly  humid. 
 The  rains  set  in  in  IMay,  and  continue,  with  occasional 
 intermission,  until  the  January  of  the  year  following, 
 when  the  dry  season  of  little  more  than  three  months 
 begins.  Throughout  the  year  vegetation  is  never  verdant, 
 and  mosquitoes  and  sandflies  are  rampant  in  the  shady 
 forest.  During  July  and  August  it  sometimes  rains  for 
 three  or  four  days  without  intermission. 
 
 3.  The,  Mosquito  Coast. 
 
 Our  knowledge  of  the  Mosquito  Coast  is  extremely 
 limited.  From  Greytown  northwards  to  Cape  Gracias  a 
 Dios  there  stretches  a low-ljdng  level  coast,  fringed  by  a 
 white  line  of  surf,  and  beyond  which  there  extends  an  im- 
 penetrable forest  inland.  Farther  on,  Bound  HBl,  a 
 mountain  660  feet  high,  approaches  so  near  to  the  edge 
 of  the  water  that,  from  a distance,  it  looks  like  an  island ; 
 
124 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 while  still  farther  inland  there  follows  a succession  of 
 dales  and  hills,  one  of  these  with  an  elevation  of  2800 
 feet.  Off  the  coast  there  runs  a coral  reef,  beyond 
 which  are  unfathomable  depths,  while  between  them  and 
 the  mainland  the  water  grows  rapidly  shallow. 
 
 4.  Blewjielch — Indian  Tribes. 
 
 In  the  neighbourhood  of  Blewfields  we  pass  in  succes- 
 sion some  five  or  six  fairy-hke  islets,  known  by  the 
 general  local  term  of  cays.  Blewfields,  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  river  Blewfields,  the  principal  stream  in  the  country, 
 is  the  residence  of  the  king,  for  Mosquitia  claims  to  be  a 
 monarchy  independent  of  Nicaragua,  and  flies  a flag  of 
 its  own.  Nicaragua  certainly  does  not  admit  the  pretension, 
 but,  on  the  other  hand,  has  hitherto  lacked  the  power  to 
 take  formal  possession  of  the  land. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  this  Mosquito  Coast  consist  of  an 
 aggregate  of  mixed  tribes,  amongst  which  the  Mosquitoes, 
 properly  so  called,  the  Wulwa,  Eama,  and  Smu  are  indi- 
 genous, while  the  so-called  Caribs  have  migrated  hither  in 
 more  recent  times.  Altogether  they  may  at  present  number 
 about  3000  heads. 
 
 5.  Grcytown — The  River  San  Rum. 
 
 The  most  important  point  on  the  Atlantic  coast  is  the 
 seaport  of  Greytown,  or,  as  the  natives  call  it,  San  Juan 
 del  Norte,  Ijdng  at  the  mouth  of  the  gi’eat  river  San  Juan, 
 which  flows  from  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Lake 
 Nicaragua,  and  for  a part  of  its  course  forms  the  frontier 
 line  towards  Costa  Piica,  thus  offermg  the  most  convenient 
 approach  by  water  from  the  east  to  the  great  lake  itself. 
 In  the  rainy  season,  as  reported  by  ]\Ir.  Belt  in  his 
 Xaturedist  in  Nicaragua,  the  San  Juan  is  a noble  river. 
 
THE  RIO  JUAN'. 
 
 125 
 
 and  even  in  the  dry  months,  from  jMarch  to  June,  there 
 is  sufficient  water  coming  down  from  the  lake  to  keep 
 open  a fine  harbour;  but,  unfortunately  for  the  trade 
 prospects  of  the  outport,  a large  proportion  of  the  water 
 is  carried  of  by  a large  branch,  called  the  river  Colorado, 
 which  leaves  the  San  Juan  on  the  right  bank,  about 
 twenty  miles  from  the  sea,  and  flows  to  the  south  through 
 Costa  Plica  territory.  j\Iuch  of  its  force  is  also  dissipated 
 
 THE  KIVER  SAX  JUAN. 
 
 by  the  numerous  side  channels  of  its  delta.  Twenty-five 
 years  ago  the  main  body  of  water  ran  past  Greytown ; 
 there  was  then  a magnificent  port,  and  large  sliips  sailed 
 up  to  the  town,  but  for  several  years  past  the  Colorado 
 Branch  has  been  taking  away  more  and  more  of  the  water, 
 and  the  harbour  of  GreytovTi  has  in  consequence  silted 
 up.  It  is  now  proposed  to  dredge  and  keep  open  a navi- 
 gable channel  through  the  silt ; a work  necessarily  of 
 great  expense. 
 
 Greytown  is  a pretty  little  well-built  town,  situated  in 
 a perfectly  level  district,  intersected  by  a number  of  pools 
 
126 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  lakelets.  Altkough  surrounded  by  swamps,  drained 
 only  by  the  porous  sandy  soil  of  the  coast,  its  climate  is 
 by  no  means  nnbealthy  for  a tropical  town,  a circumstance 
 due  mainly  to  the  regular  trade-winds  freely  blowing  over 
 the  level  country,  without  bids  or  hollows  to  interfere 
 with  their  movement  and  encourage  the  accumrdation  of 
 miasma. 
 
 6.  Fauna  and  Flora. 
 
 The  character  of  the  vegetation  along  the  coast  is  that 
 of  the  tropical  American  forest  generally;  guyava  trees 
 rise  above  the  low  brushwood,  and  a great  variety  of  para- 
 sitic plants,  orchids,  and  ferns  load  the  boughs,  whilst 
 woody  creepers,  suspended  from  above,  hang  down  like  the 
 entangled  rigghig  of  a ship,  and  stretch  from  tree  to  tree. 
 
 The  densely-matted  branches  of  the  trees  offer  shelter 
 to  green  parrots,  toucans,  with  their  great  bright-coloured 
 bills,  and  gorgeous  tanagers  {Ramphocoeluspasserinus),  spar- 
 row-like birds  of  a velvety  black,  with  a large  fiery-red 
 spot  above  the  tad.  Among  the  insects,  conspicuous  are 
 the  butterflies,  great  blue  klorphos,  and  Heliconidce,  and 
 a peculiar  species  of  Longicorn  beetle,  covered  with  long 
 black  and  brown  hairs,  gi^'ing  it  somewhat  the  appearance 
 of  a caterpdlar.  The  branches  of  the  Eio  San  Juan  delta 
 swarm  with  adigators,  which  are  seen  motionless  on  the 
 banks  watching  for  their  prey.  They  seize  young  horses 
 and  cattle,  and  vfill  even  venture  to  attack  the  fud-grown 
 animals  themselves,  drawing  them  imder  the  water,  and, 
 when  drowned,  leisurely  devouring  them.  But,  in  the 
 absence  of  more  substantial  fare,  they  are  fain  to  rest 
 satisfied  with  flies  and  such-like  small  winged  insects,  at- 
 tracted by  the  saliva  of  their  open  jaws  as  they  lie  basking 
 on  the  banlvs  of  the  stream.  So,  at  least,  report  the 
 natives. 
 
THE  INDIARUBBER  TRADE. 
 
 127 
 
 7.  Upper  Course  of  the  San  Juan  and  its  Tributaries — 
 Castillo. 
 
 The  banks  of  the  San  Juan  are  at  first  low,  sedgy,  and 
 marshy,  intersected  by  numerous  side  streams.  Higher 
 up  the  primitive  forest  appears  in  great  luxuriance.  The 
 most  remarkable  tree  in  this  forest  district  is  a tall  palm 
 with  dense  crown,  the  space  between  the  slender  leaf-stems 
 being  filled  by  tree  ferns,  creepers,  and  parasites  with  bright- 
 coloured  blossoms.  The  first  affluent  is  the  Seripiqui, 
 flowing  from  the  Costa  Eica  hills.  It  is  navigable  for 
 canoes  a long  way  up  its  course,  after  which  the  journey 
 must  be  continued  on  mules  over  a rugged  moimtain  range 
 leading  to  San  Jose,  capital  of  the  neighbouring  republic. 
 Another  somewhat  important  tributary,  also  from  the  Costa 
 Eica  domain,  is  the  San  Carlos. 
 
 At  the  romantic  town  of  Castillo  begin  the  rapids  of 
 the  San  Juan,  their  foaming  and  agitated  waters  contrast- 
 ing agreeably  with  the  still,  dark  woodlands  on  their 
 banks,  while  the  vivid  green  of  the  neighbouring  grass- 
 grown  hills  forms  a charming  framework  to  the  picture. 
 But  the  interior  of  the  little  town  corresponds  but 
 little  with  these  delightful  surroundings.  It  contains 
 a solitary,  narrow,  rough,  and  filthy  street,  where  the 
 swarms  of  mosquitoes  at  sunset  are  as  great  a plague  as 
 on  the  banks  of  the  San  Juan  itseE. 
 
 8.  The  Indiaruhber  Trade. 
 
 CastiUo  is  a centre  of  the  indiaruhber  trade.  Here 
 gangs  of  natives  are  specially  equipped,  for  penetrating 
 into  the  uninhabited  forest  lands  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in 
 search  of  the  much-valued  resin.  In  these  regions,  how- 
 ever, it  is  extracted  from  a very  different  tree,  and  is  pre- 
 pared in  a very  different  manner  from  that  adopted  on  the 
 
128 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 banks  of  the  Amazons.  In  Brazil  it  is  obtained  chieflv 
 from  the  Hcvea  hrasiliensis,  a species  of  the  Euiihorbia 
 family,  but  in  Central  America  from  the  Castilloa  elastica, 
 an  Artocarpaceous  tree,  remarkable  for  its  large  leaves. 
 When  collected,  the  rubber  is  sent  in  large  “ bungos,” 
 or  boats,  down  to  Greytown,  where  the  amount  exported 
 in  1867  was  valued  at  £23,000,  which  in  1871  had 
 already  risen  to  £26,000. 
 
 The  most  deadly  enemy  of  the  gum-elastic  tree  is  the 
 Acroeinus  longimanus,  the  well-known  “harlequin  beetle,” 
 which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  incisions  made  to  extract 
 the  fluid  gTim,  the  larvee  later  on  boring  for  themselves 
 great  holes  right  through  the  stem.  But  through  liis 
 blind  love  of  gain,  man  here,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  shows 
 himself  a stiU  more  reckless  destroyer,  the  collectors  draw- 
 ing no  distinction  between  full-grown  trees  and  mere  sap- 
 lings, thereby  threatening  the  species  with  speedy  and 
 total  destruction.  Here  there  is  no  such  a thing  as 
 forestry  regulations,  under  which  young  and  profitable 
 plantations  might  be  easily  formed  of  this  valuable  tree, 
 so  remarkable  for  its  rapid  growth. 
 
 9.  San  Carlos — LaJce  Nicaragua. 
 
 At  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and 
 consequently  at  the  outflow  of  the  Eio  San  J uan,  lies  the 
 old  Spanish  fort  of  San  Carlos,  formerly  a strong  bulwark 
 of  the  land,  but  now  falling  into  ruins,  covered  with  an 
 exuberant  growth  of  the  lovely  maidenhair  fern  (Adian- 
 tum).  The  little  town  itseK  consists  of  a sohtary  street, 
 the  houses  being  mostly  mere  hovels  covered  with  j>ahn 
 leaves,  and  with  bare  earth  floors  seldom  or  never  swept. 
 The  population  is  a mixture  of  Indians,  Spaniards,  and 
 Negroes ; the  Indian  element,  however,  being  in  the  as- 
 cendant. 
 
LAKE  NICARAGUA. 
 
 129 
 
 The  view  of  Lake  Nicaragua  from  San  Carlos  may' he 
 described  as  imposing  rather  than  beautiful.  Towards  the 
 north-west  its  waters  extend  beyond  the  horizon,  but  a 
 little  to  the  left  is  seen  the  largest  island  of  the  lake,  with 
 its  two  cone-shaped  volcanic  peaks,  Madera  and  Omete- 
 pec,  4922  and  5050  feet  respectively  above  the  sea-level. 
 StiU.  farther  to  the  left,  in  the  hazy  distance,  are  visible 
 the  cloud-capped  hills  of  Costa  Eica,  and,  somewhat  nearer, 
 dark  and  densely- wooded  ranges  on  the  right.  Besides 
 Ometepec,  the  lake  is  studded  with  several  groups  of  little 
 islands,  serving  as  retreats  for  flocks  of  wild  ducks  and 
 snow-white  herons,  while  its  waters  are  infested  by  the 
 rapacious  aUigator  and  a species  of  fresh-water  shark. 
 
 The  lake  stands  at  an  elevation  of  128  feet  above 
 the  sea,  the  lowest  pass  between  its  south-western  shore 
 and  the  Pacific  lying  at  a height  of  26  feet  only  above 
 the  lake- waters,  the  distance  between  the  two  points  being 
 but  small,  and  the  highest  elevation  to  be  surmounted 
 between  the  two  oceans  being  only  154  feet.  Hence  the 
 most  favourable  conditions  seem  to  be  here  presented  for 
 the  construction  of  an  interoceanic  canal. 
 
 The  problem  of  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
 by  means  of  a ship-canal  has  for  many  years  engaged  the 
 attention  of  statesmen,  engineers,  and  merchants.  Various 
 lines  were  proposed  and  advocated  with  partisan  ardour, 
 before  a proper  survey  could  be  carried  out  to  demonstrate 
 their  feasibility ; but  many  of  these  afterwards  dropped 
 out  of  sight,  and  interest  was  concentrated  for  some  time 
 on  two  only  of  the  projects,  viz.  the  most  southerly  one, 
 connecting  the  river  Atrato  with  Cupica  Bay,  and  the 
 line  across  Nicaragua  through  the  great  lake.  The  Govern- 
 ment of  the  United  States  directed  careful  surveys  to  be 
 made  by  well-equipped  expeditions,  composed  of  naval 
 and  engineer  officers,  who  presented  elaborate  reports  to 
 Congress  of  the  results  of  their  examination  of  the  dif- 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 ferent  lines ; the  conclusion  at  M^hich  they  arrived  bemg 
 that  the  Nicaragua  route,  all  the  circumstances  considered, 
 offered  the  most  advantages.  Although  much  longer, 
 they  considered  that  the  construction  of  a canal  here 
 would  be  far  less  costly  than  across  the  Isthmus  of 
 Panama  adjoining  the  railroad,  which  scheme  had  most 
 powerful  advocates.  From  the  reports  of  the  United 
 States  surveyors  the  following  general  conclusions  were 
 to  be  drawn.  The  Nicaragua  hne  is  the  only  one  which 
 passes  through  a region  offering  chances  of  futine  de- 
 velopment. On  the  shorter  lines,  farther  down  the 
 isthmus,  the  great  heat  of  the  climate  and  the  marshy 
 nature  of  the  localities  would  destroy  the  lives  of  the 
 majority  of  the  labourers  engaged  in  the  construction  of 
 a canal.  The  Nicaragua  route  is  also  the  only  one 
 which  presents  in  itself  sufficient  water  for  a canal  con- 
 structed with  locks,  which  would  be  necessary  whatever 
 route  was  adopted,  the  great  lake  of  Nicaragua  lying  on 
 the  way,  and  permitting  the  easy  regulation  of  the  water- 
 level.  Tire  other  proposed  lines  were  thought  disadvan- 
 tageous in  many  other  respects ; they  run,  for  the  most 
 part,  through  worthless  barren  tracts,  incapable  of  improve- 
 ment, and  all  of  them  would  require  a tunnel  varymg 
 from  eight  to  twelve  miles  in  length,  through  the  central 
 range  of  the  isthmus.  Commander  Selfridge,  however,  who 
 surv^eyed  the  different  lines  across  Darien,  and  between 
 the  Atrato  and  the  Pacific,  in  the  years  from  1871  to 
 1874,  summed  up  in  favour  of  the  route  viA  the  Atrato 
 and  Doguado  over  all  its  rivals,  partly  on  account  of  its 
 superior  healthiness,  and  the  possession  of  harbours  at 
 either  end ; but  the  American  government  were  inclined 
 to  adopt  the  %fiews  of  Commander  Lull,  who  surveyed  the 
 Nicaragua  line  in  1873,  thus  reverting  to  the  decision  it 
 arrived  at  in  1850,  when  the  Nicaragua  route  was  first 
 approved,  and  a treaty  entered  into  with  Great  Britain  for 
 
CITY  OF  GRANADA. 
 
 131 
 
 the  neutralisation  of  the  canal.  The  termini  of  the  pro- 
 posed canal  were  to  be  at  Greytown  on  the  Atlantic,  and 
 Brito  on  the  Pacific ; the  harbours  of  both  of  which  ports 
 would  require  considerable  improvement.  No  tunnel 
 would  be  necessary.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  ten 
 million  dollars,  and  the  time  taken  in  construction  at  ten 
 years.  Commander  Selfridge  estimated  the  cost  of  a 
 canal  viA  the  Atrato  and  Doguado  at  56,350,000  dollars. 
 
 The  advocates  of  the  Darien  and  Panama  routes  did 
 not  accept  the  conclusions  of  the  Americans,  and  a new 
 survey,  chiefly  under  French  direction,  was  instituted. 
 
 This  work  was  carried  on  between  the  years  1876  and 
 1879,  and  resulted  in  an  international  conference  held  at 
 Paris  in  May  1879,  at  which  the  Panama  line  was  then 
 declared  by  74  votes  against  8 as  the  best  and  most  prac- 
 ticable. The  particular  line  was  that  called  the  “ Limon- 
 Panama,”  surveyed  by  Messrs.  Wyse  and  Eeclus,  which 
 required  neither  locks  nor  tunnels.  A company  was 
 thereupon  organised,  Avith  M.  de  Lesseps  as  its  head,  and 
 active  operations  have  been  commenced. 
 
 t 
 
 10.  City  of  Cranacla  and  its  Neighbourhood. 
 
 Tlie  most  important  city  in  the  State  is  Granada  on  the 
 north-west  shore  of  the  lake,  though  the  official  capital  is 
 Leon,  situated  inland,  farther  to  the  north-west.  Granada, 
 with  a population  of  15,000,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  pro- 
 \dnce  of  the  same  name,  extending  northwards  to  Lake  Leon 
 or  Managua,  a pendant  to  the  far  larger  Lake  Nicaragua. 
 The  city,  founded  in  the  year  1522,  by  Hernandez  de 
 Cordova,  was  entirely  burnt  to  the  ground  by  Walker  and 
 his  fibbustering  followers  in  1856,  but  has  since  been 
 rebuilt,  now  boasting  of  spacious  streets,  crossing  each 
 other  at  right  angles,  and  a large  public  square.  The  streets 
 are  laid  in  a peculiar  manner,  running  for  distances  of 
 fifty  paces  or  so  on  a dead  level,  then  suddenly  rising  by 
 
132 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TP  A VET,. 
 
 a steep  incline  to  a second  level  stage,  and  so  on.  The 
 houses  are  hTiilt  of  air-dried  bricks,  M-hitewashed,  and 
 roofed  Tvith  tiles.  There  are  also  several  churches,  some 
 of  which,  however,  are  in  a rather  tumble-down  state. 
 The  place  is  very  lively,  and  especially  famous  for  one 
 indiTstry,  the  preparation  of  the  so-called  Panama  chains, 
 made  of  gold  wire,  either  compact  or  hollow,  and  strung 
 together  like  our  hair  chains — masterpieces  of  the  gold- 
 smith’s art,  unsurpassed  even  in  the  ateliers  of  Paris 
 itself. 
 
 Extremely  lovely  is  the  country  round  about  Granada, 
 situated  as  it  is  within  a mile  and  a half  of  the  shores 
 of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  not  many  miles  from  the  extinct 
 volcano  of  Momhacho,  towering  boldly  to  a height  of 
 5000  feet,  and  from  foot  to  summit  clothed  in  a dark 
 mantle  of  everlasting  green.  Near  the  city  are  numerous 
 and  extensive  cacao  plantations,  that  hear  no  mean  repu- 
 tation in  the  commercial  world.  The  young  cacao  trees, 
 growing  wild  in  the  primeval  forests  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
 board, flourish  best  in  the  shade  afforded  them  in  one 
 place  of  the  banana,  in  another  by  the  coral  tree,  a species 
 of  Erythrina,  on  this  accoimt  called  by  the  natives  the 
 “ Mother  of  the  Cacao.”  It  grows  to  a height  of  40 
 feet  and  upwards,  when  in  bloom  at  the  beginning  of 
 April  presenting  a dense  compact  mass  of  bright  crimson 
 blossom. 
 
 11.  Masaya,  its  Lake  and  Volcano. 
 
 Some  ten  miles  west  of  Granada  lies  the  town 
 of  Masaya,  with  15,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  nine- 
 tenths  are  Indians.  It  covers  a great  extent  of  ground, 
 the  Indian  huts  being  all  smToimded  by  a garden,  and 
 lying  off  the  streets  concealed  amidst  fruit-trees.  The 
 ground  consists  entirely  of  volcanic  tufas,  through  which 
 aU  moisture  percolates,  so  that  springs  or  brooks  are  no- 
 
LAKE  OF  MASAYA. 
 
 133 
 
 where  to  be  found.  Hence,  as  Mr.  Belt  informs  us,  Masaya 
 draws  its  whole  water  supply  from  a lakelet  330  feet  below 
 the  town  on  its  western  side.  This  lakelet  seemingly  fills 
 the  mouth  of  an  extinct  crater,  steep  rocky  walls  enclos- 
 ing it  on  all  sides  with  blackish  cliffs  at  their  feet,  here 
 
 INDIAN  Ht7T,  MASAYA. 
 
 and  there  profusely  overgrown  with  the  maidenhair  fern. 
 All  the  surroundings  of  the  “ Hell  of  Masaya,”  as  the  lake 
 is  called,  are  of  volcanic  origin,  its  western  side  being 
 flanked  by  the  cone-shaped  and  destructive  volcano  of 
 Masaya,  whose  lava-streams,  flowing  down,  have  covered 
 the  sides  of  the  old  crater  and  formed  an  oblique  incline 
 to  the  banks  of  the  lake. 
 
134 
 
 COMPENDIUM  or  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 12.  The  Marahios — The  Devils'  Dance. 
 
 IVith  this  volcano  are  connected  the  IMarabios,  a 
 group  of  hills  where  are  probably  concentrated  more  vol- 
 canoes than  in  any  other  spot  on  the  globe.  The  best 
 view  of  the  Marabios  is  presented  from  the  wide  plain 
 of  Leon,  from  wliich  as  many  as  fourteen  volcanoes 
 may  be  counted  within  a distance  of  about  70  miles. 
 Here  are  lava  fields,  by  the  natives  called  Malpais,  or 
 barren  land,  extending  in  places  for  miles  in  all  directions. 
 During  the  day  we  become  aware  of  a glistening  move- 
 ment of  the  atmosphere  on  the  heated  surface  of  these 
 fields,  while  at  niglit  the  whole  district  is  lit  up  by  a 
 bluish  alcoholic-like  fiame,  at  times  fiashing  across  the 
 land,  at  others  leaping  up  like  a coliunn  of  fire  and  then 
 mysteriously  disappearing.  The  natives  call  this  pheno- 
 menon d haile  de  los  demonios,  or,  the  devils’  dance. 
 
 13.  Politics — Social  Obstacles  to  Progress. 
 
 In  its  political  condition  Nicaragua  presents  the  same 
 pictm-e  as  the  rest  of  the  Spanish  American  Eepubhes : 
 nothing  but  party  feeling  and  factiousness,  without  a trace 
 of  public  spu’it  anywhere.  The  party  for  the  time  being  at 
 the  helm  makes  its  personal  influence  felt  in  all  branches 
 of  justice  and  the  executive,  tlmusts  its  partisans  into 
 all  the  more  important  offices  of  state,  and  especially  at 
 the  elections  brings  into  play  an  oppressive  force  overridnig 
 all  opposition.  Hence  a change  of  government  is  im- 
 practicable except  by  a revolution ; and  with  all  the 
 specious  parade  of  freedom,  and  in  spite  of  the  full  play 
 of  repubkean  institutions,  the  true  will  of  the  majority 
 can  find  no  expression  that  is  not  the  result  of  intestine 
 warfare.  The  opinion  would  accordingly  seem  fully 
 justified  that  Nicaragua  can  advance  only  by  very  slow 
 strides  towards  a more  promising  future. 
 
NATURAL  INERTIA. 
 
 135 
 
 The  obstacle  to  the  full  development  of  its  vast  natural 
 resources  lies  irot  so  much  in  any  difficulties  connected 
 with  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  as  in  the  very  exuberance 
 with  which  Nature  has  here  lavished  her  gifts  on  man. 
 As  soon  as  he  discovers  that  he  can  live  at  ease  with  a 
 minimum  of  labour,  man  is  ever  prone  to  shirk  all  vigorous 
 action,  and  to  continually  retrench  aU  superfluous  wants  or 
 luxuries,  in  order  to  have  the  greater  leisure  for  leading 
 a life  of  idleness.  And  should  he  himself  resist  this 
 temptation,  his  posterity  will  all  the  more  inevitably 
 yield  to  it.  This  grievous  impediment  to  the  progress  of 
 civilisation  might  be  perhaps  to  some  extent  balanced 
 by  a large  accession  of  immigrants,  developing  a spirit 
 of  competition  on  the  one  hand,  and  oir  the  other  main- 
 taining a higher  standard  of  social  culture,  with  all  its 
 accompanying  wants,  such  as  can  be  supplied  by  work 
 alone.  But  even  then  it  woidd  be  necessary  to  guard 
 carefully  against  the  bad  example  of  the  few  “ ne’er-do- 
 weels,”  whose  aversion  to  hard  work  might  else  soon  find 
 but  too  many  imitators. 
 
136  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEK  XIIL 
 
 COSTA  RICA. 
 
 1.  Volcanic  System. 
 
 The  territory  of  Costa  Eica  consists  of  a table-land, 
 rising  from  the  maritime  districts  in  terraces  to  an  eleva- 
 tion of  4300  feet,  over  which  tower  numerous  volcanoes, 
 some  of  which  attain  a height  of  11,500  feet.  Their 
 actual  nmnber  has  not  yet  been  ascertained,  the  country 
 itself  being  stEl  far  from  thoroughly  explored.  This  is 
 especially  true  of  the  hitherto  utterly  inaccessible  Montana 
 de  Dota,  or  Dota  range,  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
 republic.  Xor  is  it  so  many  years  since  Professor  Wil- 
 liam ]\I.  Gabb  of  Philadelphia  was  able  to  discover  two 
 previously  entmely  unknown  volcanoes,  over  8000  feet 
 high,  lying  in  the  main  range  of  the  Cordilleras,  due  north- 
 west of  the  Pico  Blanco. 
 
 However,  the  most  important  volcano  in  Costa  Eica 
 would  seem  to  be  the  Turrialba  (11,350  feet),  which  was 
 in  violent  action  in  1871,  and  is  the  southernmost  of 
 the  active  burning  mountains  in  Central  America,  and 
 the  near  neighbour  of  IMt.  Irazu  scaled  by  Yon  Scherzer 
 and  Yon  Frantzius.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  vol- 
 canic nature  of  the  land,  there  is  a whole  series  of  hot 
 mineral  springs  associated  with  the  volcanoes. 
 
 The  general  character  of  the  interior  is  that  of  an 
 Alpine  region,  traversed  by  sharp  and  steep  ridges,  and 
 furrowed  by  mountain  toivents.  In  many  wide  districts 
 an  impenetrable  and  nearly  uninhabited  Aurgin  forest 
 
PRODUCTS  AND  MINES. 
 
 137 
 
 covers  the  surface  of  the  land.  Only  a twentieth  part  of 
 the  area  of  the  republic  is  under  cultivation. 
 
 2.  Rivers — Soil — Products. 
 
 The  rivers  have  necessarily  but  a short  course,  the 
 most  considerable  being  the  Eio  Escuda,  the  Eio  Tiliri, 
 and  the  southern  arm  of  the  San  Juan  del  Norte.  The 
 soE,  especially  on  the  coast,  is  very  fertile,  including  exten- 
 sive sa'N'annahs,  besides  magnificent  forest  lands.  The 
 chmate  is  naturally  hot,  though,  of  course,  more  temperate 
 in  the  uplands,  where  the  chief  part  of  the  population  is 
 concentrated. 
 
 The  principal  products  of  the  country  are  nearly  the  same 
 as  in  the  neighbouring  states — tobacco,  sugar  cane,  coffee, 
 indigo,  cocoa,  and  Indian  corn.  Coffee,  however,  is  the  staple 
 of  trade,  and  the  chief  article  of  export ; so  much  so  that 
 Costa  Eica  is  sometimes  called  the  Coffee  Eepublic;  11,500 
 tons  were  exported  in  1875.  It  is  significant  for  the 
 movements  of  commerce  that  a portion  of  its  coffee  crop 
 has  already  found  its  way  to  California.  Cattle-breeding 
 is  also  in  a flomishing  state,  while  mining  yields  consider- 
 able returns. 
 
 3.  Mineral  Wealth — Gold  Mines. 
 
 Nevertheless,  Costa  Eica  had  always  been  a poverty- 
 stricken  country,  until  the  declaration  of  independence  in 
 1821.  The  name  of  Costa  Eica,  or  “rich  coast,”  was 
 given  to  it  by  the  Spaniards,  not  on  account  of  the  wealth 
 actually  found  there,  but  of  the  wealth  they  hoped  to  find 
 there.  Nor  was  it  till  some  time  after  the  discovery  of 
 the  gold-mines  of  Agucate,  in  1823,  that  the  resources  of 
 the  land  began  to  be  developed.  Since  then  its  mineral 
 wealth  has  been  continually  increasing  in  importance,  and 
 attracting  the  foreign  capital  needed  to  open  up  the  mining 
 districts.  This  was  especially  the  case  when  the  gold- 
 
138 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHT  A^TD  TRAVEL. 
 
 mines  of  Paires  were  found  in  1857,  followed  by  the  dis- 
 covery of  the  stid  more  productive  mines  of  Ciruehtas  in 
 1864.  We  are  assured  by  Dr.  H.  Polakowsky,  one  of  the 
 most  recent  travellers  in  Central  America,  that  Costa  Pdca 
 may  now  be  considered  as  decidedly  the  richest  of  the  five 
 Central  States ; and,  what  is  more  to  the  point,  inhabited 
 by  the  most  industrious  and  ciiltm’ed  population  in  this 
 dmsion  of  the  New  World. 
 
 4.  Population — Native  and  White  Elements — Prosperous 
 State  of  the  Country. 
 
 Unfortimately  this  beautiful  and  extremely  fruitful 
 land  is  stid  very  thinly  peopled,  the  latest  statistical  re- 
 turns (1875)  giving  a total  population  of  no  more  than 
 185,000,  almost  exclusively  centred  on  the  elevated  jjlains 
 between  the  two  towns  of  Alnjuela  and  Cartago.  Hence 
 this  district  appears  not  only  tliickly  peopled,  but  also 
 highly  cultivated,  and  is  fxu’ther  ^xrovided  'with  a radway 
 in  active  operation.  It  is  computed  that  not  less  than 
 seven-eighths  of  the  population  of  the  country  is  contained 
 in  this  central  district. 
 
 The  natives  of  Costa  Pdca  are  distinguished  above  ad 
 the  Central  American  peoples  for  their  fau’  complexion. 
 The  Indian  has  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  wliite  ele- 
 ment ; the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  betra}’ing,  on 
 careful  examination,  but  very  faint  traces  of  native  Ameri- 
 can blood.  An  amiable  courteousness  and  obhging  dispo- 
 sition, even  towards  strangers,  advantageously  distinguishes 
 the  Costa  Pica  people,  and  especiady  those  of  lower  rank, 
 from  the  natives  of  Guatemala.  The  coimtry  at  least  fully 
 justifies  its  title  of  “ The  Eich  Coast,”  the  sjuiiptoms  of 
 wealth  and  comfort  being  ever}nvhere  apparent,  and  the 
 mendicants,  elsewhere  so  troxiblesome  to  strangers,  being 
 here  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  The  photographs  of 
 two  or  three  old  beggars,  as  a late  traveder  records,  are 
 even  hawked  about  as  rare  curiosities. 
 
COLONISATION. 
 
 139 
 
 This  prosperous  state  of  things  is  partly  explained  by 
 the  fact  that  all  the  inhabitants  possess  at  least  a small  piece 
 of  land,  which,  owing  to  the  astonishing  fertility  of  the  sod, 
 and  the  care  devoted  to  its  tdlage,  yields  comparatively 
 handsome  returns.  The  men  of  the  working  classes  here 
 also  show  to  advantage,  above  those  of  the  other  Central 
 American  States,  by  the  wisdom  they  display  in  abstaining 
 from  meddling  with  pohtics,  occupying  themselves  rather 
 with  their  cattle  and  their  coffee  plantations.  The  politi- 
 cal arena  is  frequented  in  Costa  Eica  only  by  the  so-called 
 educated  classes,  “ the  men  of  culture,”  who  mostly  despise 
 agricultural  and  such  Eke  pursuits. 
 
 5.  The,  Immigration  Question. 
 
 A vital  question  for  Costa  Eica,  no  less  than  for  most 
 other  tropical  American  lands,  is  that  of  colonisation.  The 
 native  element  is  here  scarcely  sufficient  for  the  require- 
 ments of  the  coffee  haciendas,  to  say  nothing  of  such  more 
 serious  rmdertakmgs  as  the  projected  radway,  wliich  is  in- 
 tended to  cross  the  country  and  bind  ocean  to  ocean.  This 
 Ene,  starting  from  Puerto  Limon  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
 wdl,  when  finished,  pass  over  the  Corddleras  and  the  table- 
 land, uniting  the  two  chief  towns  of  Cartago  and  San  Jose, 
 and  terminating  at  the  Port  of  Calderas  on  the  Gulf  of 
 Xicoya  in  the  Pacific.  The  first  portion  of  the  Ene,  be- 
 tween Alajuela  and  Cartago,  42  mdes  long,  was  opened  to 
 traffic  in  March  1873.  The  difficulties  to  be  surmounted 
 are  undoubtedly  very  great,  and  the  necessary  hands,  which 
 the  country  itself  cannot  supply,  must  be  brought,  ui  the 
 first  instance,  from  Cartagena  and  Jamaica.  Pinancial  diffi- 
 culties also  stand  in  the  way,  the  Eepublic  having  incurred 
 a debt  of  no  less  than  £3,400,000  sterEng,  on  which  no 
 interest  has  been  paid  since  1872.  Costa  Eica  has  hitherto 
 refrained  from  introducing  the  African  element,  although 
 here,  as  elsewhere,  Negroes,  Mulattoes,  and  Zamboes  alone 
 
140 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 can.  be  advantageously  employed  in  the  low-lying  hot 
 regions.  After  many  years’  experience  it  is  universally 
 admitted  that  neither  Germans  nor  Irish  are  at  all  suited 
 for  working  colonists  in  tropical  America,  being  soon  either 
 stricken  down  by  disease,  or  else  becoming  as  indolent  as 
 the  natives.  The  last  colonisation  experiment  in  Venezuela, 
 which  cost  the  State  some  200,000  dollars,  ended  no  better 
 than  did  the  Tyrolese  settlement  on  the  Pozuzu  in  Peru,  or 
 the  attempt  made  in  Guatemala  to  establish  a Belgian  colony 
 at  the  magnificent  harbour  of  St.  Thomas.  The  endeavours 
 of  Yon  Billow  and  Medina  to  found  German  settlements  in 
 Costa  Eica  had  similar  disastrous  results  ; while  the  North 
 American  and  German  immigrants  in  Chiriqui,  to  the  south 
 of  Costa  Eica,  again  withdrew  from  the  country  as  soon  as 
 the  gold  in  the  old  Indian  mines  was  exhausted. 
 
 6.  The  Dark  Side  of  the  Picture. 
 
 However  favourable  the  general  picture  presented  by 
 Costa  Eica,  when  contrasted  with  the  neighbouring  States, 
 there  is  still  a dark  side  to  the  picture  itself.  So  recently’ 
 as  the  year  1872,  the  minister  of  justice  is  obhged  to 
 comment  on  the  general  depravity  in  such  terms  as  these 
 “ We  have  reached  such  a degree  of  corruption  as  to  be 
 compelled  for  the  sake  of  our  honour  to  conceal  the 
 statistics  of  crime  amongst  the  population,  else  we  should 
 lose  the  good  repute  we  have  hitherto  been  held  in  amongst 
 strangers.”  As  the  causes  of  this  state  of  morality  he 
 specifies  defective  instruction,  the  prospects  of  impunity 
 owing  to  the  tardy  and  inefficient  administration  of  justice, 
 confidence  in  the  chances  of  escape  from  confinement  in 
 consequence  of  the  bad  condition  of  the  houses  of  detention, 
 a want  of  an  efficient  police,  possessed  of  the  skill  and 
 experience  required  for  the  detection  of  criminals,  and 
 several  others. 
 
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THE  WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS. 
 
 CHAPTEE  I. 
 
 GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES, 
 
 1 . The  G'reat  and  Lesser  Antilles — Windward  and 
 Leeioard  Groups. 
 
 By  the  expression  West  Indies  is  understood  the  large 
 group  of  islands  lying  east  of  Central  and  north  of  South 
 America,  and  so  disposed  as  to  form  a rough  line  of  de- 
 marcation between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean 
 Sea,  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These  islands,  which  vary 
 greatly  in  size  and  geological  formation,  are  usually  divided 
 into  several  minor  groups.  Of  these  the  northernmost  are 
 the  Bahamas  or  Lucayas — a long  archipelago  of  low 
 islands  of  calcareous  formation,  lying  in  somewhat  shallow 
 water  off  the  Great  Bahama  Bank.  South-west  of  them 
 stretches  the  vast  island  of  Cuba,  in  an  almost  due  east 
 and  west  direction,  the  most  important  of  the  whole 
 group,  as  well  as  the  principal  member  of  the  great 
 Antilles,  a group  which,  besides  Cuba,  comprises  Jamaica, 
 Hayti,  Porto  Eico,  and  several  smaller  islands. 
 
 East  of  Porto  Eico  begin  the  Lesser  Antilles,  also 
 known  as  the  Caribhee  Islands,  by  navigators  again  sub- 
 divided into  the  two  groups  of  the  Windward  and  the  Lee- 
 ward Islands,  so  called  in  accordance  with  the  direction 
 in  which  they  lie  with  regard  to  the  prevailing  easterly 
 trade  wind.  The  former  stretch,  in  a hold  curve,  600 
 
142 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 miles  in  length,  from  Porto  Pico  to  the  South  American 
 coast,  where  Trinidad,  the  most  important  amongst  them, 
 shuts  off  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  in  Venezuela.  The  latter  or 
 Leeward  group  stretches  to  the  west  of  the  Windward, 
 parallel  with  the  South  American  coast,  as  far  as  the  Gulf 
 of  Maracaibo,  and  near  the  shores  of  Venezuela. 
 
 With  a single  important  exception  aU  these  islands 
 belong  to  European  nations,  being  shared  among  the 
 British,  the  Dutch,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prance,  and  Spain. 
 The  solitary  exception  is  Hayti,  which  is  dmded  into  two 
 independent  native  states.  Some  few  also  of  the  Lee- 
 ward group  belong  to  the  South  American  Eepiihlic  of 
 Venezuela. 
 
 2.  Geological  Features  of  the  West  Indies. 
 
 The  West  Indian  Archipelago  lies  in  deep  waters,  the 
 Caribbean  Sea  being  a volcanic  basin,  with  a mean  depth  of 
 about  1500  fathoms,  and  the  outermost  islands,  north, 
 south,  and  west,  being  separated  from  the  continent  by 
 deep  channels.  The  sea  in  which  the  islands  are  situated 
 is  famous  both  for  its  transparency,  and  for  the  many 
 dangers  to  which  navigation  is  exposed  amidst  such  a 
 number  of  islands,  rocks,  and  shoals,  and  where  \dolent 
 hurricanes  are  so  frequent.  The  Antilles,  although  forming, 
 as  it  were,  a sort  of  causeway  between  the  northern  and 
 southern  continents,  belong  to  that  class  of  islands 
 that  have  been  for  a long  geological  epoch  isolated  from 
 the  mainland.  Hence  their  fauna  and  flora,  although 
 belonging  to  American  tjqies,  differ  in  species  and  often  in 
 genera  from  the  neighbouring  continental  lands.  Trini- 
 dad, Tobago,  and  the  islands  along  the  coast  of  Venezuela 
 form  exceptions  to  the  rest,  belonging  in  geological  struc- 
 ture and  their  fauna  and  flora  to  the  South  American 
 continent,  from  which  they  are  separated  only  by  narrow 
 
GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES. 
 
 143 
 
 tracts  of  shallow  water.  The  first  Spanish  discoverers 
 found  in  the  Islands  only  four  or  five  small  species  of  land 
 Mammalians.  Cuba  and  Hayti  are  spacious  enough  to 
 have  offered  a home  to  a number  of  large  quadrupeds 
 ■similar  to  those  of  the  neighbouring  continents,  had  these 
 islands  been  connected  with  the  mainland  at  the  time 
 when  those  animals  made  their  appearance  on  the  earth. 
 Hence  we  may  conclude  that  the  West  Indies  scarcely 
 belong  to  the  class  of  continental  islands,  like,  for  instance. 
 Great  Britain,  and  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  with  regard 
 to  the  continents  respectively  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
 
 With  the  exception  of  the  Bahamas  and  of  the 
 eastern  chain  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  consisting  of  low  and 
 level  limestone  rocks,  all  the  islands  are  mountainous. 
 In  the  Great  Antilles,  as  well  as  in  Tobago  and  Trinidad, 
 there  are  extensive  grass-grown  plains  or  savannahs,  but 
 the  general  character  of  the  land  in  all  is  that  of  richly- 
 wooded  mountain  slopes  and  valleys.  The  western  chain 
 of  the  Windward  Islands  are  of  volcanic  formation.  The 
 ocean  currents  have  caused  their  eastern  shores  to  become 
 covered  with  sand,  flat  and  provided  with  shallow  harbours 
 enclosed  by  coral  reefs.  Their  west  coasts,  on  the  contrary, 
 are  steep  and  rugged,  with  innumerable  bights  forming- 
 deep  and  otherwise  excellent  harbours. 
 
 The  Leeward  Islands  are  liilly  but  not  volcanic,  the 
 elevations  being  the  fragments  of  a mountain  range  run- 
 ning parallel  with  the  Venezuelan  coast  range ; the  high 
 ridges  of  Trinidad  being  an  eastern  continuation  of  the 
 coast  range  itself.  The  larger  islands  are  well  supplied 
 with  water,  while  many  of  the  smaller  ones  are  unpro- 
 vided with  springs. 
 
 3.  Climate — Distribution  of  Temperature. 
 
 With  the  exception  of  the  northerly  portion  of  the 
 
144 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Bahamas,  mere  tracts  of  coral  limestone,  scarcely  elevated 
 above  the  sea,  and  mostly  nninhahited,  the  West  Indian 
 Archipelago  lies  -within  the  torrid  zone,  between  the 
 isothermals  of  77°  and  82°  Fahr.  But  the  uniform 
 tropical  heat  is  here  tempered  by  the  long  cool  nights, 
 the  sea  breezes,  and  on  many  of  the  islands  by  the  height 
 of  the  hills.  In  the  coast  districts  of  the  northern  islands, 
 and  especially  in  Cuba,  after  a long  prevalence  of  northern 
 ■winds  in  winter  the  thermometer  -will  at  times  fall  to  the 
 freezing  point,  when  ice  is  formed,  though  snow  never  falls. 
 The  hilly  districts  of  the  larger  Antilles  enjoy  a mild 
 climate,  which  in  regions  above  1500  feet  is  both  healthy 
 and  enjoyable.  The  lowlands  are,  however,  decidedly 
 unhealthy,  and  mostly  exposed  to  yellow  fever,  here 
 epidemic.  There  are  two  seasons  only — the  rainy  period 
 from  May  to  November,  and  the  dry  season  lasting  for 
 the  rest  of  the  year. 
 
 4.  The  West  Indian  Hurricanes. 
 
 Amongst  the  scourges  common  to  all  the  islands  are 
 the  violent  cyclonic  storms,  or  hurricanes,  which  occur 
 most  frequently  in  the  season  from  August  to  October, 
 and  which  are  distinguished  from  ordinary  storms  by  the 
 ■wind  blowing  -with  the  utmost  violence  successively  from 
 aU  points  of  the  compass,  uprooting  the  strongest  trees, 
 and  at  times  destroying  whole  cities.  On  August  2, 
 1837,  some  houses  in  St  Thomas,  one  of  the  Wiudward 
 Islands,  were  actually  turned  completely  upside  do-wn  by 
 one  of  these  destructive  storms.  A large  well-built  house 
 was  on  the  same  occasion  tom  from  its  foundations,  and 
 planted  upright  in  the  middle  of  the  street.  The  fort  at 
 the  entrance  of  the  harbour  was  utterly  demolished,  and 
 its  24-pounders  flimg  headlong  down  to  sea.  On  July 
 25,  1825,  a whirlwind  burst  over  Guadeloupe,  another  of 
 
HUKRICANES. 
 
 145 
 
 the  Lesser  Antilles,  with  such  force,  that  many  strongly 
 constructed  houses  were  dashed  to  the  ground,  and  tiles 
 from  the  roofs  were  hurled  through  thick  doors  into  the 
 warehouses. 
 
 On  such  occasions  the  sea  is  often  lashed  to  a state  of 
 the  wildest  frenzy.  The  waves,  upheaved  by  individual 
 blasts  of  wind  from  opposite  directions,  rush  madly  against 
 each  other,  the  violence  of  the  coUison  causing  the  billows 
 to  be  piled  up  mountain  high,  sending  tliick  volumes  of 
 foam  far  above  the  tallest  masts;  the  sea  heaves  and  tosses 
 as  in  a seething  caldron,  and  the  white-crested  breakers 
 cover  the  bosom  of  the  deep  far  and  wide.  The  strongest 
 vessels  run  imminent  danger  in  the  raging  struggle  of 
 the  tumultuous  waters — now  suspended  in  mid  air  on  the 
 tops  of  the  strong  waves,  now  disappearing  in  the  ya'wn- 
 ing  trough  of  the  sea.  A sure  forerunner  of  these  natural 
 convulsions  in  the  tropics  is  the  rapid  depression  of  the 
 barometer. 
 
 The  cause  of  cyclones  and  of  the  kindred  typhoons 
 of  the  eastern  seas  is  the  sudden  rising  of  the  heated  and 
 rarefied  air.  Over  the  warm  waters  of  the  tropics  where 
 they  are  bred,  a slight  disturbance  of  the  equilibrimn  of 
 the  atmosphere  may  easily  arise,  influencing  a vast  ex- 
 tent of  surface,  and  causing  the  warm  air  charged  with 
 moisture  to  ascend  in  broad  columns  to  the  higher  and 
 cooler  regions  above.  The  vapour  thus  borne  aloft,  while 
 condensing  into  clouds,  imparts  its  heat  to  these  upper 
 currents,  thereby  producing  a farther  upward  tendency. 
 Under  the  ascending  columns  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 
 necessarily  diminished,  and  so  arises  the  rarefied  centre 
 or  vortex  of  the  cyclone,  the  in-rushing  air  rotating  with 
 intense  rapidity  round  this  central  point,  which  does 
 not  remain  stationary,  but  receives  a progressive  motion 
 varying  considerably  in  velocity.  For  the  West  Indian 
 himicanes  the  average  speed  is  from  15^  to  22,  but  in 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 COMPEN’DIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 higher  latitudes  from  28  to  34,  and  often  even  50 
 miles  an  hour.  But  the  motion  of  the  air  round  the 
 centre  not  being  perfectly  circular,  but  rather  with  a 
 perceptible  centripetal  tendency,  the  atmosphere  rotates 
 inwards,  gradually  approaching  the  vortex  of  the  whirl- 
 wind. In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  circnlar  motion 
 is  from  south  by  east  to  north  and  west,  but  in  the 
 southern  from  south  by  west  to  north  and  east ; the  axis 
 itself,  and  consequently  the  whole  storm,  being  carried 
 forward  north  of  the  equator  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  but  south 
 of  the  equator  exactly  in  the  opposite  direction.  From 
 the  direction  of  the  gyrating  wind  arises  the  obvious  rule 
 laid  down  by  Buys-Ballot,  that  when  we  turn  our  hack  to 
 the  wind  in  a cyclone  the  vortex  will  he  on  our  left  in  the 
 northern,  and  on  our  right  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  with 
 in  both  cases  a slight  inclination  to  the  front.  The  force 
 of  the  wind  witliin  a tornado  increases  from  without  in- 
 wards, while  within  the  vortex  itself  there  prevails  either 
 a slight  and  irregular  current  only,  or  else  that  awful 
 calm  knovTi  as  “ the  lull  of  the  storm.”  The  cyclones 
 originate  in  the  torrid  zone,  but  they  frequently  enough 
 travel  as  far  as  Western  Europe,  Atlantic  storms  being 
 generally  mere  continuations  of  West  Indian  hunicanes. 
 
 5.  Products  of  the  Vegetable,  Animal,  and  Mineral 
 Kingdoms. 
 
 The  most  important  productions  of  the  West  Indies 
 belong  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Here  flourish  the  sugar- 
 cane and  coffee-berry  of  excellent  quality,  besides  the  cot- 
 ton-tree, the  cacao  plant,  and  tobacco.  The  Antilles  are  a 
 great  centre  of  plantations  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
 these  products,  wdiile  the  principal  wealth  of  the  Bahamas 
 consists  in  mahogany,  Campeachy  wood,  and  timber  suited 
 for  shipbuilding.  Through  the  clearance  of  the  forests 
 
PRODUCTS. 
 
 147 
 
 and  impoverishment  of  the  land  the  productiveness  of  some 
 of  the  islands  has  no  doubt  diminished ; yet,  besides  the 
 above-mentioned  commodities,  the  West  Indies  still  pro- 
 duce pimento  (Jamaica  pepper,  or  allspice),  vanilla,  indigo. 
 
 WEST  INDIAN  PRODUCTS. 
 
 ginger,  cloves,  cassia,  jalap,  aloes,  arrovuoot,  ipecacuanha, 
 sarsaparilla,  tropical  fruits  such  as  bananas  and  pme 
 apples,  besides  yams,  batatas  (sweet  potatoes),  manioc  (or 
 manihot,  whence  cassava  and  tapioca  are  prepared),  rice, 
 various  European  grains,  bread  fruit,  and  coco-nuts. 
 
 The  indigenous  animals  of  the  islands  are  not  so 
 
148  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TKAVEL. 
 
 numerous  as  in  districts  of  equal  area  in  similar  latitudes 
 on  the  neighbouring  continent,  and  the  majority  of  them 
 are  quite  distinct  in  species,  showing,  as  we  have  already 
 observed,  that  the  Antilles  have  not  been  connected  with 
 the  mainland  either  of  North  or  South  America  dui-ing 
 the  existence  of  the  present  forms  of  life.  Almost 
 aU  the  orders  most  characteristic  of  South  and  Central 
 America  are  absent.  There  are  no  monkeys,  no  jaguars, 
 pumas,  tiger-cats,  wild  dogs,  or  foxes,  and  no  Eden- 
 tata (sloths,  ant-eaters,  and  armadillos).  A species  of 
 agouti,  found  in  St.  Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  and  Granada,  is 
 the  largest  native  mammal.  Besides  these  there  exist 
 only  bats,  two  species  of  insectivora  totally  unlike  any- 
 thing found  in  North  and  South  America,  and  a few 
 species  of  rodents.  Of  birds  203  distinct  kinds  are  re- 
 corded, of  which  177  are  peculiar  to  the  islands ; but  in 
 general  character  they  are  aUied  to  tropical  American 
 forms,  and  comprise  humming-birds,  parrots,  trogons, 
 tanagers,  and  chatterers.  Snakes  are  moderately  numer- 
 ous, and  lizards  are  abundant  and  in  great  variety. 
 Amongst  the  fonner  is  the  much-dreaded  poisonous 
 serpent,  the  “ fer  cle  lance”  abundant  in  the  islands  of  St. 
 Lucia  and  ^Martinique ; and  a large  harmless  snake  called 
 the  “ Cribo  ” {Coluber  variahilis),  which  often  attacks  the 
 fer  de  lance,  and  in  spite  of  his  venom  kills  and  eats  him. 
 The  iguana  is  foimd  in  the  larger  islands,  and,  as  in  South 
 America,  is  eaten  by  the  poorer  inhabitants.  Tree-frogs 
 are  also  abundant,  but  there  is  no  representative  of  the 
 newt  and  salamander  tribe — i.e.  tailed  Batracliians — of 
 which  so  many  kinds  are  found  in  the  not  far  distant 
 Southern  States  of  America.  On  the  coasts  turtles  and 
 many  varieties  of  fish  abound.  The  islands  have  become 
 well  stocked  with  European  domestic  animals,  and  even 
 mtli  rats  and  mice,  to  which  latter  may  possibly  be  due 
 the  extermination  of  some  of  the  smaller  indigenous 
 
EACES. 
 
 149 
 
 quadrupeds.  Deer  and  guinea-fowl  abound  on  the  island 
 of  Barbuda,  where  they  were  introduced  some  years  ago, 
 and  are  now  hunted  as  wild  game. 
 
 Of  metals  copper  ore  alone  is  found  in  Cuba,  and 
 elsewhere  coal,  sulphui*,  and  asphalte.  Most  of  the  sea- 
 salt  used  is  prepared  in  the  Bahamas  and  in  Martinique. 
 
 6.  Population — Indian,  Negro,  and  TVTiite  Elements — 
 Trade. 
 
 The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies  have 
 almost  entirely  disappeared.  These  islands  were  originally 
 peopled  by  a great  variety  of  Indian  tribes — the  gentle, 
 submissive,  homely,  and  trusting  Cibaneys  or  Ciboneys  in 
 the  Bahamas  and  Cuba,  with  tribes  speaking  kindred 
 dialects  in  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the  warlike,  savage, 
 but  intelligent  Caribs  (wrongly  Caraibs)  more  to  the 
 south — skilful  mariners,  and  the  terror  of  their  neigh- 
 bours. Both  races  have  vanished  before  the  advance  of 
 the  white  man,  these  regions  being  now  peopled  by 
 foreign  intruders — Europeans,  imported  Negroes,  and  a 
 mixture  of  the  two.  Tliese  adverse  circumstances  are 
 intensified  by  the  fact  that  the  Africans  form  fully  56, 
 the  half-castes  27,  and  the  whites  17  per  cent  only  of 
 the  entire  population,  which  may  be  estimated  at  about 
 3,600,000,  very  irregularly  distributed  over  the  islands. 
 On  the  smaller  islands  the  inhabitants  are  partly  centred 
 in  a few  seaports,  partly  scattered  over  the  plantations 
 throughout  the  rural  districts. 
 
 Both  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  forms  of 
 Christianity  are  represented,  while  many  heathen  practices 
 stdl  prevail  among  the  Negroes. 
 
 The  cultivation  of  the  plantations  is  the  principal 
 pursuit  of  the  people,  the  whites  being  the  cliief  owners 
 of  the  sod.  To  them  belong  the  plantations  in  the  most 
 
150 
 
 COilPEN'DIUil  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AKD  TRAVEL. 
 
 absolute  sense,  including  the  house  of  the  planter,  the 
 buildings  on  the  estate,  and  the  hovels  of  the  Negroes. 
 The  Africans  were  originally  introduced  as  labourers,  it 
 ha\ing  become  evident,  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the 
 islands,  that  little  use  could  be  made  of  the  aboriginal 
 inhabitants,  and  that  Europeans  in  these  tropical  latitudes 
 were  utterly  incapable  of  the  physical  endurance  required 
 for  the  cultivation  of  the  colonial  products,  as  they  are 
 called.  Hence  the  Negroes  were  at  first  imported  as 
 slaves,  but  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  they  have 
 acquired  the  rights  of  free  citizens  in  most  of  the  colonies. 
 In  the  islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain  the  large  sum 
 of  £20,000,000  was  voted  by  the  Imperial  Parliament 
 as  compensation  for  the  liberation  of  the  slaves.  But 
 this  great  act  of  philanthropy  and  justice  was  accom- 
 plished without  the  adoption  of  measures  to  secure  a 
 gradual  passage  from  the  state  of  slavery  to  that  of  free- 
 dom, and  the  interests  of  the  British  colonies  was  after- 
 wards damaged  by  the  equalisation  of  the  duties  on 
 slave  and  free-grown  sugar  imported  into  Great  Britain ; 
 thus  placing  the  newly-enfranchised  islands  at  a disad- 
 vantage in  the  competition  with  the  slave-owning  Spanish 
 islands.  These  measures  to  a large  extent  sealed  the  rain 
 of  these  rich  lands,  the  free  Negro  here  showing  the  same 
 inherent  aversion  to  labour  as  elsewhere.  Hence,  to  pre- 
 vent the  plantations  from  running  wild,  it  has  lieen  found 
 necessary  to  introduce  Coolie  labour  from  the  East  Indies 
 and  China.  Many  thousands  of  these  have  been  imported 
 at  a great  expense,  but  they  have  scarcely  answered  the 
 purpose  of  those  who  established  the  system,  the  immi- 
 grants often  preferring  emplo}unent  as  handicraftsmen  or 
 as  domestic  servants  to  the  more  monotonous  labour  of 
 the  plantation.  By  the  terms  of  the  contract  the  Coolies 
 have  a right  to  be  sent  back  to  their  native  land  on  the 
 expiration  of  their  terms  of  indenture,  but,  in  Jamaica  at 
 
TEADE. 
 
 151 
 
 least,  more  than  half  of  them  accept  the  bounty  of  £10 
 or  £12,  and  consent  to  remain  in  the  island. 
 
 The  industry  of  the  people  is  everywhere  limited  to 
 such  branches  as  are  more  directly  connected  with  the 
 plantations  and  navigation.  The  more  urgent  wants  of 
 the  community  are  supplied  by  the  local  crafts,  while 
 manufactured  wares  are  introduced  from  Europe.  There 
 is  a brisk  trade  carried  on,  not  only  with  the  home  coun- 
 tries, but  also  with  many  other  regions  and  commercial 
 marts. 
 
152  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  II. 
 
 THE  GREAT  ANTILLES. 
 
 1.  Ovha  : ErMnt — Mountain  Ra.nges — Coast  Line. 
 
 Cuba,  the  pearl,  or,  as  the  Spaniards  are  equally  fond  of 
 caEing  it,  the  Queen  of  the  Antilles,  and  pronounced  hy 
 Columbus  to  he  the  fairest  land  the  eye  had  ever  gazed 
 on,  is  in  truth  one  of  the  most  favoured  countries  in  the 
 world,  both  as  regards  its  charming  scenery  and  its  abund- 
 ant natural  resources.  It  has  a superficial  area  of  about 
 43,000  square  miles,  in  outline  resembling  a cornucopia, 
 with  its  mouth  turned  towards  Hayti,  and  stretching  for  a 
 distance  of  800  miles  eastwards  from  the  Central  Ameri- 
 can peninsida  of  Yucatan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a" 
 channel  about  124  miles  wide,  and  1160  fathoms  deep. 
 At  its  broadest  or  eastern  extremity  there  rises  between 
 Cape  Cruz  and  the  bay  of  Guantanamo  the  Macaca  range, 
 or  Sierra  Maestra,  with  a crest  4000  feet  high,  above 
 which,  however,  other  individual  hills  tower  stiU.  higher. 
 Thus  the  Turquino  peak,  \dsible  far  out  at  sea,  reaches 
 an  elevation  of  8400  feet,  and  the  Gran  Piedra  7200 
 feet,  the  former  being  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  island. 
 
 From  the  Sierra  Maestra  westwards  to  the  gulf  of 
 Guacanayabo  flows  the  Kio  Cauto,  the  longest  and  deepest 
 of  the  150  streams  which  the  island  contains ; it  has  a 
 course  250  miles  long,  and  is  na^dgable  for  large  schooners 
 as  far  as  the  town  of  Cauto  del  Embarcadero,  93  miles 
 from  its  mouth. 
 
I'UOMKXADK  IX  CUIJA.  To  fm:c  intgc  152 
 
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CLIMATE. 
 
 153 
 
 Contrasting  with  the  highlands  and  their  lofty  peaks 
 in  the  east,  and  the  perfectly  level  plains  which  occupy 
 the  south-western  part  of  the  island,  are  the  deeply  undu- 
 lating regions  of  the  centre,  throwing  off  isolated  ridges 
 of  moderate  elevation.  The  hidy  districts  are  extremely 
 picturesque,  in  many  places  marvellously  beautiful. 
 
 Cuba  is  also  especially  noted  for  the  number  of  splendid 
 hays  and  harbours  it  contains.  That  of  Havana  was  long 
 regarded  as  the  finest  haven  in  the  world,  and  yet  it  is 
 surpassed  by  the  hays  of  Cienfuegos  on  the  west  coast, 
 Santiago  and  Guantanamo  on  the  south,  Matanzas,  Nue- 
 vitas,  and  Hepe  on  the  north.  The  seaboard  is  nearly 
 encircled  by  a countless  number  of  coral  reefs,  rocks,  shoals, 
 sandbanks,  and  smaller  islands,  some  of  which,  such  as  the 
 Laherinto  de  doze  Leguas  on  the  south,  form  a perfect 
 maze  exceptionally  favourable  for  smuggling. 
 
 2.  Climate — Highways — Railroads. 
 
 By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  uncultivated  land  is 
 covered  with  forests,  consisting  mainly  of  scrubby  and 
 almost  impenetrable  thickets.  But  on  the  hills  in  the 
 south-eastern  districts  are  lofty  forests  of  mahogany  and 
 ebony  trees,  often  attaining  gigantic  dimensions. 
 
 The  most  agreeable  season  is  that  of  winter,  as  it  is 
 called,  though  bringing  with  it  neither  snow  nor  ice.  In 
 fact,  strictly  speaking,  there  is  hut  one  season,  a perpetual 
 summer,  the  hottest  months  being  August  and  September, 
 when  the  temperature  is  so  high  that  the  glowing  pave- 
 ment of  the  streets  scorches  the  pedestrians’  “ shoe- 
 leather.”  In  the  lovely  uplands  of  the  south  alone  is  the 
 summer  heat  tempered  by  a pleasant  breeze,  while  in  the 
 low-lying  districts  the  yellow  fever,  so  fatal,  especially  to 
 strangers,  claims  its  yearly  percentage  of  victims. 
 
 Highways,  such  as  are  usually  met  with  in  civilised 
 
154 
 
 CO^rPENDI^M  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 lands,  are  not  to  be  found  even  in  tbe  neigbbourbood  of 
 the  capital  itself.  The  so-called  roads  are  mere  tracks, 
 marked  by  ruts  and  puddles,  and  in  tbe  interior  further 
 overgrown  with  brakes  and  brambles,  so  that  the  traveller 
 is  often  fain  to  hew  himseK  a way  with  the  axe.  On  the 
 other  hand,  Cuba  has  already  developed  a tolerably  exten- 
 sive railway  system,  with  a total  length  of  1150  miles, 
 of  which  Havana  is  the  central  point.  Xowhere  else 
 have  the  lines  been  so  cheaply  constructed.  The  earlier 
 and  more  costly  ones  were  no  dearer  than  those  of  the 
 United  States,  while  the  rest  were  laid  at  a much  lower 
 rate,  the  planters,  fully  alive  to  their  real  interests,  having 
 waived  all  “ compensation  claims”  for  the  land  through 
 which  the  lines  were  constructed.  Especially  important 
 is  the  main  railway  to  Matanzas,  connecting  the  two  chief 
 seaports  in  the  island,  though  the  branches  along  the  south 
 coast  contribute,  perhaps,  still  more  to  the  development  of 
 its  resources.  For,  however  enchanting  the  picture  drawn 
 of  this  region,  and  particularly  of  the  Jardines  del  Eey  y 
 de  la  Eeyna,  the  south  coast  is  deficient  in  good  harbours, 
 and  its  waters  are  rendered  extremely  dangerous  by  the 
 numerous  coral  reefs  on  this  side  of  the  island.  A sub- 
 marine cable  to  Florida  connects  its  telegraphic  system 
 with  that  of  the  F^nited  States  and  the  Old  World. 
 
 3.  Political  Divisions  of  Cuba. 
 
 Cuba  has  liitherto  belonged  to  the  crown  of  Spain, 
 the  recent  prolonged  revolt  aiming  at  its  pohtical  inde- 
 pendence having  not  yet  proved  successful.  It  is  di'VT.ded 
 into  three  departments  : the  western,  with  the  capital, 
 Havana ; the  central,  with  Puerto  Principe  for  its  chief 
 town  ; and  the  eastern,  whose  capital  is  Santiago  de  Cuba. 
 The  first  and  smallest,  consisting  mostly  of  level  plains, 
 is  nearly  aE  cultivated,  contaming  the  great  sugar  and 
 
POPULATION  CENTRALISED, 
 
 155 
 
 tobacco  plantations  that  constitute  the  main  wealth  of 
 the  land.  This  section  of  the  island  is  also  the  most 
 densely  peopled,  the  richest  and  most  civilised,  possessing 
 good  means  of  commimication  and  a considerable  line  of 
 coast.  In  the  central  department  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
 
 GARDENS  OF  CUBA. 
 
 population  is  centred  in  the  towns,  the  land  being  almost 
 unpeopled,  and  covered  with  dense  bushy  forests  and 
 savannahs.  The  few  cultivated  tracts  have  been  devas- 
 tated by  the  insurrection.  In  the  eastern  department, 
 including  the  earliest  settlements,  the  valleys  have  been 
 
156 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 successfully  reclaimed  up  to  a certain  elevation,  and  the 
 hills  laid  out  with  valuable  coffee  plantations.  But  here, 
 also,  the  interior  is  mostly  uncultivated  and  uninhabited. 
 
 4.  Staples  of  Trade — The  Sugar  Plantations — Cigar 
 Manufactories — Coffee. 
 
 Of  the  total  area  of  Cuba,  not  more  than  about  one- 
 tenth — 4000  to  4300  square  miles — is  really  cultivated. 
 Upwards  of  3000  square  miles  are  stdl  entirely  unre- 
 claimed, 2000  covered  with  forests,  and  wide  tracts  in 
 the  interior  are  still  utterly  unknown.  The  principal 
 plantations  are  those  of  the  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and 
 coffee,  the  first  beiug  by  far  the  most  important,  with  a 
 present  annual  jield  of  800,000  tons,  well  nigh  one-fifth 
 of  the  sugar  required  for  the  consumption  of  the  whole 
 world.  The  yearly  export  of  sugar  is  valued  at  from 
 £12,000,000  to  £16,000,000,  of  which  75  per  cent  goes 
 to  the  United  States,  13  per  cent  to  England,  and  not  quite 
 2 per  cent  to  Spain.  There  are  said  to  be  as  many  as 
 1500  sugar  plantations,  or  ingenios,  as  they  are  called,  iu- 
 Cuba,  of  which  1200  yield  in  “dry  sugar,”  that  is,  with- 
 out taking  molasses  into  account,  only  4 per  cent,  and  the 
 rest  from  6 to  9 per  cent  on  the  invested  capital. 
 
 The  “ vegas,”  or  tobacco  plantations,  are  principally  in 
 the  Vuelta  Abajo  in  the  west,  south  of  the  Guaniguanico 
 range,  the  best  of  them  lying  in  an  extensive  level  plain 
 watered  by  the  river  Cuyaguatejo.  They  are  generally 
 small,  and  about  half  of  them  are  planted  with  banana 
 trees,  affording  shade  to  the  tobacco  plant.  The  upper 
 leaves  of  the  plant  are  the  best,  because  they  have  by 
 day  the  most  sun,  and  at  night  the  most  dew.  The  finest 
 tobacco  is  of  a uniform  dark  brown  colour,  free  from  spots, 
 and  burning  freely  with  a brown  or  wliite  ash,  which  wid 
 adhere  to  the  cigar  till  it  is  half  consumed.  Though  of 
 
TOBACCO  AND  COFFEE  PLANTATIONS. 
 
 157 
 
 but  secondary  importance  in  tlie  trade  of  the  island,  the 
 annual  crop  of  tobacco  in  Cuba  is  valued  at  over 
 £4,000,000.  The  cigar  is  an  original  invention  of  the 
 aborigines  of  this  island,  and  was  by  them  called  tabacos,  a 
 word  afterwards  erroneously  applied  to  the  plant  itself,  the 
 true  name  of  which  is  cohiba.  Hence  the  expression 
 “ fabrica  de  tabacos  ” on  the  Havana  cigar  boxes  really 
 means,  not  “tobacco  manufactory,”  but  “cigar  manufactory.” 
 In  Havana  itself  there  are  some  125  of  these  manufac- 
 tories, some  of  them  employing  as  many  as  600  hands. 
 Those  of  Partagas,  del  VaUe  (Cabanas),  Mui-ias,  and  next 
 to  them  Caruncho,  Eomero,  Suarez  (Figaro),  Upman,  and 
 Cabarga,  produce  the  best  cigars.  In  1866  there  were 
 manufactured  of  Cabanas  alone  as  many  as  16,000,000, 
 of  which  2,500,000  remained  in  Cuba,  the  same  quantity 
 was  exported  to  Spain,  1,000,000  to  France,  2,000,000 
 to  Spanish  America,  the  same  to  Germany,  and  3,000,000 
 each  to  England  and  the  United  States. 
 
 The  “ cafetelas,”  or  coffee  plantations,  were  formerly 
 the  most  considerable  culture  in  Cuba,  but  they  have  long 
 been  almost  everywhere  superseded  by  those  of  the  sugar- 
 cane. The  largest  of  those  stiU.  remaining  do  not  employ 
 more  than  from  50  to  100  Xegroes.  On  these  plantations, 
 besides  coffee,  there  are  also  grown  pisang,  rice,  cacao,  and 
 all  manner  of  fruits,  but  especially  the  coco-nut  palm,  on 
 account  of  the  shade  it  affords  to  the  coffee  plant. 
 
 Cattle-breeding  is  also  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
 Cuba,  and  the  horses  especially  are  often  very  fine  animals. 
 Other  products  are  potatoes,  sometimes  growing  to  a very 
 large  size,  wax,  and  honey,  the  latter  exported  in  con- 
 siderable quantities. 
 
 5.  Populatixm  of  Cuba  : Spaniards — Creoles — Negroes 
 and  Coolies. 
 
 The  population  of  Cuba  is  estimated  at  about 
 
reckoned  in  with  the  whites.  About  150,000  are 
 Spaniards  by  bh'th,  including  the  military  and  the  Govern- 
 ment officials,  the  latter  residing  exchisively  m the  capital 
 and  the  other  large  towns.  Some  600,000  are  Cubans  or 
 Creoles,  mostly  of  Spanish  descent.  The  number  of 
 
 158  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 1,500,000,  of  whom  800,000  are  set  down  as  whites, 
 including  the  “ Yucatekes,”  half-caste  IMexicans  from  the 
 opposite  shores  of  Yucatan,  and  the  Chinese  Coolies,  also 
 
 CHINESE  COOLIES  OF  CUBA 
 
'COI  ^Oud  douf  ox  'VMVAVII 
 
HAVANA. 
 
 159 
 
 Negroes  and  coloured  haK-castes  is  given  at  upwards  of 
 600,000,  of  whom  270,000  are  slaves,  Spain  being  now 
 the  only  European  State  which  permits  the  existence  of 
 slavery  in  its  colonies.  Of  the  aboriginal  Eed  Men,  sup- 
 posed to  number  about  1,000,000  in  1492,  not  one  had 
 sur\dved  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  present 
 population  is  very  unevenly  distributed  over  the  country, 
 the  western  department  embracing  1,000,000  of  the  whole 
 number,  while  there  are  scarcely  100,000  in  the  central, 
 and  some  250,000  in  the  eastern  division.  These  dwell 
 mainly  in  the  towns,  of  which  Cuba  boasts  several  of 
 importance,  amongst  wliich  the  capital,  Havana,  takes 
 decidedly  the  foremost  rank. 
 
 6.  The  City  of  Ho.vana. 
 
 Havana,  or  Hahana,  or,  more  fully  San  Cristobal 
 de  la  Hahana,  lies  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  island, 
 not  far  from  the  Florida  channel,  on  a level  tongue  of 
 land  stretching  eastwards  from  the  hay,  and  leaving  open  a 
 na\dgahle  entrance  4200  feet  long  by  1000  in  width. 
 On  a low  lull  to  the  left  stand  the  forts  of  El  Moito  and 
 Cabanos,  erected  in  1589  in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  and 
 on  the  point  of  the  tongue  to  the  right  is  the  battery  of  La 
 Punta.  With  its  gaily  painted  houses  and  numerous 
 strangely-fashioned  church  towers,  the  city  presents  an 
 agreeable  aspect,  though  somewhat  detracted  from  by  the 
 enormous  prison  and  luejar  de  los  Patibulos,  or  place  of 
 execution,  situated  right  on  the  port.  To  the  right  of  the 
 maguificent  bay,  extending  all  the  way  from  the  castle  of 
 La  Fuerza,  the  oldest  fort  in  the  place,  to  the  “IMaria” 
 barracks,  or  CabaUeria,  are  the  wharfs  with  their  long  lines 
 of  trading  vessels  lying  right  under  the  shore.  On  the 
 opposite  side  of  the  bay  stands  La  Casa  Blanca,  another 
 fort  with  white  walls,  and  farther  on  the  village  of  Eegla. 
 
160  COMPEJTDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEA\TX. 
 
 with  its  immense  sugar  warehouses — imposing  buildings, 
 whose  iron-plated  roofs  glitter  a long  way  off  in  the  sun. 
 The  Cahalleria  fronts  the  hay,  and  is  provided  with  an  iron 
 roof  supported  by  iron  pillars  running  along  its  whole 
 length.  The  commercial  world  meets  everj’'  morning  and 
 transacts  most  of  its  business  in  this  place. 
 
 Havana,  with  its  200,000  inhabitants,  in  many 
 respects  resembles  a large  European  city.  It  consists  of 
 the  old  town  in  the  east,  and  the  new  town  in  the 
 west,  the  excessively  narrow  and  badly  paved  streets  of 
 the  former  being  densely  thronged,  especially  in  the 
 morning.  Here  the  Opispo  and  other  leading  thorough- 
 fares are  lined  with  very  elegant  shops,  while  the  “ West 
 End  ” is  pervaded  by  a profound  aristocratic  stillness. 
 The  new  town  is  altogether  more  of  a suburb,  where  are 
 situated  the  most  frequented  promenades,  the  finest  private 
 houses,  warehouses,  cafes,  the  theatre,  and  the  Casino  Es- 
 panol.  Here  also  is  the  Paseo  de  Isabel,  the  finest 
 thoroughfare  in  Havana,  like  a boulevard  crossing  the 
 city  from  end  to  end,  flanked  by  grand  residences,  with  a 
 double  row  of  spacious  carriage-ways,  and  further  embel-- 
 fished  with  magnificent  fountains  and  statues.  Beyond 
 are  the  Barque  de  Isabel,  some  very  sumptuous  cafes,  the 
 Tacon  theatre,  and  the  railway  terminus.  A continua- 
 tion of  the  Paseo  de  Isabel  is  formed  by  the  Paseo  de 
 Tacon,  laid  out  m a similar  way,  leading  to  the  Botanical 
 Gardens,  and  to  those  of  the  Captain-General,  also  thrown 
 open  to  the  public. 
 
 The  houses  are  very  solidly  built,  with  one,  and  very 
 rarely  two  stories,  and  enormous  windows,  which,  instead 
 of  casements  are  provided  with  bright-painted  iron  gratings. 
 The  number  of  hackney  coaches  and  private  equipages  is 
 very  remarkable,  the  former  being  estimated  at  upwards 
 of  6000,  aU  doing  well.  The  senoritas  generally  drive 
 about  in  their  “ volantes,”  open  carriages  with  wheels  of 
 
SOCIAL  LIFE. 
 
 161 
 
 great  size  but  light  construction,  and  immense  shafts.  The 
 “ calesero,”  or  driver,  sits  like  a postillion,  on  horseback, 
 dressed  in  a fiery-red  gold-bespangled  livery,  the  trap- 
 pings and  silver-mounted  harness  glittering  gaily  m the 
 sun. 
 
 The  numerous  churches  are  somewhat  tastelessly  de- 
 corated, and  visited  regularly  by  the  women  only,  who 
 thus  manage  to  fill  up  a good  deal  of  their  time  during 
 the  day.  In  the  cathedral  of  Havana  repose  the 
 remains  of  Columbus.  The  Tacon  theatre,  one  of  the 
 largest  in  the  world,  accommodates  3000  spectators,  and 
 is  open  daily,  Sundays  included,  during  the  season.  Be- 
 sides the  churches  and  theatres,  the  bull-fights  are  also 
 specially  patronised  by  the  ladies. 
 
 Mr.  A.  Gallenga,  who  visited  Cuba  in  1873,  gives 
 an  interesting  description  of  tlie  social  life  of  Havana, 
 although  he  was  not  so  much  struck  with  the  city  and  its 
 attractions  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  always  expect  a 
 new-comer  to  be.  In  spite,  he  says,  of  the  raptures  into 
 which  travellers  new  to  tropical  scenery  are  apt  to  fall,  the 
 country  about  Havana,  on  a first  glance,  presents  itself 
 as  singularly  flat  and  bare,  and  the  town  itself,  after  a few 
 hours’  evidence,  suggests  the  definition  of  a city  of  smeUs 
 and  noises.  He  admits  that  the  harbour  is  the  finest  in 
 the  world,  but  the  scenery  appeared  to  him  to  be  rather 
 pleasing  than  grandly  impressive.  Wliat  immediately 
 strikes  a stranger  in  the  social  aspect  of  Havana  is, 
 that,  like  the  Eome  of  Eomulus,  it  is  a city  without 
 women.  Hardly  any  other  than  negresses  are  to  be  seen 
 about.  Ladies,  with  any  pretension  to  youth  and  beauty, 
 woidd  sooner  die  than  venture  out  unprotected,  and  so 
 uncommon  is  the  sight,  that  foreign  ladies,  unacquainted 
 with  the  custom  and  sauntering  from  shop  to  shop,  be- 
 come the  objects  of  a curiosity  not  unfrequently  degen- 
 erating into  impertinence.  The  scarcity  is  a real  one,  and 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 not  merely  apparent.  Out  of  a population  of  205,000 
 souls,  there  die  annually,  if  official  statistics  may  be  relied 
 upon,  3782  wliite  males  to  1204  wliite  females;  while 
 the  deaths  among  the  blacks  or  coloured  people  are,  for 
 the  males,  1046  ; for  the  females,  1099.  The  causes  of 
 this  disproportion  between  males  and  females  are  not  far 
 to  seek.  Besides  the  priests,  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  the 
 pubKc  functionaries,  whose  sojourn  in  the  island  is  gener- 
 ally of  the  shortest,  there  are  here  thousands  of  Spanish 
 immigrants,  all  males,  attracted  to  the  spot  by  high  wages, 
 who  look  upon  themselves  as  birds  of  passage,  and  hardly 
 dream  of  sending  for  women  from  home.  Eegard  for 
 women,  however,  is  by  no  means  enhanced  by  their 
 scarcity,  and  there  ensues  an  exclusively  male  society. 
 Even  with  married  people  the  difficulty  of  housekeeping, 
 and  the  discomforts  of  domestic  life,  are  so  great  that  the 
 Havana  husband  prefers  the  attractions  of  caf4  and  club, 
 and  in  no  town  of  France  or  Italy  are  there  to  be  seen 
 so  many  or  such  sumptuous  and  constantly-crowded 
 caf^s  and  restaurants.  The  Havana  merchant  is  as  eager 
 to  make  money  as  he  is  ready  to  squander  it,  but  the 
 tovm  supphes  little  besides  gross  material  enjoyment  for 
 his  money.  A box  at  his  third-rate  opera  at  the  Tacon 
 Theatre  and  a drive  in  the  di’eary  Prado  are  aU  the  amuse- 
 ments he  can  have  in  common  with  his  wife  and  daughter. 
 For  the  rest,  the  women  are  left  to  mope  alone  at  home, 
 playing  bo-peep  with  the  passers-by  from  their  window- 
 gratings,  or  pacing  the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses,  like  so 
 many  “ sister  Annes  ” waiting  for  those  who  are  never  com- 
 ing. With  so  little  wholesome  domestic  society,  and  all 
 the  consequent  profligacy,  it  is  pleasing  to  hear  the  char- 
 acter universally  given  for  good  conduct  to  the  Havana 
 women. 
 
 But  the  real  bane  of  social  life  in  Havana  lies  in 
 the  deep-seated  and  hardly-smothered  animosity  of  race. 
 
ANIMOSITY  OF  RACE. 
 
 163 
 
 one  and  the  same  race,  yet  irreconcilably  divided  against 
 itself.  There  is  no  hatred  in  the  world  to  be  compared  to 
 that  of  the  Cuban  for  Spain  and  all  that  belongs  to  it. 
 The  Creole  longs  for  the  day  in  which  he  shall  be  rid  of 
 everything  Spanish,  and  of  every  other  alien  intruder 
 coming  here  to  suck  the  very  life-blood  from  his  veins. 
 The  native  Spaniard,  on  the  other  hand,  calls  Cuba  “ this 
 emphatically  Spanish  island,”  and  affects  to  ignore  the 
 Creole.  But  to  a stranger’s  eye  the  split  is  nowhere  ap- 
 parent ; Guelph  and  Ghibelline  go  past,  showing  no  symp- 
 tom of  the  enmity  which  may  at  any  moment  array  them 
 in  hostile  camps.  Thus  there  is  a vast  amount  of  plot 
 and  intrigue,  fatal  to  all  loyal,  social,  and  even  domestic 
 intercourse ; a depth  of  simidation  and  dissimulation,  of 
 spoken  and  acted  lies,  not  to  be  fathomed  by  a stranger 
 on  a mere  superficial  survey.  The  underground  war  is 
 going  on  in  every  street,  and  almost  in  every  house  in  the 
 city.  Among  the  native  Cubans  education  is  more  widely 
 spread  than  among  the  Peninsular  immigrants,  but  the 
 Spanish  settlers  own  the  greater  part  of  the  landed  pro- 
 perty and  the  moveable  wealth  of  the  country.  They 
 have  the  lion’s  share  of  the  trade  of  Havana  in  their 
 hands,  partly  in  consequence  of  their  superior  thrift  and 
 activity,  but  in  a great  measure  owing  to  the  privileges 
 and  monopolies  awarded  to  them  by  an  unscrupulous  ad- 
 ministration ; but  the  fortune  accumulated  by  the  Penin- 
 sular father  not  unfrequently  goes  to  wreck  and  ruin  in 
 the  hands  of  his  improvident  Creole  progeny.  The  Creole 
 thinks,  not  unreasonably,  that  with  the  abolition  of  slave 
 labour  a new  balance  of  fortune  will  come  to  be  estab- 
 lished, in  which  all  the  chances  will  be  in  his  own  favour. 
 In  that  intricate  problem  of  the  slave-system  lies  the  whole 
 political  and  moral  question,  and  the  Cuban  is  as  anxious 
 for  its  speedy  solution  as  the  Spaniard  is  doggedly  bent  on 
 its  indefinite  adjournment.  With  such  a hopeless  diver- 
 
164  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 gence  of  views  and  tendencies,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  the 
 constraint,  the  mistrust,  the  ni-wiU  everywhere  pervading 
 society  in  Havana.  Hone  hut  the  mere  trader  is  at 
 his  ease  here.  For  some  of  the  Spanish,  and  even  Ger- 
 man, English,  and  other  foreign  shopkeepers,  there  is  no 
 spot  in  the  world  like  this,  where  money  can  be  more 
 easily  made.  All  imported  goods,  owing  to  protection 
 and  differential  tariffs,  pay  enormously  heavy  duties ; 
 hence  the  merchant  is  entitled  to  sell  dear.  Fraud  and 
 smuggling  are  carried  on  to  an  outrageous  extent ; hence 
 he  is  enabled  to  buy  cheap. 
 
 The  other  large  towns  in  Cuba  resemble  the  capital 
 more  or  less  in  their  general  arrangements,  social  habits, 
 and  pursuits  of  their  inhabitants. 
 
 7.  Jamaica — General  Features — Rivers — Minerals 
 Population — Negroes  and  Jews. 
 
 The  passage  is  easy  from  Cuba  to  the  British  colony 
 of  Jamaica  l}dng  south  of  it,  and  the  third  in  extent 
 of  the  innumerable  islands  of  this  wonderful  arcliipelago. ' 
 Jamaica,  in  the  old  Indian  language  Xaimaca,  or  the 
 island  of  springs,  is  generally  flat  along  the  coast,  and 
 surrounded,  especially  on  the  south  side,  with  many  reefs 
 and  shoals ; thus  its  numerous  harbours  are  difficult  of 
 access,  but  sixteen  of  them  are  practicable,  and  sheltered 
 on  all  sides.  The  north  coast  is  incomparably  beautifid, 
 and  here  are  situated  the  little  havens  of  St.  Anne,  Eio 
 Bueno,  and  Montego.  Bold  bluffs,  charming  inlets,  every- 
 where an  abundance  of  rusliing  and  roaring  waters,  gi'een 
 meadow  lands  soft  as  velvet,  dark  groves,  songsters  and 
 butterflies,  all  combine  to  render  this  coast,  and  especially 
 the  district  of  the  eight  streams  (Ocho  Piios),  a veritable 
 garden  of  Eden, 
 
 The  interior  of  the  island  is  hilly,  intersected  by 
 
JAMAICA. 
 
 165 
 
 many  lofty  ridges  and  deep  valleys,  and  densely  •wooded. 
 On  the  east  rise  the  Blue  Mountains,  whose  culminating 
 point,  West  Peak,  7105  feet  high,  is  one  of  the  highest 
 elevations  in  the  "whole  West  Indian  archipelago.  St. 
 Catherine  Peak,  in  the  same  range,  is  4480  feet  high. 
 The  Blue  Mountains  fully  justify  their  name ; at  least 
 we  are  assured  by  the  experienced  traveller  Lud'wig 
 Schmarda  that  he  has  nowhere  else  beheld  a more  lovely 
 and  deeper  blue  than  that  of  this  range  of  hills,  rising  in 
 soft  outline  in  the  full  blaze  of  the  sun. 
 
 Jamaica  is  weU  supplied  "with  -water ; besides  several 
 small  lakes  the  land  is  watered  by  nearly  200  streams, 
 large  and  small,  aU  teeming  -with  fish  and  aUigators. 
 But  Black  Eiver,  in  the  south-west,  is  the  only  one  navi- 
 gable, small  vessels  ascending  for  a distance  of  25  miles 
 from  its  mouth.  The  hUly  districts  and  the  alluvial 
 plains  in  the  north  are  the  most  fertile  portions  of  the 
 island,  which  seems  created  expressly  for  the  production 
 of  sugar,  coffee,  Jamaica  pepper  or  allspice,  and  ginger. 
 
 Lead  exists  in  large  quantities,  besides  other  minerals, 
 such  as  copper,  silver,  zinc,  antimony,  iron,  and  manganese. 
 In  the  forests  are  found  many  of  the  valuable  timber-trees 
 of  the  tropics,  -while  English  vegetables  are  gro"wn  on  the 
 liigher  grounds,  besides  the  vine  and  apples,  the  tropical 
 fruits  also  thriving  in  the  greatest  perfection.  Cattle  are 
 numerous,  especially  noted  being  an  excellent  breed  of 
 horses,  besides  a fine  race  of  mules.  All  these  combined 
 advantages  render  Jamaica  by  far  the  most  varied  in  its 
 resources  of  aU  the  West  India  Islands. 
 
 But  its  prosperity  received  a severe  blo"W  from  the 
 revolt  of  the  Negroes  in  1865  ; for,  like  the  rest  of  the 
 Antilles  Jamaica  suffers  from  the  excessive  predominance 
 of  the  African  race.  The  whole  population  is  estimated 
 in  round  numbers  at  about  half  a million  (more  accurately 
 506,000),  of  whom  not  more  than  13,000  are  -whites, 
 
166  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  even  these  are  perceptibly  diminishing.  Of  the 
 rest  100,000  are  coloured  people,  and  nearly  400,000 
 blacks,  all  free  citizens  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  by 
 the  English  Government.  In  the  Blue  klountains  there 
 stni  live  on  hunting  and  fishing  the  remnants  of  the 
 so-called  Maroon  Negroes ; the  descendants  of  runaway 
 Spanish  slaves,  who,  after  many  hostilities,  haA^e  at  last 
 reconciled  themselves  with  the  English,  now  generally 
 siding  with  them  against  their  black  kinsfolk.  The  Ma- 
 roons have  retained  to  the  present  day  a decidedly  different 
 character  from  the  other  Negroes  in  Jamaica. 
 
 Worthy  of  mention  is  also  the  large  Jewish  element 
 in  Jamaica,  ever  ready  with  their  accommodating  obse- 
 quiousness to  lend  a helping  hand  to  Creole  families  bent 
 on  ruining  themselves. 
 
 In  Jamaica  leprosy  (Lepra  or  Elephantiasis  Graecorum) 
 is  prevalent  amongst  the  coloured  races;  to  it  the  Jews 
 also,  and  especially  Jewish  mulattoes,  are  liable,  while  it 
 never  attacks  the  whites.  Thus  has  the  Oriental  race 
 through  all  its  wanderings  retained  its  primeval  tendency 
 towards  certain  diseases,  so  true  it  is,  as  Mephistopheles 
 says,  that  blood  is  “ quite  a special  sap.” 
 
 The  largest  townships  in  Jamaica  are  Kingston,  the 
 commercial  capital,  with  36,000  inhabitants,  and  Spanish 
 ToAvn,  the  official  capital  and  seat  of  government,  with 
 7000,  both  places  situated  on  the  south  coast. 
 
 8.  Hayti  : General  Configuration — Mountain 
 Systems — Rivers. 
 
 A far  more  gloomy  picture  than  that  of  Jamaica  is 
 presented  by  the  island  of  Ha}d;i,  also  called  San  Domingo 
 or  Hispaniola,  next  in  size  to  Cuba,  from  which  it  is 
 separated  by  the  Windward  Passage.  The  magnificent 
 “ land  of  high  hills,”  as  the  word  Hayti  is  interpreted 
 
HAYTI. 
 
 167 
 
 tapers  to  a narrow  corner  towards  the  east,  where  it  is 
 separated  by  Mona  Passage  from  Porto  Pico.  Westwards 
 it  gradually  widens,  throwing  off  towards  the  neighbour- 
 ing islands  two  considerable  peninsulas,  the  smaller  in  a 
 north-westerly  direction  towards  Cuba,  the  southern  and 
 larger  one  towards  Jamaica.  Between  these  two  penin- 
 sulas lies  the  bay  of  Gonave,  Gonaives,  or  Leogane,  and 
 here  also  is  situated  the  town  of  Port  an  Prince.  The 
 area  of  the  island  is  28,249  English  square  miles,  being 
 a little  smaller  than  Ireland. 
 
 The  coasts  of  Hayti  are  altogether  more  irregular 
 than  those  of  the  other  Antilles,  giving  rise  to  a number 
 of  bights,  peninsulas,  and  headlands.  The  island  is 
 traversed  by  several  hiUy  ranges,  which,  however,  are  not 
 connected  together.  There  may  be  clearly  distinguished 
 a north-easterly  coast  range ; in  the  centre  a table-land 
 crossed  by  ridges,  amongst  which  is  that  of  Cibao,  once 
 famous  for  its  gold,  and  culminating  with  the  Yaqui  peak, 
 9695  feet  high ; and  lastly,  a south-westerly  coast  range 
 in  the  longer  peninsula,  attaining  in  one  of  its  peaks  the 
 altitude  of  7400  feet. 
 
 The  Vega  Eeal,  or  royal  plain,  is  the  fertile  interior 
 valley,  enclosed  between  the  northern  and  the  Cibao 
 ranges.  It  was  so  named  by  Columbus,  who,  on  ascend- 
 ing the  Santo  Cerro,  was  enraptured  by  the  prospect 
 presented  to  his  gaze.  In  tliis  plain  lies  the  principal 
 agricultural  wealth  of  the  island.  Here  is  cultivated 
 the  tobacco  intended  chiefly  for  the  Hamburg  market,  and 
 here  also  are  situated  the  most  industrious  towns — Cotuy, 
 La  Vega,  and  Santiago.  Tliis  tract,  where  navigable 
 streams,  the  Yuna  and  the  Yaqui,  open  up  the  interior, 
 is  moreover  the  centre  of  the  mining  district,  yielding  gold 
 and  iron. 
 
 Amongst  the  numerous  rivers  is  also  the  Artibonite, 
 flowing  from  the  lofty  Cibao  range,  and  after  a course  of 
 
168  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 95  miles  falling  into  the  hay  of  Gonaives.  This  and 
 four  other  large  streams  divide  the  island  into  five  main 
 sections,  vitli  as  many  river-vaUeys.  In  the  south-vest 
 are  three  large  lakes,  in  the  low-l}ing  plaiu  separating  the 
 south-western  coast  range  from  the  central  range. 
 
 9.  The  Two  Republics  of  Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 
 
 In  order  to  understand  the  present  condition  of  Hajfii, 
 the  most  fertile  of  the  Antilles,  and  hence  formerly  called 
 the  Garden  of  the  West  Indies,  it  should  be  remembered 
 that  in  the  days  of  the  Spaniards  it  was  so  overstocked 
 with  Negroes  introduced  to  work  on  the  plantations,  that 
 their  descendants  and  the  mulattoes  between  them  now 
 well  nigh  constitute  the  exclusive  population  of  the  island. 
 The  first  European  settlements  in  the  New  World  were 
 founded  on  its  shores,  and  it  was  here  that,  after  a few 
 years’  trial  of  native  labour,  African  slavery  was  first 
 introduced  into  America. 
 
 In  the  year  1795  Hayti  was  ceded  to  the  French, 
 who  already  possessed  settlements  in  the  western  districts, 
 and  who  now  completely  emancipated  the  Negroes. 
 Hence,  for  more  than  three  generations  the  Africans  have  here 
 been  exempt  from  slavery,  and  have  accordingly  had  full 
 time  during  that  period  of  more  than  eighty  years  to  give 
 proof  of  their  capacity  for  civilisation.  They  moreover 
 soon  succeeded  in  asserting  their  political  independence 
 of  France,  under  the  Negro  Toussaint  rOuvertui'e,  setting 
 up  an  empire,  which,  however,  collapsed  in  1805.  At 
 that  time  the  island  was  divided  into  two  States — in  the 
 west  the  Negro  empu-e  of  Hayti,  in  the  east  the  Mulatto 
 republic  of  San  Domingo — which  have  up  to  the  present 
 time  been  animated  by  the  bitterest  animosity  towards 
 each  other.  Till  1859  the  Negro  State  retained  the  mon- 
 archical form  of  government,  though  off  the  stage  the 
 
SAN  DOMINGO. 
 
 169 
 
 1859.  Since  then  Hayti  also  has  become  a republic, 
 but  for  all  that  has  not  made  a single  step  in  advance. 
 
 Nor  is  the  state  of  affairs  much  better  in  the  mulatto 
 republic  of  San  Domingo.  In  both,  one  revolution  follows 
 another,  the  only  variation  being  the  wars  that  from  time 
 to  time  break  out  between  the  two  States.  Wearied  of 
 these  everlasting  feuds  and  disorders,  San  Domingo  after- 
 wards again  submitted  voluntarily  to  the  authority  of 
 Spain,  which,  however,  resolved  finally  to  withdraw  from 
 
 world  has  probably  never  witnessed  a greater  mockery 
 of  royalty.  The  burlesque  fooleries  of  the  Enghsh  Christ- 
 mas pantomimes  were  here  seriously  paraded  before  the 
 eyes  of  the  dusky  sons  of  Africa  under  the  infamous 
 emperor  Soulouque,  whose  reign  lasted  from  1849  to 
 
 NATIVES  OF  HAYTI. 
 
170  COMPENDIUM  or  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 the  place  in  1864,  whereupon  the  republic  was  once 
 more  set  on  foot. 
 
 Speaking  generally,  both  States  are  sunk  in  the 
 deepest  barbarism.  The  inhabitants  are  becoming  daily 
 more  savage  with  the  spread  of  fetishism,  especially  the 
 form  of  it  known  as  “ wudism  ” and  serpent  worship,  which 
 is  said  to  be  also  gaining  groimd  amongst  the  Xegroes  of 
 the  United  States,  and  with  which  cannibalism  is  here 
 also  combined. 
 
 Of  the  two  Eepublics,  San  Domingo  is  nearly  twice 
 the  size  of  Hayti,  but  it  is  far  less  densely  peopled  than  the 
 Xegro  state.  The  former  has  a population  of  250,000  ; 
 the  latter  of  572,000,  all  nominally  Eoman  Catholics. 
 
 Of  the  present  condition  of  San  Domingo,  a recent 
 traveller,  Mr.  S.  Hazard,  gives  a deplorable  account.  The 
 fertile  plains  lie  untdled ; the  rich  mines  are  unworked. 
 There  is  not  a plough  in  the  whole  island,  and  the  only 
 steam-engine  ever  set  up  was  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards 
 in  1865.  Vast  forests  containing  abundance  of  valuable 
 tunber,  including  mahogany,  are  left  to  rot  without  any 
 attempt  being  made  to  utilise  their  valuable  products. 
 And  yet  the  land  is  a paradise  of  natiual  beauty.  The 
 magnificent  bay  of  Samana,  towards  the  eastern  end  of 
 the  island,  displays  on  its  shores  a tropical  vegetation  of 
 marvellous  luxuriance ; but  it  is  a neglected  wilderness. 
 A few  years  ago  this  was  ceded  to  an  American  company 
 as  a preparation,  it  was  supposed,  for  the  annexation  of 
 the  whole  eastern  territory  to  the  United  States.  The 
 bay  of  Samana  forms  one  of  the  best  harbours  iu  the 
 West  Indies.  It  is  thirty  miles  in  length,  by  about 
 twenty-one  in  width,  and  is  weU  protected  from  the  pre- 
 vailing winds.  It  is  deep  enough  for  the  largest  vessels, 
 and  has  a narrow,  but  not  difficult,  entrance.  The  so- 
 called  peninsula,  which  was  purchased  by  the  American 
 company,  lies  on  its  northern  side,  and  has  a length  of 
 
TRADE  AND  PRODUCTS. 
 
 171 
 
 t^venty-five  miles,  with  a width  of  about  ten : it  is 
 separated  from  the  mainland  by  a small  river  and  a 
 narrow  canal,  and  is  therefore  an  island.  A small  town, 
 composed  of  about  eighty  huts,  called  Santa  Barbara  de 
 Samana,  is  situated  on  the  peninsula,  and  has  its  share  in 
 the  foreign  trade  of  the  district.  San  Domingo,  the 
 capital  of  the  republic,  with  its  population  of  15,000 
 negroes  and  mulattoes,  lies  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
 island,  and  presents  fewer  natural  advantages  as  a trading 
 port.  It  is  built  on  an  eminence  on  the  shores  of  a small 
 harbour,  formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  Ozama  river,  and 
 has  a picturesque  appearance  owing  to  its  towers,  gaudily- 
 coloured  roofs,  and  the  ruins  of  its  old  fort.  Among  its 
 pubhc  institutions  are, besides,  numerous  old  churches,  hos- 
 pitals, arsenals,  and  even  a university  ; but  all  are  in  a state 
 of  decay  sad  to  witness.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Samana 
 will  eventually  become  the  capital  of  the  island,  from  the 
 superiority  of  its  port  and  its  commanding  position  with 
 regard  to  ]\Iona  Straits,  the  chief  thoroughfare  for  ships 
 and  steam-packets  plying  between  Europe  and  the  West 
 Indies  and  the  ports  of  Central  America  and  Mexico.  At 
 present  the  trade  of  San  Domingo  is  confined  to  the 
 shipping  of  mahogany  and  dye-woods,  and  the  export  of 
 tropical  fruits  ; the  scantiness  of  the  trade  being  chiefly 
 attributable  to  the  absence  of  industry  and  the  want  of 
 roads  throughout  the  island.  In  a climate  of  such 
 geniality,  and  with  such  exuberance  of  vegetation,  the  soil 
 repays  with  three  harv^ests  a year  the  labours  of  the  hus- 
 bandman. Coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  already  grown 
 there  ; and  in  mineral  productions  it  far  excels  the  other 
 islands  : iron  is  abundant ; copper  is  foimd  in  several 
 places,  and  old,  half-forgotten  gold-mines  will  some  day 
 be  re-opened  by  a race  more  industrious  than  the  present 
 inhabitants.  The  American  company  who  bought 
 Samana  Bay  had  the  right  to  make  its  own  laws  and 
 
172 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 establish  its  own  police,  build  a fleet,  levy  toUs,  establish 
 banks,  issue  paper  money,  and,  in  short,  to  exercise  all 
 the  rights  of  an  independent  government.  It  secured  the 
 right  also  to  purchase  land,  if  required,  in  other  parts  of  San 
 Domingo,  and  bargained  to  construct  roads  and  telegraphs 
 throughout  the  republic,  in  return  for  proportionate  conces- 
 sions of  land.  A new  era  seemed  to  have  dawned  for 
 the  unfortunate  island,  with  the  introduction  of  American 
 enterprise  on  so  magnificent  a scale.  These  glowing 
 prospects,  however,  were  doomed  to  an  early  disappoint- 
 ment. The  treaty  with  the  American  company  was 
 signed  by  the  President  of  the  Eepublic  on  the  10  th 
 January  1873.  In  March  1874  another  decree  was 
 passed,  by  which  the  rights  of  the  company  were  confis- 
 cated, on  the  ground  of  the  non-pajmient  of  a stqmlated 
 annual  rent. 
 
 In  the  Eepublic  of  Hayti,  on  the  western  side  of  this 
 fine  island,  the  state  of  things  is  even  worse  than  m the 
 eastern  or  Dominican  part.  AE  traces  of  the  old  French 
 civdisation  have  vanished.  There  are  no  manufactm-es, 
 and  the  government  is  bankrupt ; the  towns  are  in  ruins, 
 and  the  men  spend  their  time  in  idleness,  hving  on  the 
 industry  of  the  women.  The  paper  money  issued  by 
 successive  governments  is  enormously  depreciated,  by 
 frequent  repudiation,  and  by  forgery  on  a large  scale. 
 Hayti,  in  fact,  presents  a sad  picture  of  the  incapacity  of 
 the  black  race  for  independent  development.  Even  the 
 most  zealous  abolitionists  are  obliged  to  confess  that  the 
 majority  of  the  Haytian  ISTegroes  are  lower  in  the  scale  of 
 ci\dlisation  than  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  Central  Africa. 
 In  the  interior  of  the  country  fetish-worship  is  rampant, 
 and  mingled  with  the  wEdest  superstition,  and  the  cele- 
 bration of  rites  to  evE  spirits.  At  least  two-thirds  of 
 the  population  do  not  speak  any  language  recognised  by 
 the  civiEsed  world.  It  is  stated  that  even  cannibaEsm  is 
 
EACBS. 
 
 173 
 
 practised,  the  people  killing  and  eating,  at  certain  of  their 
 festivals,  their  own  children. 
 
 In  Hayti  seven-eighths  of  the  people  are  pure  blacks, 
 the  rest  are  so-called  creoles,  hut  reaUy  half-castes  ; that  is, 
 simply  midattoes.  In  San  Domingo,  on  the  contrary,  one- 
 fourth  of  the  population  are  pure  negroes,  the  rest  creoles, 
 these  mulattoes  in  both  States  constituting  an  aristocratic 
 element  after  a fashion. 
 
 In  San  Domingo  nothing  is  produced  except  tobacco 
 and  rum,  while  in  Hayti  some  industries  have  been  de- 
 veloped. But  if  the  Hayti  Xegroes  are  more  industrious 
 than  their  mulatto  neighbours,  because  perhaps  more 
 crowded  together  in  a narrow  space,  there  are  also  more 
 thieves  and  scoundrels  of  various  types  to  be  found 
 amongst  them,  because  there  is  here  more  to  steal.  As 
 regards  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  tie,  neither  race  is  in  a 
 position  to  throw  stones  at  its  neighbour.  The  two  consti- 
 tutions also  resemble  each  other,  with  the  exception  of  the 
 enlightened  provision  in  Hayti  preventing  the  whites  from 
 owning  land,  occupying  any  official  post,  exercising  the 
 right  of  voting  at  elections,  or,  in  fact,  ever  acquiring  the 
 privileges  of  Hayti  citizenship  ! Thus  the  whites  are  here 
 as  good  as  disenfranchised,  while  in  San  Domingo,  on  the 
 contrary,  they  enjoy  almost  equal  rights  with  the  natives. 
 
 10.  Porto  Rico — Karl  MaucKs  Acccmnt  of  the  Island  and 
 its  Inhabitants. 
 
 The  last  of  the  Great  Antilles  is  the  Spanish  island  of 
 Porto  Eico,  in  shape  a somewhat  lengthened  rectangle,  9 0 
 miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  36  nides  broad,  and 
 ■with  a population  of  646,000.  The  interior  consists  of 
 an  extensive  mass  of  wooded  hills  running  from  east  to 
 west,  with  a mean  elevation  of  1600  feet,  but  culminat- 
 ing in  a peak  rising  to  a height  of  3900  feet.  With 
 
174  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 its  flourisliing  tobacco  and  sugar  plantations,  cattle-breed- 
 ing, mining,  and  commerce,  Porto  Eico  is  a thriving  place, 
 the  healthiest  of  all  the  Antilles,  and  in  its  higher  grounds 
 adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  several  kinds  of  European 
 corn.  It  is  almost  the  only  island  in  the  Antilles  which 
 produces  food  sufficient  for  the  consumption  of  its  inhabit- 
 ants. The  principal  articles  of  export  are  sugar  and 
 molasses,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  rum. 
 
 The  state  of  affairs  is  here  more  satisfactory  than  in 
 the  other  already  described  islands.  There  is  no  doubt 
 a large  Xegro  element  here,  as  in  the  rest  of  the  Antilles, 
 the  number  being  estimated  at  300,000,  but  though 
 twelve  times  smaller  in  extent  than  Cuba,  Porto  Eico 
 contains  half  the  population  of  that  island.  In  other 
 words,  it  is  entirely  colonised,  cultivated,  and  peopled; 
 hence  the  negroes  are  here  compelled  to  work  or  starve,  there 
 being  no  more  spare  land  on  which  they  might  support 
 themselves  with  a minimum  of  labour.  Slavery  in  Porto 
 Eico  was  abolished  by  the  Spanish  Government  in  March 
 1873. 
 
 But  the  African  in  Porto  Eico,  as  elsewhere,  carefully 
 avoids  working  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Speak- 
 ing of  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Eico,  the  capital,  with  a popu- 
 lation of  30,000,  and  situated  on  the  north  coast,  the  late 
 traveller  and  explorer,  Karl  Mauch,  remarks  that  its  ap- 
 pearance was  far  from  edif}dng,  and  its  streets  abominably 
 filthy,  the  odour  proceeding  from  the  wretched  little  houses 
 rendering  necessary  an  immediate  apphcation  of  the  scent- 
 bottle.  Mauch  crossed  the  island  from  north  to  south,  on 
 foot,  in  search  of  botanical  specimens.  But  walking  being 
 here  looked  upon  as  a disgraceful  method  of  locomotion,  he 
 was  everywhere  exposed  to  the  ridicule  of  the  people, 
 especially  of  the  women.  These  dames  were  met  either 
 perched  on  their  houses,  enveloped  in  white  garments, 
 protecting  themselves  with  their  parasols  from  the  scorch- 
 
POKTO  EICO. 
 
 175 
 
 ing  rays  of  the  sun,  rolling  the  stumps  of  their  cigars  from 
 one  corner  of  the  mouth  to  the  other,  or  else  swinging  in 
 their  hammocks  and  chewing  tobacco  at  their  open  doors 
 as  the  wearied  and  perspiring  traveller  passed  along.  He 
 adds  that  the  women  contrive  to  spend  their  time  pretty 
 well  between  sleeping,  eating,  smoking,  riding,  lolling  in 
 their  hammocks,  and  doing  absolutely  nothing. 
 
 He  describes  the  island  itself  as  charming,  with  its 
 hills  covered  to  the  top  with  the  most  varied  species  of 
 timber,  amongst  which  the  graceful  palms  raise  their  mag- 
 nificent crowns  high  above  the  dense  underwood.  “ It 
 was  a source  of  great  pleasure  to  behold  here,  unfolding 
 themselves  under  our  very  eyes  in  the  wildest  profusion, 
 and  fiUing  the  air  with  their  perfume,  the  loveliest  and 
 brightest  flowers,  such  as  are  seldom  seen  even  in  the 
 finest  European  conservatories.  But  how  wretched  seems 
 the  rural  population,  emancipated  two  years  ago,  but  still 
 housed  in  their  miserable  bamboo  and  palm-leaf  hovels,  in 
 the  midst  of  the  most  delightfid  scenery.  Since  their 
 enfranchisement  these  people  do  no  work  beyond  planting 
 a few  bananas  and  sweet  potatoes,  and  a little  rice.  Some 
 poultry  that  they  possess,  swine,  perhaps  a cow,  but  in 
 all  cases  a horse,  mule,  or  donkey,  bring  them  in  enough 
 just  barely  to  cover  their  nakedness.  It  seems  as  if  they 
 were  reverting  to  the  primitive  state  of  their  forefathers 
 transplanted  hither  from  Africa.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
 they  are  zealous  church-goers,  and  abstainers  from  flesh 
 meat  on  Fridays.  They  may  be  seen  visiting  the  church 
 four  times  during  the  day  to  offer  up  prayers  for  the 
 Holy  Father.” 
 
ST.  THOMAS. 
 
 CHAPTEE  III. 
 
 THE  LESSEE  ANTILLES. 
 
 1.  St.  Tho7)ias — Santa  Crvz — St.  Bartholomew. 
 
 It  would  be  needless  here  to  attempt  a detaded  description 
 of  all  the  various  gToups  collectively  known  as  the  Lesser 
 Antdles,  or  Caribbean  Islands.  Such  a description  would 
 necessarily  reduce  itself  to  a dry  and  uninteresting  repe- 
 tition of  similar  facts,  and  of  names  little  attractive  or 
 usefid  to  the  reader.  The  most  noteworthy  points  will, 
 moreover,  be  found  carefully  tabulated  at  the  end  of  the 
 volume.  It  will  therefore  suffice  here  to  specify  a few 
 of  the  more  salient  characteristics  of  particular  islands 
 that  might  else  escape  notice. 
 
 Special  consideration  is  challenged  by  the  Danish 
 island  of  St.  Thomas.  The  commercial  relations  of  the 
 West  Indies  have  become  in  course  of  time  so  far  modified 
 
ST.  THOMAS. 
 
 177 
 
 that  this  island  has  been  gradually  raised  to  the  position 
 of  an  entrepot  for  the  products  of  Porto  Eico,  San  Domingo, 
 tlie  Windward  group,  and  the  north  coast  of  South  America. 
 The  great  European  steamship  companies  have  made  it  the 
 central  point,  whence  ramify  the  various  branch  lines  com- 
 municating with  most  of  the  other  islands  in  the  arcliipe- 
 lago.  In  spite  of  yellow  fever,  hurricanes,  and  earthquakes, 
 this  favourably  situated  port  has  remained  the  general  ren- 
 dez%'ous  for  those  oceanic  lines,  although  the  island  itself 
 has  become  almost  a sterEe  waste  since  the  emancipation 
 of  the  slaves  in  1848. 
 
 A recent  traveller  thus  describes  the  town  and  the 
 island  of  St.  Thomas : “ The  most  elegant  houses  are  laid 
 out  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  on  three  hills  enclos- 
 ing the  harbour  in  the  background.  Their  whitewashed 
 walls  and  roofs  streaked  with  red,  stand  out  clearly  amidst 
 the  dark  gxeen  of  their  surroundings.  Behind  them  rises 
 to  a considerable  height  the  chief  range  of  hills  in  the 
 island,  dotted  here  and  there  along  their  steep  slopes  with 
 little  houses,  which,  when  planted  round  about  with  shady 
 trees,  may  some  day  become  pleasant  residences.  For  we 
 here  generally  naiss  those  umbrageous  woodlands  that  are 
 usually  met  with  in  the  tropics,  clothing  the  hills  to  their 
 summits.  On  this  account  we  were  not  very  favourably 
 impressed  in  our  rambles  over  the  island,  which  is  rocky 
 and  very  deficient  in  water.  Cultivation  is  seen  only  in 
 a few  smaU  tracts  of  alluvial  soil ; perennial  springs  and 
 brooks  are  scarcely  anywhere  to  be  found,  and  we  suffered 
 from  actual  thirst  as  we  trudged  along,  in  the  almost  in- 
 sufferable heat,  over  the  bare  rocks  in  the  eastern  part  of 
 the  island.  The  land  is  moreover  frequently  devastated 
 by  terrific  hurricanes  and  earthquakes.  After  a lapse  of 
 seven  years,  the  traces  are  stEl  to  be  seen  of  a hurricane, 
 combined  with  an  earthquake,  when  a wave  was  upheaved 
 to  a height  of  30  feet,  and  rushed  like  a giant  wall  into 
 
178  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 the  harbour,  bursting  and  raging  furiously  amidst  the 
 buildings  along  the  shore.  Houses  on  the  high  grounds, 
 formerly  occupied  by  the  wealthy  classes,  are  now  in  ruins, 
 while  their  owners  have  either  been  impoverished  or  else 
 have  lost  the  heart  to  erect  new  dwellings  in  their  place. 
 The  town,  with  its  2 0,0 0 0 inhabitants,  is  far  from  attractive, 
 ■with  its  narrow  and  not  very  clean  streets,  and  its  small 
 houses,  covered,  walls  and  roofs  alike,  some  with  boards, 
 some  "with  shingles,  and  others  with  sheet  zinc.  Doors  and 
 windows  stand  mostly  open,  affording  a free  \'iew  of  the 
 interior.  The  windows  are  unprovided  ■with  glass,  beiug 
 simply  closed  at  night  with  ‘ shutter  blinds.’  The  popu- 
 lation is  very  mixed,  consisting  apparently  chiefly  of 
 women,  decked  sometimes  in  the  most  gaudy  colours,  ■with 
 hats,  veils,  and  silk  ribbons  over  their  horse-hair  chignons  ; 
 shod  with  white  or  coloured  morocco-leather  high-heeled 
 boots,  but  some  also  half  draped  in  foul  rags,  that  had  once 
 been  white  and  clean,  and  others  barefooted  or  with  clatter- 
 ing slippers  on  their  dirty  brown  feet.  On  the  market-place 
 are  exposed  for  sale  vegetables  and  fruits,  mostly  from  the 
 neighbouring  islands  of  Porto  Eico  and  Santa  Cruz,  the 
 produce  of  the  place  itself  being  far  from  sufiicient  for  the 
 wants  of  the  population.  Even  the  drinking  water  itself 
 must  often  be  brought  from  Santa  Cruz,  especially  towards 
 the  end  of  the  dry  season.” 
 
 St.  Thomas  is  a Danish  possession,  and  belongs  to  the 
 group  of  so-called  Virgin  Islands,  some  of  which — such  as 
 Tortola,  Virgin  Gorda,  and  Anegada — are  in  the  hands  of 
 the  English.  These  islands  are  situated  on  a shallow  sub- 
 marine bank  having  rarely  more  than  25  fathoms  depth 
 of  water,  and  joining  on  to  the  eastern  end  of  Porto  Eico. 
 Santa  Cruz,  or  Sainte  Croix,  also  a Danish  island,  lies  a 
 few  miles  to  the  south,  and  is  separated  from  the  Virgin 
 group  by  a channel  upwards  of  a thousand  feet  deep.  To 
 the  east  the  Dutch  have  settled  on  St.  Martin,  Saba,  and  St. 
 
GUADELOUPE. 
 
 179 
 
 Eustatius,  while  the  little  island  of  St.  Bartholomew  close 
 by  has  lately  been  ceded  by  the  Swedes  to  the  French. 
 
 AU  the  rest  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  as  far  as  Trinidad 
 inclusive,  belong  to  the  English,  the  Guadeloupe  group 
 and  Martinique  alone  excepted,  which  are  French. 
 
 2.  Guadeloupe — Pointe-d-Pitre — Basse  Terre. 
 
 "What  is  usually  called  Guadeloupe  consists  in  reality 
 of  two  islands  of  nearly  equal  size,  united  by  a narrow 
 isthmus,  across  which  lies  the  channel  of  a narrow  salt- 
 water river  (La  Eivi^re  Sal^e),  and  boasting  of  a very  safe 
 bay,  at  whose  north-eastern  extremity  is  the  town  of  Pointe- 
 a-Pitre.  This  bay  is  studded  with  islets,  reefs,  and  shoals, 
 all,  however,  well  known  to  mariners.  From  80  to  100 
 ships  may  often  be  seen  lying  oft  Pointe-a-Pitre,  bring- 
 ing French  and  American  commodities,  and  freighted 
 with  return  cargoes  of  sugar,  rum,  dyewoods,  and  coffee, 
 mostly  for  France.  A brisk  trade  is  also  maintained 
 with  the  adjoining  groups  of  Les  Saintes  to  the  south, 
 ]\Iariagalante  on  the  south-east,  and  Desirade  on  the 
 east,  wliich  are  also  French.  But  for  the  dark  and  black 
 faces  everywhere  met  with,  Pointe-a-Pitre  might  be  taken 
 for  a French  city.  Here  are  straight  streets  with  foot- 
 paths, bordered  by  houses  from  three  to  four  stories  high, 
 mostly  without  courts  or  gardens.  But  the  market-hall 
 and  the  square,  in  which  the  theatre  is  situated,  are  sur- 
 rounded by  avenues  of  trees,  where  the  horse-chestnuts  of 
 northern  Europe  are  replaced  by  the  Htira  crepitans  (sand- 
 box tree)  affording  a gratefvd  shade  under  its  lovely  soft 
 gi’een  dense  fohage.  As  in  all  other  French  towns,  here 
 also  the  hospitals  are  excellently  arranged  and  adapted 
 to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  place. 
 
 The  eastern  peninsula,  on  whose  west  coast  lies  Pointe- 
 a-Pitre,  is  called  Grande  Terre,  and  consists  of  an  undulat- 
 
180  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 iug  elevated  alluvial  soil,  above  wbicli  rise  a number  of 
 small  steep  round  liills,  or  mamelons,  to  a height  of  per- 
 haps not  more  than  1300  feet.  These  hills  are  composed 
 of  fossiliferous  limestone,  full  of  shells  and  corals,  of  the 
 same  species  as  are  still  found  alive  in  the  neighboming 
 waters.  The  ground  is  covered  with  a red,  fertile  soil, 
 but  is  black  and  marshy  in  the  low-lying  districts,  as 
 well  as  at  the  Eiviere  Salee.  Grande  Terre  is  destitute 
 of  streams  or  springs,  so  that  the  want  of  water  is  often 
 much  felt  in  the  dry  season.  Yet  here  are  found  the 
 most  numerous  and  important  plantations,  the  twin  islands 
 being  well  cultivated,  and  everywhere  provided  with  high- 
 ways kept  in  good  repair. 
 
 The  second,  or  westerly  peninsula,  probably  from  the 
 name  of  the  capital,  is  called  Basse  Terre,  but  also  Guade- 
 loupe. It  is  entirely  volcanic,  and  traversed  by  lofty 
 ridges  wooded  to  the  top,  while  at  its  southern  extremity 
 the  volcano  of  La  Souffrim’e  rises  to  a height  of  5000  feet. 
 Here  are  abundant  hot  and  tepid  mineral  springs,  besides 
 a plentifid  supply  of  excellent  water  flowing  from  the 
 hdls.  Both  islands  produce  all  lands  of  tropical  fruits, 
 especially  sapoddlas,  mangoes,  mammees  (here  called  ap- 
 ricots), barbadines,  pineapples,  and  alligator  pears.  Tlie 
 chief  food  of  the  lower  classes  consists  of  sweet  potatoes 
 and  the  mealy  roots  of  a kind  of  Arum,  here  called 
 Madera  or  Matinga. 
 
 3.  Martinique. 
 
 The  next  most  important  Trench  possession  in  the 
 West  Indies  is  the  magnificent  island  of  IMartinique,  rising 
 from  the  blue  waters  not  as  a single  volcanic  cone,  like 
 many  of  its  neighbours,  but  in  three  groups  of  rugged 
 peaks.  It  is  mainly  peopled  by  aSiegroes,  of  whom  a 
 recent  traveller  speaks  more  favourably  than  of  the  same 
 class  in  the  other  islands.  He  observes  that  here  the 
 
THE  WOMEN  OF  MARTINIQUE. 
 
 181 
 
 Xegro  is  really  a freeman,  and  that  the  women  have 
 adopted  French  manners  and  customs,  the  language  in- 
 cluded, to  a remarkable  degree.  They  converse  pleasantly, 
 with  graceful  action  and  great  animation.  Nor  are  these 
 Negroes  of  the  same  repulsive  t5rpe  usually  met  with  else- 
 where ; they  may  even  be  described  as  good-looking — 
 many  of  them  possessing  Circassian  features  with  black 
 complexion — no  thick  pouting  lips,  and  hair  but  very 
 shghtly  crisped. 
 
 Unfortunately  they  have  all  the  vices  without  the 
 corresponding  virtues  of  the  French.  The  women,  old 
 and  young,  are  gay  and  frivolous,  pleasure-seeking  and 
 fond  of  di-ess,  coquettish  and  of  extremely  lax  morals. 
 Their  dress  is  mainly  an  adaptation  of  the  French  fashions 
 to  the  climate,  stockingless  feet  in  elegant  high-heeled 
 patent  leather  shoes,  a bright  sku’t  reaching  from  the  hips 
 nearly  to  the  anldes,  with  furbelows,  flounces,  and  lace,  or 
 whatever  else  happens  to  be  in  fashion.  This  gown  is 
 supported  from  the  waist  by  a blue  or  red  sash,  while  the 
 bust  is  covered  by  a fine,  short-sleeved  chemisette,  always 
 dazzhng  white,  and  with  bright  bows  down  the  front  and 
 round  the  edge  of  the  sleeves.  On  their  neck  and  arms 
 they  wear  several  strings  of  wliite  or  gayer-coloured 
 glass  beads,  and  in  their  ears  square-shaped  gold  earrmgs, 
 of  which  the  portion  concealed  by  the  lobe  is  often  as 
 thick  as  a lead  pencil.  They  go  either  bareheaded,  or 
 else  envelope  the  head  turban-fashion  in  a gaudy  silk 
 kerchief. 
 
 One  advantage  the  Martinique  womenkind  possess 
 over  many  European  people,  and  this  is  their  scrupulous 
 cleanliness.  In  this  respect  the  island  altogether  may 
 serve  as  a model ; the  very  stones  of  the  streets  are  clean 
 and  white,  clear  fresh  spring  water  flows  through  well- 
 constructed  channels  by  the  curb  of  the  pathways,  while 
 all  the  houses  are  fitted  up  with  cold  baths,  which,  with 
 
182 
 
 COMPEKDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRATEL. 
 
 tlie  tropical  vegetation  and  delicious  southern  fruits,  com- 
 bine to  render  this  island  a little  terrestial  Eden. 
 
 4.  Barhadoes. 
 
 Of  the  English  Antilles,  or  Caribbean  Islands,  taking 
 them  in  order  from  north  to  south,  the  most  considerable 
 are  Anguilla,  Barbuda,  St.  Kitts  (or  St.  Christopher), 
 Antigua,  IMontserrat,  Dominica,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
 Barhadoes  and  Grenada,  to  which  may  be  added  Tobago 
 and  Trinidad,  which  are  generally  considered  as  forming 
 part  of  the  same  chain  of  islands,  although  physically  they 
 belong  to  South  America,  being  situated  in  the  shallow 
 coast-waters  of  that  continent.  Most  of  the  islands  above 
 enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  Antilles  proper  are  of 
 volcanic  structure,  some  of  them,  such  as  St.  Kitts  and 
 St.  Vincent,  consisting,  like  the  Basse  Terre  of  Guadeloupe, 
 and  the  more  northerly  Saha  and  St.  Eustatius,  of  a single 
 volcanic  cone,  with  its  sides  furrowed  by  deep  wooded 
 valleys ; hut  three  of  the  more  easterly  of  the  group — 
 viz.  Barbuda,  Antigua,  and  Barhadoes — are  chiefly  of  coral 
 formation,  and  of  only  moderate  elevation  above  the  sea- 
 level.  The  most  important  of  the  three,  and  the  most 
 populous  island  of  the  whole  group,  is  Barhadoes. 
 
 Barhadoes  lies  78  miles  to  windward  of  St.  Vincent, 
 its  nearest  neighbour,  and  in  size  and  proportions  may  he 
 compared  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  being  21  miles  in  length 
 and  about  14L  miles  wide  in  its  broadest  part.  The  land 
 rises  in  a succession  of  limestone  and  coral  terraces,  the 
 highest  point  in  the  island  reaching  the  moderate  eleva- 
 tion of  1104  feet;  and  an  almost  continuous  ring  of 
 coral  reefs  surrounds  the  coast,  extending  seaward  in  some 
 parts  nearly  three  miles.  When  first  visited  by  the 
 Enghsh  in  1624  the  island  was  found  to  be  thickly 
 wooded,  hut  the  timber  has  long  since  fallen  to  the  axe 
 
SUGAR  RLANTATION  IN  THE  ANTILLES. 
 
EMANCIPATION. 
 
 183 
 
 of  the  planter,  and  three-fourths  of  the  surface  are  now 
 under  cultivation.  In  its  industrial  and  social  aspects 
 Barbadoes  resembles  an  old  settled  country  more  than  any 
 of  its  sister  colonies  of  the  West  Indies.  This  is  partly 
 owing  to  the  absence  of  unreclaimed  or  waste  land,  and 
 the  density  of  the  population,  which  reaches  the  important 
 figure  of  966  to  the  square  mile,  thus  entailing  the 
 necessity  of  continuous  labour  by  the  wage-earning  class 
 in  order  to  gain  a livelihood.  The  emancipation  of  the 
 slaves  was  not  therefore  followed  by  the  evil  results  which 
 were  witnessed  in  Jamaica,  and  which  at  an  earlier  date  led 
 to  the  utter  ruin  of  St.  Domingo.  The  coloured  popula- 
 tion of  Barbadoes  at  the  time  of  the  emancipation  was 
 about  five  times  more  numerous  than  the  whites,  and  an 
 efficient  system  of  town  and  rural  police  was  found  to  be 
 essential ; but  the  industry  of  the  freed  slaves  and  the 
 produce  and  trade  of  the  island  were  kept  up  vdth  little 
 interruption.  The  political  and  social  history  of  the 
 island  has  in  other  respects  also  been  of  a much  more 
 fortunate  character  than  in  the  larger  islands  of  the 
 Antilles.  Since  the  first  settlement  by  the  English  in 
 1625  it  has  never  changed  masters,  or  been  the  scene  of 
 contention  between  rival  European  nations.  The  staple 
 industry  of  the  island  is  the  growth  and  manufacture  of 
 sugar.  Thirty  thousand  acres  of  sugar-cane  (nearly  half 
 the  cultivated  land)  are  annually  cut,  and  the  average 
 quantity  of  sugar  yearly  exported  reaches  the  large  total 
 of  44,000  hogsheads.  The  total  annual  trade  is  enormous 
 for  so  small  an  area,  amounting  to  upwards  of  a million 
 sterling  each  of  exports  and  imports. 
 
 5.  Trinidad  and  its  Asphalt  Lake. 
 
 Trinidad  is  the  largest  of  the  British  Windward  Islands, 
 ranking  in  fact,  in  point  of  size,  next  to  Porto  Eico.  In 
 
184 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL 
 
 Trinidad  is,  moreover,  to 
 be  seen,  the  greatest  cur- 
 iosity in  the  whole  of 
 the  West  Indian  archi- 
 pelago— a natural  phe- 
 nomenon such  as  exists 
 nowhere  else  in  the 
 M'orld.  This  is  the 
 famous  asphalt  lake 
 that  has  been  so  well 
 described  by  a recent 
 English  traveller.  It  is 
 reached  from  the  port  of 
 La  Brea,  wliich  place . 
 itself  is  everjT\diere  sur- 
 rounded by  pitch.  The 
 c very  ship  anchors  in 
 £ pitch,  the  passengers 
 5 disembark  on  a pitch 
 wharf,  pitch  lies  heaped 
 up  far  and  wide  in  the 
 harbour  ; in  whatever 
 direction  the  eyes  are 
 turned  they  light  on 
 nothing  but  jhtch;  pitch, 
 and  the  current  market 
 price  of  pitch,  are  the 
 one  burden  of  conversa- 
 tion. A more  wretched 
 place  to  live  in  it  woidd 
 be  difficult  to  imagine, 
 and  the  few  Europeans 
 condemned  to  reside 
 here,  e^'en  for  a short 
 interval,  suffer  much 
 
THE  ASPHALT  LAKE. 
 
 185 
 
 from  ague  ; while  the  Negroes  themselves  fail  to  be- 
 come acclimatised  to  the  baneful  atmosphere  of  the 
 place. 
 
 The  road  from  La  Brea  to  the  lake,  scarcely  a mile 
 and  a half  long,  crosses  an  utterly  desert  country,  all  the 
 timber  formerly  growing  here  having  been  either  cut  down 
 or  used  up  as  fuel.  At  the  first  glance  it  looks  like  any 
 other  woodland  lake,  nor  do  we  become  all  at  once  aware 
 that  its  basin  contains  not  water  but  pitch.  Its  borders 
 are  covered  with  tufts  of  grass  and  rushes,  while  the  scenery 
 is  varied  by  several  wooded  islands  studding  the  lake. 
 But  the  illusion  is  soon  dispelled  by  the  colour  and  con- 
 sistency of  the  fluid.  The  surface  of  the  asphalt  is  nearly 
 everywhere  strong  enough  to  bear  your  weight,  and  looks 
 as  if  it  had  been  just  swept  clean  with  a besom.  The 
 whole  lake  is  broken  by  clefts  and  fissures,  one  might 
 almost  say  valleys  and  abysses,  where  the  pitch,  evidently 
 oozing  up  from  various  centres,  has  failed  to  unite  into 
 one  compact  mass.  These  fissures  vary  from  a few 
 inches  to  several  yards  in  depth  and  extent,  and  when 
 visited  by  the  writer  from  whose  account  these  particulars 
 are  taken,  were  full  of  water.  In  one  of  the  larger  pools 
 he  saw  an  ugly-looking  fish,  weighing  perhaps  about  a 
 pound,  which  he  fancies  must  have  been  a “ warm- water 
 fish though  it  was  still  incomprehensible  to  him  how 
 the  creature  could  possibly  exist  in  a fluid  so  saturated 
 with  sulphur  and  bituminous  substances. 
 
 Crossing  the  clefts  at  first  on  the  back  of  a gigantic 
 Negro,  and  afterwards  on  planks  thrown  over  them,  the 
 traveller  reached  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake,  and  thence, 
 in  a few  minutes,  to  the  edge  of  the  wood,  where  are 
 situated  the  so-called  “ pitch  volcanoes,” — little  hillocks, 
 generally  not  much  more  than  half  a yard  high,  with  an 
 opening  in  the  centre  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  In 
 all  these  craters  the  pitch  is  stBL  in  a fluid  state,  here 
 
186 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  there  welling  np  to  the  edge,  often  even  flowing  over, 
 hut  generally  remaining  more  than  half  a yard  below  the 
 surface ; nor  can  any  traces  be  detected  of  greater  activity 
 at  any  former  period. 
 
 Farther  on  the  traveller  came  to  an  oil-well,  petro- 
 leum also  having  been  found  in  many  places  in  this 
 locality,  the  stench  of  which,  however,  necessitated  a speedy 
 retreat  to  the  lake.  Here  a crowd  of  black  labourers  were 
 now  busily  engaged  digging  a deep  hole  in  the  centre, 
 the  pitch,  hitherto  extracted  mainly  from  the  surface,  not 
 having  proved  so  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  gas  as  it 
 was  hoped  might  be  the  case  with  the  masses  lying  at  a 
 lower  depth,  and  consequently  less  exposed  to  the  effects 
 of  air  and  water.  The  Negroes  had  already  brought  a 
 considerable  C|uantity  to  the  surface,  looking  very  pure 
 and  clear,  and  so  hard  and  brittle  that  it  flew  about  like 
 chips  of  flint  at  every  stroke  of  the  pickaxe.  The  work- 
 men assured  him  that  in  about  two  days  the  whole  space 
 excavated  would  be  again  filled  up.  At  one  spot  alone 
 were  there  signs  of  recent  emergence  of  pitch  on  a large 
 scale.  Here  the  surface  was  much  too  soft  to  be  walked 
 upon ; being  apparently  of  about  the  consistency  of 
 treacle,  and  of  a light-brown  colour.  Slight  explo- 
 sions of  gas  were  constantly  taking  place,  followed  by 
 noxious  vapours  rismg  from  the  seething  mass,  and 
 accompanied  by  little  trickling  streams  of  water  and 
 brio,ht  air-bubbles. 
 
 The  island  of  Trinidad  is  one  of  the  most  thinly 
 peopled  of  the  Antilles.  Although  very  little  smaller  in 
 size  than  Porto  Eico,  it  contains  only  one-fourth  of  the 
 popidation  of  that  productive  island.  A census  taken  in 
 1881  gave  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  as  153,128. 
 Its  surface  consists  chiefly  of  fertile  plains  and  valleys 
 for  the  most  part  still  covered  with  luxuriant  forest.  The 
 island  is  traversed  by  three  liilly  ranges,  the  highest  of 
 
TRINIDAD. 
 
 187 
 
 ■which  runs  near  the  northern  coast,  towards  which  it 
 descends  rather  precipitously,  whilst  sloping  gradually  on 
 the  opposite  side  towards  the  interior.  The  highest  point 
 to  which  these  ranges  attain  scarcely  exceeds  3000  feet. 
 Between  them  lie  a series  of  highly  fertile,  well-watered 
 valleys,  which,  in  some  cases,  are  nearly  enclosed  by 
 transverse  ridges  connecting  the  main  chains.  The  forests 
 are  tenanted  by  the  same  species  and  genera  of  animals 
 as  the  mainland  of  South  America.  Here  we  meet,  among 
 the  monkey  tribe,  with  the  frolicsome  Sapajous  {Gebi)  and 
 the  stentorian  Howlers  {Mycetes),  which  we  look  for  in 
 vain  in  the  other  islands  of  the  Antilles ; and  with  these 
 forms  are  associated  sloths,  ant-eaters,  armadillos,  and 
 other  mammals  of  the  continent.  The  beauty  of  the 
 tropical  forms  of  vegetation  has  been  well  pourtrayed  l)y 
 the  facile  pen  of  Charles  Kingsley,  in  the  narrative  of  his 
 ■visit  to  Trinidad,  published  under  the  title  of  At  Last. 
 One  of  the  most  glorious  features  is  the  frequency  of 
 blossoming  forest  trees  of  great  height,  whose  crowns  at 
 certain  seasons  become  vast  domes  of  large  brilliantly- 
 coloured  flowers.  Groves  of  cacao,  with  the  flowers  and 
 the  large  lemon-coloured  fruit  hanging  from  the  trunks 
 and  branches  of  the  trees,  and  vast  thickets  of  feathery 
 bamboos,  vary  in  many  places  the  monotony  of  the  “ high- 
 woods  while  an  infinite  diversity  of  bushy  melastomas, 
 with  their  elegantly-veined  leaves,  myrtles,  dwarf  palm- 
 trees,  and  large  glossy-leaved  Heliconim,  form  a luxuriant 
 imdergrowth,  lining  everywhere  the  forest  paths. 
 
 Although  Trinidad  suffered,  together  with  the  other 
 British  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  from  the  commercial 
 and  social  consequences  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  it  has 
 been  quicker  than  some  of  them  to  recover  its  former 
 prosperity ; a circumstance  due  chiefly  to  the  large  im- 
 portation it  has  encouraged  of  Coolie  labourers.  Its  posi- 
 tion near  the  mouth  of  the  Oriuoco — the  great  navigable- 
 
188 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TKAVEL. 
 
 stream  •which  gives  access  to  a vast  interior  region  of  the 
 South  American  continent,  the  resources  of  'which  are  only 
 just  beginning  to  he  develojied — offers  great  prospective 
 advantages ; thus  it  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most 
 valuable  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  West  Indies. 
 
1 . 
 I ' 
 
Coquuitvo 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 IXDKX 
 
 TO 
 
 CIIAFTKKS  AND 
 
 Kiranple,  IliKl’  111.  5,G,X^T1'I3, fte 
 
 described  under  Giapter  Hare,  Sections  fbte  it  Ssr, 
 and  Chcqitcr  fifteen . Sections  One  to  Thirteen . 
 
 ALVP 
 
 SECTIOXS 
 
MOUTHS  OF  THE  AMAZONS. 
 
 SOUTH  AMEEICA. 
 
 CHAPTEE  I. 
 
 OUTLINES  OF  THE  COAST. 
 
 1.  Points  of  Piesemblancc  between  the  three  Southern 
 Continents. 
 
 The  South  American  Continent,  stretching  soutlnvards 
 from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  presents  a solid,  compact 
 mass  of  land,  in  one  important  respect  closely  resembhng 
 the  northern  half  of  the  New  World.  For  here  also  a long- 
 strip  of  the  coast  faces  the  north,  thence  from  about  the 
 5 th  degree  S.  latitude  gradually  tapering  to  Cape  Horn 
 at  the  extreme  end  of  Patagonia.  Its  configuration  also 
 offers  in  some  other  respects  a striking  similarity  to  the 
 African  and  Austrahan  continents,  aU  three  looking  as  if 
 they  were  almost  cast  in  one  mould.  Each  of  them  °comes 
 to  a point  eastwards,  though  that  of  South  America,  Cape  S. 
 
190  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 Eoqiie,  at  5°  27'  S.  lat.  and  35°  20'  E.  long.,  is  consider- 
 ably flattened.  Moreover,  the  north-western  seaboards 
 of  all  three  bulge  out  more  or  less,  a feature  which  is 
 however  least  apparent  in  South  America,  whose  greatest 
 length  is  found  in  a northerly  and  southerly  direction. 
 Lastly,  all  three  grow  narrow  towards  the  south,  this 
 feature  being  most  conspicuous  iu  the  case  of  South 
 America. 
 
 2.  Continuity  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Coast-lines. 
 
 The  contour  of  this  continent  presents  the  same  un- 
 broken continuity  that  we  have  already  observed  in  Africa, 
 and  shall  again  meet  with  in  Australia.  Very  striking  is 
 the  absence  of  peninsulas,  for  such  feeble  attempts  as  the 
 peninsular  projections  of  Guajira,  Paraguana,  and  Paria, 
 on  the  north  coast,  St.  Josef  on  the  east,  and  Tres  Montes 
 on  the  western  seaboard  of  Patagonia,  scarcely  call  for 
 serious  consideration.  Along  the  north  coast,  including 
 the  northern  seaboards  of  the  United  States  of  Columbia, 
 Venezuela,  the  three  Guianas,  and  the  empire  of  Brazil, 
 the  only  noteworthy  bays  or  bights  are  the  gulfs  of  Darien, 
 Venezuela,  with  its  sack-like  continuation  inland,  the 
 lake  of  Maracaybo,  and  Paria,  almost  rendered  a land- 
 locked sheet  of  water  by  the  British  island  of  Trinidad. 
 But  the  most  important  inlet  on  the  north  coast  is  un- 
 doubtedly the  great  estuary  of  the  Amazons,  whose  real 
 size  is  considerably  disguised  on  the  maps  by  the  large 
 island  of  Johannes  or  Marajo,  Ijdng  at  its  mouth.  This 
 estuary,  and  in  fact  all  the  broad  rivers  and  channels  of 
 the  Amazons,  na\igable  by  sea-going  vessels  for  hundreds  of 
 miles  inland,  ought  justly  to  be  reckoned  equivalent  to  the 
 same  amount  of  indented  coast-line  in  other  continents. 
 
 There  are  of  course  several  other  bights  and  projections 
 on  the  north  coast,  all  duly  named  on  the  maps,  but  none 
 
THE  SEAHOAED. 
 
 191 
 
 of  them  call  for  special  mention  here.  StiU.  less  varied 
 in  its  outlines  is  the  east  coast  of  South  America,  or  at 
 least  such  portions  of  it  as  belong  to  Brazil  and  the  Ee- 
 puhEc  of  Uruguay.  Here  there  is  nothing  to  break  the 
 uniformity  of  the  coast-line  except  a few  small  hays,  the 
 most  noted  of  which  are  that  of  AE  Saints  at  Bahia,  and 
 that  of  Eio  de  Janeiro.  Along  the  extreme  southern 
 coast  of  Brazil,  that  is,  in  the  province  of  Eio  Grande  do 
 Sul,  we  meet  with  lagoon  formations,  the  largest  of  wliich 
 is  the  Laguna  de  los  Patos,  penetrating  far  inland. 
 
 3.  The  Southern  Seaboard. 
 
 More  varied  in  outline  is  the  southern  continuation  of 
 tins  coast,  where  lies  the  vast  basin  of  the  Eiver  Plate, 
 flanked  on  either  side  by  the  cities  of  Monte  Video  and 
 Buenos  Ayres.  This,  however,  cannot  be  regarded  as  an 
 estuary  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  but  merely  as  a 
 spacious  inlet  in  the  coast,  intercepting  the  com’se  of  the 
 Parana  and  the  Uruguay.  Similar  bights,  such  as  the 
 Bahia  Blanca,  the  gulf  of  San  Matias,  and  that  of  St. 
 George,  occur  all  along  the  Patagonian  coast,  but  these  in 
 all  cases  are  the  recipients  of  insignificant  streams  only. 
 
 The  whole  north-easterly  and  easterly  seaboard  of 
 South  America  is  free  from  coral-reef  formations,  and,  with 
 the  exception  of  Trinidad,  is  destitute  of  islands  until  we 
 reach  the  extreme  southern  point.  Here  the  mainland 
 is  broken  up  into  the  arclupelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
 while  eastwards  from  the  coast  lies  the  group  of  the 
 Falkland  Islands,  the  Patagonian  fauna  and  flora  of  which 
 clearly  show  that  they  belong  to  the  South  American  system, 
 from  which  they  are  separated  only  by  a shallow  sea. 
 
 But  it  is  otherwise  with  the  islands  of  South  Georgia  and 
 Aurora,  situated  still  farther  eastwards,  and  which  are 
 e^ddently  purely  oceanic  islands. 
 
192 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 As  large  islands  usually  occur  only  on  the  eastern  sea- 
 board of  coutiueuts,  it  need  create  no  surprise  that  none 
 such  are  found  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 
 Those,  however,  that  lie  along  the  Patagonian  and  Chilian 
 shores  are  remarkable  for  the  unmistakable  fiord-like 
 character  of  the  channels  which  separate  them  from  one 
 another,  and  from  the  mainland,  thus  breaking  up  the 
 coast  into  a number  of  islands  and  peninsulas.  Such 
 fragmentary  formations  are  to  be  recognised  in  the  whole 
 series  of  islands  stretching  along  the  west  coast  from  the 
 Strait  of  Magellan,  as  far  northward  as  the  42d  degree 
 of  south  latitude.  Chiloe,  the  northernmost  of  these, 
 belonging  to  the  Eepublic  of  Chile,  and  famous  for  its 
 prodigious  coal  deposits,  though  not  the  largest,  is  the  only 
 one  of  them  possessmg  the  least  importance.  It  may  he 
 remarked  that  in  North  America,  Eiu’ope,  and  New  Zea- 
 land also,  fiords  occur  exclusively  in  the  colder  latitudes, 
 rendering  plausible  the  h^'pothesis  wliich  has  been  ad- 
 vanced to  explain  their  origin — namely,  that  they  have 
 been  scooped  out  by  the  action  of  ice  dmrng  the  glacial 
 epoch  of  geologists. 
 
 4.  The  Pacific  Coast-line. 
 
 Northwards  from  Chiloe  the  Pacific  seaboard  stretches 
 almost  in  a straight  line  as  far  as  the  20  th  parallel  of 
 south  latitude.  As  far  as  and  a little  beyond  the  tropic  of 
 Capricorn,  this  rocky  coast  belongs  to  Chile,  then  for  a 
 short  distance  to  the  Eepublic  of  BoLi\da,  and  thenceforth  to 
 Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia. 
 
 At  the  Peru^dan  seaport  of  Arica  the  land  begins  to 
 bulge  out  westwards,  and  continues  to  do  so  till  beyond 
 the  equator,  without  however  otherwise  presenting  any 
 further  change  in  its  general  features.  Besides  the  bay 
 
THE  PACIFIC  COAST-LIKE. 
 
 193 
 
 of  Panama,  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil  is  perhaps  the  only  one 
 deserving  to  be  so  named,  and  even  the  bay  of  Panama 
 itself  belongs  to  a large  extent  to  the  hook-shaped 
 isthmus  connecting  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  American 
 continent. 
 
194  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL, 
 
 CHAPTER  II. 
 
 GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  SOUTH  AilERICAN  MAINLAND. 
 
 1.  Distribution  of  the  Mountain  Ranges. 
 
 The  outlines  of  the  South  American  continent,  as  here 
 briefly  sketched,  are  entirely  independent  of  its  general 
 configuration,  or  of  the  vertical  arrangement  of  its  surface, 
 by  which  we  xmderstand  the  various  elevations  and  de- 
 pressions of  the  land,  according  as  it  rises  into  mountains 
 and  lofty  uplands,  or  sinks  into  low-lying  plains.  At  the 
 same  time  it  will  be  readily  admitted  that  the  direction 
 of  mountain  ranges  cannot  be  without  influence  on  the 
 leading  outlines  of  lands  and  continents.  This  is  clearly 
 seen  in  South  America,  which  is  even  more  sharply  con- 
 fined between  highlands  than  the  North  American  main- 
 land. From  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Wollaston  Island, 
 at  Cape  Horn,  its  western  seaboard  is  bordered  by  a 
 double  and  even  triple  range  of  the  Andes,  as  is  also  the 
 case  with  the  north  coast  confining  on  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
 The  region  lying  between  the  two  giant  streams  of  the 
 Orinoco  and  the  Amazons  in  the  north  is  also  of  a 
 mountainous  character,  while  we  have  lastly  the  Brazilian 
 highlands,  whose  eastern  limits  converge  upon  the  Atlantic 
 Ocean.  But  from  the  River  Plate  southwards  we  meet 
 mainly  with  wide  plains. 
 
 The  topographic  conformation  of  South  America  sug- 
 gests many  views  that  will  receive  fresh  support  from  a 
 consideration  of  the  configuration  of  North  America.  The 
 
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THE  AHDES. 
 
 195 
 
 most  striking  feature  of  the  southern  half  of  the  New 
 World  is  unquestionably  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes, 
 attaining  the  highest  elevation  not  only  of  South  America 
 but  of  the  whole  continent,  and  including  many  volcanoes 
 stni  in  full  activity.  This  gigantic  chain  runs  parallel 
 with  the  western  seaboard,  and  so  close  to  the  coast  that 
 the  lowlands  on  its  west  side  almost  disappear  when  com- 
 pared with  the  broad  plains  spreading  eastwards  towards 
 the  Atlantic, 
 
 2.  The  Andes. 
 
 As  all  more  recent  mountain  formations  have  been 
 raised  along  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  one  feels  disposed  d 
 friori  to  look  on  the  Andes  as  amongst  the  latest  iq^heav- 
 ings  of  the  land.  This  conclusion  is  further  justified  by 
 the  almost  straight  line  of  the  west  coast,  a feature  which 
 here,  as  elsewhere,  is  almost  invariably  an  indication  of 
 upheaval.  As  the  Eocky  Mountains  of  North  America 
 are  younger  than  the  more  easterly  Alleghanies,  so  are 
 the  highlands  of  Guiana  and  of  Brazil  far  more  ancient 
 upheavals  than  the  Andes,  situated  further  to  the  west, 
 and  chiefly  of  volcanic  origin. 
 
 The  Andes  are  specially  distinguished  by  their  strictly 
 parallel  lines,  and  by  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the 
 three  Peru'vdan  ranges,  where  every  divergence  from  the 
 main  direction  is  repeated  in  all  three  systems.  No  coun- 
 tenance, however,  can  be  given  to  the  theoretic  views  of 
 former  geographical  works,  representing  the  Andes  as  a 
 series  of  crests,  intersecting  valleys,  ravines,  and  streams 
 flowing  down  on  both  sides.  This  description  is  certainly 
 inapplicable  to  the  middle  section  of  the  Cordilleras,  and 
 very  probably  also  to  their  northern  portions.  Here  there 
 are  neither  watersheds  nor  sierras,  the  land  forming  an 
 enormous  plateau  from  8000  to  11,000  feet  above  the 
 sea-level,  and  stretching  east  and  west  for  distances  of 
 
196  COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 several  days’  journey.  The  mountains,  mostly  extinct 
 volcanoes,  do  not  form  regular  ranges,  but  are  scattered  dis- 
 connectedly over  the  surface,  while  the  intervening  plains 
 often  present  the  appearance  of  being  perfectly  level. 
 Neither  are  there  any  gorges,  and  these  elevated  uplands 
 might  be  traversed  everj^here  east  and  west  but  for  the 
 absence  of  water  stations.  Gorges,  or  narrow  ravines,  are 
 found  in  the  Andes,  but  only  on  their  eastern  declmties, 
 where  they  have  been  scooped  out  by  the  action  of  the 
 streams,  fed  by  the  copious  precipitation  from  the  cloud- 
 bearing winds  from  the  east. 
 
 The  former  theories,  representing  the  Cordilleras  as 
 connected  uninterruptedly  with  the  North  American 
 ranges  by  means  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the 
 Mexican  highlands,  and  thus  extending  for  a distance  of 
 9000  miles  from  Cape  Horn  northwards  to  the  Arctic 
 Ocean,  we  have  already  shown  to  be  pure  fancy,  and 
 further  evidence  of  this  will  appear  in  the  following 
 chapter. 
 
 3.  The  Eastern  Slopes  and  the  Three  Great  River  Systems. 
 
 In  the  case  of  all  recent  mountain  formations,  it  is 
 always  necessary  to  distinguish  between  their  seaward  and 
 landward  slopes.  The  seaward  slopes  of  the  Andes,  like 
 those  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  face  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
 here  also  is  repeated  the  phenomenon  that  these  seaward 
 slopes  are  considerably  more  precipitous  than  those  facing- 
 inland.  The  latter  are  seemingly  diminished  in  height  by 
 elevated  plateaus,  or  raised  terraces,  falling  away  towards 
 Brazil  and  the  regions  of  La  Plata.  This  gradually  sloping 
 character  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains  is  magnifi- 
 cently displayed  in  the  EepubHc  of  Ecuador,  where 
 numerous  large  tributaries  of  the  Amazons,  such  as  the 
 Napo  and  the  Pastaza,  have  scooped  out  deep  valleys 
 
THE  WATER  SYSTEMS. 
 
 197 
 
 through  hiUs  and  highlands,  which  gradually  become  lower 
 imtil  they  merge  into  the  great  eastern  plain.  Farther 
 south,  on  the  other  hand,  on  the  upper  waters  of  the 
 HuaUaga,  in  Peru,  the  most  eastern  ridge  of  the  Andes 
 descends  precipitously  into  the  plain.  On  these  terraces 
 are  developed  the  three  gigantic  river  systems  of  South 
 America — those  of  the  Orinoco,  the  Maranon  or  Amazons, 
 and  the  Plata.  The  two  first  flow  parallel  to  each  other 
 from  west  to  east,  being  separated  by  the  inter\'ening 
 mountain  range  of  the  Sierra  de  Parime,  though  not  so 
 completely  as  to  prevent  the  Casiquiare  from  effecting  a 
 j\mction  between  these  two  water  systems. 
 
 The  Plata,  or,  more  properly,  the  Parana,  pursuing 
 mainly  a southern  course,  rises  in  the  elevated  table-lands 
 of  Brazil.  Its  affluents  spread  out  like  a fan  over  the 
 central  regions  of  the  mainland,  so  that  in  this  river 
 system  are  concentrated  streams  such  as  the  Eio  Grande, 
 rising  near  the  east  coast,  and  the  Pilcomayo,  whose 
 source  lies  so  far  west  as  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
 
 The  interior  of  these  Brazilian  and  Bolivian  regions 
 has  been  far  too  insufficiently  explored  to  enable  us  to 
 form  a correct  notion  of  the  ramifications  of  the  lofty 
 ridges  enclosing  this  vast  river  basin.  In  Eastern 
 Brazil,  however,  there  is  clearly  to  he  distinguished  a 
 triple  system  of  serras,  as  the  mountain  ranges  are  here 
 called,  the  most  easterly  forming  a coast  chain  along  the 
 Atlantic  seaboard.  These  serras  in  the  interior  are  con- 
 nected by  an  extensive  table-land,  occupying  most  of  the 
 southern  provinces  of  the  empire ; to  the  north  they  run 
 between  the  valleys  of  the  great  southern  tributaries  of 
 the  Amazons,  declining  in  height  as  they  approach  the 
 main  stream  of  that  mighty  river  system.  Similar  arrange- 
 ments are  constantly  met  with;  as  in  Venezuela,  where 
 the  north  coast,  like  the  east  coast  of  Brazil,  is  flanked 
 by  a Cordillera,  between  wliich  and  the  above-mentioned 
 
198  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Sierra  de  Parime  lies  the  broad  valley  of  the  Orinoco 
 system. 
 
 A similar  coast  range  may  be  said  to  exist  even  in  I’eru, 
 where  the  principal  elevations  of  the  Andes  are  not  far 
 removed  from  the  shore  : and  this  is  itself  nothing  hut  a 
 repetition  of  the  spectacle  presented  by  the  configuration 
 of  California,  where  we  also  find  a coast  range  lying 
 between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Pacific  seaboard 
 
 4.  Oth^r  River  Systems — Absence  of  Lakes. 
 
 Between  the  second  and  third  of  the  above-mentioned 
 eastern  Brazilian  serras  lies  the  basin  of  the  Bio  San 
 Francisco,  which  follows  mainly  a northern  course,  and  is 
 unconnected  with  any  other  South  American  river  system. 
 This  continent  has  many  other  such  independent  river 
 systems,  hut  none  of  them  approach  that  of  the  San  Fran- 
 cisco in  importance.  It  has,  however,  a not  inconsider- 
 able north-western  rival  in  the  river  Magdalena,  deve- 
 loped in  the  Andes  and  the  parallel  chains,  and  flowing 
 through  the  United  States  of  Colombia  mto  the  Caribbean 
 Sea. 
 
 Very  striking  is  the  dearth  of  fresh-water  lakes  in 
 South  America.  In  the  north  they  are  limited  to  Lake 
 Valencia,  in  Venezuela,  and  the  lakelet  of  Amucu ; in  the 
 Peru’sian  and  Bolman  Andes  to  Titicaca,  connected  by 
 means  of  the  river  Desaguadero  with  the  smaller  lake 
 AuUagas  farther  south.  A careful  scrutiny  of  the  map 
 win  doubtless  enable  us  to  detect  the  existence  of  a not 
 inconsiderable  number  of  other  small  basins  of  still  water, 
 especially  in  the  Orinoco  region,  and  in  the  valley  of 
 the  Amazons,  as  well  as  even  on  the  Boli-\dan  table-lands. 
 None  of  them,  however,  are  of  sufficient  size  to  call  for 
 special  mention,  and  in  the  plains  of  the  great  rivers, 
 where  extensive  so-caUed  lakes  occur,  they  are  to  he  con- 
 
THE  DESERT  OF  ATACAMA. 
 
 199 
 
 sidered  as  expansions  of  the  river-beds  themselves  rather 
 than  as  true  lakes. 
 
 But,  when  we  reach  the  40  th  parallel  of  south  lati- 
 tude, we  again  meet  with  a series  of  lakes  in  the  higher 
 valleys,  and  along  the  flanks  of  the  southern  Cordilleras  ; 
 these  are  situated  in  the  same  region,  and  may  in  fact  be 
 ascribed  to  the  same  glacial  causes,  as  the  already-described 
 Patagonian  flords. 
 
 5.  The,  Atacama  Desert  and  the  Quehradas. 
 
 It  has  been  remarked  that  an  absence  of  fresh-water 
 lakes  is  everywhere  observable  in  countries  swept  by  dry 
 winds.  But  a dearth  of  copious  rainfalls  also  produces 
 steppes  and  wastes,  of  the  latter  of  which  South  America 
 possesses  one  only — the  desert  of  Atacama,  on  the  Boli- 
 vian coast.  Although  within  the  zone  of  the  south-east 
 trades,  the  whole  coast-district  of  Peru  and  Northern 
 Chil4  lacks  the  moisture  necessary  for  vegetation,  because 
 these  currents  of  air  are  deprived  of  all  their  humidity 
 in  crossing  the  Andes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  "winds 
 from  the  Pacific  blowing  from  a cool  sea,  and  being  of  low 
 temperature,  their  scanty  vapour  is  dissipated  by  the  heat 
 radiated  from  the  land,  without  leaving  a drop  of  moisture 
 to  refreshen  the  thirsty  soil.  The  desert  of  Atacama  itself 
 seems  to  have  risen  above  the  sea-level  only  within  a 
 recent  geological  epoch,  and  Professor  Philippi  of  Santiago 
 even  asks  the  question  whether  in  former  times  rain  was 
 not  more  abundant  there  than  is  now  the  case.  If  so, 
 this  circumstance  might  perhaps  supply  a fresh  argument 
 to  those  who  maintain  that  there  has  been  a perceptible 
 diminution  of  the  rainfall  generally  within  the  memory  of 
 man. 
 
 As  already  observed,  there  are  no  valleys  in  the  ordi- 
 nary sense  on  these  elevated  plateaus ; but  in  their  place 
 
200  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 we  find  a considerable  number  of  the  so-called  qucbradas, 
 often  from  500  to  1000  feet  deep,  and  with  almost  per- 
 pendicular walls,  herein  contrasting  with  the  cajoncs  of 
 the  central  and  southern  Chilian  Cordilleras.  These  que- 
 bradas  have  been  evidently  formed  by  running  water,  as 
 are  the  gorges  of  similar  nature  through  which  rivers  now 
 flow  down  the  eastern  flanks  of  the  Andes  near  Cuzco, 
 so  that  it  becomes  impossible  to  account  for  their  formation 
 without  supposing  a greater  rainfall  than  these  regions  are 
 now  blessed  with.  Doubtless  we  have  a regular  downpour 
 in  this  desert  every  twenty  or  fifty  years  or  so,  but  nothing 
 at  all  sufficient  to  explain  the  existence  of  these  quebradas. 
 Hence  one  feels  strongly  inclined  to  beheve  that  in  former 
 times  it  must  have  rained  much  more  frequently  and 
 abimdantly  than  at  present. 
 
 Tills  supposition  is  perhaps  confirmed  by  an  interest- 
 ing fact  in  botanical  geography.  In  the  Eepublic  of 
 Ecuador,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Peru,  there  would 
 seem  to  grow  several  kinds  of  plants  which  are  found  also 
 in  Chile,  farther  south,  but  nowhere  in  the  intervening 
 zone.  The  above-mentioned  savant,  Dr.  Philippi,  quotes 
 as  cases  in  point  the  Bcrheris  Darwini,  G^Lunera  scaba,  and 
 the  JDesfontainea  spinosa. 
 
 In  the  animal  kingdom  we  meet  with  an  analogous 
 fact.  The  Ccrvus  antiscnsis  of  the  Peruvian  and  BoHvian 
 Andes,  fully  described  by  d’Orbigny  and  Tschudi,  seems 
 to  be  identical  with  the  Gucmul  or  Cervus  chilensis,  which 
 begins  to  show  himself  ia  central  Cldl4,  becoming  more 
 numerous  farther  south  along  the  western  slopes  of  the 
 Andes,  between  Chiloe  and  the  Strait  of  IMagellan. 
 
 It  appears  almost  impossible  to  explain  the  distribu- 
 tion of  this  species  of  deer,  and  of  the  above-mentioned 
 plants,  if  we  assume  the  existence  of  the  wide  rainless 
 and  herbless  desert  of  Atacama  when  they  first  came  into 
 being.  The  three  plants  of  northern  Peru  and  Ecuador 
 
SEPAEATION  OF  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  SPECIES.  201 
 
 may  doubtless  not  be  identical  with,  but  only  varieties 
 of,  the  same  species  as  those  of  Chile,  and  the  Peruvian 
 Bcsfontainea  especially  would  seem  to  be  considerably 
 different  from  that  of  Chil4  spoken  of  by  Dunal  as  the 
 Desfontainea  Hookeri.  But,  even  while  allowing  for  such 
 differences,  it  is  still  very  remarkable  to  find  animal  and 
 vegetable  species,  closely  resembling  each  other,  in  two 
 remote  regions  entirely  separated  one  from  the  other  by 
 an  intervening  desert,  which  it  is  impossible  for  them  now 
 to  pass. 
 
202  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  III. 
 
 THE  CORDILLERAS  OF  THE  ANDES. 
 
 1.  Extent  and  Main  DivisioTis. 
 
 A MOUNTAIN  range  stretching  for  a distance  of  4500 
 miles,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  must 
 naturally  he  of  a very  varied  character,  and  must  accord- 
 ingly be  dmded  into  several  distinct  portions  in  order  to 
 give  an  adequate  survey  of  the  whole.  In  the  formation 
 of  this  vast  range  three  main  sections  are  clearly  to  be 
 distinguished  : — The  solitary  chain  of  the  Southern  Andes  ; 
 the  double  chain  of  the  Central  Andes,  with  their  elevated 
 upland  valleys,  groups  of  connected  hills,  and  mountain 
 lakes  ; lastly,  the  diverging  Northern  Andes,  with  their 
 low-l}Tng  valleys  and  detached  elevations. 
 
 2.  The  Patagonian  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  Mountain 
 Systems. 
 
 The  single  range  of  the  Southern  Andes  begins  to  be 
 better  known  as  it  enters  Chilian  territory,  its  southern 
 or  Patagonian  section  being  stiU,  for  the  most  part,  unex- 
 plored. Hitherto  the  glacier -forming  mountains  that 
 traverse  the  arcliipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  were  looked 
 on  as  belonging  to  the  western  system.  In  this  case  the 
 dreaded  Cape  Horn,  with  its  bare  black  bluffs,  would  form 
 the  extreme  southern  end  of  the  Corddleras,  in  55°  55' 
 S.  lat.,  and  68°  6'  W.  long.  As  the  “ Land  of  Fire”  will  be 
 separately  passed  in  review  farther  on,  it  will  suffice  here 
 
MOUNT  SARMIENTO, 
 
 203 
 
 to  remark,  that  none  of  its  mountains,  as  far  as  they  have 
 yet  been  surveyed,  attain  an  elevation  of  7500  feet. 
 
 SIOCXT  SAKMIENTO. 
 
 Amongst  them,  however,  is  one  of  the  most  imposing 
 peaks  of  the  whole  Andean  range — IMount  Sarmiento — 
 
204  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 which  rears  its  spotless  cone  of  snow  to  a height  of  6910 
 feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  borders  of  Cockhurn  Channel, 
 not  far  from  the  open  Pacific.  The  beauty  of  this  peak 
 is  enhanced  by  the  numerous  blue-coloured  glaciers  which 
 descend  from  the  snov’y  cap  through  the  dusky  woods  of 
 the  momitain’s  base  to  the  sea,  looking,  as  Darwin  ex- 
 presses it,  like  so  many  frozen  Niagaras. 
 
 Beyond  the  Strait  of  Magellan  the  Andean  chain  is 
 assmned  to  continue  its  course  northwards  through  Pata- 
 gonia, keeping  close  to  the  west  coast,  hut  at  a somewhat 
 lower  elevation.  It  would,  however,he  perhaps  more  correct 
 to  say  that  neither  the  liills  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  nor  the 
 Patagonian  coast  range  form  part  of  the  Cordilleras,  and 
 to  regard  them  as  independent  highlands,  at  least  until 
 geological  research  has  shown  them  to  be  connected  vdth 
 the  Andes  properly  so  called. 
 
 As  for  the  scarcely-known  Patagonian  Cordilleras, 
 they  would  seem  to  consist  of  a series  of  volcanic  peaks 
 sprmging  from  the  lofty  table-land  of  a steep  coast,  inter- 
 sected with  fiords,  and  worn  by  the  constant  action  of  the 
 ocean  waves.  But  it  may  he  doubted  whether  these  high 
 peaks  form  a regularly-connected  sierra,  while  it  is  certain 
 that  between  44°  and  43°  S.  latitude,  they  are  cut  off  from 
 the  mass  of  the  Cordilleras  proper  by  a lacuna  or  break, 
 where  a small  stream  flows  down  from  the  east  side  of 
 Patagonia  into  the  Corcovado  gulf,  on  the  Pacific  sea- 
 board. The  line  of  the  real ' Andes  would  thus  seem  to 
 begin  somewhere  about  the  parallel  of  the  southern  end  of 
 Chiloe,  so  that  to  them  would  belong  the  volcanoes  of  Cor- 
 covado and  Minchinmadiva,  the  latter  of  which  is  usually 
 described  as  the  highest  summit  of  the  Patagonian  range. 
 
 3.  The  Chilian  Range. 
 
 The  single  Cordillera,  which  may  briefly,  though  not 
 
THE  CHILIAN  CORDILLERA. 
 
 205 
 
 quite  correctly,  be  called  the  Chilian  Eange,  forms  the 
 frontier  line  betwen  the  two  Eepublics  of  Chile  and  La 
 Plata,  and  even  in  its  southern  portions  betrays  a some- 
 what varied  character.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
 volcano  of  Osorno,  and  reaching  as  far  as  that  of  Yil- 
 larica,  lies  the  already-mentioned  lacustrine  region,  stretch- 
 ing along  both  sides  of  the  mountains.  The  most  con- 
 siderable of  the  lakes  here  situated  are  that  of  Nahuel- 
 huapi  in  the  east,  and  in  the  west  those  of  Llanquihue, 
 Eanco,  and  Einihue ; and  the  streams  flowing  out  of  them 
 turn,  some  westwards  to  the  Pacific,  some  eastwards  to  the 
 Atlantic.  In  Lake  Nahuel-huapi  rises  the  river  Limay,  a 
 tributary  of  the  Eio  Negro,  which  crosses  the  whole  width 
 of  Patagonia,  and  discharges  into  the  Atlantic.  The  out- 
 flow of  Lake  Einihue,  on  the  contrary,  is  in  connection  with 
 the  Eio  Valdivia,  disemboguing  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
 
 For  the  development  of  a possible  future  railway 
 system  across  the  Andes,  the  table-land  formation  of  these 
 highlands  will  be  found  of  great  advantage. 
 
 Farther  north  the  Chilian  Cordillera  retires  more  and 
 more  from  the  coast,  lea^dng  a long  strip  of  land  descend- 
 ing in  terraces  to  the  Pacific  seaboard,  and  forming  the 
 Eepublic  of  Chil4.  This  Chilian  Cordillera  attains  a con- 
 siderable elevation,  its  central  section  being  some  13,000 
 feet  above  the  sea-level,  while  the  highest  summits,  which 
 rapidly  increase  as  they  proceed  northwards,  reach  22,297 
 feet  in  the  Cerro  del  Mercedario,  and  in  Aconcagua, 
 where  more  recent  and  reliable  explorations  have  failed  to 
 discover  any  volcanoes,  they  rise  to  a height  of  22,415 
 feet.  But  the  passes  leading  over  this  range  eastwards 
 to  the  Argentine  Eepublic  are  described  as  unusually 
 difficult,  none  of  them,  with  the  exception  of  the  above- 
 mentioned  interruptions,  being  lower  than  7200  feet 
 above  the  sea,  while  several  are  found  to  have  an  eleva- 
 tion of  even  13,000  feet. 
 
206 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 After  about  tbe  35tb  parallel  the  Andes  split  into  a 
 double,  and  in  tbe  pro\dnce  of  Aconcagua  even  into  a 
 triple  range.  Their  northern  branches  embrace  the  lofty 
 plateaus  of  Catamarca  and  Tucuman,  their  more  southern 
 ramifications  the  table-lands  of  Despoblado  and  Yavi. 
 
 All  the  eastern  slopes  of  this  section  are  gradual  and 
 terrace-like,  and  relieved  with  a number  of  romantic  hilly 
 landscapes,  many  of  them  abounding  in  mineral  wealth. 
 "Where  they  face  the  Pampas  of  the  Argentine  Eepubhc 
 they  are  principally  of  igneous  formation,  and  numerous 
 extinct  volcanoes  are  found  between  Mendoza  and  the 
 Planchon  Pass ; basalt,  lava,  pumice-stone,  and  volcanic 
 ashes  abound  on  every  side ; but  stratified  rocks  are  also 
 seen,  limestone  and  sandstone  occurring  in  various  places. 
 j\Iany  of  the  mountains  consist  of  a soft  rock,  in  char- 
 acter somewhat  like  chalky  clay,  which,  from  exposme  to 
 the  air,  is  very  much  worn,  assuming  in  many  cases  fan- 
 tastic shapes  Kke  the  Gothic  turrets  of  some  old  church  or 
 castle.  The  variety  of  colouring  in  the  soils  which  com- 
 pose the  mountain  slopes  is  sometimes  most  striking  and 
 beautiful — blue,  red,  yellow,  and  white  meeting  in  strong 
 contrast,  and  producing  a wonderful  effect.  This  is,  in  a 
 great  measure,  due  to  the  almost  total  absence  of  vegetation, 
 which  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  this  part  of  the  Andes, 
 •except  in  the  valleys  and  near  water.  Along  the  eastern 
 slopes,  approaching  from  IMendoza,  not  a tree  is  to  be  seen, 
 except  an  occasional  one  in  the  most  sheltered  spots,  but 
 a coarse  kind  of  brushwood  is  common  in  many  places. 
 
 4.  The  Bolivian  Andes. 
 
 Stni  farther  north  the  Andes  enter  the  territories  of 
 Boli\fia  and  Peru,  which  are  intersected  by  four  main 
 ranges  in  this  region,  running  in  a somewhat  north- 
 westerly direction,  and  rising  above  the  line  of  perpetuaJ 
 
THE  BOLIVIAN  ANDES. 
 
 207 
 
 snow,  here  fixed  at  16,000  feet.  The  first  two  of  these 
 Cordilleras  are  characterised  by  round  outlines,  the  others 
 by  sharp,  jagged  crests,  such  as  are  described  as  sierras  or 
 “ saws.” 
 
 On  leaving  the  palm  and  banana  groves  of  the  low 
 lands,  and  ascending  the  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras,  we 
 observe  the  gradual  lowering  of  the  temperature,  and 
 corresponding  change  of  vegetation,  accompanied  by  a 
 change  also  of  the  climate,  which  here  varies,  so  to  say, 
 with  each  succeeding  zone.  Forest  trees  and  bushes 
 reach  as  high  as  5000  feet;  at  5000  feet  higher  we 
 attain  the  upper  limit  of  the  various  plants  of  the  Cactus 
 order,  mostly  of  the  same  genera  as  in  Mexico  or  Cali- 
 fornia, and  of  which  whole  forests  here  flourish.  The 
 wooden  stem  of  the  Cerei,  often  growing  to  a height  of 
 20  feet  and  upwards,  is  used  for  building  purposes 
 and  as  firewood ; wliile  the  Opuntiie  afford  sustenance  to 
 the  valuable  cocluneal  insect,  and  also  produce  the  deli- 
 cious Indian  fig,  here  called  Tunas.  Up  to  this  point 
 the  ordinary  North  American  and  European  vegetables 
 also  flourish,  besides  the  Alfa  or  Alfafa,  a sort  of  clover, 
 which  is  extensively  cultivated  by  means  of  artificial 
 irrigation,  and  serves  as  the  principal  fodder  for  horses, 
 mules,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Yet  between  the  months  of 
 May  and  July  the  water  freezes  here  to  the  thickness  of 
 an  inch  during  the  night,  while  at  midday  in  the  shade 
 there  is  an  average  temperature  of  55°  Fahr.  (during  the 
 rest  of  the  year  64°),  but  in  the  sun  110°  and  upwards. 
 
 This  great  disparity  between  the  temperature  in  the 
 shade  and  in  the  sun  is  everywhere  met  with  on  elevated 
 table-lands  at  a height  of  more  than  10,000  feet,  and  is 
 explained  by  the  rarefaction  and  dryness  of  the  atmo- 
 sphere, which,  unlike  damp  air,  is  unable  to  retain  and 
 diffuse  the  solar  heat,  whether  on  its  direct  passage  from 
 the  sun  or  reflected  from  the  ground. 
 
208 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  zone  beiv^een  10,000  and  13,000  feet  is  naturally 
 still  colder,  though  even  here  the  midday  sun  is  tolerably 
 fierce,  correspondmg  somewhat  with  that  of  the  Hudson’s 
 Bay  region  and  North  Europe  in  summer.  Amongst  the 
 plants  here  growing  vdld  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
 Quenua  tree,  the  representative  of  the  North  European 
 pine,  several  species  of  the  Tola,  a hard  resiniferous  shrub, 
 resembling  the  European  juniper,  the  Paja  hrava,  a short 
 soft  grass , and  at  the  extreme  limits  of  this  zone  the 
 Yareta,  a dense  resinous  moss,  covering  the  rocks  to  a 
 thickness  of  one  foot,  and  when  dried  serving  the  pur- 
 poses of  fuel. 
 
 The  Indians  residing  in  this  region  cultivate  nothing 
 but  a kind  of  bitter  potato,  the  Papa  tuque,  some  quinoa, 
 resembling  oirr  buckwheat,  and  cehada  or  barley,  which, 
 however,  does  not  ripen,  and  in  the  higher  zones  does  not 
 even  form  the  ear,  and  is  accordingly  used  only  as  fodder 
 for  the  cattle. 
 
 Above  15,000  feet  rise  the  crests  of  the  Cordilleras, 
 covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  here  organic  hfe  ceases 
 almost  entirely.  The  animal  kingdom,  owing  to  the 
 narrow  expanse  of  the  land,  is  little  developed  on  the 
 slopes  of  these  Cordilleras.  Birds  are  of  a larger  size 
 and  more  numerous  in  the  lower  regions,  always  excepting 
 the  condor,  wliich  prefers  the  higher  zones.  In  the  middle 
 and  upper  regions  we  find  the  guanaco  (huanaco)  or  wild 
 llama,  a representative  in  the  New  World  of  the  camel ; 
 the  gTey  sorro,  corresponding  in  the  same  way  with  the 
 European  and  Arctic  fox ; and  the  viscacha,  answering  to 
 the  various  species  of  European  hare. 
 
 5.  The  Peruvian  Ranges. 
 
 The  several  above-described  ramifications  of  the  Andes 
 pass  from  Bolivia  into  the  domain  of  the  Peruvian  Ee- 
 
THE  PEEUAHAN  RANGES. 
 
 209 
 
 public,  bordering  eastward  at  first  on  Bolivia,  and  farther 
 north  on  the  Empire  of  Brazil.  No  greater  contrast  can 
 well  be  conceived  than  the  two  neighbouring  regions  of 
 the  plain  of  the  Amazons  and  the  mountainous  part  of 
 Peru — a contrast  apparent  as  much  in  the  conformation 
 of  the  land  as  in  its  climate  and  natural  products.  The 
 first  presents  itself  as  a spacious,  hot,  loAv-lying  alluvial 
 region,  in  every  direction  traversed  by  great  streams,  in 
 which  a countless  multitude  of  the  most  varied  species  of 
 fish  disport  themselves.  It  is  a land  covered  with  virgin 
 forest,  laden  with  luxuriant  foliage  and  brilliant  blossom, 
 rich  in  resins,  birds,  and  wild  animals,  but  only  thinly 
 peopled  with  a few  hordes  of  savage  Indians,  struggling 
 for  existence  agamst  a too  exuberant  nature. 
 
 The  mountainous  part  of  Peru,  on  the  contrary,  though 
 of  less  extent,  presents  far  more  varied  features,  and 
 everywhere  reveals  the  traces  of  a thousand  historical 
 memories.  Its  Pacific  seaboard  forms  a long  arid  waste, 
 at  certain  intervals  intersected  by  narrow,  gneen,  oasis- 
 like river-vaUeys,  fertilised  by  the  short  rivers  resulting 
 from  the  melting  of  the  snow  on  the  gigantic  Cordil- 
 leras, which  rise  to  a majestic  elevation  at  but  a few 
 miles’  distance  from  the  rocky  shores  of  the  ocean. 
 
 In  these  favoured  valleys  and  plains  of  the  coast 
 country  are  situated  the  great  cities  of  Arequipa  and  Lima. 
 The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  climate  in  this 
 region  consists  in  a total  dearth  of  rain.  Long  intervals 
 of  time  succeed  each  other  without  a single  drop  falling 
 on  the  thirsty  soil,  and  showers  are  phenomena  as  rare 
 as  the  appearance  of  a comet  or  an  earthquake  in  our 
 latitudes.  Instead  of  the  tropical  rainy  season,  the  Peru- 
 vian wastes  are  refreshened  from  June  to  October  by 
 thick  mists,  affording  sufficient  moisture  for  the  growth 
 here  and  there  of  a Little  verdure,  which,  however,  is  again 
 burnt  up  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  on  the  first  bright  day. 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 6.  The  Interior  of  Peru — The  Montana. 
 
 The  interior  of  the  country  presents  a vast  table-land 
 ranging  from  11,000  to  14,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
 Peru  might  with  some  reason  be  named  the  American 
 Tibet.  The  plateau-land  is  bordered  on  one  side  by  the 
 great  and  unbroken  western  line  of  the  Cordilleras,  on  the 
 other  by  the  loftier  hut  less  connected  eastern  chain ; 
 the  snow-clad  peaks,  to  a spectator  at  sea,  glittering  like 
 silver  spires  on  the  eastern  horizon.  Here  are  situated 
 the  cold,  sterile,  cheerless,  and  uninhabitable  Dcqjoblados, 
 and  the  scarcely  less  extensive  Punas,  at  an  average  ele- 
 vation of  12,000  feet,  consisting  of  ’wretched  meado’o' 
 lands,  whose  scanty  vegetation  offers  hut  meagre  fare  to 
 the  llama  and  the  alpaca.  Here  also  are  situated  the 
 hill-encircled  holsones  or  closed  valleys,  in  which  we  meet 
 ■ndth  tlie  climate  and  products  of  the  temperate  zones,  and 
 where  formerly  flourished  the  mysterious  ci'^dlisation  of 
 the  Incas.  Here  also  lie  the  deeji,  narrow,  and  tropical 
 mountain  gorges  where  the  thousand  head-streams  of  the 
 Amazons  collect  their  waters  before  forcing  their  way  over 
 roaring  cataracts  and  through  the  dark  clefts  of  the  Andes 
 down  to  the  jilains  of  Brazil.  Lastly,  in  this  elevated 
 table-land  is  situated  the  famous  island-studded  lake  of 
 Titicaca,  almost  rivalling  Lake  Ontario  in  size,  bedded  in 
 the  hflls  at  a height  of  12,196  feet  above  the  ocean-level, 
 and  to  whose  rocky  islands  has  been  traced  back  the  first 
 germ  of  Peruvian  civilisation. 
 
 Tliis  table-land  is  on  both  sides  flanked  by  alpine 
 chains,  sloping  on  the  one  hand  towards  the  desert  Pacific 
 coast,  and  on  the  other  towards  the  east,  where  the  tra- 
 veller in  a few  hours  passes  from  an  arctic  chmate  down 
 to  the  palm-growing  temperature  of  the  tropics.  He  there 
 finds  himself  in  the  Montana  of  Peru,  a not  less  interesting 
 though  httle-kno-wn  region  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
 
rASmUBA  PALM-TKEES. 
 
 To  face  page  211. 
 
THE  CUZCO  EA^sGE. 
 
 211 
 
 Andes,  distinguished  by  its  name  from  the  Cuesta  or  coast, 
 and  from  the  Sierra  or  elevated  table-land  of  the  interior. 
 And  here  the  reader  unacquaiuted  with  Spanish  must  he 
 warned  that  this  word,  though  strictly  meaning  mountain, 
 cannot  be  translated  by  such  terms  as  hill  or  range.  The 
 Montana  is  rather  a tropical  wooded  upland,  where  the 
 old  and  decayed  vegetation  decks  itself  with  bright 
 twining  and  parasitic  plants  before  its  thundering  crash 
 breaks  the  death-like  stilLness  of  the  primeval  forest. 
 Here  are  seen  the  most  glorious  growths  of  the  tropical 
 world — tree-ferns,  the  graceful  bamboo,  and  palms,  peer- 
 less amongst  plants ; amongst  wliich  latter  may  be  found 
 the  strange  Pashiuha,  mounted  high  on  its  stilt-like  roots. 
 In  their  shade  and  on  their  branches  are  sheltered  whole 
 families  of  apes  and  flocks  of  parrots.  Here  also  prowls 
 the  hungry  jaguar,  and  all  the  land  teems  with  humming- 
 bu'ds  and  creeping  reptiles.  Here  grow  luxuriantly  the 
 sugar-cane,  the  coffee  plant,  the  cacao  tree,  the  coca,  the 
 manioc  root,  and  the  precious  Cinchona  ealisaya  or  Peru- 
 Auan  bark  tree,  with  much  shrewdness,  ingenuity  and 
 trouble,  stolen  by  Clements  E.  Markham  in  1861  from  the 
 Permdan  forests  for  the  benefit  of  suffering  humanity. 
 
 7.  The  Cuzco  Panye. 
 
 At  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Titicaca  table-land 
 the  western  and  eastern  Cordilleras  meet  to  form  the 
 mountain  knot  of  Cuzco,  the  most  extensive  of  the  whole 
 chain  of  the  Andes.  Under  the  14th  parallel  it  again 
 divides  into  two  branches,  and  again  unites  between  the 
 11°  and  10°  S.  latitude,  where  it  forms  the  Huanaco 
 and  Pasco  ranges.  At  the  10  th  parallel  it  once  more 
 forks  off  into  three  branches,  of  which  the  most  westerly 
 or  coast  range  alone  reaches  the  lure  of  perpetual  snow. 
 The  sheer  walls  of  these  chains  are  broken  by  narrow 
 
212 
 
 COMPE^'DIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 clefts,  forming  passes  occasionally  as  high  as  15,000  feet 
 above  the  sea.  The  three  branches  are  again  united  in 
 the  hills  of  Loja,  betveen  5-J-°  and  3°  45'  S.  latitude,  and 
 consequently  maiuly  within  the  territory  of  Ecuador, 
 
 8.  The  Cordilleras  of  Eeuador — Iliniza — Chirnhorazo. 
 
 Between  Loja  and  Pasto,  and  in  an  almost  due 
 northerly  direction  as  far  as  about  1°  X.  lat.,  stretches  the 
 Cordillera  of  Quito,  or  the  Andes  of  Ecuador,  where  witliin 
 a narrow  space  are  crowded  together  a number  of  the 
 loftiest  peaks  of  America.  Here  the  Andes  consist  of 
 two  nearly  parallel  ranges,  traversing  the  whole  territory 
 of  Ecuador  for  a distance  of  250  miles  from  south  to 
 north.  Between  them  lies  a narrow  level  upland  valley 
 scarcely  more  than  from  1 4 to  20  miles  in  width,  in  which 
 is  situated  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  within  14  miles 
 of  the  equator.  South  of  Quito  is  the  city  of  Eiobamba, 
 the  road  leading  to  it  forming  an  avenue  flanked  by  fifty 
 peaks  on  an  average  as  high  as  i\Iount  Etna,  three  of 
 them  emitting  A’olumes  of  smoke,  and  all  of  them  crowded 
 into  a space  not  much  greater  than  the  distance  between 
 London  and  Dover. 
 
 This  region  of  almost  inaccessible  peaks  was  visited 
 in  1879-80  by  Mr.  Edward  Mlrymper,  the  famous 
 Alpine  climber,  who,  with  indomitable  energy,  accom- 
 panied and  assisted  by  two  Swiss  mountaineers,  succeeded 
 ill  reaching  the  summits  of  all  the  principal  mountains, 
 finishing  by  making  a second  ascent  of  Chimborazo.  He 
 made  a series  of  careful  observations  vdth  aneroid  and 
 mercurial  barometers  with  a view  to  settling  the  height 
 of  the  mountains,  and  added  besides  greatly  to  our  accu- 
 rate knowledge  of  their  form,  position,  and  structure. 
 
 In  the  western  range,  amongst  other  snow-capped 
 summits,  towers  the  two-peaked  ice-bound  pyramid  of 
 
TUNGUEAGUA. 
 
 213 
 
 Iliniza  (17,400  feet) ; the  four-crested  and  glacier-forming 
 Pichincha  (15,918  feet);  Corazon  (15,871  feet),  one  of 
 the  finest  snowy  mountains  of  the  Andes,  distinguished 
 by  its  rough  precipitous  sides  and  huge  naked  cliffs  ; 
 Carihuairazo,  terminating  in  many  peaks,  the  highest 
 nearly  17,000  feet;  and  lastly,  separated  from  the  pre- 
 ceding by  a depression  to  the  north,  the  “ silver  bell  ” of 
 Chimborazo  (20,517  feet),  long  erroneously  supposed  to 
 he  the  highest  summit  not  only  in  America  but  in  the 
 whole  world. 
 
 9.  Tiiwjuragua  and  Cotopaxi. 
 
 Amongst  the  snow-clad  j>eaks  of  the  eastern  range 
 may  he  mentioned  the  wooded  Tunguragua  (16,685 
 feet) ; Capac  Urn,  king  of  mountains,  by  the  Spaniards 
 called  the  "Altar”  (17,735  feet),  which  fourteen  years 
 before  the  Spanish  invasion  was  still  somewhat  higher 
 than  Chimborazo,  but  has  since  fallen  in,  now  presenting 
 the  appearance  of  a magnificent  jagged  and  rocky  crown, 
 whose  dark-blue  “ barrancas  ” and  crevices  in  the  dazzlins: 
 snow  furnish  a spectacle  one  is  never  wearied  of  gazing 
 at;  lastly,  the  restless  Sangay  (17,460  feet),  and  the 
 sublime  Antisana  (19,260  feet),  at  whose  foot  is  the 
 hacienda  or  inn  immortalised  by  Humboldt’s  visit,  at  au 
 elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  that  is  to 
 say,  1000  feet  higher  than  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe.  At 
 the  same  time  this  hacienda  is  not,  as  is  often  stated, 
 the  highest  habitation  in  South  America,  the  mining 
 district  and  town  of  Potosi  in  Bolivia  being  situated  some 
 200  feet  higher. 
 
 The  summit  of  Cayamhe  (19,200  feet)  is  crossed 
 by  the  equator,  and  not  far  from  it  towers  the  majestic 
 A'olcano  of  Cotopaxi,  19,550  feet  high,  and  consequently 
 in  absolute  elevation  without  a rival  amongst  the  active 
 burning  mountains  of  the  Old  World.  In  symmetry  of 
 
214 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGE.UPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 shape  also,  and  regularity  of  its  conic  form,  Cotopaxi  is 
 nnsmpassed  not  only  by  any  South  ^nencan  volcano, 
 
 but  has  no  equal  elsewhere  except  ^ 
 
 yama  in  Japan.  S Itcdio  como  al  lorm.—  it  is  tinned 
 
 COTOPAXI. 
 
 out  as  if  vitli  the  lathe”  said  the  Spanish  Creoles  to 
 Humboldt.  It  looks,  says  Orton,  in  his  recent  Andes 
 and  the  Amazon,  like  a huge  truncated  cone  rising  out  of 
 the  valley,  its  sides  deeply  furrowed  by  the  rivers  of  mud 
 and  water  which  have  so  often  been  vomited  from  the 
 crater.  The  cone  itself  is  about  6000  feet  high,  its 
 eastern  side  being  covered  with  snow,  whilst  the  western 
 is  nearly  bare,  a peculiarity  caused  by  the  trade  winds, 
 which,  sweephig  from  the  Atlantic  across  the  continent, 
 deposit  their  moisture  in  the  form  of  snow  on  the  side  of 
 the  mountain  that  faces  their  course.  The  summit  of  this 
 most  beautiful  and  most  terrible  of  volcanoes,  hitherto 
 deemed  inaccessible  on  account  of  the  steepness  of  its 
 
COTOPAXI. 
 
 215 
 
 sides  and  the  depth  of  the  ashes  covering  them,  was 
 reached  by  Whymper  and  his  companions,  who  remained 
 twenty-six  hours,  and  therefore  passed  the  night  at  this 
 great  elevation.  The  valiant  Hall  had  previously  tried  it 
 with  scaling  ladders,  only  to  fail.  Cotopaxi  is  slumbering 
 now ; or,  as  Mr.  Coan  says  of  Hilo,  it  is  “ in  a state  of 
 solemn  and  thoughtful  suspense.”  The  only  signs  of  life 
 are  the  deep  rumbling  thunders  and  a cloud  of  smoke 
 lazily  issuing  from  the  crater.  Sometimes  at  night  the 
 smoke  looks  like  a pillar  of  fire,  and  fine  ashes  and  sand 
 often  fall  around  the  base,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the 
 neighbouring  farmers.  On  the  south  side  is  a huge  rock 
 of  porphyry,  called  the  Inca’s  Head.  Tradition  has  it 
 that  this  was  the  original  summit  of  the  volcano,  torn  off 
 and  hurled  down  by  an  eruption  on  the  very  day  Atahu- 
 allpa  was  murdered  by  Pizarro.  The  last  great  eruption 
 occurred  in  1803;  though  as  late  as  1855  it  threw  forth 
 stones,  volumes  of  water,  and  sand.  Heaps  of  ruins, 
 piled  up  during  the  lapse  of  ages,  are  scattered  for  miles 
 round  the  base  of  the  mountain.  Pumice  and  trachyte 
 are  the  most  common  rocks  around  the  mountain,  and 
 these  are  augitic  or  porphyroid ; obsidian  also  occurs, 
 although  not  on  the  uumediate  flanks,  but  farther  down, 
 near  Chilo.  The  cone  itself  is  evidently  composed  of 
 similar  beds  one  above  the  other,  and  holding  fragments 
 of  porphyry  and  trachyte.  What  is  Vesuvius,  4000  feet 
 high,  to  Cotopaxi,  belching  forth  fire  from  a crater  15,000 
 feet  higher,  and  shooting  its  contents  aloft  to  a height 
 3000  feet  above  its  cap  of  snow,  with  a sound  heard  at 
 a distance  of  600  miles ! 
 
 10.  The  Guamani  and  the  ColowMan  Ranges. 
 
 On  the  eastern  or  Atlantic  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras, 
 between  Quito  and  the  Amazons,  lies  the  district  called 
 Del  Oriente  of  Ecuador,  watered  by  the  great  river  Napo 
 
216 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRA\"EL. 
 
 flowing  into  the  Amazons  in  Peruvian  territory.  A bridle- 
 road  leads  for  a space  of  33  miles  to  the  village  of 
 Papallacta,  at  first  over  a crest  of  the  Guamani  range, 
 15,000  feet  high,  and  commanding  a sweeping  view  of 
 the  dark  wooded  valleys  of  the  Upper  Amazons,  thence 
 over  the  bare  and  in  parts  marshy  upland  steppe  of 
 Paramo,  and  so  on  through  Archidona  to  the  station  of 
 Napo,  still  a long  way  from  the  Amazons  itself.  Another 
 path,  followed  by  Indians  and  traders,  leads  from  Eiobamba 
 to  Banos  on  the  Pastaza,  and  thence  through  the  inter- 
 minable forest  drenched  by  almost  perpetual  rain,  to 
 Canelos,  whence  canoes  descend  to  the  Amazons. 
 
 Pursuing  the  course  of  the  Andes  northwards,  we 
 meet  with  frequent  cross  ridges,  connecting  together  the 
 parallel  ranges  of  the  Cordilleras  like  the  rungs  of  a 
 ladder.  Such  ridges  are  Assuay  in  Ecuador,  south  of 
 Piiobamba,  14,500  feet  high,  and  another  between  Quito 
 and  Ibarra,  9500  feet  high. 
 
 Continuing  to  proceed  northwards  along  the  elevated 
 Indian  plateau  between  both  of  the  main  ranges,  as 
 between  two  parallel  walls,  we  soon  become  aware  of  a 
 not  inconsiderable  fall  in  the  surface  of  the  intervening 
 valley.  Quito,  Ibarra,  and  Pasto,  are  situated  at  the 
 respective  elevations  of  9521,  7314,  and  8321  feet 
 But  between  the  last  two  the  ground  rises  again  to  10,560 
 feet,  where  is  situated  Tulcan,  the  last  frontier  town  of 
 Ecuador,  after  which  we  enter  the  domain  of  the  United 
 States  of  Colombia,  or  New  Granada  as  they  were 
 formerly  called.  Between  Pasto  and  the  town  of  Popayan, 
 at  an  elevation  of  not  more  than  5822  feet,  the  road 
 is  again  crossed  by  a ridge,  forming  a water-parting  be- 
 tween the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.  For  this  ridge 
 leads  from  the  hot  valley  of  the  Patia  flowing  into  the 
 Pacific,  to  the  valley  of  the  Cauca,  which  throughout  the 
 whole  of  its  upper  and  middle  course  is  separated  by  a 
 
GEOLOGY  OF  THE  BOGOTA  DISTRICT,  217 
 
 tliird,  or  middle  Cordillera,  from  tlie  more  easterly  valley 
 of  the  Magdalena.  This  third  Cordillera  branches  off 
 from  the  two  others  a little  to  the  south  of  Popayan,  all 
 three  ranges  being  henceforth  separated  from  each  other 
 no  longer  by  elevated  uplands,  but  by  river  valleys — that 
 of  the  Cauca,  and  still  farther  north  that  of  the  Atrato,  on 
 the  west,  and  on  the  east  that  of  the  Magdalena. 
 
 11.  Tlie  Tequenclama  Falls — Geology  of  the  BogotA  District. 
 
 The  intervening  Cordillera  of  Quindiu  again  separates 
 both  of  these  parallel  river  valleys,  the  most  easterly  and 
 also  the  most  important  and  broadest  of  which  is  flanked 
 by  the  lofty  Cordillera  of  Cundinamarca.  On  the  west 
 side  of  this  last,  and  at  its  foot,  hes  the  capital  of  the 
 Colombian  Ee public,  Santa  Pe  de  Bogota,  situated  on  a 
 little  detached  jflateau  near  the  Palls  of  Tequendama, 
 still  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cataracts  in  South 
 America. 
 
 All  the  geological  features  of  the  Bogota  plain  tend 
 to  show  that  a fresh-water  lake  formerly  fllled  the  basin 
 formed  by  the  hills  encirchng  the  town.  To  judge  from  the 
 sedimentary  deposits  on  the  upper  crust  of  the  savannah, 
 this  lake  must  have  for  a very  long  period  watered  the 
 slopes  of  Montserrate  and  Guadalupe.  The  Eio  Bogota 
 with  its  numerous  branches,  rushing  more  or  less  impetu- 
 ously into  the  lake,  maintained  its  waters  at  this  eleva- 
 tion hi  spite  of  the  evaporation  and  outflow  towards  the 
 south-east.  But  the  lake  itself  cannot  have  been  very 
 deep,  as  the  natural  dam  conflning  its  waters  on  the 
 south  side  is  no  more  than  130  feet  above  the  present 
 lowest  water-level  at  the  junction  of  the  Bogota  and  Muno. 
 
 The  rocks  forming  this  dam  and  the  gigantic  wall  of 
 the  lake  are  of  sandstone,  with  shell  fossils  often  very 
 hard  and  schistose.  The  current  produced  by  the  inflow 
 
218 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEA’I'EL. 
 
 of  tlie  Bogota  and  its  brandies  in  the  waters  of  the  lake 
 in  a south-westerly  direction  occasioned  a thick  deposit 
 of  mud  and  a rise  in  the  land  extending  from  Soacha  to 
 the  hacienda  of  Tequendama.  The  pent-up  waters  over- 
 tiowed  the  dam  and  began  the  formation  of  the  falls 
 through  the  deep  gorges  of  the  Cordilleras.  In  the 
 course  of  time,  probably  on  the  occasion  of  one  of  those 
 great  earthquakes  which  have  rent  the  Andes  asunder  in 
 so  many  places,  the  dam  was  biust  open  and  the  lake 
 dried  up.  The  powerful  stream  that  rushed  through  the 
 opening  continued  to  cut  out  and  enlarge  its  bed  more 
 and  more,  as  is  eAudeut  from  a carefid  geological  survey 
 of  the  suiTOimdings. 
 
 The  Bogota  follows  a wmding  course  to  a lab^winth 
 
 O O t/ 
 
 of  rocks  and  boulders,  where  it  forms  the  Tequendama  Fall. 
 The  contrast  presented  by  the  soh  and  vegetation  at  various 
 parts  of  this  cataract  is  liighly  interesting.  Tire  hitherto 
 monotonous  and  bare  level  country  begins  at  this  romantic 
 spot  to  form  a series  of  many-shaped  hiUs,  all  covered 
 with  a luxuriant  tropical  vegetation.  The  grasses  are  suc- 
 ceeded by  thick  bushes  and  tall  shady  trees.  Here  the. 
 river  rushes  in  clouds  of  foam  and  mist  through  the  rocky 
 sides  of  its  bed,  until  it  reaches'  a deep  gorge  overgrown 
 vith  shrubs,  and  overtopped  with  lofty  trees,  where  it 
 rushes  headlong  into  the  awful  abyss  beneath,  disappearing 
 in  a cloud  of  mist  and  spray  with  a terrific  roar,  which 
 awakens  the  echoes  of  the  sequestered  hiU-sides.  The 
 stream  reaches  the  ground  at  a depth  of  5 8 0 feet,  apparently 
 in  a cloud  of  vapour,  reflecting  all  the  coloius  of  the  rain- 
 bow, but  in  reality  with  such  force  that  it  has  hollowed 
 out  a well  130  feet  deep  in  the  rock  below.  From  this 
 point  the  Bogota,  emerging  into  the  light,  Avinds  through 
 thick  bushy  and  rocky  banks  to  its  junction  with  the 
 ^Magdalena  farther  north. 
 
TASS  IX  TilK  CORIULLEKA. 
 
 Tofiii'c  iiidjc  UIS. 
 
VALLEYS  OF  THE  MAGDALENA  AND  ATRATO.  219 
 
 12.  Regions  of  the  Magdalena  and  Atrato. 
 
 The  valley  of  the  lower  Magdalena,  around  which  are 
 grouped  seven  of  the  Colombian  States,  embraces  an  exten- 
 sive region  embedded  in  the  heart  of  the  land,  and  at  last 
 merging  in  the  plains  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The 
 valley  is  here  overgrown  with  gigantic  primeval  forests,  in 
 which  is  found  an  immense  diversity  of  timber  useful  for 
 building  purposes,  besides  gum-producing  and  medicinal 
 tropical  plants  in  profusion.  "WTierever  the  land  has  been 
 cleared  and  cultivated,  its  marvellous  fertility  is  unsur- 
 passed by  the  richest  soils  in  the  world. 
 
 A similar  physical  appearance  is  presented  by  the 
 valley  of  the  Atrato ; while  that  of  the  Cauca  forms  a 
 level  upland,  which,  at  a height  of  5250  feet  above  the 
 level  of  the  Pacific,  is  overgrown  with  tall  grasses  and  un- 
 cidtivated  meadow  lands.  Its  average  temperature  is  about 
 77°  Fahr.,  and  its  civilised  population  numbers  435,000. 
 Here  the  land,  which  is  exceptionally  adapted  for  cattle- 
 breeding,  produces  cacao,  coffee,  the  sugar-cane,  rice,  tobacco, 
 cotton,  and  indigo,  not  to  mention  bananas,  maize,  and 
 potatoes,  which  everywhere  grow  in  great  abundance. 
 
 The  junction  of  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena  valleys  and 
 their  respective  rivers  renders  impossible  a fiu’ther  union 
 of  the  three  main  branches  of  the  Cordilleras.  The 
 western  and  central  ranges  decKne  in  height  gradually 
 towards  the  north,  while  the  eastern  branch  alone  continues 
 its  coiu’se  at  a considerable  elevation,  in  a north-easterly 
 direction,  through  Venezuela,  as  far  as  the  tenth  degree 
 of  north  latitude,  that  is,  as  far  as  the  Caribbean  seaboard. 
 Here  the  Nevada  de  !Merida  attains  a height  of  about 
 15,000  feet  above  the  ocean-level. 
 
220 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  lY. 
 
 THE  ISOLATED  MOUNTAIN  SYSTEMS  IN  THE  NORTH  OF 
 SOUTH  A3IERICA. 
 
 1.  The  Sierra  de  Santa  Marta. 
 
 The  northemmost  state  in  the  Colombian  EepuhKc  is 
 ]\Iagdalena,  confining  westwards  on  the  Eio  Magdalena, 
 and  eastwards  on  Venezuela.  In  the  west,  south,  and 
 north,  it  is  level ; but  in  the  east  is  situated  the  almost 
 inaccessible  Sierra  Xevada  de  Santa  l\Iarta,  entirely  de- 
 tached from  all  other  South  American  mormtain  systems, 
 and  rising  beyond  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  to  a height 
 of  17,500  feet  above  the  sea-level.  From  the  Sierra  Xegra, 
 the  north-easterly  spur  of  the  far  inferior  Sierra  Perija,  the 
 Sierra  de  Santa  Marta  is  separated  by  the  valley  of  the 
 Rio  de  la  Hacha,  with  its  numerous  hamlets  and  other 
 centres  of  population.  Towards  the  south  and  south-east 
 it  descends  into  the  Valle  d’Upar,  with  its  capital  of  the 
 same  name.  As  a proof  of  how  little  the  State  of  I\Iagda- 
 lena  is  known,  and  of  how  inaccessible  is  the  Sierra 
 Nevada,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Colombian  govern- 
 ment has  offered  a prize  of  £200  for  any  one  who  may 
 succeed  in  making  his  way  over  the  Sierra  of  Santa  Rosa 
 to  the  coast. 
 
 2.  The  Region  explored  hy  Fane,  Simons  and  Tetens. 
 
 We  are  indebted  for  some  particulars  concerning  the 
 northern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  Tetens,  who 
 ascended  them  in  1874.  About  16  miles  south  from 
 
JOURNEY  OF  TETENS. 
 
 221 
 
 Porta  Dibulla  begin  tbe  first  hills,  which,  in  the  relatively 
 short  space  of  33  miles,  rise  rapidly  to  a height  of 
 16,000  feet;  besides  some  nnimportant  plateaus,  forming 
 a continued-  series  of  the  most  rugged  inclines  and  groups 
 of  hills,  rendering  it  quite  impossible  to  get  from  any 
 point,  however  high,  a comprehensive  view  of  the  general 
 formation  of  these  highlands.  Penetrating  through  dwarf 
 woodlands  and  savannahs,  Tetens  reached  the  rancho  of 
 el  Volador,  16  miles  from  Porta  Dibulla,  the  road  from 
 which  passes  through  a hilly  district  to  the  Piio  San 
 Andreas  and  the  Eio  Santa  Clara,  a few  miles  beyond 
 which  begin  the  upland  savannahs,  from  4000  to  5000 
 feet  high,  and  affording  a view  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
 
 Proceeding  in  a south-westerly  direction,  Tetens 
 reached  the  Indian  villages  of  San  Antonio,  on  the  right 
 bank  of  the  Eio  San  Antonio  and  Santa  Eosa,  the  latter 
 being  the  most  important  settlement  of  the  Arauco  tribe. 
 
 The  most  southern  point  reached  by  him  was  the 
 Indian  settlement  of  Mocatama,  9850  feet  high,  and  close 
 to  the  slopes  of  the  snow-clad  crests.  The  snowy  peaks 
 of  the  Sierra  Nevada  have,  however,  been  reached  on 
 separate  occasions  by  two  Englishmen,  one.  Colonel  E. 
 Fane,  who,  in  a holiday  excursion  in  1850,  from  the  West 
 Indies,  reached  them  by  the  southern  road  from  Santa 
 Marta  via  Valencia  and  San  Sebastian,  and  the  other,  Mr. 
 F.  A.  A.  Simons  via  Valle  d’Upar  and  San  Sebastian  in 
 1878  and  again  in  1880.  Neither  of  them,  however 
 succeeded  in  climbing  to  the  summit  of  the  pinnacles, 
 which  form  a jagged  crest  lying  east  and  west  above  the 
 snow-line,  and  the  ascent  of  which  would  be  attended 
 with  great  difficulty.  ^Ir.  Simons  determined  the  altitude 
 at  the  foot  of  the  culminating  peaks,  by  means  of  careful 
 observations,  as  17,000,  and  calculated  the  height  of  the 
 peaks  above  that  point  at  500  feet.  According  to  ]\Ir. 
 Simons  the  tropical  forest  clothes  only  the  lower  slopes 
 
222 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 of  the  colossal  mountain  mass,  being  most  dense  and 
 luxuriant  on  the  western  side ; the  region  above  is  quite 
 bare  of  trees  and  forms  a desolate  moorland,  and  near  the 
 base  of  the  culminating  peaks  are  a series  of  lakes  or 
 tarns,  sunk  deep  in  precipitous  hollows. 
 
 3.  The  Three  Venezuelan  Mountain  Systems. 
 
 On  the  eastern  frontier  of  Colombia  lies  the  State  of 
 Venezuela,  in  which  may  be  distinguished  three  different 
 mountain  systems — The  Venezuelan  Andes,  that  is,  tlie 
 above-mentioned  eastern  branch  of  the  Colombian  Cordil- 
 lera, stretching  in  the  direction  of  the  Caribbean  Sea ; the 
 Venezuelan  coast  range ; and  the  Sierra  Parime.  A'ol- 
 canoes  are  unknown  in  these  three  ranges,  though  earth- 
 quakes have  occasionally  devastated  the  coast  country,  of 
 which  that  of  1812,  which  destroyed  the  city  of  Caraccas, 
 is  a memorable  example. 
 
 The  two  first  ranges  form  a long  high  wall  separating 
 the  plains  of  the  interior  from  the  northern  seaboard,  and 
 clearly  connected  together  by  means  of  the  elevated 
 plateau  of  Barquisimeto  (2000  to  2600  feet),  and  the 
 Cerro  del  Altar.  StiU  the  coast  range  must  on  the  whole 
 be  regarded  as  a cUstmct  system,  presenting  the  remarkable 
 phenomenon  of  a double  parallel  chain  already  noticed  in 
 our  survey  of  the  Andes.  In  accordance  with  the  nature 
 of  the  coast  they  run  at  but  a short  distance  one  from  the 
 other,  at  an  average  elevation  of  from  5000  to  6500 
 feet,  and  sloping  abruptly  towards  the  north,  that  is 
 towards  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
 
 The  first  of  these  ranges,  averaging  not  more  than 
 1500  feet  in  height,  is  situated  at  about  13  miles  from 
 the  coast  line,  and  in  its  valleys  affords  shelter  for  many 
 cacao  and  sugar  plantations,  while  the  upper  zones  of  the 
 whole  coast  range,  and  the  more  expansive  river  valleys, 
 oTow  maonificent  resers’es  of  timber,  whose  value  must  be 
 
 o o 
 
THE  SIEERA  DE  PARIME. 
 
 223 
 
 estimated  by  millions.  The  northern  chain  reaches  an 
 elevation  of  9050  feet  in  the  peak  of  Xaiguato,  while 
 even  the  Silla  cle  Caraccas,  clothed  with  the  red-flowering 
 hefaria,  or  American  alpine  rose,  attains  a height  of  8630 
 feet. 
 
 The  southern  range,  which  is  also  partly  interrupted, 
 ends  like  the  northern  in  low  spurs  facing  the  British 
 island  of  Trinidad.  While  its  northern  slopes  are  entirely 
 covered  with  dense  virgin  forests,  those  facing  southwards 
 show  nothing  but  a savannah  vegetation,  varied  in  the 
 ([uebradas,  where  water  is  more  abundant,  with  lovely 
 gxoves  of  less  gigantic  trees  than  those  met  with  in  the 
 so-caUed  Montana.  Farther  to  the  south  of  the  coast 
 range  are  broad  open  plains  or  llanos  stretching  away  to 
 the  wooded  regions  of  the  Orinoco,  and  affording  plentiful 
 nutriment  for  countless  herds  of  cattle  and  horses. 
 
 4.  The  Sierra  de  Parime. 
 
 Before  describing  these  llanos  and  regions  of  the 
 Orinoco,  we  must  devote  a few  words  to  the  third  of  the 
 above-mentioned  isolated  mountain  systems  in  the  north 
 of  the  South  American  continent.  This  is  the  Sierra  de 
 Parime,  which  lies  to  the  soutli  of  the  Orinoco,  in  the 
 extensive  tract  between  this  river  and  the  Amazons,  and 
 in  the  south-east  of  Venezuela.  Farther  east  this  range 
 is  continued  as  an  irregular  congeries  of  hills,  spreading- 
 over  the  interior  of  Guiana  and  along  a portion  of  the 
 northern  frontier  of  Brazil.  Our  knowledge  of  these 
 highlands  is  still  limited,  notwithstanding  the  admirable 
 surveys  of  Schomburgk,  and  more  recently  those  of  Mr. 
 C.  B.  Brown.  As  a whole  they  may  be  described  as  a 
 moderately  elevated  table-land,  from  which  rise  hills  and 
 ridges  in  solitary  clusters,  separated  from  each  other  by 
 richly  wooded  and  grass-covered  plains.  This  elevated 
 
224 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TRAVEL. 
 
 region,  however,  is  of  great  geographical  importance  as 
 forming  a well-defined  water  parting  along  fourteen  de- 
 grees of  longitude,  the  southern  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco 
 and  the  rivers  of  Guiana  taking  their  rise  on  its  northern 
 slope,  and  the  many  northern  tributaries  of  the  Amazons 
 draining  its  southern  decli^'ities. 
 
 Their  loftiest  summits  fall  short  of  the  Paramos  zone 
 of  the  Andes,  not  to  mention  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow, 
 and  are  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  arboreal  vegetation, 
 presenting  the  appearance  of  bare,  rugged,  and  in  places 
 exceedingly  grotesque,  mountain  ridges.  One  of  the 
 highest  summits,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  singular 
 in  form,  of  this  irregidar  range,  is  [Mount  Eoraima,  situated 
 on  the  boundary  line  between  Venezuela  and  British 
 Guiana,  and  within  a few  miles  of  the  Brazilian  frontier. 
 This  extraordinary  mountain,  first  visited  by  Schomburgk, 
 is  a huge  mass  of  light-red  sandstone  rock,  18  miles  in 
 length,  with  perpendicular  sides  and  a perfectly  level 
 summit,  rising  7500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its 
 flanks,  forming  bare  vertical  walls  in  no  place  less  than 
 1500  feet  in  sheer  precipice,  are  inaccessible ; but  the 
 level  summit  is  known  to  be  the  source  of  several  streams, 
 which  leap  from  the  edge  of  the  plateau  in  magnificent 
 cascades,  and  flow  in  different  ways  to  feed  the  Essecpiibo, 
 the  Orinoco,  and  the  Amazons.  IMost  of  the  hdls  and 
 ranges  in  this  part  of  the  continent  exhibit  the  same  peculiar 
 flat-topped  formation ; the  ranges  for  hundreds  of  miles 
 appearing  as  though  planed  down  by  some  titanic  instru- 
 ment. The  same  pecidarity  is  seen  in  the  hills  wliich  border 
 the  northern  shore  of  the  Amazons  in  its  lower  course. 
 
JOUENEY  or  DON  EAJION  PAEZ. 
 
 225 
 
 CHAPTER  Y. 
 
 THE  VENEZUELAN  LLANOS  AND  THE  REGION 
 OF  THE  ORINOCO. 
 
 1.  Extent  of  the  Llanos — Their  main  Features  as  described 
 by  Don  R.  Paez. 
 
 From  the  coast  range  of  Caraccas  the  steppe  stretches 
 away  to  the  woodlands  of  Guiana,  occupying  the  whole 
 region  between  the  snowy  hdls  of  Merida  and  the  vast 
 delta  of  the  Orinoco.  It  runs  in  a south-westerly  direction, 
 hke  an  arm  of  the  sea,  beyond  the  hanks  of  the  IHeta  and 
 Yichada  as  far  as  the  unvisited  source  of  the  Gua\dare,  and 
 the  sohtary  mountain  ridge  of  the  Paramo  de  la  Suma  Paz, 
 so  named  by  the  imaginative  Spanish  warriors,  as  if  it  was 
 the  fah’  abode  of  everlasting  peace. 
 
 In  order  to  reahse  the  true  character  of  the  Yenezuelan 
 steppes  or  Llanos,  we  cannot  do  better  than  follow  the 
 guidance  of  Don  Ramon  Paez,  a native  of  this  region,  who 
 traversed  the  country  from  the  little  tovui  of  Llacaray  to  the 
 Llanos  or  Pampas  of  the  Apure,  a north-western  tribu- 
 tary of  the  mighty  Orinoco.  His  road  lay  at  first  through 
 sugar-cane,  indigo,  and  tobacco  fields,  besides  extensive 
 plantations  of  bucaral  (Erythrina),  beneath  whose  shade 
 fiourishes  cacao,  the  ambrosia  of  the  gods,  as  it  has  been 
 called.  A small  park-like  district  then  brought  him  to  the 
 edge  of  the  Galeros,  a chain  of  hills  flanking  the  old  banks 
 of  a lake,  now  forming  a steppe  overgrown  with  grass. 
 
 The  woods  of  Yenezuela  possess  a great  wealth  of 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 noble  trees,  foremost  amongst  wliich  is  the  Vera  or  Lignum 
 vitce  {Zygo'phyllum  arhoreum),  spread  over  the  land,  and 
 especially  along  the  coast.  Its  wood  is  so  hard  that  it 
 turns  the  edge  of  the  sharpest  tools.  Very  abundant  is 
 the  Guayacan,  of  the  same  order  as  the  vera,  preferred  to 
 most  others  for  carving  and  cabinet-making.  Then  there 
 is  the  beautifid  Alcornogue,  whose  shade  affords  the  great- 
 est relief  to  the  cattle  during  the  summer  heats.  Brazd 
 wood  also  {Cccsal'pinia  braziletto)  is  so  common  that  in 
 many  places  all  the  fences  are  made  of  this  valuable 
 timber. 
 
 Tlirough  a quehrada  or  dry  ravine  Don  Eamou  reached 
 a completely  level  country,  wMch,  with  the  exception 
 of  a few  clumps  of  fan-leaved  palms,  was  covered  entirely 
 with  a short  grass. 
 
 A dense  mass  of  vapour  pervading  the  atmosphere 
 obscured  the  horizon,  while  the  fan-pahns,  seen  from  afar, 
 appeared  like  ships  enveloped  in  a fog.  Gradually  the 
 circle  of  the  heavens  seemed  to  close  around  the  traveller, 
 until  he  became,  as  it  were,  encompassed  by  the  sky.  He 
 was  treading  the  shores  of  the  great  basin  of  the  Llanos, 
 over  one  of  the  ancient  terraces  or  mesas,  which  form  the 
 borders  of  these  grassy  oceans.  For  three  hours  he  con- 
 tinued his  ride  over  the  mesa  until  he  reached  its  border, 
 which  commanded  an  extensive  view  of  the  lower-l3ong 
 savannah.  The  scene  was  at  once  changed  into  one  of  the 
 most  glorious  panoramas  in  nature.  At  his  feet  lay  the 
 beautiful  expanse  of  meadow,  fresh  and  smooth  as  the  best 
 cultivated  lawn,  with  troops  of  horses  and  coimtless  herds 
 of  cattle  dispersed  over  the  plain.  Several  glittering 
 ponds,  ahve  with  an  immense  variety  of  aquatic  birds, 
 reflected  from  their  limpid  surface  the  broad-leaved  crowns 
 of  the  fan-palms,  towering  above  verdant  groves  of  laurel, 
 amyris,  and  elm-like  robles.  Farther  beyond,  and  as  far 
 as  the  eye  could  reach,  the  undulating  plain  appeared  like 
 
THE  LLANOS. 
 
 227 
 
 a petrified  ocean  after  a storm.  No  description  could 
 convey  a faithful  idea  of  the  reality  of  the  scene — the 
 harmonious  effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  the  blending  of 
 the  various  tints  of  green,  blue,  and  pm’ple,  dispersed  over 
 the  extensive  panorama — the  gentle  undulations  of  the 
 plain — the  towering  palms  gracefully  fanning  the  glowing 
 atmosphere  with  their  majestic  crowns  of  broad  and  shin- 
 ing leaves.  This  palm  {Copernicia  teetorum)  is  a real 
 treasure  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  steppe,  and  it  receives 
 various  names  according  to  the  uses  it  is  put  to.  Thus, 
 by  the  cattle-farmers  and  settlers  it  is  called  the  “ thatch- 
 pahn  ” (palma  de  cobija),  because  they  employ  its  leaves 
 in  thatching  their  ranchos ; to  the  straw-hat  makers  it  is 
 known  as  the  “ hat-palm  ” (palma  de  sombrero) ; and  by 
 travellers  on  the  steppe  it  is  termed  the  fan-palm  (palma 
 de  abanico),  from  the  use  to  which  they  put  it  as  a fan 
 to  keep  ofi“  the  flies  during  a journey.  The  most  beauti- 
 ful tree  of  the  Llanos,  however,  is  the  saman,  a kind  of 
 mimosa,  growing  in  profusion  along  the  banks  of  the 
 Apur4  and  other  rivers,  which  expands  aloft,  hike  a gigantic 
 parasol,  its  crown  of  delicate  feathery  fohage.  Extensive 
 tracts  of  land  are  entirely  taken  up  by  this  species  of 
 tree,  and  it  is  impossible,  says  Don  Eamon,  to  conceive 
 anything  more  grand  in  nature  than  these  forests.  All 
 along  the  course  of  the  great  rivers  Apure,  Guarico,  and 
 Portuguesa,  the  saman  is  found  in  such  countless  numbers 
 that  the  combiued  fleets  of  the  whole  world  might  be  re- 
 constructed from  this  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber. 
 Equally  rank  and  luxuriant  are  the  grasses  in  these  allu- 
 vial lands.  Amongst  the  curious  varieties  is  the  gamelote, 
 a tall,  cutting,  and  worthless  grass,  with  blades  almost  as 
 sharp  as  a Toledo  rapier.  It  grows  so  closely  and  rapidly 
 as  to  obliterate  in  a few  days  the  paths  made  by  travellers, 
 killing  every  other  species  in  its  way.  Unfortunately  for 
 the  settlers,  it  is  perfectly  useless  as  fodder,  except  for 
 
228 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 chiquires  or  water-hogs,  which  feed  on  it  when  nothing 
 better  offers,  and  to  the  flesh  of  which  it  imparts  its  dis- 
 agreeable flavour.  On  the  Llanos  of  the  Apure  a singular 
 phenomenon  presents  itself  in  the  mcclanos,  or  ranges  of 
 low  sandhills,  Avhich  are  formed  by  the  loose  sand  blown 
 by  the  wind  over  the  boundless  plain.  They  are  con- 
 tinually changing,  to-day  rising  above  the  surface  of  the 
 surrounding  prairies,  to-morrow  leA^elled  vuth  the  dust  of 
 the  savannahs.  But  in  one  district  the  sandliills,  having 
 been  overrim  by  the  gamelote,  wliich  has  consolidated  the 
 loose  masses  by  its  roots,  have  become  a low  range  of  per- 
 manent hills,  and  are  called  the  INIedanos  de  San  ]\Iartin. 
 This  objectionable  kind  of  grass  appears,  however,  to 
 prefer  the  higher  parts  of  the  plain ; on  the  savannahs  of 
 the  Apure  a luxuriant  growth  of  more  tender  and  succu- 
 lent kinds  characterises  the  verdant  prairie.  Some  of  these 
 grasses  are  as  soft  and  pliable  as  silk,  and  it  is  owing  to 
 the  nutritious  qualities  of  the  pasture  in  general  that  the 
 alluvial  plains  of  the  Apure  and  its  tributaries  have 
 become  so  noted  for  cattle-breeding.  In  the  upper  levels 
 of  the  Llanos  the  farmer  is  compelled  to  migrate  with  his 
 stock  eA'ery  summer ; on  the  Apure  the  gxass  is  verdant 
 all  the  year  round.  Three  of  the  varieties  are  especially 
 remarkable.  One,  the  granadilln — a grass  reaching  to 
 about  four  feet  in  height,  with  tender,  succulent  blades, 
 and  panicles  of  seed  not  unlike  some  varieties  of  broom 
 corn — starts  with  the  earliest  showers  of  spring.  It  gTOws 
 with  gxeat  rapidity,  and  is  gi’eedily  sought  by  aU  rumi 
 nants  ; but,  being  an  annual,  it  soon  disappears,  lea\dng  no 
 vestige  of  its  existence.  The  second  is  the  carretero,  so 
 named  from  the  beautiful  prairie-goose  that  feeds  on  it. 
 It  has  an  uninterrupted  growth  and  luxuriance,  which  the 
 hot  season  cannot  blast,  and  gTows  in  the  alluvial  bottom- 
 lands subject  to  the  periodical  inundation.  The  third — 
 perennial  like  the  preceding — is  the  lamhedora,  so  termed 
 
PERENNIAL*MEADOWS. 
 
 229 
 
 ou  account  of  its  softness,  animals  feeding  on  it  appearing 
 to  lick  rather  than  masticate  it.  Cattle  and  horses  thrive 
 on  it  very  perceptibly,  and  even  calves  only  a fortnight 
 old  may  be  left  to  shift  for  themselves  amidst  these  nutri- 
 tious pastures. 
 
 Esteros  is  the  name  by  wliich  these  perennial  meadows 
 are  designated  in  Venezuela.  The  pools  and  channels  of 
 water  in  these  regions  of  plenty  do  not  dry  up  in  the  dry 
 season,  and  they  are  consequently  the  resort  of  a multi- 
 tude of  quadrupeds  and  water-fowl.  The  birds  in  par- 
 ticular seem  to  have  migrated  thither  from  all  quarters 
 of  the  continent.  These  prodigious  congregations  of  the 
 feathered  tribes  are  known  in  the  country  -under  the  name 
 of  garzeros,  from  the  many  garzas  or  herons  predominating 
 in  them.  The  colonies  of  these  birds  sometimes  extend 
 for  several  miles.  One  of  the  kinds  of  crane  is  called  the 
 soldier,  from  its  erect  bearing  and  martial  air,  and  is  over 
 five  feet  in  height,  with  a bill  fully  a foot  long.  The 
 herons,  storks,  and  ibises  are  of  various  sizes  and  colours, 
 some  snow-white,  some  a delicate  blue,  others  grey  or 
 pink,  and  many  a brilliant  scarlet.  They  generally  select 
 the  spreading  top  of  a low  tree,  the  cmijaro,  growing  m 
 vast  quantities  near  the  water,  in  which  to  build  their 
 nests,  which  are  of  dry  sticks  very  ingeniously  interwoven 
 among  the  branches.  Well-beaten  tracks  are  made  under 
 the  bushes  by  the  tramp  of  many  suspicious  characters  of 
 the  fehne  tribe,  who  make  these  feathered  colonies  their 
 favourite  resort,  and  profit  by  the  opportunities  of  appro- 
 priating young  bu’ds  which  fall  from  their  nests.  The 
 pools  are  also  the  resort  of  myriads  of  small  ducks,  of  a 
 kind  called  guiriri,  which,  when  they  are  disturbed,  rise 
 in  such  incredible  numbers  as  actually  for  the  moment  to 
 obscm-e  the  sun.  They  utter  a shrill  note,  resembling  the 
 syllables  “ gui-ri-ri,”  whence  their  name  is  derived,  so  that 
 the  hunter  easily  discovers  their  whereabouts.  Besides 
 
230 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAI’EL. 
 
 these,  there  are  great  numbers  of  a larger  duck,  the  poio 
 real,  or  royal  duck,  so  named  probably  from  a graceful 
 tuft  of  black  feathers  Tvitb  which  it  is  crowned.  Here 
 and  there  a brace  of  carreteros  are  seen  soaring  overhead, 
 uttering  their  peculiar  rolhng  notes ; the  hoarse  quacking 
 of  the  male  bird,  followed  by  the  shrill  cries  of  the  female, 
 making  a perfect  resemblance  to  the  rumbling  of  cart- 
 wheels. During  the  moulting  season,  the  people  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  these  lagoons  resort  to  them  from  time 
 to  time,  and  drive  without  difficulty  towards  the  farm- 
 house as  many  of  these  ducks  as  they  may  desire. 
 
 This  prodigious  exuberance  of  animal  life  has  justly 
 entitled  the  Apure  to  the  reputation  of  being  a land  of 
 plent}’.  But  it  has  also  its  dark  side,  in  the  number  of 
 noxious  species  which  it  cherishes,  and  in  the  miasmas 
 which  are  exhaled  from  its  extensive  marshes,  which  at 
 certain  seasons  of  the  year  render  this  fine  country  almost 
 uninhabitable  for  man.  These  marshes  are  the  abode  of 
 the  enormous  water-snake,  the  anaconda,  known  in 
 Venezuela  under  the  name  of  culebra  de  agua ; and  the 
 woods  harbour  the  boa-constrictor,  termed  traga  venado 
 from  the  ease  with  which  it  gorges  itself  with  a whole 
 deer  at  one  time.  Besides  wild  animals,  such  as  deer, 
 capyharas,  and  so  forth,  these  gveat  snakes  cause  havoc 
 among  the  herds  of  the  Llano  farmers  ; calves,  heifers,  and 
 colts  falling  an  easy  prey  should  they  incautiously  step 
 into  these  treacherous  pools.  The  noxious  exhalations  of 
 the  marshes  are  injurious  to  health  only  in  the  rainy 
 season ; during  the  dry  season  strong  breezes  prevail, 
 which  clear  off  the  moisture  from  the  low  grounds,  and 
 nothing  but  the  recklessness  with  which  the  inhabitants 
 expose  themselves,  prevents  them  from  enjojung  perfect 
 health  during  this  delightful  portion  of  the  year.  The 
 jaguar  is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  Apure  district, 
 and  alligators  swarm  in  the  rivers ; besides  which,  numer- 
 
NOXIOUS  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS. 
 
 231 
 
 ous  venomous  snakes  of  various  species,  including  the 
 rattlesnake  and  the  dreaded  lachesis,  lie  concealed  by  the 
 side  of  pathways  in  meadows  and  thickets.  The  vege- 
 table world  has  also  its  subtle  dangers  in  the  shape  of  poi- 
 sonous herbs  and  trees.  Most  common  of  all  is  the 
 Guacliamacd,  belonging  to  the  family  Apocynece,  or  Dog- 
 banes, a group  of  plants  especially  distinguished  for  its, 
 fatal  qualities.  The  poison  of  the  Guachamaca  is  so 
 powerful  that  meat,  roasted  on  spits  made  from  the  wood, 
 absorbs  poison  sufficient  to  cause  the  death  of  all  who 
 partake  of  it.  Lastly,  the  waters  of  the  Llanos  furnish 
 their  quota  of  obnoxious  creatures,  besides  the  delicious 
 fresh-water  turtle  and  numerous  kinds  of  edible  fish. 
 First  of  all  is  the  sting-ray,  which  is  armed  near  the  end 
 of  its  tail  with  a spine  several  inches  long,  with  which  it 
 can  inflict  a painful  wound  in  the  foot  of  the  incautious 
 bather.  ISText  to  this  is  the  gTOtesquely-shaped  fish,  the 
 payara,  the  upper  jaws  of  which  are  furnished  with  a pair 
 of  fangs  similar  in  shape  to  those  of  the  rattlesnake  ; and 
 the  less  dangerous  electric  eel,  which  abounds  in  the 
 slimy  bottoms  of  stdl  pools,  and  is  able  to  administer  a 
 stunning  shock  to  horses,  especially  when  entering  such 
 pools  to  quench  their  thirst.  Worst  of  aU  is  the  last  we 
 shall  mention,  the  fish  called  caribe.  It  resembles  in 
 general  form  the  gold-fish,  but  is  a little  more  corpulent, 
 and  has  a truculent-looking  bull-dog  head,  with  projecting 
 lower  jaw.  With  its  powerful  and  sharp  three-edged 
 saw-llke  teeth  it  is  able  to  bite  in  two  a strong  steel  fish- 
 hook ; and  he  seems  to  scent  blood  from  afar,  judging 
 from  the  shoals  which  will  rapidly  congregate  round  a 
 wounded  animal  in  the  water.  Even  the  armoured  alli- 
 gator is  not  secure  against  this  redoubtable  pest  of 
 Venezuelan  rivers,  for  when  blood  is  drawn  in  the  fre- 
 quent contests  which  occur  between  the  males  of  these 
 formidable  reptiles,  vast  multitudes  of  the  caribe  rush  in 
 
232 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  enlarge  vrith  their  voracious  teeth  the  wounds  that 
 have  been  opened.  Besides  alligators,  there  is  a species 
 of  the  true  genus  crocodile  in  the  waters  of  the  Orinoco. 
 Another  common  animal  on  the  Llanos  is  the  wild  hog, 
 which  is  not  an  indigenous  species,  but  the  common  domes- 
 tic hog  run  wild.  It  occui’s  in  vast  numbers  in  some  parts 
 of  this  great  region,  and  causes  at  times  great  damage  to  the 
 farmei-s  by  tearing  up  the  soil  in  the  best  parts  of  the 
 pasture  land,  destro}Tiig  the  nutritious  grasses,  and  causing 
 a rank  and  useless  vegetation  to  spring  up  in  then*  place. 
 
 2.  Tm  Eeyion  of  the  Orinoco. 
 
 The  above-described  Llanos  extend  to  the  wooded 
 regions  of  the  Orinoco,  the  main  stream  of  Venezuela, 
 with  its  western  aftiuent  the  IMeta,  which  form  together 
 a magnificent  and  important  water  liighway,  navigable  for 
 steamers  and  sailing  vessels  all  the  way  from  the  Atlantic 
 Ocean  to  the  Colombian  Cordilleras.  This  great  river  is 
 especially  suited  to  form  a commercial  route,  by  the  fact 
 that  the  trade  winds  prevail  inland  as  far  as  San  Fernando, 
 enabling  sailing  craft,  though  slowly,  to  make  head  against 
 its  downward  current. 
 
 3.  Source  and  Course  of  the  Orinoco. 
 
 The  Orinoco  rises  in  the  unexplored  mountain  system 
 of  the  Sierra  de  Parime,  though  its  source  has  never  yet 
 been  seen  by  a European  eye.  Its  fii'St  known  southern 
 tributary  is  the  Ifro  I'adamo,  abounding  in  cascades  and 
 rapids.  From  the  junction  of  this  river  to  the  town  of 
 San  Fernando  de  Atabapo  the  Orinoco  pursues  mainly  a 
 north-westerly  course,  a little  below  Esmeralda  throwing 
 off  to  the  left  a broad  and  navigable  channel,  the  famous 
 Casiquiare,  which  flows  into  the  Piio  Xegro,  a northern 
 
THE  OEINOCO. 
 
 233 
 
 tributary  of  the  Amazons.  In  this  way  the  hasin  of  the 
 Orinoco  is  so  far  connected  with  that  of  the  Amazons.  At 
 San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  where  it  is  joined  hy  the  Gua- 
 viare  rushing  down  from  the  Colomhian  Andes,  the  Orinoco 
 changes  its  north -westerly  for  an  almost  due  northerly  coinse, 
 wliile  at  its  confluence  with  the  Apur4  it  again  turns  to 
 the  right,  flowing  in  an  easterly  direction  for  the  rest  of 
 its  length.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Mississippi,  the  more 
 recent  upheavings  of  the  land  have  turned  the  waters  of 
 the  Orinoco  from  the  Andes,  away  to  the  older  formations 
 of  the  Sierra  Parime.  Hence  it  is  that  this  river,  so 
 singularly  remarkable  for  its  tortuous  windings,  sweeps 
 completely  round  the  SieiTa  Parime,  while  flowing  close 
 under  the  slopes  of  this  range. 
 
 4.  The  Middle  Orinoco — Its  Fcdls  and  Affluents. 
 
 In  the  section  between  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo  and 
 its  junction  with  the  Apure,  which  may  be  taken  as  its 
 middle  course,  the  Orinoco  receives  on  its  left  hank  up- 
 wards of  a dozen  very  considerable  streams  from  the  west, 
 but  on  its  right,  or  eastern  bank,  no  contributions  of  the 
 least  consequence.  On  this  same  section  are  situated  the 
 waterfalls  of  Maypures  and  Atures,  immortalised  by  Hum- 
 boldt’s description,  and  assuredly  the  most  interesting  of 
 the  countless  cascades  and  cataracts  wliich  form  such  a 
 general  feature  of  most  of  the  northern  rivers  of  South 
 America. 
 
 The  most  important  of  the  above-mentioned  western 
 tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  are  the  Eio  Meta  and  the  Eio 
 Apure.  Both  these  great  streams  flow  through  the  vast 
 grassy  plains  already  described,  reminding  one  of  the 
 prairies  of  Kansas  and  western  Missouri.  The  Meta  has 
 been  ascended  by  steamboats  to  mthin  sixty  miles  of 
 Bogota. 
 
234  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 5.  Orinoco  Scenery. 
 
 The  lower  course  of  the  Orinoco,  which  begins  at 
 its  junction  with  the  Apure,  is  thus  described  by  a recent 
 traveller : — “ Eight  and  left  of  us  lay,  at  some  distance 
 off,  the  low  banks  of  the  Apure,  at  tliis  point  quite 
 a broad  stream.  But,  before  us,  the  waters  spread 
 out  like  a wide  dark  flood,  limited  on  the  horizon  only 
 by  a low  black  streak,  and  here  and  there  showing  a 
 few  distant  liills.  This  was  the  Orinoco,  rolling  with 
 irrepressible  power  and  majesty  seawards,  and  often  up- 
 hea\'ing  its  billows  in  the  storm,  like  the  ocean  when 
 lashed  to  fury  by  the  wind.” 
 
 The  banks  of  the  Orinoco  along  its  many  windings 
 are  fringed  with  magnificent  forests,  casting  their  shadows 
 far  across  the  stream  on  both  sides.  During  the  rainy 
 season  its  waters  rise  above  the  edge  of  these  woodlands, 
 covering  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  and  often  lajing  bare 
 their  upper  roots.  Amidst  the  rich  and  A'aried  foliage  are' 
 ever}'Y’here  conspicuous  the  thick  and  leatherlike  leaves 
 of  such  plants  as  flourish  only  beneath  the  bright  skies  of 
 the  tropical  world,  and  the  glorious  crowns  of  leafage  never 
 lose  that  freshness  and  luxm’iance  which  is  assmned  by 
 northern  woodlands  only  in  the  lovely  season  of  early 
 spring.  Hence  the  darker  tones,  blending  with  occasional 
 patches  of  light  from  time  to  time,  develop  a play  of 
 colours  of  marvellous  effect,  and  which  the  eye  never 
 wearies  of  gazmg  upon.  Countless  creepers  twine  them- 
 selves round  the  stems  and  branches  of  the  trees,  forming 
 here  and  there  dense  masses  of  foliage  impenetrable  to  the 
 keenest  sight,  and  not  unfrequently  decked  with  the  love- 
 liest and  most  dazzling  colours.  In  many  places  we  light 
 upon  bowers  and  natural  groupings,  with  a wealth  of 
 beauty,  and  even  a s}Tnmetry,  wliich  could  scarcely  be 
 imitated  by  the  most  consummate  art. 
 
BANKS  OF  THE  ORINOCO. 
 
 235 
 
 6.  The,  Loioer  Orinoco. 
 
 The  banks  of  the  river  in  its  middle  course  present, 
 however,  only  a scanty  clothing  of  trees,  and  the  woodlands 
 are  not  met  with  in  all  their  glory  and  perfection  till  we 
 reach  the  marshy  region  where  the  delta  begins  to  form ; 
 for  the  Orinoco  is  one  of  those  rivers  that  have  created 
 an  extensive  delta,  and  like  most  of  them  is  blocked  by  a 
 sea  bar,  formed  by  the  sand  and  soH  brought  down  and 
 slowly  deposited  by  the  strong  current  of  the  river  at  its 
 mouth.  This  sandbank,  however,  must  be  crossed  before 
 we  can  get  access  to  the  only  one  of  its  many  branches 
 that  is  navigable. 
 
 Through  this  delta,  when  the  stream  is  low,  the  tide 
 makes  its  way  up  as  far  as  Angostura,  while  the  Orinoco 
 sends  a current  of  fresh  water  far  into  the  ocean,  its 
 waters,  generally  green,  but  in  the  shallows  mdk-white, 
 contrasting  sharply  with  the  indigo  blue  of  the  surround- 
 
236 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRA^EEL. 
 
 CHAPTEK  VI. 
 
 THE  REGION  OF  THE 
 AMAZONS. 
 
 1.  Main  Divisicms  of 
 the  Amazons. 
 
 From  the  entangled 
 network  of  the  Orinoco 
 we  naturally  pass  on 
 to  the  wide-branching 
 water  system  of  the 
 Amazons,  the  mightiest 
 river  in  the  world, 
 known  also  as  tlie 
 ]\Iarahon,  and  by  the 
 natives  named  the  Par- 
 ana-tinga,  or  Parana- 
 nassu. 
 
 The  vast  plain 
 watered  by  this  im- 
 posing stream  may  be 
 dimded  into  three  sec- 
 tions, each  presenting 
 some  features  peculiar 
 to  itself.  The  first  of 
 these  sections  may  be 
 described  as  the  region 
 of  the  delta,  forming 
 a triangle  measuring 
 some  150  miles  each 
 
THE  DELTA  OF  THE  A>L\ZONS. 
 
 237 
 
 side ; the  second  would  comprise  the  region  of  the  Lower 
 Amazons  for  a length  of  about  500  miles  ; and  the  third — 
 constituting  the  whole  upper  course  of  the  river — a wooded 
 plain  1200  miles  long  by  800  broad. 
 
 2.  The  Amazons  Delta. 
 
 Tlie  region  of  the  Delta  has  but  a slight  elevation  above 
 the  sea-level.  According  to  Bates  {Naturalist  on  the 
 River  Amazons),  it  differs  from  the  deltas  of  most  other 
 great  rivers — such  as  the  INIississippi,  the'  Ganges,  and  the 
 Nile — in  not  being  wlioUy  an  allmual  formation,  the  great 
 island  of  Marajo,  constituting  its  central  portion,  together 
 vuth  the  bordering  land  to  the  north  and  south,  having  a 
 rocky  substratum.  A vast  extent  of  country',  lying  imme- 
 diately contiguous  to  the  inland  apex,  is,  however,  of  truly 
 fiu\uatile  origin,  being  formed  of  the  sediment  deposited 
 during  long  ages  by  the  turbid  waters  of  the  mighty  stream. 
 This  alluvial  plain  is  everywhere  traversed  by  channels  and 
 creeks,  all  of  fresh  water  and  of  the  most  varied  character ; 
 Borne  narrow  as  canals  for  scores  of  miles,  others  expanding 
 into  spacious  lagoons  and  bays,  but  mostly  deep  and  navi- 
 gable. Wliilst  the  seaward  portion  of  the  island  of 
 klarajo  is  open  savannah,  and  possesses  generally  a sandy 
 sod.,  these  more  inland  plains  of  true  delta  formation  are 
 clothed  with  the  lofty  and  impenetrable  forest  growth 
 which  distinguishes  all  the  low-lying  tropical  lands  of  South 
 America.  The  channels  and  bays  receive  a number  of 
 tributary  rivers  flowing  from  the  interior  of  the  continent, 
 the  lower  courses  of  which,  as  well  as  the  channels  and 
 creeks  themselves,  have  no  proper  downward  cm’rent,  but 
 ebb  and  flow  with  the  tide.  Nearer  the  sea  the  creeks 
 are  fringed  with  a growth  of  mangroves  {Rhizophora 
 mangle) ; but  this  sombre  tree  does  not  monopolise  the 
 domain,  as  in  other  tropical  rivers,  but  is  relieved  by  groves 
 
238 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 of  swamp-loving  palms,  and  the  arborescent  arum  with  its 
 head  of  large  shield-shaped  leaves.  In  the  dry  season 
 these  umbrageous  plains  are  traversible  on  foot  by  the 
 hunter,  or  the  indiarubber  or  oil-nut  gatherer ; but  in  the 
 rainy  season,  when  the  great  rivers  are  all  pouring  down 
 their  augmented  volumes  of  water,  the  inundation  spreads 
 over  nearly  the  whole  land,  especially  during  the  hours  of 
 high  tide.  Away  from  the  straightest  and  deepest  of 
 these  channels,  which  have  now  become  the  highway  for 
 the  numerous  steamboats  plying  between  Para  and  the 
 main  Amazons,  there  are  hundreds  of  miles  of  sequestered 
 creeks,  lakes,  and  streams,  where  the  wanderer  may  paddle 
 about  for  weeks  together,  under  the  shade  of  overhanging 
 trees,  in  Ins  palm-decked  canoe,  without  meeting  with 
 traces  of  human  existence,  beyond  a hut  here  and  there, 
 used  by  the  indiarubber  collector  during  the  season  when 
 he  resorts  to  these  solitudes.  Chief  amongst  the  giant 
 vegetable  growths  of  this  sylvan  domain  are  the  palm-trees, 
 which  exist  in  great  number  and  variety.  Some  of  the 
 species,  such  as  the  fan-leaved  Mauritia,  with  its  erect 
 columnar  stems  80  feet  high,  bearing  aloft  a massive 
 crown  of  enormous  fan-shaped  fronds,  occur  also  in  the 
 Delta  of  the  Orinoco,  and  in  other  parts  of  tropical 
 America ; but  other  forms  equally  striking  are  seen  no- 
 where but  here ; such  are  the  Uhussu  palm,  with  its  large 
 undivided  rigid  fronds,  arranged  round  its  short  stem  like 
 the  feathers  of  a giganti"  shuttlecock,  and  the  Jupati, 
 which  radiates  its  loosely  fringed  leaves,  each  50  feet  in 
 length  and  6 feet  broad,  in  graceful  arches  over  the  water. 
 With  the  exception  of  the  fan-leaved  species  none  of  the 
 palms  form  extensive  groves  of  themselves ; they  are 
 mingled  with  the  masses  of  more  ordinarj^-looking  forest 
 trees  which  constitute  the  prevailing  feature  of  the  wood- 
 lands. The  warm  moist  air  of  this  weU-watered  region, 
 situated  so  near  the  equator,  and  aided  by  the  rich  alluvial 
 
CAMPING-GROUND  ON  THE  AMAZONS.  TofaccpageiZi, 
 
PRIMEVAL  WOODLANDS. 
 
 239 
 
 soil,  stimulates  vegetable  growth  to  the  utmost,  and  under 
 its  influence  thousands  of  creeping  and  climbing  plants 
 overrun  the  giants  of  the  forest,  and  their  infinite  diversity 
 of  flexible  stem,  foliage,  and  flower,  forms  a strikuig 
 feature  along  the  walls  of  forest  wliich  border  this  inter- 
 minable network  of  creeks. 
 
 The  forest  growth  thus  described  extends  over  the 
 whole  of  the  islands  and  southern  mainland  of  the  Para 
 river,  as  far  as  the  interior  of  Maranhao.  For  hundreds 
 of  miles  in  those  directions  there  is  no  interruption  to  the 
 leafy  wilderness,  except  by  rivers. 
 
 The  accounts  of  travellers  dwell  frequently  on  the 
 stillness  and  sombre  awfulness  of  these  primeval  woodlands, 
 and  not  without  reason,  for  such  impressions  are  fully  con- 
 firmed by  a lengthened  abode  in  these  regions.  The  far 
 too  rare  voice  of  the  feathered  tribes  is  of  a melancholy 
 and  mysterious  nature,  calculated  rather  to  quicken  the 
 sense  of  loneliness  than  to  gladden  and  animate  the  way- 
 farer to  fresh  efforts.  At  times  there  echoes  in  the  midst 
 of  the  deep  silence  a sudden  shriek  of  anguish  or  alarm, 
 for  a moment  arresting  the  beat  of  the  heart.  It  is  the 
 cry  of  some  luckless  herbivorous  creature  that  has  un- 
 expectedly fallen  a prey  to  some  member  of  the  feline 
 order,  or  become  entangled  in  the  coils  of  a boa-constrictor. 
 Morning  and  evening  the  numerous  apes  of  the  “ howler  ” 
 tribe  set  up  a horrible  din,  increasing  tenfold  the 
 inhospitable  character  of  the  forest.  And  often  the  dead 
 stillness  of  noon  is  broken  by  a sudden  crash,  dying  away 
 in  the  distance,  caused  by  some  huge  branch,  or  even  by 
 a whole  tree,  falling  to  the  ground.  Nor  is  there  any 
 lack  of  strange  noises,  baffling  all  attempts  at  explanation. 
 At  times  a sound  is  heard  resembling  that  of  an  iron 
 bar  beaten  against  some  hard  or  hoUow  block,  at  others 
 hke  a piercing  shriek  rending  the  air.  But  neither  the 
 dull  sound  nor  the  shrill  cry  is  repeated,  and  the  return 
 
240 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 of  perfect  stillness  enhances  the  harrowing  effect  produced 
 by  its  momentary  interruption. 
 
 3.  The  Lovjer  Amazons. 
 
 Emerging  on  the  main  river,  below  the  mouth  of 
 the  Xingu,  we  soon  arrive  at  what  we  have  termed  the 
 section  of  the  Lower  Amazons.  Here  a different  scene 
 presents  itself.  The  waters  are  no  longer  still,  or  swayed 
 too  and  fro  lazily  with  tide,  but  a broad  turbid  yellow 
 river,  seldom  seen  (on  account  of  islands)  at  its  full  breadth 
 of  five  to  seven  miles,  is  seen  tearing  down  with  resistless 
 sweep  to  the  sea,  bearing  in  the  thread  of  its  current  a 
 long  fine  of  uprooted  trees,  and  islets  of  aquatic  plants 
 which  have  been  torn  from  the  banks. 
 
 The  banks  of  the  river  and  islands  are  generally  low  and 
 clayey,  and  fringed  everywhere  with  a line  of  dead,  fallen 
 trees:  but  beyond  this  lowland  are  seen  ranges  of  hills,  which 
 mark  the  limit  of  the  Amazons  valley.  On  the  north  or 
 Guiana  side  these  hills  extend  with  very  little  interruption 
 for  three  hundred  miles ; but  on  the  south  they  approach  the 
 banks  of  the  river  only  at  rare  intervals.  Characteristic 
 of  the  Lower  Amazons  are  the  wide  stretches  of  open 
 savannah  which  occur  on  both  banks.  These  savannahs, 
 unbke  the  Llanos  of  the  Apru’e,  generally  possess  a coarse 
 sandy  soil  wliich  supports  a gTowth  of  grasses  of  a harsh  and 
 innutritions  quality.  But  patches  of  forest  are  scattered 
 here  and  there,  and  the  banks  of  all  the  numerous  streams 
 are  richly  wooded.  As  we  travel  westward  these  com- 
 paratively barren,  gently-undulating,  sandy  prairies  grad- 
 ually merge  into  a succession  of  plains  of  a more  fertile 
 and  luxuriant  character.  Instead  of  sand  the  soil  is  a 
 rich  black  alluvium,  formed  by  the  partial  drying  up  of  a 
 series  of  broad  back-channels  of  the  giant  river.  Con- 
 tinually in  the  com’se  of  ages  the  Amazons,  like  other 
 
THE  UPPER  AMAEONS. 
 
 241 
 
 rivers,  has  altered  its  course,  now  to  one  side,  now  to  the 
 other  of  its  alluvial  plain,  and  the  courses  of  the  forsaken 
 channels  are  now  marked  by  chains  of  shallow  lakes,  and 
 long  stretches  of  grass-land  yielding  a most  nutritious 
 pasture,  and  having  all  the  characteristics,  except  un- 
 healthiness, of  the  cattle  plaius  of  the  Apur4  already 
 described.  The  great  Amazonian  forest,  wliich  spreads 
 for  hundreds  of  miles  over  the  Delta  and  adjoining  regions, 
 and  which  is  largely  interrupted  by  the  sandy  savannahs 
 of  the  lower  Amazons,  here  begins  again  to  prevail.  It 
 already  occupies  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  surface, 
 and  farther  west  monopolises  entirely  the  ground,  to  the 
 enth’e  exclusion  of  prairie. 
 
 4.  The  Upper  Amazons. 
 
 Passing  the  mouths  of  the  Madeira  and  the  Eio  NegTo, 
 we  arrive  at  length  in  the  boundless  wooded  plain  of  the 
 Upper  Amazons,  here  by  the  natives  called  the  Solimoens. 
 For  more  than  2000  miles  of  its  course  the  mighty 
 stream  flows  through  Brazilian  territory,  and  for  1200 
 miles  beyond  the  Brazilian  frontiers  it  continues  to  be 
 navigable  in  Peruvian  domain,  here  receiving  the  con- 
 tributions of  considerable  tributaries,  such  as  the  Napo, 
 Morona,  and  Pastaza  on  its  left,  and  Ucayali  and 
 HuaUaga  on  its  right  bank.  AU  these  rivers  are  navi- 
 gable by  steamers  as  far  as  the  first  elevations  of  the  Andes, 
 thus  aff'ording  a ready  means  of  communication  mth  the 
 districts  of  Peru  and  Ecuador  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Cor- 
 dilleras. The  great  forest  of  the  Amazons  is  absolutely 
 uninterrupted,  except  for  the  rivers,  throughout  the  whole 
 of  this  region — a tract  of  level  country,  better  watered 
 than  any  other  land  on  the  earth,  measuring  some  1200 
 miles  from  east  to  west,  and  800  from  north  to  south. 
 Many  of  the  nineteen  principal  affluents  received  by  the 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Amazons  witliin  the  limits  of  the  Brazihan  dominions  are 
 also  navigable  by  steamers,  so  that  in  Brazil  alone  the 
 main  stream  and  these  tributaries  present  a total  water- 
 way of  no  less  than  25,000  miles  avaUahle  for  steam 
 navigation.  All  the  affluents  of  the  Upper  Amazons 
 have  the  same  character.  Unhke  the  tributaries  both 
 from  the  north  and  south  on  the  Lower  Amazons — which 
 form  cataracts  in  descending  from  the  high  lands  of  Guiana 
 and  BrazU  respectively,  within  one  or  two  hundred  miles 
 from  their  mouths — the  great  affluents  of  the  Upper 
 Amazons  (excluding  the  Eio  Negro  and  the  Madeira 
 which  are  also  interrupted  by  cataracts)  flow  in  exceed- 
 ingly winding  courses  and  with  slow  currents  through 
 plains,  and  are  free  from  obstructions  to  navigation  up 
 nearly  to  their  sources. 
 
 5.  Hie  Trihutaries  of  the  Amazons — The  Tocantins. 
 
 Amongst  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazons  there  are 
 some  important  enough  here  to  challenge  special  atten- 
 tion. Those  flowing  from  the  south  to  its  right  hank 
 are  naturally  all  the  more  important,  inasmuch  as  they 
 form  water  highways  into  the  interior  of  Brazil,  and 
 especially  the  provinces  of  Goyaz  and  IMatto  Grosso, 
 lymg  relatively  near  to  Eio  de  Janeiro,  hitherto  the 
 chief  centre  of  trade.  One  of  the  foremost  of  these 
 southern  affluents  is  the  Tocantins,  1600  miles  in  length, 
 discharging  its  waters  by  a mouth  ten  miles  broad  almost 
 under  the  equator,  a Ettle  above  the  town  of  Para  in 
 the  Delta,  into  the  river  Para  as  the  southern  branch  of 
 the  main  stream  is  called.  The  Tocantins  does  not,  strictly 
 speaking,  belong  to  the  Amazons  system  at  all,  forming 
 rather  a special  hydrographic  unit  in  itself.  It  comes 
 directly  from  the  very  heart  of  the  great  province  of 
 Goyaz,  and  traverses  that  of  Gran  Para.  Its  rocky  shallows 
 
TRIBUTARIES  OF  THE  AMAZONS. 
 
 243 
 
 and  falls,  which  commence  imfortunately  at  about  100 
 miles  from  its  mouth,  are  represented  as  being  capable  of 
 easy  removal,  whereby  the  river  would  become  navigable 
 for  large  steamers.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the  Araguay, 
 which  was  carefully  explored  in  1864.  It  rises  some- 
 where about  the  18  th  degree  of  S.  latitude,  on  the  Serra 
 Cayapa,  in  its  course  northwards  forming  the  boundary 
 between  the  provinces  of  IMatto  Grosso  and  Goyaz,  here 
 flowing  through  an  exceptionally  fertile,  though  still  little 
 peopled,  coimtry,  and  after  a course  twice  as  long  as  that 
 of  the  Ehine,  dischargmg  into  the  Tocantins  under  the 
 6 th  parallel  of  S.  latitude.  Dr.  Jos4  V.  Couto  de  Magal- 
 haes  navigated  the  Araguay  for  a distance  of  about  1380 
 miles,  struggling  all  the  time  with  endless  troubles, 
 difflculties,  and  natural  obstructions  of  all  sorts.  He  was 
 however  able  to  convince  himself  that  for  its  whole  course 
 this  most  important  stream  is  as  navigable  as  the  lower 
 reach  of  the  Tocantins  itself. 
 
 6.  The  Xingu,  Tapajoz,  Madeira,  Purus,  o.nd  Junia. 
 
 The  next  tributary  on  the  southern  bank  is  the  Xingu, 
 a stream  1200  miles  in  length,  little  visited  and  almost 
 unknown.  Somewhat  less  considerable,  though  still  im- 
 portant, is  the  Tapajoz  or  Arinos,  which  rises  on  the 
 northern  side  of  the  Campos  dos  Parecis,  near  Cuyaba, 
 and  after  a course  of  1000  miles  discharges  into  the 
 Amazons  at  Santarem.  In  its  upper  reaches  it  receives 
 numerous  tributaries,  but  this  river  basin  is  stiU  but  little 
 known.  Below  its  last  falls  (100  miles  from  its  mouth) 
 it  rapidly  expands,  becoming,  before  its  junction  with  the 
 Amazons,  a gently-flowing  stream,  eight  miles  broad  and 
 ■without  islands.  The  easterly  trade-wind,  which  blows 
 up  the  Amazons  throughout  the  dry  season,  is  here  de- 
 flected into  a northerly  breeze,  and  attains  great  strength, 
 raising  a heavy  sea  dangerous  to  boat  navigation. 
 
244 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  Madeira  is  unquestionably  the  most  important  of 
 all  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazons,  with  which,  after  a 
 course  of  2000  miles,  it  effects  a jimction  a little  below 
 the  point  where  the  main  stream  is  joined  by  the  Eio 
 Negro  from  the  north.  The  Madeira  is  formed  by  the 
 union  of  the  head  streams  Guapord-Itenes,  l\Iamore,  and 
 Beni,  which  water  an  extremely  fertile  district  in  Bolivia. 
 At  San  Antonio,  600  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  naviga- 
 bility is  interrupted  for  a distance  of  240  miles  by  a 
 series  of  reefs,  rapids,  and  falls ; but  below  San  Antonio, 
 and  for  several  hundred  miles  above  the  rapids,  its  navi- 
 gation offers  no  further  obstacle. 
 
 The  next  great  southern  tributary  is  the  Purus,  Avhich, 
 though  surpassed  in  volume  of  water  by  the  Eio  Negvo 
 and  the  Madeira,  is  navigable  to  a much  greater  distance 
 than  those  rivers.  Its  course  lies  wholly  within  the  great 
 forest  plain  of  the  South  American  interior,  and  it  does 
 not  appear  to  receive  any  important  tributary  from  the 
 Andes.  Chandless,  the  courageous  and  skilful  explorer, 
 navigated  and  mapped  the  river  for  a distance  of  1847 
 miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  affluent  the  Aquiry  is  also 
 a large  river,  though  in  length  and  breadth  inferior  to  the 
 main  stream.  The  forests  through  which  aU  these  streams 
 flow  are  thinly  peopled  by  small  tribes  of  wild  Indians. 
 
 Another  southern  tributary  of  the  Amazons  within 
 Brazilian  territory  is  the  Jurua,  surveyed  and  mapped  by 
 Chandless  for  a distance  of  980  miles  from  its  mouth. 
 It  is  less  by  one-lialf  in  size  than  the  Purus,  though  resem- 
 bling this  river  in  its  main  features,  especially  in  the  ex- 
 cessively tortuous  course  of  its  bed,  all  these  rivers  mean- 
 dering in  short  abrupt  bends  through  the  aEuvial  plain. 
 Of  the  next  river,  the  Jutahy,  very  little  is  known.  The 
 last  southern  tributary,  the  Javary,  forms  in  part  the 
 boundary  between  Brazil  and  Peru. 
 
THE  RIO  NEGRO, 
 
 245 
 
 ox  THE  UIO  XEOKO. 
 
 7.  T]ic  Rio  Negro — Morono,  and  Ucayali. 
 
 North  of  the  Amazons  the  Eio  Negro,  with  its  affluent 
 the  Eio  Branco,  presents  undoubtedly  the  most  consider- 
 able water  system,  and,  as  already  stated,  is  connected 
 with  that  of  the  Orinoco  by  means  of  the  Casiquiare. 
 However,  it  is  for  the  present  of  but  little  commercial 
 importance,  the  Indians  alone  driving  a trade  in  produce 
 and  articles  of  their  own  manufacture  along  this  channel 
 of  inter-communication  between  Venezuela  and  Brazil. 
 It  forms  a striking  contrast  to  the  main  Amazons,  in  the 
 dark-brown  colour  of  its  waters,  and  the  sombre  aspect 
 of  the  forests  through  which  it  flows;  the  Amazons 
 having  clayey-yellow  water,  and  being  distinguished  by 
 
246 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 the  prevailing  bright-green  colour  of  its  bordering  wood- 
 lands. 
 
 But  the  first  important  stream  flowing  into  the 
 Amazons  on  its  left  bank,  after  it  has  cleared  the  Manse- 
 riche  rapids,  is  the  Morona,  rising  in  the  Eepublic  of 
 Ecuador,  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  main  range  of  the 
 Andes.  Its  volume  of  water  is  considerable,  its  gentle 
 flow  indicating  unusual  depth  and  answering  for  its 
 navigable  character. 
 
 There  remains  to  be  mentioned  the  Ucayali,  the 
 largest  tributary  of  the  Upper  Amazons,  flowing  through  the 
 klontana  or  wooded  plains  of  eastern  Peru,  and  formed 
 by  the  union  of  the  Pachitea,  Tambo,  and  Urubamba  or 
 Vilcamayu,  themselves  streams  of  no  little  importance, 
 partly  navigable,  and  flowing  through  fertile  and  wooded 
 districts.  The  Ucayali  has  some  claim  to  be  considered 
 the  main  stream  of  the  Amazons,  being  320  miles  longer 
 than  the  corresponding  upper  part  of  the  trunk  river,  and 
 having  the  same  colour  and  character  of  water.  It  is 
 navigable  by  the  Pachitea  branch  to  within  325  miles  of 
 Lima,  and  vid  the  L^rubamba  to  within  a short  distance  of 
 the  city  of  Cuzco. 
 
 8.  The  Tras-Anilina. 
 
 The  region  of  the  Upper  Amazons  and  its  affluents, 
 known  as  the  “ Tras-Aiidina  ” or  “ Montana”  country,  not- 
 withstanding its  great  botanical  wealth,  was  never  taken 
 formal  possession  of  by  the  Spaniards.  A great  portion 
 of  it  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  savage  natives  till 
 towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  nor  did  the  Peruvian 
 Eepublic  direct  its  attention  to  the  Montana  till  the  year 
 1853.  (Lieutenant  Juan  Salaveny,  “ Na\dgation  of  the 
 Upper  Amazons  and  its  Peruvian  Tributaries,”  in  Ocean 
 Highways  for  October  1873,  pp.  265-271.) 
 
FAUNA  AND  FLORA, 
 
 247 
 
 9.  Vast  Extent  of  the  Amazons  Water  System. 
 
 All  that  we  read  and  hear  of  the  vast  size  of  the 
 Amazons  and  its  affluents,  conveys  little  or  no  idea  of  the 
 boundless  extent  of  this  prodigious  river  system  as  a 
 whole.  One  must  have  lived  for  months  in  these  regions 
 in  order  to  reaKse  how  greatly  the  liquid  element  here 
 predominates  over  the  land.  This  labyrinth  of  streams  is 
 not  so  much  a vast  network  of  rivers  as  an  inland  fresh- 
 water sea  filled  with  islands.  It  has  been  termed  indeed 
 the  Mediterranean  of  South  America,  for  not  only  is  the 
 main  river  broad,  deep,  and  navigable  by  large  vessels 
 at  every  season  of  the  year,  but  hundreds  of  tributaries, 
 and  numberless  side  branches,  connected  with  lakes  scores 
 of  mdes  in  circumference,  add  their  quota  to  the  great  sum 
 of  navigable  waters. 
 
 10.  Its  peculiar  Fauna  and  Flora — Creeping  Plants. 
 
 In  truth  the  valley  of  the  Amazons  might  with  almost 
 equal  propriety  be  termed  a water  as  a land  basin,  so 
 that  from  this  point  of  view  there  is  nothing  surprising  in 
 the  fact  that  here  the  forests  swarm  comparatively  less 
 with  life  than  do  the  rivers.  Nevertheless  the  primeval 
 woodlands  through  which  the  Amazons  and  its  tributaries 
 flow,  are  no  less  remarkable  for  their  peerdiar  fauna 
 than  they  are  for  the  special  character  of  their  glorious 
 vegetation.  The  dense  and  lofty  virgin  forest,  next  to  the 
 wilderness  of  waters,  is  the  most  distinguishing  character 
 of  the  region.  Nowhere  on  the  earth  is  there  so  vast  and 
 continuous  an  extent  of  arboreal  growth.  With  the  ex- 
 ception of  a few  miles  of  road  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large 
 towns,  with  difficulty  kept  free  from  the  encroachment  of 
 young  vegetation,  this  forest  is  without  path  and  impene- 
 trable. Singular  especially  is  the  tendency  both  of  plants 
 
248 
 
 COMPEXDIIIM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AXD  TEAYEL. 
 
 and  animals,  in  this  -world  of  trees,  to  assume  the  charactei 
 of  creepers  and  climbers.  This  disposition,  forced  upon 
 them  by  their  snrroimdings,  is  shared  in  by  many  species 
 of  the  vegetable  kingdom  which,  generally  speaking,  do 
 not  belong  to  the  trailing  or  climbing  orders  of  plants. 
 The  most  common  instances  are  afforded  by  the  leguminous, 
 jasmine,  nettle,  and  similar  families.  There  is  found 
 even  a t-wining  palm-tree,  which  species  is  in  the  Tupi 
 language  named  the  Jacitara,  On  the  other  hand,  such 
 trees  as  do  not  creep  grow  to  an  unusual  height,  and 
 are  in  all  directions  entangled  and  ent"wined  by  the  woody 
 and  twisted  stems  of  the  chmbers.  Large  trees  and  plants 
 of  parasitic  growth  everywhere  interlace  their  matted 
 foliage  in  inextricable  confusion,  visible  only  at  a con- 
 siderable elevation  from  the  ground.  Of  these  creepers 
 many  unite  together  in  the  form  of  cables,  composed,  so 
 to  say,  of  several  strands,  while  the  stalks  of  others  are 
 twisted  in  a thousand  ways,  coiling  like  snakes  round 
 the  nearest  trunks,  and  forming  gigantic  folds  about  their 
 thick  branches ; while  others  again  trail  along  zigzag 
 fashion,  or  else  shape  themselves  like  the  steps  of  a 
 ladder  leading  to  a dizzy  height  above.  The  flowers  arid 
 fruits  of  the  forest  trees  are  aU  to  be  sought  for  in  the 
 leafy  domes  far  above,  where  the  cro-wns  of  the  trees, 
 locked  together,  are  exposed  to  the  light  and  heat.  All 
 below  is  dark,  musty,  and  cavern-like,  and  neither  flowers 
 nor  green  herbage  variegate  the  damp  ground. 
 
 11.  Climbing  Animals — Reptiles. 
 
 The  same  climbing  propensities  are  exhibited  by  the 
 fatma  of  these  regions.  It  shoidd,  however,  be  remarked 
 at  the  outset,  that  the  animal  kingdom  is  here  far  less 
 numerous,  as  far  as  individuals  are  concerned,  than  might 
 be  at  first  supposed.  It  includes  a number  of  mamma- 
 
REPTILES. 
 
 249 
 
 lians,  birds,  and  reptiles,  but  they  are  very  thinly  scat- 
 tered over  the  land,  and  aU  shun  the  approach  of  man, 
 of  whom  they  betray  great  fear.  In  this  expansive  and 
 uniformly  wooded  country  animals  are  abundant  only  in 
 certain  favom’able  and  attractive  spots.  Brazil  is  poor  in 
 large  land  mammals,  nearly  all  the  species  being  of  small 
 size,  forming  no  feature  in  the  landscape,  and  mostly 
 living  in  the  trees.  All  the  numerous  species  of  the  monkey 
 tribe  in  the  Amazons  region,  or  rather  in  the  whole  of 
 South  America,  are  climbers,  and,  with  the  single  excep- 
 tion of  one  genus,  are  never  seen  on  the  ground.  The 
 reptiles  and, insects  do  not  multiply  in  the  primeval  forests 
 to  such  an  extent  as  one  might  imagine.  Venomous 
 reptiles  are  no  doubt  numerous  in  certain  places,  but  this 
 is  far  from  being  the  case  generally,  and  the  snakes  of 
 the  forest  for  the  most  part  belong  to  the  harmless  genera. 
 The  repulsive  sucuruju,  or  water-boa  {Uunectes  murinus), 
 is  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  snakes  of  the  woods, 
 always  excepting  those  that  are  really  venomous,  such 
 as  the  Jararaca  {Craspedocephalus  atrox)  and  others.  The 
 boa-constrictor  grows  to  a large  size,  and  in  the  rainy 
 season  is  so  numerous  that  specimens,  wandered  from  the 
 forest,  have  sometimes  been  killed  in  the  streets  of  the 
 towns. 
 
 Amongst  the  most  common  and  remarkable  serpents 
 are  the  ring-snakes,  a harmless  species  akin  to  the  Euro- 
 pean slow-worm,  and  haimting  the  underground  galleries 
 of  the  saliba  ant.  Lizards  occur  in  great  variety ; one 
 large  group,  the  geckos,  with  their  curious  feet,  adapted 
 for  climbing,  frequenting  the  trunks  of  trees ; and  tree- 
 frogs  exist  in  vast  number  and  variety. 
 
 The  rarity  of  mosquitoes,  at  least  on  the  lower  parts 
 of  the  river,  and  on  most  of  the  tributary  streams ; the 
 relative  coolness  of  the  temperature ; the  general  healthi- 
 ness of  the  climate ; the  manifold  and  eccentric  forms 
 
250 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 assumed  by  the  vegetation ; the  delicious  shade ; and 
 solemn  stillness, — all  these  combined  impart  a peculiar 
 charm  to  these  wild  solitudes.  Some  idea  may  perhaps 
 be  formed  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  woodland 
 landscape  in  the  low-lying  regions  of  the  Amazons,  if  we 
 imagine  the  usual  vegetation  of  a European  conservatory 
 spread  in  profusion  over  hundreds  of  miles  of  humid 
 country. 
 
BRAZIL. 
 
 251 
 
 CHAPTEK  VII. 
 
 THE  INTERIOR  OF  BRAZIL. 
 
 1.  Still  but  little  hnovm. 
 
 The  topography  of  the  vast  region  forming  the  Empire 
 of  Brazil  is  unfortunately  still  very  imperfectly  known. 
 In  the  interior  of  the  country  there  are  even  now  large 
 tracts  never  yet  visited  by  the  white  man,  to  say  nothing 
 of  scientific  explorers.  And  yet,  during  the  last  few 
 decades,  research  has  been  busy  here  no  less  than  in 
 other  unfrequented  regions  of  the  globe.  The  domain  of 
 the  Upper  Amazons  especially  has,  in  recent  times,  received 
 much  and  varied  light  from  the  labours  of  diligent  ex- 
 plorers and  naturalists. 
 
 But  the  central  provinces  of  Matto  Grosso  and  Goyaz, 
 and  Minas  Geraes,  nearer  the  east  coast,  have  been  less 
 fortunate  in  this  respect,  though  the  last  named,  owing  to 
 its  extraordinary  mineral  wealth,  had,  even  at  an  early 
 period,  been  more  carefully  explored  than  many  others. 
 
 2.  General  Configuration  of  the  Land. 
 
 Speaking  generally,  the  conformation  of  the  Brazilian 
 Empire  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  wide  plains  in 
 the  north  and  south,  and  in  the  interior  mostly  of  hiUy 
 ranges,  with  numerous  intervening  valleys ; or  else  ex- 
 tensive elevated  table-lands,  in  various  directions  inter- 
 sected by  mountain  ridges.  Of  these  ranges  three  deserve 
 
252 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 special  mention,  as  forming  what  may  be  considered  the 
 ribs  of  the  somewhat  intricate  skeleton  of  the  Brazilian 
 mountain  system.  These  are  the  Seri’a  do  Mar,  the  Serra 
 Mantiqueii’a,  and  the  Serra  dos  Vertentes,  all  three  run- 
 ning nearly  parallel  to  each  other  in  a northerly  direction  ; 
 the  first  named,  also  called  jMaritima,  being  the  most 
 easterly,  and  consequently  nearest  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
 board. On  its  eastern  side  rise  numerous  streams,  aU  of 
 which,  after  a more  or  less  easterly  course,  flow  into  the 
 Atlantic.  Compared  with  the  gigantic  rivers  of  the  inte- 
 rior of  Brazil,  they  must  no  doubt  he  regarded  as  small 
 and  even  unimportant,  and  yet  most  of  them — such  as  the 
 Eio  Doce,  de  Belmonte,  Contas,  and  others — wdl  hear  com- 
 parison, for  volume  of  water,  with  some  of  the  largest 
 rivers  in  Europe. 
 
 3.  The  Serra  Mantiqueira — The  Itatiaia. 
 
 West  of  the  Serra  do  Mar,  which,  Kke  the  other  Brazilian 
 ranges,  bears  different  names  in  the  different  pro’sdnces, 
 lies  the  Serra  j\Iantiqueira,  the  principal  mormtain  system 
 in  Brazil,  and  which  farther  north  is  known  as  the  Serra 
 do  Espinhago,  that  is,  as  we  might  say,  “ the  back-bone,” 
 or  spinal  range.  Here  are  the  loftiest  smnmits  in  Brazil, 
 amongst  them  Pico  dos  Orgaos,  or  Organ  Peak,  the  iMorro 
 de  Papagaio,  the  Juruoca,  all  8000  feet  and  upwards 
 above  the  sea-level. 
 
 But  the  highest  mountain  in  Brazil  is  the  Itatiaia, 
 with  a mean  height  of  8900,  and  according  to  some 
 10,300  feet.  The  crests  of  the  Serra  do  Espinhaqo 
 seldom  exceed  6000  feet,  while  the  passes  lie  generally 
 at  an  elevation  of  3000.  The  western  slopes  of  this 
 main  range  descend  into  the  wide  basin  of  the  Pdo  San 
 Francisco,  which  ranks  third  amongst  the  great  river 
 systems  of  Brazil. 
 
NATUEAL  FEATUEES. 
 
 253 
 
 4.  The  Waterparting  of  the  Amazons  and  Plata  River 
 Systems. 
 
 On  its  west  side  runs  the  third  of  the  above- 
 mentioned  ranges.  It  is  at  once  the  most  extensive  and 
 the  lowest,  stretching  from  the  northern  province  of  Ceara 
 to  the  confines  of  ]\Iatto  Grosso,  thus  forming  the  water- 
 parting  between  the  basins  of  the  Amazons  and  the  Eiver 
 Plata  systems.  These  western  highlands  seem  nowhere  to 
 fall  below  an  elevation  of  2150  feet  above  the  sea,  while 
 numerous  ridges  are  much  higher,  notably  the  Serra  Geral, 
 rimning  in  an  almost  southerly  direction.  But  the  Serra 
 dos  Vertentes  is,  in  a more  special  sense,  the  name  of  the 
 range  that  forms  the  water-parting  between  the  streams 
 flowing  north  and  south. 
 
 5.  Detached  Mountain  Systems. 
 
 From  these  three  principal  mountain  systems,  speaking 
 generally,  are  thrown  off  all  the  other  Brazilian  ridges, 
 the  whole  thus  forming  the  Brazil  system  proper,  which  is 
 in  no  way  connected  with  any  of  the  other  South  American 
 ranges.  It  is  surrounded  by  perfectly  level  plains,  separ- 
 ating it  both  from  the  lofty  Andes  in  the  west,  and  from 
 the  Parime-Guiana  system  in  the  north,  lying  between  the 
 Orinoco  and  Amazons,  and  at  various  points  touching  on 
 the  Brazilian  frontiers.  But  as  scarcely  one-fifth  of  the 
 whole  is  really  mountainous,  it  becomes  possible  roughly 
 to  distinguish  between  the  highlands  proper,  the  low 
 hilly  country  to  the  north  of  them,  the  plains  of  the  Parana, 
 and  the  southern  region. 
 
 6.  The  Primeval  Forest  Lands. 
 
 The  picture  above  given  of  the  woodlands  bordering 
 the  Amazons  and  its  tributaries  is  to  some  extent  apph- 
 
254  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 cable  to  the  vast  tracts  of  virgin  forests  here  stretching 
 Mnth  little  interruption  for  hundreds  of  miles.  The  forests 
 of  the  Brazilian  seaboard  and  river  valleys  have  a similar 
 general  character  to  those  of  the  great  river  plain  of  the 
 equator,  and  contain  trees  of  the  same  or  similar  genera, 
 although  the  species  are  in  many  cases  different,  this 
 being  pre-eminently  the  case  with  the  palms,  which  de- 
 corate the  more  sombre  masses  of  the  woodlands  in  both 
 regions,  but  which,  although  presenting  the  same  variety 
 of  size,  stem,  crown,  and  leaves,  are  represented  by  dif- 
 ferent species  in  the  two  areas.  "WTiere  the  land  is  more 
 elevated  and  liilly,  the  trees  are  generally  of  less  lofty 
 growth,  and  farther  apart ; and  all  that  tribe  of  plants  of 
 the  swampy  forests,  with  their  long,  broad,  and  glossy 
 leaves,  disappear,  but  in  compensation  flowers  are  much 
 more  abundant,  a vast  variety  of  exquisite  ferns  ornament 
 the  glades,  and  on  the  higher  elevations  the  Brazilian  pine 
 {Araucaria  hrasiliensis) , unknown  nearer  the  equator, 
 enters  as  a fresh  element  into  the  woodland  scenery. 
 
 The  Brazilian  forest  proper  originally  clothed  nearly  the 
 entire  surface  of  the  Atlantic  provinces  of  Brazil  from  25° 
 south  latitude  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazons,  the  cliief 
 exception  being  the  arid  districts  of  Ceara  and  neighbour- 
 hood north  of  Pernambuco,  where  the  arboreal  growth  is 
 more  scanty.  Xourished  by  the  rich  red  loam — the 
 result  of  surface  disintegration  of  the  prevailing  granitic 
 and  other  igneous  rocks  by  floods  of  warm  tropical  rain — 
 and  stimidated  by  the  high  temperature  and  constant  humi- 
 dity, the  magmiflcent  arboreal  gi’owth  spread  and  flourished, 
 developing,  under  the  influence  of  the  secular  struggle  for 
 existence,  the  thousands  of  strange  and  beautiful  forms 
 which  now  dehght  the  eyes  of  the  thoughtful  traveller. 
 In  the  mountainous  southern  proAunce,  where  the  capital 
 is  situated,  extensive  traets  of  this  glorious  woodland  have 
 been  cleared  in  making  roads  and  plantations,  and  although 
 
PRIMEVAL  FOREST. 
 
 To  face  page  254. 
 
THE  BEAEILIAIS’  FOREST. 
 
 255 
 
 some  of  it  may  be  afterwards  left  uncultivated,  the  second 
 growth  never  attains  the  luxuriance  and  charm  of  the  ori- 
 ginal. Such  woods  of  second  growth  are  called  cad-poeira  in 
 the  language  of  the  old  Indian  inhabitants,  meaning  felled 
 woods,  and  consist  of  multitudes  of  low  trees  and  saplings 
 matted  together  with  thorny  brashes  and  creepers.  The 
 following  is  a description  of  the  impression  made  upon  an 
 observer  (Prince  Adalbert  of  Prussia),  not  a botanist,  at 
 the  first  sight  of  the  forest,  after  some  experience  of  the 
 cad-poeira  of  the  environs  of  Pio  de  Janeiro. 
 
 “ Hitherto  we  had  been  used  to  inquire,  in  passing 
 through  a wood,  whether  it  formed  part  of  the  primeval 
 forest ; we  no  longer  asked  this  question,  for  we  were  now 
 conscious  of  the  fact.  The  solemn  feelings  which  arise 
 on  entering  these  forests  for  the  first  time,  indicated  the 
 truth  surely  enough.  At  fimt  we  gazed  in  wonder  on  the 
 labyrinth  of  tall  straight  trees,  rising  like’  giants,  and  into 
 the  tangled  creepers  and  climbers  which  surrounded  us ; 
 we  looked  up  to  the  light  roof  of  foliage,  through  which 
 was  seen  the  vault  of  heaven  as  through  a veil ; but  we 
 could  not  account  to  ourselves  for  all  we  beheld.  Every 
 object  here  is  colossal,  everything  seems  to  belong  to  a 
 primeval  world.  We  feel  ourselves  to  be  in  disproportion 
 to  all  around  us,  and  to  pertain  to  quite  another  period  of 
 existence.  Our  astonishment  is  increased  by  the  gxeat 
 difference  between  the  vegetation  in  these  forests  and  our 
 own.  Where  in  our  country  we  find  a shrub  or  fruit  tree 
 in  flower,  we  here  see  gigantic  trees,  twice  or  thrice  the 
 height,  in  all  the  splendoiu  of  bloom,  clothing  the  whole 
 crown  of  the  tree  with  its  colour. 
 
 “ The  chief  ornament  of  our  day’s  ride  were  trees  with 
 magnificent  large  lilac,  and  others  with  white  blossoms, 
 contrasting  beautifully  with  the  surrounding  varied  tints 
 of  green.  After  enjoying  this  splendid  display  of  colours, 
 we  turned  to  the  deep  shades  winch  lay  disclosed,  solemn 
 
256 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL, 
 
 and  mournful,  between  'the  gigantic  trees  on  our  way- 
 side.  The  flame-coloured  raceme  of  a Tillandsia,  a foot 
 tall,  and  resembling  a brobdignagian  pine-apple  or  straw- 
 berry, glanced  like  fire  among  the  dark  foliage.  Again 
 our  attention  was  attracted  by  the  charming  epiph)rtes, 
 climbing  up  the  straight  trimks  of  the  trees,  or  pictur- 
 esquely covering  their  branches,  which  seldom  shoot  out 
 from  the  trunk  at  a less  height  than  fifty  to  eighty  feet 
 from  the  ground.  From  the  fertility  of  the  soil  the  trees 
 spring  up  so  densely  that,  when  young,  their  branches,  not 
 having  room  to  expand  freely,  strive  to  overtop  one 
 another.  Among  the  various  plants  wlrich  spring  from 
 the  branches,  or  cling  to  the  stems  of  the  trees,  are  the 
 mosses  hanging  down,  not  imlike  horses’  tads,  from  the 
 branches  which  support  the  epiphytes  and  Tillandsias. 
 jMyriads  of  woody  climbers  hang  down  to  the  gxound,  or  are 
 suspended  in  the  air,  several  inches  thick,  and  not  unfre- 
 quently  of  the  cu’cumference  of  a man’s  body,  coated  with 
 bark  like  the  branches  of  the  trees.  But  it  is  impossible 
 for  any  one  to  conceive  the  fantastic  forms  they  assume, 
 interlaced  and  entangled.  Sometimes  they  depend  like 
 straight  poles,  to  the  ground,  and  there  strike  root.  At 
 other  times  they  resemble  large  hoops  or  rings,  from  ten 
 to  twenty  feet  in  diameter ; or  are  twisted  like  so  many 
 cables.  Sometimes  they  lace  the  tree  regularly  from  dis- 
 tance to  distance,  and  often  embrace  it  so  closely  as  to 
 choke  it. 
 
 “ Perfect  silence  does  not  reign  in  these  forests,  for  the 
 sincfin"  of  birds  and  the  whirr  of  the  cicadas  are  heard 
 incessantly.  We  diligently  looked  out  for  monkeys,  but 
 in  vain.” 
 
 In  the  interior  of  Brazil  the  forest  becomes  less  con- 
 tinuous, being  chiefly  confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  rivers. 
 On  the  plateaus,  and  in  the  inland  provinces  of  Matto 
 Grosso,  Goyaz,  San  Paulo,  and  great  part  of  Minas  Geraes, 
 
THE  EIVEK  SAH  FEA^CISCO. 
 
 257 
 
 open  grassy  plains,  called  Campos,  rugged  with  gi’anitic 
 outcrops,  become  the  almost  universal  feature. 
 
 7.  The  River  San  Francisco. 
 
 To  the  interior  proper  of  Brazd  belongs  the  water 
 system  of  the  Kiver  San  Francisco,  which,  owing  to  its 
 central  position,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  commodious  in 
 the  empire.  Unfortunately  this  magnificent  river  is 
 broken  by  the  Paulo- Affonso  Falls,  that  have  not  unrea- 
 sonably been  named  the  South  American  Niagara.  The 
 present  emperor  of  Brazil,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  has  been 
 so  fully  aHve  to  the  vast  importance  of  the  Eio  San  Fran- 
 cisco, that  some  years  ago  he  did  not  hesitate  to  make  a 
 personal  inspection  of  these  wddemesses,  further  ordering 
 a thorough  exploration,  which  resulted  in  the  handsome 
 volume  of  the  engineer  officer,  Eduardo  Jose  de  Moraes. 
 In  more  recent  times  we  are  indebted  for  much  accurate 
 information  concerning  the  San  Francisco  to  the  expe- 
 rienced traveller.  Captain  E.  F.  Burton,  and  to  the  learned 
 French  missionary  I’Abbe  Durand ; while,  to  another 
 Frenchman,  the  distinguished  savant  Emanuel  Liais,  we 
 owe  a careful  exploration  and  survey  of  the  Eio  das 
 Velhas,  the  largest  affiuent  of  the  San  Francisco. 
 
 This  great  stream  rises  on  the  west  side  of  the  lulls 
 situated  to  the  south  of  Minas  Geraes,  flowing  from  a cross 
 ridge  of  the  Serra  da  Canastra  northwards  to  the  10  th 
 deg.  S.  lat.,  and  consequently  in  a line  nearly  parallel  with 
 the  east  coast.  Here  it  turns  a little  eastwards,  after 
 a course  of  1800  miles  discharging  its  waters  into  the 
 Atlantic  at  San  Antonio.  It  separates  the  provinces  of 
 !Minas  Geraes  and  Pernambuco  from  that  of  Bahia,  and,  for 
 a short  distance  along  its  lower  course,  serves  as  the 
 boundary  of  the  two  smaller  provinces  of  Sergipe  and 
 Alagoas.  Its  affluents  are  countless,  and  even  in  the 
 
 s 
 
258 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 dry  season  the  volume  of  water  at  its  mouth  amounts 
 to  616,000  gallons  per  second.  Along  its  banks  dwell 
 a sixth  part  of  the  entire  population  of  Brazil ; that  is 
 to  say,  about  1,500,000  altogether.  Even  at  Pirapora, 
 at  an  elevation  of  1760  feet  above  the  sea-level,  it  is 
 615  yards  broad,  and  forms  a fall  of  1 8 feet,  while  split- 
 ting into  a number  of  branches,  which  make  their  way 
 through  the  rocks  for  a space  of  3600  feet. 
 
 8.  Affluents,  Falls,  and  Navigation  of  the  Fiver  San 
 Francisco. 
 
 Its  first  tributary  from  the  east  is  the  already-men- 
 tioned Bio  das  Velhas,  in  17°  45'  S.  latitude.  From  this 
 point  (1720  feet  above  the  sea)  to  the  falls  of  Paulo- 
 Affonso,  some  155  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  San  Fran- 
 cisco is  navigable  for  a distance  of  920  miles.  These 
 Caxoeiras  or  rapids,  great  and  little,  all  comprised,  and 
 spread  over  a distance  of  70  miles,  are  said  to  be  on  an 
 extremely  grand  scale,  and  are  occasioned  by  the  river 
 forcing  its  way  through  the  coast  range  in  order  to  reach 
 the  Atlantic.  There  is  altogether  a fall  of  262  feet 
 in  their  whole  length,  and  above  them  the  river  periodi- 
 cally overflows  its  banks  for  many  miles,  thereby  fer- 
 tilising the  land,  but  rmfortunately  also  producing 
 fever  and  ague.  From  November  the  water  begins  to 
 rise,  becoming  muddy,  and  in  March  and  April  reaching 
 its  highest  level,  which  is  by  this  time  some  21  feet 
 above  the  ordinary  height  of  the  river.  Below  the  city  of 
 Penedo  the  stream  branches  off  and  forms  the  islands  of 
 Corao  d’Area  and  da  Bomba,  Its  mouth,  which  is  1200 
 yards  broad,  is  barred  by  sandbanks  causing  a strong 
 surf,  and  the  navigation  of  the  river  is  impeded  by  many 
 other  obstructions,  that  have  been  hitherto  overcome  after 
 the  primitive  fashion  of  the  country.  The  river-bed 
 
THE  CLIMATE  OF  BRAZIL. 
 
 259 
 
 presents  an  almost  continuous  series  of  islets,  between 
 which  the  canoes  and  larger  boats  have  to  find  the  main 
 channel. 
 
 The  tributaries  on  both  sides  are  unusually  rich  in 
 aflSuents  and  rivrdets  (riachos)  causing  a regular  increase 
 in  the  depth  of  the  stream,  without,  however,  other- 
 wise to  a like  degree  furthering  the  navigation.  Yet 
 the  river  must  be  made  accessible  to  vessels  of  a 
 certain  capacity,  before  we  can  hope  to  see  the  fertile 
 lands  along  the  whole  course  of  the  San  Trancisco  opened 
 up  to  trade.  Meantime  its  great  importance  lies  in  the 
 fact  that  it  connects  the  gold  and  diamond  fields  of  Minas 
 Geraes  with  the  sea ; thus,  in  the  absence  of  a practicable 
 highway  from  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Sergipe,  and  Minas 
 Geraes  to  Eio  Janeiro,  presenting  the  only  channel  by 
 which  the  products  of  these  provinces  can  reach  the  capital. 
 
 9.  Climate  of  Brazil. 
 
 The  climate  of  Brazil  is,  for  a tropical  country,  remark- 
 ably temperate,  regular,  and  salubrious.  In  the  north, 
 that  is,  near  the  equator,  there  are  two  regular  seasons,  a 
 wet  and  a dry,  the  former  beginning  about  January  1st, 
 the  latter  about  July  1st,  though  occasionally  varying  as 
 much  as  a month  either  way.  In  Eio  there  is  no  fixed 
 rainy  period,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  there 
 the  wettest  month  of  the  year.  However,  the  heaviest 
 rainfall  is  in  February,  March,  i\Iay,  August,  and 
 November,  the  lightest  in  June,  July,  and  September, 
 though  at  times  not  a drop  will  fall  in  August. 
 
 In  the  wooded  districts  of  Ceara,  Pernambuco,  Para- 
 hyba,  and  Eio  Grande  del  Norte,  the  absence  of  rain  often 
 causes  great  droughts.  During  the  wet  season  there  is 
 scarcely  any  wind,  and  the  temperature  varies  very  little 
 throughout  the  day.  But  in  the  dry  months  it  is  alway.s 
 
260 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 cool  in  the  morning  and  evening,  vliile  the  heats  of  noon 
 are  tempered  hy  a steady  sea  breeze,  for  the  south-eastern 
 trade  winds  prevail  all  along  the  coast.  In  places  subject 
 to  the  gi’eatest  heat,  the  maximum  does  not  as  a rule 
 exceed  102°  Fahr.,  while  in  those  where  the  greatest  cold 
 is  felt,  the  temperatui-e,  in  exceptional  cases  only,  falls 
 below  39°,  as  on  the  mountain  range  of  Itatiaia  and  in 
 the  plains  of  Eio  Grande  do  Sul.  Here  it  occasionally 
 happens  that  the  thermometer  falls  to  the  freezing-point, 
 and  even  below  it,  in  which  cases  the  little  lakes  in  the 
 interior  become  covered  with  a thin  crust  of  ice. 
 
 In  the  coast  country,  between  Eio  de  Janeiro  and  the 
 valley  of  the  Amazons  the  annual  mean  temperature  is 
 about  82°  Fahr.,  while  from  Eio  southwards  the  heat  dimin- 
 ishes perceptibly,  the  cEmate  here  becoming  very  cool. 
 South  of  the  Serra  dos  Yertentes,  and  especially  on  the 
 plateaus  of  the  Parana  province,  the  climate  is  that  of  the 
 temperate  zones.  Here  also  rain  falls  constantly  in  sum- 
 mer, and  to  a less  degree  throughout  the  winter  months. 
 The  heat  is  moderate,  and  the  vegetation  vigorous,  though 
 not  to  the  same  extent  as  along  the  coast  farther  north. 
 
THE  KIVER  PLATE. 
 
 261 
 
 CHAPTER  VIII. 
 
 THE  REGION  OF  THE  RIVER  PLATE  AND  THE  PAMPAS. 
 
 1.  Extent  and  Configuration. 
 
 The  estuary  of  the  Eio  de  la  Plata  (“  Plate  ” or  “ Silver 
 Stream  ”)  forms  the  outlet  for  the  waters  of  the  great 
 South  American  river  system  whose  basin  embraces  the 
 region  between  15°  and  .35°  south  latitude,  and  a great 
 portion  of  the  mainland  between  the  Brazilian  coast  range, 
 on  the  eastern  or  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  the  Cordillera 
 of  the  Andes  on  the  west.  The  lands  comprised  witliin  the 
 limits  of  this  water  system,  including  the  provinces  of  the 
 Argentine  Confederation,  the  Republics  of  Uruguay  and 
 Paraguay,  and  portions  of  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  are  amongst 
 the  finest  and  most  fertile  on  the  globe.  Here  we  find 
 ourselves  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes,  which  descend 
 on  the  west  somewhat  abruptly  down  to  the  neighbouring 
 Pacific  Ocean,  but  which,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
 slope  more  gradually  to  the  elevated  table-lands  on  their 
 eastern  or  land  side.  Hence  it  is  that  their  eastern 
 slopes  are  much  longer,  or  more  extended,  especially 
 within  the  Argentine  temtory,  containing  many  level 
 valleys  formed  by  spurs  of  the  main  range  brandling  off 
 in  various  directions. 
 
 2.  Steppes  and  Woodlands. 
 
 Accordingly  the  vast  domain  of  the  Argentine  States, 
 which  must  in  a sense  be  looked  upon  as  the  heart  of  this 
 
262 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 region,  presents  tlie  aspect  of  a boundless  plain,  with  an 
 imperceptible  fall  in  the  direction  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
 eastwards.  In  the  centre  of  tins  plain  rise  the  smaller 
 mountain  masses  of  Cordova  and  San  Luis,  severed  from 
 the  Andes  by  a salt  and  sandy  plain  sparingly  wooded. 
 In  the  river  and  coast  regions,  the  level  and  grass-grown 
 ground  is  frequently  studded  with  a number  of  lagoons  or 
 lakelets,  partly  of  -sweet  and  partly  of  brackish  water,  and 
 in  many  places  presents  excellent  pasture  lands. 
 
 As  we  proceed  northwards  the  woodlands  become 
 more  and  more  extensive  and  dense,  their  wealth  in 
 valuable  timber  increasing  in  the  same  proportion.  In 
 the  south  the  trees  are  rarer  and  more  stunted,  being  found 
 only  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  consisting  mainly  of 
 the  willow.  A coarse  but  nutritive  grass,  low  shrubs,  and 
 a few  solitary  trees  make  up  most  of  the  scanty  vegeta- 
 tion in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Parana,  a great  part  of 
 which  is  entirely  destitute  of  timber.  On  the  other  hand, 
 the  coast  of  Brazd  east  of  the  Serra  Santa  Catharina  .is 
 everywhere  covered  with  the  dense  forest  pre\dously  de- 
 scribed, while  farther  south  the  superabundance  of  water 
 produces  marshy  lands. 
 
 3.  Main  Subdivisions. 
 
 The  course  from  north  to  south  of  the  Parana  and  of 
 its  principal  northern  tributary  the  Paraguay,  divides  the 
 whole  of  this  region  into  two  parts  of  nearly  equal  width, 
 each  of  which  may  again  be  subdivided  into  two  long- 
 zones.  Thus  we  may  distinguish,  in  the  main  western 
 section,  the  region  of  the  Pampas,  following  the  right  banks 
 of  the  Parana  and  Paraguay,  and  that  of  GrUn  Chaco,  a 
 wilderness  stiU  but  little  known,  stretching  northwards  to 
 Bolivia,  and  including  a number  of  Argentine  provinces, 
 or  rather  such  portions  of  them  as  are  not  comprised  in 
 
THE  KEVADO  DE  GASTELLO. 
 
 263 
 
 the  second  main  division  lying  nearer  to  the  great  Cordil- 
 leras, and  forming  what  may  he  called  the  hilly  region  of 
 the  Andes.  By  this  last  is  to  be  understood  the  eastern 
 branches  of  this  range,  which,  farther  north  trend  more 
 to  the  east,  and  assume  the  name  of  Cordillera  Eeal,  the 
 elevated  region  between  which  and  the  coast  range  forms 
 the  Bolivian  plateau,  some  13,000  feet  in  average  height 
 and  150  miles  in  breadth. 
 
 4.  Southern  Extension  of  the  Plateau. 
 
 This  little  known  region  was  partly  explored  in  1872-3 
 by  Dr.  George  Hieronymus,  and  Professor  Lorenz,  who 
 foimd  Tucuman  and  other  provinces  rich  in  medicinal 
 plants.  Not  more  than  a tenth  of  the  land  is  here  under 
 cultivation ; sugar-cane,  maize,  and  orange  groves,  being 
 the  chief  products  of  these  parts.  The  rest  of  the  country 
 is  covered  either  with  primeval  tropical  forests  or  grassy 
 steppes,  in  which  range  numerous  herds  of  wild  horses  and 
 cattle.  The  Nevado  de  CasteUo,  which  they  ascended  as 
 far  as  16,000  feet,  possesses  a luxuriant  alpine  flora, 
 including  cactuses,  asclepiads,  and  Piperacese,  wMle  the 
 rocks  contain  numerous  fossils  and  even  traces  of  gold. 
 
 5.  The  South  American  Mesopotamia. 
 
 East  of  the  Paraguay  and  Parana,  two  distinct 
 geographical  regions  are  clearly  formed,  on  the  one  hand 
 by  the  upper  course  of  the  Parana  flowing  from  Brazil, 
 and  on  the  other  by  the  Uruguay,  pursuing  nearly  a simi- 
 lar parallel  course  southwards.  Between  the  Parana  and 
 the  Uruguay  extends  the  Argentine  IMesopotamia,  partly 
 
264 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AYD  TRAVEL. 
 
 occupied  by  a district  claimed  by  tbe  EepubHc  of  Paraguay 
 stretching  north  and  south  betvreen  the  Parana  and  the 
 Paraguay.  But  east  of  the  Upper  Parana  and  Uruguay 
 are  the  south  Brazihan  pro\Tnces  of  Sao  Paulo,  Parana, 
 and  Piio  Grande  do  Sul,  besides  the  Piepubhc  of  Uruguay 
 itself,  all  those  regions  presenting  a mountainous  character 
 in  comparison  with  the  flat  Mesopotamian  district.  In  this 
 hflly  country,  forming  om  fourth  and  most  easterly  main 
 subdi^'ision,  several  of  the  most  important  tributaries  of 
 the  La  Plata  river  system  take  their  rise.  But  south  of 
 the  great  inlet  or  so-called  estuary  of  the  Plata  all  these 
 different  zones  cease  to  be  distinguished.  Here  we  can 
 speak  of  nothing  but  a hiUy  region  on  the  eastern  side  of 
 the  Andes,  narrowing  as  it  stretches  southwards,  and  of 
 XhQ  pampas  or  plains,  broken  here  and  there  only  by  solitary 
 disconnected  ridges.  These  pampas  occupy  the  whole 
 country  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  stretch  even 
 over  a large  extent  of  Patagonia. 
 
 6.  The  La  Plata  Water  System. 
 
 The  confluence  of  the  two  vast  streams,  the  Parana 
 and  the  Uruguay,  forms  the  great  bight  or  inlet  known 
 as  the  Pdo  de  la  Plata,  from  which  the  Argentine 
 Eepublic  and  the  Banda  Oriental  or  Piepubhc  of  Uruguay 
 received  the  common  name  of  the  States  of  La  Plata. 
 Large  vessels  can  ascend  not  only  the  Plate  river  proper, 
 but  the  two  main  streams,  for  a long  way  upwards ; the 
 Parana,  indeed,  for  a distance  of  1200  or  1300  mhes, 
 whilst  the  Paraguay  is  na^ugated  by  smah  steamers  as  far 
 as  Cuyaba,  capital  of  the  Brazilian  pro\-ince  of  Matto 
 Grosso,  1700  nhles  from  the  sea.  The  Uruguay  is 
 ascended  by  vessels  for  a distance  of  about  300  miles  to 
 Salto,  vdiere  the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  the  rapids. 
 
 Both  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay  have  many  tribu- 
 
TIGER  ISLAJN'D. 
 
 265 
 
 taries  of  secondary  importance,  but  still  more  or  less 
 na'vdgable.  The  Eio  Salado  flo'wing  from  the  north-west 
 joins  the  Parana  at  Santa  Fe,  while  the  Paraguay  receives 
 the  waters  of  the  Eio  A^ermejo  or  Eed  Eiver,  and  the 
 Pdcomayo,  also  from  the  north-west. 
 
 TIGER  ISLAND. 
 
 The  Eio  de  la  Plata,  thus  formed  by  the  Parana  and 
 Uruguay,  is  the  widest  river  in  the  world,  being  62 
 miles  broad  at  Alonte  A^ideo,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
 the  Amazons,  it  discharges  more  water  mto  the  ocean 
 than  any  other.  Above  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  intricate 
 delta  of  the  Parana,  is  situated  Tiger  Island,  where  whole 
 forests  of  peach  trees  are  m full  bloom  in  the  month  of 
 August,  and  where  the  Seibo  also  {Erythrina  cristagalli,  L.) 
 unfolds  its  gorgeous  blossom.  This  thorny  plant  is  of 
 medium  size,  has  a purple  flower,  and  a soft  wood,  which, 
 being  useless  for  fuel,  serv'es  to  make  bowls,  dishes,  and 
 household  articles.  The  Seibo  trees  often  form  thickets 
 
266 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 very  like  our  European  brushwood,  but  often  so  dense  and 
 entangled  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  hew  a way  through 
 them  with  hatchets.  The  islands  in  the  delta  are  formed 
 of  alluvial  deposit  extremely  fertile,  and  often  so  elevated 
 that  they  are  not  subject  to  periodical  floodings.  Many 
 eyots  are  swept  bodily  away  by  the  stream,  which  forms 
 others  elsewhere  of  the  same  materials ; and  as  the  proper 
 channel  or  na^dgable  main  stream  is  constantly  shifting, 
 the  latest  chart  of  the  delta  becomes  useless  in  a few 
 months. 
 
 The  water  is  lowest  in  August,  but  the  branch  known 
 as  Parana  de  las  Palmas  is  always  deep  enough  for 
 navigation.  Besides  this  branch  the  delta  is  intersected 
 by  four  other  main  branches,  and  the  Parana  has  altogether 
 fourteen  mouths,  all  of  them  subject  to  periodical 
 floodings. 
 
 7.  The  Parand-Paraguay  River  System. 
 
 By  far  the  most  important  river  system  flo’wing  into  the 
 Plata  is  the  Parana-Paraguay,  wliich  has  been  justly  called 
 the  Mississippi  of  South  America.  It  is  fed  by  the  tropical 
 rains  of  Brazil  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  snows  of  the  Andes 
 on  the  other.  The  head-streams  of  the  Parana  are  in  Brazil, 
 one  of  them,  the  Eio  Grande,  rising  about  the  20  th  par- 
 allel in  the  Sierra  de  ]\Iantiqueira  in  the  province  of  Minas 
 Geraes,  to  the  north-west  of  Eio  de  J aneiro  and  within  some 
 180  miles  of  the  Atlantic.  After  a course  of  about  500 
 miles  it  unites  with  the  Paranahyba  flowing  from  the  Serra 
 da  Matta  da  Corda,  in  the  province  of  Goyaz.  The  Parana 
 flows  thence  for  1200  miles  through  a wilderness  stfll 
 but  little  known,  forming,  for  some  distance,  the  frontier  of 
 Brazil,  and  farther  down  that  between  Paraguay  and  the 
 Argentine  Confederation.  At  CandeUaria  (27°  30'  S. 
 lat.)  it  takes  a westerly  course,  which  it  follows  to  its 
 
VEGETATION  IN  THE  REGION  OF  THE  PARANX.  To  face  page  266. 
 
THE  PAKAGUAY. 
 
 267 
 
 junction  with  the  Paraguay  at  Corrientes,  from  this  point 
 forming  one  of  the  grandest  streams  in  the  world.  This 
 united  river  was  formerly  usually  called  the  Paraguay, 
 according  to  which  nomenclature  the  Parana  would  have 
 to  be  regarded  as  a tributary  of  the  Paraguay.  But 
 on  the  most  recent  and  best  maps  the  lower  course  of  the 
 stream  is  always  named  the  Parana,  whereby  the  relation 
 between  the  two  rivers  becomes  reversed. 
 
 8.  The  Upper  ParanA. 
 
 Its  upper  course  presents  an  extremely  romantic 
 aspect,  flowing  through  glorious  lands  that  have  hitherto 
 remained  entirely  waste.  They  are  especially  rich  in 
 many  species  of  palm-trees.  Nor  is  the  coimtry  less  beau- 
 tiful lower  down.  In  the  hilly  regions  of  Brazil,  above 
 the  Guarani  missions,  the  Parana  has  many  waterfalls, 
 for  a stretch  of  about  250  miles  presenting  an  almost 
 uninterrupted  series  of  cataracts  and  rapids. 
 
 9.  The  Paraguay  and  its  Tributaries. 
 
 The  Paraguay  rises  in  the  Siete  Lagunas,  seven  little 
 lakes  under  the  13  th  parallel,  in  the  diamond-fields  of  the 
 Brazilian  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  where  the  bills 
 branching  off  westwards  form  a great  water-parting. 
 From  their  northern  slopes  flow  some  of  the  most  con- 
 siderable affluents  of  the  Madeira  and  Tapajos,  as  well  as 
 other  streams  making  their  way  to  the  Amazons.  But 
 their  southern  slopes  belong  to  the  La  Plata  system. 
 
 In  its  upper  course  the  Paraguay  receives  many  large 
 waters  flo'wing  westwards  from  Brazil,  whereby  it  soon 
 develops  into  a majestic  and  navigable  river.  Amongst 
 its  western  affluents  may  be  mentioned  the  Jauru,  which 
 joins  it  about  the  16°  25'  parallel.  Its  source  is  at  no 
 
268  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 great  distance  from  that  of  the  Guapore,  one  of  the  head 
 waters  of  the  Madeira,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  on  its 
 part  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Amazons.  The  ridge 
 parting  these  great  river  systems  is  only  6|  miles  across; 
 and  it  is  said  that  the  construction  of  a canal  connecting 
 the  two  would  present  no  very  great  difficulties. 
 
 Below  the  jimction  of  the  Jauru  begins  a marshy  dis- 
 trict, known  as  the  Xarayes  Lagoon.  During  the  rainy 
 season  it  is  under  water,  forming  a vast  hut  shallow 
 inland  sea,  300  miles  long  by  100  broad.  Portions 
 of  the  districts  of  Chiquitos  and  Gran  Chaco  are  then  also 
 flooded.  But  as  soon  as  the  rains  cease,  the  Paraguay 
 carries  off  all  the  waters  that  have  not  evaporated. 
 
 Above  its  junction  with  the  Jauru  it  receives  many 
 streams,  affording  a water-way  eastwards  towards  the  Bra- 
 zilian gold  and  diamond  fields,  and  farther  down  towards 
 the  wooded  districts  of  Paraguay,  which  yield  quantities 
 of  valuable  timber.  But  its  most  important  affiuents  come 
 necessarily  from  the  west,  amongst  them  the  Pilcomayo 
 or  Aragua-guazu,  and  the  Eio  Vermejo,  or  Eed  Eiver,  both 
 of  them  watering  the  wilderness  of  Gran  Chaco,  which  has 
 been  partly  explored  by  Major  Host,  an  engineer  officer 
 in  the  serffice  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 
 
 The  Pilcomayo,  that  is  “ Sparrow  Eiver,”  rises  about 
 the  19  th  parallel  to  the  north-west  of  Potosi,  in  Bolivia, 
 being  there  joined  by  some  head  waters,  including  the 
 Pilaya  from  the  west,  itself  formed  by  the  union  of 
 several  streams  flowing  from  the  Lipez,  Tupiza,  and  TaHna 
 ranges.  The  Pilcomayo  takes  a south-easterly  course, 
 traversing  the  Gran  Chaco,  and  flowing,  with  two  branches, 
 into  the  Paraguay  below  Asuncion. 
 
 The  source  of  the  Eio  Vermejo,  wliich  was  formerly 
 taken  as  the  northern  frontier  line  between  the  Argentine 
 and  Bolivian  States,  is  in  the  Bohvian  hiUs  of  Tarija.  It 
 is  navigable  from  about  the  23d  parallel,  below  Oran, 
 
INDIAN  HUNTING  GROUNDS. 
 
 269 
 
 where  it  is  joined  by  the  Jujuy,  or  Lavayen,  and, 
 notwithstanding  its  many  windings,  it  forms  altogether  an 
 important  water  highway  to  the  Eio  de  la  Plata. 
 
 10.  The  Indian  Hunting  Hrounds  of  the  Ch’an  Ohaxo. 
 
 East  of  the  Salado,  the  next  large  tributary  of  the 
 Parana  south  of  the  Vermejo,  there  stretches  northwards 
 to  the  Bohvian  province  of  Chiquitos  a highly  interesting 
 and  hitherto  but  partly  explored  region,  confining  east- 
 wards on  the  Parana-Paraguay.  This  is  the  famous 
 guarida,  or  resort  of  wild  beasts,  known  as  el  Gran  Ghaco, 
 the  himting- grounds  of  many  Indian  tribes,  who  here 
 find  a safe  refuge  from  the  Spaniard.  We  possess  more 
 detailed  information  respecting  the  southern  portion,  be- 
 tween the  Salado  and  the  Vermejo  ;.  but  the  central  strip, 
 extending  from  the  Vermejo  to  the  Pdcomayo,  is  known 
 only  along  the  river  courses,  and  the  northern  section, 
 reaching  as  far  as  Otuquis,  has  been  recently  in  part  sur- 
 veyed by  Mr.  J.  B.  Minchin. 
 
 11.  Vegetation  of  the  Ch'an  Chaco — The  Troupial,  Parrots, 
 and  other  Birds. 
 
 The  wide-spread  plains  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  shared  be- 
 tween the  Argentine  and  Bolivian  States,  during  the  rainy 
 season,  from  October  to  March,  present  in  many  places  the 
 appearance  of  an  ocean  studded  thickly  with  verdant  islands, 
 and  yet  a few  only  of  these  districts  are  subject  to  inunda- 
 tions. Many  parts  have  a uniform  vegetation,  gTOwing 
 mainly  one  single  species  alone.  Thus  we  find,  for  in- 
 stance, in  one  district  groves  of  palms,  in  another  of  the 
 algarrol,  while  places  subject  to  the  floods  grow  mostly 
 the  vinal,  a beautiful  species  of  mimosa.  The  prevailing 
 
270 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 character  of  the  region  is  scrubby  and  arid,  owing  to  the 
 absence  of  permanent  water,  but  near  the  rivers  there  are 
 rich  forests,  and  in  many  parts  the  vegetation  is  wonder- 
 fully luxuriant.  Here  the  traveller  feels  that  he  is  in 
 the  very  heart  of  the  tropics.  So  exuberant  is  the 
 vegetable  growth,  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  under- 
 stand how  so  limited  an  area  can  produce  and  sustain 
 such  dense  masses  of  plants  and  trees.  And,  in  truth, 
 the  ground  itself  is  insufficient  for  all  its  offspring.  The 
 stems  of  the  trees  are  called  upon  to  support  the  most 
 varied  kinds  of  climbers  and  creepers,  which  encircle  them 
 with  a marvellously-shaded  mantle  of  green,  profusely 
 strewn  with  flowers  of  every  hue.  One  wanders  for  days 
 together  beneath  the  shade  of  these  natural  bowers, 
 through  which  glimpses  are  but  rarely  obtained  of  the 
 deep  azure  of  the  sky.  Here,  Major  Host  tells  us,  he  for 
 the  flrst  time  beheld  the  wonderfully  artistic  sack-shaped 
 nests  of  the  black-and-amber  plumaged  troupial,  whose 
 song,  however,  is  somewhat  marred  by  the  jarring  accom- 
 paniment of  the  shrill  screech  of  countless  flocks  of  parrots. 
 He  adds  that,  unless  actually  seen,  it  is  quite  impossible 
 to  form  any  idea  of  the  amazing  number  of  these  noisy 
 creatures,  whose  perpetual  chatter  drowns  all  other  soimds, 
 even  the  very  roar  of  the  torrent  itself,  rushing  wildly 
 down  the  rocky  sides  of  the  lulls. 
 
 12.  The  Gran  Chaco — Night  Scenery. 
 
 And  if  the  day  with  all  its  glories  is  so  unspeakably 
 attractive  to  the  lover  of  nature,  the  marvellous  nights  of 
 these  regions  still  reserve  fresh  and  unanticipated  charms 
 for  him.  There  is  nothing  to  compare  with  the  impres- 
 sion of  serene  repose  inspired  by  the  sight  of  the  starry 
 heavens,  especially  in  the  more  open  meadow  lands.  Our 
 thoughts  revert  unwittingly  to  those  indescribable  nights 
 
THE  PAMPAS. 
 
 271 
 
 on  the  silent  deep,  when  the  vessel  is  borne  along  as  by 
 an  unseen  power,  on  the  unruffled  surface  of  the  waters, 
 beneath  the  vault  of  a tropical  sky.  The  charm  is 
 heightened  by  the  countless  swarms  of  fire-ffles,  whose 
 phosphorescent  lamps  flash  out  and  again  suddenly  dis- 
 appear in  the  gloom.  But  these  are  things  to  he  seen 
 in  order  to  he  felt ; such  nights  must  have  been  actually 
 experienced,  for  it  is  as  impossible  to  describe  as  it  is 
 to  forget  the  varied  effects  they  produce  on  the  mind  of 
 the  lonely  wajTarer. 
 
 13.  The  Argentine  Pampas — Their  fascinating  hold  on 
 the  Imagination. 
 
 Similar  impressions  to  those  inspired  by  the  Gran 
 Chaco  wildernesses  are  also  produced  by  the  Argentine 
 Pampas,  as  are  here  called  those  grassy,  treeless  plains, 
 stretching  out  by  the  Lower  Parana  away  to  the  south  of 
 Buenos  Ayres.  Grass-grown  plains,  varied  in  one  place 
 by  brackish  swamps,  in  another  by  salt  steppes,  are 
 spread  over  the  whole  southern  and  western  regions  of 
 the  Argentine  Eepublic,  and  a great  portion  of  Patagonia, 
 as  far  as  the  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes.  This 
 vast  grassy  plain  is  nearly  level,  and  covered  with  grass  on 
 its  eastern  side,  but  it  becomes  more  uneven  and  broken 
 as  the  mountains  are  approached  on  the  west.  Its  height, 
 at  about  100  miles  in  the  interior  from  Buenos  Ajn?es,  is 
 only  from  150  to  160  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
 A line  of  small  forts  extends  across  the  wide  plain  in  the 
 south,  established  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  settled 
 part  of  the  country  from  the  predatory  incursions  of  the 
 wild  tribes. 
 
 Marvellously  varied  and  contrasted,  says  a recent 
 traveller,  are  the  feelings  experienced  in  this  wilderness 
 by  the  wanderer  who  is  at  all  alive  to  the  grandeur  of 
 
COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHT  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 272 
 
 nature  or  endowed  witli  tlie  least  poetic  fancy.  Sublime 
 appears  to  him  the  vast  expanse  of  this  seemingly  inter- 
 minable ocean  of  grass  and  flowers,  while  the  solemn  still- 
 ness, broken  only  by  the  occasional  cry  of  a bird  or  the 
 roar  of  the  jaguar,  bears  him  away  from  mother  earth  to 
 the  far-off,  imknown,  and  dimly-realised  sphere  of  some 
 other  and  more  ethereal  region.  In  the  presence  of  such 
 an  awe-inspiring  solitude,  his  thoughts  are  unconsciously 
 drawn  to  dwell  upon  the  idea  of  eternity,  a deep  and  yet 
 a pleasant  sadness  takes  possession  of  the  thoughtful  mind, 
 a feeling  intensified  at  the  going  down  of  the  sun,  and  in 
 the  darkness  of  night  merging  in  an  overpowering  sense 
 of  helplessness  and  teiTor. 
 
 Xor  is  it  necessary  to  overstep  the  limits  of  civilisa- 
 tion, or  betake  oneself  to  the  impeopled  outer  Pampas, 
 and  there  gaze  on  the  setting  of  the  magnificent  day-star, 
 in  order  to  realise  a certain  sense  of  calm  resignation. 
 Even  on  the  very  threshold  of  an  estancia,  surrounded  by 
 every  comfort  of  modern  life,  we  seem  oftentimes  to  be 
 seized  at  sunset  with  “ a yearning  for  the  hereafter,”  and 
 with  a crushing  sense  of  our  utter  helplessness  in  the 
 presence  of  nature.  Men  are  known  who  for  years  have 
 toiled  in  the  vain  endeavom’  to  hearken  to  the  whisperings 
 of  reason  alone,  and  who  have  smiled  compassionately  on 
 those  that  spoke  of  a better  future,  and  who  yet,  at  a 
 sunset  in  the  Pampas,  become  so  imnerved  that  they  are 
 nearer  to  tears  than  to  scoffs ; nay,  will  listen  with  devo- 
 tion to  the  evening  chimes  announcing  the  Ave  Maria, 
 staunch  Protestants  though  they  be.  And  others  are 
 known  who,  after  realising  a more  or  less  considerable 
 fortune,  have  returned  to  their  European  homes  with  the 
 firm  determination  of  henceforth  gEdng  themselves  up  to 
 the  social  pleasures  there  so  abundantly  provided  for  the 
 well-to-do  classes,  and  who  yet,  after  a few  years,  are  taken 
 with  an  irresistible  yearning  for  these  dreary  wastes,  and. 
 
ATJrOSniERIC  EFFECTS. 
 
 273 
 
 carried  away  by  a veritable  home-sickness,  have  given  up 
 everything  in  the  old  land  in  order  to  begin  life  afresh  in 
 the  Pampas,  full  of  privations  though  they  be.  And 
 although  it  may  be  impossible  to  explain  the  charm  the 
 Pampas  have  for  the  cultivated  European  no  less  than  for 
 the  native  guacho,  certain  it  is  that  they  do  exercise 
 this  strangely  fascinating  power,  as  might  be  confirmed  by 
 many  proofs. 
 
 14.  Strange  Atmospheric  Effects. 
 
 Nor  is  it,  as  already  stated,  the  beauties  of  nature  in 
 a landscape  of  such  monotony  that  awaken  tliis  love  of 
 the  Pampas,  although  the  wayfarer  will  be  often  arrested 
 in  mute  amazement  at  some  physical  wonder,  filling  him 
 with  a keen  sense  of  pleasure,  though  itself  notliing  but 
 illusion.  Atmospheric  effects,  seldom  missing  on  bright 
 days,  wdl  in  the  eyes  of  the  traveller  convert  a distant 
 thistle-field  into  a forest  of  the  finest  timber,  while  the 
 grass  sprouting  roimd  a dreary  marsh  becomes  for  him  a 
 numerous  troop  of  animated  horsemen.  ]\Iost  frequent, 
 however,  are  the  mirages.  He  fancies  he  sees  at  no  great 
 distance  an  expanse  of  water  glittering  in  the  sun,  and 
 when,  perhaps  tormented  with  a burning  thirst,  he  gallops 
 forward,  he  finds  the  wished-for  goal  as  far  off  as  ever. 
 Experienced  residents  in  the  Pampas  are  doubtless  not  de- 
 ceived by  such  phenomena,  but  their  knowledge  is  due  not 
 to  their  ovm  better  judgment,  but  to  the  indifference  of 
 their  horses,  that  are  never  the  dupes  of  these  fallacious 
 appearances. 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 C03IPESDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  A-SD  TRAVEL. 
 
 I'ATAUONIANS  TRAVKU.INc;. 
 
PATAGOXIA. 
 
 275 
 
 CHAPTEK  IX. 
 
 PATAGONIA. 
 
 1.  Extent — General  Configuration. 
 
 The  course  of  the  Kio  Negro,  discharging  its  waters 
 into  the  Atlantic  at  about  the  41st  parallel,  is  generally 
 taken  as  the  southern  limit  of  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
 tion. The  vast  extent  of  country  south  of  this  Pampa 
 stream,  900  miles  in  length,  that  is  as  far  as  the  Strait 
 of  Magellan,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Patagonia,  a name 
 without  any  real  justification.  To  this  region  both  Chile 
 and  the  Argentine  Piepublic  lay  claim.  The  interior  in 
 the  northern  portion  of  the  region  presents  the  same 
 general  character  as  the  Pampas,  and  is  watered  by  a few 
 rivers  rising  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  western  coast 
 ranges,  traversing  the  entire  width  of  Patagonia,  and  flow- 
 ing eastwards  into  the  Atlantic.  The  solitary  Uttak  range 
 in  the  east  throws  off  a southern  branch,  which  is  con- 
 tinued into  the  Argentine  Pampas.  But  farther  south 
 the  country  becomes  more  bleak  and  barren,  the  sod.  for 
 hundreds  of  miles  being  no  better  than  a bed  of  shingle, 
 with  tufts  here  and  there  of  coarse  grass  or  thorny  shrubs, 
 with  difficulty  maintaining  themselves.  The  land  here 
 slopes  down  from  the  foot  of  the  Andes  in  a series  of  ter- 
 races with  scarped  edges,  across  wliich  the  streams  flow  in 
 deep  channels. 
 
 Patagonia,  until  recently  one  of  the  least  known 
 regions  of  South  America,  has  been  lately  explored  by 
 
276 
 
 COMPENDIL'M  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AXD  TRAVEL. 
 
 two  Argentine  savants,  Dr.  F.  Moreno  and  Don  Eamon 
 Lista,  the  former  of  whom  has  published  a map  of  the 
 region,  founded  on  his  explorations  between  the  years 
 1873  and  1880.  The  Chilian  Eepuhlic  has  also  camsed 
 the  western  side  to  he  explored  by  an  expedition  con- 
 ducted by  Lieutenant  Simpson,  who  ascended,  in  1871, 
 the  river  Aysen,  which  disembogues  a little  south  of  the 
 island  of  Chiloe,  in  45°  29'  south  latitude.  The  end  of 
 the  navigation  was  soon  reached,  for  he  found  the  stream 
 encumbered  by  rapids  and  waterfalls,  over  which  he  was 
 imahle  to  take  his  boat,  and  was  therefore  compelled  to 
 continue  his  journey  of  exploration  on  foot,  crossing  the 
 Cordillera  by  a pass  which  had  not  previously  been 
 visited. 
 
 2.  Lieutenant  Musters’  Adventurous  Journey. 
 
 But  for  the  most  complete  information  regarding  the 
 interior  of  Patagonia,  and  the  character  of  its  strange  in- 
 habitants, we  are  indebted  to  Lieutenant  G.  C.  Musters. 
 Ingratiating  himself  with  a horde  of  Tehuelche  Indians, 
 he  explored  in  their  company  the  whole  country  in  its 
 length  and  breadth  during  the  years  1869  and  1870. 
 
 l\Iusters  started  from  the  Chilian  penal  colony  of 
 Punta  Arenas,  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  on  the  19th  of 
 April  1869,  in  company  of  a party  of  Chilians,  and  struck 
 across  the  uneven  and  barren  Pampa  which  stretches 
 thence  to  the  Santa  Cruz,  where  he  equipped  himself  for 
 his  farther  journey  at  a small  trading  post  there  estah- 
 Eshed.  The  weather  during  the  winter  months  (May  to 
 August)  was  exceedingly  severe,  and  the  Santa  Cruz 
 river,  lat.  50°  south,  was  frozen  over  in  January.  The 
 whole  country  was  covered  with  snow,  which  gave  addi- 
 tional monotony  to  the  dreary  scenery.  But  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  the  settlement  valleys  are  found  in  which 
 
GUANACO  AXD  OSTRICH  HUXTIXG. 
 
LIEUTENAJ^T  musters’  JOURNEY.  277 
 
 there  is  good  pasture  for  sheep  and  cattle,  and  corn  had 
 been  recently  sown  with  advantage.  The  trade  with  the 
 Patagonians  consists  in  exchanging  spirits,  tobacco,  beads, 
 cloth,  knives,  etc.,  for  the  feathers  of  the  Pampas  ostrich, 
 and  skins  of  the  guanaco,  Patagonian  fox,  skunk,  and 
 puma.  Large  herds  of  guanaco  (a  ruminant  allied  to  the 
 camel),  and  droves  of  ostriches  {Rhea  Darwinii),  which 
 are  amongst  the  most  characteristic  animals  of  this  deso- 
 late region,  come  down  to  the  banks  of  the  river  diu?ing 
 severe  weather,  for  food  and  shelter,  and  are  easily  caught 
 by  holas,  or  killed  by  dogs.  The  Santa  Cruz  has  its  source 
 in  a large  lake  in  the  Andes,  and  attains  its  greatest  height 
 during  the  summer  months. 
 
 Towards  the  end  of  winter,  in  August,  Lieutenant 
 Musters  completed  his  arrangements  with  a Patagonian 
 cacique  named  Orkeke,  and  started  on  his  long  journey 
 towards  the  north  ^vith  a party  of  Tehuelches.  The  march 
 was  one  long  hunting  excursion,  varied  with  murderous 
 squabbles,  and  encounters,  generally  of  a friendly  nature, 
 with  other  parties  of  Indians.  Sometimes  a rest  of  a few 
 days  was  taken  in  some  verdant  valley.  When  on  the 
 march,  at  the  end  of  each  day  the  produce  of  the  day’s 
 chase  was  killed,  cooked,  and  eaten,  and  the  toldos  pitched 
 for  the  night’s  rest.  The  toldo  is  the  only  shelter  used  by 
 this  homeless,  wandering  race.  It  is  a kind  of  tent, 
 simply  and  speedily  constructed.  A row  of  forked  posts 
 about  three  feet  high  is  driven  into  the  ground,  and  a 
 ridge-pole  laid  across  in  front  of  these ; at  a distance  of 
 about  six  feet,  a second  row  five  feet  high,  with  a ridge- 
 pole ; and  at  the  same  distance  from  these  a third  row 
 six  feet  high  is  fixed.  A covering  made  of  from  forty  to 
 fifty  full-grown  guanaco  skins,  smeared  with  a mixture  of 
 grease  and  red  ochre,  is  drawn  over  from  the  rear  and  secured 
 by  thongs  to  the  front  poles.  Hide  curtains,  fastened  be- 
 tween the  inner  poles,  partition  off  the  sleeping  places, 
 
278 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  the  baggage  piled  round  the  sides  excludes  the  cold 
 blast.  In  bad  weather  an  additional  covering  is  secured 
 to  the  front,  and  brought  down  over  an  extra  row  of  short 
 poles,  making  all  snug.  The  duty  of  pitching  and 
 striking  the  toldo  devolves  on  the  women,  a mmiber  of 
 whom  accompanied  the  party  with  which  Lieutenant 
 iMusters  set  forth  on  his  adventurous  journey.  The 
 Indians  were  moimted  on  good  ser\’iceable  horses,  which 
 they  rode  without  saddles. 
 
 Lea\'ing  Santa  Cruz,  they  ascended  the  valley  of  the 
 river  Chico,  a stream  which  traverses  the  wide  grassy 
 plains  in  a direction  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  and  disembogues 
 in  the  Santa  Cruz  estuary.  Early  in  the  march  they 
 came  in  sight  of  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Cordillera, 
 the  long  chain  of  which  always  afterwards,  for  hundreds 
 of  miles,  formed  the  bmit  of  their  ^iew  on  the  left. 
 Before  reaching  the  head  waters  of  the  Chico,  they  turned 
 to  the  north,  and  in  the  subsequent  part  of  the  journey 
 crossed  all  the  streams,  few,  however,  in  number,  which 
 descend  from  the  Cordillera  on  their  way  to  the  Atlantic. 
 Travelling  along  the  base  of  the  mountains,  excursions 
 were  occasionally  made  into  their  recesses,  where  in 
 verdant  valleys  and  on  wooded  slopes,  especially  near  the 
 southern  settlements  of  Chile,  wild  cattle  were  found  and 
 chased.  Musters  was  surprised  here  to  see  the  wild 
 strawberry  and  currant  growing  in  profusion,  and  yellow 
 %dolets  and  azaleas  blossoming  in  great  abundance. 
 
 Continuing  northward,  never  far  distant  from  the 
 lower  wooded  ranges  of  the  Cordillera,  the  country 
 traversed  was  for  long  distances  of  a wild  and  rugged 
 character.  Xarrow  valleys,  deep  and  gloomy  gorges,  fur- 
 rowed the  surface  of  the  Pampas.  These  are  formed, 
 doubtless,  by  aqueous  or  glacial  action,  and  by  the  torrential 
 streams  which  stiU.  flow  at  their  bottom.  Some  of  these 
 precipitous  defiles  are  so  deep  and  dark  that  even  the  red- 
 
EXPERIENCES  OF  THE  JOURNEY. 
 
 279 
 
 skins  regard  them  with  horror,  and  people  them  in  their 
 imaginations  with  evil  spirits.  The  elevated  table-land 
 between  the  rivers  forms  barren  and  dreary  waters,  strewn 
 with  sharp  stones,  over  wliich  it  was  exceedingly  toilsome 
 to  travel.  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Tele  they  came  upon  an 
 extensive  lagoon,  on  the  margins  of  which  flamingoes  and 
 roseate  spoonbills  were  seen  in  incredible  numbers.  A 
 short  distance  beyond  this  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  the 
 party  arrived  at  the  banks  of  a considerable  river,  with 
 which,  a little  lower  down,  another  stream  unites.  IMusters 
 was  not  able  to  ascertain  whether  this  formed  one  of  the 
 affluents  of  the  Chupat,  or  whether  it  terminated  in  a 
 large  inland  lagoon ; the  Indians  differing  in  their  state- 
 ments on  this  subject,  but  some  of  them  naming  the 
 basin  Lake  Coluguape.  On  the  banks  of  another 
 of  the  rapid  streams  which  traversed  the  line  of  march 
 trees  were  met  with,  the  first  which  Musters  had  seen 
 since  he  left  the  forest  belt  at  Punta  Arenas.  The  place 
 Avas  rich  in  eggs  of  the  Chloephaga  magellanica  and  the 
 swan  {Cygnus  coscorola),  besides  other  birds.  According 
 to  the  Tehuelches,  the  river  harboured  a strange  four- 
 footed  animal  which  they  called  the  water  tiger,  Tigre  de 
 agim,  and  described  as  being  larger  than  the  puma;  but 
 this  must  have  been  an  exaggerated  description  of  the 
 yellow-breasted  otter,  which  is  a Avell-known  inhabitant  of 
 the  waters  of  the  Parana.  The  weather,  although  mid- 
 summer was  at  hand,  was  most  wretched ; Musters 
 arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  there  was  no  true  summer 
 in  these  regions,  and  that  the  Patagonian  year  was 
 divided  into  two  seasons — a rigorous  winter  and  a cold 
 spring.  This  may  be  true  with  regard  to  the  more 
 elevated  part  of  the  plains  near  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  but 
 in  the  great  desert  tract  lying  to  the  east,  which  forms  the 
 great  bulk  of  the  land  of  Patagonia,  the  climate  is  dry 
 and  fine,  the  sky  being  clear,  and  evaporation  very  rapid. 
 
280 
 
 COMPEXDIUil  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEA'S'EL. 
 
 On  the  2 7 th  of  December  the  party  arrived  at  Teckel, 
 vhere  there  was  a large  gathering  of  Indians,  near  the 
 sources  of  the  river  Chupat.  In  this  part  of  the  coimtry 
 the  character  of  the  scenery  was  quite  changed.  Instead 
 of  the  Pampa  with  its  dreary  monotony,  through  which  he 
 had  liitherto  journeyed,  our  traveller  traversed  a series 
 of  level  valleys,  of  two  or  three  miles  in  extent,  watered 
 by  rivulets  fringed  with  stunted  trees  and  abounding 
 with  game.  The  hill  slopes  were  a garden  of  calceolarias, 
 alyssum,  tiny  wUd  geraniums,  and  other  flowers.  Amongst 
 the  plants  were  two  magnificent  creepers,  one  re- 
 sembling a vine,  with  rich  -ciolet  trumpet-shaped  flowers, 
 and  another  displapng  gorgeous  circular  orange-coloured 
 blossoms,  with  black  lines  radiating,  like  the  spokes  of  a 
 wheel,  from  the  centre.  From  this  sylvan  paradise,  con- 
 tinuing his  journey  northwards,  he  crossed  a remarkable 
 succession  of  barren  stony  terraces  or  benches,  without 
 any  appearance  of  parallelism  in  their  formation,  such  as 
 would  indicate  any  uniform  action  of  water,  and  at 
 length  descended  to  the  main  branch  of  the  Chupat,  here 
 forty  yards  in  width,  and  easily  fordable.  This  stream  is 
 characterised  throughout  its  course  by  the  usual  narrow, 
 gorge-like  cuttings  alternating  with  wide  plains,  which 
 distinguish  the  Patagonian  rivers. 
 
 Farther  north,  a %dsit  was  paid  to  the  section  of  the 
 Patagonian  people  whose  head-quarters  are  at  IManzanas  ; 
 in  carrjdng  out  which  the  party  had  to  cross  the  Lunay, 
 or  upper  stream  of  the  Great  Pdo  Xegro,  which  has  its 
 source  in  the  large  lake  Xahuel  Huapi,  situated  in  the 
 heart  of  the  Andes.  At  length,  in  April,  the  final  march 
 was  made  across  the  country  at  its  broadest  part,  from  the 
 foot  of  the  Andes  to  the  settlement  of  Patagones,  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Pdo  Xegi'O.  This  northern  part  of  Pata- 
 gonia forms  a high,  barren  plateau,  nearly  destitute  of 
 water,  the  only  source  of  supply  being  the  shallow  pools 
 
PATAGONIANS. 
 
 281 
 
 formed  by  the  rain,  which  dry  up  with  great  rapidity. 
 Nevertheless,  wild  horses,  guanacos,  ostriches,  Patagonian 
 hares,  and  pumas,  are  found  throughout  the  whole  tract. 
 In  many  places  large  salt-pans  occur,  which,  during  the 
 winter,  consist  of  shallow  lakes  of  brine,  and  in  summer 
 are  converted  into  fields  of  snow-white  salt.  In  the 
 valley  of  the  Eio  Negro,  though  cold  winds  are  felt 
 in  winter,  the  climate  is  genial  — vines  growing  luxu- 
 riantly, and  wine  being  made  from  the  grapes  — the 
 sheltered  vale  forming  a striking  contrast  to  the  bleak 
 wastes  which  constitute  all  the  rest  of  the  country. 
 
 3.  The  Tehueldie  Indians. 
 
 As  no  occasion  wiU  present  itself  of  returning  to 
 tliis  southernmost  region  of  South  America,  we  may  here 
 devote  a few  words  to  its  inhabitants.  It  need  scarcely 
 be  remarked  that  the  term  “ Patagonian  ” is  entirely  un- 
 known to  the  Indians  themselves.  It  was  originally  given 
 to  them  by  the  Spaniards,  in  consequence  of  the  large 
 footsteps  seen  by  them  before  they  had  yet  come  across 
 any  of  the  natives.  Their  real  name  is  Tehuelche  or 
 Tsonecas,  by  which  last  they  almost  exclusively  call  them- 
 selves. 
 
 The  Tehuelches  proper,  apart  from  the  Foot  Indians 
 of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  possibly  related  to  them,  are  divided 
 into  two  great  branches — a northern  and  a southern. 
 They  all  speak  the  same  language,  though  with  a some- 
 what varied  accent,  and  those  of  the  south  seem  on  the 
 whole  taller,  more  symmetrically  formed,  and  also  more 
 skilful  hola  hunters  than  the  others.  The  northern  Tehuel- 
 ches occupy  mainly  the  district  between  the  Cordilleras  and 
 the  sea,  from  the  river  Chupat  northwards  to  the  Eio  Negi’o, 
 here  and  there  being  met  with  as  far  as  the  Eio  Santa  Cruz. 
 Their  southern  kinsmen  dwell  in  the  region  south  of  the 
 
282 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Santa  Cruz,  occasionally  reaching  as  far  as  Punta  Arenas 
 Both  tribes,  however,  are  often  mixed  together,  and  inter- 
 marry, hut  without  giving  up  their  distinctive  clans. 
 
 Between  the  Eio  Xegro  and  the  Chupat  we  meet  with 
 another  tribe,  speaking  a different  language,  and  whose 
 head-quarters  are  at  Salinas,  north  of  the  Pdo  Xegro. 
 These  are  the  “ Pampas  Indians,”  by  the  Tehuelches  called 
 Pencil,  of  wliich,  according  to  IMusters’  conjecture,  the 
 word  Tehuelche  itself  is  a coiTuption. 
 
 4.  The  Chenna  Indians. 
 
 Lastly,  there  is  yet  another  tribe, differing  both  in  speech 
 and  physical  appearance  from  the  foregoing,  and  forming 
 apparently  a branch  of  the  Chilian  Araucanians.  These  the 
 Tehuelches  call  Chenna,  hut  they  are  otherwise  known  as 
 the  Manzaneros,  from  their  head-quarters.  Las  Manzanas, 
 where  the  Jesuits  had  formerly  a station.  They  are  less 
 erratic  and  more  chdlised  than  the  other  Tehuelches, 
 and  are  said  to  own  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep 
 in  the  valleys  of  the  Cordilleras.  Though  it  may  he 
 doubtful  whether  they  acquired  the  art  from  the  Jesuits 
 or  not,  certain  it  is  that  from  the  apples  of  Las  Man- 
 zanas they  are  able  to  extract  a very  palatable  cider,  as 
 well  as  an  intoxicating  drmk  from  the  beans  of  the  Algar- 
 roba.  The  other  Tehuelche  tribes  are  fain  to  rest  satisfied 
 with  foreign  rum,  which,  combined  with  sickness,  and 
 especially  small-pox,  is  rapidly  diminishing  their  numbers. 
 The  total  number  of  the  Tehuelches  roaming  between  the 
 Pdo  Xegro  and  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is  estimated  by 
 Lieutenant  Musters  at  not  more  than  3000  souls. 
 
 5.  Physical  and  Moral  Features  of  the  Patagonians. 
 
 Of  their  physical  quahties  their  size  has  been  most 
 frequently  vaunted  and  contested.  ]\Iusters,  an  unpre- 
 
PATAGONIAN  INDIANS. 
 
 To  face  'page  2S2. 
 
PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 
 
 283 
 
 judiced  witness,  gives  tlie  average  height  of  the  men  as  six 
 feet,  though  some  reach  six  feet  four  inches.  They  are. 
 
 A PATAGOXIAX  CAMP. 
 
 moreover,  exceedingly  well  proportioned,  have  an  amazing 
 walking  power,  accompanied  by  the  faculty  of  enduring  a 
 
284 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TEA^’EL. 
 
 total  abstinence  from  food  without  the  least  inconvenience; 
 and,  lastly,  they  possess  an  astonishing  muscular  develop- 
 ment in  the  arms. 
 
 The  average  height  of  the  women  is  5 feet  4 inches. 
 Their  hair  is  seldom  so  long  and  fine  as  that  of  the  men, 
 and  is  worn  in  two  queues,  at  times  lengthened  by  horse- 
 hair plaited  with  it.  "\Mien  not  disfigured  by  paint,  the 
 yoimg  Tehuelche  women  are  comely  enough,  and  their 
 demeanour  is  modest,  though  also  coquettish.  Hardships 
 and  labour  produce  no  ill  effects  on  them,  but  age  renders 
 them  utterly  repulsive. 
 
 Their  dwelling  is  the  toldo,  as  the  Spaniards  call  the 
 Indian  tent,  not  unlike  the  huts  of  our  gipsies,  and  made 
 of  guanaco  skins  smeared  over  with  a mixture  of  fat  and 
 red  ochre.  The  toldos  are  generally  pitched  in  sheltered 
 spots,  with  the  entrance  facing  eastwards,  as  a protection 
 against  the  terrific  gales,  blowing  mostly  from  the  west. 
 They  are  kept  very  clean,  and  their  furniture  is  limited 
 mainly  to  cushions  of  old  'ponchos  or  cloaks,  serving  as 
 seats,  beds,  and  for  the  women  also  as  saddles. 
 
 6.  Dress — Habits — Amusements. 
 
 The  dress  of  the  men  consists  of  a cMripa,  or  drawers, 
 never  laid  aside,  and  a warm  and  loose  cloak  of  guanaco 
 skin,  with  the  hairy  side  in,  and  the  outside  painted  in 
 various  colours.  They  also  wear  liigh  boots  of  horse- 
 leather  or  puma-skin,  while  the  head  is  covered  with 
 coloured  net,  or,  when  procm’able,  a hat. 
 
 The  women  wear  a cloak  fastened  round  the  neck 
 with  a large  silver  needle,  and  beneath  it  a sack-like  gar- 
 ment of  calico,  reacliing  from  the  shoulders  to  the  hips. 
 The  children  also  have  little  cloaks,  but  prefer  generally 
 to  rim  about  naked.  The  Tehuelche  ladies  show  a fond- 
 ness for  silver  ornaments,  which  even  the  men  do  not 
 
HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS. 
 
 285 
 
 despise,  and  both  sexes  bedaub,  especially  the  face,  vrith 
 red  ochre  or  black  earth,  and  tattoo  the  forearm.  The 
 principal  occupation  of  the  women  while  encamped  con- 
 sists in  preparing  the  cloaks  of  the  male  members  of  their 
 families ; but  they  still  find  time  for  card-plajfing,  gossip- 
 ing, and  scandahsing  their  neighbours. 
 
 Though  their  songs  are  unmelodious,  the  Tehuelches 
 have  a good  ear  for  music.  Extremely  moderate  in  their 
 food,  they  eat  at  no  regular  time  in  the  day,  but  whenever 
 induced  to  do  so  by  the  pangs  of  hunger.  They  are,  on 
 the  other  hand,  inveterate  smokers ; in  the  absence  of 
 tobacco  using  a herb  procitred  by  barter  from  the  Arau- 
 canians,  which,  however,  is  never  pure,  but  always  mixed 
 with  Paraguay  tea.  Their  principal  amusements — for  with 
 them  hunting  is  no  pleasure,  but  the  busmess  of  life — are 
 horse-racing,  dice  and  card  playing,  and  pitching  the  ball. 
 Tlie  winner  simply  sends  for  the  lost  stakes,  and  all  debts 
 of  honour  are  most  conscientiously  and  promptly  paid. 
 
 7.  Marrige  Customs,  Eeligion,  etc. 
 
 From  his  tender  years  the  Tehuelche  is  provided  with 
 a horse  and  all  its  belongings,  and  the  children  of  both 
 sexes  can  very  often  ride  before  they  can  walk.  There 
 are  no  inherited  names,  most  of  those  borne  by  them 
 being  apparently  derived  from  their  birthplaces.  Mar- 
 riages are  invariably  based  on  a fellowship  of  feeling ; 
 and,  if  the  damsel  does  not  bke  the  suitor  for  her  hand, 
 her  parents  never  force  her  to  comply  with  their  wishes, 
 although  the  match  may  be  an  advantageous  one.  The 
 usual  custom  is  for  the  bridegroom,  after  he  has  secured 
 the  consent  of  his  damsel,  to  send  either  a brother  or  an 
 intimate  friend  to  the  parents,  offering  so  many  mares, 
 horses,  or  silver  ornaments,  for  the  bride.  If  the  parents 
 consider  the  match  desirable,  as  soon  after  as  circumstances 
 
286 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 will  permit,  the  bridegroom,  dressed  in  Ms  best,  and 
 moimted  on  bis  best  horse,  decorated  with  silver  ornaments, 
 if  be  possesses  any,  proceeds  to  the  toldo  of  bis  intended, 
 and  bands  over  the  gifts.  The  parents  of  the  bride  then 
 return  gifts  of  an  equal  value,  which,  however,  in  the  event 
 of  a separation  (a  rare  event),  become  the  property  of  the 
 bride.  After  this  the  bride  is  escorted  by  the  bridegroom 
 to  bis  toldo,  amidst  the  cheers  of  bis  friends  and  the  sing- 
 ing of  the  women.  Mares  are  usually  then  slaughtered 
 and  eaten  on  the  spot ; great  care  being  taken  tl>at  the 
 dogs  do  not  touch  any  of  the  meat  or  offal,  as  it  is  con- 
 sidered unlucky.  The  bead,  backbone,  tail,  together  with 
 the  heart  and  liver,  are  taken  up  to  the  top  of  a neigh- 
 bouring bill,  as  an  offering  to  the  Guabcbu  or  evil  spirit. 
 An  Indian  is  allowed  to  have  as  many  wives  as  be  can 
 support ; but  it  is  rare  to  find  a man  with  more  than  two, 
 and  they  generally  only  have  one. 
 
 On  the  death  of  a Tebuelcbe,  all  bis  horses,  dogs,  and 
 other  animals,  are  killed ; bis  ponchos,  ornaments,  bolas; 
 and  all  other  personal  belongings,  are  placed  in  a heap 
 and  burned ; the  widow  and  other  womenkind  keeping  up 
 a dismal  wailing,  and  cr}dng  out  loud,  in  the  most  melan- 
 choly manner.  The  meat  of  the  horses  is  distributed 
 amongst  the  relations  on  both  sides ; and  the  widow,  who 
 cuts  her  hair  short  in  front,  and  assumes  black  paint, 
 repairs,  bag  and  baggage,  to  the  toldo  of  her  relations ; or, 
 if  she  has  none  in  the  party,  to  the  toldo  of  the  cMef. 
 
 The  body  is  sewn  up  in  a mantle,  ponclio,  or  coat  of 
 mail,  if  the  deceased  possessed  one,  and  is  taken  away  by 
 some  of  the  relations  and  buried  in  a sitting  posture,  its 
 face  to  the  east;  a cairn  of  stones  being  erected  over  the 
 place,  varying  in  size  according  to  the  wealth  and  influ- 
 ence of  the  deceased.  The  death  of  a child  is  marked  by 
 a display  of  sincere  grief  on  the  part  of  the  parents.  The 
 horse  it  has  been  accustomed  to  travel  on  during  the 
 
RELIGIOUS  OBSERVANCES. 
 
 287 
 
 march  is  brought  up,  the  gear  placed  on  it,  even  to  the 
 cradle,  and  the  horse,  thus  fully  caparisoned,  is  strangled 
 by  means  of  lazos  ; whereas,  in  all  other  ceremonies  where 
 horses  are  killed,  they  are  knocked  on  the  head  with  bolas. 
 The  saddle  gear,  cradle,  and  all  belonging  to  the  child,  are 
 burned,  the  women  crying  and  singing.  The  parents, 
 moreover,  throw  their  o'wn  valuables  into  the  fire  to  ex- 
 press their  grief.  On  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  an  only 
 child  of  rich  parents,  fomteen  horses  and  mares  were 
 slaughtered  in  addition  to  the  one  it  was  accustomed  to 
 travel  on. 
 
 The  religion  of  the  Tehuelches  is  distinguished  from 
 that  of  the  Pampas  Indians  and  Araucanians  by  an  absence 
 of  aU  traces*  of  sim- worship,  although  the  new  moon  is 
 saluted,  the  respectfrd  gesture  being  accompanied  by  some 
 low  muttered  words,  wliich  Lieutenant  Clusters  was  never 
 able  to  hear.  They  believe  in  a great  and  good  spirit, 
 who  created  the  Indians  and  animals,  and  dispersed  them 
 from  a certain  hdl  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  They 
 have  no  idols  or  \dsible  objects  of  worship,  nor  do  they 
 seem  to  observe  any  periodical  religious  festival,  on  which 
 either  the  good  or  the  e\dl  spirit  is  adored.  The  belief 
 wliich  prompts  all  their  religious  acts  is  that  in  the  exist- 
 ence of  many  active  and  malicious  spirits  or  demons,  of 
 whom  the  principal  one  is  always  on  the  watch  to  cause 
 mischief  To  propitiate  or  drive  away  this  spirit  is  the 
 function  of  the  wizard,  or  doctor,  or  medicine  man,  who 
 combines  the  medical  and  magical  arts,  though  not  pos- 
 sessed of  an  exclusive  faculty  for  either.  All  sacrifices  of 
 mares  and  horses,  not  at  stated  times,  but  as  occasion  re- 
 (piires,  such  as  a birth  or  death,  are  intended  to  propitiate 
 the  Gualichu.  In  camp  the  Gualicliu  takes  up  his  position 
 outside  the  back  of  the  toldo,  watching  for  an  opportunity 
 to  molest  the  inmates,  and  is  supposed  to  be  kept  quiet 
 by  the  spells  of  the  doctor.  This  household  devil  is  sup- 
 
288  coMPEXDior  or  geography  ahd  travel. 
 
 posed  to  enter  into  the  different  parts  of  the  bodies  of 
 people,  and  cause  sickness,  which  the  doctor  is  appealed 
 to  to  cure.  Besides  this  Gualichu  there  are  many  others 
 which  are  supposed  to  inhabit  subterranean  dwellings, 
 underneath  certain  woods  and  rivers,  and  peculiarly-shaped 
 rocks.  The  Indians  salute  them  by  placing  the  hand  to 
 the  head  and  muttering  an  incantation.  In  the  meeting 
 of  Indians  the  devils  are  supposed  to  he  driven  away  by 
 the  horsemen  chasing  at  full  speed  round  and  round,  and 
 firing  off  their  gims. 
 
 The  office  of  wizard  is  not  hereditary.  A boy  or  girl, 
 if  what  we  should  call  odd  in  them  ways,  is  considered  to 
 he  marked  out  as  a wizard.  The  stock-in-trade  of  a 
 regular  wizard  consists  of  a few  fetishes  or  charms,  carried 
 in  a hag,  carefidly  concealed  from  public  gaze,  and  exhibited 
 to  his  colleagues  alone.  In  addition  to  these  they  seem 
 to  possess  a real  knowledge  of  simples,  although  this  is 
 not  confined  to  them.  Their  professional  operations  are 
 never  accompanied  by  epileptic  seizures  or  convulsians. 
 They  are  expected  to  prognosticate  the  success  or  failure 
 of  midertakings,  and  the  issue  of  sickness,  and  foretell 
 the  future  generally ; and  their  position  in  this  respect  is 
 a dangerous  one,  as  a failime  of  their  predictions  is  fre- 
 quently punished  with  death  ; but  to  make  up  for  this 
 risk  they  are  universally  received  with  honoim  and  hospi- 
 tably entertained.  The  Tehuelches  are  also  believers,  in 
 common  with  rude  and  uneducated  people  eA'erpvhere,  in 
 signs  and  omens ; they  have  their  iU-omened  animals, 
 sights,  sounds,  and  events.  But  they  are  not  an  abjectly 
 superstitious  people,  and  by  no  means  }deld  implicit  faith 
 to  the  wizards,  or  trust  to  spells  alone  in  the  cure  of 
 disease. 
 
 Summing  up  the  moral  character  of  the  Patagonians, 
 Lieutenant  Musters  says  that  they  do  not  deserve  the  character 
 that  has  been  given  them  of  ferocious  savages  and  brigands 
 
CHAKACTER  OF  THE  PATAGONIANS. 
 
 289 
 
 of  their  inhospitable  desert.  They  are  kindly,  good-tem- 
 pered, impulsive  children  of  nature,  taking  great  hkes  or 
 dislikes,  becoming  firm  friends  or  equally  confirmed  ene- 
 mies. Naturally  distrustful  of  their  old  enemies  the 
 Spaniards,  they  have  learnt  to  like  better  the  traders  of 
 their  southern  coasts,  who  have  treated  them  with  more 
 consideration.  Their  natirre  is  not  naturally  treacherous, 
 and  they  are  untruthful  only  in  minor  matters,  keeping 
 faith  always  with  those  who  keep  faith  with  them. 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AJJD  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  X. 
 
 THE  STRAIT  OF  MAGELLAN  AND  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO. 
 
 1.  General  Description  of  the  Archipelago. 
 
 Tierra  del  Fuego,  or  “ Land  of  Fire,”  is  one  of  those 
 corners  of  the  globe  ■whither^^fSe  foot  of  the  wanderer 
 seldom  strays.  It  was  Jacob  le  Maire  of  Amsterdam  and 
 William  Corneliszoon  Schouten  of  Hoorn,  who,  in  1 6 1 6,  first 
 rounded  the  southern  extremity  of  America,  and  named  the 
 southernmost  point  of  the  Xew  World  after  Schouten’s 
 birthplace. 
 
 The  archipelago,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
 Strait  of  Magellan,  in  which  must  be  included  the  island 
 of  Cape  Horn  itself,  consists  of  several  islands  of  very 
 different  sizes,  the  most  important  being  Desolation  Land 
 in  the  west,  and  King  Charles’  Southland  in  the  east.  The 
 latter,  wliich  is  by  far  the  largest  of  all,  forming,  so  to  say, 
 the  heart  of  the  archipelago,  had  already  been  discovered 
 by  IMagellan  (Magelhaes),  who  named  tliis  region  from  the 
 volcanic  eruptions  of  fire  and  smoke  in  the  interior  visible 
 from  the  coast.  But,  according  to  another  account,  the 
 name  is  derived  from  the  fires  constantly  maintained  by  the 
 natives  in  their  canoes,  consisting  simply  of  the  hollow 
 trunks  of  trees. 
 
 2.  Its  Geology — Soil — Flora. 
 
 Geologically,  this  archipelago,  or,  at  least.  King 
 Charles’  Southland,  presents  no  point  of  very  special 
 
GEOLOGY  AND  FLORA. 
 
 291 
 
 interest.  We  meet  everywhere  with  alluvial  formations, 
 marl  or  sand  deposits,  containing  no  minerals,  although 
 iron  ores  have  been  discovered  spreading  over  a consider- 
 able area.  On  the  southern  shore  of  Useless  Bay,  the 
 ground  gradually  assumes  a schistose  appearance.  No 
 land  has  yet  been  brought  under  cultivation,  though  we 
 may  perhaps  reasonably  suppose  that  potatoes,  oats,  rye, 
 and  the  like,  might  be  profitably  cidtivated  here.  The 
 flora  presents  a striking  affinity  to  that  of  northern  Europe, 
 and  the  insects  show  the  same  singular  relationship,  genera 
 hke  Carabus,  Argynnis,  and  numerous  others,  occurring  here 
 which  are  not  found  in  any  intermediate  region  of  America; 
 reappearing,  it  is  true,  in  temperate  latitudes  of  North 
 America,  but  there  exhibiting  species  which  do  not  so 
 closely  resemble  those  of  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
 America  as  do  those  of  northern  Europe. 
 
 With  the  exception  of  a few  hills  facing  northwards, 
 the  country  is  not  very  well  wooded.  But  on  the  south 
 side  of  Useless  Bay,  the  different  formation  of  the  land 
 produces  a different,  richer,  and  more  vigorous  vegetation. 
 Here  the  stunted  brushwood  and  isolated  patches  of  wood- 
 land are  replaced  by  a fine  growth  of  timber,  and  vast 
 primeval  groves  of  wild  brier,  laurel,  and  fuchsias.  Per- 
 tuiset,  one  of  the  recent  explorers  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  met 
 even  with  Cineraria  and  cinnamon.  All  the  valleys  contain 
 rich  luxuriant  pasture  lands,  in  which  the  horses  dis- 
 appear up  to  the  breast,  and  seem  to  do  full  justice  to 
 the  quality  of  their  fodder.  Pertuiset  considers  this 
 extensive  grazing -ground  specially  adapted  to  cattle- 
 breeding,  for  which  the  much-abused  climate  of  these 
 islands  would  also  seem  to  be  particularly  favomable. 
 
 3.  The  Strait  of  Magellan. 
 
 The  peculiar  scenery  of  the  arcliipelago  has  been  de- 
 
292 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 scribed  by  many  travellers,  but  by  none  so  graphically 
 and  truthfully  as  by  Charles  Darwin,  the  great  naturalist, 
 who  accompanied  Captain  FitzEoy  in  the  surveying  ex- 
 pedition of  the  Beagle,  in  the  years  1832-6.  The  whole  of 
 the  eastern  portion  resembles  the  country  of  Patagonia  on  the 
 opposite  side  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  consisting  of  open 
 plains,  and  enjoying  a climate  of  greater  dryness  than 
 that  of  the  western  portions  of  the  land.  Travelling  west 
 along  the  strait,  trees  and  woods  become  gradually  more 
 frequent,  and  the  scenery  assumes  a park-like  character ; 
 but  the  whole  of  the  western  and  south-western  portions  are 
 covered  with  sombre  forest,  the  trees  being  mostly  stimted 
 beech  and  birch.  The  land  is  extremely  mountainous  and 
 rugged,  and  deep  narrow  fiords  and  sea  lochs,  with 
 precipitous  sides  rising  to  elevations  of  thousands  of  feet, 
 penetrate  the  melancholy  land.  Scarcely  an  acre  of 
 level  plain  is  to  be  met  with.  The  trees  clothe  all  the 
 lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  to  a height  of  about  1500 
 feet,  where  they  suddenly  cease,  and  are  followed  by  a 
 band  of  peat  extending  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
 which  in  this  latitude  is  between  3000  and  4000  feet. 
 The  ground  in  these  gloomy  woods  is  everywhere  covered 
 by  a thick  bed  of  swampy  peat,  and  encumbered  besides 
 with  rotting  and  fallen  trees,  making  walking  impossible. 
 There  is  a degree  of  mysterious  grandeur,  says  Darwin,  in 
 the  view  of  mountain  behind  mountain,  with  the  deep  in- 
 tervening valleys,  all  covered  by  one  thick,  dusky  mass  of 
 forest.  The  atmosphere,  too,  in  this  climate  (where  gale 
 succeeds  gale,  with  rain,  had,  and  sleet),  seems  blacker 
 than  an}A\Eere  else.  In  the  Strait  of  hlagellan,  looking 
 due  south  from  Port  Famine,  the  distant  channels  between 
 the  mountains  appear  from  their  gloominess  to  lead 
 beyond  the  confines  of  this  world. 
 
 The  navigation  of  the  strait,  formerly  of  so  much 
 difficulty  and  peril,  has  been  much  facilitated  by  the 
 
NAVIGATION  OF  THE  STEAIT. 
 
 293 
 
 labours  of  the  English  naval  surveyors,  who  have,  under 
 the  direction  of  the  Government,  at  various  times  devoted 
 months  and  years  to  the  examination  and  mapping  of  aU 
 the  channels  which  could  possibly  serve  as  means  of  com- 
 munication. Forty  years  after  the  expeditions  of  Stokes 
 and  FitzEoy,  Captain  Mayne  was  engaged  for  two  or  three 
 years  in  the  same  work ; and  now  the  strait  has  become 
 the  safe  highway  for  a whole  fleet  of  commercial  steamers 
 pljdng  between  Europe  and  the  ports  of  western  South 
 America.  For  the  convenience  of  the  numerous  trading 
 vessels,  as  well  as  of  the  ships  engaged  in  the  whaling 
 and  sealing  trades  of  these  seas,  a singular  kind  of  ocean 
 post-office  has  of  late  years  been  established  in  the  straits. 
 Suspended  from  a cliff  on  the  most  prominent  headland 
 facing  Tierra  del  Fuego  is  a little  box  made  fast  by  a 
 chain,  which  is  opened  by  every  passing  vessel,  either  to 
 deposit  or  take  out  letters,  as  the  case  may  be.  Thus 
 this  postal  department  is  self-administrating,  being  en- 
 trusted entirely  to  the  care  and  safekeeping  of  seafaring 
 men,  and  it  is  pleasant  to  be  able  to  add  that  no  instance 
 has  hitherto  been  recorded  of  any  abuse  of  the  confidence 
 thus  reposed  in  them.  Every  ship  undertakes  the  free 
 delivery  of  all  letters  lying  addressed  to  localities  within 
 its  subsequent  course. 
 
 4.  Pimta  Arenas. 
 
 In  the  eastern  section  of  the  strait  after  leaving  Cape 
 Froward,  we  come  upon  the  Chilian  settlement  of  Punta 
 Arenas  (or  Sandy  Point),  taking  its  name  from  the  sandy 
 character  of  the  surrounding  land.  Some  few  years  ago 
 gold  was  here  found  in  a neighbouring  river-bed,  and  else- 
 where coal  of  inferior  quahty.  Although  the  interior 
 arrangement  of  the  230  odd  houses  forming  the  little 
 station  of  Punta  Arenas  makes  little  pretension  to  com- 
 
294  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 fort,  the  place  produces  a friendly  appearance,  with  its 
 white  and  green  wooden  houses,  and  grey  shingle  roofs, 
 and  its  broad,  though  somewhat  rough,  and  but  partly  paved 
 streets.  It  stands  in  the  centre  of  a gently  sloping  plain. 
 
 PUXTA  ARENAS. 
 
 cleared  of  trees,  and  terminating  northwards  in  a little 
 hill.  But  the  climate  is  far  from  attractive.  The  sky  is 
 seldom  clear  even  in  summer,  and  no  landing  at  Punta 
 Arenas  is  possible  more  than  about  once  in  every  five  or 
 six  days. 
 
 The  colony  consists  partly  of  involuntary  settlers,  that 
 is,  deserters  from  the  Chilian  army  banished  to  this  spot, 
 and  partly  of  voluntary  immigrants,  attracted  thither  by 
 large  concessions  of  land  in  the  ’vicinity.  These  Chilians, 
 as  they  call  themselves,  are  moreover  paid  for  their  work 
 by  the  Government ; they  form  the  most  industrious  por- 
 tion of  the  motley  popidation,  but  if  they  work  hard, 
 they  are  also  hard  drmkers,  and  their  wives  are  said  to 
 
TIEREA  DEL  FUEGIANS. 
 
 295 
 
 have  a somewhat  defective  knowledge  of  their  matrimonial 
 obligations.  Here  are  represented  all  grades  of  the 
 human  family,  from  the  primeval  Indian  type  to  the  pure 
 Caucasian,  including  some  of  the  dusky  sons  of  Africa  and 
 their  various  mixtures  with  Indian  and  white  blood.  The 
 half-caste  race  of  Spaniards  and  Indians,  to  which  the 
 Chilians  belong,  is  a strong,  vigorous  breed,  well  able  to 
 wield  the  axe,  so  indispensable  in  these  dense  forest  lands. 
 They  lead  the  simplest  of  lives,  their  food  consisting 
 solely  of  potatoes,  which  flourish  well  in  the  island  of 
 Chiloe  ; although  in  Punta  Arenas  they  are  of  but  small 
 growth.  As  the  Strait  of  Magellan  becomes  more  fre- 
 quented, the  prosperity  of  Punta  Arenas  will  doubtless 
 also  increase ; but  meantime  the  prospects  of  the  settlers 
 are  far  from  brilliant. 
 
 5.  The  Tier r a del  Fuegian  Indians. 
 
 The  natives  of  the  archipelago  are  the  Pecherais  of 
 Bougainville,  or  the  Tierra  del  Fuegians  of  more  recent 
 ethnologists.  Pertuiset  maintains  that  their  type  of  fea- 
 ture is  not  so  low  as  is  usually  supposed.  He  ventures 
 even  to  call  it  handsome,  and  in  any  case  finer  than  that 
 of  the  Patagonians,  with  whom  they  would  seem  to  be 
 ethnologicaUy  related.  Oesterreicher  met  in  Punta  Arenas 
 three  young  women  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  (none  of  the 
 male  sex  having  yet  appeared  in  the  place),  and  of  them 
 he  says  that  they  show  a type  akin  to  that  of  the  Pata- 
 gonians— low  forehead,  large  and  prominent  cheek-bones, 
 face  as  broad  as  long,  and  a great  power  of  bone  and  tooth. 
 They  are,  moreover,  well  grown  and  portly,  but  their 
 colour,  on  which  opinions  vary,  is  rendered  somewhat 
 doubtful  by  their  filthy  habits.  Darwin  says  their  skin 
 is  of  a dirty  copper-red  hue ; and  no  ethnologist  doubts 
 their  belonging  to  the  same  race  as  the  rest  of  the  inhabit- 
 
296 
 
 COMPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AXD  TEAVEL. 
 
 ants  of  America  from  sonth  to  north ; but  the  tribes  who 
 inhabit  the  open  plains  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  archi- 
 pelago are  a taller  and  better-developed  people  than  the 
 miserable  savages  who  lead  a half-starved  existence  in  the 
 west. 
 
 The  men  have  a thick  head  of  hair,  which  they  wear 
 after  the  fashion  of  the  Patagonians ; but  the  women  cut 
 theirs  short,  lea^dng  only  two  plaits  hanging  down  on 
 either  side.  The  men  are  beardless,  a few  alone  showing 
 some  trace  of  down  on  their  face.  The  skins  of  the 
 guanaco  thrown  over  their  shoulders  protect  them  from 
 the  inclemency  of  the  climate,  but,  unlike  the  Patagonians, 
 they  wear  the  hairy  side  out.  Some  have  boots  made  of 
 rat-skins,  and  complete  their  costume  with  a three-cornered 
 head-dress,  containing  the  hair,  and  made  either  of  guanaco 
 liide  or  sea-mews’  skins.  The  women  cover  their  naked- 
 ness ■with  a scanty  garment  made  of  the  skins  of  small 
 animals,  and  deck  themselves  with  shell  necklaces  and 
 bracelets. 
 
 Their  speech  is  similar  to,  without  being  identical  with, 
 that  of  the  Patagonians.  Their  food  consists  of  sea  mussels, 
 fish,  rats,  wild  geese,  and  guanacoes.  As  weapons  they  use 
 bows  and  spears,  the  former  having  strings  formed  of  gut, 
 the  latter  being  made  of  wood  hardened  in  the  fire  and 
 pro^dded  with  a stone  point.  They  are  also  extremely 
 skilful  sUngers,  but  are,  as  a rule,  far  from  formidable. 
 
 6.  The  Falkland  Islands. 
 
 It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  devote  a few  words 
 to  the  group  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  lying  240  miles 
 north-east  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  belonging  to  the  crown 
 of  England.  They  consist  mainly  of  two  larger  islands — 
 East  and  West  Falkland — with  a smaller  one,  aU  deeply 
 indented  with  narrow  inlets  and  creeks,  containing  alto- 
 
THE  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 
 
 297 
 
 gether  a superficial  area  of  6500  square  miles.  The 
 population  is  at  present  812,  and  the  capital  is  Port  Louis. 
 
 Darwin  described  the  islands  as  an  undulating  land, 
 with  a desolate  and  wretched  aspect,  covered  by  a peaty 
 soil  and  wiry  grass  of  one  monotonous  brown  colour,  with 
 here  and  there  a peak,  or  ridge,  of  grey  quartz  rock  break- 
 ing through  the  smooth  surface.  But  large  tracts  are  now 
 known  to  consist  of  rich  pasture.  With  regard  to  the 
 chmate.  Admiral  Sir  B.  J.  Sulivan,  who  resided  several 
 years  on  the  island,  states  that  it  is  similar  to  that  of 
 South  Devon  in  winter  and  of  Scotland  in  summer. 
 The  lowest  temperature  in  one  severe  winter  was  16° 
 Fahr.,  but  in  other  three  winters  the  ice  was  thick 
 enough  to  bear  a man’s  weight  only  on  one  occasion. 
 The  summer  temperature  rarely  exceeds  65.°  In  various 
 parts  along  the  sea-shore  a taU  sedgy  grass,  called  tussock, 
 growing  to  six  or  sometimes  nearly  ten  feet  in  height,  is 
 plentiful.  Of  this  the  cattle  are  very  fond,  and  it  is  also 
 well  adapted  for  thatching  buildings  and  for  the  manufac- 
 ture of  mats  and  baskets.  There  are  no  trees  whatever 
 on  the  islands  ; scarcely  anything  worthy  of  the  name  of 
 a bush.  The  chief  use  of  these  bleak  outlying  islands  is 
 in  the  breeding  and  rearing  live  stock,  for  which  they  are 
 well  adapted,  the  cattle,  horses,  pigs,  and  rabbits  turned 
 loose  by  the  early  settlers  having  multiplied  to  a great 
 extent. 
 
 In  1874  the  Governor  of  the  Falklands  made  a most 
 favourable  report  to  the  British  Colonial  Office  regarding 
 the  future  of  this  colony.  The  climate  seems  during  the 
 last  twenty  years  to  have  undergone  a considerable  change 
 for  the  better;  at  least  the  winters  have  become  much  milder, 
 a circumstance  so  far  confirming  the  late  Professor  Agassiz’s 
 theory  that  a branch  of  the  Equatorial  current  has  taken  a 
 south-westerly  course  in  the  direction  of  the  Falkland 
 Islands.  In  the  Governor’s  report  it  is  stated  that  the 
 
298 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 quality  of  the  wool  has  in  many  cases  increased  its  value 
 twofold,  the  improvement  being  ascribed  to  crossing  with 
 Enghsh  sheep.  The  report  further  states  that  seven  years 
 ago  the  crew  of  a ship  wrecked  on  West  Island  would  have 
 perished  of  hunger,  hut  since  then  such  progTess  has  been 
 made  that,  at  whatever  point  a landing  might  be  effected, 
 food  and  shelter  would  he  obtainable  within  distances  of 
 from  10  to  15  miles. 
 
LATIN  RACES. 
 
 299 
 
 CHAPTER  XL 
 
 THE  LATIN  RACES  IN  SOUTH  AilERICA. 
 
 1.  Relative  Proportion  of  Natives  and  Europeans. 
 
 The  continent  of  South  America  is  still  to  a iar^e 
 
 O 
 
 extent  the  domain  of  the  Indians,  who  form  in  most  parts 
 the  main  stock  of  the  population,  and  are  met  with  m the 
 most  varied  stages  of  character  and  culture.  The  Euro- 
 peans, pohtically  the  rulers  of  the  land,  constitute,  when 
 compared  with  the  Red  ]\Ien,  but  a thin  layer.  Thanks, 
 however,  to  their  mental  superiority,  they  have  impressed 
 all  the  social  relations  with  a peculiar  stamp,  so  that  we 
 are  fully  justified  in  speaking  of  a Latin,  or  Romance, 
 America,  in  contrast  with  the  northern  haK  of  the  con- 
 tinent, that  has  become  the  portion  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
 race. 
 
 IMost  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  this  Latin 
 America  are  the  same  as  those  met  with  in  Central 
 America,  which  belongs  to  the  same  race.  In  all  their 
 various  social  and  political  aspects.  Central  and  South 
 America  form,  on  the  whole,  but  one  uniform  system. 
 
 2.  Causes  of  the  Partial  Failure  of  Laiin  Civilisation 
 in  America. 
 
 Attempts  have  been  made  to  make  the  Latin  race 
 itself  responsible  for  the  phenomena  that  have  here  been 
 observed,  and  especially  for  the  failure  of  their  colonisa- 
 tion schemes.  In  fact,  that  they  do  not  understand  the 
 
300 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 art  of  colonising  has  come  to  he  a very  generally  accepted 
 dictum ; yet  the  assertion  ■will  not  stand  serious  scientific 
 inquiry,  opposed  as  it  is  to  the  real  facts  of  the  case. 
 And,  in  making  this  statement,  we  take  no  account  of  the 
 climatic  conditions,  by  which  the  Teutonic  races  are  unable 
 to  endure  a continued  residence  within  the  tropics  with- 
 out suffering  physical  degeneracy. 
 
 In  nearly  all  the  regions  where  the  Spaniards  have 
 settled  and  foimded  colonies,  which  are  now  independent 
 free  states,  they  ever}^here  met  with  compact,  settled, 
 and  agricultural  Indian  populations,  while  the  very  opposite 
 was  the  case  with  the  English  in  Xorth  America.  Hence 
 it  was  impossible  to  get  rid  of  the  native  element,  as  the 
 erratic  hunting  tribes  of  Xorth  America  were  mostly  got 
 rid  of.  Here  the  Indians  had,  on  the  contrary,  risen  to 
 a considerable  degree  of  culture,  though  in  many  respects 
 of  a more  or  less  barbaric  nature,  and  this,  as  is  invariably 
 the  case,  was  accompanied  by  a certain  density  of  popula- 
 tion. Hence  from  the  first  the  European  invaders  here 
 fonned  but  a small  minority  of  the  people,  which,  owing  to 
 its  superior  mental  endowments,  was  able  to  rule  but 
 not  to  extirpate  the  Indian  majority.  An  unavoidable 
 consequence  of  this  state  of  things,  conditioned  in  fact  by 
 the  very  nature  of  the  case,  was  a mingling  of  the  white 
 and  red  races,  which  -flooded  the  Spanish  States  with  the 
 sensuous  and  exuberant  haK-caste  riff-raff  of  ]\Iestizoes. 
 
 The  development  of  European  civilisation  in  Central 
 and  South  America  has  been  hindered  mainly  by  these 
 ^Mestizoes,  who  have  tended  rather  to  degrade  it  to  the 
 Indian  level.  In  their  presence  the  few  pure-blood  Latins 
 that  stdl  survive  are  utterly  helpless.  In  recent  times 
 several  South  American  States  have  displayed  a praise- 
 worthy effort  to  raise  themselves  to  a higher  moral  stand- 
 ard. But  how  far  such  efforts  may  be  crowned  with 
 lasting  success,  it  woidd  be  rash  so  soon  to  predict.  What 
 
SPANIAKDS  AXD  PORTUGUESE. 
 
 301 
 
 has  already  been  achieved  -vvill  be  duly  noticed  when  we 
 come  to  speak  of  each  separate  State  in  detail. 
 
 3.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Elements  in  South 
 America. 
 
 Meantime  attention  may  here  be  directed  to  the  two 
 great  ethnical  and  political  di\dsions  of  the  Latin  world  in 
 South  America.  Apart  from  the  English,  French,  and 
 Dutch  settlements  in  Guiana,  which  are  so  small  that 
 they  can  scarcely  be  taken  into  account  when  compared 
 with  the  rest  of  the  continent,  the  whole  of  South  America 
 is  in  the  hands  of  two  Latin  peoples,  shared  however, 
 between  them  in  very  different  ways.  These  are  the 
 Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese,  and  the  ethnical  distinction 
 conspicuous  in  these  two  races  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula 
 itself,  is  no  less  marked  in  their  Transatlantic  offspring. 
 Yet  both  have  this  in  common,  that  they  look  upon  them- 
 selves as  different  nationalities  from  the  mother  countries, 
 entertaining  feelings  of  aversion,  if  not  of  downright 
 hatred,  towards  the  European  descendants  of  their  Spanish 
 and  Portuguese  forefathers.  In  truth  the  South  American 
 of  ChiI4,  A^’enezuela,  or  La  Plata,  is  no  more  a Spaniard, 
 or  the  Brazilian  a Portuguese,  than  is  the  North  American 
 Yankee  an  Englishman. 
 
 Wherever  Europeans,  of  whatsoever  race,  have  been  left 
 to  themselves  in  America,  we  see  the  characteristics  of  a 
 new  type  in  process  of  development,  and  this  has  already 
 everywhere  gone  far  enough  to  clearly  distinguish  them 
 from  their  original  progenitors.  Hence  it  becomes  easy 
 to  explain  the  antagonism  that  has  sprung  up  between 
 so  many  European  nations  and  their  Transatlantic  off- 
 spring. 
 
 StUl  this  community  of  feeling  towards  the  outer 
 world  is  utterly  insufficient  to  bridge  over  the  prevailing 
 
302 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 inward  difference  between  the  Spanish- American  and  the 
 Brazdian-Portuguese,  a difference  which  everywhere  shows 
 itself  in  the  most  emphatic  manner.  Not  only  is  it 
 evident  in  the  form  of  government,  Spanish  America 
 having  without  an  exception  thrown  itself  into  the  arms 
 of  democracy,  and  fiercely  resented  all  attempts  at  a 
 restoration  of  the  monarchy,  while  Brazil  remained  from 
 the  first  loyal  to  monarchical  principles.  Brazil,  which 
 is  in  point  of  fact  the  only  monarchy  in  the  New  World, 
 and  the  only  well-ordered  state  in  South  America,  presents 
 a further  contrast  to  all  its  Spanish  republican  neighbours, 
 both  in  the  full  development  of  its  power  and  its  varied 
 populations.  With  those  States  it  forms  no  permanent 
 alliances,  and  these  in  their  turn  can  be  induced  by 
 momentary^  interests  alone  to  enter  into  association  with 
 imperial  Brazil.  With  the  dissolution  of  such  passing 
 interests  the  temporary  alliances  themselves  come  also  to 
 an  end. 
 
 In  consequence  of  these  antagonistic  relations  it  .will 
 be  found  most  convenient  in  the  following  accoimt  of 
 these  States  to  pass  the  Spanish  American  Eepubhcs  fu’st 
 in  review,  and  then  treat  of  the  Brazilian  empire  apart. 
 Our  notice  may  conclude  with  the  European  settlements 
 in  Guiana,  which  have  pohtically  nothing  in  common  with 
 the  countries  above  briefly  described. 
 
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VENEZUELA. 
 
 303 
 
 CHAPTEE  XII. 
 
 VENEZUELA 
 
 1 . Uncqv/il  Distribution  of  the  Temperature. 
 
 We  take  first  in  order  the  Eepnblic  of  Venezuela, 
 which  embraces  within  its  limits  the  great  water  system 
 of  the  Orinoco.  But  having  in  a previous  chapter 
 described  its  geograplucal  features,  it  wfil  suffice  here  to 
 remark  that  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  land  the  climatic 
 conditions  vary  considerably,  and  may  be  divided  into 
 three  distinct  zones. 
 
 2.  The  Hot,  Temperate,  and  Cold  Zones. 
 
 The  hot  zone,  ascending  from  the  sea-level  to  an 
 elevation  of  about  2300  feet,  has  an  average  temperature 
 of  77°  Fahr.,  and  may  on  the  whole  be  described  as  not 
 unhealthy.  The  temperate  zone,  with  an  average  tem- 
 perature of  about  65°,  rises  from  2300  to  6600  feet,  is  a 
 perfect  Eden  of  natural  loveliness,  and  altogether  a resi- 
 dence at  once  healthy  and  agreeable.  The  coldest  months 
 are  December  and  January,  when  the  thermometer  falls 
 to  5 9°,  while  even  in  April  and  May,  which  are  the  hottest 
 months,  it  never  rises  above  7 7°. 
 
 To  the  cold  zone  belong  all  the  highland  districts  from 
 6600  feet  upwards,  whether  with  or  without  mountains 
 rising  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
 
304 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 3.  Vegetation — Coffee,  Caxao,  Sugar,  Cotton,  eU. 
 
 The  vegetable  kingdom  in  Yeneznela  is  exceptionally 
 rich  and  varied,  and  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  State, 
 its  products  forming  almost  the  only  staple  of  trade  in 
 
 THE  COFEEE  PLA^’T. 
 
 the  country,  and  many  of  its  species  being  extensively 
 cultivated. 
 
 Foremost  amongst  these  is  the  coffee  plant,  which 
 constitutes  the  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  Venezuela. 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 305 
 
 trilla,  where,  either  by  a stamping  or  rolling  operation, 
 they  are  rid  of  their  parchment-like  inner  husks.  Thence 
 they  are  taken  to  the  venteador,  where  they  are  subject  to 
 a final  cleansing  process.  The  yearly  produce  amounts  at 
 present  to  about  770,000  lbs. 
 
 The  best  coffee  grows  in  the  temperate  districts,  more 
 especially  such  as  are  subject  to  frequent  early  mists. 
 In  the  warmer  lands  it  grows  beneath  the  shade  of  larger 
 trees.  In  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  it  produces  its  first 
 crop,  which  is  gathered  in  October.  The  berries,  resem- 
 bling little  red  cherries,  have  their  outer  fleshy  part  first 
 removed,  by  a special  apparatus,  and  are  then  left  for 
 a short  time  to  decay,  after  which  they  are  dried  in  large 
 paved  enclosures.  They  are  afterwards  passed  on  to  the 
 
 CACAO  PLANTATION. 
 
 X 
 
306 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGR.VPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Other  important  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
 Venezuela  are  Cacao,  the  tree  on  which  it  grows  {Thco- 
 hroma  cacao)  belonging  to  the  hot  low-lyiiig  districts,  and 
 its  cultivation  being  a very  simple  matter.  The  best 
 cacao  comes  from  the  plantations  of  Chuao,  the  property 
 of  the  University  of  Caraccas,  and  yielding  a yearly  crop  of 
 about  1100  lbs.  The  cacao  of  Caraccas  is  in  high  repute 
 from  the  excellence  of  the  chocolate  into  which  it  is 
 made.  The  whole  State  produces  annually  about  66,000 
 lbs.  The  natural  home  of  the  cacao  tree  is  iu  the  great 
 virgin  forests  of  the  Amazons,  where  it  still  grows  wild  in 
 great  abundance.  It  belongs  to  that  class  of  plants  in 
 which  the  flowers  and  fruit  have  the  singular  property  of 
 gTOwing  direct  out  of  the  woody  stem  and  branches. 
 
 The  Otaheite  cane  {Saccharum  officinarmri) 
 is  the  variety  mostly  cultivated.  The  ripe  cane  is  at  first 
 crushed  between  iron  rollers,  the  juice  flowing  through 
 ducts  into  a larg;e  reservoir.  Thence  it  is  drawn  off  in 
 iron  caldrons,  and  boiled  up  to  a certain  degree,  the  scum 
 being  removed,  and  the  fluid  otherwise  clarified.  It  is 
 then  poured  into  wooden  moulds,  where  it  gradually 
 hardens.  The  crushed  and  dried  cane  is  used  as  firewood. 
 The  sugar  itself  in  its  final  state  is  of  a brown  colour,  and 
 is  called  papelon. 
 
 Cotton. — One  of  the  finest  sorts  (South  Sea  Island 
 cotton),  was  at  first  only  experimentally  tried  at  Lake 
 Valencia,  but  with  such  excellent  results  that  it  is  now 
 cultivated  in  several  places.  Venezuela  exports  from 
 62,000  to  64,000  lbs. 
 
 Indigo,  formerly  one  of  the  most  important  products 
 of  the  country,  has  lately  been  largely  superseded  by 
 coffee,  the  cultivation  of  which  is  much  easier  and  more 
 profitable. 
 
 Other  productions  are  : — Maize,  of  which  there  are 
 white,  yellow,  violet,  red,  and  black  varieties  ; many 
 
MEDICINAL  PLANTS. 
 
 307 
 
 species  of  quinquina,  or  Peruvian  lark,  all  useful  in 
 fevers  and  agues,  though  the  botanical  names  of  several 
 are  unknown ; and  Sarsaparilla  {Smilax  sarsaparilla), 
 a medicinal  climbing  plant,  of  a woody  nature,  long 
 known  to  the  faculty  as  a blood-purifier,  and  here  so 
 abundant  that  at  present  there  are  annually  exported 
 about  1650  lbs.,  of  an  average  value  of  £7000. 
 
 Amongst  other  less  important  plants  may  be  men- 
 tioned the  Amargoso,  or  Vallesia  liypoglauca,  with  its 
 intensely  bitter  bark ; the  curious  Maya  fruit  {Bromelm 
 chrysantha) ; the  Micadia  gonoclada,  or  guaca,  as  it  is 
 called  in  Venezuela,  an  excellent  blood-purifier  and  anti- 
 dote ; the  Guazuma  ulmisotia,  the  bark  of  which  is  used 
 in  the  preparatian  of  refreshing  drinks ; the  hark  of  the 
 Weinmania  glabra,  with  its  tanning  properties ; the 
 Pepe  de  cola,  or  seed  of  the  Cola  acuminata,  said  to  be  a 
 sovereign  remedy  in  affections  of  the  liver ; the  Rosa  de 
 Montana  {Brcnonea  grandiceps),  a good  astringent ; the 
 Pepa  de  cedron,  or  seed  of  the  Sinabra  cedron,  said  to  be  a 
 successfid  antidote  against  the  bite  of  venomous  snakes ; 
 the  Ojo  de  Zamuro  {Muncuna  puriens),  a cure  for  astlima  ; 
 the  fruit  of  the  Cujajo,  from  the  tallow-like  fatty  sub- 
 stance of  wliich  candles  are  made ; and  several  other  oily 
 seeds,  beans,  and  fraits. 
 
 4.  Population — A Warning  to  Patending  Emigrants. 
 
 The  population  of  the  Eepuhlic,  according  to  the 
 census  returns  of  September  1873,  amounts  to  1,784,000 
 souls ; reckoning  the  independent  Indian  tribes  of  the 
 more  remote  districts,  such  as  Apurc%  Guiana,  and  tJie 
 Amazons,  in  the  interior.  The  most  thickly  populated 
 are  naturally  the  agricultural  districts  and  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  the  larger  towns.  But  even  here  there  is  stdl 
 ample  room  for  new-comers,  which  can  only  be  supplied 
 
308 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 by  foreign  emigration.  We  trust,  however,  that  European 
 emigration  may  never  be  directed  to  these  tropical  regions. 
 
 A warning  example  of  the  fate  awaiting  European 
 emigrants  to  these  countries  is  afforded  by  the  history  of 
 the  German  colony  of  Tovar.  The  learned  Agostino  Cod- 
 azzi  (born  1793  at  Lugo  in  Italy,  died  1859  at  Pueblito 
 in  Columbia),  canied  away  by  his  faith  in  German  energy 
 and  endurance,  took  advantage  of  a lull  in  the  civil  com- 
 motions of  Yeneznela  in  order  to  try  the  experiment  of 
 founding  a German  colony  there  in  1842.  For  its  site 
 he  made  choice  of  an  elevated  plateau  some  40  miles 
 distant  from  Caraccas,  and  named  the  settlement  Tovar, 
 in  honour  of  a capitalist  by  whom  he  had  been  aided 
 in  furthering  the  undertaking.  In  1843  Codazzi  brought 
 over  the  immigi’ants,  who  were  for  the  most  part  natives 
 of  the  Black  Forest.  His  perseverance  overcame  the 
 difficulties  to  which  the  new  and  unknown  conditions 
 naturally  exposed  the  young  colony.  Between  the  years 
 1848  and  1854  it  was  prosperous  enough,  its  neat  little 
 houses  resembling  a Swiss  Alpine  -vdllage,  and  signs  of 
 rapid  progress  being  everywhere  manifest.  But  its  trade 
 was  presently  paralysed  by  the  internal  dissensions  which 
 for  years  disturbed  aU  industry  and  commercial  enterprise 
 in  Venezuela.  Everything  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and 
 in  1870  the  whole  settlement  was  laid  waste  by  the 
 soldiery  of  Guzman  Blanco.  In  order  to  entrench  them- 
 selves in  their  position,  they  puUed  down  whole  rows  of 
 houses,  and  “ requisitioned  ” every  available  object  suitable 
 for  the  purpose.  Since  then  the  settlers,  who  at  that  time 
 numbered  about  1250,  have  been  dispersed  over  the  country. 
 
 5.  Pursuits : Agriculture — Mining  Industries. 
 
 The  principal  occupation  of  the  people  is  agTiculture. 
 Besides  the  plants  cultivated  for  their  own  sustenance. 
 
TRADES  AND  MANUFACTURES. 
 
 309 
 
 and  which  are  commonly  called  frutos  menorcs,  they  also 
 raise  crops  of  cacao,  coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  sugar,  and 
 tobacco.  These  are  comprised  under  the  general  name  of 
 frutos  mayores,  three  of  which,  viz.,  coffee,  cacao,  and  raw 
 coffee,  form  the  bulk  of  the  export  trade  of  the  country. 
 
 Mming  operations  for  gold  are  now  carried  on  in 
 Guayana,  near  the  upper  waters  of  the  Caroni,  and  the 
 copper  mines  of  Aroa  are  said  to  have  been  agahi  reopened. 
 Guano  is  exported  from  the  island  of  Orchila  to  the 
 United  States,  and  projects  have  been  started  for  working 
 several  coal  mines.  At  the  exhibition  of  Vienna  in  1873, 
 the  mineral  kingdom  of  Venezuela  was  represented  mainly 
 by  auriferous  quartz  and  building  stones. 
 
 Though  far  behind  those  of  most  other  countries,  the 
 trades  and  manufactures  of  Venezuela  are  not  altogether 
 quite  so  insignificant  as  they  have  been  described.  In  these 
 lands,  still  to  a large  extent  unexplored,  thinly  peopled, 
 and  not  till  recently  brought  within  civilising  influences, 
 industry  is  altogether  of  too  recent  a growth  to  justify  us 
 in  expecting  great  things  of  it  just  yet.  But  from  certain 
 symptoms  it  is  evident  that  the  people  are  endeavouring 
 to  turn  to  account  the  natural  products  of  the  country,  to 
 develop  various  branches  of  trade,  and  thus  cease  to  be 
 entirely  dependent  on  the  foreign  market  for  their  supplies. 
 It  would  of  course  be  premature  to  speak  of  any  general 
 export  trade  in  articles  of  local  manufacture,  still  some  of 
 them  have  begun  to  be  exported  in  considerable  quantities, 
 such  as  soap,  candles,  lime,  and  liqueurs.  Printing  and 
 binding,  straw  and  wdcker  work,  laces  of  various  sorts,  and 
 feather  work,  are  also  prepared  and  executed  in  a very 
 skilful  way,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  products  of  the 
 tanyard,  machinery,  and  cabinet-making.  The  Venezuelan 
 artizan  is  very  apt,  and  in  most  cases  quite  as  good 
 a workman  as  the  European.  Tools,  and  all  articles  of 
 dress,  hardware  and  ironmongery,  beer,  wine,  and  the  like, 
 are  imported. 
 
310 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 6.  Trade — Eoyports — Imiports. 
 
 The  commerce  of  Venezuela  is  naturally  bound  up 
 with  its  agi’icultural  industry,  and  has  of  late  years  ex- 
 perienced a considerable  expansion.  In  1832-4  the 
 whole  of  the  export  trade  was  valued  at  no  more  than 
 £650,000,  while  during  the  five  years  1870-4  the  total 
 exports  averaged  £1,200,000  per  annum,  and  the  imports 
 £1,000,000.  Unfortunately  the  returns  have  not  yet 
 been  accimately  made  out  for  the  whole  country,  and 
 for  all  the  several  articles  of  trade.  The  export  trade 
 is  mainly  with  the  United  States  (Philadelpliia  and  New 
 York),  England,  France,  Hambm-g,  Bremen,  Spain,  and 
 Holland. 
 
 Venezuela  receives  wheaten  flour  (almost  exclusively), 
 cheese,  and  the  like,  from  the  United  States;  u’on  and 
 cotton  goods  of  all  sorts  from  England ; silks,  hardware, 
 paper,  wine,  perfumery,  drugs,  and  of  course  the  fashions, 
 from  France;  and  from  Germany,  through  Hamburg  and 
 Bremen,  considerable  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  ware, 
 toys,  glass,  porcelain,  paper,  iron  and  steel  goods,  clothing 
 materials,  beer,  and  drugs.  Foreign  goods  are  mostly 
 subject  to  an  import  duty,  in  the  case  of  gold  and  silver 
 ware  ad  'oalorem,  but  generally  regulated  according  to  the 
 gi’oss  weight. 
 
 There  is  no  direct  export  duty,  but  as  the  transport  of 
 goods  on  all  the  highways  of  the  interior  is  exempt  from 
 toUs  or  other  charges  of  any  sort,  a general  tax  is  imposed 
 on  them  in  the  so-called  Adnana  terrestre,  or  export  office. 
 Of  the  proceeds  7 0 per  cent  are  returned  to  the  several 
 States,  and  the  balance  applied  to  the  maintenance  of 
 the  pubhe  highways. 
 
 Besides  the  numerous  sailing  vessels  frequenting  La 
 Guayra,  Puerto  Cabello,  and  other  Venezuela  ports,  the 
 commerce  of  the  country  is  now  furthered  by.  several  lines 
 
COMMUNICATION  BY  LAND  AND  ^YATEE. 
 
 311 
 
 of  ocean  steamships.  These  are  the  Eoyal  Mail  with  its 
 European  terminus  at  Southampton,  the  West  Indian 
 branch  of  which  stops  at  St.  Thomas,  but  forwards  thence 
 and  receives  there  passengers  and  correspondence  by 
 means  of  schooners  plying  between  La  Guayra,  Puerto 
 Cahello,  and  Maracaibo  ; the  Hamburg- American  Steam- 
 ship Company,  and  the  French  line  between  St.  Nazaire 
 and  La  Guayra,  touching  at  IMartinique.  A direct  line 
 with  New  York  has  also  been  lately  estahhshed,  main- 
 taining a monthly  service  with  A^’enezuela,  vid  Port-au- 
 Prince  and  Curasao.  Steamers  also  jily  between  La  Guayra 
 and  Port  of  Spain,  in  Trinidad,  and  we  may  hope  that 
 the  above-mentioned  schooner  service  with  St.  Thomas 
 wiU  soon  be  replaced  by  a regular  line  of  steamers. 
 
 7.  Highways — Projected  BailvMys — The  Postal  Service. 
 
 Important  evidence  of  the  recent  advancement  of 
 the  republic  in  material  welfare  is  afforded  by  the  con- 
 struction of  highways  in  the  interior,  of  late  years  under- 
 taken by  the  government.  Besides  the  road  from  La 
 Guayra  and  Caraccas,  and  another  between  Puerto  Cahello 
 and  Valencia,  there  have  already  been  completed  nearly 
 250  miles  of  mountain  roadways,  often  crossing  very 
 difficult  ground,  while  the  construction  of  others  is  being 
 vigorously  pushed  forward.  All  this  has  resulted  in  the 
 opening  up  of  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Aragua  and  Tuy, 
 which  have  been  brought  nearer  to  the  capital,  and 
 through  it  to  the  seaport  of  La  Guayra,  the  transport  of 
 goods  being  otherwise  greatly  facihtated. 
 
 Venezuela  as  yet  possesses  no  railways,  aU  former 
 attempts  in  this  direction  having  been  attended  with  very 
 unsatisfactory  results.  But  a project  has  lately  been 
 started  for  laying  down  a line  between  Caraccas  and  La 
 Guayra.  The  postal  department  of  the  State  is  well  con- 
 
312  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 ducted,  letters  being  now  regularly  forwarded  by  the  lines 
 of  ocean  steamers  to  Europe  and  tbe  other  parts  of 
 America.  This  service  is  also  ■well  administered  in  the 
 interior,  and  is  being  rapidly  developed  and  brought  to 
 greater  perfection.  A telegraphic  system  has  been  estab- 
 lished between  La  Guayra,  Caraccas,  La  Victoria,  Valencia, 
 and  Puerto  Cabello,  that  is  to  say  in  the  most  populous 
 and  richest  districts  of  the  country. 
 
 8.  Culhirc — Universities — General  state  of  Education. 
 
 The  intellectual  culture  of  the  people  Dr.  Ernst  (the 
 well-known  botanist,  and  professor  in  the  University  of 
 Caraccas)  is  able  to  describe  as  having  made  of  late  years 
 decided  progress.  Universities  have  been  founded  in 
 Caraccas  and  IMerida,  and  a third  has  been  decreed  for 
 Trujillo.  Tlie  first  has  nineteen  professors  and  165 
 
 students,  but  the  second  is  much  smaller  and  less  im- 
 portant. Since  the  suppression  of  the  ecclesiastical 
 
 seminaries,  decreed  on  September  21st,  1872,  each  uni- 
 versity has  four  faculties,  and  by  a decree  of  February 
 17th,  1873,  the  natural  scic'nces  were  at  last  introduced 
 into  the  regular  curricxdum  of  studies,  and  measures 
 taken  for  establishing  a museum. 
 
 Besides  the  universities  there  are  a number  of  public 
 and  private  educational  institutions,  both  in  Caraccas  and 
 the  other  cities  of  the  Bepublic,  as  well  as  numerous 
 national  schools  in  nearly  all  the  villages  and  centres  of 
 population  in  the  country.  The  elementary  schools  are 
 supported  partly  by  the  various  municipalities  themselves, 
 and  partly  by  the  estampillas  de  escuelas,  a slight  stamp- 
 duty  raised  on  bills,  deeds,  and  contract  papers  of  aU  sorts. 
 In  this  way  it  has  been  found  possible  to  build  several 
 new  schools,  and  at  the  same  time  to  take  measures  for 
 the  establishment  of  a normal  school  and  college  of  teachers. 
 
CHURCH  AND  STATE. 
 
 313 
 
 Of  national  schools  there  are  now  upwards  of  1000. 
 The  Caraccas  public  library  already  contains  about  10,000 
 volumes,  but  still  requires  to  be  largely  developed.  Be- 
 sides this  the  university  has  a small  library,  bequeathed 
 to  it  by  the  learned  Dr.  J.  Vargas,  and  many  private 
 individuals  have  contributed  valuable  collections  of  books 
 on  various  branches  of  science. 
 
 9.  Relations  of  Church  and  State. 
 
 Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  administered  by  an  archbishop, 
 with  his  see  at  Caraccas,  and  three  bishops,  those  of  Guay- 
 ana,  Barquisimeto,  and  Merida,  the  State  enjoying  the  right 
 of  patronage  in  their  appointment.  In  fact,  the  archbishop 
 and  bishops  are  named  by  the  Government  and  only 
 confirmed  by  the  Pope.  Complete  freedom  of  worship  is 
 sanctioned  by  the  constitution,  which,  by  the  law  of  January 
 1,  1873,  also  recognises  civil  marriages  and  civil  registra- 
 tions generally.  Altogether  the  Venezuelan  people  are 
 much  too  enlightened  and  civilised  to  be  intolerant,  so  that 
 the  spirit  that  inspired  the  Encyclical  Letter  and  accom- 
 panying Syllabus  here  finds  no  sympathetic  echo.  No 
 very  wise  steps  however,  have  yet  been  taken  towards  the 
 conversion  and  civilisation  of  the  Indians. 
 
 10.  Government — Constitution. 
 
 Venezuela  forms  a federate  republic,  consisting  of 
 nineteen  states,  as  under : — Aragua,  Apurd,  Barcelona, 
 Barquisimeto,  Bolivar,  Carabobo,  Coro,  Cumana,  Guarico, 
 Guayana,  Maturin,  Merida,  Nueva  Esparta  (Margarita), 
 Portugueza,  Tachira,  Trujillo,  Yaracuy,  Zamora  (Varinas), 
 and  Zuha  (Maracaibo).  Besides  these  states  properly  so 
 called,  there  is  the  Distrito  Federal,  or  the  Federal  District 
 itself,  including  the  capital  Caraccas  and  the  seaport  of  La 
 Guayra. 
 
314 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  constitution,  which,  like  those  of  all  the  Spanish 
 American  Eepiiblics,  reads  admirably  on  paper,  guarantees 
 the  political  equality  and  autonomy  of  all  these  States, 
 each  of  which  has  its  own  president,  legislative  and  judicial 
 administration.  The  general  affairs  of  the  republic  are 
 conducted  by  the  federal  government  residing  in  Caraccas, 
 and  composed  of  a Congress  and  the  Executive  Department. 
 The  Congress  has  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  the  Lower 
 House,  and  is  supposed  to  meet  on  February  20  every 
 year.  Each  State  chooses  two  senators  and,  for  every 
 25,000  of  its  population,  one  deputy,  so  that  the  latter 
 represent  the  people,  the  former  the  autonomy  of  the 
 several  States. 
 
 At  the  head  of  the  Executive  is  the  President  of  the 
 Piepubhc,  who  nominally  holds  office  for  four  years,  and 
 is  elected  in  all  the  States  by  direct  but  secret  suffrage. 
 Besides  him  are  two  Designados,  or  Vice-Presidents,  and 
 six  Ministers — that  is,  of  the  Interior,  Finance,  Foreign 
 Affairs,  War  and  Marine,  Public  Buildings,  and  Public 
 Credit — all  of  them  responsible  to  Congress.  The  finances 
 are  just  now  in  a very  unsatisfactory  state,  but  we  may 
 hope  they  may  impro\'e  ere  long. 
 
 11.  Revenue,  Puhlic  Dcht,  etc. 
 
 The  revenue  consists  mainly  of  the  customs  and  excise 
 dues.  Of  the  whole  amount,  60  per  cent  is  devoted  to 
 the  cost  of  admulistration,  and  the  balance  to  the  extinction 
 of  the  public  debt  and  the  development  of  the  material  in- 
 terests of  the  country.  The  public  debt  is  partly  internal, 
 partly  external,  the  former  being  subdivided  into  an  old 
 and  a more  recent  {deuda  antigua  y deuda  moderna).  In 
 September  1872  the  old  debt  amounted  to  upwards  of 
 £3,400,000,  the  modern  to  about  £607,500.  At  the 
 present  date,  the  foreign  liabilities  are  represented  as 
 
GOVERNMENT. 
 
 315 
 
 reaching  £8,597,562.  With  the  exception  of  the 
 dividends  on  one  of  the  loans,  no  regular  interest  was 
 paid  for  many  years  on  any  of  the  foreign  liabilities,  but 
 a reduced  interest  is  now  paid  on  the  whole  amount. 
 According  to  the  contract  of  December  24,  1872,  a com- 
 pany, under  the  title  of  “ Compaiiia  de  Credito,”  and 
 composed  of  several  of  the  leading  houses  of  Caraccas, 
 has  been  entrusted  by  the  Government  with  the  adminis- 
 tration of  the  finances,  a measure  that  has  tended  much 
 to  restore  confidence,  and  increase  the  prospects  of  a 
 happy  solution  of  the  present  pecuniary  embarrassments. 
 This  company  issues  bank-notes  that  circulate  as  ready 
 money,  and  the  whole  undertaking  has  had  the  best 
 possible  results  for  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 
 
 12.  Political  Trouhles. 
 
 But  Venezuela  can  hope  to  arrive  at  a rapid  and 
 thorough  development  of  her  vast  internal  resources  only 
 on  the  condition  of  maintaining  a lasting  and  honourable 
 peace  within  her  borders.  Unfortunately  the  past  history 
 of  the  Spanish  Eepiiblics  does  not  inspire  much  hope  of 
 her  succeeding  in  bringing  about  this  desirable  result.  Just 
 now,  however,  this  State,  hitherto  a prey  to  constant  inter- 
 necine strife,  is  fortunately  under  the  enlightened  though 
 autocratic  control  of  the  far-seeing  President,  General  Don 
 Antonio  Guzman  Blanco.  After  using  his  absolute 
 powers  as  dictator  to  restore  order  and  form  a Congress 
 subservient  to  his  will,  he  has  given  present  political 
 peace  and  commercial  prosperity  to  his  country. 
 
 13.  Caraccas,  the  Seat  of  Government. 
 
 Caraccas,  delightfully  situated  in  a mountain  valley,. 
 2900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  12  miles  from 
 its  port  of  La  Guayra,  especially  is  rapidly  rising  in  ini- 
 
316 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 portance.  In  addition  to  the  perennial  spring  of  its  mar- 
 vellous climate,  and  the  pleasant  and  amiable  disposition 
 of  its  inhabitants,  it  combines  'within  itself  nearly  all  the 
 advantages  of  a great  city.  The  European  post  arrives  six 
 times  in  the  month ; the  'warehouses  and  shops  contain  an 
 abundant  supply  of  English,  French,  and  German  goods;  the 
 houses,  though  mostly  but  one  story  high,  and  of  modest 
 appearance,  are,  as  a rule,  very  comfortable,  and  adapted 
 to  the  conditions  of  the  climate.  The  streets  are  broad 
 and  no'w  'well  paved,  and  the  Plaza  Bohvar  has  been 
 'wisely  converted  into  a public  garden,  and  adorned  'with 
 a statue  of  the  great  deliverer.  The  noble  Doric  palace  of 
 C’ongress,  facing  the  elegant  Gothic  facade  of  the  Univer- 
 sity, together  'with  the  recently  completed  and  extremely 
 useful  aqueduct,  bringing  a good  water-supply  from  the 
 river  IMacarao,  are  all  durable  monuments  of  its  present 
 prosperity. 
 
COLOMBIA. 
 
 317 
 
 CHAPTEE  XIII, 
 
 THE  EXITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA. 
 
 1.  States  of  the  Confederation — Extent. 
 
 The  United  States  of  Colombia,  as  the  Eepublic  of 
 New  Granada  is  now  styled,  comprise  the  following  nine 
 States  : Magdalena,  Bolivar,  Panama,  Cauca,  Antioqnia, 
 Tolima,  Santander,  Bojaca,  and  Cundinamarca,  together 
 with  the  Federal  District  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  Their 
 domain  extends,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  from  the 
 Isthmus  of  Panama,  one  of  the  nine  states  of  the  Union, 
 as  far  as  the  peninsula  of  Goajira ; southwards,  along 
 the  Pacific  coast,  to  1°  50'  north  latitude;  and  in  the 
 interior  as  far  as  the  upper  waters  of  the  western  tribu- 
 taries of  the  Orinoco,  on  the  A'enezuelan,  and  the  northern 
 tributaries  of  the  Upper  Amazons,  on  the  Brazilian, 
 frontier.  The  superficial  area  of  this  vast  region  is  about 
 504,773  square  miles. 
 
 2.  General  Configuration  of  the  Land. 
 
 The  general  topographic  configuration  of  the  country 
 is  determined  by  the  three  gxeat  ranges  into  which  the 
 Andes,  continuing  from  Peru  and  Ecuador,  branch  off  as 
 they  enter  the  State,  which  they  traverse  for  its  whole 
 length  from  south  to  north.  Between  these  three  chains 
 Lie  three  broad,  hot,  and  deep  valleys,  watered  by  the 
 Atrato,  the  Cauca,  and  the  Magdalena,  all  three  navigable 
 for  steamers.  This  disposition  of  the  land  into  valleys 
 
318 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 and  mountains  rising  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow 
 renders  it  subject  to  a great  diversity  of  climates  ; all 
 zones  of  the  earth  are  here  represented — from  the  cold  of 
 the  polar  regions  on  the  mountain  tops  to  the  heats  of 
 Senegal  in  the  sweltering  valleys,  with  the  mild  climate 
 of  the  temperate  zones  on  the  intermediate  elevated  table- 
 lands and  slopes  of  the  hills. 
 
 3.  Trade — Fuhire  Prospects. 
 
 As  mistress  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Colombia  mnst 
 some  day  become  a Yery  important  country,  even  though, 
 notwithstanding  its  great  extent,  it  as  yet  advances,  like 
 other  Spanish  American  Eepubhes,  but  slowly  in  the 
 development  of  its  natural  resources.  These  are  at  pre- 
 sent limited  mainly  to  its  tropical  produce,  such  as  coffee, 
 cotton,  I’ermdan  bark,  indigo,  indiarubber,  and  to  the 
 export  of  precious  stones,  such  as  emeralds,  of  which 
 mines  exist  near  the  capital.  Tobacco  is  also  cultivated, 
 and  the  famous  Ambalema  cigars,  here  manufactured,  are 
 appreciated  by  connoisseurs. 
 
 4.  The  Panama  Railvjay. 
 
 Panama  and  Aspinwall  on  either  side  of  the  isthmus 
 are  connected  by  a railway,  which,  in  spite  of  its  limited 
 extent  (48  miles),  is  the  most  important  and  almost 
 the  only  line  in  the  State. 
 
 For  the  commerce  of  the  world  this  little  railway  is 
 of  no  slight  importance,  as  it  reduces  the  distance  be- 
 tween New  York  and  Hong-Kong  by  5000  miles,  that 
 is  from  16,965  to  11,965.  The  traveller,  soon  after 
 landing  at  Aspinwall,  or  Colon  as  this  place  is  also  called, 
 finds  himself  suddeidy  in  the  midst  of  a scene  of  tropical 
 beauty  such  as  is  scarcely  elsewhere  to  be  surpassed,  for 
 
PANAMA  RAILWAY. 
 
 319 
 
 the  railway  line  passes  through  some  of  the  most  pic- 
 turesque parts  of  the  tropical  American  forest.  Cacao 
 trees,  palms,  bananas,  and  bread-fruit  trees,  stretch  their 
 branches  and  fobage  out  on  both  sides,  while  the  damp 
 soil  is  covered  by  a luxuriant  growth  of  water-plants  of 
 the  most  varied  hues.  The  air  also  is  alive  with  birds  of 
 gorgeous  plumage,  humming-birds,  tanagers,  and  euphonias, 
 the  songs  of  many  being  varied  by  the  discordant  chatter 
 of  the  monkeys  springing  wildly  from  branch  to  branch, 
 and  the  screaming  parrots.  In  the  yellow  stream  bask 
 huge  alligators,  waiting  for  their  luckless  prey. 
 
 Yet  even  here  signs  of  civilisation  are  already  visible 
 — houses,  plantations,  railway  and  telegraph  lines.  The 
 short  railway  above  alluded  to  cost,  with  its  rolling  stock 
 and  other  belongings,  some  £2,500,000,  and  in  1873  as 
 much  as  152,000  tons  of  goods  were  conveyed  over  it. 
 It  was  opened  in  1855,  and  the  iron  rads  are  now  about 
 to  be  replaced  by  steel.  It  belongs  to  an  American 
 company,  which  has  spent  millions  of  dollars  on  the 
 harbour  of  Aspinwall  and  its  surroimdings.  The  transit 
 trade  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  at  present  of  the 
 estimated  value  of  £17,000,000  per  annum. 
 
 5.  Aspimvall  and  Fanamd. 
 
 Aspinwall  lies  on  a marshy  island  separated  by  a 
 narrow  channel  from  the  mainland,  and  is  nothing  but  a 
 dirty  negro  vdlage,  with  a few  American  houses  fitted  up 
 for  the  accommodation  of  strangers.  Should  the  inter- 
 oceanic  canal  recently  commenced  under  M.  de  Lesseps’ 
 auspices  be  carried  out,  a great  change  wdl  speeddy  be 
 effected  in  the  condition  of  this  and  neighbouring  places. 
 The  traffic  on  the  line  across  the  isthmus  suffered 
 severely  at  first  from  the  competition  of  the  American 
 Pacific  Eailway  across  the  continent  to  San  Francisco, 
 
320 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 but  it  has  agaiu  revived,  especially  since  the  year  1874, 
 vdien  its  management  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  American 
 Pacific  IMail  Steamship  Company.  This  company  runs 
 powerful  paddle  steamers  between  Xew  York  and  Aspin- 
 wall,  and  on  the  Pacific  side  has  placed  a fieet  of  new 
 iron  screw  steamships,  plying  between  San  Francisco  and 
 Panama. 
 
 Panama  itself  is  an  old  Spanish  town,  \vith  a negro 
 quarter,  and  extensive  ruins  that  have  rapidly  been 
 covered  with  a thick  verdant  clothing  of  creeping  plants. 
 But  it  is  otherwise  a filthy  place,  intolerably  hot,  and 
 swarming  with  a motley  population  of  colomed  races. 
 The  sight  of  the  harbour  and  offing,  with  its  green  rocky 
 islands,  afibrds  half  an  hour’s  enjojunent,  after  which  the 
 traveller  is  only  too  glad  to  continue  his  jomney. 
 
 6.  The  Projected  Scheme  of  Inter-Oceanic  Canalisation. 
 
 The  treaty  concluded  between  Colombia  and  the 
 United  States,  in  1869,  secured  to  the  latter  power  the 
 right  of  determining  on  the  best  route  for  the  projected 
 canal  across  the  isthmus.  This  project  was  long  can- 
 vassed, and,  in  the  above-mentioned  year.  Commander 
 Selfridge  was  commissioned  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
 ment to  make  a survey  of  the  whole  ground.  We  have 
 already  given,  under  the  head  of  Central  America,  some 
 account  of  these  American  sim^eys ; in  continuation  we 
 may  here  record  that  Selfridge  began  at  once  with  the 
 so-called  Darien  line,  between  Caledonia  Bay  on  the 
 Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  San  l\liguel  on  the  Pacific. 
 This  was  surveyed  early  in  1870,  together  with  the  klorti 
 and  the  San  Bias  routes.  In  1871  further  surveys  were 
 made  of  the  Atrato,  Cacarica,  the  Napipi  and  the  TujTa 
 routes.  In  1873  the  Uapipi  and  Doguado  line  was 
 carefully  examined, — the  line  which  Commander  Selfridge 
 
SAVANILLA. 
 
 321 
 
 seemed  to  find  more  advantageous  than  any  other.  By 
 the  treaty  made  with  the  United  States,  the  Colombian 
 Government  agreed  to  cede  six  miles  of  laud  on  each 
 side  of  the  canal,  reserving  for  themselves  10  per  cent  of 
 the  net  income  of  the  completed  work  for  the  first  ten 
 years,  and,  after  the  canal  was  paid  for,  25  per  cent  of 
 the  net  profits.  Further  clauses  stipulated  that  the  canal 
 shoidd  be  commenced  within  five  years,  and  finished 
 within  fifteen  years  after  the  ratification  of  the  treaty, 
 otherwise  the  charter  ■would  lapse.  The  charter  was  to 
 have  been  valid  for  one  hundred  years,  and  the  canal  to 
 be  under  the  control  of  the  United  States,  with  the  pro- 
 vision that  the  navigation  should  be  open  to  all  nations 
 in  time  of  peace,  but  closed  to  belligerents.  Since  the 
 surveys  were  made,  the  Washington  authorities,  as  we 
 have  already  stated,  decided  in  favour  of  the  Nicaragua 
 line  ; but  the  Panama  route  has  been  more  recently  taken 
 up  with  energy,  by  a company  having  its  seat  in  Paris,  and 
 the  works  are  already  commenced. 
 
 7.  Savanilla. 
 
 Colombia  possesses  on  the  Pacific  no  important  seaport 
 besides  Panama,  nor  on  the  Atlantic  any  really  available 
 shipping-place  except  Savanilla,  at  the  mouth  of  the  IVIag- 
 dalena.  For  Aspinwall,  no  less  than  Panama  itself,  is 
 merely  a port  of  transit  trade,  and  with  so  little  local 
 industry  or  population,  that  primeval  "woodlands  are  seen 
 in  the  background. 
 
 Savanilla,  or  rather  its  bay,  for  the  place  itself  is 
 nothing  but  a fishing  village,  inaccessible  to  large  vessels, 
 may  be  said  to  have  been  made  a seaport  by  the  Ger- 
 mans. In  1871  a Bremen  company  laid  down  a road  16 
 miles  long,  from  the  harbour  to  the  old  Spanish  town  of 
 Baranquilla,  besides  providing  lighters  and  steam  tugs  for 
 the  convenience  of  the  larger  steamers.  Several  river  steani- 
 
 Y 
 
322  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 ship  companies,  one  of  them  German,  with  ten  or  twelve 
 boats  from  50  to  200  tons  burden,  serve  to  convey  goods 
 
 COLOMBIAN  DWELLING. 
 
 inland  along  the  course  of  the  IMagdalena.  Tins  flourish- 
 ing place  has  superseded,  in  commercial  importance,  the 
 old  towns  of  Santa  Marta  and  Cartagena  (the  former  east 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 323 
 
 and  the  latter  west  of  the  j\Iagdalena),  which  figure  so  pro- 
 ininently  in  Spanish  American  history  of  former  times. 
 
 8.  The  Magdalena  Water  Highway. 
 
 This  river,  flowing  .between  the  central  and  eastern 
 branches  of  the  Andes,  and  traversing  the  whole  land  from 
 south  to  north,  is  the  great  highway  of  the  country,  form- 
 ing the  sole  outlet  for  the  trade  of  five  of  the  inland 
 States,  as  well  as  for  a large  portion  of  that  of  the  two 
 States  lying  on  either  side  of  its  lower  course  along  the 
 Atlantic  seaboard.  The  Colombian  Government  has  pro- 
 jected a railway  from  Bogota  to  Honda,  the  extreme  point 
 to  wliich  the  Magdalena  is  na\'igable  for  steamers.  It  is 
 also  proposed  to  deepen  the  bar  at  its  mouth,  thus  enabling 
 deep-sea  vessels  to  reach  Baranquilla,  which  is  now  being 
 brought  into  immediate  connection  with  tlie  river  by  means 
 of  a short  canal. 
 
 Baranquilla,  at  present  the  third  city  of  the  Union  in 
 size,  has  a population  of  11,000,  possesses  an  excellent 
 wharf,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  import  and  export  trade  of 
 aU  the  Federate  States. 
 
 9.  Population — Cultivation. 
 
 According  to  the  census  taken  in  1871,  the  popula- 
 tion of  the  Union  amounts  to  2,913,343  souls,  distributed 
 as  under  : — 435,000  in  the  lovely  and  fertile  valley  of  the 
 Cauca ; 1,300,000  along  the  level  lands  and  the  slopes  of  the 
 eastern  Cordilleras,  including  the  States  of  Cundinamarca, 
 Bojaca,  and  Santander,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Magda- 
 lena; 366,000  in  the  mining  State  of  Antioquia,  belong- 
 ing to  the  labyrinth  of  lulls  in  the  Central  Cordfllera,  and 
 situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  oj^posite  Santander  ; 
 327,000  in  the  hot  low-lying  region  bordering  on  the 
 Atlantic;  206,000  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama;  200,000 
 
324  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 in  the  central  valley  of  the  Upper  ^lagdalena,  vdiere  the 
 river  is  stUl  navigable  from  Honda  upwards.  Here  all 
 the  land  is  flat  and  level  with  the  stream,  forming  the 
 important  State  of  Tolima,  wlrich,  till  within  a few  years, 
 supplied  the  greater  part  of  the  export  agricultural 
 produce  of  the  Union.  But  since  then  the  cultiva- 
 tion of  the  two  Atlantic  States,  so  conveniently  situated 
 for  foreign  trade,  and  with  a soil  as  rich  as  that  of  Cuba, 
 but  with  the  further  advantage  of  being  intersected  by 
 several  natural  na'sdgable  chaimels,  has  begun  to  be  largely 
 developed,  their  products  now  forming  two-thirds  of  the 
 whole  export  trade  in  the  agi’icultiu’al  produce  of  the 
 Union. 
 
 10.  Primitive  Means  of  Transit. 
 
 But  the  progress  of  the  interior  is  stfll  greatly  retarded 
 by  the  want  of  proper  highways.  The  principal  towns  of 
 tlie  States  situated  between  the  branches  of  the  Andes  are 
 at  an  aA^erage  distance  of  from  60  to  90  miles  from 
 the  ]\Iagdalena.  Bogota,  the  capital,  itself,  is  situated  at 
 an  altitude  of  8600  feet,  on  a plateau,  65  miles  from  its 
 port,  Honda,  on  that  rAer.  Here  goods  are  forwarded 
 over  rugged  mountain  pathways,  in  loads  of  2 5 0 lbs.,  dis- 
 posed in  two  bales  of  125  lbs.  each,  each  load  costing  for 
 carriage  from  24  to  36  shillings.  Packages  exceeding 
 these  weights  are  obliged  to  be  conveyed  farther  on  the 
 backs  of  carriers.  Those  who  are  thus  employed  to  do  the 
 work  of  beasts  of  burden  are  mostly  women,  so  that  this 
 traffic  has  a tendency  to  lower  and  debase  a portion  of 
 the  population.  Besides  which  the  lighter  articles  only 
 can  be  thus  conA^eyed,  while  heavy  objects  of  machinery  and 
 the  like  are  unable  to  be  forwarded  across  country  to  the 
 A'ery  places  where  they  are  often  most  needed.  In  general, 
 agricultural  machines,  fire-engines,  coaches,  and  waggons, 
 and  eA^erything  weighing  more  than  half  a ton,  are  ex- 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 325 
 
 eluded  from  the  remote  provinces  for  want  of  proper  means 
 of  transport. 
 
 11.  Railway  and  Tcleyrajphic  Systems — Pullic  Instribction. 
 
 In  1864  the  Government  began  the  construction  of 
 a telegraphic  system,  and  there  have  already  been  com- 
 pleted nearly  1000  miles,  connecting  the  capital  with 
 the  more  important  cities  in  the  north  of  the  Union,  in- 
 cluding the  port  of  Buenaventura  on  the  Pacific.  Here 
 the  system  will  be  ultimately  connected  with  the  sub- 
 marine cable  that  runs  along  the  coast  of  Child  and  Peru, 
 and  is  intended  ultimately  to  form  a junction  with  the 
 European  and  Atlantic  cables  at  Panama. 
 
 The  Central  Government  has  also  been  much  occupied 
 with  the  educational  question.  The  new  organisation  of 
 national  schools,  modelled  on  the  German  method,  took 
 effect  in  the  year  1870,  and  there  are  already  as  many  as 
 1800  schools  in  the  Union,  giving  instruction  to  52,000 
 boys  and  23,000  girls. 
 
 The  system  introduced  in  that  year  provides  also  for 
 an  Eseuda  Normal,  that  is,  a college  for  the  instruction  of 
 teachers,  in  the  capital  of  each  State.  Those  who  are  here 
 specially  trained  for  the  work  receive  appointments  in  the 
 national  schools,  where  they  impart  instruction  in  reading, 
 writing,  arithmetic,  the  elements  of  Spanish  composition 
 and  recitation,  the  first  principles  of  medicine,  and  a 
 general  knowledge  of  the  physical  features  and  liistory  of 
 the  country ; or  they  are  passed  on  to  the  more  advanced 
 middle  schools,  where  the  instruction  is  of  a much  higher 
 order,  including  such  subjects  as  algebra  and  practical 
 geometry,  physics,  chemistry,  mechanics,  geometry,  etc. 
 
 There  are  also  special  girls’  schools,  where  the  subjects 
 of  formal  instruction  are  somewhat  curtailed,  being  wisely 
 replaced  by  needlework  and  the  principles  of  household 
 economy  generally. 
 
326 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAJHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 12.  Credit — Bevenue — Foreign  Trade. 
 
 A system,  intended  to  place  the  commercial  and  public 
 credit  of  the  country  on  a sound  foundation,  has  been 
 introduced,  and  has  already  been  largely  developed.  A 
 Bill  and  Discoimt  Company,  commanding  general  confi- 
 dence, vas  established  in  the  capital  in  the  year  1871. 
 
 The  national  revenues  at  the  close  of  the  financial 
 year  1879-80  amounted  to  £982,000,  the  expenditure 
 being  £1,253,386,  and  the  public  debt,  owing  to  foreign- 
 ers, nearly  four  millions,  three-fourths  of  which  is  due  to 
 British  creditors,  who  hold  as  security  on  mortgage  the 
 chief  source  of  revenue  to  the  republic,  namely  that 
 derived  from  the  Customs. 
 
 In  1873  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country  was  valued 
 at  £5,290,000,  and  was  conducted  by  729  sailing-vessels 
 of  46,697  tons  burden,  and  281  steamers  of  341,459 
 tons,  exclusive  of  the  through  traffic  across  the  Isthmus  of 
 Panama,  which  is  free  of  dues.  The  principal  articles  of 
 export  were : — Coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  indiarubber,  hides, 
 gold  and  silver,  Peruvian  bark,  straw  hats,  and  tobacco. 
 
 13.  Civil  Dissensions — Constitution — Religion,  etc. 
 
 But  even  in  Colombia  the  blessings  of  political  order 
 and  peace  seem  stiU.  to  be  little  appreciated.  Several 
 insirrrections  in  the  provinces  have  broken  out  and  been 
 quickly  put  do-wn  during  the  last  few  years,  while  three 
 presidents  have  been  legally  deposed  in  rapid  succession. 
 The  civil  war  that  raged  from  1860  to  1862  ended  in 
 the  reorganisation  of  the  coimtry  and  the  proclamation  of 
 the  constitution  of  1863,  under  which  the  administration 
 is  now  conducted. 
 
 This  constitution  introduced  the  federal  system  analo- 
 gous to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  conferring  on  the 
 
CONSTITUTIOX. 
 
 327 
 
 nine  States  of  the  Union  separate  administrative  powers 
 for  the  internal  government  of  each. 
 
 All  foreigners  enjoy  equal  rights  with  the  natives. 
 There  is  no  state  religion,  natives  and  foreigners  alike 
 being  guaranteed  the  most  complete  freedom  of  conscience 
 and  worship,  and  in  Bogota  and  other  towns  Protestant 
 churches  have  been  opened.  Nearly  all  the  States  have 
 adopted  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  cases,  and  imprisonment 
 for  debt  is  unknown. 
 
 The  practice  of  all  trades  and  professions,  including 
 those  of  the  law,  medicine,  and  the  apothecary,  is  abso- 
 lutely unrestricted,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  be  pos- 
 sessed of  any  diplomas.  The  only  monopoly  in  the 
 country  is  that  of  salt,  which  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
 Central  Government,  and  of  that  of  the  rum  distilleries, 
 in  some  States  administered  for  the  l^enefit  of  their  ovm 
 municipal  revenues.  The  trade  in  arms  and  ammunition 
 is  entii’ely  free. 
 
328 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  XIY. 
 
 THE  REPUBLIC  OF  ECUADOR. 
 
 1.  Extent  and  Population. 
 
 The  southern  neighbour  of  Colombia  is  the  Eepuhlic 
 of  Ecuador,  the  smallest  of  all  the  free  States  in  the  north 
 of  South  America.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  equator, 
 by  which  its  northern  parts  are  intersected.  The  three 
 departments,  subdivided  into  ten  provinces,  have  a total 
 area  of  some  218,984  square  miles,  with  a population  of 
 about  1,000,000,  including,  however,  many  still  savage 
 and  heathen  Indian  tribes  in  the  great  forests  east  of  the 
 Andes. 
 
 Little  need  here  be  added  to  the  account,  given  in  a 
 previous  chapter,  of  the  configuration  of  the  elevated  region 
 Avhere  is  situated  the  famous  table-land  of  Quito.  A 
 rapid  survey  of  the  State  wiE  give  us  an  opportunity  of 
 describing  its  principal  features.  But  before  doing  so  we 
 shall  devote  a few  words  to  the  group  of 
 
 2.  The  Galaparjo^i  Islands, 
 
 in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  belong  politically  to  the 
 Eepuhlic  of  Ecuador.  This  archipelago  is  crossed  by  the 
 line  of  the  equator,  and  consists  of  nine  or  ten  islands 
 of  various  sizes,  all  of  volcanic  origin,  their  surface  pre- 
 senting the  appearance  of  a dreary  arid  waste.  A couple 
 of  high,  cone-shaped  hills,  no  doubt  covered  with  giuss, 
 
THE  GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS. 
 
 329 
 
 but  also  completely  enveloped  in  mist ; near  and  between 
 them  crater-like  elevations  of  naked  rock ; the  greater 
 part  of  the  island  overgrown  with  stunted  trees,  or  rather 
 bushes  of  a brownish  hue,  amongst  them  being  conspi- 
 cuous the  dismal-looking  giant  cactus  {Cactus  Peruviana) 
 — such  is  the  picture  we  have  in  approaching  the  island 
 of  Charles  I.,  or  Floreana.  The  others  worth  naming  are 
 Chatham,  Albemarle  (the  largest  of  the  group),  Xar- 
 borough.  Indefatigable,  James,  and  Hood  Island. 
 
 At  present  entirely  uninhabited,  they  still  bear  traces 
 of  their  former  occupation  by  buccaneers,  whalers,  and  the 
 subsequent  colonists  from  Ecuador ; the  islands  at  the 
 time  of  their  discovery  being  unpeopled  by  man.  In  the 
 woods  we  meet  with  the  cotton  plant,  in  the  plains 
 tobacco,  planted  by  the  former  settlers,  all  now  growing 
 wild,  besides  some  magnificent  fig-trees,  oranges,  Periudan 
 plums,  cherimoyas,  and  Avocado  pears.  There  are  also 
 herds  of  wild  cattle,  horses,  and  asses,  ugly  gaunt  bony 
 swine,  wild  dogs  and  cats,  and  in  the  more  inaccessible 
 parts  a few  goats. 
 
 But  the  most  interesting  feature  in  this  lonely  group 
 of  islands  is  that  furnished  by  the  sing-ularity  of  then.' 
 indigenous  animals.  They  were  found,  when  their  pro- 
 ductions came  to  be  examined  by  a skilled  naturalist  like 
 Darwin,  who  visited  the  Galapagos  during  the  voyage  of 
 the  Beagle,  to  be  tolerably  well  peopled  by  many  species 
 of  reptiles  and  birds  which  were  nearly  all  unknown  to 
 every  other  part  of  the  world.  Of  the  twenty-five  kinds 
 of  land-birds  obtained  by  him  (a  number  which  has  been 
 increased  by  subsequent  discoveries),  aU,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  one,  proved  to  be  peculiar  to  the  archipelago, 
 ilauy  of  them  were  finches  with  remarkably  broad  beaks. 
 Besides  these,  a remarkable  kind  of  tiutle,  a gigantic 
 tortoise,  two  extraordinary  species  of  bzards,  besides  other 
 kinds,  and  snakes,  were  found,  all  equally  peculiar.  The 
 
330 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 nearest  allied  forms  to  tliese  isolated  species,  as  might 
 a priori  have  been  expected,  are  found  in  South  America, 
 from  M-hich  the  nearest  islands  are  separated  by  a dis- 
 tance of  only  140  miles.  A fact  M-hich  added  to  the 
 interest  M"ith  M-hich  these  strange  creatures  were  regarded 
 by  savans  was  the  restriction  of  some  of  the  species  to 
 certain  islands  of  the  group ; the  finches  on  one  island 
 being  represented  by  species,  allied  to  them  but  quite 
 distinct,  on  another  island.  In  endeavoming  to  find  a 
 clue  to  the  explanation  of  these  peculiar  phenomena  of 
 geographical  distribution,  the  great  importance  of  the  fact 
 that  the  islands  containing  these  separate  forms  were 
 separated  from  each  other  by  deep-sea  channels,  scoured 
 by  strong  currents,  had  to  l>e  taken  into  consideration. 
 The  islands  being  volcanic,  and  rising  from  a deep  sea, 
 must  have  been  separately  elevated  by  subterranean  forces 
 above  the  surface,  and  can  never  have  since  been  closely 
 connected  with  the  adjoining  continent,  or  with  each 
 other.  They  have  been  peopled  by  their  present  stock  of 
 animal  species  at  a very  remote  period, — sufliciently  remote 
 to  have  allowed  time  for  much  variation  in  the  characters 
 of  the  species.  Thus  an  isolated  deA^elopment  has  been 
 brought  about,  and  the  strength  and  direction  of  ocean 
 currents  and  winds — north  and  south — have  prevented 
 all  that  inter-migTation,  which  in  other  cases  has  effected 
 an  assimilation  of  productions  between  neighbouring  lands. 
 
 3.  Seaports — GuayaqyAl. 
 
 The  most  important  ports  of  Ecuador  on  the  Pacific 
 coast  are  Esmeraldas  and  Guayaquil.  ^Mien  Pizarro  and 
 his  companions  landed  at  the  latter  place  he  found  that 
 the  natives  had  no  boats,  but  crossed  the  rivers  and  inlets 
 of  the  sea  with  rafts,  on  which,  however,  they  hoisted 
 sails.  This  rude  means  of  transport  is  composed  of  very 
 
GUAYAQUIL. 
 
 331 
 
 light  stems  of  trees,  and  has  continued  to  this  day  to  he 
 used  in  sailing  along  the  coast.  These  balsas  or  rafts 
 provide  the  market  of  Guayaquil  with  tropical  fruits, 
 amongst  which  the  pine-apple  is  especially  esteemed. 
 Guayaquil  lies  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Guayas,  whose 
 lowlands  are  surpassed  by  few  tropical  countries  for  their 
 rich  and  exuberant  vegetable  growth.  The  cacao  of  this 
 district  is  second  in  quality  only  to  that  of  Caraccas. 
 
 Guayaquil,  a town  with  a population  of  13,000,  is 
 built  entirely  of  bamboo  cane,  a style  of  building  that 
 prevails  everywhere  along  this  strip  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
 owing  to  the  absence  of  suitable  clay  and  water  for  pre- 
 paring air-dried  bricks.  But  with  this  modest  architec- 
 ture the  natives  make  themselves  very  comfortable,  and  are 
 safer  than  in  stronger  houses,  for  here  earthquakes  are  of 
 frequent  occurrence,  and  do  little  or  no  damage  to  such 
 structures.  On  the  occasion  of  a severe  shock  that  took 
 place  on  December  6,  1856,  Schmarda  was  unable  to 
 detect  a single  fissure  in  the  reed  walls  of  his  house, 
 lashed  together  with  thongs  of  cowhide. 
 
 In  Europe  the  natives  of  Guayaquil  have  been  praised 
 for  their  fresh  complexion,  and  they  deserve  their  reputa- 
 tion, considering  their  equatorial  position.  But  the  fair 
 hair  and  blue  eyes  that  travellers  have  spoken  of  will 
 be  sought  for  in  vain.  The  number  of  the  women  exceeds 
 that  of  the  men,  but  only  in  consequence  of  the  latter 
 suffering  more  severely  on  the  occasion  of  epidemics. 
 Although  arriving  very  early  at  maturity,  the  women  are 
 said  here  also  to  retain  their  freshness  and  vigour  much 
 longer  than  is  usual  in  tropical  climates,  though  some 
 have  imgallantly  attributed  this  to  their  tendency  to  cor- 
 pulence and  free  use  of  cosmetics. 
 
 The  streets  are  paved,  and  even  lit  up  at  night.  In 
 the  midst  of  European  ways  and  comforts,  the  Asiatic  style 
 of  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  becomes  doubly  striking  ; 
 
332 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 for  even  the  churches  themselves  are  made  of  nothing  hut 
 bamhoo  and  mud,  vliile  their  low  towers  are  provided 
 with  a series  of  terrace-like  galleries,  one  above  the  other, 
 which  give  them  somewhat  the  appearance  of  pagodas. 
 
 4.  Scenery  and  Vegetation  of  the  Interior — 
 Peruvian  Bark. 
 
 From  Guayaquil  steamers  ply  for  70  miles  up  the 
 Guayas  as  far  as  Bodegas  (2000  inhabitants),  whence  the 
 journey  to  Quito  must  be  continued  on  horseback.  The 
 whole  distance  of  160  miles  takes  eight  or  nine  days ; 
 but  the  way  leads  by  the  slopes  of  Chimborazo,  through 
 subhme  mountain  scenery  and  dehghtful  valleys,  amongst 
 which  that  of  Chimho  is  especially  celebrated.  At  this 
 eleA'ation  the  cultivation  of  wheat  supplants  that  of  the 
 sugar-cane,  while  cacao  and  orange  groves  have  given 
 place,  the  one  to  barley,  the  other  to  clover-fields, 
 lucerne,  Indian  corn,  and  beans.  The  neatly  white- 
 washed houses  of  the  village  of  Chimho  look  bright 
 enough  amidst  their  green  surroundings  when  seen  from 
 a distance  ; but  on  a closer  inspection  they  are  found  to 
 be  dismal  dens,  where  neither  a glass  of  milk  nor  a morsel 
 of  bread  is  to  be  had. 
 
 The  same  is  the  case  with  Guaranda,  with  a population 
 of  2000,  and  situated  at  an  elevation  of  8840  feet 
 above  the  sea-level.  This  is  the  centre  of  the  Peruvian 
 bark  trade,  which,  however,  will  here  soon  be  a thing  of 
 the  past,  as  the  trees  are  being  rapidly  destroyed  by  the 
 wasteful  way  adopted  of  obtaining  the  bark. 
 
 The  bark  of  the  much-prized  Cinehona  cedisaya  is  now 
 no  longer  to  be  had,  that  of  the  Cinchona  succinibra  alone 
 being  at  present  procurable.  This  is  a majestic  tree, 
 gTowing  at  times,  though  rarely,  to  a height  of  GO  feet, 
 clothed  with  broadly  oval,  bright,  dark-green  leaves,  and 
 
CUEXCA. 
 
 333 
 
 bearing  a white  blossom  emitting  an  aromatic  fragrance. 
 A trunk  of  o feet  in  circumference  yields  while  fresh 
 1500  lbs.  of  red  bark,  which,  however,  when  dried,  is 
 reduced  in  weight  to  800  lbs.  Most  of  the  quinine  is 
 contained  in  the  roots,  though  the  branches  are  usually 
 barked  for  commerce ; the  general  yield  being  from  3 
 to  5 lbs.  of  the  alkaloid  to  the  quintal. 
 
 5.  Cuenca  and  its  InhaMtants. 
 
 A sort  of  contrast  to  the  seaport  of  Guayaquil  is 
 presented  by  Cuenca,  capital  of  the  southernmost  pro- 
 vince of  Ecuador,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  8469  feet 
 above  the  sea.  In  Guayaquil  the  uniform  high  temper- 
 atm’e  of  equatorial  latitudes  prevails,  the  mean  of  the 
 thermometer  during  the  year  being  about  82°.  In  Cuenca 
 the  climate  is  one  of  perpetual  spring,  the  mean  of  the 
 year  being  58°. 
 
 Here  the  houses  are  built  of  air-dried  bricks,  and  ha^•e 
 wliitewashed  walls,  but  as  a rule  they  are  unprovided 
 with  flues  and  chimneys.  These  are  replaced  by  the 
 Cuslihutkus,  an  Indian  term  fully  descriptive  of  the  thing 
 itself,  cusli  meaning  smoke,  and  hutku,  opening  or  aperture. 
 The  pretensions  to  domestic  comfort  are  otherwise  ex- 
 tremely modest,  beds,  or  rather  a bed,  being  found  only 
 amongst  the  wealthy  classes,  all  others  sleeping  on  the 
 ground,  wrapped  in  their  ponchos,  and  with  a saddle  for  a 
 pillow. 
 
 The  city  boasts,  like  most  other  towns  of  Spanisli 
 America,  of  an  Alameda,  or  public  promenade.  It  ex- 
 tends along  the  river  Pamte,  but  is,  however,  destitute  both 
 of  trees  and  shade.  Two  stone  bridges  lead  over  the 
 river  to  the  Ejido,  or  Indian  quarter,  which,  if  included, 
 raises  the  population  of  Cuenca  to  20,000.  Of  these  the 
 majority  are  Mestizoes,  with  more  or  less  mongrel  blood,  for 
 
334 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRA^CEL. 
 
 tlie  pure  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  are  now  rarely  to 
 be  met  Muth,  forming,  in  fact,  a species  of  aristocracy, 
 and  the  M’omen  especially  being  distinguished  by  their 
 handsome  appearance  and  fresh  complexion. 
 
 Cuenca  lives  pretty  much  all  to  itself,  its  citizens 
 seldom  straying  away  as  far  as  Quito  or  Guayaquil.  But 
 when  any  one  gets  as  far  as  Europe,  or  sends  a son 
 tliither  to  he  educated,  he  becomes  an  object  of  emy  or 
 respect,  as  the  case  may  he,  even  in  the  fashionable  circles, 
 lluring  the  fasting  periods  of  Advent,  Lent,  and  so  on, 
 there  is  held  a regular  round  of  edifying  discourses,  medi- 
 tations, prayers,  fasts,  and  sanguinary  flagellations.  But 
 ill  spite  of  these  ascetic  practices,  pubhc  morals  are  at  a 
 very  low  ebb.  The  women  are  universal  smokers  of 
 papch,  or  cigarettes,  and  wlien  on  their  travels  wear  silk 
 masks  to  preserve  their  complexion.  As  everybody  must 
 ride  in  Ecuador,  all  the  women  learn  the  art,  and  sit 
 lightly  and  gracefully  on  horseback. 
 
 0.  Quito — Manners  of  the  People — Industries. 
 
 Quito,  capital  of  the  republic,  lies  at  the  great  eleva- 
 tion of  9348  feet  above  the  sea-level;  its  tempera- 
 ture is  consequently  so  low,  55°  being  the  mean  of  the 
 year,  that  when  people  visit  their  friends  of  an  evening 
 they  do  not  lay  aside  their  cloaks  in  the  reception-rooms. 
 The  air  is  of  transparent  clearness,  and  the  sky  of  a dark 
 indigo  colour.  The  climate  of  the  elevated  plateau  or 
 valley,  at  the  northern  end  of  which  it  is  situated,  lying 
 between  the  main  ranges  of  the  Cordilleras,  is  unfavour- 
 able to  cultivation,  and  the  neighbourhood  produces  little 
 besides  maize  and  a few  garden  vegetables.  The  valley 
 of  Quito  is  as  destitute  of  trees  as  Palestine ; yet  Quito 
 is  to  be  envied  for  its  fruit  market.  As  several  routes 
 lead  from  this  table-land  down  to  the  tropical  zone,  here 
 
QUITO. 
 
 335 
 
 are  to  be  found  not  only 
 the  most  juicy  strawber- 
 ries and  blackberries,  but 
 also  oranges,  peaches, 
 cherries,  bananas,  pine- 
 apples, cherimoyas,  and 
 other  delicious  fruits  of 
 the  tropics.  To  all  this 
 the  snowy  dome  of  Mount 
 Pichincha,  close  at  hand, 
 adds  the  material  where- 
 with to  prepare  the 
 choicest  ices. 
 
 Quito  is  laid  out  in 
 the  form  of  a perfect 
 square,  and  may  feel 
 prouder  of  its  churches, 
 built  in  the  Eeuaissance 
 style,  than  of  its  ill- 
 paved  streets.  One-fourth 
 of  the  city  is  covered 
 by  convents  and  churches. 
 Of  convents  alone  there 
 are  fifty-seven.  Apart- 
 ments furnished  after 
 the  European  manner  are 
 common  enough  in  the 
 dv/ellings  of  the  l)etter 
 classes,  but  an  exceed- 
 ingly uncomfortable  im- 
 pression is  produced  by 
 the  absence  of  window 
 sashes,  as  well  as  by  the 
 tumble-down  state  of 
 most  of  the  houses. 
 
 QUITO. 
 
336 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Tlie  population  amounts  to  80,000,  consisting  first  of 
 all  of  the  so-called  white  Creoles,  of  whom,  however,  not 
 more  than  half-a-dozen  are  of  pure  Spanish  blood ; then 
 of  about  10,000  uumixed  native  Indians,  nearly  all  the 
 rest  being  Mestizoes  or  Cholos.  The  most  enterprising 
 section  of  the  white  commimity  are  the  Colombians,  the 
 “ Quitenos  ” themselves  being  deficient  in  energy.  The 
 mechanical  trades  are  in  the  hands  of  the  half-caste 
 Indians,  a most  unreliable  class.  The  fair  sex  is  here 
 also  in  excess  of  the  male,  but  nowhere  else  are  so  few 
 repulsive  featimes  to  be  seen.  On  the  other  hand,  how-' 
 ever,  striking  beauties  are  somewhat  rare,  and  the  ladies 
 of  Quito  may  on  the  whole  be  rather  described  as  pleasing 
 than  handsome.  Grace,  dignity,  complete  self-possession, 
 an  unaffected  noble  carriage,  and  considerable  conversa- 
 tional powers,  would  enable  them  to  shine  in  any  society, 
 but  for  their  utter  want  of  education  and  instruction. 
 Travellers  have  remarked  that,  to  judge  from  the  sorue- 
 what  lax  tone  of  their  conversation,  a greater  license  of 
 manners  might  be  supposed  to  prevail  than  would  seem 
 to  be  really  the  case.  In  public  the  women  wrap  their 
 mantillas  or  shawls  round  their  head  and  shoidders,  in 
 such  a way  as  to  leave  nothing  of  the  featm’es  exposed 
 except  one  eye.  The  shawl  is  kept  on  even  in  the  houses, 
 not  so  much  for  the  sake  of  the  warmth  as  to  conceal 
 the  slatternly  state  of  their  toilet.  Gloves  are  never 
 worn,  and  stockings  are  unknown,  shoes  being  slipped  on 
 the  bare  feet. 
 
 Foremost  amongst  the  industries  of  the  place  is  the 
 mechanical  fabrication  of  oil-paintings,  mostly  religious  sub- 
 jects, which  are  paid  for  at  so  much  the  square  foot  of  can- 
 vas. Another  very  important  article,  prepared  mostly  for  the 
 benefit  of  strangers,  are  the  dried  skins  of  birds,  especially 
 those  of  humming-birds,  brought  in  from  all  parts,  but 
 chiefly  by  the  Indians  from  the  river  Xapo,  east  of  tlie 
 
HUMMING-BIRDS. 
 
 337 
 
 Andes.  These  lovely  Kttle  creatures  are  shot  down  with 
 
 MARKET  SCENE  IN  QUITO. 
 
 blow-pipes,  and  their  skins  prepared  with  arsenical  soap, 
 tliough  the  natives  along  the  Amazons  use  pepper  for  this 
 
 z 
 
338  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 purpose.  The  Indians  also  bring  to  Quito  the  well- 
 known  vegetable  ivory  nuts,  out  of  which  the  local 
 artists  carve  somewhat  rude  little  figures,  which  are 
 painted  and  sold  to  the  country  people. 
 
 7.  The  Animal  Kingdom — Caymans — The  Peccary. 
 
 In  the  slime  and  ooze  of  the  rivers  along  the  coast  of 
 Ecuador  caymans  are  met  with  in  vast  numbers,  and 
 these  daring  reptiles  approach  the  neighborhood  of  human 
 abodes,  whence  they  carry  off  men  and  beasts.  Ecuador, 
 however,  otherwise  presents  but  slight  attractions  for  the 
 sportsman.  Amongst  the  native  game  are  pachydermatous 
 animals  of  the  peccary  order,  including  the  Taja^u  (tai-assu), 
 a kind  of  hog  peculiar  to  the  forests  of  tropical  America, 
 of  which  several  species  are  found  in  the  low-lying  regions 
 east  of  the  Andes. 
 
 Of  the  peccary  there  are  two  species  in  Ecuador,  the 
 Seinos  or  Seynos  and  the  Tatabra.  Of  these  the  se5mos  is 
 the  larger,  though  not  equal  to  the  European  hog  in  size. 
 Xotwithstanding  the  excellent  pasture  afforded  them  by 
 the  abimdance  of  nuts  of  various  kinds  in  the  woods,  they 
 never  grow  really  fat.  On  their  back,  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  the  kidneys,  they  have  a round  sac  about  the 
 size  of  half  an  orange,  with  a little  opening  above,  which, 
 with  a sort  of  coarse  irony,  is  by  the  natives  called  their 
 musk-bag,  but  which  really  secretes  a most  powerful,  fetid 
 humour.  The  stench  is  so  strong  that  even  man,  with  a 
 fair  wind,  can  scent  this  game  from  a long  way  off.  It  is 
 much  less  perceptible  when  the  animal  is  undisturbed,  but 
 in  his  flight  he  is  able  by  its  means  to  envelop  himseK  in 
 a most  pestilential  odour.  Fortunately,  however,  the  sac 
 lies  in  the  skin,  whence  it  can  be  easily  extracted,  and  this 
 must  be  done  as  soon  as  the  peccary  is  knocked  over,  else 
 the  flesh  becomes  tainted  and  disagreeable  to  the  palate 
 
CACAO. 
 
 339 
 
 The  boar  is  provided  with  a strong  and  sharp  tusk,  and 
 the  little  “ porkers  ” are  of  a ruddy  brown  colour,  and  do 
 not  squeak  like  their  European  cousins,  but  utter  a cr}' 
 exactly  like  that  of  little  children. 
 
 8.  Flcrra — Cacao  or  Chocolate  Plant. 
 
 The  noblest  product  of  Ecuador  is  its  cacao,  the  value 
 of  which  has  risen  considerably,  even  with  a rapid  increase 
 in  the  quantities  exported.  The  tree  itself  belongs  exclu- 
 sively to  the  tropical  zone,  growing  more  particularly  in 
 the  lowlands.  There  is  needed  a hot  moist  sod.  and  shade 
 for  the  young  cacao  tree  {Theohroma  cacao),  in  order  to 
 flourish  vigorously.  Hence  the  low-lying  districts  of 
 Ecuador  are  admirably  suited  for  its  cultivation,  which 
 has  become  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  inhabitants. 
 Here  the  white  or  best  species  is  still  met  with  in  its  wdd 
 state,  and  is  peculiar  to  these  regions. 
 
 9.  Begion  of  the  Napo  Biver. 
 
 The  least  known  and  least  frequented  district  of 
 Ecuador  is  the  territory  called  “ del  Oriente,”  on  the  eastern 
 side  of  the  Cordilleras.  This  region,  lying  between  Quito 
 and  the  Amazons,  is  watered  by  the  great  rivers  Napo, 
 Pastaza,  and  Morona,  and  their  numerous  tributaries,  which 
 flow  through  a forest  of  remarkable  luxuriance  and  impene- 
 trability, inhabited  by  various  tribes  of  Indians.  This 
 woodland  region  is  a continuation  of  that  farther  south, 
 and  known  in  Peru  as  la  Montana.  The  Ecuador  Mon- 
 tana is,  however,  more  abundantly  watered,  for  the  climate 
 is  one  of  excessive  humidity  and  continuous  rainfall,  and 
 the  few  pathways  are  often  impassable  for  mud  and  swamp. 
 The  trees  are  somewhat  higher  than  on  the  Lower  Amazons, 
 and  rise  perfectly  straight  from  the  prolific  soil.  Their 
 
340 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 shady  branches  are  covered  with  long  hoary  mosses  and 
 countless  parasitic  and  epiphytous  plants  of  the  pine-apple 
 (Bromehaceae  and  Tillandsiae)  and  orchideous  families. 
 
 KAPO.S  INDIAN. 
 
 10.  The  Quijos,  Zaparos,  and  Jivaros  Indio.ns. 
 
 Here  dwell  the  half-christianised  Napos  or  Quijos, 
 and  the  peaceful  Zaparos,  besides  tlie  turbulent  Jivaros 
 Indians. 
 
 The  Xapos  are  governed  by  district  overseers,  who, 
 though  appointed  in  Quito,  are  really  under  the  control  of 
 the  clergy.  The  natives  are  monogamists,  marriages  being 
 contracted  usually  between  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
 year.  Their  principal  food  consists  of  the  root  of  the  yuca. 
 
MEN  AND  WOMEN. 
 
 341 
 
 a kind  of  mandioca  or  cassava,  whicli  is  prepared  in  a 
 variety  of  ways,  being  sometimes  roasted,  sometimes  ground 
 to  meal,  and  at  others  taken  as  chicha,  that  is  as  a 
 fermented  drink  or  beer,  by  simply  chewing  the  root  and 
 adding  water  to  the  accumulation  of  ejected  saliva.  The 
 different  kinds  of  monkey,  which  abmmd  in  the  forests, 
 the  Manati  or  “ sea  cow,”  and  the  peccary  besides  fish, 
 form  the  chief  animal  food  of  these  people.  The  dress  of 
 the  men  consists  of  a loin  cloth,  while  the  women  wear 
 a short  frock  or  petticoat,  supplemented  on  gala  days 
 by  trousers  and  ponchos.  The  brunt  of  the  day’s  work  is 
 borne  by  the  women,  the  men  amusing  themselves  with  a 
 little  himting,  and  a very  long  rest  in  their  hammocks 
 after  the  fatigues  of  the  chase.  But  when  the  dames  are 
 tired  of  theh  husbands,  they  generally  give  them  a draught 
 of  floripondio,  a decoction  of  the  Datura  sanguined,  a plant 
 somewhat  resembling  the  stramony,  or  Datura  stramonium, 
 with  which  the  priests  of  Delphi  sought  inspiration  for 
 their  oracular  utterances.  If  this  produces  the  desired 
 effect,  and  her  victim  falls  a prey  to  cretinism,  his  wife 
 proceeds  forthwith  to  contract  a second  matrimonial 
 alliance. 
 
 The  blow-pipe,  elaborately  made  of  two  half-cylinders  of 
 wood  ten  feet  long,  grooved  inside,  and  then  bound  together, 
 is  the  favourite  weapon  both  of  the  Napos  and  the  Zaparos, 
 whose  features,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  the  South 
 American  Indians,  bear  a striking  resemblance  to  the 
 Mongol  type.  The  Jivaros,  on  the  contrary,  probably 
 owing  to  a mixture  of  Spanish  blood,  have  the  so-called 
 Caucasian  expression  of  countenance,  and  have  developed 
 a beard.  This  tribe  also  carries  shields  and  lances,  with 
 three-pointed  poisoned  spears.  On  the  tops  of  the  hiUs 
 they  have  stations,  with  drummers  and  scouts,  whose 
 preconcerted  shrill  signals,  heard  a long  way  off,  soon 
 rally  the  tribe  to  arms.  Amongst  them  is  also  found  the 
 
342 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 strange  practice,  met  with  sporadically  in  every  part  of  the 
 globe,  called  the  Couvade,  which  requires  the  husband, 
 after  child-birth,  to  take  the  place  of  the  wife  on  the  sick 
 couch  (here  the  hammock)  and  allow  himself  to  be  nursed 
 and  fed  with  dainty  morsels.  The  custom  of  exchanging 
 or  bartering  wives  is  here  also  practised. 
 
 11.  Theocratic  Government — Exceptional  Eolations  of 
 Church  and  State. 
 
 The  exceptional  political  condition  of  Ecuador  calls  for 
 more  careful  consideration.  Here  the  rivalry  which  has 
 existed  more  or  less  in  all  the  Spanish  American  Eepub- 
 lics  between  the  Ultramontane  priestly  faction  and  the  party 
 of  modern  progress,  has,  for  a long  period,  been  settled 
 in  favour  of  the  former.  Consequently  the  priesthood 
 have  had  it  all  their  own  way,  and  a strong  theocratic 
 element  has  been  introduced  into  all  departments  of  the 
 State.  How  far  this  has  been  changed  since  the  assassi- 
 nation of  the  clerical  president  Garcia  Moreno,  in  August 
 1875,  we  are  unable  to  say;  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
 that  in  so  brief  an  interval  the  more  enlightened  party  of 
 progress  can  have  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a complete 
 severance  from  the  traditions  of  the  past. 
 
 The  spirit  that  prevailed  in  the  coimcil  chambers  of 
 this  State  is  well  seen  in  the  higldy  instructive  address 
 with  which  President  Garcia  Moreno  opened  Congress  on 
 August  10,  1873.  The  message,  tricked  in  all  the  cant 
 phrases  dear  to  a narrow  sacerdotalism,  informs  the  public 
 that  at  the  foot  of  Chimborazo,  in  theocratic  seclusion 
 from  the  outer  world,  there  exists  a State,  wholly  and 
 alone  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  holy  church,  which, 
 guided  by  the  wise  teachings  of  its  most  trusted  ser- 
 vants, the  followers  of  Loyola,  is  marching  onwards  to 
 happiness  and  prosperity.  In  thankfulness  for  which 
 
LEGISLATION. 
 
 343 
 
 great  blessing,  Congress  is  now  invited  to  revoke  the  last 
 lingering  civil  rights  that  have  struggled  on  from  the 
 wreck  of  the  old  Spanish  constitution,  and  it  is  asked  to 
 hand  over  the  country  to  the  unrestricted  activity  of  the 
 fathers.  “As  we  have,  once  for  all,”  runs  the  message, 
 “ the  happiness  to  be  Catholics,  let  us  be  so  frankly  and 
 consistently,  not  within  the  domestic  hearth  alone,  but  in 
 our  political  life  also ; and  let  us  approve  the  earnestness 
 of  our  feehngs  and  professions  by  the  public  testimony  of 
 our  deeds.  Let  us  expunge  from  our  statute  books  the 
 last  traces  of  unfriendliness  towards  the  church ; for  in 
 them  are  still  to  be  found  some  measures  derived  from 
 the  old  oppressive  privileges  of  the  Spanish  crown,  which 
 further  to  endure  would  be  a shameful  inconsistency,  a 
 deplorable  abnegation  of  our  principles.” 
 
 As  a sample  of  this  kind  of  legislation,  it  may  be 
 mentioned  that  the  army  was  divided  into  four  divisions, 
 bearing  the  blasphemous  titles  of  “ Division  of  the  Son  of 
 God;”  “ Division  of  the  Good  Shepherd;”  “Division  of 
 the  Holy  Lancers  of  Death  ;”  and  “ Soldiers  of  the  Blessed 
 Virgin  ” — all  placed  under  the  sceptre  of  the  “ Sacred 
 Heart  of  Jesus  ” as  the  national  emblem.  Moreno,  how- 
 ever, was  General-in-Chief,  and  to  him,  as  well  as  to  holy 
 church,  every  soldier  was  bound  to  take  the  oath  of 
 allegiance. 
 
 In  the  same  spirit  was  directed  the  poHcy  of  the 
 Board  of  Trade,  one  of  its  measures  strictly  forbidding  the 
 introduction  and  divulgation  of  objects  opposed  to  dogma, 
 morals,  and  religion,  or,  in  other  words,  all  books  and 
 periodicals  unsanctioned  by  the  Jesuits.  The  press  and 
 the  whole  book  trade  were  thus  consigned  bodily  to  their 
 exclusive  control,  and  it  need  scarcely  be  added  that  “ the 
 fathers  ” allowed  just  so  much  of  the  progressive  spirit  of 
 the  age  to  filter  through  to  the  people  as  seemed  good  to 
 them. 
 
344 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 12.  Material  Progress — The  Jesuit  College — Spread  of 
 Education. 
 
 Yet  we  are  assured  by  a modern  observer  that  it 
 would  be  difficult  in  this  tropical  land  to  perceive  any- 
 thing of  the  CAul  results  vdiich  have  attended  and  still 
 attend  Jesuit  influence  in  Einope.  Moreno’s  administra- 
 tion even  enjoyed  the  general  approval  of  all  impartial 
 witnesses.  The  American,  James  Orton,  is  even  full  of 
 his  praise  for  projecting  those  comparatively  grand  routes 
 and  causeways  in  districts  where  aU  intercourse  had  been 
 hitherto  impeded,  and  often  rendered  impossible,  by 
 swamps  and  mountain  gorges. 
 
 But  even  apart  from  the  httle  army  of  1200  men, 
 a creation  of  the  same  President  so  different  from  the 
 playing  at  soldiers  of  pre'vdous  governments,  and  apart 
 also  from  the  erection  of  so  many  public  buildings  and 
 the  general  improvement  of  the  capital,  one  point  to  his 
 credit  cannot  be  overlooked,  and  that  is,  the  number  of 
 schools  which  he  opened  in  Quito  and  Guayaquil,  and 
 especially  the  Polytechnic  School  of  the  capital. 
 
 Of  special  interest  to  foreigners  is  the  Jesuits’ 
 College,  withiu  which  are  comprised  the  university,  the 
 old  astronomical  observatory,  a library  of  20,000  A'olumes, 
 a seminary,  and  a museum.  A new  observatory  is  now 
 all  but  complete,  and  the  foundations  have  been  laid  for 
 an  extension  of  the  seminary.  But  the  chemical  and 
 physical  laboratories,  vdth  their  excellent  arrangements 
 and  rich  collection  of  apparatus,  cannot  fail  to  produce 
 the  greatest  astonishment,  especially  when  we  remember 
 that  nearly  everything  had  to  be  conveyed  at  enormous 
 cost  and  endless  labour  thi’ough  an  extensive  wilderness, 
 from  the  seaport  of  Guayaquil  to  Quito,  at  an  elevation  of 
 9348  feet  above  the  ocean-level.  The  museum  is  not 
 
HIGHWAYS. 
 
 345 
 
 yet  finished,  hut  already  contains  a handsome  geological 
 collection,  and  especially  a considerable  number  of  foreign  * 
 specimens,  mostly  from  Paris. 
 
 13.  Pullic  Highways — Mining  and  Agricultural 
 Operations. 
 
 Besides  the  instruction  of  the  youth  of  Ecuador, 
 entirely  in  their  hands,  the  priesthood  have  not  over- 
 looked more  immediately  practical  undertakings.  The 
 highway  to  Macas  (Provincia  del  Oriente)  is  one  of  their 
 works.  But,  speaking  of  Ecuador  generally,  it  may  be 
 said  that  there  are  no  highroads  of  regular  construction. 
 Keports  of  their  mining  and  other  operations  in  the  east 
 amongst  the  above-mentioned  Jivaros,  a tribe  unpleasantly 
 hostile  to  the  whites,  reach  Quito  from  time  to  time. 
 Xor  is  it,  perhaps,  an  unreasonable  assumption  to  believe 
 that  the  administration  will  no  longer  he  able  to  find 
 governors  for  this  pro\dnce,  now  that  the  competition  of 
 the  missionary  priests  and  their  protection  of  the  Indians 
 will  prevent  these  gentry  from  realising  any  great  profits 
 out  of  Indian  labour,  and  the  gold,  cinnamon,  and  india- 
 rubber  of  the  countr}\ 
 
 Altogether,  a careful  inquiry  into  the  state  of  affairs 
 in  Ecuador  makes  it  evident  that,  however  abnormal  the 
 clerical  element  may  appear  to  be,  the  condition  of  the 
 people  itself  is  not  a whit  worse  than  it  is  in  the  neigh- 
 bouring Eepuhlics  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Venezuela,  or  any 
 other,  with  the  single  exception  of  Chil4.  But  although 
 Ecuador,  in  the  enjoyment  of  a certam  order,  long  had  an 
 advantage  over  other  parts  of  Central  and  South  America, 
 this  oppressive  quiet  has  lately  been  disturbed  by  revolu- 
 tionary movements. 
 
346 
 
 COMPENDIUiM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TRAVEH 
 
 CHAPTER  XV. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 1 . Extent — Population — Climate. 
 
 A^roNGST  the  states  along  the  Pacific  seaboard  of  South 
 America,  Peru  ranks  first  in  point  of  extent,  ha\dng  an 
 area  of  no  less  than  503,364  square  miles.  Excluding 
 the  Indians,  its  population  may  be  estimated  at  about 
 3,000,000. 
 
 “ In  no  part  of  the  world,”  says  Mr.  Squier  in  his 
 recently-published  work  on  Peru,  “ does  nature  assume 
 grander,  more  imposing,  or  more  varied  forms  than  here. 
 Deserts  as  hare  and  repulsive  as  those  of  the  Sahara  alter- 
 nate with  valleys  as  luxuriant  as  those  of  Italy.  Lofty 
 mountains,  crowned  with  eternal  snow,  lift  high  their 
 rugged  sides  over  broad  bleak  punas,  or  table-lands,  them- 
 selves more  elevated  than  the  summits  of  the  AUeghanies. 
 Rivers,  taking  their  rise  among  melting  snow,  precipitate 
 themselves  through  deep  and  rocky  gorges  into  the  Pacific, 
 or  meander,  with  gentler  current,  among  the  majestic 
 Andes  to  swell  the  flood  of  the  Amazons.  There  are 
 lakes,  ranldng  in  size  with  those  that  feed  the  St.  Law- 
 rence, whose  surfaces  lie  almost  level  with  the  summit  of 
 Mont  Blanc.” 
 
 The  greater  part  of  the  coast-line  presents  a bare  and 
 forbidding  aspect.  In  Ecuador  it  rains  at  least  on  the 
 coast,  and  the  road  lies  through  shady  woodlands  up  to 
 the  higher  regions  of  the  Cordilleras.  But  in  Peru, 
 
SCENERY. 
 
 347 
 
 although  the  sky  is  mostly  overcast,  it  never  rains,  as  the 
 vapours  arising  from  the  Pacific  are  rarefied  and  wafted 
 over  the  superheated  low  grounds  away  to  the  Andes,  on 
 the  upper  slopes  of  which  they  are  condensed  and  pre- 
 cipitated, forming  the  head  waters  of  the  numerous  short 
 rivers  which  descend  through  the  arid  strip  of  coast-land 
 to  the  Pacific.  There  is  nothing  in  the  coast  plains  and 
 valleys  but  a strong  nightly  dew,  especially  in  winter, 
 just  enough  to  call  forth  a light,  bright  vegetation,  only 
 too  soon  again  burnt  up  by  the  sun. 
 
 2.  Sublime  Coast  Scenery. 
 
 Hence  the  seaboard  itself  is  perfectly  bare  and  life- 
 less, except  for  the  narrow  green  strips  along  the  streams  ; 
 and  the  seaports,  such  as  Payta,  Lambayeque,  TruxiUo, 
 Callao,  Pisco,  Islay,  Arica,  and  Iquique,  are  all  situated  in 
 arid  treeless  districts.  Immediately  beyond  them  the 
 land  begins  to  rise,  and  here  again  we  find  vast  tracts  of 
 barren  wastes. 
 
 Yet  the  spectacle  presented  to  the  stranger  on  landing 
 is  enchanting.  His  gaze  is  at  once  and  above  all  irre- 
 sistibly fascinated  by  the  gigantic  range  of  the  Cordilleras, 
 here  apparently  rising  sheer  out  of  the  water,  with  all  their 
 steep,  precipitous  rocky  walls  and  jagged  crests,  varied 
 here  and  there  with  deep,  sharply-defined  mountain  gorges. 
 Piy  the  side  of  these  huge  masses,  pded  one  above  the 
 other,  the  mighty  giants  of  Ecuador  seem  almost  insignifi- 
 cant, not  rising,  as  in  Peru,  directly  from  a plain  on  the 
 sea-level,  nor  being  at  once  visible  in  their  full  extent 
 from  base  to  summit.  The  outlines  of  these  enormous 
 ranges  rise  one  beliind  the  other  in  the  blue,  hazy  dis- 
 tance, a wild  and  confused  chaos  of  crests,  ridges,  rugged 
 crags,  and  clefts,  between  which  here  and  there  hover 
 dark,  lowering  masses  of  clouds  banked  up  against  the 
 
348  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHT  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 mountain  sides.  And  when  one  of  these  is  occasionally 
 rent  asunder,  there  are  disclosed  to  the  view  broad  and 
 ghttering  snow-fields,  beyond  which  lie  still  other  and  far 
 more  distant  jagged  peaks,  towering  to  amazing  heights — 
 supreme  giants  amidst  the  chaotic  surroundings. 
 
 3.  Lima — Its  Inhahitants,  Buildings,  General  Aspeet. 
 
 At  present  several  of  the  seaports,  including  Lam- 
 bayeque,  Callao,  Pisco,  and  Islay,  are  connected  with  the 
 land  in  the  background  by  means  of  short  railways, 
 amongst  which  the  most  important  is  that  running  be- 
 tween Callao  and  the  capital,  Lima,  at  a distance  of  seven 
 miles. 
 
 Lima,  with  its  160,000  inhabitants,  lies  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood, or  almost  at  the  very  foot  of  the  coast  range  of 
 the  Cordilleras,  their  first  spurs  rising  with  their  dark  masses 
 immediately  above  the  flat  roofs  of  the  houses.  On 
 scaling  one  of  these  heights,  mostly  adorned  with  crosses, 
 we  get  a commanding  view  of  the  city,  laid  out  like  a 
 chess-board,  and  varied  by  the  numerous  intervening- 
 churches  with  their  twin  towers,  conspicuous  amongst 
 which  is  the  fine  old  Spanish  cathedral  on  the  “ Plaza 
 Mayor.”  The  often  really  magnificent  inner  courts  of 
 the  more  aristocratic  quarters  are  also  taken  in  in  this 
 birds-eye  view  of  the  place.  But  what  imparts  to  Lima 
 quite  a characteristic  aspect,  are  the  countless  little  square 
 structures  on  the  flat  roofs,  provided  with  trap-windows, 
 and  serving  both  for  ventilating  and  lighting  the 
 interior. 
 
 It  is  altogether  a picture  painted  en  grisaille.  Gray 
 are  the  blocks  of  houses,  gray  the  churches  and  cloisters, 
 gray  the  hills,  whose  cloud-capped  summits  alone  are 
 clothed  with  a scarcely  perceptible  light  green  mantle  of 
 grass.  The  sky  itself  seems  to  partake  of  this  monotonous 
 
LIMA. 
 
 349 
 
 gray  toue,  being  overcast  almost  from  one  end  of  the 
 year  to  the  other.  And  yet  scarcely  a drop  of  rain  ever 
 falls,  though  there  is  now  and  then  a strong  dew,  as  may 
 
 be  perceived  of  a morning  by  the  still  moist  mud  roofs. 
 A good  shower  would  convert  the  whole  of  Lima  into  a 
 
350 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 shapeless  mass  of  mud,  all  the  buildings  with  few  excep- 
 tions being  made  of  this  material  rough-dried  in  the  sun. 
 
 Before  us  lies  the  broad  plain  that  has  been 
 rapidly  crossed  by  the  train  on  our  way  from  CaUao 
 luther.  Close  by  the  sea,  whose  white  surf  encircles  the 
 whole  coast-line  as  with  a girdle  of  foam,  is  situated 
 Callao  itself,  with  its  houses  overtopped  by  the  tall  masts 
 of  the  ships  in  the  harbour.  Here  and  there  we  see  at  our 
 feet  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds,  artificially  irrigated, 
 their  dark,  almost  dusky  green,  tints,  agreeably  contrasting 
 with  the  light  yeUowish-gray  of  the  arid  hiUs.  Here  also 
 lies  the  “ Paseo  Publico,”  or  public  promenade,  with  its 
 superabundance  of  vases,  all  arranged  in  a straight  line, 
 their  dazzling  white  also  sharply  contrasting  with  the 
 dark  foliage  of  the  trees  which  flank  the  wide  thorough- 
 fare. 
 
 In  the  Plaza  Mayor,  forming,  as  is  usual  in  South 
 American  cities,  a perfect  square,  towers  the  wondrously 
 beautiful  cathedral,  with  its  lofty  portals  rich  with  the 
 reminiscences  of  Moorish  architecture.  Covered  colonnades, 
 beneath  which  wares  of  every  imaginable  description  are 
 exposed  for  sale,  enclose  tliree  sides  of  the  square,  varied 
 above  and  below  with  restaurants  and  biQiard-rooms, 
 ice  shops  and  the  counters  of  money-changers.  The 
 centre  of  the  square  is  laid  out  in  a perfectlj''  circular 
 garden,  lavishly  ornamented  with  fountains,  statues,  and 
 marble  seats,  and  enclosed  by  gilt  iron  rails. 
 
 The  streets  are  mostly  narrow,  as  a protection  against 
 the  heat.  In  the  places  where  the  water,  flowing  in  open 
 channels,  deposits  little  heaps  of  refuse,  the  carrion  kites 
 may  be  seen  in  flocks,  constantly  hopping  about  and 
 squabbling  together,  heedless  of  the  passers  by,  from  whom 
 they  have  nothing  to  fear,  their  lives  being  protected 
 against  destruction  by  legal  enactment,  and  the  punish- 
 ment of  offenders  by  severe  penalties.  These  gallinazos, 
 
NATIVES  AND  FOEEIGNERS. 
 
 351 
 
 are  in  truth  a real  blessing  for  the  city,  and  for  this  filthy 
 country  generally.  Wherever  they  scent  the  least  refuse 
 of  any  sort,  it  is  gobbled  up  in  no  time.  And  they 
 present  a curious  sight  when,  after  a hearty  meal,  they 
 perch  for  hours  together,  with  outspread  wings,  on  the 
 house-tops  and  flagstaffs. 
 
 4.  Foreign  Element  in  Lima. 
 
 The  monotonous  appearance  of  the  straight  lines  of 
 street  is  also  relieved  by  the  varied  forms  of  the  balconies 
 projecting  from  the  houses,  the  elegant  shops  owned  by 
 strangers  from  every  clime,  and  the  inevitable  Tiendas 
 and  Pulquerias.  The  tiendas  are  mainly  in  the  hands 
 of  Italians,  of  whom  there  are  said  to  be  upwards  of 
 14,000  in  Lima.  There  are  also  a good  many  Germans 
 and  Frenchmen,  the  latter,  true  to  the  national  instinct, 
 being  mostly  hotel-keepers,  perfumers,  and  owners  of  coffee- 
 houses and  fashionable  establishments.  The  English,  on 
 the  contrary,  are  to  be  found  principally  in  Callao,  where 
 the  shipping  interests  are  centred.  All  the  heavy  trade 
 is  in  the  hands  of  strangers,  the  native  Peruvians  not  even 
 attempting  to  compete  with  them,  in  this  presenting  a 
 decided  contrast  to  their  Chilian  neighbours,  who  more 
 than  hold  their  own  against  their  European  rivals. 
 
 5.  The  Blacks,  Cholos,  and  Chinese  Coolies. 
 
 Nowhere  is  there  to  be  seen  a more  motley  popula- 
 tion than  that  met  with  in  the  crowded  streets  of  Lima. 
 The  main  elements  are  the  Whites,  Indians,  Blacks,  and 
 Chinese,  but  the  different  shades  of  the  various  cross- 
 breeds between  these  races  can  neither  be  enumerated  nor 
 described,  so  thoroughly  intermingled  have  they  aU  become 
 one  with  another.  The  contingent  supplied  especially 
 
352 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 by  the  Clwlos,  half-caste  Indians  and  Blacks,  has  under- 
 gone profound  variations,  and  it  is  this  class  that  mainly 
 swarms  in  the  squalid  and  notorious  slums  of  the 
 suburbs. 
 
 A number  of  vessels  convey  every  year  crowds  of 
 Coolies  from  China  to  Callao.  These  wretched  creatures 
 are  obhged  to  bind  themselves  by  contract  for  eight  years, 
 at  a very  low  rate  of  remuneration,  to  the  hacendados  or 
 planters,  after  which  they  again  become  their  own  masters. 
 They  are  treated  more  or  less  as  slaves,  wliich,  strictly 
 speaking,  they  really  are,  there  being  no  legal  impedi- 
 ment of  any  sort  to  their  sale,  or  rather  to  their  being  con- 
 signed to  any  third  party.  Slavery  has  no  doubt  been 
 long  abolished,  one  might  ahnost  feel  tempted  to  add  more 
 is  the  pity,  seeing  that  it  is  precisely  the  lazy  free 
 Blacks  themselves  who  now  render  the  subui’bs  and 
 neighbourhood  of  Lima  so  unsafe.  The  most  marvellous 
 stories  are  current  regarding  them,  and  were  they  but 
 guilty  of  half  of  what  is  said,  it  would  be  the  merest 
 foolhardiness  to  venture  on  the  shortest  walk  outside  the 
 city.  It  is  at  least  certain  that  since  the  abolition  of 
 capital  punishment,  the  insecurity  of  Lima  has  increased 
 to  a frightful  extent,  occasioned  mainly  by  the  enfran- 
 cliised  Blacks,  who  form  altogether  the  most  ruffianly 
 element  in  the  place. 
 
 The  imported  Chinese  are,  on  the  contrary,  un- 
 commonly shrewd  and  thrifty.  They  are,  doubtless, 
 obhged  to  work  out  their  contracts  ; but  owing  to  their 
 extraordinarily  saving  habits,  they  find  themselves  at  the 
 expiration  of  their  term  of  service  in  possession  of  nearly 
 the  whole  amount  of  their  well-earned  wages.  The  dream 
 of  the  Chinaman  is  almost  invariably  to  become  the 
 proprietor  of  a fonda,  that  is,  an  eating-house  of  the 
 lowest  type,  and  he  is  no  sooner  free  than  he  sets  about 
 fitting  one  up,  under  some  extravagant  name  and  with  a 
 
CUZCO. 
 
 353 
 
 fantastically-painted  sign  over  the  door.  And  it  must  be 
 confessed  that  those  who  are  not  too  squeamish,  or  do  not 
 pry  too  nicely  into  the  kitchen  or  the  contents  of  the  pot, 
 have  little  to  complain  of  in  the  arrangement  of  these 
 fondas,  at  least  so  long  as  their  main  object  is  to  eat  and 
 drink  at  as  little  outlay  as  possible.  Countless  are  the 
 Chinese  fondas,  both  in  Lima  and  Callao,  their  little  cloth- 
 covered  tables  being  mostly  patronised  by  the  Blacks  and 
 Cholos  of  all  races  and  colours,  and  very  rarely  by  the 
 Whites.  As  many  as  forty  and  more  of  these  tables  will 
 often  be  seen,  crowded  together  in  a small  room  reeking 
 with  the  odour  of  the  culinary  preparations.  Nevertheless, 
 these  “ Celestials  ” are  hated  with  a bitterness  not  to  be 
 beheved,  of  course  because  they  are  not  Christians,  but 
 only  heathens  or  apes,  wliich  the  Penman  includes  in  the 
 same  category.  They  call  them  Macacos  (monkeys),  and 
 yet  these  poor  devils  are  in  reality  immeasurably  suj>erior 
 to  the  good-for-nothing  Negroes  and  rascally  Cholos,  who 
 look  down  on  them  with  so  much  contempt. 
 
 6.  Cuzco — The  Ancient  Capital  of  the  Incas. 
 
 The  really  historical  city  of  Peru  is  not  Luna,  but 
 Cuzco,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  Incas,  who,  before  the 
 Spanish  conquest,  had  here  established  a powerful  State 
 on  the  basis  of  a theocratic  patriarchal  communism. 
 Cuzco,  which  word  means  navel,  lay  in  the  very  centre  of 
 their  kingdom,  in  13°  30'  south  latitude,  in  a small 
 valley  encircled  by  lofty  hiUs.  Such  valleys,  aptly  called 
 by  the  Spaniards  lolsones,  or  pockets,  are  frequent  in  the 
 elevated  land  between  the  two  parallel  ranges  of  the 
 Andes.  They  lie  at  various  elevations,  and  being  always 
 more  fertile  in  soil  and  more  genial  in  climate  than  the 
 bleak  higher-lying  punas,  became  the  seats  of  the  indi- 
 genous civilisation  of  the  ancient  Peruvians. 
 
 2 A 
 
354  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 But  the  Cuzco  of  the  present  day  consists  of  a some- 
 what irregular  square, 
 
 running  from  N.W. 
 
 to 
 
 S.E.,  and  divided  into 
 two  unequal  parts  by 
 the  Huatany,  a wild 
 mountain  torrent  rush- 
 ing down  from  the  Cor- 
 dillera de  Sapi.  Of  its 
 3000  houses,  sheltering 
 some  40,000  inhabit- 
 ants, one-third  at  least 
 are  mere  hovels,  and  of 
 these  again  fully  one- 
 half  taverns.  At  the 
 same  time,  there  is.  no 
 lack  of  churches  and 
 I convents  in  Cuzco,  any 
 § more  than  in  other 
 towns  where  the  Spanish 
 element  has  lieen  do- 
 minant. These  sacred 
 buildings  have  all  a 
 certain  gloomy  aspect, 
 which,  however,  har- 
 monises well  with  the 
 rough  climate,  the  often 
 lowering  skies,  and  the 
 frowning  hills  of  the 
 neighbourhood.  In  the 
 interior  they  mostly  pre- 
 sent an  extremely  sim- 
 ple style  of  architecture, 
 though  otherwise  richly 
 endowed  with  gold  and  silver  vases  and  ornaments,  often 
 profusely  laden  with  precious  stones. 
 
MANNERS  AND  HABITS. 
 
 355 
 
 7.  Climate  of  Cuzco — Manners  and  Habits  of  the  People. 
 
 The  climate  of  Cuzco  and  the  surrounding  country 
 cannot  be  praised.  It  is  certainly  not,  like  that  of  Lima 
 and  the  low-l}dng  coast-lands,  exposed  to  the  scourge  of 
 yellow  fever.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cold  punas 
 give  occasion  to  the  soroche,  a disease  prevalent  in  the  hilly 
 regions  that  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  understood,  and 
 which,  in  the  higher  uplands  and  passes  of  the  Andes, 
 ends  fatally  for  those  not  blessed  with  sound  lungs. 
 Here  also,  in  contrast  with  the  rainless  coast  districts, 
 there  is  no  lack  of  hail,  rain,  and  snow,  so  that,  as  tlie 
 local  saying  expresses  it,  it  rains  in  Cuzco  thirteen  months 
 in  the  year.  Yet,  neither  stoves,  fireplaces,  nor  braziers 
 are  here  to  be  seen.  In  damp  and  cold  weather,  the 
 seuoras  wrap  themselves  in  their  woollen  mantles  and 
 veils,  the  cahalleros  in  large  cloaks.  The  Indians  of  both 
 sexes  also  wear  woollen  shirts  and  upper  garments,  besides 
 long  and  short  cloaks. 
 
 8.  Hie  Quichua  and  Aymara  Indians. 
 
 The  inner  man  in  all  the  cities  is  comforted  with 
 copious  draughts  of  European  liqueurs,  chicha  and  rum. 
 Livmg  under  such  lowering  skies,  with  cold  and  damp 
 winds  mostly  prevading,  the  people  are  not  overfond  of 
 indulging  in  cold  baths,  or  indeed  m ablutions  of  any 
 sort ; the  Indian  simply  dispenses  with  them  altogether, 
 even  looking  on  the  washing  of  face  and  hands  as  a sort 
 of  luxury.  He,  moreover,  lies  down  in  his  clothes,  which, 
 indeed,  he  puts  on  once  for  all,  and  wears  till  they  drop 
 off.  This  is  true  of  both  sexes,  and  the  Indian  women 
 show  great  reluctance  to  lay  aside  their  old  rags,  wearing 
 their  new  clothes  over  three  or  four  old  garments,  which 
 are  never  cleaned,  and  consequently  swarm  with  vermin. 
 
356 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Yet  the  dress  of  the  Peruvian  Indians,  mostly  of  the 
 Quichua  and  Ajunara  tribes,  is  very  pictm-esque,  presenting 
 a charming  sight  as  they  drive  the  great  herds  of  llamas 
 through  the  streets,  or  are  seated  vith  their  young  vives 
 on  the  liill-side.  Their  melancholy  national  airs,  sung 
 
 NATIVE  PRIESTS. 
 
 to  the  accompaniment  of  the  guitar,  and  sounding  so  sadly 
 across  the  quiet  landscape,  and  the  wearied,  downcast 
 expression  with  which  they  gaze  wistfully  down  on  the 
 ruined  fastnesses  of  their  forefathers,  as  they  tend  their 
 flocks  on  the  mountain  slopes,  impart  to  these  sorely 
 injured  tribes  a special  interest,  such  as  many  more 
 favoured  peoples  fail  to  inspire. 
 
FAUNA. 
 
 357 
 
 9.  The  Native  Clergy. 
 
 A great  influence  is  naturally  exercised  over  the 
 Indians  by  the  clergy,  mostly  belonging  to  their  own  class. 
 The  priests  are  thoroughly  imbued  with  a worldly  spirit, 
 and  lead  a very  jovial  life.  Their  education  is  not  of  a 
 very  wide  range,  but  they  stiU.  look  after  the  instruction, 
 such  as  it  is,  of  the  youth.  Some  also  venture  even  to 
 meddle  with  scholastic  and  mystic  theology,  or  canon  law, 
 though  perhaps  after  a fashion  of  their  own.  In  every- 
 thing pertaining  to  morals  and  the  ordinary  decencies  of 
 Ufe,  the  South  American  clergy  has  its  own  ideas  and 
 opinions,  which  are  certainly  somewhat  at  variance  with 
 those  usually  entertained  in  Europe  on  such  matters. 
 The  majority  of  the  priests  are  natives  of  the  country, 
 either  pure-blood  Indians  or  half-castes. 
 
 10,  Fauna — The  Guanaco,  Llama,  and  Vicuna. 
 
 Situated  in  the  tropical  zone,  Peru  contains  all  those 
 products  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  domesti- 
 cated or  cultivated,  that  we  have  already  noticed  as  met 
 with  in  Colombia  and  Ecuador.  In  addition  to  them  it 
 has  some  indigenous  species  of  its  own.  On  the  Peruvian 
 punas  grazes  the  huanaco  or  guanaco  {Auchenia  huanaco), 
 which  roams  in  flocks  along  the  slopes  of  the  Andes, 
 from  this  region  southwards  to  Patagonia.  The  llama 
 or  alpaca  {Auchenia  lama),  belonging  to  the  same  camel- 
 like family  of  ruminants,  and  wliich  has  now  been 
 entirely  domesticated  in  Peru  and  Chil^  yields  milk, 
 flesh,  wool,  leather,  and  serves  also  as  a beast  of  burden, 
 even  the  dung  being  used  as  fuel.  The  dwarf  llama 
 and  the  vicuna  {Auchenia  vicunia)  are  esteemed  for  the 
 quality  of  their  wool  or  hair,  which  is  exported  in  con- 
 siderable quantities  to  Europe,  and  manufactured  into  a 
 durable  cloth  of  glossy,  silk-like  surface. 
 
358 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 11.  Mineral  Wealth — The  Guano  Trade — Cotton. 
 
 Peru  po.ssesses,  moreover,  incalculable  wealth  in  its 
 nitre  and  guano  deposits,  both  of  which  are  of  extreme 
 importance  as  manures.  The  peld  of  guano  has  certainly 
 fallen  off  during  the  decade  between  1865  and  1875,  but 
 that  of  nitre  has  increased  fourfold. 
 
 GVAXO  BEDS. 
 
 The  richest  guano  deposits  were  those  on  the  Cliinchas,  a 
 dreary,  desert  gTOup  of  rocky  islands  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 CaUao  and  Pisco.  The  guano  beds  are  worked  downwards, 
 the  material  being  removed  in  layers  and  placed  on  large 
 flat  trucks,  and  so  conveyed  on  trams  partly  to  the  molo 
 or  shipping  wharf,  and  partly  to  the  edge  of  the  steep 
 cliffs,  where  it  is  shot  over  into  large  baiges,  and  thence 
 
GUANO. 
 
 359 
 
 transferred  to  the  numerous  vessels  engaged  in  the  trade, 
 and  which  are  usually  anchored  off  the  islands.  The 
 pungent  ammoniacal  dust,  occasioned  both  by  the  digging 
 and  loading  operations,  and  to  which  the  mucous  mem- 
 brane of  the  nostrils  is  keenly  susceptible,  renders  a 
 residence  on  these  islands  exceedingly  unpleasant.  Yet, 
 besides  the  utterly  wretched  ranchos  of  the  Chinese  and 
 coloured  workmen,  the  islands  boast  of  some  remarkably 
 elegant  villa-like  residences,  and  a photographer  has  even 
 been  known  to  have  plied  his  artistic  trade  in  the  place. 
 
 In  1873  the  export  of  guano  from  these  deposits 
 amounted  to  100,000  tons,  and  operations  were  being 
 also  carried  on  in  the  Guanape  and  Macabi  islands.  But 
 there  remain  stid  untouched  the  rich  beds  on  the  Lobos 
 and  Viejas  groups  in  Independencia  Bay,  those  of  the 
 LobUlo  and  Huanillo  groups  in  Chiapana  Bay,  and  others 
 at  Punta  Alba  and  PabeUon  de  Pica.  Of  smaller  deposits 
 no  less  than  thirty-six  have  been  discovered.  According 
 to  the  best  authorities,  however,  the  total  supply  will  be 
 exhausted  in  a very  few  years. 
 
 The  attempt  to  cultivate  cotton  has  proved  very 
 successful ; the  coast  region  of  Peru  would  be  excellently 
 weU  adapted  for  the  growth  of  this  plant,  if  labour  were 
 more  available  for  irrigating  purposes.  If  this  difficulty 
 could  be  surmounted,  we  may  imagine  what  splendid  crops 
 might  be  raised  in  a country  where  there  is  no  rain  to 
 damage  the  ripening  fruit. 
 
 12.  Government — Revolutions — Pecxdaiion. 
 
 Notwithstanding  all  its  natural  advantages,  Peru  suffers 
 under  the  stigma  of  being  one  of  those  States  in  which 
 mal-administration  and  revolutionary  disturbances  succeed 
 in  preventing  the  country  from  attaining  that  position 
 of  importance  and  prosperity  to  which  it  might  otherwise 
 
360  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRATEL. 
 
 have  been  raised.  It  enjoyed, previous  to  the  late  disastrous 
 var  with  Chil^,  an  enormous  revenue.  Without  reckoning 
 its  customs  and  other  dues,  it  derived  a net  yearly  profit 
 of  from  £4,000,000  to  £5,000,000  from  guano  alone. 
 The  total  revenue  in  1875,  chiefly  from  guano,  amounted 
 to  £10,220,000.  This  large  income  enabled  it  to  meet  , 
 the  regular  State  expenditure,  while  the  rest  was  un- 
 fortunately squandered,  vast  sums  having  been  especially 
 swallowed  up  in  constructing  long  and  costly  railways 
 before  they  were  required  by  the  exigencies  of  traffic,  and 
 unknown  amounts  embezzled  by  dishonest  functionaries. 
 Peru  is  amply  provided  with  such  official  gentry,  whose 
 paramount  aim  in  life  is  to  live  without  honest  work  and 
 secure  as  much  as  possible  of  the  superfluous  revenues  of 
 the  country  for  themselves.  Government  offices  being 
 veritable  gold  mines,  there  were  naturally  always  to  be 
 found  a number  of  candidates  for  such  places,  who  were 
 not  at  aU  particular  as  to  the  means  they  employed  to 
 gain  their  point.  But  this  was  best  effected  by  joining 
 one  or  other  of  the  parties  or  factions,  whose  sole  object 
 was  to  thrust  aside  the  President  for  the  time  being,  in 
 order  to  set  up  their  own  candidate  in  his  place.  As  a 
 matter  of  course,  when  they  succeeded  in  accomplishing 
 this,  aU  important  and  profitable  offices  changed  hands, 
 and  on  these  occasions,  expectant  members  of  the  tri- 
 umphant faction,  mindful  of  Goethe’s  saying,  were  not 
 over  modest  in  urging  their  own  claims  on  the  gratitude 
 of  those  in  high  places. 
 
 13.  Becent  Improvements — Public  Works — Eailvjajjs — 
 Disastrous  Result  of  the  war  with  ChiU. 
 
 Previous  to  the  war  with  Chile  a temporary  luU  in 
 the  stormy  atmosphere  of  “ politics  ” gave  the  country 
 time  to  recover  from  the  ruinous  effects  of  revolutionary 
 
THE  RMLWAYS  OK  I’ERU. 
 
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RAILWAYS. 
 
 361 
 
 strife.  Sources  of  income  independent  of  that  derived 
 from  the  guano  trade  had  been  applied  to  meet  real 
 public  wants,  and  during  this  interval  of  peace  the 
 customs  rose  greatly  in  value,  while  the  President, 
 General  Prado,  carefully  administered  the  public  funds, 
 having  an  open  hand  only  for  the  educational  interests, 
 which  so  recently  as  1870  were  painted  in  the  gloomiest 
 of  colours.  Attention  was  also  turned  to  useful  public 
 works,  although  the  construction  of  railways  was 
 rather  prematurely  pushed  on  in  some  parts  of  the 
 country.  The  costly  Oroya  line,  with  its  coast 
 terminus  at  Callao,  laid  over  both  ranges  of  the  Cor- 
 dilleras, with  its  stupendous  gradients  and  zigzag  wind- 
 ings up  the  mountain  slopes,  is  assuredly  one  of  the 
 gmndest  engineering  undertakings  in  the  world.  Another 
 line,  in  the  south  of  the  republic,  connecting  the  Pacific 
 port  of  IMollendo,  vid  Arequipa,  with  Puno  on  Lake 
 Titicaca,  is  also  a great  engineering  work.  It  is  277 
 miles  in  length,  and  is  so  contrived  as  to  traverse  this 
 great  extent  of  mountainous  country  without  tunnels  of 
 greater  length  than  300  feet.  Steep  cuttings,  superb 
 Auaducts,  and  reverse  tangents,  up  rough  and  steep  slopes  to 
 heights  of  14,600  feet  above  the  sea-level,  are  amongst 
 the  features  of  this  bold  nndertaking,  which  will  bring 
 the  temperate  regions  of  the  elevated  Titicaca  and  the 
 Bolivian  cities  beyond,  within  easy  reach  of  the  Pacific 
 Ocean.  For  a country  circumstanced  as  Peru  is  the 
 development  of  the  means  of  internal  communication  is 
 a wtal  question,  and  these  railways,  although  causing  at 
 first  a ruinous  expense,  will  in  future  be  of  enormous 
 utUity.  Next  in  importance  to  means  of  communi- 
 cation, is  the  question  of  the  artificial  irrigation  of  the 
 extensive  rainless  districts  along  the  Pacific  seaboard. 
 
 During  the  pre\'ious  twenty  years  the  Peruvian  govern- 
 ment also  devoted  much  attention  and  no  inconsiderable 
 
362  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 portion  of  its  pecuniary  means,  to  the  development  of  its 
 immense  territory  in  the  plains  of  the  Amazons  east  of 
 the  Cordilleras.  Both  banks  of  the  main  river  for  the 
 first  thousand  miles  belong  to  the  republic,  as  well  as 
 the  entire  courses  of  its  earliest  tributaries  from  the  south 
 and  the  lower  portions  of  those  from  the  north  ; the 
 whole  of  the  region  being  an  aUu\dal  plain  of  vast  pro- 
 ductiveness, but  almost  destitute  of  civilised  inhabitants. 
 In  1851  a treaty  was  concluded  with  Brazil  relative  to 
 the  free  navigation  of  the  Amazons  by  Peruvian  vessels 
 between  the  Atlantic  and  these  interior  districts  ; and  since 
 1862  the  great  fluvial  liighways  within  Peruvian  territory 
 have  been  regularly  traversed  by  steam-vessels,  in  con- 
 junction with  the  lines  of  Brazilian  steamers  plying  be- 
 tween the  Atlantic  port  of  Para  and  the  Peruvian  frontier. 
 A floating  dock  and  workshops  for  the  repah  of  steaniers, 
 with  factories  for  other  works,  have  been  established  at 
 Yquitos,  and  numerous  small  steamers,  under  competent 
 naval  officers,  have  surveyed  all  the  neighbouring  tributary 
 streams.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  surveymg 
 expeditions  was  that  undertaken  in  1866  by  Don  Benito 
 Arana,  with  three  steam-vessels,  with  a view  of  ascertain- 
 ing how  far  the  tributary  streams  were  navigable  in  the 
 direction  of  Lima.  Ascending  first  the  Ucayali,  which 
 was  found  for  600  miles  to  have  an  average  depth  of 
 water  of  6 to  12  fathoms,  with  a current  of  only  two  to 
 three  miles  an  hour,  the  expedition  entered  the  Pachitea,  a 
 tributary  from  the  west.  Tliis  stream  they  navigated  for 
 a distance  of  204  miles,  at  which  point,  although  a suffi- 
 cient depth  of  water  existed,  their  progress  was  somewhat 
 impeded  by  the  narrowness  of  the  channel,  which  was  in 
 some  places  only  80  feet  broad.  From  the  Pachitea  the 
 steamers  passed  into  the  Palcazu,  on  the  banks  of  which 
 is  situated  the  village  of  klayro,  the  nearest  point  to  Lima 
 at  which  this  colossal  fluvial  system  commences  to  be 
 
GOVERNMENT  DEBT. 
 
 363 
 
 navigable.  The  largest  of  the  three  steamers  was  unable 
 to  reach  this  port,  but  the  two  smaller  ones  found  no 
 difficulty ; thus  proving  the  Amazons  and  its  tributaries 
 (by  the  nearest  route  to  Lima)  to  be  navigable  for  3623 
 miles,  and  to  within  325  miles  of  the  Peruvian  capital. 
 
 The  further  development  of  their  trans-Andean  terri- 
 tory and  the  magnificent  new  routes  for  trade  thus  opened 
 out,  as  well  as  other  interests  of  the  country,  w'ere  seri- 
 oiisly  damaged  by  the  failure  of  the  Government  to  meet 
 its  obligations  to  its  foreign  creditors  by  paying  the  in- 
 terest on  the  external  debt  of  the  country,  a debt  which 
 reached  the  large  amount  of  forty-nine  millions  of  pounds 
 sterling.  Since  then  came  the  war  in  which  it  embarked, 
 in  alliance  with  Bolivda,  with  Chile,  in  wliich  it  has  sus- 
 tained crushing  defeat  by  land  and  sea,  and  the  end  of 
 which  has  not  yet  come. 
 
364  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  XVI. 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 1.  Po2mlation—:-Extent — Mountain  Systems. 
 
 Bollvla.,  with  a presumed  population  of  from  2,000,000 
 to  2,750,000,  and  a total  area  estimated  at  842,700 
 square  miles,  contains,  in  a portion  of  its  territory,  the 
 greatest  extent  of  elevated  plateau  in  the  whole  continent 
 of  South  America,  and  some  of  the  loftiest  mountains  of 
 the  Xew  "World.  Here  may  be  distinguished  five  different 
 mountain  systems: — The  Coast  Eange,  running  from  south 
 to  north,  with  few  interruptions,  along  the  western  sea- 
 board, but  only  a short  portion  of  which  lies  within  the 
 limits  of  the  narrow  strip  of  the  coast  belonging  to  Bohvia ; 
 the  Andes  proper,  here  varied  with  many  lofty  crests — 
 conical,  dome-like,  and  beU-shaped — and  pointed  peaks,  all 
 more  or  less  clothed  with  everlasting  snow ; the  Central 
 System,  or  the  Cordillera  Eeal — that  is,the  Eoyal  Cordillera 
 — generally  described  as  the  Eastern  Eange,  which,  though 
 insignificant  in  height  and  extent  when  compared  with 
 the  Andes  proper,  stEl  attains  a considerable  mean  eleva- 
 tion ; the  intermediate  ranges  and  isolated  groups ; and 
 lastly,  the  most  easterly  or  Inner  System  of  the  Cordilleras. 
 
 Between  these  ranges  the  elevated  uplands  are  situ- 
 ated, amongst  wliich  the  most  important  is  that  of  Orui-o, 
 called  also  the  Altiplanicie  Central  de  Bolivia,  between  the 
 Andes  and  Eoyal  CordiEera.  The  northern  table-land  is 
 remarkable  for  two  large  lakes,  those  of  Titicaca  and 
 Aullagas,  besides  the  Laguna  de  Coiposa. 
 
A SALT  PAIVIPA. 
 
 365 
 
 2.  Lake  Titicaca. 
 
 Lake  Titicaca,  at  12,196  feet  above  the  sea-level,  runs 
 from  the  S.S.E.  to  the  N.N.W.  for  a distance  of  100  miles, 
 with  a mean  breadth  of  35  miles,  and  a depth  of  120 
 fathoms.  It  is  divided  by  a narrow  strait  into  two  parts, 
 the  northern  forming  the  lake  properly  so  called,  the  latter 
 the  Lagima  de  Unimarca.  To  the  west  of  this  channel 
 both  sheets  of  water  penetrate  the  land  so  as  to  form  an 
 isthmus,  which  connects  the  mainland  with  the  peninsula 
 of  Copacavana.  The  lake,  which  is  studded  with  islands, 
 has  a southern  outflow  in  the  Kio  Desaguadero,  flowing 
 for  160  miles  through  the  northern  table-land,  into  the 
 salt  lake  and  swamps  Aullagas  or  Paria,  scarcely  one-third 
 the  size  of  Titicaca.  This  lake  has  only  one  perceptible 
 outlet,  and  that  very  insignificant.  What  becomes  of  its 
 superfluous  water  is  still  a matter  of  uncertainty.  Titicaca 
 itself  is  a fresh-water  lake,  and  the  vegetation  on  its  bor- 
 ders is  stunted  and  scanty,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the 
 chmate  at  the  great  elevation.  In  the  waters  grow  acres 
 of  tall  rushes,  which  the  constant  east  winds  blow  when 
 dead  to  the  western  side,  where  they  mis  with  the  Living 
 beds  and  form  a dense  tangled  mass. 
 
 3.  A Salt  Pampa. 
 
 The  southern  plateau  is  distinguished  by  another 
 natural  feature,  the  Laguna  de  Salinas,  at  one  time  of  the 
 year  forming  a salt  lake,  at  another  a salt  plain,  hence 
 caUed  also  la  Pampa  de  Salinas. 
 
 It  consists  of  a tliick  crust  of  a pure  crystallised  and 
 dazzling  white  common  salt,  lying  on  an  imderground 
 lake,  but  of  which  nothing  can  be  seen  except  where  a 
 sort  of  salt  mine  is  being  worked  by  the  Indians.  The 
 
366 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Salt  Pampa  forms  almost  a perfect  level,  and  in  tlie  dry 
 season  may  be  crossed,  though  always  at  some  risk  of 
 sticking  in  the  swampy  ground.  But  in  the  rainy  season 
 it  is  quite  impassable,  the  gi'ound  being  then  not  only 
 much  softer,  but  also  not  unfrequently  as  much  as  three 
 feet  under  water. 
 
 4.  The  Grreai  Central  PlatcoAi. 
 
 Both  sections  of  the  table-land  differ  from  each  other 
 in  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  water,  the  number  of 
 settlements,  and  the  configuration  of  the  land.  The  north- 
 ern has  a copious  supply  of  fresh  water,  and  is  conse- 
 quentlj’^  the  most  fertile  and  thickly  peopled  ; the  southern, 
 havhig  but  little  water,  is  somewhat  arid  and  but  thinly 
 inhabited,  hence  known  by  the  name  of  los  Desiertos  de 
 Lipez.  The  average  elevation  of  the  whole  plateau  is 
 about  12,540  feet,  varjdng  from  13,TU0  in  the  highest  to 
 12,000  feet  in  the  lowest  parts. 
 
 Besides  this  great  central  table-lanrl,  there  are  several 
 smaller  ones,  all  known  as  Pampas. 
 
 5.  The  City  of  La  Paz. 
 
 The  dreary  aspect  of  the  plateau  between  Lake  Titicaca 
 and  the  old  Indian  city  of  La  Paz  produces  a depressing 
 effect  on  the  spirits.  It  is  relieved  only  by  the  majestic 
 snow-clad  peak  of  Illimani,  which  remains  visible  till  we 
 reach  the  green  depression  in  which  lies  La  Paz  itself. 
 This  city,  which  is  rather  the  most  important  and  populous 
 town  than  the  political  capital  of  the  country,  is  said  to  have 
 at  present  a population  of  7 0,000,  mostly  Aymara  Indians. 
 Its  narrow  streets  are  paved  with  sharp  flints,  but  are 
 provided  with  stone  flagged  footpaths  for  the  convenience 
 of  pedestrians.  The  houses,  with  their  tiled  roofs  present 
 
LA  P.LZ. 
 
 367 
 
 a homely  aspect,  and  the  great  square  is  adorned  ^th  a 
 fountain.  The  Alameda,  or  public  promenade,  is  planted 
 with  some  scrubby  little  fruit-trees,  imparting  no  grateful 
 shade ; but  the  place  is  sufficiently  glorified  by  the  sight 
 of  the  mighty  Illimani,  20,110  feet  high,  on  whose 
 eastern  slopes  all  the  noble  plants  of  the  tropics — sugar- 
 cane, coffee,  oranges,  pine-apples,  and  the  delicious  “ avo- 
 cado pears,”  are  cultivated  and  brought  to  the  market  of 
 La  Paz. 
 
 6.  Sv/yre  and  other  Tovms. 
 
 ]\lost  of  the  other  Bolivian  towns  have  a milder  cKmate 
 than  La  Paz.  The  principal  are,  Sucre,  or  Chuquisaca, 
 with  20,000  inhabitants,  the  present  pohtical  capital  of 
 the  republic,  which  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  10,500 
 feet,  on  high  ground  forming  the  water-parting  between  the 
 Madeira  and  Paraguay  river  systems  ; Oriu’o  (13,000  feet) 
 and  Potosi,  at  the  same  elevation,  the  latter  with  a present 
 population  of  22,000,  and  once  so  famous  for  its  produc- 
 tive silver  mines.  Here  the  air  is  so  rarefied  that  the 
 European  cannot  walk  twenty  steps  without  stopping  to 
 take  breath. 
 
 7.  The  Yungas  Distriet. 
 
 A very  different  aspect  is  presented  by  the  lower-lpng 
 district  east  of  the  inner  Boli^dan  Cordillera.  From  the 
 northern  edge  of  the  plateau  along  which  the  traveller 
 from  the  interior  pursues  liis  monotonous  way  on  mule- 
 back,  a high  waff,  of  trees  in  the  plain  beyond  continually 
 bounds  his  view  in  that  direction,  and  marks  the  southern 
 limit  of  the  great  Amazonian  forest.  This  region  is  knoum 
 by  the  name  of  Yungas,  a richly  wooded  region,  watered 
 by  numerous  tributaries  of  the  Madeira  river  system,  and 
 surpassing  most  South  American  lands  in  fertility  and 
 
368 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 natural  resources.  On  the  completion  of  the  projected 
 railway  round  the  rapids  of  the  Madeira,  a brisk  trade 
 will  be  likely  here  to  spring  up,  as  the  country  would 
 then  have  easy  access  to  the  navigable  Amazons,  and  by 
 means  of  that  great  water-way  to  the  Atlantic.  Near 
 these  eastern  plains  lies  the  important  city  of  Cochabamba, 
 with  from  36,000  to  40,000  inhabitants,  and  enjoying  a 
 beautiful  climate,  notwithstanding  its  elevation  of  8000 
 feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  townspeople  are  chiefly 
 half-breeds  of  the  Quichua  race,  industrious  and  thriving, 
 though,  as  regards  honesty  and  sobriety,  leaving  room  for 
 improvement.  Its  market  suppHes  the  miners  of  Oruro 
 and  Potosi  with  wheat,  maize,  barley,  flour,  and  other 
 necessaries.  Quantities  of  goods  are  also  thence  conveyed 
 to  the  other  parts  of  the  Yimgas,  and  Cochabamba  is, 
 moreover,  the  emporium  of  the  trade  in  Cinchona  bark, 
 which  comes  chiefly  from  the  territory  of  the  Yuracar^ 
 Indians,  and  is  forwarded  from  this  place  onwards. 
 
 Amongst  the  numerous  useful  vegetable  products  of 
 the  Yungas  district  may  be  mentioned  the  copal  tree,  with 
 its  easily  extracted  resin  by  which  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 woodlands  light  up  their  huts.  Coffee  also,  of  excellent 
 quality,  though  as  yet  in  small  quantities,  here  flourishes 
 side  by  side  with  rice,  pine-apples,  sugar-cane,  and  that 
 exclusively  tropical  American  plant  the  Coca  {Erythrorylon 
 coca),  the  leaves  of  which,  reduced  to  powder,  are  chewed 
 by  the  Indians  both  of  Peru  and  Bolma,  and  act  as  a 
 gentle  narcotic  and  stimulant  on  long  journeys,  or  when 
 exposed  to  hunger  or  unwholesome  food.  The  more  open 
 savannahs  farther  south  and  east  yield  abundance  of  the 
 richest  pasture,  and  are  dotted  with  cattle  farms. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  great  heat  and  moisture,  and  the 
 rank  vegetation  of  the  forests,  the  Yungas  plains  are 
 exempt  from  intermittent  fevers,  or  other  epidemics. 
 
INHABITANTS. 
 
 369 
 
 8.  Agriculture — Industries — Mining — Bachvmrd  state 
 of  Trade. 
 
 Both  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are  still  in  a very 
 backward  state  in  Bolivia,  while  trade  and  commerce  may 
 be  said  to  be  in  their  infancy.  The  chief  industry  is  at 
 present  cotton-spinning.  Formerly  the  principal  wealth  of 
 the  land  lay  in  its  mines,  though  even  these  are  very 
 little  developed,  the  mineral  districts  lying  at  a consider- 
 able distance  from  the  cultivated  provinces,  and  almost 
 the  sole  means  of  transport  being  the  beasts  of  burden. 
 The  short  strip  of  the  Pacific  coast  owned  by  Bolivia  pos- 
 sesses only  one  indifferent  seaport,  Cobija,  north  of  the 
 Atacama  desert. 
 
 The  leading  articles  of  export  are  gold,  silver,  copper, 
 tin,  Peruvian  bark,  vicuna  and  sheep’s  wool,  chinchilla 
 fur,  guano,  sarsaparilla,  tobacco,  and  spices. 
 
 9.  Inhabitants — Various  Classes  of  Indians. 
 
 The  population  of  Bolivia  consists  of  several  races, 
 half-caste  Spaniards,  and  natives  of  various  tribes.  A 
 third  of  the  inhabitants  reside  in  the  cities  and  town- 
 ships, the  rest  in  tlie  smaller  hamlets  and  the  Campana, 
 or  country.  There  are  also  a few  descendants  of  the 
 Africans  formerly  introduced  as  slaves,  and  a good  many 
 Guarani  Indians,  who  have  come  hither  from  the  eastern 
 districts  of  Paraguay,  and  increased  considerably  in 
 numbers. 
 
 AU  the  Indians  are  divided  into  three  classes — the 
 civilised,  the  semi-civilised,  and  the  wild  tribes.  To  the 
 first  belong  the  Quichua  and  Aymara,  or  Inca,  Indians  ; 
 to  the  second  the  Chiquitos  and  the  ]\Ioxos ; w’hUe  the 
 third  occupy  the  southern  districts  of  the  Pilcomayo, 
 Yermejo,  and  Paraguay  rivers. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  Indians,  at  least  such  as  do  not  live  in  the  towns 
 
 A MOXOS  IXDIAX 
 
 or  farm  large  estates,  work  only  three 
 
 months  in  the  vear. 
 
MANNERS. 
 
 371 
 
 They  are  all  either  agriculturists  or  arrieros — that  is, 
 engaged  in  forwarding  goods  by  means  of  numerous  herds 
 of  llamas — or  else  occupied  with  the  breeding  of  llamas, 
 sheep,  and  goats  on  a very  large  scale.  Their  prevailing 
 tastes  lie  in  gambling  and  drinking,  and  the  scrupulous 
 observance  of  the  feast  days  prescribed  by  the  calendar 
 of  the  Komish  Church.  Their  only  obligation  to  the 
 State  consists  in  the  payment  of  tribute,  which  exempts 
 them  from  military  service.  As  soon  as  they  have  toiled 
 hard  enough  to  meet  these  engagements,  they  “strike 
 work,”  spending  the  rest  of  the  time  in  occupations  that 
 are  either  very  little,  or  not  at  all,  profitable  to  themselves 
 or  society.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  punas  the  rate 
 of  mortality  is  much  higher  amongst  the  Indians  than  it 
 is  amongst  the  whites  and  the  Creoles.  This  is  attributed 
 to  a species  of  fever  which,  with  extremely  rare  excep- 
 tions, attacks  the  Indians  alone,  making  great  havoc 
 amongst  them. 
 
 10.  The  Qvbichua  Language — Manners  and  Social  Vices — 
 Revolutionary  Spirit. 
 
 like  the  natives  of  most  mountainous  and  inacces- 
 sible regions,  which  are,  as  a rule,  less  exposed  to  the 
 innovating  tendencies  of  civilisation,  and  consequently  are 
 more  tenacious  of  the  ancestral  habits  and  customs,  the 
 lower  classes  in  Bolivia,  and  in  the  smaller  townships 
 even  many  well-to-do  families,  prefer  the  Quichua  or  old 
 Inca  language  to  the  Spanish,  both  in  business  and  social 
 intercourse.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  crowded  streets 
 of  the  capital  and  La  Paz,  ladies  may  be  seen  flaunting 
 the  latest  Prdnch  fashions,  only  in  this  respect,  as  usual, 
 carrying  them  to  extremes.  In  their  own  houses,  how- 
 ever, they  indulge  in  an  extreme  nigligi,  scarcely  veiling 
 their  charms  with  the  large  shawls  generally  worn  indoors. 
 
372  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 The  Bolivian  has  two  ruling  passions — gambling  and 
 drink — his  best  moral  feature  consisting  in  the  equanimity 
 with  which  he  bears  his  losses.  Cases  of  suicide  arisinsi 
 out  of  the  ruin  often  entailed  by  these  propensities  are 
 absolutely  unknown. 
 
 Of  the  few  strangers  residing  in  Bolivia,  French  and 
 Spaniards  form  the  majority,  Germans  and  others  being 
 rarely  met  with. 
 
 The  political  condition  of  the  country  calls  for  no 
 special  remarks.  The  framework  of  government  is  much 
 the  same  as  in  Peru,  and  its  history  has  been  marked  and 
 stained  by  a similar  career  of  purposeless  revolutions  and 
 internecine  warfare. 
 
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CHILi;. 
 
 373 
 
 CHAPTEE  XVll. 
 chilA 
 
 1.  Geolofjical  Features. 
 
 The  naiTow  strip  of  land  between  the  Andes  and  the 
 Pacific  seaboard,  forming  the  home  of  the  Chilians, 
 presents  some  features  of  a special  character.  The  inter- 
 mediate range  enclosing  the  long  valley  which  constitutes 
 the  cidtivated  portion  of  Chile  is  dommated  by  the  snow- 
 clad  crests  of  the  Corddleras,  whence  is  visible  the  distant 
 Pacific  Ocean,  here  never  lashed  to  fury  by  blustering 
 storms.  Everywhere  the  bare  sandstone  crops  up,  inter- 
 sected by  masses  of  gneiss  and  granite,  a luxuriant  vegeta- 
 tion bursting  forth  only  in  places  where  the  earth  has 
 accumidated  in  the  strangely-formed  valleys,  here  the 
 result  of  volcanic  action,  subsequently  moulded  by  glacial 
 and  aqueous  agencies.  But  on  the  coast  there  is  a dearth 
 of  water,  so  that  a productive  vegetation  is  found  only  in 
 the  elevated  valley  skirting  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
 coast  range. 
 
 2.  Mineral  Wealth. 
 
 The  northern  districts,  as  far  south  as  Coquimbo,  like 
 the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  coasts,  being  in  the  almost  rain- 
 less zone  of  western  South  America,  are  arid  and  unproduc- 
 tive ; but  the  country  south  of  Coquimbo,  possessing  abun- 
 dance of  water,  is  well  cultivated  or  wooded,  and  forms 
 what  its  inhabitants  call  “the  garden  of  the  ISTew  World.” 
 
374  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 But  even  the  barren  northern  portions  are  indemnified  by 
 theii’  great  mineral  wealth,  containing  inexhaustible  de- 
 posits of  valuable  metals.  The  whole  province  of  Ata- 
 cama is  one  vast  mine.  Wherever  the  trouble  has  been 
 taken  to  look  for  them,  treasures  of  mineral  ores  or  alkalies, 
 valuable  as  articles  of  commerce,  have  been  found,  amongst 
 which  may  be  enmnerated  salt,  borax,  copper,  iron,  gyp- 
 sum, cobalt,  lead,  gold,  silver,  and  saltpetre. 
 
 MINKS  OF  CARACOLES. 
 
 The  amazing  number  of  the  mines  may  be  imagined 
 from  the  fact  that  in  the  first  district  of  Caracoles  alone 
 upwards  of  4000  silver  mines  have  been  discovered  and 
 surveyed,  and  have  already  been  assessed.  Caracoles  (from 
 caracal,  a snail-shell)  is  so  named  from  the  mountains 
 consisting  mostly  of  a rich  fossiliferous  shelly  limestone 
 abounding  in  ammonites.  In  1873  the  bar  silver  exported 
 from  the  ports  of  this  place,  and  on  which  duty  was  le\ded, 
 amounted  to  375,000  kilogi-ammes,  valued  at  £75,000, 
 although,  owing  to  the  drought,  tlie  heavy  transit  charges. 
 
VALPAEAISO, 
 
 375 
 
 and  the  high  rate  of  wages,  only  a few  mines  were  worked 
 in  that  year.  Bolivian  political  troubles  were  formerly 
 an  obstacle  to  the  development  of  the  resources  of  Cara- 
 coles, but  there  is  a better  chance  of  future  prosperity, 
 now  that  it  is  about  to  be  annexed  to  the  Chilian  Ee- 
 public  as  a consequence  of  the  war.  The  mining  country 
 of  northern  Chil^  extends  southward  by  lUapel  and  Con- 
 chah.  towards  Valparaiso ; the  country  having  a rugged, 
 barren  appearance,  coated  only  with  a thin  mantle  of 
 green  after  the  scanty  rains  which  fall  at  wide  intervals. 
 
 3.  Valparaiso  and  NeigKbourlwod — Juan  Fernandez. 
 
 The  most  important  port  on  the  Chilian  coast  is  Val- 
 paraiso, that  is  the  “Vale  of  Paradise,”  with  98,000 
 inhabitants,  and  situated  in  a district  containing  very  little 
 wood  and  water.  ISlevertheless  Valparaiso  produces  a 
 very  pleasant  effect  on  the  visitor,  although  one  feels 
 inclined  to  fear  lest  the  steep  hill,  houses  and  all,  may 
 topple  at  any  moment  into  the  sea ; for  the  situation  of 
 Valparaiso  is  altogether  peculiar.  A high  and  broad 
 mountain  ridge  forms  a crescent  round  the  wide  bay, 
 towards  the  shores  of  which  it  descends  in  steep  escarp- 
 ments. Fifteen  or  sixteen  watercourses  have  furrowed 
 the  slopes  of  this  coast  ridge,  forming  the  so-called  em- 
 brados,  or  deep  dells,  both  sides  of  which  are  dotted  all 
 over  with  houses  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  imparting  a very 
 singular  appearance  to  the  city. 
 
 Along  the  shore  skirting  the  bay  runs  the  circular 
 road,  between  the  edge  of  the  water  and  the  overhanging 
 cliffs,  formed  partly  by  filling  in  the  low-lying  beach,  and 
 partly  by  blasting  away  the  projecting  rocks.  This  road- 
 way forms  the  great  artery  of  Valparaiso,  and  is  skirted 
 by  elegant  warehouses,  banks,  government  and  other 
 public  buildings.  According  to  the  width  of  the  various 
 
376  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 furrows  in  the 
 hillside,  the 
 lower  parts  of 
 the  city  gain 
 more  or  less 
 easy  access  to 
 the  outlets  of 
 the  valleys, 
 while  a path 
 vdnds  up  every 
 declivity  of  the 
 Cerro,  the  pla- 
 teau of  wliich 
 is  covered  more 
 or  less  densely 
 with  houses. 
 
 The  foreign 
 element  in  the 
 population  of 
 Valparaiso  is 
 very  consider- 
 able, and  the 
 numerous  for- 
 eign residents 
 evince  a greater 
 tendency  to  be- 
 come natural- 
 ised than  in 
 other  parts  of 
 South  America. 
 They  have 
 mainly  contri- 
 buted to  the 
 rapid  commer- 
 cial prosperity 
 
ROBINSON  CRUSOE. 
 
 377 
 
 of  the  place,  though  herein  seconded  by  the  enlightened  spirit 
 of  the  upper  classes  amongst  the  natives.  The  English, 
 Americans,  and  Germans  have  been  mostly  instrumental 
 in  this,  whilst  the  French  and  Italians  have  chiefly  helped 
 to  diffuse  the  lighter  elegancies  of  civilisation.  The  city 
 offers  most  of  the  advantages  possessed  by  places  of  larger 
 extent  and  importance  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
 has  its  places  of  public  amusement,  besides  the  charms  of 
 private  society,  on  a considerable  scale.  Large  mail 
 steamers  ply  continually  between  the  port  and  Europe, 
 both  by  the  northern  route  vid  Panama,  and  the  southern 
 by  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  thus  keeping  up  quick  and 
 frequent  intercourse  with  the  great  centres  of  civilisation. 
 
 At  some  considerable  distance  off  the  coast  of  Val- 
 paraiso lies  the  interesting  group  of  islands  called  Mas  h. 
 fuera.  Mas  a tierra,  and  Juan  Fernandez,  on  the  last  of 
 which  the  Scottish  sailor,  Alexander  Selldrk,  led  a solitary 
 hfe  for  some  time,  and  became  the  model  of  Defoe’s 
 Eobinson  Crusoe ; although  the  site  of  Crusoe’s  island 
 agrees  better  with  that  of  Tobago  or  some  other  of  the 
 West  Indian  group  than  with  this  solitar}''  spot  in  the 
 Southern  Seas.  The  incident  has  recently  been  com- 
 memorated by  a monument  set  up  on  the  spot  by  the 
 officers  of  the  Challenger  when  she  touched  here  in  1 8 7 5 
 on  her  cruise  round  the  world.  In  1868  the  island, 
 which  is  often  visited  by  whalers  for  water,  was  purchased 
 by  the  Saxon  engineer,  Eobert  Wehrdan,  who  has  founded 
 a German  colony  there.  Being  well  pro\dded  with  all 
 necessary  appliances  for  tilling  the  land  and  raising  stock, 
 the  young  colony  would  seem  to  be  already  in  a very 
 prosperous  way. 
 
 4.  Santiago  de  UhiU. 
 
 Valparaiso  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  political 
 capital  of  the  republic,  the  famous  city  of  Santiago  de 
 
378  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AKD  TRAVEL. 
 
 Chile,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  line 
 leads  by  Leniache  into  the  QuiUota  valley,  thence  bind- 
 ing through  the  gorges  of  the  central  range  dovn  to  the 
 valley  of  Santiago. 
 
 The  city  enjoys  an  exceptional  reputation  throughout 
 America  for  its  well-paved,  broad,  and  cj,ean  streets. 
 Some  wealthy  owners  of  mines  and  large  landed  proprietors 
 have  here  erected  many  sumptuous  buildings,  rivalling  in 
 splendour-the  palaces  of  princes.  But,  apart  from  these 
 not  over-numerous  exceptions,  the  architecture  of  the  place 
 has  been  wisely  kept  within  the  limits  consistent  with 
 economy  and  comfort,  cleanliness  and  adaptability  to  the 
 climatic  conditions.  Hence  most  of  the  houses  are  built 
 in  the  old  Spanish  style,  and  only  one  story  high,  as  a 
 precaution  against  the  frequent,  and  at  times  terrific  earth- 
 quakes by  which  the  country  is  visited. 
 
 Tramways  have  been  laid  down  in  the  main  thorough- 
 fares, by  which  passengers  are  conveyed  right  across  the 
 whole  city  from  the  east  to  the  west  end  at  very  low 
 rates,  while  hackney  carriages  are  sufficiently  numerous 
 for  more  special  traffic.  Owing  to  the  straggling  character 
 of  the  suburbs,  Santiago  covers  a large  extent  of  ground 
 for  its  population  of  148,300.  The  best  view  of  the  place 
 is  afforded  by  the  Cerro  Santa  Lucia,  a reddish  porphyry 
 crag  rising  abruptly  from  the  very  heart  of  the  city. 
 This  hiU  has  been  converted  into  a favourite  resort  of  the 
 citizens,  and  is  Kt  by  gas.  Besides  this  there  is  the 
 Alameda,  or  public  promenade,  forming  a triple  avenue 
 more  than  half  a mile  long, and  about  100  yards  wide.  The 
 central  avenue  is  very  fine,  with  its  double  row  of  trees, 
 between  which  flows  a little  stream,  flanked  by  seats  and 
 pavilions  for  the  bands  that  enliven  the  scene  with  then- 
 music,  especially  on  Sundays  and  holidays.  The  long 
 range  of  the  Cordillera,  with  its  continuous  line  of  snow- 
 capped peaks,  forms  a limit  to  the  view  westward,  and 
 adds  greatly  to  the  grandeur  of  the  prospect. 
 
THE  HU  AO. 
 
 379 
 
 5.  Inhxhitants — The  Indians  and  Half-Castes. 
 
 The  pea,ceful,  industrious,  and  enlightened  population 
 of  Chil4  consists  mostly  of  half-caste  whites  and  Indians, 
 the  pure  hlood  Europeans  being  found  in  the  best  fami- 
 lies only.  The  church  here,  as  elsewhere  throughout 
 Spanish  America,  exercises  a powerful  influence  over  the 
 people,  but  an  influence  in  this  case  generally  benefi- 
 cial, owing  chiefly  to  the  higher  personal  character  of  the 
 priests.  There  has  been  no  lack  of  the  usual  struggles 
 for  power  between  the  two  great  opposing  parties,  Liberals 
 and  Clericals,  and  the  latter  are  not  whoUy  exempt  from 
 the  charge  of  desiring  to  dominate  in  secular  matters. 
 
 The  features  and  complexion  of  the  lower  classes  are 
 . strongly  marked  by  the  Indian  element,  though  less  so  in 
 ! the  capital  than  elsewhere.  Yet  these  dark  countenances, 
 with  their  thick  black  hair,  thicker  and  longer  in  the 
 women  than  the  men,  are  not  deficient  in  a certain  agree- 
 ( able  expression,  although  really  handsome  features  are 
 I rarely  met  with  in  either  sex.  But  they  are  not  naturally 
 industrious,  and  can  he  induced  by  necessity  alone  to 
 [,  devote  themselves  to  hard  work.  The  Chilian  miner  is 
 doubtless  an  excellent  worker,  but  he  displays  his  skill 
 chiefly  where  the  mine  is  rich  and  afibrds  plenty  of 
 opportimity  for  pilfering. 
 
 The  life  of  the  “ huao,”  on  horseback  in  the  open 
 country,  best  suits  the  half-breed  descendants  of  the 
 Spaniard  and  Indian,  and,  like  the  inhabitants  of  all  the 
 warmer  climates,  they  love  best  the  dolce  far  niente.  Yet 
 : it  is  pleasant  to  see  the  enormous  herds  of  cattle  and 
 
 horses  grazing  on  the  pasture  lands  along  the  river-beds, 
 and  attended  by  the  huao,  enveloped  in  his  poncho,  and 
 amusing  himself  with  the  falcon  on  his  wrist,  while  the 
 real  work  of  looking  after  the  herds  is  done  by  a speci- 
 men of  the  fine  breed  of  wolf-dogs  of  the  country,  crouch- 
 , ing  at  his  feet. 
 
380 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 6.  The  Whites — Social  Manners. 
 
 Very  remarkable  is  the  extraordinary  way  in  which 
 the  pure  white  race  thrives  in  Chil4 ; both  men  and  women, 
 but  especially  the  latter,  combining  all  the  elements  of 
 physical  beauty  in  their  persons.  The  better  classes,  the 
 aristocracia  de  sangre  azul,  as  they  call  themselves  in  Sant- 
 iago, are  very  careful  of  their  outward  appearance,  and 
 particular  in  their  social  demeanour,  without  doing  the 
 least  \dolence  to  the  liveliness  of  their  southern  tempera- 
 ment. The  ladies  combine  grace  and  dignity  with  an 
 inborn  ease,  which  is  perhaps  aU  the  more  surprising  as  it 
 is  found  in  a place  so  far  removed  from  other  centres 
 of  taste  and  ciilture.  But  it  may  be  explained  by  the 
 cii’cumstance  that  most  of  them  have  either  visited  or 
 been  educated  in  Europe. 
 
 The  tone  of  society  is  very  agreeable  and  friendly. 
 Once  introduced,  one  is  made  to  feel  perfectly  at  home, 
 and  may  always  rely  on  a hearty  welcome.  But  what 
 cbstiuguislies  the  Chilian  most  favourably  from  his  neigh- 
 bours is  an  honourable  love  of  his  country ; for  the  Chilian 
 is  a genuine  patriot,  and  it  is  not  perhaps  surprising  that 
 strangers  settled  in  the  country  become  gradually  inspired 
 by  the  patriotic  feelings  of  the  people  amongst  whom 
 their  lot  is  cast.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  little  nation 
 growing  up  on  the  Pacific  slopes  of  the  Southern  Cor- 
 dilleras becomes  dally  strengthened  by  the  accession  of 
 immigrants,  who  had  originally  no  intention  of  settling 
 permanently  in  the  country.  All  strangers  are  loud  in 
 their  praises  of  the  courteous  and  friendly  character  of 
 the  Chdians,  and  it  would  be  unfair  not  to  recognise  in 
 the  fullest  manner  the  good  repute  they  bear  in  this 
 respect.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  higher  classes 
 are  animated  by  the  sincerest  love  of  their  homes,  their 
 
POVERTY. 
 
 381 
 
 people,  and  their  country,  and  that  a nation  so  circum- 
 stanced is  taking  the  very  best  course  towards  securing 
 the  noblest  objects  of  political  and  social  Hfe,  in  every  sense 
 of  the  word. 
 
 7.  The  Land  Qtiestion — Popidation — Emigration. 
 
 At  the  same  time  the  dark  side  of  the  picture  pre- 
 sented by  the  political  atmosphere  of  Chile  cannot  he 
 overlooked.  The  conditions  of  land-tenure  have  given 
 rise  to  much  political  strife.  For  there  are  here  no  small 
 tenantry,  no  peasant  class,  nothing  in  fact  hut  hired 
 labourers  of  the  large  landed  proprietors.  The  families  of 
 the  oligarchy  have  secured  to  themselves  the  possession  of 
 the  whole  land,  and  the  poor  wretches  employed  hy  them 
 are  really  worse  off  than  slaves,  or  than  the  Eussian  serfs 
 were  before  their  emancipation.  The  abject  poverty  ot 
 the  labouring  classes  in  Chile  can  scarcely  be  paralleled 
 elsewhere  in  the  whole  world,  it  being  here  the  result  of 
 over-population.  It  is  a fact,  attested  by  the  official 
 returns,  that  in  consequence  of  this  intolerable  state  of 
 things  no  less  than  30,000  labourers  migrated  in  one 
 year  to  Peru,  where  they  have  been  chiefly  engaged  on  the 
 great  railway  lines  already  described. 
 
 According  to  the  census  taken  on  April  G,  1866, 
 Chile  had  a popidation  of  2,084,943,  without  reckoning 
 the  inhabitants  of  Araucania,  estimated  at  70,000,  and 
 of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  making  nearly  4000  more.  But 
 in  the  decade  between  1866  and  1875  there  was  a slight 
 falling  off,  the  census  of  1875  giving  a total  of  2,068,447. 
 In  proportion  to  its  population  no  country  in  the  world 
 sent  forth  such  a stream  of  emigrants  as  did  Chile  before 
 the  present  war  with  Peru.  According  to  the  carefully 
 prepared  returns  of  the  “ National  Society  of  Agriculture,” 
 there  is  one  emigrant  in  Germany  for  every  200  of  the 
 
382  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 population,  1 to  113  in  England,  1 to  2000  in  France, 
 but  in  Chil4  there  was  1 to  every  7 6 ! 
 
 The  great  tide  of  migration  flows  partly  over  the 
 Cordilleras  to  the  Argentine  States,  and  partly,  especially 
 in  more  recent  times,  to  the  hilly  districts  of  Peru,  where 
 agriculture  yields  better  returns,  and  the  day-labourer  is 
 better  paid.  Chile  has  sought  to  attract  its  share  of  the 
 stream  of  European  migration,  but  has  naturally  received 
 the  answer  that  if  the  prospects  of  settlers  are  so  bright  in 
 the  republic,  why  cannot  the  native  workmen  remain  there  ? 
 
 8.  Railway  Enterprise — Finanee — Riiblie  Instruction. 
 
 At  the  same  time  there  are  many  favourable  circum- 
 stances, indicating  a steady  progress  in  the  well-being  of 
 the  country,  by  no  means  the  least  of  which  is  the 
 splendid  network  of  railways  now  completed  or  in  course 
 of  construction.  The  two  most  important  railways  open 
 for  traffic  are  the  lines  from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago,  115 
 miles  in  length,  and  from  Santiago  to  Curico,  116  miles 
 long.  Both  these  railways  belong  to  the  State.  The  line 
 from  S.  Filipe  to  Santa  Eosa  de  los  Andes  when  finished 
 will  bring  into  direct  communication  the  towns  of  Santa 
 Rosa,  Santiago,  and  Valparaiso,  and  confer  great  benefit 
 on  the  fertile  province  of  Aconcagua.  The  line  from 
 Talcahuano  to  Chilian,  the  recently  projected  line  from 
 Santiago  to  Valparaiso,  vid  IMelipiEa,  and  the  grand 
 railways  from  Curico  to  Chilian,  and  from  Malboa  to  the 
 Araucanian  frontier,  wiU  complete  the  system.  At  the 
 end  of  1875,  the  total  length  of  lines  opened  for  traffic  was 
 820  miles,  209  miles  more  being  in  course  of  construc- 
 tion, some  of  which  have  since  been  completed.  The 
 telegraph  system  is  also  well  developed  in  the  country ; 
 there  being  at  the  end  of  1875,  2650  miles  of  line,  with 
 55  telegraph  offices. 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 383 
 
 ^Meantime  the  finances  of  the  republic  are  in  a very 
 flourishing  state.  The  total  trade  of  the  country  (includ- 
 ing exports  and  imports)  averaged  in  the  years  1871-5 
 fourteen  millions  sterling.  The  foreign  commerce  is 
 carried  on  mainly  with  Great  Britain,  while  France  stands 
 next  on  the  list,  followed  by  Germany,  the  United  States, 
 and  Peru.  The  pubhc  revenue  amounted  in  1874  to 
 £3,132,344,  which  was  in  advance  of  previous  years. 
 Unlike  the  great  majority  of  the  Spanish  Eepuhlics,  Chil4 
 honourably  fulfils  its  obligations  to  its  foreign  creditors,  and 
 its  credit  stands  high  in  the  money  markets  of  the  world. 
 Public  instruction  is  likewise  steadily  progressing,  schools 
 are  on  the  increase,  and  agricultural  schools  have  lately 
 been  opened.  Santiago  possesses  a university,  with 
 museum  and  school  of  medicine  in  active  operation  ; and 
 the  scientific  journal  published  under  its  auspices,  the 
 Anodes  del  Universidad  de  ChiU,  compares  well  in  regard 
 to  the  value  of  its  papers  with  similar  publications  in  the 
 most  chdhsed  countries  of  Europe.  Altogether  in  no  other 
 of  the  Spanish  American  States  is  so  much  attention  paid 
 to  the  educational  interests  of  the  people.  The  leading 
 pohticians  have  proclaimed  the  development  of  instruction 
 as  the  basis  of  all  true  progress.  Every  province  has  its 
 gVTnnasium,  and  a normal  school  for  the  training  of  male 
 and  female  teachers  was  opened  in  Chil4  before  any 
 similar  institution  yet  existed  in  the  United  States.  There 
 are  938  elementary  schools,  and  a law  has  been  passed 
 by  which  the  number  is  to  be  raised  to  1670.  They 
 are  under  the  direction  of  superintendents,  the  general 
 superintendent  being  required  to  report  officially  on  them 
 once  a month,  these  reports  being  pubhshed  in  the  Monitor 
 de  las  Escuelas,  a periodical  devoted  to  educational  interests. 
 The  whole  outlay  for  the  public  schools  amounts  to 
 £224,000, an  enormous  sum  for  such  a young  country. 
 
384  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL, 
 
 9.  Politics — Public  Spirit  of  the  Aristocracy. 
 
 Hitherto  Chile  has  been  exempt  from  the  military 
 dictatorships  and  civil  warfare  by  which  the  other  Spanish 
 American  States  have  been  discredited  and  impoverished. 
 The  aristocracy  of  descent  and  territorial  possessions — for 
 of  course  no  titles  are  borne — forms  a somewhat  exclusive 
 social  circle,  living  harmoniously  together,  and  animated 
 by  the  best  feelings  towards  the  country.  They  conduct 
 the  affairs  of  State  in  the  most  upright  spnit,  and 
 often  at  the  sacrifice  of  their  own  private  interests,  a 
 circumstance  which  contributes  not  a little  to  keep  the 
 lower  classes  in  willing  obedience  to  the  laws.  Justice 
 is  administered  impartially,  and  with  sufficient  expedition, 
 while  social  order  is  irreproachable. 
 
 Chile  has  altogether  earned  the  reputation  of  a weU- 
 governed  and  orderly  state,  and  it  must  be  the  sincere 
 hope  of  all  admirers  of  rational  liberty  and  social  well- 
 being, that  it  may  be  spared  the  many  evils  by  which  aU 
 the  other  Spanish  American  States  have  been  so  sorely 
 tried. 
 
THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 
 
 385 
 
 CHAPTEE  XVIII. 
 
 THE  ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION. 
 
 1.  Vast  Extent — Physical  Aspect. 
 
 Next  to  the  Empire  of  Brazil  the  Argentine  Eepnhlic, 
 or  La  Plata,  claims  rule  over  the  largest  extent  of 
 territory  in  South  America.  Its  limits  were  until  re- 
 cently very  ill  defined,  especially  towards  the  south, 
 where  a large  part  of  Patagonia  was  long  in  dispute 
 between  Chil4  and  La  Plata.  But  the  frontier  was  de- 
 finitely arranged  in  1881,  in  such  manner  that  the 
 whole  of  Patagonia  east  of  the  Andes  remains  with  the 
 Argentine  Eepubhe,  whilst  the  shores  of  the  Straits  of 
 Magellan  belong  to  Chile,  Tierra  del  Fuego  being  shared 
 between  the  two  by  a dividing  line  north  and  south.  The 
 whole  territory  is  now  estimated  to  contain  1,215,000 
 square  miles. 
 
 The  monotonous  configuration  of  the  Argentine  terri- 
 tory has  already  been  amply  dwelt  upon,  and  it  will 
 suffice  here  to  add  that  the  detached  ranges  of  Cordova 
 and  San  Luis,  in  the  western  interior,  nowhere  more  than 
 7500  feet  high,  and  everywhere  accessible  and  inhabited, 
 and  the  loftier  slopes  of  the  Andes,  abound  in  ores  of  all 
 sorts. 
 
 2.  Minerals — Soil — Fossils. 
 
 Gold,  silver,  nickel,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron,  besides 
 2 c 
 
386 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGKAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 several  kinds  of  marble,  jasper,  precious  stones,  and 
 bitumen,  are  found  in  mountainous  districts  in  tbe  pro- 
 viuces  of  Cordova,  San  Luis,  Mendoza,  San  Juan,  Eioja, 
 and  Catamarca.  In  tbe  province  of  Jujuy,  and  on  the 
 Eio  Yermejo,  rich  petroleum  wells  have  also  been  dis- 
 covered, and  coal  exists  in  many  localities,  though  the 
 extent  and  probable  productiveness  of  the  beds  have  not 
 yet  been  ascertained.  Hitherto,  however,  the  yield  of 
 these  numerous  mineral  deposits  has  borne  no  proportion 
 to  then’  real  contents,  chiefly  owing  to  the  want  of  high- 
 ways and  means  of  transport.  StiE,  silver  and  copper  are 
 exported  to  a considerable  amount. 
 
 The  level  portions  of  the  land  are  almost  exclusively 
 of  Tertiary  formation,  the  river  and  coast  regions  consist- 
 ing mainly  of  alluvial  soE  of  extraordinary  fertiEty.  The 
 rich  mould  of  these  districts  has  a depth  of  from  one  to 
 seven  feet,  and  it  lies  on  a sandy  clay  that  becomes 
 harder  and  harder  the  lower  it  gets.  This  Tertiary  pampas 
 clay  is  the  formation  in  which  have  been  discovered  those 
 celebrated  fossE  animals,  such  as  the  megatherium,  one  of 
 the  giants  of  the  primeval  world,  allied  to  the  sloth,  the 
 giant  armadiEo,  and  many  other  extinct  forms.  Good 
 wholesome  water  is  met  with  almost  everj^where  at  depths 
 of  from  1 0 to  7 0 feet.  Stone,  however,  is  very  rare,  though 
 the  sand  of  the  rivers,  especially  the  Uruguay,  is  often 
 mingled  with  a sort  of  fhnty  pebbles,  consisting  of  car- 
 neEans,  agates,  onyxes,  and  jasper. 
 
 3.  Climate — The  Pamperos — Bainfall — Vegetation. 
 
 The  cEmate  of  La  Plata  is  exceptionaEy  fine,  pleasant, 
 and  salubrious,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  Cape  and  New 
 Zealand,  l}dng  between  nearly  the  same  paraEels  of  lati- 
 tude. The  maximum  temperature  does  not  exceed  97° 
 Fahr.,  especiaEy  south  of  30°  S.  latitude,  and  this  is  a 
 
SEASONS. 
 
 387 
 
 temperature  which  does  not  materially  affect  the  Euro- 
 pean, even  when  engaged  in  field  labour.  The  winters 
 are  short  and  mild,  the  mornings  being  frosty  and  the 
 evenings  cool,  but  the  cold  during  the  day  very  moderate ; 
 consequently  agricultural  operations  can  be  continued  with- 
 out interruption  throughout  the  year. 
 
 The  seasons,  in  a country  situated  like  this  in  the 
 Southern  hemisphere,  are,  of  course,  the  reverse  of  those 
 of  Europe,  the  shortest  day  being  June  2 1st  and  the  longest 
 December  21st;  but  the  difference  in  the  length  of  day  is 
 perceptibly  less  than  in  northern  Europe,  owing  to  the 
 much  lower  latitude.  It  rains  far  less  frequently  than  in 
 western  Europe,  and  the  sky  is  nearly  always  clear  and 
 imclouded.  Eain,  as  a rule,  is  produced  only  by  the 
 stormy,  blustering,  pampero  winds,  blowing  from  the  south- 
 west, and  dispersing  all  noxious  vapours  and  exhalations. 
 Other  winds  also  prevail,  and  a perfect  calm  is  a rare 
 phenomenon. 
 
 The  rains  accompanying  the  pamperos  are  very  bene- 
 ficial, being  usually  sufficient  for  agricultural  purposes, 
 especially  when  due  attention  is  paid  to  them  in  conduct- 
 ing field  operations.  Under  such  favourable  conditions 
 of  soil  and  climate  vegetation  is  naturally  very  luxuriant, 
 though  in  the  south  consisting  mainly  of  grasses  and  brush- 
 wood. The  woodlands  begin  about  the  latitude  of  Santa 
 Fe,  becoming  denser  and  more  extensive  as  we  proceed 
 northwards,  until  the  vegetable  growth  gradually  assumes 
 a tropical  character.  The  river  banks  and  the  large  islands 
 of  the  Parana  are  overgrown  with  an  exuberant  wealth  of 
 trees,  creeping  plants,  and  gorgeous  flowers ; lower  dowu 
 the  islands  are  chiefly  wooded  with  a species  of  willow. 
 In  the  northern  districts  we  meet  with  valuable  nut-pro- 
 ducing plants  and  fruit-trees.  AH  European  fruits — fore- 
 most amongst  which  is  the  vine — have  been  successfully 
 introduced ; as  has  been  also  the  case  with  the  European 
 
388 
 
 COMPEXDimi  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AHD  TRAVEL. 
 
 domestic  animals,  some  of  vliich  have  here  again  run  wild. 
 Countless  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  flocks  of  sheep, 
 roam  over  these  boundless  plains,  where  they  multiply 
 more  rapidly  than  in  Europe. 
 
 4.  Inhabitants—  Whites — Indians. 
 
 As  regards  the  inhabitants  it  may  he  remarked  that 
 the  various  races  have  been  less  intermingled  here 
 than  in  any  other  South  American  cormtry.  The  Euro- 
 pean invaders  found  the  vast  Pampas  only  very  thinly 
 peopled  by  nomad  Indian  tribes,  so  that  there  was, 
 on  the  one  hand,  no  such  disproportion  in  number  be- 
 tween the  European  and  native  elements  here  as  else- 
 where ; while,  on  the  other,  the  blending  of  the  two  was 
 largely  prevented  by  the  nomad  life  of  the  aborigines 
 themselves,  who,  by  shifting  their  quarters,  could  always 
 readily  avoid  any  contact  with  the  whites.  Hence,  no- 
 where else  are  so  many  families  to  be  met  with  who  are 
 the  direct  descendants  of  the  first  European  conquerors. 
 Xegroes  also  have  been  imported  in  very  limited  numbers, 
 so  that  no  gxeat  blending  could  take  place  between  the 
 so-called  Caucasian  and  the  African  races. 
 
 Being  thus  less  tainted  by  alliances  with  inferior 
 races,  the  inhabitants  of  La  Plata  hear  a far  more  European 
 character  than  most  other  South  American  peoples.  The 
 white  element  has  here  been  always  numerically  in  the 
 ascendant,  and  is  consequently  much  more  ready  to  receive 
 fresh  additions  from  the  home  countries.  Here  the  Emo- 
 pean  immigrants,  if  themselves  otherwise  of  a good  stock, 
 have  nothing  to  fear  from  debasing  alliances  with  the 
 natives,  nor  are  they  driven  to  a pohcy  of  native  extirpa- 
 tion in  order  to  preserve  themselves. 
 
IMMIGRANTS. 
 
 389 
 
 5.  Recent  Immigration  from  Europe. 
 
 These  favourable  cixcmnstances  have  attracted  a con- 
 siderable stream  of  European  immigration  in  recent  times, 
 the  numbers  who  arrived  in  1872  being  calculated  at 
 37,000.  The  annual  arrivals  rose  to  79,700  in  1873, 
 and  were  68,277  in  1874.  The  predominating  element 
 in  this  great  migration  is  the  Italian,  those  irreproachable 
 models  of  thrift  and  economy.  They  are  already  reckoned 
 on  the  Plata  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  nearly  all 
 of  them  naturalise  themselves  in  their  new  home.  The 
 most  numerous,  next  to  them,  are  the  Basques,  of  whom 
 there  are  50,000,  settled  mainly  in  the  province  of  Buenos 
 Ayres  ; but  there  is  also  a great  French  and  English 
 population,  besides  Germans  and  Swiss,  the  latter  espe- 
 cially in  a very  prosperous  way.  The  English  have 
 generally  embarked  in  sheep-farming,  as  in  Australia, 
 purchasing  large  tracts  of  the  rich  pasture  lands  of  the 
 Pampas.  The  Argentine  Government  devotes  great  atten- 
 tion to  the  colonisation  question,  actively  promoting  the 
 peopling  of  the  country  by  this  means.  Emigmtion  has 
 dechned  considerably  during  the  last  few  years,  partly 
 OMung  to  the  great  check  given  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
 country  by  overtrading.  Such  difficulties  have  been  en- 
 countered in  aU  rapidly  rising  colonies,  and  are  known  to 
 be  only  temporary. 
 
 6.  Landed  Proprietors  and  the  Lalouring  Classes — 
 Provincial  Towns. 
 
 Speaking  generally,  we  find  the  aristocratic  element 
 in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  land,  while  the 
 lower  classes,  partly  half-castes,  are  employed  by  them  in 
 the  capacity  of  capatazes  and  peones — that  is,  overseers 
 and  labourers — tending  their  countless  herds,  and  leading 
 
390 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 a real  nomad  life,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  Asiatic  steppes. 
 
 In  this  way  the  main  features  of  the  interior  of  the 
 country  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  day.  The 
 Italian  immigrants  singularly  enough  betake  themselves 
 largely  to  river-life,  and  are  in  great  numbers  employed 
 in  navigating  and  trading  from  port  to  port.  The  wealthy 
 landed  proprietors  generally  spend  the  greater  part  of  the 
 year  in  the  capitals  of  their  respective  provinces,  visiting 
 their  estancias  only  in  the  summer.  Hence  their  exist- 
 ence is  passed  in  rather  a narrow  groove,  between  town 
 and  steppe  life,  the  one  civilised,  the  other  half  barbarous. 
 In  the  towns  we  meet  with  every  comfort,  besides  great 
 luxury,  and  of  course  aU  the  latest  Parisian  fashions. 
 Nor  is  the  theatre  wanting,  while  brilliant  hotels,  cafes, 
 and  billiard-rooms,  are  met  at  every  corner. 
 
 But  a few  miles  outside  the  towns  we  find  ourselves 
 surrounded  by  a rude  and  solitary  nature,  so  remote  from 
 all  traces  of  civilised  life  that  we  might  fancy  ourselves 
 suddenly  transported  to  the  depths  of  a dreary  wilderness. 
 Throughout  the  whole  country  there  are  scattered  sixteen 
 such  provincial  towns,  mostly  with  but  a few  thousand 
 inhabitants  each,  the  most  noteworthy  being  Eosario, 
 Cordova,  Tucuman,  Santa  Fe,  Corrientes,  and  Mendoza. 
 But  none  of  them  approach  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital  of 
 the  Confederation,  in  importance. 
 
 7.  Buenos  Ayres. 
 
 Buenos  AjTes  is  laid  out  as  a regular  square,  the 
 streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  as  is 
 usually  the  case  with  all  towns  in  the  New  World.  The 
 central  portion  especially  is  well  built,  with  beautiful 
 churches,  including  an  English  one,  and  fine  warehouses 
 in  every  direction.  But  the  streets  being  somewhat  hiUy, 
 
1 
 
 BUENOS  AYRES, 
 
 391 
 
 and  the  footpaths  kept  as  far  as  possible  on  the  level, 
 these  are  in  some  places  rather  too  elevated  above  the 
 roadway.  Hence  the  pedestrian  has  to  descend  at  every 
 street  corner  eight  or  ten  breakneck  steps,  so  slippery 
 with  dirt  that,  in  the  absence  of  an  “ alpenstock,”  he  has 
 to  slide  rather  than  attempt  to  walk  down  them.  The 
 feat  successfully  accomplished,  he  has  still  many  pitfalls 
 to  guard  against,  such  as  deep  ruts  and  holes,  reckless 
 
 riders,  and  other  snares  of  the  kind.  The  footpaths, 
 however,  afford  a free  view  of  the  interior  of  the  houses, 
 where  the  senoras  and  senoritas,  generally  in  neglige,  and 
 reclining  in  their  rocking-chairs,  may  be  seen  smoking 
 cigarettes  at  their  ease  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 
 Some  elegant  lacework  may  possibly  be  lying  near  at 
 hand,  but  reading  or  writing,  to  say  nothing  of  plain 
 needlework,  or  in  fact  work  of  any  sort,  are  things  quite 
 beneath  the  consideration  of  the  Argentine  ladies.  It  is 
 
392  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRA'\T:L. 
 
 otherwise  with  the  daughters  of  Europeans,  M'ho  receive 
 the  same  education  as  in  the  home  country. 
 
 The  fashions  are  rapidly  imitated,  and  any  Parisian 
 or  London  novelty  will  he  found  universally  adopted  by 
 “ the  young  men  about  town  ” in  Buenos  Ayres,  within 
 thirty  days  of  its  introduction  in  Europe.  An  indescrib- 
 able hahel  of  tongues  prevails  in  the  cafes,  which  are 
 mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  Italians.  But  as  a rule  the 
 genuine  native  of  La  Plata  rather  looks  down  on 
 foreigners,  calling  them  gringos,  though  admitting  their 
 superiority  in  business  matters. 
 
 8.  The  Gauchos. 
 
 The  town  population  dress  like  Europeans,  obey  the 
 laws,  attend  to  the  education  of  their  children,  and  in 
 most  other  respects  think  and  act  like  cmlised  beings 
 everywhere.  Very  different  is  the  case  with  the  inhabit- 
 ants of  the  country  districts  and  boundless  gvassy  plains, 
 especially  Avith  the  Gcmchos,  that  is,  the  half-caste  descend- 
 ants of  Indian  women  and  the  first  Spanish  adA^enturers 
 and  freebooters.  This  class,  however,  is  becoming  less 
 numerous,  gradually  disappearing  before  the  progress  of 
 cwilisation,  if  such  an  expression  can  be  at  all  applied  to 
 the  state  of  things  in  these  regions.  But  the  word  Gaucho 
 itself,  Avhich  formerly  bore  a somewhat  honourable  mean- 
 ing, is  noAv  often  applied  to  a class  of  men  a\Eo  are 
 generally  too  lazy  to  work,  and  in  many  cases  take  to 
 horse,  sheep,  and  cattle  stealing,  making  short  work  of 
 the  OAvmers  themseh^es,  should  they  show  themsehms  too 
 zealous  or  troublesome  in  the  defence  of  their  property. 
 
 These  rural  gentry  haA^e  altogether  a different  dress, 
 different  manners,  and  different  AA’ays  of  thinking,  from 
 the  urban  population.  Indeed,  they  AS'ill  have  nothing  to 
 do  Avith  the  townsfolk,  regarding  them  as  strangers,  and 
 
:iAUCH()  ISHKAKIXG  IX  A HOR.SE. 
 
GAUCHOS. 
 
 393 
 
 looking  with  contempt  on  their  luxurious  habits  and 
 steady  social  ways.  Tlie  inhabitant  of  the  Pampas  is  above 
 all  a horseman,  a breeder  of  cattle,  a half-savage  shepherd. 
 
 A GAUCHO. 
 
 but  not  a rover  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  For  the 
 land  on  which  he  grazes  his  herds  is  his  undisputed 
 property ; here  he  leads  a solitary  life,  miles  removed  from 
 his  fellows,  and  associating  with  none  except  the  estancieros 
 of  neighbouring  runs.  There  are  no  organised  societies, 
 
394  COJIPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 • 
 
 no  community  of  feeling,  no  schools,  but  a great  deal  of 
 superstition. 
 
 These  people  are  passionate  gamesters,  like  Spanish 
 Americans  generally,  especially  of  the  lower  class.  From 
 their  earliest  youth  they  are  taught  to  throw  the  lasso 
 (practising  at  first  on  calves  and  goats),  to  tether  colts, 
 and  to  ride.  The  Gaucho,  whose  blood  is  greatly  mixed, 
 has  retained  little  of  the  Spanish  element,  beyond  the 
 gross  superstitions  and  the  speech  of  that  race.  Li^dng 
 in  the  midst  of  a wild  and  open  nature,  he  has  developed 
 an  overhearing,  unbending  character.  As  already  remarked, 
 he  despises  the  men  devoted  to  the  quiet  pursuits  of  a 
 town  life,  and  who  cannot  so  much  as  gvapple  with  a wild 
 bull  or  an  unbroken  horse. 
 
 As  a soldier  he  is  enduring,  brave,  and  ruthless.  For 
 he  has  been  accustomed  to  blood  from  his  tenderest  years, 
 and  he  makes  no  more  account  of  slaying  a man  than  of 
 poll-axing  an  ox.  He  is  strongly  built,  but  has  no  need 
 to  work,  as  liis  herds  provide  him  with  all  he  needs. 
 His  diet  for  weeks  together  is  often  nothing  but  beef, 
 without  even  the  admixture  of  vegetable  food.  He  is 
 altogether  an  original  tjqDe  of  humanity,  unaffected  by 
 the  ideas  and  practices  of  civilised  beings. 
 
 But  besides  the  genuine  Gaucho  there  are  other  wan- 
 dering individuals  who  may  justly  bear  the  same  name. 
 These  are  continually  on  the  move,  and  it  often  happens 
 that  one  is  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Buenos 
 Ayi-es,  who  two  or  three  weeks  before  was  seen  some 
 700  to  800  miles  away  in  northernmost  provinces  of  the 
 state.  He  always  mounts  the  same  horse,  is  never  with- 
 out a cigarette  in  his  mouth,  and,  like  a genuine  Castilian, 
 will  salute  you  most  courteously  with  his  broad-brimmed 
 sombrero.  He  is  always  happy  and  contented,  interferes 
 with  nobody,  and  also  expects  that  nobody  will  interfere 
 with  him.  Even  the  authorities  fleece  the  Gaucho  as 
 
PROGRESS. 
 
 395 
 
 little  as  may  be,  and  never  meddle  with  his  affairs,  if 
 they  can  possibly  avoid  doing  so. 
 
 9.  Material  Progress — Trade — Education — Agriculture — 
 Cattle-Breeding. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned  circumstances 
 and  the  many  political  and  commercial  troubles  to  which 
 it  has  been  exposed,  the  Argentine  Eepubhc  is  on  the 
 whole  making  rapid  strides  in  advance,  in  social  and 
 political  life.  It  already  possesses  a fairly  developed 
 railway  system,  which  it  is  energetically  extending,  and 
 is  just  now  projecting  a line  across  the  Andes,  intended  to 
 bring  Buenos  Ayres  within  48  hours  of  Valparaiso.  No 
 less  than  1409  miles  of  railway  were  open  for  traffic  in 
 the  middle  of  1878,  and  1100  miles  were  in  course  of 
 construction,  besides  which  a large  extent  of  additional 
 line  has  been  sanctioned  by  the  Government. 
 
 The  trade  with  Europe  is  promoted  by  no  less  than 
 nine  ocean  steamship  companies.  In  the  five  years  from 
 1871  to  1875  the  value  of  the  imports  rose  from  9^  to 
 1 1 millions  sterhng,  and  that  of  the  exports  from  7 to  9 
 millions.  In  Buenos  Ayres  are  published  twenty-five 
 journals  and  periodicals,  amongst  which  are  eight  in  lan- 
 guages other  than  Spanish.  Some  twenty  English  joint- 
 stock  companies  have  introduced  a large  amount  of  capital, 
 which  has  been  applied  to  the  promotion  of  numerous 
 industrial  undertakings  in  the  country. 
 
 Public  instruction  is  well  cared  for,  every  town  in  the 
 interior  having  opened  morning  and  evening  schools, 
 gymnasiums,  and  other  institutions,  where  free  instruction 
 is  imparted  to  every  one.  The  cultivation  of  the  land  has 
 also  been  greatly  improved,  and  is  now  carried  on  by 
 means  of  all  the  best  English  and  North  American  agri- 
 cultural implements.  In  Chaco  there  are  some  dt)zen 
 
396 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 flourishing  colonies  that  have  brought  large  tracts  of  land 
 under  tillage.  Most  industries,  however,  are  yet  in  a 
 backward  state,  the  principal  articles  of  export  being 
 limited  to  wool,  hides,  and  taUow — the  raw  products  of  the 
 widespread  cattle-breeding  establishments.  At  the  sala- 
 deros,  or  slaughtering  places,  the  oxen  are  despatched  with 
 mechanical  precision  and  rapidity,  hut  also  with  much 
 brutality.  The  towns  are  now  mostly  provided  with 
 tramways,  fire  and  life  insurance  offices,  waterworks, 
 highways,  and  telegrapliic  systems,  bringing  them  into  con- 
 nection with  the  more  important  districts  in  the  country. 
 The  desire  of  improvement  is  also  testified  by  the  recent 
 establishment  of  cattle-shows  and  the  development  of  the 
 breed  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  to  say  notliing  of  horse- 
 races, which  have  become  a national  institution.  There 
 is  a society  in  Buenos  Aju’es,  as  we  learn  from  Mr.  Had- 
 field,  called  the  “ Sociedad  Emal  Argentina,”  wMch  has 
 published  its  tenth  annual  report,  consisting  of  a large 
 folio  volume,  dedicated  to  the  defence  of  the  rural  interests 
 of  the  country  and  to  the  propagation  of  a knowledge  of 
 afniculture  in  all  its  branches.  Xor  are  the  interests  of 
 
 O 
 
 pure  science  neglected,  as  the  handsome  volumes  of  the 
 publication  entitled  Anales  del  Museo  de  Buenos  Ayres 
 bear  ample  witness  to. 
 
 Thus  has  the  Argentine  Eepubhc  grown  out  of  its 
 state  of  pupilage,  and  has  now  become  a thriving  nation 
 with  a population  of  nearly  1,900,000  souls,  looking  for- 
 ward to  a bright  futme,  with  less  wavering  hopes  than 
 many  of  its  sister  republics. 
 
PARAGUAY. 
 
 397 
 
 CHAPTER  XIX. 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 1.  Limits — Physical  Asjject. 
 
 Paraguay,  the  Mesopotamia  of  South  America,  has  been 
 richly  endowed  by  nature,  few  countries  being  able  to 
 compare  with  it  in  this  respect.  On  the  east  and  south 
 the  Parana  forms  the  frontier  line  between  it,  Brazil,  and 
 the  Corrientes  missions,  while  on  the  west  it  is  separated 
 in  its  entire  length  from  el  Gran  Chaco  by  the  Paraguay, 
 one  of  the  finest  streams  in  the  world.  On  the  north 
 the  Rio  Apa  divides  it  from  the  Brazilian  pro\dnce  of 
 Matto  Grosso. 
 
 The  country,  thus  defined,  lies  just  outside  the  tropics, 
 between  22°  and  25°  S.  latitude.  The  configuration  of  the 
 land  is  very  varied.  Its  northern  and  eastern  districts  form 
 a table-land,  intersected  by  hilly  ranges,  which  dwindle 
 down  to  small  ridges,  connecting  them  with  the  highland 
 regions  and  level  uplands,  all  unusually  fertile.  The  chief 
 part  of  the  land  may,  in  fact,  be  looked  upon  as  a con- 
 tinuation of  the  great  interior  plateau  of  Brazil ; but  no 
 part  of  it  much  exceeds  2200  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
 sea.  In  the  lower  districts,  nearer  the  great  river  and  its 
 numerous  tributaries,  there  extend  strips  of  alluvial  plain 
 and  vast  marshy  lowlands,  for  a portion  of  the  year  under 
 water,  and  admirably  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  rice. 
 The  country  is  of  about  the  same  extent  as  England,  and 
 from  its  geographical  position  enjoys  all  the  advantages  of 
 a sub-tropical  climate. 
 
398  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 2.  Natural  Advantages. 
 
 Under  such  physical  conditions  and  climate,  it  is  not 
 surprising  that  the  products,  both  of  the  tropical  and  tem- 
 perate zone,  here  flourish  vigorously.  Under  a firmer 
 political  administration,  and  with  a more  numerous  and 
 industrious  population,  Paraguay  might  easily  become  one 
 of  the  richest  lands  in  the  world.  For,  apart  from  the 
 swampy  districts,  the  climate  itself  is  healthy,  although 
 warm.  Nor  is  the  position  of  the  country  unfavourable 
 to  its  development.  By  means  of  its  numerous  navigable 
 streams  it  has  easy  communication  on  the  one  hand  with 
 Central  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  to  the  north,  and  on  the  other 
 with  Monte  Video  and  Buenos  Ayres,  to  the  south,  thus 
 having  free  waterway  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
 
 3.  Population — Cheguered  History — Disastrous  Wars. 
 
 Yet  the  land  is  but  thinly  peopled  and  sparingly  cul- 
 tivated. The  great  and  wearily-protracted  war  carried  on 
 some  years  ago  by  it  with  Brazil,  La  Plata,  and  Uruguay, 
 cost  Paraguay  nearly  one  half  of  its  domain,  and  reduced 
 its  population  from  1,340,000  to  about  220,000,  of  whom 
 only  29,000  were  men,  the  remainder  being  women  and 
 children.  Hence,  for  want  of  labour,  its  resources  remain 
 at  present  almost  untouched,  but  very  small  quantities  of 
 its  products  being  exported.  Indigo  grows  wild,  but  the 
 most  important  product  at  present  of  the  country  is  the 
 mati,  or  Paraguay  tea,  the  dried  leaves  of  a species  of 
 Ilex,  which  the  Indians  gather  in  the  forests.  Besides 
 this,  the  land  yields  hard-grained  woods,  and  a little  tobacco 
 of  very  good  quality  is  cultivated.  The  whole  trade  of 
 the  coimtry  is  small — exports  and  imports  together  not 
 exceeding  half  a million  sterling  per  annum. 
 
 Paraguay  has  had  a strange  history,  that  may  here  be 
 
GUARANI  INDIANS. 
 
 399 
 
 briefly  summed  up.  The  original  inhabitants  were  almost 
 exclusively  Guarani  Indians,  a docile  people  trained  up 
 by  the  Jesuits  to  a certain  degree  of  civilisation,  for  in  no 
 part  of  the  world  were  the  missionary  establishments  of 
 this  powerful  order  so  successful  and  flourishing  as  here. 
 When  the  country  proclaimed  its  independence  of  Spain, 
 the  reins  of  government  were  seized  by  Dr.  Francia,  a well- 
 meaning  despot,  who,  during  his  long  administration, 
 carried  into  effect  his  ideas  of  advancing  the  material 
 interests  of  the  State  by  shutting  it  off  from  all  communi- 
 cation with  the  outer  world.  Under  his  government  Para- 
 guay was  for  a long  period  as  effectually  closed  as  was 
 Japan  before  it. 
 
 His  successor,  Lopez  I.,  pursued  substantially  the 
 same  exclusive  policy,  though  without  carrying  it  quite  so 
 far.  The  population  increased  considerably,  and  the 
 country  enjoyed  a certain  amount  of  prosperity.  But  his 
 son,  Solano  Lopez,  began  to  build  steamers,  arsenals,  rail- 
 ways, aimed  at  enlarging  the  frontiers  of  the  State,  and 
 meddled  with  the  trade  of  the  lower  La  Plata,  thereby  in- 
 volvmg  the  country  in  the  disastrous  war,  already  men- 
 tioned, with  its  neighbours — Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  La 
 Plata. 
 
 4.  The  Guarani  Indians. 
 
 Although  Spanish  is  the  official  language,  it  is  spoken 
 and  understood  by  but  very  few  of  the  people.  The  uni- 
 versal medium  of  communication  is  the  Indian  tongue — 
 the  Guarani — which  is  used  for  ordinary  puiqioses  even  by 
 the  fe^  whites  settled  in  the  country.  Even  at  the  time  of 
 the  war  of  independence  there  were  at  the  utmost  not  more 
 than  60,000  people  of  European  descent  in  Paraguay, 
 including  the  half-castes.  All  the  rest  were,  and  are  to 
 this  day,  pure-blood  Guaranis.  The  Guarani  language  is 
 rich  in  vowels,  and  euphonious  in  speech,  but  its  vocabu- 
 
400  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 lary  is  meagi’e.  It  has  great  resemblance  to  the  Tupi 
 spoken  by  kindred  tribes  along  the  Amazons  ; the  common 
 
 language,  indeed,  under  the  name  of  the  Tupi-Gnarani, 
 ■was  reduced  to  system  by  the  Jesuits,  and  printed  gi-am- 
 
GUAEANI  WOMEN. 
 
 401 
 
 mars  and  dictionaries  are  still  on  sale  in  booksellers’  shops 
 in  Brazil. 
 
 The  Guarani,  trained  by  the  Jesuits  to  the  most  im- 
 plicit obedience,  is  sluggish,  peaceful,  submissive,  hves 
 simply,  knowing  no  higher  wants,  and  with  his  family 
 leading  a patriarchal  life.  He  is  not  deficient  in  mechanical 
 ability ; being  a good  smith  and  worker  in  gold,  skilfully 
 imitating  the  patterns  laid  before  him.  But  he  lacks  the 
 inventive  faculty.  As  a soldier,  he  showed  in  the  wars 
 under  Lopez  a stubborn  courage  and  a stoical  fearlessness 
 of  death. 
 
 The  women  have  been  generally  more  favourably 
 spoken  of  than  the  stronger  sex.  Industrious  and  cheer- 
 ful, they  are  up  betimes  to  fetch  water,  always  walking 
 Indian  file  down  to  the  river  with  their  great  pitchers 
 balanced  on  their  heads.  When  empty,  these  are  deftly 
 poised  in  picturesque  and  graceful  attitudes,  the  bearer 
 walking  boldly  and  confidently  with  a firm  step.  Then- 
 single  garment  is  of  white  material,  contrasting  with 
 which  their  dark  complexion  appears  to  great  advantage. 
 The  smock,  or  rather  gown,  reaches  to  the  calves,  a cord 
 serving  the  purpose  of  a girdle,  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
 bosom  remaining  uncovered.  Pockets  or  baskets  they  do 
 not  encumber  themselves  with,  carrying  all  they  need  in 
 this  garment — cigars,  money,  and  aU  the  httle  trifles 
 usually  consigned  to  the  pocket. 
 
 Many  Guarani  women  are  very  finely  developed,  and 
 all  have  beautifid  teeth;  yet,  according  to  our  ideas,  the 
 type  can  scarcely  be  called  handsome,  the  cheek-bones 
 being  too  prominent  and  the  chin  too  square.  Their  large 
 black  eyes  are  shaded  by  heavy  brows,  and  their  raven 
 hair  is  also  very  thick.  All  the  women  smoke  tobacco, 
 and  are  mostly  seen  with  a huge  cigar  in  their  mouths. 
 Even  the  httle  children  smoke,  and  when  infants  are  rest- 
 less, mothers  have  been  seen  to  quiet  them  by  cramming 
 
 2 D 
 
402  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 their  mouth  "with  the  cigar  they  have  been  smoking. 
 Their  devotion  to  their  partners  in  life,  whether  joined  in 
 lawful  wedlock  or  not,  is  much  praised ; they  are  indus- 
 trious and  intelligent,  never  contradict,  and  are  remarkably 
 clean  and  tidy  in  all  things. 
 
 5.  Asuncion — Paraguari — Eailway  Travelling. 
 
 The  only  place  deserving  the  name  of  a town  is  the 
 capital,  Asuncion,  with  a present  population  of  18,000 
 souls.  Life  in  Asuncion  is  naturally  very  monotonous. 
 
 K.ilLWAY  TR.WELLING. 
 
 The  men  belonging  to  the  so-called  upper  classes  pass  their 
 time  in  drinking  mate,  smoking  cigars,  eating,  and  sleep- 
 ing, and  it  is  wonderful  how  human  beings  can  bring 
 themselves  to  endure  such  a vegetating  existence. 
 
 Asuncion  is  connected  by  a short  railway  of  45  miles 
 with  Paraguari.  The  carriages  are  of  North  American 
 build,  comfortable  and  elegant,  but  the  rails  have  been 
 very  carelessly  laid.  It  is  noteworthy  that  to  every  train 
 
FREE  CONVEYANCE. 
 
 403 
 
 are  attached  two  carriages,  or  rather  trucks,  on  which  the 
 poor,  with  all  their  little  effects,  are  conveyed  free  of 
 charge.  When  the  trains  run,  which  is  not  a regular 
 occurrence,  these  free  conveyances  are  always  crowded, 
 and  a large  number  of  naked  brown  legs  may  constantly 
 be  seen  dangling  in  the  air  as  the  train  jolts  along. 
 
 Paraguari  may  have  a population  of  some  3000,  hut 
 there,  as  elsewhere  in  this  unfortunate  country  the  state 
 of  things,  governmental  and  social,  is  one  of  complete 
 demoralisation. 
 
404  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTEE  XX. 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 1.  Physical  Aspect — Produce — Meat  Extract.  i 
 
 Uruguay,  or,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  Banda  Oriental 
 (“Eastern  Side”),  offers  stdl  less  subject  for  comment 
 than  Paraguay.  The  domain  of  this  republic  forms  a 
 sort  of  connecting  link,  between  the  country  of  southern 
 BrazU  and  that  of  the  Argentine  States.  In  the  north 
 we  have  a region  of  hiUs,  the  spurs  or  offshoots  of  the 
 South  Brazilian  ranges,  but  rising  to  an  elevation  of  little 
 more  than  2000  feet ; on  the  west  and  south  a gently 
 undulating  treeless  plain,  in  fact  a true  pampa,  extends  all 
 the  way  to  the  coast.  In  this  pampa  we  again  meet  with  ' 
 the  Gaucho  type  of  inhabitants,  and  cattle-breeding  is  the  | 
 
 most  important  and  almost  the  exclusive  occupation  of  the  j 
 
 people,  just  as  in  the  Pampas  of  the  Argentine  States.  At 
 the  Vienna  Exliibition  of  1873  the  industry  of  Uruguay  | 
 was  mainly  represented  by  presented  meat  imder  three 
 different  forms — as  an  extract,  as  dried  flesh  in  cases,  and  '• 
 simply  as  corned  beef.  i 
 
 Fray  Bentos,  on  the  Uruguay,  would  seem  to  be  the 
 centre  of  the  extract-of-meat  trade,  and  as  many  as  500 
 head  of  cattle  are  now  daily  slauglitered  in  that  place. 
 
 Hides,  tallow,  bone-ash,  wool,  and  sheep-skins,  besides 
 this  extract  of  meat,  are  the  principal  articles  of  export 
 trade  in  the  republic.  The  foreign  trade  is  of  considerable 
 
 i 
 
CATTLE-BREEDING. 
 
 405 
 
 2 . Inhabitants — Occupations — Sheep- Farming. 
 
 The  people  and  their  pursuits  are  here  nearly  the  same 
 as  in  La  Plata.  On  the  extensive  painpa  are  found  rich 
 estancias,  whose  owners,  the  estancicros,  possess  countless 
 herds  of  cattle.  Besides  cattle-breeding,  that  of  sheep  is 
 also  extensively  carried  on,  for  the  sake  of  the  wool,  Avhich 
 is  sent  in  a very  rough  state  to  Europe.  Many  estancieros 
 also  export  thither  prepared  and  dried  hides,  and  are  mak- 
 ing strenuous  efforts  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wool. 
 But  the  shearing  of  the  wretched  creatures  is  performed 
 after  a truly  barbarous  fashion.  For  here  the  sheep  itself 
 is  of  scarcely  any  value  at  all,  and  in  every  part  of  the 
 world  animals  are  estimated  and  treated  entirely  according 
 to  their  greater  or  less  market  value.  But  in  spite  of  all 
 the  losses  incurred  by  the  recklessness  of  their  owners,  and 
 
 importance,  imports  and  exports  together  amounting  to 
 about  six  millions  of  pounds  sterling  per  annum. 
 
 .SLAUGHTER-HOUSf:  IN  FRAY  BENTOS. 
 
406  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 the  great  mortality  prevailing  amongst  them,  the  flocks  go 
 on  daily  increasing  in  numbers  throughout  the  republic. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  vast  numbers  of  cows  attached 
 to  every  estancia,  scarcely  a drop  of  milk  is  anywhere 
 to  be  had.  Corn  also  is  very  little  cultivated.  The  people 
 have  no  idea  of  ploughing  the  land,  and  the  consequence 
 is  that  their  diet  consists  almost  exclusively  of  flesh,  hard 
 biscuit,  and  Paraguay  tea.  Butter  they  are  scarcely  ac- 
 quainted with,  and  dairy  cows  are  to  be  seen  only  where 
 the  proprietor  is  a European,  who  knows  how  to  appreciate 
 the  value  and  flavour  of  new  milk  and  fresh  butter. 
 
 3.  Monte  Video  and  Vicinity. 
 
 In  one  respect,  however,  Urugaiay  is  decidedly  in  ad- 
 vance of  the  Indian  Piepublic  of  Paraguay.  It  possesses 
 a large,  well-built,  and  pleasant  capital,  Monte  Video,  of 
 which  one-third  of  the  residents  are  foreigners. 
 
 Situated  on  a hill  of  moderate  height,  and  projecting 
 to  some  distance  into  the  sea,  Monte  Video  presents  a 
 charming  aspect,  vdth  its  compact  mass  of  white  houses, 
 and  its  lofty  cathedral  towering  above  all  the  surrormding 
 objects.  The  steep  streets  almost  invariably  command 
 a ^dew  of  the  sea,  and  are  carefully  paved,  and  provided 
 with  fine  footpaths,  though  sudden  doMmpours  of  rain  will 
 often  form  little  pools  and  puddles,  especially  in  the  poorer 
 quarters. 
 
 The  houses  are  built  in  the  usual  South  American 
 fashion.  The  roofs  are  flat  and  provided  with  iron  radings, 
 so  that  one  can  here  take  an  airing  of  an  evening  as  the 
 sun  sinks  into  the  sea,  or  as  the  friendly  moon  rises  enve- 
 loped in  a haze  lit  up  with  the  many  tints  of  the  rainbow. 
 On  these  roofs  are  also  often  raised  lofty  structures,  with 
 high  balconies,  seated  on  which  one  gets  an  extensive 
 prospect  seawards.  The  evening  is  usually  fine  and  cool. 
 
MONTE  VIDEO. 
 
 407 
 
 even  after  a hot  summer’s  day.  In  the  very  atmosphere 
 of  those  regions  there  is  something  cahn,  friendly,  and  in- 
 viting to  soothing  thoughts.  We  rarely  meet,  in  this 
 delicious  climate,  with  people  of  diggontented  or  morose 
 temperament,  such  as  are  unaffected  by  the  stillness  of 
 these  beautiful  evenings. 
 
 Many  houses  have  little  towers,  or  Miradores,  as  they 
 are  called,  mostly  open,  and  commanding  a clear  view  of 
 the  sea  and  the  city. 
 
 ]\Ionte  Video  is  connected  by  a short  railway  with  the 
 neighbouring  and  chaiming  little  watering-place  of  Santa 
 Lucia,  nestling  in  the  brushwood,  and  situated  on  the 
 river  of  the  same  name. 
 
 4.  Constitution — Stormy  Politics — Deficit — Pcrpvlation. 
 
 Uruguay  boasts  of  possessing  one  of  the  finest  political 
 constitutions  in  Soutli  America  ; it  sounds  therefore  almost 
 like  irony  to  be  obhged  to  add  that  this  republic  has  been 
 cursed  with  more  frequent  revolutions  than  any  other  in 
 the  New  World.  Hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  budget 
 for  1874  showed  a deficit  of  no  less  than  30  per  cent. 
 Some  little  time  back,  however,  it  seems  to  have  enjoyed  an 
 unusual  mterval  of  prosperity.  In  1860  the  population 
 numbered  221,248,  and  it  has  now  risen  to  450,000. 
 
 The  city  of  Monte  Video  has  also  rapidly  increased  in 
 population; — from  3500  in  1818  to  105,296  in  1872, 
 and  125,000  in  1876. 
 
408  COMPENDIIBl  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAPTER  XXL 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 1.  Points  of  Contrast  and  EesenMance  to  tlie 
 United  States. 
 
 Of  the  States  in  the  Xew  "World,  the  Empire  of  Brazil 
 ranks,  in  respect  of  extent,  solidity,  and  power,  second 
 only  to  the  United  States  of  Xorth  America.  In  South 
 America  it  has  no  rival — in  size,  population,  prosperity, 
 order,  and  stability  of  the  social  relations,  being  surpassed 
 by  the  great  northern  Republic  alone,  though  in  most 
 respects  offering  as  sharp  a contrast  to  it,  as  does  the 
 southern  on  the  whole  to  the  northern  Continent. 
 
 As  the  American  Union  has  taken  the  lion’s  share  of 
 the  land  in  the  northern  half,  Brazil  has  in  its  turn  ap- 
 propriated by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  southern  half 
 of  the  Xew  World.  Both  present  widespread,  unin- 
 terrupted masses  of  land,  and  both  have  the  advantage  of 
 a length  of  coast-line  on  the  Atlantic,  while  Brazil,  urdike 
 its  northern  compeer,  is  cut  off  altogether  from  the  Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 But  a single  glance  at  the  map  shows  how  entirely 
 different  is  the  geographical  position  of  the  two  States. 
 Apart  from  the  recently  acquired  and  isolated  territory  of 
 Alaska,  the  LTnion  nowhere  penetrates  either  into  the 
 arctic  or  the  tropical,  but  lies  entirely  within  the  tem- 
 perate zone,  though  stiU.  subject  to  considerable  contrasts 
 of  temperature — such  for  instance,  as  the  hot  and  damp 
 
BRAZIL. 
 
 409 
 
 climate  of  Florida  and  Louisiana  on  the  one  hand,  and  on 
 the  other,  the  cool  regions  of  the  upper  Missouri  and  the 
 great  lakes.  Brazil,  on  the  contrary,  lies  almost  entirely 
 within  the  tropics,  mainly  between  the  southern  tropic 
 and  the  equator,  a comparatively  small  portion  only 
 of  the  country  reaching  southwards  into  the  temperate 
 zone.  In  order  rightly  to  understand  the  history  of  the 
 development  of  both  States,  we  cannot  bear  this  important 
 circumstance  too  carefully  in  mind.  By  means  of  it  and 
 its  immediate  consequences  are  naturally,  next  to  the 
 nationality  by  which  it  has  been  colonised,  to  be  ex- 
 plained the  differences  in  the  social  phenomena,  as  well 
 as  in  material  and  intellectual  development,  between  this 
 tropical  Empire  and  the  great  northern  Eepublic. 
 
 2.  Extent — Political  Divisions. 
 
 It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  exactitude  the  total 
 area  of  Brazil,  nearly  all  the  frontier  lands  being  still 
 matter  of  litigation ; and,  in  the  absence  of  reliable  maps 
 and  surveys,  the  extent  and  position  of  these  border  dis- 
 tricts themselves  can  only  be  approximately  ascertained. 
 According  to  the  calculation  of  the  Commission  entrusted 
 with  the  preparation  of  a general  map  of  Brazil,  its 
 superficial  area  is  3,219,083  English  square  miles,  in- 
 cluding the  regions  confining  on  Guiana,  Colombia,  and  La 
 Plata,  where  the  frontier  line  remains  stlU  to  be  settled  by 
 special  treaties.  This  area  is  distributed  in  very  unequal 
 portions  over  twenty  provinces  and  one  neutral  mimici- 
 pality. 
 
 3.  Natural  Resources — Fauna — Cattle — Horses — 
 Sheep- Farming. 
 
 The  topography  of  this  vast  region,  forming  the 
 fifteenth  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  a fifth  of 
 
410 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 the  American  Continent,  and  more  than  three-sevenths 
 of  South  America,  is  still  very  inadequately  known.  The 
 most  noteworthy  points  connected  with  it  have  already 
 been  indicated  in  pre\rious  chapters  ; it  will  therefore  be 
 enough  here  to  direct  attention  to  the  extraordinary 
 natural  resources  of  the  Brazilian  empire. 
 
 Its  immense  territory,  embracing  a great  diversity  of 
 climate — overgrown  in  one  place  with  virgin  forests,  in 
 another  spread  out  into  grassy  uplands — is  inhabited  by 
 a number  of  indigenous  animals,  many  species  of  which  are 
 valuable  as  articles  of  human  food.  It  is  nearly  destitute, 
 however,  of  the  larger  game — even  the  guanaco  of  the 
 Argentine  and  Patagonian  Pampas  being  unknown.  The 
 rivers  teem  with  fish,  while  turtles  of  various  species  are 
 so  numerous  in  the  large  rivers  that  a profitable  trade  has 
 been  developed  along  the  Amazons  by  extracting  the  oil 
 or  the  butter  from  their  eggs.  The  manatee  or  sea-cow  is' 
 abundant  in  the  same  localities  as  the  large  fresh-water 
 turtle,  and  is  valuable  for  the  oil  and  meat  which  it 
 }delds.  Noxious  animals  of  large  size  are  not  numerous, 
 the  jaguar  and  the  puma  being  restricted  to  the  less 
 frequented  districts  ; but  alligators  swarm  in  the  large 
 rivers,  and  poisonous  snakes  are  conunon.  The  surging 
 sea  along  the  Brazilian  coast  also  everywhere  abounds 
 with  marine  animals,  including  the  spermaceti  whale,  the 
 porpoise,  and  many  varieties  of  edible  fish. 
 
 On  the  uplands  rove  prodigious  herds  of  wild  cattle  and 
 horses.  The  attempts  at  improving  the  breed  of  the 
 various  domestic  animals  in  the  country  have  certainly 
 not  been  so  far  attended  with  the  success  that  was  ex- 
 pected. Still  a cross  breed  of  foreign  and  native  horses 
 was  awarded  prizes  at  the  National  Exhibition  of  1866, 
 and  at  the  exhibition  of  agricultural  produce  organised 
 by  the  agricultural  school  of  Juiz  de  Fora. 
 
 In  the  provinces  of  Parana  and  San  Pedro  do  Eio 
 
VALUABLE  PLANTS. 
 
 411 
 
 Grande  do  Sul,  as  well  as  in  the  municipalities  of  New 
 Freiburg  and  Eio  de  Janeiro,  sheep-fanning  promises  to 
 prove  successful,  the  nobler  foreign  breeds  especially 
 thriving  well.  From  these  and  the  older  stock,  wool  of 
 an  excellent  quality  has  been  obtained  and  exported, 
 apart  from  the  large  quantities  of  the  raw  material 
 supplied  to  the  looms  of  Minas  Geraes. 
 
 4.  Ornitholofjy — Vegetation — Valuahle  Medicinal  and 
 other  Plants. 
 
 For  number,  variety,  and  splendour  of  plumage,  the 
 feathered  tribes  of  Brazil  are  specially  remarkable.  The 
 v.ira,  as  brilliant  as  the  guinea  fowl,  almost  exceeds  the 
 condor  in  size  and  strength  ; the  seriama  seems  to  occupy 
 a middle  position  between  the  ostrich  and  the  stork,  and 
 runs  with  incredible  speed;  while  the  macaw,  with  its  blue 
 and  scarlet  plumage,  the  countless  parrots,  green  and  red, 
 blue,  yellow,  and  orange,  the  numberless  humming-birds, 
 tanagers,  toucans,  chatterers,  and  others,  are  unsurpassed 
 in  beauty  by  any  birds  in  the  Old  "World. 
 
 No  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  marvellous  arboreal 
 growth  of  the  Brazilian  forests  is  valuable  for  trade  and 
 manufacturing  purposes,  either  as  timber,  resin,  fibre,  oil, 
 or  fruit.  Indiarubber,  Brazil  wood,  arnotto,  Brazil  and  coco 
 nuts,  rosewood,  cedar,  fustic,  Brazilian  or  vegetable  ivory, 
 piassaba  fibre,  copaiba,  numerous  fancy  woods  highly 
 prized  by  the  cabinetmaker,  and  dyewoods  of  various  sorts, 
 impart  a special  value  to  the  Brazilian  forests.  The  most 
 important  of  the  dyewoods  are  the  so-called  Brazil  wood 
 {Ccesadpinia  echiriata),  tagatiba  {Madura  affinis),  red  man- 
 grove {RMzophora  mangle),  various  kinds  of  indigo  and 
 urucu  {Bixa  orellana). 
 
 To  aU  this  must  be  added  sarsaparilla,  vanilla,  sapu- 
 caya  nuts,  copal,  cloves,  cinnamon,  tamarinds,  ipecacuanha. 
 
412 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 all  largely  exported.  The  principal  fruits  are  the  pine- 
 apple, bananas,  oranges'  passion-flower  fruit,  mango,  custard 
 apples,  guava,  cashu,  rose  apples,  musk  and  water  melons. 
 ]\Iaize,  wheat,  beans,  rice,  cassava,  and  coffee  are  extensively 
 cultivated,  nearly  half  of  the  coffee  of  the  whole  world 
 being  produced  in  Brazil.  Crops  of  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton, 
 cacao,  and  some  tea  are  also  raised,  the  last  named  prin- 
 cipally in  the  pro\dnces  of  Eio  de  Janeiro  and  San  Paulo ; 
 Minas  Geraes  also  produces  from  15,000  to  22,000  lbs. 
 of  a better  quality  than  that  of  San  Paulo.  MaU,  or 
 Paraguay  tea,  is  cultivated  only  in  the  province  of  Parana. 
 
 5.  Vast  Mineral  Wealth — The  Diamond  Fields. 
 
 "World-renowned  are  the  mineral  riches  of  Brazil,  con- 
 sisting chiefly  of  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones,  and 
 gold.  The  most  famous  diamonds  are  found  in  the  two 
 provinces  of  Minas  Geraes  and  Matto  Grosso,  both  of 
 wliich  are  of  the  same  geological  formation  as  the  districts 
 in  which  these  gems  have  been  elsewhere  discovered.  It 
 is  also  remarkable  that  the  very  finest  specimens  are  found 
 in  the  most  rmhealthy  districts,  and  tliis  industry  is  said  to 
 have  already  cost  the  lives  of  100,000  people.  The  gold 
 mines  have  begun  to  fall  off,  and  now  produce  not  more 
 than  one-fourth  of  the  average  yield  during  the  past  flve- 
 and-twenty  years. 
 
 Brazilian  diamonds,  though  of  the  purest  water,  are 
 small  compared  with  those  foimd  in  India.  One,  how- 
 ever, of  very  large  size  has  been  discovered  in  the  country. 
 It  is  125  carats,  and  under  the  name  of  Estrella  do  Sul, 
 or  the  “ Southern  Star,”  flgured  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of 
 1 8 5 6,  as  a rival  to  the  Koh-i-mir,  or  “ Llountain  of  Light,” 
 which  produced  such  a sensation  at  the  flrst  London  Ex- 
 hibition in  1851.  The  Crown  of  Portugal  possesses  the 
 largest  and  richest  collection  of  Brazilian  diamonds 
 
MINERAL  WEALTH. 
 
 413 
 
 valued  at  nearly  £3,000,000.  Between  1730  and  1822 
 the  Brazilian  diamond  fields  may  have  yielded  as  much 
 as  five  million  carats  in  weight,  while  the  total  yield 
 down  to  1850  is  said  to  have  been  44  centners,  approxi- 
 mately valued  at  £22,500,000. 
 
 Besides  gold  and  precious  stones,  the  latter  including 
 emeralds,  sapphires,  ruhies,  topazes,  heryls,  tourmalins  of 
 various  colours,  and  garnets,  Brazil  possesses  large  deposits 
 of  the  useful  minerals.  In  the  province  of  Parana,  and 
 near  its  capital,  quicksilver  is  as  abundant  as  in  the  great 
 quicksilver  mines  of  Peru  and  Europe.  Copper  exists  in 
 large  quantities  in  the  provinces  of  Matto  Grosso,  Minas 
 Geraes,  Bahia,  Maranhao,  Ceara,  and  especially  in  Pdo 
 Grande  do  Sul. 
 
 Manganese,  lead,  iron  of  excellent  quality,  tin,  anti- 
 mony, bismuth,  and  arsenic,  are  also  found. 
 
 6.  Population — Foreign  and  Native  Elements. 
 
 The  population  of  Brazil  is  estimated  at  9,450,000. 
 But  the  statistical  department  having  only  been  able  to 
 take  a partial  census,  embracing  eleven  out  of  the  twenty 
 provinces,  and  calculating  the  rest,  this  figure  is  merely 
 approximate,  and  under  a more  complete  enumeration  it 
 may  probably  have  to  he  considerably  modified.  The 
 above  total  excludes  the  wild  or  wandering  Indians,  but 
 includes  the  slaves,  1,016,262  in  number. 
 
 As  elsewhere  in  America,  we  are  here  in  presence  of 
 two  great  and  distinct  ethnographic  elements  in  the 
 population — the  aboriginal  inhabitants  or  Indians,  and 
 the  European  colonists,  which  are  again  divided  into 
 various  sub-classes.  We  have  likewise  to  deal  with  a 
 large  ingredient  of  the  African  race,  the  pure  breed,  and 
 the  chief  varieties  of  half-caste,  which  latter  contribute  so 
 largely  to  the  total  of  Brazilian  popidation. 
 
414  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 7.  Tl\e  Civilised  Indians. 
 
 The  Indians  are  divided  into  two  distinct  classes — 
 the  wild  or  independent,  and  the  Indies  mansos,  or  Indies 
 ladines,  as  the  reclaimed  aborigines  are  called.  The 
 latter,  in  the  northern  provinces,  have,  to  a large  extent, 
 settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  smaller  towns,  and 
 intermarried  with  the  civilised  population. 
 
 Some  of  the  so-called  Indies  manses  are  foimd  in  the 
 interior,  residing  in  small  communities,  the  remains  of  the 
 Indians  of  various  tribes,  belonging  to  former  missions. 
 In  Para  and  Amazonas  they  still  constitute  the  great  mass 
 of  the  whole  population,  and  here  consequently  we  meet 
 in  most  abundance  with  the  various  grades  of  half-caste 
 Indians  and  their  descendants,  forming  a substantial  ele- 
 ment of  the  lower  classes,  and  diversely  occupied  as  fisher- 
 men, hunters,  day  labourers  on  the  plantations,  domestic 
 servants,  herdsmen’s  assistants,  soldiers,  but  most  fre- 
 quently as  sailors  on  board  the  vessels  engaged  in  the 
 transport  trade  between  the  coast  and  the  interior. 
 
 The  so-called  Indies  manses,  or  da  cesta,  on  the  sea- 
 board between  Bahia  and  Eio  de  Janeiro,  are  a pure  im- 
 mixed  race,  nowhere  forming  communities  of  any  consider- 
 able size.  Their  otherwise  numerous  aldeas  (hamlets  or 
 settlements,  or  rather  camping  places)  have  either  disap- 
 peared and  been  abandoned,  or  else  have  been  converted 
 into  townsliips,  with  a mixed  Portuguese  population. 
 The  wars  of  the  Portuguese  with  the  Dutch  and  French, 
 but  especially  the  oppression  of  the  Indians  after  the 
 expulsion  of  their  protectors  the  Jesuits,  have  caused  these 
 former  masters  of  the  sea-coast  to  give  way  before  its 
 present  riders.  Untd  recently  all  the  laws  enacted  for 
 the  protection  of  the  Indians  were  utterly  ignored  in 
 Brazil,  where  the  red  man  was  more  than  ever  required 
 to  do  the  work  of  the  slave.  For  a long  time  the  natives 
 
THE  WILD  INDIANS. 
 
 415 
 
 were  everywhere  hunted  down  in  South  America,  and 
 openly  sold  in  the  slave-markets.  The  Cathohc  clergy 
 were  the  first  to  raise  their  voice  against  these  atrocities, 
 and  soon  became  practically  the  protectors  of  the  abori- 
 gines. Of  late  years  the  Central  Government  has  insisted 
 on  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  against  Indian  forced 
 labour  and  kidnapping,  and  the  practices  have  come  to  an 
 end,  at  least  as  far  as  regards  private  persons. 
 
 8.  The  Wild  Indians — Numerous  Tribes — General 
 Classification. 
 
 The  wild  or  independent  Indians  of  Brazil  are  spht 
 up  into  an  extraordinary  number  of  tribes  or  hordes, 
 showing  certain  points  of  resemblance  in  their  physical 
 features,  temperament,  mental  quahties,  manners,  customs, 
 and  usages,  but  in  their  speech  presenting  an  endless 
 variety  of  idioms.  According  to  Von  Martins,  the  number  of 
 Brazihan  tribes  amounts  to  upwards  of  250,  differing  as 
 much  in  their  ethnographic  as  they  do  in  their  hnguistic 
 features.  Nay,  every  fresh  enumeration  of  the  Indians 
 under  their  present  names  not  unfrequently  shows  that 
 many  tribes  hitherto  supposed  to  be  identical  are  really 
 distinct,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a corresponding  number 
 of  distinct  tribes  become  grouped  under  the  same  name. 
 Some  of  those  so-called  tribes,  although  speaking  languages 
 distinct  from  those  of  their  neighbours,  consist  of  but  very 
 few  families. 
 
 The  traveller  A.  d’Orbigny  groups  together  all  the 
 Brazilian  Indians  as  one  race,  under  the  common  name 
 of  Brazdo-Guarani  Indians,  assuming  their  real  type  to 
 be  that  of  the  Guaranis,  which  are  distinguished  from  the 
 other  great  Indian  families  of  South  America.  But  the 
 various  idioms  spoken  by  these  tribes  cannot  be  thus  reduced 
 to  one  general  stock.  A careful  study  of  these  idioms 
 
416  COMPENDimi  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AXD  TRAVEL. 
 
 has,  nevertheless,  enabled  Von  Martins  to  arrange  them 
 nnder  certain  distinct  heads,  as  several  of  the  more 
 numerous  tribes  are  found  to  speak  dialects  more  or  less 
 akin  to  each  other.  He  distinguishes  altogether  eight 
 such  groups  of  languages  in  Brazil.  These  are  the  Tupis, 
 the  Ges  or  Crans,  the  Gayatacas,  the  Crens  or  Guerens,  the 
 Guck  or  Coco,  the  Parexis  or  Parcels,  the  Guaycurus  or 
 Lengous,  and  the  Aruac  or  Aravmk — the  last  two,  how^ever, 
 dwelling  mostly  on  the  northern  frontiers  of  the  empire. 
 
 There  is,  however,  a lingoa  geral,  or  common  Brazilian 
 speech,  by  means  of  which  the  traveller  may,  in  case  of 
 necessity,  make  himself  understood  by  all  the  Brazilian 
 tribes  which  have  relations  with  the  civdised  villages  and 
 with  traders.  The  Jesuits  soon  became  convinced  that  in 
 order  to  spread  the  gospel  amongst  the  natives  of  South 
 America,  it  would  he  necessary  to  employ,  not  a European, 
 hut  some  native  speech.  Their  choice  lay  between  the 
 Quichua,  the  cultivated  language  of  the  empire  of  the 
 Incas,  and  the  Guarani,  or  rather  the  language  of  the 
 Tupi  hordes  ; the  former  for  the  Peruvian  and  other  tribes 
 at  one  time  belonging  to  or  influenced  by  the  ancient 
 Peruvian  empire  ; the  other  for  the  tribes  dweUing  on  this 
 side  of  the  Andes.  Thus  arose  the  lingua  geral,  or  com- 
 mon speech,  which  is  in  fact  the  Tupi-Guarani  language 
 we  have  already  spoken  of  in  describing  the  Guaranis  of 
 Paraguay.  It  owes  some  of  its  softness  as  a spoken 
 language  to  the  use  that  the  Portuguese,  lay  as  well 
 as  clerical,  have  made  of  it.  The  attempt  to  render  it 
 o'eneral  was  attended  with  astonishing  results,  so  that  it 
 now  afl“ords  a common  medium  of  intercourse  to  aU  the 
 innumerable  Brazilian  tribes. 
 
 9.  The  Tupi,  Parexis,  Arav;aks,  and  other  Independent 
 Tribes. 
 
 These  tribes  differ  in  many  respects  wddely  one  from 
 
A CAIOA  CUIEF. 
 
NATIVE  TEIBES. 
 
 417 
 
 i the  other.  The  Tupis  of  the  banks  of  the  Amazons  show 
 I a surprising  nautical  skill ; yet,  like  all  the  other  Tupi 
 
 j tribes,  these  people  were  at  one  time  cannibals.  How- 
 
 ever strange  it  may  appear,  anthropophagous  races  do  not 
 ' always  occupy  the  lowest  class,  but  are  in  most  cases  rather 
 superior  than  otherwise  to  their  neighbours,  always  excelling 
 them  in  courage  and  martial  prowess.  Hence  the  Tupis  also 
 are  found  to  be  the  most  advanced  of  all  the  Brazilian  tribes. 
 Some  sections  of  Tupis  were  also  distinguished  for  their 
 agriculture,  manufacture  of  weapons,  pottery,  nets,  and  cloth, 
 as  well  as  for  their  superior  houses  and  tribal  economy. 
 
 The  Tupis  live  exclusively  in  the  woodland  districts, 
 wliile  the  Guaycurus  rove  over  the  steppes  or  pampas  in 
 quest  of  game  or  fish.  Socially  they  rank  higher  than  other 
 tribes,  inasmuch  as  their  chieftainships  are  hereditary. 
 
 The  Parexis  live  on  the  produce  of  their  fisheries  and 
 plantations,  and  are  peacefully  inclined,  at  least  in  their 
 own  estimation. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  Ges,  who  are  the  finest,  the 
 most  robust,  and  tallest  of  all  the  Brazilian  tribes,  main- 
 tain perpetual  feuds  among  themselves.  They  stand  at 
 I one  of  the  lowest  stages  of  material  civilisation,  but  are 
 I distioguished  above  others  by  a healthy  tone  of  morahty 
 in  domestic  life. 
 
 Akin  to  them  are  the  Botocudos,  who  are  the  most 
 degraded  of  all  the  Brazilian  tribes. 
 
 I Far  higher  in  the  social  scale  are  the  kindly  Arawaks, 
 
 the  Caioas  (who  form  the  subject  of  two  of  our  dlustra- 
 ' tions),  the  warlike  Mundrucus,  the  Mauhes,  the  Juris,  the 
 Passes ; and  even  the  cannibal  but  robust  and  well-built 
 , Miranhos,  who  are  skilled  in  the  construction  of  excellent 
 : hammocks.  This  last-mentioned  tribe  inhabit  the  banks 
 
 I of  the  Japura,  one  of  the  large  affluents  of  the  Upper 
 
 ■ Amazons,  on  the  left  bank.  The  Caioas  inhabit  the  in- 
 
 1 terior  of  the  province  of  Parana. 
 
 I , 2 E 
 
418 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 10.  The  Portuguese — Tlik. Brazilians  properly  so  called. 
 
 The  European  and  other  foreign  elements  no  more 
 form  one  homogeneous  mass  than  do  the  aborigines.  Apart 
 from  the  few  sporadic  members  of  sundry  nations  that 
 have  recently  found  a home  in  Brazil,  they  may  he  at 
 present  divided  into  three  large  groups,  which,  taking  them 
 according  to  the  order  of  their  arrival  in  the  country,  are 
 the  Portuguese,  the  XegToes,  and  the  Germans. 
 
 The  most  important  section  of  the  population  are  un- 
 doubtedly the  so-called  Brazilians,  that  is,  the  descendants  of 
 Portuguese  settlers.  At  the  same  time  the  number  of  pure- 
 hlood  Whites,  or  Creoles  proper  is  doubtless  veiy  limited, 
 the  early  colonists,  and,  for  the  matter  of  that,  the  later  also, 
 having  contracted  alliances  with  the  native  coloured  women. 
 Portuguese  women  very  rarely  accompanied  the  men  in  their 
 voyage  to  Brazil,  where  most  of  them  expected  their  resid- 
 ence would  he  only  temporary.  At  the  time  of  the  se- 
 paration from  the  mother  country  also  a great  number  of 
 Portuguese  families  were  expelled  the  State,  \dctims  of  the 
 senseless  hatred  everywhere  manifested  by  the  Creoles  in 
 Southern  as  well  as  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies, 
 against  men  of  the  same  nationality  as  their  own  forefathers. 
 
 The  immigTation  of  Portuguese  has  been,  to  a large  ex- 
 tent, especially  of  late  years,  from  i\Iadeira  and  the  Azores, 
 these  sources  having  continued  to  supply  the  largest  num- 
 ber of  "\Wiites  to  the  Empire  after  its  emancipation.  But 
 the  Brazilians  do  not  long  retain  the  national  characteristics 
 of  the  people  from  whom  they  sprang.  As  a rule  they  are  of 
 low  stature,  slight  build,  and  of  sallow  or  dark  complexion. 
 Although  physically  weaker,  and  totally  destitute  of  the 
 laborious  and  thrifty  habits  of  the  Portuguese,  they  may  be 
 said  to  retain  much  of  the  practical  sound  common  sense 
 which  distinguishes  the  race  from  which  they  spring. 
 
 But  even  the  Brazilians  themseh'es  have  developed 
 
MORALS. 
 
 419 
 
 several  more  or  less  distinct  physical  types,  according  to  the 
 varions  provinces  in  which  they  have  settled  ; those  of  Sao 
 Paulo  being  especially  noted  for  their  strength  and  energy. 
 These  “ Paulistas,”  as  they  are  called,  have  played  in  times 
 past  the  leading  part  in  the  great  work  of  discovery  and 
 colonisation  of  the  interior.  The  white  Brazilians  are  found 
 mainly  in  the  large  towns,  but,  as  already  remarked,  they 
 form  hut  a very  small  section  of  the  whole  population.  It 
 has  been  repeatedly  maintained  that  nine-tenths  of  the 
 Brazilians  are  half-castes,  hut  the  proportion  is  mere  guess 
 work,  and  is  given  by  other  authorities  as  only  four  to  one. 
 
 The  morals  of  the  Brazilian  element  of  the  population 
 have  not  always  been  described  in  the  most  flattering  terms. 
 The  general  judgment  places  them  in  this  respect  far  below 
 their  Spanish  American  neighbours.  Still  there  is  a bright 
 side  to  the  picture,  and  the  impartial  observer.  Yon  Tschudi, 
 gives  prominence  to  two  favourable  traits  in  their  character 
 — their  love  of  learning,  and  the  great  respect  shown  by  child- 
 ren to  their  parents.  A change  for  the  better,  in  every  respect, 
 is  rapidly  taking  place  since  the  adoption  of  European  and 
 North  American  ideas  with  regard  to  the  treatment  of  women; 
 the  old  Portuguese  or  Moorish  custom  of  immuring  wives 
 and.  daughters,  and  denying  them  the  benefits  of  education 
 as  well  as  social  intercourse,  being  now  generally  abandoned. 
 
 The  same  'writer  teUs  us  that  the  poorer  classes  in  the 
 highland  districts  are  very  scantily  supplied  with  food,  being 
 worse  off,  on  the  whole,  than  the  Negroes  employed  on  the 
 plantations.  But  if  he  is  stinted  in  his  food,  the  Brazilian 
 of  the  lower  orders  indemnifies  himself  by  an  extra  consump- 
 tion of  spirit — the  cashaqa,  or  mm  of  the  country;  and  such 
 is  the  influence  of  race,  that  the  darker  the  skin,  and  the 
 less  pure  the  blood,  the  more  does  he  indulge  in  drink. 
 
 But  the  cultured  Brazilian  is  exceedingly  temperate, 
 and  we  may  add  to  his  praise,  he  is  extremely  hospitable 
 to  strangers,  in  their  presence  showing  hhnself  utterly  uu 
 
420 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 mindful  of  his  social  rank.  The  treatment  of  the  domestic 
 and  out-door  slaves  no  doubt  varies  greatly  according  to 
 the  temper  of  their  masters  ; but  the  better  classes  amongst 
 the  Brazilians  treat  them,  on  the  vliole,  with  great  consi- 
 deration. Cruelty  or  inhumanity  they  never  indulge  in, 
 and  whenever  a slave  happens  to  be  brutally  treated,  we 
 may  be  sure  that  his  master  is  either  of  the  coloured  race 
 himself,  or  else  will,  on  the  first  occasion,  vaunt  his  pure 
 Portuguese  descent. 
 
 BR.\ZILIAN  NEGRO. 
 
 11.  The  Negroes — Slavery. 
 
 The  Negroes,  slaves  and  freedmen,  taken  together, 
 although  the  importation  from  Africa  ceased  a generation 
 
THE  NEGROES. 
 
 421 
 
 ago,  still  form  the  most  numerous  unmixed  race  in  Brazil. 
 While  in  Spanish  American  republics  their  numbers  are 
 small  and  continually  decreasing,  the  proportion  of  the 
 Africans  to  the  rest  of  the  population  in  the  Empire  is 
 alarmingly  gxeat.  It  is  quite  certain  that  this  proportion, 
 as  well  as  the  absolute  number  of  the  blacks,  has  fallen 
 off  since  the  introduction  of  slaves  has  been  rendered 
 illegal — a falling-off  partly  due  to  emancipation,  and 
 partly  to  the  fact  that  the  births  are  exceeded  by  the 
 
 I 
 
 BRAZILIAN  NEGRESS. 
 
 mortality.  This  again  is  owing  to  the  excess  of  males 
 over  females  among  the  slave  population,  more  men  than 
 women  having  been  imported  when  the  trade  flourished. 
 The  rearing  of  the  Negro  children,  generally  attended  to 
 
422 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 by  the  mistress  of  the  house,  is  exceedingly  difficult,  many 
 losing  fully  three-fourths  of  them,  although  no  pains  are 
 spared.  The  critical  period  is  the  time  of  weaning,  the 
 Negro  children  showing  themselves  much  more  sensitive 
 to  the  change  than  those  of  other  races. 
 
 Although  scattered  over  the  whole  land,  still  the 
 blacks  are  most  numerous  in  the  provinces  where  the 
 sugar-cane  is,  or  rather  was,  the  chief  product,  for  it  is 
 now  everywhere  on  the  decline.  In  many  districts  of 
 Bahia  and  Pernambuco  they  are  in  an  absolute  majority, 
 and  are  also,  as  a rule,  the  most  robust  element  of  the 
 population.  This  is  specially  true  of  the  “Minas  Negroes,” 
 imported  originally  from  the  Portuguese  factories  in  Angola, 
 a fine  vigorous  African  race  that  cannot  be  without  influ- 
 ence on  the  future  of  the  country,  especially  since  the 
 abolition  of  slavery. 
 
 12.  Social  Habits — The  Capociragem — Murderous  and 
 Suicidal  Manias. 
 
 As  to  their  lives,  we  learn  from  Tschudi  that  legalised 
 or  consecrated  marriages  are  the  exception.  The  reason  is 
 because  the  African  strongly  objects  to  be  tied  for  Life,  and 
 as  Catholic  marriages  are  indissoluble,  the  greatest  disorders 
 resulted  from  the  former  practice  of  obliging  them  to  have 
 their  unions  blessed  by  the  Church.  Hence  they  have 
 lately  been  left  entire  freedom  in  this  respect. 
 
 The  slaves  easily  acquire  their  freedom,  and  the  num- 
 ber of  those  that  have  been  already  enfranchised  has  been 
 estimated  at  1,121,000.  Nor  can  there  be  any  doubt 
 that  this  number  might  be  easily  swoUen  if  the  Negroes 
 could  be  induced  to  save  the  trifling  sum  required  to  pur- 
 chase their  charter  of  freedom,  instead  of  drinking  and 
 gambling  it  away  as  they  usually  do. 
 
 The  free  Negroes,  slaves,  and  Mulattoes,  are  at  times 
 
MURDEE  MANIA. 
 
 423 
 
 seized  by  a sort  of  bloodthirsty  mania  of  a very  singular 
 nature.  They  have  formed  themselves  into  a kind  of 
 murderous  association,  known  as  the  Capoeiragem,  the 
 members  of  which  will  occasionally  run  amuck  through 
 the  streets  like  people  possessed,  blindly  impelled  by  an 
 irresistible  impulse  to  cut  down  the  first  person  they  meet, 
 whether  he  be  a black,  a white,  a Brazilian,  or  a stranger. 
 As  soon  as  a few  luckless  beings  have  thus  fallen  victims 
 to  their  sangninary  frenzy,  the  Capoeiras  disappear  without 
 leaving  a trace  behind  them,  and  after  having  satisfied  the 
 murderous  impulse  of  the  moment  by  the  perpetration  of 
 some  frightful  outrage  of  the  sort,  the  Negro  will  often  be 
 seen  attending  to  his  domestic  duties  with  the  most 
 innocent  air  imaginable,  and  as  if  he  had  not  quitted  the 
 house  the  whole  day. 
 
 The  Capoeiragem  is  probably  an  African  institution 
 that  has  been  transplanted  to  Brazdian  sod.  by  some  of  the 
 Negro  tribes  of  the  interior.  In  many  respects  it  recads  the 
 wed-known  simdar  murderous  mania  prevalent  amongst 
 the  IMalays  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  is  by  no  means 
 a rare  occurrence  for  slaves  to  kid  their  masters  whde 
 acting  under  the  influence  of  tins  strange  impidse.  But 
 on  the  other  hand  the  niunber  of  slaves  that  perish  at  the 
 hands  of  their  masters  is  quite  as  great.  A singular 
 method  of  revenge,  sometimes  indulged  in  by  the  slaves 
 on  a plantation,  consists  in  a sort  of  suicide  en  masse. 
 They  wdl  form  a general  resolution  to  poison  themselves 
 ad  round,  and  will  carry  it  out  with  the  greatest  stoicism. 
 Tschudi  mentions  the  case  of  a planter  universally  admired 
 for  his  kindly  nature,  and  who  yet  saw  his  Negro  slaves  from 
 day  to  day  poisoning  themselves  off  by  the  dozen.  The  con- 
 clusion this  judicious  writer  came  to,  after  much  experience 
 and  earnest  consideration  given  to  the  subject,  was  that  the 
 only  event  that  coidd  involve  the  ruin  of  Brazd  was  the 
 emancipation  of  the  slaves  before  the  State  had  amply  pro- 
 
424 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TEAVEL. 
 
 vided  beforehand  for  the  change.  Some  such  pro\dsion  has 
 indeed,  been  secured  by  the  conditions  of  the  law  of  emanci- 
 pation passed  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Assembly,  which 
 received  the  Imperial  sanction  on  the  28th  of  September 
 1871.  This  law  enacts  that  “ from  that  date  all  children 
 henceforth  born  of  slave  women  shall  be  considered  of 
 free  condition.”  Such  children  are  not  to  be  actually 
 free,  but  are  to  be  bound  to  serve  the  owners  of  their 
 mothers  for  the  term  of  twenty-one  years,  under  the  name  of 
 apprentices.  The  apprentices  will  have  to  work,  under 
 severe  penalties  in  case  of  disobedience,  for  their  hereditary 
 masters  ; but  will  be  protected  by  the  proviso  that  if  the 
 latter  inflict  on  them  excessive  bodily  punishment,  they 
 are  allowed  to  bring  suit  in  a criminal  court,  which  may 
 declare  their  freedom.  A final  provision  of  the  Act 
 emancipates  the  slaves  who  are  State  property,  to  the 
 nnmber  of  1600,  under  the  condition  that  “the  slaves 
 liberated  by  virtue  of  this  law  remain  for  five  years  under 
 the  inspection  of  the  Government.”  They  are  bonnd  to 
 hire  themselves  out,  under  penalty  of  being  compelled,  if 
 Ihing  in  vagrancy,  to  labour  in  the  pubhc  estabhshments. 
 
 13.  Half-Castes — Mulattoes,  Criolos,  Mestizoes,  Cafims,  etc. 
 
 The  compound  mixture  of  the  three  races — Whites, 
 Blacks,  and  Indians — has  given  rise  to  endless  half-caste 
 types,  or  mongrel  varieties  of  the  human  family,  known 
 by  a great  many  distinctive  names,  some  of  which,  how- 
 ever, are  entirely  local  or  j:)rovincial.  A considerable 
 number  of  these  half-castes,  especially  of  African  blood,  are 
 still  formally  in  a state  of  slavery. 
 
 By  the  term  Mulattoes  are  understood  in  Brazil,  as 
 elsewhere  in  America,  the  descendants  of  Wliites  and 
 Negroes,  while  Mestizoes  are  here  almost  exclusively 
 the  offspring  of  the  Indians  and  Negi’oes.  The  term 
 
HALF-CASTES. 
 
 425 
 
 Creole,  in  Portuguese  Criolo,  is  exceptionally  applied 
 to  the  Negroes  born  in  the 
 country,  and  not  to  the 
 whites,  as  in  the  West  In- 
 dies and  Spanish  America. 
 
 Before  the  declaration  of 
 independence  the  Portu- 
 guese born  in  Brazil  was 
 called  Brazileiro  (Brazilian), 
 or  Filho  da  Terra  (child  of 
 the  country),  in  contradis- 
 tinction to  the  European 
 Portuguese,  or  Portuguez 
 lefjitinio,  or  Filho  do  Reino 
 (child  of  the  kingdom,  or 
 old  country). 
 
 Cariboco,  ui  the  Tupi 
 language  meaning  a half- 
 breed  in  general,  is  now 
 universally  applied  to  indi- 
 viduals of  dark  complexion,  whether  descended  of  Indians 
 and  Negroes,  or  Indians  and  Mulattoes.  The  Negroes 
 have  contracted  various  alliances  with  the  Indians,  and, 
 especially  where  the  aboriginal  population  has  not  disap- 
 peared, we  often  meet  with  many  such  varieties,  shown  by 
 the  diverse  shades  of  their  complexions.  The  darker  types 
 are  by  the  Indians  also  called  Tapanhuna,  and  other  shades 
 Xiho.ro,  while  the  Brazihans  call  the  darker  shades  Cafuso, 
 a term  also  frequently  applied  to  the  descendants  of  Indians 
 and  Negroes,  in  Spanish  America  known  as  Zarahos. 
 
 It  should  be  remarked  that  the  contempt  and  hatred 
 of  the  Blacks,  so  universal  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
 English-speaking  colonies,  is  very  little  felt  in  Brazd. 
 Even  the  terms  Cafuso  and  Cariboco  imply  no  particular 
 sense  of  humiliation,  though  Mamelv.co  or  Mamaluco,  now 
 
 A MULATTO. 
 
426 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 frequently  applied  to  the  cliildren  of  Whites  and  Indiana, 
 was  originally  a term  of  opprobrium.  The  Jesuits  and 
 Spaniards  in  Paraguay  applied  it  to  the  encroaching  and 
 colonising  “ Paulistas,”  who  often  intermarried  with  Indian 
 women.  Thus  used,  it  served  to  brand  these  intruders 
 with  an  offensive  nickname,  for  their  cruelty  to  the 
 natives  and  their  hostUity  to  the  missions.  The  half-caste 
 races,  including  the  Indios  mansos  or  da  costa,  are  spread 
 over  the  whole  land,  and  in  the  north  form  the  majority 
 of  the  population.  The  Indian  element  is  most  conspicuous 
 in  the  interior,  in  the  so-called  Sertaos  of  the  north-eastern 
 provinces,  the  Amazons  and  the  lower  valleys  of  its  great 
 affluents.  Here  also  may  clearly  be  seen  the  deteriora- 
 tion of  morals,  resulting  from  the  unnatnral  alliance 
 between  two  races  ethnically  differing  entirely  one  from 
 the  other.  The  Mameluco  of  both  sexes  is  naturally_ 
 indolent,  frivolous,  easy-going,  and  sensual;  but  there  are 
 niunerous  exceptions,  and  many  enterprising  traders  are  to 
 be  met  with  who  belong  to  this  class  of  the  mixed  races. 
 
 14.  Recent  European  Immigrants — German  Settlements. 
 
 In  the  large  towns,  side  by  side  with  the  white 
 Brazdians,  there  are  also  settled  a considerable  number  of 
 foreigners  from  Europe  and  ISTorth  America,  Portuguese, 
 Frenchmen,  Englishmen,  and  Germans,  mostly  belonging 
 to  the  mercantile  and  industrial  classes.  In  the  smaller 
 towns  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior  the  number  of  these 
 foreigners  is  insignificant ; the  Germans,  however,  form  an 
 exception  to  tliis  rule,  so  far  as  the  southern  or  more  tem- 
 perate provinces  are  concerned,  for  they  have  here  already 
 formed  considerable  colonies.  In  these  regions  the  German 
 type  persists  much  more  tenaciously  than  it  does  in  the 
 United  States,  where  it  soon  becomes  Americanised.  Yet 
 nven  here  their  gradual  assimilation  to  the  sm-romiding 
 
THE  JiEArOHTS  (H  li HAZ11-. 
 
# 
 
FOREIGN  SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 427 
 
 elements  is  unmistakable,  and  we  are  assured  by  the 
 careful  observer  Schultz  that  although  their  light  com- 
 plexion, blue  eyes,  and  fair  hair,  at  once  betray  their 
 Teutonic  descent,  they  have  in  their  new  home  already 
 acquired  some  characteristics  of  the  southern  races. 
 
 The  most  important  of  these  German  settlements  are 
 Petropolis,  Dona  Francisca,  San  Leopoldo,  Santa  Catharina, 
 Alcantara,  Santa  Isabel,  Brusque,  Blumenau,  and  Santa 
 Cruz.  In  the  province  of  San  Paulo  there  are  also  some 
 Swiss  colonies  j and  it  is  noteworthy  that  all  these 
 Teutons  avoid  contracting  alliances  with  the  coloured 
 races,  as  carefully  as  do  them  Anglo-Saxon  kinsmen  else- 
 where, in  this  respect  contrasting  strongly  with  all  the 
 Latin  peoples.  In  Bio  Janeiro  the  French  population  is 
 very  numerous. 
 
 15.  Seaports — Bahia,  Pernamhuco,  etc. 
 
 The  most  important  Brazilian  cities  are  seaports,  but 
 few  places  of  any  consequence  being  found  in  the  interior, 
 even  the  capitals  themselves  of  the  various  provinces  being 
 of  little  account.  On  the  other  hand — apart  from  Bio 
 Janeiro,  capital  of  the  Empire — the  seaports  of  Para  and 
 Parahyba,  Pernambuco  and  Bahia,  m the  north,  Desterro 
 and  Porto  Alegre  in  the  south,  all  present  some  points  of 
 interest. 
 
 The  town  that  the  traveller  from  Europe  first  makes 
 the  acquaintance  of  is  Pernambuco.  Stretching  rather 
 away  from  the  coast,  it  produces  a poor  effect  when  seen 
 from  the  water,  yet  it  possesses  a population  of  90,000 
 souls.  The  houses  are  partly  built  with  pitched  roofs 
 after  the  European  fashion,  presenting  by  no  means  an 
 elegant  appearance.  A little  below  Pernambuco  is  situ- 
 ated the  university  of  Olinda,  in  the  midst  of  a very 
 picturesque  neighbourhood. 
 
range  of  hills  stretching  along  the  sea-coast,  and  presents 
 a wonderfully  romantic  aspect.  The  sea  of  the  macnifi- 
 
 •i-o  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 Bahia,  the  old  Brazilian  capital,  forms  a marked  con- 
 trast to  Pernambuco.  It  is  situated,  like  Lisbon,  on  a 
 
 STKEET  IN  BAHIA. 
 
BAHIA. 
 
 429 
 
 cent  bay,  on  the  shore  of  which  the  city  is  built,  is  of  an 
 emerald  green  colour,  while  the  clear  blue  sky  enhances 
 the  effects  of  light  and  shade  produced  by  the  dazzling 
 white  houses  and  the  tropical  vegetation.  The  traveller  is 
 ravished  by  the  splendour,  the  luxuriance,  and  the  novelty 
 of  the  prospect,  where  nature  aids  art  in  a way  never  seen 
 in  Europe.  In  the  harbour  are  seen  the  flags  of  aU 
 nations,  contributing  much  by  their  gay  appearance  to  the 
 general  effect. 
 
 Bahia,  with  its  suburbs,  has  a population  of  about 
 130,000,  boasts  of  a university  and  an  exchange,  is  the 
 seat  of  an  archbishop,  and,  like  most  Brazilian  towns,  is 
 fortified.  The  majority,  or  say  two-thirds  of  the  inhabit- 
 ants are  Negroes  and  Mulattoes.  But  their  religious  wel- 
 fare is  carefully  provided  for,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the 
 extraordinary  number  of  churches,  amounting  to  sixty-five 
 altogether.  There  are  in  some  streets  as  many  as  two  or 
 three  together,  and  in  one  public  square  no  less  than  five, 
 but  aU  built  in  the  monotonous  style  peculiar  to  the  Jesuits. 
 The  streets,  winding  up  the  sides  of  the  hill,  are  so  uncom- 
 monly steep  that  the  wayfarer  finds  it  sometimes  difficult 
 to  maintain  an  erect  posture  without  falling  backwards. 
 
 Bahia  is  unfortunately  one  of  the  most  unhealthy 
 places  in  the  empire,  as  shown  by  the  numerous  victims 
 of  yellow  fever  and  other  local  epidemics  who  perish  here 
 annually.  It  was  here  that  this  fatal  epidemic  of  the 
 tropics  first  broke  out,  in  April  1850,  spreading  in  a few 
 short  weeks  like  wildfire  up  and  down  the  coast  to  all  the 
 ports  of  the  empire.  It  did  not  penetrate  the  interior, 
 even  on  the  large  navigable  rivers.  Since  the  above- 
 named  disastrous  year,  the  mortality  has  never  been  so 
 great,  although  the  fever  has  become  endemic  in  some 
 of  the  ports  first  attacked. 
 
430 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 IG.  Bay  and  City  of  Rio  Janeiro — Eomantie  Scenery. 
 
 The  many  picturesque  aud  varied  beauties  of  the 
 famous  bav  of  Eio  Janeiro  never  fail  to  take  the  stranger 
 by  surprise.  A series  of  gi’otesque  hills  on  the  left  of  the 
 entrance  especially  attracts  universal  attention.  Owing 
 to  their  striking  resemblance  to  the  outstretched  human 
 figure,  they  have  collectively  been  christened  “ The  Stone 
 ]\[an,”  of  which  the  famous  “ Sugar-loaf”  hill  forms  the 
 feet,  and  the  often-described  “Gavia”  the  face  in  profile. 
 Tlie  bay  itself  presents  one  of  the  grandest  ^dews  it  is 
 possible  to  imagine.  Huge  gTanitic  piles,  assuming  the 
 most  fantastic  shapes,  present  steep  sides  descending  sheer 
 into  the  water,  forming  on  either  side  of  the  entrance  a 
 line  of  natiu’al  fortresses.  Within  the  vast  oval  basin, 
 some  30  miles  long  by  20  broad,  the  horizon  is  every- 
 where bounded  by  the  magnificent  ranges  of  the  Serras 
 de  Yinoa,  de  Tingua,  da  Estrella,  dos  Orgaos,  do  IMorro 
 Queimado,  and  others. 
 
 This  little  land-locked  sea,  the  receptacle  of  a number 
 of  rivers,  streams,  and  torrents  rushing  down  from  the 
 surrounding  hills,  is  studded  with  many  islands  and  rockj- 
 crags,  amongst  which  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  island  of 
 Yillegagnon,  with  its  fort  of  the  same  name.  At  the  foot 
 of  the  conical  rocky  hill  called  Pao  de  Azucar,  or  the 
 “ Sugar-loaf,”  are  the  batteries  of  Sao  Theodosio,  on  a pro- 
 jection of  the  land  opposite  the  fort  of  Santa  Cruz,  with 
 the  little  fortified  island  da  Lagem  between  the  two. 
 Farther  on  is  the  Ilha  das  Cobras,  on  which  are  situated 
 many  of  the  country  seats  of  the  Brazilian  gentry.  On 
 the  western  shore  to  the  left  are  the  suburbs  of  Botafogo, 
 north  of  the  headland  known  as  IMorro  do  Flamingo,  and  stiU 
 farther  to  the  north  the  little  chapel  of  Xossa  Seuhora  da 
 Gloria,  all  uniting  in  one  magnificent  picture.  The  eastern 
 shore  forms  at  the  entrance  a deep  sclcco,  or  bight,  flanked 
 
BAY  OF  RIO  JANEIRO.  To  face  porie  4W. 
 
• k. 
 
FRUIT -SELLER  IX  RIO  JANEIRO. 
 
 I ■:  2'"  J'-  4ol. 
 
EIO  JANEIRO. 
 
 431 
 
 by  a projection  of  the  land  terminating  in  two  points — the 
 Piinta  da  Nossa  Senhora  da  Boa  Viagem  to  the  south,  sur- 
 mounted by  a chapel,  and  the  Punta  do  CalabouQo  on  the 
 north. 
 
 “ The  city  lies  on  the  western  shore  of  the  bay.  Its 
 oldest  quarter,  which  may  date  from  the  year  1564,  is 
 built  on  an  irregular  plain  between  two  series  of  detached 
 rocky  hills,  the  southern  series  ending  with  the  Pimta  do 
 CalabouQO,  topped  by  the  castle  of  S.  Sebastian,  and  the 
 northern  terminating  with  the  Morro  Bento.  Between 
 these  two  points  are  the  landing-places,  the  quays,  and 
 the  Imperial  Palace.  A couple  of  mdes  beyond  the 
 suburb  of  Mata  Porcos  is  the  castle  of  S.  Cristovao.  But, 
 like  most  Brazilian  towns,  Bio  can  boast  of  but  few  fine 
 buildings,  the  cathedral  and  several  convents  bemg  more 
 remarkable  for  size  than  beauty.  The  Imperial  Palace 
 itself  is  a miserable  structure,  more  like  a barrack  than  a 
 royal  residence.  The  streets,  also,  are  mostly  irregular 
 and  badly  kept,  altogether  detracting  considerably  from 
 the  impression  produced  by  the  view  of  the  place  from  the 
 water. 
 
 The  country,  however,  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
 hood is  extremely  romantic,  its  beauty  being  much  en- 
 hanced by  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  these  tropical 
 regions — the  long,  silky-green  leaf-blades  of  the  banana 
 tree,  the  variety  of  graceful  palms,  and  the  infinite  diversity 
 of  strange  foliage  and  flowers.  Of  the  primeval  forest 
 that  once  covered  the  hills  and  slopes  only  a few  clumps 
 of  the  larger  trees  have  been  preserved  in  the  vicinity  of 
 the  city.  But  the  famous  falls  of  Tijuca  are  still  there, 
 formed  by  a stream  rising  on  the  highest  crest  of  the 
 Tijuca  cliffs,  and  rushing  over  a rocky  precipice  fifty 
 feet  high.  Some  years  ago  an  Act  was  passed  forbid- 
 ding the  further  destruction  of  the  forest  trees  on  the  liill- 
 tops,  in  the  belief  that  the  rainfall  in  the  neighbourhood 
 
432 
 
 COMPEKDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 of  the  city  was  decreasing  by  the  rapid  clearing  of  the 
 land ; thus  the  crests  and  slopes  of  the  magnificent  hilly 
 ranges  in  the  rear  of  the  hay  have  been  preserved  in 
 something  like  their  pristine  luxuriance. 
 
 17.  Sao  Desterro — Biamantina. 
 
 Amongst  the  southern  towns  the  most  noteworthy  is 
 Sao  Desterro,  capital  of  the  province  of  Santa  Catharina, 
 which  has  a present  population  of  not  more  than  9000. 
 Its  situation  is  peculiarly  romantic,  occupying  a little 
 island  off  the  coast  famous  for  its  splendid  climate,  especi- 
 ally beneficial  to  invalids  suffering  from  affections  of  the 
 chest.  This  place  is  also  noted  for  the  pretty  objects  here 
 made  of  shells  and  fish-scales,  in  which,  however,  more 
 skill  than  taste  is  displayed.  Yet,  like  the  well-known 
 “ feather-flowers  ” of  Eio  Janeiro,  these  and  other  articles, 
 ingeniously  carved  out  of  coco-nuts  and  pahn  resins,  com- 
 mand very  high  prices. 
 
 Noteworthy  also  is  the  little  inland  town  of  Diaman- 
 tiua,  so  called  because  it  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the 
 diamond-fields  of  Minas  Geraes,  the  next  province  inland 
 from  Eio  Janeiro.  In  its  outward  features  it  differs  Ettle 
 from  other  Brazilian  towns,  but  it  presents  a great  contrast 
 to  them  in  some  other  respects.  Owing  principally  to  the 
 abundance  of  ready  money,  its  inhabitants  offer  an  excep- 
 tion to  the  general  sobriety  of  the  better  classes  in  the 
 BraziEan  towns — Enghsh  beer,  champagne,  port  wine, 
 strong  liqueurs,  and  other  drinks,  being  consumed  in  large 
 quantities.  There  is  altogether  a population  of  from 
 8000  to  12,000,  the  whites  and  light-coloured  half-castes 
 being  relatively  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  town  of 
 the  interior. 
 
INTERNAL  ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 433 
 
 1 8 . Government — Constitution  — Rel irjion. 
 
 Brazil  is  a hereditary  constitutional  monarchy,  based 
 on  the  charter  of  December  11,  1823,  and  the  supple- 
 mentary decrees  of  August  12,  1834,  and  May  12,  1840. 
 This  constitution  is  extremely  liberal,  and,  theoretically, 
 is  framed  in  a most  admu’able  manner.  Though  taking 
 that  of  the  North  American  Union  as  its  model,  it  has 
 adopted  some  of  its  provisions  from  the  French  constitu- 
 tion of  1791  and  from  the  Portuguese  of  1822  ; its 
 founders  being  also  influenced  by  the  principles  of  Benjamin 
 Constant.  It  thus,  in  some  respects,  departs  considerably 
 from  aU  other  forms  of  government,  a peculiarity  vhich 
 is  especially  seen  in  the  creation  of  four  instead  of  the 
 more  usual  three  estates  of  the  realm.  In  accordance 
 with  Benjamin  Constant’s  views,  there  has  been  established 
 a fointh  or  intermediate  administration,  which  is  in  the 
 hands  of  the  sovereign,  but  which  is  foimd  in  practice 
 not  to  differ  substantially  from  the  executive  of  ordinary 
 constitutional  governments.  The  four  powers  in  the 
 State  may,  in  fact,  be  termed  the  legislative,  the  executive, 
 the  judicial,  and  the  “moderating  power,”  or  the  royal 
 prerogative. 
 
 The  franchise  is  extended  to  all  native,  or  naturalised, 
 free  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  having  a yearly 
 income  from  any  source  of  £20;  but  the  active  militia  and 
 the  clergy  take  no  part  in  the  elections,  though  women  are 
 not  expressly  excluded.  Emancipated  slaves,  naturalised 
 citizens,  and  non-Catholics,  cannot  be  returned  as  deputies. 
 
 The  Eoman  Catholic  is  the  recognised  religion  of  the 
 State,  but  the  right  of  private  worship  is  accorded  to  aU 
 other  forms  of  belief.  The  non-Catholics,  whose  num- 
 ber is  very  limited,  enjoy  a fair  amount  of  freedom ; 
 they  cannot  be  persecuted  on  religious  grounds,  their 
 children  are  not  compelled  to  receive  the  religious  in- 
 
 2 F 
 
434 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 struction  imparted  to  Catholic  children,  and  their  marriages 
 are  perfectly  legal. 
 
 The  legislative  power  is  entrusted  to  the  Upper  and 
 Lower  Houses  (the  Senate  and  the  Congress),  under  the 
 sanction  of  the  Emperor,  the  deputies  being  elected  for 
 four  years,  and  the  Senators  for  life.  The  executive,  at 
 whose  head  is  the  Emperor,  is  administered  by  seven 
 responsible  ministers,  all  liable  to  removal.  These  are : — the 
 ministers  of  the  interior  and  public  worship,  of  justice, 
 finance,  foreign  affairs,  war,  marine  and  agriculture,  trade 
 and  public  -works.  Besides  these,  one  of  whom  acts  as 
 Prime  IMinister,  there  is  a Cabinet  Council  appointed  by 
 the  Emperor  for  life,  and  receiving  a yearly  allowance 
 from  the  State. 
 
 The  judicature  is  perfectly  independent,  and  consists 
 of  judges,  and  in  criminal  cases  a jury — the  latter  deal- 
 ing with  the  facts  of  the  case,  the  former  awarding  the 
 sentence. 
 
 19.  Provincial  Governments — Public  Instruction. 
 
 Besides  the  general  administration,  each  province, 
 like  the  States  of  the  North  American  Union,  has  its  own 
 indi-vidual  constitution,  so  that  the  federate  system,  so 
 general  in  the  New  World,  has  been  extended,  in  some 
 of  its  features,  even  to  the  Brazilian  empire.  Altogether 
 this  Transatlantic  federal  monarchy  may  be  said  to  be  in 
 the  enjoyment  of  a constitution  nearly  perfect  in  theory, 
 although  displaying  many  shortcomings  in  practice.  The 
 best  laws  and  regulations,  in  fact,  are  after  all  no  safe- 
 guard against  political  and  social  abuses,  arising  out  of  the 
 imperfections  of  human  nature  itself. 
 
 As  regards  public  instruction  it  may  be  mentioned 
 that  elementary  teaching  is  entirely  gratuitous  throughout 
 the  empire.  Compulsory  education  already  exists  in 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 435 
 
 some  provinces,  and  is  about  to  be  introduced  in  many 
 others.  Owing  to  the  effective  way  in  wliich  these  pro- 
 visions are  carried  out,  and  to  the  naturaUy  keen  intelli- 
 gence of  the  children,  the  primary  accomplishments  of 
 reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  are  almost  universal 
 throughout  the  empire.  There  are  altogether  3491 
 
 national  schools — 2343  for  boys,  and  1148  for  o-irls 
 
 attended  by  106,205  children,  besides  448  private 
 elementary  schools  for  boys,  and  254  for  girls,  attended 
 by  19,162  children.  There  are  moreover  230  secondary 
 schools,  giving  instruction  to  upwards  of  8000  of  the  more 
 advanced  pupils,  to  which  must  be  added  the  Academy 
 of  Fine  Arts,  the  Conservatorium  of  Music,  and  the  special 
 training  schools,  which  are  divided  into  fifteen  distinct 
 classes,  and  are  attended  altogether  by  near  2000  students 
 not  including  the  1280  in  the  ecclesiastical  seminaries. 
 
 _ Amongst  the  scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  institu- 
 tions of  the  Empire  may  be  mentioned  the  Academia 
 Imperial  de  Medicma,  the  Instituto  Geographico  6 Eistorico, 
 the  Public  Library,  and  the  libraries  of  the  Benedictine, 
 Carmelite,  and  other  monasteries,  besides  those  of  the 
 Portuguese,  English,  and  German  literary  clubs. 
 
436  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGEAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 CHAP  TEE  XXII. 
 
 BRITISH,  FRENCH,  AND  DUTCH  GUIANA. 
 
 1.  Extent — Belative  Size  of  the  three  Colonies. 
 
 Before  taking  leave  of  South  America  we  must  devote 
 a few  words  to  the  region,  situated  north  of  Brazil  and 
 east  of  Venezuela,  which  forms  the  only  remaining  portion 
 of  the  Southern  Continent  still  held  by  European  powers. 
 Guiana,  or  Guayana,  in  its  widest  sense,  certainly  embraces 
 the  whole  of  the  Sierra  Parime,  thus  including  districts 
 at  present  belonging  to  Venezuela  and  Brazil ; hut  the 
 term  is  now  generally  restricted  to  the  colonial  possessions 
 of  England,  France,  and  Holland,  in  this  part  of  the 
 world.  Formerly  it  was  supposed  to  he  rich  in,  gold,  and 
 it  was  in  this  region  that  the  unfortunate  Sir  Walter 
 Ealeigh,  following  the  Spanish  adventurers,  placed  his  “ El 
 Dorado,”  or  the  gilded  king.  Gold  is  still  found  far  in 
 the  interior,  near  the  upper  waters  of  the  Caroni  in  Vene- 
 zuela, and  in  small  quantities  in  Cayenne,  but  the  true 
 wealth  of  Guiana  lies  in  its  fertile  soil  and  boundless 
 capabilities  in  regard  to  tropical  produce.  The  English 
 occupy  the  extreme  west,  and  to  them  undoubtedly  belongs 
 the  lion’s  share  ; British  Guiana  comprising  the  whole 
 basin  of  the  Essequibo,  besides  that  of  the  Demerara  and 
 Berbice  rivers,  and  the  left  hank  of  the  Corentjme.  It 
 is  the  most  flourishing,  agriculturally  and  commercially,  of 
 all  the  divisions  of  the  region. 
 
 To  the  east  of  the  British  section  Ees  Dutch  Guiana, 
 
Jartnio 
 
 }iiu.^hoht, 
 
 re' 
 
 JiiTfjniiV 
 
 ra-op«w;c'  \^ 
 
 •^iL*’* 
 
 ^'  '<■/'</  (> 
 
 ' *!^^rv/'(X7m9 
 
 ^riinn^ahinty 
 
 If.flirai 
 
 ViTtmap 
 
 ff- 
 
 K<xinr  •/  W'"‘‘ 
 ilaatj^ibiii 
 •^aoriti'  ''■  ifi 
 
 'jnuiV' 
 
 Mt/m  Vinuges 
 
 Iv.uclirui' Sfrc 
 
 •.ii« 
 
 \£Tmn0e 
 
 \vatiuriti 
 
 ^AulLaff^ 
 
 jJliLd^ 
 
 ■ "^('3^  Orau^^V 
 
 f S 
 
 /VitTW^ 
 
 lijilipu  (\tttn\ut 
 
 E HL  e T i U 0 ’k. 
 
 hxges 
 
 -^Fouit  Ui^i>t-<ih(*jiJ‘ 
 
 ■^on^a,gu.s  p 
 
 •'  T 
 
 •iW'  wgw'  i 
 
 W'S^^'  .,0^ 
 
 Kiiuj  \ 
 yiltpifn  n* 
 ’fahunct' 
 
 IVo/'Wj' 
 
 SihiMUiUl 
 
 .*>•'  F^S.Joiitftiini 
 
 ‘{ht'amuH ' 
 
 tguaniiii 
 
 It . iWIr//fT\vor^^^ 
 
 -V  bM"^ 
 
 }^b^)^’>'^tl 
 
 fT<U»(/I/t« 
 
 (tmrfti'tii> 
 
 hni.  nuiui<-yi’ 
 
 L.lla^ 
 
 ^ludnua 
 
 Santii  Mtinti 
 
 •>^Fiano^wlh> 
 
 lLorto*ludLanfi' 
 
 litikm^C 
 
 Lou  j 60  W.  Gr 
 
 Kn^tth  Staiuu*  Miles. 
 
 Londitu:  Edwnrd  StAnfoi'd.55  Chariu^*  Cross . 
 
PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 
 
 437 
 
 or  Surinam.  French  Guiana  comes  next,  extending  to 
 the  northern  boundary  of  Brazil,  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
 board, and  containing  the  well-known  penal  settlement  of 
 Cayenne. 
 
 The  total  area  of  all  these  colonies  cannot  he 
 accurately  stated,  their  southern  frontiers,  that  is  towards 
 Brazil,  not  ha^ung  yet  been  accurately  determined  or  sur- 
 veyed. The  interior  also  of  these  sultr}'  and  inhospitable 
 regions  is  very  little  known.  British  Guiana  alone  has 
 been  to  some  extent  explored,  first  by  the  brothers  Schom- 
 burgk  and  C.  F.  Appun,  and  quite  recently  by  C.  Baring- 
 ton  Brown,  who  has  given  us  an  interesting  account  of 
 his  experiences  in  the  interior  in  his  Canoe  and  Camp  Life 
 in  British  Guiana. 
 
 2.  Physical  Features. 
 
 Still  there  can  he  little  doubt  that  the  main  physical 
 features  of  all  three  colonies  offer  much  resemblance. 
 Apart  from  an  oozy,  fertile,  but  exceedingly  insalubrious 
 low-lying  coast  region,  the  land  is  hilly,  and  covered  with 
 primeval  forests  of  a rank  exuberant  vegetation,  peopled 
 by  an  abundant  fauna  similar  to  that  of  Brazil,  though 
 generally  consisting  of  different  species  ; the  birds,  reptiles, 
 and  fish,  especially  being  numerous  and  of  the  most 
 varied  description.  These  extensive  woodlands  are  entirely 
 ill  the  hands  of  a small  number  of  Indian  tribes,  including 
 the  cannibal  Caribs,  who,  like  the  others,  are  gradually 
 becoming  extinct.  The  few  whites,  whether  planters  or 
 others,  living  in  Guiana,  keep  within  the  European  settle- 
 ments, or  in  their  vicmity,  situated  almost  entirely  at  the 
 mouths  of  the  rivers,  and  on  the  low  and  fertile  lands  of 
 the  coast. 
 
438 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 3.  British  Quiana — The  Kaieteur  Falls — Boraima. 
 
 Of  these  colonies,  that  belonging  to  England,  as  we  have 
 said,  is  the  most  flourisliing.  It  embraces  an  area  of  8 5,0  0 0 
 square  miles,  and  contained  in  1881  a population  of 
 252,000.  Like  all  the  neighbouring  countries,  situated  in 
 the  tropical  zone,  the  climate  is  hot  and  moist,  but  the 
 heat  in  the  coast  districts  is  not  felt  to  be  oppressive.  The 
 thermometer  ranges  throughout  the  year  in  the  day-time 
 between  75°  and  95°  in  the  shade,  and  the  temperature 
 is  moderated  by  gentle  sea  breezes  during  the  day,  and 
 land  winds  at  night.  During  the  wet  season  the  ram 
 falls  in  torrents,  but  it  seldom  rains  through  an  entire 
 day,  and  the  mornings  generally  open  in  bright  sunshine. 
 For  Europeans,  British  Guiana  is  as  healthy  as  most 
 other  tropical  American  countries. 
 
 The  whole  coast  from  the  Corentyne  rwer  to  the 
 Orinoco,  a distance  of  300  miles,  is  fringed  by  a belt  of 
 flat  country,  stretching  for  about  50  miles  into  the 
 interior.  This  level  district  is  covered  with  a rich  clayey 
 deposit,  overlaid  with  vegetable  mould,  the  decayed  pro- 
 duct of  the  thick  jungle  which  formerly  clothed  this 
 maritime  region,  but  which  has  since  been  cleared  to  make 
 room  for  plantations.  A railway  now  runs  along  part  of 
 this  fertile  coast  belt,  from  Georgetown  to  Mahaica,  and 
 wdll  eventually  be  extended  as  far  as  Berbice ; of  other 
 roads  there  are  very  few,  nearly  all  internal  communica- 
 tion being  by  water.  Proceeding  from  the  coast  towards  the 
 interior,  the  country  rapidly  rises,  and  at  a further  distance 
 the  scenery  becomes  bold  and  mountainous  ; but,  even  here, 
 there  are  many  fertile  valleys  and  plains,  and  the  banks 
 of  the  numerous  rivers  are  bordered  by  strips  of  rich  allu- 
 vial soil.  Generally  a luxuriant  virgin  forest  clothes  the 
 land,  but  there  are  here  and  there  tracts  of  open  country, 
 consisting  mainly  of  grass  land,  but  not  well  adapted  to 
 
THE  KAIETEUR  FALLS. 
 
 439 
 
 pasture,  owing  to  the  sandy  nature  of  the  soil ; these 
 latter  are  most  frequent  in  the  distant  interior,  near  the 
 frontier  of  Brazil.  Since  the  coffee  plantations  have 
 fallen  off,  and  the  cultivation  of  cotton  has  ceased  alto- 
 gether, the  chief  staple  of  the  colony  is  sugar,  of  which 
 120,000  hogsheads  (besides  rum  and  molasses)  were  ex- 
 ported in  1876.  There  is  also  a large  trade  in  the  timber 
 of  the  country,  465,000  cubic  feet  having  been  exported 
 in  the  same  year,  besides  shingles  and  charcoal.  The 
 capital,  Georgetown  or  Demerara,  has  a population  of 
 36,562,  including  some  20,000  Kegroes,  half-castes,  and 
 Coolies.  In  April  1870  C.  B.  Brown  discovered  the 
 grand  Kaieteur  Falls,  one  of  the  greatest  wonders  of  the 
 kind  in  the  whole  world.  It  is  formed  by  a sudden  dip 
 in  the  bed  of  the  Potaro,  a western  tributary  of  the 
 Esseqiubo,  the  water  at  this  point  being  precipitated  over 
 the  edge  of  the  sandstone  table-land  of  the  interior  down 
 to  the  low-lying  valley  of  the  Essequibo.  The  falls  are 
 822  feet  in  total  height,  and  370  feet  broad. 
 
 Mr.  Brown  also  visited  the  renowned  Eoraima  moun- 
 tain, which  we  have  already  mentioned  in  our  physical 
 description  of  this  part  of  South  America  i(oide  supra).  He 
 thus  describes  the  scenery  : — “ Marching  . . . over  ridge 
 and  hollow,  where  small  streams  were  numerous,  we  halted 
 for  a time  on  a ridge  at  the  end  of  an  extensive  valley,  in 
 wliich  ran  the  Arapus  river.  Nestling  in  the  valley  at 
 our  feet  was  a small  village  called  Ipelemonta.  From  the 
 opposite  side  of  the  vaUey  a number  of  ridges  intervened 
 between  it  and  the  foot  of  Eoraima.  Turn  in  any  direc- 
 tion I would,  more  wonderful  scenery  was  presented  to 
 my  view,  from  the  great  pink-precipiced  Eoraima  in  the 
 north-west,  looking  like  a huge  fortification  surrounded  by 
 a gigantic  glacis,  to  the  great  undulating  plain  stretching 
 southward  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  where  at  the 
 horizon  land  melted  into  sky.” 
 
440 
 
 CO.MPEXDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 
 
 4.  Surinam  and  Cayenne. 
 
 The  Dutch  settlement  of  Surinam,  whose  chief  town 
 is  Paramaribo,  with  a population  of  25,000,  does  not 
 appear  to  be  in  a very  prosperous  state ; on  the  contrary, 
 large  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  mother  country  are 
 necessary  for  its  maintenance.  There  remains  to  be  men- 
 tioned French  Guiana,  which  is  scarcely  anything  more 
 than  a penal  settlement  of  the  French  Government.  As 
 in  Surinam,  colonial  produce  has  here  also  considerably 
 fallen  off  of  late  years  ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
 tolerably  rich  gold  mines  have  been  discovered  at  Arataya, 
 in  the  interior,  and  the  river  Approuague  also  washes 
 down  gold  dust. 
 
 CAYENNE. 
 
 The  capital,  Cayenne,  vfith  a population  of  not  more 
 than  3000,  is  much  dreaded  on  account  of  its  deadly 
 climate.  The  comficts,  both  political  and  ordinary 
 criminals,  destined  to  this  station  are  devoted  almost  to 
 a certain  death.  The  other  penal  settlement,  however. 
 
A PENAL  SETTLEMENT. 
 
 441 
 
 on  the  IMaroni  river,  is  somewhat  more  favourahly  situated 
 in  this  respect. 
 
 This  river  flows  from  the  Tumakurak  range,  and  forms 
 the  frontier  line  between  French  and  Dutch  Guiana,  after 
 a course  of  380  miles  discharging  its  waters  into 
 the  Atlantic.  In  the  healthy  districts  along  its  hanks 
 simdry  penal  settlements  were  established  some  years 
 since,  and  large  tracts  of  land  were  at  the  same  time 
 cleared  for  cultivation.  The  main  object  was  to  effect  a 
 reformation  of  the  criminals  by  promoting  lawful  unions 
 between  the  two  sexes,  and  the  results  have  surpassed  all 
 expectation.  Not  only  those  condemned  to  forced  labour, 
 but  even  those  under  simple  arrest,  eagerly  sought  the 
 favour  of  being  sent  to  the  river  Maroni,  in  order  there  to 
 found  a family.  On  then’  amval  in  the  colony  they 
 easily  find  an  opportunity  of  marrying  released  convicts, 
 who  have  been  rewarded  with  a small  piece  of  land  for 
 their  good  conduct  while  servdng  their  time.  It  is  re- 
 corded, strangely  enough,  that  women  who  had  been  con- 
 demned for  child-murder  often  prove  the  best  wives  and 
 mothers.  Altogether  the  domestic  relations  are  in  a very 
 healthy  state,  ill-assorted  or  unhappy  unions  forming  the 
 exception.  By  this  interesting  colonial  experiment  a large 
 tract  of  country  along  the  borders  of  this  river  is  hemg 
 settled  and  cultivated  by  convict  labour. 
 
Aleuts 
 
 Pu^ct 
 
 E THJS  OT.  O GIC  AT. 
 
 A.-KD 
 
 P*HILOLOGICAJ.  MAP 
 
 NORTH  A>U:R1CxV 
 
 Siiowing 'Bic  Gejirrail  Disli'ibtitioxx  at’ "the 
 INOICENOUS  RACES 
 .Aaid ■flie  PosiitioTi  oi*  the  -v^’io'os 
 LINGUISTIC  FAMILIES 
 
 T)i£  Rtinxan.  Viun^^'ois  refer  to  the 
 GenerrO,  Mienu  ofAineruMn^Btuses 
 Sc ian^Udi^e*  p.  4S0,  Appendia>. 
 
 S OUtll 
 A.meric  a 
 
W 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY  AND  PHILOLOGY  OF  AMERICA. 
 By  a.  H.  Keane. 
 
 Introductory — Statistics — Prollems. 
 
 According  to  Bollaert’s  estimate,  the  native  American  Indians, 
 as  they  are  called,  numbered  in  1863  about  eleven  millions, 
 thus  distributed : — 
 
 Mexico 
 
 . 4,000,000 
 
 Peru 
 
 . 1,600,000 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 . 1,400,000 
 
 Central  America 
 
 . 1,000,000 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 700,000 
 
 Ecuador  . 
 
 500,000 
 
 United  States  . 
 
 500,000 
 
 Other  Countries 
 
 . 1,300,000 
 
 These  eleven  millions  of  human  beings  are  said  to  speak 
 from  four  to  five  hundred  distinct  languages,  besides  some  tv’o 
 thousand  dialects,  that  is  to  say,  as  many  between  them  as 
 are  current  amongst  the  eight  or  nine  hundred  millions  of 
 Europe  and  Asia  together.  Nor  is  it  too  much  to  say  that  this 
 numerically  small  section  of  mankind  has  given  ethnologists 
 and  philologists  as  much  trouble  as  all  the  myriad  inhabitants 
 of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  collectively.  The  aborigines  of  the 
 New  World  undoubtedly  present  some  of  the  most  interesting 
 and  difficult  problems  to  the  anthropologist.  We  here  find, 
 on  the  one  hand,  apparent  unity  of  race,  with  the  most  astound- 
 ing diversity  of  speech ; on  the  other,  this  very  diversity  in 
 the  substance  of  speech  combined  with  absolute  identity  in  its 
 form  or  structure.  We  have  further,  with  the  exception  of 
 
444 
 
 APPEXDIX. 
 
 the  Eskimos,  avowedly  intruders  from  the  north-east  coast  of 
 Asia,  an  autochthonous  race,  if  it  is  one  and  not  many,  totally 
 distinct  in  its  physical  type  and  mental  attributes  from  all 
 other  known  races  of  mankind. 
 
 Hence  arise  many  questions  that,  since  the  discovery  of 
 America,  have  necessarily  occupied  the  attention  of  historian, 
 jjhilosopher,  theologian,  and  naturalist  alike,  but  which  seem 
 3'et  to  be  as  far  from  solution  as  ever.  Ai-e  all  these  innu- 
 merable tribes  sprung  of  one  stock  or  from  many  1 How 
 account  for  the  astonishing  number  of  seemingly  distinct 
 languages  spoken  by  them  ? How  explain  the  singular  fact 
 that,  Otomi  alone  excepted,  all  these  idioms,  with  all  their 
 radical  differences,  are  yet  cast,  so  to  say,  in  one  mould,  have 
 the  same  internal  mechanism,  belong  to  the  same  order  of 
 speech  1 Lastly,  how  comes  it  that  this  common  order  of 
 speech  differs  essentiaUj’  from  those  elsewhere  prevailing  1 
 
 Some  of  these  questions  can  doubtless  be  fairly  answered, 
 but  others  admit  of  but  partial  explanation,  while  others  again 
 seem  to  have  hitherto  baffled  all  attempts  at  any  satisfactory 
 solution. 
 
 2.  Origin  of  the  Xatke  Races  and  Civilisations. 
 
 And  first,  as  to  whence  thej^  came.  The  Asiatic  theory,  ori- 
 ginally suggested  probably  by  the  difficulty  of  otherwise  account- 
 ing for  the  civilisations  of  the  Mexicans,  IMayas,  Dorichos,  Mu- 
 iscas,  and  Quichuas,  seems  now  to  be  practically  abandoned  by 
 the  most  recent  and  soundest  ethnologists.  It  has  well  been 
 remarked  bj'^  Frederick  Muller  and  others,  that  Asiatic  influ- 
 ence must  have  shown  itself  most  conspicuously  in  matters  of 
 every-day  life,  useful  plants  and  animals,  and  the  more  simple 
 industries  that  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  culture.  But  in  all 
 these  respects  there  is  absolutely  no  connection  at  all  between 
 the  respective  civilisations  of  America  and  China  or  Japan. 
 
 Xor  is  it  easy  to  understand  how  immigi’ation  from  the 
 north-east  could  in  any  way  help  to  explain  the  social  and 
 political  state  of  Anahuac,  Yucatan,  or  Peru,  such  as  it 
 existed  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  Yew  Y orld.  On 
 the  one  hand,  the  Samoj'edes,  Kurilians,  and  other  semi- 
 barbarous  peoples  of  that  part  of  Asia  have  themselves  never 
 got  beyond  the  nomad  state ; and  on  the  other,  no  traces  of 
 any  such  culture  are  found  on  the  west  coast  of  Yorth 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 445 
 
 America,  where  we  should  expect  to  meet  it  had  it  been  im- 
 ported by  way  of  Behring  Straits.  Recent  linguistic  and  other 
 investigations  are  moreover  entirely  opposed  to  the  old  idea 
 that  the  Nahuas  and  Toltecs  reached  the  Anahuac  table- 
 land from  the  north  or  north-Avest.  We  shall  see  farther  on 
 that  the  Aztec  language,  nowhere  north  of  that  point  forms 
 the  basis  of  any  linguistic  family,  while  it  is  found  in  almost 
 a pure  state  as  far  south  as  the  parallel  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 
 
 Hence  the  American  civilisations  afford  no  argument  in 
 favour  of  the  Asiatic  theory,  and  they  must  be  practically  re- 
 garded as  developed  on  the  spot,  independently  of  all  extraneous 
 influences.  Hubert  H.  Bancroft  well  remarks  that  “ the 
 tendency  of  modern  research  is  to  prove  the  great  antiquity  of 
 the  American  civilisation,  as  well  as  of  the  American  people  ; 
 and  if  either  was  drawn  from  a foreign  source,  it  rvas  at  a time 
 probably  so  remote  as  to  antedate  all  Old-World  culture  noAV 
 existing,  and  to  prevent  any  light  being  thrown  on  the  off- 
 spring by  a study  of  the  parent  stock.” — {The  Native  Races  oj 
 the  Pacific  States,  ii.  85.)  For  the  same  argument  applies  of 
 course  to  the  origin  as  well  as  to  the  culture  of  the  native 
 races.  If  the  Western  Hemisphere  Avas  peopled  from  Asia,  it 
 could  scarcely  have  been  from  any  other  quarter  except  the 
 north-east.  But  in  this  case  the  Redskins  must  have  retained 
 some  resemblance  to  the  Koriaks,  the  Chukchis,  and  other 
 peoples  of  that  region,  as  do  the  Eskimos,  Avho  have  un- 
 doubtedly entered  Asia  from  the  same  direction.  It  might 
 no  doubt  be  said  that  the  particular  race  preceding  the 
 Eskimo  migration  came  bodily  from  Asia  Avithout  leaving  any 
 trace  behind  them.  But  this  merely  puts  back  the  difficulty 
 one  stage  without  solving  it;  for  the  question  Avould  still 
 remain  to  be  ansAvered,  Avhence  came  that  particular  race 
 itself  ? 
 
 Altogether  when  Ave  remember  that  most  of  the  fauna  and 
 flora,  no  less  than  the  civilisations  of  both  hemispheres,  are  en- 
 tirely different,  and  that  geologically  Labrador  is  the  oldest  land 
 noAV  above  water,  there  seems  no  good  reason  for  denying  the 
 claim  of  the  Red  man  to  be  regarded  as  practically  auto- 
 chthonous. But  if  so  much  be  not  conceded,  then  the-  ques- 
 tion of  his  origin  can  receive  only  a negative  answer.  What- 
 ever he  be,  he  cannot  noAv  be  shoAvn  to  be  descended  of 
 any  Asiatic,  any  more  than  any  African  or  European  race.  To 
 
446 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the  scientific  ethnologist  it  seems  as  unreasonable  to  trace 
 him  to  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  Mongolian  or  Samoyede, 
 as  it  must  be  to  identify  him,  as  has  been  done,  with  the 
 Kymric  or  Gaelic  Kelts,  the  Iberian  Basques,  the  Bantu 
 ]\Ipongwes,  or  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel. 
 
 3.  Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Red  Man. 
 
 But  if  indigenous,  the  question  may  still  be  asked.  Is  the 
 American  Indian  descended  of  one  or  many  stocks  ? Belying 
 upon  certain  salient  physical  and  moral  features,  ethnologists 
 are  in  the  habit  of  treating  the  Bed  man  as  a unit,  and  there 
 are  perhaps  few  conclusions  so  unanimously  accepted  by  them 
 as  that  which  declares  the  aborigines  of  the  New  World  from 
 Alaska  to  Cape  Horn  to  be  sprung  of  one  common  source, 
 always  of  course  excepting  the  hyperborean  Eskimos.'  The 
 characteristics  on  Avhich  this  assumption  rests  have  been  amply 
 detailed  throughout  the  course  of  this  and  the  preceding 
 volume,  and  it  may  therefore  suffice  here  briefly  to  resume 
 them. 
 
 Though  presenting  occasional  points  of  contact  Avith  the 
 yelloAv  and  other  dark  races,  the  American  type,  AueAved  as  a ' 
 whole,  is  too  marked  to  be  confused  with  any  of  them.  Ap- 
 proaching, perhaps,  nearer  to  the  Mongolian  than  to  any  other, 
 its  most  prominent  outward  features  are  : — Body  moderately 
 tall  and  robust,  though  less  so  than  either  the  White  or  the 
 African,  and  inferior  to  them  also  in  Avorking  poAver ; cranium 
 rather  long,  flat,  and  receding ; forehead  very  broad,  but  also 
 very  Ioav  and  depressed,  narroAver  above  than  beloAv,  thus 
 giving  greater  prominence  to  the  middle  and  lower  features 
 than  in  the  case  of  any  other  race ; sockets  of  the  eyes  very 
 large,  the  under  rim  more  curved  than  the  upper  ; eyes  them- 
 
 1 Thus  Lewis  H.  Morgan  has  shown  that,  while  the  terms  of  relationship 
 and  consanguinit}^  are  radically  distinct  in  Iroquois,  Algonquin,  Pawnee,  etc. , 
 the  classification  of  kindred  is  the  same  ; or  at  least  identical  in  its  funda- 
 mental characteristics,  in  these,  and  in  fact  in  all  the  stock  families,  east  of 
 the  Rocky  Slountains,  if  not  throughout  the  Avhole  of  the  continent.  On  this 
 he  builds  an  argument  for  the  original  unity  of  what  he  calls  the  Ganowanian 
 or  “ Bow  and  Arrow”  race.  This  term,  which  he  has  taken  from  the  Seneca 
 (Iroquois)  tongue,  he  proposes  as  the  best  generic  or  collective  nanre  of  the 
 native  Americans,  just  as  the  Indo-Europeans  are  called  Aryans,  that  is 
 Aryas  or  Ploughcrs,  and  others  Turanians,  from  Tur,  that  is,  the  “Horse- 
 men” of  Central  Asia. — Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  vol.  xvii. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 447 
 
 selves  long,  but,  as  a rule,  small,  black,  and  deep-set,  with 
 corner  directed  upwards  towards  the  temple ; cheek-bone 
 strong  and  projecting,  with  a marked  inclination  towards  the 
 under-jaw  j jaws  themselves  long  and  prominent,  with  large 
 teeth ; nose  also  large  and  somewhat  curved  and  even  aqui- 
 line ; skin  soft  as  satin  to  the  touch,  in  colour  changing 
 from  a dirty  yellow  to  an  olive  brown  and  copper — or,  better, 
 cinnamon — hue.  None,  however,  of  the  South  American  races 
 have  the  true  coppery  or  cinnamon  shade  of  the  North  Ameri- 
 cans, and  even  amongst  them  it  is  really  characteristic  of  the 
 Iroquois  and  Algonquin  stocks  alone.  Indeed,  no  physical 
 feature  varies  so  much  as  this  of  colour.  Thus  we  have  on  the 
 one  hand  the  Guaicuri  and  Pericui  of  Lower  California,  almost 
 of  as  deep  a hue  as  the  Negro  (La  Perouse),  and  the  Charruas 
 of  Uruguay,  “ almost  black  ” (L.  H.  Morgan),  and  on  the  other 
 the  Queen  Charlotte  Islanders  and  Hydahs,  generally  spoken 
 of  as  remarkably  fair.  Captain  Dixon  describes  a Hydah 
 female,  “ whose  countenance  had  all  the  cheerful  glow  of  an 
 English  milkmaid,  and  the  healthy  red  which  flushed  her 
 cheek  was  even  beautifully  contrasted  with  the  whiteness  of 
 her  neck;  her  forehead  was  so  remarkably  clear  that  the 
 translucent  veins  were  seen  meandering  even  in  the  minutest 
 branches.”  The  Pammas  also,  of  the  Madeira,  in  Brazil,  are 
 stated  to  be  almost  white. 
 
 But  the  great  variety  in  complexion  is  balanced  by  abso- 
 lute uniformity  in  the  character  of  the  hair,  which  is  always 
 long,  straight,  coarse,  black,  and  lustreless,  in  shape  cylind- 
 rical or  cylindroidal,  never  oval  or  ovoidal  as  that  of  the 
 European.  This  cylindrical  form  is  the  true  cause  of  its  lank 
 appearance,  for,  if  flattened  by  pressure  to  an  oval  shape,  it 
 curls,  and  we  otherwise  know  that  all  hair  which  curls  must 
 be  oval.  In  old  age  it  becomes,  not  grey,  but  simply  colour- 
 less, variously  described  of  an  “ ashy  white  ” and  “ silver 
 white.”  The  hair,  also,  of  the  ancient  races,  recovered  from 
 the  Temple  of  the  Sun  in  Peru,  from  Mexico,  and  BrazU  is 
 always  cylindrical,  straight,  and  lank,  so  far  implying  that  they 
 were  of  the  same  species  as  the  present  indigenous  inhabitants 
 of  the  Avestern  hemisphere.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that  the 
 Egyptian  mummy  hair  is  oval,  affording  one  of  the  very 
 strongest  proofs  that  the  pyramid-builders  of  the  Nile  valley 
 had  nothing  in  common  with  those  of  the  Anahuac  table-lancL 
 
448 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Another  somewhat  general  characteristic  of  the  native 
 Americans  is  their  feeble  constitution,  which  is  little  capable 
 of  resisting  the  ravages  of  epidemics,  the  effects  of  strong 
 drinks,  or  even  of  mere  change  of  diet  and  climate.  The 
 natives  of  the  Labrador  uplands,  when  tempted  by  the  mis- 
 sionaries down  to  the  coast,  soon  sicken  and  die.  They  can- 
 not stand  the  moist  sea  air ; they  become  liable  to  influenza, 
 rheumatism,  and  consumption,  and  for  most  of  them  a journey 
 to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  is  a journey  to  the 
 grave.  The  Amazonian  Indians  also  suffer  severely  from  the 
 slight  change  of  temperature  as  they  ascend  the  affluents  of  the 
 Maranan  to  the  high  regions,  or  come  down  from  the  Brazilian 
 uplands  to  the  lower  level  of  its  valley.  They  are  said  even 
 to  be  injuriously  affected  by  a mere  change  of  clothing,  owing, 
 doubtless,  to  the  unwonted  increase  of  temperature  accom- 
 panying it 
 
 4.  Mental  Attributes. 
 
 Their  more  striking  mental  qualities  are,  perhaps,  resolu- 
 tion and  earnestness  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  indif- 
 ference to  bodily  pain  and  to  external  nature — an  indifference, 
 however,  often  more  assumed  than  real,  because  by  no  means 
 due  to  a heavy  or  unsjunpathetic  temperament  The  Bed  man 
 is,  on  the  contrary,  at  heart  exceedingly  passionate,  yielding 
 with  unexampled  impetuosity  to  certain  affections — such,  for 
 instance,  as  gambling  and  drink — once  the  ajipetite  has  been 
 whetted  for  such  tastes.  Temptation  he  can  then  no  more 
 resist  than  can  the  beast  of  the  field  his  animal  impulses,  and 
 he  will  stake  everything,  even  life  itself,  to  gratify  the  predomi- 
 nant frenzy  of  the  moment.  Thus,  we  are  told  that  even  the 
 sluggish  Californian  will  undergo  every  hardship,  travel  any 
 distance,  and  fight  his  way  through  a dozen  hostile  tribes,  in 
 order  to  procure  from  the  New  Almaden  quicksilver  mine  the 
 red  cinnabar  wherewith  to  decorate  or  bedaub  his  person. 
 Hence  this  outward  or  seeming  indifference  to  physical  pain, 
 and  to  the  external  aspects  of  nature  flows  rather  from  a 
 settled  determination  to  conceal  his  inward  feelings — a deter- 
 mination schooled  in  the  individual  by  a life  of  the  severest 
 training — in  the  race  developed  to  a second  nature  by  the  ac- 
 cumulating influences  of  successive  generations. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 449 
 
 The  Redskin  is,  on  the  whole,  not  deficient  in  personal 
 bravery,  a quality  for  which  some  nations,  such  as  the  Iroquois, 
 and  Algonquins  of  the  eastern  seaboard,  the  Dacotahs  and 
 Pawnees  of  the  prairies,  the  Jibaros  of  the  Napo  Valley, 
 the  Chilian  Araucanians,  and  many  others,  are,  indeed,  con- 
 spicuous. But  all  are  alike  cruel  and  cunning  in  war,  priding 
 themselves  more  in  circumventing  the  enemy  than  in  over- 
 coming him  in  open  fight.  Generosity  they  are  also  strangers 
 to,  and  know  nothing  of  the  more  ennobling  passions  and 
 feelings  of  human  nature.  To  them  love  in  its  higher  sense 
 conveys  no  meaning.  Of  the  comic  vein  also,  so  conspicuous 
 in  the  African  race,  there  is  almost  a total  absence.  The 
 feeble  jokes  the  Redskin  occasionally  gives  rise  to  are  all  on 
 the  side  of  the  white  man ; he  himself  knows  nothing  of  the 
 “ humour  of  the  thing,”  and  for  him  life  has  but  one — the 
 serious,  we  might  almost  say  the  tragic — side.‘ 
 
 Still  the  native  American  does  not  want  parts,  and  he 
 ranks  somewhat  high  in  the  mental  scale,  higher  certainly 
 than  the  Australian,  the  Papua,  the  Malay,  or  hlegro  races. 
 It  is,  no  doubt,  quite  true  that  many  Californian,  Amazonian, 
 and  other  tribes  cannot  count  beyond  three  or  five ; but 
 others,  again — such  as  the  Choctaws,  Cherokees,  Dacotahs, 
 Chippeways,Winnebagoes,  and  Wyandots — not  to  speak  of  the 
 civilised  Aztecs,  Mayas,  Quiches,  and  Quichuas — can  reckon 
 up  to  a million,  three  hundred  million,  and  even  a billion.  The 
 culture  of  these  civilised  nations  was,  as  shown,  both  of  native 
 growth  and  of  a much  higher  order  than  anything  developed 
 by  the  African  Negroes,  or  borrowed  by  the  klalays  of  Java 
 from  the  Aryan  Hindus.  In  the  region  of  the  Andes  especiall)' 
 there  seem  to  have  been  no  less  than  five  eras  of  human  pro- 
 gress stretching  back  possibly  thousands  of  years,  and  culmi- 
 nating with  the  glories  of  the  Peruvian  Incas.  Typical  of 
 this  last  phase  are  the  wonderful  ruins  of  the  Tem^de  of  the 
 Sun  at  Cuzco,  erected  fully  a hundred  years  before  the  arrival 
 of  the  Spaniard,  and  executed  with  surprising  accuracy. 
 Many  of  the  hard  porphyry  blocks  used  in  this  building  are 
 of  huge  proportions,  and  had  to  be  conveyed  for  miles  without 
 
 * The  stereotyped  stories  of  Indian  wit  cun'ent  in  popular  works  scarcelv 
 call  for  serious  consideration.  Few  of  them  are  really  authentic,  and  eveu 
 these  are  mostly  coloured  by  writers  who  are  nothing  unless  effective. 
 
450 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the  aid  of  iron,  or  of  any  beast,  of  burden  stronger  than  the 
 llama.  It  should  be  further  observed  that  the  low  position 
 elsewhere  occupied  by  most  of  the  native  peoples — mere 
 hunters  and  fishermen — was  due  rather  to  the  peculiar  con- 
 figuration of  the  land  and  otlier  adverse  circumstances  than  to 
 the  limited  mental  endowments  of  the  Eed  man.  From  this 
 point  of  view,  all  the  more  wonderful  becomes  the  relatively 
 high  degree  of  culture  attained  by  the  civilised  races,  without 
 the  aid  of  such  helpmates  as  the  larger  domestic  animals — the 
 ox,  the  horse,  or  the  camel,  none  of  which  are  indigenous  in 
 the  New  World.  The  only  useful  plant  which  it  possessed 
 capable  of  comparing  with  the  many  cereals  of  the  Eastern 
 Hemisphere,  Avas  the  so-called  Indian  corn,  or  zee  maize,  in 
 connection  with  which  it  should  be  remembered  that,  Avhen 
 Jacques  Cartier  in  15.35  visited  the  site  of  the  present  Mon- 
 treal, he  there  found  the  “ nation  de  ITroquet,”  the  Onontchata- 
 ronons  of  the  neighbouring  Hurons,  a serai-civilised  agricul- 
 tural Algonquin  tribe  living  in  the  strongly-fortified  village  of 
 Hochelaga,  and  cultivating  large  fields  of  maize.  This  settled 
 people  unfortunately  soon  after  disappeared,  absorbed  or 
 destroyed  by  the  Wyandots,  and  it  must  for  ever  remain 
 matter  of  conjecture  whether  they  were  the  last  remnants  of 
 an  agricultural  race  then  dying  out,  or  the  pioneers  of  an 
 agricultural  era  then  being  developed  by  the  Algonquin 
 nation,  but  nipped  as  it  Avere  in  the  bud  by  the  appearance  of 
 the  White  man  on  the  scene.  But  in  any  case  the  circum- 
 stance tends  to  shoAv  that,  under  more  favourable  conditions, 
 the  Eed  man  might  perhaps  of  himself  haA’e  turned  to  a more 
 settled  life,  and  have  thus  risen  higher  in  the  social  scale  than 
 he  could  ever  hope  to  do  as  a fisher  or  huntsman. 
 
 5.  Ata  the  Aborigines  one  or  many  ? 
 
 Coming  noAv  to  the  question  of  the  unity  or  variety  of  the 
 American  race,  it  would  appear  from  the  foregoing  remarks 
 that,  Avith  the  exception  of  the  hair,  there  is  no  single 
 physical  or  mental  quality  sufficiently  uniform  to  supply  an 
 argument  in  favour  of  its  common  origin.  We  liaA'e  seen  that 
 the  more  prominent  characteristics,  such  as  colour  and  intelli- 
 gence as  gauged  by  the  arithmetical  test,  are  often  disturbed 
 
AMEEICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 451 
 
 by  discrepancies  that  can  be  regarded  as  nothing  short  of 
 fundamental.  And  these  deviations  from  the  normal  type 
 will  at  times  occur  even  within  the  same  family,  or  between 
 tribes  speaking  dialects  of  the  same  stock  language.  Thus 
 the  Nasquapees,  and  the  Montagnais  of  Labrador  are  usually 
 regarded  as  branches  of  the  great  Kree  nation,  itself  a branch 
 of  the  Algonquin,  and  they  certainly  speak  varieties  of  the  Kree 
 tongue  so  much  alike  that  they  are  able  to  converse  together 
 without  much  difficulty.  Yet  H.  Y.  Hind,  a most  careful 
 observer,  assures  us  that  “ there  is  such  a marked  difference 
 between  the  appearance  of  Kasquapees  and  IMontagnais  that, 
 judging  from  their  exterior,  o>ie  would  suppose  them  to  belong 
 to  different  families  of  the  human  race.” — {The  Lalyrador 
 Peninsula,  i.  p.  332.)  Here,  therefore,  unity  of  speech  is  of 
 itself  insufficient  to  establish  unity  of  origin.  How  then 
 can  such  a common  origin  be  predicated  of  tribes  living 
 thousands  of  miles  apart,  differing  profoundly  in  their  physical 
 and  mental  qualities,  and  speaking  languages  diverging  as 
 much  as  it  is  possible  to  suppose  any  idioms  capable  of 
 diverging  from  each  other  1 And  even  those  who  claim  an 
 Asiatic  origin  for  the  American  race  will  scarcely  deny  that 
 what  happened  once  could  in  the  course  of  ages  happen  again 
 and  again.  Hence,  if  there  was  one,  there  may  have  been 
 several  Asiatic  migrations,  in  which  case  the  American  Indians 
 would  still  be  descended,  not  of  one,  but  of  several  independent 
 stocks. 
 
 6.  Language — Poly  synthesis. 
 
 But  the  question  is  much  too  far-reaching  to  be  more  than 
 alluded  to  here.  Meantime  the  doubts  that  these  few  remarks 
 may  tend  to  throw  upon  the  generally  accepted  theory  of  the 
 unity  of  the  aborigines  will  help  partly  to  account  for  the 
 prodigious  number  and  diversity  of  their  languages.  All  these 
 countless  idioms,  however,  notwithstanding  their  profound 
 discrepancies,  have  still  one  salient  feature  common  to  all  of 
 them,  and  common  to  them  alone.  As  above  stated,  they  are 
 all  cast  in  one  mould,  thus  differing  in  substance  while  one  in 
 form.  They  belong  to  what  is  called  the  polj^synthetic  order 
 of  speech,  an  order  which  is  elsewhere  unrepresented,  except 
 
452 
 
 A.PPEXDIX. 
 
 perhaps  in  a feeble  way  by  the  Basque  of  the  western 
 Pj’renees.  The  langi;ages  of  the  Old  World,  taken  in  its 
 widest  sense  so  as  to  include  PoljTiesia  and  Australia,  conform 
 to  one  or  other  of  the  three  orders  known  as  the  ^Monosyllabic, 
 Agglutinating,  and  Inflectional.  These  orders  are  unknown  in 
 the  Western  Hemisphere,  where,  always  excepting  the  Otomi 
 of  Central  IMexico  and  perhaps  the  extinct  Attacapac  of 
 Louisiana,  polysynthesis  reigns  supreme. 
 
 A clear  understanding  of  the  meaning  of  this  term  will  go 
 a long  way  towards  accounting  for  the  astounding  number  of 
 the  American  languages.  No  one  can  have  chanced  to  open 
 Eliot’s  Massachusetts  Bible,  or  any  other  work  in  any  of  these 
 idioms,  without  being  struck  by  one  remarkable  feature.  They 
 seem  made  up  to  a very  large  extent  of  tremendously  long 
 words.  This  is  owing  to  their  peculiar  structure,  to  charac- 
 terise which  many  terms  have  been  proposed — amalgamation, 
 incorporation,  holojjhrasis,  and  lastly  polys}Tithesis,  which 
 was  originall}^  suggested  by  Du  Pouceau  in  1819,  and  seems 
 still  to  meet  with  most  favour.  This  word,  literally  meaning 
 ■much  composition — that  is,  the  putting  together  or  fusion  of 
 many  words  into  one — expresses  the  process  with  sufficient 
 accuracy  for  ordinary  puiqjoses.  It  implies  in  a general  way 
 that  these  languages  combine  in  a single  word,  a “ bunch-word  ” 
 as  it  is  called,  complex  conceptions,  in  other  systems  expressed 
 by  two  or  more  separate  terms.  These  words  are  then  said 
 to  be  “ incapsulated,”  like  a set  of  boxes  one  within  the  other. 
 To  the  process  itself  there  is  practically  no  limit,  so  that  the 
 subject  and  predicate  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  Avith  their  various 
 indirect  relations,  tend  to  become  amalgamated  in  one  inter- 
 minable polysyllable,  regularly  conjugated  like  any  ordinary 
 Greek  or  Latin  A^erb.  The  consequence  is  that  word  and 
 sentence  often  become  convertible  terms  ; or,  it  might  be 
 almost  said  that  most  of  the  Avords  in  these  languages  are  not 
 Avords  at  all,  as  we  understand  them,  that  is,  simple  expressions 
 for  simple  ideas,  but  complete  sentences  in  themselves.  So 
 true  is  tliis,  that  not  unfrequently  the  names  of  such  ordinary 
 objects  as  fish,  tree,  star,  are  not  simple  roots  incapable  of 
 further  analysis,  but  comjAound  terms  reducible  to  a series 
 of  Avords  descriptiA'e  of  these  objects,  that  is  to  say,  they  are 
 sentences,  or  at  least  brief  descriptions.  Thus  in  loAva  the 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 453 
 
 beard  is  “the  hair  of  the  chin;”  & finger  is  “ the  nose  of  the  hand;  ” 
 a toe  is  “ the  nose  of  the  feet ; ” silver  is  “ white  iron  ; ” and  so 
 on.  So  also  the  Algonquin  shominauho  = wine,  means  literally 
 “ grape-berry  liquor ; ” ^ mishiminauho  = cider  = apple-berry 
 liquor  ; keeshkibojegum  = handsaw  = “ a sawdust  making  in- 
 strument ; ” plough  = a breaking-up-land  instrument,  such 
 examples  clearly  showing  that  these  tongues  have  not  yet 
 forgotten  their  et3'mologies.  The  great  bulk  of  the  words 
 still  show  their  formation,  that  is  to  say,  they  have  not  yet 
 passed  out  of  the  concrete  state  into  the  stage  of  pure  abstrac- 
 tion and  generalisation,  in  which  the  roots  and  formative 
 elements  not  only  become  completely  fused  together,  but  the 
 roots  themselves  lose  their  independence,  or  their  origin  be- 
 comes obscured,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing.  Thus  we 
 see  that  the  American  bunch-words  are  essentially  concrete,  all 
 the  components  being  roots  expressive  of  material  objects,  the 
 full  derivation  of  which  is  always  present  to  the  mind  of  the 
 speaker. 
 
 The  foregoing  remarks  will  explain  how  it  is  that  American 
 dictionaries  are  crowded  with  conglomerations  of  syllables 
 called  words,  but  which  are  really  complete  sentences.  Thus 
 the  Kree  dictionary  of  the  Eev.  E.  A.  Watkins  contains  such 
 terms  as  : yikwakoonawao  = he  covers  him  over  with  snow  ; 
 poostuspuistakunao  = she  puts  on  an  apron ; katuspich- 
 ikwunawinao  = she  takes  off  her  apron  ; and  so  on.  The  fact 
 is,  the  Indian  can  scarcely  use  even  concrete  terms  apart  from 
 their  associations ; he  cannot  say  to  cover,  to  put  on,  to  take  off, 
 but  only  to-cover-witb-snoio,  to-put-on-an-apron,  to-take-off-an-apron, 
 or  rather  somebody-covers-somebody  (or  something)  with- 
 snow,  with-earth,  etc.  Hence  nothing  puzzles  him  more  than 
 to  be  asked  to  give  the  equivalents  in  his  language  of  isolated 
 English  words.  He  cannot  translate  to  eat,  to  drink,  to  strike, 
 because  he  never  eats,  drinks,  or  strikes,  but  always  eats  some- 
 thing, drinks  something,  strikes  somebody,  in  diverse  and 
 .sundry  ways,  and  looking  on  all  this  as  a single  concrete  con- 
 ception, naturally  expresses  it  in  a single  concrete  term.  The 
 result  of  course  is  that  this  concrete  term  must  be  conjugated, 
 and  that  conjugation  itself  becomes  interminable.  The  Latin 
 
 ' In  Iroquois  also  tC!?ie=oiieharadesclioengtseragherie  = “ aliquor  made 
 of  the  juice  of  the  gi'ape,”  a still  more  complete  definition. 
 
454 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 verb  amo  is  exhausted  when  it  has  been  run  through  its  several 
 moods,  tenses,  persons,  and  voices ; but  the  cori’esponding 
 Chippewa}’  verb  tcauh  is  never  exhausted,  because  a fresh  con- 
 jugation arises,  so  to  say,  with  every  fresh  coalescing  object, 
 and  with  every  fresh  accident  of  time,  place,  manner,  and 
 other  extensions  of  subject  and  predicate.  Hence  we  are  no 
 longer  surprised  to  be  told  that  “to  conjugate  the  verbs  to 
 love,  to  see,  to  burn,  through  all  the  inflexions  of  which  tliey 
 are  susceptible  would  be  a work  of  years.” — (Eev.  Thomas 
 Harlbust,  Memoir  on  the  Chippewa  Tongue,  in  Schoolcraft, 
 iv.  p.  390.)  Xor  are  we  astonished  to  learn  from  another 
 writer  that  in  IMikmak  even  the  very  numerals  are  subject  to 
 conjugation,  that  is  to  say,  cannot  be  used  apart,  but  must  be 
 incorporated  and  conjugated,  as  from  naiooJd  = one,  we  get : 
 Xaiooktaich  = there  is  one. 
 
 Xaiooktaichcus  = there  was  one. 
 
 Encoodaichdedou  = there  will  be  one,  etc. 
 
 7.  C&n-^eqiiences  of  Pohjsynthesis — Syncope — Letter-change — 
 Evanescence. 
 
 Such  seems  to  be  the  rationale  of  polysynthesis ; but  the' 
 process  leads  necessarily  to  other  results,  the  most  striking  of 
 which  is  perhaps  the  tendency  to  contractions  and  abbreviations 
 of  all  sorts.  AVere  the  roots  strung  together,  as  in  the  Sans- 
 krit or  Teutonic  method  of  word-building,  without  considerable 
 clippings  and  curtailments,  they  would  result  in  words  far  too 
 long  for  utterance  even  by  those  “ to  the  manner  born.”  As  it 
 is,  and  in  spite  of  all  the  syncope  to  which  they  are  subjected, 
 words  in  these  languages  even  for  the  most  ordinary  objects 
 are  often  of  amazing  length.  Thus  in  Aztec  a kind  of  bread 
 is  called  totanquitlaxcallillaquelpacolli.  Alore  complicate 
 notions  are,  of  course,  still  longer,  as,  for  instance,  the  Sahaptin 
 ipinashapatawtrahlikitamawarsha  = he  keeps  one  long  waiting 
 for  him  at  night ; the  Kree  Kaookiskinnhohumowakunimimit- 
 tukook  = I shall  have  you  for  my  disciples ; and  the  Cherokee 
 winitawtigeginaliskawlungtanawnelitisesh  = by  that  time  they 
 will  have  nearly  ceased  favouring  thee  and  me  from  afar. 
 Hence  the  unavoidable  necessity  of  shortening  the  components 
 by  every  imaginable  expedient,  and  to  an  extent  of  which 
 
AilERICAX  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 455 
 
 it  is  (liflBcult  for  us  to  form  any  adequate  conception.  Tims 
 in  Aht  (Vancouver’s  Island)  the  phrase  “ I do  not  understand  ” 
 is  expressed  by  the  amalgam  wimmutomah,  made  up  of  wik  = not, 
 kumotop  = to  understand,  and  mah  = I,  so  that  wimmutomah  is 
 really  a contracted  form  of  wikkumotoimmah.  Here  the  k of 
 wik  has  become  m by  affinity,  the  initial  ku  and  final  p of 
 kumotop  disappear,  while  the  o of  the  second  syllable  is  modified 
 to  u ■,  consequently  in  this  instance,  which  is  by  no  means  an 
 extreme  case,  the  result  is  brought  about  partly  by  syncope 
 and  partly  by  euphonic  interchange  of  vowels  and  consonants. 
 
 This  interchange  of  letters  is  of  far  wider  range  than  one 
 is  prepared  for  by  a study  of  Grimm’s  law  of  lautverschiehung, 
 or  “ sound  shifting,”  as  applied  to  the  Aryan  tongues.  It  is 
 of  course  occasioned  by  the  same  urgent  need  for  abbreviation, 
 and  is  so  universal  as  to  form  a prominent  feature  in  all 
 polysjmthetic  languages.  In  the  Xitinaht  dialect  of  the  above- 
 mentioned  Aht  idiom  h and  d are  uniformly  substituted  for  m 
 and  n,  as  in  hoouch  for  moouch  = deer  ; dissibach  for  nismah  = 
 country. 
 
 Lastly,  some  idioms  have  a tendency  to  carry  the  principle 
 of  contraction  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  as  for  instance, 
 the  same  Xitinaht  dialect,  which  by  interchange  and  syncope 
 combined  reduces  the  full  Aht  term  noowayksoh  to  dooux  = 
 father,  and  oomayksoh  to  abahx  — mother. 
 
 "We  can  now  readily  understand  how  the  process  leads 
 inevitably  to  another  characteristic,  which  may  perhaps  be 
 best  expressed  by  the  word  evanescence.  These  languages  tend 
 to  diverge  rapidly  from  each  other,  their  morphology  or  gram- 
 matical mechanism  living  on,  while  their  substance,  owing  to 
 the  obscuration  of  their  roots,  as  above  illustrated,  is  con- 
 tinually shifting,  and  soon  loses  its  identity  altogether.  It 
 tlms  often  becomes  impossible  to  detect  the  affinity  of  idioms 
 which  may  yet  be  closely  related.  The  Nitinahts,  if  removed 
 from  the  vicinity  of  the  other  Aht-speaking  tribes  on  the  west 
 coast  of  Vancouver,  would  probably  in  a few  generations 
 develop  their  peculiar  dialect  into  a language  as  distinct  and 
 apparently  as  independent  of  the  common  tribal  tongue  as 
 English  is  of  Hebrew  or  Japanese.  Their  idiom  would,  at  all 
 events,  in  a single  generation  diverge  more  from  the  parent 
 stock  than  English  has  diverged  from  the  organic  Aryan 
 
456 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 speech  in  the  course  of  many  thousand  years.  The  Nitinaht 
 forms  dooux  and  abahx,  for  instance,  differ  far  more  widely 
 from  the  neighbouring  Aht  noowayksoh  and  oomayhoh  than  do 
 the  English  father  and  mother  from  the  Sanskrit  pitr,  mdtr, 
 although  these  two  languages  represent  the  very  opposite 
 extremities  of  the  Aryan  system. 
 
 8.  Vast  number  of  the  American  Languages  accounted  for. 
 
 The  prodigious  number  of  seemingly  independent  idioms 
 spoken  by  the  few  millions  of  American  Indians  -will  now 
 perhaps  cease  to  cause  much  further  amazement.  And  when 
 it  is  added  that  the  long  compound  terms,  of  which  they  are 
 largely  made  up,  are  not  the  result  of  slow  processes  of 
 phonetic  decay,  but  are  often  in  fact  instantaneous  formations, 
 we  shall  perhaps  begin  rather  to  wonder  that  they  are  not 
 even  still  more  numerous  than  careful  investigation  shows 
 
 O 
 
 them  to  be.  If,  for  instance,  an  association  of  City  capitalists 
 were  able  suddenly  to  advertise  themselves  as  the  “ Eobritir- 
 alifisuranompany,"  and  every  one  should  at  once,  and,  as  it 
 were,  intuitively  understand  this  to  be  the  polj'synthetic  form 
 of  “ Eoyal  British  Fire  and  Life  Insurance  Company,”  we  may 
 easily  fancy  what  would  become  of  the  English  language  in  a 
 few  generations,  especially  if  further  left  to  itself,  and  unpro- 
 tected by  the  conservative  influence  of  a written  literature. 
 Yet  compounds  of  this  sort  have  actually  been  formed  by 
 English-speaking  communities  in  America,  as,  for  instance, 
 the  word  Fenyan,  a Pennsylvanian  Y'ankee,  where  Pen  stands 
 for  Pennsylvania,  and  yan  for  Y'ankee.  The  principle  has 
 also  been  illustrated  by  the  bill  of  an  illiterate  English  horse 
 jobber,  which  was  worded  : — 
 
 Anosafada  = A horse  half  a day — so  much. 
 Takinonimome  = Taking  on  him  home — so  much. 
 
 But  perhaps  a more  perfect  instance  of  English  polysynthesis 
 is  the  familiar  expression  haj^’orth  = halfpenny-worth,  where 
 the  wovCi  penny  is  represented  by  the  single  letter^,  as  is  so 
 often  the  case  in  the  American  tongues. 
 
 The  little  attention  given  to  polysynthesis,  even  by  pro- 
 fessed philologists,  will  be  sufficient  excuse  for  the  space  here 
 devoted  to  the  subject.  Some  have  recently  even  questioned 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 457 
 
 its  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a distinct  order  of  speech,  asserting 
 that  it  is  merely  another  name  for  agglutination,  and  that  the 
 morphology  of  the  American  languages  does  not  differ 
 materially  from  that  of  other  agglutinating  tongues,  such,  for 
 instance,  as  those  of  the  Finno-Tataric,  Dravidian,  Bantu,  or 
 Woloff  groups.  But  a more  careful  study  of  the  true  nature 
 of  polysynthesis  must  show  that  this  view  is  utterly  untenable. 
 It  was  above  remarked  that  in  this  process  not  only  are  words 
 often  virtually  so  many  sentences,  but  that  the  sentences 
 themselves,  or  what  in  other  systems  would  be  sentences,  are 
 here  frequently  nothing  but  words.  Not  merely  are  certain 
 direct  and  indirect  pronominal  objects  blended  with  the  verb, 
 as  in  Turkish,  Magyar,  and  especially  Basque  ; but  the  process 
 of  blending,  or  “ incapsulating,”  is  extended  indefinitely,  em- 
 bracing the  direct  and  indirect  nominal  subjects  and  objects, 
 together  with  their  various  adjectival  and  adverbial  exten- 
 sions. Moreover,  in  the  so-called  “ Turanian”  idioms  the  lead- 
 ing roots  are  neve?'  obscured,  or  even  modified  ; whereas  in  the 
 American,  all  the  roots,  as  above  shown,  are  clipped  and  cut 
 to  such  an  extent  that  nothing  often  is  left  of  tliem  except 
 a single  letter,  and  this  of  itself  alone  constitutes  an  essential 
 difference  between  the  agglutinating  and  polysynthetic  systems. 
 In  the  one  words  are  merely  united  together,  like  oil  and 
 vinegar ; in  the  other,  they  are  fused  together,  like  wine  and 
 water. 
 
 It  may  also  be  noticed  that  many  American  families,  such 
 as  the  Kree  and  the  Iroquois,  confuse  noun  and  verb,  or 
 rather  recognise  the  noun  alone,  which,  when  blended  with 
 its  various  affixes,  thus  corresponds  to  our  verbal  expressions. 
 Hence  the  sentence  is  not  based  on  the  relation  of  the  sub- 
 ject to  its  predicate,  but  rather  on  that  of  the  object  to  its 
 various  bearings  and  connections.  The  form  of  the  sentence 
 is  in  fact  regulated,  not  by  a verbal,  but  by  a substantival 
 relation — that  of  the  object  or  thing  affected.  Such  a manner 
 of  clothing  the  conceptions  could  not  fail  to  influence  in  its 
 turn  the  development  of  thought.  Not  only  our  ideas  and 
 views,  but  our  whole  method  of  thinking,  the  very  current  of 
 our  thoughts,  must  appear  to  the  native  American  to  the  last 
 degree  strange  and  perverted.  Hence  our  languages  are 
 instruments  of  which  he  is  unable  to  make  any  adequate 
 
458 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 use,  and  in  which  he  finds  it  almost  impossible  to  clothe 
 his  conceptions  with  ease  or  propriety.  PolysjTithesis,  in 
 a Avord,  is,  both  outwardly  and  inAvardly,  radically  distinct 
 from  all  other  forms  of  speech.  It  constitutes  an  order  apart, 
 AA'hich,  like  the  agglutinating,  has  grown  out  of  the  isolating, 
 but  which,  unlike  it,  seems  incapable  of  deA'eloping  into  the 
 higher  or  inflectional  state.  One  reason  of  this  undoubtedly 
 is,  because  the  community  itself  is  not  progressiA'e,  but 
 stationary.  Hence  its  speech,  after  developing  from  the 
 monosyllabic  stage,  as  all  speech  must  necessarily  have  done, 
 revolves,  so  to  say,  in  a A'icious  circle  of  polysynthesis,  aj)- 
 parently  unable  to  pass  on  to  the  more  perfect  inflecting 
 state,  as  the  speech  of  the  progressive  Arj-ans  has  done. 
 
 9.  Their  Classification. 
 
 This  is  at  the  same  time  the  very  best  explanation  that 
 can  perhaps  be  given  of  the  fact  that  the  American  languages, 
 and  they  alone,  unless  an  exception  be  made  in  favour  of 
 Basque,  are  cast  in  this  uniform  polysjmthetic  groove.  It  is  a 
 fact  that  must  othenAuse  be  accepted,  just  as,  pending  the 
 results  of  further  research,  we  must  accept  that  other  fact, 
 probably  intimately  bound  up  Avith  it — the  independence  of 
 the  American  race  itself  of  all  other  races  of  mankind.  At  the 
 time  of  the  discovery  of  the  XeAv  "World  this  race,  whether  one 
 or  many,  Avas  already  found  diffused  over  the  whole  continent, 
 from  the  Frozen  Ocean  to  the  Land  of  Fire.  Since  then  many 
 tribes  and  nations,  and  AA'ith  them  many  tongues  and  families 
 of  speech,  have  passed  away,  leaving  no  trace  behind  them. 
 But  there  still  remains  a multiplicity  of  tribes,  speaking  a vast 
 number  of  idioms,  so  numerous  and  so  varied  as  to  have 
 hitherto  baffled  all  efforts  at  complete  classification.  In  the 
 Old  AVorld  the  only  parallel  to  this  are  the  Xegro  languages 
 of  Central  Africa  ElseAvhere,  both  in  Africa  and  throughout 
 the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  the  actual  number  of  stock  languages 
 
 that  is,  of  independent  groups — has  at  least  been  approxi- 
 
 matelv  ascertained.  But  in  America  this  is  so  far  from  being 
 the  case,  that  the  very  latest  schemes — such,  for  instance,  as 
 that  of  Fredrich  jMuller — present  strange  anomalies  and 
 seemingly  irreconcilable  inconsistencies. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 459' 
 
 The  subjoined  classification  must  not,  therefore,  be  taken 
 as  final,  or,  indeed,  as  anything  more  than,  perhaps,  a slight 
 improvement  on  previous  attempts.  In  the  alphabetical  list 
 following  it  will  be  found  the  names  of  all  important  existing 
 and  historical  tribes,  with  as  much  information  concerning 
 them  as  was  consistent  with  a due  regard  to  our  limited  space. 
 The  list  is  certainly  not  exhaustive,  but  wdien  it  is  stated  that 
 it  contains  about  1700  names,  or  600  more  than  in  the  index 
 to  H.  E.  Ludewig’s  Literature  of  the  American  Lanriitages, 
 we  may  perhaps  feel  somewhat  confident  that  there  are  not 
 very  many  serious  omissions.  ^Yhen,  in  the  course  of  his 
 reading,  the  intelligent  student  meets  Avith  the  name  of  an 
 Indian  tribe,  what  he  naturally  likes  to  know  about  it  is,  to 
 wdiat  family  or  stock  does  it  belong!  If  historical,  where 
 originally  settled!  Does  it  still  exist!  If  so,  where  now 
 located  ! The  object  of  this  alphabetical  list  has  been  to 
 supply  in  a convenient  form  information  of  this  sort,  which  has 
 hitherto  remained  scattered  over  a multiplicity  of  works  mostly 
 inaccessible  to  the  general  public.  The  whole  subject  will  be 
 found  further  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  philological  and 
 ethnographical  maps,  forming  companions  to  that  prepared  for 
 the  monograph  on  African  ethnology  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
 series. 
 
 Note. — The  geographical  position  of  all  the  tribes  men- 
 tioned in  the  following  series  of  schemes  will  be  found  accu- 
 rately fixed  in  the  general  alphabetical  index,  an  arrangement 
 by  which  much  confusion  is  avoided,  and  the  tables  themselves 
 kept  clear  of  overcrowding. 
 
4G0 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 General  Scheme  of  American  Races  and  Languages 
 
 I. 
 
 Sub-Arctic  J 
 Places. 
 
 f Karalits. 
 I Eskimos 
 Eskimos  -!  proper. 
 
 Innuits. 
 
 YI. 
 
 Appalacli- 
 ian  Races. 
 
 Koniagas. 
 
 Aleuts. 
 
 Thliukeets  (KolosbesL 
 
 II.  Athabascan,  or  Tinney  family. 
 
 III.  Algonquin  family. 
 
 lY.  TVyandot-Iroquois  family. 
 
 Y.  Dacotali  family. 
 
 Muscogee  group. 
 Cberokees. 
 
 Catawbas,  with  AYoc- 
 cons. 
 
 Natchez,  with  Ut- 
 L chees. 
 
 r Hydahs  and  Nootkas. 
 YII.  ! Puget  Sound  group. 
 Columbian  ■{  Chinooks  and  Shush- 
 Races.  j 'vaps. 
 
 I Salish  and  Sahaptius. 
 
 C Klamath  family. 
 
 I Central  Californians. 
 
 -It  I Cochimi. 
 
 • Lower  Ca-  ) ■ 
 
 . \ Guaicuri. 
 
 I i Pericui. 
 
 IX.  Shoshone  and  Pawnee  families. 
 
 ( 
 
 YIII. 
 
 Californian 
 
 Races. 
 
 X. 
 
 New 
 
 Mexican 
 
 and 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Races. 
 
 Pueblos  nations. 
 
 Yumas  family. 
 
 Chevet,  Beueme,and  other 
 independent  Arizona 
 languages. 
 
 XL 
 Jlexican  - 
 Races. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Central 
 
 American 
 
 Races. 
 
 Aztec-Sonora  gi-oup. 
 Miztec. 
 
 Zapotec. 
 
 Tarasco. 
 
 Matlaltzinea. 
 
 Totonac. 
 
 I Otomi. 
 
 ^ Zacatec,  etc. 
 
 Maya-Quiche  family 
 Lenca  family. 
 
 ( Dorichos. 
 
 Isthmians 
 
 Savaneric. 
 
 Manzanillo. 
 
 Cholo. 
 
 L Bayano. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 Races. 
 
 XIY. 
 
 Amazon 
 
 Races. 
 
 XY. 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 and 
 
 Bolivian 
 
 Races. 
 
 XYI. 
 
 Braziliau 
 
 Races. 
 
 r Carib  family. 
 
 J Barre  family. 
 
 1 Chibcha  or  Muisca. 
 ( Salivi-Betoi  family. 
 
 I Mandrucus. 
 j Jivaros. 
 j Zaparos. 
 
 Orejones,  etc. 
 
 f Quichua-Aymara  family, 
 j Mocobi  family. 
 
 ; Yilela-Lule  family. 
 
 I JIoxos  ) 
 
 I Chiquito 
 I Chaco  ) 
 
 { Guarani  famil}’. 
 
 I Ge  or  Gez  family. 
 Payagua-Gua3'curu  family 
 Purys  family. 
 
 Kiriri  ) And  others 
 Botocudos  ) unclassified. 
 
 / Nations  un- 
 classified. 
 
 XYII.  Patagono-Chilian  Races. 
 
 Araucanians. 
 
 Puelches. 
 
 I Tehuelches. 
 Fuegians. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 461 
 
 I.  Sub-Arctic  Races. 
 
 As  seen  in  the  general  scheme,  these  branch  off  into  three 
 main  divisions,  showing  certain  mutual  affinities,  insufficient, 
 however,  to  establish  community  of  origin  either  in  speech  or 
 descent.  Even  the  Koniaga,  or  Eskimo  of  the  Kadiak  islanders, 
 Buschmann  pronounces,  after  a careful  study,  to  be  entirely 
 distinct  from  the  neighbouring  Aleut,  notwithstanding  the 
 received  opinion  to  the  contrary.’  The  Eskimo  itself 
 H.  H.  Bancroft  refuses  to  recognise  as  an  American  language 
 at  all,  connecting  it  with  certain  Asiatic  forms  of  speech.  Ko 
 doubt  the  Namollos,  or  sedentary  Chuckchis  on  the  Gulf  of 
 Anadyr,  speak  Eskimo  dialects,  and  this  language  has  been 
 traced  as  far  west  in  Asia  as  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma  river. 
 Nevertheless  its  structure  is  not  merely  agglutinating,  like 
 the  Uralo-Alta'ic  or  Dravidian,  but  strictly  polysynthetic,  like 
 all  other  American  tongues.  It  piles  up  words  to  an  extent 
 unapproached  even  by  the  Basque,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
 Greenland  dialect : — 
 
 Aglekpok  = he  writes. 
 
 Aglegiartorpok  = he  goes  to  write  there. 
 
 Agfegiartorasuarpok  = he  goes  quickly  to  write  there. 
 
 Aglegkigiartorasuarpok  = he  goes  quickly  to  write  there 
 again. 
 
 Aglegkigiartorasuarniarpok  = he  goes  there  quickly  and 
 tries  again  to  write — 
 
 until  we  at  last  get  words  of  nineteen  or  twenty  syllables, 
 such  as  sanigiksiniariartokasuaromaryotittogog.  Hence  the 
 Innuit  dialects  spoken  in  Asia  imply  rather  an  Eskimo  migra- 
 tion westwards  than  an  Asiatic  migration  eastwards. 
 
 This  race  is  spread  from  about  Mount  St.  Elias  round  the 
 shores  of  Alaska  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  down  both  sides  of 
 Baffin  Bay  and  Davis  Strait,  and  along  the  Labrador  coast 
 southwards  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  but  reaching  nowhere 
 inland  more  than  150  miles.  It  is  divided  into  three  distinct 
 branches,  as  thus  : — 
 
 1 His  e.xin’ession  is  : “ Ein  eigener  von  dem  eskinioischen  (janz  verschied- 
 cner  Sprachtypus.” — Spuren  der  Aztec,  etc. 
 
462 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [.  Eastern 
 Branch. 
 
 ( 
 
 Karalits  or  Kalalits.  I 
 (GreenlandersE  1 
 
 Southern  tribes  at  Julianes- 
 haab. 
 
 Central  tribes  at  Disco. 
 Northern  tribes  at  Upe- 
 
 ^ uavik  or  Humak. 
 Eskimos  Proper  of  Labrador  and  the  Morarian 
 ilissions. 
 
 II.  Northern  Branch,  from  Hudson  Strait  to  the  Coppermine  ; ti-ibal 
 names  unknown. 
 
 r 
 
 Innuits 
 “ People.” 
 
 I Naggeuktormutes.i 
 I Kitegarutes. 
 
 ■j  Kangi'uali  Innuits. 
 
 ! Mewunfjnmtes. 
 
 ^ Nunatangmutes. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 j 
 
 From  the 
 Coppermine  to 
 Kotzebue 
 Sound. 
 
 III.  INesteen 
 Branch 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I Koniagas 
 or 
 
 Kadiaks. 
 
 ' Chugatshes. 
 Aglegmutes. 
 Keyataigmutes. 
 Agalmutes. 
 Kuskoquigmutes. 
 ■[  Magemutes. 
 Kwichpagmutes. 
 Pashtoliks. 
 
 I Arlygmutes. 
 
 I JIalemutes  and 
 I viaks. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I FromKotzebue 
 I Sound  across 
 [ the  Alaskan 
 j Peninsula  to 
 I Mount 
 St.  Elias. 
 
 The  Aleuts,  who  call  themselves  Kagataya  Koung’ns,  men 
 of  the  east,  are  Avrongly  regarded  by  most  writers  as 
 Eskimos,  the  two  languages  being  entirely  different.  They 
 consist  of  two  tribes — the 
 
 Unalaskans,  on  the  mainland  and  in  the  Fox  and  Shum- 
 agin  Islands. 
 
 Akkhas,  in  the  rest  of  the  Aleutian  archipelago. 
 
 The  Thlinkeets,  that  is  “ men,”  are  also  known  by  the 
 Aleut  term  Kolosh,  or  more  properly  Kaluga,  dish,  from  the 
 resemblance  of  their  lip  ornament  to  the  wooden  vessels  of  the 
 Aleutian  islanders.  Some  writers  extend  their  boundary  to 
 the  Columbia  river,  including  under  this  heading  all  the 
 Stikine,  British  Columbian,  "Washington,  and  Oregon  nations 
 Others  again  regard  them  as  Eskimos,  and,  all  things  con- 
 sidered, they  may  be  looked  on  as  a sort  of  connecting  link 
 
 ^ The  ending  mute,  mut,  or  meut,  means  village,  and  is  added  to  the 
 trib.al  name. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 463 
 
 between  the  Innuit  and  the  Red  man  proper.  The  Thlinkeet 
 domain  stretches  along  the  Pacific  seaboard  from  about  Mount 
 St.  Elias,  where  we  left  the  Eskimos,  southwards  to  the  river 
 Xass.  The  principal  tribes,  taking  them  in  order  from  north 
 to  south,  are  the  Ugalenzes,  Yahutats,  Chilkats,  Hoodnids,  Hood- 
 sinoos,  Takoos,  Auks,  Kakas,  Stikines,  EeliknUs,  Tungass,  and  the 
 Sitkas,  who  are  the  chief  tribe  in  Sitka  and  neighbouring  islands. 
 
 The  Thlinkeet  language  is  exceedingly  harsh  and  uncouth, 
 more  so  perhaps  than  any  other  native  American  idiom,  the 
 Chinook  alone  excepted. 
 
 II.  Athabascan  or  Tinney  Family. 
 
 The  first  of  these  collective  terms  is  purely  geographical, 
 being  taken  from  Lake  Athabasca,  which  lies  at  about  the 
 centre  of  this  widely  diffused  family.  The  second,  variou.sly 
 written  Tinney,  Tinneh,  Tinn6,  Dinn4,  Din4,  Dinneh,  etc., 
 means  “ people,”  and  is  the  name  by  which  they  generall}^  call 
 themselves.  Though  not  very  numerous,  they  are  spread  over 
 a larger  area  than  any  other  native  race,  the  Algonquins  and 
 the  Tupi-Guarani  perhaps  alone  excepted.  They  occupy  nearly 
 the  whole  of  British  North  America,  from  the  Churchill  north- 
 wards to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  including  the  greater  part  of 
 Alaska  and  Stikine,  or  New  Caledonia,  besides  large  tracts  in 
 New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Colorado,  North  Mexico,  and  Oregon. 
 From  the  subjoined  scheme  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Apache 
 or  southernmost  offshoot  is  separated  by  an  immense  distance 
 and  by  innumerable  intervening  tribes  from  the  main  stock 
 The  great  divisions  of  the  Tinney  family  are  the 
 
464 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1.  Kexais. 
 Ingalils. 
 Koltslianes. 
 Kenais  proper. 
 Atnahs  or  Xe 
 hannes. 
 Ugalenz. 
 Jiigelnuts. 
 Jimakachoto- 
 nas. 
 
 2.  Kutchins. 
 
 Loueheux. 
 
 Taiita  Kut- 
 chin. 
 
 -Xatclie  Kut- 
 chin. 
 
 Yukuth  Kut- 
 chin. 
 
 TatclioueKut- 
 
 cMu. 
 
 Han  Kutchin. 
 
 Kutclia  Kut- 
 cliiii. 
 
 Gens  (le  Bou- 
 lean. 
 
 Gens  de  Mi- 
 lieu. 
 
 Tathzey;  Ar- 
 tez. 
 
 Xuclukayet- 
 
 tes. 
 
 X ervicarguts. 
 
 3.  Chipewtaa's. 
 Tantsawlioots. 
 Beavers  (Copper). 
 Horn  Jlountain. 
 Strong-bows. 
 Thlingclia. 
 Dogribs  (Slaves). 
 Kawclio  (Hares). 
 Red  Knives. 
 Ambawtawlioot 
 (Sheep). 
 
 Sar.sis. 
 
 Tsillawdawhoot 
 (Brushwood). 
 Slouacuss. 
 Edchawtawoots. 
 Sawessaw  Tinney 
 (Chipewj’ans 
 proper). 
 
 4.  Tacullies 
 {Carriers.) 
 
 Taltotin. 
 
 Chilcotin. 
 
 Xascotin. 
 
 ThetRotin. 
 
 Tsatsnotin. 
 
 Tatshiautin. 
 
 Xulaautin. 
 
 Xtshaautin. 
 
 Xatliautin. 
 
 Xikozliautiii. 
 
 Babin  e. 
 
 Sikennies. 
 
 . 5.  Apaches. 
 Shis  Inday 
 (Apaches 
 proper). 
 Chiricaguis. 
 Coyoteros. 
 Garoteros. 
 Faraones. 
 Gilenos. 
 Lipans. 
 Llaneros. 
 DIescaleros. 
 Jlimbrehos. 
 Xatages. 
 Pelones. 
 Fejuas. 
 Pinalenos. 
 Tontos. 
 Jicarilleros. 
 Yaqueros. 
 Tenuai. 
 (Xavajos). 
 
 1.  Kenai,  also  Kiuai,  Tlinaina  and  Tnai,  is  merely  aii- 
 other  form  of  Tinney  = men,  Avliicli,  as  stated,  is  the  most  com- 
 mon aiipellative  of  all  these  peoples.  The  Kenais  are  wrongly 
 treated  as  an  independent  race  by  Frederick  Muller  and  othei’s, 
 as  they  are  undoubtedly  a branch  of  the  Tinney  stock.  They 
 occupy  the  interior  of  Alaska  from  the  Lower  Yucon  to  the 
 Copper  Eiver. 
 
 2.  The  Kutchins,  extending  from  the  Upper  Yucon  east- 
 wards to  the  Mackenzie,  are  by  some  writers  called  Loueheux, 
 “ quarrellers,”  or  “ squinters,”  as  it  is  variously  explained.  But 
 this  nickname  properly  applies  only  to  the  Kutchins  west  of 
 the  Mackenzie. 
 
 3.  The  Chipewyans  are  generally  regarded  as  the  typical 
 branch  of  the  Tinney  family.  They  occupy  the  region  between 
 the  Kocky  Mountains  and  Hudson  Bay,  reaching  southwards 
 to  the  Churchill  and  the  Methy  Portage,  where  they  confine  on 
 the  great  Algonquin  family.  Chipewyan  is  sometimes  used  as 
 the  collective  term  for  the  whole  race,  but  improperlj',  as  it  is 
 a Kree  word,  simply  meaning  “ pointed  coat.”  On  the  other 
 hand,  it  is  confounded  by  Dr.  E.  Brown  and  other  pojmlar 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 465 
 
 writers  with  Chippeway,  the  name  of  a nation  belonging  to  the 
 Algonquin,  a totally  different  stock.  The  Chipewyans  proper 
 are  the  Sawessaw-Tinney  of  Lake  Athabasca,  some  hundreds  of 
 miles  from  the  Chippeways  of  the  Canadian  lake  region. 
 
 4.  The  Tacullies  are  the  Nagailers  of  Mackenzie,  and  the 
 Carriers  of  the  Canadian  fur-traders.  They  occupy  the  greater 
 part  of  New  Caledonia,  and  with  them  are  sometimes  grouped 
 tile  Nehannes  or  Yellow  Knives,  who  are  really  a branch  of  the 
 Keuais.  These  Nehannes  are  the  Atnahs  or  Ah-tenas  of  the 
 Eussians,  a term  which  has  received  undue  prominence  on 
 English  maps  copying  blindly  from  foreign  sources.  It  should 
 be  confined  to  the  river  Atnah  and  the  Kenai  tribes  on  its 
 banks. 
 
 5.  The  Apache,  or  southernmost  group  of  this  family, 
 occupies  a region  that  cannot  be  definitely  settled,  as  most  of 
 the  Apaches  are  fierce  nomad  tribes,  roaming  over  the  country 
 between  the  Colorado  Desert  and  the  Rio  Pecos  on  the  east, 
 and  from  Utah  as  far  south  as  Texas,  Chihuahua,  and  Sonora. 
 Their  real  collective  name  is  Shis  Inday,  or  “ men  of  the 
 Avoods,”  the  Avord  Inday  being  again  identical  Avith  Tinney,  as  is 
 also  Tenuai,  the  tribal  name  of  the  Navajos  of  the  Sierra  de  los 
 Mimbres.  Like  all  the  Athabascan  languages,  the  Apache  is 
 distinguished  by  its  harsh  guttural  sounds.  Bartlett,  quoted 
 by  H.  H.  Bancroft  (iii.  596),  describes  it  as  “ a combination 
 of  Polish,  Chinese,  ChoctaAv,  and  Dutch.  Grunts  and  gutturals 
 abound,  and  there  is  a strong  resemblance  to  the  Hottentot 
 click.  Noav  blend  these  together,  and  as  you  utter  the  Avord, 
 sAvalloAv  it,  and  the  sound  Avill  be  a fair  specimen  of  an 
 Apache  Avord.” 
 
 To  the  Tinney  stock  belong  also  the  Umpquas,  on  the 
 Umpqua  in  Oregon  ; the  Tlaskanai  of  the  LoAA’er  Columbia, 
 and  the  Californian  Hoopah,  including  the  Lessics,  JFilacki, 
 Ilaynaggi,  Tolewah,  Siah,  and  Tahahteen. 
 
 Pawnee  also  has  been  connected  by  Vater  and  others  with 
 Apache,  but  on  insufficient  grounds. 
 
 III.  Algonquin  Family. 
 
 While  very  nearly,  if  not  quite  as  extensive  as  the  Tinney,  the 
 Algonquin  domain  is  more  compact,  no  members  of  this  great 
 
466 
 
 APPEN'DIX. 
 
 and  historical  family  being  entirely  severed  by  intervening  alien 
 tribes  from  their  kinsmen.  They  extended  originally  from 
 the  Churchill  southwards  to  Xorth  Carolina  (the  Pamticos), 
 across  twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  and  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
 of  Labrador  westwards  to  the  Kocky  Mountains,  or  from  the 
 45°  to  the  115°  W.  longitude.  The  generic  term  Algomequin, 
 contracted  to  Algonquin,  was  first  used  by  the  French,  and, 
 though  purely  conventional,  is  very  convenient.  It  means 
 nothing  more  than  “ the  people  of  the  other  side,”  that  is,  in 
 contradistinction  to  the  Iroquois,  who  occupied  the  south  side 
 of  the  Upper  St.  Lawrence.  Hence  we  see  that  there  is  really 
 no  one  Algonquin  tribe,  properly  so  called,  on  Avhich  account 
 the  word  is  all  the  more  available  as  a collective  term. 
 
 A satisfactory  classification  of  the  Algonquin  nations, 
 owing  to  their  continual  migrations  in  historic  times,  is  a 
 matter  of  extreme  difficulty,  and  the  subjoined  scheme  is  pro- 
 posed with  some  hesitation,  as  the  result  of  not  a little  reflec- 
 tion. One  of  ]\Ir.  Schoolcraft’s  contributors  thinks  that  the 
 Algonquin  mother  tongue  was  propagated  with  the  migration 
 of  the  tribes  from  the  south-west  to  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania, 
 thence  trending  northwards  to  Labrador  and  the  Churchill. 
 Another  branch  may  have  penetrated  westwards  to  the 
 Mississippi,  descending  that  river  to  the  Ohio  to  a point 
 whence  they  had  originally  migrated  into  Virginia,  thus  com- 
 pleting the  circuit  of  the  whole  area  in  histoi’ical  times  occupied 
 by  this  race.  The  parent  language  he  divides  into  five 
 branches  ; 1 . Powhattan,  including  all  the  Virginia  dialects ; 
 2.  Abenaki,  including  the  New  England,  New  Brunsvdck,  and 
 Nova  Scotia  dialects  ; 3.  Nqjercinean,  including  the  Chippeway, 
 Montagnais,  ILree,  etc. ; 4.  Lennape,  including  the  numerous 
 Delaware  dialects ; 5.  Illinois,  including  the  Miamis,  Weas, 
 and  Piankishaws,  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  the  Kaskasias,  Piorias, 
 and  Kickapoos,  theShawnees,]\Iunsees,  Stockbridges,  Cheyennes, 
 Arrapahoes,  and  many  other  outlying  and  more  diverging 
 idioms.  But  the  genesis  of  the  languages  in  the  third,  and 
 especially  in  the  fifth  of  these  groups,  is  fai’  from  being  yet 
 determined,  while  no  room  is  made  in  this  arrangement  for 
 the  Blackfeet,  Ahahnelin,  and  others.  The  fact  is  it  is  pre- 
 mature to  attempt  a purely  philological  classification,  and  the 
 grouping  here  submitted  is  accordingly  based  mainly  on  the 
 geographical  distribution  of  the  tribes  : — 
 
Northern  Branch.  Eastern  Branch.  Southern  Branch.  Western  Branch. 
 
 AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES.  467 
 
 . a -s 
 
 Sag 
 ^ 3 
 
 •S  .2  S 
 
 ^ S Ch  Pi  O 
 
 H Pi  02  Pi  Q 
 
 J J J ^ 
 ^ 3 E pH 
 
 •UcSupiIf  ‘UISU03St^y\^  ‘SIOUTJIJ  •uB.wano;’B2[SEg 
 
 an;  ‘B|osoun;j(i 
 
 hP  g 
 
 > .g 
 
 O IP 
 
 Pi  O 
 
 . V5  » W d 
 
 W fl  ,2i  S ^ OT 
 
 § 3 ^ -S  ^ g 
 
 ^ a § § -a  1.2 
 
 O tD  g -g  Pi  11 
 
 o c a a Pi  p 
 
 o .a  c3  ci  c3 
 
 O Pi  Izi  Pi  Pi 
 
 •EJ 
 
 ‘ajB-iiTjpQ; 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Ph  ® 
 
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 *BUT[0JB3  puiJ  BIUIj3.lI^\^ 
 
 •X5[on:|.Ha3 
 •OTiio  ‘M 
 
 .s  q rM 
 
 2 tc  JG 
 E.  fcjo  ts 
 5^  o 
 
 O O O C3  O 03 
 
 p a 
 
 03  0) 
 
 Ph  Ph 
 
 03  03 
 
 P P 
 P P 
 
 •p  « r=  p 
 
 !z;pH^  ^^^Si^l^PiO'sccSiPcSSi^ 
 
 '5  § ? §)  O 2 2 
 
 o pp  .a  s .2  « a 
 
 .a  P -M  .C  .2  cr' 
 
 S .2  s 3 ,a>  _rt 
 
 •:t.vvuai{£  -ajinsJuiBjj  Aiajj 
 ‘Bi;oog  ‘9niBj\[ 
 
 •;noii03uuo3  -ilos-iof  ‘>[-io^ 
 •SSBJ\[ 
 
 S .2  o 
 
 03  Cd  ^ 
 Q.  C3  c3 
 
 ,P 
 
 OT 
 
 S J ^ g 3 
 
 ^ S 05  02 
 
 rt  P ^ « ci  p 
 
 a 'a 
 
 p s 
 
 O PP 
 
 j .|.§  Pi.&l 
 
 fgOOOH^^lOO 
 
 tC  d 
 fl  !i 
 
 2 S tP 
 
 be  CO  a 
 
 ^ 2 S 
 
 a ^ p 2 2 a 
 
 o is  o !?  ••^  r? 
 
 O 03  W C3 
 
 03  • “■ 
 
 P 
 
 S |2i 
 
 rP  C S 
 
 •BpBUBQ  la.AO'j  puB  jopBjqBq  -jodojcl  suuibuoS[Y  'saajAf 
 
468 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Here  the  tribes  are  grouped  chiefly  according  to  theii 
 historical  rather  than  their  present  geographical  position,  the 
 latter  being  given  in  the  general  index.  The  classification  of 
 those  of  the  last  group  of  the  fourth  column  has  given  ethno- 
 logists much  trouble.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes,  however,  have 
 long  been  recognised  as  of  Algonquin  stock,  while  the  Cheyennes 
 and  Arapahoes,  though  often  still  classed  with  the  Dacotahs,  are 
 in  no  way  related  to  them,  but  in  their  speech,  especially  the 
 pronominal  element,  show  a certain  affinity  to  the  Algonquins. 
 The  Ahahnelins  also  (Gros  Ventres  of  the  Praii’ies)  now 
 mainly  on  the  Milk  River,  would  seem  to  be  a branch  of  the 
 Arapahoes  (L.  H.  Morgan).  Lastly,  the  Blackfeet,  with  the 
 kindred  Blood  and  Piegans,  between  the  forks  of  the  Saskat- 
 chewan and  reaching  southwards  to  the  Missouri,  are  regarded 
 by  Albert  Gallatin  as  of  Algonquin  blood,  though  this  point 
 is  not  yet  perhaps  definitelj'^  settled. 
 
 In  the  second  column  the  Etchemins  or  jMilicetes  are 
 entered  as  doubtful.  They  are  almost  universally  regarded  as 
 Algonc[uins,  j-et  a writer  in  Schoolcraft  states  positively  that 
 they  are  undoubtedly  Hurons  or  Iroquois.  In  one  place 
 H.  E.  Ludewig  calls  them  Hurons,  yet  in  another  says  they  are 
 akin  to  the  Souriquois,  or  Mikmak  Algonquins.  They  are 
 the  “ Etchemons,”  met  by  Champlain  when  he  entered  the 
 St.  John  River,  New  Brunswick,  on  St.  John’s  day  1604,  and 
 if  really  Hurons,  then  they  are  the  only  tribe  of  that  race  that 
 has  reached  any  point  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
 
 The  Algonquin  languages,  especially  the  Kree,  Chippeway 
 or  Ojibway,  and  New  England  branches,  have  been  longer  and 
 more  carefully  studied  than  any  other  American  idioms,  and 
 one  of  them,  the  Natic  or  IMassachusetts,  though  now  extinct, 
 possesses  in  Eliot’s  wonderful  translation  of  the  Bible  the 
 noblest  monument  of  which  any  native  tongue  can  boast. 
 
 IV.  Wyaxdot-Iroquois  Family. 
 
 Of  this  family  there  are  three  great  branches — the  Iroquois 
 proper,  mainly  of  New  York ; the  Hurons  or  Wyandots  on  the 
 northern  shores  of  Lakes  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario  ; and  the 
 hlonacans  of  the  ATrginian  uplands.  They  thus  occupied  the 
 eastern  base  of  the  Appalachian  range  down  to  the  falls  of  the 
 principal  streams  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  stretching  as  far 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 469 
 
 south  as  North  Carolina,  and  northwards  to  the  present  pro- 
 vince of  Ontario.  But,  with  the  doubtful  exception  of  the 
 Etchemins,  they  nowhere  reached  the  Atlantic  coast,  being 
 enclosed  on  every  side  by  tribes  of  the  Algonquin  stock.  Yet, 
 OAving  to  their  admirable  political  organisation,  the  Iroquois 
 branch  Avere  able  not  only  to  hold  their  ground  but  to  make 
 head  against  the  surrounding  Algonquin  nations.  The  famous 
 league  known  to  French  Avriters  as  that  of  the  Iroquois,  to  the 
 English  as  that  of  the  Five,  latter  on  the  Six  Nations,  and  to 
 themseh'es  as  Ongwehonwe  or  “ Superior  Men,”  dates  from 
 the  fifteenth  century,  and  consisted  of  the  Mohmuks,  founders 
 of  the  confederacy,  the  Oneidas,  Onondagoes,  Senecas,  Cayugas,  all 
 of  New  York,  and  the  Tuscaroras,  AA'ho  joined  in  1712  from 
 North  Carolina,  making  the  sixth  nation,  though  the  league 
 was  knoAvn  as  the  Six  Nations  long  before  this  date.  Other 
 tribes,  mostly  Algonquin,  belonging  to  the  confederacy,  though 
 not  enjoying  equal  rights  with  the  rest,  Avere  the  Necariages, 
 adopted  in  1723,  the  Mississaugies  (1746),  the  Shawnees,  called 
 “ Ijrothers  ” by  them,  the  Tutelos  from  Virginia,  the  Canoys, 
 Mohicans,  and  Nanticokes  or  Stockbridges. 
 
 All  the  strictly  "NYyandot-Iroquois  nations  group  themselves 
 naturally  into  three  branches  as  under : — 
 
 CAXADIAN  BkANCH.  CeNTEAL  BeAXCH.  ViEGlXIAN  Be.axch. 
 
 W yandots  or  Hurons. 
 AttignaAvattans. 
 Attigneenonguahacs. 
 Arendalironons. 
 
 Eries. 
 
 AttiwanJaronk 
 
 (the  Neutral  Nation). 
 
 Iroquois  proper. 
 Mohawks. 
 
 Oneidas. 
 
 Onondagos. 
 
 Senecas. 
 
 Cayugas. 
 
 Two  Mountain 
 (Mohawks  and  Oneidas). 
 Susquehannocks 
 (Andastes). 
 Cochenawagoes. 
 
 Mondhoacs  or  Moruicans. 
 NottoAvays. 
 
 Tutelos 
 
 (Meherries). 
 Mynckussars  (of  Dela- 
 Avare). 
 
 Tuscaroras  (of  North 
 Carolina). 
 
 All  the  languages  of  this  family  are  highly  polysynthetic, 
 but  in  other  respects  often  differ  considerably  from  each  other. 
 Thus  the  Oneida,  which  is  a Avell-marked  variety,  is  remark- 
 able for  its  softness  and  harmony,  Avhile  the  Seneca  is  very 
 harsh,  though  rich  and  energetic.  Of  the  Senecas,  also  Sini- 
 kers  and  Tsonontooas,  there  Avere  eight  sub-tribes,  knoAvn  by 
 their  totems  as  the  Avolf,  bear,  beaver,  turtle,  deer,  heron,  and 
 
470 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 hawk.  The  interesting  questions  regarding  the  Eries  and 
 the  lost  Neutral  Nation  are  alluded  to  under  these  entries  in 
 the  general  index.  The  Erie  or  Huron  language  differed 
 greatly  from  the  Iroquois  ; but  like  it  rejects  the  labials  b and 
 p,  and  some  other  sounds  familiar  to  European  ears,  often 
 replacing  them  by  others  which  to  us  seem  exceedingly  harsh. 
 
 V.  Dacotah  Famila'. 
 
 If  L.  H.  Morgan’s  \dews  were  well  founded,  this  family 
 would  be  almost  as  widely  diffused  as  the  Algonquin,  for  in 
 it  he  includes  both  the  Iroquois  and  the  Appalachian  races. 
 It  would  thus  extend  in  a nearly  uninterrupted  line  from 
 Florida  and  the  Alleghanies  right  across  the  States  in  a north- 
 westerly direction  as  far  as  IMoutana  and  the  southern  fork  of 
 the  Saskatchewan.  But  in  any  case  it  is  very  wide  spread, 
 comprising  most  of  the  nomad  and  settled  tribes  between  the 
 ]\Iiddle  and  Upper  Mississippi  and  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and 
 stretching  from  about  the  37th  parallel  northwards  to  the 
 Saskatchewan,  here  overlapping  the  Algonquin  Krees. 
 
 Though  very  numerous,  all  the  Dacotah  (also  Narcota  and' 
 Sioux)  tribes  may  be  conveniently  classed  under  three  divisions, 
 at  least  if  we  admit  the  claim  of  the  Winnebagos  to  be  re- 
 garded as  the  parent  stock  of  the  Omahas,  lowas,  Osages,  and 
 other  Missouri  nations  : — 
 
 Dacot.\h  Beaxch. 
 f Mediwanktons. 
 Isaiinties.  < tValipekutes. 
 
 ( Wabipetons. 
 
 Sissetons. 
 
 Yanton.s. 
 
 Ogallalas. 
 
 Brules. 
 Uncpappas. 
 Blaekfoot  Sioux. 
 Olienonpas. 
 
 I Itazipcoes. 
 
 I Jlinikanyes. 
 
 Sans  Arcs. 
 
 Assiniboines  ( Manetopas. 
 (Hohas  or  1 Osseegahs. 
 Stone).  ( Mantopanatos 
 
 Teetons. 
 
 ■\VlNXEB.A.GO  BkAXCH. 
 AVinnebagos  (Pu- 
 ans). 
 
 i Punkas. 
 
 ( Omahas. 
 
 I Missouris. 
 
 < lowas. 
 
 ( Otoes. 
 
 ( Kaws  or  Kansas, 
 j Quappas  or  Arkan- 
 ' sas. 
 
 Osages 
 
 or 
 
 AYawsasli 
 
 ' Beaver. 
 Black  Dog. 
 Half  Breed. 
 Big  Chiefs. 
 Clamore. 
 AVhite  Hairs. 
 I Big  Hills. 
 
 ' Little. 
 
 Uppek  Missouki  Branch. 
 
 i Kikastas. 
 
 Upsarocas ) Almahawa5's. 
 (Crows)  ( Allakaweahs. 
 
 /'  Minnetarees 
 proper. 
 Ehatsar 
 (Gros  Ven- 
 tres). 
 Alesar. 
 
 (Fall). 
 
 Minnetarees  ^ 
 
 Kattanahaws. 
 , Slandans. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 471 
 
 The  Dacotahs  proper  of  the  first  column  speak  three  Avell- 
 marked  dialects,  all  very  harsh  and  full  of  gutturals  and  sibi- 
 lants. These  are  the  Yankton,  on  the  Missouri,  the  Isauntie 
 and  Teeton,  mainly  on  the  Mississippi.  Towards  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  seventeenth  century  a number  of  tribes  withdrew 
 from  the  Dacotah  confederacy,  and  were  accordingly  stigma- 
 tised by  the  rest  as  “ Hohas,”  or  Eebels,  but  are  better  known 
 as  the  Assiniboine  or  Stone  Indians,  now  dwelling  between  the 
 lied  Eiver  of  the  north  and  the  Saskatchewan,  mainly 
 along  the  valley  of  the  Assiniboine.  Their  Dacotah  speech 
 has  become  largely  corrupted  with  Kree  words  and  idioms. 
 The  nations  of  the  third  column,  whose  languages,  especially 
 the  Mandan,  diverge  greatly  from  the  Dacotah  proper,  are 
 regarded  by  Morgan  as  a sort  of  connecting  link  between  the 
 Sioux  and  Florida  or  Appalachian  family,  which,  as  above 
 remarked,  he  considers  as  a distant  offshoot  of  the  Dacotah 
 stock. 
 
 Most  of  the  Dacotah  tribes  still  roam  princiiially  in  the 
 north,  but  many  of  them  have  lately  either  surrendered  to  the 
 Federal  Government,  or  crossed  the  border  into  British  terri- 
 tory. The  term  Dacotah,  of  which  Narcotah  is  merely  a dia- 
 lectic variety,  means  “ allies,”  and  should  be  properly  applied 
 only  to  the  members  of  the  Sioux  Confederacy,  comprising  all 
 the  first  column  except  the  Assiniboines. 
 
 VI.  Appalachian  Eaces. 
 
 This  division  comprises  all  the  tribes  in  the  south-east 
 corner  of  the  Union,  that  is,  those  formerly  occupying  the 
 region  where  are  now  the  States  of  Arkansas,  Mississippi, 
 Louisiana,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Florida,  S.  Carolina,  and  Ten- 
 nessee. Here  was  the  great  nation  of  the  Muscogulges  or 
 IMuscogees,  called  also  Creeks,  from  the  many  creeks  or  streams 
 watering  their  country.  They  were  the  centre  of  a powerful 
 confederacy,  most  of  whose  members  were  of  kindred  blood. 
 The  confederate  nations  were  the 
 
 Muscogees  proper,  embracing  the  Upper  Creeks  of  the  Upper  Alabama, 
 and  the  Lower  Creeks  or 
 
 Seminoles,  of  the  Lower  Alabama  and  the  Flint,  both  originally  from 
 beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  Seminoles  were  at  one  time  the  domi- 
 nant race  in  Florida,  where  a few  are  still  found,  but  the  great 
 
472 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 bulk  are  now  settled  in  Seminole  Pieserve,  Indian  territory.  They 
 were  the  original  stock  of  the  Creek  nation,  but  their  speech  now 
 differs  greatly  from  that  of  the  Museogees.  The 
 
 Choctaws  of  the  Lower  ^Mississippi,  immortalised  by  Chateaubriand’s 
 Atala,  and  closely  akin  to  the 
 
 Chickasaws,  including  the  Chakchi-oorms,  Oofe-Ogooles,  Tapoosas, 
 Coroas,  and  Yazoos  of  Mississippi,  besides  the  Conches  of  Florida 
 'West,  and  the  Mowills,  or  Jlohiles,  at  one  time  very  powerful 
 along  the  Florida  Coast.  The 
 
 Natchez,  of  different  speech,  formerly  east  of  the  Lower  Mississippi,  but 
 nearly  annihilated  by  the  French  in  1730.  The  sm'vivors  are 
 now  dispersed  amongst  the  Creeks,  Chickasaws,  and  others.  The 
 Natchez  are  said  to  have  had  three  languages — one  for  the  chiefs, 
 one  for  the  people,  and  a modified  form  of  this  for  the  women. 
 The  league  further  comprised  the 
 
 Hitchittees,  Coosadas  or  Coosas,  Alibaiioxs,  and  Apalaches — all  of 
 kindred  speech  with  the  Creeks  and  Choctaws. 
 
 Utchees  or  Uchees,  now  merged  with  the  Creeks,  but  originally  speak- 
 ing an  independent  language,  which  may  have  been  akin  to  the 
 Natchez,  but  which  Gallatin  classifies  separately. 
 
 The  Appalachians  proper  occupied  originally  all  the  north- 
 ern shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  Florida  to  the  Missis- 
 sippi, extending  inland  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Alle- 
 ghanies.  In  the  elevated  valleys  of  this  range  dwelt  the 
 
 Chep.okees  or  Chelekees,  supposed  to  have  migrated  hither  from  the 
 Mississippi  vaUey,  above  the  junction  of  the  Ohio.  They  are 
 divided  into  two  branches — the  Otares  or  highlanders,  and 
 Ayrates  or  lowlanders,  and  it  is  the  former  who  call  themselves 
 Chelekees,  or  rather  Tsalagi,  there  being  no  r in  their  dialect. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Cherokees  is  involved  m great  obscuritj^, 
 on  which  no  light  is  thrown  by  their  language,  which  is  ap- 
 parently entirely  distinct  from  all  other  American  tongues. 
 They  are  now  settled  in  Indian  territory,  where  they  have 
 made  more  progress  in  civilisation  than  any  other  northern 
 tribe.  They  possess  a written  literature,  for  which  Segwoya, 
 known  as  George  Guest,  invented  a syllabic  alphabet  about 
 the  year  1824.  This  invention  is  the  more  extraordinary 
 because  Guest  liimself  could  neither  read  nor  write,  nor  speak 
 any  language  except  his  own,  his  only  notion  of  writing  bemg 
 derived  from  hearsay  and  from  an  English  book,  the  letters  of 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 473 
 
 ■which,  though  unacquainted  with  their  value,  he  contrived  to 
 utilise  for  his  purpose.  His  system  consists  of  eighty-five  signs, 
 of  which  one  only,  s,  is  a letter,  all  the  rest  being  full  syllables, 
 that  is,  fifteen  consonants  generally  in  combination  with  six 
 vowels,  as,  ga,  ge,  gi,  go,  gu,  ge.  This  syllabarium  almost  com- 
 pletely analyses  the  sounds  of  the  Cherokee  language,  and  is 
 therefore  well  adapted  to  it ; but  is,  of  course,  necessarily  use- 
 less for  any  other.  The  invention  is  altogether  one  of  the 
 greatest  intellectual  feats  of  which  there  is  authentic  record. 
 
 Other  less  important  Appalachian  tribes  were  the  Tonka- 
 tuays,  Timuacanas,  Oconies,  Oakmulgies,  Pacanas,  Conchattas,  Pas- 
 gacolas,  and  Boluxas,  all  apparently  akin  to  the  Muscogees,  and 
 either  destroyed  or  absorbed  by  them.  Lastly,  the  Catam’EA.s 
 and  WoccoNS,  or  WOCCOAS,  of  North  Carolina,  classified  apart 
 by  Gallatin,  and  for  which  see  the  general  index. 
 
 It  thus  appears  that  there  are  at  least  four  stock  languages 
 in  this  di-vision — the  Muscogee,  Natchez,  Cherokee,  and  Catcncba. 
 
 VII.  Columbian  Kaces. 
 
 In  this  purely  geographical  division  are  comprised  all 
 the  tribes  on  the  north-west  coast  between  the  43d  and 
 •55th  parallels,  or,  in  other  words,  the  natives  of  British 
 Columbia,  "Washington,  and  Oregon  territories.  They  form 
 altogether  seven  distinct  groups,  as  under : — 
 
 r 
 
 Massets. 
 
 Klue. 
 
 Kiddan. 
 
 Nin  stance. 
 Skid-a-gate. 
 Skid-a-gatees. 
 Cuin-slie-\cas. 
 
 O 
 
 c? 
 
 Kaiganies,  Prince  of 
 Wales  Isles. 
 
 Tsimslieeans. 
 
 Nass. 
 
 Skeenas. 
 
 Sebasses. 
 
 Hailtzas. 
 
 Bellacoolas. 
 
 I 
 
 .S  ■'tS 
 
 r 
 
 Muchlabts. 
 
 CO 
 
 Nitinahts. 
 
 Ohyahts. 
 Manosalits,  etc. 
 
 a? 
 
 Quoquoulths. 
 
 Komux. 
 
 < 
 
 Kowitchans. 
 
 H - 
 
 Ucletas. 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 KlaUums. 
 
 Sokes. 
 
 0^ 
 
 Patcheenas. 
 Sankaulutiichs.  - 
 Kwantiums.  j 
 
 Teets.  1 
 
 (HaitUns).  ) 
 
474 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 2h 
 
 D 
 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 'A 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 D 
 
 C-. 
 
 CO 
 
 Nooksahs. 
 
 Lummi. 
 
 Samish. 
 
 Skagits. 
 
 Nisqualh^ 
 
 Neevramish. 
 Sahmamisli. 
 Snohomish. 
 Skeewamish. 
 Squanamish,  etc. 
 Klallums  ) 
 
 Classets.  | Flattery. 
 
 „ ( Quaiantl. 
 
 Unelialis.  1 ^ 
 
 ( Quemaiutl. 
 
 Cowlitz. 
 
 Pistehin. 
 
 ^ CMuakum. 
 
 J 
 
 12; 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 Skilloots. 
 
 ^Vatlalas 
 
 (Upper  Chinooks). 
 Lower  Chinooks. 
 
 AV  akiakums. 
 Cathlamets. 
 
 ■ Clatsops. 
 
 Calapooyas. 
 
 Clackamas. 
 
 I Killamooks. 
 Yamkally. 
 
 Chimook  Jargon. 
 
 ) 
 
 < 
 
 ' Flatheads  proper. 
 Kalispelms. 
 
 X 
 
 < 
 
 ' Shewhapmuch  ^ 
 
 (Nicute-much 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 tn 
 
 Skitsuish. 
 
 > 
 
 C , 
 
 Conteaux). 
 
 B 
 
 (h  go 
 
 O c 
 
 Colvilles. 
 
 £ "S 
 
 X 
 
 Okanagans. 
 
 - 3 
 o 
 
 K g ' 
 
 Quarlpi. 
 
 ^11 
 
 Kootenais. 
 
 < 
 
 m 
 
 Spokanes. 
 Pisquouse. 
 L Soaiatlpi. 
 
 3 
 
 GO 
 
 ^ (Flat-bows  or  Skalzi.) 
 
 7.  Sahaptixs  or  Nez  Pekc^s,  including  the  Palouse,  Walla  Wallas, 
 
 Yak'imas,  Tairtlas,Kliketats,  or  Pshawanwappams,  Cayuse,  and  Mollale. 
 
 The  Sahaptins  lie  mainly  between  the  Flatheads  and  the  45th  parallel. 
 
 Hydah  seems  to  be  a term  originally  applied  by  Francis 
 Poole  to  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islanders  collectively,  and  after- 
 wards extended  to  kindred  tribes  in  the  neighbouring  islands 
 and  on  the  opposite  coast. 
 
 NootJca  is  a purely  conventional  term  from  Nootka  Sound 
 in  Vancouver,  and  under  it  are  comprised  several  nations, 
 which  are  phdologically  quite  distinct.  Thus  Sproat  tells  us 
 expressly  that  there  are  at  least  three  independent  languages 
 in  Vancouver  alone — iYr&Aht,  the  Qiioquoulth,  and  the  Kowitchan, 
 besides  the  Komux  from  the  mainland.  Aht  is  the  generic 
 name  for  twenty  tribes  on  the  west  coast  of  Vancouver,  first 
 proposed  by  him  from  the  syllable  aht  terminating  aU  their 
 names,  which  he  identifies  with  mah,  maht,  or  malite,  meaning 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 475 
 
 house,  and  which  may  be  compared  with  the  Eskimo  mute,  as 
 illustrated  in  Section  I. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  Puget  Smind  tribes,  it  may  he  men- 
 tioned that  most  of  their  idioms  seem  to  be  related  to  the 
 Salish  or  Flathead  of  group  5,  while  the  Chinook  of  group 
 4 Sproat  thinks  is  undoubtedly  akin  to  the  Aht.  But 
 our  knowledge  of  all  these  idioms  is  so  imperfect 
 that  none  of  these  affinities  can  be  considered  as  yet 
 established,  and  the  groups  have  accordingly  here  been 
 provisionally  kept  separate.  Anyhow  the  Kootenais  spoken 
 by  the  Flatbows  about  the  49th  parallel  would  seem  to  be 
 entirely  distinct  from  the  tongues  of  all  the  surrounding 
 peoples.  The  dialects  also  of  the  stock  languages  are  here 
 very  numerous,  those  of  the  Flatheads  for  instance,  about 
 fourteen,  and  those  of  the  Alits  quite  as  many,  if  not  more. 
 
 VIII.  Californian  Eaces. 
 
 Though  occupying  one  of  the  finest  regions  in  America, 
 the  Californians  are  amongst  the  most  degraded  of  all  the 
 native  races,  standing  on  the  same  low  level  as  the  Eskimos 
 and  the  Fuegians  of  the  extreme  north  and  south.  They 
 speak  a multiplicity  of  idioms,  which  have  been  very  little 
 studied,  and  whose  mutual  relations  are  extremely  difficult  to 
 establish.  Yet  some  of  them,  such  as  the  Gallinomero  of 
 Eussian  Eiver,  possess  considerable  interest  for  the  philologist, 
 as  showing  the  various  stages  of  polysynthesis  in  actual  pro- 
 cess of  development.  The  whole  area  stretching  from  about 
 Lake  Kdamath  to  Cape  S.  Lucas,  and  inland  to  Nevada  and 
 the  Lower  Colorado,  may  be  disposed  in  three  geographical 
 groups — the  first  extending  from  Lake  Klamath  to  San 
 Francisco  Bay,  the  second  thence  southwards  to  the  parallels 
 of  Fort  Yume  and  S.  Diego,  the  third  embracing  the  whole  of 
 the  Lower  Californian  peninsula.  In  the  first  or  northern 
 division  we  have  the 
 
 Klamath  family  occupying  the  whole  valley  of  the  Klamath,  and  ex- 
 tending eastwards  into  Nevada.  Besides  the  Klamaths  proper, 
 or  Lutiiami,  about  the  lake,  it  includes  the  Yacons,  Modocs, 
 Copahs,  Shastas,  Palaiks,  Wintoons,  Eurocs,  Cahrocs,  Lototens, 
 Weeyots,  JVishosJcs,  Wallies,  Tolewahs,  Patawats,  YuTceis,  and 
 
476 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 others  between  Eel  Elver  and  Humboldt  Bay.  Farther  south  are 
 the 
 
 Poiios  or  “People,”  the  collective  name  of  several  tribes  in  Potter 
 Valley,  such  as  the  Castel  Pomos,  Ki,  Cahto,  Choam,  ChadeJa, 
 Matomey  Ki,  Usal  or  Calamet,  and  Shebalne  Pomos,  besides  the 
 Gallinoraeros,  Sands,  Socoas,  Lamas,  and  Comachos.  In  the 
 Sacramento  Valley  are  the  Ochecumne,  Chupumne,  Sectimne,  Cosumne, 
 SoMumne,  Puzlumne,  Tasumne,  etc.,  altogether  about  26  tribes, 
 whose  names  mostly  end  in  umne.  Lastly  the 
 Napa  group  specified  under  Napa  in  the  general  index. 
 
 In  the  second  or  central  division  are  the 
 
 Euxsiens  of  Monterey  Bay,  whose  speech  seems  to  extend  along  the 
 coast  northwards  to  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  southwards  beyond 
 C.  Conception,  including,  besides  the  Olhones  and  Eslcnes,  the 
 Santa  Cruz,  San  Miguel,  and  other  insular  idioms.  In  this 
 division  are  also  the  Lopillamillos,  Miptacmacs,  Kulanapos,  Yolos, 
 Suisunes,  Talluches,  Chowclas,  Waches,  Talches,  Poowells  of 
 Lake  Tulare,  besides  many  others,  most  of  whom  are  either 
 already  extinct,  or  will  have  disappeared  before  any  serious 
 attempt  can  be  made  to  classify  them. 
 
 The  third  division,  including  the  tvhole  of  Lower  Cali- 
 fornia, is  occupied  by  three  stock  languages,  entirely  independ- 
 ent of  each  other,  and  unconnected  with  any  other  linguistic 
 e 
 
 l Originally  reaching  from  the  head  of  the 
 ( Gulf  to  the  neighourhood  of  Loreto. 
 
 I South  of  the  Cochimi. 
 i Between  the  26th  and  23d  parallels. 
 
 J 
 
 lat.  to  Cape  S.  Lucas,  and  including  the  islands. 
 
 In  the  southern  extremity  of  California  proper  are  the 
 Dkguenos,  Cahuillas,  and  some  others  not  here  mentioned, 
 because  belonging  linguistically  to  the  Shoshone  family, 
 treated  in  our  next  Section.  For  the  same  reason  the 
 
 Iloopahs  of  Hoopah  Valley  will  be  found  in  Section  II. 
 Athabascan  Family. 
 
 group.  These  are  tin 
 ( Laj-mon. 
 
 Cochimi. 
 
 ( Cora. 
 
 I Monqui. 
 Didiii. 
 
 Guaicuei.  i , 
 
 Lij-ue. 
 
 I Edii. 
 
 Uehitie. 
 
 Pekicui,  from  the  23°  N. 
 
AJIEEICAX  TEIBES  AXD  LANGUAGES. 
 
 477 
 
 IX.  Shoshone  and  Pawnee  Families. 
 
 The  Pawnees  are  by  H.  H.  Bancroft  and  other  high 
 authorities  included  in  the  Shoshone  group.  But  L.  H. 
 IMorgan,  after  careful  study,  pronounces  the  Pawnee  to  be  a 
 stock,  that  is,  an  independent  language,  having  no  known 
 affinities  with  any  other.  The  two  nations  are  accordingly 
 here  classed  separately. 
 
 The  Shoshone  or  Snake  family,  occupying  parts  of 
 Oregon,  Idaho,  Utah,  Wyoming,  W.  Montana,  parts  of  X. 
 Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  S.  California,  may  be  arranged  in 
 six  main  divisions  as  under. 
 
 1.  Western  Shoshones,  or  Wininasht  of  Idaho  and  Oregon. 
 
 2.  Eastern  Shoshones,  B.annocks,  or  Diggers,  ranging  over  N 
 Nevada,  Oregon,  and  Idaho. 
 
 3.  Utahs 
 or 
 Utes. 
 
 Utahs  proper. 
 
 Washoes. 
 
 Pah-Utes. 
 
 Pah-Vants. 
 
 Pi-Edes. 
 
 I Gosh  Utes,  etc. 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 Utah,  Nevada,  and  the  Colorado ' Valley 
 down  to  Arizona  and  California. 
 
 Comanches, 
 
 Yetans. 
 
 5.  Moqtji. 
 
 6.  S.  Californians. 
 
 Paducas.  I Roaming  over  N.  Texas,  N. 
 
 Yamparacks.  > Mexico,  and  parts  of  New 
 
 Tenawas.  ) Mexico. 
 
 AVith  whom  ought  probably  to  be  included  the 
 Kiowas,  formerly  of  Texas,  now  mostly  in 
 Kiowa  Reserve,  Indian  Territoiy. 
 
 ^ These  six  Moqui  pueblos 
 speak  a language  akin 
 to  the  Shoshone.  The 
 seventh  Moqui  pueblo, 
 the  Haro  or  Orehbe,  speaks 
 Tegua,  as  shown  in  the 
 following  section. 
 
 I About  S.  Diego,  whence 
 I their  collective  name. 
 
 Taywah. 
 
 Shungayawe. 
 
 Shepowlawe. 
 
 Tualpis. 
 
 Mechonganawe. 
 
 Sechomewe. 
 
 {Kizh. 
 Netela. 
 Kechi. 
 
 Cahuillo. 
 
 Chemehuevi. 
 
 S.  E.  corner  of  California- 
 
 All  these  languages  show  certain  Aztec  affinities,  both 
 lexical  and  structural,  affinities  which  Buschmann  has  traced  as 
 
478 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 far  north  as  the  Snake  Valley.  But  they  are  not  sufficiently 
 extensive  to  establish  anything  approaching  to  real  relation- 
 ship. Such  resemblances  as  exist,  often  restricted  to  the  pre- 
 A'alence  of  the  peculiar  combination  tl  (theotl,  tlascala,  etc.), 
 have  been  much  exaggerated,  and  have  served  as  the  unstable 
 basis  for  some  very  wild  theories.  But  one  thing  is  now  well 
 established.  The  linguistic  evidence  is  on  the  whole  rather 
 opposed  than  favourable  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  contend 
 that  the  Nahuas  migrated  originally  from  the  north  to  the 
 Anahuac  table-land.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  only 
 affinity  really  ascertained  to  exist  between  group  No.  6 of  this 
 scheme  and  the  other  Shoshones,  is  through  the  Aztec  element 
 common  to  all,  as  well  as  to  Buschmann’s  “ Aztec-Sonora” 
 tongues  treated  farther  on. 
 
 Of  the  Pawnee  family  there  are  four  groups  as  under 
 r Chane  or  Chowees.  \ 
 
 1.  Paavxees  \ Kitka  or  Kitkahoets.  / Pawnee  Reserve,  Ne- 
 
 proper.  1 Skeedees.  I braska,  and  in  Kansas. 
 
 1 Petabanerat,  or  Petbowerats.  / 
 
 2.  Akickaeees  or  Eickaeees,  on  tbe  Missouri. 
 
 3. 
 
 r 
 
 WiCHITAS.  - 
 
 V. 
 
 Kicbais  or  Keecbies. 
 Waccoes  or  Huecos. 
 Pani  ? 
 
 Towaconies  ? 
 Towiacks  ? 
 
 Towekas  ? 
 
 Wachos  ? 
 
 Between  the  Canadian  and  Red 
 River  of  Texas. 
 
 y 
 
 4.  Caddoes. 
 
 ' Nandakoas. 
 
 Tachies. 
 
 - Alicbes. 
 Nabedacbes. 
 ^ Jonies. 
 
 ^ Originally  of  Louisiana  and  Texas,  here 
 grouped  provisionally  with  tbe  Paw- 
 nees, the  affinity  not  being  yet  clearly 
 established. 
 
 Here  also  may  be  mentioned  the  Adaize  or  Adees,  for- 
 merly of  Louisiana,  whose  speech  was  probably  akin  to  that  of 
 the  Natchitoches,  Chetimaches,  Attacaims,  and  other  extinct 
 Louisiana  nations.  In  Gallatin’s  Spiopsis  {Schoolcraft,  iii.  p. 
 401),  Pani,  Caddoe,  Adaize,  Chatimache,  Attacapa,  and  Natchi- 
 toche  figure  as  six  independent  stock  languages,  which  means 
 little  more  than  that  our  information  regarding  them  is  very 
 meagre. 
 
Speak  Quercs,  Clmclui. 
 chas,  or  Keswluuvhay. 
 
 AMEllICAN  TPJBES  AND  LANGUAGES, 
 
 479 
 
 X.  New  Mexican  and  Arizona  Races. 
 
 The  numerous  peoples  of  this  region  may  be  disposed 
 under  three  heads — the  New  Mexican  Pueblos,  the  Arizonian 
 Yumas,  and  miscellaneous. 
 
 William  Carr  Lane,  who  has  given  some  attention  to  the 
 subject,  arranges  the  twenty-six  semi-civilised  Pueblos,  that  is 
 “ townspeople,”  in  six  linguistic  groups  as  under ; — 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 Queres. 
 
 r Acoraa. 
 
 ^ Cochitemi. 
 
 1 Kiwomi. 
 
 '"S.  Domingo. 
 
 to 
 
 ei 
 
 E 
 
 To 
 
 E 
 
 1^ 
 
 " Picoris. 
 Taos. 
 Vicuris. 
 Ze.suqua. 
 
 Taywaugli. 
 
 S.  Felipe. 
 
 Sandia. 
 
 o 
 
 Sta.  Anna. 
 
 o 
 
 Ysete. 
 
 Sille  or  Cia. 
 
 u 
 
 Lentis  ? 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 Laguna. 
 
 ci 
 
 ■■  Socorro  ? 
 
 Eh 
 
 cz 
 
 CC  ^ 
 
 3. 
 
 S.  Juaa. 
 
 Sta.  Clara. 
 Pojuaque 
 (Pogodgue). 
 Nambe. 
 Tesugue 
 (Tegua). 
 
 S.  Ildefonso. 
 Haro  (a  Moqui 
 Pueblo). 
 
 6. 
 
 Si-v  Moqui 
 Pueblos. 
 
 There  are  some  errors  in  CaiT’s  nomenclature,  such  as  il  de 
 Conso  for  Ildefonso,  which  are  here  rectified.  There  are  two 
 Pueblos  in  No.  2,  which,  without  naming,  he  tells  us  are  near  El 
 Paso  on  the  river  Pecos.  These  are  jirobably  the  Lentis  and 
 Socorro  spoken  of  by  other  writers.  Ysete,  also  in  the  same 
 group,  should  perhaps  be  Islefta.  He  adds  that  all  these  lan- 
 guages “are  extremely  guttural,  and  seem  to  have  sprung  of  the 
 same  parent  stock  ” {Schoolcraft,  v.  689),  a remark  that  cannot 
 apply  to  the  Zuhi,  No.  5,  which  is  quite  independent ; nor  to 
 the  six  of  the  seven  Moqui  Pueblos,  No.  6,  which,  as  seen  in 
 foregoing  section,  speak  a Shoshone  or  Snake  language. 
 
 The  Yumas,  mainly  on  the  Lower  Colorado  and  Gilla,  com- 
 pose the  Yumas  proper  at  the  junction  of  these  rivers,  the 
 Maricopas,  Cuchans,  Mojaves,  Yampais,  Yavipais,  and  Hualpais. 
 
 In  the  Miscellaneous  division  must  for  the  present  be 
 included  the  Chevets,  Covaji,  Noche,  Tamajab,  Benem4,  with  the 
 Tecuiche  and  Teniqueche,  and  the  Cajuenche,  with  the  Jalli- 
 cquamai,  speaking  independent,  or  rather  not  yet  classified  Ari- 
 zona tongues. 
 
 (See  under  Slio- 
 slione,  sec.  i.x.) 
 
480 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 XL  Mexican  Eaces. 
 
 Even  allowing  the  utmost  extension  to  Busclimann’s  Aztec- 
 Sonora  family,  there  still  remains  an  enormous  number  of 
 independent  and  unclassified  languages  in  this  region.  It 
 will  be  convenient  first  to  take  tliis  Aztec  family,  including  in 
 it  all  the  idioms  that  betray  any  Aztec  aflBnities,  without 
 further  guaranteeing  their  actual  relationship  with  that 
 tongue : — 
 
 Aztec,  NAHUiTLAC,  or  Mexicax  proper,  current  throughout  ilonte- 
 zuma’s  empire,  with  linguistic  affinities  as  far  north  as  the  Snake 
 vaUey,  and  southwards  to  S.  Salvador  and  Nicaragua.  In  Aztec 
 polysynthesis  receives  its  utmost  dev^elopment,  yet  it  has  been  com- 
 pared with  or  derived  from  Hebrew,  Teutonic,  Japanese,  Sanskrit, 
 etc.,  with  a reckless  indiflfetence  to  sense  and  science. 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 and 
 
 Sonora 
 
 o 
 
 Cahita 
 
 Tepehuaxa,  in  N.  Sinaloa,  Durango,  etc. 
 Shoshoxe  Grouji,  as  in  Section  IX. 
 
 l’  Upper  Pima. 
 I Lower  Pima. 
 
 Sonora,  Sinaloa, 
 Lower  Gila. 
 
 f Eudeve  ; Teguis. 
 
 I Teguima  ; Batuca. 
 
 ) 
 
 'I 
 
 Opata  . 
 
 . •<  Coguinachie  ; Jova. 
 Sahuaripa  ; Himeii, 
 ^ Guazaba. 
 
 ^-’-libo. 
 
 Sonora,  wedged  in 
 » between  Upper  and 
 Lower  Pima. 
 
 y 
 
 Tijbar  and  Concho  ? in  Chihuahua. 
 
 Acaxee  ? 
 
 ; Hume. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 481 
 
 As  some  confusion  seems  to  attach  to  the  terms  Nalmna, 
 Aztec,  and  others  applied  to  the  historic  Mexican  race,  it  may 
 be  useful  here  to  tabulate  them,  as  thus  : — 
 
 NaHUAS  or  hlEXICANS  PROPER. 
 
 VI.  Century.  XI.  Century.  XV.  Century. 
 
 Empire  of  the  Empire  of  the  Confederacy  of  the 
 
 Toltecs,  Pyramid-  Chichimecs  not  Aztecs,  cap.  Mexico, 
 builders.  known  to  have  been  Acolhuas,  cap.  Tez- 
 
 originally  Nahuas,  ciico. 
 
 but  absorbed  by  them  Tepanecs,  cap.  Pla- 
 in the  15th  century.  copan. 
 
 Cholula. 
 
 Teotihuacan. 
 
 O 
 
 cc 
 
 Here  may  be  conveniently  grouped  the  other  civilised 
 Mexican  nations,  all  of  whom,  except  the  Totonacs,  spoke  in- 
 dependent or  stock  languages  : — 
 
 ( Tepuzculano;  TlaxiacoCuixlahuac;  J Originally  in  Mizteca- 
 Miztecs.^  < Cuilapa  Nochiztlaii ; Xaltepec  > pan  or  "W.  Oajaca 
 
 ( Tamazulapa.  ) and  Puebla. 
 
 ' Zaachilla ; Etla  ; Beni  Xono ; Ocot-  ^ 
 
 Ian  ; Netzicho.  In 
 
 Zapotecs.  i de  Itzepec. 
 
 Serrano  < de  Cajonos. 
 
 ( de  Miahuatlan. 
 
 E.  Oajaca,  ruling 
 over  all  the  Techu- 
 antepec  tribes. 
 
 Tarascos,  in  the  kingdom  of  Michoacan,  whose  capital  was  Tzintz- 
 untzan. 
 
 Matlaltzincas,  between  the  Tarascos  and  the  Aztecs. 
 
 Totoxacs,  on  the  coast,  east  of  Tlascala,  in  the  north  of  Vera  Cruz. 
 Their  speech  was  akin  to  the  Maya-Quiche  of  the  next  section. 
 
 The  uncivilised  Mexican  tribes,  not  included  in  the  Aztec 
 group,  admit  of  no  special  classification.  Taking  them  in  their 
 order,  from  north  to  south,  the  most  important  are — 
 
 1 Miztec  is  remarkable,  even  among  American  tongues,  for  the  astonishing 
 length  of  its  words.  Here  is  one  of  seventeen  syllables — yodoyokavuandisasi- 
 kandiyosanuinahasahan  = to  walk  stumbling. 
 
Sonora  and  Sinaloa. 
 
 482 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 C Ceres.  j 
 
 ' Iritiles. 
 
 ■ Zacatec.  "3  d 
 
 Carrizas. 
 
 Tiburones.  [• 
 
 Piro. 
 
 Cazeane.  ^ 'Z 
 
 Xanambres. 
 
 Tepocas.  ) 2 
 
 Suma.  g 
 
 Mazapile.  O g 
 
 Pintos. 
 
 Cochitas.  §“ 
 
 Cbinarro.  -g  - 
 
 Huitcole. 
 
 ' Yue. 
 
 Obuero. 
 
 Toboso.  s 
 
 Guaebiebile.  § 
 
 Yeme. 
 
 Tuvares. 
 
 . Julime. 
 
 Colotlan.  ~ 1 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Sabaibos.  6 
 
 Tepecano. 
 
 . Huamares.  g 
 
 Chicbimecs.  ^ 
 
 Otomi.  1 
 
 Mazabua.  j 
 
 Xanambre. 
 
 Zuaques.  ^ 
 
 Tecuexe. 
 
 Pisone. 
 
 Abomes.  i4 
 
 Zoe  ; Tauro. 
 
 Tlaxomultec.  -g 
 Ocuiltec.  -g  ■ 
 
 . Tamulipec. 
 Mazatecs. 
 
 Trees  ; Xio. 
 Tepave. 
 Ocoroni. 
 Batucari. 
 
 Tejano.  ^ 
 
 Fames.  § ci 
 
 . Meco.  ' 
 
 1 o 
 
 Mijes. 
 Huaves. 
 Abualulcos. 
 ^ Alames. 
 
 Of  these  the  most  interesting,  and,  next  to  Aztec,  the  most 
 widely-diffused  language  in  the  IMexican  empire,  is  the  Otomi, 
 apparently  the  only  non-polysynthetic  form  of  speech  in 
 America.  It  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a monosyllabic  idiom, 
 though  generally  regarded  as  such,  for  words  of  two  or  more 
 syllables  are  common  enough,  especially  in  the  Mazahua 
 dialect.  But,  on  account  of  its  monosyllabic  tendencies, 
 Najera,  a native  Otomi,  has  compared  it  with  Chinese.  Najera’s 
 grammar  is  an  excellent  treatise  on  his  mother  tongue,  but  his 
 conclusions  are  otherwise  ^^sionary. 
 
 XII.  Central  Anierican  Races. 
 
 In  this  section  will  be  comprised  all  the  nations  occupying 
 parts  of  South  Mexico,  with  the  Yucatan  peninsula,  all  the 
 Central  American  Free  States,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
 Here  is  the  great  I\Iaya-Quich6  linguistic  family,  besides  the 
 smaller  Lenca  group,  illustrated  by  Squier,  and  a chaos  of 
 tribes  in  the  narrow  strip  between  Nicaragua  and  the  Gulf  of 
 Darien. 
 
 In  its  widest  extent  the  IMaya-Quiche  family  reaches  north- 
 wards to  Vera  Cruz,  where  it  is  represented  by  the  outlying 
 Totonacs  and  Huastecs,  and  southwards  to  San  Salvador.  But 
 its  two  principal  branches  are  the  Maya  of  Yucatan  and  the 
 Quiche  of  Guatemala.  Grouping  the  northern  offshoot  -with 
 the  Maya,  we  get  the  subjoined  twofold  division  of  its  numerous 
 dialects ; — 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 48.3 
 
 f Maya  proj'er,  Yucatan. 
 
 I"  Tetikilhati. 
 Chakalmati. 
 Huastec.  -|  jp^jja. 
 
 1.  Tatiinolo. 
 
 I Totonac. 
 
 Zendal-Quelen. 
 
 Chiapanec. 
 
 ^ Zotzil. 
 
 Tloque. 
 
 I Vebetlateca. 
 
 Mam  and  Pokomam. 
 
 I Achie  ; 'flacacebastla. 
 Guatemaltec ; Apay. 
 Cuettac  ; Taulepa. 
 Hhirichota  ; Ulua. 
 
 L Caecbicolcbi. 
 
 ''  i 
 
 J O 
 
 1 *2 
 
 f Quiche  proper. 
 I Cakchiguel. 
 
 I Zutugil. 
 
 1 Chorti. 
 
 Alaguilac. 
 
 Caiclii. 
 
 .1  Ixil. 
 
 Zoque. 
 
 Coxoh. 
 
 Chanabal. 
 
 Choi. 
 
 Uzpantec. 
 
 Aguacatec. 
 
 Quechi. 
 
 S 
 
 Of  this  family  Maya  may  be  taken  as  the  stock  language, 
 and  of  Maya  the  purest  form  seems  to  be  the  Zendal  of 
 Chiapas.  The  famous  “ Americaniste,”  Abb6  Brasseur  de 
 Bourbourg,  who  devoted  many  years  to  the  study  of  Central 
 American  ethnology  and  antiquities,  thinks  he  has  discot’ered 
 unmistakable  affinities  between  the  Maya-Quiche  and  Greek, 
 Latin,  French,  English,  German,  etc.,  in  fact  he  regards  it  not 
 merely  as  related  to,  but  as  the  primitive  form  of  these  lan- 
 guages. He  does  not  seem  to  have  perceived  the  absurdity 
 of  comparing  together  fully  developed  tongues,  instead  of  the 
 organic  elements  whence  they  sprang.  In  ^laya  the  formative 
 elements  seem  to  be  mostly  prefixes,  as  in  the  Bantu  languages, 
 a process  on  the  whole  opposed  to  that  of  the  Arj'an,  in  which 
 most  of  the  grammatical  modifications  are  suffixes. 
 
 In  the  Lenca  family  may  here  be  conveniently  included  all 
 the  non-Maya  idioms  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  E.  Nicaragua 
 and  the  Mosquito  Coast,  though  the  affinity  of  some  of  them 
 to  the  stock  language  has  yet  to  be  established. 
 
Costa  Itica. 
 
 484 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Guajiquero. 
 
 Mosquito  ; Taos.  ^ 
 
 Opatoro. 
 
 Xicaques  ; Gaulas. 
 
 lutibucat. 
 
 ci 
 
 Poj'as  ; Itziles. 
 
 Similaton. 
 
 i 
 
 Moscos  ; Motucas. 
 
 Chontales. 
 
 a 
 
 Secos  ; Eamas. 
 
 Cbolutecs. 
 
 - 6 
 
 ■\Voolwas;  Caribs. 
 
 _ , I Acalaus. 
 
 Lacandones. 
 
 c/T 
 
 Towkas  ; Sambos. 
 
 a 
 
 Cookras  ; Smoos. 
 
 1 Mayos. 
 
 Albatuinas  ; Tooiiglas. 
 
 Orotinas. 
 
 o 
 
 Talmas  ; Xicaques. 
 
 Maucbes. 
 
 Pauamekas ; Jaras. 
 
 Inacos. 
 
 Melcbora  ; Olanclie. 
 
 Tlie  greatest  confusion  seems  to  prevail  regarding  the 
 ethnography  of  the  Isthmian  races,  including  all  those  occupy- 
 ing the  region  between  the  Eiver  S.  Juan  and  the  Gulf  of 
 Darien.  Here  are  spoken  at  least  four  stock  languages — the 
 Savaneric,  Manzanillo  or  San  Bias,  Cholo,  and  Bayano,  while  the 
 Darien  or  Dariel,  Urahe,  and  Idiha,,  have  also  been  mentioned 
 as  independent  tongues.  To  these  must  be  added  the  Doracho 
 of  Veragnas,  the  civilised  Doracho  nation  being  still  represented 
 by  a small  tribe  on  the  Pacific  coast.  No  classification  can 
 be  attempted  of  the  other  Isthmian  tribes,  amongst  the  most 
 important  of  which  are  the 
 
 Cbiripo. 
 
 Tii'ibi. 
 
 Blanco. 
 
 Cliiriqui. 
 
 Yalientes. 
 
 Catibas. 
 
 ' Escorias. 
 Paris. 
 Biruquites. 
 
 ' Payas. 
 Caimanes. 
 Cuuacunas. 
 
 Cborotegan. 
 
 Cubigas. 
 
 TJracas. 
 
 Cuuas. 
 
 Coribici. 
 
 Cutabas. 
 
 Chirus.  § 
 
 Panama. 
 
 Guatusos.  ^ 
 
 Cliagi’es. 
 
 Cbames.  ^ 
 
 Coiba. 
 
 Terrabas.  g 
 
 Ciiebas.  ^ 
 
 Mandingos.  ZJ 
 
 Cliepos.  ^ 
 
 Chitarraga. 
 
 Changuenes.  ^ 
 Buricas. 
 
 Jumagos.  ^ 
 
 Cocina. 
 
 Pocorosas.  ^ 
 
 Cliiapes.  ^ 
 
 Guaineta. 
 
 Torresques.  ^ 
 
 Comagres.  § 
 
 Birus.  ° 
 
 Motilone. 
 
 Texas.  <1 
 
 Caretas.  ^ 
 
 Cbucbura.  •§ 
 
 Goajiro. 
 
 Talamancas. 
 
 Chicacotra. 
 
 Quarecua.  -g 
 
 Cimarron. 
 
 Nicoya. 
 
 Cerebaro. 
 
 Nata. 
 
 Sangaua. 
 
 Guarara. 
 
 Cutara. 
 
 Ponca.  ^ 
 
 Pocora. 
 
 Zumauama. 
 
 Tule. 
 
 Ada. 
 
 Abieiba. 
 
 ^ Abenamechey. 
 
 XIII.  Orinoco  Eaces. 
 
 All  the  innumerable  tribes  and  people  of  the  southern 
 continent  may  be  conveniently  arranged  under  five  separate 
 
AilEEICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 485 
 
 heads,  partly  geographical  and  partly  ethnological.  It  is  pre- 
 mature to  attempt  a strictly  scientific  classification  where  so 
 little  is  really  known,  and  of  that  little  so  much  is  still  un- 
 certain. But  though  the  arrangement  here  proposed  is  largely 
 geographical,  the  well-defined  families  of  languages  will  he 
 kept  carefully  distinct  within  each  of  our  five  main  divisions, 
 as  far  at  least  as  they  have  been  definitely  determined  by 
 ethnologists. 
 
 Under  this  first  head  are  comprised  all  the  nations 
 occuppng  the  region  stretching  from  about  the  equator  north- 
 wards to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  politically  divided  into  the 
 republics  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  British,  French, 
 and  Dutch  Guiana,  and  a nan’ow  tract  within  the  northern 
 frontier  of  Brazil.  Here  we  have  a large  number  of  stock 
 languages,  each  split  up  into  many  subdivisions,  besides  many 
 other  idioms  that  still  remain  to  be  classified.  Of  the  dis- 
 tinct families  by  far  the  most  important  is  the 
 
 Carib,  the  name  of  a race  that  has  been  identified  by  some  writers  with 
 the  prehistoric  Alleghewis  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  which  at  the 
 discovery  of  the  New  World  was  found  in  possession  of  a large 
 number  of  the  West  India  Islands,  which  has  since  then  been 
 either  exterminated  or  expelled  from  those  islands,  and  which  is 
 now  found  skirting  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  (so  named 
 from  them)  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  nearly  to  the  mouth  of 
 the  Amazon,  and  stretching  far  inland  in  Venezuela  and  Guiana. 
 The  Caribs  call  themselves  Carina,  Callinago,  or  Calina,  a corrupt 
 form  of  which  word  is  cannibal,  in  European  languages  now 
 synonymous  with  anthropophagist.  The  principal  Carib  tribes, 
 all  specified  in  the  general  index,  are  the 
 
 Guachiri. 
 
 Pariagotos. 
 
 Arawaks. 
 
 Wapisianos. 
 
 Guauves. 
 
 r Oje. 
 
 Guaques. 
 
 Oyapoks. 
 
 Purugotes. 
 
 ^Maitanos. 
 
 Pianogotos. 
 
 Warikena. 
 
 Avarigotos. 
 
 09 
 
 O 
 
 Paiure. 
 
 Tiverigotos. 
 
 Pasimonaii. 
 
 Acherigotos. 
 
 1 . 
 
 Crataimas. 
 
 Carabisi. 
 
 Cunipusanas. 
 
 Arinagotos. 
 
 E 
 
 Pareehi. 
 
 Acawaj'S. 
 
 JIasacas. 
 
 Kirikirisgotos. 
 
 Cucciveros. 
 
 Macusi. 
 
 Yahabana.s. 
 
 Chajrmas. 
 
 Uai'a-Mukuru. 
 
 Arecunas. 
 
 Paumonasis. 
 
 Cumanogottes. 
 
 ''  Uara-Paccili. 
 
 Soorikong. 
 
 Mandaucas. 
 
 Tomuzas. 
 
 Oyampis. 
 
 Maiongkong. 
 
 Guaharibos. 
 
 Piritus. 
 
 Galibios. 
 
 Makiretaris. 
 
 Palcncas. 
 
 Cocheymas. 
 
 Areeumas. 
 
 Woyawais. 
 
 Guaramios. 
 
 Chacopatus. 
 
 Waiyamara. 
 
 JIawakwa.s. 
 
 Aturais. 
 
 Topocuare.s. 
 
 Guayanos. 
 
 Daurais. 
 
486 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Next  to  the  Carib,  the  most  important  family  in  this  region 
 is  the  Barre,  illustrated  by  Wallace,  and  by  him  made  to 
 include  the  Maypures  and  others  formerly  regarded  as  inde- 
 pendent. Besides  the  IMaypures,  it  comprises  the  Barrd  proper 
 of  Tomo  and  ]\Iaroa,  the  Baniwas  of  the  Isamna  and  Javita, 
 the  Ckimpas,  Avanes,  Caveres,  Tucanos,  Coreius,  Juris,  Acheguas, 
 and  Parenis,  mainly  in  Guiana ; lastly,  the  Moxos  nation,  of 
 IMoxos  in  Bolivia,  whose  affinity  to  the  Maypures  may  now  be 
 taken  as  established.  Moxos  dialects  in  the  St.  Xaverio 
 mission  are  the  Mochono,  Baure,  Tikomeri,  Chuchu,  Kupeno,  and 
 Mosohe.  It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  all  the  Venezuelan 
 and  Guayana  languages  belong  either  to  the  Carib  or  Barre 
 family,  except  the  Warow  of  the  Orinoco  Delta,  probably  a 
 Guarani-Tupi  idiom,  and  the  Otojiac  toAvards  the  New  Gran- 
 ada frontier,  Avhich  speech  seems  to  be  completely  isolated. 
 
 In  New  Granada  itself  there  are  several  families  of  speech, 
 of  Avhich  the  most  important  historically  is  that  of  the  civil- 
 ised Chibcha.s,  or,  as  they  call  themselves,  Muiscas,^  “ Men.” 
 This  was  the  dominant  race  in  and  about  Bogota  at  the  time 
 of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  the  only  people  in  the  world. 
 Avho  used  gold  as  currency  in  the  form  of  discs  cast  in  a mould 
 (Ballaert).  They  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  IMrzos, 
 with  Avhom  they  Avere  ahvays  at  Avar ; nor  AA'ith  the  TuN- 
 JAS,  AA'hose  speech  Avas  different,  as  Avas  also  that  of  the 
 JIalabas,  a Avild  tribe,  still  found  on  the  San  Miguel  in  Esmer- 
 alda. In  the  iwoAunces  of  Popayan  there  are  or  were  alto- 
 gether ninetj'-four  distinct  tribes,  the  folloAving  being  the  most 
 important : — Pachanchicas,  Masteles,  Abades,  Yancales,  Sanquam- 
 qraeso,  Guanacas,  Paes,  Antagairnas,  Coyaimas,  Timanaes,  Nievas, 
 Xoannamaes,  Chocoes,  A ndaquies,  Pijaos,  Barbacoas,  Coconucos,  and 
 Mocoas.  On  the  east  bank  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  and  in  the 
 Casanare  district,  are  the  Salivi,  formerly  powerful,  and  the 
 most  musical  of  the  native  American  races.  The  Aturcs,  noAv 
 extinct,  the  Qmquas  of  the  Popayan  Cordilleras  and  the  Cuc- 
 civero,  and  the  Macos  or  Piaros  on  the  Cataniapo,  are  all  related 
 to  the  Salivi.  Some  AVTiters  haA^e  also  connected  Avith  them 
 the  Yariiras,  Betois,  and  Eles  of  the  Casanare  and  Meta. 
 Other  NeAV  Granada  tribes  are  the  Quaqiuiro,  said  to  speak  a 
 dialect  of  the  Ele,  the  Gambias,  Polindarras,  Inganos,  Zemiasi!}) 
 Putenanos,  and  on  the  Lower  Atrato  the  Urabas,  Chocos,  and 
 Dabaibas,  showing  affinities  Avith  some  of  the  Isthmian  tribes. 
 
 * From  mu,  boily,  and  isca,  fiA'e  ; i.e.  body  of  five  extremities. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 487 
 
 XIV.  Amazon  E.a.ces 
 
 Comprise  all  the  known  tribes  dwelling  along  the  main 
 stream  and  all  its  affluents  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to 
 Peru  and  Ecuador.  Here  no  classification  can  be  attempted 
 beyond  this  geographical  arrangement.  “ It  will  never  be 
 possible  for  two  consecutive  travellers  to  agree  on  the  names 
 and  localities  of  the  Amazonian  Indians.  The  vagabond  tribes 
 are  shifting,  while  some  become  extinct,  or  multiply  by  a pro- 
 cess of  self-division.  About  one  hundred  are  known  ; the  rest 
 flit  like  spectres  through  the  forest.” — (James  Orton,  The  Andes 
 and  the  Amazon”  1876.) 
 
 In  this  region  are  spoken  a vast  number  of  idioms,  most  of 
 them  probably  based  on  the  Tupi,  but  now  so  entirely  distinct 
 in  substance  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  trace  the  afflnity. 
 They  have  little  in  common  with  it  or  with  each  other  except 
 their  polysynthetic  structure,  which,  as  already  explained,  is 
 not  of  itself  alone  sufficient  to  jmove  community  of  origin. 
 For  a distance  of  2500  miles  along  the  Amazon,  from  its 
 mouth  to  the  Iquitos,  Tupi  is  the  Lingoa  Geral,  or  general 
 medium  of  communication.  Beyond  this  point,  on  the  Ucayali, 
 it  is  succeeded  by  the  Pano,  which  is  itself  now  being  sup- 
 planted by  a corrupt  form  of  the  Quichua.  The  Panes  them- 
 selves are  extinct. 
 
 The  Amazonian  Indians  occupy  a very  low  position  intellect- 
 ually and  socially.  Few  of  them  can  count  beyond  three  or  five, 
 and  their  idioms  diverge  so  rapidlythat  even  neighbouring  tribes 
 are  unable  to  converse  together  except  through  the  common 
 medium  of  the  Lingoa  Geral.  The  subjoined  comparative  table 
 of  a few  simple  words  collected  by  Orton  amongst  some  of  the 
 tribes  will  help  to  show  how  entirely  distinct  their  dialects  are. 
 The  tribes  here  mentioned,  as  well  as  most  of  the  others  in 
 this  region,  will  be  found  in  the  alphabetical  list,  and  need  not 
 therefore  be  farther  specified  here.  They  are  mostly  insig- 
 nificant in  power  and  numbers,  even  the  Mundrucus,  who  are 
 the  largest  and  most  widely  diffused,  not  numbering  more  than 
 8000  heads  all  told  : — 
 
488  APPENDIX. 
 
 1 s .g 
 
 1 *3  o ^ IS 
 
 .-42  ^ -S  o ^ -r  2 
 
 P >>  PS  ^ >o 
 
 T?nnqojt 
 
 5 - 
 
 rt-5  *s  oo 
 
 So  !“¥  .§1^  :§>, 
 
 *s  ^5  i — 
 
 ■§•'  .=  ig  -^i 
 
 •EunduEO 
 
 mapo 
 
 oni- 
 
 passna 
 
 tschu 
 
 sabaka 
 
 baari 
 
 urscho 
 
 aares 
 
 eranbue 
 
 kimis- 
 
 cha 
 
 •Aaunimtjj 
 
 gaiuu 
 
 bi-> 
 
 iniii 
 
 palia 
 
 Sljli 
 
 safini 
 
 inassicu 
 
 EdniBO 
 
 cbii'ari 
 
 cliinaiii 
 
 apa 
 
 ina 
 
 nogoti 
 
 nac'o 
 
 nocba- 
 
 pagari 
 
 ClUU'U 
 
 chichi 
 
 quita- 
 
 liuiti 
 
 ochiti- 
 
 niqui 
 
 poriatiri 
 
 cachiri 
 
 inipo- 
 
 quiio 
 
 pitari 
 
 caniiti 
 
 'oqmoo 
 
 liuovo 
 
 papa 
 
 tita 
 
 liuasca 
 
 tai 
 
 nasin 
 
 ichi 
 
 vari 
 
 ushi 
 
 aviclio 
 
 rabo'i 
 
 ■0.iEdBZ 
 
 S 4^  1 - i'3 
 
 o;  : ::  : r ; = sSsS 
 
 o_a‘  .x=S  o-  g.S^gS 
 
 a-.g,  a alia  ogasa 
 
 C3e3t)0  Ce3—  ^ 
 
 •OJ9A8P 
 
 qunpi- 
 
 luja 
 
 papa 
 
 aliua 
 
 mulu 
 
 landic 
 
 dUc 
 
 prill 
 
 ooklili 
 
 dikpilik 
 
 quccki 
 
 duquir 
 
 alaza 
 
 catiita 
 
 cala 
 
 •BtUpOOO 
 
 — c3  *S  /.?  •"*  • , c3 
 
 ‘H-&1  ‘2  5 - <5  i 2 *S  - g*§t2s 
 
 >»:SSmS.3o.S'c>>»^C£: 
 
 •bi\Sb\ 
 
 luiaiio 
 
 huatu- 
 
 ruiia 
 
 yen 
 
 nilmd 
 
 sainutii 
 
 nimutii 
 
 aah 
 
 jigney 
 
 iiiana 
 
 nipora 
 
 hini 
 
 ari- 
 
 inaney 
 
 tiqui 
 
 nanoijoi 
 
 momuhi 
 
 •uononx 
 
 iyato 
 
 ihi6 
 
 decliieh 
 
 ejhcli 
 
 hunehi 
 
 suitan 
 
 ohajeh 
 
 tahuo- 
 
 iniijeli 
 
 liueih 
 
 tare- 
 
 pucli 
 
 tomc- 
 
 pueli 
 
 ■btiSbuio 
 
 2—  c3S  c3 
 
 C.JZ.S.3  Js-».Srto>>>SSC 
 
 Bmiomf) 
 
 runa 
 
 luiarmi 
 
 yaya 
 
 mania 
 
 uma 
 
 maqui 
 
 cliaqul 
 
 yacu 
 
 nina 
 
 punclias 
 
 tuta 
 
 i 
 
 ynti 
 
 quilla 
 
 sliuc 
 
 ishcay 
 
 quinsa 
 
 $ r-  ^ ^ So  S . 
 
 1-5^1=  a .gS-g'S.SSi 
 
 J=s|oo3  -ggag^^'gS'p. 
 
 1 
 
 •qsiiSaa  : 
 
 
 Man  . 
 Woman 
 
 Patlior 
 
 Mother 
 Head  . 
 
 Hand  . 
 
 Foot  . 
 
 Water  . 
 
 Firo  . 
 Day  . 
 
 Night  . 
 
 Sun  . 
 
 Moon  . 
 
 One  . 
 
 Two  . 
 
 Three  . 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 489 
 
 The  statement  that  most  of  the  Amazonian  idioms  may  he 
 connected,  does  not  apply  to  the  following,  spoken  mainly  in 
 the  valley  of  the  Napo  : — JiVARO,  a fierce  and  unconquered 
 race,  between  the  Chinchipe  and  the  Pastassa,  divided  into 
 many  sub-tribes,  such  as  the  Moronas,  Pautes,  Zcmoras,  Gtiala- 
 quisas,  Upanos,  Pindos,  Pasfassas,  Agapicos,  Achuales,  and  Coto- 
 pasas,  all  speaking  varieties  of  the  clear,  harmonious,  and  ener- 
 getic Jivaro  language.  Zaparo,  upon  the  upper  waters  of  the 
 Pastassa  and  Kapo,  subdivisions  of  whom  are  the  Mueganos, 
 Curarayes,  Tuqnttnis,  Mafagenes,  Yasunies,  Mantas,  Shiru-Punos, 
 Kushinos,  Andoas,  and  Eotunos.  The  Zaparo  is  described  as  a 
 simple,  guttural,  and  nasal  tongue.  Angutera,  on  the  Middle 
 and  Lower  Napo,  of  whom  the  Santa-Marias  are  a branch. 
 Encabellada,  widely  diffused  on  the  Lower  Aguarico.  Ore- 
 JONES  (big-eared),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Napo.  Avijeras,  on 
 south  bank  of  Lower  Napo,  akin  to  the  Yquitos  and  Mazanes. 
 Cofanes,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Aguarico.  Mangaches, 
 in  Palenque  Alto.  Cap.vyas  and  Colorados,  in  the  forests 
 east  of  Quito. 
 
 XV.  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Paces. 
 
 U nder  this  heading  will  be  grouped  all  the  western  nations 
 not  included  in  other  divisions,  extending  from  the  equator  to 
 about  the  32°  S.  lat.,  and  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Ecu- 
 ador, nearly  the  whole  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  the  northern 
 parts  of  Chili  and  the  Argentine  States,  as  far  south  as  the 
 Saladillo.  Here  we  meet  with  the  great 
 
 Quichua-Ayjiara  family,  by  far  the  most  interesting,  and, 
 next  to  the  Guarani,  the  most  widely  diffused  in  South  Ameidca. 
 Under  one  or  other  of  its  three  main  divisions,  this  language 
 is  current  throughout  Ecuador,  Peru,  the  greater  part  of 
 Bolivia,  and  in  North  Chili,  as  far  as  the  southern  limits  of 
 the  Atacama  Desert.  These  main  divisions  are  the  Quichua, 
 perhaps  the  most  polished  of  all  native  American  tongues,  and 
 formerly  spoken  everywhere  in  the  empire  of  the  Incas ; the 
 Aymara,  probably  an  older  or  more  primitive  form  of  the 
 Quichua,  the  principal  language  of  Bolivia ; and  Quiteno, 
 the  leading  speech  of  Ecuador,  regarded  as  a northern  branch 
 of  the  Quichua,  modified  by  local  elements,  though  some,  with 
 Bollaert,  look  on  it  rather  as  a primitive  form  of  the  common 
 
Yumbo.  Qniteno. 
 
 490 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 mother  tongue,  on  to  Avhicli  the  Quichua  was  grafted  after  the 
 conquest  of  this  region  by  the  Inca  Huayna-Capac ; it  is  at 
 least  nearly  certain  that  both  the  original  Quito,  or  Pumlia, 
 and  even  the  still  more  ancient  Cara  itself  (see  Index)  were 
 related  to  the  language  of  the  conquerors. 
 
 The  three  branches  of  this  family  may  be  tabulated  as 
 under  : — 
 
 Quichua-Atjiaka  Mother  Toxgve. 
 I 
 
 Koi’thcm  Branch. 
 Cara. 
 
 Puralia. 
 
 / Tacunga. 
 
 ) Canazc. 
 
 J Imbabureno. 
 
 ' Cotocacbe. 
 
 ' Xapo. 
 
 S.  Domingo. 
 Manegale. 
 
 ' C'anelo. 
 
 Intags. 
 
 , Gualea. 
 
 Central  Branch. 
 Quichua  proper 
 (Cuzcucano). 
 r Lamissa. 
 Lemano  or 
 ^ t Cliimu. 
 
 Chinchaisuyu. 
 Calchaqui 
 (Tucuman). 
 Sapiboconi 
 (in  Moxos). 
 
 Southern  Branch. 
 
 Kanchis. 
 
 Kasnas. 
 g I KoUaguas. 
 
 I -(  Karankas. 
 
 ^ j Charcas. 
 
 I Pacases. 
 '-Lupakas. 
 Atacameho  ? 
 
 (Olipe). 
 
 Chango. 
 
 Tarapaca. 
 
 It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
 conquest  there  were  in  the  great  kingdom  of  Quito  no  less 
 than  forty  nations,  all  speaking  different  languages,  with  as 
 many  as  three  hundred  dialectic  varieties.  Of  these  stock 
 languages,  all  of  which  will  be  found  in  our  alphabetical 
 list,  the  greater  number  had  already  perished  towards  the 
 close  of  the  last  century,  and  since  then  the  process  of  extinc- 
 tion has  been  going  on  at  an  accelerated  rate,  so  that  at  pre- 
 sent the  familiar  sounds  of  the  Quichua  and  the  Spanish  are 
 now  alone  heard  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes.  East 
 of  the  Cordilleras  there  are  still  spoken  several  independent 
 forms  of  speech,  vhich  may  here  be  specified : — 
 
 In  Moxos,  besides  Moxos  proper,  above  included  in  the  Carib  family, 
 we  have  the  Sarcveca,  Chapocura,  Item,  Movinia,  Cayuvava, 
 Pacaguara,  Itonama,  Sapiboconi,  Herisehocona,  Mure,  Canisiatia. 
 
 In  Chiquitos  : Chiquitos  proper,  or  Naquirumeis  {“  mtn”),  Morotoco, 
 Too,  Boro,  Zamahuca,  Bocca,  Quibicuica,  Piocaca,  Pinoco, 
 Quimeca,  Quitaxaca,  Guapaca,  Paioconeca,  Canichana,  Zamucu, 
 
 Bolivia. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 49] 
 
 Kaipotorade,  Oiuki,  Ghiriguana  (a  Guarani  idiom) — all  apparenth' 
 related  except  the  Zamucu  and  Chiriguana. 
 
 It  should  be  observed  that  most  of  these  tribes  seem  to  have  been 
 gathered  into  the  Moxos  and  Chiquitos  missions  from  various 
 quarters  by  the  Jesuits,  their  position  here  somewhat  resembling 
 that  of  the  North  American  tribes  now  settled  in  the  Indiana 
 territory,  Nebraska,  and  other  “Reserves.” 
 
 In  Ecuador,  mainly  about  the  head  streams  of  the  Amazon,  the  Iguitos, 
 Xurmnos  or  Chimanos  (a  Guarani  tribe),  Fcbas,  Yaguas,  Ticunes, 
 Shimigues,  Mayorunas,  and  lastly  Omagua,  which  will  be  further 
 specified  in  our  next  Section. 
 
 In  Chaco,  the  Mocobi  family,  veiy  numerous  and  branching  off  into 
 several  subdivisions,  such  as  the  Mocobi  or  Mbocobi  proper,  on 
 the  Vermejo  and  Ypita  ; Abiponians,  mainly  between  the  Pil, 
 comayo  and  the  Paraguay,  subdivided  into  the  Maqmglgaguehcc, 
 Rucahce,  and  Jaconaiga ; Aguilots  and  Fitilagas  on  the  Pil- 
 comayo  ; and  Toba  between  the  Pilcomayo  and  the  Vermejo. 
 The  Chumipy,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Vermejo,  though  sometimes 
 classed  with  this  group,  would  seem  to  speak  a totally  different 
 language.  Vilela-Lule  family,  including  the  Vilda  proper, 
 with  its  subdivisions  Ontoampa,  Ycconoampa,  Ipa,  Fasahie^ 
 on  the  Upper  Salado,  and  the  Chunupnes,  Yoocos,  Yecoanitas 
 Ocoles,  Uacaas,  Atalalas,  Sivinipns,  in  the  forests  watered  by 
 the  Vermejo  ; Lule  proper,  about  Miraflores  on  the  Upper  Salado, 
 and  thence  to  the  Vermejo,  whose  chief  tribes  are  or  were  the 
 Iritine,  ToJcistine,  Orisiine,  and  Tomcote,  identical  with  the 
 famous  Mataras  of  the  early  Spanish  writers.  With  this  family 
 should  perhaps  be  grouped  the  Machicut  or  Cabanataith,  sub- 
 divided into  about  twenty  bands,  mainly  on  the  Middle  and 
 Upper  Pilcomayo,  and  the  Metagwaya  or  Mataguayi,  with 
 numerous  sub-tribes,  such  as  the  Matakos,  Uueshuos,  Fesatupos, 
 Abuchetas,  and  Imakos,  all  between  21°  to  24°  S.  lat.  Towards 
 the  Bolivian  frontier  of  Gran  Chaco  are  the  Aquiteqdedichagas, 
 said  to  be  a remnant  of  the  Cacocys  or  Orcjones  of  the  first 
 Spanish  invaders.  Lastly  the  Ninaquiguilas,  subdivided  into 
 several  bands,  roaming  over  the  forests  between  Gran  Chaco  and 
 Chiquitos.  In  this  vast  and  little  known  region  the  Lingoa 
 Geral  is  not  current. 
 
 XVI.  Brazilian  Eaces  south  of  the  Amazon. 
 
 Though  mainly  occupied  by  the  Guarani,  by  far  the 
 most  widely  diffused  of  all  the  South  American  nations,  there 
 is  still  room  in  this  vast  region  for  a countless  number  of 
 
492 
 
 APPEN’DIX. 
 
 non-Guarani  tribes,  about  most  of  which  very  little  is  known, 
 and  whose  scientific  grouping  cannot  of  course  be  even 
 attempted.  But  into  all  this  chaos  some  order  has  already 
 been  introduced,  and,  besides  the  Guarani,  three  extensive 
 families  have  been  mapped  out.  This  certainly  leaves  a 
 large  number  of  idioms  which  must  for  the  present  be  left 
 unclassified,  or  treated  as  independent.  But  it  is  better  to 
 arrange  them  in  this  way  than  to  group  them,  as  some  writers 
 do,  with  systems  AA-ith  which  they  have  often  really  nothing 
 in  common.  The  four  Avell-defined  groups  are  the  Guarani, 
 which,  like  the  Quichua-Aymara,  branches  off  into  three 
 great  subdiA’isions,  as  thus  : — 
 
 Guaeaxi  Family. 
 
 Southern  a'nd  Western 
 Branch. 
 
 North-Eastern 
 
 Branch. 
 
 North  - Western  Branch. 
 
 Guarani  proper  of  the  Par- 
 aguay missions,  Uruguay, 
 Pdo  Grande  do  Sul. 
 
 _.  ( Chiriguana. 
 
 % I Guarayi. 
 g ] Cicionos. 
 
 P'  [ Dioguites. 
 
 Tupi  (the  Lingoa 
 Geral,  sometimes 
 calledBrazilian.) 
 Tappes. 
 Petiguares. 
 Tupiuahas. 
 Cahetes. 
 Tupininquins. 
 Tapiguae. 
 Tummimivi. 
 Tamoiae. 
 Tuppinamhas. 
 
 Omagua  proper. 
 Enaguas. 
 
 Aguas. 
 
 Y urimaguas. 
 
 i Cocamilla. 
 Cocama.  ( 
 
 Yete. 
 
 Tocantins. 
 
 In  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
 Negro. 
 
 Aruaqui  ; Atauhys. 
 Terecumas  ; Hiabaanas. 
 Caripunas  ; Manaos. 
 Carahiahys  ; Cocrunas. 
 Juris. 
 
 The  localities  of  these  various  tribes  will  be  found  more 
 definitely  settled  in  the  alphabetical  list.  Here  it  may  be 
 well  to  establish  their  mutual  connection,  seeing  that  this  has 
 again  been  called  in  question  by  ethnologists  of  some  Aveight. 
 Amongst  them  is  Frederick  ]\Iuller,  who  in  his  Ethnograplm 
 (“Voyage  of  the  XaA'arra,”  vol.xxiii.  p.  25,)  classifies  the  Guarani, 
 Tupi,  and  Omagua  tinder  three  separate  and  independent 
 heads.  Yet  their  close  affinity  had  already  been  determined  in 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 493 
 
 the  days  of  Hervas,  and  re-asserted  by  Balbi  (Table  XXVIII. ), 
 and  may  here  be  seen  by  the  reader  for  himself,  ivith  the 
 help  of  the  subjoined  comparative  list  of  a few  radical 
 
 words  : — 
 
 Guarani, 
 
 Tv  pi. 
 
 Oxnagua. 
 
 man 
 
 . ava. 
 
 aba. 
 
 aba. 
 
 hand 
 
 . pua. 
 
 po. 
 
 pu. 
 
 foot 
 
 . pueta. 
 
 pi. 
 
 pi. 
 
 head 
 
 . 5'acae. 
 
 acang. 
 
 aeanga. 
 
 sun 
 
 . liuarassi. 
 
 quarassL 
 
 coarac}’ 
 
 moon  . 
 
 . yase. 
 
 yasi. 
 
 iaci. 
 
 fire 
 
 . tata. 
 
 tata. 
 
 tata. 
 
 water  . 
 
 . unL 
 
 i. 
 
 i. 
 
 It  may  be  mentioned  that  these  idioms  abound  in  nasal 
 gutturals,  and  in  monosyllables,  many  of  these,  as  in  the  Trans- 
 gangetic  tongues,  varying  in  meaning  with  the  tone  or  accent. 
 
 Patagua-Guatcuru  family,  including  the  Guayeurus  proper,  or  Caval- 
 leiros,  on  both  sides  of  the  Paraguay,  subdivided  into  four  bands, 
 formerly  speaking  two  sister  languages — the  Mhaya  (extinct),  and 
 the  Enakayas,  now  universally  spoken  by  aU  the  Guaycuiiis  ; 
 Payaguas  or  Nayaguas,  formerly  very  powerful,  commanding  the 
 navigation  of  the  Paraguay,  now  greatly  reduced,  and  residing 
 near  Asuncion  in  Paraguay ; Cadique  and  Magach,  extinct  Pay- 
 agua  tribes  ; Juiadge  (the  Lenguas  of  Spanish  wuiters)  formerly 
 between  the  Pilcomayo  and  the  Paraguay,  now  extinct  (?)  ; Cocha- 
 hotlis  or  Enimagas,  and  Guentuse  in  Chaco. 
 
 Ge,  Gez  or  Geiko  family,  comprises  the  Gez  proper,  called  also  Jah3’Cos, 
 of  Maranhao  and  Gr.  Para,  subdivided  into  the  Paycob-giz,  Ao-gh, 
 Cran-gc:,  Canacata-giz,  Ponkata-giz,  Apina-gez,  on  the  Tocantins; 
 and  one  or  two  others,  besides  the  Tijibiras  or  Craxs  of  Goyaz, 
 of  whom  there  are  three  subdivisions — the  Malta,  Canella  Jina, 
 and  Boccafurada  Timbiras. 
 
 PuRTS  family,  comprising  the  Purys  proper  in  the  provinces  of  P,io 
 Janeiro,  Spirito  Santo,  and  Minas  Geraes  ; Coroados  and  Coropos 
 in  the  same  region  ; Goytacas,  Sacarus,  and  Guarus,  formerly 
 in  Bio  Janeiro. 
 
 Camacax  family,  embracing  the  Camacans  or  Mongoyos  in  Bahia  ; 
 Meniengs  formerly  on  the  Rio  Belmonte,  extinct  ; Camacaens, 
 visited  by  Spix  and  Martins  ; Malali  ; Machacaris,  near  the  Rio 
 Belemonte  and  Santa  Cruz  ; Maconis  ; Mmwxjos  de  Passanha  and 
 Patachos — all  in  Porto  Seguro. 
 
 Of  the  isolated  and  unclassified  nations  the  following  claim  special 
 notice  : — 
 
 Botocudos,  on  the  Brazilian  coast  range,  between  the  Rio  Dolce  on  the 
 
494 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 soiith,  and  Illieos  in  Bahia  on  the  north.  Formerly  veiy  numerous 
 and  powerful,  now  reduced  to  a few  thousand  through  the  sj-stem- 
 atic  brutality  and  atrocious  cruelty  of  the  Portuguese.  The 
 old  Commendador  boasted  to  Professor  C.  F.  Hartt  that  he  had 
 either  killed  with  his  own  hand,  or  ordered  to  be  butchered  with 
 knife,  gun,  and  poison,  many  hundreds  of  these  poor  creatures. 
 Speech  totally  distinct  from  Guarani  or  any  other.  The  Boto- 
 cudos  are  rather  yellow  than  copper  coloured,  and  not  very  dark, 
 whereas  the 
 
 Chakkuas  of  the  Banda  Oriental,  about  33°  S.  lat.,  are  described  as 
 almost  black.  They  were  nearly  exterminated  b}'  the  Uruguay 
 government  in  1831. 
 
 Kiriki  of  Bahia,  formerly  very  numerous,  speaking  a language  that  has 
 been  compared  with  the  Tamanak,  Moxos,  Tupi,  etc.,  but  which 
 F.  Mliller  seems  justified  in  regarding  as  independent.  The 
 Sabuja,  also  of  Bahia,  speak  a kindred  tongue. 
 
 Bokoros,  in  Matto  Grosso,  of  whom  the  Barbados,  Coroados  (different 
 from  those  of  Minas  Geraes),  and  the  Taraies,  seem  to  be  kindred 
 tribes. 
 
 Guatos  and  Baccahieis,  also  in  Matto  Grosso, neighbours  of  the  Bororos. 
 
 Cayapos  and  Chavaxtes,  the  most  numerous  nations  in  Goyaz. 
 
 Gcataxas,  Guaxaxas  or  Ge'alachas,  in  the  province  of  S.  Paulo, 
 quite  distinct  from  the  Carib  Gua3'auos,  mentioned  in  section  xiii., 
 as  well  as  from  the 
 
 GtJAXOS  of  Chaco  and  of  Paraguay,  the  most  numerous  nation  in  these 
 regions  next  to  the  Guarani,  and  subdivided  into  several  bands, 
 such  as  the  Ethelena,  Chaharana,  Layana,  Echoroana,  Equini- 
 quincuo,  and  Niguecactemic. 
 
 All  the  other  important  Brazilian  tribes  will  be  found  in  the  Alpha- 
 betical List. 
 
 XYII.  Southern  Races. 
 
 Tliis  last  diyision  covers  the  remainder  of  the  continent 
 from  about  the  parallel  of  Rosario  southwards  to  Cape  Horn, 
 hut  west  of  the  Andes  stretching  as  far  north  as  perhaps 
 Copiapo,  or  the  southern  limits  of  the  desert  of  Atacama.  It 
 thus  includes  the  greater  part  of  Chili,  the  southern  portion 
 of  La  Plata  between  the  Saladillo  and  the  Rio  Negro,  the 
 whole  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Here  the  leading 
 race  are  the  brave 
 
 Araucaxiaxs,  who  have  been  called  the  Iroquois  of  the  Southern  Con- 
 tinent. Thej'  occup}’  the  whole  of  the  Chilian  Cordilleras  south 
 
AMEPJCAX  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 495 
 
 of  the  desert  of  Atacama,  and  have  in  recent  times  descended  the 
 eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  settling  at  various  points  along  the 
 course  of  the  Upper  Rio  Negro.  They  are  divided  into  many 
 tribes,  all  speaking  one  language  with  apparently  but  little  dia- 
 lectic variety,  and  entirely  different  from  any  other  known 
 tongue.  Their  most  generic  names  would  seem  to  he  Auca, 
 Chilidugu  or  Moluche,  by  which  they  call  themselves,  and 
 Aruucan,  the  name  by  which  they  are  known  to  the  Spaniards. 
 Their  principal  subdivisions  are  the  Picuxches,  “Northern 
 People,”  along  the  Cordilleras  from  about  Coquimbo  southwards 
 to  Santiago  ; Pmlches,  “ Eastern  People,”  east  of  the  Cordilleras, 
 as  far  as  Mendoza  in  Cuyo  ; PehueTiches  or  Puaiches,  “ Pine 
 People  (from  ^ej9iicn.=pine),  between  the  35'’-40°  S.  lat.,  by  the 
 Picunches  sometimes  called  Htiilliche,  “ Southern  People,”  from 
 their  southern  position  ; the  Auca  or  Moluche  proper,  between 
 the  Biobio  and  the  Yaldi^da,  who  are  the  Araucans  of  the 
 “ Araucana  ” and  some  other  Spanish  heroic  poems.  Lastly,  the 
 V uta  Huilliche,  e.vtending  from  the  Puenches  along  the  coast 
 southwards  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  subdivided  into  the 
 Chonos  of  the  Chonos  Archipelago  and  ChUoe,  Poy  yas  or  Peyes 
 between  the  48°-52°  S.  lat.,  and  Key  yus.  Key  yuhues,  or  Keyes, 
 from  the  52°  S.  lat.  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  with  whom  should 
 perhaps  be  classified  the  Canchi  between  the  Valdivia  and  the 
 Gulf  of  Guaj'ateca.  All  these  Patagonian  Araucanians  speak 
 Chilian  idioms  corrupted  by  a large  mixture  of  Patagonian  words. 
 Other  Araucanian  dialects  are  the  Allentiac  and  Milcocayac, 
 spoken  by  the  Guarpes  in  the  province  of  Cuyo.  Our  ne.xt 
 family  is  that  of  the 
 
 PuELCHES,  or  “ Eastern  People,”  as  the  Araucanians  call  them,  who  are 
 the  Pampas  Indians  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Penek  of  the  Pata- 
 gonians. Their  language  has  been  compared  with  the  Araucanian 
 and  Patagonian,  but  the  Rev.  T.  F.  Schmid,  the  very  best,  if  not 
 the  only  authority  on  the  subject  in  England,  informs  us  that 
 it  is  entirely  different  from  both,  and  apparently  from  any  other 
 known  tongue.  The  term  Pwdehe,  as  already  stated,  indicates 
 nothing  more  than  the  geographical  position  of  this  people  rela- 
 tively to  Chili,  and  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
 same  term  as  applied  to  the  Eastern  or  Padche  Araucanians,  as 
 above  classified.  The  Pampas  Indians  roam  from  the  SaladiUo 
 southwards  to  the  Rio  Negro,  where  many  of  them  have  already 
 become  absorbed  in  the  Araucanian  Puelches,  who,  Mr.  Schmid 
 says,  have  migrated  to  the  banks  of  this  river  as  far-  east  as  the 
 frontier  penal  settlement  of  El  Carmen  and  Bahia  Blanco,  belong- 
 ing to  Buenos  Ayres.  He  adds  that  their  language  is  said  to  be 
 rapidly  dying  out,  being  superseded  partly  by  the  Araucanian  and 
 partly  by  Spanish. 
 
496 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tlie  vast  and  dreary  region  extending  from  the  Eio  Negro 
 to  the  Straits,  and  known  as  Patagonia,  seems  to  be  exclu- 
 sively occupied  by  one  race,  at  least  between  the  Atlantic  sea- 
 board and  the  Cordilleras.  These  are  the  Patagonians,  or 
 as  they  call  themselves,  the  Tsonecas,  or  as  they  are  called  by 
 the  Araucanians,  the 
 
 Tehuelcues  or  Chuelches,  about  whose  gigantic  size  so  many  contra- 
 dictory accounts  are  given  by  travellers.  The  last  two  terms 
 (from  tehul  or  = south,  and  c/^e  = people)  mean  Southern 
 People  ; but  though  frequently  classified  with  the  Chilians,  Mr. 
 Schmid  again  assures  us  that  the  two  races,  or  at  least  the  lan- 
 guages, are  enthely  distinct.  In  a list  of  2000  Tehuelche  and 
 Araucanian  words,  which  he  compared,  he  found  only  two  alike 
 — -^atac=  a hundred,  and  A!ianmc= a thousand,  words  obviously 
 borrowed  bj'  the  former  from  the  latter  people.  The  Northern 
 and  Southern  Tehuelches,  or  Tehuelhet,  as  the  word  is  sometimes 
 wi-itten,  seem  to  present  marked  differences.  The  Northerners 
 have  been  subdivided  into  the  CalUlehct  or  Serranos  (high- 
 landers) on  both  sides  of  the  Upper  Chupat,  and  the  Cuiilan- 
 Cunnee  between  the  Chupat  and  the  Eio  Negi’o.  They  are  often 
 confused  with  the  Chennas  (warriors)  or  Manzoneros  of  the  former' 
 Jesuit  station  of  Las  Manzanas,  who  seem  to  be  an  Araucanian 
 tribe,  slightly  disguised  b}'  a thin  coating  of  Spanish  and  Chris- 
 tianity. The  Southern  Patagonians  are  again  subdivided  into  the 
 Yacana-Cunnee,  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Straits  of  Jlagellan, 
 and  the  Sehuau-Ciinnee,  between  them  and  the  Eio  Desme. 
 These  last  two  names  are  sometimes,  but  it  would  seem  incorrectly, 
 transferred  to  the  southern  shores  of  the  Straits,  and  applied 
 to  the 
 
 Fuegiaxs,  or  natives  of  the  “ Laud  of  Fire,”  on  whom  every  fresh 
 traveller  visiting  those  inhospitable  shores  seems  to  confer  a fresh 
 generic  name.  The  fact  is,  that  these  debased  and  scattered 
 tribes  have  no  general  name  at  all,  and  it  is  now  well  ascertained 
 that  the  archipelago  is  inhabited  by  at  least  two,  if  not  three 
 different  races,  physically  resembling  each  other,  but  speaking 
 languages  related  neither  to  each  other  nor  yet  to  the  Patagonian. 
 For  this  statement  we  have  also  the  authority  of  Mr.  Schmid,  to 
 whom  we  are  much  indebted  for  the  valuable  data  that  have 
 enabled  us  to  clear  up  many  obscure  points  connected  with  the 
 ethnologj'  of  the  southern  races.  From  the  foregoing  remarks  it 
 will  be  noticed  that  in  this  region  there  are,  allowing  two  for  the 
 Fuegiaus,  altogether  five  distinct  races  and  forms  of  speech,  which 
 ma}'  be  thus  conveniently  tabulated  : — 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 497 
 
 Patagono-Chilian  Races, 
 
 1 
 
 Araucanians. 
 
 1 
 
 Puelches, 
 
 1 
 
 i Patagonians  ) 
 
 1 
 
 Fuegians 
 
 Picunches. 
 
 Pampas  ( 
 
 > or  [ 
 
 or 
 
 Puelches. 
 
 or  Pe?i-  1 
 
 . Tehuelches.  ) 
 
 Pesherais. 
 
 Peliuenehes.  ) 
 
 eks.  j 
 
 Tehuelches  pro--. 
 
 . — 
 
 Huiiliches.  j 
 
 Chechehet. 
 
 per.  1 
 
 North.  South. 
 
 Auca  or  Mollu-I 
 
 Divihet. 
 
 Callilebet  t 
 
 Yahgan.  Kemenetes. 
 
 ches  proper,  j 
 
 Taluliet. 
 
 or 
 
 Foot  Indians.  Kennekas. 
 
 Cheniia  or  Man-  j 
 
 Serranos.  ^ 
 
 Yucanacus.  Karaikas. 
 
 zoneros.  j 
 
 Cuillan-Cunnee. 
 
 Cunchis. 
 
 Yacana-Cunnee. 
 
 Allentiacs. 
 
 Sehuau-Cunnee. 
 
 Aiiicocayas. 
 
498 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL  LIST 
 
 OF 
 
 ALL  AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 Abades 
 Abanes 
 Abangoui  . 
 Abbitibbes  . 
 
 Abeicas 
 
 Abenaki  (Wapanachki) 
 
 Abenamechey 
 Abieiba 
 Abiponians  . 
 
 Abitegas 
 
 Absentee 
 
 Abuchetas 
 
 Abwoins 
 
 Acalans 
 
 Acaxees 
 
 Acaways 
 
 Accocesaws 
 
 Accohanocs 
 Accomacks 
 Accomentas 
 Acheguas 
 Acherigotos 
 Achie . 
 Aehuales 
 Ada  . 
 
 In  Popayan,  New  Granada, 
 j New  Gmnada  ; N.  of  the  Orinoco. 
 
 Guarani ; on  the  Taquaui,  Paraguay. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; Kree  branch. 
 
 Muscogee  ; in  1750,  on  the  Tombigbee  river. 
 
 Algonquins  ; Maine,  N.  Hampshire,  originally  ; later 
 on,  Canada.  The  term  means  “ Eastlander,”  but 
 is  unsatisfactory  and  vague.  The  Chippeway  now 
 apply  it  to  some  Iroquois  at  Green  Bay.  The 
 Abenakis  proper  were  on  the  Kennebek,  and  their 
 head-quarters  at  Nanrantsouak  or  Norridgewock. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Dai'ien. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 A Mocobi  nation  between  the  Pilcomayo  and  Para- 
 guay. Chief  tribes — Eucahee,  Jaconaiga,  and 
 N aguegtgaguchee. 
 
 Quichua  stock  ; Tarma,  Peru,  R of  the  Andes, 
 j A Shawnee  tribe  now  in  Sac  and  Fox  Reserve,  Indian 
 I territorj'. 
 
 i A Metagwaya  band  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 I The  Sioux,  so  called  by  the  Chippeways. 
 
 ^ The  Eastern  Lacandones  ; Guatemala.  See  Lacan- 
 dones. 
 
 Near  Topia,  in  Durango,  Mexico  ; imclassified. 
 
 Carib  stock  ; Guaiana  and  Venezuela,  but  chiefly  on 
 the  Demerara. 
 
 Formerly  in  Texas,  and  \V.  side  of  the  Colorado  ; 
 speech  apparently  isolated. 
 
 Algonquin  ; Powhaten  gi'oup,  formerly  on  the  Acco- 
 mac  in  E.  Virginia  ; extinct. 
 
 A Pauducket  band,  formerly  in  N.  Massachusetts. 
 
 A Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  on  the  Venezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Suchitepec  and  Guatemala. 
 
 A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
AMEKICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 499 
 
 Acolhuas 
 
 Acoma 
 
 Acquinoshionee  . 
 
 Adaes,  Adees,  Adaize 
 
 Adirondacs  . 
 
 Adoles 
 
 Agaces 
 
 Agapicos 
 
 Agawams 
 
 Aglegmutes . 
 
 Aguacatec  . , 
 
 Aguaricos  . 
 Aguavunias  . 
 
 Aguas  . . 
 
 Aguilots 
 
 Agulnmtes  . . 
 
 Ahahaways . . 
 
 Ahahnelins  . 
 
 Ahoma 
 Almiaudahkas 
 Abnaudahkas 
 Anadakkas 
 Abnahaways 
 
 Abrendabronons  . 
 
 Abts  . 
 
 • y 
 . ^ 
 
 . ) 
 
 Abuahilcos 
 
 Albino 
 
 Alaguilac 
 
 Alames 
 
 Alausi 
 
 One  of  tbe  three  confederate  nations  in  Anabuac  at 
 tbe  time  of  tbe  Spanish  conquest  ; most  probably 
 Nahua  or  Aztec  stock.  Their  capital  was  Tezcuco 
 in  Anabuac. 
 
 A tribe  of  tbe  Queres,  which  see. 
 
 The  ancient  name  of  the  Iroquois  for  their  confederacy, 
 meaning  a league  of  tribes. 
 
 Formerly  near  Natchitoches,  Louisiana  ; speech  said 
 to  be  isolated. 
 
 The  New  York  Algonquins,so  called  by  the  Iroquois. 
 The  term  means  “he  eats  trees.” 
 
 A Salivi  band  in  Orinoco  ; destroyed  by  the  Caribs 
 in  1684. 
 
 A powerful  nation  on  the  Paraguay  ; subdued  in  1542 
 by  de  Vaca. 
 
 A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 Algonquins  ; a Wampanoag  tribe  of  Merrimack  River, 
 Essex  County,  Massachusetts  ; extinct. 
 
 The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  Bristol  Bay ; the  proper 
 name  of  the  American  Chuckchis. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 See  Encabellados. 
 
 Amazon  gi'oup  ; on  the  Santiago,  flowing  into  the 
 Upper  Amazon  at  78°  W.  long. 
 
 An  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe  on  the  Upper  Orinoco,  in 
 New  Granada. 
 
 A Mocobi  tribe  on  the  Pilcomayo. 
 
 The  Koniaga  Eskimos  between  the  Kuskoquim  and 
 Kishunak. 
 
 Same  as  Mattasoons,  which  see. 
 
 Or  Gros  Ventres  of  the  prairies  ; Algonquin  stock  ; 
 akin  to  the  Arapahoes,  on  the  Lower  Milk  River, 
 Montana.  Some  Avriters  group  them  with  their 
 allies  the  Dacotahs. 
 
 On  the  Zaque  river,  Sinaloa. 
 
 S.W.  Texas,  akin  to  the  Caddos  ; live  on  the  Brazos 
 river,  below  Fort  Belknap. 
 
 Or  Black  Shoes  ; a Crow  tribe  on  the  Upper  Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 The  most  north-easterly  Huron  tribe  ; absorbed  by 
 the  Iroquois  in  1649. 
 
 The  generic  name  of  most  of  the  tribes  on  the  \V. 
 coast  of  Vancouver  ; first  applied  to  them  by 
 Sproat,  from  the  syllable  akt  = 7nak(  = house,  with 
 which  most  of  the  tribal  names  end.  All  speak 
 dialects  of  the  same  language.  Sproat  gives  a list 
 of  twenty  tribes,  of  which  the  Nitinahts  at  Barclay 
 Sound  are  perhaps  the  most  important. 
 
 In  Goazacoalco  and  Taba.sco,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 Maya  stock ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 In  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 A Quito  race  ; eight  tribes  ; all  extinct. 
 
500 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Albatuinas  . 
 Aleuts 
 
 Aliches 
 Algonquin  . 
 
 Algoomenquini 
 Alibainas 
 Alibamous  . 
 
 Allakaweah . 
 Allca  . 
 
 Allentiac 
 Alleg  . 
 Allegans 
 Alii  . 
 Alligbewis  . 
 
 Alseas 
 Amajuacas  . 
 Amalicites  . 
 Aiualistes  . 
 Amariscoggins 
 
 Ambawtamoots 
 
 Amic«'ays  . 
 
 Amikouis  . 
 
 Amuzgo 
 
 Analiuacs  . 
 
 Anasuguntakook 
 
 Amlaicos 
 
 Aiulastes 
 
 Andastiquez 
 
 Andaquies  . 
 
 Andoas 
 
 Angamarca  . 
 
 Angutera 
 
 Anlygmutes 
 
 Autagaimas 
 
 Antis  . 
 
 Ao-gez 
 
 Apaches 
 
 . Lenca  family  ; on  Blewfields  Lagoon,  Nicaragua. 
 
 . The  natives  of  the  Aleutian  islands,  whose  speech  is 
 entirely  distinct  from  the  Esldmo,  says  Busch- 
 maun. 
 
 . A Caddo  band  ; in  1805  living  near  Natchitoches. 
 Next  to  the  Athabascan  the  largest  family  in  North 
 America  ; treated  in  Sec.  iii.  of  Appendix,  p.  465. 
 Tlie  Algomiuins  of  the  early  writers. 
 
 I Formerly  on  the  Alabama ; of  the  Creek  stock,  and 
 \ partly  incorporated  by  them.  Others  migrated 
 to  Texas,  and  in  1840  were  settled  on  the  Trinity 
 with  the  Coshattas. 
 
 . A Crow  tribe  on  the  Snake  River  ; called  also  Pauch. 
 An  ancient  race  S.  of  Cuzco  ; ultimately  subdued  by 
 the  Quichuas  under  Manco  Capac. 
 
 . An  Araucanian  dialect  spoken  by  the  Guarpes  in  Cuyo. 
 'i  The  aborigines  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  ; ex- 
 ( pelled  thence  southwards  by  the  Algonquius  in  the 
 
 S eleventh!?)  century  ; have  by  some  been  identified 
 with  the  Caribs,  which  see.  The  name  still  lives 
 in  the  word  Alleghan)’-,  the  great  mountain  range 
 of  the  Eastern  States. 
 
 . Now  in  Alsea  Reseiwe,  Oregon  ; unclassified. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ucayali,  above  the  Pachitea. 
 
 . See  MUicetes. 
 
 Algonquins  ; on  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1760. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; on  river  of 
 same  name.  New  Hampshire  ; extinct. 
 
 . Athabasca  stock  ; about  53°  N.  lat.  ; called  also  the 
 Sheep  Indians. 
 
 Formerly  on  the  Manatouline  islands,  L.  Huron  ; ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 . I .See  Dionondaties. 
 
 . ] A dialect  of  Zapotec,  which  see. 
 
 . More  properly  Nahuas  or  Aztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . An  Abenaki  tribe,  formerly  in  Maine. 
 
 . Texas  (1851). 
 
 . Formerly  on  L.  Erie ; confederates  of  the  extinct  Erics. 
 
 . See  Susquehannocks. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Amazon  group,  on  the  Pastassa  ; a Zaparo  tribe. 
 
 A Quito  race  ; two  tribes  ; extinct. 
 
 Amazon  gi'oup,  on  the  Middle  and  Lower  Napo. 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  Golovnin  Bay. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . See  Campas. 
 
 . Gez  family,  on  the  Tocantins,  Brazil. 
 
 , The  southernmost  branch  of  the  Athabascan  family, 
 roammg  over  N.  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  New 
 Jlexico,  Texas,  etc.  The  Apaches  proper  call 
 themselves  Shis  Inday = men  of  the  woods.  The 
 Apaches  are  subdivided  into  a great  number  of 
 bands  known  mostly  by  Spanish  names,  such  as 
 I Tontos,  Llanei'os,  etc. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 501 
 
 Apalaches  . 
 
 Apalachicolas 
 Apay  . 
 
 Apichiqui  . 
 
 Apina-gez  . 
 Apiacares  . 
 Appiacas 
 Apurimas  . 
 Aquaauchuques  . 
 
 Aquatzaganes 
 Aquitequedi  Chagas 
 
 Arrapahoes  . 
 Arapahoes  . 
 
 Araras 
 
 Aranas 
 
 Araucanians 
 
 Aravipais 
 
 Arawaks 
 
 Arda  . 
 Arecuma 
 Arecunas 
 Aricaree 
 
 Arinagotos  . 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Armouchiquois 
 
 Arosagantakuk 
 AiTenamuse 
 Artez  . 
 Aruaquis 
 Assiniboines 
 Assinipotuc  . 
 
 Atacamenos 
 
 . I The  great  family  of  Florida  and  the  Lower  Mississippi, 
 The  Apalaches  proper  were  a powerful  nation  in 
 Florida  ; visited  by  de  Soto  in  1539. 
 
 . On  river  of  like  name  in  Florida  ; akin  to  the  Creeks. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Acacahastla  and  Chiquimula. 
 
 . A Quito  nation,  subdued  by  Huainacapac,  13th 
 Inca. 
 
 . I Gez  family  ; on  the  Tocantins,  Brazil. 
 
 . I Amazon  grouj) ; on  the  Tapajos. 
 
 . i In  Arinos,  Matto  Grosso  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 . In  1659  in  the  centre  of  New  Jersey  ; Algonquins  ? 
 e-vtinct. 
 
 . Formerly  in  Pennsylvania. 
 
 . In  the  N.  of  Gran  Chaco ; said  to  be  a remnant  of 
 ; the  Cacocys. 
 
 I ! “ The  tattooed  people  ; ” on  the  Upper  Arkansas, 
 
 j j Nebraska,  and  Platte  rivers,  and  generally  east  of 
 the  Rocky  Mountains.  Speech  shows  more  affinity 
 with  Algonquin  than  with  Siou.x  ; it  is  akin  to 
 Cheyenne.  Some  now  in  Cheyenne  Reserve,  Indian 
 Tenitory  ; others  in  Red  Cloud  Agency,  Wyoming. 
 
 . ! Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu,  Madeira,  and 
 , Tapajos. 
 
 . ' Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jurua,  above  Gaviao,  and  on 
 I the  Jutahi. 
 
 . i The  aborigines  of  Chili ; never  subdued  by  the 
 Spaniard  ; distinct  from  the  Puelche  or  Pampas, 
 and  fronr  the  Tehuelches  or  Patagonians. 
 
 . In  Canijr  Grant,  Arizona. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  on  the  coast  of  Guiana,  as  far  S.  as  the 
 Amazon  ; supposed  to  have  been  originally  driven 
 from  the  Lesser  Antilles  to  the  mainland. 
 
 . In  Quijos,  not  far  from  Quito  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  ; Guaiana. 
 
 . I A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . ' Akin  to  the  Pawnee  ; in  1850  in  Missouri  Valley,  47° 
 N.  lat. 
 
 . Carib  tribe  on  the  V enezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 . See  Quappas. 
 
 . j An  Abenaki  tribe  ; formerly  on  the  St.  John,  New 
 i Brunswick.  • 
 
 . .Algonquin  stock,  New  England  ; extinct. 
 
 . Formerly  on  the  S.  Antonio,  Texas. 
 
 A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; left  bank  of  the  Negro. 
 
 I Uacotah  stock  ; Red  River  of  the  N.  and  W.  of  L. 
 
 ^ I Winnepeg  ; separated  from  the  Sioux  at  an  un- 
 known date;  called  “Hohas,”  or  rebels,  by  the 
 Dacotahs,  and  Stone  Sioux  by  some  writers. 
 
 . The  Atacama  Indians,  now  limited  to  the  N.  extremity 
 of  Chili ; usually  classed  as  Aymaras,  but  a list  of 
 180  words  in  their  language  shows  no  resemblance 
 to  the  Aymara  or  Quichua  tongues  ; are  dying  out. 
 
502 
 
 APPEXDIX. 
 
 Atalalas 
 
 Ataronch-rouons  . 
 
 A Vilela  ti-ibe  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 One  of  the  five  Huron  tribes ; in  1624  on  the  N. 
 shore  of  L.  Huron. 
 
 Ataiihys 
 
 Ateacari 
 
 Athabascan  . . . 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil. 
 
 See  Cora  of  Jalisco. 
 
 The  great  northern  family,  the  Tinney  of  some 
 
 Atkhas 
 
 writers,  treated  in  Section  ii.  p.  463  of  Appendix. 
 The  Aleuts  of  the  Andreanovski,  Rat  and  Bear 
 Islands. 
 
 Atnahs  ; Ah-tena 
 
 The  Kenais  of  the  Copper  or  Atnah  river,  called  also 
 Nehanues  ; by  some  classed  with  the  Athabascan 
 Tacullies.  These  Atnahs  are  the  Yellow-knives  of 
 
 Attacapacas  . ) 
 
 Attacapas  . . \ 
 
 Attapulgas  . 
 
 some  English  \niters.  See  also  Shewhapmuch. 
 
 “ Man-eaters  ; ” a Louisiana  tribe,  said  to  be  of  Carib 
 stock  ; extinct. 
 
 ■A.  Seminole  tribe  ; in  1820  living  near  the  Ololikana 
 river. 
 
 Attignawattans  . / 
 
 Attigneenonguahacs  j 
 Attignaouentans  . 
 
 Wyandot  tribes  ; e.xtinct. 
 
 Or  Bear  Nation  ; Hurons  consisting  of  twelve  lodges 
 in  1624. 
 
 Atticamiques 
 
 Algonquin  tribe  ; destroj’ed  by  pestilence  in  1670  ; 
 lived  in  the  N.  of  Canada. 
 
 Attikamegs . 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Kree  branch ; probably  the  same 
 as  the  Atticamigues,  which  see. 
 
 Attiquenongmahai 
 Attiwandaronk  . 
 Atures 
 Aturias 
 
 Aiica  .... 
 Aliks  .... 
 Avanes 
 Avarigotos  . 
 
 Avijeras 
 
 Huron  tribe,  consisting  of  three  lodges  in  1624. 
 
 See  Neutral  Nation. 
 
 An  extinct  Salivi  tribe.  New  Granada. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 Same  as  Araucanian,  which  see. 
 
 Thlinkeets  S.  of  the  Takoos,  which  see. 
 
 A Maypur  tribe  on  the  Orinoco. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  on  the  Venezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 Amazon  gi’oup,  on  S.  bank  of  Lower  Napo  ; akin  to 
 to  the  Yquitos. 
 
 A.xij-paias  . 
 Aymaras 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 Quichua  family  ; Bolivia  and  Southern  Peru.  Pro- 
 bably an  older  race  than  the  Quichuas,  but  con- 
 quered by  them  about  1100.  Are  still  quite  dis- 
 tinct from  the  Quichuas.  Aymara  is  one  of  the 
 most  guttural  languages  in  the  world,  but  very  ex- 
 
 Aztecs 
 
 pressive  and  sonorous. 
 
 The  Mexicans  proper  of  Anahuac.  Their  speech  was 
 the  most  -nidely  diffused  in  the  empire  of  Monte- 
 zuma. Its  affinities  have  been  traced  northwards, 
 especially  by  Buschmann,  as  far  as  the  Shoshones 
 of  Snake  Valley  ; while  it  was  spoken  almost  purely 
 as  far  south  as  tlie  parallel  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  See 
 Nahua  and  Toltec. 
 
 B.vbine 
 Baccahiris  . 
 
 Bacra .... 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Matto  Grosso. 
 
 Or  Ningi-etongo,  the  Negi  o-English  of  Surinam,  with  a 
 recent  admixture  of  Dutch.  Its  structure  is  English. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 503 
 
 Bahama 
 
 Baniwas 
 Baanocks  . 
 
 Barbacoas  . 
 Barbados 
 Barre  . 
 
 Barre  proper 
 Basopa 
 
 Batuca  . . 
 
 Batucari 
 
 Baure . . . 
 
 Bayamos 
 
 Beaver 
 Bellacoolas  . 
 
 Beneme 
 Beni  Xono  . 
 Bersiamites . 
 Bethuck 
 
 Betoi  . . 
 
 Billoxies 
 Biruquites  . 
 
 Birus  . 
 
 Blackfeet  (Satsika) 
 
 Blackfoot  . 
 Black  Shoes 
 Blancos 
 Blancs 
 
 Blood  (Kahna) 
 Bocca  . 
 
 Bolixes 
 
 Boluxes 
 
 Bororos 
 Boso  . 
 Botocudos  . 
 
 Bravas 
 
 Brothertons 
 
 Formerly  spoken  in  the  Bahamas  ; was  entirely  dis- 
 tinct from  the  two  stock  languages  of  the  Great  and 
 Lesser  Antilles. 
 
 . Large  Barre  tribes  on  the  Isamna  and  Javita. 
 
 . The  Eastern  Shoshones  of  Nevada,  parts  of  Oregon 
 and  Idaho  ; some  now  in  Fort  Hall  Reserve, 
 Montana  and  Shoshone  Reserve,  Wyoming. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada,  unclassified. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Bororos,  which  see. 
 
 . A large  family  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Carib- 
 bean Sea. 
 
 . On  the  Tomo  and  Maroa. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A dialect  of  the  Opata,  which  see. 
 
 , In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora,  unclassified. 
 
 . A dialect  of  Moxos  in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  on  the  Rio  Chapo,  Pacific  coast  of 
 Panama. 
 
 , The  Chipewyans  of  the  Peace  River. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe  about  Millbank  Sound,  British 
 Columbia. 
 
 . S.  Ai’izona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Zapotecs,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Oumamiawak. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; Newfountlland  and  neighbouring 
 coast ; extinct. 
 
 . A laige  New  Granada  tribe,  akin  to  the  Yaruras 
 (and  Salivi  1 ) 
 
 . Red  River,  Louisiana  ; extinct. 
 
 . Isthmian  gi'oup  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . .Most  probably  Algonquin ; originally  between  the 
 forks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  more  recently  as 
 far  south  as  the  Marias  river.  Their  fom  bands 
 are,  the  Blackfeet  proper.  Blood,  Peigans,  and 
 Small  Robes.  Some  are  now  in  Blackfeet  Agency, 
 Montana. 
 
 . A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . See  Ahnahaways. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Costa  Rica. 
 
 The  Menomenees,  so  called  by  some  French  writers. 
 
 See  Blackfeet  and  Sarcees. 
 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 S.W.  Texas  ; unclassified.  CaUed  also  Paluxies. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Mobiles,  which  see  ; formerly  in  Louisi- 
 ana ; extinct 
 
 , An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Matto  Grosso. 
 
 . An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 . An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  on  the  coast  range  be- 
 tween 15°  and  20°  S.  lat.  ; called  also  Engerec- 
 munk,  Aymores,  and  Ambures. 
 
 . Amazon  group,  on  the  Xingu. 
 
 . The  name  adopted  by  a number  of  Mohican,  Pequot, 
 and  other  Algonquin  tribes,  who  emigrated  to 
 
504 
 
 Briiles 
 Brushwood  . 
 Buricas 
 Burues 
 Buruquetas  . 
 
 Cabanataith 
 
 Cabres 
 
 Cacocys 
 
 Caddoes 
 
 Cadodaquinons 
 
 Caddons 
 
 Cadiques 
 
 Cadloes 
 
 Caechicolchi 
 
 Cahetes 
 
 Cahita 
 
 Cahoquias  ' 
 Cahroes 
 
 Cahuillas 
 
 Cahuimets  . 
 Caichi 
 Caimanes 
 Caomanes  . 
 Caishanas  . 
 Cajuenche  . 
 Cakchiquel 
 Cakokiams 
 Calapooias  . 
 Calapooyas  . 
 Calchaqui  . 
 
 Califomiau  . 
 
 Calispells  . 
 
 Callilehet 
 
 Camacan 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ' Oneida  County  with  Sampson  Occum.  Having 
 taken  to  speak  English,  they  seem  to  have  ulti- 
 mately merged  with  the  white  population  of  Wis- 
 consin. 
 
 . A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 Properly  TsUlawdawhoot ; an  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; interior  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Upper  Jutahi. 
 
 . See  Biruquites. 
 
 . Same  as  Machicuj',  which  see. 
 
 . See  Caveres. 
 
 . I A primitive  race  said  to  be  stUl  represented  by  the 
 I Aquitequedichagas  of  Gran  Chaco.  They  were 
 called  Orejones  by  the  Spaniards. 
 
 ) j Originally  of  Arkansas  ; in  1825  on  Red  River,  Louisi- 
 
 \ ana  ; now  on  the  Brazos,  below  Fork  Belknap,  in 
 I S.W.  Texas.  Speech  common  to  the  Xandakoes, 
 
 I Nabadaches,  Inics,  and  Tachies. 
 
 . Xow  in  Indian  territory. 
 
 An  extinct  Payagua  tribe  ; Paraguay. 
 
 . Xow  in  Wichita  Agency,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . Jlaya  stock  ; in  Vera  Paz. 
 
 A Tupi  tribe  on  the  San  Francisco  in  Pernambuco. 
 
 . One  of  Buschmann’s  four  “Aztec-Sonora”  tongues ; on 
 the  E.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  between  26° 
 and  28°  N.  lat.,  and  inland  nearly  as  far  as  the  Tara- 
 humara.  The  Cahitas  include  the  Yaquis  and 
 Mayos. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Kaskasias,  which  see. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe  on  the  Upper  Klamath,  N.  Califor- 
 nia ; speech  entirely  different  from  that  of  the 
 Eurocs  on  the  Lower  Klamath. 
 
 . About  the  S.  Bernardino  and  S.  Jacinto  Mountains, 
 S.  California.  These  are  now  grouped  with  the 
 Shoshone  or  Snake  family. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified, 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 I Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Darien. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tunantins. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Jalliquamai,  which  see. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 . Akin  to  Chehalis ; now  in  Chehalis  Res.,  Washington. 
 
 . Xow  in  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon,  nearly  extinct. 
 
 . A Chinook  (Columbian)  tribe  in  the  Willamette  VaUey. 
 
 . The  original  speech  of  Tucuman ; passes  for  a 
 Quichua  idiom. 
 
 . A geographical  term,  including  all  the  numerous 
 races  of  this  region  ; treated  in  Sec.  viiL  of  Appen- 
 dix, p.  475. 
 
 . In  Fort  Colville,  Washington. 
 
 . The  Tehuelches  proper  ; between  Chiloe  and  44°  S.  lat. 
 
 . A large  family  in  Bahia  and  Minas  Geraes. 
 
A3IERICAX  TRIBES  AKD  LANGUAGES. 
 
 505 
 
 Camacaens  . 
 Cambeas 
 Camijos  . 
 Campas 
 
 Camutas 
 
 Canacata-gez 
 Canamarys  . 
 Canar . 
 Cafiazes 
 Cancons 
 Canihas 
 Canichanas  . 
 
 C'anelo 
 
 Canees 
 
 Canisiaua  . 
 Canoys 
 Capayas 
 Cavahiahys  , 
 Carajas 
 Carankoways 
 Caranquin  . 
 Carapucho  • 
 
 Caras  . 
 
 Carabisi 
 
 Caretes 
 
 Caribs,  Carina,  Cal- 
 lina,  Callinago,  i.e. 
 “people” 
 
 Caribs  of  Honduras 
 
 Caripnnas  . 
 
 Caripunas  . 
 
 Carriers 
 
 Carrizas 
 
 Cata'wbas  or  Cnttawas  . 
 
 A Camacan  tribe,  Bahia. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  19a,  back  of  San  Paulo. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 Or  Antis  ; Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tambo  and  Perene, 
 tributaries  of  the  Ucayali. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; west  bank  of  the  Tocantins,  nearly 
 extinct. 
 
 Gez  family  ; on  the  Tocantins,  Brazil. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race,  of  which  there  were  25  tribes. 
 
 A Quiteno  dialect ; Quichua  family. 
 
 Roundy  Valley,  California. 
 
 Algonquins,  eastern  branch  ; extinct. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Mamore,  a tributary  of  the 
 Madeira. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race  ; speech  akin  to  Quiteno. 
 
 A Texas  tribe,  originally  at  St.  Bernard’s  Bay,  Gulf 
 of  Mexico. 
 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Moxos. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Mohegan  branch  ; extinct. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; in  the  forests  of  Ecuador. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 A Texas  tribe,  unclassified. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race,  of  which  there  were  eight  tribes. 
 
 On  the  Pachitea,  an  affluent  of  the  Ucayali  ; speech 
 said  to  be  unlike  any  other  known  tongue. 
 
 The  prehistoric  race  believed  to  have  come  from  the 
 Peruvian  coast  and  conquered  Quito  about  1000 
 A.D.  Some  have  connected  them  with  the  Caribs, 
 bringing  them  from  the  east.  Their  speech  was  akin 
 to  Quichua,  and  they  introduced  the  letter  0 into 
 the  Quito  variety  of  that  tongue.  Of  the  Caras 
 there  were  seven  tribes  at  the  conquest. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 The  original  race  of  the  Windward  and  other  West  In- 
 dia Islands  ; here  extinct,  but  still  forming  a large  fa- 
 mily along  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  from  Hon- 
 duras to  the  Amazon.  Said  by  some  to  be  descended 
 of  the  Galibios  of  Panama  ; by  others  supposed  to 
 be  the  Allighewis  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  which 
 see. 
 
 Half-caste  Indians  and  Negroes  ; on  the  S.  coast  of 
 Honduras. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira,  near  the  rapids. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; on  the  Rio  Negro,  different  from  the 
 foregoing. 
 
 See  Tacullies. 
 
 On  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  S.  of  the  Rio  Grande  ; un- 
 classified. 
 
 An  isolated  tribe,  on  the  Catawba,  in  S.  Carolina  ; 
 by  some  thought  to  be  either  the  Eries  or  the 
 “Neutral  Nation,”  who  escaped  hither  about  1656 
 
506 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Catauixis 
 Cathlamets  . 
 
 Catibas 
 Catuquinas  . 
 Cauqiii 
 
 Cavalleiros  . 
 
 Caveres 
 
 Cawasumseuks 
 
 Caxararys  . 
 
 Cayamba 
 
 C'ayapos 
 
 Cayases 
 
 Cayuabas 
 
 Cayowas 
 
 Cayugas 
 
 Cayuse 
 
 Capivavas  . 
 
 Cazcanes 
 
 Celdales 
 
 Cerebero 
 
 Ceris 
 
 Chabaranas  . 
 Chacksihoomas 
 Chackcbi-oomas 
 Chacobos 
 
 Chacopatas  . 
 
 Chacuyiingo 
 
 Chagres 
 
 Cbane 
 
 Charaes 
 
 Chakalmati 
 
 Changuenes 
 
 Cbanabal 
 
 ChaDgo 
 
 Chapacuras  . 
 
 Cbarcas 
 
 Charrib 
 
 Charmas 
 
 Chasta-Scotons 
 
 Chasutas 
 
 Chatino 
 
 Cbaudierea  . 
 
 Chavantes  . 
 
 Chaymas 
 
 Chehalis 
 
 from  tlie  Iroquois.  Are  now  absorbed  in  the 
 Chickasaws  and  Choctaws. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus,  Teffe,  and  Jurua. 
 
 . A Chinook  (Columbian)  tribe  ; between  the  Cowlitz 
 and  the  Pacific. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jurua  and  Jutahi. 
 
 . The  language  of  the  Indians  of  Yanyos,  Peru  ; akin  to 
 Quichua. 
 
 . “Horsemen;”  the  name  given  by  the  whites  to  the 
 Guaycurus,  which  see. 
 
 . A Barre  tribe  on  the  Upper  Orinoco  and  Cuccivero. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Pequods,  New  England. 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Goyaz. 
 
 . Now  in  Umatilla  Reseire,  Oregon. 
 
 ) Amazon  gioup ; on  the  Mamore,  tributary  of  the 
 ) Madeira. 
 
 . One  of  the  Iroquois  nations,  New  York  ; now  in  Cat- 
 tarauga  and  Tonowanda  Reserves  New  York. 
 
 ANez  Perce  (Columbian)  tribe  in  the  Blue  Mountains. 
 An  unclassified  Moxos  tribe. 
 
 . In  Zacatecas  and  S.  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 See  Tzendales. 
 
 . Isthmian  gi'oup  ; Costa  Rica. 
 
 On  the  N.  coast  of  Sonora. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Guanas,  which  see. 
 
 I .Appalachian  stock ; akin  to  the  Chickasaws  ; ex- 
 j tinct  ? 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Mamore,  a tributary  of  the 
 Madeira. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Barcelona,  Venezuela. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 See  Chowee.s. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Huastecs,  which  see. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  in  the  W.  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 . An  Aymara  tribe  on  the  coast  S.  of  Arica. 
 
 . .An  unclassified  Moxos  tribe. 
 
 . An  Aymara  dialect ; Bolivia. 
 
 . Same  as  Kariflf,  which  see. 
 
 . An  rmclassified  Uruguay  nation  in  the  Banda  OrientaL 
 . Now  in  Malhuer  Reserve,  Oregon. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Huallaga. 
 
 . A dialect  of  Miztec,  which  see. 
 
 . “ Kettles  a Flathead  tribe  at  the  Kettle  Falls, 
 
 whose  real  name  is  Quarlpi. 
 
 . An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Goyaz. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  on  the  Guarapiche  and  Colorado. 
 
 . Puget  Soimd  (Columbian)  group  ; on  the  Chehalis 
 river,  and  in  Chehalis  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 507 
 
 Chelekee 
 
 Chemehuevi 
 
 Chepos 
 Clierohakah 
 Cherokees  . 
 
 Chetimacha  • 
 Chevet 
 Cheyennes  . 
 
 CLiapanec  . 
 
 Chiapes 
 
 Chibchas 
 
 Chicacotra  . 
 Chichimec  . 
 
 Chickabomonies  . 
 Chickasaws  . 
 Chicoras 
 
 Chigantualga 
 Chilidugu  . 
 Chilions 
 Chilkats 
 Chilkotin 
 Chillicothe  . 
 Chimanos  . 
 Chinibo 
 Chimsyans  . 
 Chimu 
 
 Chimus  or  Yungas 
 
 See  Cherokee. 
 
 , Shoshone  stock,  akin  to  Cahuillo  ; S.E.  Califomia, 
 and  Colorado  River,  Arizona. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . Same  as  Nottoway,  which  see. 
 
 . More  correctly  Chelekees  ; Appalachian  stock ; a lead- 
 ing member  of  the  Creek  confederacy,  but  speech 
 quite  different  from  Muscogee.  Now  mostly  in 
 Indian  territory.  A few  still  in  Georgia  and 
 Tennessee. 
 
 . A Louisiana  tribe;  extinct ; unclassified. 
 
 . S.  Arizona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . About  1770  driven  from  L.  Winnipeg  by  the  Assini- 
 boines  ; in  1830  on  Platte  and  Slissouri.  Speech 
 akin  to  Arapahoe,  and  showing  some  affinity  with 
 Algonquin,  though  often  wrongly  grouped  with 
 Dacotah.  Some  now  in  Cheyenne  Reserve,  Indian 
 teiTitory;  some  in  Red  Cloud  Agency,  Wyoming. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Darien. 
 
 . The  ruling  race  in  and  about  Bogota,  New  Granada, 
 at  the  time  of  the  conquest. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . The  generic  name  of  a multitude  of  tribes  in  the  hills 
 N.  of  the  VaUey  of  Mexico.  The  Chichimecs  were 
 one  of  the  three  confederate  Nahua  nations  at  the 
 time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  the  Chichimec 
 empire  flourished  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth 
 century,  when  it  was  absorbed  in  that  of  the 
 Aztecs  proper.  Who  the  Chichimecs  were  is  not 
 very  clear.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  been  Na- 
 huas  originally. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Powhattan  group,  Virginia  ; 
 extinct. 
 
 . Appalachian  stock  ; akin  to  the  Creeks  ; now  in 
 Indian  ten-itory. 
 
 The  term  apjilied  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  original 
 tribes  of  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas. 
 Probably  identical  with  the  Utchees,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Natchez. 
 
 . A generic  name  of  the  Araucanians,  which  see. 
 
 . Apache,  stock  ; Camp  Apache,  Arizona. 
 
 . The  Thlinkeets  of  Lyim  Canal. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Kickapoos  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Guarani  tribe  in  Ecuador. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . See  Tsimsheeans. 
 
 . A Quichua  dialect,  spoken  in  Trujillo. 
 
 . The  aborigines  of  the  coast  S.  of  Lima  to  Piura  ; 
 speech  distinct  from  Quichua.  They  were  formerly 
 very  powerful  ; now  nearly  extinct.  Their  country 
 extended  200  leagues  along  the  coast,  and  their  civil- 
 isation was  probably  older  than  that  of  the  Incas. 
 
508 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Chinanteo  . 
 
 Chinarro 
 
 Chinehas  . . ) 
 
 CMuchasuyo  . jj 
 
 Chinook 
 
 Chinook  Jargon  . 
 
 Chipewyans 
 Chippewayans  . 
 
 Chippeway,  Chippewa 
 
 Chiquitos 
 
 Chiriguana 
 
 Chiripos 
 Chiricaguis  . 
 
 Chiriqui 
 
 C'himpa 
 
 Chirus 
 
 Chisedek 
 
 Chitarraga  . 
 Chocktaws  . 
 
 Chocoes 
 Chocos 
 Chocos 
 Cho-ko-yem 
 Choi  . 
 
 Choles 
 Cholos 
 Cholones 
 Cholutecs  . 
 Cholutees  . 
 
 Chonos 
 
 Chontales  . 
 Chonquiros  . 
 
 Chorotegans 
 
 A dialect  of  Miztec,  which  see. 
 
 A tribe  in  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico. 
 
 By  some  thought  to  be  one  of  the  three  primitive 
 races  of  Peru  before  the  Incas  ; stdl  found  on 
 the  coast  about  Lima  ; speech  akin  to  Quichua. 
 
 Columbian  group,  mainly  on  the  Lower  Columbia. 
 Rivalled  in  harshness  by  the  Thlinkeet  alone. 
 The  natives  themselves  are  said  to  be  generally 
 abandoning  it  for  the  Chehalis  and  the  Chinook  Jar- 
 gon. Some  now  in  Chehalis  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 The  neutral  speech  of  Oregon,  Washington,  Van- 
 couver, extending  inland  to  Idaho  and  Montana. 
 Structure  extremely  simple  ; vocabulary  limited  to 
 about  500  words,  of  which  about  200  are  Chinook, 
 91  French,  70  English,  40  Chehalis,  the  rest  mis- 
 cellaneous. 
 
 The  generic  name  of  numerous  Athabascan  tribes  be- 
 tween Hudson’s  Bay  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  ; to 
 be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  Chippeways, 
 who  belong  to  the  Algonquin  family.  Chippewyan 
 = dead  dog,  is  the  Kree  name  of  this  people,  who 
 call  themselves  Tinney  = men. 
 
 Same  as  Ojibway;  Algonquin  stock.  Some  in  Upper 
 Canada,  and  about  20  bands  in  Michigan. 
 
 The  Manquinoneis,  who  are  the  leading  nation  in 
 Chiquitos. 
 
 A Guarani  tribe  near  the  Pilcomayo,  between  18°  and 
 22°  S.  lat. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Costa  Rica. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Chiriqui  Hills,  S.  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 A Maypur  tribe  on  the  Upper  Orinoco. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 An  extinct  Montagnais  tribe  at  Bay  of  Seven  Islands, 
 Labrador. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 Appalachian  stock;  akin  to  the  Creeks ; now  in 
 Indian  territorj'. 
 
 In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 On  the  Lower  Atrato,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 N.  Californian  ; Sonoma  valley. 
 
 Maya  stock ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 In  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Darien. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Huallaga. 
 
 E.  of  Fonseca  Bay. 
 
 Same  as  Nicaraguans,  which  see. 
 
 In  the  Chonos  Archipelago  and  Chiloe  ; Arancanian 
 family. 
 
 In  Goazacoalas  and  Tabasco,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 Amazon  group ; on  the  Pachitea  and  Urumba, 
 affluents  of  the  Ucayali  ; called  also  Pirros. 
 
 S.E.  of  Fonseca  Bay,  Nicaragua.  Sub-tribes  were 
 
AilEEICAX  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 509 
 
 Cliorti 
 
 Chowan  or  Chawah 
 
 Chowclas 
 
 Chow-e-shak 
 
 Chowees 
 Chuchaca.s  . 
 Chuchura 
 Chuchu 
 Chuckchis  . 
 Chuelehes  . 
 Chugatshes  . 
 Chninanas  . 
 Chumipy 
 Chunupies  . 
 Chupumne  . 
 Cicionos 
 Cimarron 
 Cipos 
 
 Clackamas  . 
 
 Classets 
 
 Clastops 
 
 Clatsops 
 
 Coahuilas  . 
 
 Cohens 
 Cocamas 
 Cocamillas  . 
 
 Cochaboths . , 
 
 Cochitas 
 Cochenawagoes 
 Cocknawagas 
 Cocheymas  . 
 Cochimi  , , 
 
 Cochitemi  . 
 Cocinas 
 Cocknawagas 
 Coconncos  . 
 Cocopahs 
 
 Coemnas 
 Ccenr  d’Alene 
 Cofanes 
 Cogninachie 
 Coibas 
 Colchattas  . 
 
 the  Dirians,  the  Nagrandans  of  Leon,  and  the 
 Orotinans  of  Guanacaste. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 An  extinct  Catawba  tribe,  S.  Carolina. 
 
 On  the  Fresno  river.  Central  California. 
 
 N.  Califomian  Eel  River  ; idiom  akin  to  that  of 
 the  Clear  Lake  tribes. 
 
 Properly  Chiine  ; a Pawnee  tribe. 
 
 See  Queres. 
 
 Isthmian  group,  Panama. 
 
 A Moxos  dialect  in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 See  Aglegmutes. 
 
 See  Tehuelches. 
 
 The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  Prince  WUliam  Sound. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Teffe. 
 
 On  S.  bank  of  the  Vermejo  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 On  E.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 A Guarani  tribe  ; N.  of  S.  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 A Chinook  (Columbia)  tribe,  originally  in  the  Willa- 
 mette Valley ; a few  now  in  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe  ; about  C.  Flattery. 
 
 A Chinook  (Columbian)  tribe  ; between  the  Cowlitz 
 and  the  Pacific.  Some  now  in  Chehalis  Reserve, 
 Washington;  others  in  the  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 Some  in  Klamath  Reserve,  Oregon;  others  on  the 
 Colorado,  Arizona. 
 
 A Ban  e tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 On  the  Tigre  ; an  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe. 
 
 A sub-tribe  of  the  Cocamas  on  the  Ucayali  and 
 Huallaga  ; an  Omagua  tribe. 
 
 A Guaycuru  tribe  in  Chaco;  caUed  also  Enimagas. 
 
 In  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Mohawk  tribe,  now  absorbed  in  the  Algonquin 
 Minsis. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Barcelona,  Venezuela. 
 
 A Lower  Califomian  race,  originally  from  the  head 
 of  the  Gulf  to  Loreto  ; speech  distinct  from  that  of 
 all  other  Lower  Californians. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Queres,  which  see. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 Same  as  Cochenawagoes,  which  see. 
 
 In  Popayan,  New  Grana<la  ; unclassified. 
 
 At  Port  Isabell,  California,  and  on  the  Colorado, 
 Arizona. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil. 
 
 See  Skitsuish. 
 
 Ecuador  ; 75°  W.  long.,  1°  N.  lat. ; Amazon  groujj. 
 
 A dialect  of  the  Opata,  which  see. 
 
 Isthmian  group,  Panama. 
 
 Akin  to  the  Creeks;  migrated  from  W.  Florida  to  the 
 Mississippi  ; extinct. 
 
510 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Collinas 
 
 Colotlan 
 
 Columbians 
 
 Colorados  . 
 
 Colusas 
 
 Colvilles 
 
 Coniachos  . 
 Comagres  . 
 Comanches  . 
 
 Comoporis  . 
 Concho 
 
 Conches  . . 
 
 Congaree 
 
 Conibos 
 
 Conoy 
 
 Cookras 
 
 Coosadas  or  Coosas 
 
 Coosahs 
 
 Coosucks 
 
 Copahs 
 
 Copalurcos  . 
 
 Copeh 
 Copper 
 Cora  . 
 
 Cora  . 
 
 Coretus 
 
 Coribici 
 
 CoToados 
 
 Coroados 
 
 Coroas 
 
 Coropos 
 
 Coshattas 
 
 Cosumne 
 
 Cotocaches 
 
 Cotos  . 
 
 Cotopasas 
 
 Couteaux 
 
 Covaji 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jurua. 
 
 In  Zacatecas,  Mexico. 
 
 Several  distinct  races;  treated  in  Sec.  vii.  Appendix, 
 p.  473. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; in  the  forests  of  Ecuador. 
 
 On  W.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 A Flathead  tribe,  near  the  Kettle  Falls  and  on  the 
 Columbia  northwards  to  the  Arrow  Lakes ; some 
 now  in  Fort  Colville,  Washington. 
 
 . In  Anderson  Valley,  Central  California ; unclassified. 
 
 . Isthmian  group ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 Live  between  the  Colorado  and  Red  River  ; call 
 themselves  Niyuna,  and  are  subdivided  into 
 Comanches  proper,  Yamparecks,  and  Tenawas. 
 They  belong  to  the  Shoshone  or  Snake  stock. 
 
 . In  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . In  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico  ; akin  to  Miztec, 
 which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  in  Florida  West ; Chickasaw  stock  ; extinct. 
 
 . An  extinct  Catawba  tribe  ; S.  Carolina,  on  river  of  like 
 name. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jurua,  and  ranging  from 
 Sarayaeu  to  the  head  of  the  Purus. 
 
 Algonquin  ; formerly  in  Pennsylvania  ; extinct. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Towkas,  which  see. 
 
 . Muscogees  ; originally  on  the  Coosa  and  Tuscaloosa 
 branches  of  the  Alabama. 
 
 . An  extinct  Catawba  tribe ; S.  Carolina. 
 
 Algonquins  ; originally  at  the  sources  of  the  Con- 
 necticut ; subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe  ; on  the  Upper  Klamath,  N.  Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  Middle  Napo. 
 
 . N.  Californian  ; Piitos  Creek. 
 
 . See  Tantsawhoots. 
 
 . One  of  Buschmann’s  four  “ Aztec-Sonora  ” tongues, 
 spoken  in  Jalisco  ; not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
 Cora  of  Lower  California  ; called  also  Ateakari. 
 
 . Guaicuri  dialect,  Lower  California.  See  Guaicuri. 
 
 . A B.arre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . Inland  from  Fonseca  Bay,  S.  Salvador. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Bororos,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Purys  ; in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil. 
 
 . Appalachian  stock,  Chickasaw  branch. 
 
 A Pury  tribe  in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil. 
 
 . Living  with  a remnant  of  the  Alabamas  on  the  Trinity 
 Reserve,  Texas,  in  1840  ; were  originally  from  the 
 Red  River,  Louisiana. 
 
 On  E.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 . A Quiteno  dialect ; Quichua  family. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; Lower  Napo,  left  bank. 
 
 A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 See  Nicute-much. 
 
 S.  Arizona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 511 
 
 Cow  Creeks 
 Cowlitz 
 
 Coxoh 
 Coyaimas 
 Coyoteros 
 Cran-gez 
 Crans  . 
 Crataimas 
 Cree  . 
 Creeks 
 
 Crows 
 
 Cubigas 
 Cuchan 
 Cucciveros  . 
 Cuebas 
 
 Ouettac 
 
 Cuicatecs 
 
 Cuilapa 
 
 Cuixlahuac 
 
 Culilan  Cuimee 
 
 Cumanogottes 
 
 Cum-she-was 
 
 Cunas 
 
 Cunacunas  . 
 Cunaguaras . 
 Cunchi 
 
 Cunflirumarca 
 Cunclinimarca 
 Cunipusanas 
 Curarayes  . 
 Curinaias 
 Curitus 
 Cutabas 
 Cutara  . 
 
 . In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 . Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe  ; on  the  Cowlitz 
 river. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . Gez  family  ; on  the  Tocantins,  Brazil. 
 
 . See  Timbaras. 
 
 . A Tamanac  (Carib)  tribe  on  the  Lower  Orinoco. 
 
 . See  Kree. 
 
 . The  Muscogees,  so  called  from  the  numerous  creeks 
 in  their  country. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; Yellowstone  Valley,  vrestward  to  the 
 Rocky  Mountains.  Their  proper  name  is  Up- 
 saroka.  By  some  included  in  the  Shoshone  group. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . A Yuma  tribe,  Arizona. 
 
 A Tamanac  (Carib)  tribe  on  the  Lower  Orinoco. 
 
 Or  Kuevas  ; Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Pan- 
 ama. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Suchitepec  and  Guatemala. 
 
 . A dialect  of  Miztec,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . The  northern  Tehuelches  or  Patagonians. 
 
 A Carib  tribe,  formerly  in  Cumana,  Venezuela. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe.  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Darien. 
 
 . In  Choco,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  between  the  Caripe  hills  and  Maturin. 
 An  Araucanian  tribe  S.  of  the  Valdivia. 
 
 ) The  name  applied  by  some  w’riters  to  the  people  and 
 ) country  about  Bogota. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jupura,  about  72°  W.  long. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 Dabaibas  . 
 
 Dacotah 
 
 Dakota  . 
 
 Darien 
 
 Dariel 
 
 Daurais 
 
 Degathee  Dinees 
 Diaguites  . 
 Dibas  . 
 Dieguefios  . 
 
 Diggers 
 
 . On  the  Lower  Atrato,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 I The  Sioux  family  ; treated  in  Sec.  v.  of  Appendix, 
 i p.  470. 
 
 ■ Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . See  Kutchins. 
 
 A Guarani  tribe,  formerly  in  Tucuman. 
 
 Same  as  Idiba,  which  see. 
 
 The  collective  name  of  several  tribes  in  the  southern 
 extremity  of  California,  about  S.  Diego.  Of  these 
 the  most  important  are  the  Kizh  and  Netela, 
 which  see. 
 
 See  Bannocks. 
 
512 
 
 APPEXDIX, 
 
 Dirme,  Dine 
 Dinneh 
 Dionondaties 
 
 Dog-ribs  (Thing-e-ha- 
 dtinne)  . 
 
 Doracbos 
 
 D’Wamishes 
 
 Same  as  Tinney  or  Athabascan,  which  see. 
 
 The  Michigan  Wyandots  ; same  as  the  Amikoris  of 
 French  rvTiters. 
 
 Athabascans  between  Great  Slave  and  Great  Bear 
 Lakes  ; called  also  Slaves,  Slaves,  and  Yellow- 
 Knives. 
 
 Apparently  the  prehistoric  and  civilised  people  of 
 Veraguas,  south  of  Costa  Kica.  The  monuments 
 and  inscriptions  ascribed  to  them  seem  to  be 
 totally  different  from  those  of  the  Aztecs  and 
 Mayas.  A Doracho  tribe  still  exists  on  the 
 Pacific  coast  about  the  9°  N.  lat. 
 
 Now  in  Dulalip  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 E.rSTERN  Shawuees 
 
 Echibies 
 Echoroanas  . 
 Edchawtawoots  . 
 Edgpuluk  . 
 
 Edu  . 
 
 Eeno  . 
 
 Eeliknus 
 
 Ehneks 
 
 Ekklemaches 
 Ele  . 
 
 Enaghmagh 
 
 Enaguas 
 
 Enakaga 
 
 Encabellados 
 
 Engerecmunk 
 Enimagas  . 
 Equiniquinaos 
 Eries,  or  Cat 
 
 Escorias 
 
 Eskimos 
 
 Eslenes 
 Etchemins  . 
 
 Ethelenas  . 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; now  in  Quapaw  Reserve,  Indian 
 territory. 
 
 In  the  south  of  Matto  Grosso  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  Guanas,  which  see. 
 
 An  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
 Algonquin  ; a Delaware  tribe  now  or  lately  at  this 
 place  in  New  Jersey  West. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Lower  Californian  Guaicuris. 
 
 An  extinct  C.atawba  tribe.  South  Carolina. 
 
 A Thlinkeet  tribe  south  of  the  Stickeen  River. 
 
 Or  Pehtsiks  ; a N.  Californian  tribe  on  the  Salmon 
 River. 
 
 A tribe  of  Eslenes,  which  see. 
 
 Yarura  family  ; on  the  Casanare  and  Meta. 
 
 See  Picoris. 
 
 An  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe  ; on  the  Guaviari,  an 
 Orinoco  aftluent. 
 
 The  universal  langu^e  of  the  Guaycurus,  Paraguay. 
 
 “ Long-haired,”  Amazon  group  ; left  bank  of  Middle 
 Napo.  The  tribal  name  is  Aguaricos. 
 
 See  Botocudos. 
 
 See  Cochaboths. 
 
 A tribe  of  Guanas,  which  see. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; destroyed  or  expelled  from  their 
 home  about  Lake  Erie  by  the  Iroquois  in  1656. 
 By  some  thought  to  have  migrated  to  Carolina,  and 
 to  be  identical  with  the  Catawbas,  which  see.  See 
 also  Neutral  Nation. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 The  hjq)erborean  race  skirting  the  Greenland  and  N. 
 American  shores  from  Labrador  to  Alaska.  This 
 name,  from  eshinw.ntik  = ta.t&c  of  raw  fish,  was 
 first  given  by  the  Algonquins  to  the  Labrador 
 Innuits,  and  thence  applied  generally  to  the  -whole 
 race.  See  also  Innuit  and  Karalit. 
 
 On  Monterey  Bay,  Central  California. 
 
 Algonquins  ? New  Brunswick  and  Maine ; see 
 Milicetes. 
 
 A Guana  tribe  in  Paraguay. 
 
AMERTCiAN  TRIBES  A2ID  LANGUAGES. 
 
 513 
 
 Etlas  . 
 Eudeves 
 
 Eurocs 
 
 Fall  . 
 
 Faraones  , 
 
 Flat-bows  . 
 
 Flatheads  . 
 
 Folle  Avouie 
 Foot  Indians 
 Foxes,  or  Outtagaumie . 
 
 Fuegians 
 
 Galibios 
 
 Gaitshim 
 
 Gallinomeros 
 Garoteros  . 
 Garzas 
 Gaspe 
 
 Gauchos 
 
 Ge,  Gez,  Geiko  . 
 
 Gens  de  Boulean 
 Gens  de  Milieu 
 Gherins 
 Gilenos 
 Gingaskins  . 
 
 Gnapaws 
 
 Goajira 
 Gold  Harbour 
 
 Gorgotoqu  ien  ses 
 Goships 
 Gosh  Utfcs  . 
 
 Goyogans  • 
 Goytacas 
 Greenlanders 
 Gros  Ventres 
 
 A tribe  of  Zapotecs,  which  see. 
 
 In  the  Chihuahua  and  Durango  mountains  ; an 
 Opata  dialect. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  on  the  Lower  Klamath,  North 
 California. 
 
 The  Minetarees  ; called  also  Gros  Ventres,  which  see. 
 Under  the  name  of  Fall  Indians  they  stretch  from 
 the  Missouri  to  the  S.  Saskatchewan. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 See  Kootenais. 
 
 See  Salish. 
 
 See  Menomenee. 
 
 A Fuegian  tribe. 
 
 Formerly  in  Upper  Mississippi ; Algonquin  stock, 
 akin  to  the  Sacs.  Some  are  now  in  Quapaw 
 Reserve,  Indian  territory ; others  in  Great  Namaha, 
 Nebraska. 
 
 The  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  of  whom  there  are 
 two  if  not  three  distinct  races,  about  whom  next 
 to  nothing  is  known. 
 
 Parana  and  French  Guiana  ; said  by  some  to  be  the 
 original  stock  of  the  Carib  race. 
 
 S.  California ; akin  to  the  Shoshone  family  (Oscar 
 Loew). 
 
 On  Russian  River,  Central  California  ; unclassified. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 Same  as  Carrizas,  which  see. 
 
 “Land’s  End;”  the  Mikmaks  of  GaspS,  north  of  New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 Mestizoes  of  the  Pampas  ; speak  Spanish. 
 
 Also  Jahycos  ; a numerous  family  in  Maranhao  and 
 Gran  Para;  akin  to  the  Timbiras  or  Crans  of  Goyaz. 
 Of  the  Gez  Von  Martins  mentions  nine  tribes. 
 
 Kutchin  tribes  on  the  Yucon,  Alaska. 
 
 In  Amada,  Brazil ; a tribe  of  Botocudos,  which  see. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 Algonquins,  Powhattan  group,  Accomac  branch  ; 
 Northampton,  Virginia ; extinct. 
 
 The  aborigines  of  Indian  territory  ; a few  still  there, 
 settled  in  the  N.W. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 A Hyda  tribe.  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  ; so  named  by 
 Poole. 
 
 A Peruvian  tribe  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  Bannocks  or  “Diggers,”  which  see. 
 
 A mixed  tribe  of  Snakes  and  Utahs  at  Gosh  Ute  Lake 
 and  mountains. 
 
 See  Cayugas. 
 
 A Pury  tribe  formerly  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
 
 See  Karalit. 
 
 See  Ahahnelins  and  Minetarees. 
 
 2 L 
 
514 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Gros  Ventres 
 
 Guachichiles 
 Guachikas  . 
 
 GuacMri 
 
 Guaicuri 
 
 Guainetas  , 
 
 Guajiqueros. 
 
 Gualaches  . 
 
 Gualaquisas 
 
 Gualalas 
 
 Gualeas 
 
 Guanas 
 
 Guanacas  . 
 
 Guancavalica 
 
 Guapaca 
 
 Guaques 
 
 Guarani 
 
 Guaranos 
 
 Guarara 
 
 Gnaraunos  . 
 
 Guarayi 
 
 Guarives 
 
 Guarpes 
 
 Guarus 
 
 Guasarapos  . 
 
 Guataribos  . 
 
 Guatenialtec 
 
 Guatos 
 
 Guatusos 
 
 Guayanos  . 
 
 Guayanas  . 
 Guananas  . 
 Guaycurus  . 
 
 Guazaba 
 Guazapare  . 
 Guazave 
 Guenoas 
 Guentuse 
 Guypunavi  . 
 
 . Same  as  Minnetarees,  Upper  Missouri ; akin  to  the 
 Crows. 
 
 In  Zacatecas  and  S.  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 The  Guasarapos  of  the  first  invadors  ; on  the  Upper 
 Parana. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  the  Venezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 One  of  the  three  stock  languages  of  Lower  California, 
 between  26°  and  23°  N.  lat. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 Lenca  stock  ; W.  Honduras. 
 
 . See  Guayanas. 
 
 . A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 . On  Gualala  Creek,  Central  California. 
 
 A Yumbo  tribe,  Quichua  family  ; Ecuador. 
 
 . A numerous  family  in  Chaco  and  Paraguay. 
 
 In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race  of  sixteen  tribes. 
 
 In  Chiquitos  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  New  Granada. 
 
 The  largest  family  in  South  America  ; treated  under 
 Section  xvi.  of  Appendix. 
 
 . See  Warows. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  of  the  Orinoco  Delta. 
 
 . A Guarani  tribe,  now  in  the  Moxos  missions. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  on  the  Venezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 An  Araucanian  nation  in  Cuyo. 
 
 A Pury  tribe  fomierly  in  Kio  J aneiro. 
 
 . See  Guachikas. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Suchitepec  and  Guatemala, 
 
 . An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Matto  Grosso. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; in  the  N.  of  Costa  Kica  ; called  also 
 Pranzas. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe,  whence  the  name  of  Guiana  ; formerly 
 very  powerful. 
 
 ) An  unclassified  people  in  S.  Paulo,  S.  Brazil ; called 
 ) also  Gualaches. 
 
 . A numerous  race  on  the  Paraguay ; akin  to  the 
 Payaguas. 
 
 ■A.  dialect  of  the  Opata,  which  see. 
 
 A tribe  of  Tarahumaras,  which  see 
 . In  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 On  the  Ui-uguay  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Guaycuru  tribe  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 A Maypur  tribe  on  the  Upper  Orinoco. 
 
 Hailtzas  . 
 Haitlins 
 Hambatos  . 
 Hamboyas  . 
 Hamtolops  . 
 Han  Kutchins 
 Hares . 
 
 A Hyda  tribe  about  Millbank  Sound,  Br.  Columbia. 
 See  Teets. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 Now  in  Chehalis  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 Properly  Kawcho  ; an  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
A^IERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 515 
 
 Haro  . 
 
 Hauigires  . 
 Haynaggis  . 
 Herisebocona 
 HMrichota  . 
 Hiabaanas  . 
 Hibitos 
 Himeri 
 
 Hispano-Chilian 
 
 Hitchittee  . 
 
 Hochungara 
 
 Hoha  . 
 
 Hobs  . 
 
 Hoodnids 
 
 Hoodsinoos 
 
 Hoonsoltons 
 
 Hoopab 
 
 Horn  . 
 
 Howteteob 
 
 Hualpais 
 
 H uamares 
 
 Huambisos 
 
 Huancas 
 
 Huastecs 
 
 Huaves 
 
 Huebo 
 
 Huecos 
 
 Hueshuos 
 
 HuUliches 
 
 Huitcole 
 
 Huite . 
 
 Humboldts 
 
 Hume 
 
 Hurons 
 
 Huskies 
 
 Hydas. 
 
 Hyi)urina  . 
 
 IDIBAS  . 
 Ika 
 
 One  of  the  seven  Moqui  Pueblos,  N.  Mexico ; speak 
 a Tegua  dialect.  See  Moqui  and  Tegua. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  Middle  Napo. 
 
 . A Hoopah  tribe  on  Smith  River,  California. 
 
 . An  imclassified  tribe  in  Moxos. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Suchitepec  and  Guatemala. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  BraziL 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Huallaga. 
 
 . A dialect  of  the  Opata,  which  see. 
 
 . A mixture  of  Spanish  and  Araucaniaii  spoken  about 
 Chiloe  ; the  words  are  mostly  Spanish,  and  the 
 structure  Araucanian. 
 
 . A Muscogee  nation,  belonging  to  the  Creek  Confede- 
 I racy  ; extinct. 
 
 . I “ Ti'out  Nation;”  the  name  by  which  the  Winnebagoes 
 call  themselves. 
 
 “ Rebels,”  the  Assiniboins  ; so  caUed  by  the  Sioux, 
 from  whom  they  separated. 
 
 Now  in  Quinaielt  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 The  Thlinkeets  of  Cross  Sound. 
 
 The  Thlinkeets  of  Chatham  Strait. 
 
 . I Hoopah  stock  ; Hoopah  Valley,  California. 
 
 . I N.  Californian;  from  Lower  Trinity  River  to  the  South 
 Fork  ; Athabascan  stock. 
 
 . I The  Chipewyans  of  Horn  Mountain. 
 
 . 1 N.  Californian  ; Rogue’s  River. 
 
 . 1 A Yuma  tribe  near  Bill  Williams  Fork,  Arizona. 
 
 . In  Zacatecas  and  S.  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico ; unclassified. 
 
 . Amazon  group ; on  the  Santiago,  in  Oriente,  Ecuador. 
 
 . One  of  the  three  primitive  races  of  Peru  before  the 
 Incas,  between  9°  and  14°  S.  lat. 
 
 . In  Vera  Cruz  and  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; Maya  stock. 
 
 . On  the  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec,  Mexico. 
 
 . A sub-ti  ibe  of  the  Cocamas,  which  see. 
 
 See  Waccoes. 
 
 . A Matagwayi  band  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 Same  as  Puenches,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Zacatecas,  Mexico. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Hoopah  stock  ; Hoopah  Valley,  California. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Acaxees,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Wyandots. 
 
 . A corruption  of  Eskimo  ; so  called  by  the  whites  of 
 Hudson’s  Bay. 
 
 A Columbian  race  occupying  Queen  Charlotte  Islands 
 and  opposite  coast.  'The  term  was  first  used  in  a 
 collective  sense  by  Fr.  Poole,  but  by  him  applied 
 to  the  islanders  only. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Chiwene,  an  afiluent  of  the 
 Purus  ; one  of  the  few  Brazilian  tribes  that  have 
 been  evangelised  by  Protestant  missionaries. 
 
 , Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Cochimis,  which  see. 
 
516 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Illiuois 
 
 Imbaburenos 
 Imatos 
 Inacos  . 
 
 Inca  , 
 
 Ingaliks 
 Ingauos 
 Innuit  . 
 
 Intags  . 
 lutibucat 
 lonies 
 Inies 
 lowas  . 
 
 Ipapaua 
 Ipas 
 Iquitos 
 Iregas  . 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 In-itiles 
 Isaunties 
 Isitine  . 
 Isleta  . 
 Itazij)coes 
 Itenes  . 
 Itonomas 
 Itzas  . 
 Ixil 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  formerly  on  the  Illinois  river  ; ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 A Quito  tribe  ; Quichua  family. 
 
 A Matagwayi  band  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 . Lenca  stock  ; Honduras,  15°  N.  lat.,  85°  W.  long. 
 
 . The  secret  language  of  the  first  Incas,  probably  an 
 Ayniara  dialect,  the  Incas  having  been  most  likely 
 of  Aymara  origin.  But  if  they  came  from  the 
 coast,  this  may  have  been  a Chinchasuyu,  and  if 
 from  the  east,  a Chalchaqui  idiom.  A few  words 
 are  said  to  have  been  preseiwed. 
 
 . The  Kenais  of  the  Lower  Yucon,  Alaska. 
 
 . New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . “ People,”  from  inuk=msia,  the  proper  name  of  the 
 
 Labrador  Eskimos.  The  rest  of  mankind  are  Kah- 
 inferior  beings. 
 
 . A Yumbo  tribe,  Quichua  family  ; Ecuador. 
 
 Lenca  stock  ; Honduras. 
 
 / Texas  ; Brazos  River,  below  Fort  Belknap  ; akin  to 
 ij  the  Caddos. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; call  themselves  Pa-hu-cha,  Pa-ho-ja 
 =Dusty-nose  ; now  in  Great  Nemaha,  Nebraska. 
 
 , A tribe  of  Huastecs,  which  see. 
 
 . A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Upper  Salado. 
 
 , See  Yquitos. 
 
 . A primeval  race  on  S.  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
 States,  the  faint  traditions  regarding  whom  have 
 long  died  away. 
 
 . Or  Ongwehonwe  family;  treated  in  Sec.  iv.  of  Appen- 
 dix, p.  468. 
 
 . In  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico  ; extinct. 
 
 . The  generic  name  of  several  Dacotah  bands. 
 
 . A Lule  tribe.  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 . New  Mexico  ; akin  to  Jemez,  which  see. 
 
 . A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . An  unclassified  tribe  in  Moxos. 
 
 . An  unclassified  tribe  in  Moxos. 
 
 . N.  of  Lake  Peten,  Yucatan  ; Maya  stock. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; Guatemala. 
 
 Jalliquajiai 
 
 Jananays 
 
 Jandia-tubas 
 
 Jemez  . 
 
 Jeveros 
 
 Jirarillos 
 
 Jivaros 
 
 Jovas  . 
 
 Juberys 
 
 S.  Arizona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 Amazon  groujj  ; on  the  Tefie. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  15a  and  Solimoens,  back  of 
 San  Paulo. 
 
 One  of  the  five  stock  languages  of  the  N.  Mexican 
 pueblos ; spoken  apparently  by  the  Jemez  and 
 Pecos  only. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Huallaga  and  Aypene. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 Amazon  group ; the  collective  name  of  the  wild  tribes 
 in  the  province  of  Oriente,  Ecuador. 
 
 In  the  Chihuahua  and  Durango  highlands  ; an  Opata 
 dialect. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 517 
 
 Jugelnuts  . 
 Juiadge 
 
 Julime. 
 
 Juijiagos 
 
 Jummas 
 
 Junakachotonas 
 
 Junmas 
 
 Juris  . 
 
 Juris  . 
 
 Kachiquei, 
 
 Kadiaks 
 
 Kahiniltpahs 
 Kaiganies 
 Kaipotorade  . 
 
 Kakas  . 
 
 Kalalit 
 Kalispelms  . 
 
 Kanchis 
 Kangjulits  . 
 Kangnialis  . 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Karaikas 
 
 Karalit 
 
 Karankas 
 
 Kariff 
 
 Kasiguas 
 
 Kaskasias 
 
 Kasnas 
 
 Kauvuya 
 
 Kaviaks 
 
 Kawcho 
 
 Karvs  , . . 
 
 Keawahs 
 
 KeBiks 
 
 Kechi 
 
 Keechies  or  Kichais 
 
 Ker.ienetes  . 
 
 Kenai  or  Thuaina . 
 
 A Kenai  tribe,  Alaska. 
 
 . The  Lenguas  of  Spanish  writers,  formerly  between 
 the  Pilcomayo  and  Paraguay  ; apparently  extinct. 
 
 . In  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Darien. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Teflfe. 
 
 A Kenai  tribe,  Alaska. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Teffe  and  19a. 
 
 . A Bane  tribe  in  Guiana  ; also  a Tupi  tribe  on  the  Rio 
 Negro. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  Solola,  Guatemala. 
 
 The  Kadiak  islanders,  whose  proper  name  is  Koniaga, 
 which  see. 
 
 . Now  in  Yakame  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 A Hyda  tribe.  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago. 
 
 . In  Chiquitos  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Thlinkeet  tribe  S.  of  the  Auks  and  Takoos,  which 
 see. 
 
 . See  Karalit. 
 
 . A Salish  tribe;  called  also  Ponderas  (Pend  d’Oreilles), 
 about  the  lake  of  same  name  and  the  Clarke  River. 
 
 . An  Aymara  tribe;  Bolivia. 
 
 . See  Kuskoquigmutes. 
 
 . The  Eskimos  between  the  Mackenzie  and  Barton  Reef. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; Winnebago  branch  ; now  in  Kansas 
 Re.serve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . A Fuegian  tribe  ; spoken  of  by  the  old  WTiters. 
 
 . The  proper  name  of  the  Greenland  Eskimos. 
 
 . An  Aymara  tribe;  Bolivia. 
 
 . Bay  of  Honduras ; Lenca  stock  ? 
 
 . About  the  source  of  the  Uruguay  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Algonquin,  Illinois  branch,  Illinois  ; now  in  Quapaw 
 Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 An  Aymara  tribe  ; Bolivia. 
 
 . S.  California  ; akin  to  the  Shoshone  (Oscar  Loew). 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  near  Norton  Sound. 
 
 . See  Hares. 
 
 . See  Kansas. 
 
 . In  Tule  River  Reserve,  California. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; extinct,  but  the  name  survives  in 
 “Quebec.” 
 
 . At  S.  Juan  Capistrano,  S.  California ; Shoshone  stock; 
 akin  to  Netela  and  Kizh,  which  see. 
 
 . Texas  (1851)  ; a subdivision  of  the  Pawnee  nation  ; 
 now  ill  Wichita  Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . A Fuegian  tribe  mentioned  by  some  early  writers. 
 
 . An  Alaska  gi'oup  of  the  Athabasca  family.  Wrongly 
 treated  as  independent  by  Fr.  Muller  and  others, 
 Buscliiiiann  having  clearly  shown  its  affinitj'  to  the 
 Tiniiey.  Stretch  from  the  Yucon  to  the  Copper- 
 mine  River. 
 
 Fuegian  tribe  mentioned  by  the  old  writers. 
 
 Kennekas 
 
518 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Keres 
 
 Keswhahay 
 Kettle-band 
 Keyataigmutes 
 Key-yiis  or  Keyes 
 
 Kickapoos  . 
 
 Kiddan 
 
 Kikastas 
 
 Killamooks 
 
 Kinklas 
 
 Kiowas 
 
 Kiriri 
 
 Cariri 
 
 Kirikirisgotos 
 
 Kirikiripas 
 
 Kiskapocoke 
 
 Kitegarutes 
 
 Kitkahoets  . 
 
 Kitka 
 
 Kizh  . 
 
 Klallums  . 
 Klallums 
 
 Klamath  , 
 
 Kliketats  . 
 
 Klinquits 
 
 Klistinos 
 
 Klue  . 
 
 Knistineaux 
 
 Kollaguas  . 
 
 Koloshes 
 
 Koltshanes 
 
 Konuix 
 
 Koniagas 
 
 Kootenais  . 
 
 Ko  witch  ans 
 
 Kowwasayes 
 Kree,  Kri  . 
 
 . See  Queres. 
 
 . See  Queres. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  Cape  Newenham. 
 
 . A Tuta-Huilliche  tribe  between  52°  S.  lat.  and  the 
 Straits  of  Magellan. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; formerly  in  Missouri,  now  in  Sac 
 and  Fox  Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe,  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 . : The  Upsarokas,  or  Crows  proper,  which  see. 
 
 A Chinook  (Colombian)  tribe,  between  the  Cascade 
 Range  and  the  ocean. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe,  between  the  Sacramento  and  the 
 coast,  41°  N.  lat. 
 
 Now  mostly  in  Kiowa  Reserve,  Indian  territory ; 
 seem  to  be  of  the  Shoshone  stock. 
 
 ) An  unclassified  Brazilian  race  in  Bahia  ; akin  to  the 
 
 ) Sabuja. 
 
 I A Carib  tribe  on  the  V enezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 See  Kickapoos. 
 
 . The  Eskimos  of  the  Mackenzie  River. 
 
 J A tribe  of  Pawnees,  which  see. 
 
 At  S.  Gabriel  and  S.  Fernando  Rey,  S.  CaUfomia ; 
 Shoshone  stock.  See  also  Dieguenos. 
 
 . Nootka  group  ; in  the  S.  of  Vancouver. - 
 
 . Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe  ; between  the  Sound 
 and  the  Pacific. 
 
 . The  generic  name  of  all  the  N.  Californian  races  as 
 far  south  as  the  Eel  River.  The  Klamaths  proper, 
 or  Lutuami,  are  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Klamath. 
 
 . A Sahaptin  (Columbian)  tribe  near  Mount  Adams  ; 
 now  mostly  in  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 In  Yakama  Reseiwe,  Washington. 
 
 See  Kree. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe.  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 . See  Kree. 
 
 An  Aymara  tribe  ; Bolivia. 
 
 . See  Thlinkeets. 
 
 . The  Kenais  of  the  Kuskoquim  River,  Alaska. 
 
 . Nootka  group  ; east  coast  of  Vancouver. 
 
 The  generic  name  of  the  Southern  Eskimos  from  Kot- 
 zebue Sound  to  Kadiak. 
 
 . Or  Flatbrows,  also  Skalzi,  a Shushwap  (Columbian) 
 tribe  on  the  Kootanie  river  and  lake,  about  49° 
 N.  lat. 
 
 . Nootka  gi-oup  ; S.E.  coast  of  Vancouver  ; called  also 
 Thongeiths  and  Ucletes. 
 
 . In  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 The  largest  branch  of  the  Algonquin  stock  ; between 
 lakes  Winnipeg  and  Athabasca  N.  and  S.,  and  be- 
 tween Hiulson  Bay  and  the  Rocky  Mountains 
 E.  and  W. 
 
AlIERICAN  TRIBES  AIS’D  LANGUAGES. 
 
 519 
 
 Kuevas 
 
 Kukuth 
 
 Kula-Napo 
 
 Kupeno 
 
 Kuskoquigmutes  . 
 Kutcha  Kutchin  . 
 Kutchia 
 
 Kwantlums 
 Kwichluagmutes  . 
 Kwichpagmutes  . 
 
 , I See  Cuebas. 
 
 . See  Yukuth. 
 
 . N.  Californian  ; one  of  the  Clear  Lake  bands.  Their 
 idiom  is  spoken  by  all  the  tribes  now  or  formerly 
 occupying  the  large  valley. 
 
 . A Moxos  dialect  ; in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  the  Kuskoquim  River. 
 
 . A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 . A branch  of  the  Tinneys,  mainly  on  the  Yucon  and 
 its  affluents,  and  thence  to  the  Mackenzie  ; called 
 also  Loucheaux  and  Deguthee  Dinees.  The  term 
 means  “ people.” 
 
 . Nootka  group  ; on  the  Lower  Fraser. 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  the  Kwichluak  River. 
 
 , The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  the  Kwichpak  River. 
 
 Lacandones 
 
 Lamas 
 Lamissa 
 Lapuna 
 Lassies 
 Latacunga  . 
 Lay  an  as 
 Laymon 
 Lemano 
 Lenca  . 
 
 Lenguas 
 
 Leni-Leunape 
 
 Lepans 
 
 Lipans 
 
 Little  Lakes 
 
 Liyue  . 
 
 Llaneros 
 
 Llipes 
 
 Lokono 
 
 Long  Island 
 Lopillamillos 
 Lototen 
 Loucheux  . 
 
 Luckamutes 
 Lucumbis 
 Lule  . 
 Lummi 
 Lupakas 
 
 Lutuami 
 
 , In  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  as  far  S.  as  the  16°  N. 
 lat.  The  eastern  Lacandones  are  called  Acalans, 
 the  Western,  Mayos. 
 
 . Near  Sanel,  Central  California  ; unclassified. 
 
 . I See  Chimu. 
 
 . i An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . ; A Hoopah  tribe  on  Mad  River,  California. 
 
 . 1 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Guanas,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Cochimis,  which  see. 
 
 . Same  as  Lamissa  or  Chimu,  which  see. 
 
 . i A numerous  family,  mainly  in  Central  Honduras  and 
 on  the  Mosquito  Coast. 
 
 . See  Juiadge. 
 
 . “ Men  of  men  Algonquin  stock;  the  Delawares  of 
 
 early  writers.  Now  in  Kiowa  and  Wichita  Agen- 
 cies, Indian  territory. 
 
 I An  Apache  tribe  in  Texas. 
 
 . In  Round  Valley,  California. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Lower  Californian  Guaicuris. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . Same  as  Olipes  or  Atacamenos,  which  see. 
 
 . “ People  the  native  name  of  the  Arawaks,  which 
 
 see. 
 
 . See  Metoacs. 
 
 Formerly  on  San  Francisco  Bay. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe  on  the  Rogue  River,  N.  California. 
 
 . Or  “ Quarrellers,  ” the  Kutchins  W.  of  the  Macken- 
 zie. Others  explain  the  term  to  mean  “ Squinters.” 
 
 . Now  in  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 . i An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . A large  nation  in  Gran  Chaco  ; akin  to  the  VUela. 
 
 . A Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe. 
 
 . A Bolivian  tribe,  said  to  speak  the  purest  Aymara 
 dialect. 
 
 See  Klamath. 
 
520 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Maca  . 
 Machacaris  . 
 Machicny 
 
 Macos  or  Piaros 
 
 Maconis 
 
 ilacoyahui  . 
 
 Macus 
 
 Macusi 
 
 Macuxis 
 
 Magach 
 
 Maiongkong 
 
 Maitanos 
 
 Majeronas  . 
 !Majeronas  . 
 Makalis 
 Macaw  . 
 Makiretaris  . 
 Malabas 
 Malali  . 
 Malemutes  . 
 Mam  ; Marne 
 Manaches  . 
 Manaos 
 Manclies 
 Mandaus 
 (W  ahtani) 
 
 Mandaucas  . 
 Mandingos  . 
 Maneteneiys 
 Manetopas  . 
 Mangaches  . 
 Manhattan  . 
 Mansos 
 Manta 
 
 Mantopanatos 
 ManzanOlos  . 
 
 Maopityans  . 
 Mapicopas  . 
 Maqua . 
 
 Marauas 
 Maria-the 
 Mariscopa  . 
 Maricopa 
 Maropas 
 
 . I An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . A Camacan  tribe,  near  Porto  Seguro,  coast  of  Brazil. 
 . I A numerous  nation  on  the  Pilcomayo;  probably  akin 
 I to  the  Lule. 
 
 . A Salivi  tribe  on  the  Catanaipo,  New  Granada. 
 
 . A Camacan  tribe,  Bahia. 
 
 . In  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Negro,  near  Victoria. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  River  Blanco,  a tributary  of 
 the  Negro. 
 
 . An  extinct  Payagua  tribe,  Paraguay. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . A Tamanac  (Carib)  tribe  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
 i Lower  Orinoco. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  west  bank  of  Javari. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ucayali,  up  the  Tapichy. 
 
 I : Same  as  Classets,  which  see. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 In  Esmeralda,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Camacan  tribe,  Bahia. 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  Norton  Sound. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Guatemala. 
 
 . In  Tule  River  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . Tiipi  stock  ; valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil. 
 
 . S.  of  Lake  Peten;  akin  to  the  Lacandones,  Guatemala. 
 . Perhaps  akin  to  the  Crows  ; on  the  Missouri,  between 
 Hart  and  Knife  Rivers  (1829) ; speech  has  little 
 affinity  with  any  other.  Are  said  to  have  grey 
 hair  and  blue  or  brown  eyes.  Morgan  regards 
 them  as  Dacotahs. 
 
 . ' A Carib  or  Barr6  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 -A.n  Assiniboin  tribe,  Dacotah  stock.  Hence  Manitoba. 
 . I Amazon  group,  in  Palenque  Alto. 
 
 . “ Whirlpool,”  Algonquin  stock,  Manhattan  ; extinct. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race  of  ten  tribes. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; Assiniboin  branch. 
 
 . Or  San  Bias  ; Isthmian  group ; Atlantic  coast  of 
 Costa  Rica. 
 
 . Sierra  Acarai ; 56°-58°  W.  long.,  2°-3°  N.  lat. 
 
 . In  Maricopa  Reserve,  Arizona. 
 
 . Iroquois  stock,  E.  Penusylvania  and  W.  New  York  ; 
 extinct.  The  name  has  sometimes  been  applied  to 
 the  Onondagas. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jutahi. 
 
 . I Amazon  group  ; on  the  Japura. 
 
 I i On  the  Lower  Gila,  Arizona  ; speech  akin  to  Yuma. 
 
 . Amazon  gi-oup  ; on  the  Beni,  a tributary  of  the  Ma- 
 I deira. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 521 
 
 Marubos 
 
 Mary’s  River 
 
 5Iary-phy 
 
 Masacas 
 
 Mascotins 
 
 iIa.skigos 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Massawamacs 
 
 Massawomes 
 
 Massets 
 
 Masteles 
 
 Mataganes  . 
 
 Matagivaji  . 
 
 Matakos 
 
 Mataras 
 
 MatlaUiucas 
 
 Mattaponies . 
 
 Mattasoons  . 
 
 Mauhes 
 Mautas 
 Mautanos 
 Mauthaepi  . 
 
 Mawakivas  . 
 Maya 
 
 Maya-Quiche 
 
 Mayacomas  . 
 Mayo  . 
 
 Mayos  . 
 
 Mayorunas  . 
 Maypurs 
 
 Mazahna 
 Mazanes 
 Mazapile  . 
 Mazatecs 
 Mbaya 
 Mecos  . 
 
 M edawak  antons 
 Mediwanktons 
 Mehethawas . 
 Melchora 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Javari  (east  bank). 
 
 In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Japura. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . Algonquin  ; Michigamie  group  ; have  disappeared. 
 
 . See  Nopemings. 
 
 . See  Natic. 
 
 . I The  Iroquois  ; so  called  by  the  Agonquins. 
 
 Formerly  powerful  in  Kentucky  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe,  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . I \ band  of  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . 1 A numerous  people  in  Gran  Chaco;  probably  akin  to 
 the  Lule. 
 
 A Matagwayi  band  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 . See  Tonocote. 
 
 N.  of  Auahuac,  Mexico,  between  the  Tarascos  and 
 the  Aztecs.  One  of  the  civilised  nations  of  Mexico. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; Powhattan  group,  Virginia  ; ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 . .A.kin  to  the  Crows;  called  also  Ahahaways.  In  1805 
 on  the  Missouri  above  the  Mandans. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  west  bank  of  the  Tapajos. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  Middle  Napo. 
 
 . A Montagnais  tribe,  now  in  Manicongan  Resei-ve  in 
 the  King’s  Posts. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . The  Yucatan  branch  of  the  Maya-Quiche  family, 
 which  see.  Of  this  family  Maya  is  the  stock 
 language.  It  has  spread  northwards  as  far  as  the 
 present  province  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  southwards  to 
 Honduras. 
 
 . The  civilised  race  in  Central  America  ; mainly  in 
 Yucatan,  Guatemala,  and  Honduras.  See  Jlaya 
 and  Quiche. 
 
 . In  Napa  Valley,  Central  California. 
 
 . See  Lacandones. 
 
 . A Cahita  or  Sinaloa  nation  mainly  on  the  Mayo  ; see 
 Cahita. 
 
 . In  Ecuador  ; unclassified. 
 
 A wide-spread  Barre  tribe  along  the  Upper  and 
 Middle  Orinoco. 
 
 . A principal  variety  of  the  Otomi,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; akin  to  the  Avijeras  ; Lower  Napo. 
 
 . In  Zacatecas,  Mexico. 
 
 . In  N.  Oajaca,  Mexico  ; a Miztec  dialect. 
 
 . An  extinct  Guaycuru  language,  on  the  Paraguay. 
 
 . In  Guanaxuato  ; called  also  “Serranos.” 
 
 I A band  of  the  Isaunties,  a Dacotah  tribe. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Kree  branch. 
 
 . Lenca  stock,  Nicaragua,  N.  of  the  Rio  San  Juan, 
 84'’  W.  long. 
 
522 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Meniengs 
 Menomeni  . 
 
 Mequachake . 
 Mescaleros  . 
 Messessagues 
 Metagwaya  . 
 Metaliartas  . 
 
 Metcliigamias 
 
 Meterries 
 
 Metoacs 
 
 Montauks 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Miamis 
 
 Michiganiies 
 
 Mictlautantongo  . 
 Mijes  . 
 
 Mikmak.s 
 
 ^Milcocayac  . 
 MUicetes,  AmUicites 
 
 Mimbreuos  . 
 Jlinetarees  . 
 
 Minhas 
 Miuiamis 
 Minikanyes  . 
 Minikongshas 
 Minowa  Kantongs 
 Minsis  . 
 
 Miniianes 
 
 ilipacmas 
 MiramicM  . 
 
 Miranhas 
 Miscolts 
 Miscotins' 
 Missiassik.s  . 
 Mississaiigies 
 
 Missouris 
 klissourias  . 
 
 . An  extinct  Camacan  tribe:  formerly  near  Porto  Seguro, 
 E.  Brazil. 
 
 . The  Folle  Avoine  or  “ Wild  Oats  ” of  French  writers; 
 Algonquin  stock ; now  in  Green  Bay  Keserve, 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; extinct ; akin  to  the  Lennapes. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . See  Mississaiigies. 
 
 . See  Matagwayi. 
 
 . The  Minetarees  of  the  Willows  ; speech  the  same  as 
 the  Minetaree. 
 
 . Algonquin,  Illinois  branch  ; near  Fort  Chartres  in 
 1736  ; extinct  ? 
 
 • Most  probably  Monacans,  which  see.  See  also  Tutelos. 
 
 j Algonquin  stock,  Long  Island  ; extinct. 
 
 . See  Nahua  and  Aztec. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; now  mostly  in  Quapaw  Eeseiwe, 
 Indian  territory. 
 
 . Algonquin  tribe  ; originally  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
 Slichigan,  which  takes  its  name  from  them.  Most 
 of  them  have  disappeared. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 In  the  centre  of  Oajaca,  Mexico. 
 
 . . Algonquin  stock  ; Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
 
 ' Lower  Canada. 
 
 . An  Araucanian  idiom  spoken  by  the  Guarpes  of  Cuyo. 
 
 . The  Etchemons  of  Champlain  (1604);  St.  John’s 
 River,  New  Brunswick  ; usually  grouped  with  the 
 Algonquins,  but  in  Schoolcraft,  vol.  v.,  positively 
 declared  to  be  Iroquois. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . Or  Gros  Ventres  ; the  Fall  Indians  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
 traders ; also  Paunch ; akin  to  the  Crows,  which  see. 
 Jlorgan  groups  them  wdth  the  Dacotah  family. 
 
 . ! Amazon  group  ; on  the  Japura. 
 
 . See  Meuomenis. 
 
 I A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Lennape  ; extinct. 
 
 . Between  the  Urugnay  aud  Parana  ; allied  to  but  dis- 
 tinct from  the  Charruas. 
 
 . On  Clear  Lake,  Central  California. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Mikmak  branch.  New  Brunswick  ; 
 extinct. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Japura,  at  the  rapids. 
 
 . In  Hoopah  Valley,  California. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Kickapoos,  which  see. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock.  New  Enghind  ; extinct. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  but  incorporated  with  the  Iroquois 
 in  1746  ; about  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior. 
 
 [ Dacotah  .stock ; now  in  Otoe  Reserve,  Nebraska. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 523- 
 
 Mistassini  . 
 Miztecs 
 
 MobUe 
 
 Mobiraas  . . ) 
 
 Mo  vim  as  , . \ 
 
 Mocha 
 
 Mocoas 
 
 Mocoa 
 
 Mochono  . . I 
 
 Mucbojeone . . j 
 
 Mocobi  . . I 
 
 Mbocobi  . . j 
 
 Mocoritos 
 Modocs 
 
 Mohawks 
 
 Mohegans,  Mohicans 
 
 Mojave 
 
 Mojos 
 
 MoUale 
 
 Mollalas  . . | 
 
 Molds  . , . \ 
 
 Moluches 
 Monacans 
 
 Mongoyos 
 
 Monoyos  de  Passanha  . 
 Monqui 
 Monsonios  . 
 Montagnais  . 
 
 Mont  Peles  . 
 Mopan . , 
 
 Moqui 
 
 Moronas 
 
 Morotocos 
 
 Mosotie 
 
 Moscos 
 
 Mosquitos 
 
 A Nasquapee  tribe,  Labrador. 
 
 One  of  the  civilised  Mexican  races  in  Miztecapan, 
 West  Oajaca  ; still  represented  by  numerous  tribes 
 in  Oajaca,  Puebla,  and  Guerrero. 
 
 Appalachian  stock,  akin  to  the  Chickasaws,  formerly 
 very  powerful  on  the  coast  of  Florida  ; name  still 
 survives  in  Mobile  at  mouth  of  the  Alabama. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Mamore,  a tributary  of  the- 
 Madeira  ; in  Moxos. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 Ecuador  ; on  the  Mocoa,  a head  stream  of  the  N'apura.. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race  ; in  Popayau,  New  Granada. 
 
 A Moxos  dialect  in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 A large  family  in  Gran  Chaco  ; the  Mocobi  proper 
 are  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 In  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 Some  in  Quapaw  Reserve,  Indian  Territory  ; others 
 in  Klamath  Reserve,  Oregon. 
 
 Or  Wabingi;  the  founders  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy; 
 on  Mohawk  river,  N.  York  ; extinct,  but  see  Two 
 Mountain. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; Connecticut,  and  the  Hudson  be- 
 tween Esopus  and  Albany.  Their  three  tribes 
 were  the  Muchquanh  or  Bears,  Mechchaooh  or 
 Wolves,  and  Toonpaooh  or  Turtles  ; all  extinct. 
 
 Yuma  stock  ; on  the  Colorado  in  Mojave  Valley. 
 
 Amazon  group ; on  the  Mamore,  a tributary  of  the 
 Madeira. 
 
 A Sahaptin  (Columbian)  tribe  in  the  Blue  Mountains. 
 
 In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 Same  as  Araucanian,  which  see. 
 
 Iroquois  stock,  mainly  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
 Virginia  rivers. 
 
 A Camacan  tribe,  Bahia. 
 
 A Camacan  tribe  in  Porto  Seguro,  coast  of  Brazil. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Lower  Californian  Guaicuries. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Kree  branch. 
 
 Or  Ne-e-no-il-no  = perfect  men  ; Algonquin  stock, 
 Kree  branch  ; Labrador,  formerly  extended  from 
 about  Quebec  to  Cape  Whittle. 
 
 See  Oumamiawek. 
 
 See  Manche. 
 
 A nation  of  seven  pueblos  or  to^vns  in  E.  Arizona 
 and  New  Mexico  ; all  but  one  speak  a language 
 now  sho^vn  to  be  akin  to  the  Shoshone.  The  ex- 
 ception is  Haro,  which  see. 
 
 A Jivaro  band,  Ecuador. 
 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 A Moxos  dialect  in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 Lenca  stock  ; S.  and  W.  of  the  Leco.s,  which  see. 
 
 i.e.  “Little  Moscos;”  Lenca  stock;  on  the  Mos- 
 quito Coast. 
 
524 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 Motilone 
 
 Mowill 
 
 Moxos 
 
 Muckleshoots 
 
 Mueganos 
 
 Muiscas 
 
 Mukkundwas 
 
 Mundructis  . 
 (Mntiiricus) 
 
 Munsees 
 
 Muras  , 
 Miiratos 
 Mure  . 
 Muscogulges 
 Muscogees  , 
 
 Musconongs  . 
 Mustegans  . 
 
 Muutzicat  . 
 Muzos 
 
 Mynckussars 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Darien. 
 
 . See  Mobile. 
 
 . A Barre  nation  in  Moxos,  Bolivia  ; akin  to  the  May- 
 purs. 
 
 . In  Reserve  of  like  name,  Washington. 
 
 . A band  of  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Cliibchas. 
 
 . Or  •“  Pillagers  ; ’ Algonquin  ; originally  in  the  large 
 islands  of  Lake  Superior,  now  about  the  head  waters 
 of  the  Red  River  of  the  north. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; the  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  Ama- 
 . zon  basin  ; along  the  west  bank  of  the  Tapajos, 
 beyond  first  cataract. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Illinois  group  ; now  in  Munsee  Re- 
 serve, Wisconsin. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira,  Pmus. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; between  the  Pastassa  and  Morona. 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Moxos. 
 
 ) Or  Creeks,  the  principal  nation  of  the  Creek  Con- 
 \ I federacy  ; originally  in  Alabama  and  Florida,  now 
 i in  Indian  Territory  Reserve. 
 
 . ' Algonquin  stock,  Chippeway  branch  ; Upper  Canada. 
 . I A Kree  or  Xasquapee  tribe  between  Lake'Mistas- 
 1 sinni  and  Hudson  Bay. 
 
 . A dialect  of  the  Jalisco  Cora,  which  see. 
 
 . Formerly  of  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Iroquois  stock,  Delaware  and  New  Jerecy  ; extinct. 
 
 Nabedaches 
 
 Xabiltse 
 
 Xachees 
 
 XagaUer 
 
 X aggeuktormutes 
 Kagranilan  . 
 Nahua  . 
 Nahuatlacs  . 
 Namaoskeags 
 
 Kambe 
 Xambiguaras 
 Nandakoes  . 
 Xanegales 
 Kanticokes  = 
 
 Xaolingo 
 Napas  . 
 
 Xapos  . 
 
 Naquinoiieis 
 
 Xarcotah 
 
 . Red  River,  Texas  ; akin  to  the  Caddoes. 
 
 . X.  Califoniian  ; Rogue’s  River  ? 
 
 An  extinct  Catawba  tribe,  S.  Carolina. 
 
 Same  as  the  TacuUies  or  Carriers  ; so  called  by 
 Mackenzie. 
 
 . “ Deer-horns;”  the  Eskimos  of  the  Coppermine  River. 
 
 Lenca  family,  Honduras. 
 
 ) The  oldest  and  most  generic  name  of  the  Aztecs  or 
 \ Mexicans  proper,  which  see. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  at  the  Amoskeag  falls  of  the 
 MeiTimack,  now  within  Manchester  City,  Mass. 
 
 . A new  Mexican  Pueblo  ; speaks  Tegua,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Topajos. 
 
 . Texas  ; akin  to  the  Caddoes.  • 
 
 . A Yunibo  tribe,  Quichua  family  ; Ecuador. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  between  the  Delawares  and 
 Powhattans. 
 
 . See  Tahinolo. 
 
 . In  Xapa  Valley,  Xorth  California  ; they  include  the 
 !Myacomas,  Calayomanes,  Caymus,  Ulucas,  and 
 Suscols. 
 
 . Quichua  group  ; on  the  Xapo  above  Coca,  one  of  the 
 
 ■ principal  tribes  in  Ecuador  ; are  a subdivision  of  the 
 
 ■ Yurabos,  which  see. 
 
 . I See  Chiquitos. 
 
 . ! Same  as  Dacotah,  which  see. 
 
AMERICAK  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 525 
 
 Narragansets 
 
 Nashuas 
 
 Naskotins 
 Nasquapees 
 Nas3  . 
 
 Nata  . 
 
 Natacooks 
 
 Nacooks 
 
 Nat  ages 
 
 Natche 
 
 Natchez 
 
 Natchitoches 
 Natic  . 
 
 Natliautins  . 
 Nauas 
 
 Nauticokes  . 
 Navajos 
 
 Nayaguas  . 
 Necariages  . 
 
 Ne-e-no-il-no 
 Nehalims,  Coast 
 Nehannes 
 Nenawehks  . 
 Nepesangs  . 
 Nepicinquis  or 
 Nepissings 
 Nespectums  . 
 Nestucalips  . 
 Netela  . 
 
 Netzichos 
 Neutral  Nation 
 
 Neutubirg  . 
 
 Newicarguts 
 
 Newichewaiinocks 
 
 Nextucas 
 Nez-Perces  . 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; originally  about  Narraganset  Bay  ; 
 
 ! extinct ; called  also  Wampanoags 
 , I Algonquins  ; about  the  Nashua  and  Lower  Merri- 
 mack rivers. 
 
 . I A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 . I Algonquin  stock,  Kree  branch  ; interior  of  Labrador. 
 
 . ' A Hyda  (Columbian)  tribe  on  the  river  Nass. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 I See  Saugehans. 
 
 , An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . The  Kutchins  near  Porcupine  River. 
 
 . Muscogees  confederacy,  but  originally  of  different 
 •speech.  They  were  the  Chigantualaga  of  de  Soto, 
 
 ; and  were  called  also  “ Sunset.” 
 
 . I Originally  a Louisiana  tribe,  S.  of  Red  River,  un- 
 classified. 
 
 . ' Tlie  Algonquins  of  Massachusetts  ; extinct,  but  their 
 i language  survives  in  Eliot’s  famous  version  of  the 
 ^ Bible. 
 
 . i A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 . j Amazon  group  ; on  the  Jurua. 
 
 . I See  Stockbridge. 
 
 . I Or  “ Tenuai  ”=  men,  another  form  of  Tinney.  Atha- 
 bascan stock,  akin  to  the  Apaches  ; mainly  about 
 I the  Rio  and  Sierra  de  los  Mimbres ; formerly  very 
 1 powerful. 
 
 , Same  as  Payaguas,  which  see. 
 
 . Huron  stock  of  Michillimacinac  ; received  into  the 
 Iroquois  Confederacy  in  1723  ; extinct. 
 
 . See  Montagnais. 
 
 In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 . See  Atiiahs. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Kree  branch. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; about  Lake  Nipissing. 
 
 I Algonquins  ; Ottowa  river.  Two  Mountain  Lake. 
 
 . In  Fort  Colville  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 . Akin  to  Kechi,  wlxich  see  ; see  also  Dieguenos  and 
 Kizh. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Zapotecs,  which  see. 
 
 , So  called  because  they  stood  aloof  in  the  struggle  be- 
 tween the  Iroquois  and  Hurons.  Occupied  both 
 sides  of  the  Niagara  River,  but  have  since  disap- 
 peared. Identified  by  some  with  the  Eries,  which 
 see.  By  the  Hurons  they  were  called  Attiwanda- 
 ronk. 
 
 , Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe  ; in  Whitney’s  Island. 
 . A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 , Algonquins ; originally  on  river  of  same  name,  Maine  ; 
 
 subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 . I In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 . 1 See  Sahaptin. 
 
526 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Nicaraguans, 
 
 Nicariagas  . 
 Necariages  . 
 Nicoyas 
 Nicute-mucli 
 
 Nievas 
 
 Niguecactemic 
 
 Nikozliautins 
 
 Ninaquiguilas 
 
 Ningre  Tongo 
 
 Ninstence 
 
 Nio 
 
 Nipegons 
 Nipuiucks  . 
 
 Niquiraus 
 
 Nisqualiy 
 
 Nitinakts 
 
 Niyunas 
 Noannamaes 
 Noche  . 
 Nochitzlan  . 
 Nooksaks 
 Nootkas 
 
 Nopemings  . 
 
 Norridgewocks 
 
 Narantsouak 
 
 Nottoways  . 
 
 Nadowas 
 
 Ntshaautins . 
 
 Nuclukayettes 
 
 Nulaautins  . 
 
 Nunatangmutes 
 
 Nushinos 
 
 Nuwungmutes 
 
 . Nearly  pure  Aztecs  ; originally  between  Lake  Nicar- 
 agua and  the  coast. 
 
 A Huron  tribe,  from  Micbillimacinac,  which  joined 
 the  Iroquois  Confederacy  in  1723  ; extinct. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Costa  Rica. 
 
 . By  the  Canadians  corrupted  into  Couteaux  ; a Shush- 
 wap  tribe,  by  some  called  Shewhapmuch,  which 
 see. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; imclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Guanas,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 The  collective  name  of  several  tribes  in  the  forests 
 between  Gran  Chaco  and  Chiquitos. 
 
 . See  Baki'a. 
 
 A Hyda  tribe  at  C.  St.  James,  Q.  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Same  as  Winnebagoes,  which  see. 
 
 . “ Fresh-Water  the  generic  name  of  several  inland 
 
 Algonquin  tribes  originally  occupying  the  interior 
 of  Maine. 
 
 . See  Nicaraguans. 
 
 . A Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  nation,  with  m^ny  sub- 
 tribes whose  names  end  mostly  in  mis/i,  and  will 
 thus  be  recognised  without  requiring  to  be  indexed. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Ahts,  S.  of  Barclay  Sound,  Vancouver.  See 
 Aht. 
 
 . See  Comanches. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . S.  Arizona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . A Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe. 
 
 . The  conventional  generic  name  of  all  the  tribes  in 
 Vancouver  and  opposite  coast,  many  of  whom  speak 
 totally  different  languages. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Chippeway  branch. 
 
 f Algonquin  ; a sub-tribe  of  the  Abenakis  ; withdrew 
 
 I to  Lower  Canada  in  1754.  See  Abenaki. 
 
 ! ; Most  probably  Monacan  Iroquois,  Virginia ; extinct. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  see. 
 
 . A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  sea 
 
 The  Eskimos  of  Kotzebue  Sound. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . The  Eskimos  at  Point  Barrow; 
 
 Oakmclgies 
 Ochagras 
 Ochecholes  . 
 Ochecumne  . 
 Ochessigiriniooek 
 Ochestgooetch 
 Ocoles  . 
 
 Oconies 
 
 . Appalachian  stock  ; absorbed  by  .the  Muscogees. 
 
 . Same  as  Winnebagoes,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Yakama  Reseire,  Washington. 
 
 . On  E.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 . An  extinct  Montaguais  tribe  on  river  Godbout. 
 
 . An  extinct  Montagnais  tribe  near  L.  Manicouagan. 
 . A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 . Appalachian  stock  ; destroyed  by  the  Muscogees. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 627 
 
 Ocoroni 
 Ocotlan 
 Ocuiltec 
 Odahwahs  . 
 Ogallahs 
 Ogallalahs  . 
 ORenonpas  . 
 Ohuero 
 Oje 
 
 Ojibway,  Ojibwa 
 Okanagans  . 
 
 Olanclie 
 Olhones 
 Olipes  . 
 
 Olive  . 
 
 Omagua 
 
 Omahas,  Mali  as 
 
 Oncida.s 
 
 Oneidas 
 
 Ongue-honwe 
 
 Oniouts 
 Onondagos  . 
 
 Onontchataronon 
 
 Ontoampas  . 
 Oofe-ogoolas . 
 Opatas . 
 
 Opatoro 
 
 Openangos 
 
 Ore 
 
 Orel)  be 
 Orejones 
 
 Orejones 
 Oristine 
 Orotinas 
 Os  ages . 
 
 Oseegahfl 
 
 Ossipeea 
 
 Otamacs 
 
 In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  Zapotecs,  wbicb  see. 
 
 In  Toluca,  Mexico. 
 
 . See  Ottowas. 
 
 A band  of  Teetons  (Dacotalis). 
 
 A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . In  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tanianacs,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Chippeway. 
 
 . A Shushwap  (Columbian)  tribe  on  the  lake  and  river 
 of  like  name. 
 
 . Lenca  stock  ; Honduras,  14°  N.  lat.,  86°  W.  long. 
 
 . Formerly  on  San  Francisco  Bay. 
 
 . See  Atacamenos. 
 
 . In  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 . The  N.W.  branch  of  the  Guarani  family ; the  Omaguas 
 proper  on  the  Amazon  and  its  affluent  the  Yapura. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock,  Winnebago  branch  ; akin  to  the  Pun- 
 kas ; now  in  Omaha  Reserve,  Nebraska. 
 
 In  Oneida  Reserves,  New  York  and  Wisconsin. 
 
 One  of  the  Iroquois  nations,  New  York  ; extinct  ? See 
 ! Two  Mountain. 
 
 “ Superior  Men  ; ” a name  by  which  the  Iroquois  call 
 themselves  (Colden). 
 
 . The  Oneidas  of  French  ^vriters. 
 
 . One  of  the  Iroquois  nations  ; now  partly  in  Alle- 
 ghany, Catteranga,  and  Onondago  Reserves,  New 
 York,  and  partly  in  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 . I The  Huron  name  of  the  agricultural  Algonquin  tribe 
 I settled  at  Hochelaga,  the  present  Montreal,  when 
 I visited  by  Cartier  in  1535  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Upper  Salado. 
 
 . A Chickasaw  tribe,  Appalachian  stock. 
 
 . In  the  Chihuahua  and  Dui’ango  highlands,  between 
 ' Upper  and  Lower  Pima  ; akin  to  the  “ Aztec-Son- 
 ora”  languages. 
 
 , Lenca  stock  ; Honduras. 
 
 . Same  as  Passamaquoddies,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 . See  Haro. 
 
 . “ Big  Ears  ; ’’  Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ambryacu  and 
 
 1 Lower  Napo. 
 
 . ' See  Cacocys. 
 
 . I A Lille  tribe.  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 . I See  Nagraudan. 
 
 . Originally  of  Arkansas  ; Dacotah  stock,  Winnebago 
 branch  ; eight  tribes,  all  now  settled  in  Osage  Re- 
 I serve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; Assiniboin  branch. 
 
 . Algnnquins  ; originally  in  Carroll  Co.,  New  Hamp- 
 shire and  York  Co.,  Maine  ; extinct. 
 
 . In  Venezuela,  towards  the  New  Granada  frontier ; 
 unclassified. 
 
528 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Otavolo 
 Otoes  . 
 
 Otomi  . 
 
 Ottowas 
 
 Otuki  . 
 
 Otuqui 
 
 Ounianiia'wek 
 
 Owen  Divers 
 
 Oyampis 
 
 Oyapoks 
 
 . i An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . ' Dacotah  stock,  Winnebago  branch  ; now  in  Otoe  Re- 
 j serve,  Nebraska. 
 
 . ■ In  the  mountains  enclosing  the  VaUey  of  Mexico  ; 
 
 ! formerly  the  most  widely  diffused  language  in 
 Mexico  next  to  the  Aztec  ; spoken  in  two  main 
 varieties,  Otomi  proper  and  Mazahna. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; about  the  Ottowa  River ; now  set- 
 tled partly  on  Manitoidin  island.  Lake  Huron, 
 partly  in  Quapaw  Reserve,  Indian  territory,  and 
 Michigan  on  Lake  Superior. 
 
 I ' In  Chiquitos  ; now  speak  Quichua. 
 
 A Montagnais  tribe,  visited  by  Pere  J.  de  Quest  in 
 1652  ; same  as  the  Mont  Peles  and  Bersiamites,  a 
 Montagnais  tribe  about  the  Bersiamite  river,  left 
 bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ; extinct. 
 
 . In  Tule  River  Reserve,  California. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  French  Guiana. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 Pacaguab.v  . 
 
 Pacamores  . 
 
 Pacanas 
 
 Pachanchicas 
 
 Pachera 
 
 Paducas 
 
 Paes  . 
 Pahayaguas  . 
 Pahojas 
 
 Pah-Utahs  . 
 
 Pah-Vants  . 
 Paioconeca  . 
 Painre . 
 Pakases 
 Palaiks 
 Palenques 
 Palencas 
 Palouse 
 
 Palta  . 
 
 Paluxies 
 
 Pamanas 
 
 Fames  . 
 
 Pammarv's 
 
 Pammas 
 
 Pampas 
 
 Pamticoes 
 
 . ' An  unclassified  tribe  in  Moxos.  - 
 
 . ! An  extinct  Quito  race  of  twelve  tribes. 
 
 . I Appalachian  stock,  absorbed  by  the  Creeks. 
 
 . I In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; imclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tarahumaras,  which  see. 
 
 . . The  Comanches  ; so  called  by  the  Pawnees,  Osages, 
 
 I and  others.  Undue  importance  has  been  given  to 
 I this  term  by  some  ethnologists. 
 
 . I In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; imclassified. 
 
 . ; Amazon  group  ; left  bank  of  Jliddle  Napo. 
 
 . Same  as  lowas,  which  see.  Others  make  them  a 
 sub-tribe  of  the  Otoes. 
 
 . Or  Pintes  ; the  Utahs  of  W.  and  Central  Nevada,  and 
 parts  of  S.E.  California  and  of  Arizona. 
 
 . A Utah  tribe  near  Sevier  Lake,  W.  Utah. 
 
 . An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tamanacs,  which  see, 
 
 . An  Ajmara  tribe,  Bolivia. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  near  ilount  Shasta 
 
 A Carib  tribe  formerly  in  Cnmana,  Venezuela. 
 
 . A Sahaptin  (Columbian)  tribe  N.  of  the  Snake,  about 
 the  month  of  the  Palouse  ; now  in  Yakama  Resen  e, 
 Wiishington. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . See  Bolixes. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Pnrus. 
 
 . In  Queretaro,  Mexico. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Purus. 
 
 On  the  Sladeira  in  !Matto  Grosso,  unclassified  ; said 
 to  be  almost  white. 
 
 . See  Puelche. 
 
 . Algonquins ; N.  Carolina ; they  mark  the  exti'eme 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 529- 
 
 Pamunkies  . 
 
 Panamd 
 Panamekaa  . 
 Pani  . 
 
 Pan-nacks  . 
 Panos  . 
 
 Panticoughs . 
 Panticoes 
 Papagos 
 Papinachiois 
 
 Pararaudtes  . 
 
 Parechi 
 
 Parenis 
 
 ParentintLns 
 
 Parexis 
 
 Pariagotos  , 
 Paris  . 
 
 Pasaine 
 Pascagolas  . 
 Pascogoulas 
 Pashtolits 
 Pasimonari  • 
 Passamaquoddies 
 
 Passes  . 
 Pastassas 
 Patachos 
 Patagonians  . 
 Pataways 
 
 Patclieenas  . 
 Pautes  . 
 
 Paunck 
 Paumonasis  • 
 Pawnees 
 
 Pawtnckets  . 
 Payaguas 
 
 southern  limit  of  the  Algonquin  stock  in  historic 
 times  ; extinct. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Powhattan  group,  Virginia  ; ex- 
 tinct. With  the  Pamunkies  the  Powhatten 
 language  died  out. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . Lenca  group  ; on  Blewfields  Lagoon,  Nicaragua. 
 
 . Red  River,  Texas  ; akin  to  the  Towiacks,  and  possibly 
 to  the  Pawnees. 
 
 . See  Bonnacks. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; formerly  on  the  Upper  Ucayali ; now 
 extinct.  But  their  language,  said  to  be  the  most 
 difficult  of  aU  the  Indian  idioms,  still  survives  as  the 
 general  means  of  communication,  a sort  of  Lingoa, 
 Geral,  on  the  Lower  Ucayali.  Latterly,  however,  it 
 is  being  supplanted  by  a corrupt  Quichua  dialect. 
 
 N.  Carolina  ; the  southernmost  of  all  the  Algonquin 
 tribes  ; extinct. 
 
 . On  the  Lower  Gila,  Arizona  ; speech  akin  to  Pima. 
 
 . A Montagnais  tribe  now  in  Manicougan  Reserve,  left 
 bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tamanacs,  which  see. 
 
 . A Barre  tribe  in  the  Maypur  Mission  on  the  Mataveni. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tapajos  ; one  of  the  eight 
 Brazilian  linguistic  groups,  according  to  the  arrange- 
 ment of  Von  Martins. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  formerly  in  Cumana,  Venezuela. 
 
 . Isthmian  gi'oup  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Upper  Salado. 
 
 I Appalachian  stock,  akin  to  the  Mobiles  ; formerly  in 
 
 I Louisiana  ; extinct 
 
 . The  Koniaga  Eskimos  of  the  Pashtolik  river. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; E.  Maine.  Some  still  there  in 
 1825,  but  since  extinct. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Teffe  and  19a. 
 
 . A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 . A Camacan  tribe  in  Porto  Seguro,  coast  of  Brazil. 
 
 . See  Tehuelches. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe  on  the  N.  Califomia  coast ; called 
 also  Weitspek. 
 
 . Nootka  group  ; in  the  south  of  Vancouver. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 . Same  as  Gros  Ventres  and  Minetarees,  which  see. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . Now  mostly  in  Pawnee  Reserve,  Nebraska  ; a few  still 
 in  Kansas  ; usually  grouped  with  the  Shoshones 
 or  Snakes,  but  pronounced  by  L.  H.  Morgan  to  be 
 an  independent  stock. 
 
 . See  Wamesits. 
 
 . Near  Asuncion,  Paraguay  ; formerly  very  powerful ; 
 akin  to  the  Guaycurus. 
 
 2 M 
 
530 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Payaminos  , 
 Payas  . 
 
 Pebas  . 
 Pecaneaux  . 
 Pecherais  . 
 
 Pehtsiks 
 Pehuencbes  . 
 Pelones 
 Pend  d’OreOles 
 Penek  . 
 
 Penelethkas  . 
 
 Pennacooks  . 
 
 Penobscots  . 
 
 Peonies 
 
 Peorias 
 
 Pequaquaukes 
 
 Pequots,  or  Pequods 
 
 Pericni 
 
 Pesatupos 
 Petatlan 
 Pethowerats 
 Petbabanerat 
 Petiguares  . 
 Peyes  . 
 Piaros  . 
 Piangotos 
 Piankesbaws 
 
 Piarrbaus 
 Picoris . 
 
 , Amazon  group  ; on  tbe  Napo,  above  Coca. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; interior  of  Darien,  on  New  Granada 
 , frontier. 
 
 . I In  Ecuador ; unclassified. 
 
 . See  Piegans. 
 
 . A collective  name  of  tbe  Fuegians,  occurring  in 
 French  works. 
 
 . I See  Ebneks. 
 
 . I The  Araucanians  between  35°  and  40°  S.  lat. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . See  Kalispelms. 
 
 . Tbe  Pampas  or  Puelcbe  Indians  ; so  called  by  tbe 
 Tebuelcbes. 
 
 . A Comanche  tribe,  now  in  Wichita  Agency,  Indian 
 ! territory. 
 
 . ' Algonquins  ; originally  on  tbe  Merrimac,  where  are 
 now  Bow,  Concord,  and  Boscawen.  By  early 
 English  w’riters  applied  to  all  the  Merrimack 
 tribes,  of  which  they  were  the  chief.  Speech 
 closely  akin  to  the  Natic.  The  great  and  eloquent 
 chief  Passaconnaway  was  head  of  the  Pennacook 
 confederacy. 
 
 , Algonquin  ; Maine,  as  far  west  as  the  Saco  ; one  of 
 the  most  powerful  New  England  tribes  in  the  time 
 of  Captain  Smith  (1614) ; but  soon  reduced  by  the 
 Tarratines  and  pestilence.  The  name  survives  in 
 the  Penobscot  River. 
 
 . Algonquin  ; formerly  on  the  Illinois  and  Wabash 
 Rivers. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; Rock  Illinois  River  ; now  in  Quapaw 
 Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  in  Carroll  County,  N.  Hamp- 
 shire, and  Oxford  County,  Maine  ; extinct. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; west  of  Cape  Cod  ; very  powerful  in 
 early  New  England  Annals  ; extinct. 
 
 . One  of  three  stock  languages  of  Lower  California  ; 
 ; from  the  23°  N.  lat.  to  Cape  St.  Lucas,  and  on  the 
 neighbouring  islands. 
 
 . : A Matagwayi  band  in  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 . j In  Sinaloa  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  Pawnees,  which  see. 
 
 . I A Tupi  tribe  on  the  Paraiba. 
 
 . ' An  Araucanian  tribe  between  48°  and  52°  S.  lat. 
 
 . ; See  Macos. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . Red  River,  Louisiana;  Missouri;  Arkansas.  Algonquin 
 stock,  a division  of  the  Miamis.  Now  in  Quapaw 
 Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira. 
 
 . One  of  the  five  stock  languages  of  the  N.  Mexican 
 pueblos  ; spoken  also  by  two  pueblos  near  El  Paso, 
 Texas.  It  is  caUed  Enaghmagh  by  W.  Carr  Lane 
 {Schoolcraft,  v.  p.  689). 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 531 
 
 Picunches 
 
 Piedgans  or  Peigans 
 
 Pi  Edes 
 Pijaos  . 
 Pillagers 
 
 Pima 
 
 Upper 
 
 Lower 
 
 Pimampiros 
 Pinalenos 
 Pinches 
 Pindos . 
 Pinoco 
 Pintos  . 
 
 Piocaca 
 Pipiles . 
 
 Piqiia  . 
 
 Piques  . 
 
 Piritus . 
 
 Piro 
 
 Pirros  . 
 
 Piscataquaukes 
 
 Pisone  . 
 Pisquouse  . 
 
 Pitilagas 
 
 Piutes  . 
 
 Pocora . 
 
 Pocorosas 
 
 Pojuaque 
 
 Pokonchi 
 
 Pokoman 
 
 Pokomam 
 
 Polindaras 
 
 Pomos  . 
 
 Ponca  . 
 
 Poncas 
 
 Ponderas 
 Ponkata-gez . 
 Poritaco 
 Poton 
 
 Pottowatomies 
 
 Powhattans  . 
 
 . I The  northern  Chilians  or  Araucanians. 
 
 . I Pronounced  Pagans  ; in  1850  north  of  the  Missouri 
 and  west  of  the  Assiniboine  nation  ; are  Blackfeet. 
 
 . I A Utah  tribe  S.  of  the  Pah  Vants,  which  see. 
 
 . I In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . I See  Mukkundwas. 
 
 f In  Sonora  and  parts  of  Sinaloa.  The  Pima  seems 
 J connected  with  Buschmann’s  “ Aztec-Sonora  ” 
 
 I tongues,  betraying  certain  Mexican  affinities. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Pastassa. 
 
 , A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Chiquitos  ; unclassified. 
 
 . On  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  S.  of  the  Tlio  Grande  ; un- 
 classified. 
 
 . An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 . In  Salvador  ; Aztec  stock. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; extinct. 
 
 . See  Pawnees. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  formerly  in  Barcelona,  Venezuela. 
 
 . A Bolson  de  Mapimi  tribe,  Mexico. 
 
 , Same  as  Chontaquiros,  which  see. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  between  New  Hampshire  and 
 Maine  ; subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 . In  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Flathead  (Columbian)  tribe,  originally  on  the  \V. 
 bank  of  the  Columbia  between  the  Okanagan  and 
 Priest  Rapids  ; now  in  Yakama  Reserve,  Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 , A Mocobi  tribe  ; on  the  Pilcomayo. 
 
 . See  Pah-Utahs. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Atlantic  coast  of  PanamA. 
 
 . A New  Mexican  pueblo  ; speaks  Pegua,  which  see. 
 
 1 Maya  stock  ; in  Vera  Paz,  Guatemala;  closely  akin  to 
 I Marne. 
 
 . New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . “ People  the  collective  name  of  several  tribes  in 
 
 Potter  VaUey,  Central  California,  such  as  the 
 Ki  Pomos,  Cahto,  Choam  Pomos,  etc. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock,  Winnebago  branch ; now  in  Ponca 
 Reserve,  Dacotah. 
 
 . See  Kalispelms. 
 
 . Gez  family  ; on  the  Tocantins,  Brazil. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; in  S.  Mexico. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  a branch  of  the  Miamis,  now  partly 
 on  Lake  Superior,  Michigan,  and  partly  in  Indian 
 ten’itory  and  Kansas  Reserves. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  originally  in  Virginia  and  Maryland  ; 
 extinct. 
 
532 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Poyas  . 
 
 Poy  yus 
 Pranzas 
 
 Pshawanwappam 
 Pubenanos  . 
 Puctune 
 Pueblos 
 
 Puelches  . 
 Puelches 
 Puenches 
 Puget  Sound 
 
 Punka  . 
 Puquini 
 
 Puray  or  Puruha  . 
 
 Purugotes 
 Puru-Pui-us  . 
 Purys  . 
 
 Puyallups  . 
 Puzlunine 
 
 . I Lenca  stock  ; W.  Honduras,  E.  of  tbe  Guajiqueros. 
 
 . i See  Peyes. 
 
 . I See  Guatusos. 
 
 . I A Sabaptin  (Columbian)  tribe  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 
 
 . i An  unclassified  New  Granada  tribe. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; Vera  Paz. 
 
 . Or  “towns  people,”  a large  number  of  New  Mexican 
 tribes,  so  called  because  settled  in  towns  and 
 hamlets.  The  most  important  are  indexed,  and 
 j all  wiU  be  found  in  Section  x.  of  Appendix,  p.  479. 
 They  speak  altogether  five  distinct  languages,  as 
 there  stated. 
 
 . The  Pampas  Indians,  La  Plata. 
 
 . The  Araucanians  E.  of  the  Cordilleras. 
 
 . See  Pehnenches. 
 
 . The  collective  term  for  a group  of  Columbians,  whose 
 tribal  names  mostly  end  in  mish. 
 
 , See  Poncas. 
 
 . Peruvian  Indians  on  the  islands  in  Lake  Chuquito 
 and  near  the  Pucanari  ; extinct.  Their  sireech 
 was  different  from  the  Quichua  and  all  other  Peru- 
 vian tongues. 
 
 . The  original  speech  of  Quito  ; extinguished  by  the 
 Quichua. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  on  the  Venezuelan  Llanos. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Middle  and  Lower  Purus. 
 
 A large  Brazilian  family  in  Minas  Geraes,  Rio 
 Janeiro,  etc. 
 
 In  Puyallup  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 On  west  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California, 
 
 Qcadus 
 
 Quaiantl 
 
 Qualhioqua 
 
 Quapaws 
 
 Quappas 
 
 Quaquas 
 
 Quaquaros 
 
 Quarecua 
 
 Quarlpi 
 
 Quechi 
 
 Quelenes 
 
 Queniauitl 
 
 Queres . 
 
 Quibicuica  . 
 Quiche 
 
 Quichua 
 
 . A Brazilian  tribe,  near  Miranda  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Chehalis,  which  see. 
 
 . Athabascan  stock  ; on  N.  bank  of  Lower  Columbia,- 
 I near  its  mouth. 
 
 i|  Dacotah  stock,  Arkansas  ; now  in  Quapaw  Reserve, 
 I Indian  territorj'. 
 
 . I A Salivi  tribe  in  Popayan,  New  Granada. 
 
 . I A New  Granada  tribe  ; akiu  to  the  Ele  (and  Yaruras  ?) 
 . I Isthmian  group  ; Panama, 
 
 . \ See  Chaudieres. 
 
 . I Maya  stock  ; Guatemala. 
 
 . I In  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 . 1 A tribe  of  the  Chehalis  ; now  in  Quinaielt  Reseiwe, 
 
 I Washington. 
 
 . One  of  the  five  stock  languages  of  the  N.  Mexican 
 pueblos  ; by  W.  Carr  Lane  called  Keswhawhay,  by 
 others  Chuchacas.  It  is  spoken  by  the  Queres 
 proper,  of  whom  there  are  four  tribe.s,  and  by  four 
 other  nations. 
 
 . I An  imclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 . ; The  Guatemalan  and  Hondiu'as  branch  of  the  Maya- 
 I Quiche  family,  which  see. 
 
 . I The  principal  member  of  the  Quichua- Aymara  family; 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 533 
 
 Quijos  . 
 
 Qui-leh-utes 
 
 Quimeca 
 
 Quitasaca 
 
 Qiiiteno 
 
 Quits  . 
 Quoquoulths 
 
 Rama.  . 
 
 Rappahannoclis 
 
 Rat  Indians  . 
 Red  Knives  . 
 Redwoods 
 Remos 
 
 Renegades  . 
 Richibuctos  . 
 
 Rickarees 
 Riobamba  . 
 Roilroilpam  . 
 Root-Diggers 
 Pvotunos 
 Rouge  River 
 Runsien 
 
 Sabaibos  , 
 Sabuja 
 
 Sacs  or  Sawkee 
 
 Sacarus 
 
 Sacos 
 
 Sahaptin 
 
 Sahnikans 
 
 Sahuaripa 
 Saint  Regis  . 
 
 formerly  current  throughout  the  Peruvian  empire, 
 and  still  spoken  generally  in  Peru. 
 
 . Same  as  Napos,  which  see. 
 
 A Utah  tribe  now  in  Quinaielt  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . In  Chiquitos  ; uncl.assified. 
 
 . In  Chiquitos  ; unclassified. 
 
 , The  Quichua  speech  that  superseded  Puruha  in 
 Quito  not  long  before  the  Spanish  conquest.  Its 
 basis  is  Quichua,  with  a mixture  of  Puruha,  Cara, 
 and  others. 
 
 . In  Quinaielt  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . Nootka  group  ; on  the  N.  and  N.E.  coast  of  Van- 
 couver. 
 
 . Lenca  stock;  Mosquito  district. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; on  the  Rappahannock,  Virginia  ; 
 extinct. 
 
 . A Kutchin  tribe  near  Fort  Yucon,  Alaska. 
 
 . An  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
 . In  Hoopah  and  Round  Valleys,  California. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ucayali,  around  Collaria. 
 
 . In  Oregon  ; unsettled. 
 
 . Algonquins ; Mikraak  group ; formerly  the  most 
 warlike  tribe  of  this  nation  in  Nova  Scotia  ; now 
 extinct. 
 
 . Same  as  Arikarees,  which  see. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race  of  thirty  tribes. 
 
 . Same  as  the  Kliketats,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Bannocks. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 Around  Monterey  Bay,  Central  California.  This 
 language  seems  to  be  somewhat  widely  diffused,  a 
 rare  phenomenon  in  California. 
 
 , In  Sinaloa  ; an  Acaxee  tribe. 
 
 . A Bahia  tribe  ; akin  to  the  Kiriri. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; akin  to  the  Foxes.  Some  now  in 
 I Sac  and  Fox  Reserve,  Indian  tereitory  ; others  in 
 I Great  Nemaha,  Nebraska. 
 
 . ' A Pury  tribe,  formerly  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  on  Saco  River,  Maine;  subject 
 to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Columbian  race,  mainly  between  the  Flatheads  and 
 the  45°  N.  lat.  They  are  the  Nez  Perces  of  the 
 Canadian  fur  traders.  The  Sahaptins  proper  are 
 on  the  Clear  Water  and  its  branches,  and  on  the 
 Snake  about  the  Forks.  The  Kamai,  Lapwai, 
 Snake,  and  Upper  Snake,  are  now  in  Nez  Perce 
 Reserve,  Idaho. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Algonquins  ; formerly  at  Absecon,  New 
 Jersey. 
 
 . A dialect  of  the  Opata,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Saint  Regis  Reserve,  New  York. 
 
534 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Salish.  . 
 
 Salivi 
 
 Sambos 
 
 Sambos 
 
 Samisb 
 San  Bias 
 Sandia  . 
 
 San  Domingo 
 Sanels 
 Sangana 
 Sankikani 
 San  Pools 
 Sanquampues 
 Sans  Arcs 
 Santa  Cruz  . 
 San  Miguel  . 
 
 Santaims 
 
 Santees 
 
 Sapiboconi 
 
 Sapoban 
 
 Saravecas 
 
 Sarcees 
 
 Sarummas  . 
 Satsika 
 Saugehans  . 
 
 Saukanlutuchs 
 
 Sauteux 
 
 Savaneric 
 
 Sawannucas 
 
 Sawassaw-tinney 
 
 S’calam 
 
 Scoffies 
 
 Scootuks 
 
 Seapeats 
 
 Ssbassas 
 
 Secos  . 
 
 Secumne 
 
 Sehuan-Cunnee 
 
 . A Columbian  race  on  the  Columbia  and  its  affluents^ 
 generally  knowm  as  the  Flatheads.  The  Flatheads 
 proper  are  on  the  Flathead  and  Clarke  Rivers. 
 
 . A large  nation  of  New  Granada,  on  the  Upper  Orinoco 
 head  streams. 
 
 . The  Mosquitos  proper,  round  C.  Gracias  a Dios, 
 Mosquito  Coast. 
 
 . A half-caste  Negi-o  and  Indian  tribe  on  the  Mosquito 
 Coast. 
 
 . A Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe. 
 
 . See  Manzanillo. 
 
 . A New  Mexican  pueblo  ; speak  Picoris,  which  see. 
 
 . A Yumbo  tribe,  Quichua  family  ; Ecuador. 
 
 . Near  Sanel,  Central  California  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock  ; E.  bank  of  the  Hudson  ; extinct. 
 
 In  Fort  Colville  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 I These  and  other  dialects  spoken  by  the  tribes  on  the 
 
 I group  of  islands  off  the  S.  Californian  coast  are  all 
 closely  related,  and  may  possibly  be  connected 
 with  the  Runsien  of  Monterey  Bay  and  the  Salinas 
 Valley. 
 
 . In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 . S.  Carolina  ; extinct ; probably  akin  to  the  Catawbas. 
 
 . A Moxos  tribe  ; speech  akin  to  Quichua. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Naney,  in  S.E.  Ecuador. 
 
 . A Moxos  tribe  ; unclassified. 
 
 . The  Blood  Indians  ; a Blackfoot  tribe  between  N. 
 and  S.  forks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  often  wrongly 
 called  Chippewyans.  If  they  are  Blackfeet  they 
 must  be  Chippeways,  or  Algonquins. 
 
 . On  the  Juruena  in  Matto  Grosso  ; unclassified, 
 
 . The  Blackfeet,  which  see. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  on  the  Saugehan  and  Merri- 
 mack. They  were  often  called  Natacooks  or 
 Nacooks. 
 
 . Nootka  group,  in  the  interior  of  Vancouver. 
 
 . The  Chippeways  ; so  called  by  the  Canadians. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 . Apparently  the  same  as  the  Shawnees. 
 
 . The  real  name  of  the  Chippewyans  proper,  on  Lake 
 Athabasca. 
 
 . Same  as  Klallum,  which  see. 
 
 . A Montagnais  tribe  ; Labrador. 
 
 . Same  as  Passamaquoddies,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . A Hyda  (Columbian)  tribe  ; in  Pitt  Islands  and  about 
 Gardner  Channel. 
 
 . Lenca  stock  ; on  Black  River,  Honduras. 
 
 . On  the  E.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 . The  Tehuelches  or  Patagonians  N.  of  the  Yacana- 
 cunnee. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 535 
 
 Seminoles  . 
 Seminolie  . 
 
 Sends 
 
 Senecas 
 
 Serrano 
 
 Serrano  de  Cajonos  'j 
 Serrano  de  Itztepec  1- 
 Serrano  de  Miahuatlan  J 
 Serranos 
 Shastas 
 
 Shawnees  . . ) 
 
 Shawanees  . . ( 
 
 Sheep  . 
 
 Sheshatapoosh 
 
 Shewhapmuch 
 
 Shirnignes  . 
 Shinicooks  . 
 
 Shipibos  , 
 Shiri-punos  . 
 Shis-Inday  . 
 Shiyans 
 Shoshone 
 
 Shushwaps  . 
 
 Shyicks 
 Siah  , 
 Siaywas 
 Sikannies 
 
 sole,  Silla 
 
 Similaton 
 
 Sinaloas 
 
 Sinikers 
 
 Sinselaus 
 
 Sioux  . 
 
 Sissetons 
 
 Sitibos 
 
 Sitkas  . 
 
 ' Originally  in  East  Florida  and  Georgia  ; speech  akin 
 to  Muscogee,  who  are  descended  of  them.  Sem- 
 inole means  “Wanderer,”  and  expresses  the 
 nomad  character  of  this  tribe.  Others  make  it  a 
 contraction  of  = wild  men. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ucayali ; above  the  Pachitea. 
 
 One  of  the  Iroquois  nations  ; called  also  Sinikers  and 
 Tsonontooas.  New  York  ; now  in  the  AUeghany, 
 Catteranga,  and  Tonawanda  Reserves,  New  York, 
 and  Quapaw  Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 See  Meco. 
 
 Tribes  of  Zapotecs,  which  see. 
 
 See  Callelehet. 
 
 A Klamath  (N.  Californian)  tribe,  near  Mount  Shasta. 
 
 Algonquin  ; originally  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
 Kentucky  ; now  in  Quapaw  and  Sac  and  Fox 
 Reserves,  Indian  territory.  Their  four  great 
 branches  were  the  Piqua,  Mequachake,  Kiscapocoke 
 or  Kikkapoo,  and  Chilicothe. 
 
 Properly  Ambawtawhoot ; an  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
 Algonquins  ; N.  side  of  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
 
 A Shushwap  (Columbian)  tribe  in  the  N.  of  British 
 Columbia.  By  some  writers  called  Atnahs,  which 
 see  ; by  others  called  Nicute-much,  which  see. 
 
 In  Ecuador  ; unclassified. 
 
 j Algonquin  stock  ; Long  Island;  akin  to  the  Metoacs  ; 
 
 I extinct. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Upper  Ucayali. 
 
 A Zapara  tribe  on  the  Upper  Napo. 
 
 See  Apache. 
 
 See  Cheyennes. 
 
 Or  Snake  family  ; spread  over  Idaho,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
 Montana,  Nevada,  and  parts  of  Oregon  and  Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 A Columbian  race  in  the  valleys  of  the  Fraser, 
 Thompson,  and  Upper  Columbia,  with  their  lakes 
 and  head  waters. 
 
 In  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 Athabascan  stock  ; on  the  Eel  River,  California. 
 
 In  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 Probably  Tacullies ; on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  between 
 the  Beavers  on  the  E.  and  the  Atnahs  on  the  W. 
 
 A New  Mexican  pueblo  ; speak  Queres,  which  see. 
 
 Lenca  stock  ; Honduras. 
 
 Same  as  Cahitas,  which  see. 
 
 See  Senecas. 
 
 In  Alsea  Reserve,  Oregon. 
 
 See  Dacotah. 
 
 A Dacotah  tribe. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tambo  and  Perene,  affluents 
 
 I of  the  Ucayali. 
 
 1 The  Thlinkeets  of  Sitka  or  Baranoff  Island. 
 
536 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sitkeas 
 
 Sivinipis 
 
 Ska"its 
 
 Skaizi  . 
 
 Skatapuskoish 
 
 Skeenas 
 
 Skid-a-gates 
 
 Skid-a-gatees 
 
 Skilloots 
 
 Skinpaks  , 
 Skitsuisk 
 
 Skokomiskes 
 Slaves,  Slaves 
 Slouacuss 
 Small  Hokes . 
 Smoos 
 
 Snakes 
 
 Soaiatlpi 
 
 Sobaipuris  . 
 Socoas 
 Soerikong 
 Sokokies 
 Sokes  . 
 Sololumne  . 
 Sonomas 
 Souriquois  . 
 Spokanes 
 
 Squamscotts 
 
 Squaxins 
 Stickeens 
 Stockbridge  . 
 
 Stone,  Stoney 
 
 Strongbows  . 
 Suisunes 
 Suma  . 
 
 Supinus 
 
 Surcees 
 
 Susquekannocks 
 
 . The  Blackfeet,  Piegan  and  Blood  or  Pawkee  Indians 
 of  the  main  Saskatchewan,  as  far  as  the  Missouri ; 
 speech  entirely  different  from  the  Fall. 
 
 . A Yilela  tribe  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 . A Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe. 
 
 . See  Kootenais. 
 
 . A Jlontagnais  tribe  ; Labrador. 
 
 . A Hyda  tribe  on  the  Skeena,  British  Columbia. 
 
 I Hyda  tribes  ; Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
 
 A Chinook  tribe  on  the  Columbia  and  Lower  Willa- 
 mette. 
 
 . In  Yakama  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . Or  Coeur  d’Alene  (Awl-Heart)  ; a Flathead  tribe  on 
 lake  of  same  name. 
 
 In  Madison  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 See  Dogribs. 
 
 . An  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
 A tribe  of  Blackfeet,  which  see. 
 
 . Lenca  family  ; inland  from  the  Mosquito  Coast, 
 about  the  13°  N.  lat. 
 
 . See  Shoshone. 
 
 . A Flathead  tribe  on  the  Upper  Lewis  or  Snake 
 River. 
 
 . In  Sonora  ; speech  akin  to  Pima. 
 
 . Near  San  el.  Central  California  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . Abenaki  sub -tribe  ; formerly  east  of  Boston. 
 
 . Nootka  group,  in  the  S.  of  Vancouver. 
 
 On  E.  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 In  the  Valley  of  the  Moon,  Central  California. 
 
 . Same  as  Mikmak,  which  see. 
 
 . A Flathead  tribe  on  the  Spokane  River,  and  Fort 
 Colville  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; originally  about  Exeter  River,  Maine  ; 
 subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 . In  Squaxins  Reserve,  Washington. 
 
 . The  Thlinkeets  of  the  Stickeen  River. 
 
 . Algonquins  ; called  also  Nauticokes  ; allied  with  the 
 Iroquois,  now  in  Wisconsin.  They  were  originally 
 a ISIohican  tribe  from  Massachusetts. 
 
 . Dacotah  stock  ; the  Assiniboins  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
 tains ; called  also  Thickwood. 
 
 . An  Athabascan  tribe  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
 
 . In  Suisun  Valley,  Central  California. 
 
 . A Bolson  de  Mapimi  tribe. 
 
 . A Zaparo  horde,  Ecuador ; the  lowest  in  the  social 
 scale  (A.  Simson). 
 
 . See  Sarcees. 
 
 . On  the  Lower  Susquehanna  ; called  also  Andastiquez 
 and  Andastes.  Seem  to  have  been  Iroquois,  not 
 Algonquins  ; extinct. 
 
 . The  generic  name  of  the  Krees  between  Lake  Winni- 
 peg and  Hudson  Bay. 
 
 Swampy  Krees  , 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES.  537 
 
 Tacamez 
 
 Tacamirys  . 
 
 Tachacurayes 
 
 Tachies 
 
 Taconha-piue 
 
 Tacullies 
 
 Tacungas 
 
 Tadousac 
 
 Tahahteen  . 
 
 Tahinolo 
 
 Tahlewah 
 
 Tahuas 
 
 Tairtlas 
 
 Takhtam  , 
 
 Takistine  . 
 
 Takoos 
 
 Talamancas  . 
 
 Talkotin 
 
 Talches 
 
 Tallagewy  . 
 
 Talluckes 
 
 Talepoosas  . 
 
 Tapoosas 
 
 Taiiiajab 
 
 Tamanacs 
 
 Tamazulapa 
 
 Tamboriacos 
 
 Tamoiae 
 
 Tamulipec  . 
 
 Tantsawhoots 
 
 Tao 
 
 Taos  . 
 Tapanhonas  . 
 Tapiguae 
 
 Tappes 
 Tappiraques . 
 Tapuyos 
 
 Tarahumara . 
 
 Tarapaca 
 
 Tarascos 
 
 Tarapotos 
 
 Tarratins 
 
 Tairentcens  . 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race  of  twenty  tribes  in  Esmeralda, 
 Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  Lower  Napo. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  Lower  Napo. 
 
 N.  Texas  ; akin  to  the  Caddoes. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Xingu. 
 
 The  Athabascans  of  New  Caledonia  ; the  “ Carriers  ” 
 of  the  fur  traders  ; they  dwell  mostly  on  the  Upper 
 Fraser. 
 
 A dialect  of  the  Quiteho,  which  see. 
 
 A Montagnais  tribe  ; now  on  the  same  Reserve  as  the 
 Papinachiois. 
 
 Athabascan  stock  ; on  Smith  River,  California. 
 
 Or  Naolingo  ; a tribe  of  Huastecs,  which  see. 
 
 N.  Californian  ; Klamath  River. 
 
 Lenca  group  ; on  Blewfields  Lagoon,  Nicaragua. 
 
 A Nez  Perce  (Columbian)  tribe,  in  the  Yakima  Val- 
 ley. 
 
 S.  California  ; akin  to  the  Shoshone  family. 
 
 A Lule  tribe.  Gran  Chaco. 
 
 The  Thlinkeets  S.  of  Chatham  Strait. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; in  the  S.E.  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 A Tacullie  tribe. 
 
 On  Tulare  Lake,  California. 
 
 Same  as  Allighewi,  which  see. 
 
 In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  Central  California. 
 Appalachian  stock  ; Chickasaw  branch  ; destroyed  by 
 the  Creeks. 
 
 S.  Arizona  and  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Lower  Orinoco. 
 A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 Amazon  group, ; left  bank  of  Lower  Napo. 
 
 A Tupi  tribe  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
 
 In  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; unclassified. ' 
 
 The  Chipewyaus  of  the  Coppermine  ; called  also 
 “ Coppers.” 
 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 A North  Mexican  pueblo  ; speak  Picoris,  which  see. 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tapajos. 
 
 A Tupi  tribe  on  the  coast  between  Pernambuco  and 
 St.  Vincent. 
 
 A Tupi  tribe  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
 
 In  Matto  Grosso  ; unclassified. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; the  collective  name  of  most  of  the 
 riverain  tribes  along  the  course  of  the  Amazon. 
 
 One  of  Buschmann’s  four  “ Aztec-Sonora  ’’  tongues  ; 
 spoken  in  Chihuahua  and  Sonora,  in  the  heart  of 
 the  Sierra  Madre. 
 
 An  Aymara  tribe  in  the  extreme  S.  of  Peru. 
 
 In  Michoacan ; one  of  the  civilised  nations  of  Mexico. 
 Amazon  group  ; left  bank  of  Lower  Napo. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Mikmak  branch.  New  Brunswick  ; 
 no  doubt  the  same  as  the  warlike  Tarrenteens  of 
 early  English  v/riters. 
 
 Abenakis  ; so  called  by  some  early  English  writers  ; 
 
538 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tathzey 
 
 Tatshiautins 
 
 Taulepa 
 
 Taiiros 
 
 Tautin  . 
 
 Tawacanies  . 
 
 Tawaws 
 
 Taywaugh  . 
 
 Teakualitzigti 
 
 Tebia  . 
 
 Te.cuexe 
 
 Tecuiche 
 
 Teetons 
 
 Teets  . 
 
 Tegua  . 
 
 Teguis 
 
 Teguima 
 
 Tehamas 
 
 Tebuecos 
 
 Tehuelches 
 
 Tehuelhet 
 
 Tejano 
 
 Tejons  . 
 
 Tejuas . 
 
 Temorias 
 
 Tenans 
 
 Tenawas 
 
 Tenigueche 
 
 Tepanecs 
 
 Tepave 
 Tepecano 
 Tepehuana  . 
 
 Tepocas 
 Tepuzculano 
 Terecimas  . 
 Terrabas 
 Terrinos 
 Tesuque 
 Tetikilhati  . 
 Thetliotins  . 
 Thickwood  . 
 Thlingcha 
 
 doubtless  the  same  as  the  Mikmak  tribe  of  Tarra- 
 tins,  which  see. 
 
 A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  TacuUies,  which  see. 
 
 Maya  stock ; in  San  Miguel  Valley,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 In  Sonora  ; unclassified. 
 
 A TacuUie  tribe. 
 
 See  Towaconies. 
 
 In  1778  on  N.W.  of  Lake  Erie  ; probably  of  Algon- 
 quin stock  ; extinct. 
 
 The  Tegua  ; so  called  by  Wm.  Carr  Lane  ; see  Tegua. 
 
 A dialect  of  the  Jalisco  Cora,  which  see. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Acaxees,  which  see. 
 
 In  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Beneme,  which  see. 
 
 The  generic  name  of  eight  Dacotah  tribes. 
 
 Nootka  group  ; on  the  Lower  Fraser ; called  also 
 Haitlins. 
 
 A language  common  to  six  of  the  North  Mexican 
 pueblos,  including  the  Haro,  one  of  the  seven 
 Moqui  towns  ; see  Haro  and  Moqui.  For  the 
 other  New  Mexican  pueblos  speaking  Tegua,  see 
 Sec.  X.  of  Appendix,  p.  479. 
 
 Dialects  of  the  Opata,  w'hich  see. 
 
 In  Tehama  County,  Central  California  ; unclassified. 
 
 A tribe  of  Cahitas,  which  see. 
 
 “ Southern  People  ; ” the  Patagonians  ; speech  unre- 
 lated to  any  other. 
 
 In  CoahuUa,  Mexico. 
 
 Tale  River  Reserve,  California. 
 
 An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Illinois  branch  ; extinct. 
 
 A Kutchin  tribe  on  the  Yucon. 
 
 One  of  the  three  subdivisions  of  the  Comanches, 
 which  see. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Beneme,  which  see. 
 
 One  of  the  three  confederate  Nahua  or  Aztec  nations 
 at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  Their  capital 
 was  Tlacopan  in  Anahuac. 
 
 In  Sonora  ; imclassified. 
 
 In  Jalisco,  Mexico ; unclassified. 
 
 One  of  Buschmann’s  four  “ Aztec-Sonora  ” tongues  ; 
 N.  Sinaloa,  N.lDm-ango,  and  S.  Chihuahua,  Mexico. 
 
 On  N.  coast  of  Sonora  ; akin  to  the  Tiburones. 
 
 A Miztec  tribe. 
 
 Tupi  stock  ; Rio  Negro  Valley. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; in  the  W.  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 Warm  Spring  Reserve,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 Same  as  Tegua,  which  see. 
 
 A tribe  of  Huastecs,  which  see. 
 
 A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  which  sec. 
 
 See  Stoney. 
 
 An  Athabascan  tribe. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 539 
 
 Thlinkeet 
 
 Thnaina ; Tnao 
 TRongeiths  . 
 Tiburones 
 
 Ticimes 
 
 Tiddoes 
 
 Tijanes 
 
 Tikomeri 
 
 Tillamooks  . 
 
 Timbiras 
 
 Timmiscamems 
 Timpanagos  . 
 Timuacanas  I 
 Timueuas  / 
 Tinney,  Tinneh 
 
 Tinqua 
 Tiquizambiz . 
 Tiribi  . 
 Tiverigotos  . 
 Tlacacebastla 
 Tlascaltek  . 
 Tlaskanai 
 Tlaxiaco 
 Tlaxomultecas 
 Toba  . 
 
 Tobikhar 
 
 Toboso 
 
 Tocantins 
 
 Tolewahs 
 
 Toltecs 
 
 Tomuzas 
 Tonkaways  . 
 Tonocote 
 
 . ] Sub-Arctic  group,  forming  a sort  of  connecting  link 
 between  the  Eskimo  and  the  Tinney.  Next  to 
 Chinook  the  harshest  language  perhaps  in  all 
 America.  Spoken  along  the  Pacific  from  the  Atna 
 to  the  Nass.  Known  also  by  the  Aleut  term 
 Kolosh. 
 
 . “ Men  ; ” same  word  as  Tinney  and  Kenai,  which  see. 
 
 See  Kowitchans. 
 
 On  N.  coast  of  Sonora  and  Tiburon  island,  in  the 
 Gulf  of  California. 
 
 In  Ecuador  ; imclassified. 
 
 . Texas  (1851)  ; unclassified. 
 
 An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 , A Moxos  dialect  in  the  S.  Xaverio  Mission,  Moxos. 
 
 . In  Grande  Ronde,  Oregon. 
 
 . A numerous  race  in  Goyaz,  Brazil ; akin  to  the  Ges. 
 Their  chief  tiibes  are  the  Mata,  Canella  fira,  and 
 Bocca  furada  Timbiras. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  Chippeway  branch  ; Upper  Canada. 
 
 . Mu’dy  Valley  Reserve,  Nevada. 
 
 . Appalachian  stock ; E.  Florida  and  E.  coast 
 
 . Georgia  ; highly  synthetic  speech  ; extinct. 
 
 . “ Men  ; ” the  term  by  which  most  of  the  Athabascan 
 
 tribes  call  themselves.  See  Athabascan  and  Chip- 
 pewyan. 
 
 An  extinct  Florida  tribe. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Costa  Rica. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  S.  Mexico  and  Guatemala. 
 
 . Aztec  stock  ; San  Salvador. 
 
 , Athabascan  stock  ; on  S.  bank  of  Lower  Columbia. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Jalisco,  Mexico. 
 
 . A branch  of  the  Mocobi  between  the  PUcomayo  and' 
 Vermejo. 
 
 . S.  Califoraia  ; akin  to  the  Shoshone  family. 
 
 . In  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 . An  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe  on  the  Tocantin  in  Goyas 
 and  Para. 
 
 . A Klamath  tribe  ; on  the  coast  of  North  California  ; 
 Athabascan  stock. 
 
 , A Nahua  race  ; founders  of  the  earliest  Mexican  em- 
 pire, supposed  to  date  from  the  sixth  century,  and 
 probably  the  pyramid-builders.  To  the  Toltecs 
 nearly  everything  is  attributed  in  the  obscure  and 
 mythical  Mexican  records  and  traditions.  Some 
 think  the  Toltecs  were  not  originally  Nahuatlacs, 
 but  adopted  their  speech  after  subduing  them  in 
 the  sixth  century.  See  Aztec  and  Nahua. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  formerly  in  Cumana,  Venezuela. 
 
 . Florida ; unsettled. 
 
 . A Lule  tribe  in  Gran  Chaco  ; the  Mataras  of  early 
 writers. 
 
640 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tontos . 
 Toonglas 
 
 Topia  . 
 Topocuares  . 
 Torresques  . 
 Totonacs 
 
 Tototin 
 Towacarros  . 
 Towaconies  , 
 
 Towekas 
 
 Towiacks 
 
 Towkas 
 
 Texas  . 
 
 Trees  . 
 
 Tsatsnetins  . , 
 
 Tshe-tsi-uetin-euemo 
 
 TsUlawdawheot 
 Tsimsheeans  . 
 
 Tsonecas 
 
 Tsnentoeas  . 
 Tuanoech 
 Tuapocas 
 Tubares 
 
 Tucanos 
 Tuchales 
 Tucliiuwas  . 
 Tucunas 
 
 Tukudli 
 Tule  . 
 
 Tules  . 
 
 Tiimanaes  . 
 Tummimivi  . 
 Tungass 
 Tunja  . 
 
 Tupi  . 
 
 Tripinabas  • 
 Tupinambas 
 Tupinambaranas  . 
 Tiipininquins 
 
 Tupitinis 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . A mixture  of  Smeos  and  Sambos,  -which  see  ; 15°  N. 
 lat. 
 
 , A tribe  of  the  Acaxees,  -which  see. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  in  Barcelona,  Venezuela. 
 
 . Isthmian  gi'oup  ; interior  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 . One  of  the  civilised  Mexican  races,  on  the  coast  E.  of 
 Tlascala,  in  the  N.  of  the  present  state  of  Vera 
 Cruz  ; Maya  stock. 
 
 . Same  as  Lototen,  which  see. 
 
 Formerly  on  the  Brasos,  below  Fort  Belknap,  Texas  ; 
 
 I akin  to  the  Wacoes  ; now  in  Wichita  Reserve, 
 Indian  territory. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Towiacks,  which  see. 
 
 . N.  bank  of  Red  River  of  Louisiana ; akin  to  the 
 Pawnees  ? 
 
 . Lenca  stock  ; E.  of  the  Woolwas,  as  far  as  Blewfields, 
 Honduras.  ‘ 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; interior  of  Costa  Rica. 
 
 • In  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Tacullies,  -which  see. 
 
 . “ N.N.E.  People  the  national  name  of  the  Montag- 
 
 j nais,  which  see. 
 
 . See  Brushwood. 
 
 . I A Hyda  nation  about  Fort  Simson  and  Chatham 
 Sound,  British  Columbia. 
 
 . The  Tehuelches  or  Patagonians  ; this  is  the  name  by 
 which  they  call  themselves. 
 
 . See  Senecas. 
 
 . Puget  Sound  (Columbian)  tribe,  at  Hood’s  Canal. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  between  the  Caripe  hUls  and  Maturin. 
 
 . In  the  Chihuahua  and  Durango  highlands  ; speak  an 
 Aztec-Sonora  language. 
 
 . A Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 , Amazon  group  ; on  the  Pastassa. 
 
 . Amazon  gi’oup  ; on  left  bank  of  the  Middle  Jutahi. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; widely  diffused  on  the  19a  and  Soli- 
 
 moens. 
 
 . Same  as  Kutchin,  which  see. 
 
 . Isthmian  group ; Darien. 
 
 . Tule  River  Reserve,  California. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A Tupi  tribe  in  Rio  Janeh-o. 
 
 . The  southernmost  Thlinkeets  ; about  the  river  Nass. 
 
 . New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . The  N.E.  branch  of  the  Guarani  family  ; the  Lingoa 
 Geial,  also  called  Brazilian.  The  Tupis  proper 
 are  in  B.ahia. 
 
 . A Tupi  tribe. 
 
 I A Tupi  tribe  along  the  course  of  the  Rio  Real. 
 
 . A Tupi  tribe  in  Espirito  Santo,  Ilheos,  and  Porto 
 Seguro. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 541 
 
 Turas  . 
 Tuscaroras  . 
 
 Tutchone 
 
 Tutelos 
 
 Tuvares 
 Twanas 
 Two  Mountain 
 
 Tzendales  (Celdale) 
 
 Uacaas 
 
 Uaenambeus 
 
 Uara-Mukuvu 
 
 Uara-Paccili 
 
 Uaiipes 
 
 Uchees,  Utchees  . 
 
 Uchitie 
 Ucletes 
 Ugalenz  , 
 Ugalenzes 
 
 Ukiahs 
 
 Ulua  . 
 
 Umatnias 
 
 Umpquas 
 
 Unaliskans  . 
 
 Uncpappaa  . 
 Unshagogs  . 
 
 Upanos 
 
 Upsarokas  . 
 
 Urabas 
 
 Uribas 
 
 Uracas 
 
 Urubas 
 
 Urupas 
 Utahs,  Utes 
 
 Uzpantec 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira. 
 
 One  of  the  Iroquois  nations  who  joined  the  confeder- 
 acy from  N.  Carolina  in  1712  ; now  in  Tuscarora 
 Reserve,  New  York. 
 
 . A Kutchin  tribe  about  the  Yucon. 
 
 . Iroquois,  Monacan  branch,  V irginia ; extinct.  They  seem 
 to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Metemes,  which  see. 
 
 . In  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 . Madison  Res.,  Washington. 
 
 . Iroquois  stock  ; fragments  of  Mohawks  and  Oneidas  ; 
 now  on  the  St.  Lawrence  above  Montreal. 
 
 . In  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico ; Maya  stock.  The  Abbe 
 Brasseur  considers  the  Tzendal  as  the  purest,  or 
 rather  typical  language  of  the  Maya-Quiche  family. 
 
 . A Vilela  tribe  on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 . “ Humming-birds,”  Amazon  group;  on  the  Japura. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tamanacs,  which  see. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tamanacs,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  gi-oup  ; generic  name  of  about  thirty  tribes 
 ou  the  Negro,  above  the  rapids  of  San  Gabriel. 
 
 . Formerly  in  S.  Carolina  and  Georgia  ; now  merged 
 with  the  Creelcs,  but  originally  of  different  speech, 
 probably  akin  to  Natchez. 
 
 . A tribe  of  the  Lower  Californian  Guaicuris. 
 
 . See  Kowitchans. 
 
 . A Kenai  tribe  in  the  interior  of  Alaska. 
 
 . The  Thlinkeets  between  Mount  St.  Elias  and  Copper 
 River. 
 
 . Near  the  town  of  Ukiah,  Round  Valley,  Central  Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; Guatemala. 
 
 . In  Umatilla  Reseiwe,  Oregon. 
 
 . Athabascan  stock  ? Pacific  coast,  about  44°  N.  lat.  on 
 river  of  like  name  ; now  in  Alsea  Reserve,  Oregon. 
 
 . The  Aleuts  of  the  Alaskan  peninsula  (S.W.  corner) 
 and  Fox  islands. 
 
 . A band  of  Teeton  Dacotahs. 
 
 . Algonquin  stock,  on  the  coast  opposite  Long  Island  ; 
 extinct. 
 
 . A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 . Same  as  Crows,  which  see. 
 
 [Isthmian  group  ; W.  of  the  Dorachos,  about  9°  N. 
 lat. 
 
 , Isthmian  group  ; Pacific  coast  of  Panama. 
 
 . An  unclassified  New  Granada  tribe,  on  the  Lower 
 Atrato. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Madeira. 
 
 . A branch  of  the  Snake  family  in  Utah,  Nevada,  and 
 along  the  Upper  and  Middle  Colorado.  The  Utah 
 tribes  are  very  numerous. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; Guatemala. 
 
 Valientes  . 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Chiriqui  Mountains,  Costa  Rica. 
 
542 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Vanta  Kutchins 
 
 A’aqueros 
 
 Varaychu  . 
 
 Varogio 
 
 Vayphys 
 
 Vebetlateca 
 
 Veraguas 
 
 Vesperio 
 
 Ticuris 
 Vilela  . 
 Vocaregui  . 
 Vuta-Huilliche 
 
 . The  Kutchins  liTest  of  the  Loucheux,  which  see. 
 
 . An  Apache  tribe. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Ifa,  in  E.  Ecuador. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Tarahumaras,  which  see. 
 
 . Amazon  group  ; on  the  Telfe. 
 
 . Maya  stock  ; in  Soconusco. 
 
 . Isthmian  group  ; in  Veraguas,  between  Chiriqui  and 
 Panama  ; probably  a tribe  of  Dorachos,  which  see. 
 
 . i.e.  “Western;”  a generic  term  applied  by  some 
 wTiters  to  all  the  United  States  tribes,  whose  point 
 of  migration  in  their  traditions  was  from  the  west 
 or  south-west.  These  are  the  Appalachians,  Che- 
 rokees,Algonquins,  Iroquois,  andDacotahs.  (School- 
 craft. ) 
 
 . A New  Mexican  Pueblo  ; speaks  Picori,  which  see. 
 
 . A large  family  in  Gran  Chaco  ; akin  to  the  Lule. 
 
 . In  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 . The  southernmost  Araucanians,  reaching  as  far  as  the 
 Strait  of  Magellan. 
 
 Wabipetoxs 
 
 Waches 
 Wachos 
 Wachusetts  . 
 
 Wacoes,  or  Huecos 
 
 Waganukizzi 
 
 Wahpaakootas  . ) 
 
 Wahpeetons  . j 
 
 Wahsash. 
 
 Wahiohtanes 
 Waiyamara  . 
 Wakiakums 
 Walhallas  . 
 Walipekutes 
 WaUa  WaUas 
 
 Wallies 
 
 Wamesits 
 
 Wampanoags 
 Wanami 
 Wapanachki 
 Wapisianos  . 
 Wappata  Lakes 
 Warineka 
 Warm  Springs 
 Warows 
 
 A band  of  the  Isaunties,  a branch  of  the  Dacotahs 
 proper. 
 
 On  King  River,  Central  California. 
 
 Akin  to  the  Towiacks,  which  see. 
 
 Algonquins  ; originally  near  Wachusetts  Mountain, 
 Mass.,  subject  to  the  Peimacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 S.W.  Texas,  Rush  Creek  ; akin  to  theWitchitas,  a sub- 
 division of  the  Pawnee  nation. 
 
 Or  Ai'bre  Croche ; the  principal  Ottawa  settlement,  E. 
 of  Lake  Michigan. 
 
 See  Washpecoutes. 
 
 Same  as  Osages,  which  see. 
 
 Same  as  Otoes,  which  see. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 A Chinook  tribe  between  the  Cowlitz  and  the  Pacific. 
 
 See  Gualalas. 
 
 A band  of  the  Dacotahs  proper  (Isaunties). 
 
 A Nez  Perce  tribe  on  the  Lower  Walla  WaUa,  and 
 near  the  junction  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia ; 
 some  in  Umatilla  Reserve,  Oregon. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  on  the  N.  Californian  coast. 
 
 Algonquins ; originally  on  the  forks  of  the  Merrimack 
 and  Concord,  where  are  now  the  cities  of  Lowell, 
 Tewksbury,  etc.;  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass. 
 
 See  Narragansets. 
 
 Algonquin  stock,  Lennape  branch. 
 
 See  Abenaki. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 Gr.ande  Ronde,  Oregon  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 In  Warm  Spring  Reseire,  Oregon.  . 
 
 Oronoco  Delta  ; probably  Tupi  stock  ; called  also 
 Guaranos. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 543 
 
 Wascos 
 
 Washoes 
 
 Washpecoutes 
 
 Wasitas 
 
 Waterees 
 
 Watlalas 
 
 Watsahewa  . 
 Wattasoons  . 
 Wawenoc 
 
 Weas  . 
 
 Weeyots 
 
 Weitspek 
 
 Wichunmies 
 Wilacki  . 
 
 Wininaskts  . 
 Winnebagoes 
 
 WinnecoTvetts 
 
 Winnepesaukies 
 
 Wintoons 
 
 Wishams 
 
 Wishosk 
 
 Witchetaws  . 
 Witchitas 
 
 Woccons,  or  Woccoas 
 
 Wool  was 
 
 Woowells 
 
 Woyawais 
 
 Wunalachtigo 
 
 A Sahaptin  (Columbian)  tribe,  between  the  Rocky 
 Mountains  and  the  John  Day  River. 
 
 A tribe  of  Utahs  along  the  E.  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
 
 A band  of  Isauntie  Dacotahs. 
 
 Now  in  Indian  Territory. 
 
 S.  Carolina,  extinct.  Akin  to  the  Catawbas. 
 
 A Chinook  tribe  on  the  Columbia  and  Lower  Wil- 
 lamette. 
 
 N.  California  ; Scott’s  River  ; Shasta  family. 
 
 Same  as  Mattasoons,  which  see. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; an  Abenaki  sub-tribe,  Maine,  died 
 out  1750.  Have  been  credited  by  some  ethnolo- 
 gists with  a system  of  numerals  which  are  really 
 Kymric  or  old  British,  brought  over  by  some  early 
 Welsh  or  Cumbrian  settlers.  When  the  memory 
 of  their  true  origin  was  forgotten,  the  English- 
 speaking  colonists  attributed  them  to  the  Indians, 
 and  they  were  afterwards  used  as  an  argument  to 
 prove  that  the  Wawenoc  Red  men  were  of  British 
 descent. 
 
 Migrated  to  Missouri  in  1820  ; Algonquin  stock  ; now 
 in  Quapaw  Reseiwe,  Indian  tenitory. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  on  the  N.  Californian  coast. 
 
 N.  Californian  ; the  chief  tribe  on  the  Klamath,  at 
 its  junction  with  the  Trinity  ; same  as  the  Pata- 
 ways. 
 
 Tule  River  Reserve,  California. 
 
 A Hoopah  tribe  on  the  W.  slope  of  Mount  Shasta, 
 California. 
 
 The  Western  Shoshones  of  Idaho  and  Oregon. 
 
 Dacotah  stock  ; the  aborigines  of  Central  Wisconsin, 
 and  parents  of  the  lowas,  Missouris,  Otoes,  and 
 Omahas.  By  the  French  called  Puants. 
 
 Algonquins  ; originally  in  Rockingham  Co.,  Maine  ; 
 subject  to  the  Pennacooks  ; extinct. 
 
 Algonquins  ; originally  near  the  lakelet  of  that  name, 
 Merrimack  Valley.  This  word  is  composed  of 
 beautiful,  m;ic=water,A;ccs=high,  «Mfce= 
 place — meaning  the  beautiful  upland  water. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  on  the  Pitt  River,  N.  California. 
 
 In  Yakama  Reserve,  Wa.shington. 
 
 A Klamath  nation  on  the  N.  Californian  coast ; their 
 idiom  is  common  to  the  Bay  and  Mad  River  tribes. 
 
 S.W.  Texas,  Rush  Creek  ; akin  to  the  Wacoes  and 
 Yowaconees,  subdivisions  of  the  Pawnee  nation  ; 
 some  in  Wichita  Reserve,  Indian  territory. 
 
 Akin  to  the  Catawbas  ; N.  Carolina.  Here  the  Woc- 
 coas were  indigenous,  and  the  Catawbas  probably 
 immigrants  from  the  Ohio  Valley. 
 
 Lenca  stock  ; in  the  western  part  of  the  Mosquito 
 Coast. 
 
 Ou  Tulore  Lake,  California. 
 
 A Carib  tribe  in  Venezuela. 
 
 Algonquin  stock  ; Lennape  branch. 
 
544 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Wyandots  . 
 
 Wylackies  . 
 
 Xaltepecs  . 
 Xanambres  . 
 
 Xicaques 
 
 Xiximes 
 
 Yacanacas  . 
 Yacaiia-cunnee 
 
 Yachicbumnes 
 Yacons 
 Yaguas  . 
 
 Yaguarzongo 
 Yahabanas  . 
 Yahgau 
 
 Y aks  . 
 Yakamas 
 Yakimas 
 
 Yakutats 
 Yaltasses 
 Yamassees  . 
 
 Y ameas 
 Yamkally 
 
 Yampais 
 
 Yamparecks 
 
 Yancales 
 Yanguistlan  . 
 Yanktonais  . 
 Yanktoas 
 Yaoi  . 
 
 Yaqui  . 
 
 Yaraies 
 
 Yaruras 
 
 Yasumne 
 
 Yasunies 
 
 Yavapais 
 
 Yavipais 
 
 Yawarau 
 
 Yazoos 
 Yecoaaitas  . 
 
 . Or  Hurons  ; Iroquois  stock,  about  the  lake  region  ; 
 some  now  in  Quapaw  Reserve,  Indian  territory 
 and  others  in  Kansas. 
 
 , In  Round  Valley,  California  ; nearly  extinct. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . On  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  S.  of  the  Rio  Grande  ; un- 
 classified. 
 
 . Leuca  family  ; W.  of  the  Smoos,  about  68°  W.  long. ; 
 Nicaragua. 
 
 . In  Durango,  S.  of  the  Acaxees  ; a tribe  of  the  Acaxees, 
 which  see. 
 
 . A Fuegian  tribe. 
 
 . The  southernmost  Patagonians  on  the  Strait  of 
 Magellan. 
 
 . Near  Stockton,  Central  California. 
 
 . A N.  Californian  tribe,  N.  of  the  Klamath. 
 
 . Amazon  group,  on  the  Ambiyacu,  Ecuador ; un- 
 classified. 
 
 . An  extinct  Quito  race  of  twelve  tribes. 
 
 . A Carib  or  Barre  tribe  in  Guiana. 
 
 . A Fuegian  tribe. 
 
 . The  Eskimos  ; so  called  by  the  whalers  in  Baffin  Bay. 
 
 iA  Nez  Perce  tribe  in  the  Yakima  VaUey  and  near 
 Mount  Adams  ; some  also  in  Yakama  Reserve, 
 Washington. 
 
 . The  Thlinkeets  of  Beifing  Bay. 
 
 . Bed  River,  Louisiana  ; extinct. 
 
 . A Catawba  tribe,  S.  Carolina  ; extinct. 
 
 , Amazon  group  ; on  the  Tigre. 
 
 , A Chinook  (Columbian)  tribe  at  the  source  of  the 
 WiUamette. 
 
 . Yuma  stock  ; near  the  Rio  Hassayampa. 
 
 . One  of  the  three  subdivisions  of  the  Comanche?, 
 which  see. 
 
 . In  Popayan,  New  Granada  ; unclassified. 
 
 . A tribe  of  Miztecs,  which  see. 
 
 . A Dacotah  tribe. 
 
 . A branch  of  the  Dacotahs  proper. 
 
 . A Carib  tribe  ; formerly  of  Trinidad  and  Cumana. 
 
 . A Cahita  or  Sinaloa  nation  on  the  river  Yaqui ; see 
 Cahita. 
 
 . Akin  to  the  Bororos,  which  see. 
 
 . A large  group  ; perhaps  akin  to  the  Salivi,  New 
 Granada. 
 
 . On  the  right  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  California. 
 
 A tribe  of  Zaparas,  which  see. 
 
 I Yuma  stock  ; Arizona. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Naney,  between  the  Napo 
 and  the  Tigre. 
 
 . A Chickasaw  tribe,  Appalachian  stock. 
 
 On  the  Vermejo  ; a Vilela  tribe. 
 
AMERICAN  TRIBES  AND  LANGUAGES. 
 
 545 
 
 Yeconoerapas 
 Yellow-Knives 
 Yeme  . 
 Yetans . 
 
 Yete  . 
 
 Yolos  . 
 Yoocos 
 Yquitos 
 Ysete  . 
 
 Yue  . 
 
 Yukas  . 
 Yukuths 
 Yuma  . 
 
 Yumbos 
 
 Yungas 
 Yuracares 
 Yurimaguas  . 
 
 Yutas  , 
 
 A VOela  tribe  on  the  Upper  Salado. 
 
 See  Dogribs  and  Atnahs. 
 
 In  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 See  Comanches. 
 
 An  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe  ; on  the  Napo,  Ecuador. 
 On  Cache  Creek,  Central  California. 
 
 A Vilela  tribe  ; on  the  Vermejo. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; akin  to  the  Avijeras  ; Lower  Napo. 
 
 A New  Mexican  Pueblo  ; speak  Picoris,  which  see. 
 
 In  Tamaulipas,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 A Klamath  tribe  on  the  N.  Californian  coast. 
 
 The  Kutchins  of  Porcupine  river  ; called  also  Kukuth. 
 A numerous  Arizona  race  on  the  Colorado  and  Gila, 
 with  branches  in  S.  California. 
 
 A numerous  Quito  race  of  eighteen  tribes  ; Quichua 
 family. 
 
 See  Chimus. 
 
 An  unclassified  Bolivian  race. 
 
 An  Omagua  (Guarani)  tribe  ; on  the  Ynruba,  an 
 Amazon  affluent,  and  in  Solimoes,  Brazil. 
 
 See  Utah. 
 
 Zaachilla 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Zaklohpakap 
 
 Zamanucas 
 
 Zamoras 
 
 Zaparos 
 
 Zaparos 
 
 Zapotecs 
 
 Zarza  . 
 Zeltales 
 Zendal-Quelen 
 
 Zeonas . 
 Zeonas 
 Zesuqua 
 Zoe 
 
 Zoque  . 
 Zotziles 
 Zuaques 
 Zumanama  . 
 Zuni  . 
 
 Zutugil 
 
 A tribe  of  Zapotecs,  which  see. 
 
 In  Zacateca,  Mexico  ; unclassified. 
 
 Same  as  Marne,  which  see. 
 
 An  unclassified  tribe  in  Chiquitos. 
 
 A band  of  Jivaros,  which  see. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; right  bank  of  the  ^Middle  Napo. 
 
 Amazon  group  ; on  the  Curaray,  a tributary  of  the 
 Napo.  This  tribe  is  different  from  the  foregoing. 
 
 One  of  the  civilised  Mexican  nations  in  E.  Oajaca. 
 They  ruled  over  all  the  Tehuantepec  tribes,  and  are 
 stUl  numerously  represented  between  the  Valley  of 
 Oajaca  and  Tehuantepec. 
 
 See  Yumbos. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; Chiapas,  near  S.  Christobal,  S.  Mexico  ; 
 said  to  speak  the  purest  of  all  the  Maya-Quiche 
 tongues. 
 
 A tribe  in  Para,  Brazil ; perhaps  akin  to  the  Omagua. 
 
 A New  Granada  tribe  of  which  nothing  is  know-n. 
 
 A New  Mexican  Pueblo  ; speak  Picoris,  which  see. 
 
 In  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; Guatemala  and  Chiapas. 
 
 In  Chiapas,  S.  Mexico. 
 
 In  Sinaloa  ; unclassified. 
 
 Isthmian  group  ; Panama. 
 
 One  of  the  five  stock  languages  of  the  New  Mexican 
 Pueblos  ; spoken  by  the  Zuhi  Pueblo  only. 
 
 Maya  stock  ; Guatemala. 
 
TABULATED  SURVEY  OE  THE  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES. 
 
 546 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
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 SURVEY  OF  THE  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES.  54 
 
THE  OKEAT  ANTILLES— CENTRAE  AMERICA. 
 
 548 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
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INDEX.* 
 
 Aborigines  of  Cuba,  159 
 Acapulco,  46,  74 
 Acatcnango,  volcano,  104 
 Aconcagua,  205 
 Acoyapo,  Bio,  131 
 Acrocinus  longimanus,  128 
 Adalbert  of  Prussia  (Prince), 
 255 
 
 African  negroes  in  West  In- 
 dies, 150 
 
 Agave  Mexicana,  52 
 Aguas  Buenas,  79 
 Aguas  de  Comangillas,  79. 
 Agua  Verde,  Lago  de,  8 
 Agucate,  137 
 Aliuehuetes,  61 
 Alajuela,  138,  139 
 Albemarle  island,  329 
 Alcantara,  427 
 Algarrob  forests,  269 
 Alligators  in  San  Juan  river, 
 126 
 
 Alotepeque,  102 
 Alpaca,  357 
 
 Altaplanicie  of  Bolivia,  364 
 Altar  volcano,  213 
 Ainatique  gulf,  93,  98 
 Amargoso  bark,  307 
 Amazons,  delta  of  the,  237 
 estuary,  190 
 fauna  and  flora  of,  247 
 forest  scenery  of  the,  238 
 length  of  navigation  on, 
 242,  246 
 Lower,  240 
 
 navigable  length  of,  by 
 nearest  route  to  Lima, 
 363 
 
 region  of  the,  236 
 river  system,  197 
 Upper,  241 
 
 Upper,  forest  of  the,  241 
 Ambalema  cigars,  318 
 America,  Central,  1 
 area  of,  1 
 coast  lines  of,  2 
 configuration  of  interior 
 of,  3 
 
 gulfs  of,  3 
 islands  of,  3 
 peninsulas  of,  2 
 
 America,  South,  general  de- 
 scription of,  189,  300 
 Amucu,  lake,  198 
 Anaconda,  230 
 Anahuac,  Cordillera  de,  8 
 plateau  of,  10,  69,  77 
 Andes,  description  of,  195 
 eastern  terraces  of,  196 
 extent  and  main  divisions 
 of,  202 
 Anegada,  178 
 Angeles,  Cerro  de  los,  8 
 Angostura,  235 
 Anguilla,  182 
 Antigua,  182 
 
 Antioquia,  population  of,  323 
 Antisana,  213 
 Apaches,  27 
 Appun,  C.  F.,  437 
 Apure  river,  233 
 
 llanos  or  pampas  of  the, 
 225 
 
 Aquiry  river,  244 
 Aragua-guazu,  268 
 valley,  311 
 Araguay  river,  243 
 Arana,  Don  Benito,  362 
 Araucania,  population  of,  381 
 Araucaria  brasiliensis,  254 
 Arauca  tribe,  221 
 Arawak  Indians,  416,  417 
 Arbol  del  noche  triste,  62 
 Archidona,  216 
 Arequipa,  209 
 Ariea,  347 
 Ai'inos  river,  243 
 Argentine  Confederation,  dis- 
 puted boimdaries  of, 
 385 
 
 inhaViitants  of  the,  388 
 fossil  animals  of  the,  386 
 immigi'ation  from  Europe, 
 
 389 
 
 landed  proprietors  in  the, 
 
 390 
 
 minerals  of  the,  385 
 exportsand  importsof,395 
 industries  of,  396 
 material  progress  of,  395 
 population  of,  396 
 railways  of,  395 
 
 -\roa,  copper  mines  of,  309 
 Artibonite  river,  167 
 Aruae  Indians,  416 
 Asphalt  lake  in  Trinidad,  184 
 Aspinwall,  318,  319,  321 
 Assuay,  216 
 Asuncion,  402 
 Atacama  desert,  199 
 Atitlan,  volcano,  104 
 Atlaco,  Bio,  70 
 Atliaca,  79 
 Atrato,  129 
 valley,  219 
 
 Atures,  waterfalls  of,  233 
 Auchenia  huanaco,  357 
 lama,  357 
 vicunia,  357 
 Aullagas,  lake,  198,  365 
 Aurora,  191 
 
 Aymara  Indians,  355,  .366 
 Aysen  river,  276 
 Azores,  emigration  from,  to 
 Brazil,  418 
 Aztecs,  26 
 
 Bachinaba,  Cerro,  9 
 Bahamas,  141,  143 
 Bahia,  428 
 Bahia  Blanca,  191 
 Bahia,  negroes  in,  422 
 population  of,  429 
 Balsam  of  Peru,  119 
 Banos,  216 
 Baranquilla,  321,  323 
 Barbadoes,  182 
 Barbuda,  182 
 
 wild  game  in,  149 
 Barley  in  Mexico,  76 
 Barquisimeto,  222 
 Barranca  de  Beltran,  52 
 Barrancas,  64 
 
 description  of,  51 
 of  Guatemala,  lol 
 of  Mexico,  5 
 
 Basques  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
 389 
 
 Basse  Terre,  ISO,  182 
 Bates,  Mr.,  237 
 Batrachians,  tailed,  absent 
 from  the  West  Indies,  148 
 Bay  islands,  117 
 
 1 The  Appendices,  which  relate  exclusively  to  special  subjects,  have  not  been  included 
 in  the  Index. 
 
564 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Belize,  93 
 river,  94 
 Belt,  Jlr.,  124 
 Belmonte,  Rio  de,  252 
 Beni  river,  244 
 Berberis  Darivinii,  200 
 Berbice,  43S 
 Bernardo,  Cerro  San,  8 
 Birds  of  Brazil,  411 
 
 of  the  Galapagos  Islands, 
 329 
 
 of  West  Indies,  148 
 Bim  Orellana,  411 
 Black  River,  165 
 Black  vomit  in  Mexico,  74 
 Blewfields,  124 
 river,  122 
 
 Blue  Mountains,  165 
 Blumenau,  427 
 Blowpipe,  341 
 Boddam-Wetham,  Mr.,  102 
 Bodegas,  332 
 Bogota,  altitude  of,  324 
 district,  217 
 
 projected  railway  from 
 Honda  to,  323 
 Rio,  217 
 Bojaca,  323 
 Bolivia,  area  of,  364 
 
 articles  of  export  from, 
 369 
 
 population  of,  364 
 Bolivian  Andes,  206 
 plateau,  263 
 
 Bolson  de  Mapimi,  8,  15 
 Bolsones  of  Peru,  210,  353 
 Botocudos,  417 
 Brazil,  abolition  of  slavery 
 in,  424 
 area  of,  409 
 
 absence  of  large  game  in, 
 410 
 
 eirilised  Indians  of,  414 
 climate  of,  259 
 coffee  produce  of,  412 
 diamond  fields  in,  412 
 fruits  of,  412 
 general  configuration  of, 
 251 
 
 Germans  in,  426 
 government  of,  433 
 minerals  of,  412 
 population  of,  413 
 religion  of,  433 
 schools  in,  435 
 scientific  and  literary  in- 
 stitutions in,  435 
 slaves  of,  413 
 vegetable  products  of.  411 
 wild  Indians  of,  415 
 wood,  411 
 
 Brazilian  forest,  254,  255 
 pine,  254 
 
 BraAlio-Guarani  Indians,  415 
 Bramidos  of  Guanaxuato,  79, 
 80 
 
 British  Honduras,  93 
 Bromelia  chrysantha,  307 
 Brounea  grandiceps,  307 
 
 Brown,  Mr.  C.  B.,  223,  437, 
 439 
 
 Brusque,  427 
 Buenavista,  Cerro,  8 
 Buenos  Ayres,  390 
 periodicals  of,  395 
 Burton,  Captain  R.  F.,  257 
 Buys-Ballot,  146 
 
 Caa-poeira,  255 
 CabaUeria  of  Havana,  160 
 Caballos,  Port,  114 
 Cabaiias  cigars,  157 
 Cacao  cultivation  in  Ecuador, 
 339 
 
 in  Guatemala,  102 
 of  Venezuela,  306 
 tree,  natural  home  of,  306 
 Cacti  in  Boliria,  207 
 Cafuso,  half-caste,  in  Brazil, 
 425 
 
 Caioas,  417 
 Cajones,  200 
 Calamahne,  Mount,  40 
 Calderas,  port  of,  139 
 Calentura,  in  Mexico,  47 
 Callao,  347,  350 
 California,  Lower,  37 
 area  of,  37 
 climate  of,  38 
 geological  formation  of, 
 38 
 
 inhabitants  of,  41 
 mineral  wealth  of,  44 
 mountain  system  of,  40 
 rivers  of,  40 
 sea-fowl  of,  43 
 Campos  de  Parcels,  243 
 Canas,  Rio  de,  221 
 Canastra,  Serra  da,  257 
 Candellaria,  266 
 Canelos,  216 
 Cape  Horn,  202 
 Capoeiragem,  422 
 Caraccas,  222,  311,  313,  315 
 public  library  of,  313 
 university  of,  312 
 Caracoles,  mines  of,  374 
 Carcanes,  27 
 
 Caribbean  Sea,  depth  of,  162 
 Caribe  fish,  231 
 Cariboco,  half-caste,  in  Brazil, 
 425 
 
 Caribs,  99,  124,  149,  437 
 I Carmen,  island,  42 
 Caroni,  gold  mines  on  the,  309 
 Caroni  river,  436 
 Carpenter  bird,  105 
 Carretero  grass,  228 
 Carrizo,  Sierra  del,  7 
 Cartage,  138,  139 
 Cartagena,  322 
 
 Casa  del  Gobemador  at  Ux- 
 mal,  90 
 
 Casa  de  Palomas  at  Cxmal,  90 
 Casino  Espahol,  160 
 Casiquiare  river,  232,  245 
 Castillo,  127 
 Castilloa  elastica.  128 
 
 Catamarca,  206 
 
 mineral  products  of,  385 
 Cattle-breeding  in  Cuba,  157 
 Cauca,  valley  of  the,  216,  219 
 population  of,  323 
 Canto  del  Embarcadero,  152 
 Canto,  Rio,  152 
 Cayambe  Uren,  213 
 Cayapa,  Serra,  243 
 Cayenne,  description  of,  440 
 Caymans  in  Ecuador,  338 
 Ceara,  254 
 Celaya,  59 
 
 Cempoaltepec,  Cerro  of,  5 
 Central  America,  Indians  of, 
 13 
 
 inhabitants  of,  12 
 mountains  and  table- 
 lands of,  3 
 Cerro  del  Altar,  222 
 CeiTO  San  J uan,  7 
 Cervus  antisensis,  200 
 Cennis  chilensis,  200 
 Chamalari,  212 
 Chandless,  Mr.,  244 
 Chapultepec,  61 
 Charles  Island,  329 
 Chatham  Island,  32 
 Chenna  Islands,  282 
 Chetumal,  93 
 Chicha,  355 
 Chicliimequillo,  75 
 Chichinecs,  27 
 Chico  river,  278 
 Chilian  Cordillera,  height  of. 
 
 205 
 
 ! Chilian  range,  204 
 Chile,  aristocracy  of,  384 
 elementary  schools  of, 
 383 
 
 emigration  from,  3S1 
 finances  of,  383 
 geolo^cal  features  of,  373 
 inhabitants  of,  379 
 I land  question  in,  381 
 population  of,  381 
 railways  in,  382 
 society  in,  380 
 telegraphic  system  of, 
 
 Chiloe,  192 
 ChOpantzingo,  75 
 Chimborazo,  212,  332 
 Chimbo  valley,  332 
 Chinampas,  62 
 Chinese  coolies  in  Cuba,  158 
 Chinese  in  Lima,  351 
 Chiquihuite,  64 
 Chiquitos,  268 
 Chiquitos  Indians,  369 
 Chitalon,  104 
 Chitcheu-I’tza,  8:' 
 
 Chloephaga  Magellauioa.  279 
 Chontales,  climate  of,  123 
 gold  mines  of,  122 
 Chupat  river,  279 
 Chuquisaca,  367 
 Cibanegs,  149 
 ' Cibao  ranges.  167 
 
Ccesalpinia  hrcmihtto,  226 
 echinata,  411 
 
 Cigar  manufactories  of  Cuba, 
 157 
 
 Cinchona  calisaya,  211,  332 
 succirubra,  332 
 Ciraelitas,  13S 
 Citlaltepetl,  6,  G5 
 Clergy,  native,  of  Peru,  356, 
 357 
 
 Climbing  animals,  243 
 Cobija,  369 
 Coca,  368 
 Cochabamba,  363 
 Coehimas,  2S 
 Cockbum  Channel,  204 
 Coco  Indians,  416 
 Cocomes  kings,  90 
 Codazzi,  Agostino,  308 
 Coffee  plantations  in  Guate- 
 mala, 102 
 
 Coffee  produce  of  Costa  Rica, 
 137 
 
 of  Cuba,  156 
 
 Cofre  de  Perote,  6,  64,  65 
 Cola  acuminata,  307 
 Colimies,  28 
 
 Colombia,  civil  wars  in,  326 
 Cordilleras  of,  216 
 cost  of  land-carriage  in, 
 324 
 
 foreign  trade  of,  326 
 population  of,  323 
 revenue  of,  326 
 telegraphs  in,  325 
 United  States  of,  317 
 want  of  proper  highwavs 
 in,  324 
 Colon,  318 
 
 Colorado  branch  of  the  San 
 Juan,  123 
 
 Coluguape  lake,  279 
 Colima,  47,  50 
 volcano  of,  48 
 Comandu,  42 
 Comayagua  plain,  112 
 Sierra  de,  113 
 Conchali,  375 
 
 Conductas,  or  convoys  of  sil- 
 ver, in  Jlexico,  3S 
 Congrehoy  range,  114 
 Contas,  Rio,  252 
 Coolies  in  Peru,  352 
 in  Trinidad,  187 
 Copacavana,  365 
 Copan,  dead  city  of,  115 
 Copernicia  tcctorum,  227 
 Copper  in  Brazil,  413 
 in  Mexico,  81 
 Coral  tree,  132 
 Corcovado  Gulf,  204 
 Cordillera  Real,  364 
 Cordilleras,  non -continuity 
 of,  with  North  American 
 ranges,  3,  196 
 Cordova,  262,  390 
 
 mineral  products  of,  386 
 ranges  of,  385 
 Corentyne  river,  436,  438 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Corrientes,  390 
 Cortes,  Bay  of,  43 
 port,  114 
 
 Costa  de  Balsamo,  119 
 Costa  Rica,  mineral  wealth 
 of,  137 
 
 population  of,  138 
 public  debt  of,  139 
 railway  in,  1 39 
 volcanic  system  of,  136 
 Cotton  cultivation  in  Peru, 
 359 
 
 exportation  of,from  Vene- 
 zuela, 306 
 Cotopaxi,  213,  214 
 Cotuy,  167 
 
 Couto  de  Magalhaes,  Dr.  Jos6, 
 243 
 
 Couvade,  342 
 Cozumel,  island,  89 
 Crans,  Indians,  416 
 Craspedocephahis  atrox,  249 
 Creeping  plants,  247 
 Crens,  Indians,  416 
 Creoles  of  Central  America,  20 
 in  Brazil,  425 
 Cuba,  area  of,  152 
 
 climate  of,  144,  153 
 cultivated  area  of,  156 
 forests  of,  156 
 gardens  of,  155 
 harbours  of,  153 
 mountain  ranges  of,  152 
 political  divisions  of,  154 
 population  of,  157 
 products  of,  156 
 railways  in,  154 
 Cubilete,  Mount,  79 
 Cuenca,  altitude  and  climate 
 of,  333 
 
 Cuesta  de  San  Juan,  5 
 Cujajo,  307 
 Cundinamarca,  323 
 Cordillera  of,  217 
 Cupica  bay,  129 
 Cuyaguatejo  river,  156 
 Cuyutlan,  Laguna  de,  47 
 Cuj’utlaneillo,  49 
 Cuzco,  353,  354 
 climate  of,  355 
 mountain  knot  of,  211 
 range,  211 
 
 Cyclones,  cause  of,  145 
 Cygnus  coscoroba,  279 
 
 Danish  islands  in  West  In- 
 dies, 178 
 Darien,  320 
 Gulf  of,  190 
 
 surveys  for  ship  - canal 
 across,  130 
 
 Darwin,  Mr.,  204, 292, 295,  297 
 Defoe,  377 
 
 De  la  Armenia,  river,  49 
 Del  Oriente,  district  of  Ecua- 
 dor, 339 
 Demerara,  439 
 Desaguadero,  198 
 Bio.  365 
 
 565 
 
 Des/ontainca  HooTceri,  201 
 spinosa,  200 
 Desirade,  179 
 Desolation  Land,  290 
 Despoblado,  206 
 Desploblados  of  Peru,  210 
 Desterro,  427 
 Diamantina,  432 
 Diamond  Fields  of  Brazil,  412 
 Diamonds,  Brazilian,  of  large 
 size,  412 
 
 Diego  Garcia  Polacio,  115 
 Doce,  Bio,  252 
 Doguado.  130 
 Dominica,  182 
 Dona  Francisca,  427 
 D’Orbigny,  A.,  415 
 Dragones,  263 
 Durand,  I’Abbe,  257 
 
 Earthquakes  in  Mexico,  80 
 Ecuador,  ai'ea  and  population 
 of,  328 
 array  of,  344 
 CordiUera  of,  212 
 eastern  slopes  of  Andes 
 in,  196 
 
 education  in,  344 
 theocratic  government  of, 
 342 
 
 El  Dorado,  436 
 El  Volador,  rancho,  221 
 Emigrants,  German,  in  Vene- 
 zuela, 308 
 
 Emigration  from  European 
 countries,  381 
 Ernst,  Dr.,  312 
 Erythrina  crista  galli,  265 
 Erythroxylon  coca,  368 
 Escuda,  Bio,  137 
 Escuintla,  108 
 Esmeralda,  232 
 Espinhaso,  Serra  do,  252 
 Espino,  plain  of,  113 
 Esiiirito  Santo  Bay,  93 
 Essequibo  river,  436,  439 
 Esteros  of  the  Llanos,  229 
 Estrella  do  Sul,  diamond,  412 
 Eunectes  murinus,  249 
 Extract  of  meat  manufacture 
 in  Uruguay,  404 
 
 Falkland  Islands,  191,  296 
 climate  of,  297 
 Fiords,  192 
 
 Fiord-like  character  of  Pata- 
 gonian and  Chilian  coast. 
 192 
 
 Fitz  Roy,  Captain,  292 
 Floating  gardens  of  Mexico,  62 
 Floreana,  329 
 Flores,  island,  98 
 Floripondio,  341 
 Fonseca,  bay  of,  114 
 Francia,  Dr.,  399 
 Fray  Bentos,  404 
 French  in  Brazil,  427 
 French  islands  in  West  In- 
 dies, 179 
 
566 
 
 French  line  of  ocean  steamers, 
 3H 
 
 Fria,  Sierra,  S 
 Frio,  Rio,  131 
 Frisol,  rancho,  221 
 Froward,  Cape,  293 
 Fuego,  volcano  of,  104 
 
 ^ABB,  Professor  V{.  M.,  136 
 Galapagos,  indigenous  ani- 
 mals of,  329 
 
 •Galapagos  Islands,  descrip- 
 tion of,  328 
 Galeros  hills,  225 
 Ijallenga,  Mr.  A.,  161 
 Gamelote  grass,  227,  228 
 Garcia  Jloreno,  342 
 Gauchos,  the,  392 
 Gayatacas  Indians,  416 
 Geckos,  lizards,  249 
 Geiger,  Mr.  J.  L.,  46 
 George  Town,  438 
 German  settlements  in  Brazil, 
 426 
 
 Ges,  Indians,  416,  417 
 Goascoram,  river,  112 
 Gold  in  Guiana,  436 
 in  Mexico,  81 
 in  Venezuela,  309 
 Golfo  Dolce,  99 
 Gonave,  bay  of,  107 
 Gorges  in  the  Andes,  196 
 Gorjaz,  256 
 
 Granada,  city  of,  131,  132 
 GranadilJa  grass,  228 
 Gran  Chaco,  262 
 birds  of,  209 
 
 night  scenery  in  the,  270 
 vegetation  of,  269 
 Grena&,  182 
 Grej-town,  124,  125 
 Grande,  Rio,  8 
 Grande,  Rio,  of  Mexico,  55 
 Grande  Terre,  179 
 Gran  Piedra,  152 
 Gra.sses,  kinds  of,  on  the 
 Llanos,  227,  228 
 Great  Baliama  bank,  141 
 Guaea,  307 
 
 Guacanayabo,  gulf  of,  152 
 Gnacba  maca,  poison,  231 
 Guadalaxara,  53 
 Guadeloupe,  179 
 Gua.iira,  190 
 Gualan,  100 
 Guamani  range,  215 
 Guanaco,  208,  276,  357 
 Guafiape  islands,  359 
 Guanaxuato,  8 
 
 and  its  mines,  57 
 Guaniguanico  range,  156 
 Guano  deposits,  358 
 
 revenue  from,  in  Peru,  300 
 trade,  358 
 
 Guantanamo  bay,  152,  153 
 Guaj'ore  Itenez,  river,  244 
 Gnaranda,  332 
 
 Gnarani  Indians,  369,  398,  399 
 language,  399 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Guatemala  antigua,  107 
 area  of,  97 
 birds  of,  100 
 city,  106 
 climate  of,  101 
 population  of,  97 
 products  of,  101 
 society  in,  109 
 volcanoes  of.  104 
 Guaviare  river,  233 
 Guayac  tree,  270 
 Guayacan,  226 
 Guayaquil,  330 
 gulf  of,  193 
 Guayas,  331 
 
 Guaycurus,  Indians,  416 
 Guazuma  ulmisotia,  307 
 Guchilaqui,  77 
 Guck,  Indians,  416 
 Guemul,  200 
 Guerens,  Indians,  416 
 Guiana,  British,  area  of,  438 
 climate  of,  438 
 Guiana,  extent  of,  436 
 French,  440 
 Guichipila,  Rio,  8 
 Guiriri  ducks,  229 
 Gunnera  scaba,  200 
 Guzman  Blanco,  president  of 
 Venezuela,  315 
 
 Hambckg-.\merican  Steam- 
 ship Company,  311 
 Havana,  159 
 Havana,  harbour,  153 
 
 scarcity  of  women  in,  162 
 social  life  in,  162 
 Hayti,  area  of,  167 
 
 barbarous  state  of  negroes 
 in,  170,  172 
 
 general  configuration  of, 
 166 
 
 historical  sketch  of,  168 
 population  of,  170 
 Hazard,  Mr.  S.,  170 
 Hacha,  Rio  de  la,  220 
 Hernandez  Cordova,  131 
 Hiaquis,  27 
 
 Hieronymus,  Dr.  George,  263 
 Hispaniola,  166 
 Honda,  323 
 
 Hondo  de  Chetumal,  river,  94 
 Honduras,  area  of,  112 
 British,  93 
 area  of,  94 
 
 physical  features  of,  112 
 j)opulation  of,  115,  94 
 table-land  of,  4 1 
 Hood  Island,  329 
 Hoorn,  William  Comeliszoon 
 Schouten,  290 
 Horses  in  Cuba,  157 
 of  Brazil,  410 
 Host,  Major,  268,  270 
 Hot  springs,  Mexico,  79 
 Howler  monkeys,  187 
 Huallaga  river,  197 
 Huanaco,  357 
 range,  211 
 
 Huanillo  Islands,  359 
 Huao,  the,  379 
 Huatany  river,  354 
 Humboldt,  3,  213,  233 
 Humnya  river,  112 
 Hura  crepitans,  179 
 Hurricanes,  144,  145 
 
 Ibarra,  altitude  of,  210 
 leas,  28 
 
 Ilha  das  Cobras,  430 
 Iliniza,  212 
 Illapel,  375 
 Illimani,  367 
 
 Immigration  question  in 
 Costa  Rica,  140 
 Indefatigable  Island,  329 
 Independencia  Bay,  359 
 Indian  tribes  of  Brazil,  great 
 number  of,  415 
 Indiarubber  trade  of  Nica- 
 ragua, 127 
 trees,  128 
 
 Indigo  in  Venezuela,  306 
 Indios  Barbaros  of  Central 
 America,  15 
 
 Indios  Mansos  of  Central 
 America,  14 
 
 Inter -oceanic  canalisation, 
 129,  320 
 Iquique.  347 
 Irazu,  Mount,  136 
 Isla  Rasa,  43 
 Islay,  347 
 Istapan,  79 
 
 Italians  on  the  River  Plata, 
 389,  390,  392 
 Itatiaia,  252 
 Izabal  river,  99 
 ■sillage,  99 
 Izalco,  Slount,  119 
 Izamal,  89 
 
 Iztaccihuatl,  6,  60,  69 
 
 Jacitara,  climbing  palm-tree, 
 248 
 
 Jacob  le  Maire,  290 
 Jalapa,  64,  75 
 
 Jamaica,  general  features  of, 
 164 
 
 minerals  in,  165 
 population  of,  165 
 revolt  of  negroes  in,  165 
 James  Island,  329 
 Jararaca,  249 
 
 Jardines  del  Rey  y de  la 
 Rejna,  154 
 Jauru  river,  267 
 Javali,  123 
 Javary  river,  244 
 Jesuits  in  Paraguay,  399 
 in  S.  America,  416 
 Jesus  Maria.  9 
 Jivaros  Indians,  341,  345 
 Jnaii  Fernandez,  377 
 Jujuy,  petroleum  wells  in,  386 
 river,  269 
 
 Jupati  palm-tree,  238 
 Juris  Indians,  417 
 
Juruoca,  252 
 Jutahy  river,  244 
 
 Kaietecr  Palls,  439 
 King  Charles’  Southland,  290 
 Kingston,  166 
 
 Laberixto  he  doze  Legdas, 
 153 
 
 La  Brea,  1S4 
 
 Ladinos  of  Central  America, 
 19 
 
 Lagoon  formations  in  Rio 
 Grande  do  Sul,  191 
 Lagos,  57 
 
 La  Guayra,  310,  311,  313 
 Laimoues,  28 
 
 Lakes  in  South  America,  198 
 in  South  American  river 
 valleys,  198 
 Lambayeque,  347 
 Lamhedora  grass,  228 
 La  Paz,  44 
 city,  366 
 
 La  Plata,  climate  of,  386 
 La  Souffri^re,  ISO 
 Latin  races  in  South  America, 
 299 
 
 Latiriquiqui,  269 
 Lavayen  river,  269 
 Lavega,  167 
 Leeward  Islands,  142 
 Lempa  river,  118 
 Lengous  Indians,  416 
 Leniache,  378 
 Leogane,  bay  of,  167 
 Leon,  city,  131 
 lake,  131 
 
 Lepaterique,  Sierra  de,  113 
 Leperos  of  Jlexico,  30 
 Leprosy  in  Jamaica,  166 
 Lerma,  Lago  de,  55 
 river,  59 
 Les  Saintes,  179 
 Lesseps,  M.  de,  131 
 Lesser  Antilles,  141 
 Liais,  Edmund,  257 
 Lima,  209 
 
 architecture  of,  350 
 foreign  element  in,  351 
 population  of,  368 
 Limay  river,  205,  280 
 Limon,  Puerto,  139 
 Lingoa  geral  of  Brazil,  416 
 Lipez  range,  268 
 Livingston  village,  99 
 Llama,  357 
 Llanos,  birds  of,  229 
 of  the  Orinoco,  225 
 Llanquihue,  205 
 Lobillo  Islands,  359 
 Lobos  Islands,  359 
 Loja,  hills  of,  212 
 Lopez  I.,  399 
 Lorenz,  Professor,  263 
 Loreto,  42 
 
 archipelago  of,  43 
 Los  Altos  of  Guatemala,  101 
 Lotteries,  public,  inMexico,35 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Lucayas,  141 
 
 Lull,  Commander,  130 
 
 Macabi  Islands,  359 
 Macaca  range,  152 
 Macaray,  225 
 Macas,  highway  to,  345 
 Madura  afflnis,  411 
 Madeira,  emigration  from,  to 
 Brazil,  418 
 
 Madeira  river,  rapids  of  the, 
 368 
 
 river,  241,  244 
 Madera,  peak,  129 
 Madre,  Sierra,  9 
 Magas,  42 
 
 Magdalena  Bay,  40,  42 
 river,  198,  323 
 river,  steam  navigation  on 
 the,  321 
 valley,  219 
 Mahaica,  438 
 
 Mahogany  tree  and  trade,  94 
 Maize  in  Venezuela,  306 
 Malacata,  Cuesta  de,  8 
 Malpais  de  Atlachayacatl,  70 
 Mameluco,  half-castes  in  Bra- 
 zil, 425 
 
 Maniore  river,  244 
 Managua,  131 
 Manzanas,  280 
 JIansericlie  rapids,  246 
 Mantiqueira,  Serra  de,  252 
 Marabios,  134 
 Maracaybo,  lake  of,  190 
 Mara, jo  Island,  237 
 MaraBon  river  system,  197 
 Mariagalante,  179 
 Maricopas,  42 
 Markham,  Mr.  C.  B.,  211 
 Maroni  river,  441 
 Maroon  negroes,  166 
 Martinez,  Sierra,  7 
 Martinique,  180 
 Martius,  Von,  415 
 Mas  A fuera  Islands,  377 
 Masaya,  lake  and  volcano,  132 
 Mas  i tierra  Islands,  377 
 Matanzas  harbour,  153 
 railway,  154 
 Mate,  398,  412 
 -Matto  Grosso,  256 
 diamonds  of,  412 
 Mauch,  Karl,  account  of  Porto 
 Rico,  174 
 
 Maulies  Indians,  417 
 Mauritia  palm-trees,  238 
 Maximilian,  Emperor,  69,  61, 
 84 
 
 Maya  fruit,  307 
 Indians,  93 
 Mayapan,  90 
 Mayas,  27 
 
 Maypures,  waterfalls  of,  233 
 Mayne,  Captain,  293 
 Mayro,  362 
 Mazanillo,  46 
 Mazatlan,  46 
 
 Medanos  of  the  Llanos,  228 
 
 567 
 
 Mendoza,  206,  390 
 
 mineral  products  of,  386 
 Mercado,  Cen-o  del,  9 
 Mercedario,  Cerro  del,  205 
 Merida,  89 
 
 University  of,  312 
 Mesas,  of  Venezuelan  Llanos, 
 226 
 
 Mesopotamia,  Argentine,  263 
 South  American,  263 
 Mestizoes  in  Brazil,  424 
 
 in  Spanish  States  of  South 
 America,  300 
 of  Central  America,  IS 
 .Meta  river,  225,  232,  233 
 Mexican  children,  52 
 Indian  tribes,  26 
 oak,  74 
 
 towns,  general  aspect  of, 
 28 
 
 women,  ignorance  of,  33 
 Mexicans,  food  of,  33 
 Mexico,  area  of,  24 
 brigandage  in,  34 
 city,  59 
 
 city,  and  its  inhabitants, 
 30 
 
 climate  of,  72 
 foreigners  in,  30 
 government  of,  82 
 highways  of,  51 
 Indian  languages  of,  26 
 length  and  width  of,  24 
 len^h  of  coast  lines  of,  24 
 national  debt  of,  25 
 political  disordci-s  of,  83, 
 85 
 
 population  of,  25 
 rainfall  in,  78 
 seasons  in,  77 
 volcanic  system  of,  6 
 Mezcal,  53 
 
 Micadia  gonoclada,  307 
 Michoacan, 6 
 Minas  Geraes,  250,  259 
 diamonds  of,  412 
 tea  cultivation  in,  412 
 Minas  Negroes,  422 
 Minchinmadiva,  204 
 Minerals  in  Mexico,  80 
 Mineral  springs  in  Mexico,  80 
 Miranlios,  Indians,  417 
 Mixtecos,  27 
 Mocatama,  222 
 
 Mollendo  and  Puno  Railway, 
 361 
 
 Mombacho,  volcano,  132 
 Mona  Passage,  167 
 Monkeys  in  Amazons  region, 
 249 
 
 Monquis,  27 
 MontaQa  de  Dota,  16 
 of  Ecuador,  339 
 of  Peru,  210,  211 
 Monte  Bufa,  9 
 Montego,  164 
 Monte  Video,  406 
 
 population  of,  407 
 Montserrat,  182 
 
568 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 , Moraes,  Eduardo  Jose  de,  257 
 Morona  river,  241,  246 
 llorro  de  Papagaio,  252 
 Mosquitia,  king  of,  124 
 Mosquito  Coast,  123 
 Motagua  river,  101 
 Moxos  Indians,  360,  370 
 Mulattoes  in  Brazil,  424 
 Mulege,  Bay  of,  40,  42,  43 
 Muncuna  puriens,  307 
 Mundracus,  417 
 Musters,  Lieutenant,  276 
 
 Nahuel-Huapi  lake,  205,  280 
 Xaiguato,  223 
 Xapos  Indians,  340 
 Napo  river,  196,  241,  339 
 Narborough  Island,  329 
 Xauhcampatepetl,  6,  64 
 Negro  population  of  Cuba, 
 159 
 
 Negroes,  free,  in  Lima,  352 
 number  of  enfranchised, 
 in  Brazil,  422 
 Nepe,  harbour,  153 
 Nevada  de  Merida,  219 
 Nevado  de  Castello,  263 
 Nevado  de  Toluca,  6 
 New  Granada,  317 
 Nicaragua,  fauna  and  flora 
 of,  126 
 
 geological  features  and 
 configuration  of,  121 
 Lake,  123 
 
 political  condition  of,  134 
 products  of,  122 
 project  of  ship-canal 
 across,  129 
 Nlcoya,  gulf  of,  139 
 yiguas,  105 
 
 Nopal  fences  in  Mexico,  52 
 Norte,  Rio  Grande  del,  10 
 Northers  ” in  Mexico,  74 
 Nuevitas,  harbour,  153 
 
 Oak,  evergreen,  of  Mexico,  75 
 in  Mexico,  65 
 
 Oaxacaand  Anahuae,  plateaus 
 of,  4 
 
 Ocho  Rios,  164 
 Ojo  de  Zamuro,  307 
 oiinda,  427 
 Ometepec  peak,  129 
 Omoa  range,  113 
 Orgaos,  Pico  dos,  252 
 Orinoco  river,  description  of, 
 232 
 
 river  system,  197 
 scenery,  234 
 Orizaba,  6 
 
 peak  of,  65,  60 
 Orkeke,  277 
 Oroya  railway,  361 
 Orozco  y Berra  (Don  Manuel), 
 on  Mexican  languages,  26 
 Orton,  Mr.,  213 
 Oniro,  367 
 Osorno,  volcano,  205 
 Ostrich  of  Patagonia,  277 
 
 Otomis,  27 
 Otuguis,  269 
 Ozama  river,  171 
 
 Paeellox  de  Pica,  359 
 Pachitea  river,  246,  362 
 Padamo  river,  232 
 Paez,  Don  Ramon,  225 
 Paires.  138 
 Paja  Brava,  208 
 Palcazu  river,  362 
 Palma,  Cape,  45 
 Palma  de  Abanico,  227 
 Palma  de  Cobija,  227 
 Palma  de  Sombrero,  227 
 Palmares,  forests,  269 
 Palmolatla,  wood,  105 
 Palo  Santo,  270 
 Pampa,  salt,  in  Bolivia,  365  i 
 Pampas,  extent  and  contigura- 1 
 tion  of  the,  271 
 impressions  produced  by 
 the  scenery  of  the,  271 
 of  the  Apure,  225 
 of  Uruguay,  404-5 
 strange  ' atmospheric 
 effects  in  the,  273 
 Pampero  winds,  386 
 Panama,  319 
 bay  of,  193 
 Isthmus  of,  317 
 
 population  of,  323 
 railway,  318,  319 
 Pao  de  Azucar,  430 
 Papallacta,  216 
 Papagayo  valley,  74 
 Para,  427 
 river,  239 
 Paraguari,  402 
 
 Paraguav  and  its  tributaries, 
 267 
 
 boundaries  of,  397 
 configuration  of,  397 
 exports  and  imports  of, 
 398 
 
 population  of,  398 
 products  of,  398 
 river,  length  of  navigation 
 on,  264 
 tea,  398,  412 
 Paraguaua,  190 
 Parahyba,  427 
 Paramaribo,  440 
 I’araino  de  la  Suina  Paz,  225 
 Paranahyba,  266 
 Parana  de  las  Palmas,  266 
 delta  of  the,  265 
 -Paraguav  river  system, 
 266 
 
 periodical  floodings  of 
 the,  266 
 
 province  of,  260 
 river,  262 
 
 length  of  navigation 
 on,  204 
 
 vegetation  of,  3S7 
 U]iper,  267 
 
 Parexis,  Indians,  416,  417 
 Paria,  190 
 
 Parime,  Sierra  de,  197,  223 
 Parque  de  Isabel,  160 
 Parras,  Lago,  8 
 Pasco  range,  211 
 Paseo  de  Isabel,  160 
 de  Tacon,  160 
 Pashiuba  palm,  211 
 Passes,  Indians,  417 
 Pastaza  river,  197,  241 
 Pasto,  altitude  of,  216 
 Patagones,  280 
 Patagonia,  brine  lakes  in,  281 
 extent  and  configuration, 
 275 
 
 flowers  of,  280 
 Patagonian  coast,  191 
 fox,  277 
 
 mountain  system,  202 
 Patagonians,  dress,  habits, 
 and  amusements  of,  284 
 height  of,  283 
 Patos,  Sierra  de  los,  9 
 Paulistas,  419,  426 
 Paulo  Affonso  falls,  257 
 Payara  fish,  231 
 Payta,  347 
 
 Peat  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  292 
 Peccaries  in  Ecuador,  338 
 Pechilinque,  bay  of,  42  , 
 Penedo,  islands  of,  158 
 Pepa  de  Cedron,  307 
 Pepe  de  Cola,  307 
 Philippi,  Professor,  199 
 Peregrino,  valley,  74 
 Pericues,  27  ■ 
 
 Pericos,  Cuesta  de,  8 
 Pernambuco,  negroes  in,  422 
 population  of,  427 
 Peru,  arid  districts  of,  347 
 area  ot,  346 
 
 aspects  of  nature  in,  346 
 cUmate  of  Pacific  sea- 
 board of,  209 
 coast  line  of,  192 
 coast  valleys  of,  209 
 eastern  slopes  of  the 
 Andes  in,  197 
 external  debt  of,  363 
 fauna  of,  357 
 government  of.  359 
 railways  in,  366 
 ranges  of,  208 
 Pertuiset,  M,,  271,  295 
 Peruvian  bark  in  Venezuela, 
 306 
 
 trade  in  Ecuador,  332 
 Peten,  lake,  97 
 Petropolis,  427 
 Pic  de  Giganta,  40 
 Pichincha,  112  ^ 
 
 Pico  Blanco,  8 * 
 
 Helado,  51 
 Pilaya  Rio,  268 
 Pilcomayo,  197 
 Rio,  265,  268 
 Pinahuizapan,  65 
 Pinus  occidentalis,  76 
 Pirapora,  258 
 Pisco,  347 
 
Pizarro,  330 
 Planchon  pass,  206 
 Plancho,  plains  of,  113 
 Plata,  river,  formed  by  conflu- 
 ence of  Parana  and 
 Uruguay,  264 
 river,  width  of,  265 
 river  system,  197 
 Plateau  of  Bolivia,  366 
 Plate,  river,  191,  261 
 Playa  de  Xorullo,  6 
 Pointe-i-Pitre,  179 
 Polakowsky,  Dr.  H.,  138 
 Popayan,  216 
 Popocatepetl,  60,  69 
 ascents  of,  70,  7 1 
 Pordioseros  of  Mexico,  30 
 Porta  Dibull,  221 
 Port  au  Prince,  167 
 Port  Louis  (Falkland  Is- 
 lands), 297 
 Porto  Alegre,  427 
 Porto  Rico,  173 
 
 population  of,  174 
 Portuguese  element  in  South 
 America,  301 
 in  Brazil,  417,  425 
 Potosi,  213,  367 
 Poyas  range,  114 
 Prado,  General,  361 
 Precious  stones  of  Brazil,  413 
 Prickly-pear  cactus,  52 
 Puebla,  city,  69 
 valley  of,  67 
 Puerto  Cabello,  310 
 Principe,  154 
 Real,  117 
 Pulque,  53 
 Punas,  353 
 
 of  Peru,  210 
 Punta  Alba,  359 
 
 Arenas,  27.6,  293,  294 
 de  Bernal,  7 
 Delgada,  7 
 Purus  river,  244 
 
 Quebradas,  200 
 Queiiua  tree,  203 
 ‘.juercus  Xala-pensis,  74 
 Queretaro,  59 
 Quetzal,  105 
 QuichS  Indians,  108 
 Quichua  Indians,  355,  368, 369 
 language,  371 
 Qui,jos  Indians,  340 
 Quillota  valley,  378 
 Quindiu,  Cordillera  of,  217 
 Quinine,  333 
 Quinoa,  208 
 
 Quinquina  in  Venezuela,  306 
 Quito,  altitude  of,  216,  334 
 Cordillera  of,  212 
 fruits  in,  335 
 population  of,  336 
 road  to,  from  Guayaquil, 
 332 
 
 valley  of,  334 
 Rakael  Carrera,  111 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  436 
 Ranco,  205 
 Rattlesnake,  231 
 Religion  in  Ecuador,  343 
 Rhamphocfdus  passerinus,  126 
 Rhea  Darwinii,  277 
 Riflihue,  205 
 Riobamba,  212,  216 
 Rio  Bueno,  164 
 Rio  Grande,  197,  266 
 Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  191,  260 
 Rioja,  mineral  products  of, 
 386 
 
 Rio  J aneiro.  Bay  of,  430 
 city,  431 
 
 Rio  Negro,  241,  245 
 (Patagonia),  275, 
 
 280 
 
 Rio  Verde,  56 
 Riviere  Salee,  179,  180 
 River  systems,  great,  of 
 South  America,  196 
 Roraima,  Mount,  224,  439 
 Round  Hill,  123 
 Rosa  de  Montafia,  307 
 Rosario,  390 
 
 Royal  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
 pany, 311 
 Ruatau,  117 
 
 Saba,  179,  182 
 
 St.  Anne,  164 
 
 St.  Bartholomew,  179 
 
 St.  Catherine  Peak,  165 
 
 St.  Christopher,  182 
 
 St.  Eustatius,  179,  182 
 
 St.  Joseph,  190 
 
 St.  Kitts,  182 
 
 St.  Lazaro,  Sierra  de,  40 
 
 St.  Lucas,  Cape,  45 
 
 St.  Lucia,  182 
 
 St.  Martin,  179 
 
 St.  Thomas,  176 
 
 St.  Vincent,  182 
 
 Sainte  Croix,  178 
 
 Salado,  Rio,  265 
 
 Salamanca,  59 
 
 Salaverry,  Lieut.  Juan,  246 
 
 Salinas,  Laguno  de,  365 
 
 Samana  Bay,  170 
 
 Saman  tree,  227 
 
 San  Andreas,  Bio  de,  221 
 
 San  Antonio,  44,  123 
 
 San  Antonio  de  los  Cues,  5 
 
 San  Antonio,  Rio  de,  221 
 
 San  Antonio  (R.  Madeira),  244 
 
 San  Benito,  123 
 
 San  Carlos,  128 
 
 San  Carlos  river,  129 
 
 San  Diego,  42 
 
 San  Domingo,  city,  171 
 
 general  configuration  of, 
 166 
 
 population  of,  170 
 republic  of,  169 
 San  Dominguillo,  5 
 San  Felipe  and  Santa  Rosa 
 Railway,  382 
 
 San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  233 
 
 2 P 
 
 569 
 
 San  Francisco  river,  198,  257 
 Sangay,  213 
 San  Ignacio,  40 
 San  Jose,  45,  139 
 San  Jose  del  Cabo,  44,  45 
 San  Juan  del  Norte,  124 
 San  Juan  de  los  Lagos,  56 
 San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  174 
 S.an  Juan  de  Ulua,  63 
 San  Juan,  mineral  product-! 
 of,  386 
 
 San  Juan,  river,  124 
 San  Leopoldo,  427 
 San  Luis,  262 
 bay  of,  43 
 
 mineral  products  of,  386 
 ranges  of,  385 
 San  Marcos,  42 
 San  Matias,  Gulf  of,  191 
 San  Martin,  Sierra,  6 
 San  Jliguel,  221 
 San  Paulo,  256 
 San  Pedro,  volcano,  104 
 San  Salvador,  earthquakes  in, 
 119 
 
 geological  formation  of, 
 118 
 
 politics  in,  120 
 population  of,  120 
 volcanoes  of,  IIS 
 Santa  Barbara  de  Samana,  171 
 Santa  Catharina,  427 
 Santa  Clara,  Rio,  221 
 volcano,  104 
 
 Santa  Cruz,  178,  276,  427 
 Santa  Fe,  265,  386,  390 
 de  Bogoti,  217 
 Santa  Ines,  43 
 Santa  Isabel,  427 
 Santa  Lucia,  407 
 Cerro  de,  378 
 
 Santa  JIaria  de  Guadalupe,  62 
 Santa  Maria,  volcano,  104 
 Santa  Marta,  322 
 Sierra  de,  220 
 Santander,  323 
 Santarein,  243 
 Santa  Rosa,  221 
 Santiago  and  Curico  Railwav, 
 382 
 
 Santiago  de  Chile,  377 
 de  Cuba,  154 
 harbour,  153 
 
 Santiago,  in  San  Domingo,  167 
 Rio  Grande  de,  8 
 University  of,  383 
 Santo  Domingo,  gold  fields, 
 121,  122 
 Cerro,  167 
 
 San  Tomas,  volcano,  104 
 San  Ubaldo,  131 
 Sao  Desterro,  432 
 Sapajou  monkeys,  187 
 Sapi,  Cordillera  de,  354 
 Sarraiento,  Mount,  203 
 Sarsaparilla  in  Venezuela,  306 
 Savanilla,  321 
 Schmarda,  Ludwig,  165 
 Schomburgk,  223,  224,  437 
 
570 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Seibo  trees,  265 
 Selliidge,  Commander, 130, 320 
 Seripiqui,  127 
 Serra  de  Mar,  252 
 dos  Vertentes,  252 
 Geral,  253 
 
 Senas  of  Brazil,  197 
 Sheep-farming  in  S.  Brazil, 
 411 
 
 in  Uruguay,  205 
 Ship-canal,  129 
 Sierra  Madre,  7 
 Maestra,  152 
 Negra,  220 
 Perija,  220 
 Siete  Lagunas,  267 
 Silla  de  Caraccas,  223 
 Silver  in  Mexico,  81 
 Simpson,  Lieut.,  276 
 Sinabra  cedron,  307 
 Siphonia  elastica,  128 
 Slavery,  effects  of  abolition  of, 
 in  Barbadoes,  183 
 Slavery,  effects  of  abolition  of, 
 in  Trinidad,  187 
 Slavery  in  West  Indies,  150 
 Smilax  $arsapariUa,  307 
 Soacha,  218 
 
 Soconusco,  volcano  of,  4 
 Solano  Lopez,  399 
 Solimoens  river,  241 
 Soroche,  the,  355 
 Soulouque,  169 
 South  America,  300 
 
 continuity  of  coast  lines 
 of,  190 
 
 general  outline  of,  189 
 mountain  ranges  of,  194 
 native  element,  predomi- 
 nance of,  in  population 
 of,  300 
 
 South  Georgia,  191 
 Spanish  element  in  South 
 America,  301 
 Spanish  Town,  166 
 Squier,  Mr.,  346 
 Steam  communication  with 
 West  Indies  and  Venezuela, 
 311 
 
 Stephens,  J.  L.,  89 
 Strait  of  Magellan,  290,  291 
 survevs  and  navigation 
 of,  293 
 Sucre,  307 
 
 Sugar-cane  in  Guatemala,  102 
 Sugar  cultivation  in  Barba- 
 does, 183 
 
 Sugar,  cultivation  of,  in 
 Mexico,  73 
 
 Sugar  manufacture  in  Vene- 
 zuela, 306 
 
 Sugar  plantations  of  Cuba, 
 156 
 
 Sugar  production  in  British 
 Guiana,  439 
 
 Sugar,  yearly  export  of,  from 
 Cuba,  156 
 
 Suicidal  manias  of  negroes, 
 422 
 
 Snlaco  hUls,  113 
 Sulphur  on  Popocatepetl,  70 
 Sumpul,  Rio,  118 
 Surinam,  440 
 
 Swiss  colonies  in  Brazil,  427 
 Tabacotes,  9 
 
 Tacon  theatre  of  Havana,  161 
 Tacubaya,  61 
 
 Talcahuano  and  Chilian  Rail- 
 way, 382 
 Talina  range,  268 
 Tamaulipas,  Sien  a de,  7 
 Tambo  river,  246 
 Tapajos  river,  243 
 Tapanhuna,  half  - castes  in 
 Brazil,  425 
 Tarahumaras,  27 
 Tarija,  268 
 Tarrascos,  27 
 Tasco,  75 
 
 Taxodinm  distichum,  61 
 Tea  cultivation  in  Brazil,  412 
 Teckel,  280 
 
 Tehuantepec,  isthmus  of,  4 
 Tehuelches  Indians,  281 
 religion  of,  287 
 toldos  of  the,  277 
 total  number  of,  282 
 Tele,  Mount,  279 
 Tenochtitlan,  plain  of,  6 
 Tenoxquines,  27 
 Teochiapaneeos,  27 
 Tepehuanes,  Sierra  de  los,  9 
 Tepic,  76 
 
 Tequendama  falls,  217,  218 
 TequBe,  53 
 Tetens,  Mr.,  220 
 Tezcoco,  60,  62 
 Tierra  Caliente  of  Mexico,  73 
 Tierra  del  Fuego,  discovery 
 of,  290 
 
 flora  and  insects  of,  291 
 mountain  system,  202 
 natives  of,  295 
 population  of,  381 
 trees  and  forests  of,  292 
 Tierra  Fria  of  Mexico,  77 
 Tierra  Templada  of  Mexico, 
 75 
 
 Tiger  Island,  265 
 Tigre  Island,  118 
 Tihoo,  89 
 
 Tyuca,  faUs  of,  431 
 Tilkmdsia  usneoides,  62 
 Tiliri,  Rio,  137 
 Titicaca,  Lake,  198,  210,  365 
 Tlaxala  upland,  6 
 Tobacco  cultivation  in  Cuba, 
 156 
 
 Tobago,  182 
 Tocantins  river,  242 
 Tolima,  324 
 Toluca,  uplands  of,  6 
 vale  of,  77 
 Tonila,  51 
 
 TortiUas  and  frijoles,  32 
 Tortola,  178 
 Totouaques,  27 
 
 Toussaint  TOuverture,  168 
 Tovar,  German  colony  of,  303 
 Tras-Andina,  246 
 Tres  Montes,  190 
 Tres  Virgines,  Las,  40 
 Trinidad,  183 
 
 fauna  and  flora  of,  187 
 population  of,  186 
 Trogon  respUndens,  105 
 Troupial,  nests  of,  270 
 Truxillo,  114 
 (Peru),  347 
 
 Tsonecas  Indians,  281 
 Tucuman,  206,  390 
 Tulcan,  216 
 Tumakurak  range,  441 
 Tun^ragua,  213 
 Tupi-Guarani  language,  400, 
 416 
 
 Tupi  language,  400 
 Tupis,  417 
 Tupiza  range,  268 
 Turquino  Peak,  152 
 Turkey,  ocellated,  100 
 Turriadba,  136 
 Tuxtla,  6 
 Tuyra  river,  131 
 
 Ubussu  palm-tree,  238 
 Ucayali  river,  depth  of,  362 
 river,  description  of,  246 
 Uchitas,  28 
 Ulna  river,  114 
 Unimarca,  Laguna  de,  365 
 Draba,  gulf  of,  131 
 Urubamba  river,  246 
 Urucu,  411 
 
 Uruguay,  physical  aspect  of, 
 404 
 
 population  of,  407 
 river,  264 
 
 Usumacinta  river,  98 
 Uttak  range,  275 
 Uxmal,  89 
 
 Valdivia,  Rio,  205 
 Valencia,  lake,  198 
 Valparaiso  and  neighbour- 
 hood, 375 
 
 and  Santiago  Railway,  382 
 Valle  d’Upar,  220 
 Vallesia  hypoglauca,  307 
 Vargas,  Dr.  S.,  313 
 Vega  Real,  167 
 Vegetable-ivory  nuts,  338 
 Vehitis,  28 
 
 Velhas,  Rio  das,  257,  258 
 Venezuela,  cocoa  plantations 
 in,  305 
 
 coffee  cultivation  in,  304 
 constitution  and  govern- 
 ment of,  314 
 
 ecclesiastical  affairs  in, 
 313 
 
 exports  and  imports  of, 
 310 
 
 freedom  of  worship  in,  313 
 highways  in,  311 
 mining  operations  in,  309 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Venezuela,  population  of,  307 
 revenue  and  public  debt 
 of,  314 
 
 steamer  communication 
 with,  311 
 
 telegraphic  service  in,  312 
 trades  and  manufactures 
 in,  309 
 trees  of,  226 
 
 vegetable  products  of,  304 
 zones  of  climate  in,  303 
 Venezuelan  mountain  sys- 
 tems, 222 
 Vera  Cruz,  62 
 Veragua,  plateau  of,  3 
 Verde,  Sierra,  9 
 Vermejo,  Kio,  265,  268 
 Vertentes,  Serra  dos,  252,  253 
 Vichada  river,  225 
 Viejas  islands,  359 
 Vilcamayu  river,  246 
 Villarica,  205 
 Villegagnon  island,  430 
 Vinal  mimosa,  269 
 Virgin  Gorda,  178 
 Islands,  178 
 Viscacha,  208 
 Volantes  of  Havana,  160 
 Volcano  of  fire,  104 
 Von  Franxzius,  136 
 
 Von  Scherzer,  136 
 Tschudi,  419,  422 
 Vuelta  Abajo,  156 
 
 Wanx  river,  121 
 Water  boa,  249 
 Wehrdan,  Robert,  377 
 Weinmania  glabra,  307 
 West  Indies,  climate  of,  144 
 fauna  and  flora  of,  142 
 general  description  of, 
 141 
 
 geological  features  of,  142 
 indigenous  animals  of,  147 
 not  continental  islands, 
 143 
 
 population  of,  149 
 products  of,  146 
 West  peak,  165 
 Wheat  cultivation  in  Guate- 
 mala, 102 
 in  Mexico,  76 
 Windward  Islands,  142 
 Wollaston  Island,  194 
 Wulwa,  124 
 
 Xaimaca  (Jamaica),  164 
 Xalalpa,  river,  7 
 Xalisco,  State  of,  52,  53 
 Xalostotitlan,  56 
 Xarayes  lagoon,  268 
 
 THE  END. 
 
 571 
 
 , Xibaro,  half-castes,  in  Brazil, 
 425 
 
 Xingu  river,  240,  243 
 Xochimilco,  60 
 XoruUo,  7 
 Taqui  Peak,  167 
 I Yaquis,  27,  42 
 Yareta,  208 
 Yavi,  206 
 
 1 Yellow  fever  in  Brazil,  429 
 in  Mexico,  74 
 in  West  Indies,  144 
 Yoro,  plains  of,  113 
 Yquitos,  362 
 
 Yucatan,  Indian  ruins  in,  89 
 physical  aspect  of,  87 
 population  of,  87 
 Yucatekes  in  Cuba,  158 
 I Yiina,  167 
 i Yungas  district,  367 
 I Yuracar6  Indians,  368 
 I Zambos  of  Central  America. 
 
 I 20 
 
 ' Zaparos  Indians,  341 
 I Zapotecos,  27 
 I Zapotlan,  53 
 ; Zapotlanejo,  56 
 , Zunil,  volcano,  104 
 Zygophyllum  arborcum,  226 
 
 PrinteA  by  Edward  Stanford,  55  Ciariny;  Cross,  London,  S.  if. 
 
STANFORD’S 
 
 COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL 
 
 FOR  GENERAL  READING, 
 
 BASED  OX  HELLWALD’S  "DIE  ERDE  UND  IHRE  VOLKER.” 
 Translated  by  A.  H.  KEANE,  M.A.I. 
 
 A Series  of  Volumes  descriptive  of  the  Great  Divisions  of  the  Globe. 
 
 Large  post  8vo. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Edited  and  Extended  by  Sir  A.  C.  RAMSAY,  LL.D.,  F.E.S., 
 Late  Director-General  of  the  Geological  Surveys  of  the  United  Kingdom; 
 Author  of  " Physical  Geology  and  Geography  of  Great  Britain.” 
 
 [In  the  2>ress. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 WITH  ETHNOLOGICAL  APPENDIX 
 By  A.  H.  KEANE,  H.A.I. 
 
 Edited  by  Sir  RICHARD  TEMPLE,  Bart.,  G.C.S.I.,  D.C.L. 
 
 With  12  ilaps  and  73  Illustrations.  Cloth  gUt,  21s.  [Beadp. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Edited  and  Extended  by  KEITH  JOHNSTON,  F.R.G.S. 
 With  Ethnological  Appendix.  Second  Edition.  16  Maps  and  Diagrams,  and 
 68  Illustrations.  Cloth  gilt,  21s.  [Eeadij. 
 
 NORTH  AMERICA. 
 
 EDITED  AND  EXTENDED 
 
 THE  UNITED  STATES  by  Professor  F.  V.  HAYDEN, 
 
 Of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
 
 BRITISH  AMERICA  by  Professor  A.  R.  C.  SELWYN,  F.R.S., 
 Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada.  [In  the  press. 
 
 CENTRAL  AMERICA,  THE  WEST  INDIES, 
 AND  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
 
 Edited  and  Extended  by  H.  W.  BATES, 
 
 Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Author  of 
 "The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon.” 
 
 With  Ethnological  Appendix.  Second  Edition.  13  Maps  and  73  Illustrations. 
 
 Cloth  gQt,  21s.  [Ready. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Edited  and  Extended  by  A.  R.  WALLACE,  F.R.G.S., 
 Author  of  “ The  Malay  Archipelago.” 
 
 With  Ethnological  Appendix.  Second  Edition.  With  20  Maps  and  56  Illus- 
 trations. Cloth  gUt,  21s.  [Ready. 
 
 LONDON:  EDWARD  STANFORD,  55,  CHARING  CROS.S,  S.W. 
 
. if  > A 
 
 F1408.B32 
 
 Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and 
 
 Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library  1 
 
 II  II  III  1 
 
 1 1 
 
 I I I 
 
 1 1012  00004  ! 
 
 9173 
 
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